Full text of "Tennessee A Guide To The State"

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This Volume is for
REFERENCE USE ONLY

TENNESSEE
A Guide to the State

TENNE

A GUIDE TO THE STATE

Compiled and Written by the ^Federal Writers' Project/of the
Work Projects Administration for the State of \Tennessee t

AMERICAN GUIDE SERIES

. ILLUSTRATED

Sponsored by
Department of Conservation, Division of Information

HASTINGS HOUSE - PubMers - JjFEW YORK

FIRST PUBLISHED IN DECEMBER 1 939

SECOND PRINTING FEBRUARY 1945

THIRD PRINTING JUNE 1949

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION, DIVISION OF INFORMATION

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

>199

All rights are reserved, including the rights to reproduce this book
or parts thereof in any form.

,RY

DDD1 0156171 1

Federal Works Agency

WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION

F. C. HARRINGTON, Commissioner

FLORENCE KERR, Assistant Commissioner

HENRY G. ALSBERG, Director of the Federal Writers' Project

Preface

Nearly four centuries ago, in 1541, the area now known as Tennessee
was described by the Gentleman of Elvas, chronicler of De Soto's expedi-
tion. Vastly more complex and comprehensive than this early narrative is
the present account, compiled by the Federal Writers' Project of the Work
Projects Administration. Tennessee: A Guide to the State attempts to de-
fine the State in its important aspects social, economic, historical, cultural
and to picture the life of its people against their natural background.
The writers have aimed not only to supply visitors from outside the State
with information that may increase their interest, but also to give Tennes-
seans a ready source through which their understanding of their native
territory may be deepened and enriched.

The task has not been easy. Many phases of Tennessee life and history
had not previously been studied, and for the purposes of this volume much
original research was necessary. Accuracy demanded that, wherever prac-
ticable, existing documents be checked against their sources.

Compilation of such a work would have been next to impossible without
the generous help given to the Project by various public and private agen-
cies and by many individuals. Space is lacking in which to mention all to
whom appreciation and gratitude are due.

The Project is especially indebted to Jennings Perry, editor of the Nash-
ville Tennessean f for reading and criticizing the entire manuscript and for
his advice during its preparation; to Dr. Charles S. Johnson, of Fisk Uni-
versity, for his help in preparing the article on "Negroes in Tennessee" ;
and to the following persons for reading and criticizing parts of the book
in its final form: Sam F. Brewster, State Commissioner of Conservation;
Dr, Willis Baxter Boyd, Director of State Information; Walter F. Pond,
State Geologist; James Bailey and John.Caldwell, of the State Department
of Conservation; E. S, Draper, Director of the Department of Regional
Planning Studies of the Tennessee Valley Authority.

Among others who have furnished information and criticized parts of
the manuscript dealing with matters in their particular fields are: History
Dr. Robert White, Mrs, John Trotwood Moore, Mrs. Reau Folk, the late
Judge John R. DeWitt, Meriwe&er lewis, P. H. Hides, Mrs. Clyde
Ecaley; Geology, Artf&pkgy awl N#tw<4 'Kpo^&^-L. C Glenn, R. W.

viil PREFACE

Johnson, Kendall E. Born, Dr. George I. Whitlatch, T. M. N. Lewis,
H. D. Ruhm; Flora and Fauna Dr. Harry S. Vaughn, Dr. H. M. Jenni-
son, Howell Buntin, Damon Headden, James O. Hazard; Education and
Government Dr. R. R. Vance, Dr. Thomas Elsa Jones, W. C Davidson,
J. E. Anderson; Folklore Dr. George Pullen Jackson, Dr. C. S. Pendle-
ton; Architecture Henry C. Hibbs, Wilbur Creighton; General Infor-
mation Donald Davidson, Mary Rothrock, Mrs. Brainard Chaney, Dr.
A. F. Kuhlman. Other acknowledgments are made in the bibliography.

For their aid and cooperation we are indebted to the newspapers, li-
braries, chambers of commerce and other civic organizations of the State;
the State Planning Commission; the Nashville Automobile Club and the
Tennessee Valley Authority.

This volume was begun under the directorship of Colonel A. P. Foster
and continued almost to its completion under Charles J. Elder, former
State Director.

WILLIAM R. MCDANIEL, State Director
JAMES R. ASWELL 1
WILLIAM H. BUNCE Editors

Contents

PAGE

PREFACE v "

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS X&
LIST OF MAPS
GENERAL INFORMATION
CALENDAR OF EVENTS

/. Tennessee: The Background

CROSS SECTION OF A THREEFOLD STATE 3

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION 7

THE FIRST AMERICANS 27

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 43

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 65

AGRICULTURE 74

THE WORKING MAN 81

TRANSPORTATION 9 1

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY 98

NEGROES IN TENNESSEE 104

RELIGION in

EDUCATION 12

SPORTS AND RECREATION 128

FOLKLORE: THE LIVING PAST 134

WRITERS OF TENNESSEE 145

ARCHITECTURE 155

THE ARTS x67

II. City and Town

NASHVILLE 17 9

MEMPHIS 2 6

KNOXVILLE 2 ^ 2

CHATTANOOGA 251

JACKSON , 27
COLUMBIA

CONTENTS

///, Tours

TOUR 1. (Roanoke, Va.)~Bristol-KnoxviilerOeveland.

[us nE, us 11}
Section a. Bristol to Knoxville
Section b. Knoxville to Cleveland

TOUR i A. (Roanoke, Va.)-Bristol-Kingsport-Knoxville.

[us

TOUR IB. Bristol-Mountain City-Elizabethton-Johnson City.

[US 421, STATE 67, US

TOUR 2. (Appalachia, Va.)-Kingsport-Johnson City-

(Asheville, N. C). [us 23, us 23-
TOUR 3. (Middlesboro, Ky.) -Cumberland Gap-Morristown-

Junction with us 70. [us 258}

TOUR 4. Junction with State 33-Tallassee-Chilhowee-

(Topton, N. C.). [us 129]
TOUR 5. (Williamsburg, Ky.)-Jellico-Knoxville-Sevierville-

(Asheville, N. C). [us 2$W, STATE 35, STATE 71]
Section a, Kentucky Line to Knoxville
Section b. Knoxville to North Carolina Line

TOUR 5 A. Junction with us 25W~Norris Dam-Knoxville-

Maryville-(Chatsville, Ga.). [STATE 33]
Section a. Junction \rith us 2jW to Knoxville
Section b. Knoxville to Georgia Line

TOUR 5B. Junction with State 7i-Kinzel Springs-Maryville.

[STATE 73]

TOUR 6. (Somerset, Ky.)-Oneida-Dayton-Chattanooga-

<La Fayette, Ga.). [us 27]
Section a. Kentucky Line to junction with us 70
Section b. Junction with us 70 to Georgia Line
TOUR 7. (Glasgow, Ky.)-Nashville-Columbia-Pulaski-

(Athens, Ala.)- [us 3iE, us 31}
Section a. Kentucky Line to Nashville
Section b. Nashville to Alabama Line

TOUR 7A, Nashville-Lewisburg-Pulaski. [STATE n]

TOUR 7B. Columbia-Lawrenceburg- (Florence, Ala.). [STATE 6]

TOUR 8. (Hopkinsville, Ky.) -Springfield-Nashville-

Monteagle. [us 4iE, us 41]
Section a. Kentucky Line to Nashville
Section b. Nashville to Monteagle

TOUR 8A. Murfreesboro-Shelbyville-Fayetteville-(Hunt$ville >

Ala.), [us 241]

PAGE

289

308

315

320

326

330

332

343

356
359

366

383
386

391

CONTENTS XI

PAGE

TOUR 9. (Russellville, Ky.)-Clarksville-Martin-Union City,

[STATE 13, 76, 54, 22] 407

TOUR 10. (Mayfield, Ky.)-Martin-Jackson-(Corinth, Miss.).

[us 45E, 45} 412

TOUR 11. (Fulton, Ky.) -Union City-Dyersburg-Memphis-

(Sena Cobia, Miss.), [us 51] 417

TOUR 11A. Dyersburg-Tiptonville-Reelfoot Lake-

(Hickman, Ky.). [STATE 78} 423

TOUR 12. (Asheville, N. C.)-Knoxville-CrossviIle-Nashville~

Memphis (Little Rock, Ark.), [us 70] 430
Section a. North Carolina Line to Knoxville
Section b. Knoxville to Nashville
Section c. Nashville to Memphis

TOUR 12 A. Crossville-McMinnville-Murfreesboro. [us 7oA} 464

TOUR 128. Junction with us 70-Centerville~Lexington-Jund:ion

with us 70. [STATE 100, STATE 20] 471

TOUR 13. (Murphy, N. C)-Cleveland-Chattanooga-Pulaski-

Junction with us 70. [us 64] 474
Section a. North Carolina Line to Chattanooga
Section b. Chattanooga to Pulaski
Section c. Pulaski to Selmer
Section d. Selmer to junction with us 70

TOUR 14. (Hopkinsville, Ky.)-CIarksville-Pleasant View-
Nashville, [us 41 W, STATE 112] 493

TOUR 15. (Albany, Ky f )-Jamestown--Crossville-Chattanooga.

[STATE 28, 27] 496

TOUR 16. (Albany, Ky.)-Livingston-Cookeville-Monteagle.

[STATE 42, us 7o-Alt., STATE 56] 506

GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK 513

IV. Appendices

CHRONOLOGY 521

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 529

INDEX 537

Illustrations

IRIS, THE STATE FLOWER Page 2

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

CANE CREEK FALLS, FALLS CREEK STATE PARK 9

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

RACCOON 16

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

AN EXAMPLE OF SEVERE SOIL EROSION 23

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation
Ant VIEW OF TERRACED LANDS, A SOIL CONSERVATION PROJECT 25

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

SEQUOYAH AND His ALPHABET 41

Photograph by C. B. King

ANDREW JACKSON 51

Photograph by L. C. Handy Studios

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA, SEPTEMBER,

1863 57

Photograph by U. S. Army Signal Corps

THE CAPITOL, NASHVILLE 63

Photograph by E. C. McGlynnan

MARBLE QUARRY, NEAR KNOXVILLE 69

Photograph by W. Lincoln Htghton

THE MEMPHIS WHARF 72

Photograph by Poland

RUST COTTON PICKER IN ACTION 77

Photograph from Rust Cotton Picker Co.

COTTON PICKERS 83

Photograph from Farm Security Administration

DECK HAND ON RIVER BOAT 89

Photograph from Farm Security Administration

OLD RIVER PACKET AT THE NASHVILLE WHARF 95

Photograph from Nashville Chamber of Commerce

POWER THE CASCADE OF THE CLINCH RIVER 99

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

KITCHEN IN A NORRIS HOME 101

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

FIRST GROUP OF FISK JUBILEE SINGERS (1871) 107

photograph from Fisk University

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

MEHARRY MEDICAL COLLEGE (NEGRO), NASHVILLE 109

Photograph from Meharry Medical College

ST. MARY'S CHURCH, MEMPHIS H7

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE 123

Photograph by C. P. Clark, Inc.

SCHOOL CONSTRUCTED BY WPA % i27

Photograph from Works Progress Administration

DUCK HUNTING IN REELFOOT LAKE 131

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

FISHING IN A GREAT SMOKIES STREAM 133

Photograph by Thompson's, Inc.

WOMAN CARDING 137

Photograph from Farm Security Administration

MONDAY , 142

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

FORT NASHBOROUGH, NASHVILLE 157

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

THE STERRICK BUILDING, MEMPHIS 163

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

DIXIE HOMES, A FEDERAL HOUSING PROJECT FOR NEGROES,
MEMPHIS . 1( ^

Photograph from U. S. Housing Authority

ABUNDANCE, MURAL IN POST OFFICE, CLARKSVILLE 171

Photograph from Treasury Department Art Projects

SIGNATURES OF THE CUMBERLAND COMPACT 183

Photograph from Tennessee Historical Society

SCARRITT COLLEGE, NASHVILLE 199

Photograph by Henry C. Hibbs, Architect

AIR VIEW DOWNTOWN MEMPHIS 208

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

SLUM DWELLERS, MEMPHIS 213

Photograph from U. S. Housing Authority
SHELBY COUNTY COURTHOUSE, MEMPHIS 218

Photograph by Tuttle

ROBERTSON TOPP HOME, MEMPHIS 223

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

IDLEWILD CHURCH, MEMPHIS 226

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

GATEWAY, BLOUNT MANSION, KNOXVILLE 243

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

CHURCH STREET M. E. CHURCH, KNOXVILLE 245

Photograph by C. P. Clark, Inc.

ILLUSTRATIONS XV

THE "GENERAL," CHATTANOOGA 258

Photograph by "Chattanooga News'*

OCHS MEMORIAL TEMPLE, CHATTANOOGA 263

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

MULE DAY PARADE, COLUMBIA 275

Photograph by Gilbert Orr

THE SAMUEL POLK HOME, COLUMBIA 277

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

MAKING CELLULOSE ACETATE 281

Photograph from Tennessee Eastman Corp.

THE NETHERLANDS INN, KINGSPORT 285

Photograph by W. Uncoln Highton

THE OLD TAVERN, JONESBORO 293

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

ANDREW JOHNSON TAILOR SHOP, GREENVILLE 299

Photograph by W. Uncoln Highton

HAWKINS COUNTY COURTHOUSE, ROGERSVILLE 313

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

COUNTRY SAWMILL 322

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

MOUNTAIN FARMER 325

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

A HANDICRAFT SHOP 333

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

IN A GRIST MILL 337

Photograph from Farm Security Administration

NEWFOUND GAP . 343

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

NORRIS FREEWAY 347

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

DEFIANCE 357

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

RAYON THREAD, OLD HICKORY MILLS 373

Photograph from JEL /. du Pont de Nemours & Co.

HAYNES HAVEN, NEAR COLUMBIA 380

Photograph by E. C McGlynnan

Ox TEAM IN THE MOUNTAINS 387

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

CEMETERY, STONE'S RIVER NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, NEAR
MURFREESBORO 400

Photograph by HP. Lincoln Higkton

TENNESSEE COLLEGE, MURFREESBORO 403

from Tennessee College

XT! ILLUSTRATIONS

SHARECROPPER'S FAMILY 408

Photograph Jrom Tennessee Valley Authority

WEIGHING COTTON 418

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

GOING TO THE GIN 421

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

SAND BAGS STRENGTHEN A MISSISSIPPI LEVEE 425

Photograph from Meharry Medical College

BARN 433

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

ROADSIDE FUR MARKET 440

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

CROSSVILLE 443

Photograph from Resettlement Administration

THE HERMITAGE, HOME OF ANDREW JACKSON, NEAR NASHVILLE 450

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

OPOSSUM , 460

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

RESTING 465

Photograph by Wood

RURAL SHOPPING CENTER, WOODBURY 470

Photograph by W. Lincoln Highton

TENNESSEE'S LARGEST PECAN TREE NATCHEZ TRACE FOREST 475

Photograph from Tennessee Department of Conservation

TENNESSEE CAVERNS, NEAR CHATTANOOGA 481

Photograph from Tennessee Caverns

SHARECROPPER'S CABIN 487

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

ONE-ROOM COUNTRY SCHOOL 497

Photograph from Farm Security Administration

MAKING SORGUM MOLASSES 501

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

FALL CREEK FALLS 504

Photograph from Tennessee Valley Authority

INTERIOR OF CUMBERLAND HOMESTEAD 511

Photograph from Farm Security Administration

A SMOKY MOUNTAIN VIEW 515

Photograph by Thompson's f Inc.

OLD WATER MILL IN THE GREAT SMOKIES 517

Photograph from National Park Service

Maps

TOUR KEY MAP front endpaper

DOWNTOWN NASHVILLE Pages 186 and 187

DOWNTOWN MEMPHIS 216

DOWNTOWN KNOXVILLE 240 and 241

DOWNTOWN CHATTANOOGA 260

REELFOOT LAKE 426

STATE ROAD MAP between 518 and 519

General Information

Railroads: Interstate roads are as follows: Alabama Great Southern *
(AGS), Clinchfield R.R. (Clinchfieid), Central of Georgia Ry. (C. of
Ga.), Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Ry. (Rock Island), Illinois Central
R.R. (1C), Gulf, Mobile & Northern R.R. (GM&N), Louisville & Nash-
ville R.R. (L&N), Mobile & Ohio R.R. (M&O), Nashville, Chattanooga
& St. Louis Ry. (NC&ST.L), Southern Ry. (S.Ry.), Tennessee Central Ry.
(TC), Missouri Pacific R.R. (MP), St. Louis-San Francisco Ry. (Frisco),
St. Louis-Southwestern Ry. (Cottonbelt). (See TRANSPORTATION
MAP.)

Highways: Total mileage: 69,713 ; all kinds of paved roads: 2,294; treated
gravel: 1,782. State has a highway patrol. Gasoline tax 7$.

Bus Lines: Interstate bus lines: Airline Motor Coaches, Arkansas Motor
Coaches, Atlantic Greyhound Lines, Bowling Green-Hopkinsville Bus Co.,
Capitol Motor Lines, Carolina Coach Co., Consolidated Coach Lines, Cres-
cent Stages, Crown Coach Co., Dixie Greyhound Lines, Eastern Michigan
Motorbusses, Eastern Tennessee & Western North Carolina Motor Trans-
portation Co., Fuqua Bus Lines, Greyhound Lines, Rufkin-Beaumont Bus
Line, McKee Bus Lines, Missouri- Arkansas Coach Lines, Missouri Pacific
Trailways, Mooney Port Arthur Bus Line, National Trailways System,
Ohio Bus Line Co., Queen City Coach Co., Red Ball Bus Co., Short Way
Lines, Southeastern Greyhound Lines, Southern Limited, Tennessee Coach
Co., Tri-State Transit Co., Washington Motor Coach System.

Local Bus Routes: Cason-Miller Bus Co., Central Bus Lines, Cherokee
Motor Coach Co., Consolidated Bus Lines, Gibbs Bus Line, Lewisburg Bus
Lines, Ray Bus Lines, Smoky Mountains Stages, Washington County Bus
Line.

Air Lines: American Airlines (Boston to Los Angeles) stop at Nashville
and Memphis; American Airlines (Nashville to Washington) stop at
Knoxville and Bristol. Eastern Air Lines (Chicago to Miami) stop at
Nashville and Chattanooga. Chicago and Southern Air Lines (Chicago to
New Orleans) stop at Memphis. (See TRANSPORTATION MAP.)

Waterways: No regular scheduled passenger transportation service in the

XX GENERAL INFORMATION

State. There are, however, occasional excursions on the Cumberland, thr

Tennessee, and the Mississippi.

Motor Vehicle Laws (digest) : No maximum speed. No licenses required

for visitors for 30 days; minimum age for drivers, 16 years. Hand signals

must be used. Personal injury or property damage should be reported to

highway patrol immediately, and drivers must stop and render all possible

assistance.

Prohibited: Spotlights, parking on highways, passing streetcars on L. (in

cities or towns) ; drivers must come to full stop while streetcars are loading

or unloading passengers, unless at safety zones. Cars and semi-trailers must

not be more than 35 ft. in length. (Local traffic regulations under general

information in large cities.)

Accommodations: First-class hotel accommodations in cities. Tourist camps

are plentiful near urban centers, scarcer in rural sections. Urban sections of

East Tennessee well supplied with tourist accommodations, both camps and

resort hotels. Some places open all year; others for tourist season only.

Climate and Equipment: State as a whole has cool spring and very warm
summer; cold weather from November until March. Winter temperature
for brief periods drops to 2ero. Tourists passing through Tennessee en
route to far South should have a heavy coat. Because of favorable spring
and fall temperature throughout southern highland region, vacation season
is much longer than in most other recreation regions of United States.

Drinking Water: Although water from open springs and wells has been
declared impure by State health department', it is used by local people with-
out ill effects.

RECREATION AND CONSERVATION AREAS

(Projects now [1939] in the process of development are marked with an asterisk.)

National Parks: Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park,
near Chattanooga (see Chattanooga); Fort Donelson National Military
Park, near Dover (see Tour 9) ; Shiloh National Military Park, near Stan-
tonville (see Tour 10); Stones River National Military Park, near Murfrees-
boro (see Tour 8) ; Great Smoky Mountains National Park, near Knoxville
(see Tour 5).

State Parks: Chickasaw State Park, near Henderson (see Tour 10); Cove
Lake State Park, near Caryville (see Tour 5); Grundy Forest State Park,

XX GENERAL INFORMATION

State. There are, however, occasional excursions on the Cumberland, tht*
Tennessee, and the Mississippi.

Motor Vehicle Laws (digest) : No maximum speed. No licenses required
for visitors for 30 days; minimum age for drivers, 16 years. Hand signals
must be used. Personal injury or property damage should be reported to
highway patrol immediately, and drivers must stop and render all possible
assistance.

Prohibited: Spotlights, parking on highways, passing streetcars on L. (in
cities or towns) ; drivers must come to full stop while streetcars are loading
or unloading passengers, unless at safety zones. Cars and semi-trailers must
not be more than 35 ft. in length. (Local traffic regulations under general
information in large cities.)

Accommodations: First-class hotel accommodations in cities. Tourist camps
are plentiful near urban centers, scarcer in rural sections. Urban sections of
East Tennessee well supplied with tourist accommodations, both camps and
resort hotels. Some places open all year ; others for tourist season only.

Climate and Equipment: State as a whole has cool spring and very warm
summer; cold weather from November until March. Winter temperature
for brief periods drops to zero. Tourists passing through Tennessee en
route to far South should have a heavy coat. Because of favorable spring
and fall temperature throughout southern highland region, vacation season
is much longer than in most other recreation regions of United States.

Drinking Water: Although water from open springs and wells has been
declared impure by State health department, it is used by local people with-
out ill effects.

RECREATION AND CONSERVATION AREAS

(Projects now [1939] in the process of development are marked with an asterisk.)

National Parks: Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park,
near Chattanooga (see Chattanooga); Fort Donelson National Military
Park, near Dover ( see Tour 9) ; Shiloh National Military Park, near Stan-
tonville (see Tour 10); Stones River National Military Park, near Murfrees-
boro (see Tour 8); Great Smoky Mountains National Park, near Knoxville
(see Tour 5).

State Parks: Chickasaw State Park, near Henderson (see Tour 10); Cove
Lake State Park, near Caryville (see Tour 5); Grundy Forest State Park,

GENERAL INFORMATION Xxi

near Tracy City (see Tour 16); Cedars of Lebanon State Park, near
Lebanon (see Tour 12); Natchez Trace State Park, near Lexington
(see Tour 12B); Pickett State Park & Forest, near Jamestown (see Tour
15); Standing Stone State Park, near Livingston (see Tour 16).

State Forests: *Bledsoe State Forest, near Pikeville; * Lewis State Forest,
near Hohenwald ; *Marion-Franklin State Forest, near Sewanee ; * Morgan
State Forest, near Wartburg; * Stewart State Forest, near Dover.

State Game Preserves: Buffalo Springs Game Farm, near Rutledge (see
Tour 1A) ; *Headdon Lakes Game Preserve, near Tracy City; Reelfoot
Lake Game Preserve, near Tiptonville (see Tour 11 A).

Recreational Demonstration Areas: Fall Creek Falls Recreational Demon-
stration Area, near Pikeville (see Tour 15); Montgomery Bell Recreational
Demonstration Area, near Dickson (see Tour 12); Shelby Forest Recrea-
tional Demonstration Area, near Memphis (see Tour 11).

Farm Security Administration Area: Cumberland Homesteads Park, near
Crossville (see Tour 15).

TV A Parks: Big Ridge Park, near Knoxville (see Sports and Recreation);
Norris Park, near Norris (see Tour 5 A) ; Pickwick Dam Reservation, near
Pickwick (see Tour 10).

Fish and Game Laws (digest) : Trout (Brook, Brown, Rainbow) open
season May i to July 4, September i to October 15, 7 inches. Creel limit
10 per day. Black Bass (Largemouth, Smallmouth and Spotted, or Ken-
tucky Bass) June i to February 28, n inches. Creel limit 8 per day.
Walleyed Pike (Pike perch Jack Salmon) June i to February 28, 15
inches. Creel limit 5 per day. Muskellunge (Silver Jack) June i to
February 28, 20 inches. Creel limit 5 per day. Yellow Bass and White
Bass all year, 10 inches. Creel limit 20 per day. Crappie all year, 8
inches. Creel limit 20 per day. Rock Bass and Warmouth Bass (Black
Perch and Goggle Eye) all year, any size. Creel limit 20 per day. Sun-
fish and Bluegills (Bream, Sun perch, etc.) all year, any size. Creel limit
25 per day. Catfish, Buffalo and Drum all year, 15 inches. No limit.
Sturgeon and Spoonbill all year, 30 inches. No limit. Bullheads, Gar,
Grinnel, Suckers, Mullet, Red Horse, Black Horse, Carp, Goldfish, Shad,
Herring, Eels, no closed season, no size limit, no creel limit. Mosquito
Fish (Gambusia) no open season.

Exceptions: No closed season on Reelfoot Lake or on private lakes. Resi-
dent Fishing licenses, $1.00, Hunting and Fishing, $2.00, non-resident

XX11 GENERAL INFORMATION

fishing, seven day trip, $1.00, annual, $3.00. Women not exempt from
license. Children under 16 exempt. (Get local regulations.)

Open Season for Hunting: Quail and grouse, November 25 to January
25, both dates inclusive. Bag limit on quail 12 per day, on grouse 4 per
day. Wild turkey, November i to January i, inclusive. Bag limit 3 a season.
Waterfowl, coots, gallinules, Wilson snipe or jacksnipe, November i to
January 31. Bag limit 15 per day. (Subject to Federal Regulation.) Doves,
black-breasted and golden plover, greater and lesser yellowlegs, September
i to December 15. Bag limit 15 per day. (Subject to Federal Regulation.)
Male deer, December i to December 15, inclusive. Bag limit i per season.
Raccoons, muskrats, minks, skunks, opossums, otters, weasels and gray
foxes, November i to February i, inclusive. No bag limit. Squirrels, June
to January, inclusive. Bag limit 10 per day. Rabbits, November 25 to Jan-
uary 25, inclusive. No bag limit.

Liquor Regulations: Package sales legal on county option. Beers and light
wines legal.

Prohibited: Digging in archeological sites, picking wild flowers, chopping
trees in State and National Park areas ; also prohibited on private property
without permission from the owner.

Poisonous Plants, Reptiles, and Insects: Poison ivy found throughout
Cumberland and Appalachian Mrs.; some species will kill cattle. Poison-
ous species of mushrooms found in damp low sections of West Tennessee
and along streams in other sections of the State. Mosquitoes in all sections
where there is standing water. Black widow spiders few, but found in all
sections. Rattlesnakes in all rocky and wooded sections. Copperheads
mostly in the lowland woods; few on mountains. Cottonmouth moccasins
in large rivers, but scarce.

Calendar of Events

("njd" means no fixed date)

Jan. i
10

Feb. ist week

4th week
nfd

Mar. 4th Sun.
nfd
nfd
nfd

Apr. ist Fri.
ist Mon.
and week

4th week

nfd

May i

ist Sun.

nfd

nfd
nfd

June 12-13
21
24-26

nfd

State-wide
Knoxville

Grand Junction
Jackson

Knoxville
Nashville

Nashville
Franklin
Memphis
Nashville

State-wide .

Columbia

Knoxville

Nashville
Springfield
Colliersville
Dyersburg
Old Hickory

Bristol
Liberty
Post Oak
Ashwood

Memphis
Humboldt

Nashville

Chattanooga

Murfreesboro

Nashville

National Emancipation Day

(Negro)

University of Tennessee Relay
Races

National Field Trials for Bird

Dogs
Amateur Field Trial Association

Meet

Southern Basketball Tournament
Golden Gloves Tournament

Sermon on Prodigal Son
Jack, Jennet, and Stallion Show
Tri-State Basketball Tournament
State Teachers Association Meets

Arbor Day
Mule Day Festival
Southern Fox Hunters Associa-
tion Meet
Iris Festival
Tulip Show
Cheese Carnival

West Tennessee Cotton Carnival
Middle Tennessee Field Trials

Dogwood Festival

Song Festival

Meeting of Old Harp Singers

Pilgrimage to Bishop Otey's

Shrine

Cotton Carnival
Strawberry Festival

State Shoot Meet

Pigeon Racing Association Meet

Middle Tennessee Educational
Association Meets

Institute of International Rela-
tions Meets

XXIV

July

4
4
10
20

Aug. 8
8
2nd week

nfd

Memphis

Sept. 2nd week

Murfreesboro

2nd week

Maryville

2nd week

Fayetteville

2nd week

Jackson

3rd week

Nashville

4th week

Sevierville

4th week

Pulaski

4th week

Dresden

nfd

Memphis

nfd

Chattanooga

Oct. 20

Martin

3rd week

Nov. 2nd week
(alt. yrs.)

CALENDAR OF EVENTS

Knoxville Tennessee Valley Boat Club Races

Lawrenceburg Picnic and All-Day Singing
Knoxville Junior Aviators Tournament

Knoxville National Association of Negro

Musicians Meets

Knoxville Hole-In-One Tournament

State wide State Emancipation Day (Negro)

Greenbrier Smoky Mountain Hiking Club

Annual Meet
Knoxville 4-H Club Meet University of

Tennessee
Doc Huttum's River Marathon

Rutherford County Fair
Blount County Fair
Lincoln County Fair
Madison County Fair
Tennessee State Fair
Sevier County Fair
Agricultural Fair
Sweet Potato Festival
Mid South Fair
Tri-State Fair

Weakley County Singing Con-
vention
Tellico Plains Wild Boar Hunt

Nashville Vanderbilt vs. University of

Knoxville Tennessee Football Game

Tennessee: The Background'

IRIS, THE STATE FLOWER

Threefold State

fHp\ENNESSEE is an agricultural State, and the culture of its people has
JL grown out of their struggle with the earth. This is true despite the
rapid growth of industry, for even the urban areas are dominated by the
traditions of farm life. With few exceptions, the cities largely retain the
flavor of country towns.

East, Middle, and West Tennessee, the three geographical divisions, in
many ways are like separate States. Although the people are alike in herit-
age and in general attitude, there are striking sectional differences fostered
by the lay of the land. West Tennesseans may differ as much from East
Tennesseans in manners and customs as the people of the Appalachian
Mountain regions differ from those of the Mississippi Delta.

Between the North Carolina line and the Cumberland Plateau is East
Tennessee, an upland region whose high mountains, thickly wooded foot-
hills, broken knob country, and narrow valleys have made it, until recent
years, the most shut-in section of the State. Here are the hazy ramparts of
the Great Smokies, the gaunt ridges of the Unakas and the Clinch Moun-
tains; and in the Tennessee Valley is Norris Dam, one of the chief units
of the Tennessee Valley Authority's vast project. This region is the home
of the mountain folk, "our contemporary forefathers," descendants of the
pioneers of British, Huguenot, and Pennsylvania German stock, who built
their log cabins deep among the ridges. Often the butt of absurd and dis-
torted jokes and stories, these rugged people, isolated in their mountains,
are content to live precisely as did the first white settlers. Some of them
resented the TVA resettlement program and the bringing in of outlanders
with newfangled ideas even though it promised to give unheard-of ad-
vantages to their children and to save land made almost worthless by ero-
sion.

Throughout East Tennessee the cabins of old frontier days, with their
little porthole-like windows and dog-trots (open runways), still stand,
bearing the scars of Indian tomahawks and bullets. Tucked away in the

4 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

hills, too, are ancient water mills with slow, moss-covered wheels, to which
mountain boys still come on muleback with a turn of corn to be ground
into meal. Even in their simple pleasures these mountain folk cling to the
past. Quilting and husking parties, fiddling, singing, and dancing are
among the popular pastimes.

In politics, as in most things, the East Tennessean shows his independ-
ence, for here in an otherwise normally Democratic State is a strong Re-
publican district that regularly chooses Republican representatives in both
State and Federal elections. To the East Tennessean, West Tennessee is
almost as far away and unknown as Missouri. He looks upon this western
section as a swamp and resents the weight of the powerful Shelby County
political machine in State-wide elections. What West Tennessee is for, he's
"agin." The TVA is a recent exception.

Knoxville, seat of the State University, is the western gateway to the
Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Cherokee National Forest,
former hunting ground of the Cherokee. Surrounding Chattanooga are
famous battlefields: Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge, Walden's
Ridge, Orchard Knob, and Chickamauga. These two industrial cities have
attracted much northern capital, and their populations are a blend of
mountain blood and "furriner" or Yankee.

Middle Tennessee, hemmed in by the looping Tennessee River, is a
gently rolling bluegrass country, fertile, well watered, and famous for its
fine livestock blooded horses and mules and its dark-fired tobacco. The
heart of the State, it is rich in tradition and history, and its inhabitants
hold to the customs of the Old South. Hardly a day passes that some men-
tion of the War between the States and of a pioneer incident is not made
by a city or county paper. The great Indian mounds of the Harpeth and
Cumberland Rivers are links with a more distant past.

Most of the towns are old, and in them and along the highways of the
countrysides are ante-bellum homes, some in decay. Descendants of the
State's founders proudly cling to their traditions. Nashville, capital of
the State, was in 1780 the scene of the drafting and signing of the Cumber-
land Compact, whereby 256 pioneers set up an independent government.
Near by are the Hermitage, home of Andrew Jackson, and the town of
Smyrna, birthplace of Sam Davis, youthful hero of the War between the
States. Sixty miles south of Nashville is Pulaski, where the original Ku
Klux Klan was formed in 1865.

It is for its cultural pre-eminence that Middle Tennessee is perhaps best
known. With few exceptions, such as the University of Tennessee at Knox-
ville and Southwestern at Memphis, the State's leading educational insti-

CROSS SECTION OF A THREEFOLD STATE 5

tutions are in this division; here are Vanderbilt University, George Pea-
body College for Teachers, the University of the South, Ward-Belmont
School, and the three Negro institutions Fisk University, Meharry Medi-
cal College, and Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State Teachers
College.

Between the Tennessee River and the Mississippi is West Tennessee,
which was the land of the Chickasaw and the "last frontier" of the State.
With its rugged hills, rich valleys, and deep black bottoms, this section
leads agriculturally. Most of the farms are now small, and berries and
vegetables have become important rivals of cotton and corn. At intervals
the bottoms are at the mercy of flood waters. In this section a good deal
of the free-and-easy spirit of the frontier remains, and white and Negro
accept good luck and bad philosophically. Because cotton has always
dominated its economy, West Tennessee has the largest Negro population.
In two counties (Haywood and Fayette), Negroes outnumber the whites.

There is a newness about most of the towns. With the exception of
Bolivar, Brownsville, Somerville, La Grange, Troy, Moscow, and a few
others, they have virtually been rebuilt within the last twenty-five years.
Memphis, on the Mississippi near the Arkansas boundary line, is the me-
tropolis of the division. It has the atmosphere of the cosmopolitan West,
and its annual Cotton Carnival draws visitors from everywhere. In the
center of the region is Jackson, made famous in song and story as the
home of Casey Jones.

The long history of Tennessee has left its landmarks here. On the steep
bluffs of the Mississippi, in the walled city of Cisco on the south fork of
the Forked Deer River, and along the Tennessee River near Pittsburg
Landing are the remains of the earthworks raised by the Mound Builders.
In the northwestern corner is Reelfoot Lake, formed by the New Madrid
earthquake of 1811-12; in the southeastern section, Shiloh battlefield re-
calls the tragic war years, and the TVA'S Pickwick Landing Dam repre-
sents present-day development.

Throughout Tennessee, particularly in the great rural counties some
of them older than the State itself traditional allegiance counts heavily.
County traditions, too, are so strong that the individual, however far he
migrates, continues to feel loyal to his native county and usually identifies
himself with his section. Ask a Tennessean where he lives, and he does not
say, "I'm from Dyersburg," but rather, "I'm from Dyer County in West
Tennessee."

Back of this tradition is a strong sense of family, kin, and clan. Blood
relationship may often mean more than wealth or ability. Family connec-

6 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

tions, even the wider and vaguer ties, may influence county and local poli-
tics and business affairs. When Jim Tuttle announces for county office, all
his kinfolk start electioneering for him. "These Tuttles are thick as black-
birds in a wheat field/' Let Cousin Jim get 'into trouble and the Tuttle
army rallies to his aid.

The Tennessean as a voter is, for the most part, independent in local
politics ; it is hard to dictate to him his selection of a candidate for public
office. But in regular elections the rural sections are seldom able to over-
come the strength of the well-organized urban districts. In the past few
years machine politics has tended to penetrate each county, and frequently
the rural folk "line up*' with their city cousins when they feel that they
will be benefited by the policies of the group.

Tennesseans' lives are unhurried. Though they may complain about
weather, poor crops, bad business and politics, beneath all is a certain
feeling of security. The farmer will leave his plowing, the attorney his
lawsuit, the business man his accounts, for a moment's or an hour's con-
versation with stranger or friend. With his good-tempered easiness of man-
ners, the Tennessean has a democratic feeling of equality. His mind, unlike
his bed, does not have to be made up each morning, for his judgment and
dignity proceed from himself. Whether of farm, mountain, or city, he is
like the Tennessee farmer who, after hearing Martin Van Buren speak,
stepped up, shook the President's hand, and invited him "to come out
and r'ar around with the boys."

<<<<<<<<<< a >>>>))))>>>>>))>

Natural Setting
Cons erv ation

A NOTED Tennessee orator used to declare: "Our great State is the
multum m parvo of all the lands lying between the ramparts of the
Alleghenies and the majestic currents of the mighty Mississippi. Within
its borders flourishes every shape of beast and bug, every variety of tree
and flower found from the blue waters of the Gulf to the somber snow-
laden forests of Canada." Couched in less sweeping language, this would
not be the exaggeration it seems. A relief map shows Tennessee as a suc-
cession of mountain slopes, the worn-down remnant of the towering Ap-
palachian chain of remote geologic time. From the crests of the Great
Smokies the land drops westward in a series of ever lower ridge and
plateau systems to the Mississippi bottoms.

Roughly a parallelogram in shape, with an east-west length of 432 miles
and a width of 106 miles, Tennessee is bounded on the north by Ken-
tucky and Virginia, on the east by North Carolina, on the south by
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and on the west by the Mississippi
River, which separates it from Arkansas and Missouri. Of the total area
of 42,022 square miles, 335 are water surface.

The State divides naturally into three general regions: upland East Ten-
nessee, Middle Tennessee with its foothills and basins, and low flat West
Tennessee. Often called "three separate States within common boundaries,"
these "Grand Divisions" coincide with three rather distinct cultural and
political units, and differ sharply in climate and natural life. In upper East
Tennessee the climate, vegetation, and animal life approximate those of
New England ; in the plateau and basin regions of Middle Tennessee they
parallel thqse of Ohio; West Tennessee, except for scattered hilly sec-
tions, is of the Deep South.

A more exact break-down on the basis of physiographic features divides
the State into six regions. The first includes the Unaka and Smoky Moun-
tains extending along the North Carolina border. The Smokies, reaching
at some points an elevation of <5,6oo feet above sea level and covering an

8 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

area here of approximately 2,000 square miles, are broken by many coves
and valleys along their length and breadth. The second region, flanking
the Smokies, is the Great Valley of East Tennessee, thirty to sixty miles
wide. The valley floor is composed of a succession of minor ridges and
valleys, beginning on the northeast as a continuation of the Shenandoah
Valley and slanting southwest into Georgia and Alabama. Viewed from
the Smokies on the east or the Cumberland Mountains on the west, this
bottom melts into a common plain, although its ridges rise 300 to 800 feet
above the valley floor. A region of fat soils and prosperous farms, the
valley covers more than 9,000 square miles, drained by the Tennessee
River and its tributaries. Rising a thousand feet above the Great Valley,
and forming an abrupt escarpment on its eastern edge, is the third region
the Cumberland Plateau. Many early settlers were turned back by this
seemingly impassable barrier. The western edge is notched and scalloped
by coves and valleys which are separated by finger-like spurs pointing to-
ward the northwest. The southern half of this area of more than 5,000
square miles is deeply cut by the Sequatchie Valley. These three regions
lie in East Tennessee.

Middle Tennessee includes the fourth and fifth regions. The fourth is
the Highland Rim, which merges into the western edge of the Cumber-
land Plateau and includes the elevations bordering the western part of the
Tennessee River. With an area of 9,300 square miles, this section is largely
a plain, furrowed by ravines and traversed by streams. Within the High-
land Rim is the Central Basin, the fifth region. It is elliptical in shape and
covers 6,450 square miles. With an average altitude 400 feet lower than
the highlands, it is one of the best agricultural regions in the State.

The plateau of West Tennessee, the sixth division, extends from the
Tennessee River to the line of bluffs overlooking the bottomlands of the
Mississippi. The valley of the Tennessee River has a broken and irregular
surface of about 1,200 square miles, averaging twelve miles in width. The
sloping terrain drops gradually toward the Mississippi River. The Bot-
toms comprise 950 square miles of low, flat terrain studded with lakes.
The largest of these, Reelfoot Lake, in the northwest corner of the State,
occupies a depression, sixty-five square miles in area, formed by the earth-
quake of 1811-12. In sections of the plain lying below the high water
of the Mississippi, back-waters and underground seepage have formed
many swamps and marshes. At Fulton, Randolph, and Memphis the river
undercuts the foot of the upland to form protruding bluflfs.

There are four principal iron areas in the State: the eastern belt ex-
tending along the slopes of the Great Smokies; the "dyestone" or red iron

CANE CREEK FALLS, FALLS CREEK STATE PARK

district which forms a belt skirting the eastern bases of the Cumberland
Plateau and Walden's Ridge; the Cumberland Plateau; and the western
belt, a wide strip of west Middle Tennessee from Kentucky to Alabama.
At present the leading minerals are: coal, phosphate, clay, zinc, copper,
sand and gravel, marble, and sandstone. Of these, coal is the most im-
portant, with a normal yearly output of 4,000,000 tons. One of the largest
coal areas in the United States is the Cumberland Plateau belt, comprising
4,400 square miles. The Copper Basin in East Tennessee produces more
copper and sulphuric acid than any other region east of the Mississippi

io TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

River. Marble and Crab Orchard stone (quartzite) are quarried in large
quantities. In the production of phosphate rock Tennessee is second only
to Florida. Clay suitable for brick making is found throughout the State.
Gold and silver, although found in Tennessee, do not rank high in the
State's mineral resources.

Three great drainage basins are formed by the Tennessee, Cumberland,
and Mississippi Rivers. The Tennessee is formed near Knoxville by the
confluence of the Holston and French Broad Rivers and is joined by the
Clinch River and countless smaller streams. Flowing southwest into Ala-
bama, it loops north across the State again, absorbing the waters of Mid-
dle Tennessee's Elk and Duck Rivers. With its tributary web of streams,
the Tennessee drains more than half of the State's total area. Northern
Middle Tennessee is drained by the Cumberland River, which rises in
Kentucky and empties into the Ohio above the mouth of the Tennessee.
West Tennessee drains through a maze of sluggish streams, swamps, and
lakes directly into the Mississippi.

There is an annual rainfall of 40 to 50 inches throughout Tennessee,
and an average of 155 clear days, 100 partly clouded, and no wholly
clouded. Few severe droughts occur, or rainy spells protracted enough to
damage crops. In the east, the mountains turn the eastward flow of the
upper air currents and redistribute their moisture. The long valleys between
the highlands serve as flues for the main air currents, which in summer
blow north or northeasterly and in winter reverse their directions. Al-
though this topography tends to check the velocity of windstorms, Ten-
nessee was subjected to a series of tornadoes between 1914 and 1933, two
of which were violently destructive.

Lying on the border of the great continental air currents, the State
except in Upper East Tennessee never gets the full force of blizzard
weather, or the extremely low temperature produced by the downrush of
cold air fields from Canada. However, from the middle of December to
the end of March, there are spasmodic periods, rarely more than a week
in duration, when the temperature drops to 15 or 20 degrees above zero.
During the winter months rain, sleet, snow, freeze, and thaw may occur in
succession within 24 hours, and may be preceded or followed by spring-
mild spells. The autumn rainy season rarely, if ever, causes flood, but the
heavy rains of March and April swell the water courses and inundate the
lowlands, causing considerable flood damage.

Some sections of Middle and West Tennessee are visited by periods of
moist heat during the summer. But for the most part the surge of warm
air from the Gulf and the southwestern plains is modified by the time it

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION II

reaches the State. In East Tennessee, and to a lesser extent in hilly regions
to the west, summer is a succession of pleasantly warm days and invigorat-
ing cool nights.

The Record in the Rocks

Rock strata in the State represent all geologic eras and almost every period
within these eras. The high mountains along the northeastern border of
Tennessee are composed of the oldest rock in the State. These formations,
with their largest area in southeastern Carter County, date back to the
pre-Cambrian period. The only volcanic heritage from ancient time is in
the Norris Basin, where there are two small areas, of eruptive rock, and a
three-foot bed of volcanic ash in Middle Tennessee. Along the eastern and
southeastern border is a belt of conglomerates, quartzites, and slates ten to
twenty miles wide, extending from the point where the French Broad
River enters the State to the Georgia line. These rocks are of unknown
age, probably belonging to an early period in the Paleozoic era; their
formation probably antedates the period of known vertebrate existence.
Resistant to erosion, they constitute Tennessee's highest and broadest
mountain mass. East of Maryville this formation, giving the Great Smokies
their height and rugged outlines, begins to push upward over masses of
dolomite (probably Upper Cambrian), which is exposed in several Town-
send region coves. Cocke County has a peculiar granite, named unakite
for the Unaka Mountains. It lacks mica content and contains an unusual
mineral, epidote, that gives it a greenish tinge.

The rocks in the Great Valley of East Tennessee consist of sandstones,
shales, limestones, and dolomites, all of which developed as marine sedi-
ment. These rocks represent the first three periods of the Paleozoic era
Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian. Together these periods form what
has been called the "Age of Invertebrates," when the only life was shell-
forming sea animals and buglike crustaceans* There are also rocks in the
northeastern edge, near the Virginia border, that seem to constitute a slight
development of the fourth period, the Devonian, known as the "Age of
Fishes/* and the Mississippian period. Along the west side of the valley
runs a layer of fossil iron ore which belongs to the Silurian period, the
third stage in the Paleozoic era and the period of the first air-breathing
animals. In the center of the valley are long outcroppings of marble from
the immediately preceding period, the Ordovician; and at various geo-
logical levels there are great quantities of chert, formed of sediment under
sea water. Throughout the valley are rocks, mainly limestones and shales,

12 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

similarly placed but of different periods, as shown by the fossils in the
various layers. The strata originally were laid down almost horizontally,
but during subsequent mountain-building revolutions have faulted into
folds, sometimes 300 miles long, running from southwest to northeast.
Ridges in the valley with long even tops usually are of sandstone or chert;
those that consist of a series of rounded knobs are shale. The ridges are
frequently capped by shale. Between the ridges are limestone or dolomite
formations.

Along the western edge of the Great Valley is a narrow belt of Devo-
nian black shale, called Chattanooga shale, which is invaluable as a key
rock. Resting against this Chattanooga shale, and exposed frequently along
the eastern and everywhere along the western margin of the Cumberland
Plateau, are rocks that date from the Mississippian epoch, a time when
tree ferns, huge mosses, and primitive flowering plants were dominant.
The lower formation, known as Fort Payne, consists generally of silica
and chert; the middle and upper parts are largely sandstone, shales, and
coal. Five-sixths of the Cumberland Plateau is composed of conglomerates,
sandstones, and shales of the Pennsylvanian epoch, the next above the
Mississippian. It was during this epoch that amphibious reptiles and primi-
tive backboned land animals came into existence. The rocks of almost the
entire area lie in relatively level strata and contain bituminous coal.

The Highland Rim is mostly limestone, similar in age and formation
to the rocks of the Cumberland Plateau's western margin. All the forma-
tions lie flat, except those of Well's Creek Basin in Stewart County, where
rocks dating back to the Cambrian and Ordovician periods are exposed.

The floor of the Central Basin, also, is formed mostly of flat-lying lime-
stones and shales of the Ordovician periods, to which the Great Valley
marble belongs. In the upper levels these rocks contain commercial phos-
phates. On the northern and western sides of the basin, as also in the
western valley of the Tennessee River, there are also limestones of the
later Silurian and Devonian periods.

Overlappping the western edge of the Highland Rim, basal rocks of the
Cretaceous period outcrop in a belt, twelve to thirty-five miles wide, along
the edge of the Western Tennessee plain from Mississippi to Kentucky.
This belt dips west at a low angle beneath the succeeding Tertiary rocks,
which were formed in the Cenozoic (Recent Life) era prior to the glacial
epoch. The Tertiary rocks are initiated by a belt of leaden gray clay, a
few miles wide and one hundred to two hundred feet in thickness, run-
ning north from Middleton to Huntingdon and Paris and on into Ken-

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION 13

tucky. The formation is cut across by sandstone dikes that give evidence
of earthquakes in one of the epochs of the Tertiary period.

Over the leaden clays, to a depth of a thousand feet or more, lie soft
light-colored sands, with layers of white pottery clays and occasional beds
of lignite, in which the texture of fossilized wood can often be discerned.
These sands are covered by a widespread layer of yellow gravel, twenty
feet or less in thickness, topped by a layer of sandy or loamy soil that
thickens westward. Along the bluffs that border the Mississippi flood
plain, this soil grades into typical loess a wind-laid deposit from glacial
times becoming as much as forty to eighty feet thick. Still more recent
alluvial deposits form flood plains and terraces along the streamways of
the State.

Because of the lack in formational representation from several periods
of the Mesozoic era, there is written in Tennessee rocks no record of the
thousands of years during which early marine life disappeared, and the
dinosaurs and flying and swimming reptiles reigned supreme. Nor is there
evidence in the State of the first appearance of birds. The second period
of the Paleozoic era, the Ordovician (said to go back 62,000,000 years),
is well represented in the Great Valley of East Tennessee and the Central
Basin. In fossil remains and in mineral composition the Ordovician rocks
of these two areas are dissimilar, although a few formations and species
are common to both. The lower rocks of this period in the Great Valley
are rich in molluscoid snails and slugs, of which many species have been
collected. In the Central Basin these rocks have long constituted a classic
collecting ground. Nearly the entire invertebrate kingdom is represented
in the area in the vicinity of Nashville. The corals and bivalve shellfish
are especially notable. Here the middle rocks are almost ideally exposed
and are actually crowded with fossils. Numerous highway and railroad
cuts, quarries, and hillside slopes afford excellent exposures.

The Silurian, or third, period in the Paleozoic era is represented espe-
cially in parts of the western valley of the Tennessee River. This age was
dominated by shell-forming sea animals, but saw also the rise of fishes and
of reef -building corals. Scientific investigation of the area uncovered the
fossil territory in Hardin, Decatur, and Perry Counties, and the sponges
found here are well known to paleontologists. Waldron shale in Middle
Tennessee has yielded fossilized aquatic marine animals, corals, seashells,
and mollusks. A small part of the Devonian period i recorded near Cam-
den, in Benton County, in one of the best exposed sections in North
America. Almost perfect specimens have been collected in the chert of

14 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

this region. Bivalve shellfish were the most numerous, and the Birdsong
shale is prolific in mollusk forms. The Carboniferous period, the last in
the Paleozoic era, has left some interesting marine animal forms starfish
and sea urchin types in the region about Nashville. Fossilized Carbonif-
erous plants include ferns, club-moss, and reed-like growths.

Of the Mesozoic era, Upper Cretaceous fossils are unusually numerous
in the western part of the State, particularly in Hardin, McNairy, Chester,
and Henderson Counties. The sands of Hardin County have yielded a few
excellent plant impressions and partly or completely silicified wood. Chalk
knobs in eastern McNairy and Chester Counties are frequently covered
with specimens of large mollusk-like snails. Particularly in the McNairy
County sand formations, perfectly preserved animal fossils of this period
are found to an extent so far unequaled in any other single North Ameri-
can region. At one site on Coon Creek more than 350 species were col-
lected from a single horizon. The fauna of the McNairy sand formations
is essentially molluscan, but there are vertebrate remains. Notable among
them are the mosasaurs, large marine lizards with long snake-like bodies,
lizard-like heads, and paddle-shaped limbs.

The Cenozoic (Recent Life) era is represented in Tennessee principally
by the Eocene, the first epoch of the Tertiary period, and by the Pleis-
tocene, or glacial, epoch of the Quaternary period. The remains of the
Eocene the epoch during which the higher orders of plants began to
develop, and birds and mammals to displace the giant reptiles are mainly
centered in West Tennessee. They are found in the Porters Creek clay
near Middleton, the Holly Springs sand at Puryear, and the Granada sand
in the Somerville vicinity. Collectors report excellently preserved fossils
of plants and some mammals in this area, as well as in the Reelfoot Lake
region and in Shelby County.

The Pleistocene also is represented in the western part of the State.
This epoch, popularly known as the Ice Age, brought about great changes
in animal life. Many mammals became extinct; man began to dominate the
earth. The ice sheet stopped many miles north of Tennessee, but huge
hairy mammoths, long-tusked mastodons, and giant sloths, driven south-
ward by the advancing glaciers, ranged the State, and may have remained
until the coming of prehistoric man. At least bones and teeth of these
animals, found in caves and alluvial deposits, may be taken as evidence of
their existence in this area during the glacial epoch the opening scene
in the Age of Man.

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION 15

Animal Life

When Boone and Scaggs hunted in Tennessee, great herds of bison
grazed in the river bottoms; elk and Virginia deer ranged through the
forests and canebrakes; black bears were plentiful everywhere; and wolves,
panthers, and lynxes followed the trails of the hoofed animals. Beaver
colonies built their dams and mud houses in some of the smaller streams
and there were vast flocks of birds and game fowl. So rich in game was
the region that parties of Iroquois from the Great Lakes and Choctaw
from the Gulf Coast, as well as Cherokee from the Great Smokies and
Chickasaw from the Mississippi bottoms, came here for months of sum-
mer hunting. Tennessee was the Land of Peaceful Hunting, a neutral
ground where ancient tribal hatreds were temporarily forgotten. The In-
dians were not wasteful hunters; they killed only for food and clothing
and even then they ceremoniously asked pardon of Uncle Bear or Brother
Bison. The white settlers had little of the Indians' fellow feeling for wild
things. They slaughtered them as prodigally as they slashed and burned
the forests and squandered the wealth of the soil.

Today, of all the hoofed animals, only the Virginia or white-tailed
deer remains. Ranging wild in the East Tennessee mountains and pro-
tected by law, they are now on the increase. Black bears also live in the
high Smokies and the southern or bay lynx is fairly numerous in heavily
wooded sections of the State, where it manages to hold its own in spite of
intensive hunting.

The red fox and the gray are still common in all parts of the State. Next
to the fox, the skunk and opossum are probably the best known of the fur
bearers and are found even in the woodlots close to towns. Other fur
bearers are raccoons, minks, and muskrats; cottontail rabbits, in almost
any brier patch or brush pile; and gray and red squirrels, in the oak and
hickory woods* All the smaller mammals such as field and wood mice,
gopher rats, weasels, woodchucks, and chipmunks are numerous. The
otter, once a valuable fur animal in the State, is now rare.

A newcomer to the forests of East Tennessee is the Russian wild boar,
locally called the "Rooshian" wild hog. These large and savage hogs are
believed to have escaped from a North Carolina estate during a forest
fire in 1910. Since that time they have spread through the mountains to
the headwaters of the Tellico and Citico Rivers.

Some of the birds once plentiful in the State have completely disap-
peared. The passenger pigeon, the Carolina parakeet (sometimes called

RACCOON

the Cumberland parrot), the ivory-billed woodpecker, and the prairie
chicken, which the pioneers shot by the wagonload, are now extinct. Not-
withstanding this wholesale slaughter, bird life is still plentiful, and per-
haps more varied in Tennessee than in any other inland State. This is due
in part to the diversified character of the land and the many different kinds
of climate, but the chief reason is that thousands of birds cross Tennessee
on their migratory flights between the North and the South. Ornitholo-
gists have recorded 316 species in the State; of these, 163 are summer
residents, about 100 are found only in winter, and the rest live here the
year round.

The American national bird, the bald eagle, lives in the wild regions
of the Cumberland Plateau and the marshes of the Reelfoot Lake area. The
golden eagle, which the Cherokee called the "king of birds," is rare, but
a few still find sanctuary in the Great Smokies. The northern raven, van-
ished from most of the eastern States, also inhabits the ridgecrest of the
Smokies.

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION IJ

The great blue heron, slate-gray rather than blue in color and more
than four feet in height, is fairly common along the water courses, where
it builds untidy- looking nests of sticks in the treetops. Living in large colo-
nies, herons return year after year to the same nests. In a huge heronry at
Reelfoot Lake thousands of nests are visible in the tops of the high cypress
trees. Reelfoot Lake is also visited during the year by nearly all species
of North American wading or swimming wild fowl. Numerous along all
the State's water courses is the green heron, known variously as "shike-
poke" and f 'fly-up-the-creek."

The largest game bird of Tennessee is the wild turkey, still to be found
in the eastern mountains. Protected by game laws and reared in State
hatcheries, this bird is now assured a permanent place among the game
birds of the State. Grouse and quail are also raised and distributed in
many areas. The ruffed grouse, often called "pheasant," is fairly plentiful
in the scrub oak forests of the Cumberland Plateau, and in most East Ten-
nessee counties. Recently the ring-necked pheasant has been introduced in
several areas. The bobwhite, swiftest of the quail family and the most
numerous game bird, is widely distributed throughout the State, as is the
dove.

The official State bird is the mocking bird, found in all parts of the
State, and often called "the singin'est bird in the world." The robin, an-
other famous songster, is even more numerous. The northern variety win-
ters in the South, returning to its nesting places in early spring; a sub-
species lives in Tennessee throughout the year. Other birds which remain
in Tennessee the year round are the bluebird, killdeer, meadow-lark, car-
dinal, towhee, screech owl, red-tailed and sparrow hawk, Carolina chicka-
dee, whip-poor-will, flicker, various kinds of woodpeckers (locally known
as peckerwoods), and the Carolina wren, whose ringing voice is most
often heard at dawn and twilight.

In season, most American migratory birds east of the Rockies visit the
State. Of the geese, the Canada type is the most numerous, but snow and
blue geese also come through. Ducks of twenty-three varieties are abundant
in autumn. Among the winter visitors from the North are the horned lark,
and the junco, or "snowbird," one of the most numerous of this group,
which nests in the high mountains along the eastern border. Spring mi-
gration brings from farther south more than half the total number of birds
that nest and raise their young in Tennessee. A number of local breeding
birds travel to South America to spend the winter. One of the most punc-
tual migrating birds is the purple martin, which leaves for the South about
August 25, and returns between the first and tenth of March.

i8 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

The Tennessee Ornithological Society, founded in 1915, publishes in
Nashville a quarterly journal called The Migrant. Its members take a bird
census each Christmas at Nashville, Memphis, Reelfoot Lake, Knoxville,
Johnson City, and other points in the State. In 1933, the society spon-
sored the publication of Albert F. Gainer's A Distributional List of the
Birds of Tennessee, the only comprehensive study of birds in the State.

Because of the many different types of water areas in Tennessee, there
are many places suitable for the propagation of all common American in-
land fishes. In the Cumberland and Duck Rivers are found catfish, buffalo
fish, drum, and bass. While most of the species of game fish are native to
Tennessee waters, the rainbow trout was brought from the mountain
streams of the western United States and the brown trout from Germany
and England. The rainbow and brook trout thrive in the deep clear pools
of the mountain streams. Polychrome garters and dice are found in these
waters during the spring and summer months, their bright colors disap-
pearing after the spawning season, which lasts from late March to early
June.

Waters throughout the State are well stocked with the large-mouth
black bass which, with the small-mouth bass and pike, frequent the Ten-
nessee River and its tributaries, the Holston, and the French Broad. The
blue, or channel, catfish, weighing as much as thirty pounds and found in
all waters, is most prolific in the streams and lakes of West Tennessee. The
"yellow cats" grow to enormous size. Some weighing as much as one hun-
dred pounds have been caught in the Mississippi and Tennessee Rivers
and their tributaries. Other fish are the jack salmon, red-horse, spoonbill
cat, crappie, rock-bass or goggle-eyed perch, bream, German carp, and
several species of sunfish and catfish. There are several hatcheries where
bass, trout, and other desirable fishes are propagated for restocking pur-
poses. This work is carried on by the State, in cooperation with the Federal
government and the Tennessee Valley Authority.

The common reptiles of the State are lizards, turtles, frogs, and thirty
kinds of snakes. Only the rattlesnake, the copperhead, and the cotton-
mouth moccasin are venomous. The common rattler, called diamondback,
is found throughout the State, especially in the wooded areas on rocky out-
crops near timber or on the "balds" of the lower altitudes. The copper-
head generally inhabits bush regions. The pilot black snake, one of the
swiftest of serpents, often attains a length of from six to seven feet. King
snakes, including the red and scarlet king and the brown king, are preva-
lent in all sections, and perform valuable service by destroying venomous
snakes, rats, mice, and moles.

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION 19

Forests and Plant Life

Great forests once covered most of Tennessee, but today less than one-
tenth of the primeval stand remains. Scattered over the State, however,
are patches of virgin timber, mostly hardwoods ; these huge oaks, tall elms,
and stately beeches testify to the great size of the original stand. Second-
growth forests are coming up on the cut-over lands. Sycamore, basswood,
cherry, walnut, hickory, locust, and maple grow in practically all sections
of the State except "the high Appalachians. Widely distributed are the
hackberry, a small-leaved hardwood, and the persimmon. The conifers
appear only in certain areas. The consumption of walnut for gunstocks
during the World War and the present demand by cabinet makers have
almost exhausted the supply of this tree in Tennessee.

The largest stands of virgin timber are in East Tennessee. Here are
hemlock, pine, spruce, southern balsam (Frazier fir), and many hard-
woods such as oak, maple, silverbell, and cherry. The tulip tree, or yellow
poplar, Tennessee's State tree, reaches its largest growth in this region,
often attaining a height of 200 feet.

Middle Tennessee has two principal forest growths the cedar glades of
the Highland Rim, where the soil is shallow, and the scrub oak barrens of
the Cumberland Plateau. Growing in low places and along the banks
of streams are sweet gum, poplar, willow, and sycamore.

In the swampy bottomlands of West Tennessee the plant life is similar
to that of the Deep South. Here remain some stands of the magnificent
first-growth timber that originally made Memphis a leading hardwood
market of the Mississippi Valley. The largest species of tree in this area
is the cypress, which lives to a great age and reaches a height of one hun-
dred and fifty feet. It grows in water-covered places, "breathing" by means
of hard, hollow, tumor-like growths called "knees" which are sent up
from the roots. The river birch, the pecan tree, the water elm, the water
nuple, the swamp locust, and the tupelo, or cotton gum, are found in the
western lowlands. The chinquapin, a rare tree, with fruit closely resem-
bling the chestnut, also grows here. This region is the natural habitat of
the catalpa or "catawba," a fast-growing tree with purple, yellow, and
white flowers and large heart-shaped leaves.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century timber which had hitherto
been considered commercially worthless gum, cypress, chestnut, elm, and
persimmon came into demand. Tennessee, with more than one hundred

20 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

and fifty varieties of trees, has supplied the lumber market with these

types of wood for many years.

Fire and wasteful lumbering have taken their toll of the timber regions.
Protective grasses have been uprooted from the slopes by overgrazing and
by the plow. Erosion has resulted from these careless methods, and today
(1939) fourteen million acres in the State need reclamation. Much of this
land is now unproductive, but most is suitable for reforestation. Planting
of hickory, persimmon, walnut, honey locust, and mulberry is encouraged,
since these trees produce commercially valuable timber and also provide
food for hogs and chickens during most of the year. State nurseries are
producing millions of seedlings, principally black locusts, for use in ero-
sion control. These will develop into a new kind of forest, widely dis-
tributed.

Forests are being established by the State forestry division, working in
cooperation with the U. S. Forest Service, the Tennessee Valley Authority,
and other Federal agencies. These forests provide demonstration areas for
fire control, wildlife replenishment, water and soil conservation, and re-
forestation. Unwisely cleared and depleted agricultural lands are also being
reforested by farmers, with technical and financial aid from State and Fed-
eral agencies.

The redbud and the dogwood, small flowering trees, add splashes of
pink and white to the green hillsides in the spring, the blooms lasting for
several weeks. Throughout the woodlands are wild grape vines, climbing
to great heights among the tree trunks. The summer grape grows on dry
or rocky ground, the winter variety on rich moist lands, especially along
river banks. Other vines are the pink wildbean, the passionflower, and the
trailing arbutus. Woodbine and poison ivy are widely distributed.

Tennessee's wild flowers range from the violet, growing on a tiny stem,
to the large blossoms of the magnolia, a popular lawn tree in many parts
of the State. From summer to late fall the fields bloom with dandelions,
daisies, black-eyed Susans, goldenrod, wild asters, gentians, and Jerusalem
artichokes. Flowering early in the moist woods, where they are protected
by leaf mold, are the saxifrage, hepatica, anemone, dutchman's breeches,
wild bleeding-heart, bloodroot, firepink, and blue phlox (sweet William).
Later appear the jack-in- the-pulpit (Indian turnip), bluebell, shooting star,
wood sorrel, and wild geranium.

More than three hundred of Tennessee's 1,500 plants are used for
medicinal purposes; about one hundred have commercial value. Golden-
seal, hepatica, digitalis, and ginseng are among the best known ; they are
found in many paits of the State, particularly in the mountain regions.

NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION 21

Johnson grass, a quick-spreading, hardy grass much detested by farmers,
and the common varieties of weeds grow in all sections.

Perhaps the best known of the mountain flora is the rhododendron,
ranging in color from white to deep purple. At Roan High Bluff (6,287
altitude), is a rhododendron garden, an outstanding display of the shrub
in its natural setting. There are fifteen known species of trillium (wake
robin) in the Smokies. The earliest to bloom, and the most vivid, is the
variety with a dark crimson V at the base of a white petal. The yellow
trillium, indigenous to the Appalachians, is common in the shaded foot-
hill forests. Flame azalea, varying from red to orange and from gold to
light yellow, the white and pink azalea, and the wild honeysuckle touch
the mountain slopes with spots of color. Here, also, grows the sand
myrtle, native of the sandy pine barrens of New Jersey, and found no-
where else in Tennessee. Mountain laurel covers many miles of mountain-
side and borders the streams. Peculiar to the highlands is the "burning
bush," called by the mountain folk "hearts-a-bustin'-with-love," because
of its brilliant berries in autumn. The evergreen holly with its scarlet ber-
ries grows in profusion.

Lush grass and weeds cover the mountain glades and even flourish on
the high slopes, giving to the rounded tops of some of the mountains the
name "grassy balds." Ferns are numerous and grow very large.

The soil of Middle Tennessee is ideal for the cultivation of the
State flower, the iris, and the Nashville Iris Association was formed in
1931 to foster its planting and cultivation. Along the boulevards and
streets, and in parks and gardens, the blue, white, and purple blossoms
appear by the millions annually, justifying Nashville's designation as the
"Iris City/'

The yellow jasmine, celebrated in the literature of the South, thrives in
the southern parts of Middle Tennessee and as far east as the Great Ap-
palachian Valley. Over much of the Central Basin grows bluegrass, which
makes the Middle Tennessee region one of the finest grazing lands in the
country. Muscadines, as well as the other varieties of wild grapes, grow
in the central and western portions of the State.

Interspersed with the oaks of the Plateau region are numerous shrubs.
Itea, a member of the willow family, large-flowering hydrangea, Carolina
allspice, narrow-leaf crabapple, hazelnut, buttonbush, chokeberry, arrow-
wood, and southern buckhorn grow where the gravelly soil supports a poor
growth of larger trees. On the rock outcrops of the cedar woods are crustose
lichens, simplest form of plant life.

Native here, also, are the pink stonecrop and pitcher's sandwort, and

22 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

the taller plants, such as the daisy fleabane, wild senna, and coralberry.
Among the vines are the trumpet honeysuckle and the Virginia creeper.
Wild flowers common to much of Middle Tennessee are the spring-beauty,
dragonroot, firepink, Indian-tobacco, lamb's lettuce, ground cherry, Venus*
looking-glass, hop clover, wooly-leaf dutchman's pipe, shepherd's purse,
horse-nettle, mouse-eared duckweed, dwarf evening primrose, violet wood
sorrel, Illinois mimosa, common yarrow, and the flameflower, which blos-
soms only on clear days.

In the moist woodlands of West Tennessee are lilies and orchids, of
which one species, the pink ladyslipper or moccasin flower, is said to be
fast disappearing because of ruthless picking. There are water lilies in the
lagoons; and Indian rye, formerly harvested by the aborigines, furnishes
food for the migrating flocks of ducks and geese. The common grasses of
the region are rushes, cattails, and swale grasses.

Soil Conservation

The story of Tennessee cannot be understood without reference to the
types of soil that have determined the development of the State's three
natural divisions. East Tennessee's early political dominance was due solely
to first settlement. Although there were many fairly rich farmland pockets
in the uplands, much of the soil was so thin that the people were able to
force from it only the barest subsistence. The stream of immigration
turned toward Middle and West Tennessee, where soils were deep and
rich. Here a prosperous agricultural economy came into being. Inevitably
Tennessee's cultural and political center also shifted westward.

In the Great Smoky Mountains there are still numbers of good small
farms where the mellow sandy soil is similar to that of the Gulf Coast,
while in the East Tennessee Valley the soil, formed of disintegrated
limestone-marble and shale with an admixture of flint-like chert, yields
well to careful farming methods. Thousands of tiny "patch-farms" are
scattered through the uplands and, in spite of wasteful lumbering opera-
tions, the poorest ridge soils still support fine stands of timber. Two-
thirds of the Cumberland Plateau is covered with forest, mostly second-
growth scrub. The soil is thin, porous, and unproductive. Possibly the
poorest land in the State is found on the inner part of the Highland Rim.
Here a skim of earth overlies porous siliceous limestone through which
the vitality of the soil "leaches out/' The tenacious cedar grows well in
these barrens and there is fair pasturage for cattle, but the land can never
be made valuable for fanning.

AN EXAMPLE OF SEVERE SOIL EROSION

About 40 per cent of the Central Basin, which has been called "The
Garden of Tennessee," is used as bluegrass pasturage. The soil has been
formed of rich, soluble limestone, and is remarkably productive. The
valley of the Tennessee River is given over to medium-sized farms on mod-
erately fertile soil.

The West Tennessee slope differs from the other divisions in that it
lacks stone outcrops or free rock. Although the hill section is subject to
gully and ravine erosion, there are many large and productive farms. The
soil is light, siliceous, and fertile. The flat alluvial bottom lands of the
Mississippi, composed of sand, silt, and clay, possess great fertility. The
soil is light, porous, and many feet deep. In most of the area large plan-
tations produce enormous yearly crops of cotton and corn with no apparent
sign of exhaustion. Much swampy forest land has not yet been cleared.

As early as 1854, the State agricultural bureau warned that excessive
"mining" or one-crop cultivation of the soil would finally lead to eco-
nomic disaster. Farmers following this practice grew one crop year after

24 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND,

year without letting the land lie fallow or rotating crops to build up the
soil. In 1857 Charles Dod, Jr., predicted that erosion would doom Ten-
nessee agriculture. Two years later Commodore Matthew Fontaine Maury
urged erosion control. However, the period was one of prodigal short-
sighted waste and little was done to check the menace. Today 85 per cent
of all land in the State has been damaged to some extent by erosion. In
1935 the State planning commission made a survey which revealed that
three million acres had been practically ruined for cultivation by deep
gullies, and that 75 to 100 per cent of the surface soil had been taken
from eleven million acres by sheet erosion. In sheet erosion a thin cover of
topsoii washes away during heavy rains. The severity of sheet erosion,
which occurs on all lands not protected by a crop of heavy-rooted vege-
tation, depends on the degree of slope to the terrain and the type of soil.
Shoe-string erosion is also responsible for much damage. Gullies, started
by little rain rills, are gouged out to such a depth that it becomes almost
impossible to fill them. Slip or landslide erosion, Tennessee's third prin-
cipal type, is frequent where shale soils predominate. Water accumulates
between soil and bedrock until the undermined soil slides downhill, or
collapses into sink-holes.

Contour cultivation, hillside terracing, and planned crop rotation (with
careful selection of crops that hold the soil) constitute the best method of
fighting sheet erosion. Winter cover crops like clover and grasses have
been found beneficial. Gullies, which rarely occur in forest lands or in
fields growing alfalfa or Japanese clover (lespedeza), are best fought by
building wooden, metal, wire, brush, or stone check dams at proper inter-
vals. Black locust trees are frequently planted to hold the soil. Japanese
clover, serving as a legume to enrich the soil, is an effective cover crop.
Nothing can be done to remedy landslide erosion, once it has occurred;
but landslides can be prevented by proper ditch drainage of susceptible
areas.

Soil conservation and erosion control in Tennessee now embrace nearly
100,000 farms with a land area of nine and one-half million acres, or
about half of the farm acreage in the State. The university's extension
service and the three Federal agencies the Agricultural Adjustment Ad-
ministration, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the Soil Conservation
Service are collaborating in what is considered the most comprehensive
conservation program ever attempted in the United States.

A principal land program of the TVA is that of erosion control, carried
on in cooperation with farmers. Civilian Conservation Corps boys, super-
vised by the watershed protective section (the forest division of the

AIR VIEW OF TERRACED LANDS, A SOIL CONSERVATION PROJECT

TVA), do much of the control work on. private property; owners must
furnish teams and materials, and sign an agreement to maintain the proj-
ect for five years. So actively have Tennessee Valley farmers cooperated
that by 1936 more than one hundred thousand check dams had been built
and eighteen million seedlings planted. Reforestation is employed only in
the most badly eroded sections. Elsewhere the first two steps of control
suffice the building of check dams and diversion ditches, and the plant-
ing of cover crops.

Where cotton and other crops requiring cultivation between the rows
are grown, terracing is advocated in addition to readjustment of the crop
cover. Terracing associations, usually underwritten by responsible local
agencies, purchase large motor-driven grading machines which are oper-
ated on a communal basis.

26 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Much of the soil in the eroded areas is too far gone to support even
grass crops without plant food. The manure of horses, mules, cattle, and
sheep is scrupulously conserved, but this source of home fertilizer has been
greatly reduced in recent years with the increased use of motorized farm
machinery. Cotton seed hulls, a valuable home product, are rarely used
because the farmers prefer to sell them and buy commercial fertilizer. The
best home method of fertilizing the soil consists of growing legumes and
other plants to be turned under as green manure in a carefully planned
rotation of crops. Perhaps one-tenth of the farmers in the State allow a
field to rest every third or fourth year, as part of their rotation system.
But very few, during this rest period, plant a cover crop which is to be
turned under. The common practice is to let the selected field lie fallow,
producing the common weeds and grasses indigenous to the region.

To meet the need for cheap phosphate in the valley, Nitrate Plant
No. a, at the Muscle Shoals project of the TV A, produces a new triple
superphosphate and a still newer metaphosphate from the raw phosphate
rock found in Middle Tennessee. Farmers throughout the valley have or-
ganized soil conservation clubs and are demonstrating the value of this
fertilizer in growing the most effective control crops grasses for pas-
turage or hay, legumes in mat planting, and small grain. In demonstra-
tion areas farmers receive fertilizer free through the State agricultural
extension service and farm organizations.

Erosion control not only saves reservoirs and checks flood damage, but
helps the farmer escape the one-crop system which has impoverished him
and exhausted his land. Reforestation provides nut and fruit crops and a
continually renewed supply of timber. A cover crop of grass or legume in
eroded fields provides pasture for livestock. The change from a one-crop
method of farming means less silt in the river, more money in the farm-
er's pocket, and better food for folk who have too often existed on corn
pone, sorghum, and sowbelly the year around.

The First Americans

TT^ARLY in prehistoric times wandering tribes of aborigines the re-
jlJv mote ancestors of the historic Indians entered the territory that is
now Tennessee. Successive waves of migration followed, and many diverse
groups came into contact with one another. Some were cave dwellers who
subsisted by hunting and fishing, and some were agricultural tribes who
made excellent pottery and lived in large fortified towns.

Probably the cave dwellers were the first comers. They settled along the
water courses where fish and game were plentiful and where caves and
overhanging cliffs afforded natural dwellings. With their crude weapons
they may have hunted the last of the mastodons. The sites of their homes
are marked by fire-cracked stones, flint chips, and arrowheads, by ash beds
and refuse pits, fragments of pottery and implements of stone and bone.
Caves showing signs of occupancy are especially numerous at the head-
waters of the Cumberland River and its tributaries; others are found in
the Tennessee and Duck River valleys.

In the cliffs along Obed and Wolf Rivers there are rock shelters similar
to the Pueblo communal ruins in the Southwest. That the caves housed
hunters rather than farmers is evident fiom the quantities of animal bones
found on the sites. In some instances burned human bones are present.

The prehistoric Indians also used caves for burial purposes. Indicative
of a higher type of Stone Age culture are the partially mummified human
remains, interred in a sitting position in baskets of cane, that have been
found in widely separated areas. The bodies were wrapped in bark mat-
ting, tanned deer-skin, and cloaks or mats of woven feathers. The work-
manship of these articles shows considerable mechanical skill.

In pre-Columbian America, maize or corn was a basic food, and the
fertile valleys of Tennessee, then as now, produced good crops. The tribes
that cultivated maize left behind them remarkable earthworks which show
their advanced skill and industry. These people are generally referred to
as the Mound Builders. Unquestionably they were Indians, possibly the
ancestors of the Muskhogean linguistic stock the group that includes the
Creek, Chocktaw, and Chickasaw. In the mounds, the levels of occupa-

28 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

tion overlap: the prehistoric merges into the historic. In the lower strata
are found only pre-Columbian artifacts; in the upper strata articles of
European manufacture are present.

The Tennessee phases of the Mound Builder culture include stone for-
tifications and palisaded villages, earthworks that served as foundations
for ceremonial buildings, cemeteries, and reservoirs. Dome-shaped burial
mounds are numerous, and in scattered places about the State are a few
earthworks that appear to be effigy mounds, fashioned to represent birds
or animals.

The most prominent of the earthen remains are the pyramidal mounds,
often elaborately terraced, with level tops. Notable examples are the huge
Pinson Mounds in Madison County, the largest of which is some seventy
feet high, and the Great Mound Group in Cheatham County. Pyramidal
mounds, always associated with important sites, all show indications of
having once supported ceremonial buildings of some kind, probably tem-
ples or town houses. The resemblance of these terraced ceremonial house
mounds to the pyramids of ancient Mexico is striking. This and other
evidence suggest a cultural link between the Mound Builders of Tennessee
and the civilized Mayan people of Central America and Mexico.

Excavations have revealed post molds where the logs that formed the
walls of the ceremonial buildings once stood, and also wattle-work and
hard-packed smooth floors. Altars or fire basins, composed of clay and
sand, are usually found in these structures. Both square and round types
of altars have been uncovered, the different shapes apparently represent-
ing two different cultures. When the mounds were high, an inclined ramp
led up to the buildings. These ramps were constructed of clay into which
were set cedar logs to provide a foothold.

One peculiarity of the prehistoric Tennessee burials is the striking de-
velopment of stone graves, usually made from flat pieces of limestone ot
from slaty sandstone. The builders evidently believed in an after life, for
shell spoons and artistic pottery vessels, many of which represent bird,
animal, and human figures, are found with the bodies. The vessels appar-
ently contained food and drink so that the deceased might not go hungry
on the long journey to the Spirit Land. Other implements or ornaments
buried with the bodies include copper breastplates, soapstone and clay to-
bacco pipes, strings of fresh water pearls, sea shells, bone awls, round
gaming stones, and pottery disks. The presence of sea shell and copper
indicates well-established trade routes.

Although the stone grave form of burial is widespread over the State,
it is most frequent in the valleys of the Tennessee and the Cumberland

THE FIRST AMERICANS 29

Rivers. The typical Cumberland graves are rectangular coffins, in which
the body is extended full length on its back. In the Tennessee Valley,
stone-slab graves have been discovered in which the skeletons lie in a
doubled-up position. Remains of another group or tribe, who buried their
dead in hexagonal or almost circular stone-slab graves, with the bodies
closely flexed, have been found. The skeletal remains are of both long-
headed and round-headed types of people. It is believed that the builders
of the numerous mounds also built the stone graves, which occur both in
mounds and in cemeteries.

Collections of prehistoric Indian relics from mounds and graves are on
exhibit at Vanderbilt University and at the Memorial Building Museum
at Nashville. The Museum of Natural History and Industrial Arts in
Memphis also has an exhibition of Mound Builder relics.

The depicting of human and animal figures in terra cotta and stone is
one of the chief phases of prehistoric culture in Tennessee. Specimens
found in the area show the high level to which the art of pottery making
was carried, and the perfection with which the difficult aft of chipping
flint was practiced. There are huge ceremonial swords, scepters, maces, and
monolithic axes with handle and blade made from a single piece of pol-
ished stone. The art of painting as practiced by these ancient Indians is
shown in their pottery decorations and in picture writing upon the smooth
faces of rock walls overhanging the rivers.

Engravings upon copper and sea shell ornaments are traced with re-
markable skill. Ornaments worn suspended from the neck, known as
gorgets, are beautifully engraved with intricate designs depicting human,
animal, and mythical figures, many of them quite conventionalized. A
common motif is the rattlesnake, which is sometimes both winged and
plumed as in Mexico. Gorgets cut from conch shells were usually circular
in shape and concave from the curve of the shell. In size they range from
a few inches to nearly a foot in diameter. Large marine shells were also
utilized for bowls and cups.

Both shell and grit tempered pottery have been found in large quanti-
ties. Pottery types include corded, paddle-stamped, stippled, smooth, poly-
chrome, and painted ware. Vessels with smooth rims are found; other
types are curved-rim and loop-handled ware. Many bowls and water bot-
tles are modeled to represent human and animal figures. Effigy ware is
frequently found with burials.

On the Little Tennessee River many of the graves contain the remains
of historic Indians, but there are some burials which appear to represent
an older and different culture, perhaps that of the Uchees (Yuchis), In

30 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

East Tennessee many of the skeletons are found in flexed positions in pits
that were lined with bark and covered with lids of bark supported by
wooden cleats. The dead, in many cases, were buried under the floors of
the dwellings.

Artifacts, pottery, and skeletal remains from East Tennessee are housed
at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. Many of these relics were
found during recent excavations conducted jointly by the Works Progress
Administration, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the University of
Tennessee.

The Mound Builders, if not the ancestors of Indians living within the
State in historic times, certainly exerted cultural influence upon all the
later groups that entered the area. Historic tribes in Tennessee were re-
ported by early explorers to have used mounds as foundations for town
houses. A number of eighteenth-century village sites contain Mound
Builder remains in their lower levels. Either the later tribes were builders
of mounds themselves, or they moved in and occupied the sites of the
earlier peoples.

Historic Indians

The first Indians encountered by Europeans in Tennessee belonged to
two great linguistic groups the Muskhogean and the Iroquoian. The
Koasati, a tribe identified with the Creeks, were in the southeastern region
through which Hernando De Soto's Spaniards pushed on their futile search
for treasure in 1541. The Cherokee, a detached Iroquoian tribe, lived on
the upper reaches of the Tennessee River, claiming all the central and
eastern portions of the present State as their hunting ground. Some au-
thorities contend that De Soto passed through the southernmost towns of
the Cherokee during his march to the Mississippi.

The Muskhogean still occupied the Tennessee Valley in the seven-
teenth century, but they later migrated south and joined the main Creek
Nation. Early French maps gave the name of "Cusatee" or "Kasquinombo"
to the Tennessee River and located the Cusatee or Kasquinompa Indians
near the present site of Chattanooga and the Cherokee on the headwaters
of the river.

West Tennessee was the domain of the Chickasaw another Muskho-
gean tribe whose main villages were in northern Mississippi, It was
doubtless to this tribe that De Soto's aide referred when he stated that
"they presented the Governpr (De Soto) 150 conies (rabbits), with the
clothing of the country, such as shawls and skins/' The Chisca, also men-

THE FIRST AMERICANS 31

tioned in the De Soto narratives, were a small Algonkian tribe living on
the Cumberland Plateau.

A century and a half after De Soto's explorations the English, entering
Tennessee from the east, and the French, coming down the Mississippi,
found the Chickasaw and Cherokee occupying substantially the same sites
where the first explorers had found them. The Shawnee, late comers, lived
along the lower Cumberland Valley, in an area claimed not only by the
Chickasaw and the Cherokee, but also by the powerful Iroquois Confed-
eracy of New York.

Land trails and waterways formed the Indians* system of communica-
tion and transportation. The dugout canoe, hollowed and shaped from a
single tree by means of fire and stone adzes, was the craft used by all the
tribes of Tennessee. Bark canoes were rare, although a few were occa-
sionally obtained through trade with the northern tribes. Besides numer-
ous footpaths of their own making, the Indians incorporated into their
system the wide, hard-packed trails trodden by the wood bison, leading to
every corner of the wilderness. Beginning in the Creek country of Ala-
bama and Georgia, the Great Indian Warpath entered Tennessee near
Chattanooga and followed the Great Valley of East Tennessee northward.
Over this well-worn trail, on missions of peace and war, came the Creek,
Cherokee, and Chickasaw from the south and the Iroquois and Algonkians
from the north. Another famous Indian trail was the Natchez Trace, run-
ning from near the vicinity of present Nashville to the towns in Mis-
sissippi.

The Chickasaw and the Cherokee were typical southeastern village
tribes. They raised large crops of vegetables and tobacco in small gardens
and in village farms that were owned in common. Indian corn or maize
was the leading crop, and the Green Corn Dance or "Busk" was a yearly
festival. In April and May strawberries were gathered in the open prairies
along the stream banks, and in summer great quantities of blackberries on
the hillsides. When autumn came stores of hickory nuts, walnuts, and
pecans were laid by for winter use, one family often having more than a
hundred bushels of hickory nuts. Huckleberries, wild plums, persimmons,
wild grapes, and muscadines were gathered and preserved; many wild
plants and roots were also utilized for food. The forest supplied the
Indians with meat of many varieties turkey, deer, bear, buffalo, and small
game. The streams abounded in fish and mussels.

Before the arrival of the whites, the Indians had no domestic animals
except the dog. By the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the
Cherokee and Chickasaw had obtained horses, swine, and chickens from

32 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

the English settlers and were raising livestock in considerable numbers.

The most common type of Indian house was circular or rectangular ; it
was built of thick posts set upright in the ground with smaller posts be-
tween, all bound together with split cane or switches and plastered with
clay. Strips of bark and thatched grass were used to cover the roof; hard-
packed ground or clay formed the floor. A raised hearth in the center con-
tained the cooking fire, and above it, in the roof, was the smoke hole.
"Hot houses'* for winter were made of heavy timbers, plastered with clay.
Every village had its town house, in which the priests performed sacred
ceremonies and the chiefs held their councils. Here the braves gathered to
drink a tea of herbs called the "black drink" before taking the war trail.
The town house was big enough to hold several hundred persons, and the
whole village often met there for entertainments and dances. Early ex-
plorers, describing the Cherokee council houses, spoke of them as resem-
bling sugar loaves circular in shape with rounded tops.

From stone, wood, shell, and bone the Indians skillfully contrived the
necessary household utensils and the implements used in war, hunting,
and fishing. Beautifully ornamented pottery, wooden bowls, and spoons
and saucers made from shell have been found on various sites. The fisher-
man was provided with basketry traps, weirs, nets, spears, bone hooks,
and harpoon-like arrows ; the hunter, with long flat bows, arrows of both
wood and cane some with fire-hardened tips and others with points of
stone, bone, or antler and blow-guns of cane or of grooved pieces of
wood bound together. Stone axes and knives and scimitar-shaped hardwood
clubs were the weapons of the warrior.

After the advent of white traders in the latter half of the seventeenth
century, many of these implements and utensils were replaced in whole or
in part with European trade goods. As early as 1673 many of the Indians
had guns, axes, hoes, knives, metal arrow points, glass beads, and double
glass bottles in which they kept their powder.

Widespread among the tribes was the game of "ball play,'* from which
lacrosse is derived. Another game enjoyed in some form by all the south-
ern Indians was "chungke," played with round stones (called "chunky"
stones) and smooth sticks.

In summer the Indian men wore only deerskin breechcloths and mocca-
sins, but in cold weather they added shirts made of skin, robes of fur, and
fringed leather leggings that reached from thigh to ankle. More decorative
garments were the feather robes and the mantles woven from various
fibers and from the hair of buffalo and opossum. The women wore short
deerskin skirts and covered their shoulders with fur shawls in winter.

THE FIRST AMERICANS 33

Various dyes were used, but black and vermilion were the favorite colors
for clothing and blankets.

John Wesley recorded an interview with a young Chickasaw chief in
which the Indian told him that his people believed in four beloved things
above: the clouds, the sun, the clear sky, and He that lives in the clear
sky. The Great Spirit, the creator of all things, was called by the Chickasaw
'The Beloved One Who Dwelleth in the Blue Sky," and by the Cherokee
"The Great Man Above." Each warrior had his own guardian spirit or
totem. The sun, the thunder, and the four winds were powerful gods of
the upper air, and certain animals were thought to possess magical powers.
Medicine men or priests combined sorcery with healing practices. Tobacco
was used in religious ceremonies, and the spirit of the corn was honored
by special religious rites. To a great extent the Indians were fatalists, ac-
cepting death as a, matter of course and submitting to events without com-
plaint; sometimes, it is recorded, they sang at the approach of death by
torture.

The Chickasaw were the foremost warriors of the South. Compared to
neighboring nations they were small in numbers, but so warlike and so
well organized that no tribe or combination of tribes was able to with-
stand their attacks. With the Chickasaw, as with most American Indian
tribes, descent was in the female line. Within the nation were subdivisions
or phratries, which in turn were composed of clans or gentes. No marriage
took place between individuals of the same clan. The tribe was governed
by chiefs or headmen, whose personal endowments entitled them to lead-
ership.

Quite distinct from the Chickasaw racially and yet similar in many ways
were the Cherokee, one of the largest of the southern tribes. Their legends
tell of migration southward from the region of Lake Erie, but they had
dug themselves deeply into their historic sites when first encountered by
white men. In colonial times the Cherokee territory was divided into three
parts or settlements: Towns in the northwestern corner of South Carolina
and the neighboring portions of Georgia; the Middle Towns in the south-
western North Carolina; and the Upper Towns (known as the Overhill
Towns because they were across the mountains from the Carolina Colo-
nies) along the Little Tennessee and Tellico Rivers. This area contained
important villages, among them the capital of the Cherokee Nation, Chota
(Echota), some thirty miles south of the present Knoxville. Chota was a
"white" or peace town where bloodshed was forbidden.

Cherokee government was democratic, with a leading man acting as
head chief or "emperor" of the whole nation. Honorary titles could be

34 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

earned by warriors who were brave in battle and wise in council. Men
too old to fight and women who were very wise were given the name of
"Beloved." Among the Cherokee the women had their own council, com-
posed of the leading women of each clan, with the Beloved Woman of
the Nation at its head.

Ensign Henry Timberlake, a young British officer who went among the
Cherokee on a good will mission in 1761, described the Cherokee as "of
middle stature, of an olive color, tho' generally painted, and their skins
stained with gunpowder, pricked into very pretty figures. The hair of their
head is shaved, tho* many of the old people have it plucked out by the
roots, except a patch on the hinder part of the head, about twice the big-
ness of a crownpiece, which is ornamented with beads, feathers, wampum,
stained deer's hair, and such like baubles."

Entirely different from the Cherokee and Chickasaw were the Shawnee
of the Cumberland Valley. A wandering tribe of the far-flung Algonkian
stock, these people seem to have migrated into the Cumberland Valley
just prior to the beginning of the eighteenth century. In customs and lan-
guage they were typically Algonkian, although they had evidently acquired
some of the cultural traits of their southern neighbors.

The presence of the Shawnee in the Cumberland Valley was resented
by both the Cherokee and the Chickasaw, who desired to keep the region
as their hunting preserve. Repeated raids by these tribes and by the Iro-
quois finally drove the Shawnee from their villages on the Cumberland in
about 1714. They moved northward and settled in the Ohio Valley, from
which location they frequently sent war parties against the southern tribes
and against the white settlers in Tennessee.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century English traders were well
established in Tennessee territory. They lived in the Indian towns, taking
part in the life of the village, many of them marrying Indian women.
James Adair, best known of these adventurous Englishmen, entered the
Indian trade about 1735. To him is due the credit for much of our
knowledge of the culture of the Tennessee Indians. An educated thought-
ful man and a keen observer, Adair spent forty years among the southern
tribes, and recorded his observations in his book, History of the American
Indians.

In the colonial period the rates of exchange in the fur trade were agreed
upon by a board of commissioners and influential chiefs. The Indian coun-
try was divided into hunting districts, one district being allotted to a
trader. The rates varied from time to time but, for the most part, were
well regulated until independent traders flocked into the Indian country.

THE FIRST AMERICANS 35

Beaver fur and deer skins were the principal articles received from the
Indians.

A trader's pack train seldom consisted of fewer than fifteen or twenty
horses, and pack trains of more than a hundred horses were not uncom-
mon on the "Great Trading Path" from Charleston to the Cherokee coun-
try. Established in the Indian town, the trader lived in backwoods luxury,
a person of importance in the village. When he won the confidence and
admiration of the tribesmen, he was usually chosen by some warrior as
"particular friend." The pact, symbolized by a complete exchange of
clothing and even names, was lasting, and many a white man owed his
life to his particular friend.

The English outnumbered the French in the Cherokee country, but a
few French traders came to the Overhill Towns and attempted to gain a
foothold there. In 1730, a bold stroke of diplomacy on the part of Sir
Alexander Cuming (Cumin) won for the English the friendship of the
Cherokee. Going into the Cherokee country on his own initiative, Cuming
completely overawed the tribesmen and talked them into signing a treaty.
He designated Chief Moytoy of Great Tellico as Emperor of the Cherokee,
but reserved allegiance through himself to the British King. The Indians
were greatly impressed and agreed to become subjects of King George II.
Cuming then took to England a group of Indians, including the young
Overhill warrior who later became the famous Attakullakulla (Little Car-
penter). The King received the chiefs with great ceremony, presented
them with gifts and assured them of his love and protection. In return the
Indians pledged the King their loyalty and support

The Chickasaw were the only tribe on the lower Mississippi friendly to
the English and hostile to the French. When the French destroyed the
Natchez, the Chickasaw received the remnant of that tribe into their na-
tion. Free passage of the Mississippi was an important step in the French
plan to keep the English settlements hemmed in along the Atlantic sea-
board, and because Chickasaw warriors captured French supply boats on
the Mississippi, destruction of the tribe became a fixed policy of the
French.

In the spring of 1736, Sieur de Bienville moved northward from New
Orleans with his troops and warriors of the Choctaw Nation, hereditary
enemies of the Chickasaw. Major d'Artaguette, with another army of
white soldiers and Indian braves, came down from the Illinois district, of
which he was then governor. The two armies were to meet in the Chicka-
saw country and exterminate the tribe. English traders rushed to the
Chickasaw villages from Charleston to aid their allies. D' Artaguette landed

3C> TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

at Prudhomme Bluff and followed the Chickasaw War Trail southward to
the nearest village, where he was decisively defeated by the Chickasaw and
the British traders. Six days later Bienville was forced to retreat.

In 1740 the French built Fort Assumption on the Lower Chickasaw
Bluff (site of Memphis) as a base of operations against the Chickasaw.
A temporary peace was patched up, but the Indians continued to ambush
French convoys on the Mississippi. In 1752 Marquis de Vaudreuil led an
expedition of 700 soldiers and a large force of Choctaw into the Chicka-
saw country, but was forced to retreat. The Chickasaw remained the mas-
ters of West Tennessee.

Christian Priber, a German Utopian reformer and an agent for the
French, appeared among the Overhill Cherokee in 1736. He crowned
Moytoy of Great Tellico, then head chief of the Cherokee Nation, "Em-
peror" of his Utopia, which he called "Paradice," Ludovick Grant, a well-
known trader and liaison officer among the Cherokee for Governor Glen
of South Carolina, attempted to arrest Priber but the Cherokee would not
allow it. Officers sent from South Carolina also failed, and barely escaped
with their lives. Priber was finally taken (1743) by Creek traders on his
way to the French Fort at Mobile. He was turned over to the English
colonial authorities, who sent him to prison in Georgia, where he spent
his remaining days. His Utopian plans collapsed, but his influence con-
tinued for a long time in Great Tellico.

Regulations to curb whisky trading, which by this time had become an
abuse, were drafted by the English in 1751. They provided "that no trader
shall carry rum into the nation, unless it be a few bottles for his own use,
but that a quantity be lodged in the fort sufficient to supply each district
with two keggs in the year, and that it be given to them gratis at two dif-
ferent times; to wit, one Kegg at the Green Corn Dance and one Kegg
when they return from their Winter Hunt."

Actual hostilities between the French and the English began in 1754.
After long-drawn bickering between South Carolina and Virginia, the lat-
ter colony, in answer to Cherokee requests, built a fort near Chota in 1756.
The colonial governments still could not reach an agreement and the fort
was never named or garrisoned. The following year South Carolina com-
pleted and garrisoned Fort Loudoun, five miles west of Chota on the south
bank of the Little Tennessee River. At the time Fort Loudoun was com-
pleted (1757) the Cherokee, who had been wavering toward an alliance
with the French, turned to the English.

In the spring of 1759 reports of negotiations between the Cherokee of
Great Tellico and the French came from the Overhill country. To the

THE FIRST AMERICANS 37

Overhill town of Settico came Great Mortar, a Creek chief friendly to the
French, who made an alliance with Chief Moytoy. War parties left Settico
and fell upon the North Carolina settlements in the Yadkin and Catawba
Valleys.

Old Hop, the emperor or principal chief, and Attakullakulla tried to
prevent a war with the English, but the French and their Creek allies kept
up their intrigues with the Overhills. These "bad talks" continued until
Governor Lyttelton of South Carolina, fearing war with the whole Chero-
kee Nation, authorized the stoppage of their ammunition supplies. Ocono*
stota, the Great Warrior of Chota, and thirty-one chiefs, returning from
Charleston where they had gone for "peace talks," were made prisoners
and taken under military guard to Fort Prince George. Attakullakulla went
to Charleston and finally secured the release of Oconostota and two chiefs.

In January 1760 the Overhills, led by Oconostota, made an unsuccessful
attack on Fort Prince George, where their tribesmen were imprisoned.
Runners, painted red, carried war messages throughout the nation. In
March, Old Hop, the friendly leader, died and Standing Turkey was
elected head chief. The whole Cherokee Nation now took the warpath.
Attakullakulla, alone of all the headmen, remained loyal to the English,
The warring tribesmen attacked Fort Loudoun, cut off communications,
and after months of siege forced the starved garrison to surrender. On the
trail back to the settlements the soldiers were ambushed by the Cherokee;
some twenty of the garrison, including the commandant, Captain Paul
Demore, were killed on the spot and the rest were made prisoners. Follow-
ing the Indian custom of "special friendship" for a white brother,
Attakullakulla rescued his friend Captain John Stuart, second in command
of the garrison, and helped him to escape to Virginia. British troops and
colonial militia finally conquered the Cherokee, and by a treaty made
November 9, 1761, the Indians surrendered Fort Loudoun.

It was in this year that Timberlake and Sergeant Thomas Sumter visited
the Cherokee. Their host on the journey was Ostenaco, or "Judd's Friend,"
a war chief of the Overhill Cherokee. When the expedition returned to
Virginia, Governor Fauquier sent Ostenaco with two of his warriors and
an interpreter to England with Timberlake and Sumter. In London the
young Virginians and their Cherokee friends were entertained at fashion-
able resorts, visited by the nobility, and received at court by King George
III. Sir Joshua Reynolds painted Ostenaco's portrait, and the three Indians
posed for him in a group. After a two-jnonth stay in England, the Chero-
kee were brought back to America by Sumter. Timberlake remained in
England and two years later published his memoirs, which present an ac-

38 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

curate picture of Indian life in that period. The visit of Ostenaco, like
that of Attakullakulla in 1730, greatly strengthened British influence
among the Cherokee.

The British King's proclamation of 1763 guaranteed the Cherokee their
territory west of the Appalachians, but the land-hungry settlers paid little
heed to their government's treaty boundaries and steadily encroached on
Indian land. By the treaty of Fort Stanwix in New York on November 6,
17625 the Iroquois conveyed to the English their claim to the hunting
grounds bounded by the Ohio and the Tennessee Rivers. By the Treaty of
Hard Labour, made in the same year between the English and Cherokee,
the southernmost limit of the boundary line between the Virginia and the
Cherokee lands was declared to be a point thirty-six miles east of the
Long Island of the Holston River in East Tennessee. In 1770, by the
Treaty of Lockabar, a thirty-mile strip of Cherokee land was purchased
by Virginia. When a survey made in 1771 showed definitely that the white
settlements were not in Virginia but on Cherokee land, the settlers,
rather than move, leased all the land along the Watauga for about $5,000
in merchandise. Similar leases were made of lands along the Nolichucky
and in Carter's Valley.

In 1774 Lord Dunmore's War broke out in Virginia, and the Cherokee,
roused by war embassies of northern Indians, grew restless. As a nation
they did not take the warpath, but there were frequent brushes between
young braves and bands of settlers. The Transylvania Land Company of
North Carolina purchased from the Cherokee in 1775 their claim to the
lands lying between the Kentucky River and the Cumberland for $50,000
in merchandise. But the Cherokee, as a tribe, were by no means unanimous
in their acceptance of this agreement, and many of them bitterly resented
the transaction. The American Revolution, which began one month after
the land purchase, gave the disgruntled faction a chance to regain the
lands taken from them and to prevent any further settlements south of
the boundary line. Led by Dragging Canoe, they "lifted the war axe."

After two years of fighting the Cherokee met the commissioners of
Virginia and North Carolina on the Long Island of the Holston their
sacred treaty ground and made peace with the white invaders. In a for-
mal treaty made at the Long Island in July 1777, the Cherokee ceded a
large area to North Carolina and Virginia and agreed to remain neutral
during the Colonies' war with England.

Dragging Canoe's followers, refusing to accept as final the loss of lands
in East Tennessee, moved westward to Chickamauga Creek and there es-
tablished villages. These hostile Cherokee, who became known as the

THE FIRST AMERICANS 39

Chickamauga, were joined by Shawnee warriors from the Ohio, by Creeks
from Alabama and Georgia, and by white outlaws. Their war parties struck
at the outlying settlements continually, ranging far and wide over the
frontier. Colonel Evan Shelby led an expedition against them in 1779,
burned their towns, and captured horses and supplies. Later the Indians
left Chickamauga Creek and established the Five Lower Towns, west of
Lookout Mountain, with Nickajack Cave as their stronghold.

After peace was made between England and America, all Indian attacks
ceased for a time. Boundaries were established by the Hopewell treaties
with the Cherokee in 1785 and the Chickasaw in 1786, and Indian titles
to land in Tennessee were recognized by the United States.

In 1791, William Blount, Territorial Governor, called the Cherokee to
a conference at White's Fort, the present Knoxville. The new boundary
line between the Cherokee lands and those of the whites in Tennessee
was agreed upon. In addition to surrendering land, the Indians granted
to the whites the use of the Tennessee River and the road through their
lands on the Cumberland Plateau. In return the United States Government
gave a certain amount of goods and agreed to pay an annuity of $1,500.

In 1792 a group of Cherokee leaders met representatives of the United
States at Chota in a peace council ; but while the council was in session
militiamen attacked the Indians, killed several, and wounded Hanging
Maw, the head chief, and his wife. Peace negotiations were broken off;
the Cherokee as a nation joined the Chickamauga and the Creek In war
against the whites.

The Chickamauga continued to raid the frontier until Major James Ore
led the Nickajack Expedition into their country in 1794 and completely
broke their power. They came back into the Cherokee Nation and ceased
to exist as a separate tribe. The defeat of the northern tribes by American
troops, and the surrender of Spanish territorial claims, placed the Indians
under the sole jurisdiction of the United States.

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century the Cherokee were
as civilized as the border whites. They had large farms and orchards,
owned Negro slaves, and raised cattle, sheep, and horses. They used pro-
gressive farming methods in growing cotton, tobacco, corn, wheat, oats,
potatoes, and indigo. Most of the cotton their women made into cloth for
their own use; the surplus was shipped to New Orleans. They sold the
garrisons in the Indian country fresh milk, butter, eggs, and apples. Their
territory had good horse paths and wagon roads.

In 1804 the Reverend Gideon Blackburn opened a Presbyterian school
for the Cherokee near the village of Sale Creek. In 1817 a school known

40 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

as the Brainerd Mission, near the present site of Chattanooga, was estab-
lished by the Reverend Cyrus Kingsbury, a Congregational missionary.

From 1805 to 1819 various treaties were made with the Cherokee and
the Chickasaw. In 1818 the Chickasaw ceded all the West Tennessee ter-
ritory to the United States except a tract four miles square on Sandy River
and a few individually owned tracts. In return, the United States agreed
to pay $20,000 annually for fifteen consecutive years. In 1823 the reserved
lands were also transferred to the United States and the Chickasaw left
the territory. It was the proud boast of their tribe that they had never
lifted up the war axe against people of the English-speaking race.

In 1825 more than 13,000 Cherokee stilL occupied their ancestral lands.
Some 6,000, however, lived west of the Mississippi River in Texas and
Arkansas, having migrated from Tennessee because of dissatisfaction over
the treaties made with the whites. Oolooteka, from Hiwassee Island
leading chief of this western band had adopted young Sam Houston as
his foster son, calling him the Raven. After resigning the governorship of
Tennessee, Houston became a leader of the western Cherokee and was
given full citizenship in the Nation. Going to Washington as the ambas-
sador of the Cherokee, he preferred charges against dishonest Government
agents, succeeded in having them removed, and then returned to take an
honored seat in the National Council of the Cherokee.

To George Gist or Guess, better known as Sequoyah, belongs the credit
for making the Cherokee into a literate people. Sequoyah, a half-breed
Cherokee, was a skillful silversmith as well as a hunter and trader. In 1818
he began to devise an alphabet for his people. Using letters and figures
from an old speller, without relation to their meaning in English, and
inventing other symbols, he built up a syllabary of 85 characters capable
of expressing all the sounds in the Cherokee language. In 1821 the tribal
leaders adopted Sequoyah' s alphabet and within a few months both the
eastern and western bands of the tribe were learning to read. In 1828
the Cherokee Phoenix, a newspaper in Cherokee and English, was pub-
lished. In commemoration of Sequoyah's invention, the giant Sequoyah
(Sequoia) trees of California were named in his honor.

In 1827 the Cherokee adopted a written constitution modeled after that
of the United States. It was the intention of this civilized tribe to continue
to be a self-governing nation within the territorial limits of Tennessee and
the three adjacent States, where they still owned some 10 million acres of
land. But the whites wanted this land, and they began to take it, some-
times by force. Treaties were ignored and the Indians were subjected to
many persecutions. Georgia declared Cherokee laws to be void within her

THE FIRST AMERICANS

SEQUOYAH AND HIS ALPHABET

territory and all Indians therein subject to her authority. In 1832 the
United States Supreme Court denied Georgia's right to do this, but the
court's authority was defied. Andrew Jackson, then President, took no
action to compel obedience to the supreme judicial authority of the United
States and to the treaties that the Government had made with the Cherokee.
Congress authorized the President to offer western lands in exchange
for the Cherokee territory east of the Mississippi. Led by John Ross, their
principal chief, the tribe as a whole refused to accept the proposed re-
moval. Repeatedly delegations went to Washington to plead their cause,

42 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

but the President refused to aid them, and Congress turned a deaf ear to
their petitions. Despairing of successful opposition to the United States,
a faction of the tribe under the leadership of John Ridge decided to accept
the removal. A preliminary treaty was made in March 1835, but the
Cherokee Council, influenced by Ross, rejected it. On December 29, 1835,
however, a minority of the tribe signed the Treaty of New Echota, and
the United States Senate quickly ratified it.

By this treaty of removal all Cherokee land east of the Mississippi was
ceded to the United States for $5,000,000. In addition the Government
was to give the Cherokee 15,000,000 acres of land in the Indian territory.
In March 1836 a supplementary treaty was made whereby the United
States agreed to pay the Indians an additional $1,000,000, and the Chero-
kee were to leave Tennessee within two years.

The John Ross party vigorously protested, contending that the treaty
did not represent the will of the majority, but the Government was deter-
mined that they should accept it. Troops were sent into the Cherokee
country to make them vacate* Forts were built and the Indians were herded
into them until final preparations were completed for their forced removal.

In the summer of 1838 a number of Indians were sent by boat to their
new home; others went by wagon train. But many deaths, from disease
and the heat, delayed the removal until autumn. In October the Indians
were assembled at Rattlesnake Springs, near the present site of Charleston.
After a tribal council the last one held in Tennessee they were divided
into thirteen detachments, each in charge of two Cherokee officers, and
the great removal began. The suffering endured by the evicted Cherokee
on their long forced march gave to their route the name of the Trail of
Tears.

Not all the Cherokee submitted, however. Homesick for their native
hills, more than 1,000 escaped from the forts and fled into the remote
mountain regions. Their descendants now occupy the reservation in North
Carolina.

<< <#> >

TTN THE summer of 1540 the Indian villages in the valley of the Tennes-
JL see River were ransacked by a strong mounted company of Spaniards
from Florida, Before entering Tennessee, they had followed Hernando De
Soto through what is now Georgia and the Carolinas, believing that some-
where in the vast reaches of the wilderness there would be treasure cities
to plunder. From the Tennessee valley the Spaniards moved westward for
almost a year. Many of them including grim, iron-willed De Soto had
looted with Cortez in Mexico or Pizarro in Peru and, as a matter of course,
they massacred the Indians and burned their villages when they failed to
find gold. They followed bison trails and Indian trade-paths, wandering
south at times into Alabama and Mississippi. In April 1541 the remnants
of the party planted the flag of Spain on the bluffs of the Mississippi River
and made camp near the present site of Memphis. After raiding Chicka-
saw villages nearby for food and mussel pearls, they crossed the river to
continue searching for the will-o'-the-wisp gold they were never to find.

More than a century passed before there is record of another white man
entering the territory. In 1673 a woods ranger named James Needham
was commissioned by Abraham Wood, Virginia trader, to scout the pos-
sibility of trade with the Overhill Cherokee whose towns lay along the
Little Tennessee and Tellico Rivers. Accompanied by Gabriel Arthur, an
indentured servant, and several Indians from the Cherokee Lower Towns,
Needham twice crossed the mountains into Tennessee. On the second trip
he was killed by the Indians.

In the year that Needham and Arthur were in the valley of the Ten-
nessee, Joliet and Marcpiette with ive companions beadhed their canoes
under the Lower Blufis and were h^sjfitaJbly received in the Chickasaw
villages north of the present Memphis. Other white men, French and Eng-
lish^ imy have fend their way into Tennessee, but the next recorded
visit was that of La SaJUfe in 1682, when Fort Prudhomme was thrown up
tit0 Moiaii tik^fffatcjiie River on the First Chicfcasaw Bluff. A

44 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

crude arrangement of earthworks and palisades occupied for only a short

time, the fort soon fell into ruin.

A deserter from La Salle's expedition, Martin Chartier, who wandered
into Middle Tennessee and joined a band of Shawnee in the lower Cum-
berland Valley, left the valley with the tribe in 1692. Soon afterward a
second Frenchman, Charles Charleville, set up a trading post in an old
Shawnee stockade at French Lick, half a mile from the bluff upon which
the little frontier town of Nashville was to be built nearly a century later.

During the period of conflicting claims that followed, Spain included
Tennessee with the Province of Florida on the strength of De Soto's jour-
ney. The French based their claim to the entire Mississippi Valley on La
Salle's explorations and the activities of traders from Louisiana and Can-
ada. The English claim was derived from the Virginia and Carolina grants,
which had indefinite limits westward.

After Needham's trips among the Cherokee, the English lost no time
in spreading their influence west to the Mississippi. Although French
traders continued to visit Tennessee, their importance waned rapidly as
more English traders came over the mountains and settled among the
Cherokee, usually marrying into the tribe. This persistent penetration by
the English robbed the Spanish and French claims of real force.

