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Frontispiece, i, cell of fleshy scale of bulb of onion (^Allium Cepa) showing cyto-
plasm, nucleus and large central vacuole.

Chloroplasts : 2, a parenchyma cell of green fruit of garden pepper (Capsicum annum)
showing cytoplasm, nucleus and chloroplasts ; 2a, a chloroplast of a moss {Funaria) show-
ing^ green granules, assimilation starch grains and protein granules; 2b, a cell near the
periphery of the pseudo-bulb of the orchid (Phaius grandifolius) showing cytoplasm and
three reserve starch grains formed by leucoplasts, which latter under the influence of
light have developed into chloroplasts.

Chromoplasts: 3, a parenchyma cell of ripe fruit of Capsicum annum showing cyto-
plasm, nucleus and yellowish-red chromoplasts; 3a, isolated chromoplasts of carrot
(Daucus Car Ota).

4. transverse section of petal of wild pansy (Viola tricolor) showing colored cell-sap in
epidermal cells.

TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY
AND PHARMACOGNOSY

INTENDED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
OF PHARMACY, AS A REFERENCE BOOK
FOR PHARMACISTS, AND AS A HAND-
BOOK FOR FOOD AND DRUG ANALYSTS

HENRY KRAEMER, Ph.B., Ph.D.

Professor of Botany and Pharmacognosy, and Director of the Microscopical Laboratory, in the

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy; Member of the Committee of Revision of

the Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America; Corresponding

Member of the Societe de Pbarmacie de Paris, etc.

Illustrated with over JOO plates comprising about 2000 figures

FOURTH REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1902, by

HENRY KRAEMER
In the Ofiice of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.

With each edition of this book the author has found it
desirable to make certain changes and additions, not only with
the object of increasing its usefulness as a text-book for the
student, but also for the purpose of making it still more valuable
as an aid and guide in practice. In the present edition a number
of improvements have been made in the text as well as in the
illustrations. The botanical portion of the book has been revised,
the author having been fortunate in securing the cooperation of
Dr. Theo. Holm, of Brookland, D. C, who has critically gone
over certain portions of the morphology and classification of the
Angiosperms and re-written a number of the articles. While
there are some teachers who naturally prefer their students to
have an independent course in botany before taking up pharma-
cognosy, the treatment of this subject in this book is such as to
be directly applicable to pharmaceutical work, and will be found
useful to the student of pharmacy in the college course, as well
as of assistance to the pharmacist and analyst who engages in
practical pharmacognostical work.

Up until the present time, the anatomical or histological
method has received the sole attention of pharmacognosists. By
this method, based for the most part upon the study of tissues,
the identity and general quality of drugs and foods are ascer-
tained, and the results thus obtained, when taken in conjunction
with those of chemical analysis, have been of great value in deter-
mining the purity of the products examined. For some years it
has seemed to the author important that the pharmacognosist
study the active and other constituents of drugs, such as may be
obtained in crystalline form from sections, from extractions of

111

iv PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.

small quantities of powders, or from a few drops of an extracted
solution as obtained in assay work. While there are a number
of books treating of micro-chemistry, yet the treatment of the
microscopic crystals in these is of a general character. The
only satisfactory way to study these crystals is by means of the
petrographical microscope. In Part IV about forty pages have
been included treating of the micro-analysis of some of the
important plant constituents, and it is believed that this portion
will be especially useful in the detection and accurate study of
these substances. In the preparation of this part the author had
the hearty cooperation of Dr. Charles Travis, of the University
of Pennsylvania, who not only made careful studies of the
crystals described, but read the proof very carefully.

The new illustrations include some thirty-five photographs
of microscopic crystals ; a four-color plate, made from Lumiere
autochrome photographs, showing salicin and cocaine hydro-
chloride under the micro-polariscope, with crossed nicols; and a
number of half-tone illustrations and drawings of medicinal
plants. In addition, the work has been brought up to date by
including the results of the researches published during the past
two years.

Acknowledgment is cheerfully made to the editor of Merck's
Report for permission to use some of the excellent drawings
from Dr. Theo. Holm's articles on " Medicinal Plants of North
America."

H. K.

September, 191 o.

PREFACE.

Owing to the role played by vegetable substances in the treat-
ment of disease, pharmacognosy takes rank as one of the most
important divisions of applied botany. It is generally understood
to treat of the external characters, gross structure, histology," and
chemical constituents of the plant parts used in medicine. In
a broader sense it also implies the study of plants themselves, of
systematic botany, and of plant chemistry (phyto-chemistry).
Furthermore, when the factors which influence the formation of
the active principles in plants are taken into consideration, the
subject is seen to have a relation to plant physiology on the one
hand and to plant culture on the other.

This work is divided into three parts. Part I comprises five
chapters, and is devoted to a consideration of the distinguishing
characters of the main groups of plants, from the lowest to the
highest; (2) the anatomy or outer structure of the Angiosperms
(or so-called Flowering Plants) ; (3) the inner structure or
histology of the higher plants, including the cell-contents ; (4)
a classification of the Angiosperms yielding vegetable drUgs and
other useful products, together with concise descriptions of the
plants, as also of the non-official drugs derived from them, and
(5) the subject of the cultivation of medicinal plants.

Part II comprises two chapters, one devoted to the crude
drugs official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, including a
few non-official drugs, and another which treats of the subject
of powdered drugs and foods. The latter is designed not only
for the use of students but also to furnish assistance to food and
drug analysts in identifying and estimating the quality of vege-
table powders, and includes a descriptioh of the distinguishing
histological elements of over two hundred food, spice and drug
products, together with directions for making examinations of
materials of this kind.

In Part III are given the various classes of reagents, together
with the technique involved in sectioning and the mounting of
specimens. In addition various tests are given in connection with
dififerent subjects in other parts of the book. ."A

PREFACE.

The work is illustrated throughout, and the student is advised
to consult the illustrations freely, not only on account of their
value in elucidating the descriptions, but also because the legends
contain information which in some instances supplements that
given in the text.

It should be stated that a large proportion of the illustrations
are reproductions of photographs and drawings made by the
author, and that in all cases where illustrations are borrowed,
credit is given each author in connection with the reproduction.

One of the most difficult questions which arises in writing
a work of this kind is that relating to nomenclature. Owing to
the desirability of maintaining a stable nomenclature, particularly
for medicinal plants, the author has adopted a rather conservative
course and has been largely guided by Engler & Prantl and Index
Kewensis, or, in the case of plants growing in the United States,
the names given in Britton's Flora may have been employed.

Among the works consulted by the author, and of which special
mention should be made, are the following: Organography of
Plants by K. Goebel (English translation by Isaac Bayley Bal-
four) ; The Physiology of Plants by W. Pfeffer (second revised
English edition by Alfred J. Ewart) ; Die Heilpflanzen by Georg
Dragendorff ; The Volatile Oils by Gildemeister & Hoffmann
(English translation by Edward Kremers) ; Die Pflanzen-
Alkaloide by Jul. Wilh. Briihl, E. Hjelt and O. Aschan.

Grateful acknowledgment is also made to the following pub-
lishers for permission to reproduce illustrations from the works
mentioned. Wilhelm Engelmann, of Leipzig: Die naturlichen
Pflanzen-familien by Engler & Prantl. Gebriider Borntraeger,
of Berlin : Handbuch der systematische Botanik by E. Warming.
Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, of Berlin : Wissenschaftliche
Drogenkunde by Arthur Meyer. Gustav Fischer, of Jena : Lehr-
buch der Botanik by Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper.

The author desires fully to acknowledge the services of Miss
Florence Yaple, without whose painstaking and constant assist-
ance during the course of revision, this book could not have
appeared in its present enlarged form.

H. K.
April, 1907.

CONTENTS.

PART I.— BOTANY.
CHAPTER I.— PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF PLANTS.

PAGE
I

Introductory

Thallophytes 3

Algse 8

Fungi i6

Archegoniates 44

Bryophytes 45

Hepaticse (Liverworts) 51

Musci (Mosses) 53

Pteridophytes 55

Filicales (Ferns) 57

Equisetales (Horsetails) 64

Lycopodiales (Club Mosses) 66

Spermophytes ( Seed Plants) 70

Gymnosperms 71

Angiosperms 81

CHAPTER II.— OUTER MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

Introductory 91

The Root 92

The Stem 100

The Leaf 106

The Flower 121

The Fruit I45

The Seed 151

CHAPTER III.— INNER MORPHOLOGY OF THE HIGHER

PLANTS.

Cell and Cell-Contents 156

The Cell Wall i^i

Kinds of Cells 184

Inner Structure of Members or Organs IQ7

Plant Metabolism 219

vii

viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.— CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS
YIELDING VEGETABLE DRUGS.

Introductory 22"^

Monocotyledons 225

Dicotyledons 247

Archichlamydeae or Choripetalae 247

Metachlamydeas or Sympetalas 355

CHAPTER v.— CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS.

Propagation 404

The Collection, Curing and Yield of Drugs 406

Cultivated Medicinal Plants 407

PART II.— PHARMACOGNOSY.
CHAPTER I.— CRUDE DRUGS.

Introductory 417

Drugs Derived from Angiosperms 425

Seeds 425

Roots and Rhizomes 443

Barks, Woods and Pith 511

Flowers ^48

Fruits 559

Leaves and Herbs 595

Exudations, Milk Juices and other Plant Substances ...: 640

Drugs Derived from Conifers 682

Drugs Derived from Thallophytes and Archegoniates 684

CHAPTER II.— POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. :

Introductory 695 i

Key for the Identification of Powders 702 '

Description of Powders 714 1

PART III.— REAGENTS AND TECHNIQUE. ;

Classes of Reagents, Making of Sections , 800 !

Formul;e for Reagents, Mounting of Specimens, Micrometry 802

PART IV.— MICRO-ANALYSIS. i

Crystallographic Study of Plant Constituents 816

Index 855 !

Botany and Pharmacognosy.

PART I.— BOTANY.

CHAPTER I.

PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF PLANTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

There are four main lines of botanical work now recognized,
— namely, INiorphology, Histology, Physiology, and Ecology.
Morphology treats of the form and structure of plants and the
subject is sometimes divided into (i) external morphology or
organography and (2) internal morphology or anatomy (histol-
ogy). The former deals with external characters of plant parts and
the latter with their minute inner structure. Physiology may be
defined as the study which considers life processes and the condi-
tions which influence these. Ecology is the study of the adapta-
tion of plants and their parts to external conditions. It is impor-
tant to bear in mind, however, that these several departments
are more or less interdependent, and that one of them cannot be
intelligently considered without encroaching on the territory of
the others. For instance, as Goebel states, we cannot under-
stand the relation of the external forms of organs without refer-
ence to their functions. In other words, form and function have
a direct relation ; one influences the other. So, too, in the study
of ecology we study the influence of external conditions on
plants and these, as indicated above, have a direct influence on
physiological processes, and thus the study of ecology merges
into the study of physiology on the one hand and into morphology
on the other.

While this book will deal chiefly with the structure of plants
and their parts, still it will be necessary occasionally to refer to
some of the characters of plants which properly belong to other
J. departments of botanical study.

2 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Basis of Plant Structure. — In order to understand the sig-
nificance and relation of the various parts of plants it is necessary
to know something of their functions and habits of life as well
as of their internal structure.

If we make a section of a plant and examine it b}' means of
the microscope, the cut surface presents the appearance of a
network indicating that the tissue is made up of small compart-
ments or chambers. One of these compartments together with
its contents constitutes the structure known as the cell (see
Frontispiece).

The cell contents vary greatly in appearance and composi-
tion, but in all active or living cells there is always present the
substance known as protoplasm. The protoplasm is the basis
of all plant structures whether they belong to the lowest or high-
est forms ; for by its aid or from it all parts of the plant are
developed. Even the cell wall is a product of protoplasmic activity.
The protoplasmic content of the cell consists of several intimately
related but more or less distinct portions, — namely, a somewhat
thin, semi-liquid, granular portion known as the cytoplasm ;
a more or less spherical body embedded in the cytoplasm called
the NUCLEUS ; and frequently, but not always, certain small
bodies which are more or less variable in shape called plastids,
these being also embedded in the cytoplasm (see Frontispiece).
The cytoplasm and nucleus are sometimes considered together
as a unit, which is known as the protoplast. A fuller discui.;sion
of the differentiated portions of the protoplasm will be found in
Chapter III. (See page 156.)

The lowest organisms, as the slime molds, do not have an
enclosing membrane but consist of a naked mass of protoplasm.
With this exception plants have an outer wall or membrane.
They may consist of a single cell, as in the Bacteria, or a chain
of cells, as in the filamentous Algse, or a mass of cells, as in the
majority of plants, and are accordingly designated as unicelluhr
or multicellular. The cell wall is composed for the most part
of cellulose, but may be modified in various ways.

Nomenclature. — The names for describing plants have been
derived for the most part from studies of the higher plants, they
having exclusivclv attracted the attention of botanists at first.

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 3

But with the Hght which has been thrown on the relationship
of the higher and lower groups of plants by the more recent
study of the lower forms the older terminology has been somewhat
modified. Thus, for example, w'e speak of the root and shoot,
with its leaves, as the vegetative organs of the higher plants,
and in describing the corresponding organs (where they exist) in
the lower plants, we either apply these terms directly, or indi-
rectly by saying that the latter are root-like, stem-like, etc. On
the other hand, we now speak of the sexual organs of the higher
plants as antheridia and oogonia (or archegonia) instead of
classifying them roughly as stamens and pistils, the latter names
being retained but with a different signification.

Factors Influencing Growth. — Plants have certain inherent
or inherited tendencies or characters which make up the inner
constitution, and this can not be modified by external agencies
except within more or less narrow limits. Depending upon this
character w^e find plants as different in kind as the apple tree
and pine growing under precisely the same conditions. In other
words, the character of the structure is determined in the main
by the nature of the organism. It is true that an apple tree may
grow better in one locality than another, but it is still an apple
tree whether it be dwarfed or attain to the full measure of its
growth. These slight changes in the character are known as
accidental variations. Frequently they are the result of tempo-
rary conditions and are not repeated in the succeeding genera-
tion. On the other hand, if the special conditions remain these
individual variations may be repeated in generation after gen-
eration and finally become permanent characters.

The gradual change in the structure and nature of organisms
which takes place through long periods of time is spoken of as
EVOLUTION. In some cases specific changes in the characters of
plants arise rather suddenly without any known cause and such
changes are spoken of as saltations or mutations.

The factors essential for growth in all cases are food, water
and a certain temperature. Among the food elements we may
mention as of chief importance, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. Some of the other elements are also essential to most
plants although they occur in relatively small proportion in the

4 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

plant, as potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur, iron and
calcium. The latter element does not seem to be necessary to
the normal development of some of the Fungi and certain Algae.

Water permeates all parts of the plant and when the cells
are in the normal turgescent state it contains more than half
its weight of water. When the supply of water falls below the
normal the plants begin to droop and finally die. The need of
plants varies greatly in this particular ; some are aquatic in their
habits and live wholly in the water; others can live only on the
land ; and still others are adapted to desert regions.

The degree of temperature necessary for growth varies within
certain limits for each kind of plant, but as is stated by Pfeffer,
the greatest extremes are shown by Fungi, Bacteria and the
lower Algse. Generally speaking the most favorable temperature
for growth is between 24° and 34° C.

Besides the factors enumerated there are other factors which
influence growth. They include light (p. 106), gravity (p. 94),
mechanical agencies, etc., and are sometimes spoken of as external
stimuli.

It is difficult to separate those factors which act solely as exter-
nal stimuli from those which are essential to the normal growth
of the plant and which may be considered as physiological fac-
tors. For example, light vmder certain conditions may be
regarded as in the nature of an external stimulus and not essen-
tial to the growth of the plant, while in other cases it has a direct
influence on normal growth and is essential to the life of the
plant, as in all plants or parts of plants where photosynthesis
(p. 109) takes place.

In addition to the essential food elements, there are many
substances which affect the growth of plants which may be
grouped as chemical stimuli, such as (a) the substances secreted
by gall-forming insects, (h) in a certain measure some of the
substances produced by Fungi, (c) and numerous substances not
found as normal constituents of the plant. Depending upon the
amount of the substance present and the conditions under which
it is supplied, the substance may act as a poison and injure the
plant, or it may accelerate growth, or cause abnormal develop-
ments.

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 5

This subject has an important bearing on the physiological
testing of drugs. Robert states that in determining the qualities
of a new chemical, preliminary experiments should be conducted
on lower plants and animals before trying it on man. Of the
plants which have been used in the testing of poisons the follow-
ing may be mentioned : Oscillaria, Spirulina, Nostoc, Zygnema,
Spirogyra, Saccharomyces, Mucor, Elodea, Lenina, Pistia,
Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, Tradescantia, seed-
lings of grasses, lupine, bean, pea, corn, etc.

Plant Organs. — Depending upon the fact that the plant
requires nourishment for its growth and development and that
it has also to carry on the work of reproduction or propagation,
— i.e., the production of new plants, — we distinguish between
vegetative or nutritive organs and propagative or reproductive
organs. The vegetative organs, such as the root, stem and leaves
in higher plants, manufacture the food necessary for the life of
the plant, while certain other more or less specialized organs or
cells carry on the work of reproduction.

In the lower plants, however, the whole structure is much
simpler, and in some instances a cell which performs the work
of a nutritive cell at one stage may become a reproductive cell
at another, or. as in the case of the unicellular Algae, all the
various functions of the plant may be carried on by a single cell.

Generally speaking, there are two principal ways in which
plants are multiplied or reproduced : ( i ) By cell division or cell
fission, and (2) by the formation of special cells known as
SPORES. In cell division (Fig. 94) the nucleus and cytoplasm of
a cell divide to form two new cells or protoplasts, which become
distinct by the formation of a wall or cell-plate between the two
halves. All growth in plants is dependent upon this method,
and in growing parts the cells are said to be in a state of division.
Owing to the plasticity of the plant organism, detached portions
will often grow and give rise to new plants, as in the case of cut-
tings. Growth here as in the parent plant is accompanied by cell
division. In some of the lower Algse (Fig. 6) cell division is the
only method of propagation, and as only the ordinary vegetative or
nutritive cells of the plant are involved in the process it is some-
times spoken of as vegetative multiplication.

6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

In both lower and higher plants, with the exceptions just
noted, reproduction is also carried on by means of spores.

Depending upon their origin two classes of spores are distin-
guished, namely, (a) asexual spores, and (b) sexual spores. In
the production of asexual spores the contents of a certain cell

Fig. 5. Ulothrix zonata. A, young filament with rhizoid cell (r); B, piece of filament
showing escape of swarm spores; C, a swarm spore or zoospore with 4 cilia; D, biciliate
gametes escaping from a filament; E, F, G, showing different stages of union of two gametes;
H, young zygote or zygospore in which the cilia have been absorbed; J, i-celled plant
developed from zygote; K, young plant organizing zoospores. — After Dodel-Port.

called a mother cell or sporangium break up into a number of
new cells sometimes called daughter cells, which escape through
the cell wall. In the lower plants, particularly those growing
in water or in moist places, these cells are provided with short

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 7

thread-like appendages known as cilia, which enable them to
move about in the water. They are known as zoospores or swarm
spores (Fig. 5, B, C), and each individual zoospore is able to
produce a new plant.

The number of zoospores formed in a sporangium is usually
2 to 8, as in Ulothrix, but the number may be larger. The method
of cell formation which gives rise to zoospores is sometimes
spoken of as internal division from the fact that they arise
within the old cell and retain no relation to the old wall as is the
case in cell fission. The zoospores are at first naked protoplasts,
but later, on coming to rest, may form a wall. Sexual spores, on
the other hand, are formed by the union of two cells known as
GAMETES. When the gametes are similar the resulting spore is
known as a zygospore or zygote (Fig. 5, E, F, G). When the
gametes are unlike, the spore produced by their union is known
as an oospore. In the latter case one of the gametes is larger
than the other, is less active, and is spoken of as the female
gamete, oosphere, or egg (Figs. 11, 12). The other more active
cell is known as the male gamete, antherozoid or sperm (Fig.
34, ///). The cell giving rise to the oosphere is known as the
oogonium (Figs. 8, 11, 12), while the one in which the anthero-
zoid or sperm originates is called the antheridium (Figs. 8, 11,
12, 34).

PLANT GROUPS.

Botanists earlier divided the plant kingdom into flowering
plants or Phenogams (Phanerogams), and non-flowering plants,
or Cryptogams. It was formerly the custom to devote attention
chiefly to the more prominent groups of plants, or those that
produce seeds, but more recently the results of the studies on
the less prominent groups, as ferns, mosses, etc., have modified
our views and made it imperative that the botanist have a general
knowledge at least of all the great groups of plants.

The most general classification of plants is that which divides
them into three great groups,— namely, (i) Thallophytes (Thal-
lophyta), (2) Archegoniates (Archegoniatae), and (3) Spermo-
phy tes ( Spermophy ta ) .

8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

THALLOPHYTES.

The Thallophytes include the lowest orders of plants, —
i.e., those simplest in form and structure. They are supposed also
to represent more or less primitive types. In these plants the
plant body does not show a differentiation into root, stem and
leaf, as in the higher plants, and is term.ed a thallus. The
thallus may branch in various ways, but the structure remains
more or less uniform throughout. It should be understood, how-
ever, that even in this group of plants certain cells or groups of
cells may become specialized, i.e., set apart for a particular func-
tion, as. for example, the reproductive cells. The Thallophytes
vary in size and general appearance from minute unicellular
organisms and those which are filamentous and delicately branched
to large leaf-like organisms many feet in length (Figs. 6, 9, 13).

The Thallophytes are divided into the two groups of plants
known as (i) Algse and (2) Fungi. The Algae produce chloro-
plasts, and hence are capable of manufacturing food from the
inorganic substances air and water (see page 108), which fact
constitutes a fundamental difference betv/een them and the Fungi.

ALG^.

Algae are also characterized by their habit of living in water
or in moist places, and they are sometimes classified as " fresh
water algae " and " salt water algae " (Fig. 9). In the first group
are included the common pond-scums and certain forms living
on trees, moist rocks, fences and elsewhere, and in the second
group the sea-weeds.

In addition to the chlorophyll (see page 159) of the chloro-
plasts other color substances are found in Algae, which mask the
green color to a considerable extent. On the basis of their color
Algae are subdivided into ( i ) Blue-green Algae or Cyanophyceae,
(2) Green Algae or Chlorophyceae, (3) Brown Algae or Phaeo-
phyceae, and (4) Red Algae or Rhodophyceae. While no attempt
will be made to consider these groups in detail, it should be
stated that they not only vary in color, but they also vary greatly
in structure and general appearance. A few type fomis will be
considered in order to illustrate their habits of life.

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 9

Pleurococcus. — One of the eommonest of the Green Algae
as well as one of the simplest is Pleurococcus (Pleurococcus
vulgaris) (Fig. 6). It occurs as a green coating, in both winter
and summer on the moist bark of trees, moist ground, and
stone walls, and is a component of some lichens'. The plant is
one-celled, more or less spherical, and at one stage contains a
number of chlorophyll grains which finally unite to form a single
plate which lies against the wall and is known as a chromato-
PHORE. Besides it contains a considerable amount of oil. An
allied species (Pleurococcus z'iridis) contains the sugar erythrite.
The plant usually reproduces by simple division, that is. one cell
or plant divides to form two. The division may continue by the
production of another cross wall, so that four cells result. Under
favorable conditions, division may take place by the formation

Fig. 6. Pleurococcus vulgaris. Different stages of division of the cell. — After Wille

of Still another wall at right angles to the other two. In
this way two, four and finally eight individuals arise which adhere
more or less to one another, thus forming colonies. The number
of individuals in a colony depends upon the number of indi-
viduals in the colony when division begins and the extent to
which division is carried. Thus if there were four cells in a
colony to begin with and division took place in three planes, there
would be thirty-two cells in the colony at the end of the period.
Spirogyra. — Another one of the common Green Algae is
Spirogyra (Fig. 7), one of the pond-scums, which forms float-
ing green masses on ponds and shallow water in the spring. The
plant-body consists of a chain of cylindrical cells forming long
threads or filaments. The transverse walls are sometimes pecu-
liarly thickened. The chromatophores occur in one or more spiral
bands (Fig. 7, 77), which extend from one end of the cell to the

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

other. In these bands are embedded protein bodies known as
pyrenoids. The nucleus hes in the center of the cell and is con-
nected with the cytoplasmic layer lining the walls of the cell by
delicate threads of cytoplasm.

Spirogyra may be propagated vegetatively by one or more
cells of a filament breaking off and forming new individuals by
cell division. The plant is also reproduced by means of zygo-

FiG. 7. II. Spirogyra stictica, showing parts of two filaments with band-like chroma-
tophores (chloroplasts), in which are embedded spherical pyrenoids. Nuclei are sho'WTl
in some of the cells with delicate threads of cytoplasm radiating from them. Two of the
cells (a, a,) of the adjoining filaments (A., B) are beginning conjugation. I, 5. Heeriana,
showing different stages of conjugation. In the upper cells, the contents have rounded
off previous to the rupture of the adjoining walls of the two filaments. The two middle
cells show the contents passing from one cell into the opposite cell. In the lower cell to
the right the zygospore is shown. — After De Bary.

spores, as follows: The cells of two adjoining filaments each
send out processes (Fig. 7, //, a, a), which meet; the end walls
are absorbed, forming a tube through which the contents from one
cell pass over into the other (Fig. 7, /) ; the contents of the two
cells then fuse, after which the mass becomes surrounded by a
cellulose wall. The spore thus formed may remain domiant over
winter, and the following spring germinate and form a new Spyro-
gyra filament or plant. This method of reproduction is known

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

as CONJUGATION, and the zygospore is called a resting spore. It
should be explained that certain cells, as well as spores, may lie
dormant for a period, as during the winter season or at otlier-
times, when the conditions are unfavorable to growth, and then
renew their activities, these being known as " resting cells."

Vaucheria (Fig. 8) is another common green alga which
may also be selected as showing the habits of this group of
plants. The plant has a branching thallus and lives in shallow

Fig. 8. Vaucheria sessilis. A, sporangium from which the multiciliate zoospore is
escaping; B, resting zoospore; C, D, germinating zoospores with growing point (s); E,
plant showing root-like organ of attachment (w), spore from which the plant is develop-
ing (sp), F, showing in addition two oogonia (og) and an antheridium (h). — After Sachs.

water or on moist earth, being attached 'to the substratum by
means of delicate root-like processes sometimes spoken of as
rhizoids (Fig. 8, iv). In the thin layer of protoplasm lying near
the wall are numerous nuclei and small oval chromatophores.
Numerous oil globules are also found in the protoplasm, and cal-
cium oxalate crystals may occur in the cell-sap.

Vaucheria furnishes an example of a plant whose interior is
not segmented by cell walls. In other words, the cavity within
the outer or enclosing membrane is continuous, and such a plant

12 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

is said to be ccenocytic, i.e., like a syphon. But it should be borne
in mind that the plant contains a great many nuclei, and as we
have seen (page 2) a nucleus with its associated cytoplasm
constitutes a unit of work. Hence such a plant as Vaucheria is in
a certain sense equivalent to a plant having as many uninucleate
cells as it has nuclei. It would probably be better to call such a
plant multinucleate rather than unicellular.

Reproduction by means of asexual spores is brought about as
follows (Fig. S>, A) : A cross wall is formed near the end of one
of the branches, the end portion constituting a sporangium. The
contents, including numerous nuclei group themselves into one
large zoospore, which escapes through an opening in the sporan-
gial wall, and after swimming about for a time comes to rest
and germinates, giving rise to a new plant (Fig. 8, C, D). This
large zoospore is multinucleate and multiciliate. there being two
cilia for each nucleus, and by some botanists is considered to be
an aggregation of numerous biciliate zoospores. It is also of
interest to note that the zoospores of Vaucheria appear to arise by
a grouping of the cytoplasm and the nuclei already existing in the
sporangium rather than by repeated divisions of a single nucleus.

Another method of reproduction in Vaucheria (Fig. 8, F)
is that by means of oospores, or spores formed by the union of
tgg and sperm cells. Two special branches are formed on the
thallus as sliort side shoots. One of these branches, known as
the oogonium (Fig. 8, og), is somewhat egg-shaped and sepa-
rated from the thallus by means of a cross wall. It contains a
great many chromatophores and considerable oil, and has a com-
paratively thick wall. The apex is somewhat beaked and con-
tains colorless protoplasm. The second branch, which is known
as an antheridium (Fig. 8, h). is smaller, somewhat cylindrical
and curved towards the oogonium. It is also cut ofif from the
thallus by means of a cross wall. The antheridium contains very
little chlorophyll, but a great many sperm cells. These are oval
or egg-shaped and have two cilia, one at each end. The sperms
escape from the apex of the antheridium and enter an opening
at the apex of the oogonium, one of them uniting with the egg
cell, which then develops a thick membrane, the resulting oospore
being a resting spore.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

Diatoms constitute a large group of unicellular plants, oc-
curring in both fresh and salt waters. They form the plankton or
floating microscopic life found in oceans and lakes, which is the

Fig. 9. Chondrus crispus: A, B, C, D, various forms of thallus; H, holdfast; F, spor-
angia; T, transverse section of thallus shov.ing epidermis (E), sporangium with spores (F) ;
S, spores separated in glycerin preparation of thallus by pressure on the cover glass. The
spores occur in groups of fovir (tetraspores) and the tetrad group is about 30 /i in diameter.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

source of food of small animal forms inhabiting these waters.
One of the distinguishing characters of the group is that
the cell wall is incrusted with silica. For this reason they
are practically indestructible and form marls and strata in
the earth. They occur either singly or grouped in bands or
chains. They are very variable in shape, being boat-shaped,

Fig. 10. Diatoms: A, Pleurosigma atienuatum as seen from above; B, Pleurosigtna
halticum as seen from the girdle side; C, D, E, Fragilaria inrescetis showing colonies
attached to an alga in C, a view of a single diatom from above at D, and a chain of
diatoms viewed from the girdle side at E; F, G, two views of Navicula viridis; H, I, the
formation of auxos pores in Navicula firma, H showing the exit of the protoplasts and the
throwing off of the original valves. — A, B, D, after Van Heurck; C, E, after W. Smith;
F-I, after Pfitzer.

ellipsoidal, spherical, or peculiarly curved in some forms. They
are either free or attached to a substratum, as stones, water plants,
etc., those which are free having an active movement (Fig. lo).
The cell-wall of Diatoms practically consists of two halves, one
fitting over the other like the lid of a box. These are known
as " valves " or " theca." The manner in which the two valves

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 15

are joined results in the formation of a " girdle " or " pleura."
The girdle is provided with a series of pores connecting with
canals at either end and in the middle, through which food from
without is supplied to the protoplast. The valves are very often
beautifully marked by a series of parallel cross lines, dots, cir-
cles, or polygons, which are characteristic of the different groujjs.
Some forms are used in testing the definition of objectives, as
Pleiirosigma angulatitiii, in which the lines are one-half micron
wide (,Fig. 10, A)}

In the Diatoms the protoplasm lies as a thin layer close to the
wall surrounding a large central vacuole. The nucleus is sur-
rounded by a relatively dense mass of cytoplasm, and occurs in
definite positions according to the species. The chromatophores
frequently occur in plates which are typical for certain species.
They are sometimes greenish-yellov.', the color being generally
masked by the presence of a brown substance known as diatomin.
They frequently contain pyrenoids, which are sometimes associated
with granules of starch.

Reproduction takes place by simple division or fission, the two
valves separating and a new valve forming on each half to replace
the old one. In each case the valve formed fits into the old one
and hence in the case of the smaller valve the new cell or i)lant
becomes smaller than the parent plant, the walls not being able
to expand on account of the siliceous composition. In this way
the cells of one series gradually become smaller and smaller until
a certain minimum is reached, when the plant rejuvenates itself
l)y the production of spores (auxospores). These are formed in
two ways : In one case the valves separate from each other, the
protoplast escapes, grows larger and develops a new wall ; in the
other case, of which there are several types, ^two individuals come
together, and envelop themselves in a mucilaginous covering.
They then throw off their siliceous walls and the protoplasts unite
to form a zygospore which grows until it is three times the orig-
inal size, after which it develops a new wall, the larger valve
forming first (Fig. 10. H, I).

Economic Uses of Algae.— Diatomaceous earth, which is

1 The micron (/i) is the joVo of ^ millimeter.

i6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

made up of the valves of diatoms, is used chiefly as an absorbent
agent for storing nitroglycerin, as in the production of dynamite.
Being a non-conductor of heat the material also finds use in the
manufacture of the so-called isolation plates for machinery.
Another use is as a tooth powder. Among the Chinese and Lap-
landers diatomaceous earth has also been used as an edible earth
known as " mountain meal " or " bread-stone." It has been used
in India as a rubefacient.

Many of the Algae are of use as food, of which the following
may be mentioned : Vaucheria fastigiata, Griffitlisia coralina,
Ceramiuiii Loureirii, Chondrus crispns (Fig. 9), Gigartiua mamil-
losa(Fig.2y8a.), Gclidiuni cartilagineurn, Gelidiitm crinalc (yield-
ing agar-agar), Rhodymcnia pahnata (yielding dulse), and sev-
eral species of Gracilaria (which also yield agar-agar).

Some of the sea-weeds are used in the production of iodine,
as DiirviUcra utilis, AscopliyUnm nodosum, Fucus vcsicidosns
(bladder-wrack), Sargassiiiii liiiifolliiui. Laminaria saccharina,
Laiiiinaria digitata, Alaria csculcnta, Rhodyiiicnia pahnata, Phyl-
lophora mcmhranifolia, Macrocystis pyrifcra, and Fastigiaria fiir-
ccllata.

A number of the Algae are also used in medicine, particularly
for phthisis, as Fiicns cartilaginctts, StUophora rhicodcs and
Dictyoptcris polypodioidcs. Alaria csculcnta and Laminaria digi-
tata are used in the making of bougies and tents used in surgery.
Owing to the toughness of some of the Algae on drying, the
material is used in the manufacture of various articles, as handles
for tools from the thick stem of Lcssonia fnccsccns, fishing lines
from Chordaria filum, etc.

FUNGI.

The Fungi form a large group of plants which do not produce
chloroplasts or any bodies having a similar function. Thev have
not the power of carbon dioxide assimilation, that is, unlike the
Algae they are unable to manufacture food materials, such as
carbohydrates (starches, sugars, etc.), from carbon dioxide and
water. Hence they are dependent upon previously formed food
products, and may derive their food from living plants or ani-
mals, when they are known as parasites, or from decaying animal

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 17

or vegetable matter, when they are known as saprophytes. The
Hving plant or animal attacked by a fungus is known as the host.

F'ungi are especially characterized by the habit of arising
from spores aiid of producing thread-like cells the growing point
of which is at the apex. These threads are known as iiypii/E
(singular hypha). They branch and become interwoven, forming
a mass or mat known as the mycelium (Fig. 13). The myce-
lium constitutes the plant body proper, and absorbs the food
material from the substratum, which it ramifies, often causing
decay. The mycelium is frequently not visible, and the presence
of the fungus is not recognized until the so-called fruit bodies are
developed, as sometimes seen in the case of moldy oranges,
mildewed linen, and as illustrated by the common mushroom.
The mycelium has a cellulose wall which in some cases is modi-
fied to chitin, a nitrogenous substance related to animal cellulose
and found in crabs and other lower animals. The protoplasm
either occurs in a more or less delicate form lining the hyphse and
enclosing large vacuoles, or is comparatively dense enclosing
numerous small vacuoles. Many fungi contain color substances
which are dissolved in the cell-sap and are of a quite brilliant hue.
One of the most interesting classes of substances produced by
fungi is that of the ferments, including the oxidizing ferment
allied to laccase. They contain also amido-substances related to
lecithin ; fats ; carbohydrates, as trehalose and mannitol ; organic
acids, as oxalic, tartaric, malic, etc.; and calcium oxalate may
be present in some cases.

Reproduction in the Fungi is chiefly by means of asexual
spores, which arise in two ways. In the one case they are devel-
oped in a special cell or sporangium at the end of a mycelial thread
and are known as endospores. In the other case they arise on
special hyphas, or directly from the mycelium and are known as
ExosPORES or conidia. There are also several modifications of
these two types of spores, which may be referred to later.

Groups of Fungi.— There are two principal groups of Fungi,
namely, (i) the Phycomycetes, or Alga-fungi, so called because
they show a resemblance to certain of the Algse, and (2) the
Eumycetes, or true Fungi. The Eumycetes have two sub-
divisions, namely, (i) Ascomycetes and (2) Basidiomycetes.

i8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The Ascomycetes arc distinguished by having a sporangium of
a definite shape and size, which is called an Ascus, and which
contains a definite number of spores, which is two or some multi-
ple thereof. The Basidiomycetes are the most highly developed
Fungi, producing large fruit bodies, such as are seen in mush-
rooms, toadstools and pufifballs. They are characterized by pro-
ducing spores (basidiospores) on special hypha;. The spores are
usually four in number and the spore-producing organ is known

as a BASIDIUM.

PHYCOMYCETES : ALGA-FUNGL— The plant body of
the Phycomycetes consists of a mycelium which is unsegmented,
more or less thread-like and sometimes considerably branched.
Reproduction takes place by means of several kinds of spores, and
by reason of the production of two kinds of sexual spores they are
subdivided into two important groups. These are ( i ) the Oomy-
cetes which produce oospores, and (2) the Zygomycetes which
produce zygospores.

Saprolegnia. — Probably one of the best representatives of
the Oomycetes is the group of water molds known as Saproleg-
nia, which are aquatic in their habits and are both parasitic and
saprophytic, occurring on living fish, insects, crayfish and decay-
ing plants and animals as well. The plant body consists of a
mycelivim which may be simple or branched, sometimes forming
a dense mass (Fig. 11, A). Like the alga A'aucheria, it produces
both swarm spores (zoospores) and oospores. The swarm spores
(Fig. II, B, C) are produced in sporangia fomied by the pro-
duction of a partition wall at the end of a hypha. The sporangia
are either cylindrical or spherical, and contain numerous zoospores
which have two cilia at one end. These spores are peculiar m
that after their escape from the sporangium they swim about,
then come to rest and take on a wall, after which resting period
they develop two cilia on the side, again move about, and germin-
ate when they find a suitable host.

The oogonia and antheridia (Fig. 11, D-F) are also formed
at the ends of hyphse. The oogonia are usually spherical and the
wall contains a number of small pores. The contents which are
at first more or less uniform, later develop egg-cells, of which
there may be as many as fifty in a single oogonium. The anthe-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

ridinm is more or less cylindrical and contains a somewhat uni-
form mass of protoplasm. The antheridium bends toward the
oogonium and comes in contact with it, but apparently does not
in all cases penetrate it. Nevertheless the egg-cells develop walls
and become resting oospores.

Fig. II. Species of Saprolegnia. A, mycelium growing out from and surrounding
a dead house-fly in a water culture; B, C, sporangia with biciliate swarm spores; D, a
number of oogonia containing oospheres; E, F, oogonia and antheridia, in F the tube of
the antheridium having penetrated the oogonium. — A-C, after Thuret; D-F, after
De Bary.

In Peronospora^ one of the Oomycetes, the antheridium
(Fig. 12, n) develops a tube which pierces the wall of the
12, 0) \ the contents unite with the egg-cell,

oogonium ( Fi

after which a heavy membrane develops forming an oospore
which germinates when it finds a suitable host. The plants
belonging to Peronospora as well as related genera are destruc-

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tive to many cultivated plants, constituting mildews or blights,
as those occurring on the leaves of hyoscyamus, tobacco, anthe-
mis, matricaria, aconite, grape vine, lima bean, potato, etc. The
group has received the name " downy mildews " because of the

Fig. 12. A, Cystopus candidus; B, Peronospora calothcca. Mycelia (m) with haus-
storia penetrating cells (z) of hosts. C, Oospore formation in Peronospora: o, oogonium;
n, antheridium. At the left the antheridium is in contact with oogonium; the next stage
shows the antheridium penetrating oogonium and discharging its contents; at the right the
resulting oospore is shown. — After De Bary.

fact that the conidiophores rise to the surface of the leaves
where the spores are discharged, forming powdery patches.

Black Mold. — A common example of the Zygomycetes
is furnished by the " black mold." Mitcor mucedo. The myce-
lium of this plant is coenocytic, thread-like, very much branched.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

and profusely developed much like that of Phycomyccs nit ens
(Fig. 13, B). This mold is widely distributed, causin<r trouble
in the spoiling of many sugar- and starch-containing substances
in the household, including preserves, syrups, fruits, etc. In

Fig. 13. B, richly branching mycelium (m) of the mold Phycomyces rtitens show-
ing upright hyphae bearing sporangia (g). A, C, D, the common black mold Mucor
mucedo. A, sporangium with columella; C, germination of zygospore (z), with formation
of hypha (k), and sporangium (g); D, earliest stages in the development of a zygospore
the hyphal branches (b) showing adjoining ends (a) cut off by cross walls. — .\fter Sachs.

fact, a number of species of Mucor have the power of inducing
alcoholic fermentation in glucose-containing solutions. They
are also commonly found in many aqueous solutions of inorganic
chemicals as well as organic substances. Asexual spores are

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

formed at the ends of hyphse which rise into the air. The spor-
angia are spherical and are cut off from the hyphae by means of
a transverse wall which projects upward into the sporangium and
which is technically known as the columella (Fig. 13, A). The
contents by simultaneous division form numerous one-celled
spores, which are discharged by the bursting of the sporangium
wall and distributed by air-currents or the wind. As the name

Fig. 14. Peziza confluens showing stages in the development of ascospores. In the
youngest asci (m, r) there is only one nucleus; this divides into two (s); the division is
repeated, so that there are 4 nuclei in (t) and 8 in (n). These surround themselves with
protoplasm and a cell wall (v, w) but the protoplasm of the mother cell or ascus is not
entirely used up. — After De Bary.

of the group to which this plant belongs indicates, it also pro-
duces zygospores (Fig. 13, D). These are formed by hyphal
branches which ascend from the substratum. The ends of two
branches come together, a transverse wall is formed in each
branch, the walls in contact are absorbed, the contents unite, and
a spore is formed with three membranes, two belonging to the
spore proper and the third being formed by the united hyphge.
As would be expected, these spores are quite resistant, being able

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 23

to withstand unfavorable conditions, and germinate (Fig. 13, C)
only after a period of rest.

EUMYCETES : TRUE FUNGL— Ascomycetes.— The As-
comycetes are distinguished for the most part, hke the other
higher Fungi, in having a septate myceHum, i.e., one celkilar in
structure, and in producing asci (sacs), which latter are formed
at the ends of the branches of the mycelia. Two main sub-groups
are recognized, the one producing an indefinite number of spores
in asci which are not well developed, and known as the Hemiasci ;
the other producing a definite number of spores, which number is

Fig. 15. Species of Saccharomyces (Yeasts). A, S. cerevisicE or beer yeast; B,
5. Pastorianus; C, S. glmneratus; D, 5. Piculatns: a, vegetative cells reproducing by
budding; b, formation of ascospores. — After Reesz.

characteristic for each species, in a well-developed ascus, and
known as the Euasci. In the latter group the spores arise by
successive divisions of the primary nucleus into two, as shown in
Pedsa conflucns (Fig. 14).

Yeasts. — The simplest of the Ascomycetes is the sub-
group known as the Saccharomyces, or Yeasts. The Yeasts do
not produce a mycelium, but the plant body consists of a single
cell, or a chain of cells, and multiplies by a peculiar process known
as "yeast budding" (Fig. 15, a). From either end of the cell
a wart-like process develops, which enlarges until about the size
of the original cell, from which it is then separated by the forma-

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tion of a transverse wall. The cells are spherical, ellipsoidal, or
egg-shaped, and in some cases somewhat elongated and hypha-
like. In the protoplasm are one or more large vacuoles.
In certain of the cells, which may be considered to be asci, two to
eight spherical or ellipsoidal spores are produced (Fig. i6).
There are a number of different species of Yeasts, some of which

^%^

^i5)X)

Fig. 1 6. Formation of ascospores in a number of different species of Yeasts, i.
Saccharomyces cerevisicB; 2, S. Pastorianus; 3, S. iniermedius ; 4, S. validus. — After Hansen.

are cultivated ; and these latter are of great economic importance
on account of their property of inducing alcoholic fermentation.
They are also of use in the making of bread, changing the carbo-
hydrates in part into carbon dioxide and alcohol, both of which
are driven off in the baking. Yeasts are used in the treatment
of certain skin diseases, their action being attributed to a fatty

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

substance, ceridine. Other principles found in yeasts as well
as extracts are used in the treatment of cancer.

Green and Yellow Mildews.— To the Ascomycetes also
belong the green and yellow Mildews, Penicillium and Asper-

Fig. 17. Penicillium, a green mildew. A, richly branching mycelium with conidio-
phores; B, enlarged view of conidiophore showing chains of conidia; C, D, E, F, success-
ive stages in the development of a perithecium; G, H, J, development of asci; K, groups
of asci containing from 4 to 8 ascospores; L, ascospores seen from the side and showing
characteristic markings. — After Brefeld.

gillus, so common in the household, the dairy, and the granary.
These plants produce profusely branching mycelia which form
patches upon or just under the surface of the materials upon

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

which they grow. These areas become soft and spongy and are
always white at first. After a time hyphal branches, which are
more or less flask-shaped, rise above the substratum, and by a
process of division at the end of the branch, or conidiophore, a
spore called a conidiospore is formed (Fig. 17, A; Fig. 18, A).
The process of division at the end of the conidiophore continues

Fig. 18. Aspergillus, a yellow mildew. A, conidiophore with enlarged, more or less
spherical end, from which the fan-like series of chains of conidia arise; B-E, successive
stages in the development of pcrithecium; F, section through a nearly ripe perithecium;
G, groups of young asci; H, a ripe ascus with 8 spores. — A, after Kny; B-H, after DeBary.

from below until a chain of conidiospores is formed. The conidio-
phore frequently branches, so that a fan-like series or group of
conidia or conidiospores is produced (Fig. 17, B; Fig. 18, A).
The conidia are usually some shade of green, but finally they may
become more or less brown. They are thin-walled, quite small,
and so light that they float freely in the air. If a colony is inhaled
it gives the sensation commonly called the " smell of mold."

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 27

They are capable of germinating on almost everything, as old
shoes, old paper, as well as on bread and other articles of the
household, and are commonly found on " moldy drugs," in a num-
ber of pharmaceutical preparations, as syrups and infusions, and
even in solutions of inorganic as well as organic chemicals.

Aspergillus (Fig. 18 j is distinguished from I'enicillium (Fig.
17) by the fact that the upper end of the hyphal branch or conidio-
phore is somewhat enlarged and more or less spherical.

In addition to the conidiospores these fungi sometimes produce
in the fall of the year, particularly when grown upon bread, asci
fruits (Fig. 17, C-F ; Fig. 18, B-E). In this case two fertile ini-
tial hyphge wind themselves around each other, after which they
become surrounded with sterile branches which form a kind of
loose tissue, more or less cellular in structure, that finally develops
into a yellowish leathery wall. This body, which may be regarded
as a closed ascocarp, is known as a perithecium (Fig. 17, F ; Fig.
18, F). As a result of the conjugation of the fertile cells, asci
(Fig. 17,6", H, J ; Fig. 18, G, H) develop within the perithecium.
which are more or less spherical or ellipsoidal and contain from
four to eight spores (ascospores) (Fig. 17, K; Fig. 18, //).
After maturity the cellular tissue around the asci dries up and dis-
integrates, the walls of the asci dissolve, and the ascospores are
liberated from the perithecium by slight pressure. The spores
lie over winter and then germinate, producing a mycelium from
which conidia first develop and afterwards the perithecia, thus
repeating the life history of the plant.

Ergot. — Another Ascomycete of special interest is the
fungus known as ergot {Claviceps purpurea). The spores of this
fungus germinate on the flowers of certain grasses. The myce-
lium penetrates the walls of the ovary, absorbing the nutriment.
After a time the mycelium develops on the surface, and from
this short conidiophores arise bearing small ovoid conidia (con-
idiospores) (Fig. ig,A). The mycelium secretes a sweet fluid, the
so-called honey dew which attracts insects, and thus the conidia
are carried to other plants. As the conidia are capable of immedi-
ate germination the so-called " ergot disease " rapidly spreads
during the flowering season of the host plants. After the forma-
tion of conidia ceases, the mycelium forms a dense mass which is

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

surrounded by a dark layer, and this, if developed upon rye, con-
stitutes the ergot grains (Fig. 19, B) used in medicine, these
grains being a number of times larger than the rye grains which

Fig. 19. Clavlceps purpurea. A, mycelium developing conidia; B, an ear of rye
with a number of ripe sclerotia replacing grains of rye, and known as ergot; C, sclerotium
developing spherical fruit bodies; D, fruit body in longitudinal section showing numerous
flask-shaped perithecia at the periphery; E, enlarged perithecium with numerous cylin-
drical asci; F, closed ascus with 8 ascospores; G, discharge of ascospores; H, single thread-
like ascospore. — A, after Brefeld; B, after Schenck; C-H, after Tulasne.

they replace. The mycelial tissues connected with the host plant
die, and the ergot drops to the ground. At this stage the ergot

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

mass is more or less cellular in structure and is known as the
SCLEROTIUM. It is quite resistant and usually remains dormant
until the following spring- when the grasses are in flower again.
The sclerotium then shows signs of renewed activity by the de-
velopment of small, reddish, spherical bodies with a fair-sized
stalk (Fig. 19, C). Within the periphery of these spherical heads

t **.

Fig. 20. Agaricus campestris, the common edible mushroom, showing at A on the
left mycelium (m) and development of buttons or young mushrooms; I to V, longi-
tudinal sections showing successive stages in development of fruit body; m, mycelium;
st, stipe; 1, portion between veil (v) and spore-bearing portion (h).

The illustration to the right (A, B, C) shows the structure of the hymenium in different
degrees of magnification: A, section through portion of pileus showing five of the gills;
B, section 01 a gill somewhat magnified; C, section of gill still more magnified and showing
sterile cells or paraphyses (q) , and the fertile cells or basidia (s)', from each of which^ arise two
basidiospores. — After Sachs.

are produced flask-shaped perithecia or ascocarps (Fig. ig, D)
containing numerous cylindrical asci (Fig. 19, E), each of which
contains eight spores (Fig. 19, F) ; the latter are one-celled, hya-
line and thread-like (Fig. 19, H). These spores are carried by
the wind to the flowers of certain of the grasses, as already stated,
and the life history or cycle of growth begins again.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 21. Some common edible mushrooms and a common poisonous one. The fol- i
lowing are edible: i, Common Field mushroom (Agaricus campestris): 3, Clavaria fjava,'-
young plant; 6, Puffball (Lycoperdon cyathiforme) \ 4, Morel (MorchcUa esculcnta); 5, I
Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius); 7, Fairy-ring Fungus {Marasmius oreades). \

Only one poisonous species is shown, namely, 2, the deadly Agaric {Amanita phalloides). ■
■ — Adapted from Farlow.

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 31

Basidiomycetes. — The Basidiomycetes are the most liighly
organized of the Fungi. The mycehum consists of white branch-
ing threads and is usually concealed in the substratum. In tlic
cultivation of the edible mushrooms propagation is by means of
the mycelium which is known commercially as " spawn." It is
recognized, however, that mushrooms can not be propagated in
this way exclusively for more than two or three years. The my-
celium is really the plant body, and the part which rises above the
surface and is commonly regarded as the toadstool or mushroom
(Figs. 20 and 21) is a fruit branch, or spore-producing organ.
When these branches first make their appearance they are in the
form of small solid bodies known as "buttons" (Fig. 20, I-V).
As growth proceeds these bodies differentiate into a stalk-like
portion known as the stipe (Fig. 20, sf), which is directly con-
nected with the mycelium, and an umbrella-like portion borne at
the summit of the stalk, called a pileus, which at first is closed
down over the stalk, but later expands or opens more or less
widely according to the species. On the under surface of the
pileus, known as the hymenium, the spores are borne (Fig. 20,
A, B, C). In some cases the under surface is composed of
a series of narrow, radiating, knife-like plates, or gills, as in
the common edible mushroom Agaricus. Oh the surface of
the gills the basidia or spore-bearing organs arise. The basidia
are somewhat swollen terminal cells of the closely arranged
hyphse composing the gills, which bear a group of spores on
short stalks (Fig. 20, C). Both the basidia and spores (basidio-
spores) are of a characteristic size and number for the different
species.

In some of the other members of the group the gills are
replaced by pores, as in the " pore-fungi," which are parasites on
trees and destructive to timber. In still other cases the :under
surface is furnished with teeth, as in the " teeth-bearing Fungi,"
some of which, as Hydnum rcpandurn. form the " fairy-rings "
in the woods. The latter are also formed by Marasmius oreades
(Fig. 21, illus. 7), in which the gills are comparatively few and
bulge out at the middle.

One or two types will be considered, namely, the common
edible mushroom and two of the poisonous group, Amanita.

32 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Edible Fungi. — Agaricus campestris (common mushroom)
(Fig. 21, illus. ij is practically the only edible species cultivated
in this country. The plant grows wild in open grassy fields dur-
ing August and September. It is not found in the mountains to
any extent, and is never found in the woods or on trees or fallen
trunks. The color of the stipe and the upper surface of the
pileus varies from whitish to a drab color, but the color of the
gills is at first pinkish and then of a brownish-purple, which is
an important character, the color being due to the spores. The
stipe is cylindrical and solid, and a little more than half way up
is furnished with a membranous band known as the ring. There
are no appendages at the base of the stipe, which appears to rise
directly out of the ground. Before the pileus is fully expanded a
veil extends from its border to the stipe, which when ruptured
leaves a portion attached to the stipe, and it is this which consti-
tutes the ring. The ring shrinks more or less in older specimens
but usually leaves a mark indicating where it has been formed.

Poisonous Fungi. — There are two of the poisonous group
of fungi which are very common and which have some resem-
blance to the edible mushroom just described, namely, the fly
agaric {Amanita miiscaria) and the deadly agaric {Amanita phal-
loides) (Fig. 21, illus. 2). The fly agaric, while more abundant
in some localities than the common edible mushroom, is seldom
found in grassy pastures, but more generally in poor soil, espe-
cially in groves of coniferous trees. It occurs singly and not in
groups. The gills are always white ; the stipe is white, hollow
and provided with a ring at the top, and the base is bulbous, hav-
ing fringy scales at the lower part. The pileus is yellow or orange
and sometimes reddish ; the surface is smooth, with prominent,
angular, warty scales, which can be easily scraped ofif.

The deadly agaric (Fig. 21, illus. 2) somewhat resembles the
fly agaric and also differs from the common mushroom in not
usually growing in pastures. It occurs singly but not in groups,
in woods and borders of fields. The gills and stipe are white,
the latter, when young, having a number of mycelial threads
running through it. The base is quite bulbous, the upper part of
the bulb having a sac-like membrane called the volva. The pileus
may vary from any shade of dull yellow to olive, although some-

GRUUrS OF PLANTS. 33

times it is shiny and white. While it does not possess the warty
scales found in the fly agaric, it has occasionally a few mem-
branous patches.

The Toxic Principles in Poisonous Fungi. — Ihe deadlv
agaric (A)iianita phalloides) is the cause of the greatest number
of cases of mushroom poisoning. According to Al)cl and Ford
it contains two toxic principles: (i) Amanita-hemolysin a IjIcmjcI-
laking principle, which is a very sensitive glucoside, that is. pre-
cipitated by alcohol and destroyed ])y heating to 70° C. and 1)\-
the action of digestive ferments; (2) AmaniUHoxin which is
soluble in alcohol and not destroyed by the action of heat or
ferments. The latter principle is the important poisonous prin-
ciple in mushroom poisoning and is probably the most toxic
principle known, 0.4 of a milligramme killing a guinea ])ig
within 24 liours. " The majority of individuals poisoned by the
'* deadly amanita " die, but recovery is not impossil)lc when
small amounts of the fungus are eaten, especially if the stomach
be very promptly emptied, either naturally or artificially."

The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) owes its toxicity to mus-
carine, an alcohol-soluble crystalline substance. It is supposed
bv Ford that the fly agaric may contain another poisonous constit-
uent. In cases of poisoning atropine has been successfully ad-
ministered hypodermically in doses of y^^ to -V of a grain.

It is stated that the A. muscaria used by the peasants of the
Caucasus in the preparation of an intoxicating beverage is
deficient in muscarine.

The question as to whether the ordinary edible mushrooms,
as distinguished from the ]:)oisonous toadstools, may not in cer-
tain localities or at certain periods of the year be the cause of
fatal intoxication is answered by Ford in the negative. He
states (Science, 30, p. 105. July 2^, 1909) that there are no
authentic cases of poisoning from the black or brown spored
agarics, although old and badly decomposed specimens may cause
transient illness.

Economic Uses of Fungi.— A large number of the Fungi,
particularly of the Basidiomycetes, are used for food. There
are. however, only a few of these which enter the market. These
are derived chiefly from A_i^aricus campesfris (Fig. 21, illus.^ i)
and Agaric us arvcnis, although some other species of Agancus

34 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

as well as Morchclla esculenta (Fig. 21, illus. 4) furnish excellent
products and are cultivated to a limited extent. The " truffles "
of the market are tuber-like masses formed under ground, which
consist of the ascocarps of certain Tuberacese, one of the sub-
groups of the Ascomycetes, and which are used as a condiment
and sometimes roasted like potatoes. Tuckahoe or " Indian
bread " is also produced under ground and consists apparently
of the fungus Pachyina Cocos and the roots of Liquidambar, the
tissues of which have been changed into a compound resembling
pectic acid by the fungus. Quite a number of Fungi have been
used in medicine, as Claviceps purpurea (Fig. 19), Polyporus
officinalis and other species, and various species of Lycoperdon.
A number of species are used in making surgeon's agaric (Fungus
chirurgorum) formerly used as a hemostatic, including Lycoper-
don bovista and Polyporus fomentarius. Many of them yield very
toxic principles, as ( i ) several species of Amanita which contain
several toxic principles; (2) Lactarius piperatus and others
which yield highly poisonous resinous principles. Other uses of
Fungi have been mentioned under the several groups.

UsTiLAGiNE/E and Uredine^e. — There are two groups of
Fungi of considerable economic interest which by some writers
are classed by themselves, and by others placed with the Basidio-
mycetes. These are the Ustilaginese, or Smut Fungi, and the
Uredineje, or Rust Fungi.