When Virginia was partitioned in 1663, Tennessee became a western
part of Carolina; thirty years later a further division left Tennessee within
the jurisdiction of North Carolina. Ideas about the region remained vague
well into the middle of the eighteenth century. The Upper Tennessee Val-
ley, which Virginians thought was within their boundaries, was not ex-
plored until 1748, when Dr. Thomas Walker, sent out by the Loyal Land
Company of Virginia, penetrated the territory to the present Kingsport
Two years later Walker with a patty of Long Hunters (probably already
familiar with the region) came down the upper Holston Valley, followed
well-beaten bison trails westward, and crossed the Clinch River. From this
point Walker and his wilderness scouts pushed north into Kentucky
through the great mountain pass which he later named Cumberland Gap
in honor of the Duke of Cumberland.

When the French and Indian War broke out, the Overfull Cherokee
petitioned the colonial governments of Virginia and South Carolina to
build and strongly garrison a fort in their country. Virginia acted first.
Major Andrew Lewis led a party' into the Overhill country and built a
fort near Chota, the Cherokee capital. The South Carolinians, refusing to
cooperate with the Virginians, set about building a fort of their own. The
work was pushed to completion in 1757 by British regulars and militia

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 45

from South Carolina, under the command of Captain Paul Demore. Named
Fort Loudoun in honor of the Earl of Loudoun, commander of the British
forces in America at the time, this was the first Anglo-American fort gar*
risoned west of the Alleghenies. The Virginia fort at Chota was neve*
occupied.

No sooner had the garrison taken possession than traders, artisans,
blacksmiths, and small farmers began settling in the region protected by
the fort. Many of them brought their wives, and "undoubtedly the first
child born in the West to parents of the Anglo-Saxon race saw the light
of day in the little community." Fort Loudoun remained the westernmost
English outpost for three years. Abandoned at the outbreak of the Chero-
kee War, it was reoccupied by the North Carolinians after the British
victory of 1761. Trade with the Cherokee was resumed and white men
could again travel unmolested through the Overhill region.

Even during the height of the war a few wilderness scouts had been
hunting in Tennessee and Kentucky. The most noted of these was Daniel
Boone, whom the Indians both feared and admired. When Richard Hen-
derson of North Carolina, one of the first great American land speculators,
became interested in East Tennessee and Kentucky lands, he sent Boone
in 1760 to find desirable sites for settlement. A year later another land-
hunter, EHsha Walden, explored the Clinch and Powell Valleys.

Increasing numbers of Long Hunters, seeking lands for Henderson
and other "speculators, came into Tennessee. In 1765 and again in 1770
Henry Scaggs passed through the Cumberland Gap and explored the bluffs
where Nashville now stands. In the next four years parties led by James
Smith, Kasper Mansker, and Isaac Bledsoe extensively explored this re-
gion. One of the parties found Timothe DeMonbreun, an Illinois French-
man, operating a trading post in a cave on the Cumberland River. When
early Nashville grew up almost at his front door, DeMonbreun became
one of its leading citizens.

Meanwhile actual settlement of Tennessee began in 1769, when Wil-
liam Bean built his cabin on Boone's Creek near- the Watauga River and
several families from North Carolina joined him. Bean's settlement and
those in Carter's River Valley (1771) and on the Nolichucky River
(1772) were known as the Watauga Settlements.

Isolated in a mountain wilderness and almost entirely ignored by North
Carolina, the people of the Watauga Settlements soon felt the lack of or-
ganized government. In 1772 they formed the Watauga Association and
elected five magistrates to make and administer law. The records of the
Association are lost and little is known about it. It is certain, however,

46 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

that the Watauga constitution was the first to be written and adopted by

independent white Americans.

The Wataugans had no legal title to the lands they occupied. Until
March 17, 1775, the region was part of the Cherokee country, but on that
date Richard Henderson's newly created Transylvania Land Company
purchased an immense tract of nearly 20,000,000 acres from the Indians.
Immediately the Transylvania Company resold the Watauga territory to
its settlers. Title was taken by Charles Robertson as trustee for the com-
munity.

At the outset of the Revolutionary War the Wataugans organized them-
selves into a military district which they named for George Washington.
They requested annexation to North Carolina and in 1777 the petition
was granted. Washington District was incorporated as Washington County,
including the whole of the present State, and in 1779 Jonesboro was plat-
ted as the county seat.

In the same year Colonel Evan Shelby marched from Watauga against
the Chickamauga, a hostile branch of the Cherokee, and defeated them
near the present Chattanooga. In 1780 news came across the mountains
that Major Patrick Ferguson and a British force of about twelve hundred
men, most of them loyalists, were raiding westward. The Over-Mountain
men of Watauga rallied at Sycamore Shoals under Johri Sevier and, as they
trailed eastward, were reinforced by Shelby's Indian fighters and a force
of Virginians led by Colonel William Campbell.

On October 7 they attacked the British entrenchments on King's Moun-
tain. The frontiersmen used the Indian tactics they knew so well, creeping
from tree to tree, sniping at the British. Ferguson and about six hundred
of his men were killed while the Americans lost only twenty-eight men.
This, the only battle in which the Tennessee settlers took part, marked
the turn of the tide in the South.

While war was going on in the East, the migration of settlers into Mid-
dle Tennessee began. Henderson's Transylvania Company had been de-
nied title to its purchases within Virginia's territory, so Henderson and
his associates made plans to exploit other lands believed to lie within
North Carolina's western boundaries. The Cumberland River region was
picked for the first settlement. Here Nashborough was founded in 1780.

The tiny settlements of Watauga and the Cumberland were in an ex-
tremely precarious position. They were not even upon the frontiers of
North Carolina, but hundreds of miles in the wilderness beyond the fron-
tiers and open to Indian attack from the east, north, and south. In 1784
they petitioned the Assembly of North Carolina for the "salutasy benefits

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 47

of government" But North Carolina immediately ceded the entire Over-
Mountain territory to the Federal Government, "for the frontiersmen were
always on the verge of war with the Indians and in case of trouble they
would require protection/* Congress was given two years in which to ac-
cept or reject the grant

News of North Carolina's action aroused great indignation in the set-
tlements. Delegates from Washington, Sullivan, and Greene Counties met
at Jonesboro and discussed a working plan for an independent western
state to be called Franklin. In the same year (1784) a constitution, pat-
terned after that of North Carolina, was adopted.

Concurrently the North Carolina Assembly had repealed its act of ces-
sion, but the Franklanders, as they called themselves, refused to undo their
work. A general assembly met at Greeneville in March 1785, and chose
officers to act under Governor John Sevier.

For four years there were continual clashes between Franklin officials
and those sent over the mountains by North Carolina. When Sevier's term
as governor expired, no new election was held, and the State of Franklin
collapsed.

Left unprotected again, the territorials organized "The Government
South of the Holston and French Broad Rivers." The constitution and
laws of North Carolina were adopted, the Franklin officers were continued
in power, and various delegations were chosen. This government func-
tioned until 1790, when Congress accepted the second offer of cession and
brought 'into being "The Territory of the United States South of the River
Ohio," commonly known as the Southwest Territory. The Territorial gov-
ernment, administered largely by Presidential appointees, with William
Blount as Governor, operated for nearly six years. Knoxville was selected
as the seat of the government in 1792, a year after the town had been
platted.

On July 2, 1791, Blount made the Treaty of the Holston with the
Cherokee, who placed themselves under the protection of the United
States and agreed to the extension of boundaries for white settlements.
In the same year the Knoxville Gazette was temporarily set up at Rogers-
ville and soon afterward moved to Knoxville, Fom: years later a wagon
road was completed across the Cumberland Plateau between Knoxville and
Nashville. < , ;

Tennessee had now exceeded by Jc^e ttact a fourth the population nec-
essary for the formation of a A^, and tKe constitutional convention,
which met Jn T^^^^ ] ^'^A^j^''^ 1796, petitioned Congress for
'to "the '<'V l sjij&^ wzfte'Sfras cfarawn up the constitution which

48 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Thomas Jefferson called "the least imperfect and most republican" to be

adopted by any of the States.

Congress delayed action and the impatient Tennesseans organized their
State government before the authority had officially been granted. John
Sevier, frontier dandy, soldier, land-speculator, and the most powerful po-
litical figure in the region, became the first governor. The legislature,
meeting at Knoxville on March 29, 1796, elected as United States Sena-
tors William Cocke, an East Tennessee follower of Sevier, and stiff, tory
William Blount of Middle Tennessee. To fill the one seat in the House
of Representatives another of Sevier's men was elected, a swaggering high-
tempered lawyer from Middle Tennessee young Andrew Jackson.

Three months later, June i, 1796, Congress admitted Tennessee to the
Union, but refused to seat Cocke and Blount because they had been elected
prior to the State's admission. The two Senators were reelected at a special
session of the legislature, and the three Tennesseans took their seats in
Congress on December 5, 1796.

In the following year Blount became involved in one of the gravest
scandals of the time. A European war between the new Republic of France
and Great Britain was imminent. Blount's sympathies were with Britain.
He took part in a scheme to recruit in Tennessee partisan fighters for
Britain and planned to send them on raids into Louisiana and Florida, A
letter from him on the subject fell into the hands of an enemy and was
published in the newspapers. On July 8, 1797, Blount was charged with
treason and expelled from the Senate. The date for an impeachment trial
was set, but the matter was dropped on a technicality because of Blount's
great popularity in the West.

Settlement of Tennessee proceeded rapidly. Home-seekers poured in
from the Carolinas, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and even New England. They
came with Revolutionary War land-grants, either earned in service or pur-
chased from veterans or speculators* (Often these grants were forgeries.)
Many of them came simply as squatters. The old Wilderness Road and
Avery's Trace were congested with "movers" during the summer months
great topheavy Conestoga wagons drawn by oxen, broad-tired farm
wagons piled high with household goods, and crude sledges with runners
of hickory or oak ; befrilled gentlemen astride blooded horses, rawboned
farmers on hairy plow-nags, peddlers and merchants with their trains of
donkeys, immigrants too poor to afford horse or ox plodding through the
dust clouds with their meager belongings and children on their backs all
moving west toward the promise of land in Tennessee. Other thousands

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 49

came by keelboats, poled up the Cumberland and Tennessee from the
Ohio.

The newcomers were often misled and swindled by shrewd first settlers
who dominated the State, but they kept coming. By the end of the century
the wilderness had retreated before them to the Mississippi bottomlands.
From the eastern mountains to the western counties of Middle Tennessee
towns had sprung up, each with its public square and log courthouse, its
church that served as a schoolhouse on weekdays, its gristmill, distillery,
smithy, and general store. Roads webbed the f orestland, connecting out-
lying farms and villages with the towns, where, presently, the courthouses
and churches were of brick or stone and the log dwellings sheathed with
clapboards.

In 1800 the Great Revival swept the State like a wind-driven grass fire
and thousands of converts came singing and shouting to the mourners'
bench. Although the movement reached its climax and waned within a
year, it never died completely, and has remained a force to be reckoned
with. The brawling ferment of frontier days began to pass. But the men
whose characters the frontier had molded were, in turn, to leave the mark
of the frontier upon American policies and life. To them was due half a
century of aggressive national expansion. Largely through them there was
an abrupt shift in political tone from the benign and essentially English
rule-from-above ideal of Washington's time to the easy folksy manner of
the backwoods and to a booming devotion to the common people.

Chief among .the new.-politicians was ^Andrew Jackson, in -whom the
virtues and vices of the frontiersman were strong. So completely did this
spare, sandy-maned figure with hot blue eyes and hair-trigger passions
overshadow the State that for more than three decades the history of Ten-
nessee except for minor side-glances was, in effect, the biography of
Andrew Jackson.

As the protegee of William Blount and Governor Sevier, Jackson suc-
ceeded Cocke in the Senate in 1798. Within a year, however, he resigned,
when Sevier offered him the appointment as judge of the Tennessee Su-
perior Court of Law and Equity. iFrom Blount and Sevier and their ma-
nipulations of State affairs Jackson received a full education in political
realism, which he was not long in applying. In 1800, through the support
of Archibald Roane, who had succeeded Sevier as Governor, Jackson de-
feated Sevier in an election for the post of Major General of the Tennessee
Militia. The resulting feud between Sevier and Jackson was the bitter
theme of State politics /or several yeats.

An outstanding feature 6f this was a legislative investigation of Sevier

59 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

for complicity in a large-scale land fraud, launched in 1803 by Governor
Roane as the trump card in his campaign for reelection against Sevier. De-
spite Jackson's powerful backing, Roane failed in the inquiry and lost the
election. The legislature, though condemning Sevier's part in the frauds,
took no action against him.

By the time the War of 1812 broke out, Andrew Jackson's political
stature in Tennessee dwarfed that of all rivals. His noted hatred for the
British further increased his popularity, and volunteers flocked to the col-
ors to serve under him. When it was rumored that a British force was
sailing up the Mississippi to Natchez, Jackson led his militiamen by forced
marches to the threatened point. The invasion failed to materialize and
the volunteers returned home. During the long hard marches of this cam-
paign the. raw militiamen received invaluable training, and Jackson won a
passionate devotion from them which was to serve him in politics as well
as in war.

In the same year the Creeks, incited by British agents, took the war path
and massacred the garrison at Fort Mims, near Mobile. Governor Willie
Blount, half-brother of William Blount, called out 3,500 volunteers. Jack-
son, still suffering from wounds received in a fight with Jesse and Thomas
Benton, again mustered the volunteers and struck south into the Indian
.country. After a quick campaign, the Tennessee militia broke the power
of the Creek Confederacy at the Battle of Tohopeka.

Late in 1814, when the war with England was near its close, a strong
British fleet blockaded the Gulf Coast. Once more Jackson led the Ten-
nessee yolunteers southward, this time to threatened New Orleans, The
townsfolk and militia barely had time to build breastworks of cotton
bales across the seaward approach to the city before British troops began
landing from their transports, anchored at the mouth of the river. In the
close formations they had used against the French in Spain, the British
attempted to carry the breastworks by assault. The Tennessee riflemen,
crouching and firing behind their cotton bales, shattered each wave of at-
tackers before it could come within volleying distance. As in the Battle
of King's Mountain, the British losses were heavy, while only a handful
of Americans fell.

Jackson emerged from the battle a national hero. He was appointed
major-general of the United States Army in the South, and in 1818 con-
ducted a minor war against the Seminoles in Florida. The war resulted in
the formal cession of Florida to the United States.

In 1818 the Federal Government purchased from the Chickasaw all
their lands east of the Mississippi and Jackson acted with Governdr Shelby

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

ANDREW JACKSON
This portrait of the President was drawn from life Se ^mber 23 1829, ^7

52 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

of Kentucky as a Government agent during the negotiations. Before the
country was opened to settlement, he acquired with John Overton and
James Winchester a tract of land at the mouth of the Hatchie River. Here
the town of Memphis was laid out and lots sold. Subsequently there was
some scandal about land-titles, and Jackson who already had presidential
ambitions sold out to Overton and Winchester.

As early as 1822 Nashville newspapers had been proposing Jackson for
the presidency and he was a candidate in 1824, when Adams was elected.
During the next four years State politics became inseparable from Jack-
son's presidential campaign. Running against Adams in 1828, he was
elected by an overwhelming majority. Only five per cent of the Tennessee
vote went to Adams.

Although Jackson was a landed proprietor, he made himself the spokes-
man for the average citizen and the foe of the vested interests of the day.
During his eight years in the White House, reaction to his policies was
unrelenting. The story of his smashing of the Bank of the United States,
his championing of Peggy O'Neal, his feud with John C. Calhoun, his
lampooned Kitchen Cabinet, and all the storm and clash that surrounded
him in Washington are not State but National history. Throughout his
presidency, he found time to direct politics in Tennessee, even to minor
town and county elections.

In 1829 there was a serious break in the ranks of Jackson's party within
the State. William Carroll, who had served with Jackson during the Creek
and Louisiana campaigns and had thrice been Governor of Tennessee, en-
tered the race against Governor Sam Houston, also an old comrade of
Jackson, who was running for reelection. Both were very popular and
both declared themselves in accord with Jackson and his policies. Lacking
genuine campaign issues, Carroll and Houston were forced to fall back
on invective. However, Jackson let it be known without a direct state-
ment that he favored Houston's candidacy, and the result of the election
seemed a foregone conclusion.

Suddenly, in March 1829, Houston resigned his post as Governor.
Dropping his campaign, he went to Arkansas to join the Cherokee, with
whom he had spent much of his youth before they were removed from
East Tennessee. His flight was due to trouble with his wife; the details
have remained obscure.

Carroll was elected without opposition. He wrote to Martin Van Buren,
"I got clear of opposition in a most unaccountable manner. Poor Houston
... He rose like a rocket and fell like a stick!" Houston lived with the

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 53

Cherokee until 1833, when he went to Texas. He became one of the lead-
ers in the Texans' revolt against Mexico and was elected first President of
the Republic of Texas.

During the decades that followed Jackson*s inauguration, Tennessee
became politically and economically the most important State in the Mid-
South. Manufacturing and commerce flourished as the State became more
thickly settled. The first steamboat made its way up the Cumberland to
Nashville in 1819, and a year later the second Bank of the State of
Tennessee was established. In 1834 the State constitution was revised by a
convention meeting in Nashville. One of the most important changes pro-
vided that property be taxed according to the value placed upon it by
assessors. Free Negroes were disfranchised, relieved of the poll tax, and
exempted from military service. The new constitution was approved by
popular vote in March 1835.

By 1830 the Cherokee Indians of East Tennessee had become industrious
farmers and slave-owners. The easily mastered Cherokee alphabet, invented
by Sequoyah (George Gist), had made them a literate people with their
own newspapers and books. Under threat of military action by the Fed-
eral Government, they signed away their territories in Georgia and Ten-
nessee in 1835, and within three years had been moved west of the Mis-
sissippi. The Cherokee domain became public land and was thrown open
to homesteading and purchase.

During this period public attention was focused upon improvement of
transportation facilities. An internal improvement act was passed in 1830,
setting aside $150,000 for State-wide development of roads and rivers.
Cotton, wheat, and the steamboat brought wealth and power to the peo-
ple of Middle and West Tennessee, and in 1843 the State capital was
permanently established at Nashville. However, restless thousands of Ten-
nesseans many of them younger sons and late-comers moved into the
Ohio country, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and especially into Texas.
The independence of Texas was won largely by transplanted Tennesseans
and Kentuckians, and Tennessee furnished a majority of the volunteers
who fought in the Mexican War. Andrew Jackson continued to dominate
national politics until his death in 1845. His candidate, Martin Van
Buren, succeeded him in the White House and one of his followers, James
K. Polk, was elected President in 1845.

As early as 1831 the legislature had granted six railroad charters and
during a period of twenty years therfe were numerous abortive attempts to
establish railways. But not until 1851, when the Nashville and Chatta-

54 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

nooga line began operating, was there effective rail service in Tennessee.
Other lines followed and by 1850, when the population had passed the
million mark, there were 1,622 miles of rail in use.

Meanwhile the life of the, people had lost much of its broad pioneer
roughness. In every township the sale of public lands provided funds for
free schools and in 1832 twenty-five per cent of the school-age population
was enrolled. Although the law specifically demanded that there should
be no distinction "between rich and poor" the free schools were, in fact,
regarded as "poor schools." Those who could possibly afford it sent their
sons and daughters to the many private schools which sprang up through-
out the State.

A State library was established in 1853, and Return J. Meigs was ap-
pointed State librarian in 1856. Though a superintendent of public in-
struction had been appointed in 1836, it was not until 1854 that property
was taxed for support of the schools. Andrew Johnson, Governor at the
time and a strong believer in mass education, forced a reluctant legisla-
ture to pass the law. As the century passed the halfway mark, there were
more than fifty newspapers and periodicals in the State. Tennessee's prog-
ress in agriculture was recognized in 1851 at the Great Exhibition in
London and four years later the first Biennial State Fair was held at
Nashville.

The dispute over slavery grew bitter during the 1850'$. When North
Carolina ceded the Over-Mountain territory to the United States, there
had been a specific provision "that no regulations made or to be made by
Congress shall tend to emancipate slaves." There had, however, always
been a fairly strong anti-slavery element in Tennessee, and when the first
constitution was adopted in 1796 nearly 2,000 Tennesseans petitioned the
convention to abolish slavery after 1864.

As early as 1797 the Knoxville Gazette was urging that an abolition
society be organized. The Manumission Society of Tennessee was formed
in 1815 at Lost Creek, Jefferson County, by the Reverend Charles Osborn,
who later established, in Ohio, the Philanthropist a journal partly de-
voted to anti-slavery propaganda. An early member of the Manumission
Society was Elihu Embree. Though a slaveholder, Embree founded the
Manumission Intelligencer, a weekly which was succeeded by his monthly
Emancipator. These were the first periodicals in the United States exclu-
sively devoted to abolition. After Embree's death in 1820, Benjamin Lundy
took up the work and began publishing the Genius of Universal Emanci-
pation in Ohio. In 1822 Lundy transferred his paper to Greeneville, Ten-
nessee, and continued his activities there until 1824, when he moved to

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 55

Baltimore to collaborate with William Lloyd Garrison. Out of these
efforts grew many anti-slavery societies. Most of the early pioneer preach-
ers were strong abolitionists, and "as late as 1827, East Tennessee alone
contained nearly one-fifth of all anti-slavery societies in the United States
and nearly one-sixth of the total membership." Despite this, Tennessee
churches joined the pro-slavery ranks when the Methodists, Baptists, and
Presbyterians split on the slavery issue.

At the outset of the War between the States there were 7,300 freedmen
as compared with 275,719 slaves. The ratio of slaves to white population
was then one to twelve in East Tennessee, one to three in Middle Ten-
nessee, and three to five in West Tennessee. By 1856 only one person in East
Tennessee owned more than one hundred slaves, but in West Tennessee
eighty-six owners had this number or more. People in the central and
western parts of the State were divided over the slavery question up to the
very threshold of the war. East Tennessee, abolitionist in sympathy, was
strongly pro-Union even after Tennessee seceded.

The Wilmot Proviso, introduced in the United States House of Rep-
resentatives during the Mexican War period, asked that slavery be pro-
hibited in any territory acquired as a result of the hostilities. Never passed
by Congress, it became the basis of a major political battle, and the center
of dispute at the Southern Convention which met on June 3, 1850, in
Nashville. The aim of this group, meeting in nine-day session, was to de-
termine "the best means of securing the constitutional rights of the South,
and the preservation of the Union as it is, a blessing to ourselves and our
descendants."

Henry Clay had proposed that California be admitted as a free State and
that the remainder of the Mexican cession be slave territory. John Bell, a
Tennessean, also proposed a plan for compromise. Congress ignored the
resolutions of the Southern Convention and passed the Clay Compromise.
On November n, 1850, seventy delegates representing ten States met
again in Nashville. Here only the Tennessee delegation fought for ac-
ceptance of the Compromise, resolving that it was unjust to the South but
would be accepted by the southern people as proof of their "attachment
and devotion to the Union." Their resolution was rejected.

Ante bellum politics in Tennessee was a strange hodgepodge. Andrew
Johnson, a Democrat, was a strong Unionist and William G. Brownlow,
the whip-tongued Whig, was as violently pro-slavery and anti-abolitionist
as he was pro-Union, The State's political alignment was weH demon*
strated in tibfe pireiidfentiai election of 1860. The northern wing of the
Democratic party had nominated Stephen A. Douglas and the southern

56 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

wing, John C. Breckinridge. John Bell was the candidate of the concilia-
tory and hastily formed Constitutional Union Party. Abraham Lincoln was
the nominee of the Republican Party, then seeking to prevent the extension
of slavery. When Tennessee's votes were counted the result was: Bell,
69,274; Breckinridge, 64,709; Douglas, 11,350; Lincoln, o.

The conviction was widely held in the South that Lincoln's election
would menace the rights of the southern slave-owners. Following his in-
augural address, the three cotton States still in the Union withdrew and
joined the Confederate States of America. In Tennessee, where both Union
and abolitionist sentiment was fairly strong, there was much hesitation
about taking the final step. Governor Isham G. Harris called a special
session of the General Assembly, which voted to submit the matter to a
referendum at a special election on February 9. Brownlow and the other
anti-secessionists staged a brief but vigorous campaign, and the result of
the election was strongly pro-Union.

However, a wave of pro-slavery sentiment followed the tours of im-
passioned orators such as General Felix Zollicoffer. A few weeks later,
after the actual outbreak of hostilities at Fort Sumter, Governor Harris
called another extra session of the General Assembly to meet April 25 in
Nashville. Stating that Lincoln had "wantonly inaugurated an internecine
war" upon the people of the South, he urged immediate action. The assem-
bly adopted a formal declaration of independence, and directed the Gov-
ernor to form a military league with the Southern Confederacy. After waiting
to ratify the Governor's action, the assembly called a popular referendum
on June 8 to decide on affiliation with the Confederacy. By more than a
two-thirds majority the people approved secession. Owing to the energetic
efforts of Brownlow, Andrew Johnson, and the other unbending pro-
Union men, East Tennessee showed a decided majority (18,000) in favor
of the Union.

On June 24 Governor Harris issued a proclamation dissolving all con-
nection with the Federal Union. Military headquarters for the three State
divisions were established at Union City, Nashville, and Knoxville. Presi-
dent Davis appointed Leonidas Polk to command in Tennessee and, in
September, Albert Sidney Johnston, placed in command of the Western
Department, arranged a line of defense to keep Federal troops out of Ten-
nessee.

General Grant broke the Confederate line on February 16, 1862. He
captured Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River and declared martial
law. On March 3 President Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson as Mili-
tary Governor of the State, with the rank of Brigadier-General.

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA, SEPTEMBER, 1863

Important among the engagements, estimated at from 300 to 700,
fought in Tennessee, were the battles of Shiloh, April 6-7, 1862; Mur-
freesboro (Stone's River), December 31, i862-January 2, 1863; Chicka-
mauga, September 19-20, 1863; Chattanooga, Lookout Mountain, and
Missionary Ridge, November 23-25, 1863; Franklin, November 30, 1864;
and Nashville, December 15-16, 1864. Some of the bloodiest battles of
the war were fought on Tennessee soil, some with most far-reaching re-
sults. The death of the Confederate general, Johnston, on the opening day
at Shiloh, "was a tremendous catastrophe" and is believed to have "pre-
vented the utter rout or capture of Grant's army on the night of the 6th" ;
but with the dawn of the jtb the chance was gone, and at noon the

58 TBNNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

federates were in full retreat. The struggle at Murfreesboro was terrific,
costing each side about one-third of its strength, but left the Union forces
in comparatively quiet possession for many months. Chickamauga, where
"the pale river of death ran blood," saw a Confederate victory, with great
possibilities, turned into a bloody checkmate by the stand made by the
Union general, George H. Thomas, later known as the "Rock of Chicka-
mauga/* The Chattanooga campaign secured to the Union the entire
Mississippi Valley. A year later, at Franklin, the Confederates assaulted
"with the valor of desperation," losing several generals and 6,000 men,
but failed in their objective, and a fortnight later the Battle of Nashville,
a Union victory, resulted in the retreat of the Confederates from Tennessee
and contributed to the ultimate defeat of the Southern cause.

Tennessee, occupied by Union forces, was not included in the Eman-
cipation Proclamation of 1863. Slaves in the State were set free February
25, 1865, By an amendment to the State Constitution. Three days after the
emancipation amendment was passed by the legislature, Andrew Johnson
resigned as Military Governor to become Vice President of the United
States. The inauguration of William G. ("Parson") Brownlow as Gov-
ernor on April 6, 1865, began the period of reconstruction with the
radical party dominant.

On March 3, 1865, Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau which
had largely grown out of General Grant's appointment of John Eaton, in
1862, as supervispr of Negro affairs in Tennessee. Eaton, later State and
United States Commissioner of Education, was made Assistant Commis-
sioner of the Bureau. Within seven months 75 schools were established in
Tennessee with 14,768 pupils and 264 teachers. The most noted of the
Negro schools founded in the Reconstruction period is Fisk University,
opened on January 9, 1866, through joint effort of the American Mis-
sionary Association, the Western Freedmen's Aid Commission, and the
Freedmen's Bureau. Normal schools for teachers were provided, along
with the free grade schools.

In 1867 the legislature enacted a law providing separate schools for
Negroes at State expense. However, the Bureau was soon disrupted by an
influx of crusading ministers, teachers, and politicians working at cross-
purposes. Agitators inflamed the Negroes to arrogance and acts of violence,
which caused the whites to organize extra-legal terroristic groups for the
suppression of their former slaves, Chief among these was the Ku Klux
Klan, organized in 1868 by Confederate soldiers at Pulaski, in Giles
County (see Tour 7). The Klansmen surrounded their "Invisible Empire"
with crude ceremonies designed to awe the superstitious Negroes* Torch-

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 59

light parades, sinister warnings, floggings, and lynchings quickly cowed
the former slaves and drove out of the State the carpetbaggers and scala-
wags who had exploited them. Declaring that its purpose had been accom-
plished, General Nathan Bedford Forrest, the Grand Cyclops, disbanded
the Ku Klux Klan in March 1869.

President Andrew Johnson issued a proclamation on June 13, 1865, de-
claring the insurrection of Tennessee at an end, since the State had an-
nounced itself in harmony with the Presidential policy and the Thirteenth
Amendment. But an element in Congress refused to support the President,
in the hope of strengthening the Republican Party in the South and in the
belief that the Negro needed protection from the southern whites. It was
not until March 23, 1866, after considerable debate, that the State was
finally readmitted to the Union.

Conditions improved gradually throughout the State, especially after
Brownlow, who had been elected United States' Senator for the term be-
ginning March 4, 1869, resigned the governorship. Governor DeWitt C.
Senter, who took oath on February 25, 1869, pardoned many Confederate-
soldiers still in prison, brought the military occupation of Middle and
West Tennessee to an end, and called a convention (1870) for the amend-
ment of the Constitution.

Among the difficulties faced by the State in the decade following 1870
was a series of plagues and epidemics. The worst of these, yellow fever,
came in 1878, taking thousands of lives, principally in Memphis. With
more than 5,000 fatalities, 25,000 persons in crazed flight, and 5,000 more
sheltered in concentration camps, Memphis was in such sorry straits that
the city charter was revoked until 1891. Colonel J. M. Keating, who stayed
at his post as editor of the Appeal throughout the epidemic, directed re-
lief work for what he described as "the horror of the century, the most
soul-harrowing episode in the history of the English-speaking people in
America."

Th,e State debt, totaling $35,000,000 after the Brownlow administra-
tion, was cut approximately in half by 1872.

In 1886 two brothers Robert L. (Bob) Taylor, Democrat, and Alfred A.
(Alf ) Taylor, Republican, campaigned across the State in a hotly debated
but good-humored race for the governorship, called the "War of the
Roses." Bob won the election and served two successive terms and a third
term six years later,, but Alf had o wait until 1921 before he became
Governor.

, The yeajcs between Governor Bob Taylor's second and third terms were
especially eventfuL The Coal Creek Strike, Tennessee s first major labor

60 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

disturbance, occurred in 1891-92. Use of convict labor by the mine opera-
tors precipitated a series of strikes affecting mines throughout the State
and causing numerous casualties. The convict-lease system was abolished
and other grievances of the miners adjusted (see THE WORKING
MAN). On May 12, 1892, the three-mile cantilever bridge over the
Mississippi at Memphis, a project recommended since 1857, was opened
with elaborate ceremony. With even greater fanfare the Chickamauga and
Chattanooga National Military Park was dedicated September 18-20, 1895.
It commemorated the valor of both armies in the War between the States.

During Governor Bob's third term, Tennessee celebrated its hundred
years of statehood with an exposition in Nashville held from May to
December 1897. A year later the State sent four regiments to the War
with Spain. One of these, the. First Tennessee, saw service against Aguin-
aldo in the Philippine Islands.

Conflict over liquor had been growing since the Reconstruction period.
The act of 1877, prohibiting the sale of liquor near institutions of learn-
ing, was broadened ten years later, but State-wide prohibition, by amend-
ment to the constitution, was defeated. Gradually, following the act of
1899 which granted local option to towns of less than 2,000, the law was
extended to cover communities up to 5,000, and in 1907 all cities and
towns in the State were included. By 1908 only Memphis, Nashville,
Chattanooga, and Laf pllette remained legally wet.

State-wide prohibition became the issue in the Democratic primary of
1908 with Governor Patterson, who opposed the movement and favored
local option, receiving the nomination over Edward W. Carmack. While
Patterson was winning reelection at the polls, Carmack continued his battle
for prohibition in the Nashville Tennessean, of which he had become edi-
tor. His bitter editorials brought about a dispute with Colonel Duncan
Cooper, a friend of the Governor, In an encounter with Cooper and his
son Robin, Carmack was killed. Cooper was tried for murder and con-
victed, but was immediately pardoned by Governor Patterson, and the
case against -Robin was nolle prossed. Patterson's standing was so weak-
ened by his pardon of Cooper that a State-wide prohibition law was en-
acted in January 1909 over his veto.

Tennessee became a dry State July i, 1909, but the fight left a shattered
Democratic Party. In 1910 Ben W. Hooper became the first Republican
Governor since 1880, and for four years led a vigorous battle to secure
enforcement of the prohibition law, despite connivance of State and
municipal officials with the liquor interests. During Hooper's second term,

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 6l

Republican and independent members of the legislature mustered the
quorum necessary for legislation and defeated repeal.

When the United States entered the World War Tennessee lived up to
its name, the "Volunteer State," won in the Mexican War. Almost 100,000
men enlisted. Represented in 43 divisions, Tennesseans were most numer-
ous in the 2yth and the 3Oth (Old Hickory). The Old Hickory Division,
which included the 59th and 6oth Infantry Brigades, participated in break-
ing the Hindenburg line, and was given ten citations by the English and
American High Command. Sergeant Alvin C. York of Pall Mall, Fentress
County, was called by General Pershing the outstanding hero of the
A. E. R

In 1919 Tennessee passed a law protecting factory workers from indus-
trial hazards and in the following year earned her latest nickname, "the
Liberator/' when the State's vote for women's suffrage became the decisive
one in adding the Nineteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution.

Governor Austin Peay, who served in 1923-27, abolished about fifty
bureaus and departments, putting all activities of the State under eight
major departments which, with few alterations, have functioned ever since.
He was also responsible for the State's greatest period of highway con-
struction and was instrumental in establishing the Great Smoky Moun-
tains National Park.

In 1926, when the Tennessee Republican Committee met, charges of
political patronge brought State politics to national notice. The political
stew boiled over again during the administration of Henry Horton, who
succeeded Austin Peay as Governor in 1927. Horton was reelected for two
more terms. During his last term a bank scandal, involving a number of
prominent Tennesseans, rocked the State from end to end. With State
funds to the amount of $6,000,000 in closed banks, the impeachment of
Governor Horton was suggested; but after months of public hearings, the
investigating committee voted against impeachment.

A bitter political struggle in 1932 rfesulted in the defeat of Lewis S.
Pope by Hill McAlister. During the same year coal miners went on strike
at Wilder, and the National Guard was called out to stop killings and
property damage.

McAlister reduced the State's Annual expenditures, and appointed a
commission to make an exhaustive study of educational conditions. Federal
and State relief measures and the building /program of the Tennessee
Valky Authority reduced unemployment during the years following 1933.
established in 1933, is one of the most important chapters

62 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

in the history of Tennessee. An area small enough, to be placed under
unified control, yet transcending State boundaries, the Tennessee Valley
has become the proving ground for one of the most comprehensive social
experiments in America. Knoxville as headquarters, with Norris Dam
twenty miles north, is at present the center of the TVA's activities (see
Tennessee Valley Authority). A unified, long-range program is rapidly
transforming the great valley of the Tennessee River which flood waters
and wasteful farming were turning into a desert into a land of plenty
where industry, agriculture, and human values may take their place in a
balanced economy.

In 1936 the convict-lease law was repealed, and the Workman's Com-
pensation Law was passed at a special session of the legislature. Early
in the following year Mississippi floods caused large property damage in
West Tennessee. Labor troubles continued, with the largest strike at the
aluminum plant at Alcoa.

State politics again came into national prominence in 1937. Governor
Gordon Browning, who succeeded McAlister, called a special session of
the legislature and forced through his Unit Bill for proportional suf-
frage among counties. He met with bitter opposition within the Democratic
Party, and the Unit Bill was made a political issue during the Democratic
primaries in 1938. In that year the Tennessee Supreme Court invalidated
the Unit Bill. Browning was defeated for reelection by Prentice Cooper in
one of the bitterest elections ever held in the State.

Government

The original Constitution of Tennessee, 1796, gave suffrage to every
free man, allowed free Negroes the right to vote, permitted freedom of
speech and of the press, and guaranteed the right of trial by jury. Future
legislators were forbidden to permit any "tendency to lessen the rights and
privileges" of the people, or to require a religious test as qualification for
public office. This last provision was retained, in both the later constitu-
tions.

The revision of 1834 promoted education and, like the earlier constitu-
tion, recognized slavery. The new version was regarded as adequate until
1870. A new constitution, drawn up in that year, granted the Governor
the power of veto, provided for a supreme court, chancery, and circuit
courts, and "such inferior tribunals as the legislature may deem advisable/'
Intended to serve for only a few years, the constitution has been in force
ever since. Except for the clauses recognizing the abolition of slavery, for- ,

THE CAPITOL, NASHVILLE

bidding future laws for "the right of property in man/ 1 setting up a
judiciary, forbidding State participation in public investments, and giving
suffrage to Negroes, the present constitution is substantially the same as
the one it superseded.

Laws in Tennessee are made by the General Assembly, consisting of a
Senate and a House of Representatives which convene every two years.
There are thirty-three Senators and ninety-nine Representatives, all elected
for two-year terms. To become a law a bill must be read on three different
days and passed each time in the house where it is sponsored, with the
same procedure repeated in the other house; it must then go to the Gov-
ernor for final approval.

The appellate court, reorganized in 1925, operates in each of the three
divisions of the State and has final authority in civil cases. Lesser judicial
agencies designed to meet the needs of a growing population, rural and
urban, have been established from time to time.

Recommendations of the Tennessee Planning Commission resulted in

64 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

the Reorganization Bill (1936) which centralized executive control in the
office of the Governor. This administrative rearrangement provided more
efficient means for carrying out programs of social security, conservation,
public works, health, education, and financial management. The newest
of nine departments directly under the Governor is the department of
conservation. The nine commissioners administer Si divisions and boards.
There are also 27 special commissions, principally involving the profes-
sions, appointed by the Governor. For the ten-year period ending June 30,
1936, there was a total disbursement of nearly $500,000,000, with 47.56
per cent of the tax dollar going to highways and highway bridges, 18.58
per cent to education, 7.48 per cent to penal and charitable institutions,
and 26.38 per cent to all other activities.

There are 34 counties in the eastern, 40 in the middle, and 21 in the
western division of the State. In these 95 counties all the functions of State
and city government are duplicated in administrative detail.

Commerce

FOR more than a century before pioneer homeseekers began coming
over the mountains into Tennessee, English and French fur traders had
been carrying on a brisk and profitable commerce with the Indians. The
English traded chiefly with the Cherokee in the East and the Chickasaw
along the Mississippi bluffs, and the French with the Shawnee in Middle
Tennessee. By 1755 the fur trade between Tennessee and the English colo-
nies alone amounted to a million dollars annually.

Fur seekers who followed Indian tradepaths through Tennessee played
a role more important than that indicated by these figures. Their accounts
of the rich wilderness beyond the mountains turned men's minds west-
ward and gave first impetus to the great wave of immigration that began
in 1768. Trading posts, such as Charleville's on the site of Nashville,
John Overton's post at Chickasaw Bluffs, and John Ross* at Chattanooga,
were almost invariably followed by settlements.

Though food in the pioneer period could be had from the soil and the
game-teeming forests, and salt from numerous salt springs and 'licks,"
the problem of obtaining cloth garments and tools was more difficult. To
meet it, itinerant merchants with caravans of pack horses established
trade routes throughout the territory. Because of an almost total absence
of money, trade between merchant and pioneer farmer, and between
farmer and farmer, was largely carried on by barter. On the whole the
trader and peddler drove hard bargains, exchanging pot metal rifles, likely
to explode at the first charge, poorly soldered utensils, and adulterated
powder for the frontier farmer's prime peltries. As fur-bearing animals
grew scarce, by-products of the pioneer home bacon, corn, lye-soap,
sorghum-sugar and molasses, and strong whisky became the medium- of
exchange, along with Spanish silver, which trickled in as river trade with
Louisiana began to assume importance.

By 1790 better trade routes and lessened danger from the Indians were
making necessities, and even some luxuries, cheaper and more abundant.
Stores, such as Peter Morrison's in Knoxville and Lardner Clark's in Nash-
ville, were well stocked with goods, *anging from bright gewgaws for the
Indian trade to high-grade carpenter's tools, English and Pennsylvania

66 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

rifles, fine French powder, pure pig-lead for bullet molding, gold jewelry
and watches, imported shawls, and Philadelphia kid gloves. However,
each pioneer community had so nearly become a self-sufficient unit that
improved communication with the East did not bring a parallel commer-
cial expansion.

Milling provided the State with its first established industry. A grist
mill was set up on Buffalo Creek in 1775, and some meal and flour was
shipped to New Orleans and the Atlantic Coast Other mills followed
shortly: on Little Limestone Creek in East Tennessee; on White's Creek,
Mill Creek, and on a barge in the Cumberland River near Nashville; one
in Palmyra, run in conjunction with a distillery; a fulling mill on Yellow
Creek; and a powder mill in Sumner County. These, like other "first"
industries in the area, converted existing crops or natural resources into
processed necessities.

When wheat became one of the largest cash crops in the 1830*5, flour
milling became the most important industry. It retained this supremacy
until 1845, when competition from the prairie regions of the Middle West
forced wheat to be abandoned as a major crop in Tennessee. Later it was
discovered that Tennessee's hard wheat made a damp-resisting flour which
would remain sweet during shipment but had a great capacity for water
absorption in baking. This quality made it especially suitable for tropical
countries and the industry revived on the export trade.

The textile industry, also dependent upon agriculture for its raw ma-
terials, dates back to 1791, when John Hague, of Manchester, advertised
in the Knoxville Gazette that the machines in his spinning mill on the
Cumberland were "in order for carding, spinning and weaving." A ven-
ture into silk-worm culture, begun by Dr. Frederick A. Ross, of Kingsport,
in 1850, died in an experimental stage. It remained for wool and cotton
to put textile manufacturing on its feet,

One of the earliest cotton mills was established in Lebanon, In 1846
it was operating 2,000 spindles, 21 carding machines, and 40 power looms,
turning out 1,000 yards of cloth a day. But as competition from better
cotton lands in the lower South drove most of the farmers of the State to
other crops, the industry declined until the War between the States vir-
tually destroyed it. During Reconstruction, however, it was seen to Have
new possibilities. In 1880 a woolen mill in Tullahoma was turning out
$1,000,000 worth of cloth a year. Other plants were established in Knox-
ville, Nashville, and Jackson. By 1900 textile manufacturing had climbed
back to fifth place among the State's industries.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 67

During the next twenty-five years the textile industry grew steadily. In
1925 the establishment of a rayon plant in Old Hickory, near Nashville,
gave it tremendous impetus. The Old Hickory plant, which later added
the manufacturing of cellophane, is now one of the largest in the country,
with an annual output of 25,000,000 pounds of rayon and 25,000,000
pounds of cellophane. Among other synthetic-yarn plants which have been
established, the second largest is at Elizabethton.

The land, which produced the agricultural wealth of Tennessee during
its early years, has likewise been the foundation of much of its industrial
wealth. Some of Tennessee's earliest industries were founded on iron. In
East Tennessee small forges and bloomeries, supplied by crude mining
operations, were turning out bar iron, nails, and tools as early as 1785. But
the iron resources of the State were not extensively exploited until coal
was discovered. Tennessee iron was soon being shipped to Louisville, Cin-
cinnati, and Pittsburgh, where it was in demand for the manufacture of
steam engine boilers. Further expansion came when railroad transporta-
tion was made available in 1854. By 1860 a total of 75 bloomeries and
forges, 71 furnaces, and four rolling mills were in operation. The iron in-
dustry in Tennessee boomed briefly in filling demands for war materials
needed by the Confederacy, but Union occupation of the State brought it
sudden disruption. After Reconstruction, the industry was revived and
grew steadily until 1929, when iron and steel production totaled $3,100,-
ooo. Since then the industry has drifted toward stagnation. The small and
scattered units in Tennessee could not compete with the newer and more
efficient plants of the Birmingham area, and by 1935 the production fig-
ures had dropped to $28,438.

Coal fields of East Tennessee, first worked in 1814 near the site of
Rockwood, yield a high-grade bituminous type valuable for coking pur-
poses. Because mining costs are low and the supply plentiful, this coal has
been an important factor in the State's industrial development Tennessee
coal fields show no parallel to the sharp decline in the iron mining areas*
There is at present an annual production of more than 3,500^000 short
tons, much of it for domestic use.

Tennessee quarries twenty varieties of marble; tfae monotone Is best
known because of its massive structure^ soft odtor, and complete crystal-
lization, which permits a high pofislhu IB the early quarries drilling was
done eiifcfaeijrby hand > The Modes, fo^gbiy dressid &t the quarry, were
larfecLiy sledge to the nearest boatlrixfirig. M 1857 the first quarry south
af the Pdtomac Rrrot t0 use to ricfc^aBti itannelkig machines was opened

68 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

near Rogersville. The second largest marble quarry in the United States
and one of the world's largest plants for producing finished marble are
in Knoxville.

Profitable amounts of other minerals have been extracted and processed
in Tennessee. Barites reached a peak value of 1345,000 in 1925. Chert
and flint from Tennessee were substituted for the usual Belgian supply
when the World War curtailed that source. Lignite, limestone, manganese,
petroleum and natural gas, pigments, tripoli, fuller's earth, mineral waters,
and even gold have been produced at a profit. Bauxite has been mined ex-
perimentally and there are extensive reserves near Chattanooga.

The last mentioned industry makes use of the Tennessee River hydro-
electric development The raw materials are imported from surrounding
states where reserves have already been mined and equipment is set up.
To date, cryolite the "flux" necessary for the electrolytic refining of
aluminum must be brought from Greenland, where the only exploited
deposits exist.

Since the recent development of phosphate rock deposits, discovered in
Tennessee in 1893, the State ranks second to Florida in production of this
valuable fertilizer material. The present annual output is valued at $2,500,-
ooo. Availability of cheap Tennessee Valley Authority electric power has
fostered the building of several large chemical plants in the Middle Ten-
nessee phosphate regions. Other leading mining industries include copper,
sulphuric acid, and zinc.

Upon the forests of the State is based an extensive lumber industry.
One of the largest plants for finishing hardwood floors is in Memphis;
another is in Johnson City. Many cedar products, including pencils and
buckets, are manufactured in increasing quantities in Middle Tennessee.
From a small beginning in 1792, the distillation of wood by-products has
grown into an industry with a $60,000,000 yearly output. The principal
products are tannic acid, paper pulp, photographic films, celluloid, varnish,
and dyes.

Starting with the Knoxville Gazette, which began operation in Rogers-
ville in 1791, printing and publishing have been important industries in
the State. The southern churches established their publication headquarters
in this centrally situated area. More than 300 publications are now printed
in Tennessee; Nashville and Kingsport are the centers of the industry.

In 1860, the end of the ante bellum period, the first ten industries
ranked roughly in this order: flour and meal, iron, lumber, leather, steam
railroad ajid agricultural machinery, cotton and wool textiles, printing,

MARBLE QUARRY, NEAR KNOXVILLE

70 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

coal, copper, and spirits. At that time about one-third of the wealth of the

State was represented by slaves and slave-operated farms.

The War between the States brought industry to a standstill. However,
despite currency depreciation and destruction of property, there was a 72
per cent increase in output from 1860 to 1870, most marked in grain mill-
ing, publishing, lumber products, and woolen goods; much of this pro-
duction had hitherto been outside the State. Production figures for grain
milling doubled betwen 1870 and 1879, w *& conversion of forest prod-
ucts next in importance. Industry in general showed a steady increase.

By the turn of the century, the size of factories had greatly increased,
while many of the small industries had gone under. Though flour and
milling still ranked first, textiles had made large gains. Tobacco and cot-
tonseed products ranked seventh and eighth respectively, and coal, copper,
and spirits had lost their places among the first ten industries.

The future industrial pattern of the State was visible in outline. Centers
for lumber manufacturing, iron works, tobacco factories, market and dis-
tribution points, were already located. Urban manufacturing was increas-
ing much faster than rural, with the greatest increase noted in knit goods.
New industries, such as cottonseed and soy bean processing and fertilizer
manufacturing, were making strong beginnings.

The development up to the World War paralleled that of the country at
large. Industries grew out of such newer food preparations as sweetening
sirups, lard compounds, and vegetable oils. During the World War a
powder plant at Jacksonville (now Old Hickory), near Nashville, boomed
for a short time, then died. Later it was reestablished as a rayon and
cellophane plant, and its present payroll amounts to $10,000,000 annually.

The U. S. Census for 1920 listed a total of 7,245 establishments. They
had a combined payroll of $65,741,045 for 75,446 persons and paid $225,-
951,368 for raw materials to produce $374,038,316 worth of goods. In
order of value of products, they ranked: lumber and timber, flour and
grist mills, knit goods, cars and general shop work, food preparations,
printing and publishing, tobacco products, cottonseed products, foundries
and machine shops, cotton goods, furniture, confectionery, patent medi-
cines, cloth bags, coffee and spices, meat products, men's clothing, leather,
chemicals, marble, ice, fertilizers, carriage and wagon parts and construc-
tion, mineral and soda waters.

The development of banking supported the growth of commercial en-
deavor and stimulated the earliest industrial efforts- Establishment in 1807
of the Bank of Nashville, first in the State, supplied local enterprise with
credit. From 1811, with the foundation of the Bank of the State of Ten-

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 71

nessee in Knoxville, to 1819, the State went through a period of inflation
and wildcat banking which resulted in the suspension of specie payments
by all but the State Bank of Knoxville. Banking became a political issue
involving private interests, the "Old" and "New" State Banks, the
United States Bank (which had been outlawed in the State in 1817), as
well as public lands and school funds. However, a general price rise in
'1826 allowed all but the original Bank of Nashville to resume specie pay-
ments.

The failure of the Nashville institution caused the repeal of the 1817
law and allowed the establishment of the U. S. Bank there in 1827. With
the closing of the "New" State Bank in 1829, a system was evolved
strong enough to carry through the 1838 panic and survive the railroad
and school fund scandals of the times. Credit was nearly swept away dur-
ing the War between the States, and in 1865 only three or four Ten-
nessee banks were solvent. A nationally reorganized system of money
and banking played an important part in Reconstruction.

In 1826 the State's first insurance company was formed in Nashville.
The insurance companies, like the banks, were linked with school funds
and followed a course parallel to that of the banks. Continued confusion
in these fields resulted in regulatory control passing into the hands of a
combined State Department of Insurance and Banking in 1923. In 1931
Tennessee led the twelve southern States in new insurance written, averag-
ing $119.25 per capita, and was second in per capita coverage.

Economic Tennessee in general follows its geographic divisions, with
commercial activity for the surrounding regions centering in neighboring
cities and towns. Nashville and Memphis are predominantly commercial
cities; Knoxville and Chattanooga are more industrial. In these four cities,
which contain two-thirds of the urban population of Tennessee, are estab-
lishments representing nearly every commercial and industrial interest in
the State.

In East Tennessee are the railroad towns of Erwin and Harriman. Knox-
ville draws on farming, textiles, mining, processing of marbles, and the
rayon activities of Eliizabethton, to the northeast. Kingsport has developed
as an industrial community in the past two decades. Mines support much
of the activity of Rockwood, Maryvilie, and Alcoa, GreenevUle and Mojr-
ristown are burley-tobacco centers, while Cleveland and Lenoir Qty de-
n the agricultural activity of the outlying farms, as do the smaller
au<t mining towns located on the highways. Chatfcaooog^ a
' r> ' '

if ^

THE MEMPHIS WHARF

Nashville is the financial, wholesale, and distribution focus for Middle
Tennessee; the surrounding towns serve their local trade areas in the
same way. Springfield and Clarksville, to the northeast, are important to-
bacco markets. Columbia, to the south, is significant as a mule and live-
stock market, as well as for the trade from a rich agricultural and phos-
phate mining area. Dickson and Bruceton, on the railroads and highways,
have several manufacturing plants. Lawrenceburg is again becoming active
as a phosphate mining town.

Industrial activity of West Tennessee is mainly in Jackson and Mem-
phis, the latter drawing on Mississippi and Arkansas as sources of supply
for woodworking, cotton handling, cottonseed processing, and drug manu-
facturing. Memphis, the railroad hub of the South, is the largest inland

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 73

cotton-handling port in the country. Jackson is also a railroad center and,
like the smaller towns of Paris, Dyersburg, and Humboldt, attracts trade
from the surrounding farm areas.

Occasionally some communities have offered new industries preferred
tax rates for a period, but in general this has not been the trend. On the
whole, there is a wide diversification of activities, as shown by the U. S.
Census of Manufactures for 1935. The total value of products was $531,-
338,490. The 2,011 establishments employed an average number of 116,-
624 wage earners for the year, and paid out $86,714,390 in wages.

More than five hundred banks and insurance affiliates served as a buffer
of credit and protection for these activities. With economical transporta-
tion available by land and water, and cheap hydroelectric power being
developed by the TVA, the State is a likely field for further industrial
expansion.

ncuiture

Great Seal of the State of Tennessee fittingly symbolizes Agri-
JL culture and Commerce, the twined warp upon which Tennessee's
past and present have been woven. Even in prehistoric times the region
supported an agricultural people, the Mound Builders, whose culture, like
that of the Mayas of Central America, was based upon maize. Archeolo-
gists have unearthed their granaries and the baskets of corn which they
buried as offerings with the dead.

Later the Cherokee and Chickasaw occupied the old village sites of the
Mound Builders, and tilled the same cornfields in much the same simple
manner.

The white hunters and trappers who came into the region in the early
eighteenth century usually "hit a lick of farming" during the summer
months. Along their routes they cleared small patches of ground in the
crude Indian fashion and planted them with seed which they had likely
bartered from the Indians. Months later they returned to harvest what
crops chance had given them. Thus they provided themselves with corn
and vegetables to go with their venison and bear meat.

In 1769 farmers from backwoods Virginia and Carolina began cross-
ing the mountains to settle the fertile lands described by the hunters and
trappers. Their farms were at first small and almost entirely self-sufficient.
Plows, axes, hoes often crude makeshifts were their only iron tools.
Practically every necessity was either grown on the place or made from
materials from the surrounding hills and forests. This self-sufficiency re-
mained a characteristic of small farmers in the State for generations and
still persists to a degree remarkable in an age when the country has
largely become one vast interlocked economic system.

From the first, corn was the chief crop because it was easily cultivated
and because its prolific growth was favorable to hog raising. Thus Ten-
nessee's first agricultural exports were bacon, lard, and corn whisky, all
of which could be marketed readily in New Orleans, Baltimore, and Phila-
delphia. Wheat and tobacco were soon added to the list of money crops
and were exported in small quantities. Crops produced for home consump-
tion included cotton, hemp, flax, indigo, timothy hay, and vegetables.

AGRICULTURE 75

In East Tennessee, a high tumbled plateau area broken by innumerable
narrow valleys and steep ridges, the size of the farms was limited. Middle
Tennessee, however, was a region where hills were low and valleys wide,
and the pioneer farm patches could grow as fast as the forest was cleared.
Here large farm holdings became the rule. Because of this development-
dictated by topography Middle Tennessee was particularly suited for the
wheat boom which came just after the turn of the century.

When it was discovered that Tennessee wheat matured early enough
to be shipped to eastern markets ahead of the northern crop, farmers
turned to wholesale wheat growing. The fever spread even to the small
farmers of East Tennessee. But over-production brought collapse of the
market, and Tennessee never regained its early lead as a wheat-growing
region.

Farmers in East Tennessee except for those in the fertile valley of the
Tennessee River returned to the pioneer type of small subsistence farms.
In Middle Tennessee the farmers retained the system of specialized farm-
ing and its large profits. Many began raising tobacco and fruit as cash
crops. Others turned to stock raising and dairying on the bluegrass pasture
lands of the Central Basin where the mild climate minimized feeding
costs. Arabian horses were imported as early as 1825, and Middle Ten-
nessee became noted for breeding them. There was a growing demand far
the sturdy Tennessee mule.

By 1810 improvements in the cotton gin and spinning machinery had
created an enormous demand for cotton, and farmers in the middle part
of the State feverishly planted it in their pastures and old wheat fields.
Though some cotton was grown in East Tennessee, the quality was gen-
erally poor and the boom affected the region little. West Tennessee, with
its tremendously fertile bottomlands hitherto left to the Chickasaw and a
handful of white trappers and squatters, was ideal for cotton growing. In
1818 the region was purchased from the Chickasaw and settlers flocked
in. Land was swiftly cleared, and by 1825 West Tennessee the lower
section in particular had become one of the cotton growing centers of
the Mid-South. Cotton showed a decline in Middle Tennessee during this
period. Here the f armers could not compete with the vast crops produced
by the slave-gang system of the newly deared sections within the State and
in Alabama and Mississippi.

Witt* t&e limes of development deaily laid out for eadi division
small subsistence farms in the east ; dairying, livestock raising, tobacco,

centsai pfcxt; a*i large*scale cotton production
*ft eca of agricultural prosperity that

7 6 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

continued until the War between the States. In 1854 the State's first agri-
cultural bureau was formed with Governor Andrew Johnson as president,
and in the following year the first biennial fair was opened. Even before
that, Tennessee farmers received international recognition at the Great
Exhibition in London, where Colonel John Pope was given first place in
the cotton exhibit, and Mark Cockrill received the same rating for his
sheep. The census of 1860 showed approximately 82,000 farms under
cultivation, with nearly seven million acres, valued at 340 million dollars.

Four years of war virtually wiped out the development of three-quarters
of a century. The losses sustained by farmers were estimated at $115,-
000,000, exclusive of the losses of their slaves, who constituted one-third
of the value of farm property in 1860. Not for forty years were farm
values restored to the 1860 level.

During the Reconstruction period the farm tenancy system had its be-
ginning in the State. Farmers, forced to borrow, found themselves unable
to take up mortgages that fell due. With no other means of livelihood,
they became tenants on the farms they had once owned. Most of the freed
slaves also became tenants. There was a sharp decline in the size of the
average farm, partly because sales of land to raise funds for operating
expenses greatly reduced individual holdings. The 1860 average of 251
acres dwindled by 1900 to 91. The 1929 depression caused further shrink-
age, bringing the average (according to a 1935 census) tp 73 acres. How-
ever, until 1930 the value of the land itself increased, reaching a peak
valuation of $743,222,363 in that year. By 1935 the valuation had fallen
to $556,000,000 and the proportion of tenants had materially increased.
Of the 19 million acres in 273,783 farms, about one-third were in crops.
Gross income, including livestock, approximated $164,000,000 in 1935.
The average cash income of $600 was about the same as the Kentucky
figure and higher than in most Southern States. Farmers now (1939) con-
stitute 62.8 per cent of Tennessee's population. Of these, 18.18 per cent
are sharecroppers, while 27.4 per cent rent farms outright and furnish
their own stock and seed.

Corn always has been the leading crop in value and volume. For more
than 50 years the State has had a yearly average of three million acres in
corn. In 1935 the crop amounted to more than 60 million bushels. One-
third of the corn grown is the high-yield variety known as NeaTs Pay-
master. It is interesting to note that until 1904, when W. H. Neal of
Lebanon developed this variety, most Tennessee farmers had been grow-
ing the same type of corn planted centuries before by the mound builders.
The major part of the Tennessee crop is consumed in the 1 region" of its

RUST COTTON PICKER IN ACTION

production. Sweet sorghum, from which thick brown molasses is made, is
grown throughout the State and is one of the most important locally con-
sumed crops.

Cotton, the second most valuable and the main cash crop, can be grown
at a cost of as little as three cents a pound on some of the bottomland
plantations, and with an occasional profit of from six to twelve cents on
the pound. Production volume has varied considerably, with an almost
continuous downward trend in the past few years. In 1936 the State pro-
duced 431,000 bales, averaging 500 pounds each.

Next in rank is the hay and forage crop, with a production in 1935
of 1,620,453 tons valued at $20,279,751. This includes timothy, planted
since pioneer days; alfalfa and all types of clover, abundant in East Ten-
nessee and in the Central Basin; and many other plants, such as millets,
orchard grass, vetch, soybeans, cowpeas, Sudan grass, and Austrian peas.
Tennessee farmers were pioneers in the introduction of lespedeza (Japa-
nese clover), under the direction of the University of Tennessee College
of Agriculture. Lespedeza has developed rapidly and constitutes an im-
portant new cash crop.

Tobacco has in recent years become the fourth most valuable crop in the
State, second only to cotton in cash returns. Burley tobacco predominates
in East Tennessee and the darkfired variety is generally planted in Middle
Tennessee. The largest tobacco market in the State, at Greeneville, handles

78 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

about 12,000,000 pounds a season, or about one-fifth of the entire burley
crop of Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina, The principal markets
for dark tobacco are at Clarksville and Springfield. The combined 1935
crop of burley and darkfired tobacco* was estimated at more than 94 mil-
lion pounds, valued at nearly $12,000,000.

The discovery that Tennessee hard wheat produced a damp-resisting
flour which was highly water-absorbent in baking revived wheat produc-
tion to some extent. It has never regained its former place and now ranks
fifth in importance. In 1936 the 454,000 acres sown in wheat harvested
4,858,000 bushels.

Although Henry and Weakley Counties produce more than two-fifths
of Tennessee's sweet potatoes, this crop can be grown in almost any part
of the State. It did not become a commercial crop, however, until the
curing house made possible shipment without decay. Tennessee's Nancy
Hall sweet potato is widely in demand on the national market. The Irish
(white) potato, 'among the first crops planted in Tennessee, was also diffi-
cult to market for many years. Since 1922, when the State Department of
Agriculture put into effect a system of certifying seeds and standardizing
varieties, spring and fall crops have been produced regularly. The average
yearly production exceeds 5 million dollars. Middle Tennessee is noted for
its peanut crop, which is more than 500,000 bushels annually. In only two
other States, Virginia and North Carolina, are more peanuts produced.

The Tennessee peach, maturing immediately after the Georgia crop and
before that of the northern States, is grown principally in Anderson,
Bradley, Hamilton, Knox, and Roane Counties. Apple trees thrive on the
Cumberland Plateau and in parts of the Unaka Range and Smoky Moun-
tains. One orchard near Mt. Le Conte produces 30,000 bushels in a normal
season. Strawberries, the chief berry crop, are shipped from many parts
of the State. The principal areas devoted to its cultivation are Gibson and
Sumner Counties, About 16,000 acres are cultivated annually, yielding
approximately 18 million quarts. Tennessee's wide variation in climate
makes possible the production of both the cherry, which flourishes in ex-
tremely low temperatures, and the fig, which requires sub-tropical warmth.

Truck gardening and the specialized production of vegetables for can^
ning factories constitute an important source of cash income in many
localities, especially in Gibson and Cocke Counties, One of America's
largest vegetable canneries began business about 1902 ,in Cocke County,
Tomatoes, the principal cannery crop, yield as much as $500 an acre in
favorable years,

Tennessee, with about six million acres in pasturage, is well adapted to

AGRICULTURE 79

livestock raising and dairying. Most of this land is well watered and can
be grazed all year. The purebred beef cattle industry, introduced in 1917,
brought many excellent Angus, Hereford, Shorthorn, Polled, and Durham
herds into the State. Five herds have won grand championships at inter-
national livestock exhibitions.

The coming of the motor age has dwarfed what was once another lead-
ing industry in the Central Basin the breeding of thoroughbred horses.
The number of horses on farms decreased from 333,000 in 1910 to 151,-
ooo in 1936. But the Tennessee mule is still in great demand. In 1936
an estimated 291,000 mules were at work on Tennessee farms.

Sheep have been kept by many farmers since the early days, but only
recently has it been discovered that the State's early spring gives Ten-
nessee shippers of young lambs a distinct advantage in northern markets.

The early importance of hog raising has not diminished. From 1850 to
1860 Tennessee raised more hogs than any other State in the nation, with
an average annual production of 3,000,000 heads. The industry never
reached that dominant position again, although it is still an important fac-
tor in the farm program. In 1936 there were in Tennessee nearly one mil-
lion hogs, valued at $8.40 per head.

Tennessee pioneered in testing milk for butterfat, to check the practice
of watering. In 1889 Major W. J. Webster, of Columbia, made the first
officially recorded butterfat test in the United States. In cooperation with
the Bureau of Dairy Industry of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, the State Extension Service undertook a systematic regulation of dairy
conditions, and national manufacturers of evaporated, condensed, and
powdered milk, and of milk products were attracted to Tennessee. Such
rapid progress was madfe that in 1925 the State's dairy products were
valued at 40 million dollars. The decline in the price of milk during the
depression, however, greatly reduced the value of both herds and products.

Another major source of cash income for the fanner is poultry. The
combined value of eggs and poultry in 1935 exceeded $16,000,000. East
Tennessee, with its small farms, leads the State; Morristown, in the north-
east, and Cookeville, in Middle Tennessee, are among the largest poultry-
shipping centers in the country.

Cooperative marketing of farm produces is carried on In Tennessee in
two divisions. One comprises tike tege incorporated associations with hun-
dreds and sometimes thtmsands of ] JHftt$W prodfacers, who confine them-

in coosiderable volume. The
or group of counties, who form
smaller organizations in their own localities for joint marketing.

8o TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

In 1877 a group of sheep-growers formed the Goodlettsville Lamb
Club, the first lamb pool organized in the United States, and made its first
sale in May 1878. One of the first southern cooperative creameries began
operation in 1910 at Winchester, in Franklin County. Earlier, more than
five unsuccessful attempts had been made to establish cooperative cream-
eries.

Today there are fewer cooperative associations in Tennessee than was
the case some years ago. Trucking facilities enable growers to haul their
products to market at convenient times rather than wait for the periodic
shipments of cooperative associations. In this way, too, they get their
money immediately. Marketing by associations usually requires a ten-day
period before cash for the products can be received.

Under the direction of the State Department of Agriculture and with
the cooperation of the University of Tennessee College of Agriculture,
the Tennessee Valley Authority, and county demonstration agents, Ten-
nessee farmers have made great strides. Methods of cultivation have been
improved, better seeds and more efficient equipment have been utilized,
and grades of products have been standardized. Farms on the whole are
fertile, but in some sections, particularly in the Unaka Range and the
Cumberland Plateau, the land is poor. Through the efforts of the Farm
Security Administration, however, most of this area may be restored as
forest land and the farmers who have been trying to work it moved to
more fertile sections.

One of the most important current factors in the development of agri-
culture in the State is the Tennessee Valley Authority. In addition to its
hydroelectric and soil conservation programs, it has been instrumental in
improving living conditions on the farms in the State by encouraging the
widespread use of electricity. Complete electrification of the rural dis-
tricts, a goal which the present program seems likely to attain in the near
future, promises a new era of scientific agriculture not only to the Ten-
nessee Valley but to Tennessee as a whole.

The Working Man

)ICH natural resources and almost unlimited possibilities for cheap
electric power seem destined within the next few decades to sweep
Tennessee into the main stream of industrialism. The transition period
has already begun. But thinking in terms of the group the natural
corollary to mass-production has shown only rudimentary signs of de-
velopment. The working man is still an individualist, carrying over into
his new industrial environment the traits of the small farmer and tenant.
His employer tends to think and act in terms of land ownership. In gen-
eral, the relationship between employed and employer rests on a man-to-
man footing, in the old tradition of agrarianism. This one fact, the key to
many a paradox, must be borne in mind in any discussion of the Tennessee
working man, his past, present, and future.

Until at least 1820 the Tennessean lived in a frontier region. Of his
422,000 neighbor Tennesseans, one-fifth were Negro slaves. The largest
city, Nashville, had but 3,000 persons and throughout the State only
7,680 devoted themselves to manufacturing, mostly of locally consumed
necessities. From the mountain coves of East Tennessee to the Mississippi
bottomlands, the remainder of the working men roughly 100,000 were
engaged in farming.

Great plantations, worked by slave gangs and based on a cotton econ-
omy, were slow in obtaining a foothold in Tennessee. Only the bottom-
lands of West Tennessee were ideally suited to the plantation, but even
here the people were too typically yeomen in character to fall naturally
into the system. The Tennessean of ante bellum days was inclined to con-
tinue the small farming practices of his immigrant fathers. The census of
1850 showed 118,941 farmers, none of whom were classified as planters.
In significant contrast are the census figures of South Carolina for the
same year: 8,407 planters, as against 52,898 farmers.

In the mountains of East Tennessee, frontier conditions lingered; few
slaves were owned and the farmer found it necessary to do all tasks about
his farm with only sudi help as Ms family could giye. And as for most
,9f the necessities, he became accustomed to the philosophy of "make it
yburseflf or 86 ^rithcrat.'*

82 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Artisans were of such importance in early Tennessee towns that thejr
are estimated to have constituted at least 10 per cent of the population.
But two factors were at work to doom the influential craftsman class. As a
rule, the artisan who had come into the State worked at his craft only long
enough to buy land. And the hard system of apprenticeship, virtual peon-
age, was failing rapidly in this new country. Newspapers of the time
carried many advertisements offering rewards for the capture of runaway ap-
prentices. But few 'were returned to their masters; the temper of the peo-
ple was against it.

In Middle and West Tennessee Negro slaves began to assume increas-
ing importance. As early as 1808 Montgomery Bell, of Nashville, adver-
tised for "ten Negro fellows" to man his iron works on the Harpeth River.
Even earlier a few slaves were employed in crude mining operations in
East Tennessee. Nashville and many smaller towns kept Negroes for mu-
nicipal repair and scavenger work. With the coming of the steamboat and
railroad, large numbers of company-owned Negroes furnished the un-
skilled labor. Very soon Negroes began filtering into the artisan class as
well. So many white craftsmen had become landowners that by 1802
"when General James Winchester built his stone house, Cragfont . . .
near Gallatin ... he had to import working men from Baltimore to do
the interior finishing." Most of the ante bellum homes, churches, and pub-
lic buildings were die work of slave artisans and laborers* The slaves fell
heir to bride making and brick laying, carpentry, blacksmithing, and metal
working. Principally, however, they were agricultural workers or domestic
servants.

The white farm hand at that time could draw $8.67 per month with
board. A day laborer got 58^ per day; 43$ if he boarded in. Carpenters
commanded $1.38 per day, and female domestics, of whom there were
few, $1.00 per week. Behind all these was the threat that the work they
did could be equally well done by the slaves, who could be hired from
their masters or owned at two-thirds the cost of white labor.

Reconstruction for the South meant a readjustment for the Tennessee
working man. Faced with fallow fields and run-down industries, he had
to enter upon what was almost a second pioneer period.

Many of the freed Negroes migrated to the cities in search of work, or
to the North. They made places for themselves in a few industries min-
ing, iron- and steelwork, the railroads; and in service and tirades as
domestic servants, laundresses, and porters. However, in the main they
became "the proletariat of the odd job" or returned to the soil as
or "croppers" and later as tenants.

COTTON PICKERS

The small white farmer rented land, if his own had been lost, and be-
gan life again in the only manner he knew. Money was scarce; capital was
in the North. The landowner needed a cash crop to meet his obligations,
but the tenant, Negro or white, saw Ettle cash from one year's end to an-
other. His family of from six to ten persons, living in a ramshackle shanty,
worked from dawn until dusk. He sank ever deeper in debt to the com-
missary, which in turn was in debt to the wholesaler. The owner himself
could buy in no way but on credit. The result was a vicious circle from
which it was difficult for either the tenant or die landowner to escape.

84 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

This condition grew in West Tennessee and to a lesser degree in the mid-
dle counties. Tenant-operated farms constituted 30 per cent of those
within the State by 1890 and had increased to 40 per cent in 1900.

E. E. Miller, editor of the Southern Agriculturist for many years, voiced
the plight of the tenant farmer in "The Cropper Speaks":

And twice a farm I've tried to buy
But couldn't gather, low nor high,
The cash I had to have in hand
To get possession of the land.

* * *

A slave to toil that has no end
And does not help the lot to mend.

By 1900 the same fundamental forces were at work in East Tennessee.
Mills, factories, and mines attracted small farmers from "leached-out"
mountain farmsteads. Although the pay was low and conditions deplorable
in light of the present day, the worker at least did not face prolonged
starvation and attendant pellagra for himself and his family.

The textile mills, often poorly ventilated fire-traps, were crowded with
machinery, and little provision was made for the safety of workers. Chil-
dren worked beside the women and men. Company-owned mill towns
were monotonously alike hideous rows of flimsy boxes, roofed with tar
paper and as innocent of comfort as of plumbing. Away from the town,
the houses of the poor whites became empty of young folk. They had
gone to the mills, sometimes as children on contracts signed by the par-
ents in order to supplement their own earnings. The scale of wages and
hours had been improved but there were still many working from 40 to
75 hours a v^ek for wages ranging from $1.63 to $15.00.

In early deeds-registries several "Labor Temples" are entered, but these
were purely fraternal amusement halls. With the background of an agri-
cultural, landholder-controlled economy, there was little opportunity for a
united labor movement. In the urban areas only, where the Memphis and
Nashville Typographical Union locals were formed before the War be-
tween the States, did labor organization make headway. The Knights of
Labor, which organized locally in 1867 and was never highly effective in
the State, merged with other national organizations to form the Federation
of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in 1881. In 1886 the objectives of
this group were amplified and the name changed to the American Federa-
tion of Labor, which, after 1893, became the dominant labor organization.
The "big four" Brotherhoods (Locomotive Engineers, Locomotive Fire-
men, Trainmen, and Conductors) were organized in 1882. Though they

THE WORKING MAN 85

co-operate with one another, none of the four is affiliated with the Amer-
ican Federation of Labor or the recently formed Congress of Industrial
Organizations,

Through the country at large, labor organization throve in industrial
centers that were crowded with European immigrants. In Tennessee there
has never been more than three per cent foreign-born population, and
strikes grew from spontaneous protests against existing conditions rather
than from organized labor. Attempts by outsiders to direct or advise the
strikers were often met with indifference, suspicion, and at times hot re-
sentment.

Between 1880 and 1887 there were thirty-two strikes, principally in the
textile and metal industries, of which twenty were organized and seven-
teen succeeded. The causes were various: wage reduction, working with
Negroes, and employment of non-union labor.

The first major strike in the State's history took place in the summer of
1891 among the miners of the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railway Com-
pany at Coal Creek and Briceville. A principal complaint was the "yellow
dog" contract which the miners were compelled to sign, pledging them-
selves to remain unorganized. Unable to reach an agreement with the
operators, the miners struck.

Then the company brought in convict labor, as it was permitted to do
by a legislative act of 1865, empowering the prison authorities for a pe-
riod of fifteen years to lease convicts to the operators. Although leasing
of convicts was condemned by progressives as vicious, the system had
gathered strong momentum. In opposing the system purely from the stand-
point of the threat to their livelihood, the miners incidentally forced the
harsh picture upon public attention.

On July 14, 1891, Coal Creek miners marched on the convict camp at
Briceville, overpowered the guards, and put the convicts on a train for
Knoxville. Governor Buchanan arrived with the State militia and re-
turned the convicts. On July 20 the miners a second time compelled the
convicts to return to Knoxville.

An armed group of miners released more than 300 convicts at Tracy
City in August 1892, burned the stockade, and put the convicts on a train
for Nashville. In the next few days similar steps were taken at Oliver
Springs and Inman. The State imlitia was mobilized, and during a run-
ning battle at Coal Creek there were many casualties. The State was
aroused, and the Tennessee Coat Iron and Railway* Company ceased using
convict labor. In 1895 leasing was finally abolished, though prison shops
and the State-owned Brushy Mountain coal mines continued operation

86 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

under the account system "by which the State itself undertook production

with prison labor and marketed the product to the general public."

The building trades, metal and shop workers, and other crafts were
gathered into the American Federation of Labor during the years 1900-
1920. The World War boom, with its campaign for cooperation between
capital and labor, brought about further unionization. When the United
Garment Workers, an A. R of L. affiliate, called its 1914 convention in
Nashville, dissension among the delegates resulted in a split within the
ranks, out of which came the Amalgamated Clothing Workers. This or-
ganization later affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations,

One of the first conflicts, if not the first, in the Southern textile field
broke out March 12, 1929, when 800 employees of the American Glanz-
stoff Corporation, rayon manufacturers at Elizabethton, walked out in a
fumbling strike, poorly organized and not under union leadership. They
demanded wage increases and the company ordered the plant closed the
following day. On March 19 the adjoining plant, under the same man-
agement, was also closed and its 3,000 employees joined the ranks of the
strikers, all native Americans. The courts quickly granted injunctions
against the strikers and two companies of National Guardsmen were
rushed to Elizabethton by Governor Henry Hprton. On March 22, after
the strikers had joined the A. R of L, a settlement was reached and the
mills reopened. However, on April 15 the workers walked out again,
charging discrimination against the union. On May 6 the plants reopened
with National Guardsmen present to quell disorders and prevent property
damage. When later in the month the company agreed to arbitrate workers'
grievances and recognize the right of union affiliation, the strike ended.

On July 8, 1932, some 600 members of the United Mine Workers at
Wilder and Davidson came out on strike, when /the Fentress Coal and
Coke Company refused to renew their contracts. No wage increase was
demanded; the strike was for union recognition. The company fought the
miners with evictions, injunctions, imported strike breakers, and National
Guardsmen. State troops were withdrawn when the company refused the
services of the State Commissioner of Labor as arbitrator. The union had
agreed to accept the decision of the commissioner or any arbitration t board
appointed by the Governor.

In 1933-34 the industrial towns of East Tennessee, predqminantly tex-
tile, were the scenes of numerous strikes and labor disputes. Strikes oc-
curred in Chattanooga, Rockwood, Harriman, and Kno^ville. Wages and
hours were finally agreed upon, the unions recognized, and' the workers

THE WORKING MAN 87

went back to the factories. Several of the mills, however, have never been
reopened.

In the latter part of December 1936 the Zenith Coal Mine, 18 miles
from Jamestown, refused to recognize the United Mine Workers Union
and closed. It reopened March 8, 1937, with a few non-striking workmen.
The sheriff was wounded by snipers ; non-striking miners were fired on in
their company quarters. On June 17 the general manager of the mities was
killed from ambush and the commissary clerk wounded. State troops were
dispatched to the scene and order was finally restored.

The fabricating plant of the Aluminum Company of America at Alcoa
ceased operations on May 18, 1937, when 3,000 workers led by the
A. F. of L. demanded a wage increase. On July 8 non-striking workers
returned under police protection. A pitched battle between strikers and
police took place; two men were killed and twenty-one wounded. The
National Guard was ordered out and remained on the scene until the
strikers returned to work July 12, under an agreement negotiated by the
representative of the A. F. of L. Demands of the strikers, however, had
not been met

Little legislation affecting labor directly was contained in the State's
constitutions of 1796 ^nd 1834. Only two articles in the bill of rights
touched on the subject. One prohibited the imprisonment of debtors ex-
cept in cases of proven fraud. The other declared monopolies to be "con-
trary to the genius of a free State." It was on grounds of piety, rather than
from a consideration of workers' rights, that work on Sunday was pro-
hibited by an act in 1803.

The first law directly influencing organized labor was enacted in 1875.
It limited the conditions under which an employee might enter into a con-
tract. Child labor laws were passed as early as 1893, making it unlawful
to employ a child less than twelve years of age in workshops, mines, mills,
or factories. In 1901 this law was amended to read "children under four-
teen," and to limit work to a weekly maximum of sixty-two hours. An act
of 1897 made provision for sanitary conveniences in pkces of employment
for women, and subsequent kws have further amplified these require-
ments.

Protective mine laws, passed, as early as 1881,, placed restrictions on
slopes, washrooms, lamps, and inspection. The acts of 1897, and late ones,
attempted to control company storess-aaxi issuance of scrip. The protection
afforded jBed*anfcs and landlords was extended to shield the laborer from
attadimmt of fsrtee wages d to .give him a liea on corporations for

88 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

wages due. Various successive commissioners of labor declared that, as it
was impossible to get operators to furnish information on which to base
legislation, it was obvious that existing laws could not be enforced.

Before the World War, laws were passed concerning wages, exempting
them from garnishment, prohibiting misrepresentation of wages by pros-
pective employers, and requiring payment in legal money at least twice
a month on definitely stated paydays. Other special laws prohibited false
advertising for purposes of getting labor; plumbers, electricians, and loan
companies had to be licensed; employment agencies were regulated. In
1915, in a State report on prison conditions, it was "deemed desirable" for
Tennessee "to retire from the whole system of contracting or leasing the
labor of convicts."

Children were considered in various bills of 1911. The age limit was
raised, work hours reduced to fifty-eight weekly, work certificates required,
and the employment of children forbidden in hazardous occupations, in-
cluding virtually all work in which machinery was used. In 1915 a
mothers' pension law represented the beginning of a type of legislation
that had received much attention from organized labor and social workers.
Further legislation provided for examination of the qualifications of fore-
men in mines, workshops, and bakeries.

Laws passed in 1919 gave police power to factory inspectors and estab-
lished food inspection. These were amplified in later enactments. The sys-
tem of contracting for the output of prison shops was changed so that, in
theory, convict labor would not compete directly with free labor. Further
child labor regulations went into effect in 1921, the year that the Mothers'
Pension Law was amplified. A vocational rehabilitation law made the
State eligible for Federal grants for this purpose.

Labor leaders consider that the greatest stride made by Tennessee dur-
ing the post-war prosperity period was the Workmen's Compensation Law,
passed in 1911 and amended in 1923. Amendments to this and other
laws made during the twenties strengthened labor's position in the State.

Current legislation has kept pace with Federal leadership in recognition
of the plight of workers in the lower income brackets. Disputed decisions
of the Labor Relations Board are reviewed in the courts, and compensation
cases are heard daily before the bar. The Unemployment Compensation
Law, Tennessee's first step toward social security, was enacted in Decem-
ber 1936 at a special session of the legislature. The Tennessee State Em-
ployment Service has developed from the national services begun as relief
measures in 1933. An industrial hygiene unit of the State Department of
Health was organized in 1937 to study occupational diseases and outline

DECK HAND ON RIVER BOAT

a program of prevention and control. The prison industries contract law
was repealed in 1937, but a two-year extension was granted to mines and a
one-year time limit to other prison contracts still in force. In 1937 the use
of coal and coal products mined and processed by convict labor on State
property was prohibited, except for State or charitable purposes. Use of
prison-made goods was also limited to State institutions.

Federal grants of assistance in construction, through the Civil Works
Administration, the Public Works Administration, and the Works Progress
Administration, have been utilized by most communities to relieve unem-
ployment. In many PWA contracts awarded under this program there have
been provisions concerning hours and rates of pay.

Two-fifths of all Tennesseans worked for a living in 1930, according
to reports of the University of Tennessee extension service. Men out-
numbered women four to one. There were 273,783 farmers in 1935 (U.S.
Census), of whom 239,387 were white and 34,396 Negro. Of the total,
46.2 per cent were tenants. For the three State divisions, tenancy ran as

90 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

high as 63 per cent in West Tennessee, 42 per cent in Middle Tennessee,
32 per cent in East Tennessee. A report of the division of workshop and
factory inspection for 1930 listed 1,988 firms employing 113,885 persons,
of whom 71,059 were men (15 of these were boys under sixteen years of
age) and 42,826 women.

Unionization in Tennessee has made its chief headway in railroads,
trades, mines, mills, and pressrooms. The A. F. of L., which was the dom-
inant influence until the advent of the C I. O. in 1936, had central labor
councils in Memphis, Jackson, Nashville, Chattanooga, Knoxville, and
Johnson City. The State Federation of Labor directs the A. F. of L. legis-
lative program and maintains a legislative agent at the State Capitol during
the sessions. A few trade schools are sponsored by the unions. At the
Pressmen's Home, near Rogersville, there is a hospital as well as a trade
school.

When the schism between craft and industrial unionism resulted in the
formation of the C L O., the numerical strength of the United Mine
Workers in East Tennessee assured its recognition as an influence. Since
then, organizational activity within the State has paralleled that of the na-
tion. Independent unions are in the minority. Company unions function
in a few places- Chattanooga, perhaps the most highly industrialized city
in the State, is the best organized in its labor activities. Memphis is
predominantly an A. F. of L. city. Both the C. I. O,, through the clothing
and textile workers, and the A. F. of L., with its older craft unions, claim
supremacy in Middle Tennessee. East Tennessee, with miners and mass
industry workers, is predominantly C. I. O. territory.

Today the working man, agricultural or industrial, lives in a changing
environment. New industries born of TVA and industrial farming are re-
shaping Tennessee's old agrarian system. The sons and daughters of the
small farmers, forced by circumstances to tend machines, are now writing
the history of labor in Tennessee.

Trans

first white traders drove their pack trains over bison and In-
dian trails, using light canoes or rafts to cross deep streams. The
Wilderness Road, blazed by Daniel Boone in 1775 to open up the Tran-
sylvania settlement in Kentucky, was the first road platted by a white
man in the Tennessee territory. It led from the North Carolina line into
Tennessee, passing near the site of Kingsport and through the Cumber-
land Gap into Kentucky. From Kentucky a branch circled southward,
reaching the Cumberland River at the site of the present Nashville. The
term "trace" was used for trail or road by the Southern pioneer.

In 1785 North Carolina, of which the territory was then a part, ordered
a road built from the lower end of Clinch Mountain to Nashville. Blazed
by Peter Avery, the route entered the Cumberland Plateau at Emory Gap,
near Harriman, and crossed the plateau to the Cumberland River. In 1791
the treaty between the United States and the Cherokee Nation granted
that "the citizens and inhabitants of the United States shall have a free
and unmolested use of a road from the Washington District to the Mero
District."

In 1795 a road from Kingston to Nashville, authorized by the Territo-
rial legislature, was completed. After plans to finance the venture by a
lottery had failed, the legislature agreed that the Territory should pay up
to $1,000 for the actual construction and establish toll rates for upkeep
of the road.

In 1799 a tavern keeper of Knoxville, named Chisholm, advertised a
post route between Knoxville and Abingdon, Virginia, with trips made
once every three weeks. Newspapers and letters were carried for subscrib-
ers for an annual fee of $2,50 each.

In 1801 treaties were made with the Chidcasawia^ln th$ same year a
similar treaty was negotiated, with the'Cboct^w. As a jsesult of these two
treaties the southwest frontier ofa&i^ed use of the Natchez Trace, the
Chickasaw "Path of Peace;,' which Enfcekljbng foigpeots of trails and
bypaths into one continuous thoroughfare, connecting Nashville with

aad ;idtin^ely "by river with; few Orleans,

tfee qierokee^a^L the Fe4er$t
9*

92 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Government a mail route through their territory. Similar agreements were
reached with the Creek and Choctaw. The Indians owned and operated
all inns and ferries on the intersecting roads, charging a nominal rate for
their services.

By 1804 county courts were permitted to build roads and bridges and
to establish ferries. At points where building a free bridge would impose
too great a tax on the people, the courts had power to build toll bridges
and private companies were chartered to build toll roads. The State's first
bids for road cutting were received in 1804 for a road linking Tennessee
with the "most convenient port in Georgia/' The first macadamized road,
built in 1831, stimulated the demand for turnpikes of this type. In 1836
an act was passed whereby the State would subscribe one-third of the stock
of any properly organized company incorporated for the building of turn-
pikes. Although several companies had previously built roads in Middle
Tennessee, this act of the legislature had a marked effect on transportation
in this section. The old roads radiating from Nashville were turned
into a system of turnpikes. East Tennessee did not fare as well, for the
topography of that section prevented profitable ventures of the kind. By
1840 the building and administration of turnpikes (principal thorough-
fares) had almost entirely slipped into the hands of private organizations,
who exploited the toll gate system and made few improvements. There
were at one time 900 road companies, some of which existed into the
twentieth century.

During hostilities between the North and South the marching and
counter-marching of armies with their trains of artillery and supply wagons
churned the roads of the State into miry, rutted tracks almost impassable
for wheeled vehicles. In 1865, county courts were authorized to levy taxes
for the improvement of highways. Men from eighteen to thirty were re-
quired to pay a three-dollar road tax; or they might work from three to
six days a year on the road, if they were able-bodied. In this fashion State
roads were maintained until 1907, when the legislature voted surplus
school funds to be used for road upkeep. Since no surplus existed, a State
commission of public roads was appointed to study the situation. A pro-
gram of county bond issues and special taxes, resulting from these inves-
tigations, transformed the old turnpikes into an excellent system of public
roads. Advocates of a property tax to maintain public roads have aban-
doned the plan in recent years, and revenues from gasoline and motor
vehicle fees are used for the purpose.

By the Cherokee treaty of 1791 the Indians agreed to allow the whites
free and unmolested navigation of the Tennessee River, One of the earliest

TRANSPORTATION 93

commercial river passages was advertised in a Knoxville paper in 1795
by John McFarlane, who notified "all persons who wish to sail with me
to New Orleans in one of my boats to be ready within two months." This
marked the beginning of a new day for travel and commerce.

As early as 1801, following the passage of laws for freeing the rivers
of obstructions, a company was authorized to make the Nolichucky River
available for extensive boat traffic. Toll houses were set up to levy one
dollar a ton from each craft that passed, and frequently lotteries were
employed to raise funds for channel clearing.

In 1807 the Nashville Impartial Review, contrasting land and water
transportation, pointed out that a merchant who floated 2,000 tons of
produce from Murfreesboro to Nashville (a distance of about 34 miles),
at a cost of $9.50, had saved $150.50 by choosing the water route.

Flatboats or keelboats were loaded with goods at Knoxville or Nashville
and floated o downriver markets along the Tennessee, Cumberland, and
Mississippi. These boats, made of heavy timber and steered with long
sweeps, were capable of carrying large cargoes and were often "fitted up
comfortably with apartments, and in them ladies, -servants, cattle, horses,
sheep, dogs, and poultry are floating in the same bottom under the same
roof."

When the cargo had been disposed of in New Orleans and other south-
ern markets, the larger boats were sold to timber merchants because it was
impossible to work them back up the river; the boatmen returned home
overland.

In 1819 the first steamboat on the Cumberland, the General Jackson,
underwritten by a group of merchants seeking to establish quicker com-
munication with New Orleans, puffed up the river to Nashville, and
docked on March n. Steamboat transportation ushered in a new era, and
Nashville became the shipping center of the State. Because the dangerous
Muscle Shoals of the Tennessee lay between Knoxville and the Mississippi,
much of Knoxville's early commercial importance passed to Nashville.
As steamboats increased in size and number, channels became a problem.

In 1830 the legislature voted $150,000 to be divided between road-
making and channel clearance. East Tennessee improved the channels of
the Tennessee River and its major tributaries. The building of a portage
railway past Muscle Shoals in Alabama made this waterway to the Missis-
sippi accessible to commerce. The Cumberland remained, however, the
main water Artery into Middle Tennessee until the Illinois Central Rail-
road was feiiflt lie Ib^er Tennessee River and the Mississippi were imme-
diately accessible to Ihfe cottcm-growing region, and here the steamboat

94 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

was an important link in the plantation system. On March 3, 182$, the
first steamboat, the Atlas, readied Knoxville. By 1831 there was fairly
regular steamboat service on the upper Tennessee and Holston Rivers dur-
ing the periods of high water in autumn and spring. Not until 1890, how-
ever, when the Federal Government built two canals at Muscle Shoals,
was the upper Tennessee navigable the year round. Wilson Dam, com-
pleted in 1925, solved some of the remaining problems, though Colbert
Shoals, between Florence and Riverton, Alabama, was troublesome until
the Tennessee Valley Authority began its program of river control in
1933.

After 1900, use of the State's waterways declined rapidly. Though
long-haul freighting was still, in some cases, cheaper by water, the rail-
roads became the chief carriers. However, waterway traffic is today reviv-
ing somewhat because of improved methods of mass freight-hauling by
tug and barge fleet.

In 1936 more than two million tons of freight were handled on the
Tennessee alone. A flotilla of 218 barges was operating on the Tennessee,
Cumberland, and Mississippi Rivers, mostly between Tennessee ports and
New Orleans. The TVA is now building dams and developing other
projects for a nine-foot low-water channel on the Tennessee through its
entire length, and on the Cumberland for a distance of 516 miles.

The wave of railroad building which swept the country in the 1830'$
met at first with little response in Middle and West Tennessee, served as
they were with an adequate system of waterway communication. East
Tennesseans, however, were fervent advocates of railroad construction.
Hemmed in between the Alleghenies on the east and the Cumberland
Mountains on the west over which it was then impossible to build good
highways the people of East Tennessee were at a tremendous economic
disadvantage. The railroad was the only solution. The Railroad Advocate,
said to have been the first paper in the United States devoted exclusively
to railroad promotion, began publication at Rogersville on July 4, 1831.

In 1836 the legislature voted that any railroad company which raised
two-thirds of its stock should receive the remaining third from the State.
The LaGrange and Memphis, the only company eligible for aid under
these terms and the first line in the State, sent its first train on an exhibi-
tion run at Memphis in 1842. The road extended only ten miles out of the
city and the company soon failed. This and the collapse of various promo-
tion schemes in East Tennessee, where construction work had begun as
early as 1837, led to a short-lived reaction against lailroads. But as a result
of the Southern and Western Convention held in Memphis in 3:845 to

OLD RIVER PACKET AT THE NASHVILLE WHARF

foster railroad construction, the State issued bonds to grant loans for rail-
road building.

Rail communication was completed between Knoxville and Dalton,
Georgia, by way of the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad in 1856. This
road is now known as the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis. The
east coast and the Mississippi were linked together by the Memphis and
Charleston Railroad, completed in 1857. Ten years later the Louisville
and Nashville Railroad connected the State directly with the North.

Like the highways, railroads were heavily damaged .during the War
between the States. Legislative efforts to restore adequate train service by
loans to the railroads were largely frustrated through loss of these funds
by speculation. With three-fourths of the State debt represented in rail-
road bonds, large sums were voted to encourage railroad development,
but only a small amount of the money was actually used for this purpose.
When large foreign loans were floated to meet the interest on the public
debt, a number of railroads combined to refuse interest payments to their
stockholders in order to force due coupons into the market at lower rates.
These were bought and later used to discharge their obligations.

In East and Middle Tennessee, railroad branch lines reach into mining,
forest, 'and farming regions; and most of the State's enormous soft-coal
production comes over lines from the coal ields of the Cumberland Moun-
tains. Main lines pf the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway

<)6 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

connect Chattanooga, Nashville, Memphis, and Paducah, Kentucky, each
on a different large river, separated by hundreds of miles. Connections
between these cities have been established only by surmounting many and
varied natural obstacles badly drained swampland in West Tennessee
and high plateaus and rivers in other sections.

Through passenger trains connect the principal cities of Tennessee with
St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Washington, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and
New York, as well as Miami, New Orleans, and all principal points in
the South and Southwest. Transcontinental service is operated from Mem-
phis westward.

Despite the excellent railroad system many communities are more than
twenty-five miles from a railroad, and eight counties are entirely without
rail service. For this reason the development of motor transport service
was encouraged, and today this form of transportation reaches virtually
every point in the State. Motor coaches are operated by 50 companies, and
trucks by more than 300. During 1935, 507 coaches covered a total of 13
million miles, and 987 trucks carried freight for approximately 10 mil-
lion miles.

As early as 1877 Tennessee had for one day at least an air mail
service. On July 17 of that year mail bearing the specially engraved "Bal-
loon Stamp Five Cents" was dropped from the balloon Buffalo two
miles from Nashville, picked up, and carried back to the city post office,
to be delivered through the regular channels. Forty-five years later, in June
1922, the first official Government air mail in the South was dispatched
from Nashville to Chicago in a wartime "Jenny."

The first scheduled airline operations in Tennessee were inaugurated
December i, 1925, between Atlanta and Evansville, by way of Chatta-
nooga and Louisville. The second line started April 27, 1930, with ter-
minals at New Orleans and St. Louis. The next year Fort Worth was
connected with Cleveland by way of Nashville and Memphis, and in
1934 the Nashville- Washington section opened to complete the Southern
Transcontinental line.

Tennessee had twenty-three airports and landing fields in 1932. At this
time the Civil Works Administration undertook seventeen airport proj-
ects, later continued by the Works Progress Administration. Five have
been completed, at Cookeville, Jackson, Jellico, Lebanon, and Milan.

The WPA program is responsible for five additional major airports.
These are at Memphis, Chattanooga, Nashville, Knoxville, and McKellar
Field, a point equidistant from Bristol, Kingsport, and Johnson City.

Tennessee is situated where the main commercial lines cross the region

TRANSPORTATION 97

south of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi. The transcontinental air
route between New York and Los Angeles traverses the entire length of
the State ; the through passenger planes make their first stop at Nashville.
There are two main north-and-south Continental lines, the Chicago-Miami
route by way of Nashville and the Chicago-New Orleans route via Mem-
phis.

Tennessee Valley

E Tennessee Valley, drained by the Tennessee River and its tribu-
taries, is an area of approximately 41,000 square miles, including
parts of seven States Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The major portion of the valley lies
in Tennessee (see four 5 A). The Tennessee Valley Authority was created
by Congress in 1933 to develop the Tennessee River system in the interest
of navigation, flood control, and national defense, and to generate and sell
surplus electricity to avert waste of water power. Properties in the vicinity
of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, were transferred to the Authority. TVA's in-
tegrated water control program requires not alone the proper use of water
resources, but, of necessity, the conservation and preservation of the land
resources of the region.

The TVA is an independent Government corporation managed by a
board of directors. Its activities are directed from headquarters at Muscle
Shoals, Alabama, though administrative offices have been set up elsewhere
as needed. A contact office, with a small staff, is maintained in Washing-
ton, D. C

The Muscle Shoals project in Alabama, with the Wilson Dam and power
house, and the two nitrate plants, was begun as a war measure under the
National Defense Act of 1916. Actual construction, however, did not start
until late in 1918, and the war was over before the project could be car*
ried out. The problem of what to do with this wartime investment re-
mained unsolved until the project was incorporated into the general pro-
gram of the TVA.

A significant element in the creation of the TVA was the establishment
of a regional authority transcending State lines. In taking this action Con-
gress showed an awareness of the growing trend toward regional and na-
tional planning and an understanding of the fact that many of the prob-
lems of the Tennessee Valley could not be solved by the States acting
alone.

POWERTHE CASCADE OF THE CLINCH RIVER

For more than a century the Federal Government has promoted naviga-
tion in its inland waterways. Flood control is intimately related to naviga-
tion improvement. Effective measures require Federal rather than State or
local action, and call for the expenditure of large sums for construction
work. The development of electricity through water power, as Theodore
Roosevelt pointed out more than forty years ago, provides a potential
source of income with which the costs of both navigation and flood con-
trol may be met.

In carrying out the purposes for which it was created, the TVA has
undertaken three general, interrelated programs: control and proper use
of water resources, conservation and preservation of land resources, and a
more widespread use of electrical power. Its work has been carried on
with the cooperation of many Federal and State agencies, particularly the
agricultural extension services of the land grant colleges and universities.

Specifically, the control of water resources called for the construction
of a system of dams. These are designed to maintain a nine-toot navigation
channel from Paducah, Kentucky, to Knoxville, Tennessee a distance of

ioo TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

about 650 miles and to reduce destructive floods. Four dams are already
completed: Wilson Dam (finished before the creation of the TV A) and
Wheeler Dam (1936), in Alabama; Pickwick Landing Dam (i93 8 ) OCL
the Tennessee, and Norris Dam (1936) on the Clinch River in Tennessee.
Male's Bar Dam, also in Tennessee, which was bought from private inter-
ests in August 1939, is being tied in with the general control system. Five
dams are now under construction: Guntersville, in Alabama; Chicka-
mauga, in Tennessee; Hiwassee, in North Carolina; Gilbertsville, in Ken-
tucky; and Watts Bar, in Tennessee, Projects proposed by the TVA, but not
yet begun, are Coulter Shoals, in Tennessee; and Fontana, North Carolina.

Electric power, generated at the completed dams, was being sold at
wholesale (as of September i, 1939) to nearly ioo municipalities, and
cooperative associations, serving more than 325,000 consumers. The Au-
thority was distributing power directly to retail consumers in four areas
on a temporary basis, pending transfer of the systems to local agencies.
In addition, four large industrial companies were using TVA power under
individual contracts. As provided in the Tennessee Valley Authority Act,
power is sold to consumers at low rates. Experience of municipalities and
corporations distributing TVA power has shown that this results in in-
creased consumption and affords a fair and useful comparison of how
much the public should pay for electric service. Special attention has been
given to promoting the use of electricity in rural areas. Almost 7,000 miles
of rural line were in operation on June 30, 1939, most of them owned and
operated by cooperative associations and municipalities. More than 85 per
cent of the total represented the construction of new lines carrying power
to areas previously without service. The usual procedure, the Authority re-
ports, has been for the Rural Electrification Administration to lend the
capital, and for TVA or some other agency to build the line, under contract
with the local body which operates it.

Cooperation with other Federal agencies has been more strikingly de-
veloped in carrying out the third general division of the TVA program
conservation and preservation of land resources. This has meant, by
implication, measures for promoting the welfare of the population of the
valley, estimated at 2,500,000, with an additional 4,000,000 persons in-
side the sphere of its influence. The U. S. Department of Agriculture,
including the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the Forest
Service, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and State agricultural experi-
ment stations and extension services are among the agencies that are work-
ing with the TVA, through local organizations of farmers, to carry out a

KITCHEN IN A HOME AT NORHIS

io2 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

well-rounded program of rehabilitation for both the land itself and for

its people.

Improved types of phosphate fertilizer, produced at Muscle Shoals, are
tested and demonstrated by farmers in soil-conserving and fertility-build-
ing practices. The neighbors, who select the test-demonstrators, adapt re-
sults to their own farms. Legume cover crops and terracing are used. Land
devastated by gully erosion is reforested.

The effects of this lapd-use program on the lives of the people are ob-
vious. The region is predominantly agricultural and, as the productiveness
of the farms decreases, the plight of their owners becomes ever more des-
perate. The availability of improved phosphates for large-scale tests and
demonstrations and of low cost electricity is enabling farmers to work out
procedures aimed at a sustained agriculture, to reduce drudgery in the
home and on the farm, and to enjoy modern conveniences that electricity
makes possible.

Educational and recreational programs have been established in co-
operation with local educational agencies for TVA employees and their
families in the towns that lie within the Authority's jurisdiction. Perhaps
less important, but nonetheless significant, are the opportunities for em-
ployment on the construction projects and the standards set by the TVA
in handling its large labor force. Workers are employed on the basis of
special tests developed in cooperation with the United States Civil Service
Commission. They are entitled to organize according to their own pref-
erences, and labor and management work together on employee problems.
Since construction work is necessarily temporary, the TVA's job training
program not only contributes to work efficiency but allows employees to
prepare themselves for other work when the TVA job is finished. During
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1938, approximately 8,000 job training
meetings were held with an attendance of 63,071, and 4,034 adult educa-
tion meetings drew an attendance of 79,129.

All possible assistance is given to families forced to move from the
reservoir areas. Records indicate that, in general, they have improved their
lot. In moving these people, due regard was paid to their natural feelings,
for in many cases they left homes occupied by their families for more than
a century. The story is told of one family who resisted removal because it
would entail extinguishing the hearth fire that had been burning continu-
ously for three generations. The TVA cut the Gordian knot by keeping
the fire going while it moved the family to its new home.

In its program for flood and navigation control, for land reclamation,
and for cheap electric light and power the TVA is substituting order and

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY 103

design for haphazard, unplanned, and unintegrated development Through
its social and educational activities it is bringing to this region a conscious-
ness of its own rich natural and human resources. But the results of this
program may be even more far reaching. "If we are successful here," said
President Roosevelt in his Message to Congress on Muscle Shoals, "we
can march on, step by step, in a like development of other great natural
territorial units within our borders/' For this, as well as its more tangible
objectives, the TVA is of national importance.

Negroes in Tennessee

TITTLE is known concerning the coming of the first Negroes to Ten-
jj _^f nessee, but there is reason to believe that they were in the territory
tnuch earlier than is commonly supposed. It is probable that Negroes were
with De Soto when he camped near the present .site of Memphis in 1541,
since they were known to have been with him when he left Spain the pre-
vious year. A century later the French are reported to have sent "an army
of 1,200 white men and double that number of red and black men who
took up their quarters in Fort Assumption, on the bluff of Memphis."
The next Negro to set foot on Tennessee soil seems to have been with
Colonel James Smith and a group of Long Hunters who explored the
Cumberland country in 1766. Known to history merely as "J* m " this
"mulatto lad" inspired a stanza in Colonel Smith's diary. Another "negro
fellow" accompanied James Robertson in 1779 ^when he came down from
the Holston Settlement to the site of what is now Nashville.

The new settlers brought Negroes with them and by 1790, when the
first census was taken, there were 3,417 slaves in the Territory. Six years
later, when Tennessee became a State, there were 10,613 Negroes in a
population of 77,282. As a result of the invention of the cotton gin and
the rapid growth of the cotton industry, slavery was widely expanded be-
tween 1790 and 1835. By 1840 Tennessee had 183,057 slaves whose per
capita value was about $550 as compared to less than $100 in 1790.

According to Caleb Patterson, "slavery nowhere in the United States
reflected physiographic features more distinctly than in Tennessee/' East
Tennessee, with its small farms and its independent struggling yeomen,
had few slaves; Middle Tennessee, with larger estates and commercial in-
terests, had a larger number; West Tennessee, the richest cotton region of
the State, had the highest concentration of Negroes.

The lot of the Tennessee slave was perhaps less unfortunate than that of
many of his brethren. Tennessee's slave code guaranteed the Negro shel-
ter, food, clothing, and medical attention. It protected him when he ceased
to be useful, gave him the right to contract for his freedom, and in 1835
granted him the right of trial by jury a privilege accorded to slaves in

104

NEGROES IN TENNESSEE 105

only four other States. The preponderance of small farms was also advan-
tageous to the slave. Here the absentee landlord system was never preva-
lent. The small farmer, in close contact with his slaves, was considerate of
their welfare. As a result of more direct association with the whites, greater
diversification of tasks, and more responsibility in their performance, slaves
in Tennessee (like those in the mountain area generally) were often more
developed mentally than those in typical plantation States.

Slavery in Tennessee, however, was not without its darker side. Traders
imported considerable numbers of Negroes from other sections to be re-
sold into the Southwest. Nashville, the capital, did a thriving business and
Memphis was the slave-trading center of the Mid-South. The trader's ex-
hortation to "buy more Negroes to raise more cotton to buy more Negroes
to raise more cotton" was taken as sound advice. Although between 1826
and 1855 ^ ere were * aws against it, the domestic slave trade continued.

From the first, however, there were those who opposed slave trading.
Before 1830 Tennessee was a center of abolition activity. The attitude of
the people toward the Negro was reflected in legislation and judicial deci-
sions, in organized societies, in the churches, and in abolition literature
unusual for the time and section. By 1827 Tennessee contained more anti-
slavery societies than did any other State except North Carolina. Here
also was published in 1819 the first forthright abolition periodical in the
United States. Among the enthusiastic workers for freedom, Benjamin
Lundy, founder of the Genius of Universal Emancipation and later asso-
ciated with William Lloyd Garrison, was prominent. Many churches and
some educational institutions engaged actively in the crusade for emanci-
pation. Various societies worked to improve conditions for slaves and free
Negroes, to eradicate the domestic slave trade, to effect gradual abolition
and colonization; and the more uncompromising groups wished to abolish
slavery immediately.

Although abolitionist activity continued intermittently after 1834, *&
creasing demand for skve labor iti tJ* western past of the State, and in
the cotton-producing valleys of East Tennessee, was accompanied by a
growth of pfo-slrofcy kotimeat in tibe State as a whole. By 1855 State-
wide s^i^^^'^^^^jl l *' * . ' "-/,..

%ie- f ittftibbdr * 4$ free Negroes in Tennessee had increased* from 361 in
nr8o3E to 4,555 in "1831. In that year ^defensive legislation'* was enacted
providing that no slave should be emancipated unless he should leave the
State immediately. Negro suffrage was abolished in 1834, Aside from the
fact that the free Negro was permitted to attend private schools in Mem-
phis and Nashville, to receive religious instruction, to sue and be sued, to

106 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

make contracts and inherit property, and to enjoy legal marriage, no rights
of citizenship remained to him after 1834. A sort of inmate on parole, he
was both socially and economically proscribed.

In spite of the numerous restrictive measures against them, a great
number of free Negroes prospered. One of these was a Negro who lived
in Nashville in the early iSoo's and supplied many whites and Negroes
with vegetables from his garden. Upon the occasion of the wedding of his
daughter he invited all the prominent white people in town and "they
all went,'* including General Andrew Jackson and Dr. McNairy, who
"danced the reel with the bride," Among those who showed unusual pro-
gressive traits were "Black Bob," noted tavern-keeper; "Free Joe," who in
1824 established a colony where his people "enjoyed freedom within a
stone's throw of one of the largest slave marts in the world" ; and Joe
Clouston, who had considerable money, property, and "more than a hun-
dred slaves."

In the vote of 1861 on secession from the Union practically all the
eastern counties were opposed, while most of the western and middle
counties were in favor of secession. The relationship of cotton to this vote
was as marked as was the relationship of the vote to the high Negro popu-
lation proportion in the different parts of the State. Tennessee was the last
State to secede and the first to return. Excluded from Lincoln's plan for
emancipation in 1861, it was the only State to free the slaves by popular

vote.

After emancipation many Negroes in Tennessee, as elsewhere in the
South, migrated to the cities near by and to the urban areas of the North
in search of work. Some of them made places for themselves in industries
in mining, iron and steelwork, and the railroads. Others found work in
service and trades, as domestics, laundresses, and porters. The bulk of trie
race/ however, was confined to odd jobs or returned to the soil as "crop-
pers" and later as tenants. Some of the Negroes bought farms and homes:
others, with accumulated savings, opened businesses. There were apparently
few dependents among the f reedmen in the State as a whole.

The Negro population has consistently followed the economic fortunes
of the three divisions of the State. Since 1880 the State has shown a grad-
ual decline in the proportion of Negroes in the total population, but this
decline has been unevenly distributed. There are no Negroes in Union
County (East Tennessee) while 73 per cent of the population in Fayette
County (West Tennessee) is Negro. In 1930, Negroes numbered 9 per
cent of the population in East Tennessee, 34.8 per cent of that in West
Tennessee, and 18.3 per cent of the population in the entire State.

FIRST GROUP OF FISK JUBILEE SINGERS (1871)

The story of the Negro in Tennessee cannot be told from census statis-
tics alone. Negroes. in the State have accumulated church property valued
at about eight million dollars. They own farms worth $10,249,910, and
their 33,655 owned homes have an estimated value exceeding $43,600,000.
They manage through small retail enterprises to do a volume of business
of about $9,000,000 annually. This excludes three large religious publish-
ing houses, an insurance company, and several banks and plants for manu-
facturing lighting fixtures. The Baptists, the African Methodist Episcopal
Church, and the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church have developed
publishing businesses the first two in Nashville, the third in Jackson.

As laborer and as artisan, the Negro has been a significant factor in
the development of agriculture and in the building of cities. Many of the
fine old mansions, which stand today after more than eighty years, were
built by hired slave artisans, and some of the modern structures that are
the pride of business were built by the free descendants of these artisans.
Negroes excel even today as stone and brick masons.

One of the most prominent of Tennessee's Negro citizens is J. C
Napier, who in 1939 passed his ninety-fourth birthday. His father was a
free Negro in Dickson County, and son of the founder of the Napier Iron

ip8 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Works. Napier, an attorney and banker, has served as a member of the
Nashville School Board, and was appointed Register of the United States
Treasury under President Taft. In Memphis, Napier is honored by a
school, a park, and a court which bear his name.

- Between 1865 and 1905, Negroes were affiliated with almost every de-
partment of the government in Memphis, Outstanding in politics is R. R.
(Bob) Church, of Memphis, whose position has been strategic because of
the numerical influence of the Negro voters in West Tennessee. His sister,
Mary Church Terrell, became a prominent national leader in the organi-
zation of Negro women's civic clubs throughout the country.

Perhaps the most dramatic character in law and politics was Samuel A.
McElwee. While still a student at Fisk University he campaigned for a
seat in the legislature and won election in January 1883. He was famed
for his eloquence, won many friends and success as a criminal lawyer, a
field in which few Negroes had found opportunity.