The Smut Fungi are parasitic on higher plants. The myce-
lium penetrates the tissues of the host, but does not seem to
cause either disease or malformation of the plant. Injury to the
host results only after the development of resting spores. The
mycelia are hyaline, more or less branched, and finally become
septate. They send short branches, called haustoria, into the
cells of the host, from which they obtain nourishment. Event-
ually the mycelium becomes much branched, compact and more or
less gelatinous through a transformation of the hyphal walls,
forming gall-like swellings or blisters on the host. Spores are
formed within this gelatinous mass at the ends of the branches
of the mycelium. At a later stage the smut loses its gelatinous
character, the mass breaks up, and the spores are freed and dis-
tributed as a dry, dusty powder. The spores (primary conidia)

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

are somewhat spherical or ellipsoidal, and are generally separate,
but are sometimes united into a mass forming the so-called
" spore balls." These are resting spores and upon germination
(Fig. 23) produce a promycelium or basidium which becomes
septate and from each cell of which conidia called sporidia arise.
The sporidia are formed in succession one after another and the
process continues for some time. On germination they bud like

Fig. 22. Corn smut (Usiilago Maydis) showing several gall-like masses of smut

full of spores.

yeast, forming new conidia, or when nutrition is not abundant
they may form, a mycelium, which is usually the case when they
germinate on a host plant.

Corn Smut. — One of the Smut Fungi, namely, Ustilago
Maydis, which develops on Indian corn (Fig. 22), is used in medi-
cine. It forms rather large gall-like masses on all parts of the
plant, including the root, stem and leaves, and both staminate and
pistillate flowers. The spores (Fig. 23) are at first a dark olive-
green, but on maturity are dark brown. They are sub-spherical,
have prominent spines, and vary from 8 to 15 microns in diameter.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

They do not germinate at once, but on keeping them for six
months to a year they germinate readily on a culture medium
of potato, and retain their power of germination for years.

Rust Fungi. — The Rust Fungi are parasitic on higher
plants and produce a thread-like, branching, cellular mycelium,
which develops in the tissues of the host. They differ especially

Fig. 23. Spores of various Smuts, i , L'5(«7ago fong-fsswna growing on the reed meadow-
grass {Panicularia americana) ; 2, Ustilago Maydis ivom Indian com (Zea Mays); 3, Usiilago
Oxalidis on the yellow wood-sorrel (Oxalis siricta); 4, L'stilago utriculosa on the Pennsyl-
vania persicaria (Polygonum pennsylvanicurn) .

Fig. 24. Germination of spores, s, J/sZi/agOM^ncwtea, in water, showing promycelium
and sporidia; 6, Doassansia opaca from the broad-leaved arrow-head (Sagittaria laiifolia)
in water, showing promycelium, sporidia, and secondary sporidia which are falling off; 7,
Ustilago avencB from oat (AverM saliva) in horse dung, showing promycelium, and lateral
"infection threads" or hypha;; 8, germination of a sporidium of Usiilago Sorghi into an in-
fection thread; 9, small portion of a group of sporidia developed from promycelium of Toly-
posporium eriocauli in potato agar; 10, cross-section of epicotyl of broom-corn infected by
Ustilago Sorghi showing mycelium ramifying through parenchyma cells of the cortex. — •
After Clinton.

from the other Fungi in producing resting spores known as
TELEUTOSPORES. These spores consist of one or more cells sur-
rounded by a thick black wall, and they produce the " black rust "
seen on foliage at the end of the season.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

LICHENS.

General Characters. — The Lichens are a peculiar group of
plants in that an individual lichen consists of both an alga called
a GONiDiUM and a fungus. These are so intimately associated that
they appear to be mutually beneficial, and such a relation is known
as SYMBIOSIS (Fig. 25). The Algge which may be thus asso-
ciated in the Lichens are those members of the Blue and Green
Algae which grow in damp places, as Pleurococcus, Nostoc, Lyng-

FiG. 25. Lichens showing manner of union of algse or gonidia (g) and hyphae (h)
of Fungi. A, Pleurococcus , showing the manner in which hyphs penetrate the cell and in-
fluence cell division; B, Scytonema, an alga surrounded by richly branching hyphas; C,
chain of Nostoc showing hypha of fungus penetrating a large cell known as a heterocyst;

D, fungal hyphae have penetrated the cells of Glceocapsa a blue-green, unicellular alga;

E, Chlorococcum,a. reddish or yellowish alga found in Cladonia furcata, the cells of which
are surrounded by the short hypha of the fungus. — A, afterlledlund; B-E, after Bomet.

bya, etc. (Fig. 25). The Fungi which occur in this relation
belong both to the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes and it is on
the characters of the fruit bodies of these particular Fungi that
the main divisions of Lichens are based. The Fungi, however, are
not known to exist independently of the Algae with which they
are associated, that is, the mycelia of the fungi will not live for
any length of time unless they come in contact with a suitable

38 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

alga. In its development the fungus forms a mycelium which
encloses the alga, the growth of which latter is not hindered. The
two organisms then continue to grow simultaneously forming
lichen patches. A section of a lichen shows a differentiation into
several parts, namely, a more or less compact row of cells on both
surfaces forming two epidermal layers ; and an inner portion made
up of the hyphal tissue of the fungus in which the alga is embed-
ded either in a single layer or throughout the mycelium. The
mode of growth and branching is influenced largely by the fungus,
although in some cases the alga may exert the most influence. In
some cases the lichen consists of a thallus which is irregular in
outline, growth taking place at no definite point, and in other
cases branches which are more or less regular are formed, growth
taking place at the apex.

Groups of Lichens. — According to the manner of grow^tli
and the manner of attachment to the substratum three principal
groups (Fig. 26) of lichens are distinguished: namely, (i) Crus-
taceous Lichens, where the thallus adheres closely to the stones
and barks of trees and practically can not be removed without
injury; (2) Foliose Lichens, or those which are more or less
flattened, somewhat leaf-like and attached at different points; (3)
Fruticose Lichens, or those which are attached at a particular
part of the thallus, and form diffusely branching clumps. To this
latter group belongs Cetraria islmidica or Iceland moss (Fig. 26),
which is used in medicine (p. 690), Usnea barbata and the
red-fruiting Cladonias which are so common.

Reproduction in the Lichens takes place in several ways. In
all of them there is a vegetative mode by means of what are
known as soredia. These are small spherical bodies consisting of
a group of algal cells, which are surrounded by a mass of hyphse,
and which when cut off" from the main body are able to grow.
Lichens also produce spores of a number of kinds. In the largest
group, the one to which Cetraria islandica (Fig. 26) belongs, the
spores are found in special spherical receptacles, known as pyc-
NiDiA, which are formed on the teeth of the margin of the thallus.
The spores arise from the ends of hyphse at the base of the pyc-
nidia and are in the nature of conidiospores. To these spores
the name pycnoconidia has been applied. Cetraria also pro-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

duces, like many other Lichens, disk-hke or cup-shaped l)0(Ucs at
various places on the surface of the thallus, which are known as
APOTHECiA and which may be regarded as exposed or open asco-
carps. The inner surface of the apothecia is lined with a number
of asci as well as sterile cells, the former giving rise to ascospores.

Fig 26. Iceland Moss (Ceirariaislandica). A-F, various forms of thalli showing apoth-
ecia (a)- I. cross-section of an apothecium showing the hymenium (h), the hypothecmm
(p), the algal layer (e), the medullary layer (m), and lower or ventral surface (1); K, an
ascus with eight ascospores and two paraphyses from the hymenium (h of I).

Economic Uses of Lichens.— A number of the Lichens are
used in medicine, as several species of Cetraria, Pertusana com-
munis. Physcia parietina, Sticta pnlmomcea, Evernia furfuracea.

40 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Some of those used in medicine, are also used as foods on account
of the gelatinous carbohydrate lichenin which they contain. Be-
sides those given the following may be mentioned: Cladonia
rangiferina (reindeer moss), Lccanora escidcnta (supposed to be
the manna of the Israelites. The Lichens are. however, chiefly
of interest because of the coloring principles which they contain.
RocccUa fiiicforia, Lccanora farfarca, and other species of Lcca-
nora, yield upon fermentation the dyes orcein and litmus, the
latter of which finds such general use as an indicator in volu-
metric analysis. Cudbear, a purplish-red powder, is prepared by
treating the same lichens with ammonia water ; while in the prep-
aration of orchil, a purplish-red pasty mass, sulphuric acid and
salt are subsequently added. A number of species contain a yel-
low coloring principle, as Zcora sniphurca, Zeora sordida, Lccidea
geographica and Opegrapha epigcca.

BACTERIA.

The Bacteria, or Fission Fungi, occupy rather an anomalous
position, some writers classifying them with Fungi and some
with Algse. They are i -celled plants, microscopic in size, and
of various shape. The contents consist of protoplasm and a
central body in some cases, which is looked upon as a rudimentary
nucleus. They are more or less colorless, but sometimes produce
a distinct pigment called bacteriopurpurin which is rose-red
or violet, and occasionally a chlorophyll-green color substance.
They are capable of multiplying by division in one, two, or three
directions, and under favorable conditions increase verv rapidly
in number. The wall is more or less albuminous in character, in
this respect resembling the wall of the animal cell, and is provided
with one to many cilia, or flagella, the number and position of
which have been used as a basis of classification. Sometimes the
walls of the cells become mucilaginous, so that the bacteria hold
together forming a mass known, as a zoogloea. Bacteria may form
resting spores which arise in two ways. In one case the contents
round off and take on a membrane forming a so-called endo-
SPORE ; in the other case the plant body is transformed directly
into a spore known as an arthrospore, as in some of the Blue-

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 41

green Algae. This body is not strictly a spore but is in the nature
of a resting cell (Fig. 26a).

Occurrence.— Bacteria occur everywhere in nature, and
play a most important part in decay and putrefaction in that they
change dead animal and plant tissues back again into simple inor-
ganic substances, as carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, etc. They

Fig. 26a. Bacillus sttbtiiis (hay bacillus), a, Small rod-like organisms such as are
found in an infusion of hay, or bouillon; b, zooglcea or mass of bacilli forming the " skin "
on the surface of infusions; c, chains of organisms forming spores; d, individual bacilli
showing flagella, which are only seen after staining. — After Migula.

serve a useful purpose in many technical operations, as in the
making of cheese, acetic acid, fermentation of tobacco, curing of
vanilla and many vegetable drugs, and in soil nitrification, helping
to change ammonia into nitrates- — one of the sources of the nitro-
gen used by plants (see page 98). Many of them are disease-
producing, or pathogenic, and are the cause of a number of infec-
tious diseases in man and the lower animals, and plants as well.
They are injurious in two ways, in one case they consume the

42 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tissues of the host, as in tuberculosis, and in the other they pro-
duce powerful poisonous substances, or toxins, as in diphtheria.

Classes of Bacteria. — In order to study Bacteria they are
grown upon nutrient media, such as sterile bouillon, potato, milk,
etc. They are divided into a number of classes, depending for
the most part on the shape of the cell : ( i ) The Sphserobacteria,
or Cocci, are those whose cells are spherical or spheroid, and in
which division takes place in one, two or three directions of space.
Very few of the group are provided with cilia. According to the
number of cells in a colony they are distinguished as Micrococci,
Diplococci, etc. (2) Bacteria proper are elongated, . rod-shaped
organisms in which division occurs in only one direction, namely,
transversely to the long axis, and only after a preliminary elong-
ation of the bacterium. The Bacteria are subdivided into two
important groups, namely. Bacterium and Bacillus. The Bacilli
are motile organisms and produce endospores (Fig. 26a), whereas
the Bacteria are non-motile and do not usually produce endospores.
(3) Spiral bacteria constitute the third principal group and are
characterized by the cells being spirally coiled. Division is in
only one direction. These bacteria are usually motile, and seldom
produce endospores. (4) There is another important group
which includes the Sulphur Bacteria, of which the most common
one is Beggiafoa. These occur in long threads, and move in an
undulating manner much like Oscillaria, one of the Blue-green
Algse. They are found in sulphur waters, as in sulphur springs,
and contain sulphur granules.

Bacteriological Technique. — Principally because of the
minuteness in size of micro-organisms a different technique is
required in their study from that required in the study of the
higher plants. In the first place it is difficult to isolate them
so as to be able to study individual forms. Another difficulty is
to prevent contamination after they are isolated. And even
though a pure culture is obtained it is difficult on purely morpho-
logical grounds to differentiate the various forms, as they are all
so much alike.

I. While it is comparatively easy to prepare a sterile solution,
that is, one in which all life is absent, it is very difficult to prevent

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 43

subsequent contamination under ordinary conditions. Even when
a cork or glass-stoppered bottle for keeping liquids is used it is
difficult to prevent the entrance into and development of micro-
organisms in the liquids. The use of stoppers consisting of plugs
of absorbent cotton was first suggested by Schroeder and von
Dusch in 1854. They found that if flasks containing liquids,
which under ordinary conditions were likely to decompose, as
beef broth, etc., were stoppered with plugs of absorbent cotton
and the liquid then boiled for some time that it would keep
indefinitely.

II. It remained for Koch and Pasteur to show what took
place in the boiling of the liquid, who at the same time developed
the principles of sterilization in bacteriological work. These
authors discovered that micro-organisms have two stages of de-
velopment, one of which is active and the other resting, the latter
being known as the egg or spore condition. They found that the
organisms in the active condition were completely destroyed on
heating the solution containing them for 30 minutes at 100° C.
If this solution was allowed to stand for 24 hours or longer
there would be evidences of decomposition, which was due to the
fact that the spores representing the resting stage of the organ-
isms were unaffected by the first heating and developed into
the active stage. As a result of further experiments they found
that if the solution were heated on the second day for 30
minutes at a temperature of 100° C. the second growth of organ-
isms was destroyed but it was found that the solution might still
undergo decomposition in the course of time, owing to the later
development of a few remaining spores. It was however found
that heating the liquid again on the third day was sufficient to
kill all of the spores as well as the organisms in the active stage.
By repeating these experiments the authors confirmed their
observations and established the process known as discontinuous
sterilisation, which simply means that if a solution of a putrescent
or fermentative substance is heated on three consecutive days for
30 minutes at a temperature of 100° C, the flask or bottle being
stoppered wath absorbent cotton, it will keep indefinitely. Instead
of using a plug of absorbent cotton the neck of the flask can be
drawn out into a narrow tube and directed downwards (see Fig.

44 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

323). The time required for producing a sterile solution, that is
one free from micro-organisms or their spores, can however be
much reduced by increasing the temperature, or pressure, or
both. By use of the autoclave in which the pressure can be
increased from 10 to 20 pounds, sterilization can be accomplished
in 30 minutes by using a temperature of 110° C.

As already indicated one of the greatest difficulties is to
isolate the organisms. In a cubic centimetre of water there
may be a million organisms representing various groups of bac-
teria. In trying to solve the problem- of their separation it
occurred to Koch that if he could secure a medium which was
solid at the ordinary temperature and liquid at a slightly higher
temperature, he could mix a certain quantity of liquid containing
micro-organisms with the medium in a sterile condition, and then
by solidifying the mixture the organisms would be fixed, and
thus from each organism a colony would be developed which
could be isolated and further studied. We are indebted to Koch
for the use of solid culture media like nutrient gelatin and
nutrient agar in the study of these organisms.

The application of stains for differentiating the various organ-
isms was introduced by Weigert in 1877. Staining is of use in
the determination of the number of flagella of certain organisms,
in the study of spores, and the identification of certain pathogenic
organisms, which occur in mucus and pus, as tubercle bacilli,
etc. Gram's method of staining is of great use in differentiating
many pathogenic as well as non-pathogenic organisms, and is of
importance in classifying bacteria.

ARCHEGONIATES.

The two main features which distinguish the Archegoniates from
the Thallophytes are the structure of the sexual organs and the dis-
tinct manner in which the peculiar phases known as alternation of
generations is shown. The antheridium or male sexual organ is a
well differentiated multicellular body which is either sunk in the
adjacent tissues of the plant or is provided with a stalk. Within
it are organized the sperms or spermatozoids, which are ciliate
and swim freely in water. Corresponding to the oogonium of
the Thallophytes is the archegonium or female sexual organ

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 45

which gives name to the group. The archegonium is a flask-
shaped celhilar body consisting of a basal portion or venter,
which contains a single egg, and a neck through which the
sperms enter (Figs. 32, 34).

In the life history of this group of plants there are two gen-
erations or phases of development. During one stage the arche-
gonium and antheridium are developed and this is known as the
sexual generation, and as these organs give rise to gametes or
sexual cells it is also spoken of as the gametophytk. By the union
of the sex cells (sperm and egg) an oospore is formed which
germinates at once within the archegonium. That portion of the
plant which develops from the oospore gives rise to asexual spores
and hence this phase is called the asexual generation. It is also
spoken of as the sporophyte from the fact that it gives rise to
spores. These spores are in the nature of resting spores and do
not germinate on the plant as does the oospore. They are dis-
tributed and on germination give rise to the gametophyte stage.

In some of the Archegoniates these two phases are combined
in one plant as in the Bryophytes, whereas in other members of
the group the two phases are represented by two distinct plants,
that is, the gametophyte and sporophyte become independent of
each other, as in the Ferns.

The following table shows the main divisions and subdivisions
of the Archegoniates :

Brvophvtes [Hepatic^ (Liverworts).

iMusci (Mosses).

Archegoniates

Pteridophytes .

Filicales (Ferns).
Equisetales (Horsetails).
.Lycopodiales (Club ]\Iosses).

BRYOPHYTES.

The structure of the sexual organs in the Liverworts (Fig. 27)
and flosses (Fig. 32) is essentially the same, but the vegetative
organs are more or less dissimilar. In the Liverworts the plant

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

body or thallus lies more or less close to the substratvim or rises
somewhat obliquely, whereas in the Alosses the part we designate
as the plant is in all cases an upright leafy branch. The moss
plant is said to have a radial structure from the fact that the
leaves radiate from a central axis, while in the Liverworts the
thallus is dorsiventral, that is, as a result of its habits of growth,
it is characterized by having a distinct upper and lower surface.
The Life History of this group of plants may probably be
best illustrated by following that of a moss plant. Beginning
with the germination of an asexual spore which is microscopic in

Fig. 27. A common moss (Funaria). A, germinating spores: v, vacuole; w, root-
hair; s, exospore. B, protonema about three weeks after germination: h, procumbent
primary shoot; b, ascending branch of limited growth; K, bud or rudiment of a leaf -bearing
axis with root-hair (w). — After Sachs.

size and which germinates on damp earth, there is produced an
alga-like body consisting of branching septate filaments, which is
known as the protonema, or prothallus (Fig. 27). The Proto-
nema lies close to the surface of the ground and is more or less
inconspicuous except for the green color. From the lower por-
tion thread-like processes, or rhizoids consisting of a row of cells,
are developed, which penetrate the ground. Sooner or later lateral
buds arise from some of the lower cells. Growth continues from
an apical cell which divides and gives rise to cells that dififerentiate
into stem and leaves, forming an upright branch, which consti-
tutes the structure commonly regarded as the " moss-plant "

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

(Fig. 28, A). The leaf-bearing axis varies considerably in size,
in some cases it is but a millimeter high whereas in some species,'
as Polytrichum (Fig. 28), it may be several hundred millimeters

Fig. 28. A common moss (Polytrichum gracile). A, showing leafy branches (gameto-
phores) two of which bear sporogonia, a detached sporogonium (sporophyte) with sporan-
gium from which the calyptra (ca) has been detached. B, longitudinal section through a
nearly ripe sporangium showing columella (o), the elongated area of sporogenous tissue
(archesporium) on either side, annulus (n), peristome (p), lid or operculum (u); C,
transverse section of sporangium showing columella in center and dark layer of sporogenous
tissue (archesporium); D, ripe sporangium (capsule) showing the escape of spores after
detachment of lid; E, ripe spore containing large oil globules; F, ruptured spore showing
separated protoplasm and oil globules; G, two germinating spores 14 days after being
sown, showing beginning of protonema in which are a number of ellipsoidal chloroplasts.
—After Dodel-Port.

48 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in height. At the tip of the branch the antheridium (Fig. 32, A)
and archegonium (Fig. 32, B) are formed. These organs are
developed in among the leaves and certain hairy processes, known
as paraphyses (Fig. 32, />) . They may both occur at the end of one
branch (Fig. 32, C) or they may occur on separate branches
(Fig. 32, D), when the plants are said to be monoecious, whereas
when these organs occur on separate plants (Fig. 32, A, B) the
plants are called dioecious. In the case of dioecious plants the
plant bearing the antheridium is frequently smaller and less com-
plex than the one producing the archegonium. As already stated
the archegonium produces the egg-cell or female gamete (egg)
and the antheridium, the sperm cell or male gamete (sperm).

The sperms in the Bryophytes are more or less filiform and
are provided with a pair of cilia at one end. The antheridia
owing to the peculiar mucilagi-nous character of the cells only
open when there is an abundance of moisture, when the sperms
are discharged and move about in the water, some being carried
to the archegonium, which likewise opens only in the presence of
moisture. With the transferral of the sperms to the archegonium
and the union of one of these with the egg which remains sta-
tionary, the work of the gametophyte may be said to be com-
pleted. The act of union of the egg and sperm is known as
FERTILIZATION, and wlicu this is effected the next phase of the
life history begins.

The egg after fertilization divides and re-divides within the
archegonium which becomes somewhat extended until finally it
is ruptured. The dividing cells differentiate into a stalk and a
spore case or sporangium which is borne at the summit, the whole
structure being known as the sporogonium (Fig. 28). The
base of the stalk is embedded in the apex of the moss plant,
and is known as the foot, it being in the nature of a
haustorium or nourishing organ. As the sporogonium de-
velops and rises upward it carries with it the ruptured
archegonium which forms a kind of covering over the top,
called the calyptra (Fig. 28. ca). At first the .sporangium is
more or less uniform but eventually differentiates into two kinds
of tissues, the one being sterile and the other fertile (producing
spores), which latter is known as the archesporium (Fig. 28,

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 49

B, C). The fertile tissue in both tlic Liverworts and Mosses
is variously disposed ; sometimes it forms a single area and is
dome shaped, spherical, or in the form of a half sphere. In
other cases it is separated into two areas by sterile tissue. The
sterile tissue which extends up into the dome-shaped archc-
sporium, or which in other cases separates th*e fertile tissue
into two parts, is known as the columella (Fig. 28, B, C). The
sporangium in the mosses is capsule-like and the spores are dis-
tributed in three ways : ( i ) \n some cases the capsule does
not open, but when it decays the spores are liberated. (2) In
other cases the capsule dehisces longitudinally in dry weather
and thus the spores are freed. (3) There is a third method in
which the capsule is provided with a lid or operculum which comes
off and permits the spores to escape, this being the most common
method for the escape of the spores (Fig. 28, D). In the latter
instance the mouth of the capsule is usually marked by one or
two series of cells, constituting the peristome, which are teeth-
like and characteristic for some of the groups of mosses. These
teeth bend inward or outward according to the degree of moisture
and assist in regulating the dispersal of the spores. In the sphag-
num mosses there is no peristome, but, owing to unequal tension
of the lid and capsule on drying, the lid is thrown off, and the
spores are sometimes discharged with considerable force and sent
to quite a distance (as much as 10 centimeters), in this way
insuring their dispersal.

The spores (Fig. 28, E) vary in diameter from 10 to 20
microns, being sometimes larger. They occur in groups of four
in a mother-cell, and the spore-group is known as a tetrad, which
is characteristic for the Bryophytes and the higher groups of
plants. The spores therefore vary in shape from spherical tetra-
hedrons to more or less spherical bodies, depending upon the
degree of separation. The contents are rich in protoplasm and
oil (Fig. 28, F). The wall consists of two layers, the outer of
which is either yellowish or brown and is usually finely sculptured.
At the time of germination the outer wall is thrown off, and the
protonema develops (Fig. 28, G). The spores may germinate
almost immediately, or only after a considerable period. These
spores are asexual and each one is capable of giving rise to a

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

new plant. With the formation and dispersal of the spores the
work of this generation terminates, and this phase is called the
sporophyte or asexual generation, from the fact that it produces
spores.

Having thus followed the stages of development in the life-
history of a m6ss, we see that it is composed of the following

Pig. 29. Dichotomously branching thallus of the common liverwort {Marchanlia
polymorpha) showing near some of the margins the cup-like depressions in which gemmae
are borne (c), and several archegoniophores (a).

parts: (i) The alga-like protonema; (2) the leafy branch which
gives rise to an oospore (sexual spore), and (3) the sporogonium
which produces asexual spores. The leafy branch is sometimes
spoken of as the gametophore (gamete-bearer), and it and the
protonema together constitute the gametophyte or sexual gen-
eration, while the sporogonium represents the sporophyte or
asexual generation.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

The protonema sooner or later dies off in most plants, but in
other cases it persists, forming a conspicuous portion 'of the
gametophyte.

HEPATIC^.

General Structure.— The Hepaticae or Liverworts (Fig.
29) are usually found in moist situations. The protonema
formed on germination of a spore is filiform, and the plant
body which develops from it consists of a flat, dichotomously-

FiG. 30. Transverse section through the thallus of Marchantia polymorpha. A,
middle portion with scales (b) and rhizoids (h) on the under side; E, margin of the thallus
more highly magnified, showing colorless rcticuktcly thicliened parenchyma (p), epidermis
of the upper side (o), cells containing chlorophyll (chl), air pore (sp), lower epidermis (u).
— After Goebel.

branching thallus, or it may in some of the higher forms differ-
entiate into a leafy branch as in the leafy liverworts. The thallus,
owing to its position, has an upper and an under surface which are
somewhat different, as in Marchantia (Fig. 29), hence it is said
to be DORSiVENTRAL. From the lower colorless surface unicellular
rhizoids arise (Fig. 30, h). The upper surface consists of several
layers of cells containing chlorophyll which give the green color
to the plant.

52 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Vegetative propagation may ensue by the lower portion
of a branch dying and the upper portion continuing as an inde-
pendent plant. Or special shoots known as gemmae, may arise
either on the margin of the thallus or in peculiar cupules, which
when detached by rain or other means, are capable of growing and
producing a new plant.

In addition the thallus body produces both antheridia and arch-
egonia (Fig. 29) which may rise on special stalks above the sur-
face. After fertilization of the egg-cell which completes the work
of the sexual generation or gametophyte, the sporophyte develops
producing a sporogonium consisting of a short stalk which is
embedded in the tissues of the gametophyte, and a capsule (spor-
angium). The latter at maturity dehisces or splits and sets free
the spores, which are assisted in their ejection by spirally banded
cells called " elaters " (Fig. 31, C-F). The spores on germination
give rise to a protonema which then develops a thallus bearing the
sexual organs. As in the mosses the sporogonium represents the
asexual generation known as the sporophyte.

Liverwort Groups. — -There are three important groups of
Liverworts: (i) The marchantia group (Fig. 29) in which
the thallus is differentiated into several layers and so somewhat
thickened. Another character is the diversity in form of the
sexual organs which range from those which are quite simple to
those which are highly differentiated. In Riccia the sexual organs
are embedded on the dorsal (upper) side of the thallus, while in
Marchantia they are borne upon special shoots, one, which has a
disk at the apex that bears the antheridia, known as the antheridio-
phore, and one, the apex of which consists of a number of
radiate divisions and bears the archegonia (Fig. 29) on the lower
surface, known as the archegoniophore ; these being borne on sep-
arate plants. In Riccia, the simplest of the Liverworts, the spor-
angium is enclosed by the thallus and the spores are not liberated
until the decay of the plant.

(2) The JuNGERMANNiA Group, known as " Leafy Liver-
worts " or " scale mosses," includes those forms which are more
or less moss-like and develop stems and small leaves. The sporo-
gonium has a long stalk and the capsule is 4-valved, i.e., separates
into four longitudinal sections at maturity.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

(3) In the Anthoceros Group (Fig. 31) the gametophyte
is thalkis-Hke and very simple in structure, the sexual organs being
embedded in the thallus. The sporogonium is characterized by a
bulbous foot and an elongated, 2-valved capsule. Like the thallus
it develops chlorophyll and possesses stomata resembling those
found in certain groups of mosses and higher plants.

Fig. 31. Anthoceros gracilis, one of the liverworts. A, thallus with 4 sporogonia;
B, a ripe elongated sporogonium, dehiscing longitudinally and showing two valves between
which is the slender columella; C, D, E, F, various forms of elaters; G, spores. — After
Schiffner.

MUSCL

In the Mosses the archegonia always form the end of the
axis of a shoot, whether this be a main one or a lateral one. As
has already been stated (p. 48) the sexual organs arc sur-
rounded by leaves or leaf-like structures, known as perichaetia or
perichsetal leaves, and by hair-like structures or paraphyses, both
of which are considered to act as protective organs. Sometimes
the groups of sexual organs together with the protective organs

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

are spoken of as the " moss flower." As already stated the Mosses
are both monoecious (Fig. 32, C, D) and dioecious (Fig. 32, A,
B), hence a moss flower may contain only one of the sexual

Fig. 32. Longitudinal sections through tips of leafy branches of mosses. A, show-
ing antheridia (a, b) in different stages of development and paraphyses or cell-threads
(c), the apical cell of which is spherical and contains chlorophyll, and leaves (d, e); B,
showing archegonia (a) and leaves (b); C, section of Bryum showing both archegonia,
and antheridia, paraphyses and leaves; D, section of Phascum showing archegonia (ar),
antheridia (an), thread-like paraphyses (p), and leaves (b). — A, and B, after Sachs; C,
after Limpricht; D, after Hofmeister.

organs or it may contain both. Mosses are also characterized by
an abundant vegetative propagation. New branches are devel-
oped from the old. " Almost every living cell of a moss can grow
out into protonema, and many produce gemmae of the most dif-

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 55

ferent kinds." Entire shoots provided with reserve material are
cut off and form new plants. In this way moss carpets are fre-
quently formed in the woods, or masses in bogs.

Moss Groups. — There are two general classes of mosses : ( i )
Sphagnum forms are those which produce leaves without nerves,
and in which the sporogonium does not possess a long stalk or
seta. What appears to be the stalk is the prolongation of the
gametophyte stem which is known as the pseudopodium or " false
stalk." These forms are characteristic of wet places. Some of
the group as Sphagnum proper form " sphagnum bogs." New
plants develop on top of the old which latter gradually die and
finally pass into sphagnum peat, which forms thick masses and
finds use as a fuel. (2) The True Mosses are especially dis-
tinguished by the differentiated character of the sporogonium,
which not only produces a stalk but also the peristome (Fig. 28,
p) which when present is of great importance in distinguishing
the different species.

Economic Uses of Bryophytes. — The investigations on the
chemistry of the Liverworts and Mosses have not been very
numerous. The constituents which have been found are in the
nature of tannin, resins, ethereal oils, glucosides, alkaloids, color-
ing compounds and organic acids like citric, XDxalic, tartaric and
aconitic. In the mosses starch and silicon salts are found
in addition. Several species of Marchantia and Jungermannia
are used in medicine. Of the mosses the following have been
found to have medicinal properties; Sphagnum cuspidatum,
Grimmia pulvinata, Funaria hygrometrica, Fontinalis antipyre-
tica, and several species of Polytrichum and Hypnum.

PTERIDOPHYTES.

The Pteridophytes were formerly known as the Vascular
Cryptogams. Like the Bryophytes these plants show a distinct
ahernation of generations, i.e., the gametophyte or sexual gen-
eration alternates with the sporophyte or asexual generation.
Their relation is, however, somewhat changed. In the Bryophytes
the gametophyte is the most conspicuous and is looked upon
as constituting the plant proper, whereas in the Pteridophytes

56 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the gametophyte is rather insignificant in size, while the sporo-
phyte constitutes the generation or phase whicli is ordinarily
regarded as the plant. In the higher members of the Pterido-
phytes the sporophyte is entirely detached from the gametophyte
and is able to lead an independent existence. This group also
shows a distinct advance in structure. There is a differentiation
into root, stem and leaves, and the development of a system of
conducting tissue known as the v.\scular system.

The Pteridophytes include three principal groups, namely,
(i) Filicales or Ferns, (2) Equisetales or Scouring Rushes, and
(3) Lycopodiales or Clul) Mosses, which differ considerably in
general appearance and general morphological characters.

With the exception of the sperms in the Club Mosses, which
are biciliate and somewhat resemble those in the Bryophytes, the
sperms in the Pteridophytes are spirally coiled and multiciliate,
and according to the number of cilia of the sperms some writers
divide the Pteridophytes into two classes, namely, biciliate and
pluriciliate (Figs. 34, C ; 43, F).

Some of the Pteridophytes, as Selaginella (Fig. 41), are dis-
tinguished by the fact that they produce- two kinds of asexual
spores, which are known respectively as microspores (Fig. 41,
F) and megaspores (Fig. 41, E). The two kinds of spores are
formed in separate sporangia which organs may occur on the
same plant or on different plants. The sporangia have the cor-
responding names, microsporangia (Fig. 41) and megasporangia
(Fig. 41). This differentiation in sporangia and spores also leads
to a differentiation in the resulting gametophytes, the microspores
giving rise to gametophytes which produce antheridia, and hence
called male gametophytes ; and the megaspores to gametophytes
which give rise to archegonia, and hence called female gameto-
phytes. When a plant produces both microspores and mega-
spores it is said to be heterosporous, as in SclagincUa (Figs. 41,
43, 44) ; while one that produces but one kind of sporangium and
one kind of asexual spores is said to be isosporous. In this con-
nection attention should be called to the fact that the spores from
a single sporangium of an isosporous plant may give rise to male
and female gametophytes, which shows that a certain degree of
differentiation in the spores has already taken place. The causes

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

leading to the dififcrentiation of the spores seem to be connected
with nutrition, those nuclei which are in more favorable positions
giving rise to larger and better nourished spores which eventually
lead to the formation of the megaspores, and those which are
less favorably placed leading to the microspores. ■

The subject of heterospory is one of great interest, and when
it is pointed out that all of the higher plants are heterosporous
the subject has even more interest.

FILICALES.

General Characters. — On germination the asexual spore
in the Filicales or Ferns gives rise to a thallus-like body known as
the prothallus which is frequently dorsiventral and in a number

Fig. 33. Male fern [Aspidium (Nephrcdium or Dryopteris) Filix mas]. A, prothallus
of gametophyte as seen from the under (ventral) side showing archegonia (ar), antheridia
(an), and rhizoids (rh); B, prothallus showing young plant (sporophyte) which has devel-
oped from an oospore and is still connected with the gametophyte, roots (w), and the first
leaf (b). — After Schenck.

of cases somewhat heart-shaped, but varies considerably in out-
line, being sometimes more or less tuberous. The prothallus is
frequently but a few millimeters in diameter and the cells usually
contain chloroplasts. On the under or ventral surface rhizoids
are usually present (Fig. 33, rh). The sexual organs usually
arise on the lower surface (Fig. 33) but they may develop on the
upper or dorsal surface or even laterally. A single prothallus

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

gives rise to both kinds of organs unless stunted in its growth,
when it produces antheridia only.

The antheridia either develop upon or are sunk in the tissues
of the prothallus. The archegonia (Fig. 34) are not flask-shaped
as in the Bryophytes. The venter containing the oosphere or egg-cell
(Fig. 34, e) is embedded in the thallus, the structure being sur-
mounted by a few-celled neck (Fig. 34, h). The inner cells of
the neck are known as canal cells (Fig. 34, k) and these at the
time of ripening of the egg swell and exit through the opening of

Fig. 34. A, B, development of archegonia of a fern {Pteris) showing the neck (h),
the neck-canal Cell (k) and oosphere (e). — After Strasburger.

C, development of antheridium in the Venus-hair fern (Adiantum Capillus-Veneris):
prothallus (p), antheridium (a), sperm (s), sperm mother cell with starch grains (b); I,
immature state of antheridium, II, sperms developed, and III, discharge of sperm mother
cells and escape of coiled and pluriciliate sperms. — After Sachs.

the archegonium, through which then the sperms enter, one of
which unites with the egg, thus effecting fertilization. The fer-
tilized egg or oospore takes on a cellulose membrane.

The oospore which is held in the venter of the archegonium is
not a resting spore but germinates immediately and early differen-
tiates into the several organs (Fig. 35) . These arise independently
and include a stem-bud (Fig. 35, s) ; a first leaf or cotyledon
(Fig. 35, h) so called because it does not arise out of the stem as
the later leaves do; a first or primary root (Fig. 35. w) ; and
a foot or haustorial organ (Fig. 35, /) whereby it obtains nutri-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

ment from the prothallus (Fig. 35, pr) . This latter organ is, how-
ever, only a temporary provision, for as soon as the root grows
out and penetrates the soil, it dies off and the sporophyte thus
becomes independent. The stems are frequently more or less
condensed and lie prostrate in the soil, developing foots from the
under surface and leaves from the sides and upper surfaces. The
leaves which constitute the conspicuous part of the ordinary ferns
consist of a stalk and lamina or blade on which are borne the spor-
angia (Figs. 277; 36, A). The sporangia usually occur on the
under surface of the leaf in groups or clusters known as sori
(Fig. 36, ^). The sori are of characteristic shape and in certain

Fig. 35. The brake fern (Pierts). A, differentiation of cells in germinating oospores;
B, later stage showing development of embryo: pr, prothallus; f, foot embedded in the
archegonium (aw); w, root; s, young stem; b, young leaf. — A, after Kienitz Gerloff; B,
after Hofmeister.

species are covered by a plate called the indusium (Fig. 36,
B) which rises from the epidermis. In some species the entire
leaf becomes a spore-bearing organ, and is then known as a
SPOROPHYLL (Figs. 36, 37, 38), to distinguish it from the foliage
leaves. The sporangia develop a row of cells around the margin
constituting what is known as the annulus (Fig. 36, n). The
form of the annulus determines the manner of dehiscence of the
sporangia, which occurs on drying. The spores are ejected with
considerable force (Fig. 36, D). They (Fig. 36, E; Fig. 39)
are either bilateral or tetrahedral and require a short period to
elapse before they germinate. They retain their vitality for a long
time except those which are green, i.e., contain chlorophyll. The

BOTANY AND J'llARMACOGNOSY.

spores are greenish or yellowisli in color, varionsly sculptured
and vary from 0.025 '"'^i- ^o 0.1^8 mm. in diameter.

Fern Groups. — There are a number of distinct groups of
ferns which vary considerably in appearance. ( i ) In the Tropics

Fig. 36. Male fern [Aspidium (Nephrodium or Dryopleris) Filix mas\. A, portion
of leaflet showing a number of more or less reniform sori near the mid- vein; B, transverse
section through a ripe sori showing clusters of stalked sporangia, which are covered by
the indusium (i), an outgrowth of the leaflet; C, a closed but ripe sporangium showing the
annulus or ring (n), and the irregular-shaped spores within; D, showing the manner of
opening of the mature sporangium and the dispersal of the spores; E, two spores much
magnified. — After Dodel-Port.

as well as in greenhouses tree ferns, characterized by an over-
ground stem, occur. The leaves arise at the summit of the stem
or trunk and form a crown.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

(2) The True Ferns include by far the largest numl)er of
species which inhabit temperate reg-ions. These vary consid-
erably in size ranging- from quite diminutive plants 5 to 12 cm.

nHJiiii lliliiiiiiiiii

Fig. 37. Several Osmundas. i, the royal fern (C regaZis) showing fertile tip of branch
and sterile bipinnate leaflets below; 2, Clayton's fern (O. Claytoniana) showing three
pairs of fertile leaflets in the middle and a number of sterile leaflets above and below;
3, cinnamon fern (0. cinnamomea) showing a fertile leaf (sporophyll) to the left and a sterile
leaf (foliage leaf) to the right.

high, as the slender Cliff Brake {Pellcea atropiirpiirea and the
variety cristata) and maiden hair spleenwort {Asplcniutn Tncho-
maiics), to plants several feet high, as in the several species of

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Osmunda (Fig. 37), Aspidiinn (Fig. 227), etc. This group is
chiefly characterized by the underground or prostrate stems,
known as rhizomes, the part of the plant that is seen above ground

being the leaf.

- -E

Fig. 38. A, transverse section of stipe of Aspidium marginale: E, epidermis; H,
hypodermis of collenchymatic cells; P, parenchyma containing starch; V, fibro vascular
bundle; S, sieve; T, tracheae; N, endodermis surrounding each bundle. B, transverse sec-
tion of stipe of Osmunda Claytoniana: H, hypodermis of lignified sclerenchymatous fibers;
N, endodermis of large central fibrovascular bundle; Tn, tannin cells.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

(3) There is also a group of ferns known as Water Ferns
which are aquatic in habit, that is, they live in marshy places or
float on water. As representatives of this group may be men-
tioned Marsilia, which, has a slender rhizome that is buried in the
muddy bottom of streams, and 4-parted, clover-like leaves that
float on the water; and Salvinia (Fig. 40) which is a small float-
ing plant that develops two kinds of leaves, one which floats on
the surface of the water and are more or less oblong, and another
which are filiform, branching, root-like and submerged. The
water ferns are further distinguished by the production of mega-
spores and microspores.

(4) The Adder's Tongue Family, to which Ophioglossum
and Botrychium belong, develops a subterranean prothallus
which is destitute of chlorophyll. The prothallus is in some cases

Fig. 39. Some fern spores. A, B, C, different views of the bilateral spores of the
common polypody (Polypodium vulgare) showing outer wall (ep), 'middle wall (ex), inner
wall (end) and line of dehiscence (dl); D, a tetrahedral spore of the royal fern (Osmunda
rega'Js); E, F, spores of Ceratopteris thalictroides seen in two views. — A-D, after Sadebeck;
E-F, after Kny.

tuberous, and the sporophyte produces two kinds of leaves,
namely, foliage leaves, and fertile leaves or those which bear the
sporangia. The sporangia occur on lateral branches of the sporo-
phyll and open at maturity by means of a horizontal slit.

Ferns Used in Medicine and as Foods. — Many of the ferns
contain tannin, a brownish coloring principle and in addition
an anthelmintic principle. They may also contain ethereal oils,
starch, coumarin, aconitic acid and other principles. A large
number have been used in medicine, of which the following may
be mentioned: Aspidiuin (Dryopteris or Nephrodmm) marginale
(Fig. 277) and A. Filix-mas, yielding the official Aspidium. A
number of other species of Aspidium, as well as species of Adian-
tnm, Asplcninm and Polypodium are also used in various parts of
the world. The rhizomes of some of the ferns contain considerable

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

starch and are used to some extent as foods, as Ptcris cscnlcnta of
ChmTi ; P tcridiuni aquilinum var. lanuginosa of the Canary Islands;
Aspidiuni variinn and Aspleninni hulhosuin of Cochin China.
Folypodimn vulgare contains a substance related to glycyrrhizin.
Adiantum pedaUini and Polypodium Phyinaiodcs are said to con-
tain coumarin, the latter plant being used in perfumery.

Fig. 40. A water fern (Saltnnia natans). A, a plant seen from side and showing
floating leaves at top attached to the horizontal stem, root-like finely divided leaves beneath,
and a cluster of globose sporocarps; B, a view from above showing especially the character
of the upper leaves; C, young plant developing from a megaspore (msp).— A, and B, after
Bischoff; C, after Pringsheim.

EQUISETALES.

The Horsetails, or scouring rushes (Fig. 45, B) are peren-
nial plants containing a large amount of silicon in their tissues. Like
in the ferns the more or less branching, creeping rhizome persists
from year to year, sending out each year new shoots. As in some
of the ferns it develops two kinds of leaf-shoots, a fertile and a
sterile one (Fig. 45, B), each of which are distinctly jointed.
The scale-like leaves are arranged in circles about the joints or
nodes, the work of photosynthesis being carried on by the green
stems. The fertile branch develops at the apex a group of
sporophylls known as a cone or strobilus. The archesporium. or
initial spore-producing zone is unilocular. In Equisetum, the only
representative of the group, the spores are spherical and each is

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

furnished with two spiral bands or elaters which assist in its
dispersal. Some of the Equisetums contain aconitic acid and are
used in medicine. Common scouring rush (Equisetum hycmale)
is used for polishing woods, and Equisetum arvense is used for
scouring tin ware.

Fig. 41. Sclagine'Ja helvetica. A, sporophyte consisting of leafy branches giving
rise to microsporangia (i), megasporangia (g) and rhizoids (r); B, longitudinal section of
portion of branch showing a megasporangium (g) with 3 megaspores in view, a micro-
sporangium (i) containing microspores; C, a young microsporangium showing free mother
cells before formation of tetrads; D, tetrahedral division of spore mother-cell; E, ripe
megaspore; F, four microspores of tetrad separated; G, m.icrosporophyll seen from above
snowing ripe microsporangium. — After Dodel-Port.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

LYCOPODIALES.

The Lycopodiales, or Club Mosses (Fig. 46), are perennial
moss-like plants, with more or less erect or creeping and branching
stems, on which are borne numerous small simple leaves. The
sporangia arise either at the base of the upper surface of the leaves
or occur in terminal cones. They have short stalks, are uni-
locular and 2-valved. The asexual spores are of one kind in
Ly CO podium (Fig. 278b) and in the form of spherical tetrahed-
rons resulting from the manner in which division has taken place.
In Sclaginclla (Fig. 41) two kinds of asexual spores are produced,

Fig. 42. Longitudinal section of young embryo of a Selaginella before separation
from the prothallus: et, suspensor; w, root; f, foot; bl, cotyledons; lig, ligules or bud
scales. — After Pfeffer.

that is, both microspores and megaspores, which in turn give rise
to male and female prothalli respectively. The microspore devel-
ops a male gametophyte (Fig. 43) which remains entirely within
the spore, and consists of a few-celled prothallus and a number of
mother cells which produce sperms that eventually escape by the
breaking of the wall.

The megaspore frequently begins to develop the gameto-
phyte (Fig. 44) while still within the sporangium. The pro-
thallus consists of a number of cells and partly protrudes
through the ruptured spore wall. On the upper part of the pro-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

thallus or nutritive layer a few archegonia are borne. • It should
be stated that sometimes the archegonia are developed very early
on the prothallus tissue, but usually they are developed after the
spores have escaped from the sporangium. After fertilization
of the Qgg a multicellular embryo develops which shows the fol-
lowing parts (Fig. 42) : (i) An elongated cell or row of cells
which extends into the tissues of the prothalfus for the purpose of
obtaining nutriment; (2) a root; and (3) a stem bearing at its
tip (4) two leaves, or cotyledons. One of the specially notable

^ ^

Fig. 43. Successive stages in the germination of the microspores of a Selaginella:
p and w, cells of the prothallus; s, cells giving rise to sperms. A, B, D, views of spores from
the side; C, view from the back; in E the cells surrounding the sperm mother cell are dis-
organized; F, two biciliate sperms. — After BelajefF.

characters of the plants of the Selaginella group is, as Ave have
seen, the great reduction in size of the gametophyte which in
the case of the microspore does not enlarge beyond the wall of
the spore, and in the case of the megaspore only partly protrudes
be_vond the wall of the spore.

Isoetes. — This is a genus of aquatic or marsh plants known
as quillworts. The plants produce a number of filiform roots
which penetrate the mud. and a compact tuft of rush-like leaves.
The plants are heterosporous, as in Selaginella. The sporangia
are borne in the axils of the leaves, the outer leaves bearing the
megasporangia and the inner leaves the microsporangia. The

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

gametophytes consist of but a few cells. While the group is het-
erosporous and the gametophytes resemble those in Selaginella,
the sperms are multiciliate and coiled as in the Ferns.

Distribution and Uses of Lycopodiales. — A number of the
Lycopodiums are common on rocks, damp woods, sandy bogs,
and illustrations of several of these are shown in Fig. 46. Some
tropical species are used in medicine ; the spores particularly of
Lycopodium clavatum (Fig. 46, illus. 3) are used as a dusting
powder (Fig. 278b), and for burning in the production of flash

spm

Fig. 44. The female gametophyte of a Selaginella; prothallus (pr) projecting through
the ruptured wall (spm) of the megaspore; ar, sterile archegonium; emy, emb-, two
embryos embedded in the tissue of the prothallus; et, at, suspensors. — .A.fter Pfeffer.

lights. The Selaginellas, of whicli there are several native
species, are commonly used for decorative purposes. Some species
are, however, also used in medicine, and it is interesting to note
that the spores of one species {Selaginella selagiuoides) are used
like those of Lycopodhim.

While the Pteridophytes do not form a very conspicuous por-
tion of the flora at the present time and yield but few products
of use to man, it may be pointed out that in former ages they
formed the dominant vegetation of the earth. Many of the
ancestral forms of this group attained the size of trees and made
up the forest vegetation during the Devonian and Carboniferous
Ages, the latter being sometimes spoken of as the age of Pterido-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

phytes. It is also called the Coal Age from the fact that the coal
measures were chiefly laid down during this period. ' By some it
is thought that the deposits of coal of this age were probably

Fig. 45- A piece of slate from the coal formation in Shenandoah County, Pennsylvania,
showing a fossil fern which is probably a species of Neuropteris.

principally formed from the remains of certain marsh plants
including two extinct groups of huge, tree-like club mosses
(Lepidodendron and Sigillaria) and the Calamites, representa-
tives of the scouring rushes.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.
SPERMOPHYTES.

The Spermophytes, or Seed Plants, constitute the third of the
great divisions into which plants are divided. The plants belong-
ing to this division not only form the most conspicuous feature of

Fig. 46. Several species of Lycopodiunt. i, Ground pine (L. obscurum) showing a
leafy branch with one strobile at the apex; 2, a branch of trailing Christmas green (L.
Complanatiim) bearing four or five strobiles at the apex of long dichotomously branching
stalks; 3, club moss or running pine (L. clavatum) with a branch bearing four strobiles;
4, shining club moss (L. lucididum) with small sporangia borne in the axils of the leaves.

the flora because of their size and general distribution, but also
because of the fact that the flowering plants render a large number
of them especially attractive. The plants of this group are
also of great importance from an economic point of view. They

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 71

furnish a large part of the food of man and other animals, as well
as materials for clothing, shelter, fuel and divers other purposes.
In this group of plants there is the highest differentiation of tis-
sues and the most complicated structure. The one character
which especially distinguishes them from the lower groups of
plants is that of the production of seeds.

The plants have for the most part well differentiated stems
and leaves, and represent the sj^orophyte or asexual generation.
The sporophyte produces sporophylls which are of two kinds,
namely, megasporophylls and microsporophylls. The megasporo-
phylls bear small ellipsoidal bodies known as ovules, which develop
into seeds. The megasporangium is not separate and distinct in
the spermophytes as it is in Selaginella, but is embedded within an
ovule and corresponds to that part of the ovule known as the
nucellus. The nucellus encloses the embryo-sac, which is regarded
as a megaspore (Figs. 49, 50, 56, 85). Each megasporangium
(nucellus) therefore contains but a single megaspore, whereas in
Selaginella the megasporangia contain from i to 8 mega-
spores. The microsporophyll bears microsporangia (pollen
sacs) which contain microspores (pollen grains). The fe-
male gametophyte in the Spermophytes is still more limited in
its development than even in the highest Pteridophytes (as Sela-
ginella and Isoetes) and remains wholly within the megaspore
or embryo-sac. As a result of fertilization of the egg-cell an
embryo is produced which consists of root, stem and one or more
cotyledons and which with the integuments covering it constitutes
the seed.

Spermophytes embrace two well defined groups, namely, (i)
Gymnosperms or naked-seeded plants and (2) Angiosperms, or
enclosed-seeded plants.

GYMNOSPERMS.

In the Gymnosperms the ovules, each of which contains a mega-
sporangium (nucellus), are borne on an open sporophyll (carpel),
and thus are exposed, as are also the seeds developed from them.
In the Angiosperms the ovules are borne within closed sporo-
phylls, and are thus protected or covered until the seeds, which
develop from them, mature.

'J2 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The Gymnosperms represent an ancient group of plants and
were more numerous during the Triassic period than now. They
are mostly shrubs and trees, and do not shed their leaves period-
ically as the Angiosperms do, and hence are known as " ever-
greens." As in some of the Pteridophytes {Lycopodimn, Eqid-
setum) the sporophylls occur in groups forming cones or strobiles
(Fig. 47). They not only differ in external appearance from the
Angiosperms but also in the anatomical structure of the stem,
which is without large conducting vessels. In order to understand
the relation of the Gymnosperms to the Pteridophytes on the one
hand and to the Angiosperms on the other, it will be necessary to
consider briefly the life history of a representative group, such as
the Coniferse.

General Characters. — The seed consists essentially of three
parts, namely, a woody or leathery seed-coat, a nutritive layer
rich in oil known as the endosperm, and a straight embryo. The
latter is a more or less differentiated plantlet, consisting of a stem
with a varying number of cotyledons or first leaves (2 to 16),
and a small root which is attached to a suspensor, as is the embryo
in Selaginella (Fig. 44). AVhen the embryo begins its develop-
ment into the plant it uses up the nourishment with which it is
surrounded in the endosperm, and as it increases in size the seed-
coat is split. The root then protrudes and the cotyledons to some
of which the seed-coat is still attached are carried upward by the
stem through the surface of the soil, when the seed-coat is cast
off and the plant begins an independent existence. The first root
is the primary or tap root and from this are sent out numerous
branches known as secondary roots, constituting a well developed
root system which serves the double purpose of absorbing nutri-
ment from the substratum or soil and of holdins: or fixinsf the
plant in its upright position. The embryonal stem grows ver-
tically upwards continuing its growth indefinitely. Lateral
branches arise at more or less regular intervals which extend from
near the ground to the apex, the younger branches continually
succeeding the older ones from the ground upward, thus giving
the trees a cone-like outline. The leaves arise on the branches
and are of two kinds, primary leaves which are more or less scale-
like and deciduous, and secondary leaves which are true foliage

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

leaves, and are usually quite simple in structure. The kaves vary-
in form but are usually narrow and somewhat thickened giving
them a needle-like appearance.

In addition sporophylls (spore-bearing leaves) are formed at
the ends of the young shoots or in the axils of more mature ones

s.m

Pig. 47. Pinus reflexa. Transverse section of a portion from the inner face of the
spring wood showing a schizogenous resin duct or passage with the central canal (C) and
the thin-walled and resinous epithelium (ep); with parenchyma tracheids (t), the spring
wood (Sp. W.) and the summer wood (S. W.). — After Penhallow.

The Coniferae represent the most ancient group in which resin passages or reservoirs
are found. While these passages show certain important variations in structure and origin,
and while even in certain genera of the group, as in the genus Pinus, they exhibit consider-
able variation in detail, yet in this genus they are all of the same structural type as in Pinus
reflexa, the white pine of the high mountainous regions of New Mexico and Arizona. The
epithelial tissues are thin-walled and readily broken in making sections except in the hard
pines as the Loblolly pine (P. tcBda), where the cells often become strongly resinous. (See
Penhallow's "Manual of the North American Gymnosperms.")

(Fig. 51). These are compactly arranged forming cones or
strobili which are always of two kinds and borne on different
twigs of the same plant or on different plants. The staminate

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cones consisting of microsporophylls (stamens) are more or less
elongated and cylindrical or ovoid (Fig. 48, A). The carpellate
cones consisting of megasporophylls (carpels) have a shorter
longitudinal axis, and the cones vary considerably in the different
groups.

The Microsporophylls (Fig. 48) are usually of a yellowish-
brown color, and consist of a slender stalk and a lamina which

Fig. 48. A, longitudinal section of cone composed of microsporophylls, of one of the
pines; B, longitudinal section of microsporophyll showing microsporangium (pollen sac);
C, the same in transverse section showing both microsporangia; D, winged microspore
(pollen grain), with a two-celled male gametophyte, the upper cell being the generative
cell, the remaining nucleated cell giving rise to the pollen tube. — After Schimper.

bears the microsporangia (pollen sacs) on the lower or dorsal
surface (Fig. 48, B, C). In this they show a resemblance to
ferns where the sori are borne on the under surface of the leaves.
The microsporangia vary in number from 2 to 15, and are pro-
tected in various ways, either being sunk in the tissues of the sporo-
phyll,asinP///z/^ and Abies or they are, as in Junipenis and Thuja,
provided with a covering resembling the indusiimi of the sori of
the ferns. The walls are variously thickened and on drying,

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

owing- to unequal tension, the sacs are ruptured longitudinally
and the spores scattered. The microspores are very numerous,
sometimes forming powdery deposits. They are either i -celled
or 3-celled. In the latter case two lateral cells act as wings for
the dispersal of the spores by the wind (Fig. 48, D).

The Megasporophylls consist of sessile carpels (leaves)
on which are borne one or two naked ovules containing the spor-

Fig 49. Longitudinal section of an ovule of a spruce (Picea): i, integument; no
nucellus (megasporangium) ; e, embryo-sac (megaspore) which has developed the female
gametophyte consisting of endosperm (e), two archegonia (a), which show the neck (c),
and the egg (n) ; p, germinating pollen grains (microspores) with pollen tubes (t) which
have penetrated the nucellus (nc) and reached the neck cells of the archegonia. — After
Schimper.

angia (nucelli). In certain groups, as in the pines, balsams, etc.,
a scale is formed at the base of the carpel which bears the ovules,
and this scale is called the seminiferous scale. The ovules con-
sist of several parts (Figs. 49 and 50) : a stalk; an integument or
wall which has an opening at the apex known as the micropyle;

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

a nucellus (megasporangium), being that portion next within the
integument ; and embedded within the nucellus a portion known
as the megaspore or embryo-sac.

Fig. so. Development of gametophyte and embryo in one of the Coniferas. e,
embryo-sac (megaspore); a, archegonium; h, neck of archegonium; i, integument; p,
pollen tube; n, nucellus; f, wing of seed; g, fibrovascular tissue; kz, canal cells of arche-
gonium; ka, beginning of embryo; k, nuclei; ws, tip of root; wh, root-cap; c, cotyledons;
V, point of growth of stem; s, suspensor.

I, early stages of embryo-sac (e); II, young archegonium (a) after development of
neck cells (h), cell lumen (1); III, section of ovule with portion of attached seminiferous
Ecale(f) showing entrance of pollen tube; IV, embryo-sac with two developed archegonia;
V, archegonium after fertilization there being four nuclei at the lower part only two of which
are seen; VI, further development of embryo; VII, VIII, IX, X, showing development
of large tortuous suspensor, to which is attached the young embryo (ka); XI, XII, mature
embryo. — ^After Strasburger.