Many of the founders of Negro businesses, as well as the founders of
families of importance in the State, started as barbers, caterers, draymen,
and hucksters. Their children received the benefits of formal education
and in many instances went into the professions. An outstanding example
is Lewis Winter, who was born a slave but became a chief produce dealer
in the South and amassed a large fortune.

Tennessee has an unusual number of important educational institutions
for Negroes, The missionary associations of the several major Christian
denominations sent teachers to the Negroes immediately after the War
between the States. Baptist, Methodist, and Congregational missionary
societies opened schools in 1866. The American Baptist Home Mission
Society established Roger Williams University, the American Missionary
Association established Fisk University, and Walden University was
founded as Central Tennessee College by the Freedmen's Aid Society of
the Methodist Episcopal Church. All these schools were located in Nash-
ville. The first missionary work of an educational character undertaken by
the Freedmen's Mission of the United Presbyterian Church was McKee
School in Nashville, which later developed into Knoxville College (1875).
In 1876 Meharry Medical College was founded as part of Walden Uni-
versity. At present there are six Negro major institutions of higher learn-
ing; and one normal and junior college.

The earliest professional men received their training in the institutions
of the North and then became active in the Negro educational institutions
of the State. One of these was the late Dr. F. A. Stewart, a graduate of
the Harvard Medical School, who had a distinguished career in .medicine.

MEHARRY MEDICAL COLLEGE (NEGRO), NASHVILLE

An outstanding Negro physician in Tennessee and one of the most promi-
nent in the South was Dr. Robert Felton Boyd, who was graduated from
Meharry in both medicine and dentistry in the early eighties. The Mercy
Hospital (now the Hubbard Hospital of Meharry Medical College),
owned by Dr. Boyd, was the first in Nashville established for the care of
Negroes; He served for many years as professor of gynecology at Meharry
Medical College, and was active in political and civic affairs.

Other Tennessee Negroes who have distinguished themselves include
Dr. William Sevier, an early Meharry graduate, who later became dean of
Negro pharmacists throughout the country; Dr. W. A. Hadley, another of
the early graduates of Meharry, who combined the practice of medicine
with public school teaching, and for whom one of Nashville's Negro
schools is named; and Dr. Mordecai W. Johnson, president of Howard
University.

The shifting economic patterns and fortunes of the State have kept the
Negro population in active ferment, struggling for survival and status.
The Negroes in this, as in other States, must carry a double task: they must
overcome a late start in civic and economic participation and the tradi-
tional handicaps of low income, inadequate educational facilities, a*#i
some lingering doubt as to their capabilities; at the same time they H

no TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

make their own constructive impress upon the total life of the State. The
extent to which this has been done in the past indicates not only the vital-
ity of the Negro population itself, but also the dominance in the State as
a whole of the disposition toward encouraging such development.

ALMOST half of Tennessee's 2,616,556 population are active church-
jfaL goers today, with the Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and
Churches of Christ comprising, in the order named, nearly 90 per cent
of the combined church membership. Unquestionably the State is one of
the chief strongholds not only of Protestantism but of Fundamentalism in
the United States. These parallel forces have taken major roles in shaping
the history of Tennessee and the character of its people.

Among the North Carolinians of the Watauga and Holston settlements
in the 1770*5 were many Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. They welcomed preach-
ers of that faith, such as the Reverend Charles Cummings, who held a
meeting in Watauga as early as 1777. In the following year Tidence Lane,
a Baptist, and Jeremiah Lambert, a Methodist, visited the East Tennessee
settlements.

More successful than either Presbyterians or Baptists in early Tennessee
were the Methodists. The Wesleyan doctrine, that all men were equal and
each the master of his own destiny, was identical with the democratic phi-
losophy of the frontiersman. Moreover, the circuit system introduced into
Tennessee by Bishop Francis Asbury in 1778, when he organized the first
Methodist conference west of the Alleghenies at Half Acres, had among
the Protestant groups no equal for effective evangelization of a backwoods
people. The circuit rider, equipped with Bible, hymn book, and wiry pony,
rode the wilderness traces to isolated settlements and farmsteads, sharing
the want or plenty of the people, speaking their language, and respected
by them as a man among men.

The Methodists also had lay or local preachers who worked on the land
six days in the week and served without pay.

At first, however, none of the churches was strong enough to influence
greatly the lives of the settlers, for most of them had long been out of
touch with civilization and knew or cared little for formal creed. Lorenzo
Dow, the somber Methodist Savonarola, voiced the opinion held among
churchmen generally when he said that Tennessee was "a Sink of Iniquity,
a Black Pit of Irrsligion/' The unrelenting grind of daily life in a wilder-
ness dictated for the pioneer settler souxe violent emotional outlet, and he

* ' ' ' ' v< * ' ' ,,

112 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

found it in hard drinking and gargantuan carousing. He was extremely
unlikely to adopt any religion which did not provide a compensatory re-
lease for his emotions. This accounted for both the form and the success
of the Great Revival, a wave of mass religious hysteria which swept the
western frontier in the early nineteenth century.

The Great Revival had its beginning in services known as camp meet-
ings. In the new settlements buildings large enough to house even small
audiences could seldom be found, so many preachers began holding their
meetings in the open fields and in brush arbors or straw pens in the woods.
From miles around the people came, bringing their food and drink, their
children, slaves, and dogs, as much for the pleasure of getting together,
gossiping, and love-making with their far-scattered neighbors as to hear
the preaching.

These meetings were growing in popularity throughout Tennessee and
Kentucky during the last decade of the eighteenth century. Only a spark,
a sense of unity and direction, was needed to touch off the flame of re-
vivalism*

In the summer of 1800 country folk of the Red River section of south-
ern Kentucky flocked by the hundreds along the route of James Me-
Gready, a Presbyterian minister with a reputation for being a powerful
exhorter. His fiery sermons made such an unprecedented number of con-
versions that other preachers rode in from central Kentucky and Tennessee
to hear and assist him. Afterward, they returned home with high enthusi-
asm for McGready's methods.

One of them, a Methodist named William McGee, persuaded Baptists
and Presbyterians to join him in a five-day meeting at Drake's Creek, in
Middle Tennessee. The venture was wildly successful. Bishops McKendree,
Whatcoat, and Asbury, touring Tennessee after the second western annual
conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, stopped and preached with
McGee. Vastly impressed, they and other preachers who had visited
Drake's Creek organized similar meetings. From 'these, in turn, new evan-
gelists scattered. The movement spread like an epidemic, and before the
year was out the entire region had been affected. Camp meetings sprang
up everywhere. Farmers left their plowing, merchants their shops, drovers
their herds, and blacksmiths their forges, to attend.

The backwoods evangelists were, in their way, as adept with fire-and-
brimstone as had been the great preachers of Puritan days, and the con-
gregations responded with muscular spasms known as the "jerks." They
leaped and crawled and rolled on the ground, pounded each other, wept,
moaned, and screamed in gibberish as they wrestled with the Devil.

RELIGION 113

"Presently," wrote Peter Cartwright, one of the foremost evangelists, "the
gloom would lift, a smile of heavenly peace would break forth, and con-
version always followed."

Meetings went on for days, often for weeks. At the height of the re-
vival, preaching continued through the night in the ruddy flickering glare
of bonfire and torch. When one preacher was exhausted, another took his
place and in the larger gatherings as many as seven or eight might be ex-
horting at the same time. Between sermons there was singing. "Not since
the Crusades," wrote an English traveler, "has the Christian world wit-
nessed the like of these massed hundreds singing their hymns under the
open sky with such deep and crashing fervor that the earth underfoot and
the very hills rock and tremble."

A stern uncompromising austerity accompanied the revival. It became
the rule of the day for men and women to sit on opposite sides of the
gathering place because "there was no marriage in Heaven." Dancing,
parties, and instrumental music were largely abandoned by the people.
Methodist Bishop McTyeire, preaching in a Bristol church where a melo-
dion was used, declared, "When you brought that ungodly box of whistles
in here, you brought the devil with it!"

In the beginning there was nearly complete tolerance among the de-
nominations. Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians joined in the meet-
ings and their ministers took turns preaching. However, only the Metho-
dist Church had officially espoused the movement Many Baptist leaders
had looked upon it with suspicion, and the central Presbyterian organisa-
tion had condemned the new revivalism sharply, but no group on the
frontier could long have stood aloof and retained its membership against
the headlong sweep of the Great Revival. It was join or die, and join most
Baptist and Presbyterian preachers did though as individuals rather than
as church representatives.

After a climactic series of meetings at Cane Ridge, in 1802, the revival
in Tennessee lost its first irresistible momentum. Dissension between the
denominations appeared. The Methodists sang:

I'll tell you who the Lord loves best
It is the shouting Methodist!

The Baptists replied:

Bapfet, Baptist, Ba|>ti$t
Baptist till I die.

Badcwa&beS" jfeooi; t&e Great Revival wee <fdt< tepeatedty for

ii4 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

more than forty years, but as a unified movement it was virtually dead in
Tennessee by 1810. Preachers were soon devoting much time to tirades
against competing churches. Peter Cartwright called one of these a ' 'trash
trap/' Another preacher characterized his rivals as "hirelings, caterpillars,
letter-learned Pharisees, Hypocrites, varlets, Seed of the Serpent, foolish
Builders whom the Devil drives into the ministry, dead dogs that cannot
bark, blind men, dead men, men possessed of the Devil, Rebels and ene-
mies of God!"

Disputes also arose within the three pioneer denominations. The earliest
occurred among the Presbyterians. Without official sanction the Cumber-
land Presbytery, of Middle Tennessee, had been very active in the revival
and had tripled its membership in the first year. There were not enough
men with the required education to meet the sudden demand for preach-
ers. In 1802 the Cumberland Presbytery began licensing as pastors men
of little or no education, a practice severely criticized by Presbyterians in
the East. Another source of discord was the Wesleyan flavor which had
crept into the doctrine preached by Tennessee Presbyterians because of
their close association with the Methodist revivalists. On these and other
points the Cumberland Presbytery was voted out of the main body in
1809. Attempts at reconciliation failed and a year later representatives of
the Middle Tennessee congregations met in Dickson County and formed
the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. By 1850 there were more Cumber-
land Presbyterians in the State than members of the parent church, and
branches had been established in other southern and mid-western States.

Conflict also developed among the Baptists. From the first dispute came
the Baptist Church of Christ (1808), which held to a modified Calvinism
and practiced foot washing. This group also spread beyond the boundaries
of Tennessee, In 1825 there was a second division when seven hundred
members withdrew to form the Bethel Association. Later this group affili-
ated with the Church of Christ, which had been founded in Kentucky
when the followers of Barton Stone and Alexander Campbell joined
forces. The Church of Christ made such wide gains in Tennessee that by
the middle of the century it was fourth in numerical strength.

Several denominations, strong in other parts of the country, were not
substantially represented in early Tennessee. A Lutheran church was or-
ganized in Sullivan County in the last decade of the eighteenth century.
During the revival period several congregations of Germans from Penn-
sylvania and North Carolina were formed. They remained within the juris-
diction of the Synod of North Carolina until the Synod of Tennessee was
established in 1820.

RELIGION 115

Roman Catholic priests are known to have traveled into Tennessee on
church missions as early as 1810. Eleven years later Bishop David and
Father Abell held formal masses for Catholics settled in Nashville; and
here, in 1830, a Roman Catholic parish was formed and a church erected.
The Diocese of Nashville which included the entire State was organ-
ized in 1837 and the Right Reverend Dr. Pius Miles consecrated as its
first Bishop. Bishop Miles, an indefatigable missionary, was largely re-
sponsible for the formation of many parishes throughout Tennessee.

Not until 1827 was there a Protestant Episcopal church in Tennessee.
This church was established by the Reverend James H. Otey at Franklin.
Several factors account for the late coming of the Episcopalians to Ten-
nessee. As has been noted, many of the first settlers were Scotch-Irish of
the Covenanter strain, with a heritage of enmity toward the established
Church of England. In Revolutionary times the Over-Mountain people
identified the Episcopal Church with the Royalist cause. Nor did the
church authorities take advantage of the Great Revival; erudite and con-
servative, they frowned on the spectacular emotionalism of the movement.
In Tennessee the Protestant Episcopal Church gained most of its commu-
nicants in towns and cities and among well-to-do land owners. The Rev-
erend Otey, who became first Bishop of the Diocese of Tennessee in 1834,
lived to see the development of twenty-six parishes with approximately
1,500 communicants. He was one of the founders of the University of
the South at Sewanee, which has had marked influence on the religious
thought and general culture of the entire South,

Negroes attended most of the pioneer churches, where galleries or sec*
tions in the rear were provided for them, and they participated actively in
the camp meetings. It was during the revival period that many of the great
Negro spirituals were first sung. Early circuit riders and evangelists frankly
condemned the institution of slavery. Especially outspoken were the Pres-
byterians. Their dominance in East Tennessee accounted for that section
as a center of abolition sentiment, as much as did economic considerations.
Generally speaking, the Methodists and Baptists adopted a more compro-
mising attitude; they attempted to humanize rather than abolish the sys-
tem. From 1800 on, the three main denominations directed increasing
effort to missionary work among the Negroes, By 1839 nine missions, de-
voted exclusively to this woxk, were receiving $2,700 annually from the
State in addition to church contributions. At that time, one-fourth of the
Jfeptists in Tennessee were Negroes, and there were many slave preachers
of great ability, ; ^ ,

John, C, Caftou^ debating ia $je Senate with Daniel Webster in 1850,

n6 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

declared that the churches were the strongest ties holding the Union to-
gether. But six years before that, one of the most important of these ties
had weakened. During the 1844 General Conference of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, in New York, feeling had run high between Northern
and Southern delegates, and an abolitionist majority had passed strong
resolutions condemning slavery. In the following year, the Southern body
withdrew and formed the Methodist Episcopal Church, South (Southern
Methodist Church), with headquarters and an independent publishing
house at Nashville.

In 1845, for reason practically identical, the Southern Baptists broke
away and set up the Southern Baptist Convention. Both the Church of
Christ and the Baptist Church of Christ were to remain undivided be-
cause most of their communicants were within the Confederate States.

Although in 1861 the Presbyterians, meeting in Philadelphia, adopted
spirited resolutions to remain loyal to the Union, the Presbytery of Mem-
phis withdrew later in the year and urged concurring Presbyteries to meet
for the purpose of organising a Southern association. This became the
Presbytrian Church in the U. S., as distinguished from the Presbyterian
Church in the U, S. A., and was popularly known as the Southern Pres-
byterian Church. The various groups of Presbyterians in Tennessee were,
on the whole, Southern sympathizers.

In general the Episcopalians followed their State into the Southern
ranks. Bishop Leonidas Polk laid aside the cloth to become a general in
the Confederate Army. Other Episcopal clergymen, among them Bishop
Otey, opposed secession. Nevertheless, no official severance took place.

There were many examples of chaplains in the Army of Tennessee, con-
spicuous for their services to the wounded and dying, friend and foe
alike. But between the branches of the disrupted churches partisanship
was bitter. The Holston Conference of the Methodist Church, South, in
northeastern Tennessee, expelled five of its members for disloyalty to the
Confederacy. These five linked their fortunes with the northern Metho-
dists and joined in voting their erstwhile brethren guilty "of a crime suffi-
cient to exclude them from the kingdom of grace and glory."

As the Federal forces took possession of territory in Tennessee, south-
ern preachers regarded as the best recruiting officers for the South were
arrested indiscriminately, particularly in Nashville, and northern ministers
"carpet-bagged" their way into the vacant churches. The Methodist Pub-
lishing House in Nashville, a flourishing business, was seized by the Fed-
eral authorities and converted into a government printing office.

At the close of the war, the rift between Northern and Southern

ST. MARY'S CHURCH, MEMPHIS

u8 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

branches of the Methodists and Baptists had grown too serious to be
healed. No reunion of the Northern and Southern Presbyterian churches
was sought.

Beginning in 1866, Negro Baptists began setting up their own congre-
gations. In the same year the Southern Methodists sanctioned the organi-
zation of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, which was shortly
followed by two other Negro Methodist groups the African Methodist
Episcopal Church, and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.
The Cumberland Presbyterian Church, Colored, was established in Mur-
freesboro in 1869. First in number of Negro communicants were the Bap-
tist churches, with the three Methodist groups in second place, and the
Cumberland Presbyterians third.

Though a Hebrew congregation had been organized in Memphis in
1852 and another in Nashville in 1853, not until after the war were there
more than* 500 Jews in the State. During the period of Reconstruction the
number of Jews tripled and synagogues were built in Chattanooga and
Nashville.

Between 1870 and 1890 wide rifts over the use of instrumental music
in worship appeared among the congregations of the Church of Christ,
each of which was an independent, self-governing unit. The non-instru-
mentalists retained the name Church of Christ while those in favor of
instrumental music organized as the Christian Church.

At the end of the century the early evangelistic zeal of the chief Prot-
estant denominations had notably lessened. The rapid increase in church
membership which had followed the Great Revival and continued through
Reconstruction times was checked, and emphasis was on church organiza-
tion, Sunday School work, foreign missions, and educational programs.
Revivalism, however, was still fairly vigorous in rural sections and even
invaded urban areas when powerful evangelists such as Sam Jones toured
the State. In the main, lesser groups fell heir to the revival movement and
kept it very much alive especially in the uplands where frontier condi-
tions persisted. Sects and subsects appeared, held their camp meetings, de-
dined, split, and died or merged with new groups.

Sentiment for union of the two principal branches* of the Presbyterians
grew strong in 1903. After several conferences, the parent church modified
its doctrines in a manner agreeable to the Cumberland branch, and in
1907 a nominal affiliation was effected.

The latest effort toward church unification was made in. 1937-38 by
the Northern and Southern branches of the Methodist Episcopal Qiurdbu
In November 1938, leaders of the two groups met in Nashville and drew

RELIGION 119

up final plans for the union. The measures of the conference were ap-
proved by a majority of the delegates.

Proportional numerical strength among the four principal denomina-
tions in the State has remained relatively the same as in 1890, though
there has been an increase in total church membership of more than half
a million. The latest U. S. census (Religious Bodies: 1926) shows 56 de-
nominations and branches in Tennessee, with 8,556 churches and an over-
all membership of 1,018,033.

On the whole, the churches have shown a growing interest in promoting
better understanding between Negroes and whites, and in programs for
the benefit of the underprivileged. A trend toward cooperation among the
Protestant bodies has been fostered by the State-wide interdenominational
Sunday School Association. Union meetings and joint work in civic move-
ments have become more frequent each year.

first settlers in Tennessee had little time or use for book-learning,
but they did have a wide and thorough education in the lore of
rifle, plow, and broadax learning which cleared and peopled a wil-
derness.

Such schooling as there was lay in the hands of a few clergymen, usu-
ally Presbyterians who had joined their Scotch-Irish congregations from
North Carolina and Virginia. In summer, when children could be spared
from farm work, the local preacher kept school in the community church-
courthouse, a rough one-room log cabin with a packed clay floor and slab
benches. Here for a few weeks the children struggled with ciphering, writ-
ing, and learning to read from a great leather-covered Bible.

A departure from this sketchy between-planting-and-harvest school-
ing was made by the Reverend Samuel Doak in 1780, when he began
conducting graded classes in a log outbuilding on his farm near Jonesboro.
The first regular school west of the Alleghenies, it was chartered three
years later by North Carolina as Martin Academy, in honor of Governor
Alexander Martin. In 1785 the charter was confirmed by the legislature
of the short-lived State of Franklin. About the same time the North Caro-
lina Assembly chartered, as Davidson Academy, the meeting house near
Nashville where the Reverend Thomas Craighead had gathered a class of
boys.

The Constitutional Convention of 1796 made no provisions for public
education, and for a decade the small academies that a dozen or so min-
isters had set up, after the example of Doak and Craighead, were the only
'schools in Tennessee. In these "literary institutions" matters of conduct
and morals were stressed as much as familiarity with the English classics,
Latin, Greek, and oratory: the prized hallmarks of a gentleman's educa-
tion. They ranged in quality from little backwoods establishments with
almost illiterate teachers who accepted payment in food, wood, or help
about the place to expensive town schools conducted by the most pon-
tifical and flowery of scholars, The best of these prepared the sons of the
land-holding gentry for Harvard and Yale, and for politics; the worst
gave doubtful prestige and rather muddled minds to the sons of solvent

EDUCATION 121

small farmers. So strongly did the system of private academies entrench
itself that by 1889 more than 500 had received charters from the State,
and nearly a third of these were actually operating.

In 1806 the United States Congress had directed that 600 acres of good
land in each Tennessee township should be reserved and sold for the sup-
port of public schools. This requirement was largely ignored. Of the
6,500,000 acres which should have been set aside, only 23,000 and these
so poor that they sold for as little as one cent an acre were actually con-
verted into school funds. Money realized from land sales was insufficient
to establish a single school. A tentative effort toward the establishment
of common schools was made in 1815, when the State legislature passed
an act "to provide for the education of orphans of those persons who
have died in the service of their country." In 1823 a few thousand dollars
were appropriated for pauper schools, and five years later half the pro-
ceeds from the sale of public lands between the Hiwassee and Little Ten-
nessee Rivers was allotted to a common school fund. The scant income
from the Hiwassee lands supported only a handful of extremely ill-
equipped schools. They were taught by political appointees, minor band-
wagon followers who often were barely able to sign their names.

Every year or so between 1823 and 1854 the General Assembly passed
some ineffective act "to establish a system of common schools in Tennes-
see," By 1840 the State was spending for public education a little less than
50 cents a year for each white child; a fourth of the adult white popula-
tion was illiterate. Inevitably, the Negroes were overwhelmingly illiterate,
though here and there a bright slave child was allowed to study with his
master's children or was taught by some liberal clergyman.

Private academies, meanwhile, had multiplied and flourished. Three of
the older ones assumed the dignity of colleges even before the State had
been admitted to the Union. Greeneville College, which had been the
Reverend Hezekiah Balch's school, was chartered in 1794. In the same
year Blount College was established at Knoxville, to succeed the Reverend
Carrick's seminary. One of the earliest nonsectariarx and coeducational
schools in the United States, Blount College was named for the Territorial
Governor, whose daughter Barbara was among the women enrolled. The
school became in succession: East Tennessee College, East Tennessee Uni-
versity, and the University of Tennessee. In 1795 Samuel Doak's Martin
Academy was chartered as Washington College.

Maryville College was begun in 1802 as the log-cabin school of the
Reverend Isaac Anderson. Several appeals for a charter were refused by
the legislature, for Anderson was active in politics and had made power-

122 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

ful enemies. The charter was not granted until 1842. Davidson Academy,
chartered as Cumberland College in 1806, later became the University of
Nashville, and eventually fathered the present George Peabody College for
Teachers, the leading school of its kind in the South.

Before the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, several
academies for girls had been established in the State. The more fashion-
able and prosperous of these were in Nashville Price's College for Young
Ladies, the Misses Martha and Fanny O'Bryan's school, Ward's Seminary,
the Belmont School for Girls, and the Nashville Female Academy. Here
came the daughters of wealthy Tennesseans to be taught manners and
morals, and to read such books "as are considered proper for the sensi-
bilities of the female intellect." In summing up his system of education,
Dr. Collin Elliot, the Methodist minister who conducted the Nashville
Female Academy, wrote: "We educate the girl according to God's Word
and the demand of every fiber of her mind to be a wife, to be a mother.
Then in after life, circumstances determining, she may do anything a
female body, mind, and soul may do."

Public schools begged for funds in vain until the administration of
Governor Andrew Johnson. The "Little Tailor of East Tennessee," who
had learned to read after he was grown, was a passionate advocate of pub-
lic educatiton. In his message to the legislature of 1853, Johnson said:
"At the present period, and for a long time past, our common schools
have been doing little or no good, but on the contrary have been rather in
the way than otherwise. There is one way that the children of the State
can be educated . . . and that is to levy and collect a tax from the people
of the whole State." Against stiff opposition, Johnson's bill for the sup-
port of schools by direct taxation was passed on February 28, 1854. Sub-
sequent legislation standardised the method of examining teachers and
authorized the employment of women teachers on an equal footing with
men. For the first time Tennessee had public schools that functioned.

During the decade before the War between the States Nashville and
Memphis set up free public school systems, with graded grammar courses
and four years of high school. Operating funds were secured from munici-
pal poll taxes and levies on real and personal property.

In 1857 the Protestant Episcopal Church established the University of
the South at Sewanee, a village on the Cumberland Plateau, and proposed
to introduce the English tradition of education. Soon after the war began,
the uncompleted university buildings were burned by Federal raiders.

The war brought the machinery of formal education to an abrupt halt
in Tennessee. Academies and colleges, drained of able-bodied young men,

VANDERBET UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE

124 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

shut down, State and municipal public school systems were disrupted.

After the Confederates were driven out of Tennessee, school and college

buildings were commandeered as Federal barracks and hospitals, or were

used to house the Negroes who flocked in the wake of the liberating

armies.

In the years of Reconstruction public attention was centered on repair-
ing material damage and little thought could be spared for the problems
of education.

While the Republicans controlled the State, the post of superintendent
of public instruction was created, county superintendents were appointed,
school taxes were levied, and special schools for Negroes were put into
operation. As soon as the Democrats returned to power, in 1869, these
measures were repealed. In 1873, however,. the legislature passed bills
which substantially incorporated the earlier measures.

Concurrently, academies and colleges were evolving into their present
forms. Between 1865 and 1900 some of the State's leading private schools
began operating Montgomery-Bell Academy, St. Cecilia Academy, and
Ward-Belmont School, at Nashville; Webb Preparatory School, at Bell
Buckle; Morgan School, at Petersburg; and several military schools for
boys.

The Fisk School for Negroes, founded at Nashville by the American
Missionary Society in 1866, developed into a normal school and was
chartered in 1867 as Fisk University. It has become one of the country's
foremost institutions of higher education for Negroes, Associated with
Fisk and using the same library facilities is Meharry Medical College, the
world's largest Negro institution of its kind, founded in 1865 by the
Methodist Episcopal Church. Fisk University and Meharry Medical Col-
lege have been leading factors in advancing Negro education in the South,
and in uniting the efforts of the two races in developing an educational
program for the Negro.

As was the case with other colleges in Tennessee, Vanderbilt University,
at Nashville, was founded as a church school. Chartered in 1872 as the
Central University of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, it was en-
dowed by Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1873 and reopened as Vanderbilt Uni-
versity. The Methodist Church relinquished control in 1914.

In 1875, w fth money voted by the legislature and an endowment from

the George Peabody Trust Fund, Peabody Normal School was established

as a department of the University of Nashville. Shortly afterward the

normal school absorbed the university and became George Peabody Col-

lege for Teachers. One of the three ranking teachers' colleges in the United

EDUCATION 125

States, the school is noted today for its advanced methods and its exten-
sive experiments with new techniques of child training. Its graduate teach-
ers hold key positions throughout the South.

When the University of the South was reorganized in 1876, law and
medical departments were included; later these branches were discon-
tinued. In addition to the academic and theological schools of the present
university, there is a preparatory school, the Sewanee Military Academy.

The legislature designated East Tennessee College, at Knoxville, as the
University of Tennessee in 1879. By the terms of the act, it became "a
part of and the head of the public school system of the State."

After publication of the 1870 census figures on illiteracy, interest in
public education increased in Tennessee. In 1893 the legislature provided
for tax-supported secondary schools, and in 1899 county courts were em-
powered to set up county high schools. With the expansion of the school
system, the power of the county courts over local schools increased. The
magistrates approve county school budgets, audit school expenditures, and
require quarterly reports from the county boards of education.

In 1909, with one-fourth of the State's revenue allotted to education,
four teacher-training institutions were established three for whites and
one for Negroes ; funds for the consolidation of schools, vocational educa-
tion, and libraries were increased. Four years later one-third of the State's
income was set aside for educational purposes, and school attendance was
made compulsory. Meanwhile the number of local school-board members
throughout the State had been reduced from 10,000 to 600.

Consolidation of schools began in 1924 in counties where declining
population has made it increasingly difficult to maintain efficient schools.
By 1933, 324 consolidations had been made; but since then cuts in ap-
propriations have retarded this trend. At the close of the school year of
1934 there were still approximately 3,000 one-room schoolhouses in the
State, comprising almost one-half the total number of elementary schools.
At this time there were 617 high schools, 545 of which ware for white
students. Two hundred and ten high schools which do not give a full
four-year course offer further possibilities for consolidation.

Tennessee's anti-evolution law and the Dayton trial that was its after-
math are best understood if viewed as indications of a social problem
caused by the swift imposition of a system of public education, compul-
sory and uniform, upon a people long accustomed to private and denomi-
national education or to no education at all, When the Tennessee funda-
mentalist found himself compelled by law to send his children to a tax-
supported State school, where doctrines were taught that seemed' to him a

126 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

denial of Scripture, he rebelled. This rebellion, characteristically blunt and
straightforward, led to the adoption of prohibitive legislation. On March
21, 1925, the General Assembly passed a bill sponsored by John Wash-
ington Butler, a farmer, making illegal the teaching in tax-supported insti-
tutions of any theory concerning the creation of man which disagreed
with Holy Scripture. While discussions of the bill in the legislature were
extremely facetious, and the sponsors of the Scopes test case did not them-
selves take the matter too seriously, the popular tension which followed
indicated much support for the law.

Dayton became the scene of a drama that centered national interest on
Tennessee. The episode was exploited by newspapers and by partisans as a
conflict between religion and science, or between a progressive ideal of
education and sheer backwardness. Rather, it was a struggle between those
who conceived of democratic education as purely and wholly a State func-
tion and those who were doubtful of the State's capacity to assume com-
plete control of such a function. Though efforts to repeal it have failed,
the anti-evolution law is to some extent a dead letter today.

Illiteracy remains one of the State's major problems. In 1930 the per-
centage of rural illiteracy was 8.8 twice as high as that in the urban
areas. At this time there were 18,536 persons between the ages of 10 and
20, and about 127,000 persons 21 years old and over, who were illiterate.
Of the total number, 87,406 were native whites and 57,251 were Ne-
groes. The marked decrease in the illiteracy rate for the total population
between 1920 and 1930 from 10.3 to 7.2 as well as the consistent
increase in school attendance during the same decade, indicates definite
educational progress. In 1930, 71.7 per cent of native white persons 7 to
20 years old, or 466,220, and 64.6 per cent of the Negroes within this age
group, or 91,268, were attending school.

Among institutions doing special work in vocational training are Lin-
coln Memorial University at Harrogate, the Pi Beta Phi Settlement School
at Gatlinburg, and the Cumberland Homestead Project at Crossville. The
Alvin C York Agricultural Institute is supported by the Fentress County
Board of Education in cooperation with the State board. The College of
Agriculture of the University of Tennessee combines practical and theoreti-
cal training in farming. Although emphasis is placed on training boys and
girls for farm life, most of the graduates are drawn into more lucrative
positions as teachers and demonstration agents.

Seven institutions of higher learning are administered as part of the
public school system in Tennessee: the State university at Knoxville, with
medical and dental schools at Memphis and a junior college at Martin; the

SCHOOL CONSTRUCTED BY WPA

three units of the State Teachers College at Johnson City, Murfreesboro,
and Memphis; the Tennessee Polytechnic Institute at Cookevilie; the Aus-
tin Peay Normal School at Clarksville; the Tennessee School for the
Blind, at Nashville; the Tennessee School for the Deaf , at Knoxville; and
the Agricultural and Industrial State Teachers College for Negroes at
Nashville.

The last-named institution, opened in 1909 as a normal school, is the
largest land-grant college for Negroes in the United States and the second
largest Negro educational institution in the world. There are three other
four-year colleges and two junior colleges for Negroes in the State.

Under the rehabilitation program of the WPA, adult classes have been
organized throughout the State. Primarily organized to give employment
to unemployed teachers, these classes taught 7,448 adults to read and write
during the 1937-38 school term. There are 17,750 white and 7,853 Ne-
groes enrolled in the adult classes; the white teachers number 311 and the
Negro 133. Health, citizenship, and homemaking are taught in addition

have been sportsmen since the days when the pio-
neers delighted in long hunts and horse racing, wrestling and shoot-
ing matches. Though the frontier is long since gone, the State's vast
stretches of forest, mountain, and marshland still attract those who love
the outdoors. The Great Smokies and the Cumberlands offer magnificent
panoramas from skyline hiking trails; the wooded hills and rolling blue
grass meadows are ideal for camping, horseback riding, and motoring;
and Reelfoot Lake is famous for fishing and duck hunting. Under a vig-
orous program of conservation the Virginia or white-tail deer, once nearly
extinct, is fairly numerous and may be hunted in several counties. Black
bear, protected by closed seasons, are found in the wilder parts of the
Great Smokies and the Unakas.

For Tennessee's newest big game animal the Russian wild boar, lo-
cally called "Rooshian" wild hog the ancient sport of boar hunting has
been revived. The annual boar hunts, held in the fall in the Cherokee Na-
tional Forest, are conducted by the State game and fish division in co-
operation with the U. S. Forest Service. Because the animals are not yet
numerous enough to permit indiscriminate hunting, only 108 participants
are drawn by lot from the appplicants. Three methods of hunting are used,
each having its special difficulties and fascination. In shooting from a
"stand," the hunter takes a position on a vantage point, while guides with
two or more dogs drive the boar within shooting distance. Stalking or still
hunting is difficult because the crackling of dry leaves underfoot usually
warns the keen-eared boars of the hunter's approach. When jumped by
the dogs, the "Rooshians" strike through brush-grown ravines and over
laurel-covered mountain slopes. The chase, sometimes lasting for miles,
calls for unlimited stamina from both dogs and men, and ends with the
hog at bay, slashing at the hounds with ra2or tusks that will rip an un-
wary dog to ribbons.

Smaller game animals are abundant in the State. For those who like to
shoot cottontail rabbits the near woodlands and back pastures afford good
hunting ground. The first chill of autumn brings squirrel hunters into
the oak woods, and trapping of small fur bearers mink, muskrat, and

128

SPORTS AND RECREATION 129

weasel is widespread during the open season. To 'coon hunters nothing
quite equals the night chase under a harvest moon, when two eyes glow-
ing like embers high up in a basswood crotch mean that the game is treed.
The deep-toned bay of redbone hounds in full cry is music to the fox
hunters who gather around campfires on frosty evenings and argue heat-
edly about "whose dog's ahead." 'Coon dog trials are held in Chester
County each year.

The mounted hunt clubs "ride to the hounds" in the old English fash-
ion from November to April, and act as occasional hosts to the National
Fox Hunters' Association. The One-Gallus Fox Hunters' Association, com-
posed of farmers and casual fox hunters who maintain no kennels, meets
at various places in Middle Tennessee.

Wild turkeys are plentiful, and are hunted in open season. These fine
game birds and bobwhite quail are raised at the State Buffalo Springs
Game Farm, near Rutledge, and released on protected land.

In the eastern uplands the ruffed grouse, skyrocketing from cover with
a startling thunder of wings, is game worthy of any hunter's gun. Ring-
necked pheasants are becoming a popular game bird, taking the place of
grouse in the lowlands. Game technicians are experimenting with the
propagation of chukar and Hungarian partridges. For the average man,
who does not go far afield, bobwhites and doves form the bulk of the
daily bag, and hundreds of hunters take to the open with bird dogs and
shotguns every season. Annual field trials for bird dogs, sponsored by the
National Field Trials Association, are held at Grand Junction, in Harde-
man County. On the Hobart Ames Plantation 24,000 acres of rolling
land, well stocked with quail sportsmen from all parts of the country
enter their champion pointers and setters to compete for national honors.

Reelfoot Lake is on America's greatest fiyway of migratory waterfowl,
and practically every variety of wading and swimming bird rests there dur-
ing north and south flights above the Mississippi Valley. Geese, dudes*
coots, and snipe in thousands roost at the lake* and in the adjacent marshes,
and may be taken in season. Sportsmen are assured their bag limit of teal,
redheads, and mallards. Swans, wood docks, and eider ducks, .because of
their dwindling numbers, are under the strict protection of the U. S. Bio-
logical Survey, which has control of all migratory birds and game refuges.
Since taking over the region in the early part of the present century, the
State has spent $450,000 to preserve and improve this sportsman's para-
dise, now known as the Reelfoot Lake Game Preserve. The game and fish
division maintains a large clubhouse and cabins for fishermen and hunters.

When the Reelfoot earthquake shook the bottom of the Mississippi in

130 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

1811, fish of practically every variety known in the Central States were
swept into the lake with the backward-rushing river. Today the great pool
with its acres of sunken snags swarms with large mouth bass, bream, crap-
pie, carp, bluegill, and buffalo fish. The underwater trees make ideal lurk-
ing places for tremendous "spoonbill cats" and huge "loggerhead" turtles.
Fly fishing, plug casting, and still fishing enthusiasts meet at Reelfoot and
use their favorite methods. Other lake sports are gigging for bull frogs,
and shooting water snakes among the dead tree trunks, where motionless
water turkeys sit above on the bare branches and the only sound is the
swirl of the water as the guide paddles the canoe.

About three million fish are reared yearly at the State hatcheries at
Springfield and Morristown and placed in streams and lakes throughout
the State. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries also operates two hatcheries in
Tennessee at Erwin and Flintville.

In the clear, swift mountain streams, brook and rainbow trout are plenti-
ful and the rapids and pools are ideal for fly casting. Anglers try for small
mouth bass, jack salmon, drum, and catfish in the more sluggish waters
of the Cumberland and the Tennessee. Small streams and brooks are well
stocked with perch and "pumpkinseed" sunfish, usually the first fish to
dangle from the homemade rod of the young American angler.

To develop recreational opportunities and conserve or restore natural
resources, State parks and forests have been established under the juris-
diction of the Tennessee department of conservation. Most of them have
comfortable cabins, swimming and other facilities. In these areas, totaling
more than 100,000 acres, and in the State's game preserves animal and
plant life are protected and developed.

Pickett State Park and Forest was the first to put into effect the present
program linking conservation and recreation. The area consists of 11,500
acres of wild land on the nigged Cumberland Plateau, where loo-foot rock
walls tower above brawling streams, and giant magnolias shade the banks
of a 1 5 -acre lake. Natchez Tr'ace Forest State Park, on the western plateau,
is being developed both as a resort and a fish and game refuge. Half of its
42,006 acres are gullied badlands, now being reclaimed; the remainder are
thickly grown with sedge, sumac, and mixed second-growth hardwood.
Three lakes have been constructed with beaches, boathouses, and overnight
cabins. Among other State areas now being developed are Morgan, Marion-
Franklin, Bledsoe, and Chickasaw forests, Chickasaw Forest State Park,
and the Lebanon Cedar Forest State Park, containing one of the largest
groves of cedar in the Central Basin.

In the Mississippi bottomlands the National Park Service administers

DUCK HUNTING ON REELFOOT LAKE

the Shelby Forest Recreational Demonstration Area, twelve thousand acres
of jungle-like swamps, forests of beech, cottonwood, cypress, and willow.
Another Federal owned recreational demonstration project is. Falls Creek
Falls, fifteen thousand acres of the wildest land in the Cumber-lands. Foot
trails and a road give access to the falls, a. 2 5 6-foot curtain of water tum-
bling over a mighty sandstone cliff.

Foot trails, bridle paths, and campsites are being established in Federal
and State areas, and this program is opening up vast roadless sections of
the State for nature study, hiking, horseback riding, and camping. Or-
ganized hiking clubs and other outdoor groups sponsor trips into the wild
parts of the State. In Eastern Tennessee some of the clubs are affiliated
with the Appalachian Trail Conference, which maintains the Maine-to-
Georgia skyline trail along the crest of the Appalachians.

In Norris Park, a development of the Tennessee Valley Authority over-
looking Norris Lake, bridle paths and foot trails have been laid out in the
valleys, and stables, picnic areas, and an outdoor theater have been estab-

132 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

lished on the lakeshore. Other TVA developments are Big Ridge Park,
a rugged region of limestone ridges, on an impounded arm of Norris Lake ;
and Pickwick Dam Reservation, an area of rolling wooded hills bordering
Pickwick Reservoir.

For those interested in history, the National military parks Chicka-
mauga and Chattanooga, Shiloh, Fort Donelson, Stones River, and the
Meriwether Lewis National Monument are popular. Caverns with mag-
nificent rock formations have been developed under private management
and are open to the public at nominal rates. The most notable of these
are Craighead Caverns, Jewel, Ruskin, Dunbar, Nickajack, and Lookout
Mountain Caves.

With the development of lakes and river courses, interest in boating is
increasing. Outboards are in use on the principal rivers, and regattas and
races are held regularly. Swimming facilities are available for residents and
tourists at the State's lake and river beaches, which are among the finest to
be found in the South.

A unique sport, drawing enthusiastic crowds of participants and specta-
tors, is the "turkey shoots" of the mountain people, stemming from the
rifle contest of pioneer times. Scorning modern breech loaders, the con-
testants use long-barreled cap and ball "hog" rifles, patterned after the
famous guns of the frontiersmen. Indeed, in the high Smokies riflemen
still use flint-lock Dechard rifles that saw duty in the Revolutionary battle
of King's Mountain. The prize may be a turkey, a hog, or a side of beef.
These "old time shootin' matches," most popular in the mountain regions,
are also held in other parts of the State.

The four professional baseball teams Nashville, Memphis, Knoxville,
and Chattanooga are members of the Southern Association. Softball
teams are sponsored 'by business organizations, factories, unions, and
churches all over the State. Leagues have been formed in all localities, and
many municipal parks provide free facilities for night games. Collegiate
and high school football is popular; the annual games played by Vander-
bilt, Tennessee, and Sewanee university teams draw enthusiastic crowds.

The horse and riding shows which are features of State and county
fairs are well attended by city and country folk alike. The Plantation Walk-
ing Horse, bred originally for planters and overseers to ride while direct-
ing work in the fields, is an especial favorite. With its three easy gaits
the walk, the running walk, and the canter it is an ideal mount for use
and pleasure. In Marshall and Bedford counties, where the Walking Horse
is bred in great numbers, an extensive network of bridle paths spreads
through the rolling hill country. Each spring, usually in April, cavalcades

FISHING IN A GREAT SMOKIES STREAM

of men, women, and children take to these paths for trips that range from
weekend jaunts to rides lasting two weeks or more. The recently inaugu-
rated Ride-a-thon a two-day horseback trip over the country trails has
proven popular. Plans are in the making for a State-wide system of bridle
paths. In most of the cities and larger towns there are riding clubs and
stables where horses may be rented.

Most of the county fairs feature horse races, automobile racing, shows,
and midway amusements in addition to a variety of exhibits. Large crowds
are drawn every year to the iris festival at Nashville, the dogwood festival at
Knoxviiie, the strawberry festival at Bells a*id Humboldt, in Crockett
County, and the rhododendron festival at Gatlinburg. Two outstanding
yearly events are the Memphis Cotton Carnival with its Mardi-Gras revelry
and Mule Day at Columbia, an all-day celebration in honor of the "orner-
iest and workingest work-critter living/"

E Tennessee that the tourist knows, with its standard highways
Jj^ and hotdog stands, its industrial areas, cities, and hustling chambers
of commerce all smoothly integrated in surface America is much like
the tourist's Maine or Ohio. But there is an older Tennessee, resistant to
the leveling force of an age of radio, motion pictures, mass printing, and
rapid transit, and taking its folkish pattern from habits, beliefs, and art
forms rooted in the remote past of the British Isles. To an outsider these
folkways may seem merely odd survivals of the quaint or decadent.
They are more than that: they are the earthy Tennessee of Davy Crockett
and Andy Jackson, grown old but still hale and hearty.

Though the folkways of Tennessee are part of the general regional cul-
ture of the South, they belong to the upland and border area rather than
to the Deep South and the Seaboard. Folkways persist most vigorously in
isolated mountain and hill regions and in rural sections, but their influence
is still felt in the cities and among people of all classes, whites and Ne-
groes. Some of the traditions and beliefs are State-wide; others are peculiar
to mountain, Negro, or rural communities.

The speech of Tennesseans is rich in racy and vigorous folk idiom, de-
rived from times when the English language had not yet been starched and
formalized with definitions and rules of grammar. In the speech of the
unlettered, especially in the mountains and hill country, there is often the
metrical surge and flow of the Old Testament and of the Reformation
hymns that the people sing. "My mind went a-rambling like wild geese
in the West/' "I went down to Chattanooga, where the smoke runs up to
the sky." "I am not fitten for to knock at her door/'

Backcountry folk are prone to use parts of speech in strange ways
nouns as verbs, verbs as nouns, adjectives and adverbs as nouns or verbs.
"I've got them weary dismals today/' moans the hillman. * 'Granny Ta-
tum's standing on the drop-edge of Yonder and we'll soon be laying her
down in her silent grave." Of a jealous lover they say: "Oh, he's heart-
burning the worst kind over that little gal/' A quicksand stream is a "rnir-
ing branch"; a gossip is a f 'bone-carrier"; a tirade is a "clapper-clawing."
If a man is reserved* he is "offish" or "uncomeatable." An extravagant lie

134

FOLKLORE: THE LIVING PAST 135

is a "ripper," a "snorter," a "screamer." A person who changes his mind
often is called a "fly-up-the-creek" or a "whip-around."

Often there is a broad vein of humor in the folk expressions of the peo-
ple. "I'm so hungry I could eat a bull and it bellering!" "He's as lazy as
the hound that leaned against the fence to bark." "She's as ugly as a mud
fence dabbed over with toad frogs."

Thousands of Tennesseans still judge character by physical traits cata-
logued by generations of observations. "You watch," they say, "and see if
politicians don't most usually always have big noses. You take a man with
stubby fingers. He masters his way through the world and he's bull-
stubborn. Take a man that grays early. Most likely he's a fine fellow and
will lend you money. A blue-gummed Negro is a killer and his bite is as
poisonous as a copperhead's. A dimple in a girl's chin is a mighty bad
sign, means the devil within. But a dimpled man is a good steady sort of
fellow and can be trusted. Don't know why it is, but rich men most usually
are hairy. Any man who talks to himself has money in the bank, but he
won't lend you any."

The old weather signs have vital meaning in the lives of rural people
and farmers watch them closely. "You can always tell there will be a
storm," they say, "when cats and rats play after sundown. A sure sign of
rain is when a rooster crows at night. Frost will come as sure as judgment
just six weeks after you hear the first July fly. It never fails when birds
flock on the ground that a wind storm is brewing up, and when fires com-
mence spitting there'll be a soon fall of snow."

"When it comes to farming," they will tell you, "I'd sink down to
beggar-trash in no time if I didn't know the things I learnt from my daddy
and he learnt from his daddy about farming. Suppose you plant potatoes
near onions. Well, the onions will put their eyes out. I've never seen a gar-
den that throve good unless it was planted in the full of the moon. You've
got to be careful and don't thank a man for gift seeds or they will perish
in the ground. If it thunders while the fruit trees are in bud, the orchard
won't yield to amount to anything. If a hen is set in the light of the moon
the eggs will hatch roosters that you can't noways keep out of the house.
Don't ever set a hen during a run of wind or the chickens will cackle,
crow, and sing till you're half crazy. If you'll mark the bottom of the
churn with a cross or drop a dime into it, the butter will come quicker. If
you want to keep your horses and cows from catching distemper, tie a
strong billygoat in the stalls with them. Always plant peppers when you're
good and mad at your wife and give your gourd seeds a hard cussing or
they won't come up."

136 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

The old wives say: "It ain't no sort of ailments except the pneumonia
and bad fever sickness that you can't treat at home just as good as any doc-
tor a-living. Nothing on this earth better for a cut than some turpentine
to burn out the poison and a binding of fat bacon to heal the soreness or
maybe draw out rust and splinters. You could pay five dollars a bottle for
cough medicine and it wouldn't do no better than a dose of coal oil and
sugar. Want to get shet of warts? Well, let a black calf lick them three
times on three days and fare-ye-well warts. You drink water boiled with a
silver dollar and your hives will leave you/'

"Now, when it's babies/' they say, "it's just rightdown foolish to try to
go by a book. Say a young woman goes by the book. She pays no mind to
what her old mother tells her. She maybe goes to town and sees a scary
movie show. Then what? The baby's born with a birth-scald on his face.
When a child is born, you dasn't sweep under the bed nor take the ashes
out of the fireplace for a good month if you want the mother to live. If
you want the child to rise in the world, make sure you take it upstairs
before you take it downstairs. Let your baby look into a mirror before it's
a. month old and it'll have trouble teething. Say you want to know what
sort of man your boy-child's going to be. Well, when he's exactly one year
old take and set him in the middle of the floor. Put things like a Bible, a
hammer, a piece of money, and a snake's tongue around him. Watch which
one he picks up first Is it the Bible? He'll be a preacher. The hammer?
A carpenter. Money? A banker. Snake's tongue? A lawyer."

"These fresh younglings they send here to teach school now vow it ain't
a thing to luck signs," they say, shaking their heads. "But don't you be-
lieve itl I've seen many a thing that the books don't tell. Now, it's a
mighty mean thing to hear an owl screech at midnight. A man's got to tie
a knot in a towel or stick a shovel in the fire, or he'll foul his times and
seasons. If you bite your finger nails on Sunday, you are bound to be sick
unless you wear something blue for a week. If you count flowers on a
grave, you will die unless you swallow as many minnows as there were
flowers. If, unbeknownst, you burn cherry wood, or lightning-struck wood
in your stove, you better be quick to burn thornwood, or the Lord help
you! It's terrible bad luck to sit in a chair backward or lay a broom on
the bed, or tear up a Bible, or turn a chunk around in the fireplace."

Love and marriage customs are rich in folk beliefs. "On the first day of
May," they will tell you, "a girl can hold a mirror over a well and see her
future husband. But she won't catch a husband at all if she ever sits on a
table. Let a boy find a girl's knife or nail file and she will be his wife. If a
girl and boy bump heads, they will become lovers before six months are

WOMAN CARDING

138 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

out. Sleep with a beef bone under your pillow for nine nights and you will
marry the person you dream of on the ninth night. You can set your shoes
crosswise under your bed and dream of your sweetheart. September mar-
riages will be happy. Marry during a rain and you will turn sour on your
husband or wife."

Sitting up with the dead has its own peculiar customs. "They's three
main things you've got to be mighty careful about," they say. "First off,
it's the blackest sort of luck for any member of the family to sit up with
the departed. They's death in it. Be sure that every mirror is taken down
or turned to the- wall. If any of the folks sitting up was to see the coffin
in the mirror, it's death to them. And cats ! Lord, don't let a cat come near
the remainders! Cats is the devil's own and they'll sure steal the soul of
the departed if they can get up into the coffin."

The lives of most rural folk revolve about the churches, which are not
merely places of worship but also social clubs, news exchanges, and mar-
riage marts. Country church "sociables," picnics, and "Summer Associa-
tion" meetings are in essence folk festivals.

After "laying-by" time in the summer the rural folk take things easy.
There are visiting in the community, all-day fishing trips, which end with
fish fries on the river bank, ice-cream and strawberry suppers, squirrel
stews, and barbecues (see Tour 10). As late summer approaches, prepara-
tion is begun for the Big Meeting. Women cook for weeks in anticipation
of "visiting company." Singing school masters from far-gone places like
Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas have taught their schools at a dollar a head,
and now folk know enough about reading shaped notes to make the music
good during the meeting. The Sunday community singings and the monthly
all-county sings at the county courthouse have "shook the crimps out of
voices." The Big Meeting is the crowning point of the summer two
weeks of fiery sermons, sweet music, prayer, shouting, conversion, baptism,
dinner on the ground, visiting and courting.

Every county seat has its "Liars' Bench" the worn steps of the court-
house or the curbing on its shady side where on Saturdays and first Mon-
days (see Columbia) farmers in town to market their produce gather with
townsmen to swap tall tales, and talk politics, women, and religion. In
each county is one man outstanding as a wit. Trade days find him on the
court square surrounded by howling men and boys. In national and local
news he is well informed, and his humorous comments "make folks clear"
on otherwise perplexing questions. People will say, "Don't miss first Mon-
day, because Tom Siler will be on hand. That man's a rich card, a Joe
Darter for a fact ! Ain't nothing he don't know and ain't nobody he can't

FOLKLORE: THE LIVING PAST 139

mock down to the point of nothing." Politicians, lovers, church folk, and
the like fear the quips of such a man, but they admire him and are always
on hand to hear his latest.

In general, there is no sharp line of cleavage between the substance of
Negro and white folk beliefs. The Negro has absorbed and modified many
white folk beliefs, as he borrowed speech and religion. However, his tem-
perament and vivid imagination have given this old European lore a new
richness of imagery and a naive freshness authentically his own. The hu-
morous philosophy which often underlies his life brightens for him cir-
cumstances that would be unrelieved bleakness for the whites. The Negro's
powerful folk instincts have softened the hard angularity of his adopted
religion. His Lord is made in man's own image: an all- wise, benevolent,
and thoroughly human deity. Some of the traits of the Calvinist God are
transferred to the devil and even the devil is sometimes an "old rip,"
malicious but amusing, rather than a foul fiend. The weight of evil power
rests with witches and the vague rabble of dark forces which prowl the
night. These things are true, of course, only of the uneducated Negro. The
high school or college graduate follows the urban mores.

Negro religious services are highly emotional, and in many Negro
churches of the rural sections dancing is one of the most important ele-
ments in the worship. These dances and the songs accompanying them
are called "reels." Although they are tabooed in the city congregations, it
is in general considered proper to dance, provided the feet are not crossed,
as "hit ain't railly dancin', lessen de feets is crossed." The Baptist churches
in many places follow the old custom of baptism. Dressed in white robes,
the minister, his assistants, and those to be baptized march into the water.
A man called a "feeler" goes ahead of the minister with a pole, feeling
the way for the others, so that there may be no "pit falls." After a suitable
place is reached, the applicants for baptism march to the minister and are
immersed. As a rule they come from the water shouting, while the on-
lookers on the banks of the creek chant a dirge-like melody.

Belief in "cunjur" lore, an offshoot of voodoo, is fairly widespread
among Tennessee Negroes. Its influence is strongest in West Tennessee
where both white and Negro folkways have much in common with those
of the Deep South. Cunjur spells, which may consist of anything from a
muttered rigmarole of African words to scattering graveyard ("goober")
dust, are relied on to accomplish a variety of things for believers. Cunjur
doctors will sell you "hands" or "tobies" enabling you to detect witches
and ward off their spells. Through cunjur you can cause rain, find lost
property, wither the tongue of your gossiping neighbor, win your sweet-

140 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

heart's love, and drive your enemy insane or to the grave. It can force your
debtors to pay you and your creditors to forget you, make your wife fecund
or barren, cause the fish to bite, and the mosquitoes to forage elsewhere.
The power of cunjur is as limitless as its user's desires.

"Cunjur doctors" are often marked by physical peculiarities that add to
their professional reputations. One such man who lived near Memphis had
kinky hair on the sides of his head, but straight hair on top, a lucky mole
on his right arm, and three birthmarks on his left arm declared to repre-
sent the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. He was chicken-breasted, indicating
that he would never have tuberculosis, and had been born with a caul over
his face.

Cunjur doctors do a thriving business in the Negro districts of Memphis
and Nashville. They traffic chiefly in good luck charms, love powders, cure-
alls, and spells to insure winnings in the numbers game. Though there are
many skillful Negro physicians in the towns, wrinkled red-eyed old men
and women ply their trade of herb-doctoring and cunjuring in tenement
districts just as they do in the most isolated swamplands.

Rural Negroes are little concerned with luck charms for gambling. Their
endless struggle is with witches, "ha'nts," and the like. Though ha'nts are
feared, some of them are merely prankish or bothersome. But all witches
are deadly dangerous and feared utterly. Among the whites, belief in
witches has largely disappeared. The Negro has a double heritage of witch
lore Celtic and Teutonic from England, and a jumble of beliefs from
many African peoples. A witch can take any form. The most common is
the traditional toothless old hag. But the cur-dog slouching across the road,
the whickering owl that perches in your yard, a cat, a snake, a fish, or even
a stone may be a witch in disguise. When a witch fastens on you, you are
doomed to a terrible death unless you can find a spell to rid yourself of
her. The witch conies to you in the night and rides you. In the morning
you find your hair plaited into stirrups and your face scratched, and you
feel as if you have had a savage beating. Good charms against witches are
salt sprinkled about the house, especially in the fireplace, black pepper
carried on the person, sulphur matches thrust into the hair, or the left hind
foot of a graveyard rabbit in the pocket. Unless the witch is particularly
powerful, a Bible under your pillow will keep her at bay. She must count
every word before she can begin riding you, a task she can never finish be-
fore dawn. The best way to prevent harm from witches is never to offend
anyone suspected of witchcraft.

The uneducated Negro clings religiously to many old death customs.
If a person dies hard, his ghost will return to haunt the family. Nothing

FOLKLORE: THE LIVING PAST 141

must be overlooked to make the dying of your kin as "easy" as possible.
The bed must never be placed "cross-way of de world," but always with
the head toward west so that the spirit can flow out with the mystical east-
west currents of the earth. If this does not help, the pillows are removed,
because a bed containing the feathers of a fowl protects the life spark.
When anyone is suffering greatly, it is better to shift him to a strange
mattress to hasten the end: it is dangerous even for a well person to sleep
on a strange mattress.

Tlie custom of holding several funerals for one person is not uncom-
mon; and after the main funeral and the burying have taken place, a
funeral service may be conducted by each lodge or association to which the
deceased had belonged. Many a Negro will pay dues to a lodge all his
life so that he and his relatives may be "laid away" in style. A preacher
often has his funeral preached in each church which has been under his
pastorate. Because rural Negroes cannot always get together on short
notice, a body will sometimes be buried on the day after death, and the
funeral services held several months later. Occasionally, when a person
dies penniless, preachings will be held for several days over the body until
enough money has been collected to satisfy the undertaker. To keep the
spirit from coming back again, the cup and saucer used in the last illness
are placed on the grave. The medicine bottles are sometimes turned up-
side down with loosened corks on the grave so that the contents can soak
into the ground.

In every locality are men and women, Negroes and whites, who are oral
libraries for neighborhood history and gossip. They can quote exhaustively
from all important sermons and political speeches for years back, and have
at their tongues' tip a great variety of jokes and anecdotes. They will tell
you long circumstantial tales of the War of the Roses, when Fiddling Bob
Taylor and Uncle Alf Taylor, brothers and political enemies, campaigned
against each oflher for the governorship. They will tell you of the roaring
sermons of Evangelist Sam Jones and of how he fought the saloon keepers
and gamblers with Scripture and fist. They will tell of famous railroad
wrecks, the teething troubles of children dead these many years> and they
will grow eloquent on Bryan's last stand at Dayton. And from the moun-
tains of East Tennessee to the Mississippi lowgrounds they will tell you
the eerie tales of Old Kate, the Bell Witch of Robertson County, who tor-
mented John Bell to his grave and cowed Andrew Jackson. There are
stories of ghosts and badmen, of lovers, family feuds, and political killings
all true folk tales, edited and garnished by thousands of tellings. Ten-
nessee's finest contributions to folk tale are undoubtedly the legends that

MONDAY

grew up around the exploits of Davy Crockett as bear and 'coon hunter,
marksman, politician and wit, lover, mighty drinker, and spinner of tre-
mendous yarns.

The white folk music of Tennessee, like the rest of its white folk cul-
ture, belongs to the large upland region of the southeast. It is best under-
stood by observing it in its various functional forms. It may function, for
example, as the joy of the individual or the small casual group, the re-
ligious gathering, the "singing," the dance, and the play-party a gather-
ing where singing games are played.

The ballad ("love song" or "ballet") is still perhaps the strongest type
of traditional song in Tennessee. These may be very ancient, like "Little
Hugh," "Lord Lovel," and scores of others; or they may be more recent
compositions in the ancestral ballad manner, like "Springfield Mountain,"
"Jesse James," "The Death of Floyd Collins," "Mr. Bryan's Last Fight/'
and "Casey Jones." The production of these ballads seems endless. Every
new happening of enough importance to arouse widespread note and ruffle
the feelings of the country folk is almost sure to bring a ballad in its wake.

FOLKLORE: THE LIVING PAST 143

Typical of the recent compositions are the "badman" songs, one of the
best of which "Stagolee," or "Stack O'Lee" comes from Memphis.
Stagolee is pictured thus:

Stagolee was a bully man, an' everybody knowed
When dey seed Stagolee comin' to give Stagolee de road.
(Refrain)

Oh, dat man, bad man, he gives his wife his han f
"Goodbye, darlin', I'm going to kill a man."

The song gives a detailed account of the murder and of the capture of
Stagolee, followed by the court scene, which does not reveal Stagolee's fate.
The song ends with,

Stagolee cried to de jury, " Please don't take my life,
I've got three little chillun an' one little lovin' wife."
O, dat man, bad man, Stagolee done come.

Another typical Negro folk song, relating the sinking of the Titanic,
was composed by an old western Tennessee Negro:

It was sad when dat great ship went down ship went down,
It was sad when dat great ship went down ship went down;
Women, wives, and little children los' their lives los* their lives,
It was sad when dat great ship went down.

The ordinary Negro prayer is really a spontaneous song, since it is often
intoned as a sort of chant. In moments of earnestness, stilted phrases are
laid aside and prayers for particular individuals are moaned, with direct
mention of particular besetting sins. Sorrow is expressed in the same fash-
ion. There is a large group of regular Negro church songs known as
"moans" because they are pitched in the sing-song fashion of prayer or
grief. Tragedies and catastrophes are made themselves for chants, much
like a deacon's prayer or "the "moan" of the convert who has just "come
through" and vividly describes his trip to hell and heaven.

The dance song has practically given way to the dance fiddle tune with-
out words. The "old fiddler" of Tennessee is far from extinction, and he
still fiddles such strains as "Natchez under the Hill," and the "Arkansas
Traveler," "Turkey in the Straw/* "Turkey Bone Buzzer," and "Pop
Goes the Weasel" tunes of hoary age. More recently the old fiddler
has associated himself with guitar and banjo players to form "hillbilly
bands" which have done their part In entertaining radio listeners. Related
to the dance, and less subject to the disapproval of churchly folk, is the
play-party. Though now less prevalent than in earlier times, when social
diversions were fewer, it is still played to the singing of "Hog Drovers,"
"The Miller's Lot," "Slop the Hogs," and "Possum Pie," and like swing-
ing games.

144 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Many songs are composed and sung on the basis of "calls" and
" 'sponses," as:

Leader (call) : Oh, where you runnin* sinnah
Audience ('sponse): No hidin' place down here!

"Note singing" and "book singing" are rapidly replacing the "jump-
up" songs among the Negroes. Individual Negro composers pass out
printed copies of their songs, usually called ballads, which are learned and
sung by rural congregations until it is almost impossible to separate the
old from the new. Even here the creative impulse is not ended the bal-
lads usually come without music and a tune has to be improvised, the lines
often being modified to fit the melody. This improvisation, called "choon-
ing it," is done with surprising quickness and ease.

The religious folk impulse finds expression in the spirituals, both white
and Negro (see MUSIC). Particularly as developed by the Negro, these
folk songs are now a unique and significant part of American music.

>>>>>>>>

E literature of the early settlers is found in the written forms with
which they transacted the business of their everyday lives. These
trail-clearers, fort-builders, and Indian-fighters gave historians of a later
day the framework of their collective biography in the various documents
they published.

The first writers, in the professional sense of the word, were concerned
with religious and political controversy, history, and law. J. G. M. Ramsey,
a physician and scholar, wrote the one-volume Annals of Tennessee
(1853), a valuable and detailed source of information on pioneer life and
government. Through his newspaper and broadside writings he was in-
strumental in the building of the first steamboat in Knoxville and in secur-
ing the first railroads for East Tennessee. John Haywood, of Nashville,
justice of the State supreme court, was the author of the widely known
Civil and Political History of the State of Tennessee (1823). His Natural
and Aboriginal History of Tennessee (1823), a book now all but forgot-
ten, is sought by collectors.

Charles Todd, a Presbyterian minister and newspaper editor, is believed
to have been the State's first novelist. His Woodville, or t The Anchoret
Returned (1832) is wholly a product of Tennessee. At a date when book-
publishing was considered the exclusive province of the northeastern
States, this 2y8-page novel was published from the printing shop of F. W.
Heiskell in Knoxville, on thin linen stock that came from an East Ten-
nessee paper mill. The book's pages differ in size, but the type is uniform
and clear. Woodville contains little local color. The author states in his
preface that, since the novel's characters and scene have "true-life" origin,

he judges it honorable not to be explicit. Therefore, the village S "is

situated in a lovely valley and immediately on the shore of a beautiful
river." The emotions of his characters Todd describes in the ponderous
and moralistic style of the early nineteenth century.

In pioneer days, when an editor could term a fellow citizen a "low-
born loon" with no fear of legal aftermath, newspapers in Tennessee were
usually one-man affairs. A printer by profession, the publisher aired his
own opinions and gathered his paper's news. The pioneer newspaperman

145

146 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

set up his business in centers of State or Territorial government. The birth
of the newspaper was often due to some cause vital to the community's
growth (such as agitation for railroads). When the cause was won or lost,
the newspaper ceased to exist. Or, if rumor reached the publisher's ears
that some settlement was having a livelier contemporary history than the
community in which he was then working, he moved his newspaper there.

George Roulstone, a New Englander, published the State's first news-
paper, the Knoxville Gazette, at Rogersville, November 5, 1791. As soon
as the Indian troubles subsided these having prevented the paper's first
issue from being published in Knoxville Rouistone moved his news-
paper to that center of State government and there continued its publica-
tion.

Mark Twain's "Journalism in Tennessee," with its uproarious account
of fist fights, duels, and horse whippings among editors, was small exaggera-
tion. Well toward the close of the last century Tennessee editors were an
outspoken and violent breed. Characteristic of the vituperative type of edi-
tor was W. G. (Parson) Brownlow who contributed forcefully to early
journalism. From 1843 when Brownlow's Whig, published in Jonesboro,
won its fight against Andrew Jackson and the Democratic supremacy, his
papers continued to be storm centers of political and religious turmoil.
The Whig was removed to Knoxville in 1849; and- in 1861, because its
editor openly supported the Unionist cause, the paper was suppressed by
the Confederates. Brownlow resumed publication of the paper in 1863
when Union forces took possession of Knoxville ; its publication was con-
tinued in that city until 1869. Brownlow was successively editor of the
Daily Chronicle, the Independent Journal, and the Knoxville Whig and
Rebel Ventilator & title later changed to Weekly Whig and Chronicle*
"Cry Aloud and Spare Not," the belligerent motto of the paper, ade-
quately characterized its editorial policy.

The first verse published in Tennessee appeared in the early newspapers ;
poems by the editor and literary subscribers were used as fillers or given
column space on the last page of these four-page folios. In Colonel James
Smith's Account of Remarkable Occurrences, published at Lexington, Ken-
tucky, 1799, is what is believed to be the first poem composed in Ten-
nessee territory. Smith, with four others, explored the Cumberland down
to the Ohio in June 1776. At the mouth of the Tennessee three of the ad-
venturers turned homeward, but Smith and a Negro boy continued their
journey into Tennessee country. Smith received a severe cane stab in his
foot and, while he waited for his injury to mend, he composed the poem
that appears in his reminiscences.

WRITERS OF TENNESSEE 147

David Crockett, Tennessee bear hunter, politician extraordinary and
hero of the Alamo, was one of the first humorists of the South and a trail
blazer for the American school of humorous writing. A thorough Tennes-
sean, Crockett knew the State from Hangover Mountain to Reelfoot Lake.
Although there is much controversy over the authorship of A Narrative
of the Life of David Crockett, of the State of Tennessee . . . Written by
Himself (1834), the vital brawny qualities of the Colonel are unques-
tionably present in this hair-raising classic of the Southern frontier.

After his defeat in the race for Congress against Andrew Jackson's
candidate, Crockett announced to the opposition, "You can go to hell, I'm
going to Texas." There he wrote Col. Crockett's Exploits and Adventures
In Texas (1836). In this book, in his autobiography, and in An Account
of Col. Crocketfs Tour to the North and down East (1835), Crockett
describes how he drank, hunted, speculated, begot children, farmed badly,
and, when settlers built cabins near him, moved farther into the wilds.

Little of permanent value was achieved in the fields of fiction, poetry,
biography, or journalism until after the War between the States, but
George Washington Harris and Opie Read further developed the humor
of the mountains and the canebrakes. Harris, the first Tennessean to write
realistically of the Appalachian mountain folk, introduced the lank uncouth
East Tennessee mountaineer, Sut Lovingood, a chronic drunkard and "a
nat'ral born durn'd fool," whose main purpose in life was to raise "per-
tiddar hell/' Readers of the Sut Lovingood Yarns (1867) were delighted
with a kind of humor that depended on rowdy and ludicrous situations.
The tortuous dialect, which all but requires a key, foreshadows the writing
of Nye, Nasby, and others of the bucolic and red-flannel era of American
life. Harris also wrote political articles.

Opie Read, of Nashville, the author of Len Ganseti (1888), A Ken-
tucky Colonel (1890), The Jucklins (1896), and numerous other novels,
reports the customs and manners of earlier Tennessee in an easy conver-
sational style. His pathos and humor, depending upon stock situations and
obvious play on words, are in the vein of newspaper feature writing. Sev-
eral of Read's novels were published in the Arkansas Traveler, of which
he was the founder and editor (1883-91). After removing from Little
Rock to Chicago, he wrote his autobiography, J Remember (1930).

The principal novelists of the late nineteenth century used the State as
a background for romantic fiction, and of these John Trotwood Moore and
Charles Egbert Craddock (Mary N. Murfree) are the best remembered.
Moore, who came from Alabama in 1885, described Middle Tennessee
in the years before and immediately after the War between the States. In

148 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

The Bishop of Cottontown (1906) he attacked the system of child labctf
in Southern cotton mills. Miss Murfree chose the region of the Great
Smokies for her pictures of a backwoods people and their never-ending
struggles for existence. Drifting down Lost Creek, and The Prophet of
the Great Smoky Mountains (1885) are representative works.

Maria Thompson Daviess wrote of the Nashville region Harpeth Val-
ley, Providence Road, and Paradise Ridge. Her characters are kind-hearted,
gentle country-folk who live in an aura of optimism. Some of the novels
are propaganda for movements dear to the author; The Tinder Box
(1917) deals with woman suffrage and Over Paradise Ridge (1915)
with the back-to-the-farm movement. Henry Sydnor Harrison, of Sewanee,
wrote several sympathetic novels about middle-class people. Queed (19* *)
and V.V.'s Eyes (1913) were best sellers.

The "lost cause" was a favorite subject of Tennessee poets of the period
after the War between the States. Virginia Fraser Boyle, of Memphis, ro-
manticizes the antebellum and wartime South in Love Songs and Bugle
Calls (1906). Against the same background Abram J. (Father) Ryan,
one of the prominent poets of the Confederacy, wrote mystic and devo-
tional verse. Father Ryan saw action in the Tennessee campaigns, and in
"The Conquered Banner" and "Sword of Robert E. Lee" he proclaims his
unreconstructed sentiments.

Walter Malone, of Memphis, wrote serious verse and nature poems,
profuse in imagery. "Opportunity" a standby of expression teachers
found in his Songs of East and West (1906) and a lengthy narrative in
verse, Hernando De Soto (1914), are his best known. Will Allen Drorn-
goole, of Nashville, wrote of the cabin dwellers of East and Middle Ten-
nessee. For years she conducted a weekly page known as "Song and Story'*
in the Nashville Banner. In prose and poetry she used the dialects of the
Negro, the mountaineer, and the "po' white trash," The Heart of Old
Hickory and Other Stories of Tennessee (1895) and the Doll's Funeral
juvenile verse, are representative of her work.

Many editors and historians made valuable contributions to the under-
standing of Tennessee, Albert Virgil Goodpasture, whose histories are
source books for early State history, was co-author, with William Robert-
son Garret, of the History of Tennessee^ Its People and Its Institutions
(1900).

Will T. Hale, of Clarksville, editor of the Memphis Commercial Ap-
peal, Nashville American, and Knoxville Sentinel ', described the rural sec-
tions, and in dialect verse and prose interpreted the homely philosophy of
Tennessee villages and farms. Among his best known works are Showers

WRITERS OF TENNESSEE 149

and Sunshine (1896), poems; The Backward Trail (1899), stories of the
Indians and the Tennessee pioneers; and Great Southerners (1900), bio-
graphical sketches.

Robert Love (Bob) Taylor, editor of the Taylor Trotwood Magazine,
was a humorist of the old school. Gov. Bob Taylor's Tales (1896) con-
tains "The Fiddle and the Bow" and some of his most quoted lines. Al-
most every Tennessean knows at least one Bob Taylor yarn. C. P. J.
Mooney, editor of the Memphis Commercial Appeal, wrote in defense of
the interests of the farmers of Tennessee and the mid-South.

The Sewanee Review, founded at the University of the South in 1892,
claims to be the oldest quarterly in the United States in continuous publi-
cation. Among its famous editors have been William Peterfield Trent and
John Bell Henneman. Under William S. Knickerbocker, its present editor,
the Sewanee Review has published much competent literary criticism dur-
ing the past decade.

Many of the younger Tennessee writers show a lively and skeptical in-
terest in State history, past and present, and a large part of their efforts
has been directed toward reinterpreting the South of the War between
the States. In biographies of statesmen and military leaders, panoramic
novels, and volumes of poetry, they patiently vivisect the period and its
people. Commonly they are protagonists of the South, but with no rose-
colored conception of the aristocratic tradition of the Old South. The
modern writer breaks with the past, and his sentence structure is as un-
conventional as his viewpoint. He gives his attention to the everyday life
of the common people, too frequently disregarded or depicted romantically
in earlier Southern literature. In direct and vigorous prose that often has a
stark beauty, these writers tell the story of sharecropper, politician, moun-
taineer, and frontiersman. If the scene of the book is contemporary, the
bitter details may have their origin in the author's own life.

Of first rank among genre writers is T. S. Stribling, of Clifton, realist
of the Tennessee and North Alabama hills. His novels, written in a
straightforward, forceful style, deal with the moral codes, social practices,
and economic conditions of Southern life, Stribiing's first novel, Birth-
right (1922), his Teepallow (1926) and Bright Metal (1928) are all
set in Middle and West Tennessee. Two adventure novels, Fombombo
(1923) and Red Sand (1924), and the short story collections, Strange
Moon (1929) and Clues of the Caribees (1929), have a Vene2uelan back-
ground. Stribling's most important work is the trilogy, The Forge (1931),
The Store (Pulitzer Prize novel, 1933), and the Unfinished Cathedral
(1934). The trilogy presents the rise of unscrupulous Miltiades Vaiden

150 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

from middle-class Baptist farmer to storekeeper, cotton speculator, banker,
and High-Church Methodist, and the retribution that overtook him when
a poor-white enemy dynamited him in the unfinished cathedral that was
to have been his monument.

Harry Harrison Kroll, of Murfreesboro, has written of the East Tennes-
see Mountains in Three Brothers and Seven Daddies (i93 2 ) and of the
West Tennessee cotton country in The Cabin tn the Cotton (I93 1 )- His
vivid, often crude technique achieves a striking realism. His latest novel,
/ \7ds a Sharecropper (1937), is autobiographical. In 1938 one of Kroll's
short stories appeared in the O'Brien collection of best stories. Fish on the
Steeple (1935) by Ed Bell, of Smithville, is a well-written story of every-
day life in a small mountain town in East Tennessee. Bell's style is starkly
realistic.

Two West Tennesseans who have written with understanding of their
section are Ridley Wills, of Brownsville, and Jennings Perry, of Jackson.
Wills' two novels, Hoax (1922), the life of a young man from the age of
eighteen to twenty-seven, and Harvey Landrum (1924), a psychological
study of chinless Harvey Landrum, who tries to conceal a sense of inferi-
ority behind a false front of bravery, are written in a frank but restrained
prose style. Perry's Windy Hill (1926) is a love story with Jackson for its
background.

Caroline Gordon (Mrs. Allen Tate), of Clarksville, writes of the Mid-
dle Tennessee planters before and after the War between the States. Pen-
bally (1931) and Aleck Maury, Sportsman (1934) are her earliest novels.
None Shall Look Back (1937) is a careful study and evaluation of the
war in the eastern section of the State. Her latest novel is The Garden of
Adonis (1937), in which she deals with the tenant-farmer situation. Miss
Gordon has received a Guggenheim fellowship, and her short stories have
appeared in the O. Henry and O'Brien collections.

Evelyn Scott, of Clarksville, has made outstanding contributions in the
fields of fiction, poetry, and autobiography. Although Evelyn Scott is con-
cerned more with the portrayal and analysis of emotions than with politic
cal, military, or social events, the war background of her Civil War novel,
The Ware (1929), is lucidly and authentically presented. Her prose works
include her autobiographical Escapade (1923) ; the novels The Narrow
House (1921), The Golden Door (1925), Migrations (1927), Blue Rum
(1930) ; a collection of short stories, Ideals (1927) ; and two books for
children, In the Endless Sands (1925), written in collaboration with
Cyril Kay Scott, and Witch Perkins (1929). Two volumes of her poetry
have been published: Precipitations (1920) znd'Tke Winter Alone

WRITERS OF TENNESSEE 151

(1930). In Background in Tennessee (1937), Evelyn Scott gives a frank
account of the social life and customs in her native State.

Maristan Chapman, of Chattanooga, writes of the Cumberland Moun-
tain folk. Among her outstanding novels are Happy Mountain (1928),
Homeplace (1929), Glen Hazard (1933), and Eagle Cliff (1934), writ-
ten in collaboration with her husband, John Stanton Higham. (Chapman
is Mrs. Higham* s maiden name, and Maristan is a combination of Mr.
Higham's middle name and his wife's given name.) All of these books
are distinguished by simplicity of style and intuitive understanding of the
mountain people. The characterizations and descriptions have a quiet
charm, a lightness and freshness of approach.

John Porter Fort, of Chattanooga, has written with power and sincerity
of the under-privileged groups. His Stone Daugherty (1929) and God m
the Straw Pen (1931) show a deep understanding of pioneer life, and
especially of the early revival movement. His first novel, Light m the
Window (1928), deals with the development of an idealistic young
Southerner.

Roark Bradford, of Memphis and West Tennessee, presents the South-
ern Negro with more realism and appreciative understanding than did
many earlier writers. Ol' King David an 3 the Philistine Boys (1930) and
the John Henry stories (1931) are the result of years of study and asso-
ciation with the workers of plantation, river, and city. In 1927 Bradford's
short story, "Child of God," won the O. Henry Award; Green Pastures,
Marc Connelly's stage adaptation of Bradford's OV Man Adam and His
Chillun (1928) was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1930. His latest book,
The Three Headed Angel (1936), has the Tennessee hills for its back-
ground.

Negroes who have been concerned with problems of their race are
George Lee (Bede Street; 1934) ; Thomas Talley (Negro Folk Rhymes;
1922), George McClellan (The Pathway of Dreams; 1916), and Thomas
O. Fuller (A Pictorial History of the American Negro; 1935).

Poetry of the period revolves around the Fugitive group, which was or-
ganized at Vanderbilt University in 1922, under the leadership of John
Crowe Ransom, Donald Davidson, Ridley Wills, Merrill Moore, and
Allen Tate, These poets have announced that "to the last degree in their
poems they are self-convicted experimentalists." Through the Fugitive, a
magazine of poetry published for three years at Nashville, the group has
left its mark on present-day thought in the South. The work of Ransom,
a student of John Donne, was first appreciated in England. The author
of three books of poetry, Poems about God (1919), Chills and Fever

152 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

(1922), and Two Gentlemen in Bonds (1927) ; the religious work, God
Without Thunder (1930) ; and numerous critical articles, he has received
many poetry awards and a Guggenheim fellowship. Davidson is thoroughly
Southern in his critical essays and in his two volumes of lyric and narra-
tive poetry, The TalJ, Men (1927) and Lee in the Mountains and Other
Poems (1938). Merrill Moore, of Nashville, adapts the sonnet form to
modern thought in his The Noise that Time Makes (1929) and Six Sides
to a Man (1935).

An outgrowth of the Fugitives is the Agrarian group. In the anthology
I'll Take My Stand (1930), "all articles tend to suggest a Southern way
of life against what may be called the American or prevailing way; and
all as much as agree that the best terms in which to represent the distinc-
tion are contained in the phrase, Agrarian versus Industrial." In Who
Owns America? A New Declaration of Independence (1936), jointly
edited by Herbert Agar and Allen Tate, twenty-one essayists suggest what
they believe to be the best means of bringing about adjustments necessary
to save the democratic way of life. The Tennessee Agrarians include Ran-
som, Tate, Davidson, Frank Owsley, and Lyle Lanier.

One of the ranking critics in the South is Dr. Edwin Mims, head of the
English department of Vanderbilt University and contributor to the Dic-
tionary of American Biography, the Encyclopedia Britannica, and other
scholarly publications. Dr. Mims has made a special study of the poetry
of Sidney Lanier. The Advancing South (1926) and Adventurous Amer-
ica (1929) are excellent presentations of his critical opinion-

Dr. Walter Clyde Curry, a member of the Vanderbilt English depart-
ment, is an authority on Chaucer and Shakespeare. His Chaucer and the
Medieval Sciences (1926) is a close study of Medieval medicines and the
part they played in the Canterbury Tales. Philosophical Patterns in Shake-
speare (1937) is the most recent work in his series of literary interpre-
tations.

Samuel Cole Williams, of Johnson City, has made significant contribu-
tions to Southern historical writing in his Early Travels in Tennessee
(1926-28), The Lost State of Franklin (1930), Beginnings of West
Tennessee (1933), General ]ohn T. Wilder (1935), and Dawn of Ten-
nessee Valley and Tennessee History (1937). His accounts of pioneer life
and government are carefully documented and accurate and show a broad
outlook, free from provincialism. Judge Williams* lifetime connection
with the State bar furnished first-hand material for his History of Codifi-
cation in Tennessee (1932). He has edited Timberlake's Memoirs (1927),

WRITERS OF TENNESSEE 153

Adair's History of the American Indian (1930), and an eight-volume
Annotated Code of Tennessee (1934-35).

Philip Hamer, of Knoxville, is the author of the four-volume Tennes-
see, a History (1933), which is recognized as a standard work. Colonel
Austin P. Foster, of Nashville, a man well-versed in Tennessee history,
wrote (with John Trotwood Moore) Tennessee, the Volunteer State
(1923), a book that is both readable and useful. Dr. Robert White, of
Nashville, is -a student of contemporary life. His Tennessee, Its Growth
and Progress (1936) has been adopted by the State textbook commission
for school use. The Sequel of Appomattox (1921), by Walter L. Fleming,
of Nashville, is a study of Reconstruction days. Frank Owsley, of Nash-
ville, has described in King Cotton Diplomacy (1931) the Confederacy's
long and unsuccessful effort to gain the friendship and support of Europe.
Robert Selph Henry, a native of Clifton, has given an authentic interpre-
tation of the war period in The Story of the Confederacy (1931) and The
Story of Reconstruction (1938).

George Fort Milton, Jr., editor of the Chattanooga News, is the author
of The Age of Hate (1930), a biography of Andrew Johnson, and The
Eve of Conflict (1934), a study of Stephen A. Douglas and the "needless
war/' Andrew Nelson Lytle, of Murfreesboro, author of the biography,
Bedford Forrest and His Critter Company (1931), has also written
a fine historical novel of the War between the States, The Long Night
(1936), in which the Battle of Shiloh is vividly described. Among Ten-
nesseans who have written biographies of Andrew Jackson are James Par-
ton (A Life of Andrew Jackson; 1859-60), and Samuel G. Heiskell
(Andrew Jackson and Early Tennessee History; 1918). Richard Halli-
burton, of Memphis, with The Royal Road to Romance (1925), The
Flying Carpet (1932), and other books of travel, has appeared regularly
on the best-seller lists. T. H. Alexander, of Franklin, writer for the Nash-
ville Tennessean t is one of the leading contemporary columnists in the
State.

Of late years Tennessee newspapers have become almost indistinguish-
able from other standard papers published in the United States. The Nash-
ville Tennessean, the Nashville Banner, the Knoxville Journal f the Chatta-
nooga Times, or the Memphis Press-Scimitar might well be printed in
Seattle, Miami, or Bangor, so far as style and makeup are concerned. Only
on the editorial pages are found traces of the vigorous individualism, which
was the hallmark of Tennessee journalism in the early days. As late as
1908, Edward Ward Carmack, editor of the Nashville Tennessean, was

154 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

assassinated in the heart of the downtown district of the capital city be-
cause of his strong anti-liquor editorials.

Among present-day Tennessee papers of pre-Civil war vintage are the
Memphis Commercial Appeal (1840), the Nashville Tennessean (1812),
the Franklin Review Appeal (1813). Influential among county papers are:
the Clarksville Leaf-Chronicle (1808), the Athens Post-Athenian (1838),
the Columbia Herald (1850), the Gallatin Examiner-Tennessean, the
Pulaski Citizen (1854), and the Cleveland Banner (1854). The drift of
population to the cities has caused a sharp decrease in the number of
county papers. At the same time, due to consolidation and the economic
depression, the total number of the State's news publications has declined
rapidly. From 302 in 1913 there remained only 181 in 1937; of these,
148 are weekly and 33 are daily papers.

The South's native contribution to music has received interesting treat-
ment by Tennessee writers. Folk Songs of the American Negro (1915),
the work of John Wesley Work, Sr. (completed by his son, John Work,
Jr., of Nashville), is the first serious study by a Negro of the musical ex-
pression of his race. In the same field JamesWeldon Johnson's The Book
of American Negro Spirituals (1929) is widely known. Dr. Johnson, who
was a resident of Nashville, was a poet and scholar, as well as a writer
and collector of songs. His talents are represented by The Autobiography
of an Ex-Colored Man (1912), a novel; God's Trombones (1927), seven
Negro sermons in verse; and Along This Way (1933), an autobiography.
George Pullen Jackson, of Nashville, made a detailed study of mountain
folk music in White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands (1933), W. C.
Handy, of Memphis, composer of the "St. Louis Blues," is the author of
Blues, an Anthology (1926), a study of jazz.

The folk background of this literature of music and the general interest
in genre writing may indicate the trend of Tennessee literature of the
future.

y j y J y y

pioneer settler came to Tennessee from Virginia and North Caro-
lina, with ax, adz, wedge, frow, and drawknife as carefully included
in his traveling kit as were his gunpowder, metal, and mold. His first
buildings were by no means places of comfort and refinement, but they
were stanchly built.

These early one-room log cabins were cell-like structures about twelve
by sixteen feet in size. The logs varied from one to two feet in diameter,
but were dressed down to a thickness of about six inches, giving the walls
a flat surface both inside and out. Their corners interlocked and they were
sawed off flush to make a sharp angle. Spaces between the logs were
chinked with chips and mud. The cabin floor was hard-packed dirt. The
first fireplaces were of dressed logs ; the fireback was of earth, pounded
until it became nearly solid. Chimneys were of wattled saplings daubed
with mud. The simple pitch roof was covered with hand-split shingles
that were held in place by weight poles. In rare instances the cabin was
two stories high, with a second floor overhang, following the medieval
method of timber construction. The larger settlements had fortresses where
everyone could gather in case of attack. These were usually stockade-
enclosed groups of log houses. Fort Nashborough, originally built in 1780
by James Robertson and his party, has been reconstructed on its original
site in Nashville under the supervision of Joseph W. Hart. It is an accurate
reproduction of the pioneer log fort.

A gradual refinement of the one-room log cabin took place. Puncheon
floors of split logs replaced dirt packing, rock fireplaces supplanted those
of sapling and mud construction; and, as Indian attacks slackened, win-
dows replaced loopholes. Still at a disadvantage for want of tools and de-
vices, the pioneer found it difficult to enlarge his home. Since heavy logs
were riard to frame, it was simpler to build another cabin than to make an
addition. Thus came the "dog-trot" or "breezeway" houses: two separate
identical cabins, six to twelve feet apart, with a roofed over passage be-
tween. The pioneer had chanced upon a happy expedient. The open pas-
sage or dog-trot, though somewhat breezy and cold during the winter,
was comfortable and convenient during the summer months. The dog-trot

155

156 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

house is the traditional building type of the isolated hill folk. It is also
often used in more or less crude form by sharecroppers and tenant farm-
ers, as well as by small farm owners throughout the State, chiefly because,
in addition to other advantages, it is inexpensive and easy to build. Archi-
tects have classified the dog-trot house as Tennessee's principal indigenous
architectural type and have found ways in which to modernize it, using the
fundamental plan as the basis for their improved designs.

All log cabins did not evolve into dog-trot cabins. There were many
in which there was no improvement, while in others the settlers added
rooms by interlocking or by a double wall Such forms, however, were ex-
ceptions rather than the rule. After sawmills were established many cabins
were clapboarded, and some became the nuclei of larger and more preten-
tious dwellings.

Planed boards were first used in 1792, when William Blount built one
of the first frame houses west of the Allegheny Mountains. This house,
referred to as the Mansion, is described in Ramsey's Annals as "finished
with some taste, and the grounds better improved than any in town."

Seth Smith, who came to the Watauga section from Pennsylvania in
1791, designed and constructed the first stone house in the State. He was
a stone-mason, but in the execution of his work he was perforce also the
architect and contractor. He built four stone houses in or near Limestone,
Tennessee, which answered the dual purpose of settlement-fort and resi-
dence. The Gillespie house, built in 1792, is the only one of these struc-
tures still in a good state of preservation. In renovating this house there
have been introduced some departures from the original design. Originally,
the house was a plain two-story structure with simple pitch roof and little
if any detail. The walls, which have not been altered, are of limestone,
thirty inches thick at the foundation, twenty-four inches thick at first floor
level, and eighteen inches thick at second floor level. Interior walls are of
wood stud construction; the flooring is of random width and length pine,
laid on hand-hewn joists. The roof, its lines since altered by the addition
of dormers, was originally of hand-split shingles laid on round posts or
trunks of small trees.

Rock Castle, near Hendersonville, might well have been the first stone
house in the State had not its construction been delayed for seven years
by an Indian massacre, in which the original artisans were killed. This
seven-room stone structure, designed and constructed by Gen. Daniel
Smith, a surveyor, was one of the first houses in the State to show archi-
tectural planning, being influenced by the Georgian Colonial homes of the
Eastern Seaboard, from which General Smith had orginally come.

EORT NASHBOROUGH, NASHVILLE

15 8 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

The early years of the nineteenth century were marked by the gradual
use of hand-made brick. Buildings throughout the new State began to
take advantage of the unusually abundant natural resources, principally
limestone, quartz, and the plentiful brick and enamel clays. Styles fol-
lowed in somewhat crude fashion the late Georgian Colonial mode of the
Eastern Seaboard. They were plain structures and, though lacking in many
of the classical embellishments of their prototypes in Virginia, the Caro-
linas, and certain regions of the Middle Atlantic, they were large and sab-
stantial. On his flatboat journeys to New Orleans, the Tennessean saw a
type of construction that appealed to him. He liked the long verandas of
the Spanish builders and decided to incorporate them in his own home.
Cragfont, near Gallarin, built by Gen. James Winchester in 1802, is one
of the first examples of this type. The house was built in the form of a
"T" with the stem forming the back wing. The main section was Georgian
Colonial in treatment, but the wing included first and second floor Spanish
galleries extending the full length on each side.

By 1825, construction in Tennessee showed signs of improved planning.
Wealthy planters, aided by details and plans appearing in early architec-
tural books, began to build pretentious homes. They superintended their
own operations and employed slave labor almost exclusively. Among the
early carpenters and contractors to enter the State were Samuel Cleage and
his son-in-law Thomas Crutchfield. They came from Virginia, bringing
their families and many skilled slaves. AH along their route they secured
contracts and erected houses, their slaves making brick and hewing lumber.
A similar firm was formed by Joseph Rieff and William C. Hume, who
settled in Nashville. The most noted example of their work was the re-
building of the Hermitage in 1835. This lovely estate, built for Andrew
Jackson, retains all the flavor of the antebellum architecture and is typical
of the Tennessee planter's home.

The thirty-five years from the beginning of steamboat transportation to
the War between the States marked a period of great prosperity in the
South. The land was fertile, cotton and tobacco were in great demand,
rivers were becoming crowded with traffic, and the large plantation own-
ers engaged in elaborate home-making projects which gave the State its
famous antebellum architecture.

The Tennessee plantation home, like those of other southern States, was
dressed up in borrowed finery. It followed no single style; instead, such
details were incorporated as best suited the planter's taste. The result was a
fusion of styles, representing in most instances a combination of Wil-
liamsburg, Natchez, and New Orleans Garden District influences. The

ARCHITECTURE 159

house was usually large with a classic fagade designed in the manner of
Jefferson's Classical Revival, as well as in the more strictly classic manner
of the Greek Revival of the 30*5 and 50*5. Oversized rooms, high ceilings,
winding stairs, large rear galleries, and temple-like porticoes, beautifully
colonnaded, were the dominant features. Gardens were landscaped, and
the slave quarters, set apart like a small seigniorial village, sometimes
housed more than a hundred Negroes. Ante bellum architecture featured
both square shafts and round columns, but fluted shafts with Ionic capitals
predominated. There were first and second floor porches as well as the
single veranda, large Spanish galleries as well as delicate Italian balconies.

In 1825 Thomas Baker built Foxland Hall, five miles south of Gallatin,
possibly the best-preserved building of its period in this section. The
sturdy two-story brick structure is designed in the Greek Revival style with
massive columns across the entire facade reaching up to the roof. Fairview,
one mile closer to Gallatin, was erected seven years later by Isaac Franklin
and was known in its day as "the finest country home in Tennessee." The
original section of the house was Georgian Colonial, but a few years later
an addition was made that was definitely Spanish. This fusion of design is
easily explained, for besides his 5,ooo-acre plantation in Tennessee, Frank-
lin owned several large plantations in the Felkien Parish of Louisiana,
where Spanish architecture was widely used.

Some of the best examples of the ante bellum Greek Revival architecture
are in Maury County, just south of Columbia. Among these are the three
Pillow homes, built by the sons of Gideon Pillow. Clifton Place, Pillow-
Bethel Place, Pillow-Haliday Place, all still in use, follow the same archi-
tectural plan, large brick structures featuring a central entrance facade in
the general classic mode. The three Polk homes, built by the sons of William
Polk, are also in the Greek Revival style but vary in plan. Each son, it
seems, tried to outdo the other in building his home. Rattle and Snap, the
last of the Polk mansions, was completed in 1845. This is an unusual
structure, with ten magnificent Corinthian columns extending the full
height of the spacious two-story front. The interior is columned, and fea-
tures two spiral stairways and also two dining rooms that, on special occa-
sions, were opened into one great banquet hall.

Public buildings as well as homes underwent a change at this time.
Many new buildings were erected to replace those already outmoded.
Churches and schools, heretofore housed in cabins, were given more ambi-
tious settings. Business houses were built in rows of three- or four-story
buildings with little or no variation except perhaps in the treatment of
window or doorway detail. A number of these buildings still exist in the

160 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

business sections of the cities, changed only by remodeling of the lower

story.

Maj. A. Heiman was one of the first skilled architects to make Tennessee
his permanent home. He designed the huge suspension bridge that spanned
the Cumberland River at Nashville until 1862, when it was destroyed by
the retreating Confederate forces. His works, for the most part, were in
the castellated Gothic Revival style, and he designed a number of homes
as well as public and semi-public buildings in this style. This style was
contemporary with the Greek Revival and played a significant part in the
romantic movement of the early nineteenth century. The best example of
his work, still in existence, is the Castle Building, now a part of Austin
Peay Normal School at Clarksville. He was employed to design the State
capitol, but the plans of William Strickland, one of America's greatest
early architects, were accepted instead.

Strickland, an outstanding exponent of the Greek Revival in America,
acquired his architectural training under the renowned Benjamin Latrobe.
In 1836 Strickland had been one of the organizers and the first president
of the American Institution of Architects, the organization which antici-
pated the later founding (1857) of the American Institute of Architects.
His classic designs in Philadelphia, which included the Merchants Ex-
change (1845), the United States Naval Asylum (1827), the United
States Mint (1829), and restorations at Independence Hall (1828), had
brought him fame. He was acknowledged as America's first native born
and educated architect of note. The State capitol at Nashville, an original
adaptation of Greek forms to a public building, is regarded as one of
Strickland's best works.

The capitol conforms in every respect to Strickland's original design, as
may be seen from a comparison with his report to the State legislature on
May 20, 1845. The dimensions, according to the architect, were to be, in-
cluding the porticoes, 232 feet by 124 feet, with a surrounding flagged
terrace or platform 18 feet in width. "The architecture of the building
consists of a Doric basement, four Ionic porticoes, two of eight and two
of six columns four feet in diameter, surmounted by a Corinthian tower in
the center of the roof, the whole height of which is to be 170 feet from
the summit of the site. The porticoes are after the order of the Erech-
theum, and the tower from the Choragic monument of Lysicrates in
Athens. . . ."

When Strickland died, April 7, 1854, his body was buried in a vault
in the north wall, where he had prepared his own resting place. The

ARCHITECTURE l6l

capitol, completed by his son, Francis, has been in constant use since 1853,
when it was first occupied by the legislature.

During the nine years of Strickland's life in Tennessee his services
were in great demand. He was a master of Greek design, and expressed
himself in many structures in that mode. He demonstrated his versatility in
designing a few luxurious houses in the manner of Italian villas, while
the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville is reminiscent of Egyptian
architecture. His influence on Tennessee architecture has been such that
public buildings consonant with the capitol are favored throughout the
State; similarly, his domestic designs have had a wide influence.

The firm of Wills and Dudley, of New York, designed Holy Trinity
Church (1852) and the Church of the Advent (1857-1866), both in
Nashville. These edifices are still acknowledged as the purest examples of
the Gothic Revival style in the State. Holy Trinity is suggestive of the
English village parish church. It is a small, blue limestone building with
exposed roof trusses of polished cedar. The Church of the Advent, now
the property of the Christian Science Church, is designed in the Pointed
Gothic style. It is larger than Holy Trinity, and is constructed of native
limestone, with a high pitched roof, the first roof entirely of slate put up
in Tennessee.

West Tennessee was the last section of the State to be settled. Memphis
was not laid out until 1819, and for thirty years the future western me-
tropolis could boast no buildings of architectural significance. But during
the decade before secession there was a considerable building boom. A
number of architects had by this time settled in Memphis, and the directory
of 1859 listed James B. Cook, Calvin Fay, Fletcher and Winter, P. H.
Hamrnerscold, and Morgan and Baldwin, as trained architects. These men
were responsible for a marked improvement in domestic and ecclesiastical
architecture, and developed a superior type of commercial building. In
Memphis the most noted buildings of the ante bellum period are the
Greek House, the Hunt-Phelan Place, the Pettite Home, the Robertson-
Top Home, the Gayoso Hotel (since altered), Chelsea Church, Calvary
Episcopal Church, St. Mary's Catholic Church, and Irving and Adams
Blocks.

The War between the States blotted out prosperity in the South. Many
of the homes and buildings throughout the State were left in ruins, land-
scaped gardens were mutilated, public buildings, churches, and schools
were converted into buildings of war arsenals, hospitals, and the like. Of
the beautiful homes that remained, few could be maintained in their
former splendor. Large plantations were divided, and rented or sold as it

162 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

became impossible to maintain them. The small farm, the tenant farm, and
the sharecropper farm came to Tennessee. There were few if any noteworthy
buildings on these smaller farms; the majority were either log cabins or
one-room rip-sawed board-and-batten shacks.

Recovery was a long time getting under way and for this reason archi-
tectural excesses of the Queen Anne and Victorian styles, flourishing in
the rest of the country in the eighties, did not make much headway in the
South. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, when building was re-
vived in Tennessee, designers had returned to Georgian Colonial and
Classical Revival models for inspiration. The Chicago Exposition (1893)
contributed to a countrywide return to the classic mode; the Centennial
Exposition (1897), at Nashville, brought it to Tennessee. It was at the
latter fair that the Municipal Art Gallery, a full-sized model of the Par-
thenon in Athens, was built. Intended to be only a temporary structure, this
building was constructed of wood and plaster, but stood out in such singu-
lar beauty that it was left standing at the close of the exposition. In 1922,
it was rebuilt in the exact Athenian dimensions and now bears the name
of its prototype, the Parthenon. Architects for the reproduction were Hart,
Freeland, and Roberts; sculptors were Geo. J. Zolnay, Belle Kinney, and
Leopold Scholz.

The designs of public and semi-public buildings are based upon Ameri-
ca's two dominant schools of architecture: the neo-Classic, led by McKim,
Mead, and White; and the neo-Gothic, led by Cram, Goodhue, and Fer-
guson* Government buildings in the State are usually of modified Greek
design, though somewhat bare for lack of sculpture. In each county seat is
a "square," of one or two square blocks, in the center of which stands a
courthouse with porticoes or fluted colonnades at two or sometimes all four
sides. A number of college buildings are modifications of Jeffersonian
Classicism, influenced by the University of Virginia, their design accentu-
ated by colonnades and pedimented porticoes. But in the other group are
the recent churches and colleges that tend to follow the Gothic style, with
cloisters of sturdy piers and groined cross vaulting, deeply recessed win-
dows and doors, buttressed walls, and pinnacled towers. Some of these,
further accentuated by walls of varicolored sandstone, are the Church
Street M. E. Church at Knoxville, Scarritt College at Nashville, South-
western Presbyterian University and the Idlewilde Presbyterian Church at
Memphis, and the University of the South, at Sewanee. Scarritt and South-
western are two works of Henry C. Hibbs of Nashville, who in 1929 was
awarded the gold medals of the American Institute of Architects for ex-
cellence in ecclesiastical and educational architecture, respectively.

THE STERRICK BUILDING, MEMPHIS

164 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

There are few skyscrapers in Tennessee. The Sterrick Building, in Mem-
phis, completed in 1930, with 29 stories above street level and a height of
364 feet, is the tallest in the State. Designed by Wyatt C. Hendrick, the
structure is Gothic in detail and conforms to the modern set-back type. In
the city shopping centers, plain fireproof buildings with brightly colored
fronts are generally favored. The tendency is to remodel the exteriors of
the old business houses, and very few completely new buildings are erected
in the congested trading areas.

The inclination in Tennessee, as elsewhere, is for the exclusive sections
of cities to edge toward the suburbs. Many of the modern homes in the
suburban areas are of the traditional antebellum mode, similar to the old
plantation homes but smaller in scale. In the rural sections, suburban city
architecture is imitated wherever possible, but on smaller farms rough
frame houses continue to be in vogue. Many old log cabins are still in use
in the isolated areas, some with raised roofs and added lofts. Dog-trot
houses have been developed with main central chambers in place of the
former runway. Throughout most of the State, utility is becoming almost
as decisive a factor as it was in pioneer days, and there is a marked return
to the small one-family house that more than matches the development
of the apartment dwellings in the larger cities.

At the present time (1939), Tennessee is experiencing a more rapid
development in construction than at any other time previous to the War
between the States. This new era of building has been brought about by
the combined Federally assisted projects and the Tennessee Valley Au-
thority. The principal housing project of Tennessee is the Cumberland
Homestead, 3.5 miles southeast of Crossville. This is one of the subsistence
homesteads established in 1933 by the National Recovery Act, whereby a
stranded population was reestablished on farming lands and unemployed
workers removed from congested areas. The site is a io,ooo-acre plot on
the eastern edge of the Cumberland Plateau, more than half of which is
suitable for farming and almost one-fourth destined to remain in perma-
nent forest. The homesteader secures complete ownership of his property
by paying a small rental for about twenty years. He chooses his home from
several standard designs. Each house is built of local stone, with shingle
roof and wood trim. Many of the building materials are obtained on the
land.

Slum clearance and housing projects in the larger cities have also made
great headway. Compact project houses, by prominent architects, have mod-
ern conveniences. They are row houses, comprising four to six units and
so arranged that each unit has individual yard space and private front and

DIXIE HOMES, A FEDERAL HOUSING PROJECT FOR NEGROES, MEMPHIS

166 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

rear entrances. The units comprise from two to five rooms, the larger ones
having a second story. The architects have shown a preference for a modi-
fied Georgian Colonial style in the design of these projects; a two-story
central portion of four units is flanked on each end by a one-story wing.
The interiors are so arranged as to utili2e to the best advantage each foot
of floor space. Electric refrigeration and stoves are provided. Heat (fur-
nished from a central heating plant), water, and electricity are included
in the rent.

The future architecture of the Tennessee Valley is indicated by the city
of Norris, where a new standard for rural existence is being set. This
town was born of the practical necessity of housing about 1,500 men en-
gaged in the construction of the dam. Preliminary plans determined the
street network possible in the hilly terrain, and three focal points were
established: a community center, a construction camp, and a shop center.
Around these points the streets with 350 houses were laid out. Arrange-
ment, comfort, and modern equipment were the principal concerns of the
architects. American precedent and local customs were taken into account,
bat the stress was on economy and residential convenience. For variety in
appearance the exteriors were finished in brick, concrete, stone, shingle,
and board-and-batten. Of the various designs employed, the favorite was
a modern adaptation of the dog-trot dwelling. Here kitchen and dining
quarters are on one side, sleeping quarters on the opposite side, with the
center an open passage in the log cabin days arranged as the living
room. The loft or low second story is used for spare bedrooms or storage.
Electrical equipment has been provided to an extent unusual for moderately
priced homes, including in many cases electrical heating.

The dams and power plants of the Tennessee Valley Authority deserve
mention in any consideration of Tennessee architecture. These towering
masses of concrete and steel are impressive and modem in form, harmonious
in lighting and color scheme. Technicians of the Authority have succeeded
in combining economy with significant design by well-studied organiza-
tion and proportioning of spaces and masses, and by renouncing all sur-
face detail and embellishment.

The Tennessee builder has been slow to recognize architectural fads, but
encourages the development of proven styles. This accounts for recent
architectural achievements of decided quality, seen in the State's suburban
residential houses and in ecclesiastical and educational buildings.

TKe Arts

IN all pioneer territories, early settlers in Tennessee were concerned
primarily with things other than art; and even when some measure of
civilization had been achieved, portraiture was the only type of painting in
demand. The pioneer folk of Tennessee produced, however, an exceedingly
rich assortment of handicrafts and domestic patterns. Spinning, hand-
weaving, furniture-, broom-, and basket-making, and coverlet-making an
intimate and especially prized art of the mountain folk constituted Ten-
nessee's earliest and most native participation in American art.

Painting and Sculpture

Not until past the first decade of the nineteenth century is there record
of a professional artist in Tennessee, "William Edward West came from
Philadelphia, where he had studied under Sully, and spent several years
in various parts of the State, finally making his home in Nashville. He
excelled in "fancy cabinet portraits*' ; and in 1822, under the patronage of
a local admirer, West went to Europe, where he painted many portraits,
including likenesses of Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, and ex-
hibited at the Royal Academy. He was a close friend of Washington Irving
and illustrated The Pride of the Village and Annette Delabre. In 1843,
West returned to Nashville, where he remained until his death in 1857*

The "man of a thousand portraits/' Washington Cooper, moved from
Washington County to Nashville in 1830. By 1838 he was at the height
of his popularity and was kept continually busy with commissions. During
his most active years he averaged thirty-five portraits a year, painting gov-
ernors, bishops, master Masons, and members of leading Nashville fam-
ilies. He died in 1889 at the age of 87. His younger brother, William
Brown Cooper, also painted portraits, and the similarity of their signatures
caused considerable confusion between the works of the two artists.

About 1850 James Cameron, who painted landscapes as well as portraits,
came to Chattanooga from Scotland. He built his home on a bluff which
has been called "Cameron Hill" in his honor. His A View of the Bluff
and Valley, painted in 1859, hangs in the Chattanooga Public Library.

168 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

Here, as in all his paintings, Cameron's close attention to realistic detail is

evident.

In 1869, a young man named Melchior Thoni came from Switzerland
and soon established himself in Nashville as a woodcarver and cabinet-
maker. Among his many sculptural enterprises, Thoni designed and carved
the first wooden animals to stand upon a "Flying Jenny" (merry-go-
round).

John W. Dodge, a noted nineteenth century miniaturist, moved from
New York to Cumberland County, where he engaged in apple culture on
a large scale until his death in 1893. Portraits by Dodge include studies
of Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Thomas Marshall.

Several Tennessee artists gained wide recognition in the nineties. The
most famous of these was George De Forest Brush, who was born in Shel-
byville in 1885. Brush studied at the National Academy of Design in New
York and with Gerome at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, His paintings
of Indian life as well as the later group portraits of his wife and children
have been highly praised. Among his Indian works Silence Broken, Mourn-
ing Her Brave, and The Sculptor and the King illustrate his dignified
composition and his sincere and elevated imagination. In the Garden
(Metropolitan Museum, New York), Mother and Children (Pennsylvania
Academy), and Family Group (Art Institute, Chicago) represent his do-
mestic phase.

Other Tennessee artists who emerged in the nineties were Charles Fred-
erick Naegele, a Knoxville portrait painter who studied with Collier, Sar-
tain, and Chase; and Willie Bettie Newman, of Murfreesboro, who
worked under Laurens, Bachet, Bouguereau, and Constant. Miss Newman
lived in Normandy and Brittany for some time and painted peasant life
there; in 1900 she received honorable mention at the Salon. Frank Wilbert
Stokes of Nashville, who studied under Thomas Eakins at the Pennsylvania
Academy, Ecole des Beaux Arts, and at Colarossi's and Julian's Academies,
was the artist member of the Peary North Greenland Expedition in 1892
and 1893-94. Later he was a member of both the Swedish Antarctic and
the Amundsen-Ellsworth Expeditions. Two well-known expedition paint-
ings by Stokes are Return of Commander Byrd and Floyd Bennett from
the North Pole and Departure of the "Norge" for the North Pole. In
1907, he did the mural decorations foe the American Museum of Natural
History in New York City. Sara Ward Cooley, Nashville artist, studied in
Paris and received several exhibition prizes in Europe and America. A
later artist is Matilda Lotz, of Franklin, who was educated in San Fran-
cisco and Paris. She has exhibited in America, England, Vienna, and Buda-

THE ARTS 169

pest. Rhea Wells and McCullough Partee are widely known as illustrators.

The historic Gayoso Hotel in Memphis houses a series of interesting
murals by Newton Alonzo Wells (1852-1923) portraying episodes in the
life of Hernando de Soto and events associated with the exploration of the
Mississippi River. In the lobby of the Hermitage Hotel in Nashville is an
excellent collection of murals, including a narrative in twelve paintings de-
voted to the Confederate Soldier in the War between the States, by Gil-
bert Gaul (William Gilbert), a noted genre painter (1855-1919). Among
the country's noteworthy murals are those on the walls of the library at
Fisk University, painted in the 1930*3 by Aaron K. Douglass, well-known
Negro artist. Conceived in terms by symbolic rather than realistic presen-
tation, the murals, whose theme is the history of the Negro, are in marked
contrast with other murals in the State. Fisk University also exhibits the
Baldridge Collection, a gift of Samuel Insull, which constitutes one of the
most complete records of Negro life and types to be found in America.
Cyrus Le Roy Baldridge spent fourteen months in Africa making these
drawings, which fall into sixty-eight descriptive groups of nearly three
hundred studies.

During the past few decades, efforts have been made to stimulate local
interest and activity in art. The Brooks Memorial Art Gallery in Overton
Park, Memphis, established in 1916, has been visited by more than 45,000
persons in a single year, and conducts a comprehensive program of exhi-
bitions and education. In 1936 the Brooks Memorial Art League, with the
assistance of the Works Progress Administration, succeeded in setting up
a systematized art library, the first in the State. Another important institu-
tion in Memphis is the James Lee Memorial Academy of Arts. This school,
founded in 1925, is already prominent in the South as a free center of in-
struction in the arts. It has a large student enrollment, and the City of
Memphis and the Memphis Art Association contribute to its support. The
Art Gallery of the famous reproduction of the Parthenon in Nashville
contains the Cowan Collection of Paintings, which includes work by Ben-
jamin West, William Chase, Winslow Homer, Albert Ryder, and George
Inness. The pediment sculptures of the building are the work of Belle
Kinney Scholz and Leopold F. Schoh, and the metopes are by George
Julian Zolnay.