GROUPS OF PLANTS. tj

Gametophytes. — The development of the gametophytes
from the asexual spores, namely, the microspore or pollen grain,
and the megaspore or embryo-sac, is as follows : The nucleus
of the megaspore divides repeatedly (Fig. 50), cell walls
are formed and a multicellular structure known as the endosperm
is produced. This structure constitutes the prothallus of the
female gametophyte (Fig. 49, E; Fig. 50). In the upper portion
of the prothallus (that is, at the micropylar end), three to five
archegonia are formed (Fig. 49, a; Fig. 50), which are sepa-
rated from one another by cells of the endosperm or prothallus
which are rich in protoplasm. The structure of the archegonium
is much like that of the preceding group, consisting of a venter
which contains the ^^g, and a short neck composed of 4 to 8 cells.

The male gametophyte begins to develop while the pollen is
still in the sporangium. At this stage it consists of a generative
cell and a wall-cell, which constitute the antheridium, the cells of
the protliallus being usually suppressed (Fig. 48, D).

In addition to the extreme minuteness of the gametophytes
we have also to note the character of the male gamete or sperm.
With the exception of the Cycads and Ginkgo, motile sperms are
not found in the Gymnosperms, but these are represented by two
male nuclei which are transferred directly to the archegonium
from the male gametophyte, formed through germination of the
microspore (pollen grain). It may be recalled that in the Pteri-
dophytes the motile sperms are discharged from the antheridium
and carried by the agency of water to the arphegonium, but in the
Gymnosperms water is no longer a medium of transferral. The
microspores themselves are carried to the ovules usually through
the agencv of wind after v/hich thev germinate developing a tube
which carries the male nuclei directly to the archegonium without
their ever having been free.

The transferral of the microspores or pollen grains to the
ovule is known as pollination. After pollination the wall-cell
develops a tube, the pollen tube, and the generative cell gives rise
to two male nuclei, which, with the remaining protoplasmic con-
tents of the antheridium, are carried. by the pollen tube to the
micropyle, which it enters, penetrating the tissue of the nucellus
(Fig. 49, 0- On reaching the neck of an archegonium the pollen

78 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tube pushes its way down into the venter, where it discharges
one of the sperm nuclei which unites with the egg, forming an
oospore. Cessation in growth does not yet take place and the
oospore develops into the embryo already described. The develop-
ing embryo obtains its nourishment by means of a suspensor
(Fig. 50, s), which also places the embryo in a favorable position.

There being several archegonia in an ovule (Figs. 49, 50), a
corresponding number of embryos may be formed, but rarely
more than one survives. While the embryo is developing, the
other tissues of the megaspore are likewise undergoing changes
leading to the maturity of the seed. The carpels and seminifer-
ous scales also continue to grow, and they usually become more or
less woody, forming the characteristic cones of the pines (Fig.
51), but may coalesce and become fleshy, producing the berry-like
fruits of Juniper (Fig. 52). The seed on germination gives rise
to the sporophyte (tree).

Groups of Gymnosperms. — There are two principal groups
of Gymnosperms, (i) one of which includes the Cycads or Fern
Palms, which are characteristic of tropical and sub-tropical coun-
tries. The trunk does not branch as in the ordinary evergreens,
and the leaves form a crown at the summit of the stem or trunk.
An important character of some of the Cycads is the production
of multiciliate sperms, as in the ferns. Equisetum and Isoetes.
(2) To the Coniferge belong the pines, hemlocks, balsams, arbor
vitse, junipers (Fig. 51) and cedars, this being by far the largest
group of Gymnosperms.

Exonomic Uses of the Coniferas. — From an economic
point of view the Coniferse are by far the most important group
of plants thus far considered. In fact they may be ranked first
in the production of valuable timber. Of those yielding timber
the following species may be mentioned: White pine (Piiiits stro-
bus) ; long-leaved, yellow, or Georgia pine {Pinus palustris
Mill.) ; spruce pine (Pinus cchinata) ; the Redwood of Upper
CaHfornia [Sequoia seripervirens) ; pitch pine of New Mexico
(Pinus Pondcrosa) ; the Scotch fir. the common pine of Europe
(Pinus sylvcstris) . Some of the woods are adapted for special
purposes : as that of Pinus Ceinbra of the high mountains of
Europe and Northern Siberia, which is excellent for wood-carv-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

iiig; Red cedar {Junipcrus virginiana) (Fig-. 52) used in the
making of cigar boxes and lead pencils; balsam fir i^Abics bal-
sanica ) used in the manufacture of wood pulp.

Py reason of the oleo-resinous constituents the woods of some
of the Coniferae are among the most durable known. A few
years ago Jeffrey examined a specimen of Sequoia Pcnhalloivii
which was obtained from auriferous gravels of the Miocene in
the Sierra Nevada Mountains and found it to be in a very perfect

?iG. 51. Transverse section of the stalk of Juniperus Sa^ina at the point of attach-
ment of two leaves, ep, epidermis; s, stomata; h, hypodermis; pal, palisade cells; 1, bast
fibers; b, xylem; r, mechanical tissue; S, oil secreting gland or reservoir. — After Mongin.

State of preservation. Penhallow {loc. cit.) considers this to lie
the most ancient record of an uninfiltrated and unaltered wood.
Coleman, in 1898, found in the Pleistocene clays of the Don
Valley a specimen of red cedar {Junipcrus virginiana) which not
only possessed all of the external characteristics of this species
but when sawed emitted the aromatic odor of the bark. In the
Pleistocene deposits of the western Ignited States and Canada
are found more or less unaltered specimens of various species
of Juniperus, Pseudotsuga, Picea, and Larix.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 5 2. Cross-section of bark of Tsuga Canadensis, c, c, c, secondary cork forma-
tion; a, dead phloem tissues rich in coloring, resinous and tannin-like substances; s, s, stone
cells; m, m, medullary rays; cr, cells containing long prisms of calcium oxalate; ca, cam-
bium; st, bands of starch-bearing parenchyma cells. — After Bastin.

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 8i

Some of the pines yield edible seeds which have been used
by the Indians of Western America : as the edible or " nut pine "
of California and New Mexico (Pinus ednlis) ; Pinus monophylla,
discovered by Colonel Fremont in Northern California; Pinus
Jeffrcyi of Northern California ; and Pinus Pinca of Europe, the
seeds of the latter being used like almonds and known as " pig-
none." The seeds of Pinus Lambcrtiana (Fig. 51, C) of Califor-
nia are baked before being used as food. This latter species is
also known as the sugar pine as it yields a manna-like product.
A manna is also yielded by Cedrus Libani and Larix decidua. The
latter is known as " Briancon Manna," and contains melizitose.
The bark of some species furnishes valuable tanning material, as
that of the hemlock spruce {Tsuga canadensis).

The Conifera; yield large quantities of volatile oils, resins and
allied products which are used both in medicine and the arts.
A number of them yield turpentine (see pp. 675-677 and p. 653),
as Pinus palustris, Pinus glabra, Pinus Tccda, Pinus hetero-
phylla and Piiius echinata. Larix decidua of the Alps and Car-
pathian mountains yields Venice turpentine. Abies balsamea is
the source of Canada turpentine or balsam of fir ; Picea Mariana
or black spruce yields spruce gum largely used in the manufacture
of chewing gum, and is also the source of spruce beer. Picca
excelsa or Norway spruce yields Burgundy pitch (sec p. 670).
Abies alba or white fir tree yields the Strasburger turpentine,
Canada pitch is the resinous exudation from the common hemlock
( Tsuga canadensis) . Sandarac is yielded by. Callitris quadrivalvis
found growing in Northwestern Africa. Volatile oils are yielded
by a number of the Coniferse, of which the following may be
mentioned : Jimiperus Sabina yielding oil of savin ; Juniperus
communis yielding oil of juniper, both of which are used in medi-
cine. The remains of Coniferse (Picea, etc.) are often found as
fossils, as the fossil resin amber, which is used in the arts, and on
distillation yields a volatile oil having medicinal properties.

ANGIOSPERMS.

General Characters. — The Angiosperms constitute the
most conspicuous portion of the flora, embrace the greatest
variety of forms, and are the most highly organized members

82 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

of the plant kingdom. They vary in size from diminutive plants
Hke the windflower to the giant oak which shelters it. They may
accomplish their life work in a few months, as the common stra-
monium, or they may persist for several hundred years, as the
trees of our primitive forests. They may inhabit dry desert
regions, as the Cacti and Chenopodiaceae, or they may live wholly
in water, as the water lilies. In short they show the greatest
adaptability to their surroundings. But no matter how diversified
they may seem in form and structure, they agree in this with
possibly one exception, namely, mignonette, that the seeds are
produced in a closed carpel. This has been considered, as already
indicated, to be the chief difference between the Gymnosperms
and Angiosperms.

The two groups are further distinguished by several other
important characters: (i) the carpel or carpels (megasporophyll)
is developed into an organ commonly known as a pistil (Figs.

83 and 85). This organ consists of three parts, namely, ovary,
style and stigma, the ovary enclosing the ovules (Figs. 83, 85).
In the Angiosperms the megaspore (embryo-sac) develops a
gametophyte which does not give rise to archegonia, but the egg
arises directly from the megaspore nucleus by a series of divisions.

(3) The Microsporophyll (stamen) dififers considerably in
structure and appearance from that of the Gymnosperms. The
stamen may be defined as a leaf which bears sporangia (spore
cases). It usually consists of the following differentiated parts:
filament and anther, the latter consisting of pollen sacs (micro-
sporangia) in which the pollen grains (microspores) are devel-
oped (Figs. 81, 83 and 85). (4) In a large number of cases in
the Angiosperms there is developed in addition to the sporophylls
or sporangial leaves (stamens and pistils) another series of
leaves known as floral leaves (Fig. 83). The latter usually are
of two kinds, known as sepals and petals.

The Development of the Two Generations, namely, the
sporophyte and gametophyte, is much the same in the Angio-
sperms as in the Gymnosperms. That is, the sporophyte consti-
tutes the plant body and what is commonly considered to be the
plant. The gametophytes are still more reduced than was the
case in the Gymnosperms, the male gameto])hytc consisting of
but two cells.

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

Beginning with the germination of the seed we may outline
the Hfe history of the plant as was done under Gymnosperms.
The seeds in the two groups are much alike with the exception
that in the Angiosperms they usually have two integuments.
Within the Angiosperms two classes of embryos are distin-

FiG. 53. Development of pollen sacs (microsporangia) in several of the Angiosperms:
A, showing beginning of archesporium (a), an outer sterile layer (b), position of connective
(con) ; B, later stage showing development of fibrovascular tissue (gf) ; C, longitudinal
section of archesporium; D, E, F, successive later stages showing in addition pollen mother
cells (sm) and tapetum layer (t). G, H, diagrammatic sections of mature pollen sacs show-
ing pollen mother cells (pm), tapetum (t), endothecium (end), exothecium (ex), and in
H longitudinal dehiscence with formation of what appears to be a unilocular pollen sac
on either side of the connective. — A-F, after Warming; G-H, after Baillon and Luerssen.

guished, which give rise to the most important division of this
group of plants. In the one case a single cotyledon is formed at
the apex of the stem, and all plants having an embryo of this kind
are known as monocotyledons, that is. plants having one seed
leaf. In the other case two cotvledons arise laterally on the stem

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

and opposite each other, and those plants having an embryo of
this type are grouped together as dicotyledons, or plants having
two seed leaves. In the monocotyledons the cotyledon is limited
to one, but in the dicotyledons the seed leaves are not limited in
number and there may sometimes be three or more.

The sporophyte which develops from the germinating seed
consists of the essential parts already given, i.e., root, stem and
leaves. The leaves are of four kinds: (i) Foliage leaves, (2)
scale leaves or bud scales, (3) floral leaves, which in some cases
are wanting, and (4) sporangial leaves or sporophylls. Inasmuch
as the latter give rise to the gametophytes (male and female) the
development of the sporangia in each will be considered in detail.

Fig. 54.. Development of pollen grains (microspores) of garlic (Allium narcissiflorum):
a, pollen mother cell with nucleus; b, the same with homogeneous nucleus and a thicker
wall; c-e, changes in nucleus prior to division; f, formation of spindle with nuclear masses
in the center from which nuclear threads extend to the poles of the spindle; g, division of
nuclear substance and receding of it from the center of the cell; h-i, further stages in the
organization of the nuclear substance at the poles; k, formation of a wall between two
daughter cells; 1, beginning of .division of one daughter cell; m-n, final divisions resulting
in the formation of a tetrad (group of 4 cells). — After Strasburger.

The Microsporangia (pollen sacs) arise by the division of
certain cells under the epidermis of the anther (Fig. 53). This
process of division continues until four regions of fertile tissue
(sporangia) are produced (Fig. 53, D). The sporangia are
directly surrounded by a continuous layer of cells which consti-
tutes the tapetum or tapetal cells (Fig. 53, /), these being in the
nature of secretion cells and containing considerable oil. The
tapetum is in turn surrounded by a layer of cells which are
peculiarly thickened and which on drying assist in the opening
of the anther and the discharge of the pollen, and this layer is
called the endothecium (Fig. 53, end). There is still a third or

GROUPS OF PLANTS. 85

external layer of cells, which constitutes the exothecium (Fig. 53,
ex). These four sporangial regions may remain more or less
distinct and separate at maturity, or the two on either side may
coalesce. This latter usually occurs at maturity, when dehiscence
takes place, forming apparently a single pollen sac on either side
of the connective or axis (Fig. 53, H).

The Microspores (pollen grains) are developed somewhat
differently in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. In most mono-
cotyledons the nucleus of each cell (pollen mother cell) making
up the archesporium divides into two nuclei, each of which takes
on a wall of cellulose. Each of these (daughter cells) in turn
divides giving rise to four pollen grains. In dicotyledons (Fig.
54) the nucleus of a mother cell divides into four nuclei before
the walls are formed which separate the nuclei, thus giving rise

Fig. 55. Development of male gametophyte in an Angiosperm. I, pollen grain
(microspore) which has divided into the mother or generative cell (v) and a larger tube-cell
with nucleus (sk); II, appearance of pollen grain on treatment with osmic acid show-
ing the separation of the generative cell (v) from the wall of the pollen grain; o, at the
right giving a view of the generative cell with the nucleus embedded in the hyaline proto-
plasm; III, showing the development of the tube-cell into the pollen tube which
contains the two male cells (nuclei) or gametes formed by the generative cell. — After
Elfving.

to the tetrad group of spores to which attenHon has already been
called (page 49) under Bryophytes. The wall of each spore is
divided into two layers, an inner layer consisting of cellulose
known as the intine, which gives rise to the pollen tube on germ-
ination of the spore; and an outer layer somewhat different in
composition and variously sculptured, known as the exine. When
the spores are mature the original walls of the cells of the arche-
sporium dissolve and the ripe pollen grains are set free, forming
a yellowish powdery mass filling the pollen sac. In some cases
the spores of the tetrads hang together or even the whole mass
of pollen tetrads may be more or less agglutinated, as in the
orchids and milkweeds, these masses being known as pollinia.

86 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Male Gametophyte. — Before the dispersal of the pollen
grains or microspores, certain changes leading to the development
of the gametophyte have taken place (Fig. 55). The spore as we
have seen is unicellular. This divides into two cells, one, which is
relatively small, known as the mother cell of the antheridium
(Fig. 55, v), and another, which, composed of the remaining
nucleus with the surrounding cell-contents, constitutes the tube- or
wall-cell of the antheridium.

Development of Ovule and Megasporangium (nucellus). —
The ovule at first develops as a small protuberance on the
inner surface of the ovary, after which it differentiates into
(a) a stalk or funiculus by which it is attached to the ovary,
the tissue to which it is attached being called the placenta ; and
{h) an upper portion which becomes the ovule proper. The
differentiation of the tissues is in a general way as follows : ( i )
The cells beneath the epidermis in the apical portion of the ovule
go to make up the megasporangium (nucellus) ; (2) the periph-
eral cells from below the nucellus give rise to the integuments ;
and (3) while the integuments are developing the archesporium
or mother cell of the embryo-sac (megaspore) is being formed
within the nucellus near the apex.

Female Gametophyte. — The archesporium divides into
two cells, the lower one of which repeatedly divides, finally giving
rise to the embryo-sac which is sunk in the tissues of the nucellus.
The nucleus of the embryo-sac divides and redivides until 8 cells
are produced (Figs. 56 and 85), which are separated into the
following groups : ( i ) Three of the cells form a group lying
at the apex, the lower cell of the group being the eg^ or egg-cell,
the other two cells being known as synergids or helping cells.
(2) At the opposite end of the sac are three cells, known as an-
tipodal cells, which usually develop a wall of cellulose and do not
seem to have any special function. (3) Near the center of the
sac are the two remaining nuclei, which unite to form a single
nucleus, from which after fertilization the endosperm is derived.
The embryo-sac. as it is organized at this stage, constitutes what
is regarded as the female gametophyte (Fig. 56). The undiffer-
entiated embryo-sac constitutes the megaspore, which latter after
germination or differentiation into egg-cell and other cells, con-

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

Fig. 56. Development of embryo-sac or megaspore in an Angiosperm. la, longi-
tudinal section through a young ovule. lb, longitudinal section through a rudimentary
ovule before the formation of the integument, showing mother cell of the embryo-sac (mega-
spore) (em) and primary tapetal cell (t). II, later stage showing the two cells into which
the mother cell has divided, the nuclei of which are in the act of dividing. Ill, mother-
cell of the embryo-sac divided into four cells (sporogenous mass of cells) ; the lowest of these
cells (e) displaces the rest and becomes the embryo-sac in IV. IV, pek, is the primaiy nu-
cleus of the embryo-sac. V, two daughter cells resulting from the division of the nucleus
of the embryo-sac. VI, VII, show egg apparatus composed of two synergids (s) and the
oosphere (o), and antipodal cells (g). VIII, longitudinal section through a mature ovule
with the inner integument (ii), the outer integument (ai), the nucellus Cn), the vascular
bundle (gf) entering the funiculus (f), and secondary nucleus in the embryo-sac (sek). —
After Strasburger.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

stitutes the gametophyte. It is thus seen that in the female
gametophyte of the Angiosperms archegonia are apparently not
formed. The gametophyte, then, consists of the cell group con-
taining the egg and the remaining portion of the embryo-sac,
which latter may be compared to a prothallus. This comparison
is not difficult to understand if we bear in mind the structure of
the gametophyte in the Gymnosperms and particularly if we recall
the structure in the higher Pteridophytes.

if f

Fig. 57. Development of embryo in the shepherd's purse (CapselJa Bursa-pasioris),
I-VI, various stages of development: Vb, apex of the root seen from below, i, i, 2, 2, the
first divisions of the apical cell of the pro-embryo (suspensor); h, h, cells from which the
primary root and root-cap are derived; v, the pro-embryo; c, cotyledons; s, apex of the
axis; w, root. — After Hanstein.

Fertilization. — While in the gymnosperms the pollen
grains are usually provided with wings so as to bring about their
transferral to the carpel by the agency of the wind, in the angio-
sperms, on the other hand, the grains arc not provided with wings,
but are adapted to transferral by insects. Pollination, however,
may be also efifected by the wdnd as is the case wdth many of our

GROUPS OF PLANTS.

forest trees. After the deposition of the pohen grain on the stigma,
the tube-cell begins to form a tubular process (pollen tube) which
carries the male nuclei to the egg-cell (Fig. 85, i). It pierces
the tissue of the stigma (Fig. 85, h) and traverses the style (Fig.

jj4Q\0SPERMS

unicelIlular
fuagIellatE
greenIalga^

Fig. 58. Hypothetical tree of relationship and descent of the leading groups of plants. —

After Ganong.

85, g) until it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, which it enters
(Fig. 85, m), then reaching the nucellus it penetrates this, enter-
ing the embryo-sac. The tip of the tube breaks and one of the
generative nuclei which has been carried downward unites with the
egg, after which a wall is formed, giving rise to an oospore. The

90 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

oospore develops at once into the embryo or plantlet as seen in
the seed, this stage being followed by a period of rest. In fact
the young plant may lie dormant in the seed for years.

Development of Seed. — The steps in the development of
the mature seed occur in the following order (Fig. 57) : The
oospore divides into two parts, an upper portion which gives rise
to the embryo, and a lower portion which by transverse segmenta-
tion gives rise to a short suspensor (Fig. 57, v) which practically
serves the same purpose as in the Gymnosperms (page 78).
The embryonal cell develops the embryo which consists of : ( i )
a root portion which is connected with the suspensor (Fig. 57, %v) ;
(2) one or two cotyledons (Fig. 57, c) which are attached to the
stem; (3) a little bud at the apex of the stem which is known as
the plumule.

While the embryo is developing, the nucleus of the embryo-
sac, either after fusing with the prothallial cell of the pollen
grain, or in the absence of such union, begins active division,
forming a highly nutritive tissue rich in starch, oil, or proteins,
known as the endosperm (Figs. 121 and 122). Simultaneously
with the development of the endosperm the nucellus may give
rise to a n\itritive layer called the perisperm, or the tissues of
the nucellus may be modified and form with the altered integu-
ments or coats of the ovule, the seed-coat.

Inasmuch as the Angiosperms furnish by far the larger pro-
portion of plants and plant products used in medicine, it is desir-
able to give particular attention to the morphology of the plant
as also to the distinguishing characters of a number of the impor-
tant groups or families.

Economic Importance. — As indicating the great usefulness
to mankind of the products obtained from the Angiosperms it
will be sufficient to merely mention that all of our garden vegeta-
bles as well as the great crops of cereals like wheat, corn, rye,
etc. ; edible fruits and seeds ; textile products, such as cotton, flax,
etc. ; medicinal products ; timbers of various kinds, as oak, mahog-
any, walnut, cliestnut, cherry, etc., are furnished by this great
group of plants.

CHAPTER II.

THE OUTER MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

INTRODUCTORY.

It may be well to repeat at this point that on germination of
the megaspore the female gametophyte bearing the egg-cell is
formed, and that on germination of a microspore the male gameto-
phyte bearing male nuclei is organized. The union of egg-cell
and a male nucleus gives rise to the sporophyte embryo contained
in the seed, which develops into the plant we see, namely, the
sporophyte. The female gametophyte always remains concealed
within the embryo-sac and the male gametophyte may be said to
embody the protoplasmic contents of the pollen tube.

A complete flower is made up of floral leaves and sporophylls,
the latter being essential for the reason that they give rise to the
spores. While the flower belongs to the sporophyte generation
the propagative organs may be said to be derived from both the
sporophyte and gametophyte, and hence may be distinguished as
asexual and sexual. The following outline illustrates their
derivation :

Propagative
Organs

Sexual, derived from
gametophytes (sexual ■
generation)

Asexual, derived from
sporophyte (asexual
generation)

Egg-apparatus,

containing egg-cell

Male Generative-cell,
giving rise to male nuclei
or male gametes

Microsporangium,

giving rise to microspores
(pollen grains)

Megasporangium,

giving rise to megaspore
(embryo-sac)

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The vegetative organs comprise the root and shoot, the latter
being usually differentiated into shoot axis or stem, and leaves.
The usual type of shoot is one which bears leaves and is exposed
to the light. The work of carbon dioxide assimilation (photosyn-
thesis) being carried on for the most part by the leaves, it is
sometimes spoken of as the " assimilation shoot."

I. THE ROOT.

True Roots are found only among plants having a vascular
system, as the Spermophytes and the higher Pteridophytes,

Fig. S9- a, advanced stage of germination of the common garden pea (Pisutn sa-
Uvum) showing growing point of root protected by root-cap (p) ; root branches or second-
ary roots (rb) ; hypocotyl (he) ; epicotyl or stem above the cotyledons (ec) ; cotyledons
(one in view) (c). B, plantlet of white or yellow mustard {Sinapis alba) showing copious
development of root-hairs (h) .

although on the other hand some of the higher plants do not pos-
sess them, as certain of the saprophytic orchids and some of the
aquatic plants as Utricularia, Lemna, etc. If we take a germinat-
ing plant and mark the root into ten equal divisions, begin-

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

ning at the apex, and place the plant in a moist chamber, it will be
found in the course of one or two days that the marks between i
and 5 have become much further apart, and that the growth in this
region is about three times that between 5 and 10. This experi-

FiG. 60. Longitudinal section through the tip of the root of Indian corn {Zea Mays)
showing root-cap: a, outer layer; i, inner layer.^ — After Sachs.

ment indicates that the growth of the root takes place at or near
the apex, this region being known as the point of growth, or point
of vegetation (Fig. 60).

Upon examining the tip of a very young root by means of the
microscope, it will be seen that the growing point is protected by

94 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

a cup-shaped body of a more or less solid structure and frequently
mucilaginous ; its function is to protect the growing point, and
exists in all roots of terrestrial, epiphytic and aquatic plants except
the parasites.

Just above the root-cap there is developed a narrow zone of
delicate hairs, which arise from the surface cells and are usually
thin-walled and unicellular. These are known as root-hairs
(Fig. 59, B) and their function is twofold: (i) They secrete an
acid which renders the inorganic substances of the earth soluble,
and (2) they absorb these and other substances for the nourish-
ment of the plant. It should be stated that there are a number of
plants which for various reasons do not possess root-hairs, such
as water-plants, marsh-plants, certain Coniferae, etc.

When the primary root persists (as in Gymnosperms and
Dicotyledons) it increases considerably in length and becomes
ramified ; if at the same time, it increases in thickness, and much
more so than its branches, then it is called a tap-root (as in
Dancus, Beta, etc.).

In the vascular cryptogams (Pteridophytes) and the monocoty-
ledons the primary root is generally thin and weak, frequently
but little ramified, and disappears at an early stage, being re-
placed by SECONDARY ROOTS, as in Zea. Secondary roots may
arise not only upon the stem but even upon leaves as in Begonia
and Bryophyllum. The term lateral roots is restricted to those
that develop from the root alone.

The development of roots upon shoots or of so-called " ad-
ventitious ROOTS " occurs in nearly all of the woody plants of
the Spermophyta. Many annual herbaceous plants do not possess
this capacity at all. The adventitious roots arise from " root-
primordia " which are formed under the cortex of the shoots.
While ordinarily they do not develop upon the shoots, vet if
cuttings are made, as of Coleus, Geranium, Rosa, etc., we find
" either singly or on both sides of the axillary buds " the
development of adventitious roots from the latent root-primordia.

Influence of Gravity. — The root is popularly supposed to
grow downward, in order to avoid the light. On the other
hand, the theory has ]:)een established (as a result of Knight's
experiments) that the root grows downward ])y reason of the
influence of gravity. In addition it may be said that the principal

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

functions of the root, namely, those of absorbing inorganic food
materials, and of fixing the plant to the soil, determine in a meas-
ure the direction of its growth. The tendency of the root to grow
downward is a characteristic which distinguishes it from other
parts of the plant and it is said to be positively geotropic CFio-
6i,A).

The influence which gravity has on plants may be best under-
stood by bearing in mind that gravity is a constant force which
acts perpendicularly to the surface of the earth, and that all parts
of the plant are subject to its influence. The organs of plants

X-^l:

Fig. 6i. A, seedling of Brassica nigra in which root and stem have curved into a
vertical position after being laid horizontally. B, seedling of Sinapis alba, the hypocotyl
showing a positive, the root in water a negative heliotropic curvature. The arrows show
the direction of the incident rays of light. — After Pfeffer.

respond in different ways to the action of gravity, but a clear
distinction should be made between mere mass attraction or that
manifestation of the force of gravity whereby the heavily laden
branch of a fruit tree bends downward and the stimulus which
causes the primary root of a plant to (^rcnc downward and the
shoot to grow upv.^ard. While all parts of the plant are subject
to the influence of gravity not all the organs of plants respond
in an equal degree. This is well illustrated by roots themselves.
It is well known that whatever the position of the seed at the
time of germination the young radicle begins to grow per[)en-

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

dicularly downward (Fig. 6i, A). The branches, however, which
arise on the primary root are less positively geotropic and instead
of growing downward parallel with the primary or tap root, di-
verge at an angle from it (Fig. 88). The secondary branches are
still less affected by gravity and diverge still more from the perpen-
dicular, or grow out horizontally, while still others do not appear
to be in the least affected by gravity and grow freely in any direc-
tion. In the case of large trees we frequently find that the lateral

Fig. 62. Over-turned tree trunk showing spreading root-system, the main or

tap root having died away.

roots spread out in a more or less horizontal plane near the sur-
face of the earth, and if the main root has died the influence of
gravity is not very evident (Fig. 62) . But here it must be remem-
bered that gravity was instrumental in determining the direction
of growth at an earlier stage. This spreading of the roots near
the surface of the earth is of decided advantage to plants, for it
enables them to avail themselves of the better soil of the surface
layers. As indicated, gravity also determines the upward perpen-
dicular direction of the shoot, which is therefore said to be

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 97

NEGATIVELY GEOTROPic, but, as ill the casc of the root, the branches
are less influenced by it and hence diverge at various angles from
the main axis.

Some of the other effects of gravity may be noted. If the end
of a shoot be cut off the branches next to the top will grow per-
pendicularly upward and thus assume the work of the main axis.
Likewise in the case of roots, if the apex of the main or tap root
be cut off the branches near the end will assume a perpendicular
direction. It will frequently be noticed in the case of trees which
have been uprooted or where branches have been bent over hori-
zontally that the new branches which arise grow perpendicularly
upward. Creeping shoots furnish another good example showing
the influence of gravity, the branches growing upward and the
roots downward.

Modified Roots. — Roots which arise from the nodes of the
stem or other parts of the plant are known as secondary or adventi-
tious roots. These include the aerial roots of the banyan tree,
which are for the purpose of support ; the roots of the ivy, which
are both for support and climbing, and the roots of Indian corn
and man}- palms which serve both for support and the absorp-
tion of nourishment. LTnder this head may also be included the
aerial roots of orchids and the root-like structures, or haustoria,
of parasites, as of mistletoe and dodder, which penetrate the
tissues of their host plants.

Of special interest also are the breathing roots of certain
marsh-plants which serve to convey oxygen to the submerged
parts ; and the assimilation roots of certain water-plants and
epiphytes, which are unique in that they produce chlorophyll.
In certain plants the roots give rise to adventitious shoots as in
Prunus, Rubus, Ailanthus, etc., and in this way these plants
sometimes form small groves.

Root Tubercles. — The roots of the plants belonging to the
Leguminosse are characterized by the production of tubercles,
nodules or swellings (Fig. 64) which have been shown to have
a direct relation to the assimilation of nitrogen by the plants of
this family. Like carbon, nitrogen is one of the elements essential
to plant-life, being one of the constituents of protoplasm and
present in various nitrogenous (protein) compounds which occur

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

as normal constituents of the plant. The nitrogen required by
plants is derived either from nitrogen salts contained in the soil,

Fu;. 63. Tuberous root of ginseng iPayiax qiiiyiqtiejolium). The root on the left is a
fresh specimen ami was grown in tiie United States. The one to the right was purchased
at a Chinese bazaar and cost 75 cents. It is translucent, of a yellowisli-brown color, rnd
has the characteristic shape considered desirable by the Chinese. The markings on the
upper segment of the specimen are stem scars which are usually found on old roots. The
translucent appearance is no doubt due to the manner of treatment. While the method
is not generally known, similar specimens may be prepared by treating the recently
gathered roots with freshly slaked lime.

as nitrates and ammonium salts, or from the free nitrogen of
the atnidsphcrr. \\'hile mo'^t of the higlicr i)l.'int^ ;m"c alilc 1m
assimilate nitrogen conipimniN cxi^ling in ihr Miil, <<\\\\ the

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

LeguminosK, with possibly a few exceptions, are able to assimi-
late atmospheric nitrogen, and in this respect the majority of the
Leguminosas stand as a class by themselves. Apparently in
direct relation to this character stands the fact that the seeds of
these plants contain a high percentage of nitrogen. This special
ability of the Leguminosae to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the plants
depends upon the presence of the nodules, which are due to the

Fig. 64. Root tubercles on Lupinus, one of the Leguminosce: A, roots with tubercles;
B, transverse section of root showing the cells (b) which contain the nitrogen bacteria. — •
A, after Taubert; B, after Frank.

infection of the roots by a soil-bacterium (Pseudomonas radici-
cola), although the precise mode of fixing the nitrogen is not
known. The bacteria seem to be localized in the nodules and are
not found in any other part of the plant.

It has been shown that when the roots of leguminous plants
are free from nodules thev do not have the power of assimilating
free nitrogen. On the other hand when the nodules produced by
the bacteria arc developed, the plants will grow in soil practically

100 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

free from nitrogen salts. Because of this power the plants of this
family are useful in restoring worn-out land, i.e., land in which
the supply of nitrogen is exhausted, and they thus play an impor-
tant role in agricultural pursuits.

The enriching of the soil is accomplished by ploughing under
the leguminous crops, as of clover or alfalfa, or allowing the
nodule-producing roots to decay, When the nitrogen compounds
are distributed in the soil.

II. THE STEM.

The stem, or ascending axis of the plant, usually grows in a
direction opposite to that of the root, seeking the light and air.
The tendency of the stem to grow upward is characteristic of
the majority of plants, and is spoken of as negative geotropism.
The growing point of the stem is at the apex, and it is protected
by a layer of bud scales (Fig. io8, B).

Stems are further characterized by bearing leaves, or modi-
fications of them. The leaves occur at regular intervals in the
same species, and that portion of the stem from which they arise
is spoken of as a node, while the intervening portion is called an
internode. -

Stem Branches usually arise in the axils of the leaves,
first appearing as little protuberances, sometimes spoken of as
primordia, on the stem. Their origin differs from that of the
root branches, in that they arise from meristematic or embryonic
tissue (p. i8i) developed just beneath the epidermis. The
branches, like the main axis, manifest negative geotropism.
although to a lesser degree. They likewise possess a growing
point at the apex, covered with embryonic leaves (Fig. io8).
Not infrequently more than one branch arises in the leaf axil.

Buds may be defined as undeveloped shoots in which the
foliage is yet rudimentary. The buds at the ends of stems or
branches are known as apic.\l, or terminal buds, and those situ-
ated in the axils of the leaves, as axillary buds. In some cases
they are protected by scales, as in hickory, when they are known as
scaly buds ; while buds which are not thus protected, are called
naked buds. They are further distinguished as leaf, flower, and
mixed buds, as they develop into leaves, or flowers, or hoih.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

101

We have to distinguish between overground shoots and under-
ground shoots. The former are sometimes designated as epi-
geous (upon the earth) and the latter as hypogeous (under the
cartli ) .

Epigeous Shoots. — As woukl be supposed these two kinds
of shoots vary to a certain extent. In epigeous shoots a number

Fig. 65

G. 66.

Fig. 65. Woody vine of Canada moonseed (Menispennum canadense), which ascends by

twining to the right.
Fig. 66. Stem of wild yamroot {Dioscorea vtUosa), which ascends by twining to the left,
and bsveral of the characteristic 3-winged capsules at the top.
The twining movements of stem climbers are due to the stimulus of gravity rather
than to contact stimulus, and in the majority of twining plants the revolving movements,
as seen from the side, are from the left to the right, i.e., in a direction opposite to that of
the hands of a watch if represented diagrammatically.

of features may be noted. If the internodes are long the leaves
do not usually interfere with one another so far as exposure to
light is concerned, but if the internodes are short, the leaves are
all brought close together on the axis, and hence were it not for
various modifications, their relation to light would be very
unequal. Sometimes the shoot-axis may share with the leaves

102

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the work of assimilation, as in the case of certain green stems.
Then again there are cases in which the leaves are reduced, and
the work of assimilation is carried on exclusively bv the shoot-

FiG. 67. Bryonia dioica. a, young, spirally coiled tendril; b, expanded and irritable
tendril; c, tendril which has grasped a support; d. tendril which has not grasped a sup-
port, and has undergone the old-age coiling. — iVfcer Pfeffer.

axes, as in most Cactacese, certain marsh-plants and others. On
the other hand the shoot-axis may be modified so as to increase the
assimilating surface, as by a flattening of the axis, as in some of

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERAIS.

103

the Cacti, the leaves being suppressed or considerably reduced.
Branches are not infrequently modified to hard, pointed and
spiny structures, as in the Japanese quince, when they are spoken
of as thorns. Leaves and even flowers may arise ui)on thorns,
which shows that they are modified branches.

A number of plants ascend into the air on other plants, or
other objects which serve as supports, either by attaching them-
selves to them or by twining around them, when they are dis-
tinguished as twiners and climbers. Twiners ascend by a special

Fig. 68. Rhizome of Podophyllum representing three years' growth: b'.the terminal
bud of last year; b-, the corresponding one of the present year; B, the terminal one of the
entire rhizome will develop in the spring of next year. L^ and L- indicate the scars of aerial
leaves of the two preceeding years' growth; b^ and b^, latent buds.— After Holm.

circumnutating movement of the stem, as in the morning glory,
Menispermum (Fig. 65), etc. Climbers, however, ascend by
means of special structures, as the aerial roots of the ivy (root
climbers) ; or they may climb by means of leaves, as in Clematis
(leaf climbers) : still others climb by means of tendrils, as in the
grape and Bryonia (tendril climbers) (Fig. 66) ; and again plants
may climb by means of hooked hairs or spines as in Rubus, Rosa,
etc. The tendrils, which are thread-like modifications of the
stem, are in some cases provided with disk-Hke attachments for
holding the plant in position, as in the Virginia creeper. Twiners
and climbers are sometimes spoken of as lianes (lianas), particu-
larly those of tropical regions, where they form a prominent
feature of the forest vegetation. The lianes usually have rope-
like, woody stems, the formation of leaves being either suppressed
or retarded, and they often run for long distances over the ground
and climb to the tops of the tallest trees. They are also frequently

I04

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

characterized by an anomalous stem-structure, the tracheae being
very large.

Stems vary furthermore in size and form. While most stems
are more or less cylindrical or terete, other forms also occur, as
the flattened stems in the Cactacese ; triangular in the Cyperaceae,
and quadrangular in the Labiatae and Scrophulariaceae.

Fir.. 69. Polygonal um muUiflorum , a plant growing in tlie Northern Hemispheres and
Japan and producing a rhizome resembling our Solomon's Seal {Polygonatum biflorum).
A, rhizome placed artificially higher in the soil than the normal depth; its continuation
shoot has grown downwards. B, rhizome placed deeper than the normal depth; its con-
tinuation shoot has grown upwards. The dotted lines at h indicate the amount of annual
growth in the rhizomes A and B. C, a seedling rhizome. At the right is the seed, which
encloses the haustorial end of the cotyledon; H, primary root; n, lateral roots arising within
the axis of the shoot; a, posterior side of cotylar sheath; v, anterior side of the same; b, c,
katophyls (or leaves on hypogeous shoots) on the axis of the seedling. — A and B, after
Rimbach; C, after Irmisch. (From Goebel's "Organography of Plants.")

Hypogeous Shoots. — While most stems attain a more or
less erect position as in trees and shrubs there are others which
bend over to one side, or lie prostrate on the ground, and in some
cases produce roots from the nodes, as in Mentha spicata. These
latter are known as stolons or runners.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 105

Furthermore the stems of a number of plants grow under-
ground and these are known as rhizomes or root-stocks; from
the upper portion of the nodes overground branches arise which
bear leaves (so that the work of assimilation may be carried on)
as well as flowers, and from the lower surface, roots (Fig. 68).

While most rhizomes are perceptibly thickened, and more or
less fleshy when fresh, as Saiiguinaria, in other instances they are
of the ordinary thickness of the overground stem. 1^

There are some rhizomes that are excessively thickened, as
in the common white potato, and these are called tubers. The
so-called " eyes " are small buds covered with small scale-like
leaves which develop into shoots. Tubers should not be con-
founded with tuberous roots, as those of the sweet potato and
jalap, for these latter have the morphological characters of roots.

Instead of the node, or internode, or both, becoming excess-
ively thickened, they may be reduced in size and crowded upon
each other, the leaves at the same time becoming thickened and
filled with nutriment. Such a modified stem and leaves, as in the
onion, is called a bulb. Bulbs are sometimes produced in the
axils of the leaves of overground stems, as in some lilies, and
are then called bulbils or bublets. They are also found in Allium,
forming what are commonly known as "onion sets." P>ulbs and
tubers serve not only as storage-organs and carry the life of the
plant over from one season to another but may form, as in bulb-
lets, an important means of distributing the plants. The thick-
ened fleshy stems of Cactacese are also regarded as storage organs.

A coRM is intermediate between a true tuber and a bulb ;
it is more in tlie nature of a thickened internode, being sur-
rounded in some cases by thin membranous scales, as in Crocus
and Colchicum.

The function of the vegetative shoot is to absorb nutrition
from the earth as well as from the air. The shoot may be aerial
or subterranean. Some plants possess only aerial shoots or
LIGHT-SHOOTS, as for instance trees, shrubs and herbs that flower
but once. Other plants possess both aerial and subterranean
shoots and of these the subterranean shoot may exhibit some of
the peculiarities of roots, in that they do not develop chlorophyl
and produce secondary roots for the purpose of obtaining nutri-

io6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tive substances from the soil. The subterranean shoots are
generally destitute of true leaves and are furnished only with
membranous or sometimes thick, fleshy leaves which are bladeless,
pale, scale-like or tubular.

Depending- upon the duration of the shoot (or better the stem),
plants are divided into herbs, shrubs and trees. In herbs the
aerial shoots are herbaceous, while in shrubs and trees they be-
come woody and persist throughout many years.

J\Iany of the herbs have subterranean shoots, but these are
generally absent from woody plants, excepting in Sambucus,
Ailanthus, Calycanthus, etc. The herbs may be further sub-
divided as annual, biennial and perennial.

In ANNUAL herbs the individual possesses only aerial shoots
and the plant sets fruit the same year that the individual has de-
veloped from the seed. In biennial herbs the plant does not
produce flowers until the second season. The perennial herbs
on the other hand develop flowers continuously for many (or at
least several) years and also produce subterranean shoots, such
as creeping rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, etc.

The roots, of annuals, biennials and perennials dififer in a num-
ber of particulars. In the annuals, belonging to the monocoty-
ledons, the roots are fibrous, possessing numerous lateral branches,
whereas in the annuals belonging to the dicotyledons only the
primarv roots develop. The biennials are nearly all dicotyledons
and have a persistent primary root which while usually slender
may become fleshy, as in Beta. In the perennials, on the other
hand, we find a number of dififerent types of roots varying from
the slender aerial roots of epiphytes, to the smaller tuberous,
fleshy roots of many terrestrial plants, and the peculiar roots of
parasites.

III. THE LEAF.

Leaves are lateral formations upon the stem and their growth
is definite. They never occur on other portions of the plant than
stems from the surface of which they are developed. Leaves
appear in acropetal succession, so that the youngest leaves occur
nearest the apex of the stem. Terminal leaves are extremely
rare but arise in some instances from the flowers of certain
Euphorbiaceai.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERxMS.

107

A Simple Leaf consists of a lamina or blade, which is usu-
ally membranous and of a green color, and a petiole or stalk,
which, however, may be wanting when the leaf is said to be sessile.
Leaves may also possess a pair of leaf-like structures at the base,
known as stipules (Figs. 70, 74). The principal function of
the latter appears to be that of protecting the buds, as in the
tulip poplar {Liriodcndron) (Fig. 74), although they may

Fio.

Fig. ti-

Fic. 70. A, leaf of violet (Viola tricolor) showing broad lamina, long petiole, and one

of the palmately-lobed stipules at the base of the petiole.
Fig. 71. B, C, stages in the development of the leaf. The lobes of the stipules (s) de-
velop before the lamina fl).

become leaf-like and assist in the functions of the lamina, as in
the pansy {Viola tricolor) (Fig. 70).

Right Relation of Leaves. — While the lamina of the leaf
appears to assume a more or less horizontal position, it usually
inclines at such an angle as to receive the greatest amount of dif-
fused daylight. Wiesner has shown, for instance, that when
plants are so situated that they receive direct sunlight only for a
time in the morning, and diffused daylight during the rest of the
day, the position of the upper surface is at right angles to the

io8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

incident rays of daylight, and not to that of the rays of the
morning sun. This phenomenon may be studied in the house
geranium and other window plants. In endeavoring to explain this
behavior of the leaves, Frank assumes it to be due to a kind of
heliotropic irritability peculiar to dorsiventral organs, and terms

it TRANSVERSE HELIOTROPISM.

The stem, as well as the petiole or stalk of the leaf, is also
influenced by the light, and is said to manifest positive helio-
tropism. Those parts of plants that turn away from the light, as
the aerial roots of the ivy, are said to possess negative helio-
tropism.

Depending upon their relation to external agents, several forms
of leaves are distinguished. In those which assume a more or
less horizontal position the two surfaces of the lamina are quite
different, and the leaves are said to be dorsiventral, or bifacial.
Usually there is a more compact arrangement or stronger develop-
ment of chlorophyll tissue on the upper or ventral surface, while
on the lower or dorsal surface the veins stand out more promi-
nently, and there is a greater number of stomata.

In contrast with this type of leaf may be mentioned those
which grow edgewise and in which both surfaces of the leaf are
more or less alike, as in the Eucalypts and Acacias of Australia.
In Iris and Calamus, the leaf-like organ is actually not the blade,
but merely a part of the dorsal face, which, in the bud, has already
pushed out so as to exceed the apex. Such leaves are called
sword-shaped and are frequently referred to as eouitant. The
leaves of certain species of Juncus, Carex and some of the grasses
are commonly spoken of as cylindric. Such leaves are, how-
ever, only apparently cylindrical, since the ventral surface is
often distinct, though much narrower than the dorsal. They
are also frequently hollow.

Functions of the Leaf, — When we speak of the leaves of
the plant we usually have in mind the foliage leaves or green
chlorophyll leaves.

Under the influence of sunlight the chloroplasts are able to
rearrange the elements in carbon dioxide and water, which are
looked upon as inorganic substances, into starch or related com-

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGiOSPERAlS. 109

pounds which are of an organic nature. This process is known
as carbon dioxide assimilation, or photosynthesis, which latter
term means the building up of a compound under the influence of
light. In this process, which is sometimes expressed by the fol-
lowing formula, oxygen is given off :

6CO, + 5H,0 = C,H,oO, + 60,

Carbon Dioxide Water Starch Oxygen

The importance of this function can be best appreciated by
bearing in mind that all of the organic products built up by the
plant are derived almost entirely from the carbon dioxide of the
air which is taken in through the leaves.

Transpiration and respiration are also functions of the leaf.
Transpiration is the giving off of water (through water-pores),
or watery vapor (through the stomata), which has been absorbed
by the root hairs and transported through the tissues of the root,
stem and leaf; the process of breathing, or respiration, consists
in the taking in of oxygen and giving off of carbon dioxide, the
exchange being just the reverse of what it is in photosynthesis.
These several functions are, however, not confined to the leaf
alone, but are carried on by all the green parts of the plant.

Leaf Venation, — The foliage leaves of higher plants are
traversed by vascular bundles, which enter the blade through the
petiole and diverge at the base, or, as in the case of Dicotyledons,
branch in various ways ; and it will be seen that the form of the
leaves corresponds to the distribution of the bundles. These
bundles are known as veins or nerves, and they have two func-
tions, namely, (i) that of a mechanical support, and (2) that of
carrying nutritive materials to and from the leaves.

The mode of venation in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons
differs somewhat, but it will be found that in a number of instances
the venation of leaves of plants belonging to one of these great
groups will resemble that of the leaves of certain plants in the
other group. However, there are certain general types belonging
to each group (Fig. y2).

Venation in Monocotyledons. — An examination of the
leaf of lily-of-the-valley shows that the primary veins run more
or less parallel to the apex with short though distinct anastomoses.
Such a leaf is said to be parallel-veined or nerved. It will

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY,

moreover be noticed that the distribution of the veins in this
manner produces a lamina with an even, or entire margin, and
such a system of venation is known as a closed system of
venation (Fig. 72, A). The leaves of Veratrum (Fig. 129) and
Zea Mays, furnish other examples of parallel-nerved leaves.

In palms (Fig. 251) the venation is somewhat different. The
veins instead of converging toward the apex as they do in the
more or less lanceolate leaf of lily-of-the valley, radiate from the
base to the margin of the more or less round leaf, and a leaf of
this type is said to be palmi-nerved.

Fig. 72. Leaf venation: A. parallel-veined leaf of Solomon's seal {Vagnera race-
mosa); B, pinnately-reticulate leaf of chestnut; C, palmately-veined leaf of Menispermum
canadense.

There is still a third type of venation in Monocotyledons.
In this instance one principal vein runs from the base to the apex
of the leaf, and from this branches run parallel to the margin.
The banana furnishes an example of this type, and is said to be

PINNT-NERVED.

Venation in Dicotyledons. — Here the veins are charac-
terized by their habit of repeatedly branching and anastomosing.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

whalcvcr the general t}pe of venation may be and thus form a
net-work or reticulum, hence the leaves are said to be reticulate
or NETTED-NEiNED. The principal types are as follows: A chest-

FiG. 73. Variation in the form cf leaves on the same plant: A, B, C, Leaves of
sassafras; D, young castor oil plant showing cotyledons (t) and variously lobed older
leaves. 1, lamina: p, petiole.

nut or chinquapin leaf (Fig. 72) furnishes a good illustration
of ;\ i)iiinatcl} -reticulate leaf. The principal vein which runs from

112 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the base to the apex is called the midrib, while the secondary
veins which arise from it and run more or less parallel to the
margin are sometimes spoken of as ribs and may be likened to the
plumes on the shaft of a feather.

In other cases several large veins arise at the base and diverge
toward the margin, giving rise to palm ately- veined leaves, as
in the leaf of maple. There are still other types, as in cinnamon
(Fig. 146) which is said to be rib-ncttcd, etc.

Surface of Leaves. — In addition to the markings of leaves
due to veining there are certain other characters which serve
to distinguish them. ITairs are of frequent occurrence on leaves,
being generally most abundant on the dorsal surface, especially the
veins, and various terms having reference to the kinds of hairs
have been ajiplied to leaves (page 210; Figs. 283, 284, 285).

Texture of Leaves. — Leaves also vary in texture. A thin
pliable leaf is called membranous ; one which is thick and leathery,
coriaceous ; and one which is thick and fleshy, succulent, as that
of the century plant and Aloe (Fig. 130).

Forms of Leaves. — The leaves of plants exhibit an almost
innumerable variety of forms (Fig. 78) ; even on the same plant
there are not infrequently several forms, as in Viola tricolor and
sassafras (Fig. 73) ; even the two sides of the same leaf may vary,
as in Haiiiauiclis (Fig. 264) and Begonia, when it is known as an
inequilateral or asymmetric leaf. It frequently happens that the
lower leaves on a shoot are lobed while the upper ones are entire,
or some of the leaves may be sessile and others petiolate. Many
of the terms used in ordinary language in describing the forms of
objects are applied here also, as linear, lanceolate, oblong, ellip-
tical, spatulate, wedge-shaped, etc.

Apex of Leaf. — A number of descriptive terms are employed
in describing the apex of the lamina, as acute, when the form is
that of an acute angle ; obtuse, when the angle is blunt; acumin-
ate, when the angle is prolonged ; truncate, when the end of
the leaf appears to be cut off ; retuse. when it is slightly notched
at the apex ; op.cordate, when the notch is pronounced ; emar-
ginate, when the degree of notching is between retuse and
obcordate. Sometimes the apex appears like the continuation of
the midrib, when it is termed cuspidate or mucronate.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

ii3

Base of Leaf. — Some of the terms used in describing the gen-
eral onthne, as well as the apex of the leaf, are also applied to the

^~\

Fig. 74. Leaves having different forms of stipules is): A, bud-scale stipules of Lirio-
dendroH tulipifera; B, thorny stipules and odd-pinnate compound leaf of the locust tree
(Robinia Pseudacacia) ; C, adnate stipules of rose; D, filiform stipules of the pear;
E, fringed clasping stipules (ocrea) characteristic of all of the Polygonums; F, adnate
stipules of clover.

base-, as obtuse, truncate, cordate, reniform, etc. Other terms,
however, csjiccially apply to the base, as cune.\te or wedge-

114 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

shaped; connate-perfoliatEj when opposite leaves are con-
nected at the base and surround the stem; perfoliate, when the
leaf simply clasps the stem. In Monocotyledons the base of the
leaf is frecjuently developed as a closed or open sheath, some-
times provided with a membranous protuberance between the
sheath and the blade, as in the ligule of grasses and sedges.

Margin of Leaf. — The leaves of many woody dicotyledonous
plants of temperate regions possess an even margin. The others
according to the degree and character of the incisions or inden-
tations, are described as serrate, when the apex of the divisions
or teeth is sharp and directed forward like the teeth of a saw ;
dentate, when the divisions project outward; crenate, when
the teeth are more or less rounded ; repand, when the margin is
somewhat wavy ; sinuate, when the wavy character is pro-
nounced ; LOBED, when the incisions extend not more than half-
way into the lamina, and the sinus (or hollow) and the lobe are
more or less rounded ; cleft, when the incisions are still deeper
and the sinuses and lobes are somewhat acute ; and divided (Figs.
75 and 76), when the incisions extend almost to the midrib.

Compound Leaves, — The divisions of a parted leaf may
assume the form of a simple leaf, when the divisions are known
as leaflets and the whole as a compovmd leaf. The distinction
between a simple leaf and a leaflet is, that the former has a bud in
the axil. The difference between the divisions of a simple leaf
and those of a compound leaf is this, — in the former they never
become detached from the petiole or midrib, whereas in the com-
pound leaf they are articulated and drop oft' individually. Com-
pound leaves may be divided into PiNNATELY-compound (Fig. 74)
or p.\LMATELY-compound (Fig. 78, E), this distinction depend-
ing upon whether the leaflets are arranged pinnately or palmately.
A number of forms of pinnately-compound leaves are recognized.
When the leaflets are all lateral (Fig. 71) the leaf is said to be
PARI-PINNATE ; when there is an odd or terminal leaflet as in
the locust (Fig. 74) the leaf is impari-pinnate ; when the midrib
is prolonged into a tendril as in the garden-pea {Pisimi) the
leaf is said to be cirriiiferous-pinn.-\te.

Movements of Leaves. — The leaves as well as other organs

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

115

of plants exhibit a variety of movements or curvatures in response
to stimuli of different kinds, and are said to possess the property
of irritability. Movements of organs are of two general classes :

Fig. 75. Limnophila heterophila, a marsh-plant belonging to the Scrophulariaceae and
growing in tropical Asia. The submerged or water leaves, below, are much divided and
arranged in apparent whorls; while the leaves at the end of the shoot above water are entire
and arranged in decussate dimerous whorls. In between occur transition forms, which are
divided and variously lobed and arranged in decussate whorls. — After Goebel.

(i) Those due to stimuli which originate in the plant and (2)
those due to the influence of external factors. To the former class
belong all those movements which occur during the course of

ii6

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 76. I, Leaf, fruits and flowers of Anemone Pulsatilla. 2, Leaf, flower and fruit
of Anemone pratense. The leaves are pinnately divided, the divisions being further incised
or dissected.

MORPHOLOGY OF AiMGlOSPERAlS. 117

development from the 3oung to the mature stage. .These are
known as growth movements or nutation. They are especially
noticeable in tips of growing branches, which instead of growing
in a straight line, move either from one side to the other, or coil
or curve about an imaginary axis. This spiral movement is
known as circumnutation and is characteristic of twining stems and
tendrils, as the hop vine (Fig. 136) and tendrils of Bryonia (Fig.
66). Nutation curvatures are due to unequal growth on two sides
of the organ and cease when there is a cessation in growth or
when the plant has reached maturity.

The movements of organs due to external stimuli are usually
in a direction which shows a relation to the direction of the stim-
ulus, as those produced by gravity and light (Fig. 61), and these
movements are of use in bringing the organs into more favorable
positions for growth. Stimuli of this kind are spoken of as
orienting or tropic. The compound leaves of a number of plants
exhibit in addition certain variable and periodic movements, which
have their origin in a special mechanism known as the pulvinis.
The pulvinis appears as a swelling on the petiole and consists of
parenchymatous tissue which is highly turgid, i.e., full of water.
Any stimulus, such as mechanical shock, which causes a differ-
ence in the degree of turgidity on two sides, will result in a move-
ment of the leaves in such plants as Mimosa, Oxalis and locust.
The leaves of Mimosa piidica, a common cultivated sensitive plant,
show a very rapid response to such stimuli, the leaflets folding
together and the petiole and petiolules drooping. In other cases
there is a change in the position of the leaves following the alter-
nations of day and night. During the day the leaflets are spread
out freely, but at night or in darkness they droop and fold
together. These are spoken of as nyctinastic (nyctitropic) or
" sleep movements," and are exhibited by a number of leguminous
plants, as clover, bean. Cassia (Fig. 71), and by wood-sorrel
(Oxalis Acetosella) and various cultivated species of Oxalis. The
leaves of Oxalis as well as of some other plants fold together
under the influence of intense light as well as at night or when
the amount of light is reduced. Of special interest also are the
lateral leaflets of Desmodimn i^yrans (telegraph plant) which
describe curvatures at more or less regular intervals day and

ii8

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

night when the temperature is favorable. The leaves of the
sundew (Drosera) are remarkable for their sensitiveness to touch.
The upper surface and margin are provided with peculiar hairs
or tentacles (Fig. yy, II) which when touched, as by an insect,
gradually curve inward. Not only this, the stimulus may be trans-
mitted to other tentacles and sometimes even the blade itself may
roll inward to some extent, thus entrapping small insects which
serve as food to the plant. The leaves of a related plant Dionoea

Fig. 77. So-called carnivorous plants. I, the pitcher plant {Sarracenia purpurea)
sViowing the modified pitcher-like leaves (A) with inflated portion which narrows into the
petiole, and a terminal, more or less spreading winged portion; and a flower and flower-bud
(B). II, Three species of sundew: A, Drosera rotundifolia; B, D. intermedia; C, D.
ongifolia. — I, after Gray; II, after Drude.

are even more sensitive and when special hairs on the blade are
touched that part of the lamina bearing these hairs closes with a
quick, trap-like movement imprisoning its insect prey.

Phyllotaxy, or phyllotaxis, is the study of the distribution
of leaves upon the stem, and of the laws which govern it. If we
examine germinating plants of the beech, the elm, or the oak, we
observe that, while the seed-leaves are opposite to each other, the

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

119

subsequent leaves are arranged according to a dififerent order in
these several plants, but in a definite manner in each. In the elm,
the distribution of the leaves is such that the third leaf is directly
above the first ; in the beech, the fourth leaf is above the first, and
in the oak, the sixth leaf is above the first. If these leaves are con-
nected in the order of their development, it will be seen that they
describe a spiral in their arrangement, and it will also be found
that one or more circuits of the stem are made between the super-
imposed leaves. Furthermore, it will be found that this arrange-
ment constitutes a mathematical series which may be expressed
in degrees, or the parts of a circle that the leaves are from each
other, this measure being known as divergence ; or by the number
of perpendicular rows of leaves on the stem, which are known as

ORTHOSTICHIES.

The following may serve to illustrate the terms used :

DIVERGENCE.

LEAVES.

Degrees.

Parts of a Circle.

ORTHOSTICHIES.

Elm

180
120
144

i
1
3

Distichous

Beech

Tristichous

Oak

Pentastichous

If we examine the fractions used, we will find that the numer-
ator indicates the number of turns around the stem before encoun-
tering a superimposed leaf, and that the denominator indicates
the number of leaves found ; the latter also expresses the number
of orthostichies. On adding the numerators and denominators of
any two successive fractions, a fraction is obtained which ex-
presses the next highest arrangement, as

1 4- i — 2. • i

2 I 3 5 ^ 3

In quite a number of plants two leaves arise at the nodes, as
in the Labiatze. These are invariably situated opposite each other
on the stem, and the successive pairs alternate with one another,
forming the decussate arrangement of leaves (Figs. 6"/, 136,
168, 172).

120

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Modified Leaves, — Leaves are variously modified and
serve for otlier purposes thau those already described. They may
be fleshy iu character and serve as storehouses for nutritive mate-
rial, as the seed-leaves of the oak, or they may serve for the stor-
age of water, as in Agave and Aloe (Fig-. 130). In some in-
stances, particularly when situated near the flowers, they lose

Fig. 78. Group of transplanted wild plants showing variation in form of leaves.
A. Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) showing sporophylls (fertile leaves) and a cluster
of pinnatifid sterile leaves, the pinna^ being linear-lanceolate and deeply pinnatifid; B,
wild ginger (Asarum caMadewse) showing basal, reniform, long-petiolate leaves with cordate
base and slightly pointed apex; C, young hickory (Hicoria ovatd) showing the odd-pinnate
(imparipinnate), 5- to 7-foliate leaves; D, temate, decompound leaf of Virginia grape fern
(Botrychium virginianum); E, digitately compound leaves of cinquefoil {Potentilla).

their green color, as in the dogwood, skunk cabbage and others.
In other cases they are modified so that they serve as a trap for
insects, as in species of Sarracenia and Drosera (Fig. yj). The
petiole may become enlarged and perform the functions of the

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 121

leaf, as in the acacias, of Australia; or it may become bladder-
like and serve as a means for floating the plant, as in the water
hyacinth. The stipules may likewise be modified, becoming leaf-
like, as in the pansy (Fig. 70) ; or metamorphosed into thorns, as
in the locust ; or clasping, as in Polygonum. In some cases the
leaves are very much reduced, their functions being performed by
the stem, as in Cactacea, or even by the roots, as in some orchids
which have assimilating roots.

Prefoliation or vernation is the disposition of leaves in the
bud. The terms used to describe the folding of the leaves in the
bud are derived from an examination of transverse sections of
the bud. The following are some of the terms which are em-
ployed : CONDUPLICATE, when the lamina of the leaf is folded
lengthwise along the midrib so that the two halves of the upper
surface lie together, as in the Magnoliacece ; plicate or plaited,
when the lamina is folded along the veins, like a closed fan, as in
the maples ; convolute, when rolled lengthwise and forming a
coil in cross section, as in the Rosacecc ; involute, when both mar-
gins are inrolled lengthwise on the upper surface, as in the violets ;
REVOLUTE, wdien both margins are inrolled lengthwise on the lower
surface, as in Azalea.

In addition, there are several terms used which are derived
from the appearance of the bud, as reclinate or inflexed, when
the upper part is bent on the lower, as in Liriodendron ; and
circinate, when the upper part is coiled on the lower so that the
tip of the leaf is in the center of the coil, as in the ferns.

IV. THE FLOWER.

The flower is a shoot which has undergone a metamorphosis
so as to serve as a means of propagating the individual. It is
an unbranched and definite shoot, or an apex of a shoot. It
might be termed a " dwarf-branch " that dies and drops off the
plant after the maturation of the fruit. The most complete
flower has four kinds of leaves : sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels.

While the flower is a very complicated structure in many
cases, the definition given it by some writers is very simple. It

122 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

is defined as a branch which bears sporophylls. As we have
seen, a sporophyll is a leaf which bears sporangia. According to
the definition given, the strobiles or cones of the Gymnosperms
and certain Pteridophytes, as the horsetails and clnb mosses,
are entitled to rank as flowers. In Angiosperms other leaves may
be present, and these are known as the floral leaves. The
flower then in Angiosperms is made up of sporophylls which are
essential, and floral leaves which may or may not be present. But
in speaking of the sporophylls of the flower in Angiosperms it is
customary to use terms which were applied to them before their
relation to the similar organs in the Gmynosperms and Pterido-
phytes was understood. Thus the microsporophylls as already
pointed out, are known as stamens, and the megasporophylls as

CARPELS.

For a great many years botanists taught that the stamens and
carpels are transformed foliage leaves, — in other words that they
are derived from foliage leaves, but in more recent years the view
has been established that they arise as independent members, are in
fact as independent as the foliage leaves themselves. Various
transformations or modifications may and do occur, but these
are not confined to the foliage leaves alone for under certain con-
ditions the sporophylls may assume the character of floral leaves.

It is true that in the case of some ferns, the sporophylls bear
a strong resemblance to foliage leaves, as in Aspidiiiiii Felix mas
(Fig. 277), but this does not necessarily prove that the sporo-
phylls of Angiosperms are transformed leaves, but only that the
further back we go, the less the degree of differentiation of parts
until we reach the unicellular algae.

The flowers of the Angiosperms differ from those of the
Gymnosperms in tnat the ovules- (megasporangia) are enclosed,
before pollination, in an ovary which has developed a special
organ — the stigma — for the reception of the pollen grains (micro-
spores) and the floral envelopes are much more conspicuous.

The several parts of the flower are arranged more or less
compactly at the terminus of an axis known as the flower branch,
the special portion bearing these parts being known as the torus
(sometimes spoken of as the receptacle), and that portion below
the flower proper as the flower stalk (Fig. 83, PE). The carpel

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 123

or carpels occupy the terminal portion of the branch while the
stamens and floral leaves occur in circles or whorls below.

Pistil. — There may be only one carpel present in a flower
or there may be more. In the latter case the carpels may remain
distinct or they may be united, but whatever the number or the
degree of union, it is the carpel or carpels which constitute the
closed structure known as the pistil. The pistil is usually diiTer-
entiated into three quite distinct regions: (i) A lower bulbous
portion which contains the ovules, known as the ovary; (2) a
neck-like portion known as the style; and (3) at the top of
the style a specialized portion which receives the pollen, known
as the STIGMA (Figs. 83 and 85). When the pistil is made up
of a single carpel it is said to be simple, and when composed
of more than one carpel it is called compound.

The carpels in the compound pistil appear to be united in
different ways. Sometimes they appear to have coalesced or
grown together at the margins, thus forming an ovary with Init
one chamber or compartment (Fig. 84, B). In other cases the
carpels appear as though they were incurved or folded together at
the margins along the line of union, thus forming septa or walls
which divide the inner cavity into several compartments or
lociilcs (Fig. 84, A, C).

When the carpels are not Uiuited but remain separate, there
are as many pistils as carpels, as in the flowers of buttercup (Fig.
84, D). Thus a unilocular ovary may belong to a simple or com-
pound pistil.

GynvEcium. — The aggregate of pistils in a flower constitutes
the gynsecium. If the gynascium is made up of a number of simple
pistils, as in the flower of buttercup (Fig. 84, D) , it is said to be
APOCARPOUS. But if the carpels are united into one structure, then
the gynsecium. is said to be syncarpous, as in the orange flower,
which is in reality equivalent to a compound pistil. Inasmuch as
the styles and stigmas are frequently not united the expression
compound ovary is usually employed. According as the gynse-
cium consists of one, two, three or many carpels, it is said to be
monocarpellary, dicarpellary, tricarpellary or polycarpellary.

The pistil of the flower of the pea is simple and has an elongated
ovary, and upon dissecting the ovary and also making a trans-

124

BUTANY AND riiARMACUGNOSY

verse section of it, it is o1)serve(l that the ovules are borne upon
the part which projects from the concrescent margins into the
cavity, this part being known as the placenta, and the united
margins of the carpel forming the " inner " or ventral suture.
In the syncarpous gynsecium the ventral suture of the carpels is
directed toward the axis of the flower ; in some cases that portion

Fig. 79. Pistils and different kinds of stigmas. A, simple (monocarpellary) pistfl
of willow with lobed stigma; B, compound pistil of Fourcroya with head-like stigma; C,
longitudinal section through flower of Spondias with five separate styles and stigmas,
only three of which are shown; D, flower of Peperomia showing bristly stigma; E, recurved,
thread-like stigmas of the Upas-tree (Antiaris); F, flower of a Canary grass showing the
tw(i simple plumose stigmas; G, pistillate flower of couch grass showing the two compound
plumose stigmas; H, thread-like stigmas of pistillate inflorescence of Eitchlar.a one of
the grasses; J, tri-parted stigmas of the pistillate flower of the castor-oil plant; K, L,
two forms of stigmas of Begonia. — After Engler.

of the carpel corresponding to the midrib is very prominent, as
in the Papilionatse, and has received the name of " outer " or
dorsal suture.

There are as many locules in the ovary as there are carpels,
and the walls or partitions between the locules of a syncarpous
gynsecium are known as dissepiments; when three or more

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 125

carpels are united the number of dissepiments corresponds to the
number of carpels. It sometimes happens that a partition or wall
is intruded from the mid-vein of the carpel, dividing a unilocular
ovary into one that is bi-locular, as in species of Astragalus, and
such a partition is termed a false dissepiment.

When no other than the true dissepiments exist in the s\n-
carpous gynaecium the placentas are borne along the axis of the
flower and are termed axial placentas. In the Caryophyllacese
the ovules are borne upon a central axis, and the dissepiments
having been absorbed the gynaecium is said to possess a free
central placenta. In other cases the placentas grow backward
from the central axis toward the mid-vein of the carpel, carrying
the ovules with them, when they are spoken of as parietal pla-
centas, as in colocynth fruit (Fig. 254).

The Style not only varies in shape and size but in the manner
of attachment to the ovary (Fig. 79) ; it may be very short, as in
the clove; long and filiform, as in (Enothera; club-shaped (clav-
ate) as in the orange ; or broad and petalloid, as in Iris. It is usu-
ally situated at the summit of the ovary when it is said to be apical
or terminal ; it may, however, be laterally attached, as in the straw-
berry, or, as in a few instances, attached to the base of the ovary. It
is usually smooth, but may be hairy, as in the Compositae. The styles
like the carpels may be separate or united, and in the latter case
may have a central canal connecting the stigma with the ovary, as
in the violets. While usually deciduous, the style may be more or
less persistent — forming a part of the fruit — or even become much
elongated, as in the dandelion.

The Stigma is an essential part of the pistil in that it is the
germinating ground of the pollen grains, it being viscid and espe-
cially adapted for this purpose (Fig. 79). The stigmas may be
separate, as in the Composite, or they may be united into a more
or less club-shaped or globular head, consisting of as many lobes
as there are stigmas, as in the poppy. The stigma, while usually
solid, may have an opening, as in the violets, which sometimes has
a lid-like appendage, as in Viola tricolor.

The Ovules (Fig. 85), as we have already seen, are small
bodies which are borne on the placentas, and which, after fertiliza-
tion develop into seeds. The number of ovules varies considerably

126

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

— there may be but one, as in the ahnond, or there may be a large
number, as in the watermelon.

There are several principal forms of ovules (Fig. 80) recog-
nized, of which the following may be mentioned : ( i ) atropous,
in which the ovule is straight and erect on its stalk, as in the
Urticacese; (2) anatrofous, in which the ovule is bent over on to
the stalk so as to be in an inverted position, the line of attachment
of the ovule and stalk being known as the raphe (Fig. 85, w) ; (3)
CAMPYLOTROPOUS, in which the ovule is bent upon itself, as in
Stramonium, this form being less frequent than the other two.
Most of the ovules of flowering plants are anatropous.

Stamen. — As already indicated the stamen consists of a
stalk-like portion called the filament, and a specialized portion

Fig. 80. Three positions of ovules. A, atropous; B, anatropous; C, campylotropous.
(f) funiculus or stalk; (c) chalaza, or point of union of nucellus and integuments; (k) nucellus
or megasporangium ; (em) embryo-sac or megaspore; (ai) outer integument; (ii) inner
integument; (m) foramen or orifice for entrance of pollen tube, known as the micropyle
in the seed; (r) raphe. — After Prantl.

which bears the sporangia, called the anther (Fig. 81). The
filament may be long or short or wanting. It is commonly thread-
like, but varies considerably, and is sometimes leaf-like.

The Anther is the essential part of the stamen (Figs. 81, 85)
and consists of two lobes, each of which is composed of two divi-
sions or pollen sacs (Fig. 53). These sacs contain the pollen
which is commonly discharged either through a longitudinal
suture or line of dehiscence, or through an opening at the tip.
The anthers may be variously attached to the filament (Fig. 81).
When they face the axis of the flower they are said to be introrse.
as in the Violacese, and when they face the perianth they are said
to be EXTRORSE, as in the Magnoliaceae ; when they lie horizontally

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

127

on the tip of the filament, so that they swing as on a pivot, as in
the tiger Hly, they are said to be versatile; when they adhere
longitudinally to the sides of the filament and the dehiscence is

r^-o

Fig. 81. DifTerent types of stamens. Abbreviations: filament (f), pollen sacs or
theca (sporangia) (th), connective (c). A, stamens of a water lily (Nymphtva) showing
variation in the stamens (a-d); B, theca near middle of the stamen oi Popowia; C, anther of
another species of Popowia with fleshy connective and pollen sacs on either side; D, stamen
of Tradcscantia with transverse connective; E, F, G, stamens of several Commelinacece
with broad connectives; H, stamen of Salvia with peculiar swinging connective and an
aborted pollen sac or staminodium (std) at the lower end and the fertile pollen sac above;
J, peculiar elongated connective of Unona; K, elongated connective of Humiri; L, androe-
cium of violet showing two spurred sessile stamens; M, stamen of Columelia with sinuous
confluent anthers, broid connective and short filament; N, confluent transverse pollen
sa.cs, oiArisarum; O, united pollen sacs of Columbine showing small connective; P, spherical
pollen sacs of CaZ/a, with slightly developed connective; Q, versatile anther and long, slen-
der filament of dead nettle (Lamium album) ; R, dehiscence of anther of Solanum by means
of terminal pores; S, spurred anther of Arbutus with terminal pores; various kinds of val-
vular dehiscence, as in Berberis {T), Atherosperma (U) and Persea (V). — A, after Caspary;
B. H-R, U, V, after Baillon; S. T, after Sachs; D-G, after Schonland.

128

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

marginal, they are said to be innate; when they adhere longi-
tudinally to the filament and the latter extends slightly beyond
them, they are said to be adnate, in which case they may be
extrorse or introrse. In some of the Labiatoe the lobes of the
anther are united at the apex of the filament, but diverge from the
point of attachment and are said to be connate, coherent or
confluent.

The Connective is that portion of the filament to which the
lobes of the anther are attached or which connects them (Fig. 8i) ;
usually, it is not very prominent; but in some of the Labiatse, as

Fig. 82. Union of stamens. A, united anthers of flower of CompositaB; B, diadelphous

stamens of Pisum with i free stamen and g united; several types of monadelphous

stamens, as in Erythroxylon (C), Melia Azedarach (D), and common mallow (E). — After
Baillon.

in Salvia, it is rather broad ; in some of the Malvaceae it is entirely
wanting, the two lobes being confluent ; in other cases it may be
extended beyond the lobes of the anther, as in species of Asarum.
Appendages of Anther. — In certain instances the anthers
are appendaged (Fig. 81) : In the violets there is a triangular
growth at the apex ; in the oleander the apex is plumose ; in deer
berry (Polycodiitin stamincuui) there are two awn-like append-
ages upon the back of the anther ; in the violets the two stamens
that project into the spurred petal are also spurred and secrete a
nectar ; in the Asclepiadace?e the anthers possess wing-like ap-
pendages, each sack or division of which contains a pear-shaped
coherent mass of pollen grains (pollinium).

MORPHOLOGY OF AXGIOSPERMS. 129

When a flower has but one stamen it is termed monandrous;
and when there are two. ihree or many stamens, it is said to be
diandrous, triandrous or polyandrous [Vig. 84). TIk' aggreg-atc
of stamens in the flower is eafled the andrg£cii;.m. In tlie Labi-
atse there are four stamens arranged in a longer and sh(n-ter pair
and the stamens are said to be didv.xamgus ; in tht- CrueifercC
the flowers possess six stamens, four of which are longer than th.e
other two, and the stamens are described as Ti-rrRADYNAMOUs ;
in some plants, as in the Lobeliacese, PapilionatcC, etc., the fila-
ments cohere, forming groups f Fig. S2) which are termed mona-
delphous, diadelphous. etc. : in the flowers of the potato the
anthers lie close together Init are not united, forming apparently
a continuous ring or band around the pistil, when they are said
to be connivent ; in the tubular flowers of the Compositae the
anthers are united, forming a closed ring, and the stamens are
spoken of as syngenesious (Fig. 82. A) ; in many of the Ciiciir-
bifacccc the filaments and anthers both are confluent : in the flowers
of the Orchidacese the stamens are borne upon the pistil and arc
said to be gvxandrous (Fig. 133).

Floral Envelopes. — As their name indicates the floral
envelopes occupy the outermost or lowest position in the arrange-
ment of the parts of the flower. In the bud condition they protect
the essential elements, and in the exixmded flower are considered
to play an important role in securing pollination through the
visitation of insects. The floral envelopes -^re made up generally
of two kinds of leaves, petals and sepals (Fio;. 83).

The PETALS form a spiral which surrounds the adrcecium.
They are as a rule quite bright and attractive, being frequently
highly colored, as in the rose, Fuchsia, violet, etc., and are known
collectively as the corolla.

The SEPALS form the next and lowermost spiral. They are
usually green and leaf-like, as in the rose and carnation, and
together constitute the calyx. Sometimes the corolla and calyx-
are spoken of together as the i-eriaxtii. although strictly speak-
ing the term has a more special api)lieation. and is used mostly m
speaking of the sepals and petals of monocotyledonous flower.s,
these parts being much alike and not distinguishable, save in posi-
tion, as in certain lilies.

I30

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

When the divisions of the calyx and corolla remain separate
and distinct the latter are spoken of as chorisepalous and chori-
PETALOUS, respectively ; but when the divisions are united or
coalesced the calyx and corolla are called gamosepalous (syn-
sepalous) and gamopetalous (sympetalous), respectively.

When the divisions of the calyx or corolla are entirely united
these elements are said to be entire, and when the divisions are
partly united they are spoken of as " toothed," " lobed " or
" parted," according to the degree of union.

In the flowers of the Cruciferse and Caryophyllacese there is a
conspicuous stalk to each of the separate petals, which is known
as the UNGUIS or cla\\^ ; while the upper outspreading portion is

Fig. 83. A, longitudinal section through orange flower {Citrus Aurantium) showing
stalk (PE); sepals (s); petals (p); stamen with filament (F) and anther (A); compound
pistil (composed of united carpels) with stigma (T). style (Y) and superior ovary (O)
with ovules; disk or nectary (D). B, longitudinal section of a bud of clove (Caryophyllus)
showing inferior ovary (O), style (Y), stamens (F), petals (P), sepals (S), nectary (D).

known as the lamina or blade. In the gamosepalous calyx and
the gamopetalous corolla the lower united portion is known as the
TUBE, and the upper outspreading portion as the limb or
" border."

The form of the calyx and corolla is quite characteristic for a
number of important families. In tlie Compositae there are two
characteristic forms of corolla, namely, the tubular in the disk
flowers and the ligulate in the ray flowers : in the PapilionattC
the corolla, from its fancied resemblance to a Imtterfly, is de-
scribed as PAPILIONACEOUS (Figs. 88; 134, L) : in the Labiatae the
petals are united into two lip-like divisions, and the corolla is said
to be liiLADiATE (Fig. 84, F). There are two kinds of bilabiate

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPER.MS. 131

corollas — one, as in lavender, where the month of the tube is open,
known as rixgent; and another, where the mouth is closed, as in
Linavia, called personate.

There are a number of other special forms of calyx and corolla,
particularly the latter, and of these may be mentioned the follow-
ing : A corolla, like that of the harebell, which is more or less bell-
shaped, is termed campanulate; a more or less campanulate
corolla contracted near the opening, as in Gaultheria, is spoken
of as URCEOLATE or urn-shaped ; in the morning glory and other
Convolvulacese the corolla is said to be infundibuliform or
funnel-shaped (Fig. 174) ; a corolla, in which the limb spreads
abruptly from the tube, as in Phlox, is termed hypocrateriform
or salver-shaped ; a corolla with a short tube and outspreading
limb, as in potato, is said to be rotate or wheel-shaped; a rotate
corolla with the margin more or less upturned is called crateri-
FORM or saucer-shaped ; in aconite the upper petal is hood- or hel-
met-shaped, the corolla is spoken of as galeate ; in the violets one
of the petals has a spurred appendage and the corolla is described
as SACCATE or calcarate, while the modified petal in the orchids is
known as the labellum.

Duration of Calyx and Corolla. — There is considerable
difference in the length of time that the calyx and corolla persist,
not only with reference to each other but in different plants. The
parts are said to be caducous when they drop from the flower as
soon as it opens, as the calyx of the poppy ; when they remain for
a day or so, they are said to be ephemeral or fugacious, as in
the petals of the poppy ; in the rose and apple the petals fall away
soon after the pollen reaches the stigma and they are said to be
deciduous ; in some flowers the petals wither but persist until the
maturing of the fruit, as in the Droseracese, and are known as
marcescent; the calyx may remain unaffected until the maturnig
of the fruit, as in the Lahiatce, when it is said to be persistent.

Bracts. — In addition to the floral envelopes other more
or less modified leaves are borne on the flower branch below the
flower, frequently at the base of the flower stalk, and these have
received the name bracts. The bracts closely resemble the foli-
age leaves but usually are smaller and frequently are mere scales,
without chlorophyll. In some cases, however, they are large and

132 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

showy, looking like petals (petaloid), as in the water arum
(Fig. 128), the common dogwood ; Bougainvillea and Poinsettia
seen in greenhouses.

The Torus constitutes the terminal portion of the iiower
axis or stalk, and is usually more or less conical and somewhat
enlarged. When the torus is of this shape the parts of the flower
are inserted upon it in serial succession, all of the other parts
arising below the pistil. It may, however, be modified into a hollow
or cup-like structure which grows up around the ovary carrying
the other parts of the flower (sepals, petals and stamens) with it,
thus changing the relative position of the parts, although it should
be understood that the ovary occupies practically the same posi-
tion in the two cases.

When the torus is of the first type and the other parts of the
flower are inserted below the ovary, the flower is said to be hypo-
GYNous, as in the orange flower (Fig. 83, A) and the ovary supe-
rior : but when the torus forms a cup-shaped receptacle and the
other parts of the flower arise on its margin above the ovary, the
flower is called epigynous, as in the clove (Fig. 83, B; 84. C)
and the ovary inferior. In other cases a ring of leaf-like tissue
arises from the torus, forming a cup-like receptacle or tube which
is known as the perianth tube, the sepals, petals and stamens being
inserted on its margin. The perianth tube may be free from the
ovary, when the flower is said to be perigynous and the ovary half
inferior or half superior, as in cherry (Fig. 84. B) : or in the
case of an epigynous flower it may form a prolongation of the
cup-shaped torus.

Prefloration or estivation is the arrangement of the parts
of the flower — more especially the calyx and corolla — in the bud.
Some of the terms used in this connection are also employed in the
study of vernation. The following are some of the terms which
are employed : Valvate, when the sepals or petals meet each
other at the edges, as in Malvaceae ; imbuicated, when the sepals
or petals overlap each other, as in the Magnoliaceae ; plic.\te or
platted, when the divisions are united and folded together, as in
the petals of Convolvulus and Datura.

The sepals and petals do not necessarily possess the same
arrangement, as in the Onagracese, where the sepals are valvate

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSP^RMS.

133

and the petals are convolute. Furthermore, in addition to the
principal types of estivation and vernation already given, there
are a number of special modifications of these, depending upon
the number and arrangement as well as direction of the over-
lapping parts of the flower- or leaf-bud.

A B

Fig. 84. Types of flowers: A, hypogynous flower of flax; B, perigynous flower of
cherry, showing perianth tube with sepals, petals and stamens on its border; C, epigynous
flower of American sarsaparilla; D, flower of buttercup showing apocarpous gynscium
and large conical torus; E, irregular (bilateral or zygomorphic) flower of aconite
showing half of helmet-like sepal (a), other sepals (b, c), long-clawed nectary (k) developed
from one of the posterior petals, separate pistils (f); F, corolla of Salvia spread open and
showing the two rudimentary stamens and two fertile stamens. The connectives in the
latter are long and filamentous and each bears at the upper part a normal pollen sac and
at the lower end a non-fertile enlarged portion which the insect pushes againr.t in entering
the flower and thus causes the pollen to be deposited on its back. — A-C, after Gray; D-F,
after Warming.

134 BOTANY AiND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Coalescence and Adhesion. — ^Not only may the divisions
of the same circle or whorl of the flower be united but even those
of different circles, and a number of terms are used to describe
these modifications.

When the divisions of the same circle are united there is said
to be a COHESION or coalescence of the parts. When the divi-
sions of different circles are united, as of stamens with corolla,
the union is spoken of as adhesion or adnation, as in Convolvulus.

Chorisis and Multiplication of Parts. — In contrast with the
reduction in number of parts of the flower due to union, there may
be an increase in the number of parts due to simple division or
splitting of the parts, and this is known as chorisis or deduplica-
tion. An illustration of this is furnished by the stamens of the
orange flower, where from a single initial stamen or primordium
a group of from 3 to ii stamens may be produced. In other cases
there may be a multiplication in the number of parts from the
beginning, each part arising independently on the torus, as in the
stamens of rose. This of course would not be termed chorisis, as
no splitting or branching takes place.

Double Flowers. — In double flowers there is an increase
in the number of petals, which is considered to be due to the
methods of cultivation and the stimulus of an increased food-
supply. This results in several ways : ( i ) By transformation of
the sporophylls, more particularly the stamens, into petals; (2)
by division or chorisis of the stamens or carpels with subsequent
transformation into petals; (3) by division or branching of the
petals; and (4) by the production of new series of petals. The
extra petals in double carnations and double roses trace their ori-
gin to the stamens, while in Fuchsia they are the result of chorisis
of the petals.

In the snow-ball (Viburnum opiihis) and hydrangea the essen-
tial elements have undergone a complete transformation, and the
flowers, while large and showy, are sterile. In the white water lily
(Nympha-a) there is a series of parts ranging from stamens with
narrow filaments and stamens with broad petaloid filaments to
petals tipped with a small anther and regular petals (Fig. 81, A).
In this case the stamens are considered to result frorn the trans-
formation of the petals. In the case of green roses and green

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 135

strawberry flowers the petals become green and leaf-like, and the
change is spoken of as chlorosis or chlorantiiy. In some
flowers even the ovules are replaced by leaf-like processes or
appendages, as in Droscra and clover.

Arrested Development. — The arrest or suppression cf
parts of the plant, particularly of the flower, is of very common
occurrence. Just as there are millions of seeds that never find
suitable conditions for germination, so in the flowers of a large
number of plants a very large proportion of the ovules never
develop into seeds, the plants in many instances not furnishing
sufficient nutriment for all of the ovules to mature. Under leaves
it was stated that in the axil of each leaf there is a bud. This is
not always apparent, but if the plant be subjected to some special
stimulus, some of the latent buds will become evident. For
example, the rubber plant (Ficits), so commonl\- cultivated as an
ornamental plant, shows a tendency to develop a straight, un-
branched shoot, but if the tip of the shoot be cut ofif, the buds in
the axils of the upper leaves will develop into branches, while
some of those lower down will form small protuberances, but
develop no further. In other cases there is a loss of parts which
seems to be due to loss of function. When there is a partial loss
of the element, as of the anthers in the flower of catalpa, it is
said to be imperfectly developed or abortive. When the entire ele-
ment remains undeveloped as in some of the stamens of the Lal)i-
atae, it is said to be suppressed ( Fig. 84, F) . In flax the stamens of
the outer whorl are reduced to thread-like processes. Such sterile
or aborted stamens are called stami nodes (staminodia). In other
plants the parts are not apparently arrested, but have not yet been
dififerentiated, as is the case in the Lily family where the perianth
is composed of segments which are more or less alike (Fig. 123).
In other cases, however, there seems to be a suppression or arrest
of the floral envelopes.

Cleistogamous Flowers.— In addition to the regular
flowers some plants produce cleistogamous or closed flowers. In
these flov/ers the corolla is usually suppressed. The flowers
develop stamens and pistils but remain closed, and thus there is
no chance for cross-pollination. The cleistogamous flowers appear
later than the regular flowers and are more or less inconspicuous,

136 BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGNOSY.

developing under the leaves and sometimes underground. Of the
plants producing cleistogamous fiovvers, the following may be
mentioned : various species of Viola, Polygala, etc.

Classes of Flowers. — As we have seen the megasporo-
phylls and microsporophylls in the (j}-mnosperms are borne on
separate branches, thus giving rise to two kinds of flowers or
cones. While the separation of the stamens and pistils is exempli-
fied in a number of plants in the Angiosperms, still it is not the
rule and these two elements are usually borne close together on the
same axis, i.e., they both enter into a single flower structure. Such
a flower is said to be hermaphrodite or bisexual, and most of the
conspicuous flowers are of this kind, as roses, buttercups, lilies,
etc. Inasmuch as the stamens and pistils constitute the essential
elements of the flower, hermaphrodite flowers are also spoken of as
PERFECT providing the stamens and pistils are capable of exer-
cising their generative functions. When the stamens and pistils
occur in separate flow^ers the flowers are said to be unisexual or
IMPERFECT, as iu willow. oak. hickory, etc. A flower having only
a pistil or pistils is called pistillate (Fig. 79, A ), while one hav-
ing only a stamen or stamens is staminate (Fig. 135). The
staminate aiKl pistillate flowers may be borne on the same plant,
when it is said to be moncecious, as in castor bean, chestnut,
hickory, alder ; or they may be borne on separate plants, when
the plant is called dicecious, as in willows and poplars. Plants
bearing hermaphrodite and imisexual flowers on the same indi-
vidual plant or on dift'crent indi\i(hials are called polygamous,
as in Ailanthus.

A COMI'LETE flower is one whicli ])ossesses both kinds of essen-
tial elements aufl both kinds of floral envelopes, and is symmet-
rical when a plane can be laid in all directions, the parts being
alike and when the number of parts in each circle is the same or
when the number in one circle is a multiple of that in the others ;
as a rule tlie number of stamens is some multiple of one of the
other parts, as in geranium ( I'ig. 155), where we find five sepals,
five petals, ten stamens and five pistils.

Flowers are also spoken of as regular or irregular, accord-
ing to whether all the parts of a circle are uniform in shape or
not : the flowers of geranium are regular while those of violets

iVlORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 137

are irregular. Regular Hovvers are also spoken of as actino-
MORPiiic or RADIAL, aiicl irregular flowers as zygomorphic. The
latter are also spoken of as dorsiventral. Dorsiventral flowers
either arise as such, as in some of the Leguminosse (Fig. SS),
or they may arise as radial flowers and become dorsiventral
during the course of development, as in willow herb (Epilobium).

In some flowers the floral envelopes are wanting, and the
flowers are said to be naked, as in the willows and grasses.

Anthotaxy. — The study of the arrangement of flowers on
the stem is known as anthotaxy. The flowering axis may bear
only a single terminal flower, as in Tulipa ; or the flowers may
occur singly in the axils of the leaves, as in Viola canadensis.
When, on the other hand, the flowers are borne upon a branch
shoot, the internodes of which are more or less condensed, and
the leaves smaller and of a more simple structure than the
foliaceous leaves, the whole shoot is known as an inflores-
cence, and the leaves are called i'.racts. The flower thus repre-
sents a single unbranched shoot, while the inflorescence repre-
sents a branched or ramified shoot.

The so-called bracts besides being generally smaller than the
leaves proper are mostly sessile ; they may, however, be green, or
membranaceous, or they may exhibit a bright coloration, as in
Monarda.

The stalk of the individual flower is called a pedicel, and
may be naked, or bear one or two small bracts, which are
called FORE-LEAVKS or prophylea. In the monocotyledons there
is usually only one fore-leaf, which turns its back to the mother-
axis and is frequently two-nerved and two-keeled. In the
dicotyledons there are generally two fore-leaves, which are placed
to the right and left of the flower, as in the violets.

The position of the floral leaves ( the sepals, the petals and
those of the perianth) depends upon the arrangement of the
fore-leaves, so that in most of the monocotyledons, where there
is one mediane prophyllon, the first leaf of the perianth is placed
on the front, while the two succeeding leaves of the perianth
occupy a position of 120° from this (Fig. 124). When, on the
other hand, as in the dicotyledons with pentamerous flowers
two fore-leaves are developed, the first floral leaf (sepal) is

138 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

situated obliquely above the last fore-leaf, usually on the frontal
part of the flower; the second sepal is directly behind the first
or diagonally opposite to it, the remaining three leaves (sepals)
occurring in a spiral of two-fifths (Fig. 134). Several deviations
from this type occur, as in Lobelia (Fig. 272), Polyala, etc.

Two types of inflorescence are distinguished : ( i ) The in-
definite, in which the flowers open or develop in acropetalous
or centripetal succession, and (2) the definite, in which the
flowers open in basipetalous or centrifugal succession. The in-
definite type of inflorescence is seldom terminated by an ex-
panded flower, and two classes of this type are distinguished :
(a) Those in which the flowers are pedicelled, as in the raceme
(Fig. 139) and umbel (Fig. 169) ; and (b) in which the flowers
are sessile, as in the spike (Fig. 250) and head (Fig. 242).

The RACEME is a long inflorescence with pedicelled flowers,
which are frequently subtended by bracts (Figs. 139, 150, and
207). The CORYMB is a modified raceme in wdiich the pedicels
of the basal flowers are much longer than those of the apical,
and thus the inflorescence looks like an umbel. In the milkweed
the flowers jiave pedicels of the same length which arise from the
apex of the shoot or peduncle, and this form of inflorescence is
known as an umbel. In the Umbelliferae a flower cluster or
umbellets takes the place of the individual flowers of the umbel,
and is known as a compound umbel (Fig. 169).

The SPIKE is also generally a long inflorescence, the flowers
being sessile (Fig. 87, illus. 3), the secondary spikes in grasses
being known as spi relets. The spadix is a form of spike,
whicii is readily distinguished by the fleshy stem, in which the
flowers are frequently deeply imbedded, and which is frequently
surrounded by a large bract, the so-called spathe, as in Arisema.
The CATKIN is a kind of spike with small, often imperfect flowers,
which falls ofif as a whole, as in the staminate catkins of the
oak. Tlie catkins are mostly decompound, and in some species
of Populus the single flowers are pedicelled, and hence are
actually racemose rather than spicate inflorescences.

In the head and the umbel the main inflorescential axis is
exceedingly short and the innermost flowers are often destitute
of bracts, in contrast with the external, which are frequently

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 139

provided with bracts that are of quite considerable size. Sterile
bracts also occur in these two types, and are called involucral
leaves, as in Cornus Horida where they are white or ])ink.
There is also a difference in sex of the outer and inner flowers
(see page 391). While the head occurs as typical inflorescence
in the Compositae, it also exists in some of the Umbelliferse.

Two types of definite inflorescence are distinguished: (i)
the DiBRACHious (bifurcate) cyme in which the inflorescence
represents a series of very regularly arranged lateral axes, one
on-each side of the terminal or median flower, as in the Caryo-
phyllaceas; and (2) the monobrachious (simple) cyme, of
which there are several modifications, but common to all of
them is the development of only one lateral branch to each
terminal flower. In the scorpioid cyme the lateral axes are
arranged alternately to the right and left, while in the helicoid
cyme the lateral axes are all on the same side of the main axis,
as in Hypericum. The so-called flower-cluster is a cymose
inflorescence of either the definite or indefinite type in which
the flowers are almost sessile or very short pedicelled, as in
Chenopodium, Juncus, etc. Sometimes the inflorescences may be
decompound or complex, as in several Compositae, where the heads
may be arranged in cymes or racemes; or, as in the Gramineae,
where the spikelets, which are spikes, may be arranged in panicles,
i.e., branched racemes; or finally, as in Cryptotaenia (Unibel-
liferae), where the umbels are arranged in cymes.

Pollination and Fertilization, — Fertilization represents the
final stage in the work of the flower as a whole, and has already
been defined as the union of the egg-cell and a male nucleus.
Pollination may be considered to include the transferral of the
pollen grains from the anther to stigma and their subsequent
germination thereon, this latter process resulting in the produc-
tion of the male nuclei. Pollination thus represents but one series
of changes or processes which precede fertilization, for, while the
pollen grain is going through the various stages in development
which lead to the formation of the male nuclei, a series of coni-
plex changes are going on in the embryo-sac leading to the devel-
opment of the egg-cell.

I40 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Our special interest in pollination arises from the fact that the
pollen grains are not retained in the pollen-sacs and are dependent
upon various agencies for transferral to the stigma. This is a
matter of great biological significance, for it is claimed that many jl

of the special characters of flowers have a direct relation to
pollination.

The various ways in which the anthers open for the dis-
charge of the pollen when it is ripe have already been considered
(Fig. 8i), but it may be added that the manner in which this is
done usually appears to have a relation to the manner in which
the pollen is to be carried to the stigma. In order that pollination
may be effected, the stigma must be ripe or mature, when it is
said to be receptive. It then usually secretes a sticky, sugary
liquid which causes the pollen grains to adhere to the stigmatic
surface (Fig. 85), and which at the same time serves as a nutrient
to them. Usually the pollen grains begin to germinate in a short
time after reaching the stigma, which is made evident by the pro-
trusion of the pollen tubes. The stigma seems also to have the
power of selection, for in many cases the pollen does not germin-
ate as readily on the stigma of the same flower as on that of
another flower j^rovided it be of the same or a nearly related
species.

When a flower possesses both stamens and pistils, that is, is
bisexual or hermaphrodite, and its pollen germinates upon its
own stigma, the process is known as close or self-pollination,
and if fertilization follows this is known as self-fertilization.
^^'hile most hermaphrodite flowers are self-pollinated there are
some that are not. and this is brought about in several ways :
( I ) As already pointed out the pollen may germinate better on
the stigma of another flower than on the stigma of the same
flower; (2) the anthers and pistils of the same flower may
mature at different times, and this is one of the commonest ways
of preventing self-pollination. Usually in such cases the stamens
mature first. The common plantain ( Plantago) furnishes an
example of the maturing of the stigma before the anther. The
flowers of this plant are arranged in spikes (Fig. 87, illus. 3
and 4) which belong to the indefinite class, and hence the lower
flowers on the spike expand first. As stated, the pistil of each

MORPHOLOGY OF AXGIOSPERMS.

141

flower matures first, and after it withers the stamens protrude and
discharge their pollen. It is evident that the flowers can not be
self-pollinated, nor is it hkely that one flower will l)e ])()llinated
by another of the same spike. (3 ) llie stamens and jiistils of tlie
same flower may vary in length, as in Polygonum (Ing. 86, illus.
I and 2) and Lythrum (Fig. 87. illus. 5), or stand in such other
relation to each other that self-pollination will not be effected,
as in some of the irregular or z\gomorphic flowers, like those of
Orchids. In these several cases the pollen grains either fall upon

Fig. 85. Cross-pollination through the agency of a bee, in flower of quince (Cy-
donia vulgaris). A., flowering branch; B, flower showing bee extracting nectar, and masses
of pollen adhering to its legs, some of which will fall upon the stigmas of other flowers when
it visits them; C, ripe inferior fleshy fruit (pome) of quince. — After Dodel-Port.

or are carried by various agents to the stigmas of other flowers,
and this is known as cross-pollin.vtion, and the fertilization
which follows as cross-fertilization.

Cross-fertilization is an advantage to the species for usually
the seeds which result from this process give rise to plants which
are more vigorous and otherwise superior to those which result
from self-fertilization. In some cases in order to insure the pro-

142 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

duction of fruit, hand-pollination is practiced, as by the growers
of vanilla and some other tropical plants of economic importance.

In the case of unisexual flowers, or those in which the stamens
and pistils are in separate flowers, there is of course no chance
for self-pollination. Here, as in the case of cross-pollinated
hermaphrodite flowers, pollination may be more or less close or
it may be remote, as between flowers of the same cluster or inflor-
escence, between flowers of different clusters or inflorescences on
the same plant, or between flowers on different plants.

In buckwheat (Fig. 86, illus. i and 2) and partridge berry
(Mitchella rcpciis) two kinds of flowers are produced, viz.: ( (/ )
one with short styles and long filaments, and another (b) witli
long styles and short filaments, and thus the flowers appear to be
especially adapted for insect cross-pollination and are called
DIMORPHIC. In still other cases one species gives rise to three
kinds of flowers, depending upon the difference in the relative
lengths of the styles and filaments, as in the purple loosestrife
{Lythriiin Salicaria) , and such flowers are called trimorphic.

The external agents which are instrumental in carrying pollen
from one flower to another and thereby promoting cross-pollina-
tion are the wind, water currents, insects, small animals and
birds, such as humming-birds, which are, even in temperate
regions, to be observed visiting the garden nasturtium.

In many of the early-flowering trees, as well as pines, Indian
corn, etc., the flowers are devoid of showy, attractive features,
but produce large quantities of pollen v/hich is more or less dry
and powdery and carried by the wind to other flowers. Flowers
which are wind-pollinated are classed- as axemophilous and it is
estimated that about one-tenth of all the flower-producing plants
belong to this class.

Plants v/hich are pollinated by the aid of water-currents are
known as hydrophilous, and under this head are included those
plants which live under the water and those that produce flowers
at or near the surface of the water.

Those plants which depend upon the visitation of insects for
the transferral of the pollen in cross-pollination are called i:xt(v
MOPHiLous (Fig. 85). They frequently possess bright, highly
colored flowers and it is considered that these serve as an attrac-

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

143

Fig. 86.

Fig. 87.

Figs. 86 and 87. Manner of cross- pollination in some hermaphrodite flowers. 1,2,
Flowers of buckwheat, showing long style and short filaments in i, and short styles and
long filaments in 2: a, anthers; st, stigmas; n, nectaries. .3, Spike of plantain showing
maturing of stamens below and pistils above. 4, Dissected flower of plantain: b, bract;
c, calyx; p, corolla tube; s, stamens; t, protruding withered style, s. Flowers of Purple
willow-herb (Lythmm SaUcaria). one side of the perianth removed from each. A is long-
staled. B, medium-styled, and C, short-styled. The direction of the arrows and dotted lines
indicates the best methods of crossing. — i, 2, 5, adapted from Warming.

144

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tion to the insects which visit them. The insects are, however,
probably more attracted by the odor and food products which
thev obtain, such as the nectar. The nectar is secret .^d bv

Fig. 88. A, flowering ami fruiting plant of peanut (Aracliis hypogcva). After fertiliza-
tion the carpophore (or stalk between calyx and ovary) grows in length, sometimes 4 to 8
cm., and curves downward penetrating the soil (el), after which the fruit develops. B.
longitudinal section through the papilionaceous (bilateral) flower; C. longitudinal section
through the pod (peanut). — After Taubert.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 145

glands known as nectaries which are variously located; fre-
quently they are on the torus either between the ovary and sta-
mens (Fig. 83) or between the stamens and petals. Some-
times the stamen is modified to a nectar-secreting spur as in the
violets. In aconite the nectary is developed from one of the
posterior petals (Fig. 84, E). In seeking the nectar the pollen
of the ripe anther may fall upon or adhere to the insects and thus
be carried from one flower to another (Fig. 86).

Honey is a product formed through transformation of the
plant nectar by honey bees. The nectar is supposed to be acted
upon by certain salivary secretions of the bee and changed into a
fruit-sugar, the so-called honey, consisting of a mixture of dex-
trose and levulose. The nectar of buckwheat and clover (partic-
ularly white clover) is the principal source of the commercial
article. The nectar of some plants is poisonous and may furnish
a poisonous honey (see p. 357).

V. THE FRUIT.

After the fertilization of the ovule or ovules, the parts of the
flower that play no further i)art either in protecting the seed or
aiding in its dispersal soon wither and arc cast ofl' : in most flowers
the petals lose their color and, together with the stamens, style
and stigma, wither and fall away shortly after fertilization. The
stigma ma\', hovvcver, persist, as in the poppy ; the style may like-
wise remain, as in Ranunculus, or even centinue to grow or
lengthen, as in Taraxacum: in other cases the calyx persists, as
in orange and belladonna ; in still other cases the torus may be-
come fleshy and form a part of the fruit, as in pimenta and apple.
The fruit may consist, therefore, not only of the ripened pistil,
but also of other parts of the flower and torus which persist or
develop witli it.

The wall of the fruit is called the pericarp, and, like the leaf,
it consists of three distinct layers, viz. : ( i ) the outer layer corre-
sponding to the outer epidermis of the ovary is called the eimcari-
or exocarp : (2) the inner laver corresponding to the inner epi-
dermis of the ovary is called the exdocarp. or. from the fact
that it is sometimes hard and stone-like, it is called the puta-

146

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

MEN, as in the prune; and (3) the middle layer situated be-
cween the epicarp and endocarp is called the mesocarp;

Fig. 89. Different types of fruits. A, silique of mustard showing the separation of
the two valves leaving the seeds attached to the central axis; B, spinous capsule of Stra-
monium showing septifragal dehiscence into four valves, the capsule being strictly 2-
locular but apparently 4-locular owing to the formation of false dissepiments; C. 5-valved
capsule of Geranium in which the carpels become detached from one another and roll up-
wards remaining attached to the beak-like compound style; D, capsule of Hyoscyamus
showing transverse dehiscence by means of a lid (i) and the two loculi containing numerous
small seeds; E, fruit of strawberry showing fleshy torus and numerous embedded akenes;
F, silicula of shepherd's-purse showing seeds attached to central axis and longitudinal
dehiscence of the valves which remain attached below; G, fruit of rose, so-called rose "hip,"
the akenes being enclosed by the hollow oval torus which shows remains of calyx at the
apex; H, multiple fruit of mulberry composed of small drupes, the pulpy portion of each
consisting of the fleshy perianth. — Adapted from Warming.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERAIS.

147

and from the fact that it is sometimes succulent or fleshy, as in
the prune, it is also called the sarcocarp.

There are a number of distinctive and descriptive -names ap-
plied to fruits. Some of the more important are as follows :

An Akene is a non-fleshy, or so-called dry, unilocular and
one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, in which the pericarp is more or less
firm, and may or may not be united with the seed. Akenes may
be inferior, as in the Compositse (Fig. 241) where they develop
from inferior ovaries, being frequently surmounted by the pappus
or calyx; or half inferior, as in the rose (Fig. 89, G) where they
develop from half inferior ovaries ; or superior, as in the buttercup
(F\g.84,D).

Fig. 90. A, transverse section of colocynth showing seeds (s) borne on parietal
placentas; B, transverse section of fruit of Ricinus communis showing septicidal dehis-
cence of capsule, the seeds (s) being borne on axial placentas; C, transverse section of card-
amom showing loculicidal dehiscence, the seeds (s), as in B, being borne on axial placentas.

A Berry is a fleshy, indehiscent fruit, ^ the seeds of which
are embedded in the sarcocarp ; berries are superior when they
develop free from the torus, as in belladonna (Fig. 268), capsi-
cum, grape, etc., and inferior when the torus forms a part of the
fruit, as in banana, cranberry and gooseberry.

A Capsule is a dry, dehiscent fruit, consisting of two or more
united carpels. Dehiscence in capsules may occur in five different
ways: In the castor-bean (Fig. 90, B) the carpels separate from
each other along the walls or septa (dissepiments), the seeds being
discharged along the ventral suture of the separated carpels, and
this mode of dehiscence is called septicidal. In mustard (Fig.
89, A ) the dissepiments remain intact and dehiscence occurs along
the margin of the capsule, and is therefore called marginicidal;

148

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

but as the partial carpels, or valves as they are termed, separate
from the walls or septa, the dehiscence is also known as septi-
FRAGAL. In cardamom (Fig. 90, C) the septa as well as valves
are united, and at maturity the latter separate and dehisce at points
in the margin corresponding to the mid-vein of the carpel, and
this form of dehiscence is known as loculicidal. In poppy
capsules (Fig. 91) there are a few openings beneath the united

Fig. 91. Capsules of poppy (Papaver somniferum), whole and in transverse and
longitudinal sections, showing dissepiments and remains of radiate stigmas at the apex,
which are porous and through which the seeds are discharged, i, French capsules; 2,
German capsules.

stigmas through which the seeds are expelled, and this form of
dehiscence is known as porous. In hyoscyamus (Fig. 89. D) a.
portion of the capsule comes off from the remainder like a lid,
and this form of dehiscence being circular or transverse to the
sutures of the carpel, it is called circumcissile. A capsule of
this kind is known as a Pvxis or Pvxidium.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS. 149

A Caryopsis, or Grain, is an indehiscent, non-fleshy fruit
possessing a thin pericarp, which is closely adherent to the
thin seed-coats, as in wheat, corn and other Gramineae (Figs.
120, 125).

A Cremocarp is a dry, indehiscent fruit which consists of
two inferior akenes, known as mericarps; these are separated
from each other by means of a stalk known as a CAuroi'iioRE.
This fruit is characteristic of the Umbellifercc (Figs. 245,
248).

A Drupe is a fleshy, indehiscent fruit with a more or less
succulent and well-developed sarcocarp and an indurated endo-
carp. Drupes are superior when they are free from the torus, as
in prune ; inferior when the torus forms a part of the fruit, as
in pimenta. Drupes are also spoken of as " dry " when the sarco-
carp is less succulent, as in Rhus glabra (Fig. 249) or when they
are collected unripe, as in pepper and cubeb (Fig. 250). The
fruits of the raspberry and blackberry consist of a collection of
little drupes, the whole being known as an et^rio. In the black-
berry the drupelets cohere with the fleshy torus, while in the rasp-
berry the drupelets cohere with one another, forming a cap which
is separable from the cone-shaped torus.

A Follicle is a dry, dehiscent fruit which consists of one
or more separate carpels, the dehiscence being usually along the
ventral suture; in Delphinium the carpels are single; in aconite
there are from three to five carpels, and in star-anise (lUiciuui)
from seven to eight ; in magnolia the carpels are numerous, form-
ing a kind of succulent cone and dehisce along the dorsal suture.

A Galbalus is a berry-like fruit, formed by the coalescence
of fleshy, open scales, as in juniper (Fig. 52).

Hesperidium. — The fleshy, indehiscent, superior fruit of
citrus, as lemon and orange, is known as a hesperidium. The
pericarp is more or less coriaceous, and from the inner walls secre-
tion hairs develop, which contain sugar and an acid cell-sap,
these constituting the fleshy portion in which the seeds are
embedded.

A Legume is an elongated, monocarpellary, usually dry,
dehiscent fruit, in which dehiscence takes place along both sutures,
the carpel thus dividing into two halves, or valves, as in the garden

ISO BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

pea {Pisuiii) and otlier members of the Leguminosaj (Fig. 153).
In some cases legumes are jointed or articulated and indehiscent,
breaking up at maturity into a number of parts which are dis-
persed in much the same manner as samara-fruits, as in Meihomia.
Legumes may be not only indehiscent but fleshy, as in Cassia
fistula.

A Nut is an akene-like fruit, the pericarp of which is more
or less indurated. Nuts are sometimes subtended (as in acorns)
or enclosed (as in chestnuts) by a kind of involucre, forming
what is technically known as a cupule ; and a fruit consisting of a
nut and cupule is known as a Glans. The akene-like fruit of
the Labiatse is spoken of as a Nutlet.

A Pepo is an inferior berry, in which the placentas have
become developed into succulent layers, as in the watermelon,
cucumber and colocynth (Fig. 254).

A Pod is a general term used to designate all dry, dehi-
scent, apocarpous or syncarpous fruits, as capsules, follicles and
legumes.

A Pome is an indehiscent, half-inferior, fleshy, syncarpous
fruit, as in the apple. The carpels constitute the core and the
fleshy part is developed from the torus (Fig. 86, C).

A Samara is a winged, akene-like fruit. The winged
appendage may be at the apex, as in white ash, or around the edge,
as in elm. Two samaras may be united into one fruit, which is
called a " double samara " as in maple.

A Silique is a narrow, elongated, 2-valved capsule which is
separated by the formation of a false dissepiment into two locules,
as in the Cruciferse (Fig. 89, A).

A Sorosis is a fleshy fruit resulting from the aggregation
of the carpels of several flowers, as in mulberry (Fig. 89. H)
and pineapple.

A Strobile or cone is a scaly fruit, at the base of each scale
of which there is either a seed, as in the Conifers, or an akene-like
body, as in hop (Fig. 136).

A Syconium consists of a succulent hollow torus, which
encloses a number of akene-like bodies, as in the fig (Ficus).

An Utricle is an inferior akene with a thin and loose pericarp,
as in Chenopodimn.

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS.

1=^1

Classification of Fruits. — More or less artificial classifica-
tions of fruits have been made. They may be grouped either
according to structure or according to their manner of protection
or dispersal, the following classification being based on the
structure :

From a number of flowers

a. Indehiscent-

From a single

flower'

A. With a compound pistil ■

ry.

Fleshy ■

Strobile or Cone

Sorosis

Syconium

Akene

Caryopsis

Cremocarp

Nut

Samara

Utricle

Berry

Drupe

Etserio

Hesperidium

Pepo

Pome

- B. With a simple pistil . .

^b. Dehiscent. J Dr)'... I ^^P'"^^
I, [ Follicle

a. Indehiscent J Fleshy J Drupe

.b. Dehiscent. . J Dry. . . J

[ [ Legume

VI. THE SEED.

The seed may be defined as the fertilized and developed ovule.
The seeds of different fruits vary in number as well as in size
and shape. In form they correspond to the ovules ; in size they
vary from about i millimeter, as in the poppy, to lo or 15 centi-
meters in diameter, as in the cocoanut palm. Seldom are all of
the ovules of the pistil fertilized, hence the number of seeds is
usually less than the number of ovules.

Structure of Seed. — After the fertilization of the egg-cell
certain changes take place in the embryo-sac: At one end the
developing embryo is attached to the wall by a short stalk or
suspensor (Fig. 57) ; the nuclei, lying in a mass of cytoplasm

152 BOTAXV AND PHARiAIACOGNOSY.

around the wall of the embryo-sac, divide and re-divide ; the larj^e
vacuole in the center becomes filled with a watery or milky fluid,
and later the nuclei, with portions of the cytoplasm, may be
enclosed by a cellulose wall and become permanent cells, in which
the embrvo is embedded. Likewise in the nucellus. changes are
also taking place ; the cells are found to be dividing, and storing
starch, oil, aleurone and other food materials, like the cells of the
embryo-sac. The cells in which these materials are stored are
known as reserve cells and in the nucellus they constitute the
pertsperjM, while those formed in the embryo-sac make up the
ENDOSPERM. Usually the endosperm of seeds is prominently
developed while the perisperm occurs as a thin layer ; in carda-
mom, however, the endosperm and perisperm are both w^ell devel-
oped (Fig. 253). In some instances the embryo may not fill the
embrvo-sac. as in cocoanut. and sometimes, as in the almond, both
of the reserve layers are consumed in the development of the
embryo when the seed is said to be without endosperm (Fig. 187).
The perisperm and endosperm are sometimes spoken of to-
gether as the albumen of the seed, but as the cells comprised in
these layers contain not only protoplasmic contents and aleurone
arrains, but starches, oils and other substances, the term is mis-
leading. On this basis, seeds containing either endosperm or
perisperm, or both, have been designated as albuminous, but on
account of these layers containing larger proportions of other
substances than proteins it would be better to speak of them as

RESERVE LAYERS (FigS. 121, 122).

While these changes in the nucellus and embryo-sac have been
going on there have been equally great changes in the coats of
the ovules, which later constitute the seed-coats. In the seed
the two coats are generally readily distinguishable. The inner,
as in Ricimis, Pepo, etc., is thin, light in color, of a delicate
structure, and is known as the tegmen ; the outer is more or less
thickened, of a darker color and firmer in structure, and is known
as the TESTA. In some instances the perisperm, or both perisperm
and endosperm, may be reduced to a thin layer w^hen it is consid-
ered to form a part of the seed-coat, as in mustard. In other cases
the two coats are so closely united that they are not easily distin-
guished, as in stramonium.

MORPHOLOGY OF AxXGiOSPERMS.

153

The terms used in describing tlie kinds of ovules (atropous,
anatropous, campylotropous, etc.), are retained in the description
of the seeds ; and in describing the different.parts of the seed some
of the terms which were apphed to the ovule are also retained, as
chalaza and raphe : the seed when ripe usually becomes detached
from its stalk and the resulting scar is called the iiilum ; that
part of the seed corresponding to the foramen of the ovule is
more or less closed and is known as the micropyle; the embryo

Fig. 92. Rhamnus cathartica. A. cross-section through wall of the pericarp. E. epi-
carp; F, sarcocarp; H, endocarp; e, epidermis; o, calcium oxalate in cells of hypodermis; p
parenchyma; h, secretion cells containing a substance which is insoluble in alcohol or chloral
solutions, soluble in solutions of potassium hydroxide, and colored reddish brown or green-
ish with ferric chloride solutions; c, calcium oxalate cells of endocarp; w, sclerotic cells; f,
stereome cells. B, cross-section of entire fruit, showing one seed; E, F. H, g, f, w, as in A;
S, seed-coat; S', outer wall of seed-coat; End, endosperm; c, cotyledons; g, vascular bundle.
C, cross-section of a seed: S^, S-, S^, different layers of the seed-coat: R, vascular bundle of
raphe; t, position of vessels of mestome strand; g, mestome strand; Rf. cleft in which raphe
is situated; End, endosperm; C cotyledons: Sv, cells with thick walls; Sp, parcnchymatic
cells. — After Mever.

develops in such a way that the tip of the young root always
points in the direction of the micropyle.