In December 1933 the Federal Government set up an art project in
Tennessee, and within one month forty painters, sculptors, and print
makers received commissions' for murals, portraits, regional industrial
scenes, and depictions of historic streets and buildings. After two months
of activity, however, the project was brought to a close. In some cases local

170 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

interests secured the paintings or sculptures for use in public buildings.
The board of park commissioners in Memphis appropriated funds for the
completion of a series of mural sketches on the walls of the Museum of
Natural History. Active centers of the Federal Art Project, set up in 1935,
include today the Anderson County Federal Art Center at Norris, the Uni-
versity of Chattanooga WPA Federal Art Gallery, and the LeMoyne
Federal Art Center at LeMoyne College (Negro) in Memphis. These
centers have gained the support and cooperation of local institutions and
individuals, and their exhibits, lectures, and classes in arts and crafts have
awakened wide popular response. These governmental enterprises have
helped to revive interest in local art and have touched new sources of
artistic energy.

Handicrafts continued to survive in the mountain regions of Tennessee
long after machine production had destroyed them in other sections of the
United States. The preservation of indigenous crafts and their further de-
velopment have been the concern of the Southern Handicraft Guild, with
which several Tennessee handicraft centers are affiliated. The Federal Art
Project centers have also devoted much effort to instruction in and en-
couragement of native crafts.

An exciting event in the art world was the recent "discovery" of William
Edmunson, a Negro carver of tombstones in Nashville. The sculpture of
this genuine folk artist has been exhibited in the Museum of Modern Art
in New York City and has been much commented upon in the press. Ed-
munson's Biblical figures, with their sculptural solidity and genial fancy,
have struck an original note in modern American art;

Typical of contemporary trends in Tennessee art were the State selec-
tions for the National Exhibition of American Art at Rockefeller Center,
May 1936. These consisted of two sculptures by Harold Cash of Chatta-
nooga and a group of paintings, the majority of which were by Nashville
artists. Cash, born in Chattanooga in 1895, has worked in Paris under
modernist influence,

Thomas Puryear Mims, Nashville sculptor, has shown heads, figures,
and decorative work in various exhibits in New York and elsewhere. Out-
standing in his work are character interpretations of the Tennessee Negro,
farmer, and backwoods types. Hugh Poe, of Knoxville, is recognized
mainly for his pastels, though his oil portraits hang in many Tennessee
homes and a group of his murals decorate the walls of Culver Military
Academy, Indiana. The oils and lithographs of Alene Gray Wharton, of
Nashville, are notable for their stylized characterization of mountain vil-
lages and common folk.

F. Louts Mora

ABUNDANCE, MURAL IN POST OFFICE, CLARKSVIIXE

Outstanding among Tennessee cartoonists are Carey Orr and Joe Ear-
rish, now of the Chicago Tribune, Tom Little and John Cross, of the
Nashville Tennessean, and Jack Knox, of the Memphis Commercial-
Appeal.

The following artists are listed in Who's Who in American Art for Ten-
nessee in 1937: Mayna Treanor Avent, Frank M. Baisden, Charles Cagle,
Sarah Ward Conley, Edith E. Flisher, J. H. Goodrich, Howard Henry,
Ella Sophonisba Hergesheimer, Irene Charlesworth Johnson, J. B. Jordan,
Lalla Walker Lewis, Bessie Dawson McGavock, Karl Oberteuffer, Ernest
A. Pickup, Bertha Potter, Mrs. Fay S. Rule, C M. Said, L. Pearl Saunders,
Elisabeth Searcy, Jascha Shafiran, Myrtis Smith, Rosalie Sandheimer, Clar-
ence A. Stagg, Ann Williams.

Music

A fiddler, old Ned Jacobs, was the first settler in Lebanon, and two
other fiddlers, equally famed in pioneer stories, were among the first
comers at Bledsoe Station and Nashville. Ballads, fiddle tunes, and spirit-
uals both white and Negro were an integral part of early Tennessee
life and have continued to hold a place of importance. From them have
developed the State's two most significant contributions to American music,
the spiritual and the blues.

The mountain people of East Tennessee sing songs of every type, sur-
vivals of old English and Scottish ballads, native folk songs, and tunes of
recent origin. Cecil J. Sharp, the English folksong collector, writes of the
wealth and variety of mountain folksong in his English Folk Songs of the
Southern Appalachians, and says: "I found myself for the first time in my

172 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

life in a community in which singing was a common and almost as uni-
versal a practice as speaking."

A great body of spiritual songs came into existence during the first dec-
ades of the nineteenth century as part of the Wesleyan trend in rural re-
ligious life. Some of the tunes were adaptations of chants used in medieval
times and others were borrowed from popular ballads. The "white spirit-
uals," as these religious songs are called, gathered strength through the
old-time singing schools and the shape-note song books, such as the Sacred
Harp (1844) and Harp of Columbia (1849). W&* spirituals are still
heard in "big singings" in the Tennessee Valley and in the hill country
from the Virginia to the Alabama line. Farther to the west they are sung
in the Primitive Baptist churches.

The Negroes gave themselves enthusiastically to this manner of singing,
and lent to the songs so much of their peculiar racial talent, that many
white spirituals have been widely accepted as of Negro origin. The best of
the spirituals, such as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Go Down,
Moses/* are true Negro creations, both words and tune. Even in cases
where spirituals can be traced to earlier white songs, the Negro has in-
variably bettered the tunes and often transformed a doggerel text into ex-
cellent poetry. Some melodies that are thought to have been first sung in
Tennessee are "Has Anbody Here Seen My Lord?" "I'm All Wore Out
A-Toiling fo' de Lawd," "I'm Troubled in Mind," "My Brudder's Died
and Gone to Hebben," and "When the Lord Called Moses."

The non-religious songs of the Negro mirror his attitude on everyday
life. Among the better known of these are "Sweet Tennessee," "I'm on
My Last Go-Round," "Here Come Dat Inshawnce Man CollectinY' "Make
Me a Pallet on de Floor," and "Joe Turner." Whether the Negro is work-
ing on the levee, in the cotton fields, at the washtub, or "just workin',"
bodily rhythm accompanies his singing. Improvised tunes lighten the bur-
den of labor. "Dis Ol' Hammer," "Don't Grieve about a Dime," "Work-
ing My Blame Head Off," and "Push-uh-Push" are work songs current in
Middle Tennessee.

The whites also have their work songs, brought into mill town life from
their mountain homes. Old traditional melodies are often used with new
words, telling of unions, strikes, and current events. Government activity
in the Tennessee Valley has called forth many new verses for the old-time
tunes. One of these, set to an old English tune, runs like this:

My name is "William Edwards
I live down Cove Creek way
I'm working on the project
They call the TVA

THE ARTS 173

The government begun it
When I was just a child,
But now they are in earnest
And Tennessee's gone wild.
* * # * *

Oh, see them boys a-comin*
Their government they trust
Just hear their hammers ringin*
They'll build that dam or bust.

Music lovers are uncovering and preserving some of the traditional folk
songs that had been nearly lost. This work has been stimulated by the folk-
lore and historical societies throughout the State and by the Old Harp
Singers, formed in 1932 by Dr. George Pullen Jackson of Vanderbilt
University. The tours and radio broadcasts of this organization have done
much to arouse public interest in folk music.

The Fisk Jubilee Singers have probably done more than any other group
to preserve the Negro spirituals and stimulate interest in this form of
American music. The chorus was first organized in 1867 by George L.
White, treasurer of Fisk University. He recognized the strange, compel-
ling beauty of the songs sung by the students, almost all of whom were
former slaves, and believed that the world, too, would recognize and ac-
claim them. Encouraged by the success of local concerts, he planned ex-
tended tours in the hope of winning friends and funds for the young
school. The group, then called the Colored Christian Singers, visited prac-
tically all the large cities in the North, the British Isles, and the principal
countries of Europe in the 1870*5. They were entertained by nobility and
royalty, and everywhere their songs aroused first curiosity, then deep in-
terest and admiration.

The work of collecting, harmonizing, and interpreting the spirituals,
originally done by northern white men, was gradually taken over by the
Fisk students, alumni, and faculty. Authentic dialect was introduced; new
songs were discovered and added to the repertoire, among them the present
favorites, "Little David, Play on Your Harp/' "Witness,'* "All God's
Chillun Got Wings." John W. Work, a member of the university faculty,
and his brother Frederick collected spirituals in rural communities, which
they published in New Jubilee Songs (1905). Folk Songs of the American
Negro (1915), by the same authors, and Thomas W. Talley's Negro Polk
Rhymes (1922) also gave this folk music permanent form.

The secular or "sinful** Negro folk songs, known as blues, in which the
singer mulls over his troubles, gave rise to another form of music, like-
wise unique but entirely different in mood. In 1909, William C. Handy, a
Negro musician of Memphis, wrote the "Memphis Blues/* taking his cue

TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND
from these songs. The piece, originally called "Mr. Crump" and written
as a campaign song for Ed. Crump, who was running for mayor, was im-
mensely popular and Memphians continued to whistle the tune long after
the election. Handy followed his first success with the "St. Louis Blues"
and the "Beale Street Blues," and inaugurated an era of blues songwriting
throughout the country. These commercial blues, with their syncopated
rhythm and definite melodic idioms, have exerted a strong and distinct in-
fluence on jazz and swing music, and indeed on most contemporary Ameri-
can composition.

Tennessee's vigorous interest in folk music is complemented in urban
communities by an active musical life, which found expression in concerts
and musical instruction even during the early years of the nineteenth cen-
tury. Fisk Female Academy, in Overton County, established a music de-
partment in 1816; a decade later the Nashville Female Academy and the
Knoxville Female Academy followed suit; and in 1836 the Nashville
Academy of Music was founded. In the 1850^ Jenny Lind appeared under
the sponsorship of P. T. Barnum, and Adelina Parti toured the State with
the famous Norwegian violinist Ole Bull.

Symphonic music was first brought to Tennessee by Theodore Thomas in
the 1870'$. Thomas also directed the Memphis Festival Concerts of 1884,
sponsored by the Memphis Conservatory of Music and the Mozart So-
ciety, and still remembered as one of the musical high lights of this period.

Through the last decades of the nineteenth century and approximately
up to the time of the depression, the principal cities of the State were
visited by touring opera companies. Memphis for a time had two opera
seasons, played by the San Carlos Company of New York and the Chicago
Opera Company.

Women's club organisations have played an active part in developing
musical appreciation in Tennessee. In 1916 musical activities were merged
to form the Tennessee Federation of Music Clubs, which by 1937 included
137 groups.

Among Tennessee's early composers were Henri Christian Webber, a
German, who settled in Nashville in the 1850*8, and wrote "Blow, Bugle,
Blow," 'The Storm/' and "Centennial March" ; Julius C. Meininger, au-
thor of "Golden Rays" and "Silver Rays" ; and Mrs. E, L. Ashford, whose
Organ Instructions is said to be the first book of its kind to be translated
into Chinese and used in China as a textbook.

Present-day Tennessee composers include Arthur Nevin, Burnet C. Tut-
hill, and Patrick O'Sullivan of Memphis; C. Roland Flick and Alvin S.
Wiggers of Nashville; and Roy Lament Smith of Chattanooga. Harry

THE ARTS 175

Philbin, the blind composer, and Lyle Tomerlin, both of Memphis, have
written popular song hits. Many Tennessee singers have gained national
reputations, among them Grace Moore, James Melton and Bessie Smith.

The Theater

Hampered at times by the enmity of religious leaders and, to a lesser
degree, by economic difficulties and epidemics of cholera, the theater's de-
velopment was slow but insistent. The first recorded performance in Nash-
ville was given on December 4, 1807, thirteen years after the last Indian
raids in that locality. The program, following the generous custom of the
time, was a double bill made up of a drama, The Child of the Nation, or
Virtue Rewarded, and a farce, The Purse, or the Benevolent Tar.

Early in 1816 Samuel Drake, who had come from Albany, New York,
to establish theaters in the "western frontier" of Kentucky, included Nash-
ville in his circuit. The following year the old Salt House was converted
into the Market Street Theater, and here Drake's company inaugurated a
regular theatrical season, opening on July 10 with the comedy The Sol-
dier 9 s Daughter. Noah M. Ludlow, in charge of the company, began the
next season with Speed the Plough and The Day after the Wedding. His
wife, Mrs. Mary Squires, of Franklin, was probably Tennessee's first pro-
fessional actress. In 1818 the Thespian Society of Nashville, of which Sam
Houston was secretary and Andrew Jackson and Felix Grundy were hon-
orary members, asked Ludlow to direct their activities. In the same year
the State's first visiting star, William Jones, of the Park Theater in New
York City, played in Nashville and became the idol of the town. James H.
Caldwell, a well-known manager, who was competing with Ludlow for
popular support, built the city's second theater in 1826.

Sol Smith's Thespians toured the State In 1829, making stops of a week
to twelve nights in the leading settlements. Their performances were
usually well patronized, despite ministerial warnings that "a brimstone
roasting awaits theater-goers." But Smith tells of three consecutive nights in
Greeneville, when he played in competition with a Methodist camp meet-
ing, and had a paid attendance of six, five, and seven persons, respectively.
Of one of his earlier tours Smith wrote: "The Methodists had raised their
banner before us and got possession of all the money and all the hearts of
the young folks."

During the nine years from 1830 to 1839 there were 700 performances
of 296 plays in Nashville alone. Church opposition, however, had grown
so strong by 1839 that the Mill Creek circuit of the Methodist Church re-

176 TENNESSEE: THE BACKGROUND

solved "that the practice of attending such places is contrary to the letter
and spirit of our discipline and is highly criminal." Tennessee newspapers
of this period were full of "the theater controversy/*

The forces for and against the theater seem to have been evenly matched.
Traveling companies toured the State, and the vacant log cabins and crude
platforms which served the early players began to give way to theaters with
well-equipped stages. Signor Mondelli, of the New Orleans Theater, is
said to have been in Nashville during the 1830*5, giving plays with scenic
effects which included "real waterfalls, moving boats, storms, and forest
settings/*

Drama flourished during the War between the States. Stars, such as John
Wilkes Booth, Maggie Mitchell, John E. Owens, and Helen Western,
played regularly in the Nashville theaters, and provided welcome enter-
tainment in these difficult years. The early Reconstruction period saw the
decline of the legitimate theater and the rise in popularity of minstrels and
variety shows, which constituted more than half of all theatrical produc-
tions by 1875.

Many new theaters were built in the later Reconstruction years, includ-
ing Staub's Theatre in Knoxville, the Vendome in Nashville, the Lyric
Theatre in Memphis, and the Bijou in Chattanooga. These presented the
best available legitimate productions. In Tennessee, as elsewhere, road
shows became more infrequent after the turn of the century. Most of the
old-time theaters were gradually taken over by the movies, though here
and there a few still housed occasional stock offerings or road shows. To-
day the few companies that tour the country make stops in Tennessee and
are given enthusiastic support.

But the place left vacant by the decline of the glamorous legitimate
theater of a former generation has been filled by the little theater move-
ment This has been successfully promoted in all the large cities. The lead-
ing college towns have drama guilds, usually under academic auspices. The
Tennessee Playmakers is the only non-professional group with more than
local affiliations. Directed by Frederick Kleibacker, of Nashville, it em-
braces twenty-four school, college, and Y.W.CA. units in Middle Tennes-
see. The Nashville Community Playhouse, Inc., is the strongest single
dramatic organization in the State, combining the city's twenty little thea-
ter groups; it offers a regular program of the best Broadway plays. The
Memphis Little Theater, directed by Eugart Yerian, with auditorium and
laboratories in the Memphis Art Museum, has won national attention by
the professional quality of its performances.

<<<<<<<<<<<(<< a >>>>>>

PART II

Railroad Stations: Union Station, loth Ave. and Broad St., for Nashville, Chatta-
nooga & St. Louis Ry. and Louisville & Nashville R.R.; ist Ave. S. near east end
of Broad St. for Tennessee Central Ry.

Bus Stations: Union Station, 517 Commerce St., for Southeastern Greyhound, Dixie
Greyhound, Lewisburg Bus Line, Inc., Consolidated Bus Lines, Tennessee Trans-
portation Co., Tennessee Coach Co., and Ladd Motor Coach; 143 6th Ave. N. for
Waller Bus Line.

Airport: Municipal Airport, 7.5 m. S.W. on US 41, for American and Eastern Air
Lines. Taxi fare 75^. Ticket office for American Air Lines, Hermitage Hotel; for
Eastern Air Lines, Andrew Jackson Hotel.

Streetcars and Busses: Streetcar fare 5& bus fare 7^. Busses for East Nashville stop
on Beaderick St. and 4th Ave.; all others stop on -Church St.
Taxis; 2$ for first mile, io0 for each additional half mile, one to four passengers.

Accommodations: Eleven hotels, four for Negroes; tourist homes, tourist and
trailer camps.

Information Service: AAA, Hermitage Hotel, 6th Ave. & Union St.; Bus Station,
517 Commerce St.; Union Depot, loth Ave. and Broad St.

Radio Stations: WSM (650 kc.) ; WLAC (1470 kc.); WSIX (1210 kc.).

Theaters and Motion Picture Houses: Ryman Auditorium, 115 stfcuAve. N* local

productions and occasional road shows; Community Play House, Hillsboro and

Carlton Ave., one play monthly during winter and spring; four first-run motion

picture houses; ten neighborhood houses; three for Negroes.

Football: Vanderbilt "Commodores" of Southeastern Conference, Dudley Field,

entrance 223 26th Ave. S. and on Natchez Trace,

Baseball: Nashville "Volunteers" of Southern Association, Sulphur Dell, 916 5th

Ave. N.

Wrestling and Boxing: Hippodrome, 2613 "West End Ave.

Tennis: Shelby Park, 2oth St. and Shelby Ave., 10 courts; Centennial Park, i6th

and "West End Aves., 7 courts; East Part 7th and Russell Sts., 2 courts; Richland

Park, 46th and Charlotte Aves., 4 courts; Reservoir Park, 8th & Argyle Aves., 3

courts; Hadley Park, 1032 3ist Ave. N., 2 courts; McFerrin Park, 601 Meridian

St., 2 courts; Vanderbilt University, Garland Ave., 7 courts.

Swimming: Shelby Park; Centennial Park; Cumberland Park, Wedge-wood and

Rains Aves.; for children only, East Park; Richland Park; Morgan Park, 6th Ave.

N. and Hume St.; South Park, Lindsley Ave. and University St.

Boating: Shelby Park, boats 2 50 an hour.

Golf: Municipal Golf Courses, Shelby Park, i8-hole course, $1.50, 9-hole course

free; Centennial Park, 9 holes, free; Percy Warner Park, Belle Meade Blvd., 9

holes, 350; Richland Golf Course, Elmington Ave., 18 holes, $1.05 weekdays, $1.55

Sat., Sun. T and holidays; Belle Meade Country Club, Belle Meade Park, 18 holes,

$2; Oriental Country Club, Caldwell Lane 9 holes, $i.

Annual Events: Golden Gloves Tournament, Feb.; Iris Festival, Apr.; State Fair,
Sept.; Horse Show, Sept.

NASHVILLE (498 alt., 153,866 pop.), the capital and second city of
Tennessee and the seat of Davidson County, extends raggedly on both
banks of the Cumberland River near the center of a great bowl-like valley

179

180 CITY AND TOWN

f ormed by a chain of knobby ridges. Though an industrial city, Nashville
generally retains the easy-going quality of the old South. The capstone of
the city is the State capitol, on a high hill overlooking Victory Park. Sur-
rounding the park are Government and office buildings, hotels and res-
taurants. On the other three sides of the capitol are ornate brick mansions,
reminders of the days of belles in crinoline, dashing young bucks on
blooded horses, carriages with liveried coachmen, and bowing Negroes.
Many of these gaunt structures have been replaced by State buildings,
those that remain have fallen to the status of cheap rooming houses.

Downtown Nashville is a crowded area of stores, restaurants, and thea-
ters. Office buildings, bright with glass and chromium-steel, tower over
brick structures that antedate the War between the States, and traffic
moves slowly along narrow streets. The oldest business houses are on the
public square, near the river.

Nashville has many industries but few exclusively industrial sections.
The wholesale district, stockyards, a bridge company, and other large
corporations are near the river. Ranging east and west from it are shoe fac-
tories, lumberyards, stone and cement works, a feed mill, and a snuff fac-
tory. On the west side of the city are nurseries, foundries, ice and chemical
plants, railroad shops, cotton and flour mills, brickyards, and numerous
small industries.

On residential streets Southern Colonial mansions in old-fashioned gar-
dens stand beside Victorian and modern English-type homes on landscaped
lawns. Along many of the older streets are rows of large brick houses with
high windows, shuttered from within. Towers and cupolas with elaborate
iron and woodwork reflect the taste of a former day. *

The outlying parks and shaded campuses, and the suburban residential
sections of Belle Meade, Green Hills, and Harpeth Hills give way to wide
stretches of fertile farm lands, usually overhung by blue haze.

Hundreds of varieties of trees grow in Nashville. Gardening is a favorite
pursuit, and enthusiasm for iris growing has led to the development of
numerous private and public gardens that are visited by iris lovers from
ail over the country. The American and English Iris Societies have awarded
20 honorable mentions, four awards of merit, and two Dykes Medals to
Nashville iris growers.

Nashville's schools annually attract more than 4,500 non-resident stu-
dents. A free night school, various business colleges, and trade schools
offer training in special lines. Lectures and concerts are presented almost
every day in some college or auditorium.

About three-fourths of the population is of English stock, with an inter-
mingling of German, Scottish, or Ulster Irish blood. The foreign-born
group is small, but native-born descendants of immigrants have taken an
active part in the growth of the city.

Nearly one-fourth of the population is Negro. Fisk University, State
Agricultural and Industrial College, and Meharry Medical College have
made the city an educational center for Southern Negroes. The principal
Negro business streets are Cedar, Fourth 'Avenue North (Black Bottom),
and Jo Johnston. Their homes, ranging from lowly shacks to well-built

NASHVILLE l8l

modern houses, are in Salem Town, Mount Nebo, Trimble Bottom, Rock
Town, Bush Bottom, and Black Bottom.

According to archeologists, mound builders erected their earthworks in
the Nashville region long before the voyages of Columbus or even Leif
Ericson. Traces of their cemeteries and villages are still found in the
vicinity.

^ The first Indians encountered by white explorers in the vicinity of Nash-
ville were the Shawnee, a small wandering band of Algonquian stock,
whose palisaded villages occupied the bluffs along the river. Intermittent
raids by war parties from Kentucky and Alabama forced the Shawnee to
move into the Ohio Valley early in the eighteenth century.

In 1767 five Long Hunters (so called because they spent, months at a
time on hunting expeditions) from East Tennessee, entered the valley,
then returned home with glowing tales of its fertility and abundance of
game (see HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT). In 1770 Kasper Mansker
organized and led another party of Long Hunters through the Cumber-
land country to find the best spots for settlements.

Richard Henderson, one of the greatest land speculators of the period,
acting through his agent, Daniel Boone, made the Transylvania Purchase
in 1775. North Carolina and Virginia opposed the sale and Henderson
lost the Purchase. However, a tract of 200,000 acres, part of which lay in
the Cumberland Valley, was granted to Henderson as compensation.

In the spring of 1779 Henderson sent James Robertson, whom Andrew
Jackson called "The Father of Tennessee," into the valley to investigate
the reports of the Long Hunters, and to blaze the way for another land pro-
motion scheme. Robertson found the country all that the hunters had de-
clared rich soil, heavily timbered, and well drained by the Cumberland
River and smaller streams. Selecting a site at "French Lick," or "Big Lick,"
now Sulphur Dell baseball park, Robertson and his party built a few cabins
and planted a field of corn in Sulphur Bottom near the Lick. Leaving three
men to guard the crops, Robertson and the others returned to Watauga
and purchased the site from the Transylvania promoters, title being taken
by Robertson as trustee for the community.

In the fall of 1779 the return trip to the new settlement began. One
party, led by Robertson came overland, driving a herd of horses, cattle,
and sheep. They reached the Bluff on Christmas Day, 1779, crossed the
ice-covered Cumberland and made preparations for their families,

The other party bringing the women, children, and household goods,
came by flatboat down the Tennessee to the Ohio, and up the Cumberland
to the settlement. The flotilla of 3O-odd flatboats, headed by the Adventure
under the command of Col. John Donelson, reached its destination on
April 24, 1780, after an extremely hazardous journey.

The new settlement consisted of seven stations or forts along the Cum-
berland River with a total population of 300. The French Lick station,
called Fort Nashborough for Gen. Francis Nosh, a Revolutionary veteran,
was the center community. The Cumberland Compact, providing for a
government by a council of representative "Notables" or "General Arbi-
trators," was drawn up and signed by 256 of the settlers. Two men chosen

182 CITY AND TOWN

from each station formed a Committee of Guardians of which Robertson
was the head.

In 1784 the Legislature of North Carolina set aside a 25O-acre site on
the west side of the Cumberland River, which included Fort Nashborough
and the other stations. It was named Nashville because of prejudice against
the English-sounding "Nashborough/' Settlers came in great numbers
along the Wilderness Road to the new town. They were not molested by
the main body of the Cherokee, but the Chickamauga, a branch of the
Cherokee, who harbored white renegades and strays from hostile tribes,
refused to make peace. The Chickamauga raided along the Wilderness
Road and sent strong war parties against the Cumberland settlement until
an expedition under Maj. James Ore crushed the tribe.

In 1787 Nashville's first newspaper, the Tennessee Gazette and Mero
District Advertizer, was established by a Kentucky printer named Henkle.
Two years later the Eights of Man, or the Nashville Intelligencer, a weekly
newspaper, was published.

By 1790 Nashville was a trade and manufacturing center with mills,
foundries and gun smithies, supplying frontier traders and settlers. In 1802
George Poyzer established a plant for the -manufacture of cotton spinning
machinery and opened a spinning mill. The town was chartered as a city
in 1806 with a mayor and six aldermen. The State legislature met here
from 1812 to 1817 and from 1827 to 1843; on October 6 of the latter
year Nashville became the State capital.

With the coming of the first steamboat in 1818 Nashville entered upon
a profitable era of river trade. By 1825 the population had reached 3,460,
a stone bridge spanned the Cumberland, and the town had become a ship-
ping center for cotton. It was in this year that Lafayette visited Andrew
Jackson at the Hermitage and was entertained in Nashville at an ekborate
civic banquet. In 1850 a suspension bridge was built and the Granny
White Turnpike incorporated. The Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis
Railway was completed in 1854, though most of the city's freight was
carried by steamboat between Nashville and the river ports of the Ohio
and Mississippi until the end of the century.

The Southern Convention, "to decide the best means of securing con-
stitutional rights of the South, and the preservation of the Union as it is,"
met in Nashville, June 3, 1850. Nine Southern States, represented by 175
delegates, met in the McKendree Church. During the nine day session the
Wilmot Proviso and other compromises were discussed. After Congress
disregarded the resolution adopted by the Southern Convention and passed
the Compromise of 1850, 70 delegates representing seven States again met
in Nashville, November u, 1850. Only the Tennessee delegates fought
for the Compromise (see HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT}.

With the secession of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, and the
election of Jefferson Davis as President of the Confederacy in 1861, Nash-
ville citizens organized home protection squads, suspended courts, and ap-
pointed a postmaster for the Confederate Government.

During the War between the States most able-bodied men were enlisted
in the Confederate Army, and their families at home endured bitter priva-

SIGNATURES OF THE CUMBERLAND COMPACT

CITY AND TOWN

tions. In the winter of 1862 actual warfare crept southward from the
Kentucky line toward Nashville, and on February t6, news that the Fed-
erals had captured Fort Donelson, 70 miles down the Cumberland, threw
the city into panic. Families prepared to flee south; the legislature con-
vened and speedily adjourned to Memphis, taking the archives and pub-
Ik monies with it (see MEMPHIS). On February 17, Gen. Albert Sidney
Johnston's army began retreating through Nashville. All day the narrow
streets echoed with the sound of marching feet, the clatter of hoofs, and
the rattle of gun carriages over the cobblestones. During the night of Feb-
ruary 18 General Floyd, who had been left in the city to cover the re-
treat, destroyed the bridges over the Cumberland in spite of frantic pro-
tests from the townspeople. Five days later the Confederate rear guard
withdrew when Federal skirmishers, in advance of the army under Gen.
Don Carlos Buell, appeared on the east bank of the river. Next day Mayor
Cheatham and a committee of councilmen surrendered Nashville.

In March, 1862, Andrew Johnson, then United States Senator, was ap-
pointed Military Governor of the State of Tennessee. When the mayor
and city council refused to take the oath of allegiance to the Union, John-
son replaced them with Loyalists. The city was placed under martial law,
and newspapers and other properties were confiscated. ^ ^

General Buell moved south to the Tennessee River, leaving the city in
the custody of Gen. Theodore Rousseau, who was succeeded by Gen.
James S. Negley. In the following autumn Nashville was headquarters for
Gen. William Starke Rosecrans and later for Gen. George H. Thomas and
Gen. Ulysses S. Grant.

When Gen. Thomas Hood succeeded Gen. Joseph E. Johnston as com-
mander of the Confederate Army facing General Sherman in Georgia in
1864, he was ordered to strike northward into Tennessee, to capture Nash-
ville and cut off Sherman from his source of supplies, but he moved so
slowly that General Thomas had time to make heavy troop concentrations
at Nashville.

Hood encountered a Union force under Gen. John Schofield at Frank-
lin, and forced him to retreat to Nashville. On December 2, 1864, Hood
began throwing up earthworks on the hills south of the city. For days
rain and snow kept the ground so boggy that the armies merely skirmished.
On December 15, there was a freeze and Thomas attacked, smashing
Hood's left wing and forcing him back to the Overton Hills, between the
Franklin and Hillsboro Pikes. On the i6th Thomas again attacked. Late in
the afternoon the Confederate line collapsed and a general retreat began.
Hood's army, crumbled in morale and depleted by wholesale desertion,
was virtually destroyed as an effective fighting unit.

Nashville, as State capital, was the seat of the Unionist State Govern-
ment. A. E. Alden, a carpetbagger, was elected mayor, and his friends
filled the city council. The "Alden Ring" instituted a thorough system of
public plunder, boosted the tax rate, and issued and sold checks, warrants,
and ducbills in the name of the city. When the citizens appealed to the
courts, Chancellor James O. Shackelford refused to hear them, for he, too,
was one of the "ring/*

NASHVILLE 185

In May, 1868, A. S. Colyar, publisher of the Union and American,
managed to examine the city's books and publish what he found. The
people of Nashville pushed through another suit; the Aldenites packed
their carpetbags and caught the first train north. Nashville was freed, but
-every note and bill made by the "Alden Ring*' had to be redeemed at face
value.

During the struggle for economic recovery, Nashville suffered two
cholera epidemics. The first, in 1866, stopped business and the town was
practically deserted. Though attempts were made to conceal the second epi-
demic in 1873, thousands left the city. The American in an editorial ad-
vised: "Use sulphur in your socks, one-half teaspoonful in each sock every
morning. This will charge your system with sulphurated hydrogen which
is a bar to cholera." The epidemic took about 1,000 lives. The mortality
rate reached a peak of 72 deaths on Friday, June 20, since known locally
as "Black Friday."

When it was discovered that more deaths occurred among those drink-
ing well and spring water than among the people who drank city water,
the board of aldermen provided for public hydrants.

Not until 1875-76, whca a great business boom began, did Nashville
begin to regain lost ground. By the later part of 1876 railway traffic had
.greatly increased, and the Cumberland River again became an important
waterway. Packet and freight lines operated from the wharf at the foot of
Broad Street, and blocks of warehouses were built.

On May i, 1897, President McKinley officially opened the Centennial
Exposition, celebrating Tennessee's looth anniversary as a State, by press-
ing a button in the Nation's Capital, which fired a gun in the exposition
grounds in Centennial Park, Nashville. Nashville floated an exposition
bond issue of $100,000, to run for 20 years, the Federal Government ap-
propriated $130,000, and $500,000 was raised by public subscription. The
exposition buildings were grouped around a plaster reproduction of the
Oreek Parthenon. During the six months that it remained open, the ex-
position was visited by more than 6,000,000 people, including President
McKinley.

Between 1900 and 1910 the city's population increased from 80,865
to 110,361; and from 1920 to 1930, from 118,342 to 153,866. TTiese
boom periods followed improvements in transportation, the establishment
of numerous new industries, and the growth of Nashville as an educational
city. Economic expansion has been steady but less rapid than before the
turn of the century. New and diversified industries have been established,
and some of the older plants have been consolidated.

Although East Nashville suffered a disastrous fire in 1916 and a tornado
in 1933, it quickly recovered, and new buildings now cover the devastated
area.

POINTS OF INTEREST

i. VICTORY PARK, 6th Ave. N. between Cedar and Union Sts., ex-
tending to 7th Ave. N., is divided into two sections, each surrounded by a
paneled cement wall, ornamented at intervals by tall pillars and flower re-

186

CITY AND TOWN

GAY

DOWNTOWN I

1939

POINTS OF INTEREST

. Victory Park
War Memorial Building
. Carnegie Library
, SIM of President Folk's Home
. Hermitage Hotel L
. Supreme Court Building _ fc
. Stats Capitol __
. St Mary's Roman Catholic Church
. First Lutheran Church
i . Barnard Marker
i . Site of Andrew Jackson's Law Office
i . Pbbltf Square
j. FortNashborough
4. City Wharf 3
j. John Bell Home jjjj
S. Site of the Home of William Walker U
?, Maxwell House *"
iS- First Presbyterian Church
19. McKendree Methodist Church
20. Watkins Institute
21 Vine Street Temple
as. First Christian Science Church
23. Site of the Hetty McEwen Home
24. United States Customhouse
*j. Hurae-Fogg High School
16. Christ Episcopal Church

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188 CITY AND TOWN

ceptacles. Stone seats are placed along graveled walks bordered by closely-
clipped hedges. In the south section is a large fountain. The American
Flag flies over one section, the State Flag over the other,

2. The WAR MEMORIAL BUILDING (open 8:30-4:30 weekdays),
Capitol Blvd. between Union and Cedar Sts., extending to yth Ave. N.,
completed in 1925, is a three story neo-Classic limestone structure, designed
by McKim, Mead & White, with Edward Daugherty of Nashville as asso-
ciate. The main entrance, a spacious central court, joins the north and
south sections. Wide stone stairs lead to the Doric east portico, with large
fluted columns and a pedimented entablature. In the center of the court is
a BRONZE STATUE of a young man, by Belle Kinney and Leopold Scholz,
which symbolizes the strength and valor of war. Large bronze tablets, at
the western side, bear names of 3,400 Tennessee World War dead. The
MEMORIAL AUDITORIUM, on the south side, seats, 2,200.

The WORLD WAR MUSEUM (open), in the basement of the south wing,
contains a large collection of helmets, machine guns, rifles, and uniforms
captured from the Germans by Tennessee troops, weapons used by the
Allies, and battlefield photographs by the U. S. Signal Corps.

The STATE HISTORICAL MUSEUM (open), adjoining the World War
Museum, contains Tennesseana, including a copy of the first issue of the
Knoxville Gazette (first newspaper published in Tennessee), trophies of
the Mexican War, historical portraits, and battle flags. The museum also
houses the State Archives.

3. The CARNEGIE LIBRARY (open 9-9 weekdays; 2-6 Sun.), SE. corner
8th Ave. N. and Union St., designed by Albert Randolph Ross, was con-
structed 1903-04. Following the conventional classical design of Carnegie
libraries, this building is very plain except for the division of walls by
piksters, and a circular stairway of the Regency mode at the main en-
trance.

On the north wall of the children's room is a MURAL by Mrs. Mane
Barton Taylor of scenes from the legend of King Arthur.

The library contains more than 160,000 volumes, and Nashville daily
papers dating back to 1818. A business branch in the chamber of com-
merce building, contains an extensive collection of books on economic
theory and business problems.

4. The SITE OF PRESIDENT FOLK'S HOME, SW. corner Union St.
and yth Ave. N., is occupied by the Polk Apartments. Felix Grundy, twice
a United States Senator, built the original mansion and after his death in
1840 the property was sold to President Polk, who remodeled it.

5. The HERMITAGE HOTEL, SW. corner 6th Ave. N. and Union St.,
has in the lobby 20 paintings of Confederate scenes, by Gilbert Gaul
(1855-1919).

6. The SUPREME COURT BUILDING (open 8:30-4:30^ weekdays ) f
NW. corner yth Ave. N. and Cedar St., is in the neo-Classic style with
modified Greek detail. Its outer walls are of white marble with base and
terrace of polished granite. The fagade is accentuated by deeply recessed
panels between large square pilasters. The building is by Marr and Hoi-
man of Nashville.

NASHVILLE 189

7. The STATE CAPITOL, Cedar St. between 6th and yth Aves. N.,
and extending to Gay St., is on Capitol Hill, the highest point in the city.

In 1811 a neighbor bought a cow from Judge George W. Campbell and
was unable to pay for it. "But 111 tell you what," the neighbor said, "I've
got a pretty fair rifle gun and I own old Cedar Knob up yonder. Write my
debt off your books and you can have them." Campbell agreed. Thirty-
three years later the city bought Cedar Knob from Judge Campbell for
$30,000 and presented it to the State as the site for the Capitol. The
building was finished in 1855, the terrace completed in 1859. The crest
of the hill was removed to a foundation of solid rock; blocks of fossilized
limestone for the building, from 4^2 to 7 feet thick, were quarried by pris-
oners and slaves. The cost of the building exceeded $1,500,000.

In 1862, the building placed under a heavy guard and surrounded by a
stockade, was renamed Fort Johnson, headquarters of Federal activities.
Union soldiers badly damaged the grounds.

The building, designed by William Strickland, who lived in Nashville
from 1844 to 1854 (see ARCHITECTURE), follows the plan of an Ionic
temple. The pedimented Ionic porticos on each fagade are modeled after
those of the Erectheum at Athens, each having eight fluted columns, with
hand-carved capitals of solid stone. The east and west porticos have six
Ionic columns, surmounted by parapets. Strickland was buried in a recess
in the north portico wall. The long gable of the roof is broken by a cen-
tral tower, the upper portion designed in the manner of the Choragic
Monument of Lysicrates in Athens.

The main entrance is through the south portico. Surmounting the check-
blocks of the stairs at each front are ornamental lamp posts. Three figures
two maidens, representing morning and noon, and a youth holding a
torch, representing night are grouped around the posts.

The first floor occupied by the executive offices has a hall the length of
the building and a transverse hall. A marble staircase leads to the Hall of
Representatives, the Senate Chamber, and the State Library. The main
floor of the Hall of Representatives, 64 by 97 feet, is flanked by committee
rooms, above which are the public galleries. Extending from the gallery
parapets to the ceiling are fluted columns, with decorative capitals, carved
from solid blocks of stone. The Senate Chamber ceiling is adorned with
radiating panels. A gallery on three sides is supported by Ionic columns
with solid shafts of variegated marble. Portraits of noted Tennesseans are
hung on the walls of the library, which has a fine collection of Tennes-
seana.

Walks wind through the capitol grounds and a driveway curves around
the hill. Old cannon, used in fortifying the capitol during the War be-
tween the States, are spaced along the upper terrace.

Inside the southwest entrance is Julian Zolnay's bronze MONUMENT
To SAM DAVIS, the boy hero of the Confederacy (see Tour 8). Among
contributions for the monument, received from every State in the Union,
was a generous gift from Gen. G. M. Dodge, before whom Sam Davis was
court-martialed.

Directly below the south entrance portico stands the bronze STATUE OF

190 CITY AND TOWN

EDWARD WARD CARMACK, by Nancy Cox McCormack. Carmack was a
United States Senator from 1901 to 1907. In 1908, as editor of the Nash-
ville Tennessean, he vigorously attacked the administration of Governor
Malcolm R. Patterson. Championing prohibition, Carmack exposed a
number of the "wet" administration's shady deals. The politicians warned
him to "lay off." Carmack's scorching editorials and exposes continued.
One of his main targets was the influential Duncan Cooper, of Nashville.
On the evening of Nov. 9, 1908, as Carmack was walking along Seventh
Avenue between Church and Union Streets, Cooper and his son shot Car-
mack and left him dead on the sidewalk. Duncan Cooper was convicted of
murder, and the Tennessee Supreme Court confirmed the sentence. At the
gates of the penitentiary the warden presented Cooper with a full pardon
from Governor Patterson.

Before the east entrance portico is the bronze equestrian STATUE OF
ANDREW JACKSON by Clark Mills, 1880.

The TOMB OF JAMES KNOX POLK AND MRS. POLK, near the northeast
corner of the capital, designed by William Strickland, was built on the
grounds of the Polk home and removed here when the house was torn
down in 1893.

& ST. MARY'S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH (open 6-6 daily) 330
5th Ave. N., is a gray brick structure of Greek Revival style, designed by
William Strickland in 1844 and completed in 1847. The facade, faced
with limestone blocks, has a half portico supported by two fluted Ionic col-
umns. Surmounting the structure is an octagonal tower topped with a cir-
cular cupbla. The cupola, like that of the Capitol, is designed in the man-
ner of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates. The paneled walls of the
interior are acoustically treated. The ceiling, of square panels and classical
mouldings, is decorated with murals of the life of Christ. In a niche is the
high altar of Botticino marble. The statues of the Virgin Mary and St.
Joseph, and the holy water fonts are also of marble. Oil paintings of the
sufferings of Christ hang between the stained-glass windows.

The history of St. Mary's goes back to the 1820*5 when the Holy Rosary
< the first Catholic Church in Tennessee was erected in Nashville. When
the congregation moved to St. Mary's, the Holy Rosary Church was con-
verted into a hospital.

The tomb of Bishop Pius Miles, who was largely responsible for build-
ing St. Mary's, is beneath the high altar. Father Abram Ryan, the "Poet
Priest of the South," was an assistant pastor from 1864 to 1865.

9. The FIRST LUTHERAN CHURCH (open 8-12 daily), 312 5th Ave.
N., of brick with stone trim, designed in the castellated Gothic Revival
mode by Maj. A. Heiman, was completed in 1838. The art-glass memorial
windows, dedicated to early members, were imported from Germany be-
fore the World War. Built for a Baptist congregation, the building was
purchased by the Lutheran Church in 1884.

10. The BARNARD MARKER, SE. corner of Union St. and 4th Ave.
N,, identifies the site of the studio of E. E. Barnard (1857-1923). Barnard,
he first to photograph the Milky Way, discovered 16 comets and the
fifth satellite of Jupiter.

NASHVILLE 191

11. The SITE OF ANDREW JACKSON'S LAW OFFICE, 333 Union
St., from 1789 to 1896, is occupied by a drugstore.

12. The PUBLIC SQUARE, Deaderick St. between ist and 3 rd Aves. N.,
extending to Cedar St., was set aside by the assembly of North Carolina
in 1784. The first building was a one-story log jail, with whipping post
and pillory, and in 1789 local Methodists erected a stone church, also
used as a courthouse and public meeting place.

The DAVIDSON COUNTY PUBLIC BUILDING AND COURTHOUSE (of en
8-4 weekdays), in the center of the square, replaced the courthouse built
in 1857-58. The eight-story, air-conditioned building is constructed of
reinforced concrete on a steel framework, with walls of buff limestone.
The base and peristyle are of granite and the corridors are wainscoted
with marble. Designed in the Greek Revival style with Doric detail, by
Woolwine and Herons, the building was completed in 1937. The south
entrance, which has a salle de pas perdue (Fr., hall of lost footsteps),
opens on a terrace with two fountains.

In the main lobby are four MURALS by Dean Cornwell. The murals
Statesmanship, Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture are painted on a
background of red, silver and gold. Faintly sketched on the first two is a
map of Nashville, on the other two a map of Davidson County. At the
bottom of each mural are medallions of local historical events.

City and county administrative offices are on the first, second, and third
floors; the Chancery Court rooms, the Bar Assembly Hall, the Quarterly
Court room, offices of the Clerk and Master, and the committee rooms on
the fourth; the Circuit Court rooms, ofHce of the Circuit Court Clerk, jury
and witness rooms on the fifth.

The Criminal Court is on the sixth and seventh floors. The top floor
houses the sheriff's office and the jail.

The Cmr MARKET (open 7-6 Mon.-Fri., 7 a,m.-9 p-m. Sat.), fronting
the square on the north side, was designed by Henry C. Hibbs of Nashville
in the Classical Revival style, and completed in 1937. Window frames
and sashes are of steel, the roof is of copper, and the interior has a five-
foot wainscoting of glazed tile and a terrazzo floor. The market contains
stalls, restaurants, and rest rooms.

On the streets adjoining the market house farmers line up their wagons,
loaded with fresh country produce, everything from wild fox grapes, per-
simmons, and sorghum molasses, to "pyor" honey, split-bottom chairs, cut
flowers, and fresh cider.

13. FORTNASHBOROUGH (open 9-4 daily), ist Ave. N. and Church
St. built in 1930, is a model of the fort built by James Robertson and his
party on this site in 1780. Joseph J. Hart, of Nashville, was the architect.

Inside a stockade of black locust logs are the log blockhouses chinked
with mud. The houses have hand-split shingles, puncheon floors, and hand-
made furniture of the period*

The fort was the scene of an ambuscade by the Chickamauga on April
2, 1781. The previous night, the war party had crept to the edge of the
woods itat fringed the fort. Soon after sunrise three painted bucks jumped
from cover, fired toward the fort, and ran back into the woods. Col. James

192 CITY AND TOWN

Robertson set out with 20 mounted men to drive them off and his party
was allowed to pass through the first line of the ambush. As they ap-
proached a hillside, near what is now the corner of Third Avenue and
Demonbruen Street, the Indians attacked. The white men took shelter be-
hind their horses, and returned the fire. Mrs. Robertson, realizing the
men had been trapped, ordered the gates opened and the settlers* pack of
bear-dogs loosed. The great mastiffs, trained to hate Indians, attacked the
war party. The Indians ran in all directions, allowing Robertson and his
men to dash to safety. The following day the Indians attempted to storm
the fort, but were driven off by a swivel cannon, loaded with scrap iron,
bits of chain, and stones.

14. The CITY WHARF, Broadway and ist Ave., was a transportation
center during the iSoo's when most of the city's freight was carried by
boat In the early 1900'$, with a network of railroads across the State,
water transportation practically ceased, but in the thirties barge and tug-
boat lines renewed activity on the waterfront.

On warm Sunday afternoons, a motley crowd predominantly country
folk, gathers on the north corner of Lower Broad across from the wharf,
for the "free-for-all preachings," a custom of 20 years standing. Anyone,
Negro or white, man or woman, fundamentalist or atheist, is free to have
his say. The audience, for the most part, is made up of people restlessly
awaiting their turns to preach. They clutch battered Bibles, which they
leaf through and quote from at an instant's notice. Almost without excep-
tion they have tried and discarded the standard sects.

One of the men who preaches here regularly says: "The only place you
can get the truth is on the street as God told his people to go into the
highways and the hedges. There's not any truth in the churches these days
because God is not there/* Each preacher hopes to found his sect and
gather a following at the Sunday preachings. Often ten or twenty preachers
stand on the curb, on packing cases, and in truck beds, all preaching at the
same time. Gradually the crowd extends up Broad as far as Second Avenue
and spills down across First Avenue to the wharf. Preachers mount box-
cars and the loading-apron of the warehouse. They stand on the hoods of
cars and perch on the first story window ledges of the produce houses.
Some lure listeners by mouthing French harps or strumming banjoes and
guitars. Others whoop until a group collects. There is a constant crossfire
of heckling between preacher and listeners. Furious men rush up to the
preacher and shake fists, Bibles, and canes under his nose. Some ignore the
preaching and draw aside to roar Scriptural quotations into each other's
faces. The preaching continues until about 9 o'clock at night, when the
people, satiated and subdued, begin to leave. By 10 o'clock the corner is
deserted.

15. The JOHN BELL HOME, 413 Broadway, built in 1857, has been
remodeled for business houses. John Bell, born near Nashville on February
15, 1797, was a member of the House of Representatives (1827-41), ap-
pointed Secretary of War by President Harrison (1841), and was a mem-
ber of the United States Senate (1847-59). Bell opposed secession and
kept Tennessee in the Union until Fort Sumter was fired on ; then reluc-

NASHVILLE 193

tantly he threw in his lot with the South. In 1860 Bell was nominated for
President on the Constitutional Union Party ticket, but was defeated by
Lincoln. He won the votes of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia.

1 6. The SITE OF THE HOME OF WILLIAM WALKER, ME. corner
4th Ave. N. and Commerce St., is indicated by a marker. William Walker,
the "Grey-Eyed Man of Destiny," soldier of fortune, was born May 8,
1824, in the plain brick house that stood here. Walker, a doctor and
newspaper editor, joined the gold rush of 1849. After leading an unsuc-
cessful filibustering expedition into Sonora, Mexico, he recruited a sec-
ond band, landed in Nicaragua, and seized the government. As President
of Nicaragua, he was unofficially recognized by the U. S. Government. In
1860 Walker invaded Honduras and was captured by British marines.
Turned over to the Honduran authorities, he was executed by a firing
squad at Truxillo. The Government of Honduras refused requests to return
his body to Nashville.

17. The MAXWELL HOUSE, NW. corner 4th Ave. N. and Church St.,
a four-story brick hotel, was designed by Francis W. Strickland and built
by Col. John Overton. The building, started in 1859 and completed ten
years later, was named Maxwell House for the colonel's wife, Mary Max-
well Overton.

According to tradition, one day when Colonel Overton was riding along
Church Street, he noticed a crowd in a roadside field, gathered around a
red-faced auctioneer in a beaver hat who was standing on a stump "mak-
ing a mighty gobbling miration." To the colonel, who had just left the
taproom of the Nashville Inn, the auctioneer's gestures seemed to indicate
a cow tethered near the stump. Mellowly noting that the cow was a heavy
milker, Overton called out a bid of $15 and rode on. The next day he
was notified that his bid was high; he had bought, not a cow, but the lot
upon which he later built the Maxwell House.

The hotel was so out of proportion to the town that it was called "Over-
ton's Folly." Service quarters on each floor were in the center of the build-
ing, and all rooms were on the outer side. The facade on 4th Avenue was
adorned by a colonnaded portico two stories high with a balcony used as
a reviewing stand. For years every parade "in the city passed by this en-
trance.

During the War between the States the unfinished building was used
by Confederate and Federal troops as barracks and prison. In the spring of
1867, at a Ku Klux Klan convention held in the hotel, plans for the
Klan's operation were laid under the very noses of the carpetbag admin-
istration. A constitution was written and Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest
was made Grand Wizard, the chief officer.

A nationally known brand of coffee, originally manufactured in Nash-
ville, was named for this hostelry.

18. The FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH (open S-5 daily), SE. corner
Church St. and 5th N., is a gray brick structure designed in a modified
Egyptian style, by William Strickland. Between the towers, each 104 feet
high, is a half portico with two Egyptian columns supporting a delicate

194 CITY AND TOWN

pediment. The auditorium is decorated in the manner of an Egyptian
temple.

In the first church, built on the site in 1816, Andrew Jackson was pre-
sented a sword by the State of Tennessee for his services at the Battle of
New Orleans. This Church, which burned in 1832, was replaced by a sec-
ond building, in which James K. Polk was inaugurated Governor of Ten-
nessee. In 1838 this building was likewise destroyed by fire, and the pres-
ent one constructed. During the War between the States the Federal army
used the church as a hospital.

19. The McKENDREE METHODIST CHURCH (open 8-5), Church
St. between 5th and 6th Aves. N., constructed of brick and stone, is Italian
Renaissance in design, with low square towers and dome. The memorial
windows, copied from religious paintings, depict the life of Christ. The
Methodist congregation originally worshiped in Nashville's first church,
erected on the Public Square in 1789. In 1807 the building was torn down,
and for five years sendees were held in the county jail. In 1812 a church
was built on the northeast corner of Broad Street and 8th Avenue, where
the congregation worshiped until the present building was completed in
1912.

20. WATKINS INSTITUTE (open 9-9 daily) 605 Church St., built in
1885 in the Victorian Gothic style, was endowed by Samuel Watkins,
Nashville philanthropist, to furnish free instruction. Mr. Watkins left in
trust to the State of Tennessee a lot and $100,000 in cash with which to
erect a suitable building. The free night school was opened in 1888. In
1902 Mrs. Ann E. Weber gave in trust to the State two valuable store-
houses on Fifth Avenue to augment the work. A day school was started
in 1924. Special elementary work, art courses, and commercial and trade
courses are offered, as well as full high school work. Evening lectures are
given in sociology, modern literature, and other advanced courses.

The NASHVILLE ART MUSEUM (open 10-5 weekdays, 2-5 Sun.), on the
second floor, has historical paintings by Paul De La Roche; miniatures by
John Dodge; landscapes by Charles Warren Eaton; paintings by Lillian
Genth, a pupil of Whistler; and a collection of rare Dresden and Spode
china. There are also murals by Charles Cagle, former art teacher at Wat-
kins Institute.

21. The VINE STREET TEMPLE, Hebrew Reform (open 9-5 daily), 136
7th Ave. N, is a brick structure of Byzantine style, designed by W. Dod-
son in 1876. The stone-trimmed walls are topped with a massive, bulblike
dome surmounted by smaller domes of similar style. The Byzantine detail
is also carried out in the interior.

22. The FIRST CHRISTIAN SCIENCE CHURCH (open 10-5 daily),
120 7th Ave. N., built 1856-1881, is of pointed Gothic style, designed by
Wills and Dudley. Its buttressed Ivy-covered walls are of random rubble
stone. During the War between the States construction was suspended, and
service was held in the basement until 1866. The building was erected
by the Episcopal Church of the Advent, and purchased by the present con-
gregation in the early 1900*8.

23. The SITE OF THE HETTY McEWEN HOME, 117 8th Ave., N.,

NASHVILLE 195

is occupied by business houses. Hetty McEwen, a beloved eccentric and out-
spoken individualist of the 1860*5, whose grandfather fought at King's
Mountain, staunchly opposed secession. When Tennessee left the Union,
Mrs. McEwen had a flagpole erected in her front yard and raised the Stars
and Stripes. Throughout the war she was allowed to fly the Union flag, for
while she was flaunting it, she was busy night and day cooking food, knit-
ting socks, and furnishing lodging for Confederate soldiers.

24. The UNITED STATES CUSTOMHOUSE, Broadway and 7 th Ave.
S., is of pointed Gothic style. The basement is of granite and the super-
structure is faced with cream colored limestone. The three-story building is
surmounted by a Gothic tower, which extends 190 feet above the side-
walk. The entrance facade is ornamented with devices symbolizing the
progress of the United States. It was designed by William A. Potter, gov-
ernment architect. Begun in 1875, & e building was completed in 1881.
The interior is arranged for the Federal courts, customs offices, and other
government offices.

25. HUME-FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NE. corner Broadway and 8th Ave.
N., is on the site of the first meeting place in Nashville of the Tennessee
legislature. From 1812 to 1815 a Methodist church on this site was used
by the State legislature in lieu of a State capitoL

26. CHRIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH (of en B-5 daily), 900 Broadway
is a Victorian Gothic sandstone building with cut-stone trim, designed by
H. Kimball, and built 1887-1892. G-argoyles resembling those of old
English cathedrals ornament the exterior. Two small pieces of stone are in
the southeast vestibule, one from the old York Minster, the other from
the ruins of Pompeii. Heavy polished oak doors open into the nave of the
church, and the pews are of carved oak.

27. The ROMAN CATHOLIC CATHEDRAL OF THE INCARNA-
TION (open 6 ajn.-imdnight daily), 2011 West End Ave., a group of
three buildings, is designed in the manner of ecclesiastical architecture in
Rome, The cathedral proper recalls the Church of San Martino; the tower
resembles the campanile of the Church of San Damase; and the detail of
the rectory and the cathedral school, which flank each side of the cathedral,
is similar to that of the Farnese Palace. The buildings are of buff-colored
brick with red tile roofs and are connected at the rear by cloisters. The
interior woodwork is of solid oak, the hardware of specially designed
brass; the holy water fonts are miniature copies of those by Michelangelo
in St. Peter's, Rome; and the high altar is copied after that of San Mar-
tino in Lucca, Italy. Designed by Aristide Leonard of Rome, Italy, con-
struction was supervised by Bishop Thomas Byrne.

28. CENTENNIAL PARK, West End Ave. betwen 25th and 28th Aves.
N., is a 134-acre landscaped tract, formerly called West Side Park. The
name was changed in 1897, when the exposition marking the hundredth
anniversary of the State's entrance into the Union, was held there. Build-
ings were not completed in time for the exposition to be held in 1896 as
originally planned. The park has a swimming pbol, tennis and croquet
courts, a golf course, and horseshoe lanes.

The KIWANIS MEMORIAL, facing West End Ave. near the 25th Ave.

196 CITY AND TOWN

entrance, is a sculpture group in bronze by Julian Zolnay of Palermo, Italy.
On the marble pedestal two tablets are inscribed with the names of David-
son County's World War dead. The Roumanian Government obtained
permission to reproduce this memorial.

The following points of interest are on the driveway circling the park and are listed
in sequence starting from the right hand entrance.

The PROW OF THE OLD BATTLESHIP TENNESSEE (L) is a reproduction
of the figurehead on the U. S. S. Tennessee, of Spanish- American War
days, loaned by the Secretary of the Navy, at the request of Capt. Albert
Gleaves, 1910.

The JAMES ROBERTSON MONUMENT (L) is a roughly-hewn
shaft of solid stone on a plain-hewn stone pedestal. Bronze plaques give
brief biographies of James and Charlotte Reeves Robertson.

On tree-bordered WATAUGA LAKE (L) live 23 species of water fowl.

In the GREENHOUSE (private) are three rare trees: The bread-fruit, a
tropical food tree; the ornamental banana; and the dwarf banana, planted
in the park during the Tennessee Centennial Exposition in 1897. The
greenhouse furnishes plants for all city parks.

In the JAPANESE GARDEN (L) are a grotto, a statue of Buddha, several
Japanese pagodas, 45 varieties of plants, and a small lake, covered in sea-
son with water lilies.

The PARTHENON (open 10-6 weekdays; 2-7 Sun.) (L), is a steel-and-
concrete reproduction, by Hart, Freeland, and Roberts, of the Athenian
Parthenon. The present building, 228 feet long, 101 feet wide, and 65 feet
high, was opened in 1931 replacing the plaster structure erected in 1897
for the centennial anniversary. The Doric columns of the peristyle are
more than six feet in diameter, and the double bronze doors weigh 15 tons.
Ninety-two metopes in high relief, reproduced by George J. Zolnay, dec-
orate the Doric frieze and 54 classic statues, executed by Belle Kinney and
Leopold Scholz, adorn the tympana of the pediments.

In the west room are casts of the original pediment sculptures of the
Parthenon in the British Museum. The reproductions for the Ionic frieze
of the Nashville Parthenon were made by Belle Kinney and her husband,
Leopold Scholz, of Nashville.

The Gowan Collection of sixty-three oil paintings by American artists
is in the basement. The paintings were chosen to represent a cross section
of American art from the Colonial period to the present.

The JOHN W. THOMAS MEMORIAL (L) is a xo-foot pedestal of solid
white marble, designed by Enid Yandell and erected by employees of
the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway in 1907. A bronze
plaque gives a bfief biography of Thomas (1830-1906), president of the
Tennessee Centennial Exposition.

29. The NATCHEZ TRACE MARKER, West End Ave. facing Centen-
nial Park, is at the junction of the old Wilderness Road from Knoxville
and the Natchez Trace Road to Natchez, Mississippi (see TRANSPORTA-
TION). Originally the Natchez Trace was used by the Chickasaw, Choctaw,
and other Southern tribes as a path to the rich hunting grounds of Tennessee

NASHVILLE 197

and Kentucky. In 1801 treaties with Chickasaw and Cherokee Indians pro-
vided for the opening of a wagon road from Nashville to Natchez. The
road was completed in 1807. The Natchez Trace is being restored as a
national highway (1939).

30. VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, entrance West End Ave. at 2 3rd Ave.
S., is one of the South's foremost educational institutions. On the 76-acre
campus, which is landscaped with more than 50 varieties of trees,
weathered brick buildings of Victorian Gothic architecture stand side by
side with modern stone-and-brick structures designed in the Collegiate or
Oxford Gothic mode. Winding paths along the grass beneath the ancient
trees are in contrast to the concrete walkways with their trim curbs.

The college was chartered in 1872 as Central University by the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church South and continued under Church control until
1914. In 1873 Bishop Holland M. McTyeire secured from Cornelius Van-
derbilt of New York an endowment for the University of $500,000. Mr.
Vanderbilt subsequently increased his endowment to one million dollars,
and the name was changed to Vanderbilt University.

The university opened with four general departments, Academic, Bib-
lical, Law, and Medical, but because there were not enough students avail-
able with the necessary scholastic requirements, a department was added
for preparatory classes. This department was discontinued in 1887. The
University consists of six schools: Arts and Science, Law, Engineering,
Religion, Medicine, and Nursing.

When the medical department of the University of Nashville was ac-
quired by Vanderbilt in 1874, new buildings were erected, equipment was
purchased, and entrance requirements raised. In 1913 Andrew Carnegie
gave $200,000 for the erection and equipment of a laboratory, and a year
later he made an endowment of $800,000. In 1919 the General Education
Board (an organization that handles Rockefeller philanthropies for edu-
cational purposes) appropriated $4,000,000 for a complete reorganization
of the School of Medicine. Operating funds were provided by a joint en-
dowment of $3,000,000 from the General Education Board and the Carne-
gie Corporation. The Rockefeller Foundation also appropriated $100,000
to be used over a period of five years for the School of Nursing. The
Abraham Flexner lectureship, to bring outstanding American and European
scientists to lecture at the school, was established in 1927 through a gift of
$50,000 from Bernard Flexner of New York. Other large contributions
were endowments of $3,500,000 for the School of Medicine, and $4,-
000,000 for the Vanderbilt University Hospital, made by the General Edu-
cation Board in 1929.

The MEDICAL COLLEGE AND HOSPITAL, of modified Gothic design, is
the work of Coolidge and S^attuck of Boston. It is planned in a series of
connected squares enclosing courts. The building contains wards with 350
beds, an extensive out-patient department/ surgeries, laboratories, lecture
rooms, medical library, museum, and administrative offices.

KIRKLAND HALL, the Administration Building, named for Chancellor
Emeritus James H, Kirkland, contains the School of Law, the Academic
Library and the THRUSTON COLLECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND MINERALS

CITY AND TOWN

(open by permission), presented by Gen. G. P. Thraston, Tennessee arche-
ologist The collection includes ancient pottery, idols, clay pipes, shell
spoons, vases, articles made of copper, and a collection of rare gems
(booklet available). With the exception of the minerals, most of the col-
lection was taken from prehistoric graves in and around Nashville.

The STATUE OF COMMODORE VANDERBILT, by G. Moretti, cast m
bronze and of heroic proportions, stands in front of the main entrance of
KirklandHall. , c _ n f

GARLAND HALL, named for Landon C. Garland, first Chancellor of
Vanderbilt University, contains a MUSEUM (open on application) of rocks,
fossils, maps, and charts, including complete sets of topographic and geo-
logic maps issued by the United States Geological Survey. The geology and
physics libraries are also housed in the building.

Among other buildings are Alumni Memorial Hall, the recreation build-
ing; Wesley Hall, the School of Religion; Furman Hall, the chemistry
department; Mechanical Engineering Hall; Science Hall; the Observatory;
Buttrick Hall, biology department; Mark Kirkland Hall, the School of
Nursing; and Calhoun Hall.

DUDLEY STADIUM, a short distance west of the campus, seats 22,000.
Home football games of the "Commodores" are played here. It was named
for William I. Dudley, professor of chemistry and early head of athletics
at the University.

31. GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, 2ist Ave. S. and
Edgehill Ave., has twelve principal buildings on a 5O-acre campus. Built
to conform to the campus plan, designed in 1911 by Ludlow and Peabody,
the buildings, facing a landscaped quadrangle, are of Classical Revival de-
sign with temple-like facades. Crowning the hill is the Social Religious
Building, with its graceful columns and huge dome, designed by Ludiow
and Peabody and constructed in 1914. Connected with this building by
circular colonnades are the East and West Dormitories (1921-23), de-
signed by Henry C. Hibbs. On the west side are: the Graduate Dormitory
(1929), designed by Raymond Hood; the Fine Arts Building (1927);
and the Administration Building (1925), by McKim, Mead and White;
and the Library (1918), by Henry C. Hibbs. On the east side are the United
Daughters Memorial (1933), designed by Granberry Jackson; the Psy-
chology Building (1914) ; the Industrial Arts Building (1914) ; anc * tlie
Home Economics Building (1914), by Ludlow and Peabody. ^ On the
north facing the group is the Demonstration School (1925), designed by
McKim, Mead and White.

Under the name of the University of Nashville, the college was founded
in 1875, as a State Normal School and in 1889 the name was changed to
Peabody Normal College because of financial aid from the estate of George
Peabody of Massachusetts. It was incorporated under its present title in
1909 ; and was moved in 1914 to the site it now occupies. The college was
the first institution in the South established for the sole purpose of teacher-
training. Junior College, .Senior College, and graduate courses leading to
M. A. and Ph. D. degrees are offered. The college, which is co-educational,
has an average enrollment of 1,000.

SCARMTT COLLEGE, NASHVILLE

200 CITY AND TOWN

The COHEN MEMORIAL MUSEUM (open 9-4 weekdays), on the right of
the campus, the gift of Mrs, George Etta Cohen of Nashville, contains
many canvases, costly porcelains, rare laces,' old silver, tapestries, china,
and antique furniture. The college art department has classrooms in the
basement. The marble in the stairway and halls was imported from Car-
rara, Italy.

32. SCARRITT COLLEGE, 1008 i9th Ave. S., consisting of four units
connected by cloisters, is on a nine-acre campus. Designed by Henry C.
Hibbs of Nashville, and completed in 1928, the building of varicolored
quartz stone forms the three sides of a quadrangle and opens on a court.
Single bricks and red and green stone slabs set in the walls at intervals
accentuate the natural color of the quartz. The dominant feature of the
building is the well-proportioned tower with its pinnacled corners and
cut-stone trim. In 1929 Hibbs received the gold medal of the American
Institute of Architects in recognition of this ecclesiastical design.

In 1887 Belle H. Bennett, President of the Women's Missionary
Council of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, conceived the idea of
a training school for missionaries. In May 1890 the Woman's Board of
Foreign Missions of the church authorized the establishment of the insti-
tution.

Dr. Nathan Scarritt gave a tract at Kansas City, Missouri, where the
college was dedicated in 1892, as the Scarritt Bible and Training School,
with an enrollment of three. In 1923 the Scarritt School was moved to
Nashville, its scope broadened to include all church workers, and the name
changed to Scarritt College for Christian Workers. Senior college courses
leading to a bachelor's degree and graduate courses have been organized
in three fields: community and family service, social work, and religious
education.

33. WARD-BELMONT COLLEGE, i6th Ave. S. and Belcourt, for
young women, has as its main building, Belmont, the former home of
Col. J. A. S. Acklen, built in 1850, and at that time considered one of the
finest private homes in the South. The building is designed in the manner
of an Italian Renaissance villa, with wrought-iron balconies and window
guards imported from Italy. Other buildings have been added, facing the
garden in the rear and forming a quadrangle with one open side. The
circular flower beds, many of the walks, and the outdoor tea houses of
iron grill work have been retained in their original setting. The statues on
the grounds once stood in the old Adden garden. The water tower, used
during the War between the States as a signal tower, houses the carillon
bells, a gift in 1929 from the alumnae of Ward's Seminary, Belmont Col-
lege, and Ward-Belmont.

Ward Seminary was established in 1865 by the Reverend William E.
Ward. It was first housed in the Kirkman Building, near the State Capi-
tol, then on the present 8th Avenue. In 1890 Belmont College was estab-
lished in the Adden home by Miss Ida E. Hood and Miss Susan L. Heron,
and when they retired in 1913 the two schools were united.

34. FORT NEGLEY (open at all hours), Chestnut St. and Ridley Blvd.,
erected by Federal Gen. James S. Negley of Pennsylvania in 1862, was re-

NASHVILLE 2OI

stored in 1937 by WPA. The original plans made by Brig.-Gen. James St.
Clair were used. Many of the walls and much of the foundation of the
abandoned fort were found intact when the restoration was made. The
large stone and iron building, with its complex polygonal plan, stands on
the summit of the hill. Two bomb-proof basements are roofed with iron.
The guns of Fort Negley opened the Battle of Nashville in 1864.

During the Reconstruction Period the abandoned fort was used as a
meeting place by the Ku Klux Klan. The musty crypts and debris-littered
galleries were well suited to midnight gatherings, and sentries on the para-
pets could warn against the approach of troops. All efforts of the Union
Army of Occupation to stamp out the Klan failed. By 1870 the last of the
carpetbaggers and "scalawags" had left town, and Grand Wizard Nathan
Bedf ort Forrest ordered the Klan dissolved. As a gesture of defiance, the
final "Konclave" of the Nashville chapter was announced in the news-
papers and by handbill. Gov. DeWitt Clinton Senter issued orders to the
Union troops garrisoned in Nashville to break up the demonstration, and
the city police, augmented fay special deputies, were also called out. Warn-
ings to the Klan were posted, and the police and troops had orders to
shoot to kill if the proposed march through the city was attempted.

Ignoring this, a picked troop of Kiansmen gathered at Fort Negley and,
in full regalia, circled west of Nashville to the Charlotte Pike and came
into the city by Cedar Street Thousands turned out to watch the parade
whose route would pass directly by Capitol Hill. Troops in battle forma-
tion were drawn up on the capitol grounds, where a heavy iron chain had
been stretched across the Cedar Street entrance. Ranks of policemen were
stationed on both sides of the street and when the robed column cantered
up the hill, the order was passed along to policemen to draw their weap-
ons. The order was not carried oiit, for at that moment each of them felt
the muzzle of a pistol poked into the small of his back. Behind every po-
liceman stood an armed Klansman in civilian clothes. The Kiansmen
reached the chain and halted. One of them dismounted and broke the
chain with a sledge hammer. The Union officers on Capitol Hill, sensing
from the inaction of the police that something was wrong, withheld fire.
The Kiansmen cantered past the capitol and swung west through the heart
of town. Then they rode on out to Fort Negley where, after the last cere-
monies, they burned their robes and ritual books and rode home. (This
well-known Nashville story is treated by Mrs. S. E. F. Rose in her book,
,fhe Ku Klux Klan.)

35. CITY CEMETERY, Oak St. and 4th Ave. S., when opened in 1822,
was surrounded by a peaceful woodland, but now factories crowd close to
its walls.

In the cemetery is the simple boxlike tomb of James Robertson, founder
of Nashville; and the tombs of Charlotte Reeves, his wife, and Felix Rob-
ertson, their son (the first white boy born in Nashville). Here also is bur-
ied William E. West, friend of Washington Irving and portraitist of
European celebrities (see PAINTING AND SCULPTURE). William
Carroll, former Governor of Tennessee, and William Driver, who gave
the name "Old Glory" to the National flag, are also buried here.

202 CITY AND TOWN

Over the graves of John Kane, stone cutter at the capital, and Sarah
Ann Gray, wife of William Walker, are monuments designed by William
Strickland.

36. HOLY TRINITY CHURCH (Negro), 6th Ave. S. and Ewing St., is
constructed of native blue limestone with a trussed roof of varnished cedar.
Designed by Wills and Dudley (1852), the building resembles an old
English parish church. The altar is of cedar adorned with a crown of
thorns. Founded by Charles Tomes as the first mission of Christ's Church
in Nashville, Holy Trinity was given to its Negro members ^1908. Sing-
ers from Fisk University frequently furnish music for the services.

37. The SITE OF THE WILLIAM DRIVER HOME, 511 $th Ave. S.,
is occupied by a dwelling. In 1831 Captain Driver, master of the brig
Charles Daggett, was presented with an American flag by his mother and
some neighbor girls in Salem, Massachusetts. As the flag was unfurled
from the masthead, the young seaman exclaimed, 'Til call her 'Old
Glory.' " Driver came to Nashville in 1837, bringing the original "Old
Glory" with him. On special occasions it was hoisted in front of his home.
During the War between the States, Driver was strongly Union in senti-
ment His house was searched repeatedly in an effort to find the flag, which
had been sewed into a quilt. When the Federals took the city in 1862, the
captain brought the flag from its hiding place and hoisted it.

38. SUNNYSIDE (private), Kirkwood Lane and i2th Ave. S., was built
by Mrs. Jesse Benton in 1840 and is one of the finest examples of ante-
bellum architecture in Middle Tennessee. Plans for the home were drawn
by Thomas H. Benton, brother of Jesse. The two-story structure was de-
signed in the Jeffersonian Classic style; the central portion constructed of
clapboards over the original logs, and the portico with large square col-
umns. White brick wings were added in the 1920'$ by the present owner,
Col. Granville Sevier, foster grandson of Mrs. Benton,

The house was in the line of fire during the Battle of Nashville. After
the battle the marks of 42 Minie balls were found in the front portico
and door.

39. WESTWOOD (private), 2712 Westwood Drive, derived its name
from two family names, West and Wood. The house is built of large
wooden blocks, cut from timber on the estate, and painted white to resem-
ble stone* Four galleries, supported by slender fluted Corinthian columns
with delicate acanthus leaves, surround the house. There is a balcony over
the entrance and wrought-iron railings enclose the lower half of the bal-
cony and the galleries. The overseer's house and the stone spring house
are still standing. Westwood was the home of Robert Woods, whose wife
was the daughter of Edward West, an experimenter with early steamboat
engines. His son William West, the artist, lived here for many years.

40. DAVID LIPSCOMB COLLEGE, 4 m. (Granny White Pike bus), is
a co-educational institution supported by a private foundation in the inter-
est of the Church of Christ Specializing in Christian education, it is one
of the oldest institutions of its kind and is one of the few schools in the
country that include Bible study every day. The natural beauty of the
shaded 40-acre campus has been enhanced by effective landscaping. The

NASHVILLE 203

red brick buildings, trimmed with white limestone, have classic fagades of
modified Greek Revival mode. The oldest structure on the campus is the
president's house, the former residence of David Lipscomb. This building
and the Burton Gymnasium, the latter designed by C. K. Colley and con-
structed in 1923, were the only two structures spared in a fire of 1929. In
1930, Harding Hall, which was designed by R. E. Turberville and con-
structed about 1900, was remodeled by George Waller. Elam Hall and
Sewell Hall were also designed by Waller and constructed in 1930.

Founded in 1891 as the Nashville Bible School, the first session was
held in a rented building on Fillmore Street. In 1903, David Lipscomb,
co-founder with J. A. Harding, gave his farm as a permanent location and
in 1918 the name of the institution was changed to David Lipscomb Col-
lege. Elementary, high school, and junior college courses are given. In
1936-37 the enrollment was 500.

41. SHELBY PARK of 361 acres, at the E. end of Shelby Ave., contains
several log houses, and the municipal Iris Garden, with more than 500
varieties of iris. It is equipped with baseball and soft ball diamonds, tennis
courts, a swimming pool, a golf course, children's playgrounds and numer-
ous picnic areas.

42. CHEATHAM PLACE, 1564 9th Ave. N., is a PWA housing and
slum clearance project. On the 21 -acre site are 352 apartments in two-,
three-, and four-room units. Designed by the Nashville Allied Architects,
the buildings are plain and symmetrically arranged in landscaped courts.
Kitchens are designed to provide efficiency in working space and are sup-
plied with modern appliances. A community building provides social
rooms, clinic rooms, and office.

43. ANDREW JACKSON PLACE, 1457 Jackson St., is the site of the
PWA Negro housing project, designed by the Nashville Allied Archi-
tects. The houses are simple in design, carefully planned, and well built.
There are individual yards and garden plots. The homes cover only about
20 percent of the entire site, the remainder of the land being used for
yards, gardens, and play space.

44. FISK UNIVERSITY (Negro), Jefferson St and lyth Ave. N., has a
campus of 40 acres, with 20 buildings.

The American Missionary Association of New York City and the West-
ern Freedmen's Aid Commission of Cincinnati assisted by Gen. Clinton B.
Fisk, then in charge of the Freedmen's Bureau in Tennessee, founded Fisk
University. The institution was opened in 1866 as Fisk School, with John
Ogden as its first principal. In 1867 the school was chartered as a uni-
versity.

For 70 years Fisk devoted its efforts to building a college of liberal arts
and sciences, but now (1939) more attention is given to training leaders
among the American Negroes. Bachelor of arts, bachelor of music, and
master of arts degrees are granted.

JUBILEE HALL, is a brick L-shaped structure, six stories in height, and
Victorian Gothic in style, the oldest and largest building and the center
of University life. It was built in 1876 with part of the money made by

204 CITY AND

the first group of Jubilee Singers. The group was organized in 1867 by
George L. White, treasurer of Fisk, and was known as the Colored Chris-
tian Singers. In 1871 the chorus of seven women and four men students
made an extensive tour of the larger northern cities, Europe, and the Brit-
ish Isles. Their singing of Negro spirituals was so enthusiastically received
that the proceeds of the tour amounted to more than $150,000, sufficient
to purchase the university campus and build Jubilee Hall. Under the name
of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, successive choral groups have continued at in-
tervals to tour the Old and New Worlds, and to give radio concerts.

The UNIVERSITY LIBRARY (open 8-5:30 weekdays), designed by Henry
C. Hibbs, is of modified Gothic design, constructed of reinforced steel
and concrete faced with red brick and cut-stone trim. Murals by Aaron
Douglas, prominent Negro artist, portray the progress of the Negro in
America. Reading room space provides for 300, and a tower stack accom-
modates the 175,000 volumes.

45. MEHARRY MEDICAL COLLEGE (Negro), 1005 i8th Ave. N.,
adjoining Fisk University, is on a campus covering six blocks. Meharry
took its name from the descendants of Alexander and Jane Meharry, who
with the aid of Dr. R. S. Rust, original founder of the school, contributed
liberally to its support. The four buildings of red brick with cut-stone trim,
are Collegiate Gothic in style, designed by Gordon and Keelber (1930-
31). The main building houses the hospital, school of medicine, school of
pharmacy, school of dentistry, dental hygiene department, and a school for
nurses. Organized in 1876 as the Medical Department of Central Tennes-
see College, the name was changed in 1900 to Meharry Medical College
of Walden University, and in 1915 it became an independent college.
Doctor of medicine and doctor of dental surgery degrees are given. Three
years' work is offered in pharmacy and in nursing.

46. TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL STATE
TEACHERS COLLEGE (Negro), 3300 Centennial Blvd., on 80 acres
overlooking the Cumberland River, has a group of buildings, in simple
Greek Revival style, with low gabled roofs and Doric porticoes. The col-
lege opened as a State normal school in 1912, but became an accredited
teachers college in 1922 with a four-year training course. In 1937 the
State legislature authorized the school to grant the degree of master of
arts. The A. & I. Concert Singers specialize in classical music and spiri-
tuals and sponsor a musical drama each spring.

47. In CHEROKEE PARK, 62nd St. and Louisiana Ave., is the TREATY
OAK, under which, in June 1783, the white settlers of Middle Tennessee
headed by James Robertson, met delegations from principal southern tribes
in a peace council lasting three days. The tree, its six-foot trunk protected
by an iron fence, is estimated to be at least 350 years old.

Around Treaty Oak were the camp grounds where Tennessee's soldiers
were mustered for every war from Jackson's Creek campaign in 1813 to
the Spanish American War in 1898.

NASHVILLE 205

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS

Glen Echo, 6.3 m.; Rock Castle, 19 m. (see Tour 7, sec. a); Melrose, 3.9 m.;
Peace Monument, 3.8 m.; Travelers Rest, 1.4 m. (see Tour 7, sec. b) ; Site of
Home of John Haywood, 7-9 m. (see Tour 7A) ; West View, 3 m. (see Tour 8, sec.
a); Camping Grounds of Irish Nomads, 3J m.; Municipal Airport, 7.7 m. (see
Tour 8, sec. b) ; Buchanan Station, 5.4 m.; DeMonbreun Cave, .5.9 m.; Two Rivers
Farm, 7 m.; Clover Bottom, 10. 1 m.; Tulip Grove, 12.8 m.; Hermitage, 13 m.
(see Tour 12, sec. b) ; Belle Meade Estate, 6 m. (see Tour 12, sec. c); Percy
Warner Park, 8.7 m. (see Tour 12B).

Railroad Stations: Grand Central, 535 S. Main St. and Calhoun Ave., for Illinois
Central R.R., Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Ry., and St. Louis-San Francisco Ry.;
Union Station, Caihoun St. between S. 2nd and S. 3rd Sts., for Southern Ry., Louis-
ville & Nashville R.R., St. Louis Southwestern Ry., Nashville, Chattanooga & St.
Louis Ry., and Missouri Pacific R.R.

Bus Stations: Greyhound, 161 Monroe Ave., for Dixie Greyhound, Southwestern
Greyhound, and Oliver Bus Lines; Missouri Pacific Terminal, 269 S. Main St., for
Missouri Pacific Transportation Lines, and for Missouri-Arkansas Lines; 122 S. 3rd
St., for Arkansas Coach Lines; 156 Monroe St., for Tri-State Transit Co.
Airport: Memphis Municipal Airport, 10 m. SW., Airways Blvd., for American
Airlines, Inc., Chicago and Southern Airlines, and Southern Air Service, Inc. Taxi
fare 750 from downtown. City ticket office, Peabody Hotel, Union Ave. at 2nd St.
Streecars: Local busses, street cars and coaches, Main St. Uniform fare of 70, with
transfers to all lines.

Taxis: 250 for first 1.5 miles, io0 for each additional half mile. Flat rate of $2
per hr.

Boats: Excursion boats for short trips during summer, at wharf, foot of Beale Ave.,,
and Riverside Drive. A boat makes three trips daily between President's Island and
the foot of Wisconsin Ave. (fare varies).

Traffic Regulations: Speed limit 25 m. p. h. Observe National Traffic Code. All cars
using Memphis streets for more than 30 days must bear guest tags. All-day parking
allowed between Riverside Drive and river.

Accommodations: Thirty hotels, two for Negroes; tourist camps.

Information Service: Dixie Motor Club, Hotel Peabody, Union Ave. at S. 2nd St.

Radio Stations: WHBQ (1370 kc.); WMC (780 kc.) ; WMPS (1430 kc.) ; WREC
(600 kc.).

Theaters and Motion Picture Houses: Ellis Auditorium, Main St. and Exchange
Ave., road shows and opera. Memphis Little Theater, Museum of Natural History
and Industrial Arts, Tilton Road facing Central Ave. Four first-run, 33 second-run
motion picture houses, three for Negroes.

Baseball: Russwood Park, Madison Ave., Southern Association (Class A).
Wrestling: Each Monday at Ellis Auditorium, Main St. and Exchange Ave.
Swimming: Municipal Pool, Fairgrounds at E. Parkway, S. of Central Ave.; Mem-
phis Country Club Pool, Southern and Goodwyn Aves.; E. End, 2016 Madison
Ave. (Fairgrounds Car No. 2); Malone Pool (free), N. Main St. and Saffarans
Ave.; Washington Pool (for Negroes), N. 2nd St. and Marble Ave.; Clearpool,
jo m. S. on US 78; Maywood Pool, 17.5 m. on US 78; Harbin's Pool, 10 m. S.
on US 51.

Golf: Overtpn Park, N. Parkway, Poplar Ave., E. Parkway, 9 holes, free; Riverside,
S. end of Riverside Blvd. and W. end S. Parkway, 9 holes, free; Alicia Gold Club,
2629 Poplar Ave., 9 holes, 250; McLean-Vallentine Golf Club, N. McLean Ave.,
one block W. of Vallentine, 9 holes, 250; Galloway, 18 holes, 500.
Tennis: Beauregard Park, Jefferson Ave., at Waldron (30^ per hour on three
courts, no charge on nine), night tennis (400 per hour) ; Galloway Park, Walnut
Grove Rd. just N. of Poplar (300 per hour) ; Mid-South Fairgrounds, E, Parkway
(free); Alicia Tennis Courts, E. Parkway just S. of Poplar Ave. (400 per hour).
Free Circus: South entrance Overton Park, between N. Parkway and Poplar Ave.
(daily summer, 10:30 a.m. and 2:30 p.m.; Sundays the year round at 2:30 p.m.).

206

MEMPHIS 207

Annual Events: Cotton Carnival, May, and Mid-South Fair, September; Korsc
shows, Mid-South Fairgrounds, spring and fall; Southern Amateur Tennis Tourna-
ment, during Cotton Carnival in May.

MEMPHIS (320 alt, 253,143 pop,), largest city in the State, is a metrop-
olis for Tennessee, Mississippi, and Arkansas. On the Fourth, or Lower
Chickasaw Bluff, east bank of the Mississippi River, Memphis flattens out
from its 4o-foot elevation to the black cotton lands and the rolling for-
ested country of the Wolf River on the north and east and Nonconnah
Creek on the south. Its position on the banks of a great river that like the
Nile, flooded the delta lands each spring made the name Memphis an ap-
propriate 'choice.

Now an industrial center, the city still has much of the glamour of
early river days. The names of buildings and streets recall the Chickasaw
Indians, De Soto, and the roaring days when ranks of steamboats nosed
into the landing and sent pungent woodsmoke rolling over the city. Along
the cobblestoned river front of Wolf Harbor are wharves and warehouses.
Cable transportation systems swing out over the water, and with the
massed railroad tracks form river and rail connections for lumber, steel,-
and cotton products. Shanty-boats are moored to the sloping willow-
tangled banks of Mud Island, which rises in the center of the harbor.
Below the island the steel spans of the Harahan and Frisco Bridges reach
to the Arkansas shore.

Overlooking the Wolf and Mississippi are Jefferson Davis and Con-
federate Parks, Cossitt Library, and the Federal building. From the weath-
ered cotton-office buildings of Front Street the business district climbs
eastward toward lofty new office buildings. The central section of down-
town Memphis, with Main Street as a base and with the tall Sterrick and
Exchange buildings looming above, has the appearance of any thriving
metropolis, except that the crowds move with less push and hurry, and
groups are more apt to gather on the broad sidewalks to talk. The tower
of the Columbian Mutual Tower Building rises above Court Square, where
shoppers pause to feed the squirrels and pigeons. The flavor of the older
city grows stronger along upper North Main and lower South Main and
adjacent streets. Here the fruit stands, antique and curio shops, and musty
second-hand bookstores and pawnshops display their wares on counters
along the sidewalks. The first floors of many buildings are deserted. Doors
hanging ajar on warped hinges show sagging littered stairs to second-
story living quarters.

The principal avenues lead northeast from the river past Crosstown,
the mid-city business area, to join the Parkway, a double-Ianed, oak and
maple-shaded drive which, with Riverside Drive, encircles the city and
passes the spacious wooded parks.

Business and office structures, apartments and their minor satellites, the
soft drink stand, "hamburger joint," and filling station, have obliterated
much of the former grandeur of the queer, castle-like homes of the Vic-
torian era. The few that remain are bedraggled rooming houses whose
former occupants have retreated to the newer residential sections along
the Parkway, in Cbickasaw Gardens, Red Acres, and Hein Park.

AIR VIEW DOWNTOWN MEMPHIS

For the first hundred years of its history Memphis was nothing more
than a river boom town on the borderline of the West. Settlers were too
busy amassing fortunes to take the time for building stately homes. For
this reason there are few old mansions in the city. Only in the last two
decades have restricted residential areas been laid out. These areas have
grown rapidly and are like neat little villages in the suburbs. Gravel drives
wind past homes of Georgian Colonial, English Tudor, and Spanish mis-
sion style.

Near the river and in North and South Memphis are the large blocks
of factory buildings, lumber yards, and cotton compresses. The homes in
these districts, rows of duplicated houses, are similar to those found in
any industrial center.

The Cotton Carnival, a 1931 revival of the Mardi Gras celebrations of
1872-1901, presents the story of the city in pageantry. Sponsored by a
non-profit civic organization, the carnival each May dramatizes the story
of cotton and serves to center national attention on Memphis and its lead-
ing product.

King Cotton and his Queen of Beauty, selected in secret committee,
reign for four days over a court chosen by leading clubs and by 40 cities

MEMPHIS 209

throughout the Tri-State area. The colorful and impressive entry of their
majesties on the royal barge laden with hundreds of bales of cotton opens
the revelry pageants, street parades, carnival balls, street dancing, beauty
reviews, races, shows, tournaments, and many private parties.

The Cotton Carnival celebration assumed a more serious nature in 1935
with the presentation of the National Cotton Show at the Mid-South
Fairgrounds, in which leading cotton manufacturers of the country par-
ticipate. The displays tell the story of cotton in all its phases, from plant-
ing through production to the many finished products.

The Negro plays his part in "The Negro Sings," the Beale Street section
of the fiesta. The Negro floats are made in the manual training depart-
ments of their schools. Their three-day revel, parades, and "sings," begin-
ning the second day, are a vivid part of the ceremonies. Included in the
Negro division of the carnival are the coronation parade and dance on
Wednesday, lawn tea and oratorical contest on Thursday, and the chil-
dren's parade, track meet, jubilee parade, and ball on Friday.

Through their physical labor the Negroes have helped build Memphis
on the bluff, and they love the town, The Negroes' old "lonesome songs'*
inspired the "blues" of W. C. Handy. In the Bluff City they have found
a place to grow, as attested by their homes, schools, churches, and business
houses. Memphis is the center of an agricultural section in which Negro
labor predominates, and more than one-third of the city's population is
Negro. Although the death rate for Negroes exceeds the birth rate, the
Negro population continues to increase because df a strong influx from
the surrounding country. There is also a large transient Negro population.

The Chickasaw lived on the Fourth or Lower Chickasaw Bluff long be-
fore 1541, when they were visited by De Soto and his gold-seeking expe-
dition. The Spaniards first stopped at Quizquiz, identified by most histo-
rians as the lower Chickasaw Bluff. Then De Soto moved to a nearby
town, Chisca, where he first saw the Mississippi River, May 21, and called
it the River of the Holy Ghost.

The bluff was not again visited by white men until 1673 when Joliet
and Marquette stopped to trade with the Indians. La Salle followed in
1682 and built Fort Prudhornrne on the First Chickasaw Bluff, above the
mouth of the Hatchie River. Then France, Spain, and England began a
long struggle for control of the bluffs, which commanded the Mississippi
River. Neither intrigue nor force succeeded in winning the Chickasaw as
French allies. In 1763, the French ceded to the English the eastern part of
the Mississippi Valley, including the site of Memphis*

During the next two decades Spanish influence grew strong among the
Chickasaw. The Spaniards of Louisiana planned to use the tribe as a buffer
against the growing Cumberland Settlement in Middle Tennessee. There
was, however, a strong party among the Chickasaw, led by the half-breeds
John Turner and James Colbert, which used the Lower Qiickasaw Bluff
as a base for raiding Spanish river commerce. Turner visited the Cumber-
land Settlement and persuaded Gen. James Robertson that the encroaching
power of Spain should be stopped. Robertson led a force to the bluff in
1782, and established a depot where the Chickasaw could be given sup-

210 CITY AND TOWN

plies to offset Spanish bribes. In 1794 John Overton, temporary agent for
Indian affairs, established a trading post at the bluff.

As late as 1795 Gayoso, Spanish Governor of Louisiana, led troops to
the bluff to prevent the Cumberland settlers from building forts. A detach-
ment of United States Regulars forced their withdrawal.

When Capt Isaac Guion, leading a force of Regulars to Natchez in
1797, stopped to distribute goods to the Chickasaw, he secured land on the
bluff for the erection of Fort Adams, a United States Army post named
for President John Adams. The bluff remained in Chickasaw control until
1818, when the western territory was ceded to the United States.

In 1783-1786 North Carolina granted John Rice and John Ramsey
5,000 acres of land on the site of Memphis. Though North Carolina had
no legal claim to the land, this fact was ignored because the Revolution
had drained the State treasury. Rice was killed by the Indians, and John
Overton bought his grant for $500. Overton conveyed half of his interest
to Andrew Jackson, who made over part of his interest to James Win-
chester.

Immediately after the Indian treaty (1818), Jackson, Overton, and
Winchester made piano for laying out a town. Having selected the site
because of the high bluff over the Mississippi and the excellent landing at
the mouth of Wolf River, they marked out 362 lots. General Jackson, se-
verely criticized for his interest in this technically shady land operation,
sold his claims to John C. McLemore in 1823.

Memphis was settled rapidly, chiefly by North-of -Ireland Scots, Scotch
Highlanders, and Germans from East and Middle Tennessee, who had
come originally from North Carolina, Virginia and South Carolina. The
North-of-Ireland Scots were adventurers, politicians, and land speculators,
while the Highlanders and Germans were thrifty farmers, mechanics, and
home builders.

The town was incorporated December 9, 1826, by an act of the State
legislature. Under the leadership of John Overton $100 was subscribed
in 1827 to establish a newspaper, the Memphis Advocate and Western
District Intelligencer. The Western Times and Memphis Commercial Ad-
vertiser began publication in 1831 and the Memphis Gazette in 1834.

Among the first industries were gunsmithing and blacksmithing. Stores,
repair shops, and sawmills were operating by 1830; cotton warehouses and
mills followed.

Large cotton plantations were laid out and hundreds of slaves brought
up river from the market at New Orleans. Barges and flatboats, the first
carriers of river commerce, were manned by hard-bitten "bullies," who
fought pirates on the river and brawled among themselves in every water-
front tavern. In 1812 the New Orleans, first steamboat on the Missis-
sippi, made a trip from Pittsburgh to New Orleans. The first steamboat
line from Memphis to New Orleans began operation in 1834. Because of
its central position on the Mississippi, Memphis was designated as a port
of customs in 1850. Though fires, explosions, river piracy, collisions, and
wrecks made shipping and travel by steamboat hazardous, packet lines
prospered, and Memphis became one of the busiest ports in America.

MEMPHIS 211

Stagecoach service from Nashville to Memphis and on to Little Rock
was established in 1829. In 1843 a telegraph line to New Orleans was
opened. The LaGrange & Memphis Railroad, begun in 1839, niade an ex-
hibition run of six miles in 1842. The line was never completed, and the
sheriff sold the engine, coaches, and rails. The Memphis & Charleston
Railroad, connecting the town with the Atlantic Coast, was completed
in 1857.

Between 1850 and 1860 Memphis grew from a town of 6,427 to a city
of 33,000.

With the outbreak of the War between the States in 1861, Memphis
became a Confederate military center under Gen. Leonidas Polk. Com-
merce, trade, and manufacture were suspended. Early in 1862 Memphis
was made the temporary State capital because Nashville lay unprotected
before advancing Union troops.

On June 6, 1862, the city was seized by Union forces under Commodore
C. H. Davis after the brief but decisive Battle of Memphis. Seven of the
defending Confederate fleet of eight boats were sunk by the Union fleet of
six armored gunboats, four rams, and 20 other boats. The battle, watched
by the population from the bluffs, now Chickasaw and Confederate Parks,
lasted only 90 minutes. Commodore Davis entered the city and raised the
Stars and Stripes over the courthouse. The city remained in Union control
until after the war, though there was a brief, spectacular Confederate raid
led by Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest in August 1864.

While they imposed martial law, the Federal commanders issued a num-
ber of military orders. Merchants had to obtain Federal permits to do
business; families of men in the Confederate Army were driven out or
imprisoned. In July 1865, military authority over municipal affairs was
ended by order of Gen. John E. Smith.

At the close of the war Memphis was without money, credit, or crops.
The suddenly altered labor situation, wild price fluctuations, and the gen-
erally unsettled condition of the country made normal readjustment impos-
sible. Then came the yellow fever epidemics of 1867, 1873, and 1878.
The heaviest blow fell in the last epidemic. More than 25,000 fled within
the first two weeks, and 5,000 more sought refuge in camps near-by.

Memphis became a pest-hole. As deaths mounted, the streets were de-
serted except for the "dead wagons/* Bodies lay rotting in the streets
where they had fallen. The criminal element of the city ran wild. Looting
and killing, terrific drunken brawls, gun battles, and rape were common.
Not more than 20,000 people remained in the city; 14,000 were Negroes,
of whom 946 died. The higher fatality was among the 6,000 whites, of
whom 4,206 died. Surrounding towns speedily quarantined Memphis. At
Columbus, Kentucky, armed citizens turned back a train on the Mobile &
Ohio Railroad.

The spread of the disease was due to ignorance of its cause. At the time
the general medical belief was that it was caused by a "parasite of vege-
table nature** so tender that frost would destroy it They properly diag-
nosed standing water, sluggish sewage, garbage, dumps, and hot weather
as breeders, but failed to recognize the mosquito as the carrier*

212 CITY AND TOWN

Relief was undertaken by the Howard Association (generally called the
Howards), the contemporary Red Cross which had originated about 1857
among clerks in a New Orleans store. The work was financed by gifts
totaling $417,000 in money and more than $500,000 in provisions. Roman
Catholic sisters and priests also took courageous part in the relief work,
prominent among them being Father J. A. Kelly.

During the worst of the epidemic Anna Cook ("Madame Annie"), who
kept the noted Mansion House brothel on Gayoso Street, turned out her
girls and took yellow fever patients into her elegantly furnished rooms.
An expert in the treatment of disease, she personally superintended the
nursing of patients. She contracted the disease and died in September 1878.
The "heavy black frost and ice one-sixteenth inch thick" of October 20,
1878, ended the epidemic. Yellow fever had killed thousands, but it had
awakened the people to the urgent need for sanitation. A complete sewage
system was installed, and artesian wells were sunk to eliminate use of
river water. Other rigid measures were adopted to prevent return of yellow
fever.

The aftermath of the epidemic in Memphis was worse than the dismal
days of Reconstruction. Surrendering its charter to the State, the city was
made the Taxing District of Shelby County. The leaders of the movement
gave two reasons: they wanted breathing time to recover before paying the
city debt; they felt that municipal government in this country was a fail-
ure. The legislature provided a government composed of a legislative
council of eight members: the board of fire and police commissioners, and
the board of public works elected by popular vote.

Then trade boomed and by 1890 Memphis had grown in population to
64,589. In 1893 the State restored the charter.

The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River south of St. Louis
was built at Memphis in 1892, followed by Harahan Bridge in 1909. The
bridges brought increased trade with the Southwest, and Memphis became
the greatest inland cotton market and hardwood lumber center in the
world.

Wealthy planters retired from their delta lands and settled in Memphis
to become cotton factors and lumber dealers. The expanding river town
drew tradesmen, professional men, and laborers. From small towns and
plantations Negroes poured into the Bluff City. Many opened businesses
and became independent; the majority of them worked as laborers in cot-
ton, lumber, and construction. Many foreigners settled in Memphis, among
them Italians, who at present are among the civic leaders.

The Mississippi flood of January-February 1937 imposed upon Mem-
phis the huge task of providing for an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 refu-
gees. Bewildered sharecroppers, fisherfolk, and river-town people from
Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee most of them suffering from hun-
ger and exposure poured into Memphis by train, truck, rescue boat, and
"footback." Through the efforts of every available civic and social agency,
a rescue program met practically every human need from the moment of
registration to the departure of the last refugee group.

SLUM DWELLERS, MEMPHIS

At the Mid-South Fairgrounds, the largest refugee camp, barracks were
erected, and the adjacent Fairview High School was converted into a major
base hospital. The sick were cared for in the wards of John Gaston, Bap-
tist, Methodist, St. Joseph's, U. S. Veterans, and Marine Hospitals. Eight
hundred and six patients were listed as refugee emergency cases; 2,089
were immunized against typhoid fever and smallpox. In addition to the
fairgrounds camp, 14 school buildings were converted to refugee service.
Negro refugees were provided for in the north hall of Ellis Auditorium.

The "rivergees*' sang:

Down at the Fairgrounds on my knees,
Prayin' to the Lord to give me ease
Lord, Lord, I got them high-water blues I

Edward Hull Crump (Boss Ed), a notable figure in Tennessee politics,
took a leading part during the flood. He donned a pair of high-topped
boots and went out to the levee to encourage the workers. Negroes of the
chain gang sang loudly when they saw him:

Oh, the river's up and cotton's down,
Mister Ed Crump, he runs this town.

"Do you think the levee will break?" A visitor asked one of the fore-
men. "Hell, naw!" was the reply. "Why are you so damn sure?" "Mister
Crump say it won V '

214 CITY AND TOWN

To some of the Negroes and poor whites, the experience was a holiday.
Many of them had never been more than a few miles from home. Social
workers found hundreds who did not know their last names or the State
and county from which they had come. Used to an unvarying diet of "sow
bosom," sorghum, and corn mush, they devoured fruits and good beef
with the wonder of children drinking their first pink circus lemonade.
People warped and stupefied by pellagra responded quickly to balanced
diet and left the refugee camp cured.

The increasing demand for cotton, cotton products, lumber, and lumber
products have continued to bring different lines of transportation to Mem-
phis. Today the city has ten railroads, four steamship lines, two U. S.
Customs bonded warehouses, eleven general warehouses, and five freight
forwarders. All of its four large banks maintain foreign trade depart-
ments.

The U. S. Engineers Flood Control project is directed from Memphis.
The extensive engineering work is considered a Memphis unit despite the
fact that the offices, warehouses, and materials are on the Arkansas bank
of the river. The commanding officer maintains headquarters and residence
in Memphis and most of the engineers and workmen live in Memphis and
commute to their work across the river.

The Port of Memphis annually exports to all parts of the world, but
mainly to Europe, Central and South America, merchandise valued at
more than $250,000,000. Foreign commerce is approximately 10 per cent
of the gross transaction of the district. The valuation of imports is only
slightly less.

Thousands of tons of freight annually pass through the city for redis-
tribution. Principal items of export are raw cotton, cottonseed products,
and lumber and wood manufactures. Memphis is the largest non-manufac-
turing steel distribution center in the South. The city leads in the produc-
tion of cottonseed products. An immense grain storage elevator, with river
and rail connections, handles grain from the central, western, and north-
western States. A large quantity of oil is relayed from the fields of the
Southwest by river tankers for redistribution.

Natural gas is piped from the Monroe, Louisiana, fields. The City of
Memphis, which purchased the utilities company in 1938, has contracted
with TVA for the purchase of power from Pickwick Dam or Muscle
Shoals.

The commission form of government was adopted in 1909. Among
Memphis' municipally owned public services are the water works, airport,
park, and recreational facilities valued at $12,000,000, and viaducts span-
ning all dangerous railway crossings. Memphis was one of the first cities
to create and completely equip a motor inspection bureau. Its system, pro-
viding for compulsory quarterly inspection of all motor vehicles, was es-
tablished in 1934 and has been followed by ten other cities. In 1927
Memphis took first rank in safety among cities of America under 500,000
population.

MEMPHIS 215

POINTS OF INTEREST

i. GOODWYN INSTITUTE (open 8-10 weekdays), SW. corner Madi-
son Ave. and S. 3rd St., is a seven-story structure of steel, stone, brick,
and cerra cotta. The spacious lobby has tiled floors, lofty columns, and
wide marble steps with elaborately decorated marble newels. The institute,
which houses an auditorium, library, and office, was founded in 1907 as a
memorial to William A. Goodwyn, philanthropist, who lived in Memphis
most of his life. At his death, in 1889, ^ e kft $473*94 f r its establish-
ment and maintenance. A series of free lectures by authorities in various
fields and concerts by leading artists are given annually. The lecture season
extends from October through March.

a.^The STERRICK BUILDING, NE. corner Madison Ave. and N. 3rd
St., is a 29-story building, Gothic in detail and designed in modern set-
back style. Erected in 1929-30 by Ross Sterling, former Governor of
Texas, the building was designed by the engineer-architect, Wyatt C.
Hedrick. Sterrick is a combination of the names Sterling and Hedrick.

3. The SITE OF THE JEFFERSON DAVIS HOME, 129 Court Ave., is
marked by a bronze tablet. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy,
lived here from 1867 to 1875.

4. The SITE OF THE IRVING BLOCK, N. 2nd St. at Court Ave., is
occupied by modern business houses. The original buildings were con-
structed in 1860 when iron fronts (the facades faced with cast-iron) were
not common in Memphis. This section of town was notably tough, and
iron skts were used to cover the windows. On September 12, 1861, the
block became a Confederate hospital, and at the occupation of Memphis
by the Federals, in 1862, was converted into a prison where citizens and
Confederate prisoners of war were incarcerated. Among them were ladies
of fine families. A report on the prison by Judge Advocate General J. Holt
to President Lincoln reads: "According to a report of inspection made to
Colonel Hardie By Lieut. Col. John. F. Marsh, 24th Regiment Veterans
Reserve Corps, under date of April 28, 1864, the prison which is used for
the detention of citizens, prisoners of war on their way north, and the
United States soldiers awaiting trial, and which is located in a large block
of stores, is represented as the filthiest place the inspector ever saw occu-
pied by human beings. The whole management and government of the
prison could not be worse. Discipline and order are unknown. Food suffi-
cient but badly served/' Lincoln abolished the prison the following year.

5. COURT SQUARE, N. Main St. between Jefferson and Court Aves.,
extending to N. 2nd St., is the most noted of the original four squares laid
out in 1819 for public use by the proprietors of Memphis. Bronze Tablets
commemorate Walter Malone's poem, "Opportunity/* and the Confederate
prison history of Memphis.

A FOUNTAIN, a copy of Canova's celebrated statue of Hebe in the art
gallery at Leningrad, is in the center of the square. Designed by J. B.
Cook, the fountain was presented to the city by a group of citizens in
1876.

2l6

CITY AND TOWN

MEMPHIS;,!

DOWNTOWN

L ~J'l ID/ I

BEALF ' * J

MEMPHIS 217

6. ST. PETER'S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, SB. corner Adams
Ave. and N. 3rd St., erected in 1843, is Victorian Gothic in style with
rose windows of Bavarian glass. In 1852 stone buttresses and arches were
added to the original brick structure. In 1935 two coffins were discovered
beneath the altar. One, of wrought iron, contained the body of Father
J. H. Clarkston, who died in 1849; the other, the body of Father J. A.
Kelly, a hero of the yellow fever epidemics.

7. The MAGEVNEY HOME (private), Adams Ave. between N. 3rd
and N. 4th Sts., is a gable-roofed, clapboarded cottage, built more than a
century ago. The first Holy Mass in Memphis, the first Catholic marriage,
and first Catholic baptism took place in this house

8. The SHELBY COUNTY COURTHOUSE (open 1-6 daily), Adams
Ave. between N. 2nd and N. 3rd Sts., designed in the neo-Classic style
by James Gamble Rogers of New York and completed in 1909, is a blue
Bedford limestone structure. The Ionic columns of the long south portico
rest on pedestals equal in height to the heavy balustrade. The long lines
of the cornice are interrupted at intervals by lions' heads. The apex of
each pediment supports a colossal head of Minerva. On the cornice of the
north front are six figures (double life-size), representing Integrity, Cour-
age, Mercy, Temperance, Prudence, and Learning. Life-size groups carved
in high relief on the webs of the pediments represent Canon Law, Roman
Law, Statutory Law, Civil Law, and Criminal Law, Flanking the entrance
are massive pedestals with seated figures of heroic size, cut from single
blocks of Tennessee white marble, representing Wisdom, Justice, Liberty,
Authority, Peace, and Prosperity. All the sculptures were designed by
J. Massey Rhind.

Seven kinds of marble, from Vermont, Pennsylvania, Alabama, and
Tennessee, have been used on the interior. The gray floor of the corridor

KEY TO MEMPHIS DOWNTOWN MAP

1. Goodwyn Institute 14. Auction Square

2. The Sterrick Building 15. The Union Compress Plant

3. The Site of the Jefferson Davis 16. The Site of the Old Forts

Home 17. The Site of Old Bell Tavern

4. The Site of the Irving Block 18. The Jones and Laughlin Steel

5. Court Square Plant

6. St. Peter's Roman Catholic 19. Jefferson Davis Park

Church 20. Confederate Park

7. The Magevney Home 21. Cossitt Library

8. The Shelby County Courthouse 22. The Cotton Exchange Building

9. The Calvary Episcopal Church 23. The Gayoso Hotel

10. The First Methodist Church 24. Handy Park

11. t The Ellis Municipal Audito- 25, The Beale Street Baptist Church

rium 26. The Hunt-Phelan Home

12. St. Mary's Catholic Church 27. The Old Robertson Topp

13. Lauderdale Courts Home

SHELBY COUNTY COURTHOUSE, MEMPHIS

and the base and high wainscoting are of veined Tennessee marble. Slender
marble pilasters rise in pairs to support the paneled ceiling. In the south
corridor is a marble bust of Andrew Jackson, done from life by John
Frazee in 1835.

9. The CALVARY EPISCOPAL CHURCH, SE. corner Adams Ave. and
N. and St., with its square tower has been a landmark in the business dis-
trict since 1844. The chancel was added to the original Gothic structure
about 1 88 1. Jefferson Davis worshiped here after the War between the
States.

10. The FIRST METHODIST CHURCH, NE. corner N. 2nd St. and
Poplar Ave., built in 1886, is a gray stone building in the .Victorian Gothic
style. The pulpit and Bible were given by old "Uncle Ben'* Abernathy, a
former slave, who served as church sexton for years. The church stands on
the site of Wesley Chapel, the first religious structure in Memphis.

11. The ELLIS MUNICIPAL AUDITORIUM (open for special attrac-
tions), N. Main St at Poplar Ave., with a seating capacity of 12,500, war
designed in the Italian Renaissance style by Charles Oscar Phiel of Mem-
phis. The main floor, planned with ample circulation around the audi-
torium, receives all ramps and stairs except those from the galleries. The

MEMPHIS 219

auditorium is used chiefly for conventions, and occasionally for operatic
and theatrical performances.

12. ST. MARY'S CATHOLIC CHURCH, SW. corner Market Ave. and
N. 3rd St., is a Gothic structure of stuccoed brick, designed by Frank Fos-
ter of Memphis. Built in 1864-70, it was the second Roman Catholic
Church in Memphis.

13. LAUDERDALE COURTS, N. 3rd St. between Exchange and Win-
chester Aves., extending to Alabama Ave., is a slum clearance project for
white tenants. The red-brick buildings are of modified Georgian Colonial
design. There are 400 apartment units and each of the two main buildings
houses 66 families.

PINCH, the section north of Market Avenue, was once the bitter enemy
of South Memphis, or Sodom, a rivalry, that retarded the city's growth.
In the 1830*5, the North Memphis people, who lived on Catfish Bay, a
small lake north of Jackson Street, were termed "Pinch Guts," because
they were scrawny and underfed and "pinched their guts" with their belts
for lack of food. North Memphis became known as "Pinch." In retalia-
tion the Pinchites called South Memphis "Sodom** because of its alleged
wickedness. The use of these words caused fierce street brawls. People of
the Bluff kept away from "Smoky Row," the main thoroughfare of Pinch,
where the gamblers, prostitutes, and flatboatmen hung out at Paddy
Meagher's Bell Tavern, Sam Stodgen's Place, and the Pefraza Hotel John
A. Murrell came to town and found a wife on Smoky Row (see Tour 12).
David Crockett, on a political tour, gave a moonlight whisky party on the
river bank, one of the wildest drunken brawls ever thrown on the bluff.
Fanny Wright, a tall rawboned English woman, stalked about the streets,
raising her fog-horn voice to damn marriage, the Bible, and anyone op-
posed to freeing the slaves (see Tour 12, Sec. c).

14. AUCTION SQUARE, SE. corner Auction Ave. and N. Main St., is
one of the four original squares laid out in 1819, Slaves were auctioned
from an old stone block, no longer here. A stone slab with a bronze
marker records that in 1797 Capt. Isaac Guion took possession of the site
in the name of the United States.

15. The UNION COMPRESS PLANT (of en 8-4 Mon.-Fri., 8-12 Sat.),
N. Front St. at Auction Ave., one of the largest cotton compresses in
Memphis, operates its own switch engine and has 10 miles of standard
railroad track, with storage facilities for 500 cars. The high density at-
tachment, a mechanical device for compressing bales of cotton for export
shipment, is one of its many features. The plant occupies a part of the old
Navy Yard.

16. The SITE OF THE OLD FORTS, NW. corner Auction Ave. and N.
Front St., now occupied by the MEMPHIS DOG POUND (open 8-6 daily),
is the center of the most disputed area in the early settlement of Mem-
phis territory. On this site, in 1739, Jean Baptiste le Moyne de Vienville
assembled his followers and built Fort Assumption, and in 1795 Don
Manuel Gayoso de Lemos, a Spaniard, built Fort San Fernando de las
Barrancas, named for the Prince of the Asturias. He sent Benjamin Foy,
a Hollander and experienced Ionian trader, to guard the fort and to keep

220 CITY AND TOWN

in contact with the Chickasaw. In 1797 the U. S. Government, ruling that
Gayoso's fort constituted an invasion, sent Isaac Guion to the bluff. He
found the fort removed to the other side of the river, and built Fort
Adams on the site; it was later named Fort Pike. In 1801 a better location
two miles down the bluff was found and there Capt Zebulon M. Pike
built Fort Pickering, named for the Secretary of State under Washington.