In the fully developed embryo three distinct parts may be dif-

154

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ferentiated (Fig". 5yj : (i) The cotyledons; (2) the part below
the cotyledons, known as the hypocotvl. the apical portion of
which constitutes the young- root or radicle; (3) the part above
the cotyledons, known as the epicotyl, the apex of which con-
sists of a more or less developed bud spoken of as the plumule.

\Qc

a E

vrr r

Fig. 93. Citrullus Colocynthis. A, seed: a, in longitudinal section, and b, surface view,
S, deep clefts or fissures; m, micropyle; g, hilum; w, radicle; c, cotyledons. B, parenchyma
cells of ripe fruit showing simple pores, the walls are colored blue with chlor-zinc-iodide.
C, longitudinal section of wall of pericarp of ripe fruit showing e, epidermis; p, parenchyma;
Sc, sclerotic cells which gradually pass into a thick-walled parenchyma consisting of small
cells (p'); g. spiral vessels; P, isodiametric, porous parenchyma cells, containing air and of
which the fruit for the most part consists. D, cross-section of seed-coat showing, G, an
outer layer which is more or less easily separable from the rest of the seed and the walls of
which are somewhat mucilaginous; E, epidermis of palisade-like cells; Sc, sclerotic cells; PI,
a layer of tabular cells with undulate walls; T, a layer of small somewhat branching cells,
the walls of which are not strongly thickened and either porous or reticulate; P, several
layers of parenchyma and the collapsed epidermis; Pe, perisperm; En. endosperm. E,
tangential section of tabular sclerotic cells of seed-coat shown in PI in Fig. D. — After Meyer.

The position of the embryo (Figs. 121, 122) in the seed varies
somewhat : in most seeds it lies in the center, as in strophanthus
and linuni : it may, however, be excentral. as in colchicum and
nutmeg. The cotyledons are usually situated above the hypocotyl,
but in the Cruciferae, either their edges lie against the hypocotyl,

MORPHOLOGY OF ANGiOSPERAlS. 155

as in the mustards, when they are said to be accumuent or con-
duplicate, or they he so that the back of one is against the hypo-
cotyl, as in Lcpidiuiii, which position is known as incumbent.

Externally, the seed-coats vary considerably ; they mav be
nearly smooth, as in ricinus ; finely pitted, as in the mustards ;
prominently reticulate, as in staphisagria ; hairy, as in cotton (Fig.
166) and strophanthus (Fig. 185), or winged, as in the seeds of
the catalpa. There are also a number of other appendages, these
having received special names : the wart-like development at the
micropyle or hilum of some seeds, as in castor-bean and violet, is
known as the caruncle; in the case of sanguinaria, a wing-like
development extends along the raphe, and this is known as the
STROPHIOLE ; in some cases the appendage may completely en-
velop the seed, when it is termed an arillus ; when such an
envelope arises at or near the micropyle of the seed, as the mace
in nutmeg, it is known as a " false arillus," or arillode.

Seed Dispersal. — Seeds and fruits are distributed in various
ways, and so are often found growing in localities far from their
native habitat. In some instances seeds are adapted for distri-
bution b}' the wind, being winged, as in Pauloivnia, Catalpa and
Bignonia, or plumed and awned, as in Strophanthus (Fig. 185) ;
Asclcpias and Apocynum (Fig. 201). As examples of fruits hav-
ing special parts which aid in their distribution may be mentioned
the akene of Arnica which is provided with a pappus (Fig. 241),
the bladder-like pericarp of Chenopodium, the winged fruit or
samara of maple. The hooked or barbed appendages on some
fruits serve to attach them to animals and thus they may be
widely distributed, as in the burdock and Spanish needles
(Bidcns bipinnata). In still other cases fruits may be carried
long distances by water currents, or even by ocean currents, as
those of the Double-cocoanut palm {Lodo'icca Seychellarum),
which while native of the Seychelles Islands is now found on
many of the islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It may
also be mentioned in this connection that a number of fruits, as
the garden balsam, castor-oil plant, violets (pansy, etc.), Wistaria,
etc., are elastically dehiscent and discharge the seeds with con-
siderable force.

CHAPTER III.

INNER MORPHOLOGY OF THE HIGHER PLANTS.
CELL AND CELL-CONTENTS.

A TYPICAL living cell may be said to consist of a wall and a
protoplast (a unit of protoplasm), although it is often customary
to refer to the protoplast alone as constituting the cell. This is in
view of the fact that the protoplasm which makes up the sub-
stance of the protoplast is the living substance of the plant.

Besides the protoplasm other substances are also found in the
cell, hence in a general way the cell may be said to be composed
of a wall and contents (cell-contents). The wall, as well as the
cell-contents, consists of a number of substances, and, as the cell-
contents are of primary importance in the development of the
plant, their nature and composition will be considered first.

Cell-contents. — With the distinction already made the cell-
contents may be grouped into two classes: (i) Protoplasmic, or
those in which the life-processes of the plant, or cell, are mani-
fested, and (2) non-protoplasmic, or those which are the direct or
indirect products of the protoplast. The first class includes the
protoplasm with its various differentiated parts, and the second,
the various carbohydrates (starches and sugars), calcium, oxalate,
aleurone, tannin, oil, and a number of other substances.

PROTOPLASMIC CELL-CONTENTS.

Protoplasm. — Protoplasm occurs as a more or less semi-
fluid, slimy, granular, or foam-like substance, which lies close to
the walls of the cell as a relatively thin layer and surrounding a
large central cavity or vacuole filled with cell-sap. or it may be
distributed in the form of threads or bands forming a kind of net-
work enclosing smaller vacuoles. Protoplasm consists of two
comparatively well dififerentiated portions: (i) Certain more or
less distinct bodies which appear to have particular functions and
to which a great deal of study has been given, as the nucleus and

156

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 157

plastids, and (2) a less dense portion which may be looked upon
as the ground substance of the protoplast and which is now com-
monly referred to as the cytoplasm (sec Frontispiece). These
differentiated bodies and the cytoplasm are intimately associated
and interdependent. The nucleus and cytoplasm are present in

Fig. 94. Successive stages in nuclear and cell division, n, nucleolus; c, centrospheres
s, chromosomes; sp, spindle fibers; A, B, C, division of chromosomes, i, cell with nucleus
containing nucleolus (n), and two centrospheres (c); 2, showing separation of nucleus
into distinct chromosomes (s) and the centrospheres at either pole of the nucleus; 3, forma-
tion of spindle fibers (sp); 4, longitudinal division of chromosomes; s, division of the cen-
trospheres; 6, 7, 8, further stages in the development of the daughter nuclei; 9, formation
of cell- wall which is completed in lo giving rise to two new cells. — After Strasburger.

all living cells and it is through their special activities that cell
division takes place. When in addition plastids are present, con-
structive metabolism takes place, whereby complex substances are
formed from simpler ones (p. 222).

Besides the nucleus and plastids other protoplasmic structures
are sometimes found embedded in the cytoplasm. These are the

158 BOTANY AND PHAR.AiACOGNOSY.

CENTROSPHERES (Fig. 94, c) , Small spherical bodies that are
associated with the nucleus and appear to be concerned in cell
division. There are in fact quite a number of minute bodies in
the cytoplasm which may be always present or only under certain
conditions, and which are grouped under the general name of

MICROSOMES or MICROSOMATA.

Chemically protoplasm is an extremely complex substance, but
does not appear to have a definite molecular structure of its own,
being composed in large measure of proteins, a class of organic
compounds which always contain nitrogen, and frequently phos-
phorus and sulphur. The molecule of the proteins is large and
more or less unstable, and hence subject to rapid changes and a
variety of combinations, and it is to these interactions that the
vital activities of the plant are attributed.

Nucleus. — The nucleus consists of (i) a ground substance
in which is embedded (2) a network composed of threads con-
taining a granular material known as chromatin, and (3) gen-
erally one or more spherical bodies called nucleoles, the wdiole
being enclosed by (4) a delicate membrane (Fig. 94). The chro-
matin threads are readily stained by some of the aniline dyes, and
are mainly Composed of nucleins (proteins) rich in phosphorus,
which by some writers are supposed to be essential constituents of
the nucleus and necessary to the life of the protoplast. Chroma-
tin is constant in the nucleus and prior to cell division the threads
become organized into bodies of a definite number and shape
known as chromosomes (Fig. 94, s).

Plastids. — The plastids or chromatoi)hores form a group of
difl:'erentiated protoplasmic bodies found in the cytoplasm (Front-
ispiece) and are associated with it in the building up of complex
organic compounds, as starch, oil and proteins. The term chro-
matophore means color-bearer, but applies also to those plastids
which may be colorless at one stage and pigmented at another.
Hence we may speak of colorless chromatophores. According
to the position of the cells in which these bodies occur and the
functions they perform, they vary in color — three distinct kinds
being recognized. ( i ) In the egg-cell and in the cells of roots,
rhizomes and seeds the plastids are colorless and are called leuco-
plastids. (2) When they occur in cells which are more or less

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 159

exposed to light and produce the green pigment called chloro-
phyll, they are known as chloroplastids or chloroplasts. (3) In
other cases, independently of the position of the cells as to light
or darkness, the plastids develop a yellowish or orange-colored
principle, which may be termed chromophyll, and are known as
CHROMOPLASTiDS. Chloroplastids are found in all plants except
Fungi and non-chlorophyllous flowering plants, and chromoplas-
tids in all plants except Fungi. Plastids vary in form from more
or less spherical to polygonal or irregular-shaped bodies, and
they increase in number by simple fission. They suffer decompo-
sition much more readily than the nucleus, and are found in dried
material in a more or less altered condition.

Leucoplastids. — The chief function of the leucoplastids is
that of building up reserve starches or those stored by the plant
for food, and they may be best studied in the common potato
tuber, rhizome of iris, and the overground tubers of FJiaiiis (Fig.
2, b). The reserve starches are formed by the leucoplastids from
sugar and other soluble carbohydrates.

The chloroplastids occur in all the green parts of plants
(see Frontispiece). They vary from 3 to 11 /x in diameter and
are more or less spherical or lenticular in shape, except in the
Algae, where they are large and in the shape of bands or disks
(Figs. 6, 7), and generally spoken of as chromatophores. Chlo-
roplastids are found in greater abundance in the cells near the
upper surface of the leaf than upon the under surface, the pro-
portion being about five to one. These grains upon close exam-
ination are found to consist of ( i ) a colorless stroma, or liquid,
in which are embedded (2) green granules; (3) colorless gran-
ules; (4) protein masses; (5) starch grains; and (6) a mem-
brane which surrounds the whole. The green granules are
looked upon as the COo assimilation bodies ; the colorless grains
are supposed to assist in the storing of starch or in the produc-
tion of diastase, the conditions for these processes being directly
opposite, i.e., when COo assimilation is active, starch is stored,
and when this process is not going on. as at night, diastase is pro-
duced and the starch is dissolved. The protein grains may be in
the nature of a reserve material of the plastid and are also prob-
ablv formed as a result of CO.. assimilation.

i6o BOTANY AND rHARMACOGNOSY.

While the protoplasm has been termed by Huxley " The phys-
ical basis of life," the chloroplasticl has been spoken of as the
mill which supplies the world with its food, for it is by the
process of photosynthesis that the energy of the sun is con-
verted into vital energy, and starch and other products formed,
which become not only the source of food for the plant itself,
but also the source of the food-supply of the animals which
feed upon plants. Ii: other words, horse-power is derived
from the energy of the sun which is stored by the chloroplastids
in the plant.

Chromoplastids. — In many cases, as in roots, like those of
carrot, or flowers and fruits, which are yellowish or orange-
colored, there is present a corresponding yellow pigment, and to
this class of pigments the name chromophyll may be applied.
wSome of these pigments, as the carotin in carrot, have lieen iso-
lated in a crystalline condition (see Frontispiece).

Chromoplastids usually contain, as first pointed out by Schim-
per and Meyer, protein substances in the form of crystal-like
bodies ; starch-grains may also be present. The chromoplastids
are ver}- variable in shape and in other ways are markedly differ-
ent from the chloroplastids. They are more unstable than the
chloroplastids, and are formed in underground parts of the plant,
as in roots, as well as in parts exposed to the light, as in the flower.
Their formation frequently follows that of the chloroplastids, as
in the ripening of certain yellow fruits, such as apples, oranges,
persimmons, etc.

The PLASTiD PIGMENTS are distinguished from all other color-
substances in the plant by the fact that they are insoluble in water
and soluble in ether, chloroform and similar solvents. In fact
they are but little affected by the usual chemical reagents under
ordinary conditions.

Apart from the difference in color, the yellow pigment (chro-
mophyll) is distinguished from the green (chlorophyll) by the
fact that the latter is said to contain nitrogen, and also by their
difference in behavior w^hen examined spectroscopically, chloro-
phyll giving several distinct bands in the yellow and orange por-
tion of the spectrum, which arc wanting in the spectrum of the
yellow principle.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. i6i

NON-PROTOPLASMIC CELL-CONTENTS;

The non-protoplasmic constituents of plants may be said to
differ from the protoplasmic cell-contents in two important partic-
ulars, namely, structure and function. For convenience in con-
sidering them here, they may be grouped as follows :

(i) Those of definite form including (a) those which are
colloidal or crystalloidal, as starch and inulin; (b) those which
are crystalline, as the sugars, alkaloids, glucosides, calcium oxal-
ate; (c) composite bodies, as aleurone grains, which are made
up of a number of different substances.

(2) Those of more or less indefinite form, including tannin,
gums and mucilages, fixed and volatile oils, resins, gum-resins,
oleo-resins, balsams, caoutchouc, and also silica and calcium
carbonate.

L SUBSTANCES DEFINITE IN FORM.

COLLOIDAL OR CRYSTALLOIDAL.

Starch is the first visible product of photosynthesis al-
though it is probable that simpler intermediate products are first
formed. This substance is formed in the chloroplastid (see
Frontispiece) and is known as assimilation starch. Starch
grains are usually found in the interior of the chloroplastid, but
may attain such a size that they burst through the boundary wall
of the plastid, which latter in the final stage of the growth of the
starch grain forms a crescent-shaped disk attached to one end of
ihc grain, as in Pellionia. Starch is changed into soluble car-
bohydrates by the aid of ferments and probably other substances,
and in this form is transported to those portions of the plant
requiring food. The starch in the medullary rays and in other
cells of the wood and bark of plants is distinguished by being in
the form of rather small and nearly spherical grains. In rhi-
zomes, tubers, bulbs and seeds the grains are, as a rule, quite
large, and possess more or less distinct characteristics for the
plant in which they are found. Starch of this kind is usually
spoken of as reserve starch.

Occurrence of Starch. — Starch is found in most of the
alga; and many of the mosses, as well as in the ferns and higher

1 62

BOTANY AND PHARAIACUGNOSY.

plants. The amount of starch present in the tissues of plants
varies. In the root of manihot as much as 70 per cent, has been
found. This constituent also varies in amount according to the
season of the year. Rosenberg has observed that in certain peren-
nial plants there is an increase in the amount of starch during
the winter months, whereas in other plants it decreases or may
entirely disappear during this period. In the latter case, from six
weeks to two months in the spring are required for its re-forma-
tion, and about an equal period is consumed in the fall in effect-
ing its solution.

Fig. 95. Microphotograph of the rhombic prisms of Asparaein (amido-succinamic
acid) which occurs in Althaea, glycyrrhiza. the roots of Robinia pseudacacia and is rather
widely distributed in the vegetable kingdom. (See Part IV.)

Structure and Composition of Starch Grains. — Fhc foriiml i
which is generally accepted for starch is (C(jHjoO-)„, this Ijeirg
recognized by Pfeffer, Tollens and Mylius. It is supposed that
the molecule of starch is quite complex, it being composed of dif-
ferent single groups of CgHioO., or multiples of the same. While
this formula may be accepted in a general way, still it has been
.shown that there arc at least two substances which enter into the
composition of the starch grain, and more recent studies tend

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

163

to show that it is in the nature of a sphero-crystalloid,- resembUng
inuhn in some respects. Starch grains have an interesting struc-
ture. They vary in shape from ovoid or spherical to polygonal,
and have a more or less distinct marking known as the " hilum,"
" nucleus " or the point of origin of growth. The substances
of which the grains are composed are arranged in concentric
layers or lamellae which are more or less. characteristic and which
sometimes become more distinct on the application of certain

(

-. .

//V\

[:,!

/jff

Fig. 96. Successive stages in the swelling and disintegration of starch grains in the
presence of water on the application of heat (6o°-7o° C.),.or certain chemicals. Potato
starch i-io; wheat starch II-.22.

reagents (Figs. 96, 97). The point of origin of growth and alter-
nate lamellae are stained by the use of gentian violet and other
aniline dyes, which may be taken to indicate that these layers
contain a colloidal substance somewhat resembling a mucilage,
while the alternating layers are stained with dilute iodine solu-
tions and arc probably composed of soluble starch, this latter cor-
responding to the a-amylose of Arthur Meyer or the granulose
described by Nageli. The peripheral layer of the grain appears
to be a distinct membrane. It is quite elastic, more or less porous,
and takes up stains readily.

i64 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

While starch grains usuahy occur singly, they are not infre-
quently found in groups of two, three or four grains, when they
are spoken of as two-, three-, or four-compound. In some of the
cereals, as rice and oat, they are lOO-compound or more. The
individuals in compound grains are in some cases easily sepa-
rated from one another. This occurs frequently in microscopical
preparations, and is especially noticeable in the commercial
starches.

The various commercial starches belong to the class of reserve
starches and may be distinguished by the following characteristics :

( 1 ) The shape of the grain, which may be spherical, ellip-
soidal, ovoid, polygonal, or of some other characteristic form
(Figs. 316, 317).

(2) The size of the grain, which varies from 1 or 2 fi
to about 100 fj. in diameter.

(3) The position of the point of origin of growth, which may
be central (Fig. 316, C, D) or excentral (Fig. 316, A, B).
In some cases there are apparently two points of origin of growth
in a single grain, and it is then spoken of as " half-compound,"
as in potato (Fig. 316. A).

(4) The shape of the point of origin of growth, which may
be spherical, as in potato (Fig. 316, A) \ cross-shaped, as in
maranta (Fig. 316, B) ; a three- or five-angled fissure or cleft,
as in corn (Fig. 316, D), or indistinct or wanting, as in wheat
(Fig. 316, C).

(5) The convergence of the lamellae, which may be either
toward the broad end of the grain, as in maranta (Fig. 316, 5),
or toward the narrow end. as in potato (Fig. 316, A). In most
grains the lamellae are indistinct or wanting, as in wheat and corn
(Fig. 316, C, D).

(6) Behavior toward dilute iodine solutions, the color pro-
duced varying from a deep blue in most starches to a red or yel-
lowish red, as in the amylodextrin grains of mace.

(7) The temperature (45°-//° C.) at which tlie " kleister "
or paste is formed, and its consistencv.

(8) The appearance as viewed by polarized light, the distinct-
ness of the cross, as well as the degree of color produced, varying
considerably as Nichol's prism is revolved (Figs. T75a, 322),

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 165

(9) Behavior toward various reagents, as chromic acid, cal-
cium nitrate, chlor-zinc-iodide, diastase and various anihne stains,
showing pecuharities of both structure and composition (Fig. 96).

General Properties of Starch. — If starch is triturated with
water and the mixture filtered, the filtrate does not give a reaction
with iodine solution ; if, on the other hand, the starch is previously
triturated with sand and then with water, the filtrate becomes blue
on the addition of iodine solution. It appears that in the latter
operation the wall of the grain is broken and the soluble starch
present in the grain is liberated.

If dry starch and iodine are triturated together no color or,
at the most, a faint blue color is produced; whereas, if a little
water is added and the trituration repeated, a deep blue color is
immediately produced.

The blue color of starch solution and iodine disappears on the
application of heat, but slowly returns on cooling the solution,
but not with the same degree of intensity, part of the iodine
being volatilized.

When starch is heated with glycerin it dissolves, and if alco-
hol is added to the solution, a granular precipitate is formed which
is soluble in water, the solution giving a blue reaction with iodine.

When starch is heated with an excess of water at 100° C. for
even several weeks, dextrinization of the starch does, not take
place, i.e., the solution still gives a blue color wath iodine. If, how-
ever, a mineral acid be added, it is ciuickly dextrinized, turning
violet-red, reddish and yellowish with iodine ; finally, maltose
and dextrose are produced, these giving no reaction with iodine,
but reducing Fehling's solution. The ferments and other chemi-
cals have a similar efifect on starch.

When dry starch is heated at about 50° C. from 15 to 30 min-
utes the lamellae and crystalloidal structure become better defined
and the polarizing efifects produced by the grains also become
more pronounced. When starch is mounted in a fixed oil, as
almond, the polarizing effects are more pronounced than when
it is mounted in water, but the inner structure is not usually
apparent, unless the starch has been previously heated.

Inulin appears to be an isomer of starch and occurs in solu-
tion in the ceH-sap of various members of the Compositae and

i66 BUTANV AND PHARAIACOGNUSV.

several other families, being found in the lower orders of plants
only in isolated cases.

It is stored chiefly in the parenchyma cells of the wood and
bark of rhizomes, tubers and roots, being also found in the medul-
lary-ray cells. It occurs in the form of a colorless, or yellowish,
highly refractive, concentrated solution, about 30 per cent, being
present in plants during the early fall and spring, when it exists
in greatest amount. During winter and also during summer it is
changed to levulose.

According to Dragendorff there are two forms of inulin ; one
of which is amorphous and easily soluble in water, and another
which is crystalline and difficultly soluble in water. The latter
is probably, however, a modification of the former, and it is not
unlikely that the various principles known as pseudoinulin, inu-
lenin, helianthenin and synantherin are all modifications of inulin.

If inulin-containing plants are preserved in alcohol and exam-
ined by aid of the microscope, the inulin will be found to have
separated in the form of sphere-crystalloids, which are attached
to the cell wall (Fig. loi, E; Fig. 105) ; but if the material is
first allowed to dry out, the inulin will be found in irregular,
almost gum-like lumps, which are with more or less difficulty dis-
solved in water.

Drugs Containing Inulin. — Inulin, in the form of irregular,
strongly refractive masses, is found in the following drugs :
Inula, lappa, pyrethrum and taraxacum.

CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCES.

The sugars constitute a group of crystalline principles of
wide distribution. They occur in the cell-sap, from which by
evaporation or on treatment with alcohol they may be crystallized
out. Quite a large number of distinct principles belonging to this
class have been recognized, of which the following may be men-
tioned :

Dextrose (grape-sugar or dextro-glucose) is found in sweet
fruits, the nectaries of the flowers, and stems and leaves of various
plants. It crystallizes in needles and varies in amount from i to 2
per cent, (in peaches), to 30 per cent, in certain varieties of

MORPHOLOCiV OF lll(,liI':R I'LAXTS. 167

grapes. It also occurs in combination with other principles, form-
ing the glucosides.

Levulose (fructose, fruit-sugar or levo-glucose) is associated
with dextrose, occurring in some instances even in larger quan-
tities than the latter.

Sucrose (saccharose or cane-sugar) is found rather widely
distributed, as in the stems of corn, sorghum and the sugar-cane ;
in roots, as the sugar-beet ; in the sap of certain trees, as sugar-
maple and some of the palms ; in the nectaries and sap of certain
flowers as fuchsia, caryoph}llus and some of the Cactaceae ; in
seeds, as almond and chestnut, and in various fruits, as figs, mel-
ons, apples, cherries, in some plants, as in sugar-cane, the yield is
as high as 20 per cent. It crystallizes in monoclinic prisms or pyra-
mids and forms insoluble compounds with calcium and strontium.

Maltose is found in the germinating grains of cereals (see
malt ) ; it forms colorless, needle-shaped crystals resembling those
of dextrose, and forms compounds with calcium, strontium,
barium and acetic acid.

Trehalose occurs in some fungi, as ergot and Agaricus inns-
car ius — the latter containing as much as 10 per cent, in the dried
plant.

Alannitol occurs in the form of needles or prisms and is found
in the manna of Fraxinus ornns to the extent of 90 per cent. It
is also found in some of the Umbelliferse, as Apinni graveolcns,
some of the Fungi and seaweeds, and is rather widely distributed.

Dulcitol, which is closely related to mannitol, is found in
l:ii(in\niiis curopccus and in most of the plants of the Scroph-
ulariacese.

Gentianose occurs in the root of Gcntiana Intca.

The alkaloids probably arise in the protoplasm. Later
thev appear in the cell-sap in combination with various plant
acids, as malic, tannic and others, and may be precipitated by
the so-called alkaloidal reagents. They occur in greatest amount
in those cells which are in a potential, rather than an active con-
dition, being associated with starch, fixed oils, aleurone grains,
and other reserve products, in the roots, rhizomes and seeds.
They are found in fruits in greatest amount during the develop-
ment of the seed, but after the maturing of the latter they slowly

168 BOTAXY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

disappear, as in poppy- and coniuni. The occurrence of alkaloids
in the walls of the cells of certain plants, as in nux vomica, is
probably due to their imbibition by the wall as a result of patho-
logical changes in the cell (p. 437).

Many of the alkaloids which have been isolated by chemical
means are in the nature of decomposition products of those nat-
urally occurring in the plant, as certain of the alkaloids of tobacco,
tea, coffee, cinchona, opium, etc. The alkaloids are of more fre-
quent occurrence in the dicotyledons than in the monocotyledons,
and are rather characteristic for certain groups, as those of the
genera Strychnos, Cinchona, Erythroxylon, Papaver, etc.

While the microchemical study of the alkaloids requires
considerable technic, still, in certain drugs, their detection
is quite simple, as in nux vomica, strophanthus and hydrastis
(Fig. 292).

The glucosides, like the alkaloids, are also probably formed
in the protoplasm. They are compounds of glucose and other
principles and may be classed as reserve products. In some
instances they readily separate out in the plant cell, as hesperidin ;
while others. give characteristic color-reactions, as crocin, salicin
and coniferin, but in most instances they are with difficulty
detected by microchemical means.

Gluco-alkaloids represent a class of compounds intermedi-
ate between the alkaloids and glucosides, possessing characteristics
of each. To this class belongs achilleine, found in various species
of Achillea, and also solanine, found in a number of species of
Solanum. ( See pages 373-375-)

Cell-sap Colors. — The majority of the other color-sub-
stances found in the higher plants besides the green and yellow
principles previously mentioned occur in solution in the cell-sap,
and may be in the nature of secondary substances derived from
the plastid pigments, or they may be produced directly by the
protoplasm. Upon making sections of the tissues containing cell-
sap color-substances, not infrequently strikingly contrasting col-
ors are observed in contiguous cells ; as in the petals of the poppy
and petals of certain lilies, where we find some cells of a deep
purple color, others of a deep red and still others of intermediate
shades.

ArORPTTOLOGY OF TITGHKR PLANTS. 169

These substances are easily extracted with water or dihite
alcohol and are all more or less affected by certain chemicals
(many of which occur naturally in the plant), such as citric acid,
oxalic acid, salts of calcium, iron, aluminum, etc.

A number of plant pigments of this class are used as indi-
cators in volumetric chemical analysis, their use in this connection
being dependent upon their sensitiveness to acids and alkalies.
The fact that they respond to iron salts, that is, give a blue or
green reaction with these salts, would indicate that they are
associated with tannin or that they are tannin-like compounds, as
has been supposed' by some writers, but they behave very differ-
ently from tannin toward other reagents, such as organic acids,
alkalies, lime water and solution of alum.

An examination of the color-substances of a large number of
plants shows that the flower color-substances are distributed in
all parts of the plant. For example, the flower color-substance of
the rose occurs in the leaves and prickles as weJl as in the petals.

The color-substance in the root of the radish closely corre-
sponds to that in the flowers, while the one in the grains of black
Mexican corn corresponds to that in corn silk.

The cell-sap color-substances are usually found in greatest
amount at the tips of the branches, this being well marked in the
foliage of the rose, and may be said to be rather characteristic
of spring foliage. Not infrequently in the purple beech the young
leaves will be of a distinct purplish-red color and almost entirely
free from chlorophyll, suggesting a corresf)ondence in position
and color to a flower.

Color in Autumn Leaves. — The coloring matters in both
spring and autumn leaves closely resemble the cell-sap color-
substances of flowers, although it is the spring leaves which give
the most satisfactory results when examined. The fact that in
the autumn leaves there is little or none of the plastid pigment
present w^ould point to the conclusion that the color-substances
occurring in these leaves are in the nature of by-products and of
no further use to the plant. Of course in the case of autumn
leaves we know that these products cannot be further utilized
by the plant, and for this reason we are justified in regarding
them as waste products.

I70 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

So-called White Colors. — The so-called white colors in
plants do not properly belong to either class, but may be said to
be appearances due rather to the absence of color, and depending
upon the reflection of light from transparent cells separated by
relatively large intercellular spaces containing air. In other words
the effect produced by these cells may be likened to that pro-
duced by the globules in an emulsion. The white appearance is
most pronounced in the pith cells of certain stems, where on
the death of the cells the size of the intercellular spaces is in-
creased and the colorless bodies in the cells as well as the walls
reflect the light like snow crystals.

Calcium oxalate is found in many of the higher plants, and
in the algs and fungi as well ; while in the mosses, ferns, grasses
and sedges it is seldom found. It occurs in plants in crystals of
either the monoclinic or tetragonal system (Figs. 281, 282). The
crystals dissolve in any of the mineral acids without effervescence
and their identity is usually confirmed by the use of dilute hydro-
chloric acid. The crystals of the monoclinic system are rather
widely distributed, while those of the tetragonal system are less
frequent in their occurrence, being found in species of Allium,
Tradescantia and Begonia, in Paitlozvnia imperialis and in the
Cactaceje. The crystals belonging to the monoclinic system in-
clude a number of forms, as follows: (i ) Rosette aggregates, or
what are commonly termed rosette-shaped crystals; (2) prisms,
pyramids and elongated or irregular polygonal-shaped crystals :
(3) cr^■stal-fibers ; (4) raphides ; (5) sphenoid micro-cr)stals
and ((1) nienibrane crystals.

Rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate consist of numerous
small prisms and pyramids, or hemihedral crystals more or less
regularly arranged around a central axis, ami have the appear-
ance of a rosette or star (Fig. 281, A). The development of
these aggregates mav be readily observed in the stem of Datura
straiiioniiiiii. Crystals of this class are more widely distributed
than any of the others, and are found in a number of drugs.
(See chapter on Powdered Drugs.)

Monoclinic prisms and pyramids are also widely distrib-
uted and are frecjuently so nuxHfied in form that they are of an
elongated or irregular polygonal shape (Fig. 281, C, E). The

MORillDLOGV OV 111(;11I-:R ['I.AXTS. T7T

crystals of this group are sometimes mistaken for silica, owing to
the fact that in some instances the lumen of the cell is completely
filled by the crystal, and the inner wall having the contour of the
crystal, it is impossible to determine whether the crystal is af-
fected by the use of hydrochloric acid. It should be stated in
this connection that silica never occurs as a cell-content in sharp,
angular crystals, but either in more or less ellipsoidal or irregular
hollow masses, or in somewhat solid, irregularly branching
masses.

Crystal Fibers. — In cjuite a number of drugs a single mono-
clinic prism occurs in each of the parenchyma cells adjoining
the sclerenchymatous fibers, and to this single longitudinal row
of superimposed cells the name crystal fiber has been applied
(Fig. 282, B).

Raphides are groups of needle-shaped crystals which are
found in various plants (Fig. 281, B). These have been mistaken
by several observers for calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate,
however, occurs in plants either in solution or in combination
with protein substance. The cells containing raphides are long,
thin-walled and contain sooner or later a mucilage, which arises
from the cell-sap and behaves with reagents much like cherry-
gum. The cells are either isolated or occur in groups placed
end to end, as in Veratrum viride.

Micro-crystals are exceedingly small (about 0.2 to 10 /u, in
diameter), apparently deltoid or arrow-shaped, and so numerous
as to entirely fill the parenchyma cells in which they occur, giving
the cells a grayish-black appearance which readily distinguishes
them from other plant cells (Figs. 175a, 281, D). It has been
supposed that they are tetrahedrons, but they are probably
sphenoids in the monoclinic system, inasmuch as monoclinic
prisms occur in neighboring cells in the same plant or drug, as
in stramonium, quassia, etc.

Membrane Crystals. — There are several forms of crystals
which may be included in this group. The so-called Rosanoff
crystals consist of rosette aggregates attached to inward-protrud-
ing walls of the plant cell. These, however, do not concern us so
much as the large monoclinic crystals which have a membrane
surrounding them. The crystal first appears in the cell-sap and

t72 IIOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

then miiiicrous oil globules appear iu the protoplasm arouiul it ;
later some of the walls of the cell thicken and grow around the
crystal, which they finally completely envelop, as in Moraceae.

PLANT PROTEINS.

The proteins are nitrogenous compounds, most of which con-
tain sulphur and some of which contain phosphorus. Their
constitution or the molecular structure of their molecules has not
been determined, but they are very large, and are built up of amino-
acids, the simplest of which is glycocoll ( amino-acetic acid).

Apart from the protoplasm found in living cells, the pro-
portion of proteins in plants is relatively small, except in seeds,
where they serve as nutriment during the germinating period,
being made available by the action of proteolytic enzymes.
Most of the plant proteins are globulins, and collectively have
been termed phyto-globulins. (i) The globulins are insoluble
in pure water and in dilute acids, but are soluble in dilute
solutions of sodium chloride ( i to 20 per cent. ) , ammonium
chloride, sodium sulphate and dilute solution of potassium hydrate,
from which solutions they may be precipitated bv dilution,
dialysis, or acidification with COo or dilute acids, or by " salting
out" by the use of strong or saturated solutions of ammonium
sulphate, magnesium sulphate or sodium chloride. (2) The
proteins which contain phosphorus are sometimes called phyto-
vitellins. as legumin in peas, which contains 0.35 per cent, of
phosphorus. A third class of plant proteins, which are alcohol-
soluble, are found in cereals, as the gliadin of wheat and rye
and the zein of maize. The cohesive and doughing properties
of wheat flour are attributed to the association of gliadin and
another protein called glutenin.

Some of the plant proteins occur naturally in the crystalline
form, either free in the cytoplasm, as in the potato tuber (Fig. 97,
A), or as components of aleurone grains, as in the seeds of
Ricinus couununis and P)razil nuts (Figs. 97, D : 122, D). Phyto-
globulins in the form of crystals and spheroids have been ob-
tained from extracts of flax-seed, hemp-seed. Brazil-nut, castor-
oil seeds and others. Protein crystals are, according to Wich-
mann, isomorphic, and probably belong to the hexagonal system.

MORriiULUGY UF iiiGHER i'LAXTS.

173

Aleurone grains are made up of protein-er} stalloitls, globoids
and a ground mass, the whole being enelosed b\- a membrane-
like material. The}' may be studied by taking- advantao-e
of the difference in solubility of the substances composing them.
The membrane is a protoplasmic membrane and, while soluble
in water, remains intact on examining sections in any of the

0 o

Oo^.

Fig. 97. Protein crystalloids: A, crll of tuber of white potato (Solanum iuberosu-it)
showing protein crystalloids (k), starch grains (st). nucleus (n): B, aleurone grains of the
seed of the castor-oil plant {Ricinus communis); C, aleurone grains of fruit of fennel
(Fceniculum vulgare) containing large calcium oxalate crystals (Ca) which are strongly
polarizing as shown in the isolated grains; D, aleurone grains of Brazil nut (Bertholletia
excelsd). g, globoids; k. protein crystalloids.

fixed oils, as cotton-seed oil. L'suall\ seeds wdiich contain
aleurone are rich in fixed oils, and if this oil is first removed
by placing fresh sections in alcohol, or alcohol and ether, the
subsequent study is facilitated. If the sections thus treated
are mounted in water, the membrane gradually dissolves, leaving

174 BOTANY AND I'liARAl ACUUA'USY.

the crystalloids, globoids and calcium oxalate. On adding a
o.i to I per cent, solution of either sodium or potassium hydrate,
the crystalloids dissolve, the globoids and calcium oxalate crystals
remaining unaffected. The globoids may be dissolved by the
use of a I per cent, acetic acid solution, or concentrated solu-
tions of anmionium sulphate or monopotassium phosphate. The
calcium oxalate remaining may then be treated with hydrochloric
acid in the usual way.

IT AxMORPHOUS .SUBSTANCES.

Cystoliths. — Occasionally cells are found among the paren
chyma or in the inner row of the epidermal cells on the upper side
of the leaf, the walls of which form an inward protrusion intn tlie
cell and l)ecome impregnated with and encrusted by calcium car-
l)onate, giving rise to more or less stalked bodies known as cysto-
liths (Fig. 221). The calcium carbonate dissolves on the
application of acetic acid, leaving a core which responds to the
tests for cellulose. Cystoliths are not of common occurrence,
being found with but few exceptions in the two families Acan-
thace^e and Moraceae, and in a few species of the Cucurbitacese.
in the leaves of the cultivated rub])er plant the cystoliths have
long stalks, whereas in cannabis indica (Fig. 279), they are
sessile.

Tannin and Tannoids. — Tannins are astringent principles
which belong to the class of phenol acids and give blue or green
precipitates with iron salts. The tannoids, in addition, precipitate
albuminous compounds, and when applied to animal hides con-
vert them into leather. These principles are widely distributed,
occurring dissolved in the cell-sap, in parenchyma cells or
in distinct reservoirs or vessels, and vary in amount from
T per cent, or less to as high as 70 per cent, in Chinese galls.
Tannin may be precipitated in the plant cells by copper acetate.

Mucilages and Gums.— By the terms mucilages and gums
are meant those substances which are soluble in water, or swell
very perceptibly in it, and which, upon the addition of alcohol,
are precipitated in the form of a more or less amorphous or gran-
ular mass. Mucilage originates in the plant as a cell-content, or
as a modification of the wall. In the former case it arises as a

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER i'LANTS.

175

product of the protoplasm, or it may be a disorganization product
of some of the carbohydrates of the cell-contents. When it arises
through modification of the wall it is spoken of as '* membrane
mucilage" (Fig. 99). and owes its origin to several causes:
cither to a secondary thickening of or an addition to the cell wall,
or a metamorphosis of it, at least in part. In the latter case it

Fig. 98. Citrus vulgaris. Longitudinal section of a young fresh fruit showing a lysig-
enous oil canal or duct. Se, oil; Zs, cell sap; PI, cells in which the walls have been dis-
solved; f, thin-walled cells; D, thick-walled cells; K, nucleus; Chr, chromoplasts; o, crystals
of calcium oxalate; e, epidermis. — After Meyer.

may arise either as a disorganization product of the primary wall.
or of the subsequent lamella making up the walls of the cells of
the pith, medullary rays, parenchyma and other tissues, as in
Astragalus guminifcr (Fig. 274), or it may arise as an inter-
cellular substance.

The following is a classification of some plants, based upon the
origin of the mucilage which (hey contain :

176

BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGNOSY.

A. Cell-content Mucilage: Tuber of Orchis sp. (salep) ;
rhizome of Agropyron re pens; bulb of Urginea maritiiiia; bulb of
Allium sp. (onion, garlic) ; stem, leaf and elements of flower,

Fk;. oy- Cell-wall mucilage. A, transverse section of seed-coat of flaxseed treated
with water, showing the swelling of the mucilaginous layer beneath the cutin; B, section
of Altha;a root showing three large mucilage-cells; C, transverse section of elm bark show-
ing four large mucilage-cells.

excepting stamens, of F/o/a tricolor; flower-stalks of Hageiiia
abyssiiiiea : pulp of fruit of Miisa paradisiaca (banana) ; succulent
plants, as aluc, etc. (See Fig. 98.)

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

177

P). Cell-membrane Mucilage, a. Secondary thickening of
wall: Root of Althcra officinalis; bark of Cinnamomum sp. ; bark
of Rhamnus Frangnla; bark of root of Sassafras officinale;
inner bark of Ulmns fulva; leaves of Barosma hctulina, and B.
crcnulata; seed-coat of Cydonia vulgaris; seed-coat of Linuni usi-
fatissiniiiin: seed-coat of Sinapis alba, and Brassica nigra,
b. ^Metamorphosis of Cell wall : i. Pith and mediillary-rav cells ;
Astragalus sp.. yielding tragacanth. 2. Parenchyma cells of
wood and bark ; cherry gum, yielded by some of the Amygdal-

Fig. 100. A, B, C, successive stages in the development of the mucilage hairs or glands
on the lobes of the leaves of Viola tricolor: D, young secretion hair showing some of the cells
T",-ith large nuclei and several vacuoles; E, mature hair; F, gland showing mucilaginous layer
beneath the cutin and the protrusion of a portion of the mucilage through the broken wall.

acege. 3. Various cells of the bark ; Acacia Senegal, yielding gum
arabic. 4. Primary wall as intercellular substance ; thallus of
Chondrus crispus (Irish moss). (See Figs. 99, 100, 274.)

C. Glandular Hairs (Driizenzotten) : Leaf and calyx of Jlola
tricolor (Fig. 100) and leaves of Coffea arabica (coffee) and of
Prnnns ax'iuin.

The origin of mucilage may be satisfactorily studied in the
fresh tuber of salep and in the root of alth?ea — in the former as
a cell-content mucilage, and in the latter as a cell-wall mucilage.

178 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The mucilages are further distinguished by their l:)ehavior
toward reagents ; those which are colored blue by chlor-zinc-
iodide, and are soluble in ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide,
are known as cellulose mucilages. To this class belong the mu-
cilages of the tuber of salep and the seeds of cydonium. ]\Iost of
the other mucilages, particularly the pectose-mucilages, are col-
ored by alcoholic and glycerin solutions of the basic aniline dyes.

^Mucilage which occurs in cells containing raphides is stained
by corallin, which is not usually the case with the other mucilages.

Oils, resins and their associated products, like the mucil-
ages and tannins, are formed in the plant either as a result of the
activities of the protoplasm, or by reason of abnormal or patho-
logical changes in some of the constituents of the cell. The oils
may be divided into two principal classes, namely, the reserve or
fixed oils, which are more or less intimately associated with the
protoplasm in fruits and seeds ; and the volatile oils which occur
in special secretion cells or special canals. The former are large
parenchyma cells, the walls of which are not infrequently suber-
ized, and are found in rhizomes, as of calamus (Fig. loi. B) and
ginger; in barks, as sassafras (Fig. 236) and cascarilla ; in fruits,
as capsicum, cubeba (Fig. 250), piper and cardamomum. Oil
secretion canals are formed either as a result of the enlargement
of the intercellular spaces (Fig. 182), due to the separation of the
cells, or as a result of the disintegration of a number of cells.
The former are spoken of as being schizogenous in origin, and
the latter as lysigenous. These terms are also used to designate
similar reservoirs holding mucilage, gum-resins and other prod-
ucts. The schizogenous ducts are of more common occurrence
and are always surrounded by a layer of epithelial cells (Figs.
47, 182, 257, 244, etc.), while the lysigenous ducts are generally
surrounded by remnants of the cell-walls (Fig. 98). The
latter are also found in other plants of the Rutaceie and in
Acacia, Prunus, etc., where they contain gum.

The oils, both fixed and volatile, are insoluble, or nearly so,
in water ; but are solul)le in ether, carbon disulphide, chloroform,
benzin. benzol and acetone. A lost of the volatile oils and a few
of the fixed oils are more or less soluble in alcohol. They are col-
ored brownish or brownish-black with osmic acid. The volatile

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLAx\TS. 179

oils are stained red by alcoholic solutions of alkanet, and some of
them by certain of the aniline dyes, as fuchsin. The distinctive
test for the resins is that when treated with concentrated aqueous
solutions of copper acetate they acquire a green color. They are
likewise stained by many of the aniline dyes. The reserve or fixed
oils are liberated as oily globules on treatment of sections with
sulphuric acid or concentrated chloral solution.

The volatile oils are not infrequently associated with other
substances of the plant cell in varying proportions, as resins, gums,
cinnamic and benzoic acids. Those products which consist chiefly
of oil and resin are known as oleo-resins, and include turpentine
and copaiba ; those consisting chiefly of gum and resin and con-
taining but little volatile oil, are known as gum-resins, and in-
clude ammoniac, asafetida, galbanum and myrrh ; oleo-resins asso-
ciated with aromatic acids are known as balsams, as balsam of
tolu, balsam of Peru, storax and benzoin, which latter is usually
called a balsamic resin.

The enzymes or ferments are probably derived from proteins,
and bring about certain decompositions in the food substances
in plants previous to their assimilation, and are of quite gen-
eral distribution in both lower and higher plants. They have
received different names according to the class of substances
which they decompose. Thus, those acting upon starch in chang-
ing it to sugar are known as diastases. Those which change cane
sugar into dextrose are known as invertases (or invertins),
while those which act on proteids are called proteolytic.

One of the interesting properties of the. ferments is that in
comparison with the amount of ferment employed the product
formed through its influence is very large. Thus it is stated that
diastase is able to hydrolize 10,000 times its own bulk of starch.
Results of this kind are considered to be due to a catalytic action
of the ferments, i.e., their power of inducing chemical reactions
by their mere presence without themselves entering into the
products formed. The ferments require specific temperatures for
their action, as, for example, emulsin or sinaptase, which decom-
poses a number of the glucosides at a temperature of 35° to 40°
C, while diastase, the ferment of germinating seeds, requires a
somewhat higher temperature, namely, 50° to 70° C.

i8o

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

While some of the vegetable ferments have been isolated and
are prepared on a commercial scale, as diastase and the peptic
enzyme papain found in the latex of Carica papaya, in other
cases the ferment-producing organisms themselves are used in a
number of industries involving fermentation processes, as the
yeast-plants and certain of the molds and bacteria.

The microchemical study of the ferments is attended with cer-
tain difficulty on account of the lack of specific reagents for their
detection. The most that can be done is to study the products
formed by their action upon certain other constituents of the cell.

Enzymes may be divided into two classes according to
whether they introduce oxygen or the elements of water sub-
stances, (i) The former are called oxidase enzymes, and are
rather limited in number, and include laccase, found in the lacquer
trees, and those which produce nitric fermentation in nature.
(2) The latter or hydrolytic enzymes include diastase, which acts
on starch, changing it into dextrose; inulase, which acts on inu-
lin, producing levulose ; pectase, acting on pectin, producing vege-
table jellies ; emulsin or sinaptase, which decomposes amygdalin,
arbutin, salicin and other glucosides ; myrosin, which acts on the
glucoside sinigrin (potassium myronate), producing the essen-
tial oil of mustard, and papain the proteolytic enzyme of Carica
papaya.

EXAMINATION OF CELL-CONTENTS.

PKOTOPLASMIC.

NON-PROTOPLASMIC.

Crystalline.

Crystalloidal.

Amorphous.

1 Cytoplasm

2 Nucleus

3 Plastids

4 Calcium Oxalate

5 Sugars

6 Alkaloids

7 Starch

8 Inulin

9 Protein Crystal-

loids

10 Mucilage

1 1 Tannin

12 Resin

13 Oil

I, 2 and 3 have characteristic appearance (see Frontispiece).
4. Crystals of characteristic shape, soluble in hydrochloric and
insoluble in acetic acid. 5. Crystalline in fresh material treated
with alcohol. The glucoses give a reddish precipitate with Fehl-
ing's solution. 6. Concentrated sulphuric acid gives either a
distinct color reaction, as with strophanthus (p. 431), or the sep-

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. i8i

aration of crystals, as in Hydrastis (Fig. 292). 7. Blue with dilute
iodine solution, except the dextrin starches, as in mace, which are
colored red. 8. Sphere-crystalloids in fresh material treated
with alcohol. 9. (See page 172.) 10. Colored blue with alco-
holic solutions of methylene blue. 1 1 . Reddish-brown with cop-
per acetate solutions. 12. Green witli copper acetate solutions.
13. Separation in the form of large globules on the application
of sulphuric acid or solution of chloral hydrate. The essential
oils are more soluble in alcohol than the fixed oils, which are
usually only completely removed from the cells by the use of
ether or a similar solvent.

THE CELL WALL.

Origin and Composition. — The cell wall is formed by the

protoplasm, and varies in composition at different stages of the
growth of the cell, and according to the various functions it has
to perform.

In order to thoroughly understand the nature and composi-
tion of the cell Avail, it is necessary to study the origin and forma-
tion of new cells. Growth of the plant is attended not only by
an increase in the size of the cells, but by the division of these
new cells are also formed. Cells that have the property to divide
and form new cells are known as meristematic cells and constitute
the MERiSTEM. The new and dividing walls resulting from the
division of the cells consist of a number of substances. When a
cell divides the two daughter protoplasts ^'hich result from the
division of the nucleus and cytoplasm are separated by the forma-
tion of a new wall between them (Fig. 94, 10). The first hyer
formed is apparently dififerent from the subsequent layers and is
known as the middle plate or middle lamella. This layer is
soluble in, or readily attacked by, solutions of the alkalies or solu-
tions containing free chlorine. It is insoluble in sulphuric acid,
and readily stained by the aniline dyes. While usually more or
less permanent, this middle plate may be finally absorbed, as m
the glandular hairs of kamala, or it may be changed into mucilage,
as in chondrus, or transformed into pectin compounds, as in fleshy
roots and fruits.

i82 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

To this middle plate is added on either side by the newly
formed protoplasts a layer of substance closely resembling cellu-
lose, this constituting the primary membrane or primary lamella.

Still other layers may be added, consisting of one or more of
the following substances : cellulose, or some modification of it ;
wax, silica or calcium oxalate, these layers constituting what may
be termed the secondary lamella.

Cellulose in its various modifications constitutes the greater
proportion of the cell wall. The cellulose making up the
cotton fiber may be said to be the typical cellulose, and
is known as " cotton cellulose." It is soluble in copper ammo-
nium sulphate solution ; is colored blue with chlor-zinc-iodide solu-
tion or iodine and sulphuric acid, and is stained by acid phenolic
dyes, as alizarin, if previously treated with basic mordants, as
basic salts of aluminum, etc.

According to their origin in the plant, or their behavior toward
reagents, the cellulose walls may be divided into the following
groups: (i) Lignocellulose walls; (2) protective cellulose walls;
(3) reserve cellulose walls; (4) mucilage cellulose walls, and (5)
mineral cellulose walls.

Lignocellulose walls are composed of true cellulose and a
non-cellulose (the so-called lignin or lignone), these constituting
the woody (so-called lignified) portion of plants and, in some
instances, also the bast portion of the bark. The lignocelluloses
are colored yellow with chlor-zinc-iodide, or iodine and sulphuric
acid. On account of their containing in some instances furfurol,
coniferin, vanillin, cinnamic aldehyde, benzaldehyde or other alde-
hydic substances, they give definite color-reactions with certain
reagents. They are also stained by the aniline dyes, as fuchsin.
safranin, gentian violet, aniline blue, methylene blue. etc.

A 2 per cent, phloroglucin solution, used in conjunction with
hydrochloric acid, gives a reddish-violet color with the lignocellu-
loses, although there are some celluloses of this class which do not
respond to this test, as flax (the bast fibers of Linum) ; while in
other plants phloroglucin may occur as a constituent of the cells.

Aniline hydrochloride with hydrochloric acid and aniline sul-
phate with sulphuric acid produce a golden-yellow color in cell
walls containing lignocelluloses.

iMORPHOLUGY UF HIGHER PLANTS. 183

Protective cellulose walls are composed of mixtures of lig-
nocellulose and oils and waxes, and frequently contain in addi-
tion tannin, vanillin and other compounds. In the cuticle or epi-
dermis of leaves and green stems, the cellulose is associated with
a fatty compound known as cutin (or cutosej, while in the cork
of stems and roots it is combined with suberin (or suberose).
This class of celluloses is distinguished from cotton cellulose and
lignocellulose by being insoluble in sulphuric acid.

Reserve cellulose walls are those found in various seeds, as
in cofifee. date, nux vomica, etc. They behave toward reagents
much Hke the true celluloses (Fig. 173).

Mucilage cellulose walls consist of cellulose and nuicilage
and are found in all parts of the plant, and in the case of seeds
are associated with the protective celluloses. They dissolve or
swell in water, are colored blue or yellowish with iodine, and are
stained with alcoholic or glycerin solutions of methylene bhie.

Mineral cellulose walls are composed of cellulose and vari-
ous inorganic substances, as silica, calcium oxalate or calcium
carbonate. These are more commonly found in the cell wall of
the lower plants, as Algas, Fungi and Equisetaceae. Calcium car-
bonate also occurs in the cystoliths of the various genera of the
Moraceae and Acanthaceae (Fig. 221).

From what has just been said of the chemical composition and
structure of the cell wall, it is seen that it consists of lamellae or
layers of different substances, and in no case does it consist of
but a single substance ; but for convenience w^e speak of a wall as
consisting of cellulose, lignin, or suberin, meaning thereby that
the wall gives characteristic reactions for these substances.

Lamell.e.— In some cells, as in lignified cells, the lamellae
are quite apparent. In other cases the use of .reagents, as chromic
acid, or chlor-zinc-iodide, is necessary to bring out this structure.
The layering which is observed in transverse sections of the cell
wall is spoken of as stratification of the wall (Fig. 173), whereas
the layering observed in longitudinal or tangential sections is
referred to as striation of the wall (Figs. 166, 299, B).

Thickening or Marking of Walls.— In the formation of
the cell wall each appears to work in unison with its neigh-
bors for tlic building up of the plant. The thickening of the walls

i84 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

of the cell is primarily for the purpose of strengthening the walls,
but if the walls were uniformly thickened, osmosis, or the trans-
ferrai oi cell-sap from one cell to another, would be hindered.
Thus we find that the contiguous walls of the cells are thickened
at definite places opposite each other, leaving pores or canals
which permit rapid osmosis. The pores thus formed are known
as simple pores, and when seen in surface view are somewhat
elliptical or circular in outline, and may be mistaken for some of
the cell-contents. These thickenings assume a number of forms,
which are quite characteristic for the plants in which they are
found. They may have the form of transverse or oblique rings,
longitudinal spirals, or be ladder-like or reticulate in appearance
(Fig. I02). In other instances the thickening of the wall is quite
complex, as in the wood of the pines and other Coniferse (Fig.
103). The thickening, or sculpturing, as it is sometimes called,
may not only occur on the inner surface of the wall, when it is
spoken of as centripetal, but may also take place on the outer
surface, when it is known as centrifugal; as examples of the
latter, may be mentioned the spores of lycopodium (Fig. 278b)
and the pollen grains of the Compositse (Fig. 280).

FORMS OF CELLS.

Upon examining sections of various portions of the plant, it
is observed that not only do the cell-contents and cell wall vary
in composition, but that the cells are of different forms, depend-
ing more or less upon their functions. Groups of cells which
are similar in form and function constitute the various tissues of
the plant ; and they may be classified, for convenience of study,
as follows: (i) parenchyma cells, (2) mechanical cells, (3)
conducting cells and (4) protective cells,

Parenchyma. — Under the head of parenchyma are included
those cells which are nearly isodiametric and thin-walled, the walls
consisting of cellulose lamellae (Fig. loi. A). They may contain
both protoplasmic and non-protoplasmic cell-contents. Accord-
ing to the function and nature of contents, three kinds of paren-
chyma cells are recognized: (a) Chlorophyll-parenchyma or
assimilation parenchyma contains numerous chloroplastids and

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

l8:

occurs in leaves and all green parts of the plant. (//) Reseuve
PARENCHYMA occurs in seeds, roots, rhizomes, leaves, and contains
starch, aleurone grains, fixed oils and other reserve materials.
The parenchyma in stems and leaves of various of the orchids,

_ Fig. lor. Forms of cells. A. — Transverse section of t|je pith of Tradescantia vir-
ginica: I, intercellular space; W, cell wall. B. — Transverse section of calamus rhizome
showing a large oil-secretion cell, smaller cells containing starch, and large intercellular
spaces (I). C. — Transverse section of the stem of Phytolacca decandra showing collenchy-
matous cells beneath the epidermis. D. — Longitudinal section of taraxacum root showing
branched laticiferous tissue (L). E. — Transverse section of pyrethrum root: R, oil-secre-
tion reservoir with oil globules; I, cells with sphere-crystals of inulin, such as separate in
alcoholic material; L, cells containing irregular masses of inulin, as found in dried material.
F. — Longitudinal section of stem of Cucurhita Pepo: S, sieve-cell with protoplasm-like
contents, and transverse walls (sieve plates) showing simple pores.

as well as that of plants of arid regions, which store water, may
be included in this group, (c) Conducting parenchyma assists
in the transferral of food from one part of the plant to another.

i86

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Besides these forms of parenchyma there are some special
kinds which may be mentioned, as the somewhat branching cells
in leaves, and in the stems of various marsh plants, as in species
of Jiincus and Pontederia. In calamus, large intercellular spaces
are formed (Fig. iQi, B).

The Mechanical Tissue comprises four types of cells : scle-
rotic, coUenchymatic, stereomatic and libriform. Of these the
libriform cells are scarcely to be distinguished from the stereo-
matic cells except by their position, being developed in the inner
part of the mestome-strands (or vascular bundle), inside the
cambium ring, hence the libriform cells accompany the vessels or
tracheae (Fig. 104, WF).

1 ^_ ,^ ^: 'iX-.-^C;

Fig. 102. Forms of ducts. A. — Longitudinal section of stem of Cucurbita Pepo
showing various forms of ducts: A, annular; S, spiral; D, double spiral; C, close annular;
R, reticulate. B. — Ducts of glycyrrhiza rhizome: W, wall; B, bordered pores; P, oblique
simple pores.

The sclerotic cell is of the parenchymatic type but with very
thick, lignified walls having many layers and simple pores which
are spherical in surface sections. This type of cells contains only
air or an aqueous liquid, but never nutritive matters, as in Cocoa-
nut, Walnut shells. Vanilla (Fig. 313), poppy capsule (Fig. 314).
Sclerotic cells are also referred to as " Stone cells " (Figs. 301,
302).

The Collenchyma cell is elongated, prismatic, with soft walls
consisting mainly of cellulose and never lignified ; the contents
being rich in water. Tn transverse section it is readily distin-
guished by the local thickening of the walls, i.e., at the angles of
the cells (Fig. loi, c). Pores are rare, but when present they
are annular or slit-like. Collenchyma occurs near the surface
of plant organs, as herbaceous stems, when they form ribs, as

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

187

in the Umbelliferce. They are also found in leaves (Figs. 141,
142, 266, 271) and in fruits, as in the Unibelliferae (Fig. 246).

The Stereome cell is very long, spindle-shaped, with more or
less thick walls provided with narrow oblique pores. ' The walls
consist of cellulose but may also become lignified ; the lumen is
narrow and mainly contains air. The stereome represents the
skeleton of plants and is the most important mechanical tissue,
being much firmer than the collenchyma. The stereome or

: V ni y .

Fig. 103. Bordered pores of the tracheids of the wood of Abies alba as viewed in
longitudinal section: m, middle lamella; v, i, middle and inner layers of walls of contigu-
ous cells ; C, pore-canal through which sap passes from one cell to another ; L, dome-
shaped cavity of pore; S, separating wall or closing membrane which is usually thickened
in the middle as shown at t. In older cells the separating membrane is broken as shown
in the lower pore in figure 2. At the right in figure 4 is shown a surf ace view of a bordered
pore, the dotted lines indicating the relation of the circles to. the structure of the pore. —
After Yogi.

strengthening cells of the cortex are commonly spoken of as " bast
fibers" (Figs. 104, WF, 299, 300).

The Libriform cell is the strengthening cell of the xylem and
as has already been stated accompanies the tracheae. Libriform
cells are also spoken of as "wood fibers" (Figs. 104. BF, 299,
300). While the stereome cell is frequently not lignified. the
libriform cell is usually more or less lignified. giving strong re-
actions for ligJiin with anilin sulphate or phloroglucin solutions.

i88

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 103a. Phlox Carolina: A , lower portion of plant showing long roots with numer-
ous rootlets at the ends; B, parenchyma from cortex of rhizome showing two sclerotic
cells (s) ; C, cross-section of portion of rhizome showing parenchyma of cortex (p) which
contains protoplasm and starch grains, endodermis (e), leptome (s), tracheae (v), libriform
(t), wood parenchyma (w). parenchyma of pith containing starch grains and protoplasm;
D, isolated sclerotic cells from cortex; E, vessels with annular and spiral thickenings;
F, libriform cells; G, glandular hair from the leaf.

Conducting cells or mestome include those cells which are
chietlv concerned in the transferral of either crude or assimilable

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

189

food materials. The more or less crude inorganic materials are
carried from the root through the woody portion of the stem to
the leaves, and from the leaves the products of CO, assimilation,
as well as other plastic substances, are distributed through some

Fig. 104. Longitudinal-transverse section of licorice rhizome including the cambium:
P, parenchyma; T. tracheag or ducts; WP, wood fibers; C, cambium; S, sieve; CF, crystal
fibers; BF, bast fibers; MR, medullary ray.

of the tissues of the bark to other parts of the plant. The tissues
or elements of the wood which conduct food materials arc of sev-
eral forms and include tracheae or ducts, tracheids and conducting
parenchyma ; and the elements of the bark which transport the

190

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

assimilable materials, comprise the leptome and conducting- paren-
chyma (Fig-. 104). Water conducting elements, tracheal ele-
ments, comprise the vessels (trachese) and the tracheids, which
resemble each other except that the latter are single cells of
prosenchymatic shape, while the former are very long tubes,
varying from cylindrical to prismatic in shape and are arranged
in long rows in which they are superimposed lengthwise.

The tracheae or vessels are formed by the disintegration and
removal of the transverse walls between certain superimposed
cells, forming an elongated cell or tube, which occasionally retains
some of the transverse walls (Fig. 102, A, B). The longitudinal

Fig. 105. I, cross-section of a bast fiber of Begonia as seen by the micropolariscopc.
2, polariscopic view of a sphero-crystal of inulin in Helianthus tuberosus. — After Dippel.

walls are relatively thin and consist of lignocellulose, giving more
or less pronounced reactions with phloroglucin or aniline sulphate.

Four types of vessels or tracheae are known : annular, spiral,
reticulate and porous. Those having tne thickenings in the form
of horizontal or oblique rings are known as annular trachea;
those having the thickenings in the form of spirals, which usually
run from right to left, are known as spiral trache.^ ; those
having the thickenings in the form of a reticulation are known as
reticulated trachea (Figs. 102, 175a, 191), and those with
spherical or oblique slit pores known as porous trachea or
vessels (Figs. 104, 220, 287, 303).

In those vessels in which but few of the transverse walls are
obliterated, the walls are marked by both simple and bordered
pores, which latter are described under tracheids. Vessels contain
water, water-vapor and air; in some cases they contain sugar,
tannin, nnicilage or resin.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 191

The tracheids are intermediate in character between tracheae
and Hbriform, resembHng the former in possessing bordered
pores (Pig. 103) and scalariform thickenings; and the latter in
being true cells, which are usually elongated and quite thick-
walled, the walls giving distinct reactions for lignocellulose with
phloroglucin or aniline sulphate.

One of the chief characteristics of tracheids are the bordered
PORES (Fig. 103). These differ from simple pores in that the
wall surrounding the pore forms a dome-shaped or blister-like
protrusion into the cell. On surface view the pores are either
circular or elliptical in outline, the dome being circular or, if the
pores are numerous and arranged close together, more or less
polygonal (Fig. 102, 5).

The number and distribution of bordered pores in the Coni-
ferae are quite characteristic for some of the genera, and may be
studied in any of the pines, the pores being most numerous in
the radial walls (Fig. 47).

The leptome or sieve is distinguished from the other con-
ducting elements in that the walls are thin and are composed of
cellulose (Fig. loi, F). It consists of superimposed elongated
cells, the transverse walls of which possess nun;ierous pores which
are supposed to be in the nature of openings, permitting of the
direct passage of the contents from one cell to the other. This
transverse wall, which may be either horizontal or oblique, is
known as the sieve plate, and the thin places, as pores of the
sieve. The sieve plates are sometimes also formed on the longi-
tudinal walls. When the activities of plants are suspended during
the winter, there is formed on either side of the sieve plates a layer
of a colorless, mucilaginous substance, known as callus, which has
somewhat the appearance of collenchyma. but is colored brownish
by chlor-zinc-iodide.

The sieve cells contain an albuminous substance somewhat
resembling protoplasm ; in some instances starch grains have also
been found.

When the activities of the sieve tubes have ceased, they be-
come altered in shape, and are then known as obliterated sieve.
In the drying of plants a similar alteration is produced, and for
this reason the sieve of vegetable drugs is of this character.

192 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Protecting cells include those cells which are located on the
outer parts of the plant. The function of these cells is to lessen
the rate of transpiration, or the giving ofif of water; to furnish
protection against changes of temperature, and to protect the
inner tissues against the attack of insects ; they also have a me-
chanical function (Figs. io6; iii, E).

Depending principally upon their composition, these cells may
be tUvided into two classes, namely, epidermal cells and cork cells.

The epidermal cells constitute the outermost layer of the
plant. They contain cytoplasm but the plastids in some instances
are wanting ; in some instances they also contain dissolved color-
ing principles ; and on account of the relatively large amount of
water which they contain, they are classed among the important
water-reservoirs of the plant.

The outer walls are principally characterized by one or more
lamellae of cutin, these uniting to form a continuous wall. The
cutin is often associated with wax, this constituting the bloom of
fruits ; less frequently such inorganic substances as calcium car-
bonate, calcium oxalate an^ siiica are present, and not infrequently
mucilage is present, as in the walls of certain seeds ( Fig. 99, A ) .

On surface view the form of these cells varies from nearly
isodiametric to oblong ; they may also be polygonal or branched.
In transverse section their radial diameter is much the shorter.
In some instances the inner and side walls are considerably thick-
ened, as in the seeds of a number of the Solanacese (Fig. 302, A).

The epidermis usually consists of a single layer of cells, but
may have additional layers underneath forming the hypodermis,
as in the upper surface of the leaves of species of Ficus ; in some
instances the hypodermis undergoes a mucilage modification, as
in the leaves of buchu. (See also Figs. 99, A; 100.)

Plant Hairs. — The epidermal cells are sometimes specially
modified centrifugally, giving rise to papillse, to which the velvety
appearance of the petals of flowers is due ; in other cases this
modification is in the fomi of hairs or trichomes (Figs, no,
118, 283, 284). These may be imicellular or multicellular, and in
addition the latter may be glandular or non-glandular. Glandular
hairs possess a head-like apex, consisting of one or more cells,
and they secrete oil. mucilage and other substances (Fig. 285).

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER i'LANTS.

193

Stomata. — Distributed among the epidermal cells are pairs
of crescent-shaped cells having an opening between them, known
as a pore or stoma, which leads to a cavity ben'eath it. The two

- C

Fig. 106. Stomata and water-pores. A. — Transverse section through lower surface
of leaf of stramoniu—; stoma, v.-ith guard cells (G), containing cytoplasm, nucleus and
chloroplastids; K, surrounding cells: A, intercellular cavity usually filled with cell-sap or
watery vapor; E, epidermal cells; M, mesophyll. B. — Surface section of upper surface of
leaf of V'iola tricolor showing four stomata. C. — Surface section of under surface of leaf of
Viola tricolor showing five stomata. D. — A section through the margin of the leaf of Viola
tricolor showing a tooth with three water-pores. E. — A water-pore of l^iola tricolor in
surface section.

contiguous cells are known as guard cells (Fig. 106, G). The
adjoining walls of the guard cells are alike in transverse section, but
the cells vary in shape in different plants ; they are more or less elas-

194 BOTAXY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tic, and when the cells are turgescent, as when there is an abund-
ance of water and root pressure is strongest, the contiguous
walls of the guard cells recede from each other, forming an open-
ing between the cells, thus p'ermitting the exit of the excess of
water taken up by the plant and the exhalation of the oxygen
given ofif during assimilation, as well as the intake of the carbon
dioxide used in photosynthesis. The cells beneath the stomata are
loosely arranged, there being large intercellular spaces so that
carbon dioxide soon finds its way to the cells containing the
chloroplastids. On the other hand when the amount of water in
tlu' i^lnit is reduced below the normal and the plant shows signs
of wilting the guard cells fiatten and the stoma or pore is closed.

The guard cells may be slightly raised above or sunk below
the surrounding epidermal cells, the number of the latter being
characteristic for certain plants. (Compare Figs. io6, 263, 286.)

Stomata occur in the largest numbers on the blades of foliage
leaves, being more numerous on the under surface, except in
aquatic plants where they occur only upon the upper surface.

Water Pores. — Near the margin of the leaf and directly-
over the ends of conducting cells, not infrequently occur stomata,
in which the function of opening and closing is wanting, and
which contain in the cavity below the opening water and not air,
thus differing from true stomata (Fig. 106, D, E). These are
known as water pores, and they give off water in the liquid
form, the drops being visible on the edges of the leaves of nas-
turtiums, fuchsias, roses, etc., at certain times.

Periderm. — The epidermis is not adapted for the protection
of the perennial plant organs on account of its thin, frequently
delicate structure and its inability to continue with the increase in
thickness of stems and roots. Hence it becomes replaced by the
periderm, which consists of a lasting tissue, the cork and of a meri-
stematic tissue, the piiellogen, which reproduces the cork when
it becomes torn or destroyed by the continued growth in thick-
ness of stems or roots. Cork is not only of sub-epidermal origin,
but may occur deeper in the cortex, or even inside the endodermis.
In the latter case, as in roots, it owes its existence to the activity
of the pericambium. Superficial, i.e., hypodermal cork, is ex-
tremely rare in roots.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

195

Cork not only occurs as a secondary protective layer, but may
also arise in other parts of the plant as a result of injury, as in
leaves, fruits, stems and tubers. It also arises as a result of the
disarticulation of the leaf in autumn.

Lenticels may be described as biconvex fissures in the cork
which permit of the easy access of air to the intercellular
spaces of the rather loosely arranged cells lying beneath them
(Fig. 107). They usually arise as the product of a meristem
situated beneath the stomata of the epidermis, the stomata being
replaced by them when cork is developed. Several types of lenti-

FlG. 107. Section through a secondary lenticel in the bark of Sassafras; .e, epidermis,
st, stone cells; phel, phelloderm derived from secondary phellogen and having thick ligni-
fied wall; p, parenchyma; c, cork; com, complementary cells. — After Weiss.

eels are distinguished. They are quite characteristic and promi-
nent in a number of barks, as those of species of Betula, Prunus,
Rhamnus (Fig. 229), etc.

Laticiferous or milk tissue occurs in all those plants which
emit a milk-juice on being cut or otherwise wounded. The juice
may be colorless, as in the oleander ; whitish, as in the Asclepia-
dacese and Apocynaceje (Fig. 202) ; or yellowish, as in the Papa-
veracege. It contains caoutchouc, oils, resins, mucilage, starch,
calcium oxalate and alkaloids as well. The walls are relatively
thin and consist chiefly of cellulose. The tissue consists either
of single cells of indefinite length, as in the Asclepiadaceae, or it

196 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

may consist of a more or less branching net work formed by the
anastomosing of a number of cells, as in Taraxacum (Fig. loi,
D).

Special Secretion Cells. — In Sanguinaria there occurs a rudi-
mentary laticiferous tissue, most of the juice being contained,
however, in special parenchymatous cells, which may be more or
less isolated, or arranged in irregular longitudinal rows. Cells
of this character are known as secretion cells and usually contain
oil, resin, tannin, calcium oxalate, mucilage (Figs. 98; loi, B),
etc., instead of substances which form an emulsion or milk-juice;
these cells are distributed in all parts of the plant, and include the
epidermal cells and glandular hairs. The walls usually consist of
cellulose but may have lamellae of cutin and suberin, the latter
being found particularly in the oil-secretion cells of rhizomes,
roots, barks and fruits (Figs. loi, B; 212; 236; 250).

In some instances mucilage cells containing raphides occur in
longitudinal rows resembling the secretion cells of Sanguinaria ;
in some of the ferns, the barks of elder and locust, and leaves of
the Crassulacese, the tannin-cells are very much elongated, resem-
bling the simple laticiferous cells in the Asclepiadacese.

Oils, resins, mucilage, gum-resins and allied products occur
quite frequently in special reservoirs or cavities formed as already
described (p. 178).

INNER STRUCTURE OF MEMBERS OR ORGANS.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ROOT.

Primary Structure. — If we make a transverse section of the
young portion of a root (Vascular Cryptogam, Gymnosperm or
Phenogam), we notice the following tissues (Figs. 109-111).
The outermost tissue is epidermis (E), it being generally thin
walled and destitute of cuticle; it is as a rule hairy, and these
hairs, which are relatively long, but always unicellular, are known
as ROOT-HAIRS (Fig. no, FI) ; they ramify but very seldom. In-
side the epidermis there is frequently present an exodermis
(commonly referred to as hypodermis) composed of a single layer
of cells or at the most of but several layers, the cells of which
differ in shape and size from those of the epidermis and the ad-

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 197

joining cortical parenchyma. The exodermis takes the place of
the epidermis when the latter is worn oflF, except in the few cases
where hypodermal cork becomes developed, as in Cephalanthus,
Solidago, and Bignoniacese. The root bark is parenchymatic ;
being commonly referred to as the cortex, and is either homcn
geneous or divided into two zones, the outer or peripheral being
composed of thick-walled cells which naturally belong to the
exodermis and an inner or internal strata made up of thin-walled
cells. The cells of the cortical parenchyma may contain starch,
calcium oxalate, calcium carbonate and there may be associated
with them secretory cells, frequently referred to as " ducts," as
" resin ducts," etc. The innermost layer of cells of the cortex
is quite distinct and known as the endodermis (EN). It consists
always of a single layer of cells, without any intercellular spaces,
and the radial walls show in transverse section Casparyan spots,'
depending upon a local folding of the cell-wall, which is here
suberized. In the course of time the cell-walls of the endodermis
frequently become thickened, either all around, or only on the
inner or radial walls, so that we might speak of an O-endodermis
as in Honduras sarsaparilla (Fig. 194) or an U-endodermis as
in Mexican sarsaparilla (Fig. 194), according to the manner of
thickening. This is especially the case in the monocotyledons
where the walls of the endodermal cells become completely suber-
ized and impermeable to water. In some roots the cells of
the endodermis may be uniformly thick-walled throughout, while
in others some of the cells may remain thin-walled, and these cells,
the so-called " transition cells " or " passage cells," form channels
of communication between the cortical parenchyma and the vessels
of the stele ; they are therefore located just outside the peripheral
vessels of each ray of the hadrome (or xylem).

Inside the endodermis is the stele, formerly called the central-
cylinder. In this the peripheral stratum, sometimes composed
of two or three layers of cells, represents the peri-cambium.
The cells are generally thin-walled and in Dicotyledons and
Gymnosperms are able by cell-division to form cork and secondary
cortex, but in all vascular plants it is capable of giving rise to

' Physiologische Pfianzenanatomie. By Dr. G. Haberlandt, p. 245.

198

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

"lateral branches" or "lateral roots" (Fig. 109), hence it is
frequently referred to as the " rhizogenous layer/'

Inside the pericambium (by some authors compared with the
pericycle of the stem) we find strands of leptome (P) alternating
radially with a corresponding number of strands of hadrome (X).
The number of these strands vary in the different groups of plants
(Figs. 109, 193, 217, 220), being highest in the monocotyledons
where a pith is developed, as in sarsaparilla (Fig. 193), several
grasses, palms, etc. This peculiar arrangement of the leptome
and hadrome, as separate strands alternating with each other,

Fig. 108. A, longitudinal section through the apical region of the stem of the embryo
of a bean (Phaseolus multiflorus) ; ss, apex; pb, parts of the two first leaves, and their
axillary buds (k, k,); r, periblem or primary cortex. B, diagram of longitudinal section
through winter bud of Qucrcus coccinea: P, growing point; L, young leaves; SB, stem
branches; F, fibro vascular bundle. — A, after Sachs.

and not being located, as in stems, in the same radii, has given
rise to several adverse views. Some authors have considered
the root-stele as one single mestome-strand (or fibrovascular
strand), while others especially of recent date compose the struc-
ture with that of several mestome strands, and of the hadro-
CENTRic TYPE where the leptome partly surrounds the hadrome.^

' Compare Kattein : Der Morphol. Werth d. Centralcylind. d. Wurzel.
Cassel, 1897.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 199

The hadrome contains tracheae or vessels, the peripheral being
spiral and narrower than the inner, which are scalariform or
reticulate. The tissue in tlie center of the stele in monocoty-
ledons is not uncommonly made up of parenchyma cells, and
corresponds exactly with the pith of the stem. In roots it is often
called CONJUNCTIVE tissue and the cells may contain starch and
crystals of calcium oxalate.

Secondary Structure. — In roots that are able to increase in
thickness (as in Gynmosperms and Dicotyledons), the increase
depends upon the activity of the pericambium, which develops
cork outwardly and secondary cortex inwardly, and on the de-
velopment of a cambium. The latter develops on the inner face

— RB

Fig. 109. A transverse section through the root of a germinating pea-plant (Pisum)
about 40 mm. from the tip, showing the origin of a root-branch (RB); E, epidermis; C, pri-
mary cortex; X, hadrome (vessels); P, leptome (sieve); EN.'endodermis.

of the leptome and extends from there to the outside of the
peripheral vessels of the hadrome (Fig. iii), thus a continuous
cambial zone gradually arises. From this zone secondary
tracheae or vessels become developed on the inner face of the
primary leptome, while secondary leptome becomes differentiated
outside the primary rays of hadrome ; or only parenchyma develops
outside the primary hadrome, resulting in the formation of
secondary parenchyma-rays (or medullary rays). In other

200

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

words, the original radial structure of the stele changes to the
collateral type (Fig. 112). Owing to this increase within the
stele, the peripheral tissues from the endodermis to the epidermis,
naturally become broken and are subsequently thrown off, but are
replaced by the pericambial cork and secondary cortex. The
older roots, then of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons thus resemble
the structure of stems, except that no pith exists in these roots,
at least not usually. Some differences are, however, quite notice-

Fin. no. Primary structure in the root. Transverse section of root of pea (Pisum)
about 40 mm. from the root-cap: H, epidermal cells, some of which are developed into
root hairs; C, primary cortex; EN, endodermis; PC, pericambium; X, ladrome, composed
of trachea; P, leptome, composed of sieve cells, the hadrome (vessels) and leptome (sieve)
forming a triarch radial fibrovascular bvmdle.

able in some instances as in the thick roots of Beta, Radish, etc.,
where the wood parenchyma is usually abundant, thin-walled and
not lignified, the annual rings also being mostly indistinct.

The characteristics distinguishing the primary and secondary
structures of dicotyledonous roots may be summarized as follows :

Primary structure : Epidermis and root hairs. Hypoder-
mis. Primary cortex consisting of parenchyma. Endodermis,
pericambium, hadrome arranged in radial rays which alternate

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

201

with leptome or sieve strands, constituting a radial fibrovascular
bundle (Fig. no).

Secondary structure : Cork cells. Phellogen. Secondary cor-
tex consisting of parenchyma. Leptome, cambium and hadrome,
arranged in radial groups, forming open collateral fibrovascular
bundles. Medullary rays separating the fibrovascular bundles.

CA---H

5P -

Fig. hi. Section in the older part, higher up on the root of pea (Pisum) showing in
addition to what has been observed in Fig. no, the beginning of the change from primary to
secondary structure: CA, the development of a cambium; SX, secondary hadrome (or
vessels) and SP, secondary leptome (or sieve).

Sometimes, as in glycyrrhiza and valerian, a number of paren-
chyma cells are found in the center of the root, these constituting
the PITH (Fig. 115) or medulla; but they are usually wanting in
dicotyledonous roots.

Wood and bark are terms used to distinguish those portions
of the root or stem separated by the cambium ; all that portion
inside of the cambium, including hadrome, medullary rays and
pith, being known as the wood. The bark includes the leptome,

202

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY,

the medullary rays outside of the cambium, and the tissue formed
by the phellogen.

-M

Fig. 112. Fully developed secondary structure in root. Transverse section of root
of pea (Pisum) at the end of the summer's growth: E, some epidermal cells with fragments
of root hairs; C, primary cortex; EN, endodermis; K, cork; B, bast fibers; SC, secondary
cortex; S, leptome; T, hadrome; W, wood fibers; WP, wood parenchyma; M, medullary
rays; the hadrome (or vessels) and leptome (or sieve) forming open collateral fibrovascular
bundles, these being found in dicotyledons with but few exceptions.

The following diagram of the secondary structure of a dicoty-
ledonous root may be of assistance in understanding the origin
and relation of the tissues comprising it :

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

203

Wood made up of .

Pith, which may be wanting.

Xylem .

Cambium produces

Bark made up of

Phloem

Composed of vessels, wood parenchyma
and wood fibers ; or tracheids may
replace these cells, or be associated
with them. These are arranged in
groups forming radial rows which are
separated by medullary rays.

Consisting of leptome and companion

cells ; bast fibers may also be present.

These are arranged in collateral

groups and form, radial rows which

I are separated by medullary rays.

Pericambium, producing parenchyma and cork.

Fig. 113. Transverse section of one of the collateral mestome strands of the stem of
Viola tricolor arvenis: o, portion of cells of pericycle; e, endodermis; 1, leptome or sieve
cells, in among which are some collenchymatic cells (c); m, cambium; t, spiral tracheas or
vessels; g, strongly lignified trachese; rp, medullary ray cells, the walls of which are com-
posed of cellulose; rs, medullary ray cells the walls of which are strongly lignified; s,
strongly lignified cells separating the mestome strands; c, collenchyma; p, pith.

204

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The root branches arise as the product of a meristem,
known as the pericambium, situated beneath the endodermis
(Figs. 59. RB ; 109). The tissues forming the branches are
directly connected with the fibrovascular tissues of the root and
protrude through the overlying tissues without having any con-
nection with them. The structure of the branches thus formed

Fig. 1 13a. Longitudinal section through a root of Veralruin viride showing the nature
of the contraction of the root; E, epidermis; OS, cells of cortex containing starch; CO,
cells of cortex containing raphides; F. fibrovascular bundle; A, rifts or cavities formed as
a result of the radial swelling of the cells of the cortex.

corresponds to the primar\' structure of the roots, and in the case
of dicotyledonous roots may also subsequently develop a secondary
structure. Goebel states that in plants which grow in moist
soil, or whose roots function only for a short time, the branches
may be altogether suppressed as in Colchicum, Arissema, etc.
Contraction of roots is observed in both monocotyledons
and dicotyledons, it being most apparent in the former, as in the

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 205

roots of Veratrumviride (Fig. 113a). The uneven or corkscrew-
like appearance is due to a contraction, which arises as follows:
Some of the longitudinally elongated cells beneath the epidermis
as well as cells extending to and including the endodermis absorb
large quantities of water, which causes them to assume a spherical
form (as the cells of a potato are altered on boiling), the result
being a longitudinal contraction of the root at this point. In this
way the plant is fastened more securely to the earth, and at the
end of the season's growth the apical buds of plants, with upright
rhizomes, as of Vcratrum viridc, Dracontium, etc., are drawn
into the earth and thus protected during the winter season.

Abnormal Structure of Roots. — It is often difficult to
recognize the type-structure of dicotyledonous roots in drugs,
owing to the anomalous and abnormal secondary structure.
Sclerenchymatous fibers, while present in glycyrrhiza (Fig. 104)
and althaea, are not infrequently wanting. Wood fibers may be
sparingly developed, as in young belladonna roots or even want-
ing, as in gentian. In other cases the medullary rays are abnor-
mal, being replaced in calumba (Fig. 198) by wood parenchyma,
and in ipecac (Fig. 203) and taraxacum by sclerenchymatous
cells (Fig. 197a). In asclepias and calumba (Fig. 198) a layer
of stone cells occurs near the periphery; in gentian, sieve cells
develop in the xylem (Fig. 210) ; in senega the xylem is not
uniformly developed (Fig. 197), and in still other cases, as in
jalap (Fig. 195), pareira (Fig. 199) and phytolacca (Fig. 200),
successive cambiums develop, producing concentric series of open
collateral fibrovascular bundles.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE STEM.

If we make a transverse section of a young herbaceous stem,
we observe a differentiation of the tissues, which in several re-
spects agrees with that of the root, described in the preceding
chapter. In the primary structure of the stem the following
tissues are to be noticed : The outermost tissue is the epidermis
with a more or less distinct cuticle; the second is the cortical
parenchyma, frequently with strands of collenchyma near the epi-
dermis, often containing secreting ducts or cells, and not infre-

2o6 UOTANY AAD i'ilARMACUGNOSY.

quently with the innermost layer differentiated as an endodermis.
The latter surrounds the so-called pericycle, a sheath consisting
of more or less distinct stereomatic strands, either forming a
closed sheath or merely representing isolated arches outside the
leptome of the stele. Inside the pericycle we observe the mestome
strands constituting mostly one circular band (in cross section)
in the Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, or several more or less
concentric bands in the Monocotyledons. The mestome-strands
may be collateral (Fig. 115), bicollateral or concentric, the last
of which being found only in the Monocotyledons (Fig. 212) and
Ferns (Fig. 278).

In the DICOTYLEDONS the collateral mestome-strands which are
the most frequent, contain leptome, i.e., sieve tubes, companion-
cells and cambiform, furthermore cambium, and inside this fol-
lows the hadrome, i.e., vessels, tracheids, mestome, parenchyma
and libriform. When the collateral mestome-strand increases in
thickness, the increase is due to the activity of the cambium, here
called the intrafasicular cambium, which then develops lep-
tome outwardly and hadrome inwardly. Between the primary
mestome strands there is frequently a procambium, which con-
nects these strands with each other, and which generally gives
rise to secondary mestome strands, or the connection may be
effected by means of the intrafasicular cambium, which often
extends itself from one strand to another and develops leptome
and hadrome, as in the primary strands, such cambium is distin-
guished as iNTERFASicuLAR CAMBIUM and is commonly referred
to as the cambium ring.

The BICOLLATERAL mestomc strands, characteristic of some
Dicotyledons (Labiatse, Solaneae, Cucurbitacese, etc.) differ from
the COLLATERAL type by having a leptome strand developed on the
inner face of the hadrome, thus each mestome strand carries two
strands of leptome (Figs. 208, 220). In the concentric mes-
tome strands, the leptome may encircle the hadrome, as in the
Ferns (Fig. 278), or the hadrome may partly (Fig. 212), as in
the rhizomes of many Monocotyledons, surround the leptome.
While thus the collateral type of strand or bundle occurs in both
Monocotyledons (Fig. 114) and Dicotyledons (Figs. 104, 115,

Fig. 114. Monocotyledonous stem structure. Transverse section of convallaria
rhizome: E, epidermis; H, hypodermis composed of collenchyma; C, cortex; EN, endo-
dermis; S, perihadromatic sieve; T, trachea or vessels; P, Pc^renchyma. The bundles are
of the collateral and concentric types.

Fig. IIS. Dicotyledonous stem structure. Transverse section through menispermum
rhizome: E, epidermis; lenticel derived from phellogen (K); C, cortex; B, bast fibers; S,
leptome; ST, stone cells; CA, cambium; T, vessels; W, wood fibers; M, medullary-ray
cells; P, pith.

MURi'ilULULiV UF lilGHER PLANTS.

207

etc.) the presence of a cambium is found only in the Dicotyledons
and extremely seldom in the Monocotyledons. The central
portion of the stele is frequently differentiated into a pith
of parenchymatic structure, the cells of which often contain large
quantities of starch (Figs. 220, 223). In addition in the pith,
Vv'e often find the same types of secreting ducts or cells as occur

Fig. 116. Section of a four-year-old stem of a pine cut in winter; q, view in irans-
verse section; 1, radial-longitudinal section; t, tangential-longitudinal section'; f, spring
wood; s, fall wood; m, pith; i, 2, 3, 4, successive years' rings of growth in which ' shows
the dividing line; ms, medullary rays in transverse section; ms^, ms^^ medullary rays
in radial-longitudinal section; ms^^^, medullary rays in tangential-longitudinal sectior";
c, cambium; b, bast; h, resin-canals; br, bork. — After Strasburger.

in the cortex (as in Apocynum), The pith may constitute a
homogeneous tissue or be broken, as in Phytolacca (Fig. 139, A),
Carya. Halesia, etc., where a longitudinal section shows the pith
divided into a row of broad cavities that are separated by thin
transverse walls of parenchyma.

Finally it may be mentioned that cork is of frequent occur-
rence, especially upon stems that persist more than one year.
The cork may arise in the epidermis itself, or it may develop in

208

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the hypodermal strata of the cortex or in still other cases we find
its development mucli deeper, even within the pericycle.

In regard to the increase in thickness, the stem behaves much
like the root, as in the throwing off the peripheral tissues extend-
ing from the epidermis to the endodermis, or only of the epidermis
and adjoining cortex, which then becomes replaced by strata of

Fig. 117. Transverse section of midrib of leaf of stramonium: EU, upper epidermis;
CO, collenciiyma; PA, palisade cells; O, layer of cells containing rosette aggregates of
calcium oxalate; M, loose mesophyll; EL, lower epidermis; OP, prisms of calcium oxalate;
OS, cryptocrystalline crystals of calcium oxalate; ST, stoma; T, ducts; SU, sieve on upper
side of ducts; SL, sieve on lower side of ducts, this arrangement of sieve and ducts forming
bicollateral fibrovascular bundles.

cork and secondary cortex. The mestome strands in the stem,
however, grow in a more regular manner than is the case with
those of the root, as is seen in the very distinct and freciuently
very regular layering of the tissues of woody stems, forming the
so-called " Annual Rings," where each ring represents the growth
that occurs during a single year. The development of these
annual rings depends especially upon the fact that the growth
of the perennial stem does not take place continuously, but is in-

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 209

terrupted during certain periods of the season, for instance
during the winter or during the dry seasons of tropical chmates.
And since the tissues, which are formed at the beginning of each
season's growth are distinct from those already formed during
the previous season in both color and structure of the wood (espe-
cially in the thickness of cell-walls and the width of the tracheae
or vessels), w:e perceive in this manner distinct zones of wood,
or the "annual rings " as they are called, the larger vessels with
thin walls being produced in the spring and early summer.

Various abnormal stem-structures are known which are due
to certain peculiarities in the growth in thickness of stems.
These are especially noticeable in lianes. In some of the Mono-
cotyledons, as in Drac3sna, Yucca, Agave and Aloe we find a
secondary increase in growth of the stems.

Plant Hairs. — When the surface of the plant (either of stems
or leaves) is covered with short, fine hairs, which are not very
dense and not matted, the surface is described as pubescent;
when the hairs are relatively long but scattered the surface is said
to be VILLOUS ; or when the hairs cover each other in one direction
it is described as sericeous or silky. When the hairs are stiff
.though slender we speak of a hirsute covering; when the hairs
are vernate. thickish and stiff, as in Borago, the surface is spoken
of as being hispid. If the hairs are bristle-like the surface is
described as strigose ; or if they are terminated by a globular,
glandular head (Figs. 285, 287), as glandular. Again, when
the hairs arc matted the surface is described as lanate; when
they are long it is said to be woolly ; or when they are short
and soft as in Mullein it is said to be tomentose.

When the hairs are hard and prickle-like the surface is
described as hispid or strigose ; when they are modified to spines
it is said to be spinose; and when they are hooked it is described
as echinate.

In still other cases the epidermal cells, particularly of leaves,
are uneven, forming depressions and protuberances which if
slight give the surface the appearance described as rugose; or if
wart-like, give the appearance known as verrucose. Further-
more, the veins of leaves may be quite prominent, particularly

2IO BOTANY AND THARMACOGNOSY.

in the lower surface, and if they are much reticulated in addition,
the surface is described as reticulate.

STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF.

In all green leaves the typical structure is as follows : A cuticle
covers the outer cell-wall of the epidermis, while the epidermis
itself shows much of the same modifications as exist in the stem;
frequently the lumen of the cells of the epidermis is wider on the
ventral face than on the dorsal. Hairs abound on the leaves in
many plants and stomata are especially frequent on the dorsal
surface. The upper epidermis may further be characterized by
the presence of water-pores, the origin and function of which have
already been described (p. 193).

The green chlorophyl-bearing tissue is called chlorenchyma
(frequently spoken of as mesophyll), and is frequently differen-
tiated into a ventral palisade tissue, composed of long cells
which are placed vertically to those of the epidermis ; and a
DORSAL pneumatic TISSUE, made up of irregularly branched or
lobed cells with very large intercellular spaces. Secreting ducts
or cells occur in the chlorenchyma of many plants and correspond
with those found in the cortex of the stem. When the palisade
tissue is distributed on both faces of the leaf blade, the pneu-
matic tissue is thus located in the center, the leaf is called
"bifacial," otherwise the leaf is said to be " uni facial " or
" dorsi ventral." (See Figs. 117, 139, 141, 158, 175, 257, 261, etc.)

Mechanical tissues, as coUenchyma and stereome, are frequent
and these accompany the veins as hypodermal strands, being best
developed usually on the dorsal face of the latter, as underneath
the leptome. The mestome-strands of the leaf blade generally
lie in a single plane. They are collateral and have the leptome
situated towards the dorsal face. They are nearly always sur-
rounded by thin- walled parenchyma-sheaths, or as in several
grasses and sedges by thick-walled mestome-sheaths. In some
plants of various families, the midrib is not only stronger devel-
oped than the lateral veins, but it may be composed of several,
instead of only one, mestome-strand, sometimes representing a
true stele.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 211

The petiole generally shows the structure of the midrib as far
as concerns the mestome-strands, but possesses furthermore a
more or less strongly developed parenchyma, the cells of which
are colorless, thin-walled and which may often be traced to the
leaf-blade itself, where it surrounds the stronger veins, causing
them to project as ribs and to be much thicker in cross-section
than the adjoining chlorenchyma.

From a histological point of view the leaf structure of
Dicotyledons resembles very closely that of the Monocotyledons,
except that in the latter the palisade-cells often radiate towards
the center of the mestome strands. There are, however,
many instances of a similar development in the leaves of
Dicotyledons.

Abnormal structures are common in leaves, especially in such
as are not held in a horizontal position, but vertical, as those of
Eucalyptus, the Irideae, etc.

The Epidermis forms the surface of the leaf and may con-
sist of one or more layers of cells. The outer walls are cutinized,
and when nearly smooth the leaf is said to be glabrous. They
may be covered or whitened with a bloom, as in magnolia, when
the leaves are spoken of as glaucous. In other cases the outer
walls of the epidermal cells are modified to hairs (Figs. 283-285).

INNER MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER.

The inner structure of the flower bears a close resemblance
to that of the stem and leaf. The bracts in almost all particulars
are like the foliage leaf of the same plant and the flower stalk
closely resembles the foliage stem. The calyx, while resembling
the foliage leaf, usually contains calcium oxalate in greater
amount, and the chlorenchyma consists wholly of rather loose
chlorophyll parenchyma ; the outer or under epidermis contains
the stomata, and if hairs are present, they also arise from this
surface ; the fibrovascular bundles are generally simple in struc-
ture, although in some cases, as in lavender, sclerenchymatous
fibers are strongly developed.

212

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

In the COROLLA the epidermal cells are generally more or less
centrifugally developed, forming prominent papillse (Fig. ii8,
A, B), which give the petals a velvety or satiny appearance, as in
the rose ; glandular and non-glandular hairs are also developed
which are peculiar to the corollas of irregular flowers, as in La-

FiG. ii8. Inner morphology of the flower as illustrated in Viola tricolor. A, epider-
mal cells from the outer surface of the spurred petal showing papillae; B, epidermal cells
from the under surface of the petals, some of the cells showing centripetal thickenings, the
two without thickenings covering sub-epidermal mucilage-cells; C, epidermal cells from
the under surface of the petals showing a zigzag outline and short centripetal thickenings;
D, surface view of the mesophyll of the petals; E, corkscrew-like hair from the inner sur-
face of the spurred corolla near the throat; F, a hair from the edge of an anther; G, epider-
mal cells of the anthers; H, surface view of the mesophyll cells from the spurred stamen
showing collenchymatous thickening; I, surface view of cells of endothecium; K, pollen
grain viewed from the side; L, pollen grain examined in water; M, pollen grain observed
in chloral solution.

vandnla vera (Fig. 285, A) and Viola tricolor (Fig. 118, £) ;
stomata are comparatively few in number. The epidermal cells
are but slightly cutinized, and in surface view are strongly undul-
ate and appear striate owing to the papillose development (Fig.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 213

106, B, C). The chlorenchym is made up of rather loose, branch-
ing parenchyma cells (Fig. 118, D), with large intercellular
spaces. The cells are free from chloroplastids, may contain
chromoplastids, or, like the epidermal cells, a colored sap ; in some
instances, as in the buttercups, starch grains are also found in the
mesophyll. Calcium oxalate crystals are usually present, and
milk vessels are sometimes found, as in the Papavaracese.

The FILAMENT and connective possess a central fibrovascular
bundle, around which are arranged comparatively small paren-
chyma cells and among which secretion cells are sometimes scat-
tered, as in Tilia. The pollen sacs consist of but two layers of
cells — an outer layer called the " exothecium," which resembles
the epidermis of the corolla, and an inner layer called the " endo-

FlG. 119. Several forms of pollen grains: A, crocus; B, arnica, with three thin places
in the wall through one of which the pollen tube may protrude; C, lavender showing six
thin places in the wall.

thecium," the cells of which are contractile and peculiarly thick-
ened, this feature being rather characteristic for certain species
(Fig. 118, /). Lining the pollen sacs during their development,
there is a layer of cells, called the " tapetal cells; " but these are
usually sooner or later absorbed.

The POLLEN GRAINS Vary greatly in number, as well as in
size and shape. They are usually more or less ellipsoidal but
may be spherical, as in Crocus (Fig. 119, A) ; more or less three-
sided, as in the Compositse and in cloves ; four or five-sided, as in
Viola tricolor (Fig. 118, K, L. M), and in some cases, as in the
Coniferse, they may be winged. In addition to protoplasm and
one or more nuclei, pollen grains contain considerable oil and
starch. The outer or enclosing membrane (Fig. 119) consists of
two parts : an inner one known as the " intine " and consisting of

214 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cellulose, and an outer, known as the " exine,'' apparently con-
sisting chiefly of cutin ; in some cases the exine also contains an
oil which is colorless, as in Salvia, or yellowish, as in lavender,
and in some instances it may contain a viscid substance, causing
the pollen grains to adhere, as in CEnothera. The grains may be
smooth or variously sculptured ; in most instances the exine is
unevenly developed, leaving thin places through which the pollen
tubes protrude in germination ; these give the appearance of
grooves when the grains are dry, and the number of grooves is
characteristic for different species ; in most of the Compositse
they are three in number ; in the Labiatse there are six, while in
Crocus they are wanting (Fig. 119).

The epidermal cells of the stigma are quite characteristic.
The cells of the epidermis, or so-called " stigma-epithel," may be
palisade-like, forming a more or less wart-like mass, as in the
viscous stigmas of the Umbellifer?e, or the outer walls may be
modified to rather broad papillae, as in matricaria and arnica,
or they may be developed into hair-like processes, as in
Crocus. The pollen tubes either enter the style through an
open canal, as in the violets, or they penetrate into the conducting
tissues of the style, either through the papillae, as in Malva, or
through the middle lamella of two neighboring papillae, as in
Atropa Belladonna.

The important tissue of the style is the conducting tissue ; in
styles which are hollow it forms the lining of the canal, the cells
resembling those of the stigma-epithel ; in styles that are solid
the conducting tissue occupies the central axis and consists of
somewhat elongated cells, the walls of which are generally thick,
frequently strongly refractive and possess the property of swell-
ing, being furthermore separated by large intercellular spaces.
Surrounding the conducting tissue are thin-walled parenchyma
cells, in which the fibrovascular bundles are distributed, the num-
ber of groups of the latter corresponding to the number of carpels
that compose the gynaecium. There may also occur secretion cells,
containing mucilage, as in IMalva, or oil and resin, as in matri-
caria. Occasionally, the parenchyma is replaced either in part
or entirely by mechanical cells, and the epidermal cells may be
modified to hairs.

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 215

The tissues of the ovary arc, as a rule, in a very rudimentary
condition ; in fact, so rudimentar^• that it is difficult to distincuish
the ovaries of two flowers that develop into quite different fruits.
In some instances it is said that notwithstanding tlie subsequent
changes, each cell of the fruit is already indicated in the ovary.
The ovary possesses an outer and an inner epidermis ; the outer
is provided with stomata and may also possess hairs ; the inner
may also have stomata and after fertilization may develop secre-
tion hairs, as in the orange. Between the epidermal layers occur
thin-walled parenchyma cells which contain leucoplastids and
chloroplastids, and in which the fibrovascular bundles are dis-
tributed, these being usually simple, or complex, as in the pea.
The number of fibrovascular bundles is more or less dependent
upon the number of carpels that make up the gynsecium ; as a
rule, there is a strong fibrovascular bundle which corresponds to
the midvein of each carpel.

The PLACENTA is a development from the inner epidermis. It
is traversed by a fibrovascular bundle from which branches arc
given ofT to the individual ovules ; it may have a conducting tissue
similar to that found in the st3de, and in some cases the epidermis
of the stalk of the ovule may be developed to. a stigma-epithel.

The OVULE not only possesses a distinct form as already given,
but the internal structure, by reason of the changes associated with
fertilization, is more or less characteristic for certain species and
genera. It has an epidermal layer, the outer walls of which are
more or less cutinized, and it consists for the most part of paren-
chyma cells rich in protoplasm and food-materials ; in addition the
embryo-sac contains a number of nuclei. The stalk and raphe are
connected with the placenta by means of a fibrovascular bundle.

The NECTAR may be secreted by certain* of the epidermal cells
of various parts of the flower; these may resemble the ordinary
epidermal cells or they may be modified to papillae, as in the
spurred stamens of the violets, or to hair-like processes, as in
Malva. The cells which secrete nectar constitute the " nectar-
apparatus," and the walls are usually thin and more or less cutin-
ized. The nectar-apparatus is found more generally upon some
part of the stamen, but the sepals and petals are not infrequently
saccate or spurred, which adapts them for holding the nectar.

2l6

BOTANY AXD PHARMACOGNOSY.

INNER MORPHOLOGY OF FRUITS.

The inner structure of fruits is quite variable and it is difficult
to treat of this in a general way. In the simplest fruits there are

Fig. 1 20. Transverse (I) and longitudinal (II) sections of oat grain {Avena sativa):
r, 2, cells of pericarp; 3, seed-coat; 4, remains of perisperm; 5, cells containing gluten;
7, endosperm cells containing considerable proteins and some starch; 6, endosperm cells
with polygonal compound starch grains; 8, fibrovascular bundle of the pericarp. — After Harz.

three distinct layers, as in the capsule of cardamom, in which
there is an outer epidermis of isodiametric or polygonal cells,

iMORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 217

an inner epidermis of more or less obliterated and elongated
cells, between which is a thin-walled parenchyma traversed by a
number of fibrovascular bundles (See also Figs. 246, 250, 252).

In some cases the outer epidermis contains numerous sto-
mata, as in poppy capsules, or is developed into hairs and other
outgrowths or appendages, as in anise (Fig. 244 j, arnica, rhus
glabra and raspberry.

The inner epidermis may also contain stomata, as in the poppv,
or be developed into hairs, as in vanilla (Fig. 256) and orange,
or more or less obliterated, as in akene-like fruits, or modified to
sclerenchymatous elements, as in drupes.

The middle la}'er, which is composed of parenchyma, may con-
tain protoplasm, starch, sugars, calcium oxalate, coloring princi-
ples, alkaloids and other principles, and it may also have oil-secre-
tion cells, as in cubeb (Fig. 250) or oil-secretion canals, as in
orange and the fruits of the Umbelliferae, in the latter of which
they arc known as vitt?e (Figs. 244 to 248) ; milk vessels some-
times occur, as in poppy ; a collenchymatous layer is sometimes
developed beneath the epidermis, as in capsicum (Fig. 252), in
some cases sclerenchymatous cells may be present, as in pimenta
and cubeb (Fig. 250) ; and in still other instances the entire peri-
carp may be made up of stone cells.

INNER MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEED.

The SEED-COAT usually consists of from two to six layers of
cells: (i) an outer layer or so-called epidermis, (2) a layer of
sclerenchymatous cells or stone cells, (3) a pigment layer, (4, 5)
one or two rows of parenchymatous cells. (6) a row of more or
less obliterated parenchyma cells.

The EPiDERAiAL CELLS vary considerably in different species,
both as regards the form of the cells and the composition of the
walls (Fig. 302). The cells may be more or less isodiametric in
cross-section, as in cardamom (Fig. 253) ; elliptical, as in almond
(Fig. 302, D) ; palisade-like, as in Ahnis precatoriiis, or more or
less irregular, as in Delphinium. While the outer and side walls
are usually thickened, in hyoscyamus (Fig. 302, A) it is the inner
and side walls which are thickened, the outer wall remaining thin.
The outer wall may be in part modified to mucilage, as in mustard

2l8

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

and flaxseed (Fig. 184) ; or to non-glandular hairs which consist
either of cellulose, as in cotton (Fig. 166), or lignocellulose, as
in nux vomica (Fig. 283. B).

The PERISPERM and endosperm (Fig. 121) consist chiefly of
parenchyma cells, which contain, hesides protoplasm, starch, as
in physostigma; oil, as in strophanthus (Fig. 186); aleurone

J) \

:•!

Fig 121. Form of embryo and distribution of endosperm in various seeds and
fruits. A, Ricinus seed: car, caruncle; m, micropyle; e, embryo. B, superior drupe of
Piper: per, pericarp; e, endosperm; p, perisperm. C, spinach fruit and D, corn cockle seed
(Agrostenima Githago): per, pericarp; t, seed-coat; h, hilum; p, perisperm; e, endosperm
c, curved embryo. — A, C, D, after Harz; B, after Baillon.

grains, as in ricinus (Fig. 122) ; glucosides, as in almond; alka-
loids, as in stramonium. The walls are usually thin, but may in
some instances be considerably thickened, as in cofifee, colchicum
and nux vomica (Fig. 122, C).

The embryo consists chiefly of parenchyma cells with a few
fibrovascular bundles ; the cotyledons may be thin and leaf-like,
as in ricinus and mix vomica, or thick and fleshv, as in almond

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS.

219

(Fig. 188) and cola, or partly developed as in strophantlius
(Fig. 186) ; the hypocotyl is usually small, but in the Umbel-
lifene it is as large as the cotyledons.

H M

Fig. 122. A. — Longitudinal section through anatropous seed of linum: R, raphe; SC,
seed-coat; M, hilum; H, micropyle; EN, endosperm; C, cotyledon; HY, hypocotyl. B.—
Longitudinal section through stramonium seed: SC, seed-coat; H, micropyle; M, hilum;
EN, _ endosperm; E, curved embryo. C. — Transverse section through endosperm of nux
vomica showing thick-walled parenchyma, the cells containing oil and protoplasm. D. —
I'ransverse section through endosperm of seed of Ricinus communis, one cell filled with
aleurone grains containing a crystalloid and globoid, and another in which the aleurone
grains have been dissolved, the cytoplasm and nucleus remaining.

PLANT METABOLISM.

Food of Plants. — It has already been pointed out that certain
of the chemical elements are necessary for the growth of plants
(p. 3), and that these are derived partly from the surrounding

220 BOTANY AND PHAkxMACOGNOSY.

atmosphere and partly from the soil. Those elements derived
from the air are either themselves gases or exist in combination
in the form of gas, and include oxygen, nitrogen in exceptional
cases (p. 99 j, and carbon dioxide, the source of the carbon
entering into the carbon compounds formed by plants.

The elements obtained by plants from the soil exist in com-
bination with other elements and must be in the form of solution
to be absorbed. The soil consists largely of mineral substances,
together with certain organic products (humus). The water held
in the soil not only acts as a medium for carrying the soluble
constituents in the soil to the plant, but is itself an important food
product, being the source of the hydrogen used by plants, as also
of assimilable oxygen. Among the mineral constituents of the
soil that are useful to plants are ammonium salts and nitrates,
sulphates, phosphates, chlorides, silicates and carbonates. When
plants are collected and subjected to a temperature of about iio° I
C. the water is driven off, and then if heat sufficient to incinerate
the material be applied the organic matter is driven off in the
form of gases, leaving the mineral constituents in the form of ash,
as calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, sodium and a few other
elements.

Root Absorption. — Notwithstanding the various agents
which are at work tending to break down and dissolve the sub-
stances contained in the soil, as soil bacteria, the liquids given to
the soil by the roots of the plants themselves, the presence of the
so-called humic acids, and the action of water and air, it has been
shown that the soil water is an exceedingly weak solution. This
is largely due to the peculiar absorptive and fixing power of the
soil itself.

The dilution of the aqueous solution of the soil constituents
is a matter of very great significance, for upon this depends its
absorption by the root hairs. While other parts of roots have cer-
tain absorptive powers, the root hairs have been defined as the
organs of absorption of the plant. They are very delicate in
structure and contain protoplasm. Their absorbent function de-
pends upon the principle that w^hen a membrane (animal or
vegetable) is interposed between two liquids of unequal density,
the less dense liquid will pass through the membrane and mix

MORPHOLOGY OF HIGHER PLANTS. 221

with the denser Hquid. This process is known as osmosis, and
when a Hquid passes outward through a membrane or cell-wall
it is called exosmosis, and wd:en inward it is called endosmosis.
The soil is made up of minute earth particles, each of which is
surrounded by a thin film or envelope of water, and it is this por-
tion of the soil liquid that is absorbed by the root hairs. The root
hairs come into close contact with these soil particles ; in fact,
appear to grow fast to them, and the cell-liquid in the root hairs
being denser than that surrounding the soil particles, the latter
passes through the wall into the root hairs.

If, on the other hand, the water supplied to the roots of plants
should contain an excess of soluble material, the plant will be
injured. In this case exosmosis ensues and the plant loses some
of its own liquids or cell-sap and will show signs of wilting. It
is well known that if cultivated plants are supplied with strong
solutions of fertilizer the plants will be injured rather than
benefited.

Root Pressure. — The distribution of the water absorbed bv
the roots to other parts of the plant is influenced by a number of
factors, which are commonly spoken of together as root-pressure.
Among these are osmosis within the plant, due to unequal density
of the liquids in different cells ; the changes in the equilibrium of
the cell-liquids, due to chemical changes, and the transpiration
of water from the leaves, thus establishing a flow of liquids from
the roots upward, which is usually spoken of as the ascent of
SAP. The cell-sap passes upward through the xylem for the most
part carrying constituents obtained from the soil to the growing
parts, where they are combined with the products of photosyn-
thesis, and through a series of reactions pi;otoplasm is finally
built up.

O.xiDATiox. — The free oxygen taken in by plants through the
stomata and lenticels serves the same purpose in plants as that
inhaled by animals, namely, the oxidation of certain compounds,
whereb}- part of the energy necessary for vital activity is lib-
erated. Oxygen is required by all parts of the plant. When the
roots of plants, such as those of Zea Mays, are surrounded by
water so as to exclude the air the plants will become yellow.
Germinating seeds consume a large amount of oxygen, but not

222 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

all the energy formed is used by the plantlet, much of it escaping
as heat, as in the germination of barley in the preparation of malt
(p. 575). Those plants dependent upon the presence of free
atmospheric oxygen are called aerobes^ while those which are
not thus dependent, as certain fungi and bacteria, are called

ANAEROBES.

Metabolism. — Processes of construction and destruction are
going on simultaneously in the plant, and these are all grouped
under the general name of metabolism. The processes whereby
complex substances are built up from simpler ones, as in photo-
synthesis, are together spoken of as constructive aietabolism
(anabolism), while those which involve the breaking down of
complex compounds into simpler ones, either through oxidation
or other chemical action, as when sugar is changed into carbon
dioxide and water, are grouped under the head of destructive
metabolism (catabolism).

Inasmuch as the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and the
water taken up by the roots together with the mineral salts which
it hcjlds in solution are the only sources of the food supply of
green plants, it follows that the highly complex proteins trace
their origin to these comparatively simple substances. By some
it is supposed that the final stages in the building up or synthesis
of the proteins take place in the leaves, but it is probable that they
take place in all the growing parts of the plant. It has already
been stated in the paragraph on proteins that seeds contain re-
serve materials which are broken up into simpler compounds
through the action of certain enzymes, and thus made available
for the seedling. It is claimed that these compounds are prin-
cipally amino acids, and that of these aspartic and glutaminic acids
occur in largest amount and that these two acids are found in
dififerent relative amounts in different plants. It is furthermore
claimed by some authors that by certain syntheses these com-
pounds are respectively converted into asparagin and glutamin.
both of which occur as reserve materials in seeds and in other
parts of plants as well. Yet other syntheses take place whereby
asparagin and similar bodies arc converted into albun.iin and other
proteins. In the Coniferae the part played by asparagin and
glutamin in protein syntheses is taken by arginin. which substance
is found in considerable amouui in the seeds of the plants of this
group.

CHAPTER IV.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS YIELDING
VEGETABLE DRUGS.

INTRODUCTORY.

Inasmuch as the plants yielding drugs and proximate princi-
ples, represent a large number of families it will be found that the
study of the important characters of these groups will give a
rather comprehensive view of the important groups of the Angio-
sperms. Reference will also be made to other economic products
yielded by the angiosperms, as food-products, fibers, coloring
principles, woods and timbers, as well as to the plants commonly
cultivated for ornamental purposes.

Drugs which are recognized by the pharmacopoeias are said
to be official. It should be understood that those referred to in
this book as being official are those recognized by the United
States Pharmacopceia.

Nomenclature. — The names first given to plants consisted
of a single Latin name, as Ouercus, Rubus, Rosa, etc. Later some
of the names applied to plants were obtained from the Greeks
through Latin literature, as Aristolochia, Colchicum. The list
of classical names was added to from time to time from both the
Latin and Greek, as Convallaria, Glycyrrhiza, etc. Later the
names applied to plants in other countries were Latinized, as
Datura from the Arabic, Gviaiacum from America. Since very
early times the names of distinguished men have been applied to
plants, as Asclepias v.-hich was dedicated to ^-Esculapius, and
Linnaea which was named after the great Swedish botanist Lin-
naeus. \Mien it was found that there were dififerent kinds of
plants in what had been considered a single type these were dis-
tinguished by the addition of other names indicating their specific
characters, and in this way plant names became quite long^ and
cumbersome. Piotanical science is indebted to the Swedish botan-
ist Linnaeus for proposing names for plants separate from their

223

224 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

description. He reduced plant names to two : a generic name and
a specific name. The specific name is the name appHed to plants
which are of one kind, and these constitute a species ; and the gen-
eric name is that applied to a group of nearly related species, each
group constituting a genus. Thus the oaks make up a genus of
plants to which the Latin name Ouercus signifying " beautiful
tree "' is applied. But we know that the oaks are not all alike
and difi^erent names are applied to the different kinds, as the
.white oak which has the specific name alba; the plant therefore
is known scientifically as Que reus alba; while the black oak is
known as Quercus velutina.

Nearly related genera are brought together in groups known
as families. Thus we have the Mint Family known as the Labi-
atas, which comprises a number of related genera, such as Mentha,
Hedeoma, Salvia, etc. Still larger groups of related families make
up Orders, as the Graminales, including the Gramineje or Grass
Family and the Cyperacese or Sedge Family. Orders make up
classes and sub-classes, as the Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

The names of genera consist of one word which is a singular
Latin noun, and are derived in various ways, as Sanguinaria, so
named because of the red or sanguine character of the juice; Cas-
tanea which is named from Castanea in Thessaly the home of the
chestnut ; Ricinus from the Latin word meaning " bug," because
of the resemblance of the seed to a bug; Digitalis, so named from
the finger-shaped corolla.

Specific names are generally adjectives and must agree in gen-
der with the generic name. Thus w^e have Medicago virginica in
which the endings are feminine ; Lepidium virginictim in which
the endings are neuter, and Sporobolus virginicns which has mas-
culine endings. Like the generic name the specific name is derived
in various tVays, but it usually indicates some peculiarity of the
plant. Thus the specific name in Gentiami lutea, refers to the
golden-yellow flowers; in Coniuui maculatuni, the specific name
has reference to the brownish-purple spots on the stem ; in
Brassiea nigra, the word nigra has reference to the black seeds ; in
Aristolochia reticulata, the specific name refers to the reticulated
leaves ; and in Phytolacca decandra, the word dccandra has refer-
ence to the ten stamens.