17. The SITE OF OLD BELL TAVERN, N. Front St. between Auction
and Concord Aves., is a vacant lot. The tavern was run by Paddy Meagher,
a well-known gambler and friend of Andrew Jackson, when Memphis was
young and boisterous. Said to have been erected in 1819, this was the only
place where visitors could be accommodated at the time.

iS.The JONES AND LAUGHLIN STEEL PLANT (open 8-4 Mon.~Fri.,
8-12 Sat.), along Wolf River betwen Auction and Concord Aves., has an
electrically operated telpherage system, a form of automatic cable transpor-
tation for loading and unloading barges. This system extends 800 feet
from the pipe yards out over the river. The system and the word "tel-
pherage" were introduced by Flemming Jenkins. This also is the SITE OF
THE OLD NAVY YARD, constructed by the Government in 1846. In 1854
it reverted to the city. Though the Government spent $1,000,000 on the
Navy Yard, it built no vessels and fitted only one, the Allegheny. Part of
the original stone yard wall still stands.

19. JEFFERSON DAVIS PARK, Riverside Dr. at Jefferson Ave. com-
memorates the President of the Confederacy, who lived at Memphis for a
number of years after the war. The park occupies the SITE OF DE SOTO'S
SHIP YARD, where, as tradition relates, the Spanish explorer built barges
to transport his expedition across the Mississippi River in 1541. A marker
gives the history.

20. CONFEDERATE PARK, N. Front St. and W. Court Ave., memorial-
izes the Battle of Memphis in the War between the States. From the west
edge of the park there is a view of the river, Riverside Drive, Jefferson
Davis Park, the Memphis Yacht Club, boathouses, Mud Island, and the
Harahan Bridge.

The broad river recalls the boom days of river traffic. Then the Robert
E. Lee, the Stacker Lee, the Kate Adams, and other broad beamed side-
wheelers and lean, sleek stern-wheelers made wild, reckless races to carry
the region's commerce on the river, and many times "busted their bilers"
in an effort to get there first. Gaudy showboats were heralded by the shrill
music of the calliope. Excursion boats with gay parties made leisurely trips
to New Orleans. Flashily-dressed gamblers and befrilled and be-ribboned
belles awaited the arrival of a new packet. Shiny black Negroes, chanting
their folk melodies, carried bales of cotton across swaying "tote-planks" to
the decks for a down-the-river ride, while the river front was aswarm
with monster cotton drays drawn by heavy mules or horses, four and six
to a team. Three drays, low-swung on powerful wheels and axles, were
capable of handling a mighty burden of bales. Levee and plantation work-
ers from the lowlands of Mississippi and Arkansas crowded the water-
front at night to drink throat-burning rum and sometimes fight with fine-

MEMPHIS 221

pointed dirks, pistols, and glinting razors, or wandered to the uptown
saloons to spend their wages before returning to workday drudgery.

21. COSSITT LIBRARY (open 9-9 weekdays; 2-6 Sun.), S. Front St. at
foot of Monroe Ave., the only free, tax-supported library in Memphis
serving both city and county, was founded in 1888 as a memorial to Fred-
erick H. Cossitt by his daughters. The original building, constructed of
Lake Superior red sandstone, was designed by M. L. B. Wheeler of At-
lanta, in the Romanesque style, and completed in 1893. In 1924 three
more stories of concrete block were added. Parapets and walls form an
effective background, and a red gronoiith pavement leads up to the portals
of the building.

The library contains 238,443 volumes that include a special collection
of 1,500 volumes on Memphis and Tennessee; a music collection of 1,200
volumes containing scores, librettos, operas, and anthems ; the oldest and
most complete record of Memphis newspapers from 1836 to 1939; and
the Bayard Cairns Library on architecture. The city also supports six com-
munity branches, one Negro branch, and a library for the blind, in Braille.

22. The COTTON EXCHANGE BUILDING (open 8-4 Mon.-Fri., 8-12
Sat.), SE. corner Union Ave. and S. Front St., founded in 1873, is the
official organization of the Memphis cotton trade, and the economic heart
of the city. The Memphis Merchants Clearing Association established the
first known cottonseed "pit" in January 1929. From here quotations on
cottonseed and cottonseed meal are flashed throughout the world. "Cotton
Row," that section of Front Street running south from the Memphis Cot-
ton Exchange Building at 67 Union Avenue, is honeycombed with offices
of cotton factors, and is the central market place of the cotton-producing
area. The Mississippi Delta, together with the adjacent uplands, ships
as much as two and a quarter million bales of cotton annually.

23. The GAYOSO HOTEL, 139 S. Main St., opened in 1844, was named
for Don Manuel Gayoso de Lemos, Spanish explorer and last governor of
the Spanish territory in Louisiana. For 50 years the main entrance was on
Front Street, overlooking the Mississippi River but was changed when
Main Street became the principal thoroughfare. During the War between
the States the hotel served as headquarters for Confederate and Federal
armies. At the time of Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest's strategic raid upon
the Federal forces, in August 1864, his brother, Capt. William H. Forrest,
rode his horse into the hotel, which was being used as headquarters by
the Federal Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut A BRONZE PLAQUE describing the
incident, and MURALS by Newton Alonzo Wells (1852-1923), depicting
the life of De Soto, are in the hotel lobby. Among the cherished relics are
two gold candelabra and a magnificent clock that once belonged to Sarah
Bernhardt.

24. HANDY PARK, Beale Ave. and S. 3rd St., a small grassy square, is
the scene of the Negro Cotton Fiesta during the Memphis Cotton Carni-
val.

BEALE STREET (official name Beale Avenue), noted in song and story
as the center of Negro life in Memphis, begins at the De Soto Fish Dock
on the Mississippi River and runs for one mile to East Street.

222 CITY AND TOWN

On Beale Street in 1909, W. C Handy, Negro composer and originator
of the "blues," wrote and first played "The Memphis Blues/' In the Beale
Street Blues he tells what Beale means to the Negro:

The Seven Wonders of the world I have seen

And many are the places I have been;
Take my advice, folks, and see Beale Street first.

You will see pretty browns dressed in beautiful gowns.
You will see tailor-mades and hand-me-downs;

You will meet honest men and pick-pockets skilled,
You will find that business never closes until

Somebody gets killed.

You will see hog-nose restaurants and chitterling cafes

And jugs that tell of by-gone days.
You will see golden balls enough to pave the New Jerusalem.

I would rather be there than any place I know.
It is going to take a sergeant just for to make me go

I am going down to the river maybe by and by,
'Cause the river is wet and Beale's done gone dry.

Beale Street has produced more than its quota of notable Negroes.
Through the efforts of men like Robert Church, Sr., early financier, Robert
Church, Jr., lawyer and politician, and George Lee, writer, Beale Street
developed from a poverty-stricken area into one of wealth and standing.
Negroes have built up businesses of their own and have advanced the
education of their race. They have organized insurance companies, bank-
ing establishments, and schools; Negro lawyers, doctors, and real estate
men have gained the respect of their professions.

The blocks between Main and Third Streets are crowded with pawn-
shops, clothing stores, fruit stands, restaurants, doctors' offices, and photo-
graphic studios. Traders and merchants display goods on the sidewalks in
front of stores. Smooth-tongued barkers entreat passersby to stop and in-
spect bargains.

On East Beale Street "conjure" doctors and medicine men still ply their

trades. They offer luck bags to wear around the neck, containing strange

mixtures to cure diseases and drive away trouble. Love powders, packets

' of "goober" or graveyard dust, and black and white cat bones are among

the charms offered for sale.

Of the famous old establishments still in operation under their original
names are Peewee's Place, formerly owned and operated by Vigelio Maffi
Peewee, Italian gambler, and now a favorite gathering place for musicians;
the Panama Club; and Hammitt Ashford's Place.

On Saturday Beale Street is thronged with country Negroes from Ar-
kansas, northern Mississippi, and western Tennessee, who arrive early and
bargain for clothing, groceries, fish, and pork chops. Saturday night be-
longs to the cooks, maids, houseboys, and factory hands.

The "underworld" block, from Hernando Street to Fourth Street, is
packed with social clubs, movie theaters, beauty parlors, and lunch rooms.
Though quiet and peaceful in daytime, at night "we stomps the daylights
into the floV Street walkers and guitar players stroll up and down the
avenue. Pickpockets and gamblers weave in and out of the crowd. The air

ROBERTSON TOPP HOME, MEMPHIS

224 CITY AND TOWN

is thick with the smell of fried fish, black mud from the levees and plan-
tations, and whisky trucked in from the moonshine stills of swamps and
hills. From the pianos in crowded honkeytonks comes the slow, "hesita-
tion" beat of the blues, or the furious stomp of swing music.

Beale Avenue was once an exclusive residential section, occupied by
wealthy, influential families, who built magnificent homes and entertained
lavishly. Ladies and gentlemen of the old South passed along the street in
carriages driven by liveried servants. After the ravages of the War between
the States and the yellow fever epidemics, the wealthiest families moved
farther out into the eastern part of the city, and Negroes began to take pos-
session of the street and the surrounding territory.

25. The BEALE STREET BAPTIST CHURCH, Beale Ave. between S.
4th and Turley Sts., is Victorian Gothic in style, of brick and gray stone,
with two rectangular towers, on one of which is a statue of John the Bap-
tist. Built 1865-69 by Negro labor, it was the first Negro Missionary Bap-
tist Church in America. Ulysses S. Grant delivered an address from its
pulpit while on a visit to Memphis after the War between the States.

CHURCH PARK AUDITORIUM, a two-story stuccoed structure on the
church grounds, was built by the City of Memphis in 1929 as a Negro com-
munity center and named for Robert Church, Sr., the early Negro financier.

26. The HUNT-PHELAN HOME (private), 533 Beale Ave., is an im-
pressive red-brick Greek Revival house with a monumental Ionic portico.
Erected in 1835, it sits back on a lawn planted with trees that break the
view from the street. Leonidas Polk, Confederate general, occupied this
home in 1861 during the organization of the "Provisional Army of Ten-
nessee/' It was seized by Federal troops during their occupancy of Mem-
phis, used by General Grant as headquarters in 1862, and converted into
a Federal hospital in 1863. Jefferson Davis, Andrew Johnson, and other
notables of that period were entertained by the owners before and after its
occupancy by Union forces.

27. The OLD ROBERTSON TOPP HOME (private), 567 Beale Ave.,
built 1837-38, is a massive two-story structure adorned with a pedimented
Corinthian portico. It was designed by P. H. Hammarskold of Memphis.
One door is of carved, hand-hewn beveled oak.

28. FORREST PARK, NE. corner Union Ave. and S. Manassas St., con-
tains an EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF GEN. NATHAN BEDFORD FORREST, the
Confederate cavalry leader. It was designed by Charles Henry Niehaus and
cast in bronze in Paris. General Forrest and his wife are buried in front
of the monument

29. The UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE HEALTH DIVISION, 874
Union Ave., includes the Colleges of Medicine and Dentistry and the
Schools of Pharmacy and Nursing, concentrated around the John Gaston
Memorial Hospital. The division was established in Memphis in 1911
when health units in Nashville, Memphis, and Knoxville were consoli-
dated. The Anatomy, the Pharmacy, and the Library Buildings are Col-
legiate Gothic in style, built of reinforced concrete and faced with dark
variegated brick and limestone trim. The architects were Jones and Fur-
binger of Memphis,

MEMPHIS 225

30. The IDLEWILD PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, NW. corner Union
Ave. and Evergreen St., constructed of a combination of rubblestone from
Arkansas, and stone from Vermont, Massachusetts, and Tennessee, is Eng-
lish Gothic in style. Its two towers rise with arches and buttresses above
the western transept to a height of 150 feet. The main entrance is of cut
stone with sculptured panels of characters and symbols of sacred history.
The interior, with massive stone piers lining the auditorium, recalls the
Lincoln Cathedral in England; the roof is formed by handhewn oak arches
and trusses. Stone tracery of delicate design further ornaments the richly
colored stained glass windows. Joining the church and Sunday School build-
ing is a seven-arched cloister, where an outdoor auditorium and stone pul-
pit are used for summer services. Pfiel and Awsumb were the architects.

31. OVERTON PARK, N. Parkway, between N. McLean Blvd. and E.
Parkway, extending to Poplar Ave., is a memorial to John Overton, one of
the city's founders. The 355-acre park contains 100 acres of virgin forest
interlaced with drives and bridle paths, and large landscaped open spaces
for recreation, camping, picnicking, and open-air drama.

The ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS AND FREE CIRCUS (open
9-6 dally; circus performances 10:30 and 2:30 weekdays during summer;
2:30 Sun. year round ) t are at the south entrance. The 200 occupies 47
acres. An hour-long, i8-act circus for children, maintained by the Mem-
phis Park Commission, is put on by zoo attendants, former circus trainers.
The circus is complete, with educated ponies, trained dogs and monkeys,
clowns, stunts, miniature merry-go-round, Ferris wheel, pony track and
other circus features. A grandstand seats 1,000.

The DOUGHBOY MONUMENT, near Brooks Memorial Art Gallery,
erected in 1926, is a massive bronze of an American soldier of the World
War advancing with fixed bayonet, sculptured by Mrs. Nancy Coosman
Hahn of Memphis. A bronze marker bears the names of Memphis and
Shelby County soldiers killed in the conflict.

The BROOKS MEMORIAL ART GALLERY (open 9-5:30 weekdays, 2-5:30
Sun.), near the Poplar Ave. entrance, is a white marble structure designed
in the Italian Renaissance style by James Gamble Rogers of New York,
1915. Paintings by Del Garbo Raffaellino, Thomas Sully, and Cecilia
Beaux are in the permanent collection. The building was a gift to the city
from Mrs. Samuel Brooks, of Memphis, in memory of her husband. The
gallery has monthly circulating exhibits of oils, water colors, miniatures,
and ceramics.

32. SOUTHWESTERN, THE COLLEGE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VAL-
LEY, N. Parkway at University Blvd., is a small Presbyterian college,
owned by the Synods of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee.
On the campus of 100 acres are seven buildings of Collegiate Gothic de-
sign* These buildings, arranged in a quadrangle, are built of variegated
sandstone. The roofs are of thick, green-colored Vermont slate. The deeply
set steel casement windows, made in England, contain small delicately
tinted glass panes. Doorways are deeply recessed and molded. The paneled
interior woodwork is of oak. Incorporated in 1875 as Southwestern Pres-

IDLEWILB CHURCH, MEMPHIS

MEMPHIS 227

byterian University, at Clarksville, Tenn., the school was moved to Mem-
phis in 1925, and renamed Southwestern.

In 1929 the competitive medal of the Southern Chapters of the Ameri-
can Institute of Architects was awarded to Henry C. Hibbs, of Nashville,
architect-in-chief , for his work in designing the buildings at Southwestern.

Among the college's early professors of theology was the Reverend
Joseph R. Wilson, father of Woodrow Wilson, whose portrait hangs in
the administration hall. Tutorial courses similar to those of the Oxford
plan were made a part of the curriculum in 1931. The college is co-
educational, with an average enrollment of 400.

33. The MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL
ARTS (open 9-4:30 weekdays, 2:30-5:30 Sun.), 275 Tilton Rd., the
"Pink Palace," is built of Georgian pink marble with gray .marble trim. It
is a 2 1 -room house of modified Georgian style, designed by Hubert Mc-
Gee of Memphis. On its 2 5 -acre grounds are an artificial laice and exten-
sive rose gardens. The exhibits include 2,000 stuffed birds ; a collection of
eggs ; the Harvey E. Miller exhibit of North American mammals, which
has 14 specimens either extinct or so rare that killing is prohibited even
for scientific purposes; the Paul Rainey exhibit of big game from Africa;
the Charles Scott collection of 60 heads of bear, elk, and moose; 400 fire-
arms from the earliest wheellock to the most modern gun; a Mound Build-
ers collection; marine collections; Indian and Mexican relics; Confederate
and other relics; American and foreign dolls; and early American glass.

Built as a residence by Clarence Saunders, founder of the Piggly-Wiggly
Stores, in 1923-24, the house was purchased by the city for public use in
1925. The Little Theater is housed in the former swimming pool.

34. WEST TENNESSEE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, NE. corner
Southern Ave. and Patterson St., has 13 buildings on a campus of 82 acres.
The Administration Building, Library, Gymnasium, and Science Buildings
are of modified Georgian Colonial design. The college is co-educational
and offers work leading to a B.S. degree. The average enrollment is 600
students.

35. LE MOYNE COLLEGE, 807 Walker Ave., one of the oldest Negro
colleges in the South, was established in 1871 by the American Missionary
Association, under whose jurisdiction it remains. The buildings and a small
endowment came from a $20,000 gift of Dr. Julius Le Moyne, philan-
thropist of Washington, Pennsylvania. The college is co-educational and
confers the A.B. and B.S. degrees. The average enrollment is 385,

36. ELMWOOD CEMETERY, NE. corner Walker Ave. and Neptune $L,
is the oldest cemetery in Memphis still in use, and was the official burial
ground for the Confederate dead. At Elmwood are the graves of Mrs,
Dorothea S. Winston, Patrick Henry's oldest child by bis second marriage;
John S. McLemore, who bought Andrew Jackson's part in the John Rice
grant on which Memphis now stands; and Walter Malone, the poet.

37. RIVERSIDE .PARK, Riverside Blvd. and S. Parkway, is a natural
wooded park of 427 acres, bordering the Mississippi River for a mile and
a half along high grassy bluffs, with picnic grounds, golf links, an artificial
lake, and pavilions. Below the bluffs the broad river flows between the Ten-

228 . CITY AND TOWN

nessee shore and President's Island and curves away into dense forests to
the South. Drives twist through woodlands of giant trees and deep ravines.
38. PRESIDENT'S ISLAND, reached by boat from the foot of Wisconsin
Ave., named for President Jackson and first called Jackson's Island, is the
largest island in the a^oo-mile course of the Mississippi River. Twelve
miles long, it covers approximately 32,000 acres of shifting sands, cot-
tonwoods, and fertile farming land. The surface of the small fishing lakes
is covered with ducks during the season. Great numbers of rabbits and
squirrels are in the woods and brush. The island is divided into small
farms, owned and operated by Memphis people, chiefly Negroes. The
largest farm is near the center of the island and contains 970 acres. Cot-
ton corn, vegetables, and pecans are grown, and chickens, turkeys, hogs,
and mules are raised. Church services are held at irregular intervals in a
one-room schoolhouse, built on stilts for protection during the high water.
During the early history of Memphis, Jackson bought a small farm on
the island, with Paddy Meagher, one-time proprietor of Bell Tavern, m
charge. When Meagher moved back to Memphis, Jackson disposed of the
farm. After the Holly Springs, Mississippi, disaster in 1863, a camp was set
up on President's Island for all Negro refugees in the western section of Ten-
nessee. In April 1865, 1,568 refugees were on the island, all incapacitated
for hard labor, and the majority unfit for any duty. Before the flood, in
the spring of 1865, which caused considerable suffering and loss the Freed-
men's Bureau furnished labor and wages for all who were able to work at
wood cutting, coal burning, and in sawmills. The more feeble raised vege-
tables, cotton, and corn. Schools were built. A tent was raised for orphan
children, and a Negro woman was put in charge; sick and destitute or-
phans were rounded up, bathed, and clothed. In the fall of 1865, the
tent was replaced by a house, with six acres of land for a garden and play-
ground. The older girls were taught to sew, wash, and cook, and the boys
to cultivate the garden. The Freedmen's Bureau ended its main work in
1869, and the Negroes were gradually absorbed into various occupations.
The island was for a while headquarters for moonshiners. Years ago the
river changed its course and ran through what is now the middle of the
island. It washed out a graveyard at the southern tip and undermined a
saloon at the foot of Wisconsin Avenue in Memphis. Coffins and barrels
of liquor floated downstream together.

Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest farmed a large tract of land on the island
in 1875-76, and while there contracted a fatal illness from drinking im-
pure water.

39. DE SOTO PARK, W. end of Colorado Ave., formerly known as
Jackson Mound, is the place where Hernando De Soto and his followers
are thought to have discovered the Mississippi River, May 21, 1541. Un-
der the Chisca Mound, which apparently supported the chieftain's lodge,
is a cave used as a powder magazine during the War between the States.
A bronze tablet records the history of the site.

40. HARAHAN BRIDGE, spanning the Mississippi at the western end
of Virginia Ave., built first in 1909 and rebuilt in 1915-16, was the first
vehicle and railroad bridge across the Mississippi River south of Cairo, 111.

MEMPHIS 229

It is a fireproof steel cantilever truss bridge more than a mile long, double-
tracked for railroad traffic, and carries more than 3,500 cars daily. The en-
gineer was Ralph Modjeska.

RIVERSIDE DRIVE, intersection of Virginia Ave. and Delaware St.,
affords a good view of the river with its barges and boats, river-and-rail
terminals, coal tipples, telpherage systems, and the Harahan and Frisco
Bridges.

41. CITY ISLAND, formerly Mud Island, reached by wharf boats at
foot of Madison, Union, or Monroe Sts., is a peninsula-like body of
willow-covered land, extending down the Memphis harbor to a point op-
posite the foot of Beale Avenue. The island was built up by an eddy that
deposited mud and gravel against the stern of the Aphrodite, a gunboat
used in the Spanish- American War. The gunboat, with a full crew on its
way from New Orleans to St. Louis, had to anchor at Memphis for six or
eight months in 1910 because of low water. When high water came, and
the boat departed, a small sandbar had formed off the foot of Court Av-
enue. Each rise added to the island; in 1913, when the Mississippi reached
a high stage, the island was built up about 25 feet.

Subject to overflow, it would have ruined shipping at this point had not
the United States flood control engineers diverted the Wolf River south-
ward from the regular point of confluence with the Mississippi River,
causing it to flow by the Memphis harbor between the island and the river
front. The improvements of the Wolf River channel have greatly enkrged
the harbor space. Yearly dredging is necessary to keep the harbor open.
Mud Island has been farmed at intervals, and unsuccessful efforts have
been made to establish squatter's rights. Annual overflows have kept all
but squatters off the island. The dense willow thickets harbored many
moonshine stills prior to repeal. A few straggling shanty-boats remain
around Mud Island, their occupants the gypsies of the water. Clannish and
friendly to river people, but contemptuous and suspicious of land people,
they are vagabonds who live meagerly by selling fish in season. During
flood times, as Old Man River lajtt far out into the bayou country to form
a great inland sea, the island vanishes. In 1919 the Supreme Court placed
title to the land in the City of Memphis.

42. The AMERICAN SNUFF PLANT (open by permission), NW.
corner N. Front St. and Keel Ave., is the largest strong snuff factory in the
country.

Users of snuff habitually judge the strength of the product by the num-
ber of "knobs" (glass bubbles), on the bottom of the brown jars. Four
"knobs" mean very strong; three, fairly strong; two, medium; none, weak.
How this belief became prevalent is not known. The "knobs" have noth-
ing to do with the "power" of the snuff, since it is bottled in only one
grade.

43. The CHELSEA AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, Chelsea
Ave. and N. 6th St., a brick and stone structure, was erected in 1860.
When the Federals occupied Memphis, Gen. U. S. Grant took possession
of the church and made a second floor hospital for Union soldiers and the
lower floor a storage place and a stable for army mules and horses. The

230 CITY AND TOWN

first pastor, Edward Porter, served as chaplain in the Confederate Army.
The original second floor pews are still in use.

44. The CHALFANT DOCK STEEL PLANT (open 8-4 Mon.-Frt.,
8-12 Sat.), Thomas St. and Plum Ave. (river terminal at foot of Auction
Ave. on N. Front St.), occupies 20 acres. The telpherage system is used
for loading and unloading steel products. The plant occupies the site of
the noted North Memphis Driving Park, where race-horse history was
made by the record-breaking Dan Patch in 1903, when, driven by Ed
(Pop) Geers, he paced his most sensational mile of the year against his
own record of 1:59, finishing the mile in 1:55, with the last y Q in 13-%
seconds, a 1:50 clip.

45. DIXIE HOMES, NW. corner Poplar Ave. and Decatur St., is a slum
clearance PWA project for Negroes, and contains 28 one-story and 48 two-
story houses. The area accommodates 633 families.

46. ST. MARY'S EPISCOPAL CATHEDRAL (GAILOR MEMO-
RIAL), 714 Poplar Ave., founded as a missionary chapel in 1857, is of
white stone, Gothic in design, erected in 1926. The stained glass windows
of the nave were designed and executed by Len Howard. The altar, te-
redos, altar rail, and chancel rail, are of Barcelona marble carved in Italy.
The altar is a memorial to four Sisters of St. Mary who died in line of
duty during the yellow fever epidemics. The reredos was erected to the
memory of Sister Hughetta (Snowden), also a leading figure of that dis-
tressing period. A silver communion service, presented by Jefferson Davis
to the Episcopal Church of Arlington, Tennessee, is one of the cathedral's
most treasured possessions. Set into the wall of the western transept is a
stone from the balustrade surrounding the pool of Bethesda in Jerusalem.
Another stone, part of a column from the Abbey of Glastonbury in Eng-
land, is set into the wall of the eastern transept.

An arched cloister joins the cathedral to the DIOCESAN HOUSE, head-
quarters of the Episcopal Church in Tennessee. In this stone structure are
the offices of the Bishop and other church executives and a valuable li-
brary of religious books. Oil portraits of bishops include an original by
William Cooper, English painter (1858-1934).

47. ST. AGNES COLLEGE, 697 Vance Ave., was established in 1851
by six Sisters of St. Dominic. The present building, a four-story brick struc-
ture of Victorian Gothic architecture, was erected in 1901. Tents pitched
on the campus in 1862 served as General Sherman's headquarters. It is
the only woman's college in Memphis and the only Catholic College in
Tennessee.

48. The FEDERAL COMPRESS AND WAREHOUSE PLANT (open
by permission), S. end of S. Lauderdale St., is one of the largest cotton
compressing plants in the world. Representatives from all principal nations
have been sent here to study arrangements and operation.

A flat bale of cotton as it comes from the country gin is 27 inches wide,
54 inches long, and 48 to 50 inches high, weighing about 500 pounds. If
sold to an American spinner, the bale is compressed to a density of 22 to
24 pounds per cubic foot, a standard bale. If the cotton is to be exported,

MEMPHIS 231

the bale is compressed to 32 to 35 pounds per cubic feet, in order to ob-
tain lower ocean freight rates; it is then called high density cotton.

49. RUST COTTON PICKER PLANT (visitors by anointment), 2369
Florida St., a single story brick building, manufactures mechanical cotton
picking machines.

The motorized picking machine, which may prove to be the greatest de-
velopment in the raw cotton industry since Whitney's invention of the gin,
is the culmination of plans conceived by John D. and Mack D. Rust of
Memphis. The brothers are said to have obtained their idea when they
noticed their mother wetting her fingertips while picking up raw cotton.

The Rust machine consists primarily of an endless belt carrying several
hundred smooth wire spindles automatically moistened. The spindles pass
in a rotary motion over the bolls, the moisture causing the cotton to ad-
here; the cotton is then stripped from the spindles and delivered by suc-
tion fan to a container. The first model, which has been improved upon
annually, was built in 1928. Standardised models are now in use in several
southern states and sample machines have been sold to the Russian and
Argentine governments.

Because the widespread use of the machine will displace thousands of
cotton pickers the Rust Foundation, supported by profits of the concern,
has been set up in an effort to rehabilitate the unemployed.

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS
Shelby Forest Park, 20.7 m. (see Tour 11).

Railroad Stations: Broadway and Western Ave. for Louisville and Nashville R.R
Depot St. one block east of Gay St., for Southern Ry., Tennessee Central Ry., and
Tennessee and North Carolina Ry.

Bus Station: Terminal, 326 Gay St., for Greyhound, White Star, Tennessee Coach,
Smoky Mountain Transit Lines, and the East Tennessee and Western North Caro-
lina Lines. . _ , A
Airport: McGhee-Tyson Municipal Airport, 13.4 m. S. via State 33, for American
Airlines. Taxi fare $i, time about 45 minutes.

Streetcars and Busses: Electric Cars, trackless trolleys, and motor busses. Fare io&
five tokens 30^, unlimited weekly pass $1.25. Free transfers except to parallel lines.
U. S. mail boxes on all types of street transportation. .

Taxis: Inter-city rate, 150 for first half mile or fraction, io0 tor each additional
half mile. Long distance, 20^ per mile.

2V*$r Regulations: Parking meters in business area; local traffic code free at Fub-
lic Safety Building, 409 N. Broadway.

Accommodations: Fourteen hotels; tourist camps on outskirts.

Street Nomenclature: Streets run north and south with dividing line at Jackson and
McCalla Aves. Avenues run east and west with dividing line at Central St.
Information Service: Knoxville Chamber of Commerce, 621 Gay St.; East Tennes-
see Auto Club, 920 Gay St.; Tourist Bureau, 811 Broadway; TVA Information.
Office, New Sprankle Bldg., 508 Union St.

Radio Stations: WNOX (1010 kc.) ; WROL (1310 kc.).

Theaters and Motion Picture Houses: Lyric Theater, 802 Gay St., road shows and
opera. Twelve motion picture houses; one for Negroes.
Wrestling: Lyric Theater, Market Hall Auditorium.
Baseball: Southern League games, Smithsonian Stadium, Caswell Park.
College Athletics: University of Tennessee "Volunteers," Southeastern Conference
games in season, Shields- Watkins Field, University Campus.

Swimming: Whittle Springs Hotel grounds, Whittle Springs Rd. between Mineral
Springs Ave. and Iowa Ave.

Golf: Municipal course, adjoining Whittle Springs Hotel, Whittle Springs Rd. be-
tween Iowa Ave. and Underwood Place, 18 holes, 25$.

Tennis: 28 free municipal courts. Information at Welfare Dept., City Hall, Western
Ave. and Broadway.

Riding: Chilhowee Riding Academy, Chilhowee Park, on US ir about 3 m. east of
business area; Silver Stables, Whittle Springs Hotel grounds, Whittle Springs Ave.
at city limits (off N. Broadway) ; Sequoyah Riding Academy, Bluff View Rd. in
Sequoyah Hills, 3 m. W. on US n and 70; Sherrill Riding Academy, n m. King-
ston Pike (US 70 and ii ).

Annual Events: Southeastern Basketball Tournament, last week in February; Appa-
lachian Golf Tournament, last week in June; boat and automobile races, July 4;
Tennessee Valley A. & I. Fair, last week in September; Burley Tobacco Market
opens for season first week in December.

KNOXVILLE (933 alt., 105,802 pop.), seat of Knox County, is on the
broad but rather shallow Tennessee River, which is formed four miles east of

232

KNOXVILLE 233

the downtown section by the junction of the Holston and French Broad
Rivers. The city extends fan-wise from the river banks into the nearby hills,
with the Chilhowee and the Great Smoky Mountains in the distant back-
ground.

The business district is crowded upon a plateau of 240 acres and is
approached by narrow, steep streets. On Gay Street, the principal business
thoroughfare, modern office and mercantile buildings rub shoulders with
old-fashioned arcades; a skyscraper hotel looks down on one-story busi-
ness houses of another day; and a modern bus terminal pours thousands
of shoppers into the street. A block west of Gay Street is the Market Square
where a free market for farmers has been maintained since 1853.

Knoxville's industries are scattered over various parts of the city, with
the largest groupings along the river front, and along the tracks of the
two major railroad systems. South of the river are marble mills; sand and
gravel concerns are along both banks, with barges and small boats forming
a considerable river traffic. The wholesale district, including the clothing
factories, are along the eastern main line of the Southern Railway, with the
smoke-begrimed iron and steel foundries farther out. The lumber yards
form a rather well-defined group in northeast Kboxville.

Knoxville is the only city in the United States that has mail collections
from streetcars and busses. In 1913 a post office inspector suggested that
mail boxes be attached to the cars; permission for the innovation was
granted as an experiment, and has never been rescinded. Anyone can stop
a. streetcar at any time to drop a letter in an outside slot; the boxes are
cleared at stated hours throughout the day.

The Sequoyah Hills and Holston Hills subdivisions have many modern
homes, but elsewhere in the city are old houses with Victorian architec-
tural features, newer homes built to suit the owner's taste without refer-
ence to the one next door, and just plain houses. Most of the residential
streets are lined with trees.

The Tennessee Valley Authority, a Federal regional planning project,
with navigation, flood control, power distribution, and soil conservation
as its principal objectives has had important cultural and economic effects
on Knoxville. In 1933, the TVA established offices in Knoxville and
more than 1,000 families moved in to become a part of the town. The
Authority has made heavy purchases of local materials and national inter-
est in the TVA program has attracted many tourists (see TENNESSEE
VALLEY AUTHORITY).

The early settlers, traders from North Carolina and Virginia, were more
concerned with developing the settlement as a trade center than with the
plantation and slave system. This concern for industrial development,
vigorously pursued as part of the town's reconstruction program after the
War between the States, has set a definite stamp on the character of the
community that distinguishes it from most other Southern cities*

The Negra population of Knoxville is only 16.2 per cent of the total, a
ratio that has been practically the same since the city was founded. The
average Knoxville Negro today is a descendant of "free persons of color"
and has had a century of experience in adjusting himself to freedom*

234 CITY AND

Negro business men operate two weekly newspapers, real estate and insur-
ance agencies, furniture and grocery stores, restaurants, and other business
concerns. Some are professional men. The majority, however, are skilled
or common laborers or are in domestic service. The principal residential
areas are East Knoxville and Western Heights, with most of the Negro
business houses on the eastern section of Vine Avenue. The Negroes have
their own churches and schools, and one institution of higher education
Knoxville College.

The first recorded journey by Anglo-Americans through the region or
the present Knoxville was made in the early winter of 1761. Ensign Henry
Timberlake, Sergt. Thomas Sumter, and John McCormack, an interpreter,
came down the Holston and the Tennessee on a goodwill mission to the
Overfull Cherokee. Eighteen years later Col. Evan Shelby and a band of
frontiersmen, returning from a raid against the Chickamauga, camped for
one night within the present city limits. The following year the flatboat
flotilla of Col. John Donelson passed down the river on the voyage to the
Cumberland settlement.

In the summer of 1783 James White, a former captain in the Conti-
nental Army, Robert Love, also a Revolutionary soldier, and F. A. Ramsey,
a surveyor, explored the Knoxville region, looking for land on which to
enter claim. Two years later the State of Franklin established Sevier and
Caswell Counties, including the Knoxville area in the latter county. In
1785 the Dumplin Treaty between the Franklin government and the Chero-
kee was signed and new hordes of settlers poured into East Tennessee.

In 1786 Captain White built a story-and-a-half log cabin on a hill near
the present Farragut Hotel, and became the first permanent settler of
Knoxville. Later he added three more cabins and the four were connected
by a high palisade of logs, making a frontier outpost that was called
White's Fort.

During the next five years settlers, claiming the land North Carolina
was giving as a bonus to its Revolutionary soldiers, flocked into the Knox-
ville region. White's Fort became a repair and restocking point for west-
bound wagon trains,

William Blount, commissioned Governor of the Territory South of the
River Ohio, came to Tennessee in 1790 and established his headquarters
at White's settlement. The Treaty of the Holston was made with the Chero-
kee and, with the Indian land cession, became effective. At Blount's sug-
gestion Captain White laid out streets, and the new town was named
Knoxville in honor of Maj. Gen. Henry Knox, Secretary of War.

In 1792 Knox County was laid off from parts of what was then Greene
and Hawkins Counties, with Knoxville as the county seat. During the next
few years the town grew steadily. Roads were built in the county, more
cabins and a courthouse were erected. Knoxville, in the last years of the
eighteenth century, was a frontier jumping off place, with grog shops and
taverns, smithies and harness shops doing constant business. The town was
a rowdy resort of teamsters and flatboatmen, soldiers and westward-bound
emigrants.

The Knoxville Gazette, a weekly newspaper, established in 1791, was

KNOXVILLE 235

moved from Rogersville, where it had been first published by George
Roulstone. In 1792 the Gazette had the following to say, in describing the
favorable position of Knoxville as a shipping point for regions south and
west:

... It is the most eligible spot in the possession of the United States for a RE-
POSITORY of goods for supplying the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws and per-
haps the Creeks, too. The land carriage to it from either of the above mentioned
towns (Philadelphia, Baltimore, Richmond), and from Alexandria, is nearly as
cheap as from Philadelphia to Fort Pitt, and the passage down the Holston and
Tennessee to the places most proper to trade with those nations, is shorter and safer
than from Fort Pitt down the Ohio and up the Tennessee.

The one and only Indian scare came in September 1793 when the troops
were ail absent. Captain White organized the citizens to meet the Indians
but the war party did not attack. They turned instead to Cavet's Station
eight miles below Knoxvilie and there killed thirteen persons.

A ferry to the settlements south of the Tennessee River began operation
in 1793, and the First Presbyterian Church was organized that year. A post
office with semi-monthly mail service to Washington was established in
1795. The same year a wagon road from Knoxville to Nashville was com-
pleted. On June i, 1796, Tennessee was admitted to the Union with Knox-
ville as its first capital. The constitution of 1796 provided that the first
general assembly of the new State should be held in Knoxville, "and may
adjourn to such a place as they think proper, until the situation of this
State will permit the fixing of a permanent seat of government, which
shall be established as nearly central as convenience will permit/* Knox-
ville continued as the capital until 1812, when the State government was
moved to Nashville. The legislature, however, convened in Knoxville
again in 1817 and remained there two years, when once more the seat of
government was moved, this time to Murfreesbpro. In 1843 the State gov-
ernment was permanently established in Nashville.

For the first decade, Knoxville was merely a frontier town on the south
fork of the Wilderness Road, where frontiersmen stopped on their way
West, to buy fresh supplies. James Weir, who visited Knoxville in 1798,
wrote:

It was County Court day when I came. I saw men jesting, singing, swearing;
women yelling from doorways; half naked Negroes playing on their 'banjoes,* while
the crowd whooped and danced around them. Whiskey and peach brandy were
cheap. The town was confused with a promiscuous throng of every denomination
blanket-clad Indians, leather-shirted woodsmen, gamblers, hard-eyed and vigilant.
My soul shrank back to hear the horrid oaths and dreadful indignities. . . . There
was what I never did see before, viz., on Sunday, dancing, singing, and playing
cards.

Knoxville in these early days was often plagued by outlaws, the most
notorious of which were the Harpe Brothers Micajah (Big Harpe) and
Wiley (Little Harpe) who were said to be quadroons. Driven from their
native North Carolina in 1797, they settled on Beaver Creek, about eight
miles west of Knoxville, and frequented the town on trade days. People
near Beaver Creek began missing hogs and sheep. At the same time Harpe
hams and mutton became well known in Knoxville stores. The Harpes

236 CITY AND TOWN

were arrested but escaped with their women into Kentucky. They were not
merely highwaymen; invariably they killed, and usually tortured their vic-
tims. After murdering an enemy's wife and baby in Kentucky, Mica j ah
Harpe was trailed by a posse and in July 1799 (according to Robert M.
Coates r Outlaw Years) he was wounded by gunshot and while still con-
scious his head was hacked off with a butcher knife by the husband of the
slain woman.

Little Harpe escaped and joined the bandit Samuel Mason. Later he and
another member of the gang brought Mason's head, rolled up in a ball of
blue clay into Natchez and demanded the reward offered for the outlaw.
Before the money was paid, however, Harpe's identity was suspected. A
Knoxville man named John Bowman, who had cut the outlaw during a
brawl in Knoxville, made the identification absolute and Harpe was hanged
in Greenville, Mississippi, on Feb. 8, 1804.

Among Knoxville's first industrial establishments were grist mills, saw-
mills, tanyards, cotton-spinning factories, wool-carding mills, and a brass
foundry, all of which were on the banks of the two swift-flowing creeks
east and west of the business area. No effort was made to exploit the
near-by coal, iron, and marble deposits, which were known to exist, be-
cause wagon transportation to markets was too expensive. Steamboat navi-
gation to New Orleans was inaugurated as early as 1828, but an obstruc-
tion in the channel of the Tennessee River at Muscle Shoals made this
form of transportation unreliable.

The growth of the town was slow in comparison with the rapid in-
crease of population in the State. Knoxville had a population of only 2,076
in the census of 1850, and the census bureau of 1860 considered it such a
small town that its inhabitants were not enumerated separately from Knox
County.

The East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad, completed in 1855, gave rail
connection to the South via Chattanooga. A branch line of the East Ten-
nessee & Georgia Railroad, completed in 1856, provided connections with
Nashville, and in 1858 the East Tennessee & Virginia Railroad was com-
pleted to Bristol on the Virginia boundary. This was the last link in a con-
tinuous line of railroads from Chattanooga to the East. But the War be-
tween the States temporarily stopped further development

Because the majority of East Tennesseans were loyal to the Union dur-
ing the War between the States their farm holdings were small and few
of them owned slaves a Confederate army of occupation, numbering about
10,000, was sent into East Tennessee early in 1861 and established head-
quarters at Knoxville. About 1,500 Union sympathizers were arrested and,
after trials by military courts, most of them were sent to prisons in the
lower South. Thousands of Unionists fled the section for protection to the
hills of Federal-held Kentucky.

All Confederate troops were withdrawn from the Knoxville area during
August, 1863, to be mobilized at Chattanooga. About the same time, an
army of 20,000 Union troops, under the command of Maj. Gen. A. E.
Burnside, marched from Kentucky into Tennessee. Upon Burnside's ar-
rival at Knoxville, some townspeople turned out in the streets to greet

KNOXVILLE 237

him, but the majority of citizens watched his entry from behind drawn
blinds.

During November, 1863, a Confederate army of 10,000 veterans of
Gettysburg, and 5,000 cavalrymen, under command of Gen. James A.
Longstreet, struck toward Knoxviile from Chattanooga to capture or de-
stroy Burnside's forces. The Union forces stubbornly resisted Longstreet's
advance until fortifications around the city could be completed. Several
severe rear-guard actions were fought 13 miles west of the city and on
November 19 the siege of Knoxviile began. The Union troops faced star-
vation when the Confederates blocked their supply lines. Rations were first
cut in half, and at the last reduced to a cracker a day for each man. When
the Confederates received information that Gen. W. T. Sherman was on
his way with 25,000 men to relieve Burnside, Longstreet attempted the
capture of Knoxviile by assault. But the attack, made against Fort Sanders
at dawn on November 29, was repulsed with heavy loss to the Confed-
erates. A few days later the siege was raised, and the Confederates went
into winter quarters near Morristown.

Property damage in Knoxviile was enormous. The railroad shops, indus-
trial plants, and the homes north of the railroad tracks were burned by
Union troops on a sortie during the siege. All public buildings, and many
private homes in the city, were badly damaged by troop quartering and
shell-fire.

When peace came, restoration was rapid. Scores of Union soldiers re-
turned to make Knoxviile their permanent homes and established some of
the leading business houses. Many skilled Welsh and German workmen
immigrated to Knoxviile and skilled laborers came from northern States,
New buildings were erected, new industries were founded, the railroads
were rebuilt, trade with other cities was re-established, and a public school
system adopted. Knoxville's population, less than 3,000 in 1860, increased
to almost 10,000 in 1870.

The next thirty years brought further industrial development. Wood and
iron plants, marble quarries, foundry and machine companies, and cotton
and woolen factories were established, and by 1900 the population had
grown to 36,637.

During the World War period there was further industrial expansion
and a marked increase in banking capital. An act passed by the legislature
in April, 1917, expanded the city limits from 3.9 to 26.4 square miles.
This resulted by 1920 in an increase of 114 per cent over the population
of 1910.

Cotton textiles, marble, and hardwood furniture, in the order named,
lead in local production and in the number of persons employed. Other
industries include the manufacture of porcelain, flour, cement, concrete
pipe, steel products, agricultural implements, wood veneer, thermostatic
control devices, drop-bottom mice cars, and mucking machines for drill-
ing underground tunnels.

Most of the laborers in Knoxville's industries are native whites from
farm and mountain areas; very few of the semi-skilled workmen are or-

238 CITY AND TOWN

Knoxville has three tobacco warehouses. The season for tobacco auc-
tions begins about the second week in December and lasts for about three
months, depending on weather conditions. Tobacco sales in 1937-38
totalled $1,610,000.

Knoxville's electric light system is municipally owned. In 1938 the city
purchased the local system from the Tennessee Public Service Co., and con-
tracted with the TVA for the supply of power. In a transaction completed
at the same time, the TVA acquired the company's facilities in the outlying
districts.

POINTS OF INTEREST

1. The SITE OF BLOUNT COLLEGE, SE. corner S. Gay St. and W.
Clinch Ave., is marked by a bronze plaque on the Gay St. side of the Bur-
well Building. Blount College, named for Governor William Blount, and
incorporated by the Territorial Assembly in 1794, was the third institution
of higher learning west of the Allegheny Mountains and was co-educational
from its beginning. Dr. Samuel Carridc was its only president and Barbara
Blount, a daughter of the Governor, was among its early graduates. In
1807 it was chartered as the East Tennessee College, which later became
the University of Tennessee.

2. The FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 620 State St., of neo-
classic design and constructed of yellow brick with limestone trim, com-
pleted in 1901, houses the oldest church organization in Knoxville, and is
the third building erected on the site. The church was organized about
*793 an( l Capt James White, founder of the city and one of the church's
first presiding elders, donated the site. The original building, finished in
1816, was replaced in 1852 by a second structure. In September, 1863,
on the first Sunday after Burnside's army occupied Knoxville, the pastor,
the Reverend W. A. Harrison, was arrested by Union officers as bt^ left
his pulpit and charged with sedition, treasonable utterances, and inciting
the citizenry of Knoxville to rebellion against the United States. Later
he was released and escorted south. From September 1863 until May i,
1866, the church was used by the Union Army as barracks, hospital,
quarters for refugees, and as a school house for Negro children. In the
graveyard, a marble slab marks the GRAVE OF WILLIAM BLOUNT, the
first Governor of the Territory South of the River Ohio while a bronze
tablet on the original footstone marks the GRAVE OF JAMES WHITE. The
GRAVE OF DR. SAMUEL CARRICK, first pastor of the church and president
of Blount College, is also here. Many inscriptions read: "Consort of" or
"relict of" instead of the usual modern inscription "wife of" or "widow

3. The HUNTER-KENNEDY HOUSE (private), 216 E. Church Ave.,
erected in 1820, by James Kennedy of Pennsylvania, is a two-story, brick
post-Colonial house with a handsome cherry staircase leading to large bed-
rooms on the second floor. The house was once the center of a complete
self-sustaining economic community. Mr. Kennedy kept his Negro slaves
busily employed producing nearly all the commodities required by the

KNOXVILLE 239

community. The remains of a gristmill, for which power was generated by
the water of First Creek, stand near the house. An enormous smokehouse
yet intact is evidence of the generous food supply of an ante-bellum slave
plantation. During the occupation of Knoxville by Burnside's army, Union
officers were quartered in the house, but members of the family were al-
lowed to remain,

4. The JACKSON HOUSE (open by permission), 1000 State St., built
in 1800 of red clay bricks made in pioneer kilns, is well preserved. It has
thick, ivy-clad walls, a small front porch with an iron grill balcony, and
ornate exterior details. The interior walls are finished with the original
plastering of sand, lime, and hair. An old copper press stands in the brick-
floored basement, once a kitchen and dining room. A secret stairway is
built in a little closet in an upper-story room. The old "witch door" with
its double cross paneling is a reminder of the tradition that such a cross
prevented the entrance of mischievous witches.

The house was owned by Dr. George Jackson for 50 years, and is now
the property of descendants of Casper Aebli, who came to the United
States from Switzerland in 1865 and later purchased it.

5. The BLOUNT MANSION (open 9-12, 1-4 Mon.-Fri.), SW. corner
State St. and W. Hill Ave., the first frame house west of the AUeghenies,
was built in 1792 by Governor William Blount. Of simple Georgian
Colonial design, the house has a two-story central portion between one-
story wings. The grooved clapboards are painted white and the windows
have green shutters. An old-fashioned garden, enclosed by a picket fence,
surrounds the house and a wide brick walk leads from the gate to the main
entrance.

The large rooms have hand-made mantelpieces, chair-rails, and wide-
paneled doors. The East Room, built in 1799, has walls of light buff plas-
ter with white doors and trim ; an old Adam mirror hangs above the high
mantelpiece, grooved in diamond-shaped design.

In this room are portraits of William Blount, Willie Blount, his half-
brother, Henry Knox, and John Sevier, and steel engravings of Louis
Philippe as a young boy and as King of France. The room also contains a
large secretary-desk which belonged to the family of Thomas Jefferson,
and a large illuminated English Bible and Prayer-Book combined, dated
1751-

TO KNOXVILLE DOWNTOWN MAP

1. Site of Blount College 9. Cumberland Hotel

2. First Presbyterian Church 10. Lawson McGhee Library

3. Hunter-Kennedy House n. Summitt Hill

4. Jackson House 12. Market House

5. Blount Mansion 13. Park House

6. Chisholm's Tavern 14, Diddnson-Atkin House

7. Knox County Courthouse 15. Church Street M. E. Church

8. Lyric Theater 16. Henley Bridge

240

CITY AND TOWN

KNOXVILLE

241

KNOXVILLE

DOWNTOWN
1939

242 CITY AND TOWN

In the adjoining bedroom are a tester-bed with a pine cradle beside it;
John Sevier's desk, upon which Dr. J. G. M. Ramsey wrote the Annals of
Tennessee; and two paintings by Lloyd Branson, The Old Block House
and Bonny Kate, second wife of Governor Sevier. There is also a chair that
once belonged to John Adair. ,. , ,

The dining room, or pine room, to the right of the hallway, contains a
trestle table set with pewter, and a hunter's board with antique decanters
and white china fruit dishes. On a Welsh dresser or hooded cupboard from
the Smoky Mountains are an enormous turkey platter, and a huge white
porcelain soup tureen.

A trap door leads from the passageway between the East Room and the
bed- chamber to a lower room, now a museum. The exhibits include treas-
ures from old pioneer families of Tennessee.

6. CHISHOLM'S TAVERN (of en by permission), 217 Front Ave.,
was built by Capt. John Chisholm, soldier of fortune, during the first year
of Knoxville's history (1792). It is built of logs covered with hand-hewn
weatherboards and fitted with wooden pegs and square-headed wrought
nails. The foundation and cellar walls are of field stone three feet thick.
At the gable end of the three-story house are two huge pent chimneys of
baked brick.

From the main porch, two double, six-paneled front doors, flanked by
fluted pilasters and with a five-light transom above, open into the en-
trance hall. The woodwork is of heart pine and there are solid pine, six-
paneled "witch doors" and twelve-foot ceilings. The "great room", left of
the entrance hall, has a six-foot fireplace opening. The first Masonic lodge
of Knoxville, with Gov. John Sevier as Worshipful Master, is believed to
have held its early meetings here. Local tradition has it that Louis Philippe
was attacked by a vicious batch of bed bugs at the tavern. He greased him-
self with hog lard, but when this remedy failed to allay the itching and
stinging, he rushed outdoors screaming, and jumped into the Tennessee
River

7. The KNOX COUNTY COURTHOUSE (open 7-6 weekdays), W.
Main Ave. between S. Gay and Market Sts., is a massive, square, two-story
steel frame structure faced with brick and marble and decorated with terra
cotta friezes in the Victorian style. The building, erected in 1885 as a
county courthouse, also houses the supreme court for the eastern section of
the State.

A MARBLE ARCH at the entrance to the grounds honors Knoxville's be-
loved family physician, Dr. John Mason Boyd, who practiced here for
more than 50 years. He was the first surgeon to successfully perform a pan-
hysterectomy. A stone marker designates the SITE OF THE MILITARY
BLOCKHOUSE, erected in 1793. The two monuments near the entrance
mark the GRAVE OF JOHN SEVIER AND His SECOND WIFE. The tombstones
placed over their graves in Alabama before removal of their ashes to Knox-
ville are imbedded in the east walls of the courthouse. A stone marker, 100
feet south of the Sevier monument, commemorates the TREATY OF THE
HOLSTON. signed on July 2, 1791.

8. The LYRIC THEATRE, 802 S. Gay St., was constructed in 1871 by

GATEWAY, BLOUNT MANSION, KNOXVILLE

244 CITY AND

Peter Staub, consul from Switzerland to the United States, who was later
naturalized and appointed consul from the United States to Switzerland.
It was formally opened as Staub's Theater in 1872 with the presentation of
William Tell, by local talent.

9. CUMBERLAND HOTEL, 723 S. Gay St., erected in 1854 as Schu-
bert's House, occupies the SITE OF JOHN STONE'S LOG TAVERN. Since
1792 this site has been occupied by a series of taverns and hotels, and was
the gathering place of the elite for many years. Remodeling abolished the
"elegant barroom, spacious ballroom, and commodious lobby with a large
open fireplace," but the large rooms with huge ceilings remain as they were
built.

10. The LAWSON McGHEE LIBRARY (open 9-9 weekdays, 2-6
Sun,), 217 Market St., is the second building occupied by the library since
it was established in 1885. * modified Georgian Colonial design, the
present building is of white brick and terra-cotta construction. It was de-
signed by Grant B. Miller and presented to the city in 1917. Chas. M. Mc-
Ghee, founder of the library, named it for his daughter, May Lawson
McGhee. In the basement is the C. M. McCLUNG HISTORICAL COLLEC-
TION, about 6,000 volumes of history and genealogy of the Southern States
one of the finest collections of early books, maps, and documents in the
South.

11. SUMMIT HILL, W. Vine Ave. between Market and Walnut Sts.,
was occupied by a battery of Confederate artillery, manned by troops and
citizen volunteers for the defense of Knoxville against a Union cavalry
raid on June 21, 1863. This hill was an excellent position for defense dur-
ing the days of open warfare. The Union artillery was superior in range to
the Confederate and fired successfully upon Summit Hill from a knoll
more than half a mile away.

12. The MARKET HOUSE, Market St. between Wall and Union
Aves., is on a tract of land donated to the city in 1853 by William G.
Swan and Joseph A. Mabry to be maintained as a free market for farmers.
The building, Romanesque in design, was constructed in 1897 of red brick
trimmed with white Knoxville Marble. The stalls in the Market House are
leased to the merchants, and in the central aisle 104 tables are allotted free
to farm women for the display of their produce. In this section and on the
free curb market outside, where farmers sell their wares from wagons,
trucks, and cars, no produce that has been "jobbed" is permitted for sale.
An auditorium on the second floor seats about 1,000.

MARKET SQUARE and its environs form a town within a town. Here,
only one block from Gay Street, the talk is of the weather, of the price of
corn, of stockbreeding, and other matters important to the farmers. At
noontime, the women who run boarding houses on the second floors of the
buildings around the square descend to the street and clang their old-time
hand bells. Meals in these houses are 15 cents for "all you eat." The two
ten-cent movie houses on the square exhibit western films.

13. The PARK HOUSE (open 9-5 daily), 422 W. Cumberland Ave.,
of brownish-red brick in post-Colonial style, is typical of the large dwel-
lings erected by wealthy builders in pioneer days. L-shaped in plan, it con-

CHURCH STREET M. E. CHURCH, KNOXVJLLE

sists of two stories above a raised basement, with a narrow arcaded and
latticed porch in the angle of the ell. John Sevier, first Governor of Ten-
nessee, began the house in 1798, but financial reverses compelled him to
abandon it after the foundation and part of the first story were completed.
James Park, later mayor of Knoxville, bought and completed the house. It
is now used as an infirmary.

14. The DICKINSON- ATKINS HOUSE (open by permission), 518
W. Main Ave., begun by Perez Dickinson in 1830, was purchased and
completed in 1901 by C Brown Atkins, Knoxville manufacturer. This two-
story white house of post-Colonial architecture with stuccoed walls stands
far back from the street at the end of a spacious garden and lawn. Leon
Beaver of Knoxville was the architect.

15. The CHURCH STREET M. E. CHURCH, SW. corner W. Main
Ave. and Broadway, completed in 1932, is of neo-Gothic design. The exte-
rior walls are faced with quartz stone of various hues ; the stone trim is of
Indiana limestone carved in the traditional Gothic manner. The roof is
covered with a variegated gray-green slate. The pews of oak, between aisles
paved with sandstone, are of a classical pattern of the Middle Ages. Barber
and McMurray of Knoxville were the architects.

16. HENLEY BRIDGE spans the Tennessee River at the south end of

246 CITY AND TOWN

Broadway. It is 1,800 feet long and 300 feet above the low-water mark.
The bridge affords an excellent view of the Knoxville business skyline and
the University of Tennessee campus.

17. The UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, W. Cumberland Ave. be-
tween Hunter and ijth Sts., occupies a 40-acre campus with a quadrangle
of buildings crowning "The Hill," flanked by a number of other buildings
at a lower level. Buildings erected since 1917 conform to the Collegiate
Gothic style. These newer buildings, designed by Barber and McMurray,
Knoxville, are constructed of variegated brick with limestone trim. On the
grounds on the north and south sides of Cumberland Avenue are excep-
tionally fine old trees. Among the rare imported specimens are copper elms
and gingkos.

The University of Tennessee was established in 1794 as Blount College.
By an act of the General Assembly in 1807, Blount became East Tennessee
College, which in turn was chartered in 1840 as East Tennessee University,
assuming its present name in 1879.

For thirty years prior to the War between the States the annual enroll-
ment was about a hundred. The military tradition has been strong from
the beginning, and as the result of a petition by the students a military de-
partment was established in 1843. During the War between the States, the
university was closed because most of the faculty and the student body
volunteered in Confederate or Union armies. Both forces used the build-
ings for barracks and hospital.

East Tennessee University was selected by the General Assembly in 1869
as a beneficiary of the Morrili Land Grant Act, and as a result a College
of Agriculture was set up and the military department re-established. The
College of Liberal Arts began to offer graduate courses in 1872, and in the
following year courses for teachers were added to the curriculum. A sum-
mer session, noted as "The Summer School of the South," was opened in
1880. Classes in education and engineering soon developed into separate
colleges, and the law school was organized in 1889.

While Blount College had been co-educational, women were denied ad-
mission by its successors. Not until 1893 did the university again admit
women. With this development domestic science courses made their ap-
pearance and there is now an excellent School of Home Economics.

Experiments in extension courses were inaugurated in 1897 and instruc-
tion for nonresidents now constitutes a widespread function of the uni-
versity. The School of Commerce was established soon after the World
War, and separate pre-medical and pre-dental courses were offered shortly
thereafter. The Colleges of Medicine and Dentistry and the Schools of
Pharmacy and Nursing are in Memphis (see MEMPHIS), and the Junior
College of Agriculture, Home Economics, and Industrial Arts at Martin
(see Tour 10). The annual enrollment is about 6,000.

The university is outstanding in agricultural experiment, maintaining
experimental stations at Nashville, Jackson, Columbia, Clarksville, and
Knoxville. Through these stations the university has given aid in modern
farming methods to the rural folk of the State, with experiment and dis-

KNOXVILLE 247

covery often of Nation-wide benefit. It has also cooperated with the TVA
in the rehabilitation program in the Valley of East Tennessee.

The UNIVERSITY LIBRARY (open 8-10 weekdays; 6-8 Sat.), 1401
W. Cumberland Ave., built in 1931, is Collegiate Gothic in style, con-
structed of concrete faced with variegated brick and limestone, with cast-
iron trim. The most notable architectural features are the tall tower at the
southwest corner, the broad stone staircase encircling a massive pier with a
groined ceiling above, and the large reference room on the east side of the
second story. This room, 35 by 135 feet, has a ceiling 28 feet above the
floor and large windows on three sides. Huge concrete beams, resting on
stone columns, support the roof. The ceiling above the staircase and the
beams of the reference room and delivery hall are decorated with murals,
the work of Hugh Tyler of Knoxville. Barber and McMurray, of Knox-
ville, were the architects, and Grant C. Miller the consulting architect.

A huge oil painting of a scene in the Great Smoky Mountains, regarded
as one of the best examples of the work of Charles Christopher Krutch,
hangs in the main hall of the second floor. The painting was a gift from
Miss Lou Krutch, a sister of the artist, and friends. The library contains
approximately 133,000 volumes and an extensive collection of bound
magazine files. The AUDIGJDER ART COLLECTION (open 2-5 Sun.) occupies
two especially designed tower rooms in the library building. Consisting of
oil paintings, sculpture, oriental rugs, early Italian furniture, and antiques,
the collection was presented to the University by L. B. Audigier as a
memorial to his wife.

The BIOLOGY BUILDING (open 8-6 weekdays), on the first lower level
of "The Hill,** contains a collection of 36,000 specimens gathered in the
Smokies by university botanists. There are 20,000 varieties of ferns and
flowering plants, 5,000 mosses and their relatives, 400 lichens, and 10,600
fungi, replacing the original collection, which was destroyed in the Morrill
Hall fire of 1934.

SHIELDS-WATKINS FIELD, at the south level of the campus, was named
in honor of W. S. Shields, of Knoxville, for many years a trustee of
the University, and Mrs. Shields, whose maiden name was Alice Watkins.
Mr. and Mrs. Shields donated the fund that bought the property. The seat-
ing capacity of the stadium is 35,000. Under the east side, bedrooms for
about 200 male students are being constructed. The field is the scene of
football games of "The Volunteers*' and of the weekly dress parade and
review of the university's R. O. T. C. regiment.

18. TYSON MEMORIAL HOUSE (open 9-5 dally), 839 i6th St., a
commodious structure of Georgian Colonial design, now a recreational and
religious center for University students, was once the home of L. D. Tyson,
wealthy manufacturer of Knoxville, and in his later years, United States
Senator from Tennessee. In the World War, General Tyson commanded
the 59th Brigade, 3Oth Division, A.E.F. After his death the home was
donated to the Tennessee Diocese of the Episcopal Church by his daugh-
ter Mrs. Kenneth Gilpin. The house contains living rooms, a chapel, and
a library. Episcopal services are held in the chapel, but students of all sects
are welcome to the home.

248 CITY AND TOWN

19. MELROSE (op en 9-9 daily), 1702 Melrose Place, of Classical Re-
vival design with Tuscon detail and long French windows in the lower
story, was built by Negro slave labor during the early 1850*5. The brick
walls, two and a half feet thick, are covered with stucco and the eaves
project three feet from the walls on all sides of the house. The outstanding
feature of the interior is an unsupported spiral stairway.

Melrose was built in 1858 by John J. Craig of Florence, Alabama, who
named it Ludoiow, but did not himself live in it. The house stood between
the contending lines in the sixties and many soldiers of both sides died
within its walls.

In 1865 it was bought by O. P. Temple and was then named Melrose in
memory of his mother-in-law's old home near Melrose Abbey, Scotland.
Later, the home was turned into apartments.

20. UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE EXPERIMENTAL ?XKML(open
9-5 weekdays), 2600 Kingston Pike, occupies 1,200 acres on both sides of
the Tennessee River. The one principal building, H. A, MORGAN HALL,
of Collegiate Gothic design, is of red brick with limestone trim. North-
east of this building is an unusually large lysimeter laboratory consisting of
350 units housed in the two hillside houses and an underground tunnel.
Soil-leaching tests are conducted by trained laborers under the direction of
a staff of scientists,

21. LONGUEVAL (open by permission), 2602 Kingston Pike, built
in 1823, is a two-story post-Colonial structure of hand-made brick. At the
front entrance the drive winds among huge oaks and other native trees.
The flower and vegetable gardens slope in terraces down to the river. In
the gardens are crepe myrtle, fragrantissima, sweet alyssum, heliotrope,
lemon balm, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, thyme, nepeta, bee balm, rose
geranium, lemon verbena, sweet lavender, and Confederate jasmine.

The rooms of the house are spacious, the ceilings high. The walls are
paneled, and a stairway branching two ways from a narrow balcony leads
to the bedrooms on the second floor.

Originally known as Crescent Bend from its position on the river,
Longueval, meaning "long view," as it was finally called, was the planta-
tion home of Drury P, Armstrong, merchant, banker, and planter. During
the winter Armstrong housed bees in his cellar to keep them warm. Arm-
strong's lands extended across the present Kingston Pike and for some miles
on both sides of the Tennessee River, then known as the Holston. A slight
depression indicating the wagon road to a privately owned ferry is still
discernible south of Kingston Pike.

22. BLEAK HOUSE (private), 2800 Kingston Pike, named for the
novel by Charles Dickens, is a two-story brick structure painted gray and
adorned with a cupola. Gen. James A. Longstreet made his headquarters
here during the siege of Knoxville, Union artillery fired upon the house
and damaged it slightly, a number of Minie balls being still imbedded
in its walls. Opposite the house are serpentine walls of brick, modelled
after those designed by Thomas Jefferson at the University of Virginia.

23. The SANFORD ARBORETUM (open 9-5 weekdays), 2890 King*

KNOXVILLE * 249

ston Pike, rear of the A, F. Sanford home, is a non-commercial collection
of more than 2,200 varieties of dwarf trees and shrubs. Ail specimens bear
embossed metal tags, which give the common and scientific name of the
plant, its native country, and the date of transplanting.

24. KNOXVILLE COLLEGE, 1400 College St. one of the oldest in-
stitutions for Negro instruction in the South, had its inception in the
Freedmen's Missions. After a survey of points in Tennessee and South
Carolina the college was established on its present site in 1875 by the
United Presbyterian Church of America, The church took over a school
for Negroes run by R. T. Creswell and hired an extra teacher for the
more than 100 pupils already enrolled.

From the original class of impoverished Negro children and adults,
housed in a one-room abandoned grocery store, there has evolved a col-
lege of 28 buildings on a beautiful campus of 20 acres, a part of the
90-acre tract owned by the college. There is an average attendance of
more than 300 men and women students, representing 21 States. The
faculty is bi-racial.

The red-brick buildings, three and four stories high, are trimmed in
wood and stone, and the campus, with elms and maples, occupies the site
of the encampment, of the Confederates under General Longstreet during
the siege of Knoxville. The ADMINISTRATION BUILDING is in the center
of an informal amphitheater of similar buildings. A few buildings were
erected of bricks made in the college's own brick kiln by former students.

The CARNEGIE LIBRARY (open 8-5 and 7-9 weekdays; 10-12, 2-4, and
7-9 Sat,), and MACMILLAN MEMORIAL CHAPEL, the latter erected in
1913 by the Second United Presbyterian Church of Allegheny, Pa. and
named in honor of the Reverend W. E. MacMillan, are of neo-classic
design.

Knoxville College confers bachelor degrees in academic subjects and
in music.

25. BROOKSIDE MILLS (open 9-4 weekdays; guides), 300 block
Baxter Ave., is one of the largest cotton textile mills in the South. It con-
sists of four principal units, employs approximately 5,000 persons during
prosperous years and, when operating at maximum capacity, consumes
about 100,000 bales of cotton annually. The plant manufactures a large
variety of textiles, including challis, lawns, piques, organdies, voiles, pop-
lins, moires, calicoes, corduroy, and broadcloth.

26. NATIONAL and OLD GRAY CEMETERIES, Broadway between
Tyson and Cooper Sts., extending to Bernard Ave., adjoin each other.
National Cemetery, founded by the Government in 1863 for interment of
Union soldiers killed in East Tennessee, also contains the graves of Span-
ish-American and World War veterans. In Old Gray Cemetery are the
graves of Gov. W, G. (Parson) Brownlow, editor of the Whig, Unionist
leader, and Radical Republican; Horace Maynard; L. D. Tyson, United
States Senator and Brigadier-General in the World War, and William
Gibbs McAdoo, father of former United States Senator W, G. McAdoo,
of California.

250 - CITY AND TOWN

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS

Indian Cave, 26.8 m. (see Tour lA); Smoky Mountains National Park, 38 m.
(see Tour 5); Norris Dam, 26 m.; Fort Loudoun, 35.1 m, (see Tour 5 A); Cavet
Station, 104 m.; Middlebrook, the Hazen-Webb Home, 10.8 m>; Charles McClung
House (States View), 16.4 m.; Campbell Station, JJJ m.; Admiral Farragut's
birthplace, 22.7 m. (see Tour 12).

Railroad Stations: Union Station, W. 9th and Broad Sts., for Nashville, Chattanooga
& St. Louis Ry. and Tennessee, Alabama & Georgia Ry. Terminal Station, Market
and 1 4th Sts., for Southern Ry. and Central of Georgia Ry.

Bus Station: Union Bus Terminal, Market, Broad, and loth Sts., for Greyhound,
Capitol, Tennessee Coach, Motor Transportation, Smoky Mountain Stage, Cherokee,
Chickamauga and Thomas Lines.

Airport: Lovel Field, Municipal Airport, 8 m. NE. on US 64, for Eastern Air
Lines. Information office at Read House. Taxi fare 75^; time 20 minutes.
Streetcar and Bus Service: Cars and busses to ail parts of city and suburbs from
Market St. Fare 7^ for cars, 70 and io for busses; 2O0 to Lookout Mountain via
St. Elmo bus.

Incline Railway: Lookout Mountain Incline Ry., St. Elmo St. at Tennessee Ave.,
round trip 40$.

Taxis: 15^ first mile, io each additional half mile; zone rates approximately same
as mileage.

Traffic Regulations: Speed limit 25 m. p. h. 30 m. p. h. on boulevards and through
streets; no left turns on Market St. at 7th, 8th, 9th Sts. Traffic regulations, pub-
lished by Chattanooga Safety Council, obtainable at City Hall.

Accommodations: Fourteen hotels; three for Negroes; tourist camps.

Information Service: Chattanooga Automobile Club, Hotel Patten, nth and Market
Sts.; Chamber of Commerce, 819 Broad St.

Radio Stations: WDOD (1280 kc.); WAPO (1420 kc).

Theaters and Motion Picture Houses: Memorial Auditorium, McCallie Ave. and
Lindsay St., all types of theatricals. Two first-run motion picture houses; 10 second-
run, two Negro.

Wrestling: Memorial Auditorium.

Baseball: Engel Stadium, east side O'Neal St. between E. 3rd and E. jth Sts.
(Southern Association).

Football: Chamberlain Field, University of Chattanooga.
Polo: Fort Oglethorpe Polo Association.

Swimming: Municipal Pool, "Warner Park, McCallie Ave. at viaduct (fee 250) ;
McCallie Lake, McCallie School (fee io0 and 250).

Golf: Municipal Course, at Brainerd E. of Missionary Ridge where US n crosses
city limits, 18 holes, 4O0.

Tennis: Free courts: Warner Park, McCallie Ave. at viaduct, 12 courts; Riverside
Park, N. bank of Tennessee River between Market and Walnut St. Bridges, four
courts; Citizens' Park, E. jth and Lansing Sts., two courts; Lincoln Park (Negro),
Central Ave. and Bkckford Sts., three courts.

Annual Events: January i, Emancipation Day (Negro) ; February 22, Chattanooga
Times five-mile foot race; April i (week), Baylor Relays, Baylor School; April
(3rd week of even years), University of Chattanooga Institute of Public Affairs;
early May, Music Festival; early Spring, Chattanooga Flower Show; June 21, Na-
tional Pigeon Racing Association races; mid-September, Chattanooga Tri-State Fair,
Fort Oglethorpe Horse Show.

CHATTANOOGA (674 alt, 119,798 pop.) lies near the border of
Georgia on the sharp Moccasin Bend of the Tennessee River, in a valley

251

252 CITY AND TOWN

walled by Missionary Ridge to the east, Signal Mountain to the north-
west, and Lookout Mountain to the southwest. The ridges are so steep that
tunnels were blasted througth them for the main highways into Chatta-
nooga,

Steep crosstown streets rise from Market and Broad, the two main north
and south thoroughfares. In the shopping center tall buildings with the
straight simple lines of modern architecture crowd heavily ornamented
structures of the late 1890'$. Tied up at the foot of Market Street are house-
boats, motor launches, and outboards. Occasionally an old stern wheeler
churns along the Tennessee past the waterfront. Just south of the business
district the city is divided by the railroad tracks connecting the Union Sta-
tion with the Terminal Station. The area south of the tracks is mainly in- ^
dustrial iron and steel works in South Chattanooga, woodworking plants
in East Lake, and textile mills in Rossville, Georgia.

Residential sections reach far up the gaunt ridges, where the nights are
cool even in summer. The more elaborate homes are on Lookout Moun-
tain, Missionary Ridge, and Signal Mountain. North of the river and
closer to the business district are residential North Chattanooga and Dallas
Heights. On some of the downtown streets old dwellings are wedged be-
tween apartment houses and office buildings.

Negroes make up nearly one-third of Chattanooga's population. Houses
range from well-kept bungalows, duplexes and small tenement houses in
Churchville, in some sections of College Hill,' and on East 8th Street, to
the ramshackle shelters of South Chattanooga and Tannery Flats, where
seven or eight families live in a single dwelling.

Many Negroes work in factories, foundries, and in domestic service,
while others are engaged in business. A place has been found for Negroes
in local political organizations, a procedure simplified under the direction
of an inter-racial committee. Typically Negro are the all-day and all-night
dances on the southwest side and the rummage sales at Five Points. There
are Negro lodges of Masons and Knights of Pythias, a local chapter of
Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, Y.M.CA. and Y.W.C.A., and churches of
many denominations.

Long before the Cherokee built villages along Chickamauga Creek, In-
dians were planting com and building towns in the vicinity of Chatta-
nooga. Aboriginal remains, including earthen mounds, midden deposits,
and cemeteries, have been found along Moccasin Bend, on Williams Island,
and along Riverside Drive. Recent archeological investigations indicate that
these first inhabitants were of Miiskhogean stock. When the Muskhogeans
first entered the region is not known, but it is certain that they occupied
the valley for many years, and that they were still in the valley in 1540,
when De Soto arrived.

Even in prehistoric times, Chattanooga was an important junction of
many lines of communication. Over Lookout Mountain passed the Great
War Path, following the valley of East Tennessee into the Deep South.
The Shawnee Trail began at Williams Island and struck north into the
Cumberland Valley. The Suck Creek Trail roughly followed the present
Suck Creek Road.

CHATTANOOGA 253

French traders established a post in the area and maintained trade with
the Indians for half a century. Competing with them were English traders,
whose outpost, Fort Loudoun, was on the Little Tennessee River. When
the Cherokee and Creek besieged Fort Loudoun in 1761, the French at
New Orleans sent a supply boat up the Tennessee to aid the Indians. The
boat could not navigate the "Suck" of the Tennessee, however, and the
goods were sold to the Indians near present Chattanooga. When the tide
of Anglo-Saxon immigration began to pour over the mountains, the French
traders left the valley.

With the outbreak of the American Revolution the Cherokee turned
unsuccessfully against the settlers. Dragging Canoe, a young war chief,
led the recalcitrants from upper East Tennessee to the vicinity of Chatta-
nooga. Joined by other hostile Indians and by white outlaws, they became
known as the Chickamauga. From this region their war parties struck at
outlying settlements until they were feared all along the frontier. The
Nickajack Expedition, led by Maj. James Ore in 1794, finally broke their
power. They ceased to exist as a separate tribe and rejoined the Cherokee
Nation.

In 1803 John Brown, a half-breed Cherokee, established a ferry at
the south end of Wiliams Island, which he operated until the removal of
the Cherokee in 1838 (see Tour 13 sec. b). The ferry was on a stage route
across Lookout Mountain, the only passageway between the South and the
eastern markets.

After the treaties of 1805-1815 Chattanooga became a Cherokee trading
center, called Ross* Landing, for the Scotch-Cherokee family who operated
it after 1815. In 1817 Brainerd Mission was established by the Rev. Cyrus
Kingsbury, a Congregationalist missionary, and functioned until the Indian
removal of 1838.

The first permanent white settlement at Ross* Landing was made about
1835. The following year the Cherokee removal began, and Ross* Landing
was made a military post and a point of embarkation for the Indians. In
1837 the post office was created, and mail service to Washington ten
days distant was established.

Ross* Landing became the salt-trading center of eastern Tennessee,
northern Georgia, and northern Alabama. In time of freshets the salt,
imported from King's Salt Works in southwest Virginia, was shipped
down the north fork of the Holston River and thence down the Tennessee.
In 1838 1,500 barrels of salt sold at $8.50 per barrel. Through that funda-
mental commodity, Chattanooga began as a trading and shipping point.

In the fall of 1838 the town was laid out and Ross* Landing became
Chattanooga. The name is generally believed to derive from the Creek
word Cbat-to-to-noog-gee (rode rising to a point), which seems to de-
scribe Lookout Mountain. In 1839 the little community received a charter,
and town lots were auctioned. Tliose near the river sold for as much as
$1,680 and seldom for less than $850, while those toward the south brought
almost nothing.

The community was not long without a newspaper, for in 1838 F. A.
Parham began printing the Hamilton Gazette, -later the Chattanooga Ga-

254 CITY AND TOWN

zette. It is believed that the Hamilton Observer antedated the Gazette, but
no copies are extant. Apparently the first issues of the Gazette were set up
and printed on the flatboat that brought the press from Knoxvilie.

67 1841 trade included such commodities as bacon, flour, iron, whisky,
and muslins. In 1849 the Western & Atlantic Railroad connected the city
with the South Atlantic seaboard. Two years later, when Chattanooga was
granted a city charter, 45,000 bales of cotton were coming annually from
northern Alabama for shipment to Charleston and Savannah, Chattanooga
and Memphis became temporary rivals as cotton markets, a competition
that ended in Memphis' favor with the completion of the Memphis &
Charleston Railroad through northern Alabama and Mississippi.

Because it was the only town of importance between Kingston and
Muscle Shoals, a distance of more than 300 miles, Chattanooga had a river
trade out of proportion to its population. Upon completion of the Nash-
ville & Chattanooga Railway in 1854, with its through connection with
the Atlantic seacoast via Atlanta, river traffic dwindled. In 1855 railways
connected Chattanooga and Knoxvilie. Two years later the Memphis &
Charleston joined Chattanooga with the Mississippi country.

On the eve of the War between the States Chattanooga, while impor-
tant as a railroad center, was still a very small town, with a total popula-
tion of 5,545.

As early as 1862 one of the key objectives of Union strategy was to
occupy East Tennessee and Chattanooga, to drive a wedge between the
Eastern and Western Armies of the Confederacy. Soon after Tennessee
seceded, Confederate troops were massed to protect Chattanooga from
Union invasion. The first Union move on Chattanooga shortly after the
Battle of Shiloh in 1862, was made by Gen. Don Carlos Buell, who ad-
vanced toward Chattanooga along the Memphis & Charleston Railroad.
He was to keep the railroad in constant repair behind him so that the
line to Memphis, his base of supplies, would remain open. But Confeder-
ate cavalry troops so constantly raided and destroyed the railroad in
Buell's rear that when his advance guard was within artillery range ^ of
Chattanooga he had to abandon the campaign. The Confederate invasion
of Kentucky temporarily turned Union attention from Chattanooga.

In the summer of 1863 the Union forces renewed their campaign
against Chattanooga in an effort to cut the Confederates off from their
base of supplies. The Confederates were driven back to the Tennessee
River. Here the Union Army was faced by the problem of crossing the
river under fire.

Maj. Gen. William Starke Rosecrans sent a small Union detachment to
the hills east of Walden's Ridge, north of Chattanooga. The troops
marched back and forth in the hills, beat on barrels to imitate the rumble
of wagons, and floated wood down river to suggest that bridges were
under construction. This led the Confederates to concentrate their strength
north of Chattanooga.

Meanwhile, the main Union force moved south of Chattanooga, and
crossed the river at Bridgeport and Caperton's Ferry just across the Ala-

CHATTANOOGA 255

bama line. Two units moved up Lookout Mountain, while Rosecrans
planned to move south of Chattanooga, cut the Confederates' line of
communications and supplies and force them to evacuate the city. But
the Confederate commander, Gen. Braxton Bragg, learned of this move-
ment. To protect his line he left the town on September 7 and 8 and
took up a position near LaFayette, Georgia, Here he received reinforce-
ments from Virginia and Mississippi. Rosecrans, believing the Confeder-
ates in full retreat southward, sent his divided army over different routes
to cut them off.

The Confederates were waiting for this move and struck north again,
Bragg planned to destroy the divided Union forces and retake Chatta-
nooga.

As the Confederates crossed Chickamauga Creek on September 18,
Union cavalry detachments were hurled in their path. Strong Union in-
fantry reinforcements arrived, and next morning fighting began on a large
scale. Back and forth in the dense woods above Chickamauga Creek the
battle raged, with Confederates gradually pushing the Union troops up
toward the Lafayette Road, and on September 20 the Confederates broke
through the Union line, forcing many Federals from the field. The re-
maining Union troops under General Thomas concentrated on Snodgrass
Hill and held off the Confederates until nightfall. Then Thomas retreated
toward Chattanooga. Of the 66,000 Confederate troops engaged, about
18,000 were killed, wounded, or missing. On the Union side, 16,000
casualties out of 58,000 troops were reported.

After the battle the Confederates surrounded the Union troops in
Chattanooga in an effort to starve them into surrendering. News of the
disaster of Chickamauga caused the high command at Washington to
send all available resources to Chattanooga. Two Union army corps under
Gen. Joe Hooker marched from Virginia. On October 23 Grant rushed
from Louisville to take command, and captured the Confederate outpost
at Orchard Knob. The next day Hooker pushed back the small Con-
federate force stationed on Lookout Mountain.

On the afternoon of November 24, Hooker's corps advanced through
the clouds up the side of Lookout Mountain and attacked WalthalTs
brigade of Confederates, numbering 1,469. The "Battle above the
Clouds" was fought in a thick mist until 2 a.m. November 25, when the
Federals withdrew and crossed Chattanooga Creek Valley to Missionary
Ridge.

In late November, Bragg spread his troops along a seven-mile line on
Missionary Ridge. Sherman arrived with Union reinforcements. The
Battle of Missionary Ridge, November 25, began with an unsuccessful
Union attack at the north end of the Ridge. Late in the afternoon General
Thomas took the Confederate rifle pits at the base of the ridge just east
of Orchard Knob, then, without orders, stormed the crest and broke
through the Confederate line. A simultaneous Union attack through Ross-
ville Gap forced many of the Confederates off the ridge. Those on the
north only left their positions later in the evening. The broken army of

256 CITY AND TOWN

Tennessee retreated through the night into Georgia with Cleburne fight-
ing a rearguard action in the gaps, near Ringgold. Bragg fell back to Dai-
ton, 40 miles south of Chattanooga, and established winter quarters.

From September 1863, to March 1866, Chattanooga was a Union mili-
tary camp and the base for Sherman's Atlanta campaign. After the Union
withdrawal, the great accumulation of goods in private hands, bought at
peak prices for sale to the troops, had to be sold at sheriff's auction.

At the close of the war Chattanooga's normal population of 1,500 was
outnumbered more than two to one by refugees, camp followers and
settlers, criminals, and fugitives. Civil authority was weak and corrupt,
but in 1867 citizens organized vigilante committees and expelled or sub-
dued the undesirables.

A scourge of smallpox in the wake of the war lasted until the flood
of 1867 that washed away homes, industries, and the military bridge, and
kept Chattanooga isolated for days. Other epidemics cholera in 1873,
yellow fever in 1878, and smallpox again in 1883 claimed many lives,
but only temporarily impeded the city's growth.

In 1878 Adolph S. Ochs moved to Chattanooga from Knoxville, pur-
chased the Chattanooga Times, and made it one of the State's most influ-
ential journals. Although later identified with the New York Times, he
retained active control of the Chattanooga paper until his death in 1935.

Abundance of raw material, transportation by water and by rail, and
cheap labor was the basis of a successful campaign during reconstruction
to attract manufacturing enterprises. The newspapers, supplemented by
the legislature, made tempting offers to Northern investors. The first plow
factory in the South, founded by Newell Sanders with 13,000 of bor-
rowed capital and purchased in 1919 by International Harvester for
$1,000,000, was the outstanding local enterprise. The iron industry
boomed in the early seventies, but later disappeared because of outside
pig iron competition. In 1887-88 there was a sudden real estate boom,
followed by a crash; but with its natural assets and fresh Northern capi-
tal, business gradually gained stability.

Chattanooga suffered heavily from the panic of 1893, but took on new
life during the Spanish-American War, when the battlefield of Chicka-
mauga was converted into a quartermaster's depot and concentration
camp. After the war, expansion was rapid and steady. From 1900 to 1910
the population increased from 31,000 to 44,000; and about the time of
the shift (1911) from the old aldermanic system to a commission form
of government^ there began a ten-year period of increasing migration to
the city from the farms and mountains of Tennessee, Alabama, and
Georgia.

The 1920 population of 57,895 more than doubled in the next decade.
Smoke and congestion caused many to move from the older residential
sections of Cameron Hill, Alton Park, and Ridgedale to the suburbs of
North Chattanooga, Missionary Ridge, Brainerd, and Shepherd Hills.

Electric power and railroad facilities have figured prominently in the
growth of Chattanooga as a manufacturing center. A railroad hub from
the beginning, the city is entered by nine trunk lines. The flood of cash

CHATTANOOGA 257

during the World War, when thousands of troops were concentrated
and trained at Chickamauga Park and Fort Oglethorpe, was also a vital
factor in furthering industry.

Chattanooga leads the South in the manufacture of foundry, oil well,
and other iron and steel equipment, and in hosiery, furniture, and patent
medicines. In 1930 there were 388 manufacturers employing 36,000
workers, producing 1,500 different articles.

Since 1935, the yearly payroll of the TVA in Chattanooga, conserva-
tively estimated at $1,500,000, plus the millions spent by that organiza-
tion to develop the Chattanooga area, has materially stimulated the eco-
nomic growth of the city.

POINTS OF INTEREST

1. UNION STATION, W. 9th St., between Broad and Chestnut Sts.,
is owned by the State of Georgia, but is leased to the Nashville Chatta-
nooga & St. Louis Railway. The stone and brick walls and wooden-arched
trusses in the rear shed are part of the original building, designed by
Eugene Le Hardy of the Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad and erected
by slave labor in 1858.

Under the shed, between the waiting room and the platform at the
Union Station, is the General, the old woodburning locomotive whose
spectacular run on April 12, 1862, was part of a scheme to cut Con-
federate communications between Chattanooga and Atlanta.

At Big Shanty, near Marietta, Georgia, the Andrews raiders, disguised
as civilians and led by Capt. James J. Andrews, a Federal spy, seized the
General and rushed northward. Conductor W. A. Fuller and another em-
ployee gave chase on foot until they found a handcar. At Etowah River,
Fuller found a yard engine, the Yonah* Andrews lost much time clearing
the one-track line of southbound extras, and at Kingston he was almost
overtaken by the Yonah. The Yonab was abandoned because of tangled
traffic. Another engine was found and abandoned for the same reason.
Near Adairsville, - Fuller found the Texas and continued pursuit. Seeing
that Fuller was gaining, Andrews dropped a burning boxcar on the
wooden bridge at the Tennessee Line and rushed into the woods. Within
a week all the raiders were captured. Some escaped and others were ex-
changed for Confederate prisoners. Andrews ana seven companions were
executed at Atlanta. The Texas is in the basement of the Cyctorama Build-
ing in Atlanta (see GEORGIA GUIDE).

2. READ HOUSE HOTEL, W. 9th St. between Broad and Chestnut
Sts., of modified Georgian architecture, was designed by Holabird and
Root and constructed in 1926 at a cost of $2,500,000. The building is
12 stories high. The walls of the lobby are paneled with quarter-sawed
American black walnut. Read House occupies a site used for hotel pur-
poses since 1847 when the Crutchfield House was established. In 1861
the Crutchfield House was the scene of a quarrel between Jefferson Davis,
later President of the Confederate States, and William Crutchfield, a
prominent Unionist and later a member of Congress. The two men were
separated by friends.

THE GENERAL, CHATTANOOGA

CHATTANOOGA

During the War between the States the Cnitchfield House was used as
a military hospital, and bronze tablets donated by the Federal Govern-
ment and commemorating its services, are in the 9th Street entrance of
the present building. In 1867 the Crutchfield House was destroyed by
fire. A three-story brick structure was built on the same site and opened
Jan. i, 1872 as the Read House. Under the management of Dr. and Mrs.
John T, Read the hotel was well known for its hospitality and splendid
cuisine. The "Tin Banquet/' given at the Read House in 1888, celebrated
the success of the local production of metals,

3. The KENNEDY-RATHBURN-NOTTINGHAM HOUSE (pri-
vate), 603 Pine St., was built about 1840 by W. F. Ragsdale. It is a large
house of Greek Revival design with a two-story central portico sheltering
a small second floor gallery. The entrance has a beautifully designed fan-
light and sidelights. During the War between the States this house served
in turn as headquarters for CoL D. B. Hill, Col. J. B. McPherson, and
Col. J. M. Palmer.

4. BOYNTON PARK, at the top of Cameron Hill, end of Park
Drive, rises abruptly at the edge of downtown Chattanooga. This hill
was utilized during the War between the States by the signal corps of
both armies. Cameron Hill, residential section, was named for James
Cameron, an itinerant portrait painter, who took up permanent residence
there about 1852.

From an OBSERVATION TOWER the Tennessee River is visible for miles
in either direction as it curves around Lookout Mountain forming Moc-
casin Bend, and flows into the Grand Canyon of the Tennessee between
Signal and Raccoon Mountains. Missionary Ridge rises to the east, and
directly across the river is Stringer's Ridge from which the city was
shelled by Union artillery before the evacuation.

5. GRANT'S HEADQUARTERS (private), no E. ist St., is an un-
pretentious frame structure, built by Thomas J. Lattner in 1839 on one f
the highest sites of downtown Chattanooga, overlooking a cliff on the
bank of the Tennessee River. Mrs. Lattner and her family went to
Georgia during the war-time exodus in the summer of 1863. Grant ar-
rived in Chattanooga October 23, 1863, and took possession of the empty
house. It was returned by the United States to the owner, Thomas J.
Lattner,

6. FOUNTAIN SQUARE, Lookout St., Georgia Ave. and E, 6th St.,
a small triangular park, contains the cast-iron FIREMEN'S FOUNTAIN.
Erected in 1886 in honor of two department heroes who lost their lives
in a Market Street fire, the fountain is capped with a statue of a fully
rigged fireman. The CANNON at the apex of the park, captured at San-
tiago July 1 6, 1898, commanded the bay and harbor when the Merrimac
was sunk.

7. The UNITED STATES POST OFFICE AND COURTHOUSE,
Georgia Ave., between E. 9th and E. loth Sts., was designed by Reuben
Harrison Hunt of Chattanooga and constructed in 1933-34. This massive
structure, with corner pylons and deep aluminum grilled windows, is a
striking example of modern architecture. In 1937 the plans were selected

260

CITY AND TOWN

CHATTANOOGA

DOWNTOWN
1939

CHATTANOOGA 261

by the American Institute of Architects as one of the 100 distinguished
and representative buildings in the United States erected since 1918;
plans and photographs were exhibited throughout America and Europe.
The first floor houses the Post Office, the upper floors the Federal courts
and offices, and a part of the TVA staff.

8. SOLDIERS AND SAILORS MEMORIAL AUDITORIUM (open
during performances), NW. corner McCallie Ave. and Lindsay St., a
seven-story building of modified Italian Renaissance design, covers an en-
tire city block. The hip-roofed front section of the building has a two-
story rusticated base pierced with five graceful decked portals. Above these
entrances are monumental windows, a long balcony with wrought iron
railing, and a series of projecting flag poles.

The building houses a main- auditorium, seating 5,500 persons, with
a fully equipped stage and an organ; a smaller hall; assembly room; and
a large exhibition space in the basement.

9. THE FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, SW. corner McCallie
Ave. and Douglas St., designed by McKim, Mead and White, in the
Italian Renaissance style, was constructed in 1910. The six large art-glass
windows in the nave were designed by E. H, Blashfield. Adjoining the
church is the Sunday school building of the same design.

The Presbyterian Church of Chattanooga, organized in 1840, held its
first meeting in an old log school; a few years later a frame church was
erected at Third and Walnut Streets. A larger structure, built in 1851,
served as a hospital during the War between the States. After the war,
services were resumed there, and continued until the present building was
completed.

10. The UNIVERSITY OF CHATTANOOGA, McCallie Ave. be-
tween Douglas and Baldwin Sts., covers 15 acres and extends back two
squares to Vine St. The site commands a view of the city and surrounding
countryside. It is a co-educational institution with an enrollment of about
500 students. The main college halls, forming the quadrangle, were de-
signed by H. B. Downing in the Tudor Gothic style. Established in 1886
under the auspices of the M. E. Church, the institution was called U. S.
Grant University. In 1907 this connection was severed and the name was
changed.

KEY TO CHATTANOOGA DOWNTOWN MAP

1. Union Station 8. Soldiers and Sailors Memorial

2. Read House Hotel Auditorium

3. TheKennedy-Rathhim-Nott- 9- The First Presbyterian Church

ingham House 10, T!*e University of Chattanooga

4. Boynton Park " The Confederate Cemetery

5. Grant's Headquarters 12, The Julius and Bertha Odbs

6. Fountain Square Memorial Temple

7. The United States Pbst Office 13. The National Cemetery

and Courthouse 14. Orchard Knob

262 CITY AND TOWN

The university holds biennial institutes of public affairs, modeled after
those of Williams College and the University of Virginia. The 1936 in-
stitute, held in conjunction with the university's sesquicentennial celebra-
tion, drew representatives of societies, foundations, and other colleges
throughout the world.

11. The CONFEDERATE CEMETERY, extending fiom E. 3rd to
E. 5th St. between Lansing and Palmetto Sts., is flanked by the Citizens
and Jewish Cemeteries. It is maintained by the Gen. A. P. Stewart Chap-
ter, U. D. C., and the city. Only the graves of veterans buried in recent
years are mounded or marked. Tablets commemorating soldiers from
various States are erected along the walks.

12. The JULIUS AND BERTHA OCHS MEMORIAL TEMPLE
(open 9-12, 2-4 daily), NE. corner McCallie and Fairview Aves., a white
marble and brick structure of Classical Revival architecture, was built in
1928 by Adolph S. Ochs in honor of his parents. The architect was Henry
B. Hertz of New York, with C. B. Bearden and William Crutchfield of
Chattanooga, as associates. Marble staircases lead from the street up to
the entrance loggia. The memorial tablets were designed in Paris by
Edmondo Quattrachi.

13. The NATIONAL CEMETERY, spreading over 20 blocks with its
main entrance at the S. end of National Ave., is the burial place of nearly
15,000 veterans of every war and foreign expedition in the history of the
Republic. On the hillsides are magnificent trees planted near the close of
the War between the States. Approximately one-third of the graves are
those of the unknown dead from Chickamauga and Missionary Ridge.
The Andrews Raiders are buried beneath a reproduction of their captured
locomotive, the General.

14. ORCHARD KNOB (open S-J daily), Orchard Knob Ave. be-
tween Ivy and E. 5th Sts., a unit of the Military Park, was purchased by
the Federal Government in 1894. From this point General Grant and
General Thomas directed the Union forces during the Battles of Lookout
Mountain and Missionary Ridge (Nov. 24-25, 1863). Rising abruptly
from the valley, Orchard Knob is about one mile west of Missionary
Ridge, and from it the movements of the Union forces in any direction
were visible. The earthworks, behind which Federal cannon were placed
after the hill was seized from the Confederates, are well preserved. The
guns are mounted as nearly as possible in the position of Grant's signal
guns. An account of the military movements is given on historical markers.

LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN TOUR

Chattanooga Lookout Mt. Bridge Memory Place Caverns Castle
Mountain Top Point Park Sunset Rock Fairyland Rock City Chat-
tanooga, 12.6 m. US 41, 64, and 11 (Broad St.), E. Brow Rd., W. Brow
Rd., W. Sunset Rd., Bragg Ave., Fleetwood Dr., Fairyland Rd., and Ochs
Hwy., Broad St.

Lookout Mountain rises abruptly at the southwestern city limits. From
its peak, Point Lookout, 1,400 feet above the Tennessee River, early

OCHS MEMORIAL TEMPLE, CHATTANOOGA

264 CITY AND TOWN

settlers were warned against Indians, The mountain was a favorite Chero-
kee hunting ground.

After the Battle of Chickamauga, Lookout Mountain was occupied by
Confederate troops besieging the Union Army in Chattanboga; the
"Battle above the Clouds" was fought here November 24, 1863, as a pre-
liminary to the storming of Missionary Ridge.

After the National Military Park was created, the War Department
acquired two small reservations on Lookout Mountain: Point Park at the
summit; and Cravens' Reservation on the northern slope. In the 1920*5
Adolph S. Ochs conceived and largely financed the Chattanooga-Lookout
Mountain Park, 3,000 acres on the eastern and western slopes, incorpo-
rated into the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in
I 935- ^ wo ttito* 1 highways, Lookout Mountain Boulevard and Ochs High-
way, pass directly through the park.

Arrangements were completed in 1938 for the erection on Lookout
Mountain of the Adolph S. Ochs Observatory and Museum, which will
house exhibits depicting the history, geography, and geology of the terri-
tory. The National Park Service has agreed to provide the site and the
labor, and to maintain the building. The remainder of the cost will come
from a family bequest and from local contributions.

Lookout Mountain Township (pop. 1,031), extending along the crest
from Point Park S. to the Georgia Line, is a residential section.

CHATTANOOGA, nth and Market Sts., m. Proceed W. one block
on nth St. S. on Broad St. (US 41).

At 2.6 m. is junction with St. Elmo St. Left on St. Elmo St. 0.4 m. to
Tennessee Ave. LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN INCLINE RAILWAY
(round trip 40$), operates between the street level and the summit of the
mountain. Two electric cable cars run simultaneously, one ascending, one
descending, at about 8 m.p,h. The present 4,750-foot incline, the third
erected, was completed in 1897. Designed by Jo Conn Guild, Sr., and
Lynn White, it was constructed by John T. Crass.

LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN BRIDGE, 3.2 m., built 1934-35, has its
outer face 200 feet above the river bank, while the inner side of the
bridge is for the most part flush against the palisades. It forms an artificial
ledge 1,060 feet long, with the supporting columns joining the sharp in-
clination of the mountainside from 12 to 60 feet below. Even from this
comparatively low elevation there is a widening view of the river to the
north, west, and east. Paralleling the highway, the Tennessee River runs
in a northwesterly direction forming the heel and toe of Moccasin Bend.
To the west is RACCOON MOUNTAIN, to tihe north SIGNAL MOUN-
TAIN, and to the east Chattanooga with MISSIONARY RIDGE in the
far background.

At 3.3 m. 9 is the junction with Lookout Mountain Boulevard; L. from
US 41 up the mountain.

MEMORY PLACE (R), 3.7 m., formerly an abandoned rock quarry,
was transformed into a garden during the building of the park.

At 3-9 m, is a junction with Jo Conn Guild Trail.

CHATTANOOGA 265

This trail leads (L) along the eastern slope and slowly descends to the foot of
the mountain. Another trail, part of the Great Indian Warpath, leads (R) around
the toe and western shoulder of the mountain to SKIUKA SPRINGS, 5.7 m.

CAVERNS CASTLE (R), 4 m., is the entrance and administration build-
ing of LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN CAVES (adm. $1.50, with guide). Electric
elevators operate from Caverns Castle to two levels. Twin Caves, at the
420-foot level, show evidence of long Indian occupancy. Among the many
names scratched on the walls is "Andrew Jackson, 1833." During the War
between the States the caves sheltered soldiers and civilians. The natural
entrance on the bank of the river was sealed by the Southern Railway tun-
nel through the mountain. In 1928, when an elevator shaft was being sunk
through solid limestone, the cave at the 2<5o-foot level was discovered. The
route to Ruby Falls, electrically lighted, reveals gigantic stalactites.

In the HALL OF DREAMS the startling formations have an appearance
of unreality, RUBY FALLS drop 145 feet in the great chamber at the end
of the route, and the entire waterfall is visible. Tlie lower cave is 160 feet
below the falls cave.

At 4.9 m. is the junction with Cravens Road, dirt.

Right on this road around the end of the mountain to CRAVEN'S RESERVA-
TION* 0.5 m. f site of the major part of the "Battle above the Clouds." Monuments
and markers in the Cravens' House yard give a clear account of the fighting there.

At 5.4 m. is a picnic area.

At 5.9 m. is the junction with the Richard Hardy Trail.

Right on this trail is an excellent hiking and bridal path, which runs along the
eastern shoulders around the end of the mountain.

At 6 m., the top of the mountain, turn (R) N. on E. Brow Rd.

At 7 m. (R) is the upper terminal of LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN INCLINE
RAILWAY.

POINT PARK, 7.3 m. (open sunrise to sunset; no automobiles; U. S.
guide service, free), entrance at N. end of E. Brow Rd., is the extreme
northern end of the crest and terminates at Lookout Point. The park has
an area of 17.5 acres.

In the immediate foreground is MOCCASIN BEND, formed by the
Tennessee River as it makes a seven-mile bend, beginning at Cameron
Hill, and finally disappearing between Signal and Raccoon Mountains.
The peninsula, also known as Moccasin Bend, made by the curve of the
river, forms a perfectly shaped foot of huge proportions. The bunion, actu-
ally a small hill, is on the top of the extreme right The ankle, three miles
to the north, is slightly more than a mile wide, while the sole, at the base
of the mountain, appears to be several miles wide. Hundreds of skeletons
in sitting positions have been excavated on the peninsula. This mode of
burial, customary with the Creek, indicates that they preceded the Chero-
kee. Pottery, stone axes, chunky stones, and flint knives are among the
relics found here.

To the right of Moccasin Bend Chattanooga is spread like a patchwork
quilt. Beyond are the rolling hills of East Tennessee, gradually rising into

266 CITY AND TOWN

the Great Smoky Mountains, more than 100 miles away but plainly visible
on a clear day. To the west is Raccoon Mountain and to the north Signal
Mountain and Walden's Ridge.

UMBRELLA ROCK, on Point Lookout, about 12 feet high, consists of
several large stones topped with a great flat slab, forming the umbrella.
Indians may have erected it as a shrine, though most geologists agree
that the formation is natural.

Several hiking trails begin at the foot of the iron steps descending the
palisades. One leads to Cravens' Reservation, and the Bluff Trail (R)
runs beneath the eastern palisades.

The cannon at Point Park are in the positions they occupied during the
battle. An account of military operations is given on numerous markers.
Halfway down the mountain, Robert Cravens, an iron manufacturer, built
his home in 1854.

The largest monument is the NEW YORK PEACE MONUMENT, a tall
shaft of Massachusetts pink marble. Designed by R. Hinton Perry it rises
95 feet from a simple dignified rotunda and measures 50 feet in diameter
at the base. Two bronze figures, one of a Confederate soldier, the other
of a Union soldier, with an American flag between them, surmount the
shaft. It was erected in 1907.

Left from Park Entrance on W. Brow Rd.

Rock steps at 7.8 m. lead down the mountain 200 yards (R) to Sunset
Rock, the best point for viewing Lookout Valley and the western moun-
tains.

At 10.1 m. R. on Fleetwood Drive.

FAIRYLAND, 10.6 m., a suburban residential section, was named for
the weird shapes of the surrounding massive boulders. Roads and trails
in Fairyland follow the natural contour of the land and have such names
as Gnome Trail, Red Riding Hood Lane, Elfin, Pied Piper, Peter Pan,
Mother Goose, Robin Hood, and Tinker Bell. Most of the 400 residents
live in houses of native stone and logs, Old English in style.

The FAIRYLAND CLUBHOUSE (L), 11.5 m. (members and guests only),
on the brow of the hill, affords an excellent view of Chattanooga Valley
and the mountains. The Tom Thumb Golf Course, built here and patented
in 1927 by Garnette Carter, started the craze that soon swept the coun-
try. The Fairyland Golf Course (private), SW. of Fairyland, was designed
and built by Seth Raynor

ROCK CITY (R), 11.9 m. (adm. $1 with guide), is a natural city of
rocks and caves covering 10 acres of lichen-covered sandstone. Three sus-
pension bridges extend from one high bluff to another. A trail leads
3,200 feet through narrow crevices, many more than 100 feet deep, and
passes Pulpit Rock, the Lion's Den, Shelter Rock, and crosses a suspen-
sion bridge to Lover's Leap. Over the bridge the trail passes Tortoise
Shell Rock, through Fat Man's Squeeze, to the i,ooo-ton balanced rock
and Hall of Mountain King. Rock City is noted for its horticultural
display.

At 12.1 m. turn R. on Ochs Highway down the mountain. From this
road are many excellent views of the valley below.

CHATTANOOGA 267

The OCHS MARKER, 13 m. (L), a memorial to Adolph S. Ochs, is at
the junction of Ochs Hwy. and Fairyland Rd., which ends here.

The LOOKOUT, 13.3 m. (R), is a parking area, with a picnic ground
and the mountain behind.

At 15.2 m. (L) is a two-story red brick building occupied by the Bee
Dee Stock Medicine Company. The duel in the novel St. Elmo was fought
at the Spring under this building.

South Broad Street, 15.8 m., returns to CHATTANOOGA, 18.5 m.
(nth & Market Sts.).

CHICKAMAUGA PARK

Chattanooga Rossville (Ga. State Line) John Ross House Fort
Oglethorpe Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park (Ad-
ministration Building) Missionary Ridge Chattanooga, 19-8 m. US
27, South Crest Rd., Shallowford Rd., McCallie Ave.

The Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, an area of
8,456 acres in Tennessee and Georgia, includes the battlefield of Chicka-
mauga, Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Ridge.

CHATTANOOGA, nth & Market Sts., m.

At 0.5 m. turn L. on Main St.

At 0.7 m. turn R. off Main St. on Rossville Blvd. (US 27) to Ross-
ville, Ga., an industrial suburb of Chattanooga. At 4.5 m. the State line
crosses the main street in the business area.

The JOHN Ross HOUSE, (R) 4.7 m. (private), home of the noted
Cherokee chief, is built of hewn logs, held together by wooden pegs,
chinked with mud, and covered with clapboards. The two-story full-
length front porch is enclosed by a rustic railing, A stone marker to Ross
is in the yard. John MacDonald, a Scottish trader, built the house about
1770. The house was an important Civil War headquarters.

The IOWA MONUMENT, 5 m. (L), a marble shaft 50 feet high, has
five statues of soldiers, one at the top and four around the base.

FORT OGLETHORPE, 7.4 m. (speed limit 20 m., open 8-8), named
for the founder of Georgia, became an Army post in 1904. A principal
World War training post, it is now the permanent station of the 6th U. S.
Cavalry and several smaller units, and the summer camp of National
Guard, R. O. T. C, and C. M. T. C. units.

At 8.1 m. (R) is a police information booth.

CHICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA NATIONAL MILI-
TARY PARK, 8.6 m. (Administration Building. Free U. S. guide serv-
ice), largest unit of the park system and site of the Battle of Chicka-
mauga, was created in 1890. Organizations have erected hundreds of
monuments, and the Park Commission, with two exceptions, has dupli-
cated the roads of 1863. Three camps carry on reforestation and check
soil erosion. Officers from the Army War College in Washington come
here annually to study Civil War military tactics.

The KELILY HOUSE (not open) is a reconstruction of the one that stood
on the Kelly Farm, scene of the severest fighting of September 20, until

268 CITY AND TOWN

the battle shifted to Snodgrass Hill. The GEORGIA MONUMENT is on Poe
Field near the northern edge of the gap in the Union line through which
Longstreet rushed Stewart's division. Seventy-nine feet high, the monu-
ment is the largest in Chickamauga Park. The statues around the base
represent the three branches of service. A flag bearer surmounts the shaft.
Across the road (R) a marker designates the SITE OF THE POE HOUSE,
another scene of bitter fighting.

The BROTHERTON HOUSE (not open), SW. corner US 27 and Brother-
ton Rd., a reconstruction, marks the site of the fatal break in the Union
lines.

VINIARD FIELD was the scene of the severest fighting of September 19,
1863, when the Confederate left advanced against the Union right. The
marked SITE OF THE VINIARD HOUSE is frequently mentioned in battle
orders.

WILDER TOWER (Glenn-Kelly Rd.), on Wilder Hill, is the SITE OF
WIDOW GLENN'S CABIN, General Rosecrans' headquarters, burned Sep-
tember 20, 1863.

The MONUMENT OF THE FIRST WISCONSIN CAVALRY, across the road,
a riderless horse, invariably attracts attention.

The reconstructed BLACKSMITH SHOP was the scene of severe fighting
and is mentioned in official reports.

Horseshoe-shaped SNODGRASS HILL, scene of the Battle of the
Horseshoe, has a tower affording the widest view of the battlefield. From
this point General Thomas directed his attack after Rosecrans retreated.

Retrace on US 27 from Park Office to Crest Road, 11.4 m., which tra-
verses MISSIONARY RIDGE to its termination at Chickamauga Darr
(see Tour 13). From Rossville Gap northward, Missionary Ridge is
lined with beautiful homes. Less than 100 yards wide, the Ridge forms
the eastern rim of Chattanooga Valley, 500 feet below.

The Battle of Missionary Ridge, November 24, 1863, lost Chattanooga
and East Tennessee to the Union. Both Grant and Sherman were deceived
by the maps. Sherman supposedly attacked Missionary Ridge, but he actu-
ally took a detached hill. Forces on strongly fortified Tunnel Hill, the
key to Missionary Ridge, defied his efforts. To relieve the pressure on
Sherman, Grant ordered Thomas' advance against the center. Thomas'
troops then made their charge without orders, not waiting to re-form after
taking the first line trenches.

BRAGG RESERVATION, 15.1 m. (L), is a small circular plot, the site of
General Bragg's headquarters. Here in October 1863 Jefferson Davis
addressed the Confederate troops. The steel observation tower offers a
broad view. The ILLINOIS MONUMENT, a circular marble shaft, has four
charging soldiers at the base, and an angel of mercy at the top.

At 16.2 m. Shallowford Rd. branches L. from Crest Rd. and runs down
Missionary Ridge to McCallie Ave., 16.6 m.

McCALLiE SCHOOL (L), a private military school for boys, established
in 1905, is one of the three ranking preparatory schools in the South.
Twelve buildings are on the extensive, wooded campus, and three off the
campus.

CHATTANOOGA 269

Follow McCallie Ave. (R) to CHATTANOOGA, nth & Market Sts.,
19.8 m.

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS

Brainerd Mission Site, 6.8 &.; Frankstone Inn, 9-5 *./ Chickamauga Dam,
18.7 m.; /ohn Brown's Tavern, 8.1 m.; Tennessee Cave and Obar House, 7.9 #?>'
Hale's Bar Dam and Power House, 19,8 m. (see Tour 13).

Railroad Stations: Union Station, N. Royal St., for Illinois Central R.R. and Mobile
& Ohio R.R.; S. Royal St. for Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry.; Poplar Ave.
for Gulf, Mobile & Northern R.R.
B#/ Wt : Terminal Station, E. Chester St., for Greyhound, Gibbs, and local lines.

Streetcars: Fare 50.

Taxis: Anywhere in city loji.

Accommodations: Four hotels, numerous tourist camps.
Information Service: Chamber of Commerce, City Hall.

Radio Station: WTJS (1310 kc).

Motion Picture Houses: Two. ,.,*,,.- ^ t

Swimming: West End Beach, Neely St., 1.3 m. W. of Public Square on State 20,
adm 200. East View pool (Negro), SE. Jackson, adm. 2O0 adults, io0 children. ^
Football: Union University "Bulldogs," Southern Inter-collegiate Athletic Associa-
tion, Union Field, College St.; Lambuth College "Eagles," Mississippi Valley Con-
ference, Lambuth Field, Lambuth Blvd. .
Baseball: Jackson "Generals," Kitty League (professional), Lakeview Park, 2 m. b.

on US 45. t v T T TJ- t_x

Municipal Skeet Traps: (open every Thursday, spring and summer) Jackson Heights
Tavern, 3 m. N. on US 45.

Annual Events: Mississippi Valley Conference Basketball Tournament, the Armory,
Mar. National Fox Hunters' Association, May, Crawford Springs, 2 m. S. on State
20. Tennessee Amateur Field Trials for bird dogs, spring. Horse Show, sponsored
by Meadowbrook Bridle Club, spring; other horse shows at intervals. West Ten-
nessee District Fair, Sept. 12-17.