CLASSIFICATIOX OF AXGIOSPERMS. 225

A. CLASS MONOCOTYLEDONS.

The Monocotyledons are mainly distinguished as follows :
The embryo has only one cotyledon; the leaves are mostly scat-
tered and parallel-veined ; the fibro-vascular bundles of the stem
are of the closed type, and the flowers are typically trimerous.

L ORDER GRAM IN ALES OR GLUMIFLGR^.

This order is composed of the two families, grasses (Gram-
ineae) and sedges (Cyperacese).

a. GRAMINE^ OR GRASS FAMILY.— The plants of this
family are nearly all herbs having cylindric, generally hollow
culms with swollen nodes. The leaves are exactly alternate, and
have long sheaths which are split or seldom closed, tubular, and
nearly always with a distinct ligule. The flowers are mostly
hermaphrodite and borne in spikelets with alternate floral-leaves,
the spikelets themselves being borne in spicate or paniculate
inflorescences. Each spikelet (Figs. 125, 126) consists of two
(seldom more) empty glumes, which are the lowest floral-leaves
in each spikelet : a varied number of flowering glumes, frequently
awned or toothed, which follow inside the empty glumes, and
each of which subtends a short branch (the rhachilla), the latter
bearing an adorsed fore leaf (the pale), which is generally two-
keeled and two-toothed, enclosing two minute scales (lodicules)
and the flower. The flower has mostly three stamens (there be-
ing six stamens in Oryza and Bambusa), with the anthers versa-
tile, and a simple gynaecium consisting of one carpel having two
styles and a plumose stigma. The ovary is unilocular with one
ascending or pendulous ovule. The fruit is a nut (grain
caryopsis), the seed being always firmly united with the thin
pericarp (except in Sporobolus, Eleusine, etc.). The embr^'o
is situated at the base, on the outer convex surface of the seed,
outside the endosperm. On germination the cotyledons remain
in the seed.

The endosperm contains numerous starch grains and oil, while

226

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the gluten layer around the endosperm contains proteins. The
number of layers of gluten- or aleurone-containing cells varies in
the different cereals. In corn, wheat and rye it consists of but
a single layer ; in oat and rice, of i or 2 layers ; while in barley
it is made up of 2 to 4 layers.

The Grasses comprise about 3500 species and are distributed
in all parts of the world. While most of the plants are grass-like
still some of them, as the bamboos of the Tropics, become quite
tall, having woody silicious stems and bearing many branches in
the axils of the leaves. They yield the cereal grains forming so

Fig. 123.

tlG. 124.

Fig. 123. Diagrams of cross-sections of monocotyledonous flowers: t, stem of plant;
f, bract; s, sepals or outer circle of perianth; p, petals or inner circle of perianth; a, stamens;
c, ovary. A, regular flower of the lily; B, irregular flower of iris. Fig. 124. C, flower of
an orchid, in which 1 is the lip and SS the two staminodes. — .ifter Warming.

large a proportion of the food of man, and forage constituting the
food of many of the lower animals. The following are some of
the important cereals: Wheat {Triticiini safiz'um and its varie-
ties), corn (Zca Mays), oat {Avena sativa), rice {Oryza saliva),
barley (Hordcinn sativum and its varieties), rye {Sccalc ccrcalc).
A number of the species yield a sweet cell-sap from which cane
sugar is made, of which the most important are the sugar cane
(Saccharum ofFicinarum) and sorghum {Audropos^on anindina-
ccns saccharatns and other varieties).

A large number of the grasses are used in medicine, one of
which, couch-grass (Agropyron repens), is official (p. 490).

Agropyron repens is a common perennial grass, forming slen-
der jointed rhizomes, by means of which the plant is extensively

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

227

propagated ; the culms vary from one to four feet in height, the
spikelets are 3- to /-flowered; and the empty glumes, 5- to
7-nerved, acute or with an awn-hke apex.

Hordeum sativum is an annual grass with the flowers in ter-
minal cylindrical spikes resembling wheat. The spikelets are ses-
sile, I -flowered, and usually in clusters of three on opposite sides
of the notched rachis. The empty glumes are long and narrow,

Fig. 125. Wheat (Triticum): A, zigzag axis or rachis of ear showing the notches
where the spikelets were inserted; B, an entire spikelet; C, j flower with the pales; D, a
flower without the pales, showing the lodicules at the base; E, glume; F, outer pale; G.
inner pale; H, fruit icaryopsis); I, longitudinal section of fruit. — After Warming.

forming a kind of involucre around the spikelet. It is supposed
that Hordeum sativum is a cultivated form of H. spontancum
growing in the countries between Asia Minor and other parts of
Western and Southwestern Asia. Three important varieties are
distinguished depending upon the number of rows of grains in
the ear. H. sativum distich on includes the plants having 2- rowed
ears and these are chiefly grown in Middle Europe and England.

228

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

H. sativum hexastichon includes the plants having the grains
in six rows, these having been cultivated since prehistoric
times and now cultivated in Southern Europe. H. sativum vitl-
gare includes the plants in which the grains are in four irregular
rows, and these are cultivated in northern temperate regions.
The latter plant is cultivated in the United States and furnishes
the grain used in the preparation of malt (p. 575).

Zca Mays (Indian Corn) is a cereal plant probably indigenous
to Central Mexico. It is extensively cultivated in the United
States and other parts of the world for its grain. From a multi-
ple, primary, somewhat fibrous root arise one or more erect simple

Fig. 126. Diagrammatic outline of a spikelet: nY, lower glume; <|) Y, upper glume;
nl, outer pale; <i> I, inner pale; 1, 1, lodicules; st, stamens; l-I, main axis; II, lateral axes
or branches. — After Warming.

culms, which are grooved on alternate sides in the successive
internodes and from the nodes of which arise aerial secondary
roots. The leaves are alternate and consist of three parts: (a)
a blade, which is long, broadly-linear and tapering toward the
apex, the tip being pendulous; (b) a lower sheathing portion
which is open; and (c) a short, translucent, somewhat hairy
ligule, situated between the sheath and the blade. The flowers
are monoecious, the staminatc, which are arranged in a terminal
panicle, maturing first : the pistillate occur in axillary spikes, the
axes of which constitute the corn cob. They are enclosed in
spathe-like bracts or husks, from which the long filiform styles

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 229

(p. 558) protrude. The grain is somewhat ovate or triangular,
flattened, pointed at the base, grooved on one side, indicating the
position of the embryo, from 10 to 15 mm. long and about 10 mm.
broad, more or less translucent, and varies in color in the different
varieties. The constituents of the corn grain are 50 to 75 per cent,
of starch; about 10 per cent, of proteins; 4.29 per cent, of a fixed
oil; about five per cent, of sugar, and 1.29 per cent, of ash.

There are a large number of varieties and sub-varieties of Zca
Mays, some of the former being ranked as species. The follow-
ing well defined varieties may be mentioned :

(i) Zca Mays ez'crta, to which belong the pop-corns. The
size of the ears and grains is about one half or less that of the
other corns ; the grains have a more or less translucent and horny
endosperm, the cells of the latter containing numerous compactly
arranged polygonal starch grains, which are from 7 to 10 /u, in
diameter and have a central rarified area from 2 to 7 /x in diam-
eter. It is owing to the structure of the starch grains that the
peculiar popping of the corn grains results when they are heated.
Heating the corn grains at 145° to 160° C. for from 4 to 10 min-
utes causes the bursting of the starch grains, and at the same time
a rupture of the cells and splitting of the pericarp into 4 parts.
The white appearance of the popped grains in due to the inclusion
of air in the bursted cells. During the heating the starch is con-
verted into a soluble form and this gives popped corn its nutritive
value. Some of the flint and dent corns show a similar tendency
to pop when heated, but it is only in those parts of the endo-
sperm that are horny and the cells of which contain compactly
arranged polygonal starch grains in which the rarified area is at
least from one-tenth to one-fifth the diameter of the entire grain.
Pieces of the pop-corn, as well as the horny portions of some of
the flint and dent corns, will pop as readily as the whole grains.

(2) Zea Mays indentata yields the dent or flint corns, the
grains of which have a corneous (horny) endosperm on the sides
and are indented at the summit, owing to the shrinking of the
cells which contain more cell-sap and less compactly arranged
starch grains.

The starch grains in the cells of the horny endosperm resem-
ble those of pop-corn, but the starch grains in the other cells are

230 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

more or less rounded or slightly polygonal, and vary from 5 to 25
fi in diameter ; the central rarified area is either wanting or usu-
ally not more than 2 jx in diameter.

(3) Zca Mays saccharata yields the sugar corns. While the
grains are more or less translucent and horny, they have a
w^rinkled or shrivelled surface. The cells of the endosperm con-
tain gum-like substances and a relatively small number of nearly
spherical starch grains from 4 to 10 /x in diameter.

Broom corn {Andropogon arundinaccus vulgar e) is a plant
which is cultivated for the panicles or seed heads, which are used
in the manufacture of brooms. This plant differs from the other
species of Andropogon in that the branches of the panicles are
longer, straighter and stronger, forming a so-called " brush."

Quite a number of the grasses contain odorous principles, as
Andropogon citratus which yields lemon-grass oil; A. Scha^nan-
thus which yields gingergrass or geranium-grass oil; A. sqiiar-
rosus the rhizome of which is known as Vetiver. Coumarin is
found in Vanilla grass {Anthoxanthum odoratinn) and white or
Dutch clover {Hicrochlcc odorata). Some species of Stipa are
used in the manufacture of paper (Alfa or Esparto) in North
Africa and Spain.

b. CYPERACE^ OR SEDGE FAMILY.— These plants are
all herbaceous, the majority being perennial (seldom annual).
The rhizomes are mostly sympodial (being monopodial, however,
in certain Carices), and the stems are mostly solid and triangular,
without swollen nodes. The leaves are grass-like, generally
arranged in three rows, and the sheath is closed, being mostly
without ligules. The flowers may be hermaphrodite or uni-
sexual, sometimes dioecious, and arranged in spikes or racemes.
The perianth is wanting or only represented by six bristles, or
by an indefinite number of hairs. The number of stamens is
three, with the anthers attached by their bases to the filament.
The gyngecium consists of 2 to 3 carpels, with one style divided
into 2 or 3 branches, and provided with papillre. The fruit is a
nut, whose seed is generally united with the pericarp. The em-
bryo is small and lies at the base of the seed in the central line,
surrounded by the endosperm. On germination, the cotyledon is
freed from the seed.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 231

A number of the sedges yield food products, as the rhizomes
of Cypcrns csculejitiis and Elcocliaris tuhcrosa, the latter of which
is used in the manufacture of starch in China and India. Quite
a number of species of Scirpus, Cyperus, Carex, etc., are used in
medicine. Various species of Cyperus (C. scariosus, of the East
Indies, and C. pertenuis, of India) yield ethereal oils and are used
in making perfumery. Cyperus Papyrus is also used in medicine
and furnished the paper of the Ancients.

II. ORDER PRINCIPES.

In this order is included that interesting group of tropical
and sub-tropical plants the palms (Palmc-e). They are arbores-
cent, having simple unbranched trunks which are terminated by
clusters of leaves, in the axils of which flowers are produced. The
leaves are pinnate (Feather Palms) or palmate (Fan Palms)
and often very large. The petiole is well developed with an am-
plexicaul, more or less fibrous sheath. The inflorescence is usirdly
lateral, in some cases forming a large spadix with a woody, boat-
shaped spathc. In comparison the individual flowers arc very
small. The fruit is either a berry, as in the Date palm, or a drupe,
as in the Cocoa-nut palm, generally i-seeded and with a large
horny or bony endosperm, as in the Date palm (p. 233) and
Phytelephas macrocarpa, the latter of which yields vegetable
ivory, used in the making of buttons (Fig. 173).

The fruit of the saw palmetto [Serenoa (Saba!) scrnilafa],
one of the fan palms, is official (p. 578). The saw palmetto is
characterized by having a creeping root-stock or rhizome one end
of which rises a short distance above ground, this portion being
surmounted by a dense crown of leaves. The petioles are slender
and spinose on the edges ; the blade is fan-shaped and consists of
a number of palmate divisions which are slightly cleft at the apex.
The inflorescence is densely tomentose and shorter than the leaves.
The fruit is a i-seeded drupe (Fig. 251).

The palms yield a number of useful products. The Betel-nut
palm (Areca Catechu) produces a seed having medicinal proper-
ties (Fig. 127). The seeds, known as areca nut, are 20 to 25
mm. long, conical, grayish-brown, with numerous spiral, reddish

232

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

veins, heav}-, hard, somewhat aromatic, astringent and shghtly
acrid. They contain about o.i per cent, of an oily Hquid alkaloid,
arecoline, which chemically and in its physiological action resem-
bles pelletierine ; 14 per cent, of tannin, resembling catechutannic
acid; gallic acid; a red coloring principle; and 14 per cent, of a
fixed oil. They also contain 3 other alkaloids : arecaine, arecai-
dine and guvacine, but these do not seem to give the drug its
properties.

Fig. 127. Areca Catechu (Betel-nut palm). A, upper portion of an inflorescence
bearing staminate flowers; B, enlarged view of staminate flower; C, 3 stamens; D, upper
part of ovary with 3 styles; E, a branch bearing 4 pistillate flowers in the lower portion
and 2 staminate flowers above; F, a pistillate flower with bracts removed showing the calyx;
G, an ovary with rudimentary stamen; Hi, longitudinal section through ovary; H2, the
same giving a magnified view of the ovule; J, section through a berry showing the fibrous
sarcocarp and the seed covered by reticulated branches of the raphe; K, section of seed
showing the ruminating endosperm with small embryo near the base. — After Drude.

Carnaub.\-wax is obtained from the Carnauba-palm of Brazil
(Copcriiicia ccrifcra). The wax exudes from the surface of the
young leaves and is obtained by boiling them with water.
Dragon's blood, a bright red resinous substance, is obtained
from the juice of the fleshy fruit of Calamus Draco. It consists
chiefly of resin, some tannin and about 3 per cent, of benzoic acid.

The Oil palm (Elccis gnineensis) of equatorial West Africa
yields a drupe with an oily sarcocarp, from which by means of

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 233

pressure or boiling with water, palm oil is obtained. The Cocoa-
nut pahn (Coais nncifera) yields the cocoa nut of the market
and is probably one of the most useful palms to the natives, fur-
nishing as it does, food, clothing, utensils of all kinds, building
materials, etc. The Sago-palms {Metroxylon Rumphii and .1/.
Icczx) yield sago, which is prepared by washing out the starch
from the cut stems and subsequently heating it. A tree 15 years
old yields from three to four hundred kilograms of sago starch.
The Date palm (Pluviii.v dactylifcra) yields the dates of the
market, and it is interesting to note that since very early times
the fruits produced by the growers in the Orient have been the
result of artificial or hand-pollination.

III. ORDER ARALES OR SPATHIFLOR^.

This order includes two families which are markedly different
in their habits: (ij The Aracese which are rather large herbs
with an in florescence known as a spadix and consisting of a fleshy
spike, v/hich is subtended or enclosed by a large bract known as
a spathe, as in the Calla-lily where it is large and white, and (2)
the Lemnaceffi or duckweed family, which is composed of minute,
floating, thalloid plants that develop one or more flowers on the
margin or upper surface of the thallus.

ARACE^ OR ARUM FAMILY.— The plants belonging
to this family are perennial herbs with tuberous or flesh}- rhi-
zomes and simple or compound leaves which are usually long-
petioled. The spadix is densely flowered, the staminate flowers
l)eing above and the pistillate below on the same axis, or the plants
are wholly dioecious. The perianth when present consists of 4 to
6 scale-like segments. Frequently the spadix is subtended or
enclosed by a more or less showy spathe. The fruit is usually a
berry, sometimes a utricle.

A number of the plants of this family have medicinal proper-
ties and one of them yields the ofificial drug calamus (p. 496).
The drug is derived from sweet flag {Acorns Calamus) a plant
common in swamps and along streams in the Eastern United
States, and characterized by its long, narrow, linear, bilateral
leaves which are from two to six feet hisfh and one inch wide or

234

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

less. The inflorescence is a spike-like spadix having greenish-
yellow flowers.

Many of the Aracese possess an acrid juice. The acridity is
probably due either to saponin or an acrid volatile principle
rather than to raphides of calcium oxalate. Frequently these
principles are dissipated or destroyed on cooking and the plants
are then used as food, as the water arum (Calla paliisfris).

/ ?>*ru«

1- - -^" ■ ^^

y m m "

■ ^

\^:- T

Fig. 128. Vanillin, orthorhombic crystals obtained from saturated aqueous solutions.

which on account of its acrid principles is used as a remedy for
snake bites when in the fresh condition, but which on drying loses
its acridity and being rich in starch is used as a food (Fig. 128).
To this family also belong Jack-in-the-pulpit, or Indian turnip
{Ariscema triphylhim), the acrid corm of which is used in medi-
cine; SKUNK CABBAGE {Symplocarpus foctidus), the fetid rhizome
of which has medicinal properties. A number of plants of the
Arum family are rich in starch, as the tubers of Xanthosome edule
of Surinam which contain 62 per cent, of starch.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 235

IV. ORDER XYRIDALES OR FARINOSE.

The plants are mostly perennial herbs of tropical and sub-
tropical America. The order includes a number of families
among which is Bromeliace.e, to which the pineapple (Ananas
sativiis) belongs. Pineapple is a native of Brazil and is now cul-
tivated in warm countries of the eastern and western hemispheres.
The fruit contains a proteolytic enzyme resembling trypsin and
also a milk-curdling ferment. The bast fibers of the leaves are
used for textile purposes. Some of the Bromeliacese are epi-
phytic (air-plants), the best known member being probablv the
Florida moss (Tillandsia iisneoides) which is used in upholstery.

The family Commelinaceie is represented in the United States
by Commelina or day-flower, some species of which have medic-
inal properties. The roots of some tropical species contain
saponin, as C. dcficicns, of Brazil. The rhizomes of a number
of species of Commelina contain notable quantities of starch and
are edible. The spider worts (Tradescantia) common in rich
soil in the United States, and the Wandering Jew {Tradescantia
Zehrina) commonly cultivated as an ornamental plant, also belong
to this family.

V. order liliales or liliiflor^.

The plants of this order are mostly perennial herbs with rhi-
zomes, tubers, bulbs, or fibrous roots. The leaves are parallel-
veined.

a. LIIJACE^ OR LILY FAMILY.— The plants are the
most typical of the Monocotyledons. They ^re scape-like herbs
vv^ith bulbs ; the flowers are symmetrical, and the perianth is
parted into six more or less distinct segments (Fig. 123) ; the
anthers are introse (123, A). The ovary is free, 3-locular, with
a single style, and the fruit is a 3-locular, loculicidal dehiscent
capsule. The following plants yield official drugs :

Vcratrnui viride is a plant two to eight feet high, which is
characterized by the broad, clasping, strongly plicate leaves, and
by having the flowers in large terminal panicles (Fig. 129). The
plant is found in swamps and wet woods in the United States in

^36

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

spring and early summer. The rhizome is upright, and is the
part used in medicine (p. 492). The plant including the rhizome
closely resembles the Veratrmn album of Europe.

Fig. 129. Plants of Veratrum viride growing in the Royal Botanic Society's Gardens
(London) and showing the parallel veined (or nerved) leaves with entire margin, and the
large terminal panicles of flowers. — After Perredes.

Colchiciini aiifinniialc. — This is the autumnal-flowering colchi-
cum, a perennial herb but a few inches high which arises from a
corm and bears proportionately large lilac-colored flowers. The
fruit consists of three follicles containing numerous seeds. The
corm (p. 509) and seeds (p. 426) of this and other species of
Colchicum are the parts used in medicine.

CLASSIFICATION OF AXGIOSPERMS.

^17

Aloe species. — The stems are about a meter high and bear at
the summit a cluster of thick succulent leaves which are lance-
olate and spinous-toothed. The inflorescences are in long spikes

Fig. 130. Plant of Aleiris farinosa showing characteristic rosette of lanceolate leaves
at the base and portion of long slender scape with numerous tubular flowers. The plant is
common in dry coniferous woods in the eastern part of the United States.

which are quite showy and characteristic for the different species.
Aloe Perryi which yields the Socotr[ne aloes possesses leaves
with white spines and flowers that are orange-red or scarlet at

238 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the base, the stamens being unequal ; Aloe vera which yields the
Barbadoes or CuRAgAo aloes has leaves with yellow or reddish
spines and yellow flowers in which the stamens are as long as the
corolla (Fig. 130) ; Aloe spicata and some other African species
which yield Cape aloes, have flowers in close spikes, the petals
being white and marked by green lines, and the stamens much
longer than the corolla. The inspissated juice is official in all the
pharmacopoeias (p. 661).

Urginea maritima, which yields the drug squill, is char-
acterized by its large onion-like bulb, from which arise ten to
twenty broadly lanceolate, grayish-green leaves ; and by having
the inflorescence in long spikes consisting of whitish flov/ers
which have a distinctly purple stripe on each division of the
perianth (p. 510).

Convallaria majalis or Lily-of-the-valley is a plant which is
well known. It produces a raceme of delicately odorous white
flowers and beautiful oblong leaves with prominent parallel veins.
The rhizome and roots are official (p. 488).

Sinilax species. — The drug sarsaparilla (p. 446) is yielded by
a number of species of Smilax. These are mostly vines with
woody or herbaceous, often prickly stems and leaves with petioles
which have a pair of persistent tendril-like appendages. The
flowers are small, mostly greenish, dioecious and in axillary
umbels. The fruit is a globose berry. Not a great deal is known
of the species which yield the drug, with the exception of Smilax
medica which yields the Mexican sarsaparilla. In Smilax medica
the leaves vary from more or less cordate to auriculate-hastate ; in
Smilax officinalis which yields the Jamaica sarsaparilla they are
ovate, as they are also in Smilax papyracca which yields Para
sarsaparilla. Nothing is known of the plant yielding Honduras
sarsaparilla, although this drug has been in use for nearly four
centuries. The plants have short rhizomes which give rise to long
roots v/hich are the part used in medicine.

A dragon's blood, resembling that derived from Calamus
Draco (p. 232) is obtained from Draccena Draco, a tree growing
in the Canary Islands. Some of the trees of this species are of
historic interest, as the dragon tree of Orotava which is 46 feet in
circumference at the base.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERAIS.

239

A number of the plants of this family contain saponin, as the
species of Smilax. Some contain coniferin and vanillin, as Aspar-
agus officinalis. Some of the group contain glucosidal principles
which under the influence of ferments yield ethereal oils contain-
ing sulphur, as the various species of Allium.

Fig. 131. Coumarin. Type A, tabular crystals obtained by cooling melted coumarin
to 54°-56° C; type B, aggregates of tabular crystals; type C, needles; type D, short prisms
obtained from hot aqueous solutions.

A number of plants of the Liliaceae are used as vegetables as
the onion and asparagus. Garlic ( Allium sativum) contains a
glucoside, alliin, which on hydrolysis with an oxydase (allisin)
forms the essential oil of garlic. A number also are quite
poisonous when fresh but edible wdien cooked.

b. AMARYLLIDACE^ OR AMARYLLUS FAMILY.—
This group is of special interest because it includes the Agave

240 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

or Century plant. This is a characteristic genus of plants of the
hot and arid regions of North America. The best known of these
is the Century plant {Agazr aniericana) which is one of the
most important economic plants of Mexico. The stem axis of
the plant is very short and the thick fleshy leaves form a tuft at
the tip. The leaves are lanceolate, wnth. spinose margins, and fur-
nished with stout terminal spines. The leaves as well as the
roots contain a large amount of nuicilage which retains v/ater and
thus helps to adapt the plants to these arid regions. The plants
grow slowly and may flower when they are ten or twelve years
old.

The Agaves contain saponin and other principles of medicinal
value. They yield a number of other products as follows : Pulque
a fermented drink of the Mexicans, Mezcal a distilled drink re-
sembling rum ; various fibers, as Sisal hemp, " Henequen " or
" Sacci," etc. Other members of the Amaryllidacese likewise find
use as medicines and as foods, many of them being cultivated as
ornamental plants, as Narcissus, Hymenocallis, Crinum and
Amaryllis.

c. blOSCOREACE^ OR YAM FAMILY.— The plants
belonging to this family are twining shrubs or herbs with
tubers either above or below ground. The general characters of
the plants are shown in the wild yam-root {Dioscorca villosa) of
the United States. Several species, notably, D. Batatas, yield the f
yams or Chinese potatoes of commerce.

Many of the species of Dioscorea, as well as other members of
this family contain active principles which like those of the
Araceae and Liliacese are destroyed on heating. The rhizome of
Tamils coiiniinnis contains saponin and Rajaiiia siibaiiiarata con-
tains tannin.

d. IRIDACE^ OR IRIS FAMILY.— The plants of this
family are perennial herbs with mostly equitant (bilateral) leaves
and horizontal rhizomes, or conns. The flowers are regular or
irregular and with a petalloid stigma (Fig. 124, B).

Iris versicolor is a flag-like plant commonly known as the
larger blue flag and found abundantly in the marshes and wet
meadows of the Eastern United States. It is distinguished by its
tall stems and sword-shaped, somewhat glaucous leaves. The

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 241

flowers are violet-blue. The rhizome somewhat resembles that of
calamus, but is of a dark brown color and contains 25 per cent, of
acrid resins, a volatile oil, starch and tannin.

Iris florcntina, which yields the orris root of commerce
(p-795)- is a plant cultivated in :\Iiddle and Southern Europe,
and closely resembles the above mentioned species. The rhizome
contains a volatile oil resembling that found in violets, and is used
in perfumery. Orris root is also obtained from Iris gcrmanica
and /. pallida. The violet odor is developed on keeping the rhi-
zome a year or tw'O.

Crocus sativns, the orange-red stigmas of which have been used
in medicine since ancient times, is an autumnal-flowering plant.
The flowers are lilac-purple, somewhat like those of Colchicum,
and occur at the tip of a scape rising 15 to 20 centimeters above
ground. The leaves are linear and rise directly from a more or
less globular corm. The plant is cultivated in Spain and other
parts of Europe and in the United States as well. The stigmas
constitute the drug saffron (Crocus) which was formerly official,
and contain a coloring principle, i part of which will impart a
distinct yellow color to 100,000 parts of w^ater. Saffron contains
a yellow glucoside, crocin, which is soluble in alcohol but not in
water, and is colored blue by sulphuric acid. The drug also con-
tains 7.5 to 10 per cent, of a volatile oil, which appears' to be de-
rived from a coloring principle that resembles carotin ; and the
bitter principle picro-crocin.

e. JUNCACE.E OR RUSH FAMILY.— These are grass-like
marsh plants, which are distinguished by the fact that the flowers
are small, with 6-parted glumaceous perianth, and the fruit is a
loculicidally dehiscent capsule. The stems are rpostly solid, slender,
usually arise in tufts from the rhizome and are characterized by
stellate parenchyma cells, among which are large intercellular
spaces, the latter also being characteristic of the leaves. The
rushes are principally found in cold and temperate regions.

Several species of Juncus and Luzula have been used in medi-
cine, particularly in Europe. The seeds of Luzula campestris,
a common wood rush of the U^nited States naturalized from
Europe, are edible. Soft rush (luncus effiisus) and Hard rush
(/. congloineratus) are used in Japan in the manufacture of rush

242 BOTANY AND I'HARMACOGNOSY.

matting. In Holland the rush is grown on the embankments
along the coast to prevent the action of the tides.

VI. ORDER SCITAMINALES OR SCITAMINE^.

The plants of this order are mostly found in the Tropics and
are perennial herbs with fleshy rhizomes. The leaves are large,
more or less elliptical and pinnately veined. The leaf sheaths close
tightly around each other and form a kind of false stem. The
flowers are cpig}'nous, unsymmetrical or zygomorphic, and fre-
quently only one stamen is completely developed.

a. THE ZINGIBERACE^ OR GINGER FAMILY is dis-
tinguished from the other Scitamineae by the fact that the seeds
have endosperm as well as perisperm. The plants are rich in
volatile oils and a number are used in medicine and perfumery.

Zingiber officinale yields the official ginger (p. 486). From
a creeping, flesh}^ branching and laterally compressed rhizome
arises a stem about i M. high bearing numerous lanceolate leaves.
The flowering stalk arises directly from the rhizome, terminating
in a spike which bears flowers having greenish-yellow petals with
violet or purple stripes (Fig. 132).

Elettaria Cardamomum {E. re pens) yields the cardamom of
the several pharmacopoeias (p. 581). The plant has a leafy as
well as floraFstem which rises from a tuberous rhizome. The
leaves are broadly lanceolate. The flowers are greenish-white,
the labellum (consisting of two petal-like staminodes) being
bluish. The fruit is a capsule, and the seeds are the part used in
medicine.

The so-called paradise grains are the seeds of Aiiioiiutni
Melegueta growing in Western Africa. They are about 3 mm. m
diameter, dark brown, nearly smooth. frial)le and contain a vola-
tile oil.

Galangal, which is used in perfumery, is the rhizome of
Alpinia Galanga growing in the East Indies and cultivated in
China and Bengal. It is frequently referred to as " Galangal
major " to distinguish it from the rhizome of Alpinia officinariim
growing in China near Hainan. Galangal occurs in short, branched
pieces of a reddish-brown color, with numerous circular scars

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERAIS.

243

and has an aromatic and pungent taste. It contains 0.5 per cent,
of a volatile oil, the principal constituent of which is cincol; a

Fig. 132. Zingiber officinale, the rhizome of which constitutes the ginger of the market.
Entire plant showing rhizome and roots, a leaf-branch and a flower-branch, as also scars of
previous year's growth after decay of leaf- and flower-branches. A, entire flower; B, sec-
tion of flower showing beak-like appendage at the apex of the fertile stamen, which encloses
the style; C, three-parted labellum or irregular segment of corolla showing 2 tooth-
like staminodes (rudiments of stamens) at the base; D, the ovary with lower portion of
style and two epigynous, filiform processes which secrete nectar; E, apex of funnel-shaped,
fringed stigma. — After Berg and Schmidt.

pungent principle, galangol ; an acrid, pungent resin ; 25 per cent,
of starch ; and three crystalline principles.

244

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Curcuma or turmeric is the rhizome of Curcuma lonna, a
reed-Hke plant which is largely cultivated in India and other
tropical countries. In preparing the rhizome for market it is sub-
jected to a scalding or par-boiling process which agglutinates the
starch in the cells. While turmeric is used as a condiment it is
also used on account of its color as an adulterant of mustard and
other articles, but is very easily detected (Fig. 290). Several
forms of curcuma are found in commerce, as " round curcuma,"
consisting of the main rhizome, and " long curcuma," composed
of the short branches. They occur in cylindrical or ovoid pieces,
2 to 5 cm. long, of a yellowish-brown color externally, bright yel-
low internally, and aromatic odor and taste. Curcuma contains i
per cent, of volatile oil containing phellandrene and turmerol ; 0.3
per cent, of a yellow crystalline principle, curcumin, which is
soluble in alcohol, sparingly soluble in water, forms reddish-brown
solutions with alkalies and is converted into vanillin with weak
oxidizing agents. It also contains considerable starch and a small
quantity of an alkaloid.

Other families of the Scitamine?e are of great importance on
account of the food-products obtained from them, as the Miisa-
cece which contains the group of plants to which the banana
(Musa paradisiaca and j\I. Sapicntum) belongs. To the Can-
nacccc belong the cultivated Cannas. one of them, Canna edulis,
being grown -extensively in the West Indies and Australia as a
vegetable, and another, Canna coccinca, which grows in the West
Indies and South America furnishing " Tons les mois." the
arrow-root starch of the English and French. To the Maranfa-
cccc belongs Maranta anindinacca, which is cultivated in tropical
America, and the rhizome of which yields the starch, Maranta
arrowroot (Fig. 316, B).

VII. ORDER ORCHTDALES OR MICROSPERM^.

The most important family of this order is the Orchidace^ or
Orchid Family. The orchids are the most highly specialized
of the Monocotyledons. Thev are perennial herbs with diverse
habits, many tropical species being epiphytes, and varying morpho-
logical structure which is particularly evident in the zygomorphic

CLASSIFICATION OF AxXGIOSPERMS. 245

flowers. The perianth consists of six segments. The three outer
correspond to sepals and are similar. Two segments of the inner
circle correspond to petals and are alike, while the third, which
is known as the lip, is remarkably modified, being usually larger,
often spurred, and frequently reversed, being turned forwards
and downwards by the twisting or torsion of the ovary. Only
one of the stamens — the anterior of the external whorl — is devel-
oped and bears an anther. The other stamens are entirely want-
ing or present as staminodes (except in Cypripedium and the
Apostasiese). The filament is united with the style to form a
column, the so-called " stylar column " and the anther is thus
placed on its apex, and behind the stigma. The 3 carpels form
a unilocular ovary with 3 parietal, deeply bifid placentae. The
fruit (Fig. 256) is a capsule, which dehisces mostly by means of
6 valves, and contains numerous minute seeds, which are without
endosperm, and the embryo of which lacks frequently any trace
of external organs. The seed coat is membranous and loose.

Vanilla planifolia, which yields the official vanilla, is a high-
climbing plant with long internodes and distinct nodes from which
arise more or less oval or broadly lanceolate, somewhat fleshy
leaves and also commonly a single aerial root. The long stem
is terminated by a raceme, flowers also arising in the axils of the
leaves for some distance back on the stem. The flowers are yel-
lowish-green and the segments of the perianth are similar, and
erect or spreading. The lip is united with the column, forming a
cylindrical body which is strongly concave on one side and spread-
ing at the upper portion. The pollinia are granular. Pol-
lination may be effected by insects but is usually brought about
by artificial means (hand-pollination). The fruits require several
months to become fully grown and an equal period of time is
necessary for their maturity which is indicated by their yellow
color. They are then gathered and cured by alternately steaming
and drying them when they acquire the dark brown color and the
odor of the commercial article. Vanilla is cultivated in all tropical
countries where the temperature does not fall below 18° C, and
the humidity is considerable. Usually vanilla culture is combined
with that of Cacao. The plants begin to yield fruits the third year
and continue bearing for thirt}- or forty years (p. 585).

246

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The yellow-flowering Cypripediums of the United States (C.
parviflorum and C. parviflorurn puhescens) yield the cypripedium
of the Pharmacopoeia (p. 490). The plants are a foot or two
high. The leaves are oval or elliptical (in the latter) or

Fig. 133. Cypripedium parviflorum piibescens. A, flowering plant; B, rhizome seen
from above; C, cross-section of a leptocentric mestome strand from the rhizome showing
parenchyma (p), hadrome (h), and leptome (1). — .'\fter Holm,

elliptical or lanceolate (C. parviflorum) . In C. puhescens the lip
is pale yellow with purple veins, 25 to 50 millimeters long, and
possesses a tuft of white, jointed hairs at the throat. In C. parvi-
florum the lip is smaller and non-hairy.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 247

The root-stocks of a number of Orchids are rich in mucilage
and yield the drug salep or a product resembling it. Salep occurs
in the form of globular or somewhat flattened, more or less trans-
lucent, light yellowish-brown tubers, 2 to 4 cm. long,, of a horny
texture and a mucilaginous taste. The principal constituent is
mucilage which originates in the cell-contents. It may contain
in addition either starch or susrar.

B. CLASS DICOTYLEDONS.

The following are some of the prominent features of the Di-
cotyledons: (i) The leaves are reticulately (open) veined and
usually with an irregular margin, being sometimes deeply lobed ;
(2) the parts of the flower are usually in circles of 2 to 5 each ; (3)
the stems and roots generally increase in thickness by means of
a cambium, and the vascular bundles are open, varying from
simple collateral to bi-collateral ; annular rings are formed in the
perennial stems ; (4) the germinating plant usually has two
cotyledons which are opposite each other. The Dicotyledons are
divided into two series or sub-classes, depending upon whether
the parts of the corolla are distinct or are united, namely, the
Archichlamydese and Metachlamydeae.

archichlamyde;e or CHORIPETAL^.

The Archichlamydese or Choripetalae comprise those dicoty-
ledonous plants in which the petals are separate and distinct from
one another or are entirely wanting.

1. ORDER PIPERALES.

The plants of this order are mostly tropical herbs and shrubs
and possess very small flowers which have neither petals nor
sepals. The leaves are simple and without stipules, the most
important family medicinally as well as in other ways being the
PiPERACE.E, to which the following medicinal plants belong.

Piper nigrum is a woody climber that has leathery, grayish-
green, ovate, cordate or Dvate-elliptical leaves, with three prom-

248

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

/>-

'4M'

Fig, 134. Diagrams of cross sections of the flowers of a number of families of dicoty-
ledonous plants showing the number and position of the parts with reference to each other:
t, stem of plant; f, foliage leaf; b, bracts or leaves on the flower-stalk; s, sepals; p, petals;
a, stamens; c, ovary; per, perianth. A, Linaceae; B, Cruciferae; C, genus Citrus; D,
Rosaceae; E, Berberidaceae, showing nectaries (k) on the petals; F, Lauraceas, showing
staminodes (g); G, epigynous flower of Rubiaceae; H, Ericacea; I, Labiatae, showing
position of other flowers (sv) in the cymes; J, Violaceas showing spurred stamens; K,
Campanulacea;, showing bracts (a, p) the relation of the sepals (i, 2, 3, 4 and 5), and two pos-
terior hairy stamens; L, Leguminoss, showing the large posterior petal (p) known as the
vexillum or standard, the two lateral petals (v) situated under the standard known as alae
or wings, and the two anterior petals which are covered by the wings and partly cohering
to form a prow-shaped body called the carina or keel (k). — Adapted from Warming.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERAIS. 249

inent middle nerves and two side nerves ; the flowers are perfect,
sessile and form an elongated fleshy spike ; the fruit is a berry
which is yellowish-red when ripe. The unripe fruit constitutes
the BLACK PEPPER of commerce (p. 571). White pepper (p.
573) is the ripe berry from which the epicarp is removed, while
" LONG pepper" (p. 573) is obtained from Piper longiim, an en-
tirely different plant.

Piper Ciibeba is a climbing perennial with leathery elliptical-
ovate or long elliptical leaves ; the flowers are dioecious and ar-
ranged in spikes ; the fruit is a berry, the pedicel becoming much
elongated after fertilization. The unripe fruit is the part used in
medicine and is official as cubeb (p. 569 ; Fig. 250).

Piper angustifolium yields the official matico (p. 617). The
plant is a shrub growing in Central and South America and is
characterized by its long, oblong-lanceolate, deeply reticulate,
very hairy leaves. The flowers and fruits are very small and
arrangetl in long, slender spikes, which are frequently found in the
drug. Matico contains 2 to 3 per cent, of a volatile oil, contain-
ing a stearoptene matico camphor, which appears to be the most
important constituent. It also contains an acrid resin, a bitter
principle and a crystalline principle artanthic acid. Other related
species of Piper are used in tropical America similarly to Piper
angttstifolium.

The leaves of a number of species of Piper (known as "betel
leaves ") are mixed with the Areca nut and lime and constitute
wdiat is known as " Betel," which compound is used for
chevving, in India and other countries, chiefly on account
of its astringency. The root of Piper uicthystienui is also
chev.-ed, and when mixed with the milk of the Cocoanut
yields an intoxicating drink which is used by the inhabitants of
the Sandwich Islands. The dried root has been used in medicine
under the name of Methy.sticum or Kava-kava. It consists of
large, branching, soft, spongv, dark brown pieces, which are
tough, fibrous and with a pungent, somewhat bitter taste. Kava-
kava contains 3 resins, one of which has marked ansesthetic prop-
erties ; an alkaloid, kavaine : a neutral body, methysticin ; and
about 50 per cent, of starch. The drug is free from calcium oxal-
ate crvstals. these being usually wanting in the Piperacese.

250 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

II. ORDER SALICALES.

This order comprises but a single fanlily, namely, the Sali-
CACE^E or Willow Family, to which belong the willows and pop-
lars. The plants are dioecious shrubs and trees ; the flowers being
in aiiiciifs or catkins and without petals or sepals. The fruit is a
capsule containing many seeds which are small and with long silky
hairs at the base.

The barks of a number of the members of this group contain
glucosides, as salicin which is found in Salix alba the white willow
of Europe and the United States, and the brittle willow Salix fra-
gilis; and populin which is found in the white or silver-leaf pop-
lar {Populus alba) of Europe, Asia and the United States and
Popnhis pyramidalis of Italy. These principles are also found in
other species of willow and poplar. A number of the barks con-
tain a yellow coloring principle allied to quercitrin, as Salix daph-
noidcs of Europe and Salix alba. Tannin is a common constit-
uent in both the willows and poplars. The buds of many of the
poplars contain in addition a volatile oil which is in the nature of
a di-terpene, as those of Populus pyramidalis. Po pubis balsam-
ifera, the tacamahac or balsam poplar of the United States and
Canada, furnishes the balm of Gilead buds which are coated
with an oleo-resin that gives them their aromatic properties. Pop-
ulus nigra yields a volatile oil of which the important constituent
is humulene.

The charcoal used medicinally is prepared by burning the
wood of the young shoots of the white and black willow, poplar,
beech or linden without access of air.

III. ORDER MYRICALES.

This group somewhat resembles the Salicales in that the
flowers are in aments. The flowers are either pistillate or stam-
inatc and mostly dioecious in our native species. The most im-
portant fimilv is the AIyricace.e or Bayberry Family. The
genus Mvrica is especially characterized by the fact that the outer
layer of the drupe is waxy. This is particularly true of the fol-
lowing species : Myrica ccrifcra the wax myrtle of the sandy

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 251

swamps of the United States contains a volatile oil. The fruit
of sweet gale (71/. Gale) yields a volatile oil containing a camphor.
The sweet fern {Comptonia peregrina) found in the United
States, yields a volatile oil resembling that of cinnamon. The
rhizome of this plant contains also tannin and possibly gallic and
benzoic acids.

IV. ORDER JUGLANDALES.

The plants are trees with alternate, pinnately-compound leaves.
The staminate flowers are in drooping aments, the pistillate being
solitary or several together. The flowers are monoecious and
have a more or less distinct perianth consisting of three to six
lobes. The fruit is a kind of drupe formed by the union of the
torus with the wall of the ovary. There is but one family in tliis
order, namely, the Juglandace/E (Walnut family), which in-
cludes the hickory (Hicoria) and walnut. The black walnut
(Jiiglaiis nigra) of the United States yields a valual)le timber
and an edible nut; the white walnut or butternut (/. cincrca) of
the United States yields the butternuts which are edible, and a
bark which has medicinal properties and w^as formerly official
under the name of Juglans. Butternut bark occurs in quills or
channelled pieces of variable length, 2 to 10 mm. thick; it is dark
brown externally ; has a short, fibrous fracture, characteristic odor
and bitter, pungent and acrid taste. It contains about 7 per cent,
of a yellow, cr3'stalline acrid principle which is colored purple
with alkalies ; 2 to 2.5 per cent, of a crystalline resin ; volatile oil,
tannin, sugar and a fixed oil.

/. regia native of Persia and cultivategl in various parts of
Europe and California, yields the edible English walnut.

The following species of hickory yield edible nuts : The shell-
bark hickory {Hicoria ovata) ; the pecan {H. pecan) common
from Illinois southward; and western shell-bark hickory {H.
sulcata). The wood of these as well as H. glabra and other
species of hickory is used where strength and elasticity are
required.

Coloring principles are found in the barks of a number of
species and are used for technical purposes. The following con-

252 BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGNOSY.

tain yellow coloring principles: Hicoria ovata, H. sulcata, and
H. glabra (pig-nut hickory) ; green coloring principles are found
in H. tomentosa, and yellowish-brown principles in Jiiglans nigra,
J. cinerca and /. rcgia.

The fatty oils from the cotyledons (kernels) of both liickorv-
nuts and walnuts are articles of commerce, and they have been
used in medicine.

V. ORDER FAGALES.

The plants are trees or shrubs with alternate, petiolate, simple,
pinnately veined leaves. The flowers are in aments, monoecious,
and with a more or less distinct perianth. The fruit is a nut which
is subtended by the mature involucre (bur or cup) or samara,
the seeds being without endosperm (Fig. 135).

a. BETULACE^ OR BIRCH P^AMILY.— The plants are
aromatic trees or shrubs and are represented in the United States
by such trees as hornbeam (Carpinus), ironwood (Ostrva), and
birch (Betula) ; and by such shrubs as the hazelnut (Corylus) and
alder (Alnus). The plants yield a volatile oil consisting largely
of methyl salicylate. The bark of the sweet birch {Betula lenta)
yields the oil of betula which is official and closely resembles the
oil of wintergreen. The bark of a number of plants of this family
yields tannin'and yellow coloring principles. A number of species
of Betula yield a sweet sap, as B. Icnta, and B. Bhojpattra of Rus-
sia. The nuts of some species are edible, as the filbert or hazelnut
of Europe (Corylus Avcllana), the hazelnut of the Orient (C.
Colurna), the American hazelnut (C. aincricaua).

h. FAGACE^ OR BEECH FAMILY.— This family in-
cludes some of our largest forest trees, these being rather charac-
teristic of temperate regions. They are all highly valued for their
timber and yield other valuable products besides. One notable
characteristic is that all of the chestnuts and oaks and some of the
beeches contain tannin in the wood, bark and leaves. The oaks
are further notable in being prone to the attack of gall-producing
insects (various species of Cynips) whereby the peculiar excres-
cences known as galls are formed on the leaves and young shoots.
Among the oaks which yield galls rich in tannin are the follow-

CLASSIFICATIOX OF ANGIOSPERMS.

253

ing

Quercus infectoria of the Mediterranean, which yields the
Turkish or Aleppo galls which are official (p. 646) ; Quercus
Rohiir. which is sometimes divided into 0. pubescens and Q. pe-
dnnculata, yields a European gall; the live oak (0. virginiana)
of Texas ; and Q. lobata of California. Various oaks of the South-
ern States also produce " ink balls " or " ink galls," as Q. coc-

Fig. 135. White oak {Quercus alba): A, characteristic, lobed leaf; B, young branch
showing pistillate (p) and staminate (s) flowers; C. hairy bracts of a staminate flower; D.
group of hairs from bract; E, stamen; F. pollen grains; G, cluster of pistillate flowers; H,
acorn with cupule; I, starch grains from acorn, which vary from lo to 25 ij. long; J, trans-
verse section of bark showing cork (k). stone cells (st), bast fibers (b). crystal fibers (ca),
medullary rays (m). parenchyma (p) ; K, longitudinal section of bark showing end of bast
fiber (b) crystal fibers (ca) and parenchyma cells (t) containing tannin.

ciiiea and Q. imbricaria. Several species of oak are used in the
tanning industry, as that of white oak {Quercus alba), red oak
(Q. rubra), Spanish oak (O. digifata), and black oak (0.
velutina), all of North America: Q. pednnculata and sessilifiora
of Germany, and Q. dentata of Japan.

254 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The glucosidal coloring principle quercitrin is found in the
bark of Quercitron or black oak (Q. vclutina). Q. coccifcra
of Southern Europe yields a red coloring principle which is used
in dyeing.

The wood of the American beech {Fagiis auicricana) and of
the European red beech (F. sylvatica) yields a tar from which
on distillation the official ceosote is obtained (p. 678).

The cork of commerce which is used for a variety of purposes
is derived from the l:)ark of several species of Quercus, namely,
Q. Snhcr and 0. occidcntalis growing in Spain, Southern France
and Algiers.

The cotyledons of the seeds of the Beech family are rich in
proteins, starch and oil, and some of the nuts are edible, as the
Spanish CHESTNUTS obtained from Castauca vulgaris, American
chestnut from C. dcntata and chinquapin from C. pitmila (Fig.
72).

VI. ORDER URTICALES.

This order embraces three families which, while they agree in
certain characters, are quite distinct in other ways.

a. ULMACE^> OR ELM FAMILY.— The plants are trees
or shrubs with alternate, simple, serrate, petiolate leaves. The
flowers are monoecious or dioecious, with a 4- to 6-divided peri-
anth. The fruit is a i -seeded drupe, samara or nut. The typical
group of this family is that of the elms, of which the American
or white elm (Uliiius auicricana) is the most prized for orna-
mental purposes. The elms yield valuable timber and the bark of
Ulmiis campestris of Europe is used for tanning and dyeing be-
cause of the presence of tannin and a yellow coloring principle.

The inner bark of the red or slippery elm (Uliniis fulva) is
used in medicine on account of its mucilaginous character (p. 544;
Fig. 99, C). The tree has a gray, fragrant bark; leaves which
sre very rough above and become fragrant on drying, and the
wood is reddish-brown. The samara is not hairy as in some of
the other species.

b. MORACE^ OR MULBERRY FAMILY.— The mem-
bers of this family are herbs, shrubs or trees, many of them con-
taining a milk- juice or latex. There are many representatives in

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 255

the tropical regions and sonic in temperate regions. The flowers
are unisexual, with a 4- to 5-parted perianth and occur in spikes
or ament-like clusters.

Cannabis sativa. — This is the plant yielding hemp and the drug
Cannabis Indica (p. 635). The plant is an annual branching
herb from i to 3 M. high. The leaves are alternate above, oppo-
site below, digitate with 5 to 11 linear-lanceolate, serrate lobes
(Fig. 273). The flowers are dioecious, the staminate occurring
in panicles and the pistillate in erect simple spikes. The inner
bark of the stem is fibrous and it is from this that the hemp fiber
is prepared.

Hnniulns Litpnlus or hop is a twining perennial plant, curving
to the right, with opposite, palmately 3- to 7-lobed (or simply
dentate above) rough leaves (Fig. 136). The flowers are dioe-
cious, the staminate ones occurring in panicles and the pistillate
in ament-like spikes. On the inner surface of each scale of the
ament occur two flowers consisting of a membranous perianth
and a bicarpellary ovary with two long styles. After fertiliza-
tion the aments become cone-like and this compound fruit con-
stitutes the hop of commerce. This fruit differs essentially from
the true strobiles or cones of the Gymnosperms in that the seed in
the latter is replaced by an akene. " Hops " are used in medicine
(p. 582) and in brewing.

Ficns Carica, which yields the official fig, is a deciduous tree
from 3 to 7 M. high, and with large, 5-lobed, petiolate leaves.
The flowers are situated in a hollow torus, the walls of which
after fertilization become thick and fleshy constituting the fruit
(p. 590).

A large number of the plants belonging to the Moracese yield
economic products, some of which, as the drug Cannabis indica
obtained from Cannabis safiz'a, are extremely poisonous. Hash-
ish or BHANG is a preparation made from the dried leaves, stems
and flowers of the pistillate plants and is smoked either alone or
with tobacco, or chewed in combination with other substances, or
an intoxicating drink is made from it, it being extensively used
by the inhabitants of Arabia, Persia, India and other oriental
countries. The leaves of Fiats Ribcs of the Philippine and Mo-
lucca Islands are smoked like opium. The milk- juice of a number

-256

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

of plants belonging to the Moracecie is the source of arrow poi-
sons. The URARi POISON of Brazil is obtained from Ficiis afrox;
the [POH APROW POISON of Java and Borneo is derived from the
Upas-tree, Antiaris toxicaria. Many of the plants of the group

Fig. 136. Hopvine (Humulus Lupulus): A, portion of branch with pistillate flowers
(f) and cone-like fruit (s) ; B, portion of rachis of strobile with two scales enclosing akenes;
C, pistil; D, hair from rachis; E, epidermis of scale; F, longitudinal section of akene show-
ing coiled embryo; G. surface view of bract showing epidermis and cells containing calcium
oxalate; H, cystolith of leaf; I, cystolith of stem; J, glandular hairs (lupulin).

contain emetic principles, as the Cocillana park of Guarea Riis-
byi, a tree of Bolivia.

The milk-juice of quite a number of species of Ficus yields
India-rubber or caoutchouc (p. 667), as Ficus elastica of the East
Indies, F. toxicaria of South America, F. elliptica and F. pri-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 257

iioidcs of New Granada and several other species of Brazil, Bro-
siiiiiim spiiriuin of Jamaica, Cccropia peltata of the West Indies
and South America, and Casiilloa clastica of Mexico and the West
Indies. Ficits bciii^Iialciisis of India and tropical Africa, and
Fie us Tsicla of India, yield gum-lac. luciis altisstiiia and I',
rcligiosa of tropical Asia yield shellac on puncture of the stems
hy a hemipterous insect (Coccus lacca).

A yellow coloring principle is found in Citilraiiia jaz'aiicnsis
of tropical Asia and Africa, CJiloropIiora tuictoria of Mexico,
Madura auraufiaca {Toxyloii poniifcruiii ) or osage orange, a
hedge plant of North America ; Ficus tiiicloria of the Friendly
Islands and F. aspcrr'uua of India. A fixed oil is obtained from
Artocarpus Blunici of Java.

A large number of the plants of the Moraeeae yield edible
fruits besides the fig tree already described, as the bre.xd-fruit
trees (Artocarpus iucisa) of the Sunda Islands and the jack-tree
(A. iutcgrifolia) of the East Indies, the white mulberry (Morus
alba) and the i;lack irur.r.ERRv (Morns iiii^ra).

d'he leaves of the white mulberry (Morus alba) indigenous
to China and cultivated since the twelfth century in Em-<jpe and
nov.' in cultivation to a limited extent in the United States, are
the chief food of the silkworm.

c. FAMILY URTICACE^.— The plants belonging to the
Crticaceas or Nettle Family are chiefly herbs with mostly petiolate,
stipulate, simple leaves. The flowers are small and with 2 to 5
distinct or more or less united sepals. The fruit is an akene ;
the embryo is straight- and surrounded by an oily endosperm.
The stems and leaves of several of the genera are characterized
1)\- stinging hairs, this being especially true of the sub-group to
which the genus Urtica or stinging nettle belongs. Of the sting-
ing nettles the following are used in medicine: Urtica dioica of
Europe and naturalized in the L'^nitcd States, U. spatulata of
Timor, Laportca crciiulata of tropical Asia. L. nwroidcs of
Queensland, and Girardinia palinata of India. In the small
nettle ( Urtica urcns) of Europe and the United States an alka-
loid has been found, and Laportca stinnilaus has been used as a
fish poison. Bochmcria cordata of Brazil is used as a substitute
for Arnica. The fillers of a number of the Urticacege have been

258 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

found useful, of which the following may be mentioned : Urtica
can nab ilia of Asia, U. dioica, U. urens and Bocliincria nivca of
the Sunda Islands and China, the latter of which yields Ramie.
The akene of Debregcasia edulis of Japan and the rhizome of
Ponzohia tnbcrosa of China and Japan are edible.

VII. ORDER PROTEALES.

The members of this group are mostly shrubs and found prin-
cipally in the Tropics and southern hemisphere, several species
being cultivated in greenhouses for the sake of the beautifully
colored flowers which are in crowded inflorescences. The order
is represented by but a single family, namely, the Proteacese.
The leaves are "leathery and vary even on the same plant from
simple to compound. The glucoside proteacin and a bitter prin-
ciple are found in Lencadcndron argentenm and L. concinnum.
both of Africa. A gum-resin is found in Grcvillca robusta of
Australia, and a tannin in the bark of Lontafia obliqna of Chile.

A golden-yellow coloring principle is obtained from the
flowers of Persoonia saccafa of Australia. The w^ood of Protca
grandifiora of Abyssinia is used in v/agon building, and Lcuco-
sperniiun conocarpuni of Cape Colony yields a valuable red wood
and a tan bark.

Banskia crmnla of Australia and the sugar-bush (Protca inclU-
fera) of Australia and P. speciosa have a sugary cell-sap. The
oily seeds of the Chilean hazelnut {Gucvina Avcllana) are highly
prized as food by the inhabitants. The seeds of Brabciuni stcUati-
folinni or wild chestnut of Cape Colony are poisonous when fresh,
Init on roasting they become edible and are used as a substitute
for coffee.

VIII. ORDER SANTALALES.

This order embraces a number of families which are quite
distinct in several respects.

a. LORANTHACE^ OR MISTLETOE FAMILY.— The
plants are half-parasites with well developed leaves containing
chloroplastids. They live on trees by means of haustoria. To

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 259

this family belongs the American mistletoe {Plioradendron fla-
vescens) parasitic on oaks, elms, the tupelo (Nyssa), red maple
and other deciduous trees. The white, globose berries of this
plant are quite poisonous, as are also those of the European mistle-
toe {Visciim album) and the oak mistletoe of Southern Europe
(Loranthus euro perns.) Viscuni album contains a volatile alka-
loid, visciNE, a glucoside and a resinous principle. This sub-
stance serves to attach the seeds to the barks of trees, where they
germinate, and it is used in the manufacture of bird-lime, which
owing to its viscid character is used to catch small birds.

b. SANTALACE^ OR SANDALWOOD FAMILY.—
The plants are chlorophyllous herbs or shrubs which are common
in warm countries, and many of which are parasitic on the roots of
other plants. A number of them contain volatile oils, as the wood
of various species of Santalum. The official oil of santal is ob-
tained from the scented wood of the white sandalwood {Santalum
album ) a small tree growing wdld and also cultivated in India and
the East Indian Archipelago. The wood from the East Indies is
known as Macassar sandalwood and yields 1.6 to 3 per cent, of
oil, while the Indian wood yields 3 to 5 per cent. The oil consists
of 90 to 98 per cent, of santalol. Fiji oil of santal is obtained from
6^. Vasi : and Australian oil of santal from Fnsanus acnminatus
and F. spicatus. The Chinese oil is obtained from Santalum
Frcxcinctianuvi and S. Preisci.

c. FAMILY BALANOPHORACE^.— The plants of this
group are indigenous to tropical and sub-tropical regions. They
are root-parasites and develop tuberous rhizomes and fleshy shoots
which are yellow and without foliage leaves. Balanophora elongata
of Java grows on the roots of Ficus and other plants, and contains
a large quantity of wax and resin. Sarcophyte san guinea oi Cape
Colony, which lives on the roots of certain Acacias, contains a
principle with the odor of scatol. Cynomorium coccineum, found
in the countries bordering the ]\Iediterranean, has a blood-red,
astringent sap. The torus of the flower of LangsdorfHa hypogcua
of tropical America is edible. The plant is also rich in wax and
in New Granada it is sold under the name of *' Siejas " and
burnt like a candle.