JACKSON (450 alt., 22,172 pop.), seat of Madison County, a West Ten-
nessee railroad center in the valley of the Forked Deer River, is a city of
broad streets and tree-lined avenues. The downtown buildings are grouped
around an oak-shaded courthouse square from which the residential streets
radiate. The white marble of the new courthouse and the Federal build-
ing stands out against the gray and red brick of the earlier structures.

Highland Avenue leads north into a section of Georgian Colonial and
modified English Tudor residences. Well-built conservative homes are in
the college areas. Two-story Victorian frame houses, weathered to an un-
sightly brown, stand in parts of the city, especially near the railroads.

Negro shanties center near the railroad tracks, for many Negroes work
on the trains, in the shops, or on section gangs. In the better Negro dis-
tricts, such as those around Lane College, are neat cottages and occasional
brick bungalows of more recent construction.

Jackson is entered by five railroads, two of which maintain division
shops. The Rebel, first streamlined train in the South, runs from Jackson
to New Orleans over the Gulf, Mobile & Northern Railroad. Thousands

270

JACKSON 271

of railroad men live here, and three colleges bring in hundreds of stu-
dents. The town serves a rich agricultural section, a middle-ground be-
tween Northern and Southern farming belts, where crops common to both
are raised.

White settlement of Jackson was begun by North Carolinians in 1819,
and within three years it had become the county seat. The name of Jackson
was chosen because many of Gen. Andrew Jackson* s soldiers and nu-
merous relatives of his wife lived in the vicinity.

The town was laid out with streets 90 feet wide and the first courthouse
was built of logs. When lots were sold in 1822 the county court allowed
$20 to Joseph Lynn for whisky to enliven the bidding. In 1823 Jackson
was incorporated as a town and in 1825 the legislature established a land
registry office here for the Western District.

In 1833 Jackson had a population of 900. By 1840 the town was a
cotton depot for the surrounding region, and in 1845 it was chartered as
a city. With the coming of the Illinois Central Railroad in 1858 and the
Mobile & Ohio in 1861, the town grew rapidly as a market for lumber,
farm products, and furs.

Madison County furnished a company, "The Madison Greys," for the
Seminole War of 1836. Jackson was headquarters of Confederate General
Beauregard in 1862. The town was used as a supply depot by Union
forces under General Grant, between June, 1862, ana March, 1863, when it
was captured by Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest on a cavalry raid along the
Mobile & Ohio Railroad. The town was occupied by a Confederate garri-
son until July, 1863, when it was attacked by Union Gen. John P. Hatch
with 1,500 men. A shortage of ammunition caused Confederate Col. Jeff
Forest to surrender.

Files of Jackson's early newspapers are in the State Library, Nashville.
The Pioneer, published at Jackson in 1822 or 1823, no copies of which
are known to exist, was probably the first newspaper in West Tennessee.
The Jackson Gazette, first issued in 1824, with Elijah Biglow as editor,
became the Truth Teller in 1830. In this same year the Western Tennes-
see Republican and the Southern Statesman were started. The Western
District Telegrapher and the Watchman of the West were begun in 1838
and 1839 respectively. The Forked Deer Blade was founded by J. G.
Cisco in 1883. Current publications include the Jackson Sun, a daily,
and two Negro magazines-the Christian Index, a weekly, and the West-
ern Index, a bi-monthly. The Colored Methodist Publishing House in
Jackson is owned and controlled by the African Methodist Church.

Judge Ben B. Lindsey, eminent juvenile court judge, was born in
Jackson in 1869. Bishop Isaac Lane, aged 106 years (in 1938), is a re-
tired Negro Bishop and one of the founders of the African Methodist
Church and Lane College. J. G. Cisco of Jackson, was a member of the
Confederate Secret Service, newspaper correspondent with Custer's Expe-
dition, and a collector of Tennessee historical lore.

Jackson manufactures steel for bridges, gasoline engines, mattresseSj
medicines, cotton-seed oil, varnish, paper boxes, and cigars.

272 CITY AND TOWN

POINTS OF INTEREST

The CARNEGIE LIBRARY (open 9-5 weekdays), College and Church
Sts., is a two-story brick building with limestone trim. In the children's
room is a MUSEUM, equipped by the Smithsonian Institution with geo-
logical specimens, fish, birds, and Indian pottery,

The SITE OF THE DUKE HOME is at 518 E. Main St. The two-story
brick Georgian Colonial house that stood here till it burned in 1938, was
Gen. U. S. Grant's headquarters in 1862.

UNION UNIVERSITY, College St. between Irby St. and Hayes Ave. s
is a four-year, co-educational Baptist college established in 1875 by con-
solidation of Southwestern Baptist College at Murfreesboro and West
Tennessee College at Jackson. It is on the site of West Tennessee College
whose charter was granted in 1846 by an Act of Congress and the Ten-
nessee Legislature, and signed by President James K. Polk, The average
enrollment is 400.

The MORGAN-HITCHCOCK PLANT (open 8-4 Mon.-FrL, 8-12
Sat.), Beasley St. between Liberty and Lancaster Sts., is the largest skewer
factory in the country. The company also manufactures clothespins, flower
and candy sticks, tongue depressors, and other small wooden articles.

The ASHBY VENEER AND LUMBER PLANT (open 8-4 Mon.-
FrL, 8-12 Sat.), S. end of Market St., is one of the largest veneer plants
in the United States. More than 3,000,000 feet of lumber are used annu-
ally in the plant, which also manufactures crates and baskets.

RIVERSIDE CEMETERY (open sunrise to sunset daily), Bolivar St
and Bates Ave., is Jackson's oldest cemetery. Some of the monuments,
dated 1817, bear inscription, "Born in Ireland," "Born in England," or
"Born in Virginia/' More than 100 slaves are buried in their masters' lots.

LANCASTER PARK, S, Royal St. between O'Connor St, and the city
limits, a 4O~acre tract, contains two small lakes stocked with goldfish and
other ornamental fish. A 550-foot artesian well has water of high iron
content, used for medicinal purposes. On the WEST TENNESSEE FAIR-
GROUNDS the West Tennessee District Fair is held annually. Purse races
for trotters and pacers are featured, and there are automobile races,
pageants, and the usual carnival shows. The WATERWORKS PLANT (open
8-5), with five wells and a pumping station, produces six million gallons
daily.

CENTENNIAL PARK, E. Chester St. near city limits, is a community
recreational center with a well-equipped playground.

LAMBUTH COLLEGE, Lambuth Blvd. between King and Maple Sts.,
is a four-year co-educational college controlled by the Methodist Confer-
ence of West Tennessee. Founded in 1924, Lambuth has an average en-
rollment of 225. The two three-story buildings are situated on an oak-
covered campus.

LANE COLLEGE (Negro), Middleton St between Berry St. and
Lane Ave., is an accredited four-year co-educational liberal arts college.
It was established in 1880 by the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church of

JACKSON 273

America, under the leadership of Bishop Isaac Lane. Most of the ten
buildings are brick.

CATHOLIC CEMETERY (open sunrise to sunset daily), NE. corner
Royal and Hardee Sts., is the BURIAL PLACE OF JOHN LUTHER JONES,
nicknamed "Casey" for his home town Cayce, Kentucky. He entered the
service of the Illinois Central R.R. at Water Valley, Mississippi, as loco-
motive fireman in 1888 and was promoted to engineer in 1890. He was
famous among railroad men because of his peculiar skill with a locomo-
tive whistle:

And the switchmen they knew by the engine's moans
That the man at the throttle was Old Casey Jones.

Substituting for a sick friend, on the Cannon Ball Express, Casey was
killed in a wreck near Vaughn, Mississippi, on the night of April 30,
1900. The original words of the popular ballad "Casey Jones" were "made
up" by an admirer of Casey, Wallace Saunders, a Negro engine wiper in
a roundhouse at Canton, Mississippi. Dozens of versions are sung
throughout the South.

EDGEWOOD (private), S. Royal St., a square two-story frame house
of Greek Revival design, was built about 1840 fay John R. Campbell. The
fagade is accentuated by a massive two-story portico with six fluted Doric
columns reaching to the pedimented roof. It contains twelve rooms with
decorated ceilings. A circular drive through huge old trees leads to the
home, which stands on the village site of the prehistoric Mound Builders.

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS

State Forest Nursery, 6.2 m.; Cisco Indian Village, 14 m* (see Tour 10) ; John
A. Murrell Home, 13.7 m. (see Tour 12).

Railroad Stations: High St. joint station, for Nashville, Cnattanooga & St. Louis
Ry. and Louisville & Nashville R.R. _ , , _

Bus Station: Bethel Hotel, Garden and 7th Sts., for Southeastern Greyhound Bus
Lines and Lewisburg Lines.
Taxis: Fare 252 per person; reduced rates for groups.

Accommodations: Three hotels; tourist camps in environs.

Information Service: Bethel Hotel, Garden and jth Sts., Chamber of Commerce,

SW. corner Garden and 7th Sts.

Motion Picture Houses: One.

Swimming: Indoor pool at Columbia Military Academy; outdoor pool for children

at Knob Hill (free) ; Duck River, below dam.

Annual Events: Mule Day, first Monday in April.

COLUMBIA (650 alt, 7,882 pop.), seat of Maury County, is built on
the low limestone bluffs of the Duck River in a region of fertile farm-
land, bluegrass meadows, and rolling wooded hills. Centering in a typi-
cally Southern public square and the old grey stone courthouse with its
domed clock tower, the town has wide-spaced streets in its business and
residential areas.

The center of Maury County's dairy and livestock trade, Columbia boils
with activity on the "First Monday" market days each month, and to a
lesser extent on Saturdays. The square and adjacent streets are clogged
with the trucks and wagons of farmers who pour into town with their
families and market produce.

The high point of the year in Columbia is "Mule Day," the first Mon-
day in April, when the largest street mule market in the world is held. The
town is thrown open to traders and visitors from all over the United
States, and more than 10,000 attend, their cars, wagons, and livestock
blocking the streets and roads. Court Square is lined ten deep, and every
upstairs store window is filled with people watching the grand opening
parade, probably the only one in America with no motorized vehicles.
Horses, ponies, and mules draw decorated floats, old-fashioned race carts,
speed wagons, and high-wheel sulkies. There are fine mules and horses,
and pretty girls riding jackasses. Every newspaper in the State has a re-
porter wandering through the crowd to gather material for a new story
about mules and men.

In the "jockey yard," adjoining the mule mart, whites and Negroes sell
crisp brown fish, fried chicken, barbecue, and sandwiches. Medicine-show
barkers wave bottles of cure-all tonic at the fanners and city folk who
press in close to their platforms. Politicians mix with the crowd, booming

MULE DAY PARADE, COLUMBIA

expansively, shaking hands, slapping shoulders, and kissing babies. Spa-
vined horses are swapped for hollow-horned cows. Moulting roosters of
mixed blood are exchanged for white rabbits. Fresh-caught catfish are
traded for pocket knives or for dollar watches that won't run,

The mule men are different ponderously sure of themselves and of
the dignity of their profession. They stride deliberately, and poke walking
canes ("measuring rods") in the mules* flanks to make them show their
points. Shrewd buyers, they move through the crowd appraising here a
promising colt, there a sleek, powerful mule, drawling in heavy, authori-
tative voices. Representatives from foreign governments are often the
heaviest buyers. There is the stamping of iron-shod hoofs on the asphalt
pavement, an occasional chorus of wild braying, and the voices of auc-
tioneers drumming up purchasers. Events of the day are photographed for
the newsreels and broadcast by two national radio chains. Will Rogers
wrote of this day: "It ain't anything to see a man come in and trade in a
tractor and a three-year-old Buick and $100 down on a span of hard-tails/'

Columbia was first settled in 1807, and in that year was made the seat
of Maury County. One of the earliest newspapers in the State, The West-
em Chronicle, was founded here by James Walker in 1811. During the
same, year there was a destructive flood of the Duck River and several
Indian scares. In December began a series of earthquakes, continuing at

276 CITY AND TOWN

intervals of a few days, until March, 1812 (see Tour 11A). The be-
wildered settlers thought the place accursed and for a time considered
abandoning it.

The town was incorporated in 1817. In January 1861 Maury County
voted to remain with the Union, but after Lincoln's call for troops and
the beginning of fighting had forced the issue, Columbia abruptly became
Confederate in sympathy. During General Hood's Nashville campaign,
November-December, 1864, the town was occupied alternately by Union
and Confederate troops, but no major engagement took place here.

Columbia has three newspapers. The Columbia Observer dates back to
1834, the Columbia Herald to 1862, and the Maury Democrat to 1882.

Columbia is the trading center of an area where the major crops are
wheat, corn, oats, and tobacco. Industrial plants include a large hosiery
mill, garment factories, grain mills, building supply houses, a brick manu-
facturing plant, a marble works, a canning factory, meat packing plants,
and a chair factory.

POINTS OF INTEREST

The SAMUEL POLK HOME (open 9-5 daily; adm. 250), 301 W. 7 th
St., was the home of Samuel K. Polk, father of James Knox Polk, eleventh
President of the United States, The two-story white brick house with spa-
cious rooms, French windows, and balconies, was built in 1816 by Sam
Polk. Offices occupied the building for a while but in 1928 it was pur-
chased by the Polk Memorial Association and restored.

The house contains a collection of Polk relics, which include paintings,
engravings, gilt-frame mirrors, glassware, silverware, china, furniture, and
the gown supposed to have been worn by Mrs. Polk at the inaugural ball,
though the same is said of another in the Smithsonian Institution at
Washington. An ivory fan, the gift of her husband, carried by Mrs. Polk
at the inauguration, bears miniatures of the eleven presidents from Wash-
ington to Polk.

The adjacent house (private), an almost exact duplicate of the Polk
home, was built by Sam Polk for his daughter.

The JAMES K. POLK HOME (private), 318 W. 7th St., a two-story
frame residence, square in plan, with a gable roof, was built by James K.
Polk in the 1820*5. Here he entertained Andrew Jackson and Martin Van
Buren during the campaign of 1844, * n which he was elected President

The MAYES-HUTTON PLACE (private), W. 6th St. and Mayes
Place, was built in 1854 by Samuel Mayes, who, believing the slave ques-
tion might result in a war, sold all of his slaves and invested his money
in a home. This large brick house retains all the flavor of the Southern
ante-bellum mansion. A fusion of Greek Revival and Mediterranean ar-
chitecture, the house is accentuated by a central two-story portico with four
large Corinthian columns. This portico shelters a small second-floor gal-
lery, with wrought-iron railings that are almost lace-like. The front door-
way forms a trefoil arch with attractive sidelights and fanlight. The large
high-ceiled rooms are tastefully decorated, and there is a lovely curved
stairway.

THE SAMUEL PQLK HOME, COLUMBIA

278 CITY AND TOWN

In GREENWOOD CEMETERY, N. Garden St. near ist St., beneath
tall, somber cedars in a tenglewood of honeysuckle vines, are the graves of
the parents of James K. Polk and other early settlers.

The KNOB, end of W. 6th St., a familiar topographical feature of
Columbia, has the town reservoir on its summit. This rocky elevation, 200
feet above the city, appears in old histories under the name of Mount
Parnassus.

EDWARD F. ("POP") GEERS MEMORIAL PARK is on the lower
southern slope of the knob, fronting on W. yth St. The slope is terraced,
and a stone shaft stands to the memory of the noted turfman.

"Pop" Geers maintained a stable near Columbia from 1880 to 1890
where he trained some of the outstanding horses of the day. His greatest
record (1:55) was made with Dan Patch, the fastest pacer the world has
ever known. In those days Maury County was the heart of a great pacing
horse region.

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS

Beechkwn, 3-4 m-', Haynes Haven, 9-3 m.; Cheairs House, p.p m. (see Tour 1)<
Mercer Hall, 1 m.; Columbia Military Academy, 1.3 m.; Middle Tennessee Experi-
ment Station, 2.2 m.; Blythewood, 2.4 m.; Clifton Place, 5.5 m.; Pillow-Bethel
Place, 7 m.; Pillow-Haliday Place, 7,2 m.; Hamilton Place, 7.6 m.; Rattle and
Snap, 8.7 m.; {see Tour 7B).

<< B >>>>)>

Kingsport

Railroad Station: Clinchfield Railroad Station, Broad and Main Sts., for Clinch-
field R,R :

Bus Station: Main St., for Tennessee Coach Co,, Eastern Tennessee and Western
North Carolina Motor Transportation Company, Tri-State Coach Corporation, and
Washington County Bus Lines.

Airport: McKellar Field (Tri-City Airport), south on US 23, 12 m. to junction
with Airport Rd., left on this road, 4 m n for American Airlines. Taxi^fare from
city $2.

Accommodations: Three hotels; overnight homes for tourists on all highways into
the city.

Information Service: Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs, the Kingsport Inn on the Circle;
Kingsport Improvement Bldg., Shelby and Market.

Motion Picture Houses: Four.

Golf: Kingsport Country Club, 1 m. E. on Bristol Highway, 18 holes, greens

fee 250.

Tennis: Kingsport Country Club, 1 m. E. on Bristol Highway.

Swimming: Swimming pool at junction US nW. and 23, 1.7 m. SE. of Circle.

Fee 2 5 0.

KINGSPORT (1,720 alt, 11,914 pop.) is a mountain-circled industrial
city on the shores of the Holston River in the heart of 1:he Southern Appa-
lachians. To the east stretches the wall of the Blue Ridge, to the west are
the gaunt ridges of the Cumberlands, to the north the rugged Clinch
Mountains, while to the south and nearer to the valley loom Chimney
Top and the Bays Mountain range, tximbling away southeastward into the
ranks of the Great Smokies. These ranges are little changed in sorne re-
spects since the first pioneers followed the buffalo trails ovelr their tim-
bered heights and built their cabins in the Holston Valley. Farmed first
by the Indians and later by white pioneers, the valley of the winding
Holston with its fertile bottom lands has long been an agricultural area.
Kingsport, a modern city in its industrial development, still bears the
marks of its rugged pioneer ancestry. _

Although Kingsport had been settled since 1761, the modern city has
grown from a small village in 1907, with a population of less than a thou-
sand, to a modern city with a balanced group of industrial units that offer
a diversity of employment. Planned as an industrial center, the city re-
ceived its charter on March 2, 1917. Dr. John Nolan, internationally
known engineer and city planner, superintended the designing of the pub-
lic buildings, homes, and parks. He was assisted by Earl S. Draper who
is now (1938) director or the TVA Department of Regional Planning.
The aim was usefulness, beauty, and variety in each structure and in the
city as a whole. Before a street was paved definite areas were set aside for

279

280 CITY AND TOWN

residential sections, Industrial divisions, and business centers. Open areas
were left for recreational development as the city grew. Street parkways
and parks at intersections were designed; trees were planted throughout the
business section.

The principal streets radiate from a circle drive and small park in the
geographical center of the city. The U. S. Post Office, of Georgian Colo-
nial design, and six churches are built around this circle.

Local citizens are mostly of English and Scottish stock. The mountain
folk who work in the local plants have adapted themselves to an industrial
life but in many cases have retained their roots in the land. Some live on
the home farm and work in the city. Others cultivate gardens around their
urban homes. There has never been any labor strife in Kingsport, a point
of pride with local citizens. Having the advantages of a present-day city,
Kingsport and its surroundings retain some of the charm of early America.
Tucked away in the hills hereabout are old water mills and cabins with
wide fireplaces, stone chimneys, and rafters hung with drying herbs. There
are only 595 Negroes in Kingsport, most of whom find employment in
domestic service.

Dr. Thomas Walker, leader of the first organized exploring expedition
into Upper East Tennessee, while following Reedy Creek down to North
Fork of the Holston in the early spring of 1750, found a well-marked
Indian path that crossed the Holston River at Long Island and extended
through what is now the southern part of Kingsport. This was the trail
used by Daniel Roone and his party in 1769 when marking out the route
of the Wilderness Road.

The first Anglo-American structure on the site of Kingsport was Fort
Robinson, built in 1761 near the fording place of the Holston at Long
Island. Later, Fort Patrick Henry, erected at the same site in the spring of
1775, was the outpost of white civilization beyond the mountains.

Kingsport was known variously as Island Flats, Fort Robinson, Fort
Patrick Henry, the Boat Yard, and Christiansville. The last name was for
Gilbert Christian who bought land and intended to build a town. The Boat
Yard seems to have been the generally accepted name until 1774 when it
was called King's Port because it was used as a port, or boat landing, for
the shipping of iron, bacon, salt, and other commodities to towns down
the Holston and Tennessee Rivers. Some people credit the origin of the
name to William King of Abingdon, Virginia, owner of a salt works, who
hauled his product to the Boat Yard for shipment. In 1774 Col. James
King established a mill at the mouth of Reedy Creek and later built an
iron works and a nail factory. Early settlers met with bitter resistance from
the Cherokee, when they began to occupy the valley, but finally defeated
the Indians in the Battle of Island Flats in 1776. The battle took place
in the cane brakes which covered what now is the heart of the business dis-
trict of Kingsport. On July 20 of the following year, the treaty of the
Long Island of the Holston was made between the whites and the Chero-
kee.

Situated on a main north and south post road, Kinsport was a busy
place in the early nineteenth century. In 1806 the town's industries con-

MAKING CELLULOSE ACETATE

CITY AND TOWN

sisted of four powdermills, a charcoal iron furnace and iron works, oil
mills for turning out pure linseed oil, tanneries, gristmills, and sawmills.

A minor battle took place at Kingsport, December 13, 1864, during the
War between the States. After a day s fighting the Federals captured the
entire Confederate force.

The town's development was at a standstill for more than two decades
following the war. Manufacturing revived a little in 1885 when David
and William Roller and C. N. Jordan established a brick and glazed tile
plant. Up to the twentieth century, railroads had ignored Kingsport and
followed the valleys to the northeast and southwest. But in 1909 the
Hoiston valley was connected with Cincinnati and the Carolina coast by
the Carolina, Clinchfield and Ohio Railroad, Thus Kingsport obtained an
outlet to the Great Lakes and the Atlantic.

Civic-minded citizens organized an improvement association to estab-
lish a planned industrial city on the flatlands adjoining old Kingsport.
The association assembled a select group of industries, chosen for diver-
sification of business, elimination of undesirable and dangerous industries,
and to fit the available supply of labor.

Under this scheme a cement plant was erected, followed in succession
by a brick oven, extract plant, and a tannery. To take care of the needs of
the growing community a power plant was constructed, and by 1917 a
hosiery and pulp mill were in operation. Less than a decade later Kings-
port had a methanol distillery, a book manufacturing and book cloth estab-
lishment, a cotton spinning and weaving mill, and a belting plant. Indus-
tries added later included glass and hosiery knitting plants. In 1932 the
methanol plant expanded operations to include the manufacture of cellu-
lose acetate for camera films, acetate yarns, and other products. With these
major industries have come many smaller businesses.

The University of Tennessee has a co-operative agreement with Kings-
port industries whereby students, largely from the engineering and chem-
istry departments, are given practical training. These students divide their
time between the plants at Kingsport and the university and thus gain
practical experience in industry while earning a part of their expenses.

Kingsport was the first city in Tennessee to adopt the city manager type
of government, and the city charter was approved by the Bureau of Munic-
ipal Research of the Rockefeller Institute in 1917.

POINTS OF INTEREST

The BQONE TRAIL or WILDERNESS ROAD SITE, at the Circle,
between Sullivan and Watauga Sts., has a bronze plate set in a cobblestone
monument shaped like an arrowhead, to mark the route taken by Daniel
Boone when he was exploring the Hoiston Valley in 1769.

KINGSPORT PRESS (open 8:30-4:30 weekdays), Roller and Reedy
Sts., one of the largest plants in the world manufacturing books exclusively,
was established in 1922 to publish a low-priced series of the classics, but
in 1925 was remodeled for the production of books of all types. A voca-

K1NGSPORT 283

tional school with a trained supervisor in charge was operated in connec-
tion with the plant for several years.

The plant averages 2,000,000 books a month, and uses more than 30
tons of paper daily in the manufacture of Bibles, fiction, reference and
school books, catalogs, and encyclopedias.

Club and recreation rooms, a cafeteria, and a credit union are operated
for employees.

The MEAD CORPORATION (open by appointment), W. Main St.,
manufactures paper for magazines and books, and produces 100 tons of
paper daily. The wood used by the Mead Corporation is shipped from
seven Southern States, and the Kingsport Press uses a part of the output.

The PENNSYLVANIA-DIXIE CEMENT PLANT (open on applica-
tion at office), Main St., was established in 1909-1911, The site was
chosen because the area possessed an abundant supply of limestone and
other materials used in the manufacture of cement. Six kilns produce about
6,000 barrels of cement per day.

The KINGSPORT FOUNDRY AND MANUFACTURING PLANT
(open on application at office), Sullivan and Main Sts., organised in 1927,
is one of the leading foundries of this region. Gray iron, brass, and semi-
steel casting for general job work are produced by the foundry, which also
has pattern and machine shops.

The GENERAL SHALE PRODUCTS PLANT (open 1-4 weekdays),
Main St., started operations in 1910. Its 31 kilns produce 135,000 bricks
per day, with an average annual shipment of 3,800 carloads. Building tile
is also manufactured. Shale is dug from a hill behind the plant.

The TENNESSEE EASTMAN CORPORATION (not open to public),
2 miles south of the Circle on State 81, is second in size of the 13 Eastman
plants. It consists of 82 buildings covering 372 acres on the Holston River
and employs approximately 4,000 people. The plant produces large quan-
tities of cellulose acetate for camera films, acetate yarns and plasters.
Among its by-products are "dbarket," a concentrated fuel made from char-
coal, and wood oils used as non-poisonous denaturants and insecticides.

The BORDEN MILLS (not open to public), across from the Tennes-
see Eastman Corporation, is a subsidiary of the American Printing Co. The
mills manufacture over 900,000 yards of cloth weekly. The complete, mod-
ern village for the employees, Oakdale, covers 75 acres.

The NETHERLAND INN (private), 2144 Lee Highway, is a three-
story structure of stone and frame, with massive chimneys at both ends.
A two-story octagonal veranda on the front relieves the severity of the
massive gabled structure. The Netherland Inn, known locally as the Old
Tavern, was built in 1811 by Richard Netherland, a big slave-holder and
land-owner. It was the center for the gay social life of upper East Tennes-
see in the early nineteenth century and a regular stopping place for An-
drew Jackson on his trips from the Hermitage to Washington. Presidents
Andrew Johnson and James K. Polk frequently rested there. A bronze
tablet on the outer wall gives the date of construction as 1812, but the best
authorities place the date as 1811.

On the hill behind the tavern stood the log house in which the brothers,

284 CITY AND TOWN

Gen. Edmund P. Games and George S. Gaines, were reared. Edmund
Gaines, born in Virginia in 1777, served in the Tennessee militia against
the Indians when he was eighteen, and joined the U. S. Army two years later.
In 1801 he surveyed "Games' Trace," a military road generally following the
Natchez Trace between Nashville and Natchez. In 1804, as commander of
Fort Stoddart in Alabama, he arrested Aaron Burr. When Burr was
tried in Richmond, Virginia, Edmund Gaines was one of the prosecution's
witnesses. On leave from the army for several years, he practiced law in
Mississippi. He was commissioned a colonel at the outbreak of the War of
1812 and placed in command of Fort Erie which he successfully defended
during a long hard siege by a large force of British and Indians. For this he
was given a citation by Congress and was breveted major general. He later
participated in the Creek and Seminole Wars and in Black Hawk's War.
Though he was removed from his command of the Western Department
at the beginning of the Mexican War for overstepping his authority, he
was vindicated and until his death in 1849 commanded the Eastern De-
partment.

George S. Gaines, Alabama pioneer, was born in North Carolina in
1784. During his young manhood, he traded with the Creek Nation in
Alabama and was appointed Indian agent at St. Stephens Post on the
Toinbigbee River. Trusted and well-liked by the Creek and Choctaw, he
prevented their joining Tecumseh and, in 1812, persuaded the Choc-
taw to aid the United State against the Creek, He was also instrumental
in carrying through the Choctaw Purchase. In after years, as a merchant
of Mobile, he became wealthy, helped promote the Mobile & Ohio Rail-
road, and served in the State legislature.

The LONG ISLAND OF THE HOLSTON, where the Treaty of the
Long Island of the Holston was signed, divides the river for four miles
southwest of Kingsport Here, in July 1777, the warring Cherokee, after
two years of fighting met the commissioners of Virginia and North Caro-
lina, and made peace with the white invaders. William Christian, William
Preston, and Evan Shelby represented Virginia. North Carolina sent as its
agents, Waightstill Avery, William Sharp, Robert Lanier, and Joseph
Winston. From the Overhill towns came the headmen of the Cherokee
grim-faced Oconastota (the Great Warrior of Chota), Old Tassel of
Toquah, the Raven of Chota, and peaceful old Attakullakulla (Little Car-
penter), the steadfast friend of the whites for more than half a century.

The council fire was kindled and around it gathered Indian chiefs, long
hunters in buckskin, settlers, and back country militiamen whose rough
overbearing manners sorely tried the Indians' patience. The "good talks"
were about to begin when an unknown white man killed an Indian brave
named the Big Bullet. Immediately "Peace Island** became an armed camp.
The angry commissioners offered $600 reward for the capture of the mur-
derer but he was never found. After the Indians had been calmed by pres-
ents "with which to cover the grave of the slain warrior/' the conference
continued.

The Cherokee ceded to Virginia all of their claims north of a line from
a point about three miles west of Cumberland Gap to the Holston River

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THE NETHERLANDS INN, KINGSPORT

CITY AND TOWN

at the junction with Cloud's Creek. To North Carolina the Indians ceded
land north and east of Cloud's Creek to Chimney Top, to the Nolichucky,
ten miles below the mouth of Limestone Creek and thence southeastward
into the territory of the Cherokee Middle Towns. No white man was sup-
posed to cross these boundaries "on any pretense whatsoever," The Indians
refused to give up the Long Island to any person except Col. Nathaniel
Gist, with whom they recognized joint ownership. The treaty contained
the following memorandum: "That Colonel Gist might sit down upon
Long Island when he pleased as it belonged to him to hold good talks on."
Col Nathaniel Gist, son of Christopher Gist, Washington's guide to Fort
Duquesne, is said to have been the father of the half-breed, George Guess
or Gist (Sequoyah), inventor of the Cherokee alphabet.

It was while serving as a surgeon with the troops at the Long Island in
1776, that one Dr. Patrick Vance discovered a method of treating scalped
persons. In one of the Draper Manuscripts (Wisconsin Historical Society
collection), Dr. Vance states:

I have found that a flat-pointed, straight awl is the best instrument to
bore with, as the skull is thick and somewhat difficult to penetrate. Wh en
the awi is nearly through, the instrument should be borne more lightly
upon. The time to quit boring is when a reddish fluid appears on the point
of the awl. I bore at first about one inch apart and as the flesh appears to
rise in these holes, I bore a number more between the first and second, etc.
The scalped head cures slowly. It skins remarkably slow, generally taking
two years.

The SITE OF KING'S MILL is at the mouth of Reedy Creek on the
south fork of the Holston River. The gristmill, Jbuilt by Col. James King
in 1774, was one of the first water-powered mills in Tennessee and was
an improvement over the hand-operated mill and the "hominy pounder"
or "slow John/' a crude but useful affair that operated by a process of
hammering the corn with a wooden beam. Most of the early mills were log
buildings, but King's Mill was a fort-like structure built of heavy stone.
The water was taken from the creek several hundred feet above and
brought down in a trough made from hollow logs split in halves. It fell
over a paddle-wheel built on a shaft, on the other end of which was a rude
wheel studded with pegs. These pegs served as cogs and meshed with
other pegs which were fastened to one of the stones. The corn was ground
as one stone revolved upon the other*

King also erected a substantial stone tavern, near the mill and the site
became known as King's Mill Station,

POINTS OF INTEREST IN ENVIRONS

Site of Fort Robinson, 2.8 m.; Rotherwood, 3 m.; the Old Elm, 3.1 m. (see
Tour 1A).

PART III

Tours

Tour i

(Roanoke, Va. ) Bristol Johnson City Knoxville Athens Clevc^
land; US nE, US 11, the Lee Highway.
Virginia Line to Cleveland, 217.8 m.

The Southern Ry. parallels the route; American Air Lines flies over route between

Bristol and Knoxville.

Paved roadbed.

Hotels in towns and tourist cabins and campgrounds at short intervals,

Section a. BRISTOL to KNOXVILLE; 132.8 m.

The northern section of US n follows the valley of upper East Tennes-
see, the route over which passed the westward-moving wagon trains of the
pioneers. They came down the valley from southwestern Virginia and over
the mountain passes from North Carolina hardy Scotch-Irish farmers,
tired of the clay hills and eager to find richer land. Having already pio-
neered in the eastern uplands, they were inured to hardship and unafraid
of the wilderness. Few of them were slaveholders and as a whole their
political interests and sympathies were opposed to those of the plantation
owners of the tidewater settlements.

They built blockhouses at strategic points, and grouped their cabins
around them. They built well, and their material was so sound and their
craftsmanship so skilled that many buildings of the period are still stand-
ing. But even before their cabins were roofed their plows had been turning
the rich soil of the valleys. Wherever their cabins went up they established
schools and organized civil government.

These settlements were made in defiance of the British Proclamation of
1763 which guaranteed the Cherokee their holdings west of the mountains.
The Cherokee, angered by continued occupation of their lands by the
whites, grew restless, and irresponsible young warriors began to attack
groups of settlers. In 1776, a band led by Dragging Canoe, took the war
trail against the white invaders. The war continued until 1777 when the
members of the Cherokee Nation, with the exception of Dragging Canoe
and his followers, signed the Treaty of the Holston ( see FIRST AMER-
ICANS).

US ii crosses the Virginia Line 157.4 m. southwest of Roanoke, Va.

BRISTOL, m. (1*689 a &-> 12,005 PPO * s two municipalities
Bristol, Tenn., and Bristol, Va. with a, total population of 20,845. The
State Line divides State Street, the main thoroughfare.

With its busy shopping district, its smoky railroad yards and factories,
Bristol is a hustling trading town a$d railroad junction. Its manufacturing
plants produce pulp aad paper, leather goods* come cars, veneer, furniture,

289

290 TOURS

and structural steel Sometimes the soft coal smoke from the factory stacks
shuts out the view of the mountains that surround the city, but in the resi-
dential areas the view is clear.

Each Bristol has its own first-class post office. Both sides of State Street
are usually astir with activity. Country people mingle with city folks, cross-
ing from one State to the other to make their purchases. Business is about
equally divided between the two cities.

Bristol is also a shipping point for much of the farm produce of upper
East Tennessee. Trucks rumble through the city, and yard engines at the
railroad junction are kept busy switching cars of cattle, sheep and poultry
from the rails of the Southern to the northbound fast freights of the Nor-
folk and Western. Many cafes stay open all night and are well patronized
by railroad employees and truckmen.

The 1,946 acres that comprise the city site were sold to Col. James Pat-
ton for 9 pounds, 7 shillings, and 6 pence. In 1771 CoL Isaac Shelby built
a fort here to protect the thousands of immigrants. The place was called
Sapling Grove. Recruits gathered for Shelby's campaign of 1779 against
the Chickamauga Indians in lower East Tennessee. These troops marched
to the Long Island of Holston, and thence to the mouth of Big Creek in
the present Hawkins County, where boats were built for the voyage to the
Chickamauga towns along the creek of the same name near Chattanooga.

After the Revolutionary War, Col. James King bought Sapling Grove
and changed the name to King's Meadows. King, a Londoner and a civil
engineer, started an iron works about 1784 and brought John Smith, an
expert foundryman, from England to operate it. The plant produced the
first nails for the frontiersmen. The quality of the ore used here, its high
cost, and the difficulties of hauling it to the furnaces by wagon over poor
roads finally reduced the output of the 29 furnaces. Eventually they were
abandoned.

In 1852 Joseph R. Anderson learned that a railroad was planned to con-
nect Knoxville and King's Meadows, bought 100 acres of land from the
King estate, and laid out the tract. Because he thought his town would be
an industrial center, he named it Bristol for the great manufacturing city
of the same name in England. A Tennessee charter was granted in 1856
and in the same year a Virginia charter incorporated Goodson across the
line, which was named in memory of Thomas Goodson, who had been a
business associate of James King.

KING COLLEGE, on King College Road, is a Presbyterian co-educational
college, founded in 1867. The campus, comprising 60 acres, is studded
with towering beech trees and landscaped with an abundance of dogwood,
evergreens, and shrubbery. Seven brick buildings, erected in 1917, form a
quadrangle; they are of modified Georgian Colonial design, the work of
C B. Kearfott, of Bristol. This college was named for James King. It
confers the degree of bachelor of arts.

To the east of the town is the upper section of the Cherokee National
Forest (see NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION) of 744,-
427 acres, a steep and rolling hill country.

TOUR I 291

Southwest of Bristol US nE passes through a series of high knobs, that,
when seen from the south, resemble the knuckles of the hand.
A marker (L) at 16.8 m. calls attention to Rocky Mount.

Left here 0.4 m. on a dirt road to ROCKY MOUNT (private), one of the oldest
houses in Tennessee, built by William Cobb in 1770. The place was so named be-
cause of the outcroppings of varicolored limestone on the site. The two-and-a-half
story house, which stands on a hill high above the forks of the Holston and the
Watauga, was constructed of hewn white oak logs and roofed with pegged white
oak shingles, still in place. At the left end of the main house is a large, outside
hipped chimney of home-pressed brick and in the one-story ell is another. The huge
rafters are fastened with pegs 8 inches long. The house contains nine rooms and in
its early days it was the most impressive structure in the area. The paneled front
door is surmounted with a five-light transom; the interior is paneled with pine and
the staircase has a walnut handrail.

The garden, one of the first planted in Tennessee, is to the right of the house; it
was carefully landscaped in the early days and still contains rock lilies, Provence
roses, white and blue violets, lilacs, japonicas, and star of Bethlehem.

Two years after he built this house, William Cobb signed the Articles of the
Watauga (see HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT) and thereafter his name crops
up frequently in the public records of this frontier. When in October 1790 William
Blount, appointed Governor of the Territory South of the River Ohio, reached the
Watauga settlement, Cobb invited him to spend the winter with him; thus the new
Territory was organized from this place.

At 18.8 m. the route crosses the Holston River.

At 18.9 m. (at the west end of the bridge) is a gravel road.

Right on this road 1.4 m. is a junction (R) with another gravel road which leads
0.3 m. to the William Bean Cabin Site (see Tour 2).

At 21.8 m. is the junction with US 23 (see Tour 2), which unites with
US ii for 3 miles. At the junction is a PIONEER MEMORIAL, surmounted
with figures of a pioneer family. Descriptions of historic points of interest
in this section are on the shaft.

JOHNSON CITY, 24.5 m. (1,717 alt, 25,080 pop.) (see Tour 2) f is
at the junction with State 67 (see Tour IB) and with US 23 (see Tour 2).

JONESBORO, 32 m. (1,695 alt, 1,981 pop.), seat of Washington
County and the oldest town in Tennessee, was formally established on
Nov. 4, 1779. It was named for Willie Jones (1740-1801), a North
Carolina politician who was a friend of the settlers beyond the mountains.
Many of the houses, churches and stores have changed little since pioneer
days. Local people take great pride in their picturesque town and discour-
age the remodeling of the stores on the main street.

Washington County, which included all the settlements in what is now
Tennessee, was a political subdivision of North Carolina and the first in
the United States named for George Washington. The constitutional con-
vention and the first legislative sessions of the State of Franklin ( see HIS-
TORY) were held in Jonesboro until 1785, when the seat of government
of the Lost State was moved to Greeneville. In May, 1779, James Carter
began to build the courthouse, a somewhat makeshift log structure with a
shingle roof.

From the beginning this was a planned community. No ramshackle cab-
ins were permitted; the owner of each lot had to build "one brick, stone,

292 TOURS

or well-framed house, 20 feet long and 16 feet wide, at least 10 feet in the
pitch, with a brick or stone chimney," Failure to comply with this pro-
vision brought forfeiture of the land title.

The middle 1780*5 were years of confusion here. Many people refused
to acknowledge the State of Franklin, preferring to remain loyal to North
Carolina; two sets of officials attempted to establish their authority.

The first Court of Magistrates of the State of Franklin dispensed high,
middle, and low juctke and in criminal cases some of its decisions were
harsh. A horse thief was branded with an H on one cheek, a T on the
other, and nailed to the pillory by his ears for one hour after which, they
were cut off. In 1788, at the whipping post in the public square, a woman
received 10 lashes for petty larceny. The penalty imposed upon a man
guilty of this offense was 30 lashes.

Andrew Jackson, then 21 years old, rode into Jonesboro in May, 1788,
and hung out his shingle; he practiced law here about two years and
boarded at the home of Kit Taylor, two miles west of town. When, in 1815,
a rumor reached Jonesboro that Andrew Jackson had killed the whole
English army at New Orleans, and had set sail to take possession of Eng-
land itself, the townspeople were thrown into a frenzy of pride. One old
grandpap threw his hat in the air and yelled, "Whoopee! Hurrah for
Andy Jackson! Heil-and-thunder, I knowed he could whip anybody the
day I seed him ride that hoss-race at Greasy Cove!" "Andy Jackson, hell-
and-thunder" are the words still used in this section to express high feel-
ings.

Jonesboro was the home of William and Matthew Atkinson, who de-
signed (1801-2) the Great Seal of the State of Tennessee (see HIS-
TORY AND GOVERNMENT).

In 1840 a spot on Main Street, 100 feet east of the courthouse, was the
scene of an encounter between William Gannaway (Parson) Brownlow and
Landon Carter Haynes. Brownlow, in his paper, the Whig, had printed
some bitter things about Haynes, who thereupon had denounced the edi-
tor publicly. They fought it out at this spot. When friends separated them
Brownlow had a bullet in his thigh, and Haynes* head had been badly
battered by the parson's unfired pistol. Haynes was later a member of
the Confederate Congress, and Brownlow was Governor of Tennessee
(1865-67).

The COURTHOUSE in the center of the town, at Main and Cherokee Sts.
was designed by Baumann and Baumann. -This two-story brick structure,
erected in 1912 is surmounted by a central clock tower in two stages, the
first of which is columned. A balustraded parapet surrounds the roof, and
there are pedimented porticoes on three fronts.

On the northeast corner of the courthouse lawn is a BOONE TRAIL
MARKER in the shape of an arrowhead.

CHESTER INN, or Jonesboro Inn, on the corner of Main and Cherokee

Sts., has been a hotel since 1798. A first floor room was for a time the

office of Brownlow's Whig. Presidents Jackson, Polk, and Johnson, and

other notables, including Charles Dickens, have stopped here.

A vacant lot at 203 W. Main St. is the SITE OF THE RUSSELL BEAN

THE OLD TAVERN, JONESBORO-*

HOUSE. Bean, son of the first permanent white settler in East Tennessee
(1770) lived here for about five years. He was a gunsmith whose products-
were in great demand, and a man of furious temper with little respect for

C* , , 1 * . * _ XT /~\-l^-- "U.A

rage he

he explained.

The FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 206 W. Main St., was dedicated
Aug. 15, 1850. Resting upon a high basement with a panelled entrance,
the structure is in the Greek Revival style. Above the simple pediment

294 TOURS

rises a Victorian steeple with pinnacles on the four corners of the first
stage. The first church established in Jonesboro was the Hebron Presby-
terian, organized about 1790 by the Rev. Samuel Doak and the Rev. Heze-
kiah Balck Martin Academy built in 1816, was used as a church for some
years. In 1831 a new house of worship was erected in great haste, that it
might be ready for the meeting of the synod of Tennessee, beginning on
the I2th of October of that year. This structure was replaced in 1847 b 7
the present one.

After the close of the war the united synod had gone out of existence.
Partisan feelings were still high. In March 1868, the Southern members
of the congregation withdrew and organized a separate society. Legal pro-
ceedings for control of the church property were begun but a compromise
was effected, whereby the members of the Northern Church relinquished
their claim. They erected a handsome brick structure known as the Second
Presbyterian Church.

Hie METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, SOUTH, at 215 W, Main St., com-
pleted in 1845, is a one-story brick Greek Revival structure with an Ionic
portico, having four columns and an unusual arched window in the pedi-
ment. A steeple with three stages surrounds the structure. Early in the i9th
century the Methodists organized a society in Jonesboro. Their first church
was a small bride building, with a brick floor. The seats were rough slabs
supported by round pine. This building was torn down after the present
church was completed in 1845. At the close of the War between the States
the Methodist congregation was also torn by partisan sympathies and for
several years the members of the Methodist Episcopal Church North had
possession of the property. Through process of law, however, they were
in time compelled to transfer the property to the Methodist Episcopal
Church South.

At 33-4 m. is the junction with State 81.

Left on State 81 is EMBREEVILLE, 7.6 m,; R. a short distance from Embreeville
to the EMBREE IRON Co. PLANT, built in 1831 and in almost continuous operation
since that date. For many years iron was smelted here with charcoal. In 1913 zinc
was discovered here, later limited deposits of lead, and in 1934 low grade manga-
nese. The company now mines and cleans lead and zinc. The manganese, like all
other deposits in the United States, cannot be refined at a profit. In the beginning
the iron works made a variety of articles nails, wagon fittings, implements, build-
ing hardware, and the like. Elijah Embree, who operated the plant after the death
of his brother Elihu in 1820, was in need of funds in 1825 and applied to the leg-
islature for a loan of $25,000. In order to encourage the manufacture of iron, the
legislature granted the subsidy. This is the only case in which the State has loaned
money to a private individual. It took Embree 20 years to repay the money.

At 34 m. is the junction with a graveled lane leading between a house
and a barn.

Right on this lane 0.3 m. to the CHRISTOPHER TAYLOR HOUSE (L). This gaunt
structure is a two-story log house sheathed with clapboards; it has an outside chim-
ney of field stone. Andrew Jackson boarded here during the time he practiced law
in Jonesboro. Here he kept and trained the horse he rode in his celebrated race
against Col. Robert Love at Greasy Cove (see Tour 2).

At 38.1 m. is TELFORD.

TOUR I 295

Right from Teiford 2 m. to LEESBURG, where the DE VAULT TAVERN was
built by members of the De Vault family in 1820. It is a large square two-story
brick building with mansard roof and shuttered windows. It has a small two-story
pedimented porch with slender white columns. The old bar has been preserved.

At 39 m. is the junction (R) with a graveled road.

Right on this road 0.1 m. to the LIMESTONE HOUSE (R), built in 1791 by
Thomas Embree; it is one of four stone houses in this area designed and constructed
by the mason, Seth Smith. The original lines of the steep-roofed two-and-a-half
story structure have been somewhat obscured by the addition of a porch across the
front and a one-story frame wing. Inside are twin fireplaces.

In 1797 Thomas Embree, who was a Quaker, wrote a letter to the Knoxville
Gazette urging the organization of a society to promote "a gradual abolition of
slavery of any kind." Though the people of East Tennessee were free farmers and
as such were hostile to slave labor there is little evidence of a strong abolition
movement here until 1814. The temper of the community in 1820 is evidenced in a
speech made by Thomas Roan before the Tennessee Manumission Society:

"Slavery is unfriendly to a genuine course of agriculture, turning in most cases
the fair and fertile face of nature into barren sterility. It is the bane of manufac-
turing enterprise and internal improvements; injurious to mechanical prosperity;
oppressive and degrading to the poor and laboring classes of the white population
that live in its vicinity; the death of religion; and finally it is a volcano in dis-
guise, and dangerous to the safety and happiness of -any government on earth when
it is tolerated."

Elihu, son of Thomas Embree, established one of the first periodicals in the
United States exclusively devoted to the freeing of slaves. His paper, the Manumis-
sion Intelligencer, a weekly that first appeared in 1819, was succeeded in the fol-
lowing year by his monthly Emancipator. The latter, with 2,000 circulation large
for those days was published until Embree's death in December 1820. Benjamin
Lundy took it over in 1822 and moved the publication office from Jonesboro to
Greeneville.

WASHINGTON COLLEGE (L), 40.9 m,, was chartered in 1795 as succes-
sor to Martin Academy, chartered in 1788, Samuel Doak, frontier preacher,
founded both schools. He brought the first books into the State, and these
on his only horse; he walked. Doak, a Pennsylvania Presbyterian, was a
graduate of Princeton University; a contemporary historian described him
as "a rigid opposer of innovation in religious tenets, very old school in all
his notions and actions; uncompromising in his love of the truth and his
hostility to error or heresy; ... in ... character, fearless, firm, nearly
dogmatical and intolerant. . . ." There was some antagonism to the cur-
ricula of some of the early schools in the State, particularly to that of
Washington College; in 1823 one contributor submitted a poem to the
Knoxville Intelligencer which he concluded with the following stanza:

When boys have learn* d that they are made
To heave the earth with plough and spade;
And girls, that they must toil for man,
Make clothes, wash pots, and frying pan;
They're then prepared for learning.

But Doak, always firm In his conviction of right, when he was praying
with the small tend of mountaineers that left Sycamore Shoals to battle on
King's Mountain, said: "Oh God, have regard for the souls of the English,
for they will be wife Hiee tonight/*

396 TOURS

The building is now used as a county high school.

At the southern end of LIMESTONE (1,389 alt., 300 pop.), 44,3 m.,
on Mill Brook are (R) a series of rapids and a waterfall. There are pic-
nicking spots nearby.

The OLD STONE HOUSE (L), at the center of the town where the high-
way goes under the bridge, was the home of George Gillispie, an early
settler in the Watauga country. The house, inside and out, has been little
changed since it was built in 1792. The foundation is 30 inches thick, the
first floor walls 24 inches, and the second story walls 18 inches. The cornices
are deeply carved with a walls-of-Troy design; about five feet from the
floor are small partly-filled apertures, probably former musket loop holes
used in those days when houses were not only homes but fortresses as

well.

George Gillispie was one of the signers of the petition to the Assembly
of North Carolina asking for a separation from the State. This caused the
formation of Franklin County. The house served as a marking point in
describing the dividing line between Washington and Greene Counties
and in outlining the boundary lines of Brown's settlement.

During the Indian depredations of 1777, the Chicakamauga led by
Abraham of Chilhowee, planned a surprise attack on Gillispie's Station.
The garrison at the station, having been informed of the plans, escaped
quickly to Watauga, leaving their cabins and stock to the plunder of the
Indians. The present house was built on land fiercely contended for by
the Indians and was often attacked by them. The house has been owned
and occupied by one family for four or five generations.

Left from Limestone on the paved Crockett Highway to the BIRTHPLACE OF
DAVID CROCKETT (1786-1836), 1.7 m. t on the banks of the Nolichucky River; the
site is in a field (L) between Crockett road and the river. This spot, with its clear
spring, was formerly a camp site of the Cherokee Indians,

West of this point is a large area whose main product is burley tobacco,
known locally as the i4-months crop. The burley farmer begins to prepare
the next year's crop before last year's crop has been marketed. In January
he cuts logs and underbrush and piles them in rectangular heaps ^ about 9
feet wide and 300 feet long. Early in February he lights these piles, and
the hillsides burst into flames. The bonfires are kept burning for several
days to make sure that the ground has been heated to a depth of two or
three feet. This process of burning kills insects and vegetation that would
harm the young tobacco plants,

Then the farmer sows his seeds, and immediately covers the plot with
light canvas to protect them from frost and insects until the plants have
attained three leaves and are less susceptible to frost. In summer the plants
grow to their full height, giving a bright green radiance to the landscape.
Harvesting is done in early fall; the stalks are hung on scaffolds in the
fields or under sheds,

In the fall, after the leaves have turned brown, they are stripped from
the stalks and tied into "hands," which are bundled and hauled on a
damp day to prevent the leaves from crumbling to one of the ware-

TOUR I 297

houses in the basin where it is stored until auction time. The auctions,
which are held from December i to March i, are attended by growers as
well as buyers, who listen intently to the monotonous whine of the tobacco
auctioneer as he passes hurriedly from one loose-leaf stack to another.

TUSCULUM COLLEGE, 54.1 m., originally Tusculum Academy, was
founded in 1818 by the Rev. Samuel Doak after he had resigned as presi-
dent of Washington CoUege; in 1868 it was merged with Greeneville Col-
lege. The co-educational institution is now under control of the Cumber-
land Presbytery. All the buildings are of brick and stone except one
wooden structure that was built in 1825, to replace a log house. There are
about 250 students.

GREENEVILLE, 58.7 m. (1,565 alt, 5,544 pop.), seat of Greene
County, was named, as was the county, for Nathanael Greene, the Rev-
olutionary general. Surrounded by a rich agricultural region, noted for
its burley tobacco, Greeneviile is now, and always has been, primarily a
farmers' trade center.

On Saturday farm families flock into Greeneville. Cars, trucks, and
mule-team wagons are parked everywhere; people fill the streets and trade
is brisk in the stores.

On a hill at the corner of Main and College Streets is the courthouse, its
marker-dotted lawn a favorite gathering place. To the west along Main
Street are fine old houses; toward the east is the business section; south-
ward stretch stockyards, creameries, poultry houses, coaly ards, and largest
of all, the warehouses in which from two to three million dollars worth
of tobacco is sold annually.

Greeneville was the capital of the State of Franklin during the last two
years of its existence (1785-1787). Greeneville College, founded by Heze-
kiah Balch and chartered in 1794 by the Territorial Assembly, was merged
in 1868 with Tusculum College. The first paper published here was the
abolitionist Genius of Universal Emancipation, edited by Benjamin Lundy,
which was a successor to the paper published by Embree at Jonesboro. The
Greeneville Sun, a daily paper and the Burley Bulletin, a monthly tobacco
journal, are the present publications.

In 1861, when the Tennessee Legislature adopted the Ordinance of
Secession, the loyalists of East Tennessee held a convention here, during
which they proposed that East Tennessee be made a separate State.

At the age of 17, Andrew Johnson (1808-75) moved here from
North Carolina with his mother and stepfather. Within a few weeks young
Johnson, who was a tailor, had made most of the cloth in town into suits.
He moved on to Rutledge, but he stayed there only about six months.
Hearing that the only tailor in Greeneville had left, he came back here
and soon afterward, on May 17, 1827, married Miss Eliza McCardle, who
taught him to write and cipher. He entered politics, and in 1829 was
elected as an alderman on the Democratic ticket. In 1843 he was sent to
Congress as a Representative and served until 1853. He was Governor of
Tennessee from 1853 to 1857.

On the day of Johnson's inauguration as Governor, retiring Governor
Campbell called at his hotel to take him in a carriage to the ceremonies,

298 TOURS

but Johnson refused to ride, saying that he was "going to walk with the
people." Remembering his own struggle for an education, Johnson in his
fiist message to the State Legislature, requested "a tax of 25$ on the polls,
and two and a half cents on the hundred dollars, of all the taxable prop-
erty of the State , . . f or the common schools."

In 1862, when Union forces had taken possession of most of Tennessee,
President Lincoln appointed Johnson Military Governor of the State. He
took office as Vice President of the United States on March 4, 1865 and
succeeded to the Presidency after Lincoln's death in April of the same
year.

His career in Washington was a stormy one. Part of his difficulties arose
from the fact that he was a Union Democrat, but the post-bellum Presi-
dency would have been stormy for any man. His program, like that of
Lincoln's, was based on the theory that the seceded States had never been
out of the Union. The radical Republicans, who dominated Congress, op-
posed him because he supported the institution of slavery and was a Demo-
crat ; the South hated him because he was a Unionist The lower House
brought impeachment proceedings against him on the grounds that he
had violated the Tenure of Office Act, but more moderate opinion pre-
vailed in the Senate and the impeachment vote fell one short of the con-
stitutional two-thirds required for removal.

The ANDREW JOHNSON TAILOR SHOP (open 8 a.m.-4:30 p.m,; free),
on the northwest corner of Depot and College Sts., back of the county
courthouse, is a small frame structure now enclosed in a brick building.
Over the door hangs the sign, "A. Johnson, Tailor."

The ANDREW JOHNSON HOME (open on request), on W. Main St.,
was bought by Johnson while it was still under construction; he completed
it in 1851. It stands flush with the sloping street and is a two-and-a-half
story brick structure with a many-gabled roof and a long one-story porch
on the lower side. This was Johnson's home until his death in 1875. It
is now owned by Mrs. Andrew Johnson Patterson, widow of the President's
grandson. The parlor furnishings of Johnson's day have been preserved.

The SITE OF THE CAPITOL OF THE STATE OF FRANKLIN, a log house,
is commemorated by a bronze tablet in the wall at the front entrance to
the courthouse. The State of Franklin, formed a year after the end of the
Revolutionary War, lasted until 1788.

On the courthouse lawn is the MORGAN MONUMENT. Gen. John H.
Morgan was killed here; it is not definitely known whether he was shot by
Union soldiers, who had dashed into town to surprise the Confederates"
"Terrible Raider/' or was assassinated by a civilian. One version of the
affair has it that Morgan was shot in the back by a person not in uniform.
Near the Morgan monument is a memorial tablet erected to the memory
of Union soldiers who were killed while fighting in this area.

The FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, on Main St, one block north of the
courthouse, was designed in modified Greek Revivial style by Coile and
Cardwell, and was constructed in 1912. Resting on a high basement* the
balustraded portico is approached by a wide central stair. Four Doric col-
umns support a simple pediment which is surmounted by a steeple in three

ANDREW JOHNSON TAILOR SHOP, GREENEVUXE

300 TOURS

stages. This church is a copy of its predecessor, which was built in 1780.

BOXWOOD MANOR ( open on request), 209 Brown's Hill, was built by
Joseph Ramsey Brown and his wife, in 1855 to replace the cottage in
which they began their married life in 1843. George M. Spencer of Og-
densburg, N. Y., was the architect of the square, many-windowed, central-
hailed, and ornately trimmed brick house. The ceilings are 12 and 14 feet
high. The winding stairway has walnut banisters and handrail, and a rams-
horn newel post.

The chief charm of the place is its fine boxwood trees, which were
brought from Charleston, S. C, about 1850. The vegetable and flower
garden are behind the house.

The nucleus of the SEVIER-O'KEEFE HOUSE is probably the oldest struc-
ture in town; this first unit, a two-story log house, was the home of Valen-
tine Sevier, brother of John Sevier, the first Governor. The present white
clapboarded structure, which grew up around Sevier's house, piece by
piece, has the charm inherent in houses with such a history of slow growth.
The bole of the wistaria 81 inches in circumference draped over the
south wall offers its testimony of the house's age. The surrounding gardens
are particularly delightful.

left from Greeneville on State 70 to (R) the BURLEY TOBACCO EXPERIMENT
STATION (open weekdays ) t 4 m. This experiment station is operated by the Uni-
versity of Tennessee and the IL S. Department of Agriculture. On the^farm of 325
acres experiments are conducted in breeding, growing, curing, and fertilizing burley
tobacco, and in disease prevention and control, and in crop rotations. Soil-erosion
control is also studied.

There Is a view at 64.9 m. (R) of Clinch Mountain. At Greeneville
the highway swings sharply northwest and crosses a ridge.

BULLS GAP, 75.9 m. (1,154 alt, 1,500 pop.), Bullsgap to the U. S.
Post Office Department was named for John Bull, a gunmaker, who
turned out many long rifles, the type that made Tennessee frontiersmen
famous for marksmanship. Each rifle was marked with the maker's name,
the name of the person for whom it was made, and the date of completion.

RUSSELLVILLE, 82.9 m. (300 pop.), is on land awarded Col. James
Roddey (Roddye) for services in the Battle of King's Mountain, and was
named for his second wife, who had been a Miss Russell. Roddye was a
delegate to the North Carolina convention of 1788, a member of the first
Tennessee constitutional convention, and a signer of the State's first Con-
stitution.

Left from Russellville on a graveled road 0.5 m. to HAYSLOPE, Roddye's home.
It was a hewn-log cabin with steep shingled roof and outside fieldstone chimney.
The house has been remodeled several times. In early times this house sheltered
many leading citizens of the Territory and of the new State. The owner's hospitality
was not limited by religious bias ; any itinerant preacher was sure of a bed, a meal,
and a meeting-room when he reached this place. At one time mass was held in the
cabin. Roddye, however, was a member of the Bent Creek Baptist Church which,
like other frontier churches, took responsibility for the conduct of its members; on
one occasion the congregation reproved him for "the transaction of fighting." At
the next meeting, two members appointed to "labor with him" recommended that
he be "restored to fellowship in the church when he feels satisfied with himself."

TOUR I 301

The DEADERICK HOUSE (L), 83.9 m., built prior to 1812 by Judge
Charles Deaderick, is reached through a long boxwood walk. Every joining
of wood in this large two-story brick house was mitered, spliced, and
pegged. The only nails are in the weatherboarding of some outbuildings,
and these are of the headless hook type, hand-made. The moldings through-
out are of delicate proportions ; even the corners of the ceiling joists in
the slave quarters were finished with beaded molding. The house is now
roofed with block tin, % of an inch thick. In the carriage house is a small
carriage, elaborately carved, painted, and decorated,

MORRISTOWN, 89-3 m. (1,317 alt, 7,305 pop.), seat of Hamblen
County, was named for three brothers, Gideon, David and Absalom Mor-
ris who settled here in 1783.

The town is in a fertile valley enclosed by the Clinch Mountains, where
dairying and poultry-raising are of importance. The famous "milk-fed
broiler'* originated in this area. Carloads of fryers are sent out by rail and
a fleet of specially constructed motor-trucks rush chickens and turkeys to
New York and other eastern markets. This business is carried on by both
private business concerns and by a Fanners Co-operative Poultry Associa-
tion.

Large amounts of burley tobacco are sold in the town's six warehouses;
tobacco is the leading cash crop of the county. There are more than 30
industrial plants which can vegetables, process silk, cotton and leather,
manufacture staves and barrel heading, woodworking and finishing, and
shell walnuts.

The town owns and operates its own water works and electric lighting
system, and utility rates are low.

The MORRISTOWN NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, east of James
St. at E. 6th Ave., was chartered in 1909, and is the only college with both
white and Negro teachers maintained in the South by the Methodist Epis-
copal Church. The institution, an experimental junior college for Negroes,
has about 120 students. Its 10 buildings are on a 7-acre campus and a 320-
acre farm.

Since about 1917 the Progressive Teacher, a widely circulated magazine,
has been printed here at the TRIANGLE PRESS PLANT, which also prints
the nationally distributed Augsburg spelling books and some art books.

At Morristown is the junction with US z$E (see Tour 3).

1. Left from Morristown on Springdale Rd. to a STATE FISH HATCHERY, 8 m. t
where 400,000 trout, 100,000 bass, 150,000 bream, and quantities of other fish are
hatched annually for distribution in mountain streams of East Tennessee. Spring
traps feed the rearing pools, which cover 14 of the 25 acres in the property.

2. Left from Morristown on Valley Home Pike to the JARNAGIN CEMETERY,
2 m., which contains the GRAVE OF DEWITT C. SENTER, Governor of Tennessee
1869-1871, and also a marker in memory of Kiffen Rockwell, World War ace, who
was killed in action in France while a member of the Lafayette Escadrille.

At 95.6 m. is the junction with a dirt road.

Left on this road to ROCK HAVEN DOLOMITE WELL (R), 2.5 m, t drilled 135
feet through solid dolomite, that yields water reputed to have remedial properties.

At 97.5 m. is tibe junction with a dirt road.

302 TOURS

Right on this road to PANTHER SPRINGS, 0.5 m. Near the spring is a rock
with a depression in which early settlers ground corn into meal with the aid of a
heavy pestle attached to a beam propelled by the current of the stream. The opera-
tion or this device, called a "pounding mill/' was slow, but it could be carried on
without attention.

FAJRVIEW (private), 102.9 m., is a long two-story brick dwelling (L)
with one-story wings and a classic facade of three bays formed by the use
of a central recessed two-story portico. The portico has a second floor
gallery and a pediment ornamented with a regency star; its octagonal col-
umns have capitals carved in a lotus motif. This house was built in 1850
by Stokely Williams, for his bride. The bricks were made in a nearby clay
pit and oven, still in existence. Bricks were also made in these pits to
patch the walls during the War between the States ; the patched places are
noticeable. The barns and outbuildings were constructed, at the same time
as the house.

At Faxrview is the JAMES HOBBY FARM, for the breeding and propa-
gation of small animals and fowl, including guinea pigs, white rats, ground
hogs, monkeys, giant white Flemish and Polish hares, 12 varieties of pheas-
ants, several varieties of white turkeys, peafowl, tufted bantams, and
breeds of exhibition chickens.

JEFFERSON CITY, 103.4 m. (1,117 alt, 1,898 pop.), was formerly
called Mossy Creek because it was by the creek of that name. This stream,
five miles long, flows swiftly and was used as early as 1840 to provide
power for an ax-handle factory, a cotton mill, a woolen mill, and an iron-
works. An iron smelter was established here in 1810.

CARSON NEWMAN COLLEGE, in the center of town, is a Baptist co-
educational institution that resulted from the consolidation in 1889 of Car-
son College for men, founded in 1851, and Newman College for women,
founded in 1882, On the beautifully landscaped campus are nine brick
buildings with classic facades. These are dominated by the ADMINISTRA-
TION BUILDING, completed in 1919 at a cost of more than $100,000, a
large structure of red brick trimmed with cut stone. The facade has three
entrances of classic design; in the center is a large two-story portico with
six Ionic columns supporting a massive pediment; flanking the portico are
one-story porticos of the same design. This building contains 23 lecture
rooms, the administrative offices, literary society halls, and an auditorium
that seats more than 800. The school confers bachelor degrees in arts,
science, and science in commerce.

The MAPLES, Branner St. near George St., is built on land granted by
the Crown in 1772 to Christopher Haynes. Haynes built a four-room log
house, which a few years later was sold to George Branner. Around the
Haynes cabin Branner built the present large house of Greek Revival de-
sign whose gabled roof extends forward to form the pediment of the two-
story portico. The simple lines of the mass have been somewhat destroyed
by the forward extension of one-story wings.

i. Left from Jefferson City on Dandridge Pike (State 92), six blocks, to COLO-
NIAL HALL (L) on George St., a large grey brick structure on a seven-acre land-
scaped estate. The house contains 16 rooms of unusually large size.

TOUR I 303

2. left from Jefferson City on Piedmont Rd. to the UNIVERSAL EXPLORATION
COMPANY MINES AND MILLS, I m. t which have a production capacity of about
1,000 tons of zinc daily.

The BRAZELTON HOUSE (pirate), 107 m. (R), was built in 1832 by
the Quaker major-general, William Brazelton. Brazelton himself drew the
plans and supervised the construction and decoration of the long, plain
two-story structure, which stands on a high foundation. Two stairways rise
from the first floor and the interior has delicate hand-wrought moldings.

In the yard is a pecan tree, more than 100 years old, that still produces
soft-shelled pecans. It is So feet high and 1 1 feet in circumference.

NEW MARKET, 1073 m. (1,049 alt > 5 !*>?) was settled in 1788.
In 1862 about 450 young men from the town ana from nearby farms left
here, unarmed and unorganized, to join the Union Army, They were cap-
tured by Confederates and transported to Tuscaloosa, Ala., where they
were held until the war ended.

The HODGSON-BURNETT HOUSE (open on request), built of logs and
later weatherboarded, was at intervals the home of Frances Hodgson from
1865, when her family arrived from England, until 1875, when she was
married to Dr. S. M. Burnett and moved to Washington, D. C. Mrs,
Burnett came back to New Market each summer, and two of her early
books, That Lass o* Lowrie*$ and Surly Tim's Trouble, and her most fa-
mous work, IJttle Lord Fauntleroy, were in part written during her visits
here.

At New Market is the junction with Indian Cave Road (see Tour lA).

The FRIENDS MEETING HOUSE (L) 109-1 m*, is on the site of the Lost
Creek Meeting House. From 1809 Quakers of Jefferson County advocated
the abolition of slavery and in 1815 they organized the Tennessee Society
for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves in the old meeting house on this
spot. Branches were organized in many other places in East Tennessee.

The SITE OF TUCKER'S TAVERN (R), 109-6 m., is marked by a chimney
standing in a field. The inn was built in 1819 on the stage road between
Knoxville and Abingdon, Va., which was the first Federal post road es-
tablished in Tennessee (1794).

Tucker Tavern was typical of the log-cabin inns of the frontier, where
the roads were lonely and long, and the accommodations for travelers
meager. The backwoods inn was usually a large two-story log cabin, the
second story being merely a sleeping loft. Quite often the tavern keeper
spent more time distilling whisky and selling it than in attending to the
more prosaic needs of his guests. Travelers carried their own bedding, and
also such luxuries as tea, coffee, and sugar. The innkeeper furnished bread
and butter, milk, salt and fresh meat, beans, mush, rice and other vege-
tables. There was little privacy. A traveler who went to bed alone might
wake up with several bedfellows packed into the straw-filled loft beside
Mm. A story still survives of the irate landlord who ejected a traveler from
Ms ion because the visitor objected to a towel that fifteen others had used
without a mnnnur.

Tavern rates ia 1785 were as follows: "Diet, one dulling; liquor, half

304 TOURS

pint, six pence; pasture and stable, six pence; lodging, four pence; corn,
eight pence a gallon; oats six pence a gallon."

At 110.2 m. (R) is the scene of the GREAT NEW MARKET WRECK. On
September 4, 1904, two crack passenger trains of the Southern Railway
collided. Part of a long, popular hill ballad tells the whole story:

One autumn morning in Tennessee
An awful wreck was heard ;
East of Knoxville and New Market
Was where the crash occurred.

The east and west-bound passenger trains
Were running at highest speed;
They struck each other in the curve;
'Twas a horrible sight indeed.

The engine crew on the west-bound train
Their orders had misread ;
About one hundred and fifty were hurt,
And nearly seventy were dead.

STRAWBERRY PLAINS, 115.8 m. (1,150 alt., 500 pop.), a trading
point of farmers, was so named about 1788 because of the abundance of
wild strawberries nearby.

Left from Strawberry Plains on Jones Road to WATER CRESS FARM, 0.4 m.,
where is a pond of two and one-half acres, divided into 5 one-half-acre pools. Five
to 15 barrels of cress are cut daily from May to October i.

At 117 m. is the junction with paved Mascot Road.

Right on this road is MASCOT, 2.9 m., with the mines and reduction plant of
the American Zinc Company, established in 1913. Zinc ore is mined with pneumatic
drills and dynamite, and hauled to the surface by mule-drawn tramcars. The mines,
from 150 to 250 feet underground, are worked at different levels. The ore is
crushed and ground and the asphalerite is separated from the gangue by means of
jigs and a flotation process. The mineral is shipped to plants in other States for
further treatment, most of it to the American Zinc plant in New Jersey.

At 119.6 m. is the junction with US 70 (see Tour 12), which unites
with US uE between this point and a junction south of Knoxville.

KNOXVILLE, 13*.8 m. (933 alt, 105,802 pop.) (see KNOX-
VILLE).

Points of Interest: The University of Tennessee, Blount Mansion, Henley Street
Bridge, Church Street Methodist Church, Headquarters TVA, and others.

At Knoxville are the junctions with US 70 (see Tour 12), US 129 (see
Tour 5), State 33 (see Tour 5 A), and US nW (see Tour 2).

Section b. KNOXVILLE to CLEVELAND, 85 m.

Between KNOXVILLE, m., and the Dixie Lee Junction filling sta-
tion at 19.8 m. south of Knoxville, US n and US 70 are united (see
Tour 12).

TOUR I 305

At this junction US 70 branches R.; L. on US n, which winds through
a region of low knobby hills timbered with second-growth hardwoods,
until it reaches the Tennessee River. South of the Tennessee River the
route follows the wide Tennessee River valley, where are rolling farm
land, woods, and views of distant mountains. About fifty miles south of
Knoxville the route traverses the Sweetwater Valley, which is within the
bounds of the greater Tennessee Valley. On the right is the long blue wall
of the Cumberiands, and on the left the ridges of the Chilhowie Moun-
tains,

In the valley canning crops are grown extensively, also burley tobacco.
Dairying and bee culture are also important means of livelihood, and a tall
factory smokestack now rises from almost every small town.

LENOIR CITY, 25.6 m. (853 alt., 4,470 pop.), on the Tennessee
River south of the mouth of the Little Tennessee, was founded in 1840 by
William Bailard Lenoir, who operated one of the first cotton mills in
the South. Over the Southern Railway and by truck Lenoir City shij>s
out quantities of hay and grain grown in the rich river bottoms. Lenoir
City also has more than 15 factories, most of them small, including chair
and hosiery mills. The largest plant is the Lenoir Car Works, in which
railroad cars are manufactured.

Right from Lenoir City on Eaton's Crossroad to a large GINSENG GARDEN, 1.5 m.,
which has more than a million plants in a two and one-half acre plot. A brush-
covered wire-net arbor above the plants admits air and rain but excludes the direct
rays of the sun. The root of the ginseng, which belongs to the sarsaparilla family,
is highly prized in China for its medicinal properties. Most of the crop is shipped
to the Orient, where it brings high prices. Five to seven years are necessary for the
root to mature. The leaves resemble those of poison ivy.

US ii crosses the Tennessee River at 31 m. on LOUDON BRIDGE (toll
25$) a million-dollar structure.

LOUDON, 31.6 m. (782 alt, 2,578 pop.), seat of Loudon County is
the outgrowth of a settlement, Blair's Ferry, which was on the north bank
of the river. It is the trade and shipping center of a fanning area, and has
the small hosiery and chair factories usually found in the towns of this
area. The JOHN BLAIR HOUSE was built in 1839 on land acquired from
die Indian Chief Pathkiller.

The TENNESSEE MILITARY INSTITUTE, (R) 40.7 m., was founded in
1874 by the Reverend John Lynn Bachman. It is a college preparatory
school. On the loo-acre campus are buildings and drill grounds on the
crest of a hill, tennis courts, athletic fields, and a golf course. The land
was purchased in 1909 after the school had outgrown its old plant, and
all buildings have been erected since that date. Each year since 1927 this
institution has been designated by the U. S. War Department as an honor
military school. The MAIN BUILDING is a four-story bride structure with
battlemented towers and parapets. The GYMNASIUM is a two-story brick
structure of Gothic design.

SWEETWATER, 43.7 m. (917 alt, 2,271 pop.), Hke other points in
the Sweetwater Valley, was in the former Cherokee domain. It has several
small factories that produce cheese, hosiery, and dresses.

306 TOURS

Left from Sweetwater on the Christiansburg Rd. to CRAIGHEAD CAVERNS fcfifa*
$1; guides), 1 m. The caverns follow an underground river through marble-like
rode.

The CtEAGE HOME, 54 m., built some time after 1820 by Samuel
Cieage, is a two-story brick house with stepped gable ends and a true one-
and-a-half story ell The entrance has a well proportioned fanlight.

Samuel Cleage learned the trade of brick mason in his youth and was
later a successful contractor in Botetourt County, Virginia. Believing that
the rapidly developing Tennessee would provide a good field for his trade
be proceeded along the old Post Road with a caravan made up of his
family and possessions as well as some skilled slaves. The journey was a
leisurely one, because he stopped to work at various places along the way.
He drew his own plans and supervised construction while^his Negroes
made bricks, hewed timbers, and turned moldings and chairboards. His
party increased in size because he accepted slaves as well as notes and
gold in payment. Arriving here shortly after the Hiwassee purchase, by
which the territory was acquired from the Cherokee, he obtained some
3,000 acres of land and built his home.

' Samuel Cleage and his son-in-law, Robert Crutchfield, became partners.
They constructed many of the public buildings and important private
residences of East Tennessee. .

ATHENS, 58 m. (974 alt., 5,385 popO> seat of McMinn County, is
surrounded by wooded knobs. The distant peaks of the Unakas are along
the southeastern horizon. Athens is a true courthouse town, and the shady
square is filled to overflowing with country people on Saturdays. They
come on horseback, in mule-drawn wagons, and in cars spattered with
red chy. When their trading is done the men lounge around the court-
house square, swapping gossip and political views while their women-
folk attended the movies. Soap-box evangelists, musicians, and dancing
Negro boys add to the holiday air.

In 1835, when the tide of proslavery sentiment was running high in
the State, a bundle of abolition papers arrived at the post office here, A
number of people united to demand their surrender by the postmaster and
made a bonfire of them in the street. The editor of the Athens Journal
loudly advocated a law against distribution of "these filthy and wicked
productions'* and State feeling was such that the legislature enacted a law
"to prevent the publication or circulation in this State of seditious pam-
phlets and papers," meaning those advocating the abolition of human
chattels.

TENNESSEE WESLEYAN COLLEGE, in the center of town, is a co-
educational junior college. It has a 2O-acre campus shaded by splendid
trees. There are eight buildings of various designs. OLD COLLEGE HALL,
a square three-story brick structure, is the oldest on the campus. There
are several large frame buildings with mansard roofs built during the
President Grant era. The ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, an attractive and
imposing brick structure of neo-classic design, has an auditorium seating
more than 1,000, a gymnasium, and a basketball court, besides administra-
tive offices and lecture halls.

TOUR I 307

For the first twenty years of its existence (1867-1887) the institution
was called East Tennessee Wesleyan College or University; for twenty
years (1886-1906) it was Grant University; for nineteen years (1906-
1925) it was the Athens School of the University of Chattanooga. In
June 1925 the institution was separated from the University of Chatta-
nooga and again called Tennessee Wesleyan College.

Near Ritter Hall, in the sidewalk on the north of the college, are two
trees growing very close together one an oak, the other a hackberry. A
local legend accounts for their position. A young British soldier, who had
been wounded at the Battle of Kings Mountain, was nursed back to health
by Weena, a daughter of Little Carpenter, the famous Cherokee chief.
They fell in love and the soldier was adopted into the tribe; but their
happiness was short-lived. A jealous suitor murdered the white man, and
Weena, grief -stricken, killed herself. When the two lovers were buried
here, Little Carpenter placed an acorn in the white man's hand, and a
hackberry seed in Weena's.

CALHOUN, 73 m. (893 alt, 300 pop.), on the north bank of the
Hiwassee River, was settled in 1819 and named for John C Calhoun, then
Secretary of War.

Under their treaty rights the Cherokee retained the islands in the
Chestatee, Tennessee, and Hiwassee Rivers. John McGhee wished to ac-
quire one of these islands in the Hiwassee near here. He owned a rifle
that was coveted by Jack Walker, a chief of the local Cherokee, One day
the Indian remarked, "The Chief had dream. He dreamed that White
Chief had given him his fine gun." McGhee did so. Later, McGhee, tak-
ing advantage of the Indian tradition that what was asked for under such
conditions must be given, approached the Indian and remarked, "White
man dream Indian Chief gave him fine island/* After a period of reflec-
tion the Indian replied, "Big Chief give you island, but Indian no dream
against white man no more,"

CHARLESTON, 746 m. (903 alt, 480 pop.), is opposite Calhoun on
the south bank of the Hiwassee River. While this area was still Indian
territory the Ocoee District, ceded to the U. S. in 1819 by the Cherokee
the Indian Agency stood here.

In the summer and fall of 1838 several thousand Cherokee were herded
together for the Great Removal to land west of the Mississippi River.
At Rattlesnake Springs, 2 miles from Charleston the last tribal council of
the old Cherokee Nation was held. After this gathering in October, the
Indians began the weary march into western exile, escorted by soldiers of
the United States Army. Gen. Winfield Scott was in. command of the
troops who evicted the Cherokee.

Attention is called to the SITE OF THE HOUSE and the GRAVE OF
CHIEF JACK WALKER by a bronze tablet set in a stone wall at 81.8 m.
The tablet says:

"Location of house and grave of Chief Jack Walker, greatest of his
tribe and a servant of our coentry. Married 1824 Emily Meigs, daughter
of Return Jonathan Meigs."

Chief Jack Walker lived oo what is known as the Cherokee Farm. At

308 TOURS

an Indian council at Old Fort, he was accused of treason by his tribesmen
and was assassinated on his way home from the meeting.

About 40 feet east is the grave; a hackberry tree stands at one end of
it, a block of limestone at the other.

At CLEVELAND, 85 m. (873 ait., 9,136 pop.) (see Tour 13), is
the junction with US 64 (see Tour 13J, with which US n unites to
Chattanooga.

Tour i A

(Roanoke, Va.) Bristol Kingsport Rogersville Knoxville; US uW,
Virginia Line to Knoxville; 121.3 m.

Paved roadbed; narrow and winding with sharp curves.
Accommodations of all types throughout.

US nW winds southwestward through a region over which the white
settlers and the Cherokee fought bloodily for years. It was a part of the
Cherokee Overhill Country, with fertile bottom lands and held several
Cherokee towns. US nW branches west from US nE (see Tour 1) at
BRISTOL, m. (see Tour 1) on the Virginia Line 157.4 miles southwest
of Roanoke, Va. and descends into farm lands.

BLOUNTVILLE, 9.5 m. (1,700 alt, 1,200 pop.), seat of Sullivan
County, was named for William Blount, the first Governor (1790) of
the Territory South of the River Ohio. The county, named for Gen. John
Sullivan (1740-1795), was organized at the home of Moses Looney on
February 7, 1780. Isaac Shelby, appointed colonel-commandant of the new
county by Governor Caswell of North Carolina, subsequently became the
first Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

According to tradition, Blountville, among craggy, timbered hills, had
been the site of a fort and settlement before it became a town in 1795,
It is now surrounded by rich farm land that produces grain, vegetables,
and a very fine grade of tobacco.

From the first the people here felt the need of education for their chil-
dren. In 1806 Jefferson Academy was established in a log structure that
in 1836 was replaced by one of brick. In 1837 a Female Academy was
established in a building opposite the cemetery.

When the PEARSON HOME was constructed about 1810 it was given a
second-story overhang by the cautious owner to enable him to shoot and
to pour scalding water on Indians should they attempt to attack the place.

TOUR IA 309

At 21.5 m. where US nW crosses Chestnut Ridge, is the junction with
a country road.

Right on this road along the crest of the ridge to spots that offer delightful views
of Clinch Mountain and other ridges.

At 22.5 m. is the junction with State 81, bituminous surfaced.

Left on State 81 is the village of FALLS BRANCH, 12 m., near a 4o-foot water-
fall for which the creek and village are named. Near the fall and creek are two
water mills. The route between Kingsport and Falls Creek affords a clear view of
Chimney Tops and Bays Mountain and follows the narrow gorge of the Nolichucky
River through Buffalo Mountain.

At 23.4 m. is the junction with US 23 (see Tour 2).
KINGSPORT, 24.5 m. (1,700 alt, 11,914 pop.) (see KINGSPORT).

"Points of Interest: The Kingsport Press, Tennessee Eastman Corporation Plant,
Borden Mills, and others.

At 27.3 m., by the eastern end of the bridge over the north fork of
Holston is a stone monument (L) marking the SITE OF FORT ROBINSON
and FORT PATRICK HENRY (see KINGSPORT). Right along the north
fork 0.3 m. on a graveled road to the OLD ROTHERWOOD ELM, plainly
visible from the bridge. This old tree has a trunk circumference of 22
feet, and a branch spread of approximately 150 feet. Dr. Thomas Walker
mentioned it in the Journal kept on his exploration trip through the val-
ley in 1748. A party of French travelers commented with awe on this
magnificent elm and Daniel Boone is said to have camped under it on one
of his journeys through this region into Kentucky. The spring near its
roots supplied water to the estate; the ruins of the cotton mill are nearby.

ROTHERWOOD (L), 27.5 m., is close to the junction of the north and
south forks of the Holston River. The house, built in 1850 by Frederick
A. Ross for his daughter Rowena, is a massive two-story brick structure
with a balustraded hip roof, and is surrounded by a wide balustraded
stone terrace; the entrance is protected by a tall two-story portico with
balustraded flat roof forming a gallery at the third floor level. This house
was constructed a few hundred yards below the site of the first Rother-
wood house, built in 1818 and destroyed by fire in 1865. Ross called the
grounds that were terraced and landscaped to the river's edge, his "fall-
ing gardens/* He named his estate for the castle of Cedric the Saxon,
and his daughter Rowena for the blond heroine of Scott's Ivanboe, a
popular book of the day. Frederick Ross and his large family extended
lavish hospitality to some of the most noted men of the day. His carriage
was Napoleonic in style, with gray silk upholstery and trappings of pure
silver. Ross attempted silkworm culture. He also built a cotton mill on
the bank of the North Fork River, but it was a failure and in 1852 he
lost his entire estate.

At 51.2 m. is the junction with a dirt road.

Left on this road to EBBING AND FLOWING SPRING, 1 m. The basin, six or eight
feet deep, fills slowly. At intervals of approximately two and a half hours it over-
flows. At full flow the spring produces about 500 gallons of clear water a minute.
When the water reaches its lowest ebb, it suddenly begin to stir slightly; then

TOURS

within eight or ten minutes it is Bowing strongly. For a few minutes it holds this
hea-vy flow, and begins to ebb again. On a hill about 300 yards from the Ebbing
and Flowing Spring is a burial ground where a monument over the grave of w. A,
Lee (1885-1906) bears the familiar inscription:

Remember me, as you pass by
As you are now so once was I
As I am now you soon will be
Prepare for death and follow me.

Beneath the inscription someone has cut a comment into the stone:

To follow you, I am not content
Unless I know which way you went.

At 52.7 m. is the junction with State 70,

Right on State 70 to the junction with State 94, 6 m.; L. here 3 m. to the estate
established in 1910 by the International Printing Pressmen's and Assistants Union;
it now represents an investment of more than $1,000,000. It is maintained by appro-
priation from the regular dues of the union. ^

The HOME FOR SUPERANNUATED PRINTING PRESSMEN is a large white structure
of modified Georgian Colonial design with 240 rooms. Members of the organiza-
tion, who are 60 and more years old and do not wish to take advantage of the
union's pension system, may live here. .

Because of printers' susceptibility to tuberculosis, the union also maintains a
SANATORIUM here; this large two-story structure has wings projecting forward at
an angle and many porches. .

The TECHNICAL TRADE SCHOOL supplies instruction without charge to members

On the ground is a MEMORIAL CHAPEL of Gothic design dedicated to members
of the union who were killed in the World War. It is built for the most part of
reddish-gray sandstone quarried on the 3,000 acres of land belonging to the union.
Among the recreational facilities is a large swimming pool (open to public tn
summer). There is a modern hotel on the grounds, owned by the union.

At 53.6 m. is the junction with paved Kepler Station Road.

Left on this road to the little AMIS STONE HOUSE, 3.5 ai., erected by Thomas
Amis in 1780. The i8-inch walls of field stone formerly had rifleports instead of
windows ia the upper half-story. In later years Amis' daughter Mary said that she
frequently wakened to hear Indians grinding their knives and tomahawks on her
father's grindstone. The log kitchen was formerly some distance from the house.

ROGERSVILLE, 54.7 m. (1,170 alt, 1,590 pop.), is the seat of Haw-
kins County. Settlements were made in this area in 1772, three years
after the first whites came to live in what is now Tennessee. About 1780
Thomas Amis erected a stone house three miles northeast of this place and
in the following year he established a store, a blacksmith shop, a distil-
lery, a gristmill, and a hotel. In 1785, when Joseph Rogers, an Irishman
employed by Amis as storekeeper, married Mary Amis, Thomas' daughter,
Amis gave the couple the tract of land upon which Rogersville was estab-
lished in 1786, One of the last acts of the General Assembly of North
Carolina that affected what is now Tennessee was the naming of Rogers-
yille as seat of Hawkins County. The county was named for Benjamin
Hawkins, U. S. Senator from North Carolina, who, with his colleague,
Senator Johnson, executed the deed of cession that conveyed the Territory
of Tennessee to the United States on Feb. 25, 1790.

The town is a trade center for an area in which tobacco-growing and

TOUR IA 311

livestock-raising are the principal activities. Walnuts are collected nearby
in large quantities.

Three of the earliest newspapers in the State began publication here.
The Knoxville Gazette, which first appeared on November 5, 1791, had
been published here weekly by G. Roulstone and R. Fergueson for about
a year before the plant was moved to Knoxviile. The paper devoted much
space to Thomas Paine's Rights of Aian.

The second issue carried this news story which reveals the state of
mind of the whites when meeting the natives whose lands they were ex-
propriating:

"About the icth inst. a company going through the wilderness to
Cumberland was met on the road by a party of Indians. Upon first sight
the men, being seven in number, rode off with the utmost precipitation
and left the women, four in number, who were so terrified that they were
unable to proceed/*

A typical Gazette advertisement read:

"Mr. James Miller informs his friends and the public that he has just
arrived from Philadelphia and Richmond and has brought with him a
large and general assortment of goods among which are best rum, wine,
brandy, and whisky, a few young, likely Virginia-born Negroes and will
pay the highest prices for bear, otter, wild cat, and other kinds of fur/*

The Railroad Advocate, one of the earliest publications in the United
States devoted exclusively to railroad news, first appeared here on June
21, 1831. The Calwnistic Magazine, which had a five-year existence, be-
gan publication in 1827.

The HAWKINS COUNTY COURTHOUSE is a two-story brick building,
with front gable protruding to form a huge pediment supported by four
large columns. Surmounting the building is a clock tower that, in turn, is
surmounted by an octagonal cupok. The deed for the land here, obtained
from the Cherokee, is recorded in the registrar's office. It was signed by
Oconastoto, the chief warrior and representative of the Cherokee Nation
and Attafcullakulla and Savanooka, otherwise Coronah, appointed by the
warriors and other head men to represent the nation.

The former McMiNN ACADEMY is on the north side of Main St. at
the western end of town; the institution was founded in 1806 and named
for Joseph McMinn, who was elected Governor in 1815. The present
building, a two-story structure with equally distant classic pilasters, has a
circular cupola. After the academy was closed, the building for many years
housed the city high school. It is now privately owned.

The ROGERSVILLE INN, constructed about 1782, has been converted
into two dwellings at 107 and 108 Rogers St. This inn operated by
Thomas Amis, was an important stop oa the stage routes. The rooms on
the second floor have been little changed since the early days. The former
bar room is now a dining room.

At 64.8 m, is the junction with a dirt road.

Right on this road to GALBRATTH SPRINGS, 1 m. (1,400 alt.). It has been
believed locally that the chalybeate water, commonly called "Iron water," has me-
dicinal properties. A comfortable hotel and numerous cottages are in a large grove

312 TOURS

of trees. The resort is a mile from the Holston River, which affords opportunities
for excellent bass fishing, as well as for boating and swimming.

At 73.7 m. is the junction with an unimproved road.

Right on this road to MOORESBURG SPRINGS, 3 m. James Shields and Caleb
Witt, who discovered a spring here highly impregnated with iron, deeded it and
about two acres of adjacent land "to the sick and afflicted of the State of Tennes-
see." Any sick Tennessean could build a cabin on the premises and hold the title
to it as long as he cared to remain.

At 76.2 m. is the junction with a graveled road, and a private lane.

1. Right on this road to TATE SPRINGS, 0.5 m. The water of the springs has
been bottled and widely distributed. The Indians prized the water as a^specific for
eye diseases. Because members of several hostile tribes visited the springs it was
agreed that sufferers and their friends should come unarmed. The first hotel at the
springs was erected by C O. Tate, for whom the springs were named. Soon after the
War between the States, Capt. Thomas Tomlinson purchased the property and built
a hotel (open summers only) f which at one time was a fashionable summer resort.

2. Left here 0.3 m. to STONELEIGH (open). On a spot marked by a sundial in
the back lawn a triple echo can be heard. A tall pine, sketched by Fred Yohn for
an illustration in the novel, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine t by John Fox, Jr., can
be seen from the back lawn. The tree, on the west side of a slight knoll, is sur-
rounded by smaller pines.

BEAN STATION, 77.6 m. (1,367 alt., 270 pop.), is at the intersection,
of the Lee Highway, and the Buffalo Trail, now US z$E (see Tour 3);
these were formerly called the Baltimore International Turnpike and the
Louisville-Charleston Highway. The Daniel Boone Trail and the Great
Indian Warpath also intersected here.

The crossroads was named in honor of the Bean brothers, William
Robert, George, and Jesse, who in 1787 erected a fort to protect settlers
from the Indians, The home of the Beans was at one corner of the pali-
sade, which also enclosed a spring. The site of this fort is near the Old
Colonial Inn. William and Robert Bean were captains in the militia
under John Sevier; George Bean, an artisan, in 1792 advertised in the
Knoxville Gazette that he had opened a jewelry and gunsmith shop here.

The former WHITESIDE INN, now the Old Colonial, built in 1801 by
Thomas Whiteside, was an important hostelry because of its position at
the intersection of highways. Drovers moving their stock from Kentucky
to the southern markets also stopped here. The first building was frame,
but in 1813 Whiteside erected a three-story brick structure. Part of this
building has been incorporated in the present hotel

Plainly visible from the highway, near the hotel, are entrenchments
thrown up around an encampment by Confederate troops under General
Longstreet during th$ winters of 1863-64.

CLINCHDALE (private), 19 A m,, a. comfortable frame house built in
1850, stands in a grove of large cedars. This was the home of John K.
Shields, U. S. Senator (1913-1925). His father, James Shields, built the
house and practiced law in a small building on the grounds. Behind the
house are slave huts, a smokehouse, and a carriage house.

At 81.8 m, is the junction with a graveled road.

HAWKINS COUNTY COURTHOUSE, ROGERSVILLE

TOURS

Right at the end of this toad to AVONDAIE SPRINGS (open May 1 to Oct. 1),
0.7 m. f which have water impregnated with various minerals. A small hotel is oper-
ated here and there are nine cabins that can be rented.

RUTLEDGE, 86,4 m. (1,225 alt., 518 pop,), seat of Grainger County
and a trade center, was named in honor of Gen. George Rutlcdge, the
successor of John Sevier as brigadier general of the State militia. The
county, named in honor of Mary Grainger, wife of Gov. William Blount,
was established in 1796, before Tennessee was admitted to the Union.
The permanent county seat was not selected until 1801.

Black-veined marble is quarried near the town.

Left from Rutledge on State 92 to a junction with a dirt road, 3 m.; R. here
4.3 m. to BUFFALO SPRINGS GAM E FARM of 375 acres, in which is a quail hatchery
with an incubator and brooder having a capacity of 100,000 birds. Fifty acres of
the tract are used for the propagation of wild turkeys, California quail and chicken
partridges. Near the eastern corner of the reservation is a large water mill that was
built in 1796 and is still in operation.

Along this section of the route the Clinch Mountains (R) and the Great Smoky
Mountains (I) are visible. Herds of shorthorn cattle graze on bluegrass pasture
land. Large flocks of sheep wander over the hillsides. Poultry farms are numerous.
Thousands of acres are planted in peaches and apples.

At 92.4 m. is the junction with the paved Jefferson City Road.

Left on this road to a junction with a dirt road 3 m,; L. here to BUFFALO
SPRINGS GAME FARM, 5 m.

RED HOUSE TAVERN, 96,1 m. (R), erected in 1796 by Jeremiah Jarna-
gin, is in good condition today.

At 99 m. is the junction with a county road.

Right on this load to LEA SPRINGS, I m., an old resort popular because of its
iron and sulphur springs. The principal lodge (open May 15-$ept. 15) f was built
about 1830 as a farmhouse. The lake here is well stocked with bass.

At 101.5 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road to INDIAN CAVE (adm. $1), 7 m. There are thousands of sta-
lactites and stalagmites here, great masses of dripstone, fiowstone, and translucent
draperies. Notable among the formations are Vista of Old Pekin, the Pillars of
Hercules, the Pass of Thermopylae, and the Grave of the Gnomes. Tradition is that
the Cherokee used the cave as a hiding place after defeat at the hands of an Iro-
quois war party.

The JOHN SEVIER YARDS of the Southern Ry. (L), 111.7 m., built in
1925, have 50 miles of track in a classification yard that can handle 3,500
cars. In normal times 60 trains move in and out of the terminal daily.
Modern facilities for the rapid handling of freight are used, including a
transfer station for iess-than-carload freight moving through Knoxville,
a refrigeration station for the storage of perishable goods, and pens in
which livestock can be fed, watered, and rested. The yard is built in two
units, each with a receiving and a make-up section. Freight trains are
carried around Knoxville on a belt line.

At 116,2 m, is the junction with US 11-70 (see Tour 12), which unites
with this route into Knoxville.

Knoxville, 121.3 m. (993 alt, 105,802 pop.) (see KNOXVILLE).

TOUR IB 315

Points of Interest: University of Tennessee, Blount Mansion, Henley Street Bridge,
Church Street Methodist Church, Chisholm Tavern, TVA Headquarters, and others.

Knoxville is at the junction with US 70 (see Tour 12), with US
and State 35 (see Tour 5), with State 33 (see Tour 5A), and with US
nE (see Tour 1).

Tour iB

Bristol Mountain Gty Elisabethton Johnson Gty.
US 421, State 67, and US ipE.
Bristol to Johnson City, 76.7 m.

Southern Ry. parallels route between Mountain City and Johnson City.

Graveled roadbed between Bristol and Mountain Gty; paved between Mountain

City and Johnson City.

Southeast of Bristol the route traverses an area lying within the Unaka
Division of the Cherokee National Forest and is overshadowed by the
Holston and Iron Mountains. About 18 miles from Bristol the highway
begins a winding ascent of Holston Mountain, and at several points there
are views of hazy hills and green valleys. In season purple rhododendron
blooms in profusion on jutting rocks high above the road and in deep
gulches far below it. The Appalachian Trail, which extends from Maine
to Georgia, crosses the highway along the summit of Holston Mountain.

Between the Holston and Iron Mountains lies Shady Valley grassy,
cool, and quiet. The highway winds from one elevation to another on
Iron Mountain. From a gap, on clear days, Grandfather's Mountain and
other lofty peaks in North Carolina are visible about 20 miles southeast.

This area was first visited by Daniel Boone, acquisitive frontiersman,
whose relentless push into unexplored wilderness has filled pages of Ten-
nessee and Kentucky history. Hotels, roads, creeks, church buildings, and
schoolhouses along the route bear the name of this Indian fighter, bear
hunter, and trail blazer.

US 421 branches east from US n (see Tour 1) at BRISTOL, m.
(1,689 alt, 12,500 pop.) (see Tour 1).

BISHOP'S CAVE (L), 4 m., which extends under approximately 100
acres of land, has a small opening half hidden by hardwood and cedar.
Various passages and corridors open into its many chambers, one of which
is more than 40 feet in height. Stalactites and stalagmites line a subter-
ranean stream, which flows on tbe lowest level to its exit in the base of a
nearby cliff.

3*6 TOURS

Acres of rhododendrons cover the mountain slopes (R) at 17.1 m.

The highway crosses the Appalachian Trail at 19 m. Near the highway
is a protected spring, 19.3 m. (R), near which the U. S. Forest Service
maintains a campground.

US 421 crosses the trail of Daniel Boone at 27 m.

MOUNTAIN CITY, 34 m. (2,418 alt, 1,058 pop.), seat of Johnson
County, is a trading center for farmers. Mountain people ride or walk in
to this town from their distant cabins to buy supplies with "cash money/*
or to swap eggs, chickens, butter, and cream for tobacco, sugar, coffee,
salmon, bananas, and other "store-boughten" delicacies.

In 1885 the town, first called Taylorsville for an early settler, was given
a more picturesque name; it is in a high valley surrounded by mountain
peaks. The coldest weather ever registered in Tennessee was recorded
here on December 30, 1917, when the thermometer dropped to 30.

Johnson County, created in 1836, was named for Cave Johnson, Post-
master General during the administration of President Polk. It was the
first county in the State to establish a public school under the Tennessee
law of 1854, which provided for the support of schools by taxation.

During the summer of 1770 James Robertson, later founder of Nash-
ville, planted a crop on Roan Creek near its junction with the Watauga
River. The Roan Creek Baptist Church, the first in the county, was organ-
ized in 1794.

Left from Mountain City on a graveled road, known locally as Gasoline Highway
No. 2 to a LOG CABIN, 15 m., erected in 1790 by Casper Cable, a Hessian soldier
who came here after the Revolutionary War. The GRAVE OF CABLE is in a small
plot behind the cabin.

Right from Mountain City on State 67 ; the route passes through valleys
dotted with small villages and attractive homesteads.

At 48.9 m. on State 67 is a junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road is BUTLER, 3 m. (x,8oo alt., 706 pop.), a trading center in a
valley formed by a chain of undulating hills and ridges. It was named for Roderick
R. Butler, who served several terms in the Tennessee Legislature.

In 1788 Bishop Asbury preached in the vicinity of Butler. He mentions in his
journal how "we came on to a dismal place called Roan's Creek/'

Right from Butler 12 m. on a dirt road to a very rough trail that tumbles down
to TWISTING FALLS, known as the Big Falls of the Elk, or Greasy Falls, in the
Elk River Gorge. The water of Elk River falls 200 feet in three big leaps. The
gorge, which rises 100 feet or more above the stream, is broken by gullies and crev-
ices that prevent close approach to the river. Blackberry bushes, devils walkingstick,
smilax, and a few rhododendrons grow close in the brush along the falls.

At 60.5 m. is HAMPTON (540 alt, 450 pop.). On an unnamed
street in the center of the village is the HARRIS HOME (open). This large
square two-story brick structure was erected early in the nineteenth cen-
tury by Elijah Simerly. During the War between the States, it was the
home of Nathaniel E. Harris, a Confederate sympathizer. Ostracized by
his Unionist neighbors after the war, Harris moved to Georgia where he
became prominent in politics; he was the last Confederate veteran elected
Governor of Georgia. After war bitterness died down, the Harris family
returned here each summer. A great spring in the back yard discharges

TOUR IB 317

7 million gallons of pure freestone water daily and is the source of the
municipal water supply of Elizabethton.

Left from Hampton on US 19%, 7.2 m., to a PICNIC GROUND surrounded by
laurel, rhododendron, and hemlock.

At 14 m. on US 19! is ROAN MOUNTAIN STATION. Right 6.5 m. from
Roan Mountain on a graveled road to a toll gate at the lower end of a steep, wind-
ing road leading 7.3 m. to the summit of ROAN MOUNTAIN, which has two
peaks, Roan High Bluff (6,227 alt.) and Roan High Knob (6,313 alt.). The north
slopes are heavily timbered with second-growth trees, varying from cove hardwood
to spruce, according to the elevation. The summit, which is above timber line, offers
a view of countless peaks and ridges. On Roan High Bluff is a rhododendron gar-
den. Across the gap from Roan Mountain, SUNSET ROCK (6,133 alt.) rises. The
natives cherish the tradition that through the gap between Sunset Rock and Roan
the backwoodsmen passed on their way to King's Mountain to defeat Ferguson and
his British troops.

One tale about the origin of the name Roan traces it to the Catawba, who were
victorious in three bloody battles with invading Indian nations; afterwards, the
story is, the flowers that grew on the mountain became crimson. The Catawba, be-
lieving these roan-colored flowers were nourished by the blood of the slain, looked
upon it as a sign of favor from the Great Spirit.

Right from Hampton on US icfE \ at 61.4 m. is the western end of
DOE RIVER GORGE, which extends 17 miles in a southeasterly direc-
tion. The walls rise steeply 1,000 feet above the stream bed, and during
rainy seasons many tiny streams cascade down them.

ELIZABETHTON, 66 m. (1,575 alt, 12,786 pop.), is the seat of
Carter County, which was named for Landon Carter. The town was
named for his wife. It is an industrial town in Happy Valley at the conflu-
ence of the Watauga and Dee Rivers, an area known as Watauga Old
Fields, because there had once been a Cherokee village here. The North
American Rayon and the American Bemberg Corporations have plants
along the north side of the Glanzstoif Highway about one-half mile west
of the courthouse; rayon yarn is manufactured here from Canadian fir
pulp, and from cotton linters.

The larger part of the stock of both companies is owned by the German
cartel, and the plants operate under their patents. Other industrial prod-
ucts of Elizabeth are twine, lumber, boxes, overalls, and flour.

The SOLDIER'S MONUMENT, on the lawn of the Carter County Court-
house, has an inscription honoring Mary Patton, who made the gunpowder
fired by Tennesseans at the Battle of King's Mountain.

A boulder monument on the courthouse lawn marks the spot where the
Watauga Association was organized in 1772 (see HISTORY AND GOV-
ERNMENT).

The ALFRED MOORE CARTER HOME, on Elk Avenue, was designed by
an architect from New Jersey and constructed in 1819. It is a plain two-
story structure from large double-hinge windows, having sixteen panes in
the lower sash and twelve in the upper.

The exterior walls are covered with tongued-and-grooved, hand-hewn,
hand-planed boards and there is a small two-story porch in front. The in-
terior has carved mantels and trim.

Under a very la^ge sycamore tree at 109 Riverside Drive, a short dis-

318 TOURS

tance from the courthouse, is a marker that designates the spot where the
first court west of the Allegheny Mountains was held in 1772; the syca-
more under which it convened was then a young tree. Near the tree at
the east end of Hattie St. is a covered bridge built before the War between
the States.

Robert L. Taylor (1850-1912) and his brother Alfred A. Taylor
(1848-1931), Governors of Tennessee, were born and reared in Eliza-
bethton. The site of the old Taylor homestead is near the rayon plants.
Bob Taylor was a lifelong Democrat, Alf an ardent Republican. As young
men (1886) they campaigned together as opposing candidates for the
Governorship of the State; Bob described their campaign:

"We had dreamed together in the same trundle-bed, and often kicked
each other out . . . seen visions of pumpkin pie . . . pulled hair . . . But
now the dreams of our manhood clashed . . . With flushed cheeks and
throbbing hearts, we eagerly entered the field, his shield bearing the red
rose, mine the white . . . The multitude . . . gathered ... a white rose on
every Democratic bosom and a red rose on every Republican breast . . .
But when the clouds of war had cleared away ... I thought of the first
speech my mother ever taught me:

Man's a vapor full of woes;
Cuts a caper down he goes.

Bob was elected and served three terms (1887-91; 1897-5)9). He was
later a United States Senator, His brother was Governor from 1921 to
1923.

As a storyteller and lecturer, Bob Taylor belonged to the school of
Mark Twain. His most popular story concerned Bert Lynch, the bully of
the mountains, who stayed at an old gristmill and picked fights with any-
one who came along. He had whipped Adam Wheezer the week a new
minister came to the mountains. As Taylor told the story:

"Brother Billy Patterson preached from the door of the mill on the
following Sunday. It was his first sermon in that neck of the woods, and
he began his ministrations with a powerful discourse, hurling his anath-
emas against Satan and sin and every kind of wickedness. He denounced
whisky; he branded the bully as a brute and a moral coward, and person-
ated Bert This was too much for the champion. He resolved to thrash
Brother Patterson, and in 'a few days they met at the mill. Bert squared
himself and said:

" Tarson, you had your turn last Sunday; it's mine to-day. Pull off that
broadcloth an* take your medicine ! I'm a-gwine to suck the marrow out'n
them old bones o' yourn/

"The pious preacher pleaded for peace, but without avail. At last he
said: 'Then if nothing but a fight will satisfy you, will you allow me to
kneel down and say my prayer before we fight?'

" 'O, yes; that's all right, parson!' said Bert. 'But cut yer prayer short,
for I'm a-gwine to give you a good, sound thrashinY

"The preacher knelt and thus began to pray:

" 'O Lord, Thou knowest that when I killed Bill Cummins and John

TOUR IB 319

Brown and Jerry Smith and Levi Bottles, that I did it in self defense.
Thou knowest, O Lord, that when I cut the heart out of young Slinger
and strewed the ground with the brains of Paddy Miles, that it was forced
upon me, and that I did it in great agony of soul. And now, O Lord, I am
about to be forced to put in his coffin this poor, miserable wretch, who has
attacked me here to-day. O Lord, have mercy upon his soul and take care
of his helpless widow and orphans when he is gone/

"And he arose, whetting his knife on his shoe sole, singing:

" 'Hark, from the tomb a doleful sound;
Mine ears attend the cry/

"But when he looked around, Bert was gone. There was nothing in
sight but a little cloud of dust far up the road, following in the wake of
the vanishing champion/'

Right 0.7 m. from Elizabethton on State 91, a paved road, to the entrance to
THE MANSION, the Landon Carter Home (entrance by permission), erected in the
latter part of the i8th century. It is a two-story structure of the Georgian Colonial
type, with large stone chimneys at each end, and wide hand-hewn clapboards over
logs. The hall and some of the other rooms, including the master's bedroom, are
beautifully paneled. Many heirlooms are in the house.

John Carter came to Carter's Valley from Virginia before the Revolution, and
there opened a store. He traded with both Indians and white settlers; many of the
immigrants moving west stopped at his store for supplies. The Tassel, a Cherokee
chief, wrote to a Crown officer in North Carolina about Carter: "I received your
Talk about Mr. Carter. * . . I will order my young people not to lay out their hunts
(trade) with him any more as it greatly hurts our Traders (the French)- that has
been among us and supply'd us for many years." But Carter continued to trade;
after the Indians burned his store, he moved to the Watauga settlement.

Here he quickly became a leader in the movement to form the Watauga Asso-
ciation, and when it had been formed, he was elected to one of the five judgeships,
and was also made colonel of the militia. While holding this rank, he defended
Fort Caswell with a small group of settlers. Carter, like King Carter in Virginia,
prospered exceedingly.

Landon Carter was elected Secretary of State of the short-lived State of Franklin.
Later he became involved in a land scandal with John Sevier, then Governor, The
two men were never absolved of the accusation, but the illegality of many frontier
land titles prevented an outburst of public sentiment. Everyone was speculating in
land and grabbing what he could at the time.

At 3.3 m. on State 91, at the northern end of the bridge is the junction with a
graveled road that runs along the river. Left on this road to another graveled road
leading 0.9 m. to the DANIEL STOVER HOUSE (R). This two-story frame house,
now abandoned, stands in the yard of another two-story frame house. Daniel Stover's
wife, Mary Johnson Stover, was a daughter of Andrew Johnson, President of the
United States after the death of Lincoln. Johnson visited this house frequently after
his retirement, and died here in July, 1875.

The SYCAMORE SHOALS MONUMENT, 69.6 m., is a three-sided shaft
of river rocks, erected to mark the place where important events occurred.
In 1772 settlers from Virginia and North Carolina built Fort Watauga
here as a protection against the Indians; in the same year the Transyl-
vania Treaty with the Cherokee was negotiated at the fort, the Cherokee
agreeing to sell to the Transylvania Company the area between the Ohio
River and the watershed of the Cumberland. Virginia and North Carolina
had no interest in these early settlements, and neither State took any steps

320 TOURS

immediately to extend its jurisdiction. Realizing the necessity of having
some form of government, the settlers met during the spring of 1772, at
the site of Elizabethton, and entered into a compact forming the Watauga.
Association. This compact for self-government was the first made by-
white men west of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1776 a survey definitely
determined that what is now northeast Tennessee lay within the bound-
aries of North Carolina. Accordingly, the association petitioned the
General Assembly of North Carolina to include them within the jurisdic-
tion of that Colony. The petition resulted in the creation of Washington
County, which comprised all the area settled by whites in what is no'w
Tennessee.

MILLIGAN COLLEGE (L), 72.5 m., a coeducational and nonsectarian
institution, was established in 1881 by Joseph Hopwood, a Kentuckian,
on the site of Buffalo Institute, which had been opened before the War
between the States. In April 1881, the name was changed to Milligan
College to honor Robert Milligan of Kentucky University, a former
teacher of Hopwood's.

JOHNSON CITY, 76.7 m. (1,717 alt, 25,080 pop.), (see Tour 2)
is at junctions with US nE (see Tour 1) and US 23 (see Tour 2).

Tour 2

(Appalachia, Va.) Kingsport Johnson City Erwin (Asheville, N.

C); US 23, US 23-I9W.

Virginia Line to North Carolina Line, 53.8 m.

Paved throughout. Accommodations at short intervals along the route.

US 23 traverses the region of the Watauga Settlement, established in
1770, and passes the site of the first house erected by a permanent settler
in the Tennessee region. It winds through the territory over which Daniel
Boone made many scouting trips.

Between Kingsport and Johnson City the foothills of the nearby moun-
tains are rugged and cultivated fields are scattered. South of Johnson City
is a fertile valley at the foot of Unaka Mountain. The peaks of the Unaka
and the Beauty Spot rim the horizon. Between Erwin and the North Caro-
lina Line the route parallels the Nolichucky Gorge.

The route crosses the Virginia Line, m., 47 miles south of Appa-
lachia.

At 2.7 m. is the junction with US nW (see Tour lA).

KINGSPORT, 3.2 m. (1,720 alt., 11,914 pop.) (see KINGSPORT).

TOUR a 3 21

Points oj Interest; Kingsport Press, Pennsylvania-Dixie Cement Plant, Nether-
lands Inn, and others.

At 4.9 m. is the junction (L) with US nW (see Tour lA).
At 8.2 m. the Holston River is crossed; the river affords good bass
fishing.

At 9 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road 0.3 m. to the Great Falls Bluffs of the Holston River.

Rising from 450 to 500 feet above the river, the bluffs are covered with willow,
alder, mock orange, sycamore and beech, with huge grapevines clinging to the
branches. Above the Falls, which are really rapids, is a quiet pool.

At 12 m. is the junction with a graveled road. Close to the highway
(L) here is a well-preserved pioneer cabin of two rooms separated by an
open hallway (dog-trot).

At 14 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road 1.6 m. is (R) a pioneer log cabin with run-way.

At 4.3 m. is MCKELLAR AIRPORT, serving Bristol, Johnson City, and Kingsport.
It was built by the WPA (1936) and is a regular station of the American Airlines.
The 200-acre field has two runways, one of 4,000 feet, the other of 3,500.

At 18.7 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

1. Right on this road 0.3 m. to the junction with Gray Station Road. Right
0.4 m. on Gray Station Road to Reedy Creek. A trail leads (L) along the creek
0.4 m. to the SITE OF THE BOONE BEAR TREE. The old beech, known as the "Bar
Tree," was blown down in 1916; it bore the knife-carved inscription: "D. Boon
cilled A Bar On Tree in the yEAR 1760."

2. Left from US 23 on the graveled road, crossing Carroll Creek at 1.4 m. t
where it empties into Boone Creek. Between the mouth of Carroll Creek and the
Watauga, on the right bank of Boone Creek is the FIRST TENNESSEE GRIST MILL
(about 1772).

A trail leads 200 yards up Boone Creek to a marker indicating the SITE OF WlL-
LIAM BEAN'S CABIN, on the right bank. A ruined chimney is all that remains of
the log cabins built in 1769 by the first settler in the territory.

At 21.1 m. is the junction with US nE-i9W (see Tour 1), which
unites for 3.5 miles with US 23. In the fork of this junction is the MAS-
SENGILL MEMORIAL MONUMENT (see Tour 1).

JOHNSON CITY, 24.4 m. (1,717 alt, 25,080 pop.), a trade center
and shipping point for a lumbering and farming area, partly dependent
for employment on railroad division shops, began to grow rapidly after
the establishment of the rayon plants in Elizabethton to the east. Large
numbers of people who came to work in the Elizabethton plants could not
find quarters in the boom city and decided to live here and commute.
New stores were opened to accommodate the increased population and
various new businesses came into existence box factories, tanneries, lum-
ber yards and lumber mills. The result is that the center of town,^ which is
cut by the tracks of the three railroads converging here, has a brisk, mod-
ern appearance. The homes are on higher ground, many on streets shaded
by hardwoods.

The downtown streets are particularly lively on Saturday when every-
body for miles around comes in to shop and to see a movie; the moun-

COUNTRY SAWMILL

taineers are easily identified by the dark tan of their lean faces and by the
blue jeans they usually wear.

The first settler in the vicinity was David Jobe, who came to the Wa-
tauga about 1777, but settlement of the region progressed slowly until
1854, when Henry Johnson, for whom the city was later named, arrived
from North Carolina, and opened a store in the settlement then known as
Blue Plum. After the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad, now part of
the Southern, built a water tank here in 1858, Johnson saw an oppor-
tunity to sell his land at a profit; and at his own expense, he constructed
a depot for the railroad. Trains were soon scheduled for a stop at John-
son's Tank, or Johnson's -Depot

During the War between the States the town, then called Haynesville
in honor of Landon C Haynes, Confederate States Senator from Tennes-
see, saw much military activity but the wartime boom was soon over.
After the close of the war Henry Johnson renewed his activities for the
development of a city but for some years he was postmaster, depot agent,
merchant, hotel keeper, and magistrate. In 1869 a charter of incorporation
was granted to Johnson City, and Johnson was elected the first mayor. In
1879 the town charter was revoked, and the community, whose popula-

TOUR 2 323

tion was then estimated at about 400, became merely a district of Wash-
ington County. On March 25, 1885, a new charter was granted and the
town took a fresh lease on life.

The SITE OF THE CONFEDERATE TRAINING GROUND was near Lament
and Tennessee Sts. It was also a camp ground of Confederate troops on
their way from the deep South to Virginia.

The EAST TENNESSEE STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, at the western end
of W. Maple St., has a i4o-acre campus, 90 acres of which are covered
with woods and a farm. The eight buildings of modified Georgian de-
sign are constructed of red brick with a limestone trim. The institution,
chartered in 1909 and opened in 1911, has since 1927 been a standard
four-year college offering the degree of B.S. in education.

The entrance to the U. S. SOLDIER'S HOME (open 9-5 daily; for guide
service apply Administration Bldg.) t is on Lament St. W. of Harrison
Ave. The home is a city within a city, has its own post office, called
Mountain Home, its own fire and police departments, waterworks, and
telephone system. There are 448 acres of landscaped grounds with many
maple and dogwood trees. The 57 buildings, designed by J. H. Free-
lander of New York, are constructed of brick and stone in the modified
Italian Renaissance style.

The institution accommodates 3,500 patients and has an average of 400
hospital cases and 2,000 permanently disabled residents. Handicraft train-
ing is given to the residents, who sell their products to visitors. All the
paper poppies sold annually by the Veterans of Foreign Wars are made
here.

The Soldier's Home was established in 1903 through the efforts of
former Congressman Walter Brownlow for the care of aged Union sol-
diers. After the World War it was used for tubercular ex-service men,
and was later converted to its present use.

Johnson City is at the junctions with State 67 (see Tour IB) and with
US uB (see Tour 1).

Right from Johnson City on Knob Creek Road 2 m. to a boulder from the Wa-
tauga River marking the SITE OF THE NELSON HOUSE where in May 1788, the
indefatigable Bishop Asbury preached his first sermon in what is now Tennessee,
and organized the first Methodist congregation west of the Alleghanies.

South of Johnson City at 26.8 m. on US 23-I9W is a junction with a
graveled road.

Right on this road to the HAYNES HOUSE, also known as the Tipton House,
0.5 m., built of logs about 1770, and later weatherboarded; it stands today much
as it was in 1795. John Tipton, the builder, was a colonel of the "Washington
County militia and a bitter personal and political foe of John Sevier* He joined
with the group that refused to recognize the authority of the State of Franklin.
Shortly after Sevier was elected Governor of the State of Franklin, he and Tipton
met in Jonesboro, and exchanged blows for some time "with great violence and in
a convulsion of rage." They were separated before either could claim a victory.
By order of a court sitting under the jurisdiction of North Carolina in the winter
of 1788, Sheriff John Pugh of Jonesboro took a number of Governor Sevier's slaves
because of non-payment of North Carolina taxes, and sent them from Sevier's
Mount Pleasant farm here. Sevier gathered about 150 men and marched to this
house where 45 men were guarding the slaves* Sevier gave them 30 minutes to sur-

324 TOURS

render but Tipton and the sheriff refused, and sent for aid. Capt. Peter Parkinson
answered the call with a company. Sevier's band opened fire and drove them back.
Sevier then laid siege to the house. There was firing on both sides ; one of Sevier's
men and two on the other, including Sheriff Pugh, were killed. Reinforcements ar-
rived and Sevier's men were driven back to Jonesboro in a blinding snowstorm.

Landon Carter Haynes, who became a Senator in the Congress of the Confederate
States of America, bought this property from the grandchildren of Tipton.

At 33.8 m. is UNICOI (1,775 alt, 982 pop.)-

1. Right from Unicoi to PINNACLE MOUNTAIN, 2.5 m. From an observation
tower on the summit are views of the Unaka Range and the valleys around Erwin.

2. Left from Unicoi on a delightful loop route, most of which falls within the
Cherokee National Forest. This loop leads along Limestone Cove Road to Red Fork
Creek. Right here on the Red Fork Creek Road which ascends to the DAVIS SPRINGS
PICNIC GROUNDS, 5.1 m.

At 8.6 m. is the junction with two mountain roads.

Right here along Red Fork Creek on the flank of UNAKA MOUNTAIN, part
of the Unaka Range. At 15.8 m. is VIEW POINT (5,259 alt.). The mountains were
named Unaka (Cherokee, white), because of the white haze that clouds the sum-
mits. Reindeer moss, painted trillium, Clintonia, wingberries, partridge berries,
huckleberries, and blueberries grow profusely on the slopes.

At 18.8 m. is the northern end of BEAUTY SPOT, which extends for a mile
along the State Line. A 2oo-yard trail leads to the top of the ridge, the Tennessee-
North Carolina Line. Black Mountain is to the south, Roan Mountain to the east,
Stone and Buffalo Mountains to the north, and the Bald Mountains to the west.
The entire area is carpeted with a thick turf; violets, bluets, wild strawberry, golden
ragwort, and mayapples give color in the spring. Hawthorne, dogwood, and other
shrubs grow in thick patches. Large maples and beeches of luxurious growth con-
trast with the gray snags of dead chestnuts. At 22.4 m. is a cool mountain spring
(L), surrounded by azalea. At 23.8 m. is ROCK CREEK CAMP (R), a camping and
picnic area.

At 27 m. the loop returns to US 2 3-19 W.

At 36 m. (R) is a marker calling attention to the SITE OF THE HOUSE
OF WIDOW BROWN, which stood half a mile northwest of this spot. On
October 10, 1788, John Sevier was arrested by John Tipton in this house.
Sevier, then Governor of the State of Franklin, had been charged with
treason against the State of North Carolina, and an order for his arrest
had remained unserved in the hands of his friend, Judge Campbell at
Jonesboro. When Sevier visited Jonesboro to consult military officers con-
cerning a second campaign against the Chickamauga, Colonel Tipton
seized the order and made the arrest. With this arrest the independent
State came to an end.

A FEDERAL FISH HATCHERY (R), 36.3 m., covers 72 acres and has 30
concrete pools fed by a large spring whose temperature does not vary
more than one degree throughout the year. The annual production of the
hatchery is 750,000 fry of several varieties.

At 37.9 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

ERWIN, 39 m. (1,680 alt, 3,623 pop.), seat of Unicoi County, is on
the 277-mile Clinchfield R.R., that runs between Elkhorn City, Ky., and
Spartanburg, S. C, and cuts directly across four high watersheds. The
first name of the town was Vanderbilt, but it was renamed for Dr. J. N.
Ervin, a physician of the community who gave one-half the town lots to

MOUNTAIN FARMER

the county so that the town would be made the county seat. Through
error the spelling was changed by the U. S. Post Office Department.

The SOUTHERN POTTERIES PLANT (open to visitors 8-6 weekdays)
manufactures painted and underglazed pottery, producing about 30,000
pieces a day. The clay is imported from six southern states. An affiliated
plant manufactures novelties from feldspar.

A CONFEDERATE MONUMENT is at Ohio Ave. and Unaka Way
(US 23) south of the courthouse.

The territory surrounding Erwin is rugged, but there are farms in the
coves and valleys along the Nolichucky River. Between Erwin and the
North Carolina Line, the route is within the boundaries of the Cherokee
National Forest.

A marker at 40 m. calls attention to the old GREASY COVE RACE TRACK
nearby, scene of a race between one of Andrew Jackson's horses and one
owned by Col. Robert Love of Jonesboro. When in 1788 Jackson came
from the Carolinas to Jonesboro, he brought a fine horse with him and
soon challenged Colonel Love to a race. Love's horse had defeated the
fastest mounts in Virginia and hundreds of people from Tennessee and
Virginia gathered here to see him win again. Jackson's jockey became ill
shortly before the race and Jackson decided to ride in his place. When he
was defeated, Jackson lost his short temper and quarreled with Love, who

326 TOURS

in return called Jackson "a long, gangling, sorrel-topped soap stick."
Friends intervened and prevented a fight.
At 46 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road to UNAKA SPRINGS, 0.5 m., a resort that became popular
because of its iron and sulphur water. Here is the northern end of NOLICHUCKY
GORGE, through which the Nolichucky River runs for about 10 miles. The gorge
is about 250 feet wide and barely affords room for the Clincheld R.R. tracks beside
the river.

At 53.8 m. US 23-19^ crosses the North Carolina Line 58 miles north
of Asheville, N. C.

Tour 3

(Middlesboro, Ky.) Cumberland Gap Tazewell Morristown Junc-
tion US 70; US 256.
Kentucky Line to Junction US 70, 64.9 m.

Southern Ry. roughly parallels route between Cumberland Gap and Tazewell and

between Morristown and Newport.

Paved roadbed throughout. Usual small-town accommodations.

US 25E follows the old Wilderness Road between Cumberland Gap and
Bean Station. In 1775, a f ter Richard Henderson of North Carolina had
organized the Transylvania Land Company, Daniel Boone was commis-
sioned to blase this trail across the mountains for the benefit of immi-
grants. This route became the main artery of settlement for much of the
Territory South of the Ohio River.

Because of Indian troubles to the north and south, it was the safest
route across the mountain, and in time was used by settlers from New
England, New York, and Pennsylvania, as well as those from South
Carolina and Georgia. From the outbreak of the Revolution to the end
of the iSth century, immigrants and the pack trains of traders crowded it.
Though relatively free from marauding Indians, the Wilderness Road was
slashed by ravines and soft-banked creeks and was often obstructed by
landslides and freshets. Many parties had to abandon their wagons at
such places as Powell's Valley and continue westward on ox back or on
foot. So difficult was the passage that hundreds of families, worn out
and discouraged, abandoned their plans for moving farther west and
settled in the most desirable cove they could find. From these are de-
scended the mountain clans.

Between Cumberland Gap and Bean Station, US 2$E cuts across ridges,

TOUR 3 3 2 7

striking examples of the abrupt formations of East Tennessee. Many of
the hills and ridges have been cut over and are now covered with scrub
timber. The fertile, sheltered valleys and coves are inhabited by farmers,
some of whom specialize in livestock and poultry raising.

US 25E crosses the Kentucky- Virginia Line m., 3 miles southeast of
Middlesboro, Ky., through CUMBERLAND GAP (1,304 alt.), and cuts
across a tiny corner of Virginia.

The natural passage through the mountains, long used by the early-
pioneers as the chief gateway to the west, was called Cumberland Gap by
Dr. Thomas Walker when he discovered it in 1750.

A sign at 0.4 m. indicates a short path (L) leading to CUDJO'S CAVE
(adm. 500 plus tax; special rates to parties of 20 or more; 45 to 75 mm.
'for tour), which has more than 30 miles of explored passageways and
numerous unmapped passages. Water from subterranean streams in the
web of caverns is piped to the town of Cumberland Gap. James Town-
send Trowbridge used this cave as the locale of his novel Cudjo's Cave
(1864).

At 0.6 m. is the junction with US 58.

Left 1.5 m. on US 58 to the junction with the privately maintained Skyline High-
way (50$ per person in cars; pedestrians free); L. 1 m. on this road to PINNA-
CLE MOUNTAIN (2,860 alt.), which is divided by the Virginia-Kentucky Line.
From its summit, earthworks thrown up around Cumberland Gap during the War
between the States are visible, standing out conspicuously. Along the highway are
rock formations, called the TURTLE'S BEAK, the ELEPHANT'S HEAD, and the CHIM-
NEY ROCK, on the crest of the Pinnacle.

At 0.8 m. US 2$E crosses the Tennessee Line.

CUMBERLAND GAP, 1.1 m. (1,304 alt., 369 pop.), named for the
nearby pass, is in that corner of East Tennessee first explored by white
men.

This place, merely a hamlet at the time, was the scene of much activity
during the War between the States because the gap for which it is named
was of strategic importance. Since it was the logical route for a Union
invasion of East Tennessee, it was fortified by the Confederates under
Gen. Felix K. Zollicoffer in May, 1861; but in June of that year Gen.
George Morgan and two Union brigades drove the Confederates away.
In September a force of Confederates under General Stephenson met
Morgan's column in Tennessee and forced them back to the gap. In the
meantime, Confederate forces under Gen. E. Kirby-Smith had joined
Stephenson and built strong fortifications about four miles from Pinnacle
Mountain. There Morgan had mounted a huge cannon, Long Tom, to
sweep the Tennessee approach to the gap. Many of his supplies were
stored in caves under the Pinnacle, among them Cudjo's Cave. When
Morgan learned that the Confederates were maneuvering to turn his
flank, he issued orders for a retreat. The Union soldiers gathered every-
thing they could carry and stacked the rest across the gap in an enormous
pile to which they set fire. The subsequent explosion and fire checked the
Confederate advance with a flame wall that also effectively covered the
Union retreat.

328 TOURS

In 1863 Union troops under General Burnside met Stephenson in Ten-
nessee and forced him to retreat to the pass, where they surrounded the
Confederates and forced them to surrender. Until the end of the war the
gap and the town were in Union hands.

It is not known when or by whom the first settlement was made on this
site, but it was probably soon after the American Revolution, when thou-
sands of immigrants streamed westward over the Boone trail.

About 300 yards north of the business center is the end of the railroad
tunnel, cut through solid rock fora distance of nearly a mile.

The HOLBROOK COLLECTION, at Pinnacle Cafe, contains old postage
stamps and also relics of the War between the States, including guns,
swords, ammunition, flags, and albums with pictures of Army officers.

HARROGATE, 2.9 m. (1,362 alt, 400 pop.), formerly a summer
resort, was named for Harrogate, England, by Lord and Lady Pauncef ort.
After its failure as a resort in 1888, an English promoter, Col, A. A.
Arthur, began mining coal here and because of the mines, the railroad
from Knoxville to Middlesboro was built in 1889.

Harrogate University, now LINCOLN MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY, was
founded in 1897 as a memorial to Abraham Lincoln. Chartered as a uni-
versity, it functioned as such for a time and then developed into a liberal
arts college. The buildings form a quadrangle. There is a shop for trades
training and a building for the display of arts and crafts products made
by students of the school. The institution has an endowment of about
$2,000,000 and 2,000 acres of forest land.

On the campus is a COLLECTION OF ENGLISH PLANTS, brought here
by English settlers about 1890. In the DUKE HALL OF CITIZENSHIP (of en
weekdays 8-5), are a number of interesting documents, including a LIN-
COLN COLLECTION. In the CARNEGIE LIBRARY (of en weekdays 8 a.m.
to 10 $.m.; Sundays 2:30-5) is an INDIAN RELIC MUSEUM and a large
collection of historic letters and documents.

At 4.2 m. is the junction with State 63.

Right on State 63 to a junction with side lane, 20.S m.; R. here 1 m. to the
Ellison Farm, from which a trail leads to McLEAN ROCK (2,960 alt.), an over-
hanging ledge approximately 2,000 feet above the valley. This point offers far-
spreading views, mountain ridge after mountain ridge to the horizon. At 22.9 m.
on State 63 is the junction with a narrow road. L. here 0.2 m. to the TVA DOAK
CREEK REARING POOLS. Picnicking facilities have been provided around the
pools. At 32 m. on State 63 is the junction with US 25 W (see Tour 5) at LA
FOLLETTE (see Tour 5).

There is a view of Powell River (R) several hundred feet below the
highway at 5.9 m. Farther south US 2$E crosses Powell River, south of
which is a barren plain with poor, gravelly soil.

TAZEWELL, 13.3 m. (i>454 alt, 989 pop.), seat of Claiborne County,
is a typical mountain town that has changed little in several decades. It
was named for Henry Tazewell, who served in the United States Senate.
The town was settled about 1801, People in this county possessed few
slaves and when the vote was taken on secession 250 were for it and
1,242 against

TOUR 3 3 2 9

GREYSTONE INN, now a tourist home, is a large stone structure erected
in 1810 by William Graham, an Irish immigrant who opened the first
store here.

South of Tazewell the country rises in massive ridges; except in the
Clinch Valley, the soil is unproductive.

OLD SPRINGDALE CHURCH, 21.1 m. } was erected by Baptists soon after
they had organized a congregation in 1796.

The highway now crosses Clinch River which, with Powell River, forms
Norris Lake (see Tour 5 A).

The highway ascends the western slope of Clinch Mountain. Rough,
stony soil covers the southern slopes and the crest.

MINERAL SPRINGS HOTEL, 34.1 m., is a summer resort.

BEAN STATION, 34.7 m. (1,367 alt., 260 pop.) (see Tour lA), is
at the junction with US nW (see Tour lA).

The BAPTIST CEMETERY, 40.5 m., contains a marble slab engraved,
"J. Bean killed by Indians, 1779."

US 25E now crosses Holston River; at the southern end of the bridge
is the MORRISTOWN MUNICIPAL POWER PLANT (free picnic grounds,
tables, and a spring). To the south are many fine orchards.

At 44.1 m. is a junction with the Bright Ferry Rd. (dirt).

Left on this road to the SITE OF A PAPER MILL, 2 m. t built in 1825 on the bank
of Holston River for the manufacture of writing, printing, and wrapping paper. It
ceased operation in 1861. The mill had two overshot water wheels, 36 feet in diam-
eter. Five hundred horses and mules were used to transport rags for paper making
from Baltimore and Cincinnati. Parson Weems' Life of George Washington, which
first told the cherry-tree story, was printed for Mathew Carey on paper made at
this mill, and the book was bound here. There were 120 little houses for workers
about the mill.

MORRISTOWN, 46.1 m. (1,350 alt., 7,300 pop.) (see Tour 1) is at
the junction with US nE (see Tour 1).

South of Morristown is the fertile New Market Valley. The long ridge
beyond it is cut by deep coves and pockets; occasional gaps allow passage.
A commercial company of Kingsport, which owns a large part of this
mountain, is conserving the timber by scientific methods.

South of Morristown is one of the few straight stretches on US 256.
The English Mountain is E., the Unaka range ahead. In this valley US
2$E crosses the French Broad River. A canning plant at Newport has
stimulated the development of truck farming in the fertile valley. .

At 64.9 m. is the junction with US 70 (see Tour 12), 1.5 miles west
of Newport.

TOURS

Tour 4

Junction with State 33 Tallassee Chilhowee (Topton, N. C); US

129.

Junction with State 33 to North Carolina Line, 32.2 m,

Hard-surfaced roadbed except 3 m. near State Line. m

Continuous hairpin curves and grades, but route is safe; descend hills in gear.
Limited accommodations.

This route crosses several ranges of the Great Smoky Mountains and
skirts the border of the Cherokee National Forest. This mountain region
was the domain of the Cherokee, who lived in groups of villages ; those in
East Tennessee were called the Overhill towns because they were over the
mountains from the Carolina settlements. Chota, the capital, Settico, Hiwas-
see, and Great Tellico were the largest

The first white men known to have entered the Overhill country were
James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, who came into the region from Vir-
ginia in 1673 to trade with the Cherokee. Eleazer Wiggan, whom the In-
dians called The Old Rabbit, had a trading post among the Overhills in
1711. By the second quarter of the eighteenth century nearly every
Cherokee village, even those remote from the main trails, was trading with
the English. Frenchmen, too, entered the Overhill towns, coming up from
Mobile in search of furs, but the bulk of the Cherokee trade went to the
Carolina and Virginia traders. Some of the well-to-do whites brought their
Negro servants with them into this country. Abram, a Negro who be-
longed to Samuel Benn, a trader among the Overhills, won his freedom
during the Cherokee War by carrying dispatches through hostile Indian
country.

In Colonial days travelers crossing the mountains usually followed the
Great Indian Trading Path, whose chief feeder came from Charleston,
S. C. This deep-trodden route began at Keowee (near the present Pendle-
ton, S. C)> crossed northeastern Georgia to what is now Murphy, N. C.,
thence passed over the mountain ridges between North Carolina and Ten-
nessee in a northerly direction to what is now Tellico Plains and the Over-
hill villages.

During the struggle between the French and the English for possession
of the region west of the Appalachians, the Cherokee played an important
part. The Overhill towns were in strategic positions along the Little
Tennessee River. Their warriors could guard the valley against the French
or swoop down the mountain passes upon the English back settlements.
So the liaison officers of both white nations labored to secure Cherokee
allegiance. Council fires burned often in every Cherokee town house;
Creek runners, painted red, came up from the French fort in Alabama to

TOUR 4 331

urge the Cherokee to take the war trail against the British, while haughty
Chickasaw, bitter enemies of the French, arrived to counsel an alliance
with the English.

At the request of the Cherokee and to protect their western frontiers,
the Royal governments of Virginia and South Carolina each built a fort
in the Overhill country. The Virginia fort, built first, in 1756, on the
north bank of the Little Tennessee about a mile from Chota, the capital
of the Cherokee Nation, was never garrisoned. The following year South
Carolina completed Fort Loudoun on the opposite side of the river; it was
the first fort in Tennessee occupied by British Colonial troops. Trouble
later arose between the English and the Cherokee and in 1760 Fort Lou-
doun was taken by the tribesmen, and destroyed (see Tour 5 A).

In 1761 peace was made and Ensign Henry Timberlake, a young
British officer, traveled through the Overhill towns on a goodwill mission
at the request of the Cherokee leaders. Afterwards he conducted a dele-
gation of chiefs on a ceremonial visit to England, and the new-made
friendship was greatly strengthened.

At m. is the junction with State 33 (see Tour 5 A), 6 miles south of
Maryville.

WILLIAMS SPRENGS, 10.5 m., only a store and a filling station, is
across the Little Tennessee River and one mile north of the site of Chota
(Echota), capital of the Cherokee Nation before the Revolution. Chota,
called the Metropolis, was not only the chief town of the Cherokee, but
was also a town of refuge a white or peace village so called because
blood could not be shed within its boundaries. A person pursued by
enemies could find safety there. Cultivated fields now cover the site of
the village.

TALLASSEE, 14 m. (863 alt, 210 pop.), is a hamlet on the north
bank of the Little Tennessee.

CHILHOWEE, 18 m. (1,851 alt, 250 pop.), has a post office and a gas
station.

The Chilhowee Mountains are about three miles north toward the val-
ley of Little Pigeon River.

At 20.8 m. is the western boundary of the Great Smoky Mountains
National Park.

At 21.7 m. is the junction with a winding graveled road.

Right on this road which runs steeply down hill to CALDERWOOD (1,651 alt.,
1 88 pop.), 0.7 m. f on the edge of the river gorge; the town is owned by the
Aluminum Company of America. Along the unpaved main street are the homes of
the company employees. At the end of this street is a powerhouse and CALDEK-
WOOD DAM, which is 897 feet wide and 205 feet high.

At 23.4 m. the route passes along high above the Little Tennessee
and offers a view of Calderwood Dam and the nine-mile lake behind it
in the steep narrow valley. Many peaks of the Smokies are visible here.

The Aluminum Company of America (see Tour 5 A) has constructed
three large dams in this area (free guide service at the dam). The Tapoco
Dam just across the North Carolina Line, six miles from Calderwood, and

332 TOURS

on the Tuskasegee River, a tributary of the Little Tennessee, is 770 ft.

wide and 205 ft. high,

At 32.2 m. US 129 crosses the North Carolina Line 40 miles northwest
of Topton, N. C

<<<<(<<(<((

Tour 5

(Williamsburg, Ky.) Jellico La Follette Clinton KnoxvilleSevier-

ville (Asheville, N. C); US 2 5 W, State 35, State 71,

Kentucky Line to North Carolina Line, 122 m.

Louisville & Nashville R.R. and the Southern Ry. parallel route between Jellico

and Knoxville. .

Greyhound buses operate between Jellico and Knoxville; Tennessee Coach Co. and

the Great Smoky Mountain Transit Co. between Knoxville and Sevierville, Gathn-

burg, and points in North Carolina.

Paved roadbed throughout. Hotels in towns.

US 25W passes through an area in which there are rich deposits of
coal The northern part runs through the rugged Cumberland Mountains
and the southern part through the Great Smokies. There are many beauti-
ful views of the Tennessee Valley and of the Great Smoky Mountains.

Section a. KENTUCKY STATE LINE to KNOXVILLE; 67 m. US 2$W

US 25W crosses the Kentucky Line, m., 16 miles south of Williams-
burg, Ky.

JELLICO, 0.3 m. (1,025 alt, 1,530 pop.), a border town in the foot-
hills of the Cumberlands, lies at the northern end of a 24-mile ravine
that US 25W and the Louisville & Nashville RJL follow southward.
First known as Smithburg, because the name Smith predominated among
the settlers, the place was to have been incorporated under the name Jer-
rico, but through a typographical error in the charter it became Jellico.

Early westbound settlers usually camped here before resuming their
journey along the Wilderness Road. Some, tired of traveling and others
who felt it unnecessary to go farther to find fertile land, decided to re-
main here. As early as 1795 there was a small sett lenient.

In the early days a tavern was usually the first building to appear in
such a place. The story is told of how a tavern keeper of the early iSoo's,
whose house was on the State Line, avoided State officers by running back
and forth across the line as the need arose.

In 1880 railroads were built to exploit the coal deposits in the area

A HANDICRAFT SHOP

334 TOURS

and the population increased rapidly. Jellico bituminous burns slowly and
has a low ash content. Jellico is still a mining town though the nearby
deposits have been exhausted. The UNITED STATES MINE RESCUE STA-
TION here conducts a school for miners that teaches first aid in mine res-
cue work. Teams from the district have annual competitions.

The highway passes the house in which Grace Moore, opera singer and
movie actress, once lived. The First Baptist Church, where she sang in the
choir, is at the southwest corner of South Main and Church Sts.

Homer A. Rodeheaver, when a youth, worked in his father's mill here.
From 1909 to 1931 he was well known as a singer and trombonist in the
Billy Sunday revivals.

Right from Jellico on old State 9, Elk Valley Road, to the junction with a grav-
eled road, 1.3 m.; R. here 0.2 m. to the FALLS BRANCH MINE, 0.2 m. t at WOOL-
RIDGE. It has been in operation since 1882.

South of Jellico US 25 W runs through the gorge between heavily tim-
bered hills. From many side gulches swift foaming streams flow over preci-
pices and join the stream that has cut the gorge.

Few dwellings are visible from the highway in this region, though
"swing-foot" bridges over the creeks indicate that there are inhabitants.
Huge, smutty tipples, in which the mine-run coal is graded, screened, and
loaded into cars, are at fairly short intervals ; above them are the monitors
that dump coal pulled by trams from the pit head.

At 1.8 m. is the junction with a narrow, rough dirt road.

Right on this road to LOOK-OFF ROCK (3,500 alt.), 2 m. The peak, directly
above the highway, can be reached only on foot or on horseback. Seldom visited,
this peak offers an excellent view of Jellico, the Norris Dam area, and the Cum-
berland Mountains in Tennessee and Kentucky.

A SWIMMING BEACH is (L) at 4 m.

MORLEY, 8.3 m., surrounds a modern, electrically-operated mine.
Rows of abandoned coke ovens are (R) at 23.6 m. In the same cove
are Red Row and Green Row, two small mining communities.
At about 24.2 m. is the junction with a trail.

Left on this trail up along Big Creek Gap to MORGAN HEIGHTS, 0.5 m. t
where are the ruins of entrenchments and cannon emplacements made by Confeder-
ate troops under Gen. John H. Morgan. There were several skirmishes here dur-
ing the period when the Confederates were attempting to check advancing Union
troops at Cumberland Gap.

LA FOLLETTE, 24.7 m. (1,060 alt, 2,637 PP-) is in Powell Valley
at the eastern base of the Cumberland Mountains. Part of the town wan-
ders up the mountain side. It was first known as Big Creek Gap, but was
renamed for Henry M. La Follette, an Indianan, who was instrumental in
having the town incorporated in 1897, when he organized the La Follette
Coal, Iron, and Railway Co., and began exploiting coal and iron resources
here on a large scale. His company failed but others took over his proper-
ties and operated them successfully. After the railroad from Jasper to La
Follette had been completed in 1897, La Follette became an important"
center of coking.

TOUR 5 335

The town grew steadily until 1920 when overproduction, brought on by
the World War demand, caused a sharp "decline that continued until the
TVA established field offices here. The backwaters of the Norris Lake
reach to within one mile of the city limits.

Members of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers were locked out of
the Washington Shirt Company factory here on May i, 1937. The dispute
between the owners of the factory and the workers continued for six
months and was settled by the National Labor Relations Board which
ordered reinstatement of the dismissed workers. During the time the plant
was closed, the union, co-operating with the Highlander Folk School (see
Tour 16), opened a school here for the idle workers. It was successful,
and classes are still being held although the students have returned to
work.

North and west of La Follette are the Cumberland Mountains. Eastward
is the first of the chain of hills that wall Norris Lake.

At 25.7 m. is the junction with Demory Road.

Left on this paved road to the junction with another dirt road at 8 m. by a brick
schoolhouse; L. 2 m. on this road to Shanghai Hollow in SHANGHAI BRANCH
RECREATION AREA (boating, fishing). The TVA Forestry Division maintains
wharves here from which boating trips are made to Norris Dam and Park and Big
Ridge Park. A few hundred yards north of the park entrance is a SALTPETER CAVE,
in which saltpeter was mined during the War between the States. Some of the
equipment, rotted and damp-slimed, remains. In Saltpeter Cave, at the base of the
Longmire Ridge, are many kinds of mineral deposits, some still in the process of
formation.

JACKSBORO, 29.2 m. (1,200 alt, 830 pop.), seat of Campbell
County, was named for Capt James W. Jack, a local hero. Settled by
1795, Campbell County was created through an act of the General As-
sembly, on September n, 1806. Iron forges were in operation before the
county was incorporated. Among these was a bloomery, or furnace for
making malleable iron. Some of the bar-iron was hauled by oxcart to Ken-
tucky and exchanged for Goose Creek salt

At 32.6 m. is the junction with a dirt road.

Right on this road to CARYVILLE, 0.5 m. f a shipping point for coal. Between
the highway and the town are two lakes formed by tie backwaters of Norris Lake.

The bluffs (R) steadily become lower as the route nears Knoxville and
the East Tennessee Valley.

VASPER, 34.3 m. (1,203 alt, 716 pop.) is a shipping point for coal.

At 38.2 m. is the junction (L) with Norris Freeway (see Tour 5A),
which crosses Norris Dam.

COAL CREEK, 38.9 m. (1,048 alt, 2,000 pop.), was formerly spelled
Cole, supposedly for a man of that name. Coal mining is the only im-
portant activity in and around the town. There are 16 seams of good
bituminous within a radius of 10 miles,

Right from Coal Creek at the First National Bank Building on the Briceville
Road, to the junction with -a good mine road, 0.5 m.; R. on this road 4.5 m. to
SWAG GAP. From here a two-mile trail leads to the summit of CROSS (or FLAG
POLE) MOUNTAIN (3,500 alt), a long, heavily wooded ridge with outflung
spurs. The Great Smoky Mountains, more than 40 miles away, are visible on clear

336 TOURS

days, with the House and Clinch Mountains, 27 and 29 miles away, prominent in
the east.

BRICEVILLE, 3.9 m. (1,191 alt., 613 pop.) on the Briceville Rd., is a mining
village at the foot of the Cross Mountains.

Left from Coal Creek at the corner drug store, on a winding graveled road, to
the junction with a private road, 1.7 m.; over a bridge 0.1 m. on this road to the
SAVAGE ROCK GARDENS (open), acres of woodland on the south slope of Coal
Creek.. The owner has planted and encouraged the growth of native wild flowers
and rock plants.

Coal Creek and Briceville were the scene of a coal miners' war in the
last decade of the nineteenth century. The miners struck against the leas-
ing of convicts to private industry by the State. In 1899 the penitentiary
and its inmates had been leased for a term of six years to the Tennessee
Coal, Iron and Railroad Company, and the agreement had provided that
the convicts might be worked in the coal mines. Thousands of miners who
lost their jobs to convict laborers brought out their squirrel rifles and,
reinforced by their mountain kin and by other miners from the Kentucky
coal fields, seized the convict stockades at Coal Creek and Briceville. In
July, 1891, Governor Buchanan arrived from Knoxville with militia. He
made terms with the miners, promising them that their grievances would
be adjusted by the legislature, but convicts were sent back into the mines.
The miners again seized the stockades and Governor Buchanan once more
called out the militia. By a combination of threats and promises he man-
aged to get the miners to evacuate the stockades. The convicts were again
put to work. A third time, on August 13, 1892, the miners marched on
Briceville and Coal Creek. This time they burned the stockades and freed
the convicts. In the following months of intermittent guerrilla fighting a
number of miners were killed; in the end, however, they won their point.
The convict lease system was abolished.

CLINTON, 48.1 m. (850 alt., 3,000 pop.), seat of Anderson County,
was first named Burrville in honor of Aaron Burr. By act of the legisla-
ture, in 1809, the name was changed to honor Gov. De Witt Clinton of
New York.

The area was explored by Virginians in 1761 and settled in 1787. The
county was named for Joseph Anderson, one of the three judges of the
Territory South of the Ohio River.

Between Clinton and Knoxville the highway crosses a fairly open
country in which there are prosperous farms, orchards, and evergreen
nurseries. On all sides are hills.

KNOXVILLE, 67 m. (833 alt, 105,802 pop.) (see KNOXWLLE).

Points of Interest: Headquarters TVA; University of Tennessee and others.
Knoxville is at the junctions with US nE (see Tour 1), US 70 (see
Tour 12), US ii W (see Tour 1A), and State 33 (see Tour 5 A).

Section b. KNOXVILLE to NORTH CAROLINA LINE; 55 m.,
State 35 and ji

South of KNOXVILLE, m., a good view of the Knoxville sky line is
provided by the Henley Street Bridge. Between Knoxville and Sevierville,

IN A GRIST MILL

State 35 passes through knobby farm land. From many points the Smoky
and Unaka Mountains are clearly visible.

At 2.8 m. is the junction (R) with State 33 (see Tour 2).

At 5.5 m, is a gap in Brown's Mountain, from which, on clear days,
there is a view of the Great Smokies. Thunderhead (5,530 alt.) and
Gregory's Bald (4,948 alt.) are visible (R) in the distance. The lower
range in the foreground is the Chilhowee.

SHOCK'S GAP, 9-7 m. } notches a ridge that divides Knox and Sevier
Counties. Peace officers of Knox County often place barricades across the
gap road to stop liquor runners from transporting moonshine from the
mountains into Knoxville. Numerous gun battles have occurred.

At 10 m. is the junction with the old Sevierville Pike.

Left on this road to the BATTLE OF BOYD'S CREEK MONUMENT, 8 m. t on the
site of an important border clash. When Col. John Sevier returned from the Bat-
tle of King's Mountain, the Cherokee were on the warpath, so he immediately
mustered 100 men and marched swiftly to the Cherokee country. On the third day
he surprised a large force of Indians near this place, and gained a decisive victory.
After reinforcements had joined Sevier, he forced the Cherokee to sign a treaty of
friendship.

The monument stands near the middle of the battlefield, which later became a
part of the Chandler plantation. Nearby is the JOHN CHANDLER HOUSE, built in
1825. Chandler came from North Carolina and settled in the valley in 1791.

The nine-room house, built of brick made from clay on the plantation, has

338 TOURS

never been remodeled though the original windows and doors were destroyed dur-
ing the War between the States. Still in place are hand-wrought hinges, a built-in
cupboard, an old wide stairway, and great open fireplaces. Although the kitchen
has been electrically equipped, the kitchen fireplace is still furnished with pot
hangers and kettles. The china, pewter, silver dishes, furniture, and quilts of the
early days are still in service here.

The road passes through a gap at 11.6 m. When open country is
reached again, there is a view (R) of the CHILHOWEE RANGE, the
most westerly thrust of the Smokies. Several thin veins of gold were once
mined in them.

At 12.2 m. is the junction with a paved road.

Left on this road to HARRISON-CHILHOWEE INSTITUTE, 0.5 m., founded in 1881,
a school accredited by the State; the institute is supported by the Baptists of
Tennessee.

MOUNT CHAPMAN (6,430 alt.), a three-pointed peak, is visible at
12.7 m. and (L) MOUNT GUYOT (6,621 alt), the second highest
peak in the park.

The edge of the slate knob section, where erosion has worn the hills
into dome-shaped formations, is next reached. The knobs, from which tim-
ber has been cut, are used for grazing.

MOUNT LE CONTE (6,595 alt.) is visible (R) at 18.9 m.

The highway cuts through a rim, 24 m., and the town of Sevierville and
the Smokies can be seen.

State 35 crosses the West Fork of the Little Pigeon River, 24.6 m.
Just below the bridge (L) the West Fork unites with the East Fork.

SEVIERVILLE, 25 m. (900 alt., 882 pop.), seat of Sevier County,
bears the name of the State's first Governor. Sevier County was estab-
lished in March, 1785, as part of the short-lived State of Franklin. Be-
cause it was south of the French Broad River in territory set aside for the
Cherokee by North Carolina, John Sevier headed a commission to make a
treaty with the Indians. On May 31, 1785, at Dumpling Creek the In-
dians ceded the land between the French Broad River and the ridge
separating Little River and the Little Tennessee to the white settlers.
With the collapse of the independent government, North Carolina, the
parent State, refused to extend her jurisdiction south of the boundary
fixed with the Indians in the Holston treaty. As a result a fourth Tennes-
see independent s government, the Association South of the Holston and
French Broad Rivers, was set up.

The first courts in Sevierville were held in a stable. It is said that this
stable was so infested with fleas that itching lawyers had it burned.

In January, 1892, the White Caps, an organization that proclaimed its
purpose as law enforcement and adopted the uniforms and tactics of the
Ku Klux Klan, was organized here. Their methods were spoken of as
"white cappings." Though their avowed purpose was to right miscar-
riages of justice, the White Caps also carried on private quarrels. After a
series of White Cap murders and floggings, the people of the community
combined with the public officers in a strenuous fight to break up the
organization. Finally in January, 1898, after the conviction of several
White Cap leaders on felony charges, the organization was disbanded.

TOUR 5 339

Great Smoky Mountains National Park occupies about one-fifth of the
total area of the county along its southern border on the North Carolina
Line (see GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK).

Sevierville is the trading center for a large area in which farming is one
of the chief means of livelihood. Lumber is one of the chief commercial
industries. There are two large planing mills, a hosiery mill, and a large
canning plant here.

The log house on the corner of Main St. and Park Road was built in
1806 and housed NANCY ACADEMY, named for Nancy Rogers, probably
the first white child born in the section. The structure is still in good
condition.

At the north entrance is the ISAAC THOMAS MONUMENT, honoring a
scout in the Battle of King's Mountain, who was the original grantee of
the land on which the institution stands.

Right from Sevierville, on Court St., to a large INDIAN MOUND, 0.5 m., on the
McMahon farm. (See FIRST AMERICANS.)

At Sevierville the route, now State 35-71, turns south, and passes
through a valley overshadowed by rugged mountains.

An old-fashioned SWINGING BRIDGE is (R) at 28.1 m. The highway
bridge crosses the river into the valley of the Little Pigeon where good
crops of wheat, tobacco, clover, and vegetables are grown. Owing to the
lack of transportation facilities, this region was isolated as late as 1890.

At 29.9 m. is the junction with the Wear Valley Road.

Right on this graveled road to the COL. SAMUEL WEAR MONUMENT, 0.5 m., in
an open field. Samuel Wear served under John Sevier at the Battle of King's Moun-
tain and was at Yorktown when Cornwallis surrendered.

At 11 m. is LINE SPRINGS (hotel), a summer resort by mineral springs.

PIGEON FORGE, 31 m, (1,142 alt, 212 pop.), an unincorporated
town, was named for an old iron foundry on the Little Pigeon River. From
the eastern end of the village is an excellent view of the Smokies, Mount
Le Conte (R), and Mount Guyot and Mount Chapman (L).

At 34.9 m. the route is in the mountains. (. Drive with cafe; steep grades
and sharp curves.)

At 37 m. the highway crosses Norton Creek.

Right along the creek 1 m. (no trail) to a GROVE OF LARGE TULIP POPLAR
TREES. These trees are six to seven feet in diameter.

GATLINBURG, 38 m. (1,550 alt, 550 pop.) (see also GREAT
SMOKY MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK), is a mountain resort at
the head of the cove through which the Pigeon River runs. It has three
hotels, one of them with 75 rooms, and many other tourist accommoda-
tions. The village has taken on new life since the HEADQUARTERS OF THE
GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK was established here, but it
had been attracting visitors since the first decade of the century. Many of
the early visitors came to find the products of the handicraft revival, which
had been stimulated first by those who rediscovered the diarm of primitive
products and later by missionary and semiphilanthropic organizations inter-
ested in the welfare of the mountain people. Members of these organiza-

340 TOURS

tions believed that by encouraging and training the craft workers they were
reviving a satisfying form of cultural expression, giving to the mountain
people a means of decorating their homes and clothing themselves with
products far better than they could buy, and providing them with a source
of income to supplement the average of $150 a year derived from crops.

Gatlinburg is now only one of many places where such training has been
given; the number of trained Appalachian craft workers is now about
15,000, According to a Government survey, however, the results of the
movement have been far less satisfactory than those who started it had
hoped. Often the people are too poor to keep anything for their own use
that will bring in cash. For the most part they lack the sources of raw
materials available to their forefathers and must work for the middlemen
who can supply them; and these middlemen cannot afford to permit use
of the raw stuffs for experiments in designs that may or may not be sal-
able. Moreover, the market for primitive handicraft products is limited;
th i average customer cannot, or will not, pay much more for goods pro-
duced by long hours of handwork than he pays for a machine-made imi-
tation. The average income of the Appalachian handicraft producer is $52
a year. Many of these who formerly spent many days making rugs, quilts,
and the like have turned to the production of minor novelties, such as ash
trays decorated with poker work, walnut buttons, and other articles that
can be turned out quickly.

Gatlinburg shops display patch quilts and hooked rugs in the old de-
signs, fern baskets made of fiber growing in the weaver's cove, and rugs
and counterpanes still in the frames of looms.

By the highway (L), just west of the center of town, is a store called
the GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS MUSEUM, containing a large number of
pitchers, toby jugs, and specimens of Tiplet and Ridgway wares.

The MOUNTAINEER MUSEUM (lectures twice a day; small fee), along
the highway (L) west of the center, contains a large and authentic collec-
tion of old domestic and agricultural implements, furniture, guns, bear-
traps, and other articles long used by mountain people of this region. At
one end of the display hall is a very old cabin furnished as it was when it
was used as a home.

The BARNES CHEROKEE INDIAN MUSEUM (open; small fee), opposite
the Mountaineer Museum, has a fine collection of Cherokee Indian arti-
facts. Among them are about 700 stone axes and tomahawks, more than
300 clay and stone pots and domestic utensils, jewelry and beads of every
kind known to the Cherokee Nation, arrowheads, silver breastplates and
other ornaments, pipes, bowls, skulls, and complete skeletons.

i. Left on a cove road from the highway at a point east of the center of Gatlin-
burg. The Pi BETA PHI SETTLEMENT SCHOOL, 0.2 m., is sponsored by a sorority
that disposes of the handicraft products of its pupils through gift shops and pri-
vate sales. The school gives expert instruction in craft work. Articles are on sale ia
a shop on the grounds.

In June an Old Timers' Day is sponsored by the settlement. The program in-
cludes "calling" contests for husbands, wives, hogs, cows, and dogs; honors for the
oldest man and woman, the handsomest and the ugliest man; ballad, hymn, and
Old Harp singing; tale telling, fiddling by individuals and groups; horseshoe

TOUR 5 34 1

pitching, and bow-and-arrow and gun shoots. The picnic dinners at noon repre-
sent weeks of preparation and are generously shared with those whose cupboards
are bare.

At 0.5 m. is HOLSTON ASSEMBLY GROUNDS, at the southern edge of the town,
where the Epworth League Institute of the Holston Conference (Methodist) meets
annually, during the first two weeks of July. On the 7 5 -acre tract are a baseball
diamond and a swimming pool.

The road continues to the large CHEROKEE APPLE ORCHARD (2,581 alt.) un-
usual at this elevation.

From this orchard are two approaches to the summit of Mount Le Conte (see
also trail from Bear Pen Gap and Alum Cove Creek, this tour).

a. The old, steep trail leads up 4 /. along LeCpnte Creek; it twists around and
over large moss-covered boulders, passing beautiful RAINBOW FALLS, whose
waters drop 83 feet from a ledge covered with a dense growth of old buckeye
trees. The trail rounds Rocky Spur to the summit of MOUNT LE CONTE (6,593
alt.) where LE CONTE LODGE ($1 a night), provides 40 rough bunks but no food.

b. The new bridle trail winds 7 m. to the summit by easy grades, following
Roaring Creek and Fork and passing Rainbow Falls on the way. This trail offers a
series of views. The course of Roaring Brook is a long series of cascades, punctu-
ated by at least 7 spectacular falls that are from 30 to 100 feet in height. TWIN
FALLS is a cascade in which the water churns in parallel streams for 125 feet
over a slanting wall of rock. DOME CASCADE is the uppermost falls.

2. Left from the town to the flats above it, where are the OLD SMOKY RIFLE
GROUNDS, 0.5 m., scene of many old-time shooting matches. The riflemen, shoot-
ing for the prize of whole beef "set a handicap that wuz mighty hard to jump."
They either had to shoot "a crooked barl or fire a slut of a gun that'd strip her
patchin' or some slow-fifer that'd never go off 'tell you'd lay her down/' The prizes
were sometimes divided: the first might be the hide and tallow, the next the hind
quarters, the fore quarters, the remainder, and last the lead from the targets.

3. Left from Gatlinburg on an unimproved road to GREENBRIER COVE, 9 m.
(see also GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK).

This cove, one of the largest wilderness areas in the park, is at the foot of Pin-
nacle Mountain. On the divide above are six peaks with altitudes of approximately
6,000 feet. The SMOKY MOUNTAINS HIKING CLUB CABIN in the Brier, resembling
the more comfortable pioneer dwellings, and a few cabins vacated by natives are
the only buildings, besides the RANGER STATION, in this section. The Komarek
mammal studies (see NATURAL SETTING AND CONSERVATION) were con-
ducted here. In this section is the headquarters of a colony of art students from
Sophia Newcomb College, New Orleans.

Southeast of Gatlinburg State 71 follows the long valley of the Little
Pigeon River.

The road begins a series of ascending curves.

At 39.6 m. is a white-and-green marker announcing the Great Smokies
Park boundary.

The NATIONAL PARK CHECKING STATION, 40.5 m., is at the junction
(R) with State 73 (see Tour 5B), part of the favorite scenic loop of
Knoxville people. Southeast of this junction State 71 goes over the center
of the Smokies on a good graveled road with no blind curves.

There is a view of BULLHEAD (L) at 41.8 m., and of ROCKY SPUR
beyond. Both are on spurs of the massive Mt. LeConte.

At 42.2 m. are junction with class B Trails (L) to Bullhead and Bal-
sam Point.

The Chimney Tops (R), ragged twin peaks, are visible at 43-3 m.

Over the cove are straight stretches of road, then hairpin curves. At

342 TOURS

intervals are amazing vistas through the shoulders of the mountains, but
at other times the road is shut in by towering barriers.

An overhanging rock wall (L), 46.2 m., is about 100 yards from the
road ; it is called Fort Harry.

At 47.4 m. is the site of the old INDIAN GAP HOTEL.

Bight from this point on an extremely steep trail that leads to CHIMNEY TOPS
(4,740 alt,), 1 77z., from which is a view of the valley of the Sugarlands and the
peaks on the divide.

At 48.2 m. is BEAR PEN GAP.

Left from the gap on a Class A trail to MT. LECONTE 4 m. From a small
park the trail ascends through dense conifers, whose needles mat the earth thickly.
Here are innumerable beds of ferns and wild flowers. Bear pens, heavy "deadfall
traps" were at one time a hazard along trails. One mountaineer said, 'They might
at least stick up a sourwood switch as a warning."

The route runs through a virgin hardwood forest. Here are probably
the largest stands of virgin hardwood in the South. Massive Bullhead (L),
a spur of Mount LeConte, is visible and an entire mountain slope covered
with rhododendrons, is a beautiful- sight in the spring.

By Alum Cave Creek, 51.8 m., and Walter Camp Prong of the Little
Pigeon River is the junction with the Alum Cave trail, the steepest and
shortest trail to LeConte.

Left on this trail which follows Alum Creek and goes up a steep half-mile to
ALUM CAVE, 1 m. Just below Alum Cave Bluff is (L) Hide-in Rock Ridge.

In Alum Cave, under the immense overhanging Alum Cave Bluff, are deposits
of Epsom salts and alum. The cave mouth is a good observation point.

A stand of black birches, a specie usually found in the latitude of Can-
ada is 55.2 772. It is possible that these Canadian trees may have grown
from seeds brought by migratory birds. Down the gorge is the crest of
Chimney Tops (4,740 alt.).

At 55.5 m. is NEWFOUND GAP (5,045 alt), where State 35-71
crosses the State Line 81 m. west of Asheville, N. C. The Appalachian
Trail crosses the highway here.

Right from Newfound Gap on macadam Skyline Rd., paralleling the Appala-
chian Trail between Newfound Gap and Clingmans Dome. The old Indian Gap
Road, which at 1.4 m. appears (L) about 100 yards below the new road, was built
by the Cherokee in 1862, to enable Confederate soldiers to haul saltpetre from
Alum Cave Bluffs to North Carolina arsenals for the manufacture of gunpowder.

At 1.5 m. Skyline Road crosses INDIAN GAP (5,265 alt.), known in former
years as Collin's Gap. The Appalachian Trail crosses the highway here. There are
excellent views of both sides of the Great Smoky Range.

At 2.7 m. the road crosses back into Tennessee and at 3.2 m. crosses again into
North Carolina.

Clingmans Dome, with a fire tower, can be seen on the sky line (L) at 4.5 m.

At 5 m. the road again crosses into Tennessee.

BLANKET MOUNTAIN, also with a fire tower, appears (R) at 5.1 m. Cove
and Rich Mountains are visible (R), and Siler's Bald and Thunderhead Moun-
tain (L).

At 8.9 m. is a good view of OCONALUFTEE GORGE (L).

The highest point on the road (6,311 ft.) is at 7.4 m.

The road ends at a large parking plaza, 7.7 m. A Class B trail to the summit of
CLINGMANS DOME (6,642 alt.), about 0.5. m. in length, begins R. From the

NEWFOUND GAP

plaza are fine views of the Blue Ridge Range, and the Natahala National Forest
and Andrew's Bald in North Carolina.

From the top of Clingmans Dome are visible a number of the highest peaks in
the Smokies; Mt Kephart, Siler's Bald, and Mt. Collins. On some days clouds fill
the valleys on both the Tennessee and North Carolina sides, and on the brightest
days the blue haze, from which the Smokies derive their name, dims the landscape.

g >' >

Junction with US 2.$W- Norris Dam Norris Knoxville Maryville
Madisonville (Chatsviile, Ga.); Norris Freeway and State 33.
Junction with US 25W to Georgia Line, 122,3 m.

New concrete roadbed throughout.

T Itrff*>^ a/vwrnmrw?fl.firmc

344

TOURS

Section a. JUNCTION WITH US 25^ to KNOXVILLE; 30 J m.

The Norris Freeway traverses the Norris Dam area. This highway is
scientifically constructed to eliminate sharp turns, crossroads, and Bother
traffic ha2ards. The roadside has been landscaped with the co-operation of
landowners. Use of the privately owned land for some distance on both
sides of the right-of-way is publicly controlled to prevent erection of un-
sightly roadside stands and billboards. There is a sharp contrast in the
landscape along the road. The long, high, unbroken lines of the concrete
dam, the bare, angular, steel electric line towers, and the powerhouse^ of
modern design are in a primitive forest. The freeway ascends the hills
above Norris Lake in long, sweeping curves until it reaches the summit
overlooking the dam.

The Norris Freeway branches southeast from US 2$W (see Tour 5) at
the northern end of Coal Creek,

At 3.9 m. it descends to the level of the dam, passing a steel barge (L)
that serves as a boat landing. A boat (fee 50$) leaves here at regular in-
tervals for trips on the lake. The freeway crosses the dam.

NORRIS DAM, 5.2 m. (guard at each end of road over dam will give
information), is of the concrete gravity storage type. Named for United
States Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska, it was the first major con-
struction job to be completed by the Tennessee Valley Authority, and be-
gan impounding the waters of Clinch River on March 4, 1936. (See
Tennessee Valley Authority.) Work had begun in 1933. The total cost, in-
cluding purchase of the reservoir area, was approximately $36,000,000.
Norris Dam is 1,860 feet long, 1,570 feet of its length being a solid con-
crete mass. The remaining 290 feet is an earth-fill dike with a reinforced
concrete core wall. The dam is approximately 208 feet thick at the base
and 265 feet high from the lowest point in the foundation to the roadway
on its top.

Norris Dam has created a reservoir, Norris Lake, which, extending into
numerous side coves, has a shore line of approximately 705 miles and is
50 square miles in area; it extends 72 miles up the Clinch River and 65
miles up the Powell. The lake has a storage capacity of 836 billion gal-
lons. Its outline resembles a huge hand, the palm near the junction of the
Powell and the Clinch, with fingers spreading out into narrow valleys be-
tween tree-covered hills.

The normal level of the lake is 1,020 feet above sea level; a flood could
cause the water to rise to 1,052 feet. During dry seasons, when the river
below the dam is too low for navigation and power purposes, the lake can
be lowered to 955 feet. The level of the lake, or its spillway crest, is con-
trolled by three drum-type gates, each 14 feet high and 100 feet long,
through which 205,000 cubic feet of water can be discharged each second.
Eight sluiceways, each controlled by vertically sliding gates, can release an
additional 37,000 cubic feet a second. The spillway discharges into a con-
crete hydraulic jump pool that extends 215 feet downstream from the toe

TOUR 5A 345

of the dam. This concrete pool prevents the downward force of the water
from eroding the foundation of the dam.

Surrounding the lake are 117,000 acres of TVA-owned land, purchased
primarily to prevent siltation of the reservoir. This land has been developed
as a park and stocked with game.

Left from the freeway at the traffic circle to the entrance of NORRIS PARK
(horseback riding, boats, picnicking, fishing, hiking, and swimming available;
furnished cabins at moderate rates; see Superintendent of Norris Park at Norris for
reservations for tent and trailer camp, 50$ a night). There are 20 miles of bridle
paths and trails. A WATER MILL built in 1797 has been carefully restored and is
on the bank of Clear Creek, 100 yards east of the freeway.

At the traffic circle the freeway turns R. Near the junction is a HANDI-
CRAFT SHOP that sells rugs, spreads, baskets, pottery, and woodwork made
by mountain people.

At 6.3 m. is the junction with a paved road.

Right on this road to the TVA FOREST NURSERIES and TVA FISH HATCH-
ERY POOLS, and to the POWERHOUSE, 0.7 m. (guide service), where there is an
exhibit showing steps in the construction of the dam, and its operation. From the
walkway around the building is an excellent view of the great white face of the
dam from below, an impressive sight reminiscent of a frozen Niagara Falls. Next to
the building are the geometrical towers of the transmitter through which the two
50,000-kilowatt generators are linked with those of Wilson and Wheeler Dams by
a high-tension transmission line 230 miles long.

In simplicity, directness and power of design as well as in the immense scale of
the undertaking, Norris Dam may justly be compared with the most impressive
works of the Egyptians.

NORRIS, 9.2 m. (1,100 alt., 1,600 pop.), on the freeway (free parking
spaces; guides furnished free at the toiun office between 8 a.m. and 4:30
p.m.).

Norris is an unincorporated town owned and controlled by TVA. For
matters solely concerning the residential community, the manager has an
elected advisory council of nine. The cost of government is defrayed from
the rental of houses and business places. The Norris school, in session
twelve months a year, uses the standard curriculum of Tennessee. There
are extension courses for adults.

Some of the dwellings in the park-like town were built during the dam
construction period and were occupied by technical workers. Now many are
rented by TVA office workers who commute daily to Knoxville. The indi-
vidual houses differ greatly in size; there are ten duplexes and six five-
family apartment houses. Bricks, stone, cinder blocks, concrete, and wood
have been used for the walls, and many houses have various kinds of elec-
trical equipment, even, in some cases, for heating. Experiments have been
made with old-fashioned and modern designs, and on the whole, the re-
sults have been satisfactory. The chief criticism of architects has been di-
rected against the use of low, slanting roofs that reduce the air space and
floor space in some of the second stories.

Two large TVA LABORATORIES are at Norris. One is the hydraulic lab-
oratory, in which models of the Authority's dams are built and extensive
engineering tests conducted. The other is the ceramic research laboratory

346 ' TOURS

in which experiments are conducted in the use of local kaolin for the
manufacture of high-grade porcelain and chinaware.

Near the town on a i,5OO-foot RESERVOIR HILL is a rock overlook
that affords a sweeping view of the dam and the distant Cumberland and
Great Smoky Mountains. On the hill is a picnic area (ovens, tables, water,
sanitary facilities, shelters).

South of Norris the freeway sweeps through a hilly, forested area.
Shrubbery and lespedeza are planted on both sides of the road.

A MOUNTAIN CABIN (L), 12.9 m>, constructed of logs chinked and
daubed with clay is preserved by the TVA.

At 20.5 m. is the junction with State 33.

Left on State 33 to the junction with a paved road 6.4 m.; L. here 0.1 m. and L.
again to BIG RIDGE PARK, 13 m. (adm. 10$; swimming, picnicking, boating,
fishing; furnished cabins at moderate rates). This park, covering 3,500 acres, is on
the south shore of Norris Lake. Approximately ipo acres have been developed as a
recreational area. The country is rugged and picturesque, with many high criss-
crossing ridges.

One of the arms of the Norris Lake has been dammed to maintain a constant
water level here when the level of the main reservoir is lowered.

On State 33 is MAYNARD VILLE (500 pop.), 14 m., seat of Union County;
it was named for Horace Maynard, Member of Congress from 1857 to 1863 and
from 1866 to 1875 ; he was a vigorous and outspoken Unionist. During the early
part of the War between the States, sentiment in East Tennessee where planta-
tions were few was strong for peace and for remaining in the Union. Maynard in-
terviewed President Lincoln soon after his inauguration and was reassured by the
latter's statement that the North did not want to fight. At this time many southerners
had been disturbed by Lincoln's inaugural address, so Maynard carried home the
message the President had given him.

When in June 1861, Andrew Johnson and other East Tennessee Unionists called
a convention to protest against a resolution for secession adopted by the legislature,
Maynard was among those present. The delegates adopted a resolution threatening to
rise in armed opposition if any attempt was made to coerce East Tennesseans into
the Confederacy. Maynard urged the delegates to be more temperate, and rewrote
parts of the measure. The resolution became merely a strong protest, without the
threats. "We prefer to remain attached to the government of our fathers/' the dele-
gates wrote. "The Constitution of the United States has done us no wrong. The
Congress of the United States has passed no law to oppress us. The President of the
United States has made no threat against the law-abiding people of Tennessee.
Under the Government of the United States, we have enjoyed as a nation more
of civil and religious freedom than any other people under the whole heaven. We
believe there is no cause for rebellion or secession on the part of the people of
Tennessee/'

In August 1861, Maynard was re-elected to the House of Representatives. He
had difficulty in traveling to Washington, but finally arrived safely. Meanwhile, in
other parts of the State, resentment grew against the East Tennessee Unionists.
Governor Harris wrote to President Davis of the Confederacy: "We can temporize
with the rebellious spirit of that people no longer. . . . The arrest and indictment
for treason of the ringleaders will give perfect peace and quiet to that division of
our State in the course of two months." Soon afterwards, East Tennessee was oc-
cupied by a Confederate force of 10,000 men. Maynard, together with Andrew
Johnson who had a seat in the Senate, urged President Lincoln to protect the loy-
alists, Lincoln wrote to General McClellan who, in turn, wrote to General Buell.
Buell disagreed and thought it would be unwise strategy to move into East Tennes-
see. McClellan answered: 'Tor the sake of these East Tennesseans who have taken
part with us I would gladly sacrifice mere military advantages; they deserve our

NORRIS FREEWAY

protection and at all hazards they must have it" Weeks passed; finally Lincoln
wrote to Buell: ". . . my distress is that our friends in East Tennessee are being
hanged and driven to despair, and even now, I fear, are thinking of taking rebel
arms for the sake of personal protection. In this we lose the most valuable stake we
have in the South, My dispatch, to which yours is an answer, was sent with the
knowledge of Senator Johnson and Representative Maynard of East Tennessee, and
they will be upon me to know the answer, which I cannot safely show them."

East Tennessee was taken by Union forces; Johnson became Military Governor of
the State, and Maynard the Attorney General, Later Maynard was appointed Minis-
ter to Turkey, and from 1880 to 1881 was Postmaster General of the United States.

At the southwest end of the town is a MAYNAED MONUMENT.

Right from Norris Freeway on State 33 ; now the main route.

The marked site of a log blockhouse, AD AIR'S STATION, is (R) at
25.7 m. The cabin was built in 1788 by John Adair, an entry taker in.
Sullivan County who financed the expedition led by Isaac Shelby and
John Sevier that defeated the British in the Battle of King's Mountain.
Sevier and Shelby obtained the money by promising Adair that it would be
repaid by the State. Adair was a member of the Tennessee constitutional
convention of 1796.

The SCOTT HOUSE (open), 27.8 m., a two-story, ten-room brick struc-
ture (R) was built in 1833 by James Scott, a member of Tennessee's first
legislature. There are hand-carved fireplace mantels in all of the rooms.
The kitchen fireplace is eight feet wide.

The wallpaper of the living room, imported from France, antedates that
of the Hermitage by two years; it has seven different patterns, and the

348 TOURS

colors are still bright, though the room was used as a hospital ward during
the War between the States.

Owing to a custom of the second owner, Colonel Ledgerwood, there is a
grove with twenty-six kinds of trees. When driving through the country,
the colonel would cut a branch from some tree, use it as a buggy whip
and on his return stick it in this ground.

KNOXVILLE, 30.5 m. (833 alt, 105,802 pop.) (see KNOXVILLE).

Points of Interest: TVA Headquarters, University of Tennessee, Blount Mansion,
Henley Street Bridge, Church Street Methodist Church, Chisholm Tavern, National
Cemetery, Old Gray Cemetery, and others.

Knoxville is at the junction with US 25W (see Tour 5), US nW (see
Tour 1A), US nE (see Tour 1), and US 70 (see Tour 12).

Left from Broadway on Main Ave. to Gay St.; R. on Gay St. to Hill Ave.; and
R. from Hill St. on Riverside Dr.

The JAMES WHITE HOME SITE, 1411 Riverside Drive, is identified by a stone
marker. White, a Revolutionary soldier and founder of Knoxville, erected his second
home here after abandonment of White's Fort. A few feet north of the marker is an
elm, about thirty-six inches in diameter, which was standing when Knoxville was
founded.

At 2 m. is the junction with a paved road.

Right on this road 0.3 m. to the CITY WATERWORKS PLANT (open), on tweaty-
five acres of river bottom land. The plant, completed in 1927, has a capacity of
1 5 million gallons a day.

At 2.6 m. is the junction with Dandridge Ave.

Left on Dandridge Ave. 0.2 m. to the JOHN WILLIAMS HOME (open 9-3 week
days), 3700 Dandridge Ave., now the administration building of the STATE
SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF (Negro Division). The long two-story brick house has
been somewhat changed. It is approached by a boxwood-bordered walk. The house
was built by Williams' wife, Melinda, daughter of James White, while her hus-
band was Minister to Guatemala (1825-1828). She made the plans, supervised the
burning of the bricks by slaves, and superintended details of construction, without
telling her husband what she was doing. His surprise on his return was long a mat-
ter of amusement in Knoxville. In room arrangement the house is typical of the
early iSoo's, a hall runs through the center with large square rooms on each side.
To the left of the house is a small brick office.

Williams had recruited and organized the 39th U. S. Infantry from Tennessee
volunteers for the Creek War. He was the hero of the Battle of Horseshoe Bend
under Gen. Andrew Jackson, who, it is said, exclaimed, ''Williams, you have this
day made me famous." Williams was United States Senator from 1815 to 1823,
when he was defeated by Jackson.

At 4.1 m., R, on Strawberry Plains Pike; at 5.7 m. R. on Asbury Rd. and at
6 m. L. on Thorngrove Rd.

On Thorngrove Rd. at 7.2 m. is the RAMSEY HOUSE (open by permission), built
in 1797 by Col. F. A. Ramsey, the surveyor who accompanied Capt. James White on
his exploring expedition in 1783. The architect was Thomas Hope, of London, who
was also an expert cabinetmaker and upholsterer; he had been brought from Eng-
land in 1752 by Ralph Izard to build his now famous house in Charleston, S. C. In
his unprinted autobiography Colonel Ramsey's son, Dr. J. G. M. Ramsey, author of
Annals of Tennessee, described the house: "It was a large stone structure, with a
deep basement and an attic besides two tall stories. Its corners, its arches, the top of
the chimneys, and one row of building rock midway between the ground and the
top of the square, were built of pure blue limestone, while the walls throughout
were built of red granite. Its style was Gothic, long narrow windows, cornices richly
carved in wood but painted to resemble stone, massive, elaborately finished and orna-
mented. At the census of 1800 it was the most costly and most admired building in
Tennessee." Even the first stone s*er>s, the threshold of the front door, and some of

TOUR 5A 349

the window shutters with hand-wrought hinges are still in place. The heavily
bracketed cornices are carved with maple leaves. The huge rear chimney has an ex-
terior fireplace. The thick stone walls make the interior cool on the hottest day. The
house is now in poor condition.

MARBLEDALE, 8.1 m. } R. on Cinder Lane which begins to circle through quarries
of the Tennessee Marble Co., and past fields covered with defective marble which is
waiting to be crushed into lime. The road returns to Asbury Rd. ; R. on Asbury Rd.

The QUARRY AND POWER PLANT OF THE APPALACHIAN MARBLE COMPANY
(open by permission of the superintendent, who acts as guide), is at 10.1 m. Here,
in one of the largest marble quarries in East Tennessee, are three types of marble
grey, pink, and rose. The second variety, one of the most beautiful, is a light pink
throughout, with flecks of red like tiny drops of blood. It is very decorative and
takes a high polish.

This quarry was opened in 1869 by the U. S. Government to provide material
for the old Knoxville Post Office and Customhouse at W. Clinch Ave. and Market St.

Every color of marble except pure white is found in Tennessee. The stone most
recently exploited is almost jet. This marble absorbs less than half as much water as
the best granite. Marble from the Knoxville district has been used in the Morgan
Bank and the Grand Central Terminal, New York City, and in the New York State
Capitol at Albany.

LEBANON PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 10.6 m., is at the forks of the Holston and
French Broad Rivers. The small frame structure is on the site of the log church in
which the Presbyterian doctrine was first preached in lower East Tennessee. Dr.
Samuel Carrick, later founder of the First Presbyterian Church of Knoxville and
first president of Blount College, became the minister. He established himself in a
house across the Holston River in 1791, and taught as well as preached. Prior to the
erection of the log church, his pulpit was an Indian mound at the junction of the
two rivers, immediately west of the church. Among the large crowds of pioneers at
the all-day services were many Cherokee, who liked the minister.

On the afternoon of September 25, 1793, Dr. Carrick left for Knoxville to aid in
its defense against a threatened Indian attack, not even waiting to bury his wife,
who had died shortly before. Negro slaves took the body of Mrs. Carrick across the
Holston River in a canoe and buried it without religious rites on a little mound
at the rear of the church.

In this graveyard are also the graves of Col. F. A. Ramsey and his two wives,
Peggy Alexander and Annie Agnew, buried one on each side of him; J. G. M.
Ramsey, near his father's tomb; Brig. Gen. John C. Ramsey, C. S. A., his brother,
and Reynolds Ramsey, Esq. (1736-1816), who was with Washington at Trenton
and Princeton.

Section b. KNOXVILLE to GEORGIA LINE; $1.8 m. State 33

The Chilhowee Mountains (L) parallel the route and obstruct the view
of the Smokies.

South of KNOXVILLE, m., at 1.4 m. is the junction (R) with State
35 (see Tour 5).

At 10.4 m. is the junction with Mentor Road.

Right on this road to the REMAINS OF GILLESPIE'S FORT, 0.5 m. t which was cap-
tured and burned by Indians who killed 30 white men, women, and children here.
The place was thereafter called Burnt Station.

At 10.7 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Right on this road to the McGHEE TYSON AIRTORT, 3.7 m., constructed as
a WPA project in 1936-37 and sponsored by the cities of Knoxville, Maryville,
and Alcoa, though now operated by the municipal government of Knoxville. It was
named in honor of Lieut. McGhee Tyson, U. S. Naval flier, who lost his life when
his plane went down in the North Sea in 1918.

350 TOURS

At 12.9 m. is the junction with a paved road.

Right on this road is ALCOA, 1 m. (1,040 alt., 5,255 pop.), founded by the
Aluminum Company of America in 1913, when it purchased a. large tract of land,
including all of North Maryville, and began the construction of a first plant.

The little city has wide streets, parks, and school grounds planned on a scale to
meet the needs of a future population of 25,000, which was expected when the place
was incorporated in 1919. Full development never took place, and many of the
buildings are now in bad condition.

The' reducing plant here smelts a considerable quantity of the aluminum pro-
duced in the United States. Bauxite is shipped in from mines in Arkansas, and
cryolite from Greenland. The processing plants were erected here because of the
proximity of hydroelectric power sites. Three dams have been constructed, one at
Calderwood on the Little Tennessee River (see Tour 13), and the others in North
Carolina.

At full capacity the plant produces 130 pounds of aluminum a minute.

In one of the parks is a large swimming pool. There is also a nine-hole golf
course with a clubhouse near the eastern city limits.

MARYVILLE, 16.1 m, (1,150 alt, 4,968 pop,), named in honor of
Mary Grainger Blount, wife of Gov. William Blount, is the seat of Blount
County. The early settlers here preempted Cherokee land and therefore
had a rather dangerous existence. Blount County, named in honor of Gov.
William Blount, first and only Governor of the Territory of the United
States South of the River Ohio, was created by the Territorial Assembly,
July ii, 1795, from part of Knox County.

In 1807, Sam Houston, later the hero of the Battle of San Jacinto, came
from Virginia to a .nearby tract with his widowed mother and eight
brothers. The family established a store in Maryville. Before many years
Sam, wild and impetuous, and, as he said, fonder of "measuring deer tracks
to tape," ran away to the Cherokee country.

Maryville's main street runs along the crest of a hill. All the approaches
to it are steep side streets. Thus Maryville is more of a "Main Street town"
than most of those so described ; it is also a blue-Sunday town, no mer-
chandise being sold on the Sabbath.

The BARCLAY McGHEE HOME (open), 306 Broadway, two blocks west
of the post office, is a plain, square, two-story structure with outside chim-
neys. It was built in 1790. Its high ceilings, paneled doors, carved mantels
and wainscoting, and the old porch are characteristic of the more luxuri-
ous homes of the period in which it was erected.

The SITE OF FORT CRAIG, around which Maryville grew, is at the corner
of Washington Ave. and E. Main St. The stout little structure was built by
John Craig about 1785 and became a refuge for settlers along Pistol Creek
during Indian attacks. The stockade enclosed about two acres of ground
on which was a spring. One attack was repulsed with severe losses to the
Indians but none to the defenders.

The HARPER LIBRARY (open daily, 2 to 6 p.m.), at the northeast corner
of College St. and Church Ave., is dedicated to the memory of William
Harper, who was killed in the World War.

MARYVILLE COLLEGE, on College St. four blocks southeast of the court-
house, was founded in 1819 by the Tennessee Synod of the Presbyterian
Church, as the Southern and Western Theological Seminary. When a new

TOUR 5A 351

charter was taken out in 1842, the name was changed. The 32o-acre cam-
pus, purchased in 1879, commands a view of the distant Great Smoky
Mountains and of the nearby Chilhowees. A farm of 100 acres is operated
by the College and another 100 acres has been developed into a recrea-
tional park, with a seven-acre botanical garden and an amphitheater.

The college has had only six presidents in 117 years. The endowment
fund is about $1,600,000, and its buildings and grounds are valued at
about $675,000. The student body is limited to 800. The usual liberal arts
courses are offered, but only degrees in the arts and sciences are granted.

The college was one of the centers of anti-slavery sentiment in East
Tennessee, partly because the Reverend Isaac Anderson, founder of the
institution, often lectured ardently on the subject. In 1838 one of the
students wrote that twelve among die student body of thirty were abolition-
ists. "We have some friends in the country around, among whom we have
the privilege of distributing without fear a considerable number of pam-
phlets," he said. Because English opponents of slavery were contributing
to the abolitionist funds, advocates of slavery denounced this activity as
"subversive foreign propaganda;"

Rules for student conduct at the school are almost as strict as they were
when it was founded. Students must attend chapel each morning, and
church twice on Sunday. No dancing or smoking is permitted, and women
students cannot leave the campus after dark. On Sundays no student is al-
lowed off the campus except to go to church. The low tuition, combined
with high educational standards, compensates for the rigidity of the regula-
tions.

In LAMAR LIBRARY on the campus is the flag of the Blount County
Women's Home Guards, organized during the War between the States
after most of the men in the county had left for .military service. A group
of young women formed this military company and adopted a flag with
thirty-two stars in a blue field. The advance guard of Sherman's troops, on
its way to relieve Burnside in the siege of Knoxville, had received word
that the Union advance was being opposed and sent out a skirmish line
before it was realized that the opposition came from the "Blount County
Home Guards, commandeered by Capt Cynthia Dunn/'

At Maryville is the junction with State 73 (see Tour 5B).

1. Left from Maryville on the graveled Nale's Creek Road to the junction with
another road at 5.1 /.; L. here to a junction with a dirt road by an iron gate
5.9 m.; R. here 0.4 m. to the SAM HOUSTON SCHOOL, in which the young man who
was later leader of the Texas Revolution, taught for a time after his stay among the
Cherokee. The little log cabin, whose floor boards and ceiling are secured by hand-
wrought iron nails, is 20 feet long, 18 feet wide, and about 10 feet high. There is
a fireplace and the interior is lighted through an x8-inch opening made by omitting
one log.

2. Right from Maryville on the graveled Friendsville Rd. is FRIENDSVILLE,
12 m., settled in 1796 by Quakers from North Carolina and Virginia, but not laid
out until 1852. In 1857 the Society of Friends established the Friendsville Academy,
which is still in operation. The Friends took a decided stand against slavery, and,
though conscientiously opposed to war, many enlisted in the Union Army during
the V/ar between the States.

35* TOURS

At 14 m. is the SITE OF ISH'S FORT, where John Sevier, in 1793, gathered about
300 militiamen to oppose more than 1,000 Indians then moving to attack Knoxville.
This thwarted the attack and the war party was driven back into the Indian country.

3. Right from Maryville on a graveled road to the junction with Lewis Ferry
Road at MENTOR, 4.5 m.; R. here to GILLESPIE'S ARMORED HOUSE, 6.5 m., built
of stone in 1802 by the Gillespie brothers, James and Isaac. The stone blocks, av-
eraging two feet in length, are fitted together and form walls no Indian arrows could
penetrate.

There are ten bedrooms. The brothers also erected nearby a three-story stone struc-
ture for the storage of meats, dairy products, grain and potatoes. These precautions
were taken as a protection against a long Indian siege.

4. Left from Maryville on the Montvale Springs Road to MONTVALE SPRINGS,
9 m., the scene of Charles Todd's Woodville or Anchorer Reclaimed, the first novel
written by a Tennessean. Sidney Lanier wrote Tiger Lilies while visiting his grand-
father here.

At 22.1 m. is the junction with US 129 (see Tour 4).

At BRICK MILL, 28.1 m., is the junction with Lanier Road.

Left on this road to LANIER SCHOOL, 3.5 m., at the junction with another dirt
road; R. here 1 m. to ARMY HEADQUARTERS, 4.5 m., a large brick house used as
headquarters by Gen. C. C. Howard during the advance of Union forces from
Chattanooga to the relief of General Burnside, besieged in Knoxville by the Con-
federates,

State 33 crosses the Little Tennessee River 333 m., on a toll bridge
(25$ for car and driver, 5$ for each passenger).

At 33.7 m. at the southern end of the bridge, is the junction with Fort
Loudoun Road.

Left on this dirt road to the junction with another road 0.2 m.; R. here and
across a bridge over Tellico River to a junction with another road; L. on this road
to the SITE OF FORT LOUDOUN, 1.2 m. Fort Loudoun was constructed in 1756 by
the British as an outpost against the French and as a friendly gesture to the Over-
hill Cherokee, who were allied with the British. The British wished to retain the
aid and sympathy of the Cherokee. The fort became a refuge for Indian women and
children when hostile tribes appeared during the absence of the men. The fort was
named in honor of the Earl of Loudoun, Lord Chancellor of Scotland in 1641.

Fort Loudoun was designed and constructed by James William Gerald de Brahm,
who is said to have been in the service of Emperor Charles VI before coming to
America. He was an eccentric person given to intense research in alchemy. His ec-
centricities, however, appealed to the Cherokee, who held him in high regard. De
Brahm in one of his reports wrote: "When the Author arrived with three hundred'
men at Little Tamothly, on the West Side of the Appalachian Mountains, He went
recognizing the Place intended for a Fort; was accompanied by the Captains Ray-
mond Demere, John Stewart, and John Postel; also by the Indian Emperor, (:Old
Hope:); the great Conjurer (:Attakulla-Kulla, or Little Carpenter:); and young
Beamer, a Mustee, who served as Interpreter; when the Author saw the Place, he
observed not only, that a Ridge of Mountains on the NE. side of the River, but also
that two Eminences, one to the NW. and another to the SE: commanded the place
so that He could not agree to fix upon that Spot seemingly a favorite Place of the
Indians, wherefore he had much ado to convince Them of the Impropriety to build
a Fort between three commanding Eminences, His Arguments would have required
less Force, had the other officers (:who seemingly inclined out of Compliance to
the Indians to favor their Choice: ) joined the Author, who at last showed the In-
dians that the Men's very Shoe Buckles were seen from either of these three Moun-
tains, could not serve for A Fort to protect their Old Men, Women and Children,
what could not protect its own Garrison. A Rhombus with two Small and two ex-
tensive Bastions was the Figure which the Fort would receive from the Bearings of

TOUR 5A 353

the River and the Mountain, who with a rocky Precipice 41 ft. high from the Waters
Superfices terminates upon the Rivers edge; each Poligon extends 300 ft. in
Length with a Breast-Work of 21 ft. thick. In the Ditches he directed a Hedge to
be planted of young Locust Trees (:a:) which in less than twelve Months time
filled the ditch from the Centre Scarpe to the Scarpe, so that there was no Possi-
bility to come to its foot with Intent to cut or burn it down. The Locust Trees are
full of Thorns, which are three and four inches long, and out of each Thorn project
four other Thorns more, perpendicularly forming a cross, in the manner of a cheval
de freis, so that the medling with this Hedge is in every respect impracticable, and
renders the Fort impregnable at least against Indians, who always engage naked;
each Bostion mounts three Cannons, each Cannon is of 1 6 ounces Caliber, or bore.
These small Cannons were brought with the greatest difficulty, and great expenses
over the Apalachian Mountains; the Indian Trader (:one Ellit:) undertook to bring
them from Fort Prince George opposite Keewee on the east side of the Apalachian
Mountains; Ellit contrived to poise on each Horse a Cannon cross-ways over the
Pack Saddle, and lashed them round the Horses Body with Belts (:b:) ; but as these
Horses had to cross a Country full of high Mountains, and these covered with
Forests, it would happen, that some times one End of a Cannon did catch a tree,
twist upon the Saddle, and drew the Horse down some of which had by these Ac-
cidents their Backs broken under the Weight, and lost their lives ; the longest jour-
ney these horses could make was six miles in a day."

As the work progressed De Brahm and Commander Raymond Demere had a
sharp disagreement as to authority, causing De Brahm to leave secretly at Christmas
1756, before the work was completed. A council of war found he had "clandes-
tinely gone away and left the fort unfinished," and Old Hop, the Cherokee Em-
peror, spoke of him as "the warrior who ran away in the night." The fort was
completed under the direction of Captain Demere.

During the construction of the fort the white men occupied huts nearby, and
many of them married Indian women. War broke out with the Cherokee, who laid
siege to Fort Loudoun in February 1760. The little band inside withstood the attack
for five months, though they were forced to eat their horses and dogs.

All attempts to obtain reinforcements having failed, it was agreed to surrender to
the Cherokee upon the best terms obtainable. Captain Stuart went to Chota, the
home of Oconastota, and negotiated an agreement to capitulate upon the following
terms: "That the garrison of Loudoun march out with their arms and drums, each
soldier having as much powder and bait as the officer shall think necessary for the
march and all the baggage they choose to carry; that the garrison be permitted to
march to Virginia or to Fort Prince George, as the commanding officer shall think
proper, unmolested ; that a number of Indians be appointed to escort them, and aid
them in hunting for provisions during the march; that such soldiers as were lame
or disabled by sickness from marching be received into the Indian towns and treated
kindly, until they recover, and then be allowed to return to Fort Prince George;
that the Indians provide as many horses for the garrison as they can for the march
which were to be paid for at the end of the journey; that the great guns, powder
and ball and spare arms be turned over to the Indians without fraud and delay on
the day set for the march of the troops."

In accordance with these terms, the garrison evacuated on August 8, 1760. Ac-
companied by Oconastota and several other Indians, they marched about 15 miles
over the Tellico River Trail toward Fort Prince George, and camped for the night
near Cane Creek. At dawn the next morning they were attacked by a large number
of Indians, who killed 4 officers, 23 privates and 3 women, and made the rest
prisoners. A number of the latter were eventually ransomed and delivered to Fort
Prince George, principally through the efforts of a friendly chief.

The old fort is being reconstructed by the WPA.

MADISONVILLE, 44.1 m. (875 alt., 926 pop.), seat of Monroe
County, was named in honor of James Madison. On record in the COURT-
HOUSE are many grants and deeds that were made by the Cherokee.

354 TOURS

HIWASSEE JUNIOR COLLEGE, established here in 1847, * s a self -help
institution where most of the students work part-time.

On the north side of the courthouse square is GUILFORD CANNON
HOUSE, better known as the Stickley House because Vastine Stickley, a man
of local prominence, occupied it for 50 years. It is a large two-story brick
structure built in 1846; there is a two-story pedimented veranda in the cen-
ter of the front and the spiral stairway runs from the first floor to the low
attic

Left from Madisonviile, on State 68, is TELLICO PLAINS, 14 m. (900 alt., 902
pop.), in the CHEROKEE NATIONAL FOREST (camping, hunting, and carry,
ing of firearms permitted only in restricted areas; inquire at office of the park
Ranger a few yards east of the center of the village).

According to the diary kept by Louis Philippe, on his travels through Tennessee,
he fell from a horse here and was injured. He had himself bled. The results were so
satisfactory that the aged chief of the Cherokee, ill at the time, asked that the opera-
tion be performed on him. The chief was cured and in grateful recognition of the
white man's skill, he invited the Prince to his lodge. A feast was served and the
French aristocrat spent the night in the chief's crowded lodge, sleeping between
two squaws.

When Louis Philippe became King of France he frequently asked residents of the
United States who were presented to him. "Do they still sleep three in a bed in
Tennessee?"

The town is on the site of the Cherokee town of Talequah, important in the mili-
tary, political, and tribal history of the Cherokee Nation. Five important Cherokee
treaties were signed here. Indian mounds and relics have been found nearby.

1. Left from Tellico Plains 1.4 m. on a graveled road to THE MANSION (private),
by the Tellico River; it is so called because when built it was the finest home in this
part of Tennessee. The house was built around a cabin erected by John Sevier.

About 1824 the cabin was purchased by Elijah Johnson, of New Jersey, whose
son had preceded him to the area and had been living with the Indians. The new
owner added nine rooms. The ceiling levels of the first floor vary from room to
room. A secret underground passageway was constructed between the house and the
river. The entrance to this passage was at the top of the house; as a result some of
the rooms are oddly shaped.

2. Left from Tellico Plains 11 m. on a graveled road to RAFTER; L. from
Rafter on White Oak Flats Rd. to the junction with a dirt road, 19 m.; R. here into
JEFFREY'S HELL, 19.5 m., a game preserve in the Cherokee National Forest. The
section is wild, mountainous, and uninhabited, lying between the north and south
forks of Citico's Creek and extending eastward almost to the North Carolina Line.
There are cliffs, ravines, sharp rocky spurs, and a dense growth of plant life. Al-
though the area has been exploited for commercial purposes, it has retained much
of its original wild and freakish character. It received its name when a hunter named
Jeffrey ventured too far from camp, and wandered for two days without food. When
he finally reached the headwaters of Tellico and was asked where he had been, he
replied, "I don't know, but I have been in Hell/*

Along the road is much laurel and rhododendron. The rhododendron is from 15
to 20 feet high, and the laurel so dense that it is almost impossible to penetrate the
thickets. Several varieties of trillium grow here, also lilies-of-the-valley, wild bleed-
inghearts, and numerous orchids. The fringe trees grow from 20 to 30 feet high.
Scattered along the creeks and in dense beds of rare ferns are the beautiful silver
trees.

Wildlife is still abundant in this section of the country. Ruffed grouse, rabbits,
wild turkeys and many small game birds and animals are seen. White-tailed deer
are being propagated, but are not plentiful. Black bears are frequently shot.

The wild boar of the German Hartz Mountains is found here. They were im-

TOUR 5A 355

ported to stock a private preserve but escaped and now run wild. They spread over
an 8o,ooo-acre region, now the Tellico Game and Fish Management Area. They have
greatly increased in numbers and now furnish exciting sport for hunters; they are
vicious fighters, and the females with litters are especially dangerous, sometimes kill-
ing or injuring several dogs during the hunt.

The first official Tennessee boar hunt was held in 1936 under the supervision
of the State Game and Fish Department and the U. S. Forest Service.

In the fall, a limited number of hunters, whose names are drawn by lot from a
list of applicants, gather at Tellico Plains, the headquarters for the hunt. Here
mountain guides with packs of trained dogs are available. Three styles common to
big-game hunting are used chasing, stalking, and shooting from a stand. In
addition to the regular State hunting license, a special permit issued by the State,
costing 5, is required.

ENGLEWOOD, 54 m. (850 alt, 1,554 pop.), is a trading center in a
fertile farming district.

ETOWAH, 61.8 m. (865 alt, 2,516 pop.) a railroad division point, is
primarily a trading town for farmers.

Left from Etowah on a dirt road to CHILHOWEE SPRINGS (hotel and cabins),
6 m. f on Chilhowee Mountain.

At 68.2 m. is the junction with paved State 40, the Kinsey Highway.

Left on State 40 is RELIANCE, 5.9 m.; R. here 4 m. on a dirt road to SPRING-
TOWN, near which Geo. W. Johnson wrote the song "When You and I were
Young Maggie."

BENTON, 74.8 m. (880 alt., 508 pop.), is the seat of Polk County.
An OLD FORT TENNESSEE BLOCKHOUSE has been moved to the center of
the town. It was built of hewn pine logs; though its age is not known,
the type of construction indicates that it was erected in a very early period
of Tennessee history. The upper story contains 32 loop-holes, the lower 28.

Left from Benton 7.5 m. on a dirt road to the GRAVE OF NANCY WARD, an In-
dian woman, who attempted to maintain peace between her people and the aggres-
sive white settlers. She frequently warned the whites of Indian attacks. Nevertheless
the Indians held her in high esteem, partly because of her service to members of
the tribe. The chiefs conferred upon her the office of "Beloved Woman," gave her
the right to be heard in the council, and bestowed on her the power to release con-
demned prisoners. During the siege of Fort Watauga, Mrs. William Bean, mother
of the first white child bom in Tennessee, was taken prisoner and condemned to
be burnt. She had been carried to the top of a mound when Nancy appeared and
released her.

At 80.8 m. is the junction with US 64 (see Tour 13).

OLD FORT, 86.8 m. f is the former site of the blockhouse that has been
moved to Benton.

TENNGA, 91.8 m., a town on the Tennessee-Georgia Line, with a post
office in each State, is at the northern end of Bedspread Boulevard, which
extends to Dalton and Atlanta, Ga. For miles on both sides of the road
are displays of homemade bedspreads, mats, rugs, beach coats, and other
articles. Men, women, and children deftly operate needle and hooked-rug
frames. Entire families are busy "keeping up the spread lines" for tour-
ists and for mail-order trade from city department stores. The income ob-
tained from this work is relatively low, but many of the families have no
other means of earning cash.

Tennga is 16 miles north of Chatsworth, Ga., on Georgia 61.

356 TOURS

Tour 56

Junction with State 71 Kinzel Springs Walland Maryville ; 40
State 73.

Resort accommodations at points both on and near the route.
Surfaced roadbed ; winding road, requires slow driving.

State 73 branches southwest from a junction with State 71 (see Tour *
2.4 miles south of Gatlinburg; it is part of the Knoxville Scenic Loc
joining State 33 (see Tour 5 A) at Maryville. Half the route lies with
the GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK (see GKEs
SMOKY MOUTAINS NATIONAL PARK). The road follows the coui
of Fighting Creek, runs through Fighting Gap until the defile convey
with the gap of the Little River at Eikmont, then winds along Little Ri\
Gulch. At Townsend it enters Tuckaleechee Cove, and at Walland lea\
the foothills through a gap in Chilhowee Mountain to drop down ic
the Valley of East Tennessee.

Between the junction with State 71. and Walland, State 73 twi:
through some of the most rugged and picturesque highlands in the Ea
Between Elkmont and Townsend the road, laid on the bed of a loggii
railway, follows a clear mountain stream through a gorge whose walls ri
sharply. Until a decade ago this gorge was known only to foresters, 1m
bermen, and mountaineers. A few mountain cabins are visible from ti
road; each has its truck garden, but sometimes the plot is on such a ste
slope that it would seem impossible to plow and cultivate the land. Tl
mountain people cross from the road on swinging bridges to paths th
lead into high coves in the gorge.

At 0.3 m. south of the junction with US 71 is the junction with a tra

Right on this trail to HOLY BUTT (2,910 alt.), 2.7 m. The trail continues
MOUNT HARRISON (3,000 alt.) 3.3 m., on the northern boundary of the pa
and overlooking Wear Cove, and affording views of Mount LeConte, the Chimne
and Siler's Bald.

An OBSERVATION POINT (2,089 alt.) is (L) at 2.3 m.
At 2.5 m., where State 73 cuts through FIGHTING CREEK GA
(2,300 alt) is a junction with a trail.

1. Left on this trail to MID'S GAP (2,584 alt.), 1 m., and TURKEY GAP, 2 j
At Turkey Gap is a junction with a trail that leads 3 m. to SUGARLAND MOU1
TAIN.

2. Right from Fighting Creek Gag on this trail to LAUREL CREEK FALL
1.4 m. t frequently visited because of their accessibility. DEVIL'S CHUTE, 1.8 m.,
one of the picturesque spots in the park.

At 2.5 m. to CHINQUAPIN RIDGE (3,500 alt.). At 4 m. is a junction with
trail that leads (L) 0.3 m. to COVE MOUNTAIN (4,091 alt.), which affords
broad view overlooking Wear Cove.

DEFIANCE

At 5 m. on the main trail is PHIL'S VIEW (3,700 alt.). At B m. is MOUNT
HARRISON from which return to State 73 can be made by a shorter trail.

At 4.4 m. is the junction with a macadam road.

Left on this road is ELKMONT (2,146 alt., no pop.), 1 m. t a resort (hotels and
cabins) on a farm once owned by Drury P. Armstrong, Knoxville merchant, whose
diary (1844-49) tells of an abundance of game fish, wild fowl, wild animals and
large crops here. The railroad of the Little River Lumber Company was the first
means of access to the spot. An excursion of the Knoxville Elks caused the place to
be called Elks Mountain, but this was later shortened to Elkmont The Wonderland
Club Hotel, built in 1912 and since enlarged, is one of the few resort hotels in the
park (guides available).

The Appalachian Club maintains a smaller clubhouse and a number of cabins.

Across the road from the hotel is the entrance to Le Conte, a private camp for
boys.

i. Right from Elkmont' on Jake's Gap Trail 2 m. to the barrier (cars- should be
left here). The trail follows the old railroad bed. At JAKE'S GAP, Q.m., the trail
turns (R) to BLANKET MOUNTAIN (4,609 alt.), 5 m., where panoramas unfold.
The fire lookout on the mountain commands a 3 5 -mile view of the western end of
the Great Smokies.

The origin of the name of this peak is unknown; some believe it was given be-
cause Indians used the mountain as a signal post for sending smoke messages with
the aid of blankets; others attribute the name to early surveyors who marked central
points for their platting by hanging a blanket on a tree on each summit.

358 TOURS

2. Left from Elkmont 4 m. on a trail following Little River to Fish Camp Prong,
which is followed and crisscrossed by the trail ascending to the Tennessee-North
Carolina Divide, 5 m. Left (east) is SILER'S BALD on the Divide (5,620 alt.),
6.5 m. Other trails are available for descent. The climb up Siler's Bald is not an
easy one; it leads nearly 8 m. over boulders and through undergrowth. Part of the
way this slope is like a well lined with slippery, moss-covered rock. On top of the
ridge is a deep, rich loam that frequently reaches the shoetops. Roots of rhododen-
drons offer perilous foothold, but the flowing branches form a beautiful arch over-
head.

On the North Carolina side the view downward shows Forney Ridge and Bear
Wallow Knob. A bear wallow, the ideal bathtub of the mountain bear, is formed
by soft humus on a moisture-retaining underclay or rock. There is an impressive
view down the north front of Siler's Bald into the triangular gulf formed by the
Miry Ridge (5,240 alt.) and the Sugarland Mountain. This is sometimes a forbid-
ding vista. Seas of rhododendron cover the impenetrable depths which in winter
are sunless and desolate.

At 9.9 m* on State 73 is the junction with a graveled road.

Right on this road 1.1 m. to a junction with -a trail. Left on this trail 0.7 m. to
ROUND TOP (3,080 alt.). At 1.3 m. (R) to WEAR COVE GAP.
At 2 m. is LINE SPRINGS HOTEL (see Tour 5).

At SINK'S BRIDGE, 11.9 m., on State 73 is a junction with a trail.

Right here following a creek to CURRY HE MOUNTAIN and CURRY SHE
MOUNTAIN (3,014 alt), 1.7 m.

Curry He was the mountaineers' version of an unknown Indian word approximat-
ing it in sound and, having thus arrived at the name of one mountain, they logically
called a neighboring peak Curry She.

At 17.9 m* on State 73 is the junction with an unimproved road.

Left on this road that follows the Middle Prong of the Little River to WALKER'S
VALLEY, 3 m., where there is a junction with a trail leading 0.7 m. (L) to FOD-
DERSTACK MOUNTAIN (2,525 alt.). At 4.5 m. on the road is TREMONT
(1,925 alt, 50 pop.). COLD WATER KNOB (4,009 alt.) and RUSSELL FIELD
(4,876 alt.) are nearby. Radiating from Tremont are the trails to THUNDERHEAD
MOUNTAIN (5,530 alt), GREENBRIER KNOB on the North Carolina Line,
JAKE'S GAP (4,474 alt.), and BLANKET MOUNTAIN (4,609 alt.).

State 73 leaves the gorge at TUCKALEECHEE COVE, 19.1 m.

TOWNSEND, 21.3 m. (1,500 alt., 402 pop.), in Tuckaleechee Cove,
was known by the name of the cove until a lumber mill was built here in
1902 by W. B. Townsend. It is a quiet village with many houses facing
the river. There is a hotel and a tourist home here.

KINZEL SPRING, 24 m. (1,610 alt., 100 pop.), a summer resort es-
tablished in 1894, lies below four mountains Matthew, Mark, Luke, and
John. Beyond the two hotels cluster cottages, housing a large summer col-
ony.

Left from Kinzel Springs on the improved Cades Cove Rd. At 3.5 m. is RICH
MOUNTAIN, where is a notable view. The road approaches CADES COVE
(1,710 alt), 10 m. t (two hotels), from a high rim. The view over the broad flat
resembles that over an unrippled lake. This peaceful expanse, two miles wide by
six long, spreads between Rich Mountain and the divide. The cove is threaded by
Abram Creek, which rushes down through an almost invisible gorge. Over Cades
Cove towers Thunderhead. This place is believed to have been named Kate's Cove,
for an old Indian squaw.

Miss Mary Noailles Murfree (see WRITERS OF TENNESSEE), who was lame,

TOUR 6 359

was so eager to see the mountain that she traveled the trails on horseback. Cades
Cove is the locale of her books, The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains,
Stranger People's Country, and The Raid of the Guerrilla, written under her pen
name of Charles Egbert Craddock.

1. Right from Cades Cove on a 3 -mile trail that follows Abram's Creek to its
union with Laurel Branch, which it then follows to the pool at the foot of
ABRAM'S FALLS.

2. Left from Cades Cove on a 7-mile trail that follows Anthony Creek to Bote
Mountain and thence (L) to Spence Field on the divide and THUNDERHEAD
MOUNTAIN (5,530 alt).

3. Right from Willie Myer's place at the western end of Cades Cove, on a trail
that follows Gregory Ridge to RICH GAP, 4.2 m., and GREGORY'S BALD
(4,948 alt), 4.5 m. This area was formerly used for the pasturage of sheep. The
descent can be made by several routes.

WALLAND, 29.4 m. (250 pop.), with a mineral spring, is in a gap of
the Chilhowee Mountains. The settlement grew with the establishment of
the England Walton Tannery in 1902. There is a hotel here.

MARYVILLE, 40 m. (1,150 alt, 4,968 pop.) (see Tour 5A) is at the
junction with State 33 (see Tour 5).

B >>

Tour 6

(Somerset, Ky) Oneida Harriman Rodcwood Spring Qty Dayton
Chattanooga (La Fayette, Ga.) ; US 27.
Kentucky Line to the Georgia Line, 139.5 m.

The Southern Ry. parallels US 27 for the entire route.
Paved roadbed.
Usual accommodations.

Section a. KENTUCKY LINE to JUNCTION WITH US 70; 69 m.

US 27 crosses the Kentucky Line, m., 46 miles south of Somerset Ky. ?
and, for about 60 miles, runs through a beautiful mountain area broken
by ragged gulches, through which swift streams and rivers flow. Small tim-
ber grows densely along the highway and, during the spring and summer,
wild flowers brighten die roadside.

South of Wartburg, US 27 descends circuitously through the valley of
the Emory River into that of the Tennessee. Between Harriman and Chatta-
nooga the route passes along the foot of the Cumberland Escarpment (R),
which is known locally as Walden's Ridge; it rises 1,000 feet above the
valley, forming the western rim of the East Tennessee Valley.

360 TOURS

During the heavy immigration to America in the latter part of the
nineteenth century, numerous sites in the valley were selected for coloniza-
tion some with high idealism and some with hope of gain. Judged by
the hopes of their founders, all failed.

ONEIDA, 9.3 m. (1,500 alt, 1,382 pop.), the largest town in Scott
County, is a shipping point for timber, coal, farm products, and live stock.

Right from Oneida on an unmarked dirt road to INDIAN ROCK HOUSE, 13 m., on
the Grassy Fork of Williams Creek. The shelter is created by an overhanging rock
ledge. Stones piled up in crude walls and frameworks of poles covered with skins
or branches made effective windbreaks. The Indians of Tennessee and Kentucky
made this terrritory neutral ground and used it solely for hunting. During the hunt-
ing season they lived in this place and others like it. Here they smoked meat, treated
skins, and stored their supplies.

At 16.4 m. is the junction with graveled State 63.

Left on State 63 is HUNTSVILLE, 2.6 m. (1,450 alt., 500 pop.), seat of Scott
County. Lumbering is the chief activity.

NEW RIVER, 20 m. (1,201 alt., 200 pop.), is a shipping point for coal
and lumber.

The principal activity of ROBBINS, 23.5 m. (1,370 alt., 500 pop.), is
brick making. BARTON CHAPEL was erected in memory of the Reverend
William E. Barton, who began his ministry near the site of this church in
1885. The chapel has become a center of social-service work in the com-
munity. Barton, who died in 1930, was a lecturer at a theological seminary
in Chicago and at Vanderbilt University School of Religion. He was the
author of The Paternity of Abraham Lincoln, an account of exhaustive
research on the question of Lincoln's legitimacy, and of The Women Lin-
coln Loved. His son, Bruce Barton, who was elected to the U. S. House
of Representatives in 1937 from the 171*1 district of New York, is the
author of The Man Nobody Knows.

At 25 m. is the junction with State 52.

Right on this graveled road is RUGBY, 7 m. (i v 4zo alt., 275 pop.), established
in 1877 as an experimental colony under the supervision of Thomas Hughes, British
author of Tom Brown's School Days. The community was intended for Englishmen
"recruited from the ranks of mechanics and tradespeople, and for the overplus of in-
telligent young men for whom there seemed to be no proper occupation at home."
As conceived by Hughes, it was to be a place where "a reverent, godly life would
grow up and spread over all neighboring regions of the South Highlands." Rugby
was selected because of its mild climate and fertile soil. A large acreage was pur-
chased, spreading over parts of Morgan, Scott, and Fentress Counties.

Royalties from the sale of Hughes' books were used in starting the colony. Two
months after Hughes' arrival there were 120 colonists. English social customs and
sports, such as cricket, Rugby football, and tennis, were introduced. A library of
800 volumes was contributed by American publishers. Later the HUGHES FREE
PUBLIC LIBRARY had 7,000 volumes; it is still open. The colony never attained the
"slow and steady growth" hoped for by Hughes. His dream that the members living
by the "labors of their own hands . . . would be able to meet princes in the gate
without embarrassment and self-assertion" never came true. After the project had
failed, Hughes wrote to friends in Rugby, "I can't help feeling and believing that
good seed was sown ..."

The Gothic-type RUGBY PARISH P.E. CHURCH, built of wood in the early days
of settlement, is still in use. The church organ, manufactured by the London firm of
Ralph Allison & Sons, belonged to the Reverend Joseph Blacklock, who left Eng-

TOUR 6 361

land with his wife and seven sons to settle here. The church has hangings of hand-
embroidered silk, a needlepoint kneeling cushion, and a hand-carved alms basin.

The route crosses the ridge at 34 m. that Is the dividing line between
the watersheds of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers.

SUNBRIGHT, 36 m. (1,216 alt., 500 pop.), is a shipping point for an
oil and gas field discovered in 1916; distributing plants are maintained
here by two large oil companies.

Lumbering is an important activity here, and both rough and dressed
lumber are prepared.

Right from Sunbright on old State 52 to BOONE CAMP (open 8-4 weekdays;
apply at office for pass), 4.5 m., where there is an oil refinery having a daily pro-
ductive capacity of 1,200 barrels of gasoline. The gas wells can produce 10 million
cubic feet in 24 hours.

Right 5 m. from Sunbright on Deer Lodge Pike to DEER LODGE, a small colony
of Poles, most of whom are farmers.

At 37 m. on US 27 is the junction with a paved road.

Left on this road 0.5 m. to the foot of a 2.5-mile trail to PILOT MOUNTAIN
(2,700 alt.). Shortly before Christmas 1934, an airmail plane crashed, killing
the pilot on the top of this mountain. There is a fine view from a lookout tower.

WARTBURG, 47.5 m. (1,373 alt., 350 pop.), named for Wartburg,
Germany, is the seat of Morgan County, named for Gen. Daniel Morgan,
Revolutionary soldier. Although it is on the Cumberland Plateau, Wart-
burg lies at the foot of Ward and Byrd Mountains. It was settled in 1845
by Swiss and German colonists, one of whom, Frederic Beneike, established
a piano factory here.

Outstanding among these German colonists were Augustin Gattinger
and George Dury, brothers-in-law, who arrived in 1849 f rom Munich.
Gattinger became an assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army in 1864, was
appointed State Commissioner of Agriculture in 1883, ^^ * ater published
books on botany and mineralogy. His collection of plants, seeds, minerals,
and fossils, now at the University of Tennessee, is almost complete for the
State. His botanical library of 187 volumes is now at Peabody College. A
species of shell Gattinger discovered was named for him.

After Dury settled in Tennessee, he painted portraits of several Ameri-
cans, including Robert E. Lee and Abraham Lincoln. His portrait of Mrs.
James K. Polk hangs in the East room of the White House; several other
paintings are in the State Library at Nashville.

Among the first buildings was Immigration House, a large structure in
which the colonists lived until land could be cleared and dwellings built.
A Lutheran congregation was organized and a church built.

During the gold rush of 1849 a resident of Wartburg, whose name has
been forgotten, joined the thousands who went to California. He made a
rich strike and returned to Morgan County, bringing with him the fortune
in gold nuggets he had found. After a short stay he decided to return to
California, and, fearing that someone might rob him, buried the gold
somewhere on the bluffs of Big Clear Creek. Returning to California, the
miner became ill and sent word of the cache to a relative who failed to find
the gold. The miner died in California, and as far as anyone knows his

362 TOURS

treasure has never been found. Many believe that it is still buried in the
vicinity.

1. Sight from Wartburg, 1.5 m. } on the old Oakdale Road to POTTER'S FALLS,
45 feet high, in Crooked Fork Creek. The water below the falls is fine for bathing.

2. Left from Wartburg on graveled State 62 to the junction with Petros Road,
9 m. L. here 2 m. to PETROS (1,300 alt., 1,500 pop.), the northern terminus of
the Harriman and Northeastern R.R. Petros lies in a deep valley that is in the coal
area extending over parts of Morgan, Scott, and Anderson Counties. The name
Petros possibly originated by a peculiar blending of the first name of ,Gov. Peter
Turney and the last name of a friend, Ross. In 1893 the State bought 11,000 acres
of timber and coal land at Brushy Mountain, near Petros, and established BRUSHY
MOUNTAIN PRISON. Convict labor is used to work the mines. Prior to the purchase
of this property the State leased the services of convicts to private industry. This
practice, however, was later abolished (see Tour 5 A).

South of Wartburg the route descends the mountain and passes through
the valley of the Emory River into the valley of the Tennessee.
At 59.5 m. is the junction with a paved road.

Right on this road is OAKDALE, 1 m. (805 alt., 1,123 pop.). Because the town
is crowded between Mountain Gap and Big Emory River, the houses are on the
sides of steep hills. There is a fine beach by the river.

In the village is a small colony of Melungeons, a dark-skinned people found only
in the mountainous region of East Tennessee and western North Carolina.

HARRIMAN, 64.5 m. (792 alt., 4,488 pop.), is a neat and prosperous
city surrounded by beautiful rolling hills. The town is the trade center of
a fertile farming region; its interests center primarily about large hosier}?
and woolen mills.

In 1845 Col. R. K. Byrd bought large holdings and established a plants
tion here. He believed that at this place "nature had ordained a town
should be/' but died five years before it was founded. Nearly fifty years
later the East Tennessee Land Company bought 10,000 acres of his land,
planning a city that would have a population of 50,000. The only house
on the site was the MARGROVE HOME, on Margrove St, which was built
of logs in 1810. In 1889 the company platted 343 acres and on Feb. 26,
1890, the first 574 lots were sold at an auction conducted by the president
of the land company, Gen. Clinton D. Fisk, who in 1888 had been a can-
didate for the Presidency on the Prohibition Party ticket. He endeavored
to make the city a model of morality and sobriety and the restriction still
holds that "every contract, deed, or other conveyance, or lease of real estate
by the land company and its successors, should contain and does contain
a provision forbidding the use of of the property, or any building thereon,
for the purpose of making, storing, or selling intoxicating liquor as such."
The Women's Christian Temperance Union had much to do with the early
life of the place, which was named for Gen. Walter Harriman, a former
Governor of New Hampshire, and incorporated on Feb. 7, 1891.

The first office building of the East Tennessee Land Company on Roane
and Walden Sts,, became the American Temperance University, from
which many prominent people of the section received their degrees. It was
later the Mooney School, then Tate School, and is now the CITY HALL.

The CASSELL HOUSE (private), on Cumberland St., holds a fine collec-

TOUR 6 363

tion of old furniture, patchwork quilts, hand-made bedspreads, chinaware,
and silver. Among the pieces of furniture is a secretary given to Gov.
John Sevier as a wedding present. There is an old silver service with an
acorn design that was made, like most Colonial silver, of melted money.
The Cassells, when they fled from Germany to America to escape religious
persecution, brought the silver service with them.

A PUBLIC MUSEUM (open 2:30-5:30 daily), established by Mrs. Daniel
Denny, is in the basement of the CARNEGIE LIBRARY, on the corner of
Walden and Trenton Streets. It contains articles from China, Japan, and
other Oriental countries; old chinaware, stuffed birds and animals, and
geological specimens.

Left from Harriman on the Swan Pond Road to the JONES DAIRY FARM 4 m.,
which has a water mill built by August and Henry Knoblauch, Germans who settled
here about 1830. It was originally used for milling corn and wheat but finally fell
into disuse. The old wheel has been replaced, and the mill now generates electric
power for use at the dairy.

At 69 m. is the junction with US 70 (see Tour 12). Between this point
and 78.8 m. US 27 and US 70 are united (see Tour 12).

Section b. JUNCTION WITH US 70 to GEORGIA LINE; 70 .5 m.

South of the junction with US 70 (see Tour 12), 2 miles west of Rock-
wood, is a BOY SCOUT MEMORIAL, 4.4 m., a beautiful monument erected
in honor of a scoutmaster and seven scouts who were drowned in a flood
in 1929 while camping at a point near the marker.

SPRING CITY, 13.8 m. (766 alt, 1,090 pop.), is in the Tennessee
Valley at the foot of Walden's 'Ridge.

Left from Spring City on State 68 to RHEA SPRINGS, 2 m., whose water was
valued by the Indians for its supposed medicinal qualities. They called it the "Home
of the Great Spirit," possibly because, as legend says, the water frequently rose with
a great swish at midnight a sign of the power of the healing spirit inhabiting its
depths. Just before a sale, slave owners brought their work-worn slaves to Rhea
Springs to rejuvenate them and increase their value. The hotel here is a modern log
structure.

The HAMPTON GROUP of Indian mounds is on the bank of the river. They in-
clude about twenty earthen mounds, a part of the chain of prehistoric earthworks
that extended through the Tennessee Valley. A number of them have been excavated,
and numerous Indian artifacts have been removed.

DAYTON, 30 m. (706 alt, 2,006 pop.), seat of Rhea County, was
founded in 1820 by W. H. Smith, a New England schoolmaster. The in-
dustrial plants include hosiery mills, an underwear factory, canneries, and
a bottle works. Coal mines are operated in the nearby mountains.

At the RHEA COUNTY COURTHOUSE the "evolution trial" of John T.
Scopes was held in the summer of 1925, This case, known as the "Mon-
key Trial/* grew out of the alleged violation of a Tennessee statute, passed
March 21 of that year, making it "unlawful for any teacher in ... the
State ... to teach any theory that denies the story of the divine creation
of man as taught in the Bible . . ." At a meeting in a local drugstore early
in 1925, Dr. George Rappelyea persuaded Scopes, the science teacher in
the high school, to stand trial in a test of the new law. Scopes admitted

364 TOURS

teaching evolution in his general science class. The American Civil Liber-
ties Union offered to finance the trial and lend its attorney, Arthur Gar-
field Hays. When William Jennings Bryan volunteered as prosecutor,
Clarence Darrow and Dudley Field Malone joined Hays in the defense.

Soon Dayton was aroar with newspaper men, itinerant preachers, and
thousands of the curious. Revivalists put up tents and placarded the town
with signs carrying pertinent Biblical warnings. The roads swarmed with
buggies, mule-drawn wagons, and mud-spattered and dust-caked Fords, as
Tennessee farmers and their families came to town to watch the defense
of "Genesis." They publicly and frequently affirmed their belief in the
Bible from "kiver to kiver" and some said that "this Darrow feller must
have horns and a tail/' All of them were eager to hear Bryan, the Great
Commoner, long famous on Chautauqua circuits for his "Crown of Thorns
Cross of Gold" oration which, when first delivered in 1896, resulted
in his nomination for the Presidency.

Tradesmen did a land-office business. Hot-dog and lemonade stands
were set up on every vacant lot. The crowd filled the small court room,
aisles and windows, and overflowed into the court yard. During the hot
summer days the trial proceeded, with smooth oratory from Malone,
shrewd cross-questioning from Darrow, and violent but eloquent outbursts
from Bryan.

By the time the trial ended there was a personal feud between Bryan and
Darrow. Under the trees of the court yard, to which the court had moved,
Bryan cried, "I want the world to know that this man who doesn't believe
in God is using a Tennessee court to cast slurs on Him

Darrow's reply, "I am simply examining you on the fool ideas that no
intelligent Christian in the whole world believes," brought horrified gasps
from part of the audience.

Scopes was found guilty and fined $100. Bryan died here on July 26,
1925, five days after the close of the trial into which he had entered with
all his nervous energy. As a memorial to him a William Jennings Bryan
University was founded here.

1. Right from Dayton on State 30 to CUMBERLAND SPRINGS, 2 m. f an artesian
spring, by which is a GEOLOGICAL FIELD STATION of Ohio State University. Prac-
tical training in field work is given here. The station was established here because of
the topography of the region, which is diversified. The slopes, hills, and peaks near
here represent periods in geologic history ranging from the Cambrian to the Pennsyl-
vanian. There are more than 20 different formations, including the folds and thrust
faults of a part of the great Appalachian Valley, and a part of the Cumberland
Plateau. The region holds coal, clay, and iron ore.

JOHNSON'S BLUFF, 6.5 m., is a summer colonv on the east brow of Walden's
Ridge, from which is a good view of the Great Smoky Mountains and the Tennessee
River.

MORGAN SPRINGS, 7 m. } is at the summit of Walden's Ridge. From BUZ-
ZARD POINT (1,850 alt.), near Morgan Springs, is a beautiful view of the Ten-
nessee Valley.

2. Left from Dayton on the Blythe Ferry Road to HIWASSEE ISLAND, 2 m. t
formerly Jolly's Island. It was once the home of Oo-loo-te-ka, the Cherokee who
adopted young Sam Houston as his son. Oo-loo-te-ka was chief of a band of about
300, and his island village was large. Oo-loo-te-ka's name in English was He- Who-

TOUR 6 365

Puts-The-Drum-Away, meaning "he likes peace," Young Houston, tiring of farm
life, first ran of? to the Cherokee village in 1809, when he was about sixteen. Alto-
gether he spent three years with the Cherokee, hunting with them, learning their
language, playing their games. He excelled in all their vigorous sports, and proved
himself worthy to be called the chief's son. The Indians named him Co-lon-nah (The
Raven) and his guardian or totem animal was the eagle. Houston's three years on
Hiwassee Island had a great influence on his life. He gained an insight into Indian
character and life and realized that it was his own people who were to blame for
much of the frontier warfare between the two races. Later he made numerous trips
to Washington in behalf of the Cherokee.

The earthen mounds and village sites on the island were excavated in 1937 by
WPA workers. The upper levels of village sites contained many articles of white
manufacture. Beneath were the remains of a prehistoric Indian culture. Artifacts,
pottery, and skeletal remains were recovered.

SALE CREEK, 45.1 m. (730 alt, 600 pop.), was the site of an Indian
mission school established in 1806 by Gideon Blackburn, Presbyterian min-
ister and missionary. Blackburn was unable to interest his own Presbytery
in the school and took his plea to the General Assembly, which in 1803
voted $200 for the support of the work. When Blackburn started preach-
ing "he forgot time, place, and circumstances,' 1 according to a contem-
porary writer. He was more than six feet tall, and "his voice was rich and
silvery."

SODDY, 48.1 m. (788 alt, 1,173 PP-)> * s a coal-mining town at the
foot of Walden's Ridge. Formerly, large quantities of low-grade bitumi-
nous were mined here, but only a few mines are now in operation.

DAISY, 50.9 m. (720 alt., 370 pop.), is a coal-shipping point. There
are large tile and brick ovens here.

It was in Daisy that Dr. Charles Herty, the Georgia chemist who de-
veloped the process of making paper from yellow pine, started the manu-
facture of clayware turpentine cups. This was one of his earliest inventions,
and although the clay cups have been displaced somewhat by aluminum
cups, the former are still manufactured and used in many places.

Right from Daisy on a dirt road to MONTLAKE, 5 m., on Walden's Ridge. The
lake, which lies in a deep bowl on top of the ridge, is surrounded by sheer rock
walls 150 feet high.

Montlake has a seasonal difference in level of more than 20 feet, probably be-
cause of the increase of water from seepage and decrease in the summer from leak-
age and evaporation.

At VALDEAU, 64.4 m*, a residential part of Chattanooga, is the junc-
tion with State 27 (see Tour 15). Between this place and Chattanooga
are a number of tourist and trailer camps.

CHATTANOOGA, 67.5 m. (674 alt, 119,798 pop.) (see CHATTA-
NOOGA).

Points of Interest: Lookout Mountain, Signal Mountain, Chickamauga Park,
Chickamauga Dam, and TVA offices.

At Chattanooga are the junctions with US n (see Tour 1), US 64-41
(see Tour 13), and State 28 (see Tour 15), The point of intersection is
at nth and Market Sts.

US 27 crosses the Georgia Line, 70.5 m., 22 miles north of La Fayette,
Ga.

366 TOURS

Tour 7

(Glasgow, Ky.) Nashville Columbia Pulaski (Athens, Ala.); US

3iE and US 31.

Kentucky Line to Alabama Line, 145.4 m.

Louisville & Nashville R.R. parallels route throughout. .

Roadbed paved throughout. f

Hotels only in cities and county seats; some tourist accommodations elsewhere..

Section a. KENTUCKY LINE to NASHVILLE, J0.7 m.

US 3iE crosses the Kentucky Line, m., 36 miles south of Glasgow,
Ky., passes over the Highland Rim, and traverses the bluegrass basin of
Middle Tennessee. This area has been famous since pioneer days for the
quality of stock reared in it and for its fertility. The country is particularly
attractive in early spring when the hillsides are covered with the pink and
white blossoms of redbud and dogwood trees. A few of the older estates
remain, but most of them have been subdivided into small farms that grow
diversified crops.

SUGAR GROVE, 1.2 m. (615 alt, 25 pop.), is named for a one-acre
grove of sugar maples, a type of tree rarely found in the South. The scarred
trunks are reminders of the time when the tapping of the trees and the
making of maple sugar and syrup was a festive occasion in the com-
munity.

At 5.9 m. is the junction with State 52.

Left on State 52 is WESTMORELAND, 0,3 m. (612 alt., 426 pop.), most of
whose inhabitants are concerned with strawberry growing, the leading cash crop.
During the picking season, usually the last of May or the first of June, hundreds of
people are busy in the fields surrounding the town. After the crop has been sold,
annual debts are paid and merchants stock their stores for a great increase in busi-
ness. Carnivals or circuses are usually on the scene to get their share of the free-
flowing money.

Tobacco, much less of a seasonal crop, is second in importance to local farmers.

LAFAYETTE, 14.5 m. (pronounced La-fay'ette) (702 alt., 577 pop.), trade town
of a farming area, was named in honor of the French general and statesman who
fought with the Americans in the Revolutionary War.

The WOODMORE HOTEL, facing the public square, was the first building erected
here. It was constructed in 1820 of hewn logs and hand-dressed poplar and was
floored with white ash. The chimneys are the old-fashioned stack type, and the fire-
places carry four-foot logs. Near the hotel is TOWN SPRINGS, which determined set-
tlement here. Lafayette is the home of State Senator John Butler, who introduced the
anti-evolution act on which the Scopes trial at Dayton, Tenn,, was conducted (see
Tour 6).

Right from Lafayette 10 m. on State 10, a graveled road, to an unusually large
SUNDIAL (R) on the Payne farm. It weighs 10 tons and its shadow bar rises 25
feet.

TOUR 7 367

On State 52 is RED BOILING SPRINGS, 28.6 m. (623 alt, 800 pop.), a sum-
mer resort, named for a bubbling spring that contains a red sediment. In 1830 Ed-
mund Jennings, a hunter, came upon a salt lick here, found game plentiful, and
settled. In 1840 another settler, Shepherd Kirby, arrived. He had an eye infection,
and one^ day Awhile building his log cabin he washed his eyes in the water from the
"red boiling" spring. The pain was relieved, and he continued to bathe his eyes in
the water until they were healed. When this story was told to other settlers, they
flocked here to drink or to bathe in the waters. So many found relief that the
springs were exploited commercially and this place became one of the leading
health resorts of the State. It still receives large numbers of visitors.

Right from Red Boiling Springs 4.5 m. on a dirt road to LEONARD CAVE (adm.
10$), which is 70 feet wide and 12 feet high at the entrance. It requires four hours
to walk through the cave, which is electrically lighted.

South of the junction with State 52, US 3iE descends from the High-
land Rim through a narrow valley, flanked by steep rock bluffs, and at
13 m. is in the bluegrass basin.

BETHPAGE, 13.3 m. (542 alt, 250 pop.), in the basin, is surrounded
by fields dotted with grazing cattle. There are many prosperous and well-
stocked farms.

At 16.2 m. t by a stone bridge, is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road to ROGANA (private), 1.1 m., Hugh Rogan, an immigrant from
Ireland, came to Middle Tennessee with John Donelson's party in 1780, and was
one of the signers of the Cumberland Compact. He moved to the Bledsoe Lick set-
tlement and built this simple brick house in 1800.

At 23.5 m. is the junction with State 25 a hard surfaced road.

Left on State 25 5.5 m. to Bledsoe Creek, named for Isaac and Anthony Bledsoe,
Long Hunters who came into this area in 1769. Isaac Bledsoe, on one of his hunt-
ing excursions, discovered a salt lick which was called Bledsoe Lick and to which
great droves of buffaloes were wont to come. Isaac and Anthony were members of
the first county court organized in Davidson County.

At 5.6 m. just after the road crosses the creek, is (L) UNION CHURCH.

1. Left here 0.6 m. on a private lane to CRAGFONT (private), built in 1802 by
Gen. James Winchester. It is a large solid T-shaped structure of gray limestone. Its
style was inspired by the Georgian Colonial houses of Maryland, General Win-
chester's home State. With very little detail, the design of the exterior achieves abso-
lute symmetry. The interior was finished by skilled artisans brought from Baltimore;
their careful craft contributed a wealth of subtle detail to highly polished wood-
work. Incorporated in the building was an enormous ball room, the first such luxury
in the State. The General was very hospitable and often entertained men of national
importance. The most noted of these were Andrew Jackson, the Marquis de Lafay-
ette, Andre Michaux, and Aaron Burr. General Winchester was associated with
Judge John Ovenon and Andrew Jackson in the founding of Memphis, and it was
he who gave Memphis its name. This home, once the beauty spot of Simmer
County, is now in great need of repair.

2. Right from the main road 0.1 m. on a dirt road to the EDWARD WARD CAR-
MACK BIRTHPLACE. Carmack, who was a Representative in Congress, United States
Senator, editor, author and fiery orator, was born Nov. 5, 1858. He became an
ardent prohibitionist and his speeches and editorials greatly influenced the enact-
ment of Tennessee's prohibition law. In 1908 Carmack, representing the "drys," and
Malcolm Patterson, the "wets," were campaigning for the governorship. Angered by
an editorial published by Carmack, at that time editor of the Nashville Tennessean,
two political friends of Patterson's, Robin and Duncan Cooper, assassinated Car-
mack on the street in Nashville. Duncan Cooper was found guilty, but was soon
pardoned by Patterson, who in the meantime had been elected Governor (see
NASHVILLE).

368 TOURS

CASTALIAN SPRINGS, 7.9 m., formerly known as Bledsoe's Lick, was one of
the first settlements in Middle Tennessee. It was the home of Gen. William B. Bate,
Governor of Tennessee and United States Senator.

CASTALIAN SPRINGS TAVERN (private) stands on a low hill overlooking the vil-
lage and is surrounded by magnificent trees. The tavern, built in 1828 by four men,
has 14 rooms constructed entirely of hand-hewn logs and is well_ preserved. The
joining of logs to connect such a large number of rooms is considered an archi-
tectural feat. Col. Alfred R. Waynne, one of the four builders, bought the house in
1834, and his descendants still live in it. A hickory tree on the lawn was planted by
Colonel Waynne on the day of the death of his friend, Andrew Jackson.

The THOMAS SHARP SPENCER MARKER, in the center of the village, is on the
site of the tree in which Spencer, a gigantic pioneer hunter, lived during the winter
of 1778. It is said he had no tools to build a cabin. The Indians, observing his tracks
in the forest, nicknamed him "Big Foot." The story is told that another hunter,
chancing upon Spencer's footprints, fled in terror to the nearest settlement and re-
ported that the Cumberland country was inhabited by a race of giants.

GALLATIN, 23.8 m. (521 alt, 3,050 pop.), seat of Stunner County,
was established in 1802 and named for Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the
Treasury under Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. US 3iE
follows East Main Street and West Main Street directly through town.
Main Street is lined with large maple trees that form a continuous arch.
Houses on this street are modern and have extensive lawns. The town is
the agricultural and livestock maiket for the county and the central Burley
tobacco market of Middle Tennessee. The selling season begins December
ist and closes about March.

There are also a large tobacco manufacturing plant here, a branch fac-
tory of a large shoe corporation, and a branch factory of a large cheese
manufacturing corporation.

TROUSDALE PLACE, on Main Street, one block south of the courthouse
square, was the home of Gen. William Trousdale, known as the War
Horse of Tennessee, who served in the Creek, Seminole, and Mexican
wars, and at the Battle of New Orleans. He was also the i3th Governor of
Tennessee.

Three blocks south of the courthouse on West Main Street, are the large
LOOSE LEAF TOBACCO SALES FLOORS, where the county's crop of Burley
tobacco is marketed.

Left from Gallatin on South Water St., known locally as Wood's Ferry Rd., to
SPENCER'S CHOICE, 0.2 m., which stands (R) about 150 yards from the road. While
hunting in the surrounding country, Spencer selected several desirable tracts of land.
When other settlers began to arrive, he discovered that under the law he was en-
titled to only one tract. He laid claim to 800 acres here, fertile and beautifully
wooded, since known as Spencer's Choice.

After Spencer was killed by the Indians in the spring of 1794, Col. David Shelby
bought the land and in 1798 built a gray stone residence. The walls are two feet
thick, the doorways and windows are set deep in paneled embrasures, and the
original paneling, wainscoting, and mantels are preserved. After Colonel Shelby's
death, the house was bought by Gen. Joseph Miller, who brought bluegrass with
him from Kentucky and introduced it into general use in the Middle Tennessee
basin. The earthquake of 1812 cracked one of the walls of the house, and the out-
buildings were destroyed during the War between the States.

ROSEMONT, 0.8 m. (open), is the home of Jo Conn Guild, author of Old Times
in Tennessee. The structure, built in 1828 of bricks molded on the site, is well pre-
served. In the rear of the house are a smokehouse, a carriage house, a slave house,
an ice house, and the kitchen.

TOUR 7

At 26.2 m. is GRASSLANDS, an estate of about 15,000 acres, purchased
and developed by a group of Northern sportsmen as a private sporting
club. They planned to establish an international steeplechase here. The
project was abandoned after the market collapse of 1929 and, except for
Grasslands Tavern, the assembled properties reverted to the former owners.
The race track is L.

The entrance to the half-mile lane of FAIRVIEW (open by request) is at
26.3 m. The house, erected in 1832 by Isaac Franklin and known at that
time as "the finest country home in Tennessee," still bears evidence of its
former grandeur. The house was part of the Grasslands property. The
main section of the mansion is of Georgian inspiration with the typical
central hall flanked by large high-ceiled rooms. The double porches of the
entrance portico have white Ionic columns; they are capped with a pedi-
ment. The garden facade is a duplicate of the front one. The broad steps
leading to the entrance porches have graceful, curving wrought-iron balus*
trades with brass finials, the front and rear doorways are surmounted with
beautifully designed fanlights. On the ceilings of the attic are still visible
the names with the company and regimental designations that were traced
with candle smoke by Union soldiers.

The wing added to the right side of the house in 1839 is distinctly
Spanish in character; it is similar to those in the Feliciana Parish of
Louisiana, where Franklin owned several large plantations. Although the
design of the wing is radically different from that of the central structure
the effect is harmonious. There are arcades on both front and rear of the
wing which houses two kitchens with huge fireplaces.

Near the house are rows of brood-mare stables and the crumbling
MAUSOLEUM OF ISAAC FRANKLIN. To the left of the house is a massive,
circular, brick icehouse. To the rear, at a distance, are the former slave
quarters.

Isaac Franklin, first owner of this property, was born in 1789 to par-
ents of moderate means but before his fortieth birthday he was a million-
aire. Besides the home and plantation at Fairview, he owned 50,000 acres
of land in Texas and had some holdings in Louisiana and Mississippi.
He was still a bachelor when he built this house, But in 1839 he married
Adelicia Hayes, member of a prominent Nashville family. Franklin died
in 1846. In 1882 Charles Reed of New York, a rich turfman, bought the
property and built an immense stone barn with a shed that covered an
exercise track for his horses. He imported sheet tin from England for the
roof of the barn and shed. The interior of each stall was finished in oak
by expert cabinetmakers.

FOXLAND HALL (private), 27 m., is (L) on a hilltop near the concrete
bridge over Station Camp Creek. It is reached by a driveway that runs
through a grove of large maples. The two-story brick house, built by
Thomas Baker in 1825, is of the Greek Revival type and has a long two-
story Ionic portico across the entire front. The entrance has fanlights and
sidelights. The house has been modernized and enlarged.

Winding paths, bordered with huge boxwood, lead to the garden which
is known for its variety of plants and shrubs, many of them from Mar-

37 TOURS

tinique. The kennels contain some of the outstanding fox hounds in the
South, a number of them prize winners. Annually, in the late fall, a fox
hunt is held here with guests from many parts of the country.

The old graveyard holds the bodies of the builder and subsequent
owners.

At 27.8 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Right on this road to DUNCRUZIN (private), L8 m., built in 1803, and added to
since that time. The main doorway came from an old house near Dover, Tennessee.
In the house are a pair of bronze chandliers from the parlors of a home of Jefferson
Davis, an unusual collection of china, and a large tablecloth marked with the crown,
eagle, and honey bees of the Emperor Napoleon. In the drawing room is a 7 5 -year-
old Steinway piano.

At 32.7 m. is GRASSLANDS TAVERN, one of the old homes restored by
the Grasslands Foundation.

At 34.5 m. is the junction with a narrow graveled road.

Left on this road 1.5 m. to the entrance gate, from which a lane leads 0.6 m. to
ROCK CASTLE (private; open on application), one of the first stone houses erected
west of the southern Alleghenies and today stands as firm as when it was built. The
old house, constructed of cut stone, has seven rooms. The foundation was laid in
1784, but owing to the constant warfare with the Indians, seven years were required
to complete it. Seven of the original builders were killed, and other workers had to
be secured to replace them.

The house stands on land granted to Daniel Smith as a Revolutionary War bonus.
George Washington appointed General Smith secretary to the Territory South of the
Ohio. He later served as United States Senator and made the "best map of the
State found in the Geographical Atlas" said Michaux, the French botanist, who
visited this country in 1802. The son of Col. Isaac Bledsoe and the son of Col.
Anthony Bledsoe, staying at this house while attending school, were murdered by
Indians.

Samuel Donelson, Andrew Jackson's law partner and brother-in-law, wished to
marry Polly, the only daughter of General Smith. The lovers planned to elope. Jack-
son assisted Donelson in preparing a rope ladder, by means of which Polly escaped
from a second-story window, and he also waited with horses until Polly and
Donelson arrived. That night the marriage was performed at Jackson's home,
Hunter's Hill.

HAZEL PATH (L), 34.7 m,, was constructed in 1857 by General Daniel
S. Donelson on property inherited from his grandfather, General Daniel
Smith. This large two-story brick structure, set back from the highway on
a beautifully wooded lawn, has a central two-story, pedimented portico
that shelters a second floor gallery.

General Daniel S. Donelson, the son of Samuel and Polly Smith Donel-
son (see ROCK CASTLE) was an honor graduate of West Point. He mar-
ried the daughter of Governor Branch of North Carolina and became a
successful planter. At the beginning of the War between the States he
sided with his Confederate neighbors and was appointed one of the first
officers in the Provisional Army of Tennessee, later part of the Army of
the Confederacy. In July 1861, General Donelson's brigade marched into
Virginia and served in the Cheat Mountain campaign under Robert E.
Lee. Returning to Tennessee in 1862, he took part in the Battle of
Stone's River, in which his brigade was shattered with cannon and grape-
shot in their effort to break the Federal line. General Donelson died in

TOUR 7 371

1863 in Knoxville, while in command of the Confederate forces in East
Tennessee.

Following the fall of Fort Donelson, Hazel Path was deserted, and the
enemy soldiers moved in, but by order of Governor Johnson the property
was later restored to its owners.

At 41.3 m* is the junction with Edenwold Road.

Left on Edenwold Rd. 0.2 m. to EDENWOLD (private), an old Tennessee estate,
is now a modern dairy farm. Race horses were formerly bred here.

At 42.3 m. is the junction with State 45.

Left on State 45 is OLD HICKORY, 3 m. (514 alt., 8,164 pop.), owned by E. I.
du Pont de Nemours & Company. The town, situated within a loop of the Cumber-
land River known as Hadley's Bend, was first named Jacksonville, but because mail
was constantly sent in error to other towns of the same name, it was changed to Old
Hickory in 1923. Andrew Jackson lived at Hunter's Hill, in the vicinity, from
1793-1804. He later built the Hermitage nearby. In March, 1918, the land was pur-
chased for the construction of a powder plant. On July 2 the first powder was pro-
duced. At the time of the Armistice, the plant, though unfinished, was producing
700,000 pounds of powder daily. The town was hastily built. Records show that a
six-room bungalow, including plumbing and screening, was completed in nine hours.
Whole blocks of houses were built in one or two days. Early in October, 1918, the
school building, containing 1,200,000 feet of lumber, was destroyed by j&re; it was
rebuilt in ten days. Five months after construction had been started, living quarters
for 35 ? ooo people were completed. Like other war-time factory communities, this
one was provided with religious and recreational facilities.

A railway from Hermitage Station to Old Hickory, a distance of 7 ^ miles, was
built in 60 days, despite a few days' delay caused by litigation over a right-of-way.
The railroads transported a daily average of 18,000 employees from Nashville to
the plant, and another 15,000 lived on the property. A train of 14 coaches for
women employees was locally called the Powder Puff Special.

Shortly after the Armistice the tremendous activity here stopped, and in a short
time the population had dropped to a few hundred. In 1920 the^ War Department
sold the entire property 1 to a salvage company, and in 1924 E. I. du Pont de
Nemours & Company purchased the village and several hundred acres of the laud
and erected a plant that now manufactures 24,000,000 pounds of rayon thread an-
nually. A cellophane factory was built later. The two plants provide employment for
more than 5,000 workers.

The Old Hickory Chemical Company makes the carbon bisulphite needed by the
cellophane and rayon companies, making this one of the largest self-contained rayon
and cellophane producing centers in the United States.

The nine 2io-foot smokestacks of the old Government powerhouse can be seen
for miles in all directions; they were left standing because the material in them
could not be sold for enough to pay the cost of removal.

There are two subdivisions outside of the village in which employees of the plant
can own homes.

Old Hickory has two theaters, one company-owned and one privately owned, a
county high school, a county grade school, a county school for Negroes, and a free
vocational night school for adults. The company furnishes recreational facilities and
maintains the police and fire departments. The surrounding country is slightly roll-
ing, and many fertile farms are in the vicinity.

At 7,1 m. is THE HERMITAGE, home of Andrew Jackson (see Tour 12).

MADISON, 43.4 m. (432 alt, 850 pop.), is a residential village ex-
tending along Gallatin Pike (US 3iE) for two miles. Most of the resi-
dents are employed at the rayon plant in Old Hickory.

At 43.4 m. is the junction with Neely's Bend Rd.

3J2 TOURS

Left on this road 1.5 m. to MADISON COLLEGE, established in 1904 as the Nash-
ville Agricultural Normal Institute; it has developed from academy status to senior
college rating. The school is operated by the Seventh Day Adventist Church, and its
purpose is "the teaching and training of missionaries, teachers, and farmers who
are willing to devote at least a portion of their time to unselfish, unremunerative
labor." Students do part-time work for three quarters of the academic year, and
full-time work in the fourth. All students, regardless of financial status, are required
to work for at least half of their expenses. The 4O-acre undulating campus, land-
scaped with more than 1,000 ornamental trees, shrubs, and flower beds, occupies the
center of a yoo-acre farm, which is in a great bend of the Cumberland River. From
a distance the six major buildings, the Administration Building, Library, Science
Building, Assembly Hall, Demonstration Building, and Gotzian Hall, together with
about 100 smaller ones which almost encircle them, give the impression of a village.

Twenty-seven plants and industries are operated, in part or in whole, by student
labor under faculty supervision. Among these are the sanatorium and hospital, a
food factory, a tailor shop, a sewing department, a broom factory, a service station,
a laundry, a cafeteria, a cannery, and a press. Various other enterprises necessary to
an independent community, such as a fire department, a water and sewerage system,
a central heating plant, and a generating plant are maintained. Emphasis is placed
upon agricultural education, and the cultivation of the farm is a major activity. Forty
acres are given over to the growing of vegetables ; a variety of hay crops are planted
to provide feed for about 80 head of livestock: and large-scale dairying and poultry
raising are carried on. In addition to the main farm, a 2OO-acre tract on the High-
land Rim is used for fruit growing. Much of the food used by the 500 residents, of
whom approximately 350 are students, is produced on the two tracts. The school and
the allied industries are managed by a board of directors, an organization known as
the Rural Educational Association. The buildings, chiefly of stuccoed stone, are all
one-story high, except where the contour of the land permits a ground floor at two
levels. The construction was done by students under supervision.

The MADISON RURAL SANATORIUM AND HOSPITAL, a unit of the Madison group,
is on the farm. The plant, comprising nine buildings, connected by one-half mile of
covered porches, has accommodations for 100 patients. Student labor is used in the
diet kitchens and in caring for the rooms. Only persons suffering from communicable
diseases or insanity are denied admittance. While the major problem at Madison
Sanatorium is the healing of the sick, workers also carry on a program of preventive
medicine.

MADISON FOOD FACTORY produces foods consisting mainly of vegetable proteins
Designed to take the place of meat, whole-grain cereals and crackers. Soy beans, of
which 27 varieties are grown on the farm, form the basis for many of the health
foods.

All profits derived from the varied industries are used for the support and im-
provement of the school; donations are used to purchase land and equipment and
to erect new buildings.

At 1.8 m. on this road is SWEETBRIAR FARM (private), the former home of Maria
Thompson Daviess, the novelist. After her brother had recovered his health in the
neighboring sanatorium, Miss Daviess started a poultry farm nearby. In her auto-
biography, Seven Times Seven, she wrote: "Sweetbriar consists of 16 acres, entirely
surrounded by a very ancient cedar rail snake fence in whose corners grow sweet-
briar roses, silver mullein, goldenrod, blue asters, crimson poke, and wild cherry.
An oak grove, about a hundred years old, spreads across the crest of the hill and
makes a many-aisled cathedral of the tall boles and high arching branches. From the
gate the road leads through a tangle of blackberries, redbud, dogwood and wild
violets."

She produced her best known work, Equal Franchise, a novel, while living there.

South of Madison the country is more densely settled; the highway
passes suburban homes of Nashville industrial and office workers.

SHERWOOD FOREST (-private), 44.5 m., is reached by a private driveway
which is entered (L) between large stone pillars. The modern, rough-

RAYON THREAD, OLD HICKORY MILLS

374 - TOURS

surfaced story-and-a-half limestone building was designed by Welby
Pugin of Nashville, a descendant of Augustus Welby Pugin (1812-1852),
the English architect who started the Victorian Gothic revival in England.
It has steep-roofed towers and a steep many-gabled roof. The living
room is floored with black slate, highly waxed. All the hardware was
hand wrought by Philip Kerrigan, a Nashville craftsman. The grounds
and gardens are beautifully landscaped.

In the NATIONAL CEMETERY (R), 44.7 m., are buried approximately
16,000 Union soldiers killed in the Battles of Nashville and of Franklin
during the War between the States. This cemetery of 64 acres is on roll-
ing land surrounded by a stone wall. The arched gateway of white marble
has double iron gates.

SPRING HILL CEMETERY (JL), 44.9 m., is on the site of Fort Union,
built in 1780. The settlement here became the town of Haysboro, where
in 1785 the Reverend Thomas Craighead established the first Presbyterian
Church and Craighead Academy, the first educational institution in Middle
Tennessee. From this meeting-house school grew George Peabody College
for Teachers (see NASHVILLE). The first classes were taught in the
Spring Hill Meeting House. Foundation stones of the old meeting house
have been stacked to form a pyramid on the church site.

GLEN ECHO, 45.1 m., was built in 1811 by Thomas Craighead. The
first house of hewn logs stood near the church. It was burned down by
Indians, In 1794 Craighead built a brick house that was damaged by fire
in 1810. The walls of the present two-story structure, built the following
year, are those of the second building. The driveway to the house is
bordered with cedars, some of them very old.

At 46.2 m. is Cahal Ave.

Left on Cahal Ave. 1.4 m* to the entrance into the half-mile driveway of RIVER-
WOOD, a house somewhat irregular in plan. There is a one-story recessed portico
on the garden front between projecting one-story wings. The formal two-story
portico, which shelters a second-floor gallery, is on the end.

Alexander James Porter, who built the house in 1799, came to Tennessee from
Ireland in 1798.

NASHVILLE, 51.4 m. (546 alt, 153,866 pop.) (see NASHVILLE).

Points of Interest: The Parthenon, State Capitol, Fort Nashborough, Vanderbilt
University, Peabody College, and others.

At Nashville are the junctions with US 3iW and US 4iE (see Tour 8),
with US 4iW (see Tour 14), with US 41-yo-Alt (see Tour 8), with
US 70 (see Tour 12), with State n (see Tour 7 A), with State 100 (see
Tour 12). All junctions are at the corner of 6th Ave. N. and Deaderick
St., on Memorial Square.

Section b. NASHVILLE to ALABAMA LINE; 94 m.

South of Nashville US 31 follows the Franklin Pike, once a toll turn-
pike. In 1831 the legislature chartered the Nashville & Franklin Railroad
to serve this region, with authority to use horses or steam engines for
motive power. This was the first charter for a railroad granted by the

TOUR 7 375

State, but rails were never laid. The later Nashville & Franklin Electric
Interurban Ry. now parallels the route between the two cities.

In 1862-63 the route became the chief military highway of Middle
Tennessee. This was the road over which Schofield and Thomas (Federal)
and Hood (Confederate) marched their armies to Franklin. The Battle
of Nashville and the Battle of Franklin were fought in gently rolling
bluegrass country along the route.

South of Memorial Square in NASHVILLE, m., at 3.4 m., is the
junction with Berry Lane by a rock quarry.

Left on Berry Lane to MELROSE (private), 0.5 m. t built in 1836 by Alexander
Barrow of Louisiana and sold seven years later to John W. Sanders. The new owner
died soon after the purchase; his widow married Aaron V. Brown, who was
Governor of Tennessee 1845-1847 and U. S. Postmaster General under President
Buchanan. The simple brick Greek Revival house of the early years Was remodeled
and befrilled to meet the taste of the gay nineties. The view from the front terrace
embraces distant blue hills.

The PEACE MONUMENT, 3.8 m. } the work of the Italian sculptor,
G. Maretti, commemorates the Battle of Nashville. Two charging steeds,
symbolizing the North and the South, are held in check by a young man
dressed as a soldier of the World War.

On the grounds of (R) LONGYIEW (private), 4.2 m., some of the
hardest fighting of. the Battle of Nashville took place.

GLEN LEVEN (private), 4.5 m. (L), was built in 1857 by John
Thompson. The large two-and-a-half story brick structure was designed
by Thompson himself in the Greek Revival style. It has a two-story
Corinthian portico. The land was a North Carolina grant to Thomas
Thompson, who was one of the signers of the Cumberland compact. His
original dwelling was a blockhouse. Later he built a krge log cabin here ;
it was destroyed by fire. The wide lawn is shaded by many fine trees,
including a giant paulownia, several English field maples which grew
from Kew Gardens cuttings, and a number of yellowwood trees. The
garden contains many varieties of narcissi, daffodils, and hyacinths; some
of the bulbs were imported from Holland in 1837,

On the first and second days of the Battle of Nashville, Glen Leven
was between the lines. The brick walls show marks made by the bullets
from both sides. After the retreat of the Confederate forces, Glen Leven
was used as a Union hospital.

At 6 m. is the junction with a good graveled road.

Right on this road 0.2 m. to ROBERTSON ACADEMY, an institution now part of
the public school system and named for James Robertson, founder of Nashville. The
academy was one of the 27 State schools established in 1806. It received its sup-
port from the sale of public school bonds.

At 6.2 m. is (R) OAK HILL (private), designed about 1933 by War-
field and Keeble of Nashville. It is a large two-story structure with a
pedimented Ionic portico and large one-story wings. As in the old plan-
tation homes the design is straightforward, but the scale of the house far
exceeds those of early days.

376 TOURS

The beautiful grounds and gardens were designed by Robert S. Sturte-
vant.

At 6.7 m. is the junction with a private road (open).

Left on this road 0.7 m. to TRAVELERS REST and its Arabian horse farm. The
simple two-story clapboarded house of the old plantation was built by Judge John
Overton in 1820, just before his marriage to Mary White, daughter of the founder
of Knoxville. Overton purchased the farm in 1792 and built a two-room log cabin,
in which he lived until the present house was constructed. When he came here this
area was in the Mero District of North Carolina, and he held an appointment as
Territorial revenue collector. He was the first lawyer in Nashville. Overton boarded
with John Donelson and, when Andrew Jackson arrived in ^Nashville, he shared a
room with him. Overton became, and remained throughout his life, a close friend of
Jackson's. It was always to John Overton that Jackson turned for advice. For many
years Overton was a judge of the Supreme Court of Tennessee. "With Jackson he
founded Memphis. .

This farm, frequently enlarged, became one of the most productive m the State.
After Overton's death the estate went to his son, John, who added the adjoining
1,280 acres, half through purchase and half through marriage. Just prior to the War
between the States John Overton was said to have been the wealthiest man in Ten-
nessee. It was he who built the Maxwell House (see NASHVILLE). He contrib-
uted much of his fortune to the Confederacy. Following the war he divided his
property among his children. Travelers Rest, still in the hands of Overton's descend-
ants, was one of the leading Arabian stud farms in the United States. The first horse
of Arabian breed was brought here in 1825.

At 7.8 m. is the junction with a surfaced road.

Left on this road 0.9 m. to the junction with Kelly Road; L. here 0.7 m. to the
GORDON SITE at the end of the road. This prehistoric Indian village was sur-
rounded by earthworks supporting a wooden palisade with watchtowers every 55
feet. There was a flat-topped mound in the center of the village. Archeologists found
87 circles of dwellings on the site. Beneath the clay floors were many stone-grave
burials. The contents of the dwellings unearthed here indicate that the occupants
departed without taking away any of their belongings. Household articles were
found just as they had been left after use. The hard clay floors of the dwellings
were still covered with a glossy black dressing. Beautiful pottery and flint imple-
ments were intact.

BRENTWOOD, 9.4 m. (700 alt., 150 pop.), on the Davidson-Wil-
liamson County line, is halfway between Nashville and Franklin.

MOORELAND (L), 10 m., was built in 1846 by Robert Moore. The
first house here, a log cabin, was built in 1800. The present house, which
took three years to complete, does not contain a single piece of sawn
timber; it was constructed by slaves who fired the brick and adzed all
timber. The large two-story central unit has a portico across the front
supported by large square columns and sheltering a second-floor gallery.
On both ends are one-story wings, each with a small columned portico.
The original plantation contained 1,280 acres, but this has been sub-
divided.

A beautiful grove of ash trees in which the house stood was cut down
by Union troops during the War between the States. Mooreland was used
as a hospital during the war.

MIDWAY (R), 10.8 m., the McGavock-Hayes place, is reached by a
half-mile private drive. The subsStantial two-story brick house was built in
1847 f krick made by Negroes on the place; much of the material was
salvaged from the burned ruins of an earlier structure. Two columns of

TOUR 7 377

the four columned, two-story portico support a second-floor veranda.
During the War between the States, Midway was occupied by officers and
several skirmishes took place on the grounds. Under trees that still shade
the grounds sharp fighting occurred and wounded men from both sides
were cared for in the house.

MONTVIEW (private), 11.9 m. 3 (R) is a two-story brick structure con-
structed in 1 86 1. The four large columns of the high entrance portico
support a cornice and parapet that is carried across the entire front of
the house. A notable feature of the interior is the gracefully curving
staircase that rises from the central hall. The kitchen is connected with
the house by a cedar porch; a two-story brick smokehouse is nearby. The
old carriage house is now a garage and the clay pit, from which came
material for the bricks, is an attractive pond.

At 12.3 m. (L) is the junction with Callender Road.

Left on Callender Road 0.7 m. to the WSM, a powerful radio station with a
tower 878 feet high that acts as a giant lightning rod for the immediate area; the
beacon light is a landmark of airmen.

A BOXWOOD (R), 12.8 m., on the lawn of the Johnson farm, is nearly
fifty feet in circumference.

US 31 cuts through a narrow gap, 14.1 m., known locally as HOLLY
TREE GAP. The steep hills rising on both sides made this spot a favorite
resort of robbers in the stagecoach days.

At 18.2 m. is the junction with the graveled Liberty Pike.

Left on Liberty Pike to BANKRUPT MANOR COURT (private), 1.7 m., the home
of T. H. Alexander, Tennessee's favorite columnist, who is an advocate of agra-
xianism.

FRANKLIN, 18.8 m. (642 alt., 3,377 pop.), seat of Williamson
County, is surrounded by fertile farms. On Nov. 30, 1864 one of the
bloodiest battles of the war was fought in and around this town. More
liigh staff officers were killed or wounded in this conflict than in any other
major battle of the war. The Confederates alone lost six generals: Adams,
Carter, Cleburne, Gist, Granbury, and Strahl; five others were wounded
and one captured. About 8,500 men fell in 55 minutes.

On the hills to the east are traces of the Union breastworks thrown up
before the battle. Largest of these was Fort Granger, commanded by Gen.
Gordon Granger, with a force of 8,500 men and 24 pieces of artillery.

General Schofield, the Union commander, was on his way from Pulaski
to Nashville where he intended to join his forces with those of General
Thomas. General Hood, commander of the Confederate forces, marching
rapidly from Florence, Ala., planned to intercept Schofield's army be-
fore he reached Nashville. The forces met at Columbia, which was occu-
pied by Union troops. Hood crossed Duck River a few miles above. Aware
of Hood's movements, Schofield moved his command to the north side
of the river and began the march to Nashville. General Hood's army
crossed the river and by 3 o'clock on Nov. 29 was within two or three
miles of Spring Hill. His orders to guard the pike near Spring Hill were
not carried out; the Confederates encamped near the pike; during the

378 TOURS

night the Federals passed almost within sight of the campfires. On the
following day there was a desperate hand-to-hand combat here. The lines
were so close together that soldiers were even dragged from one side of
the breastworks to the other by their hair or collars. The battle, which
began at four o'clock in the afternoon, lasted until night when Schofield
withdrew.

John Bell, Constitutional Union candidate for the Presidency in 1860,
began his law practice in this town. Matthew Fontaine Maury, the
oceanographer, also lived here for a short time.

ST. PAUL'S EPISCOPAL CHURCH, two blocks west of the square, is a
small delightful brick structure, with a square tower and hand-fashioned
interior woodwork. It was built about 1830 by a parish organized in 1827
by the Reverend James Hervey Otey. He was later the first Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Tennessee.

The JOHN EATON HOME (open on application)) Main St. (or Third
Ave.) near the Interurban R.R. station, is the former residence of John
H. Eaton and his wife, Peggy Eaton, who was the storm center of social
and political Washington during the first administration of Andrew Jack-
son. The elderly Eaton, whom Jackson appointed Secretary of War, mar-
ried Peggy O'Neale, the daughter of a tavern keeper of Washington.
Jackson, remembering the attacks on his wife Rachel, who had recently
died (see Tour 12), treated Peggy with great courtesy and frowned on
those who snubbed her. The social battle played a part in the next presi-
dential election.

The delightful, little one-story CARTER HOUSE (private), on US 31
(R) eight blocks south of the public square, was built by Fountain
Branch Carter soon after he had come here in 1830 from Fairfax, Va.
The paneled entrance has coupled columns, a fanlight and sidelights, and
the two triple windows are surmounted by heavy lintels with pediments.
At the beginning of the War between the States, young Tod Carter fol-
lowed his two elder brothers into the Confederate Army. When Hood's
army passed on the crest of a hill above Franklin, Tod Carter, then a
captain, viewed his home for the first time in three years. On this wintry
afternoon, with the aid of field glasses he could see the familiar red
brick walls about 50 yards beyond the Federal lines. After the fierce
fighting of the night had subsided, and it was safe for his family to ven-
ture from shelter, they found his body in the yard.

Edward Swanson was the first known white settler in the beautiful
hills of the West Harpeth. The foundation for his home had been laid
by March, 1780. It is believed that he left Fort Nashborough and settled
on his homestead sometime between 1790 and 1800; when the county
was organized in 1800 he was a member of the second grand jury. His
grave is in a field on his land, about 6 miles southwest of this town.

Left from Franklin at the square on paved State 96 to WILLOW PLUNGE, 1 m. f a
modern swimming pool fed by a spring at the foot of a grassy slope. (Small fees
for use of pool and suits; dining tables free.)

At 1 m. on State 96 is the junction with a good graveled road ; R. here 0.4 m. to
CARNTON HOUSE (open). Randall McGavock brought an architect named Swope

TOUR 7 379

with him from Virginia in 1824, who helped him to design and build the house
on a i,ooo-acre tract here. The lines of the spacious two-and-a-half story brick house,
called Carnton for McGavock's family estate in Antrim, Ireland, have been some-
what obscured by a long double veranda that extends beyond the house at one end.

The floor of the long back porch held the bodies of five Confederate generals
Cleburne, Gist, Adams, Granberry, and Strahi after the battle of Franklin, and the
25 rooms were crowded with the wounded.

A year and a half after the battle Colonel McGavock set aside two acres adjoin-
ing his family burying ground as a CONFEDERATE CEMETERY and, at his own ex-
pense, had the bodies of 1,500 Confederate dead moved to this plot. This cemetery
is now maintained by the State. The large lawn, called McGavock's Grove, was often
used for political debates.

At 2.5 m. on State 96 is the DE GRAFFENRIED WORKS, a group of Indian mounds
named for the farm on which they stand. They are earthworks, spread over 32 acres
along the bluffs of the Harpeth River. Within the enclosure the soil is very fertile,
and a spring near the bluff furnishes a never failing supply of water. The largest
of the mounds is 16 feet high, 230 feet long, and no feet wide. In a stone coffin
removed from one of the mounds was a skeleton, evidently that of an important
person, who had been buried in a sitting position with a finely chipped sword about
22 inches long beside him.

BATTLEGROUND ACADEMY (R), 19-7 m. t is a boys' preparatory school
founded in 1889.

BREEZY HILL (L), 21.6 m., is densely covered with a natural forest
of cedars. It is said that 7,500 Confederate soldiers died between Frank-
lin and Breezy Hill.

In SPRING HILL (L), 31.9 m. (650 alt, 417 pop.), is the SITE OF THE
BRANHAM AND HUGHES PREPARATORY SCHOOL for boys, whose campus
was used as headquarters at various times by Union and Confederate
troops. The property is now occupied by the Church of Christ Orphanage.

The CHEAIRS HOUSE (L) (private), 33.9 m., was built (L) in the
early 1850*5 by Maj. Nathaniel Francis Cheairs, whose i^oo-acre farm
was a part of a grant made in 1810. The large square two-story brick
building has two-story recessed entrances on three sides sheltered by
projecting two-story pedimented porticos. It stands in a grove of giant
beech trees, The major supervised every detail of construction and had the
walls torn down and rebuilt three times. The present kitchen and servants*
quarters were built before the big house and the family lived in them
while the long process of construction went on. The delicate plaster
ornamentation of the entrance-hall ceiling is notable.

The day before the Battle of Franklin, advance guards of Hood and
Schofield met in a spirited skirmish on the dusty road in front of the
house. Most of Hood's army bivouacked on the estate that night. On the
morning of November 30, 1864, Mrs. Cheairs had breakfast served to as
many Confederate officers as could be seated in the spacious dining room.

At 34.5 m. is (R) HAYNES HAVEN (open on application), known for
years as the W. M. Tolley Farm, and for its stable of pacers. The Hal
mares and stallions from this stable are known wherever pacing races
are held. Tolley began to assemble the Hal strain in 1909. The greatest
of the pacers produced from the Hal family on this farm was Napoleon
Direct, who did a mile in 1:59% minutes.

A one-room log cabin stands (R) in a grove of locust trees at 38.1 m.

HAYNES HAVEN, NBAS. COLUMBIA

COLUMBIA, 43.8 m. (656 alt, 7,882 pop.) (see COLUMBIA).

Points of Interest: Polk Home, Columbia Institute, Columbia Military Academy,
and others.

At Columbia is the junction with State 6. (see Tour IB).

BEECHLAWN (L) is at 47.2 m. The plantation house is surrounded by
a grove of beeches ; many of these trees are four feet in diameter. In the
grove are also two spruce, two hundred feet tall, and a great magnolia
tree. The Beechlawn garden, planned by Cornelia Francis Warfield, wife
of Maj. A. W. Warfield, is today as it was when the house was built in
1852. The brick two-story house, flanked by flat-roofed one-story wings,
is a pleasing example of late Greek Revix^al architecture. The gabled roof
is projected forward to form the pediment of the four-pillared Ionic por-
tico that extends across the front of the somewhat narrow central unit,
which is about twice as deep as it is wide. The entrance doorway was
placed at one side, rather than in the center, because the limited floor
space did not permit a central hall.

Beechlawn was temporary headquarters for Gen. John M. Schofield,
when he retreated before Gen. John B. Hood. It was taken over in tura
by the Confederate commander. In the front room Generals Hood and
Nathan Bedford Forrest disagreed as to the most effective way of cut-
ting off the Union troops on their retreat to Nashville,

While General Schoneld was at Beechlawn, he promised Mrs. War-

TOUR 7 381

field that, should occasion arise, he would grant Major Warfield every
consideration as a prisoner of war. This promise he kept when Major
Warfield was later captured in Alabama.

The entrance (R) to MILKY WAY FARMS (open 8-4:30 daily) is at
65.9 m. This estate, developed by the late Frank G Mars, a candy manu-
facturer, covers 2,705 acres of rolling hills and bluegrass meadows, and
has 50 miles of fence. Among the buildings on the estate are a club-
house, a mausoleum, 50 modern houses for employees, and 25 large
stock barns some of them more than 500 feet long. The stalls for the
race horses are finished in polished woods. In recent years the Milky
Way horses have won many racing events of nation-wide importance. The
estate has a %-mile training track.

Sheep and cattle from this farm have also taken honors at various fairs.

At 74.6 m. is the junction with Wales Rd.

Right on this road 2 m. to lovely CLIFTON PLACE, whose house and gardens were
designed by an architect and landscape gardener brought from England in 1812 by
Tyree Rodes to build in the Tennessee wilderness an estate comparable to that of the
Rodes family in England. Rodes came here from Virginia in 1809. The giant box-
woods were long cared for by a slave who had been trained especially for the job
by an Irish assistant of the English gardener. On the grounds is a crape myrtle
hedge 25 feet high. The large house, whose brick walls are laid in Flemish bond,
shows as much skill as the garden. It is of the early Greek Revival type, simple of
line but well-proportioned and finished with exquisite detail. The two-story pedi-
mented portico with four Doric columns shelters a large second floor porch having
a delicate balustrade. In the rear is a long ell. The interior trim is beautifully carved.

PULASKI, 77.6 m. (649 alt., 3,367 pop.), seat of Giles County, was
named for Count Casimir Pulaski of Poland, who aided the Colonies
during the Revolutionary War. It is the trade and shipping center of the
prosperous farming area producing cattle, bluegrass, corn, cotton, wheat,
and hurley tobacco. A plant here sends out about 2,500,000 cans of
tomatoes a year. Pulaski was the first municipality in Tennessee to buy
electric current from the TVA.

The Ku Klux Klan was organized in Pulaski on Christmas Eve, 1855,
by Judge T. M. Jones and his son, Calvin. The nucleus of the organiza-
tion was a small group of friends who met in the Jones* law office
now bearing a commemorative marker one-half block from the court-
house.

The Klan was conceived as a social club to revive normal fellowship
after the war was over. Young Calvin and his friends wanted amusing
initiation ceremonies for new members, and those weird ceremonies and
whispers of mystery soon attracted wide attention to the club. The
grotesque flowing sheets and tall cone-shaped hats with horns and the
torchlight parades had an unexpected effect upon the Negroes and to
some extent on the carpetbaggers. Members of the Kkn quickly seized
on the idea that the organization could be used as a means of defense
against the camp followers of the military administration. A cyclone-
wrecked brick house on the outskirts of Pulaski generally reported as
haunted was selected as an appropriate ceremonial meeting place. The
members began to spread mysterious hints and weird tales directed at

382 TOURS

such Negroes as were aping the white "scalawags" and to send Klan
warnings to the carpetbaggers. Before long the initimidation had had its
effects.

The idea spread through the South like a grass fire. Klans sprang up
in every city and town. Before long there was an "Invisible Empire,"
under the autocratic power of a chief officer, the Grand Wizard. But a
secret organization making its own judgments and carrying out punish-
ments was hard to control. Soon the excesses of the Klan were as serious
as those they had sought to remedy and many men who first sponsored
the organization including the Pulaski members and Nathan Bedford
Forrest, the Grand Wizard forced it officially to disband in 1869.

The SAM DAVIS MONUMENT on the square was erected in 1906 to
the memory of the 1 9-year-old boy who was a hero of the Confederacy
(see Tour 8). On this statue are the words attributed to Davis: "If I
had a thousand lives, I would give them all before I would betray the
confidence of a friend, or my informer."

The SITE OF THE SAM DAVIS HANGING, on Sam Davis Ave., is marked
by a small tablet. Sam Davis, taken from the basement of the courthouse
in Pulaski, rode in a wagon on top of his own coffin to this spot (see
Tour 8).

AUSTIN HEWITT HOME (open 9-5), East Washington St., is a well-
endowed institution for elderly women.

COLONIAL HALL (private), W. Jefferson St., is the former home of
John C. Brown, Governor of Tennessee from 1871 to 1875. The house
was built in the 1840*5 by Dr. William Batte. It is a large, square, brick
building with a deep four-column central two-story portico of Greek
Revival design. The cornice of the portico is carried around the flat-
roofed white-painted house. The recess holding the entrance doorway
is wide.

Brown was one of the leaders in the group who sought to restore the
male franchise rescinded by the reconstruction administration. He was
president of the Constitutional Convention held in Nashville in 1870
that did restore the franchise. A minority group fought against extend-
ing the suffrage to Negroes. "We hold that the Negro race is the lowest
order of human beings/' they asserted, "incapable in themselves of a
virtuous, intelligent, or free government." The majority overruled them,
partly out of the fear that if they failed to give the vote to Negroes the
State would again be placed under military government.

Brown set the keynote for the convention by his opening address:
"Let us raise ourselves above the passions and prejudices of the hour,
and dare to be just and generous regardless of the temptations prompt-
ing a contrary course. We cannot, we must not, be unmindful of the
great changes that have impressed themselves upon our history. Let us
accept the situation, and not seek to alter circumstances which have passed
beyond our control/'

His election in 1870 on the Democratic ticket marked the end of
Republican control of the State government.

MARTIN COLLEGE. West Jefferson St., a junior college for girls, was

TOUR yA 3 8 3

established in 1870 by Thomas Martin, as a memorial to his daughter,
who had died, and as a token of appreciation for the patronage given
his mercantile business by the people of Giles County, Martin gave
$30,000 for endowment, only the income of which was to be used, and
$50,000 in cash as a nucleus of a building fund. The first building was
destroyed by fire. The property was later transferred to the Tennessee
Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.

The severity of the square two-story brick BALLENTINE HOUSE, on
First St., is skillfully relieved by brick pilasters on the corners and beside
the two-story recess that holds a small second-story, iron balustraded
balcony and a transomed and sidelighted entrance. The lack of an en-
trance portico is unusual. By the house is a beautiful formal boxwood
garden. This house was built in 1825 by Andrew N. Ballentine, a recent
immigrant from Ireland.

The PULASKI RESERVOIR, on Reservoir Hill, is on the site of Fort
Lilly, built during the War between the States. The remains of earth-
works are seen about the top of the hill, from which there is an excel-
lent view of the town and surrounding country.

At Pulaski are the junctions with US 64 (see Tour 13) and State n
(see Tour 7 A).

As US 31 proceeds southward the bluegrass country becomes more
rolling and less fertile.

US 31 crosses the Alabama Line on the southern edge of ARDMORJE,
87.5 m. (654 alt., 700 pop.), 18 miles north of Athens, Alabama.

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<&>>>>>>>>

Nashville Lewisburg Pulaski; 78.7 m. State n.

Louisville & Nashville R.R. parallels route between College Grove and Cornersvihe.
Paved throughout.
Accommodations in larger towns.

State ii, an alternate to US 31 between Nashville and Pulaski, traverses
a prosperous farming and dairying region. Before and after the Battle
of Stone's River (see Tour 8) this road was used by the Confederate
troops under General Bragg and the Federal troops under General Rose-
crans. Many skirmishes were fought along the pike between Nashville
and Lewisburg. The scenery is typical of the bluegrass region.

State ii follows Fourth Avenue in NASHVILLE, m., and goes
southward on the Nolensville Pike.

384 TOURS

At 1.5 m. (R) Is OLD CITY CEMETERY (see NASHVILLE).

TRAVIS LANDER'S STORE (R), 7.2 m,, is at the junction of State ir
and the Owen-Winsted Pike. Immediately opposite the store is the en-
trance to a private lane.

Left on this lane and over a hill to the SITE OF THE HOME OF JOHN HAYWOOD,.
0.7 m. Haywood (1762-1826) came to Tennessee from North Carolina about 1807.
He was a judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court (1810-26), and one of Tennessee's
first historians. In 1820 he founded the Antiquarian Society, the forerunner of the
Tennessee Historical Society. Still standing on the site is a large tree, under which
Judge Haywood did most of his writing. John A. Murrell, the outlaw, said of the
judge, "Old Judge Haywood up in Nashville he lays around all day on a bull's
hide under a tree, and he's so fat it takes three niggers dragging at the tail to
haul him into the shade what's he know about the law? A smart man could tie
him into knots!" Haywood's most noted works were Civil and Political History of
Tennessee and Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee.

CHAPEL HILL, 39.6 m., is the birthplace of Nathan Bedford Forrest
(1821-1877), brilliant Confederate cavalry officer. Forrest moved to
Mississippi when he was thirteen years old. As a young man he joined
an uncle in the cattle-trading business and later accumulated a fortune
as a slave trader.

Although he joined the Confederate Army as a private, Governor
Harris soon gave him a commission. He raised and equipped his own
battalion but not completely. Once when some recruits reported to
him, Forrest told them: "There is going to be a fight with those folks
over yonder, and well get you some guns there." He referred to Union
troops and supplies. He first distinguished himself at the defense of
Fort Donelson. After the Battle of Shiloh he covered Beauregard's re-
treat. By the end of 1862, Forrest, who was called the "Wizard of the
Saddle," had written Confederate military history in letters of blood
across the border States. The story is made up of accounts of daring
raids, strategic retreats, brilliant cavalry actions. His "critter company"
scouted along the Federal lines continuously and struck where they were
least expected.

In July 1862 he circled the Union troops, captured the entire garrison
at Murfreesboro, and cut Buell's line of communication. The same year
he was made a brigadier general and, having recruited a new command,
raided western Kentucky and Tennessee. His continuous series of thrusts
kept Grant's troopers riding hard on his trail, but Forrest always de-
feated or outmaneuvered them. Sherman hunted him fiercely, declaring
that the Federal campaign in Tennessee could not be won as long as
Forrest was in the State. But Forrest could neither be driven out nor
captured.

After Chickamauga, Forrest went into northern Missisippi with an
independent command. Soon he was back in West Tennessee, where his
successful campaign won him a commission as major general. In 1864
he was a gadfly to Sherman and in September recaptured Athens, Ga.
In November he became chief commander of Confederate cavalry in
Tennessee. After the Battle of Nashville, Forrest covered Hood's retreat.

TOUR 7A 385

At Selma, Ala., he was overwhelmed by superior numbers but, with his
characteristic dash, cut his way through the enemy lines and escaped to
Gainesville, Ga., where he surrendered when news of Appomattox reached
him.

During Reconstruction, Forrest helped organize the Ku KIux Klan and
in May, 1867, became the Grand Wizard.

The SITE OF THE FORREST BIRTHPLACE, a log cabin, is marked by a
monument.

At 50.6 m. is the junction (L) with State 64.

Left on this highway is FARMINGTON, I m., where there is a house that is
said to be haunted by the ghost of a member of the Murrell gang. It was a ren-
dezvous of the land pirate and his men. One of the meetings ended in a brawl and
a man was killed. Many local residents believe his spirit stSl stalks the place.

LEWISBURG, 56.2 m. (736 alt, 3,112 pop.), is an important live-
stock-shipping point. Local farmers own many purebred Jersey cattle,
and buyers from many sections of the country bid sharply for Marshall
County cattle. One of the condenseries here has an annual capacity of
25 million gallons, and a co-operative creamery produces approximately
2 million pounds of cheese and 2 million pounds of butter each year.
A plant here manufactures pencils from the abundant red-cedar forests
nearby. The JAMES K. POLK LAW OFFICE, occupied at the time of Folk's
election to the Presidency, is on the southeast corner of the public square.
The national headquarters of the Walking Horse Association is here; the
organization promotes national use of the "plantation horse/' or "walk-
ing horse/' a product of Middle Tennessee (see SPORTS AND RECREA-
TION).

South of Lewisburg State n runs through hilly well-watered bluegrass
land that is excellent livestock range.

The UNITED STATES DAIRY EXPERIMENT FARM, 58.5 m., approxi-
mately 500 acres, is maintained by the Federal Government for research
in dairying and the breeding of Jersey cattle.

COENERSVILLE, 61.2 m. (330 pop.), is a typical bluegrass trading
crossroads.

PULASKI, 78.2 m. (651 alt., 3,367 pop.) (see Tour 7), is at the
junction with US 31 (see Tour 7), and with US 64 (see Tour 13).

386 TOURS

Tour 76

Columbia Lawrenceburg (Florence, Ala.); State 6.
Columbia Alabama Line, 55.6 m.

Louisville and Nashville R.R. parallels route throughout.

Paved roadbed.

Accommodations chiefly in towns.

South of Columbia, State 6 traverses a rich farming country known
widely for its livestock. This part of Tennessee at one time ^specialized
in the breeding and training of harness horses. Now dairying is the chief
business, and purebred Jersey cattle graze beside blooded horses and
sturdy mules in the rolling bluegrass pastures. The country along the
northern part of the route was settled by North and South Carolinians
who had received land grants as bonuses for their services in the Revo-
lutionary War. They built beautiful homes, bred fine horses, and worked
their fertile acres with slaves. The- smaller farms retain an atmosphere
reminiscent of earlier years.

The lower part of the route crosses a phosphate-mining region and a
narrow strip of ore-topped hills, called the western iron belt of Middle
Tennessee, a rough terrain marked by deep valleys, rushing streams, and
hills densely wooded with scrub oak. Because of the ruggedness of its
soil, this region was not settled until near the middle of the nineteenth
century,

COLUMBIA, m. (656 alt, 7,882 pop.) (see COLUMBIA).

Points of Interest: Street mule market, Columbia Military Academy, Polk Home,
Geers Memorial Park, and Columbia Institute.

Columbia is at the junction with US 31 (see Tour 7),

South of Columbia at 1 m. is (L) MERCER HALL (private), built in
1820 by Dr. William Heacock and at one time owned by James K. Polk.
The main unit of the building is two stories high; the rather severe
entrance facade is broken by the usual two-story recess and balcony,
framed by a slightly projecting Corinthian portico. There are flat-roofed
one-story wings. The house was purchased in 1829 by the Reverend
James Hervey Otey, first bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in
Tennessee, and named Mercer Hall in honor of Bishop Otey's friend,
Dr. Mercer of Natchez. Bishop Otey was influential in the founding of
several schools (see Tour 13}.

COLUMBIA MILITARY ACADEMY (R), 1.3 m., was established in a
former arsenal, bought by retired military officers from the Government
in 1904.

The MIDDLE TENNESSEE EXPERIMENT STATION (open 8-6 f daily),

OX TEAM IN THE MOUNTAINS

388 TOURS

2.2 m.> a 62 5 -acre farm, is maintained and operated by the State Exten
sion Department of the University of Tennessee.

BLYTHEWOOD (private), 2.4 m., is an antebellum house showing tru
French Colonial influence. Several skirmishes of the War between the
States took place near here. The stone gateposts are bullet-scarred. The
Doric columns of the entrance portico are twined with rambler roses,
and the southern side of the house overlooks three gardens that are noted
for their beauty.

The entrance to CLIFTON PLACE (private) is (L) at 5.5 m. The house,
built in 1832 by Gen. Gideon J. Pillow, is typical of the antebellum plan-
tation headquarters of Middle Tennessee; the huge two-story brick build-
ing has the usual projecting portico, two stories high with four Ionic
columns. Over the entrance is the usual gallery with a cast-iron balustrade
connecting. A large central hall with a winding stairway opens into
high-ceiled rooms.

Behind the big house are a two-story brick house for servants, an
office, a smoke-house, a granary, and quarters for the field hands.

Gideon J. Pillow was a major general in the Mexican War and later
one of the first Tennessee commanders in the War between the States.

At 6 m, is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road to PILLOW-BETHEL PLACE, 1 m., built by Jerome Pillow; k is
one of the Pillow homes in the neighborhood (see Clifton Place and Pillow Holiday
Place). The three Pillow homes were built on the same general plan with only
slight variations. This plan, a result of the Greek Revival, calls for a rectangular
two-story brick structure having a central pedimented portico of the Ionic order that
shelters a two-story recess, which holds a simple entrance and narrow second-story
gallery. The high-ceiled rooms open on a central hall. Near the house is a one-story
brick office building whose roof, rippled into two low gables over high-arched,
windows and decorated with scroll-saw drops, betrays its later construction.

For many years the estate was the home of Capt. William Bethel, son-in-law of
Jerome Pillow.

Just beyond the Pillow-Bethel Place is the PILLOW-HALIDAY PLACE (private),
built in 1845 by Granville Pillow. The most noticeable departure from the general
scheme of Pillow homes is the omission of the second-story gallery. The entrance
portico is topped with a low parapet instead of a pediment. A spiral stairway ex-
tends from the first floor to the roof, which once held a large reservoir for the
domestic water supply.

The Pillow-Haliday Place was built on the site of the first home of Gideon
Pillow, who came to Maury County as a surveyor and purchased 500 acres of land.
This was later divided among the three sons.

ST. JOHN'S EPISCOPAL CHURCH (L), 6.9 m., was built in 1841 by
Bishop Leonidas Polk and his three brothers for the use of their neighbors
and their own families and slaves. Bishop Polk, its only rector, was
later a major general in the Confederate Army. They frankly copied
with fine feeling the Gothic-type parish churches of England. Bricks
were kilned and timbers hewn on the Polk estates by slaves. The slave
balcony, the altar, and reredos were made from the wood of a huge
wild cherry tree that stood near Ashwood Hall. The little church is now
open for services only once each year, on Whitsunday; about 700 people
attend, and dinner is served on the grounds. The GRAVE OF BISHOP

TOUR JB 3 8 9

JAMES HERVEY OTEY is in the churchyard; William Polk and other
members of this illustrious family are buried nearby.

The community surrounding the church is known as the ST. JOHN'S
SETTLEMENT. Col. William Polk, Revolutionary War veteran and dis-
tant relative of James K. Polk, acquired 5,000 acres of land here, which
was later divided among his four sons.

Opposite the church are two stone pillars at the entrance to ASH-
WOOD HALL, which held the second of the Polk mansions, completed in
1836; it burned in 1874. It was built by Leonidas Polk, a founder of
the University of the South at Sewanee, who was later called the "fighting
bishop" of the Confederacy. Polk was appointed missionary bishop of
the Southwest Territory in 1837; * n 1841 he was made the first bishop
of Louisiana. Ashwood Hall was a large two-story brick house with one-
story wings. The central portico had four huge Corinthian columns.

Antebellum life was brilliant at Ashwood Hall, centering about An-
toinette, the lovely daughter of Andrew Polk, who had bought the estate
from his brother Leonidas. After the beginning of hostilities, the mansion
was often filled with Confederate officers until the Union forces arrived.
Overhearing Federal plans to capture a body of Confederates stationed
nearby, Antoinette dashed off on her horse to give warning but she was
suspected and an effort was made to overtake her. All the Union pur-
suers caught was a plume from her riding hat.

Antoinette afterward became the Baroness de Charette, and her father,
who had been seriously wounded in the early part of the war, went
abroad to live with her.

At this estate is a huge old ginkgo (maidenhair) tree that was brought
from Japan long before the War between the States to be tested on
Tennessee soil. The trunk is five feet in diameter and 16 feet in circum-
ference. It is 85 feet high and has a spread of 65 feet.

At 7 m. is the junction with an improved dirt road.

Right on this road to ASHWOOD, 0.5 m. (725 alt., 185 pop.) on the Polk land.

At 2 m. on the Ashwood Rd. is the junction with another road; R. here; R. again
at 2.8 m. to ZION CHURCH, 3.9 m., on the site of a log cabin erected in 1807 by a
group of South Carolina Presbyterians. The cabin was used as a school and also as a
church. James K. Polk is said to have received his early education here. Under the
leadership of John Dicky, the settlers from South Carolina bought 5,000 acres of the
25,000 granted to Gen. Nathanael Greene for services in the Revolutionary War. A
brick church was built on the site in 1815, which was replaced in turn by the pres-
ent building in 1847 a two-story brick church with a broad entrance recess under
the slave gallery. The unusual but balanced composition of the front with its finely
proportioned piers and stepped gable end has an unusual charm. The entrances
are almost hidden on the sides of the recess. Descendants of the settlers still live
in the little community and at death are buried in the church cemetery beside their
pioneer ancestors.

HAMILTON PLACE (R), 7.6 m., the Polk-Yeatman Home, was
built by Lucius Polk. The old house, with its double front porch and its
ivy-clad walls, is well preserved. The entrance hall leads through high
archways to a long cross-hall, from each end of which rises a spiral
stairway.

The entrance to RATTLE AND SNAP is at 8.1 m. (L). The lane 0.6 m.

390 TOURS

long, leads to the last built and most ornate of the Polk homes. This
house, completed in 1845 by George Polk, is a large Greek Revival
structure with a two-story portico having ten Corinthian columns. The
portico, which extends across the entire front, is projected forward in
the center and pedimented. The columns arrived in sections by boat from
Cincinnati, Ohio, and were hauled by oxcarts from Nashville to this
place. It is said that during the War between the States, when it was
necessary to find a safe hiding place for the family silver, a little son of
the family lowered it into one of these columns, where it remained until
the end of the war. The cornices and doorways have simple classical
moldings. On the side is a one-story classical portico and on the other a
delicate iron-gabled porch with an iron balcony above. There are two
spiral stairways with simple but unusually graceful handrails. The in-
terior is enriched with columns and elaborately decorated plaster cornices.

MT. PLEASANT, 11.9 m. (626 alt, 2,010 pop.), is the business
center of an extensive phosphate mining area, in which production began
in 1893. Much working of phosphate rock is carried on here, and there is
one factory that makes fertilizer. The phosphate rock used for fertilizer
experiments at Muscle Shoals come from this district.

In ROCKDALE, 17.2 m. } is the only blast furnace (inactive in 1939)
in this narrow strip of ore-topped hills which, 60 years ago, was believed
"capable of sustaining establishments enough to supply the world with
iron for a century." The Rockdale furnace was for years a simple pigiron
blast furnace, but, in later years, produced ferrophosphorus, a product
made by adding phosphate to iron. For many years the Rockdale owners
had a patent on this process.

At 18.9 m. is the junction with an improved dirt road.

Left on this road to RATTLESNAKE FALLS (free camp sites), 0.4 m. The first
fall is about 60 feet high. A short distance down a deep gorge are another 65 feet
high and several small ones 6 to 7 feet high. The water comes from a cold spring;
1,500 gallons pour over the high limestone ledge every minute. The falls are in
heavily wooded hills covered with many kinds of wild shrubs and flowers. Bright
laurel and the more delicately colored azaleas cover the hills in May. The land around
the falls has been purchased for the development of a private camp and fishing
ground.

At 19.4 m. is the junction with north fork of State 20, an improved
road.

Right on State 20 to MERIWETHER LEWIS NATIONAL PARK, 11.7 m. Here
is the GRAVE OF MERIWETHER LEWIS, leader of the first white exploratory expedi-
tion to cross what is now the United States. Lewis died here Oct. u, 1809 in
Grinder's Inn on the Natchez Trace while on his way to Washington. Although his
death was called suicide, some historians believe he was murdered. Many of his
papers, including those relating to the expedition that crossed the continent, disap-
peared here. At that time Lewis was Governor of the Louisiana Territory. A build-
ing, typical of the early inns along the trace, has been built for a museum. The park
contains 300 acres, much of which is covered with azalea and dogwood. Beside the
road are the two large springs. It is said that one of these, DYE STONE SPRINGS,
was named by the early settlers who followed the Indian custom of crushing colored
stones found in its bed to make dye. OLD SPRINGS, with a flow of about 11,000
gallons of water a day, is in a beautiful, shady spot long popular with picnic parties.

TOUR 8 391

At 29.4 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this graveled road 4.5 m. to MARCELLA FALLS, twenty feet high. Below
the falls is a small cascade. The area, combining rolling wooded hills and small
valleys, is attractive.

LAWRENCEBURG, 35.4 m. (867 alt, 3,102 pop.) (see Tour 13), is
at the junction with US 64 (see Tour 13).

South of Lawrenceburg State 6 passes through valleys, along streams,
and over heavily wooded hills.

LORETTO, 47.4 m. (774 alt, 1,000 pop.), was founded in 1872 by
the German Catholic Homestead Association of Cincinnati, which in
1870 purchased 15,000 acres of land in this county and divided it into
i6o-acre farms. The settlers converted the once barren acres into profitable
truck and fruit-producing farms. Loretto has a convent, a church, and
a parochial school.

ST. JOSEPH, 52.9 m. (754 alt, 200 pop.), was also founded by
German Catholics. The town Kes in a cotton-growing section.

At 55.6 m. State 6 crosses the Alabama Line, 17 miles northeast of
Florence, Ala.

j j j j j j j / j j j j j j j / j / v< y y \ \ i \ y y \ ^ V V V ^ V ^ ^ V

Tour 8

(Hopkmsville, Ky.) Springfield Nashville Murfreesboro Mont-
eagle; US 4iE and US 41.
Kentucky Line to Monteagle, 139.5 m.

The Louisville & Nashville R.R. parallels route between the Kentucky Line and
Nashville; the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry. between Nashville and Mur-
freesboro.
Paved roadbed. Accommodations chiefly in the county seats.

Section a, KENTUCKY LINE to NASHVILLE, 49 m.

South of the Kentucky Line, US 4iE runs through the Black Patch,
an area noted for the production of darkfired tobacco. Throughout
the year tobacco dominates the scene as it dominates the economic life
of the section.

In February or March smouldering fires dot the hills as the plant
beds are burned to kill vegetation, seeds, and roots. After the ground
is pulverized and the dust-like seed sown, the plant bed is framed and
covered with white canvas to protect the plants from cold, insects and
wind-blown seeds.

392 TOURS

In May or June the plants are set out in a carefully prepared field.
The richest fanners use a horse-drawn mechanical setter which makes a
furrow, waters the plants as they are dropped and then packs them
down with dirt. But most of the transplanting is still done by hand and
must be postponed until rain has moistened the ground.

During the summer months the tobacco requires almost constant care.
It must be hoed and sprayed with Paris Green or arsenate of lead. The
farmer watches anxiously for rust or wildfire and the ever-present tobacco
worm, a singularly unattractive pest with a long green body and a
horned head that continues its cycle from moth to chrysalis to worm,
defying all methods of eradication except removal by hand. The tobacco
must be "topped" to give it breadth of leaf rather than height, and the
suckers small leaves that grow on the plant and sap its vitality must
be cut away.

When in late summer the leaves are dark green and crinkled, the crop
is ready for harvest. It is hung on sticks four feet long and taken to
barns. There for a traditional forty days and forty nights it hangs above
a carefully tended fire. The finest barns have ventilators and a thermometer
and hydrometer to insure the proper degree of heat and moisture during
the long vigil. But the average farmer uses patience, experience, and
"horse sense," knowing that his long summer's work may be ruined in an
hour if too much dry heat "kills" the tobacco by destroying the oils
that give it pliability and flavor. When the curing has been completed
the tobacco is stripped from the stalks and tied into "hands" con-
venient bundles containing five or six of the big leaves to wait trans-
portation to the market.

US 4iE crosses the Kentucky Line at m,, 26.5 miles southeast of
Hopkinsville, Ky., and at 5.4 m. crosses Red River.

The BELL WITCH FARM, 5.6 m., has long been so called because it is
widely believed that a witch hag rode John Bell and his family here
during the early part of the nineteenth century. At the turn of the cen-
tury John Bell came to Tennessee from North Carolina, bought a tract
of land here and settled with his large family and numerous slaves. To-
round out his holdings, Bell bought a section of land from Mrs. Kate
Batts, a neighbor who had a reputation for meanness. Bell was noted
for an almost grim piety and uprightness; yet no sooner had the land
transfer been completed than Mrs. Batts began declaring that Bell had
cheated her. This fancied injustice vexed the old woman for years. On
her deathbed she swore that she would come back and "hant John Bell
and all his kith and kin to their graves."

Sure enough, tradition says, the Bells were tormented for years by
the malicious spirit of Old Kate Batts. John Bell and his favorite daughter
Betsy were the principal targets. Toward the other members of the family
the witch was either indifferent or, as in the case of Mrs. Bell, friendly.
No one ever saw her, but every visitor to the Bell home heard her all
too well. Her voice, according to one person who heard it, "spoke at a,
nerve-racking pitch when displeased, while at other times it sang and
spoke in low musical tones."

TOUR 8 393

The spirit of Old Kate led John and Betsy Bell a merry chase. She
threw furniture and dishes at them. She pulled their noses, yanked their
hair, poked needles into them. She yelled all night to keep them from
sleeping, and snatched food from their mouths at mealtime.

The witch, so they say, did not confine her capers to the Bell farm-
stead. She attended every revival in Robertson County and outsang,
outshouted, outmoaned the most fervent converts. The unseen Kate was
also very fond of corn whisky. She constantly raided stillhouses, they
say, got roaring drunk, and went home to belabor John and Betsy Bell
with renewed fervor.

When Betsy fell in love with Josiah Gardener, a young man who lived
on the adjoining farm, Old Kate included Josiah in her vigorous dis-
pleasure. Gardener finally gave up and fled from the State.

When Old Kate's fame at length reached Nashville, Andrew Jack-
son and some friends determined to face the terror and "lay" it once
and for all. In very high spirits they set out for the Bell farm. Sud-
denly, on the boundary of Bell's property, it is related, the wagon in
which Jackson and his friends were riding would move no farther. The
mules strained and Jackson cursed. Out of the empty air came Kate's
voice: "All right, General, the wagon can move on." And it did.

That night Kate kept the house in an uproar. She sang, she swore, she
threw dishes, overturned furniture, and snatched the bedclothes from all
the beds. Next morning the harried Jackson made an early start, crying
out to Bell as he left, "I'd rather fight the British again than have any
more dealings with that torment."

The Bell Witch disappeared when John Bell died. The original farm-
house has been torn down.

At intervals the newspapers revive the story with an account of how
some descendant of Bell's is due for a visitation, which they say is the
lot of one person in each generation. But Old Kate is apparently frus-
trated by present day publicity methods.

At CEDAR HILL, 11.4 m. (650 alt, 800 pop.), is the junction with
an improved country road.

Right from Cedar Hill on this road to WESSYNGTON HOUSE (private), 4.2 m.,
so named by Joseph Washington, its builder, because that was the Anglo-Saxon
form of his family name. He was a descendant of John Washington, great-grand-
father of George, and came to Tennessee from Surry County, Virginia, in 1796. He
purchased land and by marriage acquired another large adjoining tract. Both tracts
were used for the growing of dark tobacco. Wessyngton House, built in 1819 of
brick kilned on the place, has the simple lines of some Georgian Colonial structures.
The two-story main unit has one good-sized story-and-a-half wing and several ram-
bling one-story additions in the rear. There is a small porch on the front, and an-
other on the side. The great charm of the well-cared-for estate lies in its gardens and
trees. Towering white oaks, silver poplars, great copper beeches, tall pecans, flower-
ing crab apple, Siberian lilac trees, figs, pink dogwoods, and others, dot the lawns.
Old crapemyrtle, calycanthus, lilacs, smokebush, fringetree, and syringa border the
long paths, and the peonies of old stock fill geometrically laid-out beds. Beyond the
garden is the family burial ground.

SPRINGFIELD, 20.2 m. (595 alt, 5,577 pop.), seat of Robertson
County, was named for James Robertson, founder of Nashville. It is in

394 TOURS

the fork of Carr's Creek and Sulphur Fork, a branch of the Red River.
The stores face the square. Shaded streets, handsome houses, flower gar-
dens, and broad lawns make this an attractive place.

Its busiest period is from January through June and July, during which
tobacco auctions are held daily. The crop begins to come to town around
Christmas time. Powerful trucks and two-horse wagons covered with
bed quilts, crowd every highway and forms long lines up to the ware-
house receiving platforms. Foreign buyers arrive to join the local experts
who represent many foreign as well as domestic interests. The spicy
smell of tobacco permeates the town. Negroes sing as they handle the
leaf, the wordless, improvised music slipping from corner to corner of
the big warehouses and echoing among the rafters.

Graders from the Bureau of Agricultural Economics arrive with their
intricate system of classifying the leaf. Grade A is the choice wrapper
leaf, B fillers and snuff tobacco, C the thin light leaf and cheap cigar
wrappers, X the worm-eaten or rusted leaves known as lug. These group-
ings are modified by many other symbols designating color, weight and
length of leaf.

When he brings in his crop the farmer receives his "advance" from
the Association. This * 'advance" is the most important word in his vo-
cabulary, and perhaps to set it apart from common words he pronounces
it with a strong accent on the first syllable. Though it is literally an
advance, it accurately predicts year after year what will be paid for each
crop, and thus it represents his annual income.

About the first of the year, when the season opens, the slow tempo
of life in the fields and the firing barn give way to activity that moves
faster than ticker tape. It revolves about the auctioneer with his rapid
sing-song that is understood by no one but the ten or twelve buyers
who follow him about the warehouse floor. Even the oldest resident,
whose ears have rung with this sound every year of his life, cannot tell
you what the auctioneer says. The farmer who raised the tobacco, though
he watches anxiously from the background, cannot understand this jar-
gon. He only knows that his whole year's crop can be sold in the time
it takes him to cut a piece of chewing tobacco from the plug in his
pocket. He knows -that repetition is the basis of it, and sometimes he can
catch a phrase like "a quarter" or " a half."

The auctioneer is admired by small boys, and occasionally one of them
displays ability to imitate him, achieving the eflfect perfectly long before
he knows the sense of a word he is saying. If he is also quick at figures
and spends most of his adolescence in the tobacco warehouse, he will
probably grow up to be an auctioneer himself, a profession like the
church to which a young man is apparently "called."

The Black Patch tobacco farmer may be slightly ill at ease with the
foreign buyers, but when he goes to town on First Monday, which is
County Court Day and the time to swap mules, he drives a good car. In
the country he rides a Tennessee "walking horse," which he has reason
to consider the noblest animal alive.

The farms here have attractive names, such as Oakhurst or Fairlawn.

TOUR 8 395

Many of the children go to college, but they usually come home to stay
after they are graduated.

The Black Patch farmer has learned about his own problem in a hard
school. Some forty years ago the Tobacco Trust threatened to destroy
him. He transferred to it all the prefixes he was just learning to discard
from the word "Yankee," and he is still unable to speak of it calmly.
Early attempts at organization among the farmers to combat this monster
were fraught with difficulties. The farmer is not a "j'iner" by tempera-
ment, and some of the Associations were faulty in plan. Violations of
contract were frequent and to punish offenders, who were locally called
hill-billies, a secret organization known as Night Riders sprang up. Less
violent than the activities of similar organizations in parts of Kentucky,
the local "Night Rider trouble," as it is usually called, nonetheless
formed a dark chapter in Robertson County history. Plant beds were
scrapped, barns were burned, and farmers were called from their beds at
night and conducted to quiet woods lots for conferences, the full details
of which have never been recorded.

Springfield is now headquarters for the Eastern Dark Fired Tobacco
Growers Association, which has gained steadily in membership since its
founding in 1932. This co-operative is primarily a surplus handling
agency, and members are permitted to make delivery to the organization,
or to sell directly to buyers or on auction floors. The Association procures
loans from Federal agencies at appraised values by grade.

The town has 34 loose leaf floors, storage warehouses, prizing and
rehandling houses. In all, these buildings have nearly a million square
feet of floor space. Jointly they sell about 25,000,000 pounds of tobacco

a season.

The SPRINGFIELD WOOLEN MILLS, a locally owned industry, employs
about 325 people and has 100 broad-looms. The plant receives wool as
it comes from the sheep and performs every process in the manufacture
of blankets. Some high grade blankets and a version of the Mexican
scrape are made. Twenty percent of the output goes to the Army, Navy,
and Marine Corps.

In 1852-53 David Hughes (1831-1900), while teaching music here,
experimented with the telegraph, and in 1855 he patented an improved
type-printing telegraph, which he sold to the American Telephone Com-
pany. Later Hughes, who had gone abroad to live, invented a microphone
and induction balance.

The Tennessee Fox Hunters* Association sponsors the annual State
Meet that is held here the first week in October. The chase is conducted
in the English fashion, the hunters riding after the hounds.

PERRY PARK (small -fee), 23.5 m., has a swimming pool, dance
pavilion, and picnic grounds.

GREEN BRIER, 28.1 m. (367 alt., 631 pop.), is the former home of
the Green Brier Distillery.

RIDGETOP, 30.6 m. (730 alt., 196 pop.), is on the edge of the
Highland Rim. The WATAUGA SANATORIUM, a 25-room hospital for
tubercular patients, is on a high ridge above the village.

396 TOURS

US 4iE descends from the Highland Rim into the central basin on a
winding road. In the spring dogwood and redbud bloom on the hillsides.

At 34.2 m. is the junction with paved US 31 W.

Left on US 3iW is WHITE TOUSE, 11.4 m. (580 alt, 209 pop.), so named
because the first house here was painted white.

North of the village the route follows the contours of the thickly wooded hills
and ascends the Highland Rim.

At 21.6 90. is the junction with State 52, a good graveled road indicated by a
marker honoring Jenny Lind, who sang here in 1852. When it became known that
the Swedish prima donna would pass along this stage route on her way from Nash-
ville to Louisville, the country folk gathered at the nearby spring and, when the
coach stopped, asked her to sing.

Right 4.6 m. on State 52 is PORTLAND (803 alt., 1,020 pop.), where about
600 carloads of strawberries are packed each season. Owing to climatic conditions
the picking season sometimes varies, but it usually begins about June i, and then
this quiet country town begins to bustle. Hundreds of men and women from other
counties and States join the natives in picking berries and packing them in the
sheds. Pickers are paid by the quart, packers by the crate. Speed is the principal
requisite, and workers attain a mechanical pace that is amazing.

At this season the streets are lined with medicine shows; salesmen hawk wares
from small street stands. Crowds come miles to enjoy the carnival at night and to
pick berries by day. The town gradually settles down to await the next season.

MITCHELL, 23.8 m. (775 alt., 200 pop.), is another strawberry-shipping point.

At 24.3 m. US 3iW crosses the Kentucky Line, 6 miles south of Franklin, Ky.

In GOODLETTSVILLE, 36.7 m. (45 alt 9*9 pop.)* * bronze
marker, facing the post office, has been erected on the site of the building
in which the Goodlettsville Lamb Club was organized. This was one
of the first co-operative farm marketing associations in the South and
made its first sale in 1887.

Left from Goodlettsville on Long Hollow Pike; just beyond Mansker Creek is the
junction with a dirt road, 0.5 m.; R. 0.5 m- o n this road to the SITE OF THE HOME
of KASPER MANSKER, who came into this country in 1769 with a party of Long
Hunters that included Uriah Stone and Isaac Bledsoe. The party remained a year.
(It was their long absences from home that caused them to be called Long Hunters.)
Mansker was typical. He had his trusted rifle, just as did Crockett and the others;
he called his "Nancy." He was familiar with the sights and sounds of the forests
and knew the calls of birds and beasts, calls which the Indians often imitated to
lure hunters out of their camps.

Mansker became known for his Indian-fighting ability and later was made a major
in the State militia. That Mansker was an effective fighter is shown by a letter
Andrew Jackson wrote to the Chickasaw in 1812 when he was seeking their aid.
"Do you remember," Jackson asked, "when the whole Creek nation came to destroy
your towns that a few hundred Chickasaws aided by a few whites chased them back
to their nation, killing the best of their warriors, and covering the rest with shame?"
The "few whites" Jackson referred to were led by Mansker.

Toward the end of his life Mansker became a devout Methodist, and Bishop
Francis Asbury often stopped at "Mansco's Lick." The confusion about his name
was the result of his German accent.

It was to Mansker's small, stoutly built house here that John Donelson brought
his family after his epic water trip on the Adventure from the Watauga settlement to
Nashville. Mansker took the whole family in. It was here, too, that Jackson decided
to accompany Rachel Donelson, John's daughter who was at that time married to
Robards on a trip down the river to Natchez. (See The Hermitage, Tour 12.)

The LICK, 0.5 m. (R), is surrounded by trees and underbrush. About 100 yards
L. is MANSKER'S GRAVE, by a large hackberry tree in a strip of land covered with
stones, rocks, and grass.

TOUR 8 397

WESTVIEW, 46.2 m., was built by Captain W. B. Walton in 1850.
The house, several hundred yards from the road, was designed by Major
A. Heiman, whose plans ranked next to Strickland's in the architectural
contest for the State Capitol It is a large, two-story hip roof brick struc-
ture whose facade is saved from plainness by projection of the central
third. The rear ell has a long double gallery that is carried across the
back of the main house. Like many of the other houses in this vicinity,
the house was constructed by slaves and the building materials were
obtained on the site.

The gardens, long and faithfully tended, have boxwood, lilacs, pink
crapemyrtles, and most of the old fashioned flowers and shrubs.

NASHVILLE, 49.2 m. (546 alt., 153,866 pop.) (see NASHVILLE).

Points of Interest: The Capitol, Vanderbilt University, George Peabody College
for Teachers, Scarritt College, Ward-Belmont, Fisk University, the Parthenon, and
others.

Nashville is at the junction with US 31-3 xE (see Tour 7), State n
(see Tour 7 A), US 41 W (see Tour 14), and US 70 (see Tour 12).
The point of intersection is on Memorial Square.

Section 4. NASHVILLE to MONTEAGLE, 90.5 m., US 41.

Between Nashville and Monteagle US 70 traverses three of the eight
topographical sub-divisions of the State.

Between Nashville and Murfreesboro is the Central Basin, where the
country is rolling and generally under cultivation. Back from the high-
way, on both sides, are lands covered with red cedar, the largest cedar
forest in the State. South of Murfreesboro the route ascends the Highland
Rim. Above the rim lie the Barrens, covering part of three counties, an
area generally flat with scrub oak that attests the thinness of the soil.

Between Manchester and the point where the ascent to the top of the
mountain is made, the route parallels the western escarpment of the Cum-
berland Plateau. This area is more fertile and under heavy cultivation.

Near Monteagle are mountains and the Cumberland Plateau.

US 41 leaves NASHVILLE, m., on 4th Ave. S., to Peabody St.;
L. on Peabody St. two blocks to and Ave., the Murfreesboro Pike.

By an underpass of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry., 3.5 m.,
is (R) the camp site of the Irish Nomads. In the last week of April this
roving clan of horse traders gathers in Nashville to attend the annual
burial services of members who have died during the year. Between two
and three thousands of them pitch their tents and park their trailers in
the open field. Though they are often mistaken for Gypsies, these people
are of pure Irish stock, devout Roman Catholics, and bear such names as
Costello, Sherlock, and Gorman.

The clan stems from four families of horse traders who came to the
United States in 1875. They have always confined their trading to the
South. Today they travel about the rural sections in cars and trucks,
stopping frequently to buy horses and mules. The buying is not re-

398 TOURS

stricted to fine work animal?. Farmers know that the Nomads will take
a sick mule or an overworked horse, if it is not too old. Skilled for
generations in doctoring ailing horses, they are remarkably successful in
salvaging such animals. At New Orleans and Atlanta the clan maintains
depots on a communal basis, in which the animals are collected and
sold at auction. A large part of the trade is with foreign markets. Much
of the mountain artillery of the Italian Army was carried into the hills
of Ethiopia on the backs of mules bought for the Italian Government
by the Irish Nomads.

The burial place for those who live east of the Alleghenies is Atlanta;
for those who live West, Nashville. On the first of May mass for the
dead is said at St. Patrick's Church, Burial is at Mt. Calvary Cemetery, on
the Lebanon Road.

COLEMERE (private), 6.7 m., has (L) a large house with a Greek
Revival pedimented portico, designed by Russell Hart and built in 1930,
after the first house had been destroyed by fire. The first house was
built in 1893 by E. W. Cole, retired president of the Nashville, Chatta-
nooga & St. Louis Ry. The rose gardens are notable.

Hie NASHVILLE MUNICIPAL AIRPORT (L), 7.7 m., has a modern
hangar, an assembly hall, and a building for the use of the iO5th
Observation Squadron. The runways and some of the buildings on this
400-acre field were constructed by WPA labor.

The CENTRAL STATE HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE (R), 7.8 m., is on
a bluegrass farm. The hospital can care for 1,800 patients. The criminal
department has a capacity of 300.

Southeast of this point the highway passes through fertile fields. The
grassy meadows are bordered with trees and, in late spring, starred with
wild daisies. Many of the fences along the highway are covered with
wild honeysuckle.

A dangerous curve at the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry.
underpass is at 16.3 m.

At 17.5 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road to JEFFERSON SPRINGS, 7 m., a summer resort.
At 20.7 m. is the junction with paved State 102.

Left on State 102 is SMYRNA, 1.2 m. (510 alt., 531 pop.), a village in a rich
farming section.

i. Left (straight ahead) 1 m. on an improved dirt road to the DAVIS HOME
(open Mon.-Tburs.) ; here is the SAM DAVIS GRAVE. Davis, a 1 9-year-old scout, was
captured by Federal troops on Nov. 9, 1863, after he had been in Union territory
for more than two weeks. In his boot he had plans of Federal fortifications and in-
formation about the size and positions of Federal troops.

He was taken to General Dodge, who was anxious to learn what Confederate
agent in the Federal ranks had helped Davis. The general endeavored to confuse the
youth by questions. Without revealing any information, Sam said, "I know the dan-
ger of my situation, and I am willing to take the consequences." Dodge persisted
but found Davis adamant. He threatened court martial. Sam answered, "You are
doing your duty as a soldier, and I am doing mine/'

The trial was postponed to the 26th. The sentence read: ". . . the said Samuel
Davis of Coleman's scouts in the service of the so-called Confederate States, to be

TOUR 8 399

hanged by the neck until dead.** In a letter he wrote to his parents that night, he
said, "I do not fear to die."

The next morning, after Davis had ridden to the scaffold on his coffin, General
Dodge gave him one more chance; he sent a staff officer to ask if the boy would
reveal the name of his informant. "If I had a thousand lives, I would lose them all
here before I would betray my friends or the confidence of my informer/' was the
answer as reported in histories. The sentence was executed.

The State owns and maintains the plain, long two-story house. Hand-hewn tim-
bers have been clapboarded. The pedimented central portico has square columns.
Central halls on both floors separate the rooms. Near the house is the log cabin used
before the construction of the larger house.

2. Right 3.5 m. from Smyrna on an improved road is OLD JEFFERSON (520 alt.,
8? pop-), on Stone's River. In the days of river transportation the future of Jeffer-
son seemed bright, for it was in a fertile region on a navigable stream. At first only
flatboats and barges were cabled to its wharves, but in 1824 the keel of a steamboat
was laid here. This boat carried passengers between Jefferson and Nashville. When
water transportation was outmoded by railroads and good pikes, the navigability of
Stone's River did not matter, and the importance of Jefferson dwindled.

3. Left from Smyrna on an improved road to JEFFERSON SPRINGS (fishing,
boating, swimming), a summer resort with a modern hotel. On the shady banks
of Stone's River are many cottages, some of them for rent.

STONE'S RIVER NATIONAL CEMETERY (L)> 29.1 m., was established
in 1867 for the interment of soldiers killed near Murfreesboro. Of the
6,177 graves, 2,360 hold unknown men.

East of the cemetery is a UNION MONUMENT erected in 1863 by sur-
vivors of Col. W. B. Hazen's Union brigade as a memorial to 55 of
their comrades who were killed here.

STONE'S RIVER NATIONAL MILITARY PARK (R), 30.7 m.,
was established in 1927 to preserve the relics of the Battle of Stone's
River. Considered from the standpoint of the loss of life, this battle
was one of the most indecisive of the War between the States. Of
37,000 men, the Confederates lost 10,000; and of 44,000 men, the
Union lost 13,000. At the end of the battle the Confederate army still
blocked the Union advance on Chattanooga, though the Confederates had
withdrawn from the field in apparent retreat.

Bragg's withdrawal was caused largely by the over-enthusiasm and
overconfidence of some of his men. On the third day of the battle they
had been ordered to dislodge the Union left from high ground along
the river. The order to attack was given at 4 o'clock that afternoon
just long enough before dark to take the hill but the first rush was suc-
cessful, and the men pushed on too far, coming under direct and heavy
fire of the Union artillery. They were shattered and driven back. The
next day councils were held in both camps, and Bragg withdrew during
the night.

Rosecrans failed to follow Bragg, because many of his supplies had
been taken in a cavalry raid led by Wheeler, which preceded the actual
battle. With fine strategy, Wheeler had encircled the Union troops and
had captured the wagon train following the army. Rosecrans held fast to
what he had gained by encamping at Murfreesboro, while Bragg retreated
to Tullahoma.

A pyramid of cannon balls (L), 31 m., at the intersection of the

CEMETERY, STONE'S RIVER NATIONAL MILITARY PARK

Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry. and the highway, is the site of
the TEMPORARY HEADQUARTERS OF GENERAL BRAGG, commander of
the Army of Tennessee.

REDOUBT BRANNAN (R), 31.3 m. t was built by Union troops in
1863 to protect Murfreesboro against invasion by the Confederates. The
high earthworks are well preserved.

MURFREESBORO, 32.2 m. (616 alt, 7,993 pop.), seat of Rutherford
County, is in a section noted for its purebred Jersey cattle and is an
important shipping point for cotton and dairy products.

The abundant cedar forests nearby are cut on a large scale.

Murfreesboro grew from a small settlement nearby called Jefferson.
Stone's River was discovered in 1766 by a party of four men and named
for one of them, Uriah Stone. The county was established in 1803, and
seven months later, on August 3, 1805, Jefferson (now Old Jefferson)
was selected as the county seat. Thomas H. Benton, United States Senator
from Missouri (18211851), tried his first case there.

In October 1811 a second county seat was selected and named Can-
nonsburg by admirers of Newton Cannon, who was later Governor of
the State (1835-1839). His victory in 1835 over a candidate supported
by Andrew Jackson was the first indication of Jackson's decreasing power

TOUR 8 401

in Tennessee politics. Cannon had been a political and personal enemy
of Jackson since the time when Jackson had prosecuted a case on which
Cannon sat as a juror. Jackson had fought hard for conviction, but the
jury brought in a verdict acquitting the defendant. Jackson shook his
finger in Cannon's face and said: 'Til mark you, young man." Later,
when Cannon's popularity had waned, the name of the town was changed
to honor Col. Hardy Murfree, a Revolutionary War hero.

Murfreesboro was the capital of Tennessee from 1819 to 1825. For
three years after the courthouse burned in 1822, the delegates met in
the Masonic Hall, but in 1825 the legislature convened in Nashville,
because the hall was inadequate. Long after the legislators had left here,
Murfreesboro was seeking their return and its re-establishment as the
capital. It was nearer to the center of the State, its leading citizens argued,
and, besides, it was "deficient in those sources of amusement which in
Nashville are supposed to distract the legislators from strict attention
to their duty." When the time came to select a permanent capital, feeling
was so strong that the local newspaper protested, ff lf the members can
not accede to our wishes then we go for McMinnville, for Knoxville,
for any place before Nashville!" Nevertheless, Nashville was chosen.

A RED-CEDAR BUCKET FACTORY here also makes churns, filter tubs,
ice pails, and wine coolers.

The CONFEDERATE MONUMENT on the square is now a meeting
place for farmers who stop to exchange gossip.

The TENNESSEE' COLLEGE (Baptist), the only senior college for
women in the State, occupies a 2o-acre campus along Main St. Its hand-
some brick buildings have pillared porches in the Southern tradition and
are shaded by ancient oaks. The 176 students come from several States.

The $1,500,000 plant of MIDDLE TENNESSEE TEACHERS' COLLEGE
includes a demonstration farm and dairy as well as an impressive group
of buildings. Largest of the three State Teachers' College, it has an en-
rollment of 2,100 and a faculty of 45.

In a modernized antebellum home is the BRISTOL-NELSON PHYSIO-
LOGICAL SCHOOL where 25 sub-normal and backward children receive
care and training under the direction of Mrs, Cora Bristol-Nelson, a
specialist in abnormal psychology.

RUTHERFORD HOSPITAL is the home of the Rutherford County Health
Department, which has lowered the infant mortality rate in this county
to 26.6 per 1,000 live births. The hospital was built and the demonsta?-
tion unit established by the Commonwealth Fund of New York City in
1924 as one of four child health demonstrations.

In Murfreesboro is the junction with US yoA (see Tour 12A) and
US 241 (see Tour 8 A). -

Left from Murfreesboro on State 96 to Rucker Lane, 5 m.; L. here 1.6 m. to
MARYMONT (private), built on land claimed in 1807 by Aaron Jenkins for serv-
ices rendered in the Revolutionary War. The house was built by his son Nimrod.
It is a large square brick Greek Revival structure with a central pedimented portico,
two stories high. The portico shelters a small second floor gallery. During the War
between the States, the house was a Union headquarters and later a hospital, .but it

402 TOURS

received good care. Consequently, it was one of trie few homes spared during the
Battle of Murfreesboro.

The grounds and garden were mutilated by Federal soldiers during General Rose-
crans' occupation of Murfreesboro.

1. Left from Murfreesboro on State 96, to a huge FLAT ROCK, 2.1 m. (R), cov-
ering three acres. This rock is in the geographical center of the State.

2. Right from Murfreesboro on State 96 to the junction with a graveled road,
8.5 m.; R. here 2 m. to SNAIL SHELL CAVE, in which 17 varieties of snail shells
have been found. A small stream runs through the cave with water so deep that
parts of the cave have never been explored. The mouth is about 200 feet wide by
300 feet long. It is in a hollow with perpendicular cliffs on three sides, and a
gravelly slope on the fourth.

Southeast of Murfreesboro, following a former Indian trail, US 41
traverses a fertile level farming country. The land is intensively culti-
vated on the outskirts of the town.

At 42.1 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Right on this road to the former HOME OF JOHN P. BUCHANAN, Governor of
Tennessee (1891-93). Buchanan was the first president of the Farmers and
Laborers Union of Tennessee (1889), a political organization known as the Farmers
Alliance. The first activities of the Alliance were non-political. It undertook to
eliminate the middleman by establishing co-operative rolling mills, cotton exchanges,
tobacco warehouses, and stores. Later, when the organization entered national poli-
tics, its goal was the abolition of national banks and the establishment of a grad-
uated income tax.

The Alliance was politically powerful in Tennessee by 1890; it successfully at-
tempted to control the Democratic Party, and Buchanan was nominated for the
governorship which meant election.

The great problem of his administration arose from the practice of leasing con-
victs to private contractors. The United Mine Workers of East Tennessee protested.
Buchanan had some conciliatory laws passed but finally called out the militia (see
lour 5). Buchanan was not re-elected.

The Cumberland Mountains are in view at 61.4 m.

The route reaches the top of the Highland Rim, 63 m., known since
the days of the explorers as the Barrens because of the scarcity of timber
and other growth here. Fires have often swept the area during the last
forty years. They usually begin in the spring. After the timber has been
killed by fire, the grass, briars, and bushes grow profusely, furnishing
excellent pasturage for cattle, goats, and hogs. For this reason cattlemen
from the adjoining counties have long been accused of setting these fires.

US 41 crosses Duck River on a steel bridge at 64.3 m. The Duck River
cascades are (R) 0.3 miles downstream.

At 65 m. is the junction with an unmarked dirt road.

Right on this road to OLD STONE FORT, B m., an unusually fine example of
prehistoric defense works. Occupying a highly strategic position, the walls, 20 feet
thick, are built of stone and earth and enclose about 32 acres. The intricate inner de-
fenses, which surround the only gateway, were evidently the work of skilled en-
gineers. It is not known by whom the fort was built. Some have credited De Soto
with its construction during his march northward from Florida, but this theory was
combatted by John Haywood, the Tennessee historian, who told of a white oak tree
that had grown up over the remains. He said that it had been demonstrated by study
of the rings that the tree was about 78 years old when De Soto landed on the coast
of Florida. If the fort was built by a prehistoric tribe, their culture must have been
much more advanced than any known to have lived north of Mexico.

, TENNESSEE COLLEGE, MURPREESBORO

MANCHESTER, 65.6 m. (1,069 alt, 1,227 PP-)> at the foot of the
Cumberland Plateau, Is the seat of Coffee County which was named for
Gen. John Coffee (1772-1833), a surveyor and a close friend of Andrew
Jackson. A garment factory here is the only remnant of Manchester's
once thriving cotton factories. As early as 1791 an advertisement appeared
in the Knoxviile Gazette: "The subscriber has his machine in order for
carding, spinning, and weaving and is wanting a number of good weavers
such as are acquainted with the weaving of velvets, corduroys, and
calicoes, John Hague, Manchester (Mero District) Nov. n, 1791."

Manchester has long been a shipping point for crossties ; cutting them
was long a source of cash income for farmers. When the farmer had
gathered his crop he had little else to do except feed the stock and lay
in a supply of wood. He then went to the woods to chop or saw down
a tree. If the trees were tall and had few limbs, the farmer could get
two "ties" from one tree, otherwise he got only one. After the tree had
been felled, the length of one or two "ties" was measured off and the
log notched.

When a load of crossties was finished, it was hauled into town and

404 TOURS

sold. Cash received for such a load was exchanged for shoes and heavy
underwear, or for coffee, sugar, or other foods that could not be pro-
duced on the place. At Christmas time, tie money went into the purchase
of nuts, apples, oranges, candy, and shotgun shells for hunting on Christ-
mas Day.

The process of producing crossties has changed. A portable sawmill
is now moved into the woods, and the logs are sawed into crossties there.
This method is much faster and more economical.

At the northeast corner of the public square is a large MOUND of
earth and stone, believed to have been built by prehistoric tribesmen as
a signal point for the Old Stone Fort.

At 86.6 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road to WONDER CAVE (adm. $1 with guide), 0.5 m. A stream runs
through the mouth of the cave. The main stalactite room is about 400 yards long,
100 yards wide, and 8 feet high.

The route begins at 87.1 m. its 3-mile ascent to the top of the Cum-
berland Mountain. There are several places from which the valley below
can be seen.

MONTEAGLE, 90.5 m. (2,006 alt., 1,000 pop.) (see Tour 13) is at
the junctions with US 64 (see Tour 13) and US 68 (see Tour 16).

<<<<<< &>> >>>>

Tour 8A

Murfreesboro Shelbyville Fayetteville (Huntsville, Ala.) ; US 241.
Murfreesboro to Alabama Line, 66.4 m.

Paved roadbed.

Accommodations limited except in county seats.

Between Murfreesboro and Shelbyville US 241 traverses country that is
flat and grown sparsely with cedars. Outcrops of bedrock rising in many
places above the shallow topsoil make this poor farming country. It was
once said that a man living back in the cedars ". . . has got to scratch and
sweat mightily if he wants to starve decent/' South of Shelbyville gently
rolling hills alternate with steep ridges. On the whole the countryside is
bleakly forbidding, except in spring and summer, when patches of pink
crowsfoot moss and white sandwort appear in the cedar barrens, bluish li-
chens splotch exposed rock, and the yellow of wild mustard flowers spreads
across the open country.

MTJRFREESBORO, m. (573 alt., 8,000 pop.) (see Tour 8), is at the
junctions with US 41 (see Tour 8) and US yoA (see Tour 12A).

TOUR SA 405

The rather prosperous farming country immediately south of Murfrees-
boro fades into a country of mournful cedar thickets alternating with
wasteland, rocky and gouged by gullies; the people live in weathered
shacks beside skimpy truck patches. A few of the old cedar snake-rail fences
remain but they are rapidly being sold to manufacturers of pencils.

A marker (R) at 4.1 m. is in memory of Benjamin Liddon, who was
awarded two tracts of land, including Liddon Springs, as a bonus for
Revolutionary War services.

At 18.6 m. is the junction with a graveled road.

Left on this road is BELL BUCKLE, 5 m. (856 alt., 378 pop.) settled in 1853
and named, according to legend, for the creek that runs through the town. The creek
itself was earlier so named because of a bell and a buckle carved on a large beech
tree near the source of the stream. The carving is supposed to have* been made by
Indians or by one of the Long Hunters. Bell Buckle is surrounded by farm land that
produces abundant crops and pasturage without the use of fertilizers. Freestone
water is piped from springs near Wartrace. In Bell Buckle is WEBB SCHOOL,
founded in 1870 by the late W. R. (Sawney) Webb, who has been called "the
father of preparatory school education in the South." The school, which had been
established in Culleoka, Maury County, was brought here in 1886. Now a well-
known preparatory school for boys, it is non-sectarian and has accommodations for
more than 200 boarding students.

SHELBYVILLE, 26.3 m. (771 alt, 5,010 pop.), seat of Bedford
County, was named for Col. Isaac Shelby who led a force of Tennessee
riflemen at King's Mountain against the British. The Duck River almost
encircles the town, which is the leading business and shipping center of
the Duck River Valley.

The population of this town increased by two-thirds between 1910 and
1930 with industrial development. One of the larger factories is the
UNITED STATES RUBBER COMPANY PLANT, manufacturing cotton cord
for tires. Another, the NATIONAL PENCIL COMPANY PLANT, ships prod-
ucts all over the United States and to foreign markets.

The town was laid out in 1810 by commissioners appointed by the Gen-
eral Assembly, and was incorporated October 7, 1819. The high point of
the year in early Shelbyville was Muster Day, held in accordance with
Congressional militia laws. On the day appointed by the General Assem-
bly every man in the county subject to military service reported here to
drill, "armed and equipped as the law directs/' Congress had appropriated
money to provide equipment for the militiamen but there was never
enough to go around. At sunrise the farmers began straggling in; some
carried long deer rifles and fowling pieces and a few had Government-
issue muskets. The more conscientious wore homespun, home-tailored uni-
forms, but most came in work jeans. The light-hearted often tricked them-
selves out as Indians, Negroes, or tramps, and brandished willow switches,
farm tools, and cornstalks. Filling the technical requirements of the law,
they cavorted to the music of fife and drum, made wild whooping charges
on the tavern taproom, and, in general, turned Muster Day into a roaring
burlesque. When the fun had lost its edge, horse trading and serious drink-
ing began. During the day there were shooting and wrestling matches,

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bouts of tall-tale telling, political speeches, private and free-for-all fights,

and, usually, several shooting and cutting brawls.

1. left from Shelbyville on State 64 to HORSE MOUNTAIN, 3 m., used during
the War between the States as a signal station, first by the Confederates and then by
the Union forces.

2. Left from Shelbyvilie on State 82 is LYNCHBURG 16.4 m. (824 alt, 380
pop } the seat of Moore County, where the famous Old Number 7 whisky was
made by the Jack Daniel distillery. A new distillery is owned and operated by a
nephew of Daniel. Lynchburg was named