26o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

IX. ORDER ARISTOLOCHIALES.

This order includes two families which are very different in
their general habits, (a) The Rafiflesiacese are parasitic herbs
that are almost devoid of chlorophyll. The reddish vegetative
parts penetrate into the tissues of the host and from these arise
almost mushroom-like flowers which in the case of Raiflcsia
Arnoldii of Sumatra are i AI. in diameter, being probablv the
largest flowers known. The plants of this family are rich in
astringent substances.

b. ARISTOLOCHIACE.E OR BIRTHWORT FAMILY.
The plants are non-parasitic herbs or shrubs, some of which are
twining. The leaves are simple and in many of the plants more
or less cordate and reniform. The flowers are perfect and the
perianth is 3- to 6-lobed. While the flowers of our native species
are rather small and insignificant those of the tropical ])lants
are extremely curious, being generally of some striking color and
of various odd forms.

Aristolochia reticulata is one of the plants that furnishes the
official drug serpentaria (p. 501). From a slender rhizome with
numerous hair-like roots, arise one or more short, leafy branches
which are more or less simple, somewhat hairy, and bear oblong-
cordate, prominent-reticulate, hairy leaves (Fig. 137). The
flowers are borne on slender, scaly, basal branches ; the calyx tube
is purplish and curved like "the letter " s," being enlarged around
the ovary and at its throat. The fruit is a capsule containing
numerous flat or concave seeds. An allied species Aristolochia
Serpentaria furnishes the drug Virginia snakeroot. It is a more
delicate plant, the leaves being ovate-lanceolate, acuminate ; the
flowers are solitary, and in some cases cleistogamous. This spe-
cies is found growing in the United States, more especially east
of the Mississippi, while Aristolochia reticulata is found west of
the Mississippi from Arkansas to Texas. The plants of this genus
contain volatile oils and in addition to the tv/o species mentioned
forty-five other species are used in medicine in varous parts of
the world.

Asorinn canadensc (Canada snakeroot or wild ginger) is a
plant common in the Northern United States and Canada (Fig.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

261

Fig. 137. Southern serpentaria {Aristolochia reticulata) showing the cordate, reticu-
lately-veined leaves, and the clusters of irregular flowers on the lower part of the stem.
— After Carson.

262 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

78, B). The long and slender rhizomes are used in medicine.
They are 5 to 15 cm. long, about 2 mm. thick, more or less bent
and curved, purplish-brown externall}- ; whitish internally ; the
bark is thick, wood with about 12 fibrovascular bundles, pith large;
the odor is aromatic ; the taste pungent and bitter. The drug, con-
tains 2 to 3 per cent, of a volatile oil containing a fragrant body,
asarol ; a pungent, fragrant resin ; a yellow coloring principle
which is colored dark green with ferric salts ; and starch. The
volatile oil obtained from A. enropaum contains a principle (asa-
rone) which forms irritating vapors on heating.

X. ORDER POLYGONALES.

This order is represented by a single family, the Polygon-
ACE^E or Buckwheat family. The plants are mostly herbs but
include some twining vines and shrubs. The leaves are simple,
mostly entire, and characterized by having a stipulate appendage
(ocrea) which sheaths the stem. The flowers are small, perfect
and with a 2- to 6-parted perianth. The fruit is a 3- to 4-angled
akene. The embryo is either straight or curved, and the endo-
sperm is mealy.

Rheum ofUcinale is the source of the " South China " rhubarb
from Szetschuan (p. 474). The plant is a perennial herb resem-
bling the garden rhubarb (Fig. 205). The rhizome is vertical
and gives rise to a leafy branch terminated by the inflorescence
which is a panicle. The leaves are large, with a sub-cylindrical
petiole, a cordate or orbicular lamina which is either entire or
coarsely and irregularly dentate. There are several nearly re-
lated species which also yield the drug. Rheum pahnatum of
Northern China has leaves which are lobed or deeply incised,
which character is especially marked in the variety tanguticum.
Rhemn Rhaponticum, which yields English rhubarb, has leaves
which are heart-shaped at the base and with a more or less
irregularly undulate margin. All of these species are more or
less common in cultivation in botanical gardens in Europe.

Rumex crispus or curled dock is a perennial herb growing in
fields and waste places in the P^nited States and parts of Canada.
The leaves are oblong-lanceolate, with an undulate margin

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

263

and rather long petiole. The flowers have a 6-parte(l, dark green

^ O" a 0

Fig. 138. Bnckwhea.*. (Fagopyrum esculentum) : A, transverse section of grain showing
pericarp (c), endosperm (n) and slender coiled embryo (e) ; B, transversesection of portion
of grain showing epicarp (e) , fibrous layer Cf ) , pigment layer (p) , outer epidermis of spermo-
derm (o), aleurone cells (a), endosperm cells containing starch (n); C, surface view of cells
of epicarp; D, isolated fibers of pericarp; E. surface \-iew of aleurone. cells; F, isolated par-
enchytpa cells of endosperm filled with starch grains as seen in buckwheat flour; G, appear-
ance of starch grains when mounted in oil and viewed with polarized light;_ H, swollen and
altered starch grains which are two to three times the size of the normal grains.

perianth, and are perfect or polygamo-dioecious. The fruit is a
dark brown, cordate-winged, 3-angled akene. The dried root

264 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

is somewhat fusiform, reddish-brown and with a bitter, astringent
taste. It contains chrysophanic acid, tannin, calcium oxalate and
some of the other constituents found in rhubarb.

Riimex Acetosella (field or sheep sorrel) is a slender annual
herb with hastate leaves, having flowers in compound racemes.
The leaves contain oxalic acid, both free and in combination with
calcium and potassium.

Tannin is obtained from a number of the plants belonging to
the Polygonacese, as the root of Rmne.v hymcnosepaliis of
Texas which is known as Canaigre; the rhizome of Polygonum
bistorta of Europe which yields the drug Bistorta.

Polygonum cuspidatiim of the gardens contains emodin; poly-
gonin, a glucoside yielding emodin ; and probably emodin methyl
ether. Ritincx cckloniamis of South Africa contains emodin, a
volatile oil and a resin. The latter consists of emodin mono-
methyl ether; chrysophanic acid, physosterol (resembling rham-
nol), etc. Polygonum Hydropipcr and P. aviciilarc, both com-
mon in the United States, are poisonous to sheep.

A number of the plants of this family yield food products.
Buckwheat is the fruit of Fagopyruni cscuhvifimi indigenous to
Central Asia and cultivated in many parts of the world.

Some are also cultivated as ornamental plants, as the Prince's
feather (Polygonum orientale).

XL ORDER CHENOPODIALES OR CENTROSPERM.^.

This order includes seven families, in all of which the embryo
is curved or coiled, and the reserve consists chiefly of perisperm.

a. CHENOPODL^CEyE OR GOOSEFOOT FAMILY.—
The plants are annual or perennial herbs with simple leaves and
small perfect flowers, the fruit being a utricle. The fruits of a
number of the group contain volatile oil, and are used in medi-
cine, as the common wormseed (Chcnopodium anthclminticum^,
which is found in waste places in the United States, an allied .spe-
cies C. amhrosioides, and other species of Chenopodium as well.
Spanish wormseed is obtained from Anabasis tainan'scifolia.

Chenopodinni nicxicauiiin yields saponin. Atriplcx hortensis
of Tartary yields indigo. The ash of very many species of

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPFRMS. 265

Atriplex as well as genera of the Chenopodiaceae yields soda.
The seeds of several species are edible, as of Chciwpodiuin viride
of Europe and Asia, C. Oitiiioa of Chile, etc. Seeds of Spinacia
tetrandra of the Orient are used in bread-making.

A number of species are used as garden vegetables, as spinach
(Spinacia olemcca) (Fig. 121, C) and beet {Beta vulgaris).

The SUGAR BEET {Beta vulgaris Rapa) which contains from
4 to 15 per cent, of cane sugar (sucrose) is largely cultivated in
Germany, as well as to some extent in the United States, and is
an important source of cane sugar. While the juice of the beet
contains a larger amount of nitrogenous substances than that of
the sugar cane it is practically free from invert sugar.

b. AMARANTACE^.— The plants are weed-like and much
resemble the Chenopodiaceae. They yield anthelmintic principles,
edible seeds, and the leaves of a number of species are used as
vegetables. The ash yielded by some species contains potash, as
Achyranthcs aspcra and Auiaraiithus ruber. Some are orna-
mental plants having a fasciated inflorescence, as the Cock's-
comb (Cclosia erisfaia).

c. NYCTAGINACE.E OR FOUR-O'CLOCK FAMILY.—
The plants are mostly herbs growing in America. The leaves are
entire and simple, and the flowers are regular and in terminal or
axillary clusters. The perianth consists of a 4- to 5-lobed corolla-
like calyx. The most common representative of this family is the
Marvel-of-Peru or four-o'clock (Mirabilis Jalapa). While this
plant is an annual in the United States, in the Tropics the tuberous
root is used as a substitute for jalap, and is sometimes sold for it.
The seeds of this plant are edible, as are also the leaves of several
species, as of Bocrhavia erecta, which are used as green vegetables.
Some members of the group, as Bougainvillea spectabilis, are
handsome plants with bright rose-colored bracts which envelop
the small greenish flowers.

d. PHYTOLACCACE.E.— The plants of this family are most-
ly tropical and are represented in this region by only one species,
namely, the common poke {Phytolacca decandra), the root (p.
465) and fruit (p. 466) of which are used in medicine. This is a
succulent, branching herb i to 4 M. high, having a large perennial
root. The stem is hollow except for the thin, papery partitions.

266

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The leaves are simple, ovate-lanceolate (Fig. 139). The flowers
are in racemes and characterized by having ten stamens. The
fruit is a dark purple, juicy berry.

Fig. 139. Poke weed {Phytolacca decandra) : A portion of shoot showing leaves and
stem which has a large pith with bi-convex cavities resembling the pith of certain xero-
phytic Composites, as Senecio prcucox of Mexico; B. raceme showing fruits at the lower end
and flowers at the upper end ; C, transverse section of leaf showing upper epidermis (ue),
palisade cells (p), raphides (r), spiral tracheae (v), parenchyma (m) with large intercel-
lular spaces, lower epidermis (le) ; D, stoma of lower surface of leaf; E, transverse section
of fruit; F, longitudinal section of seed, the embryo being curved and the endosperm
containing starch.

The roots of this species as well as others contain powerful
drastic principles, as Pircunia lift oral is and Anisomeria drastica
of Chile. Phytolacca ahyssinica contains saponin, and a red color-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 267

ing principle is found in the berries of Phytolacca decandra and
Rivinia tinctoria of Venezuela. The leaves of some species of
Phytolacca are used as greens.

e. AIZOACE^. — This is a group of mostly tropical plants,
very many of them having fleshy leaves and adapted to arid
regions. Many of the plants, particularly those belonging to
the genus Mcscuibryanthcinuin, are much prized on account of
their beautiful flowers, which expand only in the sunshine. The
common ice-plant of the gardens, so called because of the numer-
ous glistening globules of water which cover the leaves, is .1/.
crystalliiiimi. This plant as well as other species of Mesembryan-
themum are used in medicine. The ashes yielded bv the plants
of this family also contain soda. The seeds of some species of
Mesembryanthemum as well as other m.embers of this family
are edible, and the leaves of some species are used as vegetables
like lettuce.

f. PORTULACACE^.— The plants are fleshy or succu-
lent herbs mostly indigenous to America. The two common
representatives are the spring beauty {Claytonia virginica),
the tubers of which are rich in starch, and purslane {Portn-
laca oleracea) sometimes used as a green vegetable. The
seeds of the latter plant as well as of other species of Portulaca
are used in medicine.

g. CARYOPHYLLACE^.— The plants are annual or
perennial herbs often swollen at the nodes, with opposite, entire
leaves, and usually perfect regular flowers. The perianth has a
distinct corolla of 4 or 5 petals. The fruit is a capsule and the
seeds are half anatropous. The plants are most abundant in tlie
northern hemisphere ; and some of them are quite showy, as the
CARNATION (Diaiitlius caryophyllus) and pinks {Dianthns spe-
cies) and the cultivated pink or Sweet William {D. barbatus).
A number of the members of this group contain saponin, as
bouncing bet (Saponaria officinalis), which is naturalized in the
United States from Europe, Gypsophila Strnthium of Spain and
other species of this genus, as well as species of Lychnis and
Herniaria. The leaves of Paronychia argcntca are used in Mo-
rocco as a substitute for tea. The roots of Scleranthiis perennis of
Eastern Europe are inhabited by an insect {Coccus polonica)

268 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

which is used in tlie preparation of a red dye. The fleshy stitch-
wort (Alsiiic crassifolia) of Europe and the United States is
poisonous to horses.

XII. ORDER RANALES.

The plants are mostly herbs but include some shrubs and trees,
and comprise eight families of economic importance.

a. NYMPH.^ACE^ OR WATER LILY FAMILY.—
These are aquatic perennial herbs with thick root-stocks and float-
ing, peltate leaves. The flowers are perfect rmd have large
petals. The seeds are enclosed in an aril and the embryo has
fleshy cotyledons.

Nnphar luteiim of Europe and Middle Asia contains the alka-
loid nupharine and tannin, the latter of which splits into ellagic
and gallic acids. The yellow pond lily {Nyiiiphcca advena) of the
United States contains similar principles. The seeds and rhizomes
are rich in starch, and are used as food, in some cases starch being
manufactured from them, as of various species of Xyiiipluca,
Nchiiiibo (Lotus) and ricforia, and Euryalc fcrox.

b. RANUNCULACE^ OR CROWFOOT FAMILY.—
These are annual or perennial herbs with simple or compound
leaves, regular or irregular flowers, and fruits which are akenes,
follicles, or berries.

Hydrastis canadensis yields the drug hxdrastis (p. 498).
From a short, thick, horizontal rhizome with numerous slender
roots rises a short stalk with a few palmately lobed. reniform,
petiolate, pubescent leaves. The flowers are small, solitary and
greenish-white, and the fruit is a head of crimson berries some-
what resembling the raspberry (Fig. 218).

Cimicifuga raccmosa (black cohosh or black snakeroot) yields
the drug cimicifuga (p. 497). This is a tall perennial herb with
large knotty rhizome, large decompound leaves and a long raceme
of white flowers (Fig. 140).

Aconitum Napelhis yields the official drug aconite (p. 477).
This is a perennial herbaceous ]ilant indigenous to Europe and
extensively cultivated. From a tuberous root arises a simple
leafy stem with j^almately lobed or diviik'd leaves, and large,
irregular, blue flowers which form a rather loose panicle (Fig.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

269

141). The sepals are five in number, the posterior upper one
being- large and helmet-shaped. The petals are 2 to 5 and rather

Fig. 140. A group of transplanted wild plants with a plant of Cimicifuga racemosa
in the foreground, showing the characteristic, large, decompound leavfes and long raceme of
flowers.

270

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

small, the two posterior or upper ones which are hooded and
concealed in the helmet-shaped sepal are nectar-secreting (Fig.
84, E). The fruit is a follicle and contains numerous small seeds.

Fig. 141. Acomtum Napellus . A, one of the Icng-petiolate, divided leaves: B, epi-
dermal cells of lower surface; c, an epidermal cell of the upper surface; D, transverse sec-
tion through one of the principal veins showing two fibrovascular bundles, ^d strongly
collenchymatic cells beneath the lower epidermis, E. one of the few hairs from the petiole;
F, lignified bast fibers surrounding the sieve in the petiole; G. longitudinal section through
.fibrovascular bundle showing spiral and reticulate trachea; (t), bast fibers (b) and some
of the collenchyma cells (c), those at the left exhibiting longitudinal pores which give
a crystal-like effect.

Delphinium Sfaphisagria. which yields staphisagria (p. 427)
or stavesacre, is a handsome, tall, biennial larkspur, with dark
green, palmate, 5- or 7-lobcd leaves, and blue or purplish flowers

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

271

in racemes. The flowers are zygomorphic and somewhat resem-
ble those of Aconite.

Pulsatilla, which was formerly official, is obtained from
several species of Anemone growing in Europe. These are peren-
nial herbs (Fig. 76) with basal leaves which arc deeply lobed
or dissected, those of the stem forming a kind of involucre near
the flower. The flowers are rather large and with numerous
petaloid sepals. The fruit is a densely woolly akene in those

Fig. 142. Aconitine: orthorhombic crystals, crystallized from alcoholic solutions.

species which are used in medicine. The entire plant is used and
contains an acrid volatile oil the principal constituent of v/hich is
an anemone camphor (anemonol). The latter is easily decom-
posed into anemonin, which on fusion becomes exceedingly acrid.
Similar principles are found in other species of Anemone as well
as in certain species of Ranunculus (buttercup) and Clematis
vitalha of Europe.

Very many of the other Ranunculaceae contain active princi-
ples. The glucoside helleborein, which resembles digitalin in its
medicinal properties, is found in Hellehorus niger the black hel-

2/2

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

LEEORE of Europe, and probably in other species of Helleborus,
as well as in Actcca spicata the baneberry of Europe and Adonis
vernalis the false hellebore of Europe and Asia.

c. BERBERIDACE^ OR BARBERRY FAMILY.— The
plants of this family are herbs or shrubs with simple or compound

Fig. 143. A group of transplanted plants, showing in the upper portion
a fruiting plant of blue cohosh (Caidophyllum thalictroides) .

leaves, and flowers either single or in racemes (Figs. 134. E;
81, T). The fruit is a berry or capsule.

Bcrhcris AqnifoUum (trailing mahonia) yields the official drug
berberis (p. 482). It is a low, trailing shrub with 3- to /-com-
pound, scattered leaves. The leaflets vary from oval to nearly
orbicular, are oltuse at the apex, slightly cordate at the base,
finely reticulate, and spinose-dentate. The flowers are yellow and
in dense terminal racemes. The fruit is a blue or purplish berry.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 273

Caulophylliiiit thalictroidcs or blue cohosh of the Eastern
United States is a perennial herb with a thick rhizome and large
ternately compound leaves (Fig. 143). The flowers are small
and greenish-purple. The fruit is peculiar in that it resembles a
berry and consists only of blue, globular, naked seeds, the pericarp
beirig ruptured and falling away soon after fertilization. The
rhizome and roots were formerly official. It is a horizontal, much
branched rhizome with broad, concave stem-scars, and numerous
roots ; it is grayish-brown externally, sweetish, slightly bitter and
somewhat acrid. The drug contains an acrid, saponin-like gluco-
side, leontin ; a crystalline alkaloid, caulophylline ; two resins ; and
starch. For analysis of the seeds see Cliem. News, 1908, p. 180.

Podophyllum peltatuni or May apple is the source of the of-
ficial podophyllum (p. 506). This is an early, herbaceous, peren-
nial plant forming large patches by reason of its long dichoto-
mously branching rhizome (Fig. 222). It forms two kinds of
branches, one bearing a single, peltate, 5- to 7-lobed leaf; and
another bearing in the axil of two similar leaves a white flower
which gives rise to a large, yellowish, ovoid berry which is edible.

d. MENISPERMACE^ OR MOONSEED FAMILY.—
The plants are climbing or twining, herbaceous or woody vines
with simple, entire or lobed leaves and small, greenish-white dioe-
cious flowers. The fruit is a drupe and contains a characteristic
crescent-shaped seed.

Monspcrinum canadcnsc or Canada moonseed yields the drug
menispermum which was formerly official. It grows in the North-
fern United States and Canada and is a high-climbing vine with
broadly ovate, cordate and 3- to 7-lobed leaves (Fig. 65). The
flowers are in panicles giving rise to a characteristic cluster of
bluish-black berries.

The rhizome occurs in pieces which are 5 to 7 dm. long
and 2 to 5' mm. in diameter ; externally it is longitudinally
wrinkled, of a yellowish-brown color and somewhat resembles
Sarsaparilla. In transverse section, however, it is very distinct
(Fig. T15). The drug has a bitter taste and contains a bitter
alkaloid menispine, berberine and starch. In addition it contains
the alkaloid oxyacanthine which is also found in Berberis vulgaris
of Europe and the West Indies.

274 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Jatcorliirja paliiiafa }icl(ls the official drug calumba (p. 459).
The plant is a herbaceous climber somewhat resembling Meni-
spermum, the leaves being more decidedly lobed. The flowers
form long racemes.

Chondrodcndron touicntosiiui, the source of the official drug
pareira (p. 460), is a high woody twiner. The leaves are large,
petiolate, broadly ovate or rounded, slightly cordate, and densely
tomentose on the lower surface.

Anamirta paiiicnlata is a woody climber of the East Indies.
The fruits, known as fishberries or Cocculus, are used as a fish
poison by the natives and contain the neutral principle picrotoxin.

Very many other plants of the ^Menispermaceae contain
powerful toxic principles and are used as fish poisons and as anti-
dotes to snake poison. Several species of Abuta are used in the
preparation of curare poison.

e. MAGNOLIACE^ OR MAGNOLIA FAAIILY.— The
plants are mostly trees or shrubs and are represented in the United
States by the magnolias and tulip tree (Liriodciidron tulipifcra).
The latter is a magnificent tree with characteristic leaves (Fig.
74) and large, fragrant, orange-colored, tulip-like flowers.

The plants of this family contain a variety of constituents.
Ethereal oils containing anethol and resembling those of anise
are found in the fruit of lUicinm anisatuui (I. verum) or star
ANISE, a sm^ll evergreen tree growing in the mountains of South-
ern China. A volatile oil with a disagreeable odor is found in a
closely related species /. religiosnin (Shikimi) of Japan. The
fruit of the latter plant is known as Japanese star anise and
contains in addition a poisonous neutral principle. The fruits of
both star anise (Illicium) and the Japanese star anise are made up
of 6 to 8 radially arranged follicles, which are dark brown, de-
hiscent on the upper (ventral) surface and each contains a single,
brown, shiny seed. Star anise has an odor and taste resembling
anise. Japanese star anise has a bitter taste and in addition is
brownish-black, very woody and strongly beaked.

Volatile oils are also found in the flowers of the various species
of Magnolia and m Michelia Champaca found in the Malay Archi-
pelago and cultivated in India and r>razil. and in M. nilagirica of
India, the latter being used in perfumery.

CLASSIFICATION OF AXGIOSPERMS.

-/ D

Winter's bark is derived from Driniys Winteri, a shrub of
South America. It occurs in quills which are from 5 to 10 mm.
thick; externally it is grayish-brown and covered with numerous
lichens ; the fracture is short, the broken surface being marked
by stone cells and resin canals ; the odor is fragrant ; taste aro-
matic, pungent and bitter. The drug contains a volatile oil which
consists essentially of a hydrocarbon known as winterin ; it also
contains a resin.

A crystalline principle magnolin, a glucoside and a volatile
oil are found in Magnolia macrophylla (or cucumber-tree of the

Fig. 144. Various forms of stone cells in star anise, the frint of Ilhcium anisatum.

Southern States) and M. tripetala or umbrella tree growing
southward from Pennsylvania. A bitter principle liriodendrin, a
volatile oil, an alkaloid, and a glucoside are found in the tulip
poplar or tulip tree.

The bitter and aromatic bark of MicJiclia montana of Java is
used like cascarilla (Euphorbiacese). A bitter resin is found in
the fruit of Talauma Phiniicri of the Antilles.

A glucoside which dissolves the blood corpuscles is found in
Talauma macrocarpa of Mexico. A red coloring principle solu]:)le
in water occurs in the leaves of Michclia fsiampaca of Java. The
fruits of ScJu'candra propinqna of Nepal and Kadsura Rox-

276

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

biirgliiaiia of Japan contain considerable mucilage and are edible.
The latter plant is also used as a hair-restorer. From the ash of
Schicandra chinensis of China and Japan sodium chloride is
obtained.

Fig. 145. North American papaw (Asimina triloba): A, branch showing lateral
nodding flower and the large, pinnately-veined, entire leaf; B, section of the oblong,
3-seeded berry; C, D, seeds, the one in longitudinal section. — After Baillon.

The flowers of Magnolia Jiiglans are used to flavor tea and the
leaves of Talanma ovata are used as a substitute for tea in Brazil.

f. ANONACE^ OR CUSTARD- APPLE FAMILY.—
These are shrubs or small trees chiefly inhabiting warm-tem-
perate and tropical regions. They yield very many economic
products. The fruit of Xylopia brasilcusis is used as a substitute
for cubeb. Some yield fruits having an aroma similar to that of

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 2^^

nutmeg, as Monocarpia Blancoi of Africa and Jamaica. The
flowers of Cananga odorata of tropical countries are used in the
preparation of a pomade from which the perfume Ylang-ylang
is made. Ethereal oils are also found in other species, as Unona
Ugnlaris of Amboyna, the seeds of which are used in perfumery.
The bark of Popoivia pisocarpa of Java contains an alkaloid.

The seeds of Xylopia salicifolia of Trinidad and X. mnricata of
Jamaica are very bitter, as are also the wood and bark of X. glabra
of the West Indies.

The seeds of Asimina triloba the North American papaw
(Fig. 145), contain an emetic principle. This plant should not
be confounded with Carica Papaya (Caricacese) which contains
the ferment papain.

Many of the Anonaceas yield large succulent fruits, some of
which are edible, as the sugar apple obtained from Anona squa-
mosa and CUSTARD .'^pple from A. reticulata both abundant in the
Tropics. The fruit of A. niuricata' sometimes weighs as much as
two Kilograms.

g. MYRISTICACE^ OR NUTMEG FAMILY.— This
family is represented by the single genus Myristica. Nutmeg (p.
439) and mace are obtained from Myristica fragrans, an evergreen
tree with ovate, petiolate, coriaceous, entire and pinnately-veined
leaves. The flowers are small, yellow and dioecious. The fruit
is a berry having somewhat the shape and size of the green
fruit of black walnut. It has a line of dehiscence, and when ripe
is yellow. The arillode of the seed constitutes mace While the
kernel is the nutmeg, the pericarp of the fruit and coat of the
seed being rejected. ;

h. LAURACE^ OR LAUREL FAMJLY.— The members
of this family are chiefly shrubs and trees which are distributed
mostly in the Tropics although a few are found in the temperate
zones (Fig. 134, F).

Sassafras officinale. — This is a tree common in the eastern and
central portion of the United States and is characterized by its
rough bark and its i- to 3-lobed leaves, from whence it received
its former name Sassafras variifolium (Fig. 73). The flowers
are yellow, dioecious and appear in the spring before the leaves.
The fruit is an oblong, blue drupe (p. 539).

278

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Cinnainoniiim seylanicuin, which is the source of the Ceylon
cinnamon (p. 513), is a small, handsome, evergreen tree with op-
posite, coriaceous, broadly lanceolate, 3- to 5-nerved leaves (Fig.
146). The flowers are yellowish-white, hermaphrodite, or both

Fig. 146. Young plant of Cinnamomum zeylanicum grown from cutting.

pistillate and staminate. The fruit is a black, ovoid berry. The
oil of Ceylon cinnamon from the bark and branches is charac-
terized by its content of cinnamic aldehyde ; from the leaves by
eugenol ; and from the root bark by camphor. ' C. Cassia
which yields Cassia cinnamon is a tree growing in China,
Svmiatra, and cultivated in Java. It has long, oblong-lanceolate
leaves which are pubescent on the lower surface. Cassia cinna-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 279

mon (bark) is also obtained from Cassia Buruianni. Saigon cin-
namon (p. 513) is derived apparently from wild trees growing in
the mountainous regions of Anam, the botanical origin of which
has not been determined.

The volatile oils of the members of the Lauraceae vary con-
siderably in composition. In addition to the oils of Sassafras
and Cinnamon the following may be mentioned: A cinneol-
containing oil is found in Ciiniainomnui Oliveri of Australia,
Umbellularia calif ornica of Western North America and Laurns
nobilis the noble laurel of the Mediterranean and Mexico. A ijor-
NEOL-containing oil is obtained from the root of Dicypclliiim caryo-
phyUatum of Guiana, the wood of which is known in Cayenne as
rose-wood. An oil containing a notable amount of methyl sali-
cylate is obtained from the spice-bush (Lindcra Benzoin) of the
United States.

Cinnamomum Camphora, or the camphor tree, is indigenous to
China, Japan and Formosa, and is now cultivated in many warm
countries as a shade and ornamental tree, growing very well in
Southern California and the Southeastern States. All parts of
the tree contain a volatile oil which on oxidation yields camphor
which latter is obtained by distillation and sublimation. Camphor
of poor quality is obtained from C. Parthcnoxylon of Burmah,
Malaya and China, and C. glaiidiilifcniin of the Himalayas. Cam-
phor is also a constituent of other ethereal oils of this same family,
as the Massoy bark oil obtained from the root bark of C. zeylan-
icnin and C. Bnrnianni of Java.

A EUGENOL-containing volatile oil is obtained from Ravensara
aroniatica of Madagascar, and Machilns Thunbergii of Japan.
Eiigenol is also found in oil of laurel leaves (L. nobilis), Massoy
bark oil, the oil of the leaves of Ce3don cinnamon, and the oils
obtained from Cinnanwmuni Culilazvan of the Malay Peninsula
and China, and C. Wightii of East India, and possibly is also
found in DicypeUium caryophyllatum.

The wood and the bark of Nectandra or Beeberu {Nectandra
Rodicri) of Guiana and Brazil contain several alkaloids, one of
which is known as beeberine and is supposed to be identical with
the alkaloids in Biixiis sempervirens (Earn. Buxaceae) ; pelosine
found in Pareira ; and paricine found in the bark of the cultivated

28o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cinchonas of Java. Coto bark which is used in medicine, is ob-
tained from an unknown tree in Northern BoHvia belonging to
this family. The bark contains a volatile oil having a pungent
taste, and a volatile alkaloid.

Fatty oils are obtained from Ravcnsara aroniatica of Alada-
gascar, Litsca glauca of Japan and other species of Litsca found
growing in Cochin China and India. A red sap with a very fetid
odor is obtained from Ocotca fastens of tropical and sub-tropical
America, and the stink-wood of South Africa (O. bullata).

XIII. ORDER RHCEADALES OR PAPAVERALES.

These are mostly herbaceous, seldom woody, plants. The
flowers are perfect and the fruit capsular. This order includes
two families of importance medicinally.

a. PAPAVERACE^ OR POPPY FAMILY.— These are
herbs with a milky or colored latex.

Papaver somnifennn or opium poppy is an annual herb i to 2
M. high. The stem is sparingly branched, with alternate, deeply
lobed, pubescent, clasping (by a cordate base), dull green leaves
(Fig. 147, A). The flowers in the variety album, from which
opium is obtained, are white or silver-gray, and in many cultivated
varieties are large and extremely showy. The two sepals drop
away with the expansion of the corolla ; the ovary is smooth, more
or less globular and subtends the radiate stigma ; the fruit is a
capsule (Fig. 91), dehiscing by means of terminal pores, and
contains a large number of extremely small wdiite seeds, the latter
being known as maw-seed and which on expression yield a fixed
oil known as poppy-oil. (For opium see p. 658.)

Other allied members of the Papaveracese possess narcotic
properties, but the alkaloid morphine has not been isolated from
any of them, as the California poppy (EscJischoltaia californica)
(Fig. 147, B) ; the Mexican poppy (Argcnwue incxicana) ; Hy-
pecoum procmnhcns, and fuiuaria pUcata both of Southern Eu-
rope. These latter plants probably contain also the alkaloid proto-
pine which is apparently identical with fumarine.

Sanguinaria canadensis or bloodroot, the rhizome of which is
official (p. 508), is a small, herbaceous, perennial herb with a red

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

281

latex. The rhizome is horizontal, short and thick, and gives rise
to a single, petiolate, palmately 5- to 9-lobed leaf and a single
white flower with a long peduncle (Fig. 148). The capsule is ob-
long, 2-valved and contains a number of smooth but crested seeds.
Chelidonium majus (celandine) is the source of the herb
CHELiDONiUM which was formerly official. The plant is a delicate
branching herb about 0.5 M. high ; with alternate, deeply pinnati-

FiG. 147. A, Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) ; B, California poppy (Eschscholt-

zia californica) showing flower (a), and capsules (b, c), one of which (c) is dehiscent. — After
Schimper. .

fid leaves ; yellow flowers ; slender elongated capsule resembling
that of the mustards, and a yellow latex in every part. Celandine
is indigenous to Europe and Asia and is common in waste places
in the United States. The drug contains the following alkaloids :
Chelidonine (identical widi stylophorine), chelerythrine (which
is fluorescent), and protopine (found also in opium and sangui-
naria). It also contains a bitter neutral principle chelidoxanthin
and several organic acids.

282

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

To this family belong a number of other plants which contain
principles similar to or identical with those found in Sanguinaria
and Chelidonium, and of these the following are common in the
United States: Yellow or celandine poppy (Stylophormn diphyl-
Iinn) and the Dutchman's breeches {Bicnciilla CucuUaria).

The alkaloid protopine (fumarine) is found in the following
plants of this family: Sanguinaria canadensis; Chelidonium
majiis; Sfyloplwnini diphyllum; Eschscholtsia californica; Glaii-

— ^1

St)

•

'*'*

IP^

^^^^^^^BP^SV^SS^

Fig. 148. A group of transplanted bloodroot plants {Sanguinaria cai:aJensis) show-
ing i-flowered scapes, and the palmately veined and lobed leaves.

cium cornicitlahim of Middle Europe; BicncuUa CucuUaria: Ad-
lumia fnngosa, the climbing fumitory of the United States and
Canada ; Fumaria officinalis, the fumitor}- of Europe, which is
naturalized in the United States and Canada ; Bocconia cordata
of China and Japan, and B. frntescens of the West Indies, Mexico
and Paraguay : Dicentra pttsilla of Japan and several species of
corydalis. The tubers of squirrel corn or corydalis (Bicuculla
canadensis) contain the alkaloidal corydaline.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 283

b. CRUCIFER^ OR MUSTARD FAMILY.— These are
herbaceous plants with characteristic flowers and fruits. The
flowers have four sepals in two sets, four petals which are more or
less spreading and clawed at the base, and six stamens which are
tetradynamous (Fig. 134, B). The fruit is a 2-celled silique or
silicle, which varies in shape in the different genera (Fig. 89).

Sinapis alba (white mustard). — The plant is a slender, branch-
ing, more or less hispid (bristly hairy) annual or biennial herb
usually less than 0.5 M. high, with deeply pinnatifid lower leaves
and lanceolate, dentate upper leaves. The flowers are yellow, and
the silique is densely hispid, constricted between the seeds and
terminated by a long, flat, sword-like beak. The seeds are official
as white mustard (p. 428) but are known in commerce as yellow
mustard.

Brassica nigra or black mustard, the seeds of which constitute
the official black mustard (p. 429). is a larger, more branching
plant than Sinapis alba, being from i to 3 M. high. The silique
is shorter, more cylindrical and with a slender, filiform beak.

Glucosides similar to those which occur in Sinapis alba and
Brassica nigra, are also found in other species of Sinapis and
Brassica, as well as in the following plants, but the oils produced
are not identical: Horseradish (Roripa Annoracea), the oil being
similar to volatile oil of mustard; water cress (R. Nasturtium) ;
garden radish {Raphanus sativus) ; Sisyuibrium Alliaria of
Europe, and the hedge mustard {S. officinale) naturalized in the
United States; turnip {Brassica rapa) of Europe; field penny-
cress {Thlaspi arvcnse) of Asia and found in waste places in the
Eastern and Middle United States ; the narrow leaved pepper-
grass (Lepidinin rudcrale) naturalized from Europe; scurvy-grass
(Cochlearia officinalis) of Northern and Middle Europe, the herb
of which, known as Herba cochleari.^, is used in medicine;
"honesty" (Lunaria annua) common in cultivation on account
of the ornamental use of the dry pods ; Parrya macrocarpa of
Southern Europe; treacle mustard (Erysimum cheiranthoides) of
Northern Europe and the United States, and garlic mustard (£.
Alliaria).

The seeds of most of the Cruciferae are also rich in fixed oils,
and the commercial oils are obtained from the following species:

284 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Wild mustard or charlock (Brassica arvensis) naturalized in the
United States from Europe ; Hesperis tristis of Southern Europe ;
cabbage (Brassica oleracea). An iNDiGO-forming glucoside is
found in I satis tinctoria of Europe and /. indigotica of China ;
Neslia paniculata of Europe and the Orient; and Lcpidium ozvai-
hiensc of the Hawaiian Islands. Shepherd's purse {CapscUa
Btirsa-pastoris) contains an alkaloid (bursine) and tannin. The
leaves and roots of many of the Crucifer^ are used as garden
vegetables, and some are cultivated as ornamental plants. The
seeds of Liinaria biennis (or " honesty ") contain an orange red
crystalline alkaloid, or possibly a mixture of alkaloids.

c. There are several other families of the Rhoeadales which
yield economic products. The Resedace.^i include the migno-
nette (Reseda odorata) the flowers of which yield a fragrant vola-
tile oil ; and R. Intcola of Europe which contains a yellow coloring
principle and also an anthelmintic principle. The Moringace.e
comprise a single genus, Moringa. The root of M. olifera of
tropical and sub-tropical countries contains a volatile oil resem-
bling the volatile oil of mustard, and the stem yields an astringent
jum resembling that of Bonihax malaharicum (Bombacese).

XIV. ORDER SARRACENIALES.

This order includes several families which are of special inter-
est because of the fact that the leaves are of peculiar construction
and adapted to the catching and digestion of insects (Fig. yy).

Probably all of the plants of this order produce proteolytic
ferments resembling those in the pine-apple and are capable of
acting upon and digesting animal substance. Some writers have
supposed that the properties of these plants might be due to bac-
teria present in the liquid contained in the pitchers of the leaves,
but there seems to be no question that a distinct enzyme resem-
bling trypsin is formed in those plants which have been studied.

(a) The genus Sarracenia of the family Sarraceniace.e or
pitcher-plant family, is represented in the United States by a
number of species. The rhizome and roots of Sarracenia purpurea
contain several alkaloids, one of which, sarracenine, seems to have
some resemblance to veratrine. (b) The Droserace^ or sun-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 285

dew family includes the Droseras or sundew plants and Dionoca
III iiscip Ilia the Venus's llytrap of North Carolina. A number of
species of Drosera probably contain the red coloring principle
which has been isolated from the rhizomes of D. IVhittakcrii of
Australia and is a derivative of methylnaphthoquinone. Citric
acid has been found in D. longifolia, a sundew common in the
United States as well as in Europe and Asia, (c) The family
Nepenthace.e contains the single genus Nepenthes, several spe-
cies of which are extensively cultivated in greenhouses. The
leaves and roots of N. Boschiana of Borneo contain an astringent
principle.

XV. ORDER ROSALES.

The plants range from herbs to shrubs and trees and have
complete flowers which are mostly perigynous. The carpels are
solitary, or several either distinct or united.

a. PODOSTEMACE^ OR RIVER-WEED FAMILY.—
The plants are aquatic and more or less alga-like, and are repre-
sented in the United States by the river-weed (Podostemoii
ceratophyUum) which is a densely tufted plant found in running
water attached to stones. The ash of these plants contains a
considerable amount of sodium chloride, the ash of Mourera Wed-
delliana of Brazil containing 50 per cent, of salt and being used
as a source of table salt.

b. CRASSULACE^ OR ORPINE FAMILY.— The plants
are chiefly succulent herbs and represented by such plants as
houseleek {Scmpcrvivinn tcctoruni), which is cultivated largely as
an ornamental plant, and the common sedums, of which there are
numerous species in temperate regions. The common mossy
stonecrop or wall-pepper (Scdiiui acre) naturalized in the
Northern United States contains a ferment capable of dissolving
the membrane formed in diphtheria and croup ; Sempervivum
halsamiferuni of the Canary Islands contanis a substance resem-
bling the viscine found in certain Loranthacese. Ditch or Virginia
stonecrop (Penthoniin sedoides) contains tannin.

c. SAXIFRAGACEyE OR SAXIFRAGE FAMILY.— The
plants are mostly found in temperate regions and among the
important members are mitrewort (Mitella), false mitrewort

286 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

(Tiarella cordifolia), alum root (Heuchera americana), golden
saxifrage {Clirysospleiiiiim), grass of Parnassus {Parnassia),
mock orange {Fhiladelphus coronarius) and the wild hydrangea
{Hydrangea arhoresccns).

The plants are rich in tannin, as the alum root of Eastern and
Central North America, which contains lo to 20 per cent, of
tannin. A glucoside hydrangin, a volatile oil, and possibly also
a saponin are found in " seven barks " or wild hydrangea {H.
arhorcscens) ; a glucoside is also found in the root of garden
hydrangea (//. panicidata grandiflora) .

d. GROSSULARIACE^ OR GOOSEBERRY FAMILY.—
The family includes the single genus Ribes. These are more or
less spinous shrubs with alternate or fascicled, more or less pubes-
cent, 3- to 7-lobed petiolate leaves. The flowers are solitary, as
in gooseberry or in racemes, as in the currants. The fruit is an
inferior globular berry. The cultivated currants are varieties
of Ribes riibnini: the cultivated gooseberries are varieties of
R. Uva-crispa. Both of these plants are natives of Europe and
Asia and have escaped from cultivation in the United States and
Canada. The fruits contain fruit-acids and fruit-sugars and are
used in a variety of ways. The fetid currant (Ribes prostratuni)
has a very fetid odor and it is said that the flowers of the buffalo
currant (Ribes aureum) contain hydrocvanic acid.

e. HAMAMELIDACE.^ OR WITCHHAZEL FAMILY.
The plants are shrubs or trees and are most abundant in sub-
tropical countries.

HainameUs virgimana, or witchhazel, the leaves (p. 610) and
bark (p. 527) of which are official, is a shrub which is especially
characterized by its asymmetric, undulate leaves and by its produc-
ing flowers in the autumn when the leaves are falling and the
mature, 1mt not ripe, capsules of the preceding year are still
present (Fig. 264).

Liquidambar Styraciflna or sweet gum-tree of the Atlantic
coast of the L^nited States and Mexico, is a tall tree with charac-
teristic cork-wings on the branches ; 3- to 7-lobed, petiolate. finely
serrate leaves ; monoecious flowers, and a spiny, globular, capsular
fruit. The tree yields a balsam allied to the official styrax (p.
679), which is obtained from a very similar tree (L. orientalis).

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERxMS. 287

f. ROSACEA OR ROSE FAMILY.— The plants are herbs,
shrubs or trees usually with alternate, stipulate, simple or com-
pound leaves, and regular perfect flowers with or without petals,
and numerous stamens (Fig. 134, D). The fruit is a pome, drupe,
follicle or akene (Fig. 89).

Priinns scrotina or wild black cherry is a tree varying from
10 to 30 AI. in height, with a more or less smooth bark marked by
prominent transverse lenticels, and showing a tendency to peel
off in semicircular pieces, which gives the older bark, which is
more or less black, a roughened appearance. The leaves and inner
bark have an agreeable aromatic odor; the leaves are oval- or
oblong-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, serrate, the teeth being
glandular ; the flowers are white and in racemes ; the fruit is a
dark purple or blackish, globular drupe (Fig. 235). The nearly
related species wild cherry or choke cherry {Primus virginiana)
is a shrub or small tree with broadly oval, acuminate leaves, red
or nearly black drupes, and flowers and fruits several weeks
earlier than P. serotina (p. 538).

Primus Ainygdalus is a small tree resembling somewhat the
peach tree. The leaves are lanceolate, serrate ; the flowers are
rose-colored, and the fruit is a dehiscent drupe in which the
leathery sarcocarp separates from the endocarp, which latter, with
the seed which it encloses, constitutes the almond of the market
(Fig. 187). The kernels of some of the seeds are bitter (bitter
almonds, p. 433), and some are bland and free from bitterness.
By a process of selection plants yielding the latter are now ex-
tensively cultivated in sub-tropical and warm-temperate regions,
and yield the sweet almond (p. 434) of the market. In Turke-
stan some of the almonds have a smooth endocarp.

A glucosidal substance having the properties of amygdalin is
found in the buds, leaves, bark and seeds, more especially the
latter, of some members of the following genera : Prunus, Sorbus
(mountain ash), Cotoneaster, Amelanchier, and Eriobotyra {E.
japonica or Japanese medlar).

Primus domestic a yields the French plum or prune of
commerce (p. 576). The leaves are ovate or ovate-lanceolate,
dentate, and pubescent on the lower surface. The flowers are
greenish-white, with a hairy peduncle. The fruit is a drupe.

288 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The bark of Pyrus toringo yields a yellow coloring principle
known in Japan as " dzaini." The bark contains a white, crystal-
line glucoside (toringin), and pyrus-quercitrin, which forms
yellow needles and on hydrolysis yields quercetin and rhamnose.
The bark is also used to adulterate licorice, gentian and other
drugs in the powdered form.

The apple {Pyrus mains), the pear (Pyrits coinumnis) ,a.nd the
quince {Cydonia vulgaris) are inferior fruits known as pomes,
the fleshy part developing from the torus and persistent calyx,
the core being composed of the united carpels. The edible fruits
of the Rosacese contain a number of fruit-acids, such as malic,
citric, tartaric, and fruit-sugars, as dextrose and levulose. The
acids vary from 0.20 per cent, in pears to 1.50 per cent, in
plums ; and the sugars from 4.48 per cent, in peaches to 8.26
per cent, in pears. The carbohydrates mannit and sorbit are found
in the fruit of Primus Lauro-cerasus of Europe. In the unripe
fruits there is more or less tannin and also a principle known as
PECTOSE. This latter during the ripening of the fruit is converted
into PECTIN, a viscid principle which is further changed into pectic
and pectosic acids, the solutions of which gelatinize on cooling,
so that these fruits are adapted to jelly making.

Rubns nigrohaccus, or high bush-blackberry, is a branching
shrub I to 2 M. high with reddish, prickly, erect or recurved
stems. The leaves are 3- to 5-foIiate, the leaflets being ovate,
coarsely and unequally serrate, and midrib and petiolules with
stout, recurved prickles. The flowers are white, in terminal
racemes and with hairy and prickly stalks. The fruit is broadly
ovoid and consists of an aggregate of drupelets which ripen in
August and September (Fig. 232).

Rubus villosus Ait. (Rubus canadensis L.) or low-black-
berry (Northern dewberry), is a trailing, shrubby, prickly plant
the leaves of which are 3- to 7-foliate, the leaflets being oval or
ovate-lanceolate, serrate and nearly smooth. The flowers are in
racemes and the fruit resembles that of R. nigrobaccus, but is
smaller.

Rtibus cuneifolius or sand-blackberry of the Eastern and
Southern States is a small shrub less than I M. high, much
branched, and with straight or recurved, stout prickles. The

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 289

leaflets are ovate or cuneate, and densely pubescent, as are also
the young shoots. The inflorescence consists of two to five
flowers, the petals of which are white or pinkish. Tlie fruit is
oblong, more or less cylindrical, and sometimes 20 mm.- long.

Rubiis Idcrits or the cultivated European red-raspberry is a
shrub with a glaucous, bristly stem and with 3- to 7-foliate leaves.
The flowers are white and the red fruit consists of a cap-like col-
lection of hairy drupelets which is easily detached from the non-
fleshy receptacle. The fruit is used in the preparation of S)ru])
of raspberry which is used for flavoring. There are a number of
varieties of this species of raspberry in cultivation, the fruits of
which vary in color from crimson, brown, or yellow to nearly
white. The fine flavored but watery fruit of the wild red-rasp-
berry (R. strigosus) is sometimes substituted for the fruit of
Rubits Idcciis.

Rosa gallica which yields the red rose-petals, official in a num-
ber of the pharmacopceias (p. 557) , is a native of Southern Europe
and is extensively cultivated.

Rosa centifolia which is now known only in cultivation, and
of which there are a large number of varieties, is distinguished by
its glandular leaflets, and its pale red or pink petals. The cone-
like collection of petals of the flower-bud is the part which is used
in medicine, but it is deficient in coloring principles and fragrance
as compared to Rosa gallica.

Rosa damascena, the petals of which \ield the oil of rose or
attar of rose, is extensively cultivated in Bulgaria and to some
extent in France and Germany. It flov/ers very profusely, and
the }ield of oil is about 0.02 per cent. . The oil consists of a crys-
tallizable hydrocarbon known as rose-camphor which is odorless,
and a liquid portion consisting of geraniol, 1-citronellol, 1-lina-
lool, citral, n-nonyllic aldehyde and phenyl ethyl alcohol. Similar
oils are obtained from other species of Rosa growing in N'orthern
Africa, Abyssinia and Northern India, as R. moschata. and R.
sent pcnir ens.

The fruits of wild brier (Rosa caiiina) naturalized from
Europe as well as of other species of Rosa (R. pouiifcra and R.
rugosa), contain considerable malic and citric acids and fruit-
sugars, and are made into a confection by boiling with syrup.

290 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

In addition to the fruit-ethers found in the common edible fruits
of this family and the volatile oil of rose, it should be mentioned
that oils containing salicylic acid are also present. A number of
species of Spircra contain salicylic aldehyde and methyl salicylate.
Quillaja Saponaria is a large tree having a thick bark and
hard wood. The leaves are oval, coriaceous, slightly dentate and
evergreen (Fig. 149). The flowers are monoecious or dioecious,
white, apetalous, and axillary in groups of one to four. The ovary

Fig. 149. Orthorhombic crystals of Mannitol (Mannit) obtained from aqueous solutio;.s:
A, large crystals; B, feathery aggregates of needles.

consists of 4 to 5 carpels and on ripening forms a star-like, spread-
ing group of follicles. The inner bark is the part used in medicine

(p. 541)-

A spurious quillaja bark {Q. Pccppigii^ differs from the

ofificial in being thinner, darker and in having the surface covered

with a coarse network of whitish lines. Another bark, occurring

in quilled pieces, from 8-15 cm. long, and 1-5 cm. wide, has

also been found in commerce.

Hagcnia abyssiiiica is an ornamental tree with 7- to 13-foliate
leaves. The flowers are monoecious and occur in panicles ;
the staminate being greenish-yellow and with 20 stamens ; and the
pistillate fragrant, bicarpellary, and with a reddish calyx (Fig.
243). The fruit is a nutlet. The pistillate flowers are official
under the name of Cusso (p. 556).

Various species of Prunus yield gums, as cherry, peach,
apricot, etc. Mucilage is found in the testa of certain seeds, as

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

291

of quince. The manna of Luristan is obtained from P\nis glabra
of Persia. Tannin and gallic acid are found in Tormentilla

Fig. ISO. Fruiting branch of wild black cherry (Prunus serotina).

rhizome which is obtained from Potentilla silvestris, a perennial
herb of Europe, and other species of Potentilla. The fruit of the

292 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

hawthorn (CratcEgus oxyacantha) contains quercitrin. A bitter
principle and tannin are found in Purshia tridentata of the Rocky
Mountains. Phlorizin is found in the root bark of a number of
species of Pyrus and Primus.

In the genus Fragaria to which the strawberry belongs, the
torus becomes large and fleshy and is the edible part of the fruit.
The garden strawberry (F. Chihriisis) has a large, dark-colored
fruit, the akenes being sunken in the periphery of the torus. In
the wild strawberries the fruit is smaller, usually somewhat flesh-
colored and the akenes are either embedded in the torus as in F.
I'irginiaiia or borne on the surface as in F. vcsca. The strawberry
fruit contains about 87 per cent, of water; 6 per cent, of cane
sugar; 5 per cent, of invert sugar (a mixture of dextrose and
levulose) ; 1 per cent, of free fruit-acids; and about 2 per cent,
of nitrogenous substances.

g. LEGUMINOS^ OR PULSE FAMILY.— The plants
are herbs, shrubs, trees, or vines with alternate, stipulate and
usually compound leaves. The flowers are complete, and the
corolla is either regular or irregular; the stamens are usually
united, and the pistil is simple and free, becoming in fruit a
legume. The plants are widely distributed, many of them being
found in the Tropics. Three principal sub-groups, which have
been ranked as families by some botanists, are recognized.

1. PAPiLibNAT.E. — Those species with papilionaceous flowers
are separated into a group called the Papilionatae. This sub-
group has a number of representatives in the United States, as
clover, locust, and Baptisia (Fig. 134, L).

2. CyESALPiNioiDE^ include the sennas and have flowers
which are nearly regular, or imperfectly, or not at all papiliona-
ceous.

3. The MiMOSOiDE.E include the acacias and have flowers fliat
are regular.

Cassia acutifoUa is a small shrub with leaves that are 8- to
10- foliate. The leaflets are official as Alexandria senna (p. 607) ;
the flowers are yellowish and in axillary racemes ; the fruit is a
smooth, flat, dehiscent pod, with 6 to 8 seeds (Fig. 262).

Cassia angustifolia is a shrub which is cultivated in Southern
India and resembles Cassia acutifoUa. The leaflets which consti-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

293

tute India or Tinnevelly senna (p. 607) are longer and narrow-
lanceolate, and the pods are longer, and slightly crescent shaped,
as compa^'ed to those of C. acutifolia (Fig. 262).

Fig. 151. Spanish licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) plant grown from a cutting
by the late Henry N. Rittenhouse of Philadelphia.

Cassia fistula or purging cassia, the pods of which are official
(p. 585), is a tree about 15 M. high. The leaves are 10- to 12-
foliate ; the flowers golden-yellow and in racemes ; and the fruit

294 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

is a very long, cylindrical, indohiscent legume. The leaves of
quite a number of species of Cassia are used in medicine and
the following are the source of Folia Malabathri : C. Tamala
of Assam and C. javanica.

Glycyrrhiza glabra is a perennial herb, with 8- to 14- foliate
leaves (Fig. 151), the leaflets being glandular in the variety
gJandnlifera; the flowers have a violet-colored, papilionaceous
corolla, and the fruit is a flat, dehiscent legume. The rhizome and
roots are the parts used in medicine (p. 472).

Cytisus Scoparhis or green or Scotch broom is a shrub nat-
uralized from Europe. The branches are numerous, slender, erect
and grow close together adapting them for use as brooms. The
tops are used in medicine (p. 637).

Tamarindus indica is a tree attaining a height of 25 M. The
leaves are pinnately compound having numerous sessile, entire
leaflets (Fig. 256a) ; the flowers are in terminal racemes and the
petals are yellow with reddish veins ; the fruit is a curved, indehis-
cent legume which has a thin epicarp and a pulpy sarcocarp with
numerous fibers, and contains a number of flat, quadrangular
seeds. The pulp is the part used in medicine and is official as
tamarind (p. 593).

Astragalus gunimifer is a tomentose shrub less than i M.
high. The leaves are pinnately compound, the leaflets being nar-
row and elliptical ; the flowers are pale yellow, sessile and axillary ;
the fruit is a small, somewhat cylindrical, hairy pod or legume.
The gummy exudation constitutes the Tragacanth of commerce
(p. 650).

Acacia Senegal, which yields gum Arabic or acacia (p. 643),
is a small tree with bipinnate leaves which are subtended by
curved spines ; the flowers are yellow and in dense spikes ; the fruit
is a broad pod containing five or six seeds (Fig. 153).

Acacia Catechu is a small tree which resembles Acacia Senegal
and furnishes Black Catechu (p. 666).

Pterocarpiis Marsiipiinn is a fine timber tree with spreading
branches. The leaves are 5- to 7-foliate, the leaflets being cori-
aceous, obovate, and emarginate ; the flowers are pale yellow, and
the fruit is an indehiscent, orbicular pod with a single reniform
seed. The official Kino is prepared from the juice (p. 654).

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

295

The trees yielding kino are under State control in Madras.
According to v. Hohnel the kino is present in special cells in
the bark, which are arranged in radial rows in the region of
the leptome. The cells are from 50 to 100 m wide and from 100
to 500 M long, the walls consisting of cellulose. The term " kino "
is applied to a number of red astringent plant juices (see pp.
654-656). "American kino" is a synonym sometimes applied
to the extract of geranium maculatum (Fam. Geraniacese).

Pterocarpus santalinus is a small tree with trifoliate leaves,
and flowers and fruits resembling those of P. Marsupium. The
heart-wood is official (p. 547).

!K->

Fig. is 2. American senna (Cassia marilandica). The figure at the left shows the pin-
nately-compound leaves in the day position when under the influence of light, and the one
to the right the drooping position of the leaflets at night.

Ha^matoxylon campcchianum is a small tree with irregular
spinous branches. The leaves are 8- to lo-foliate, the leaflets
being sessile and obcordate. The flowers are fragrant, have a
purple calyx and yellow corolla, and are in racemes. The fruit
is a slender, lanceolate, flat pod, which dehisces laterally instead
of along the sutures. The heart-wood of this tree constitutes the
official Logwood which is recognized in nearly all the pharma-
copoeias (p. 546).

Krameria triandra is a shrub with simple, ovate-lanceolate,
sessile, silver-white, glistening leaves (Fig. 154). The flowers are

296

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

complete, having two purple petals and three stamens. The fruit
is a I -seeded, globular, prickly, indehiscent pod. K. Ixina found
growing from Mexico to Northern South America, and K. argen-
tca of Northern Brazil, are distinguished by having flowers with
three petals and four stamens. The root is the part used in
medicine (p. 453).

Copaiba Langsdoi-ffii is a small tree fovmd growing in Brazil.
The leaves are 6- to 10- foliate, the leaflets being ovate-lanceolate,

Fig. 153. ^4 ca«a SenegaL- A, flowering branch: B, a single flower showing numerous
stamens; C, part of legume showing attachment of seeds; D, E, sections of seeds. —
After Taubert.

glabrous, coriaceous, and glandular punctate. The flowers are
apetalous, and the fruit is an ellipsoidal, coriaceous, 2-valved pod
having a single glandular seed with an arillus. An oleo-resin col-
lects in longitudinal cavities in the trunk of the tree, often amount-
ing to many liters, and sometimes the pressure thus produced is
sufficient to burst the trunk in places. The oleo-resin is official as
Copaiba. The latter consists of 30 to 75 per cent, of a volatile
oil from which the sesquiterpene caryophyllene has been iso-
lated ; a bitter acrid resin and a bitter principle. A similar product

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

297

is obtained from a number of other species of Copaiba growing in
South America as well as C. copallifcra of Western Africa, and
Hardzvickia Mannii of tropical Africa, and H. pinnata of India.
An oleoresin known by the natives in the province of Velasco
in Bolivia as " Copaiba " is obtained from Copaiba paupcra. It
is thick, like Maracaibo balsam but lighter in color and resembles
in odor and taste true copaiba. It is distinguished from the
other specimens of American copaiba by its dextro-rotation

^^^^K ^^k^'^^^^

□n

W' ' #!V^

'^^^^^^I^^^B^^^I

'"^^^H

r'" ' ^^1

^^^mm ' '--^m

^■'

^V^^l

H^^J

L^H

ftlH

Fig. 154. Hematoxylin: monoclinic tabular crystals from aqueous solution.

[o]d + 36°. On the addition of one to two volumes of petro-
leum ether it forms a clear solution, giving a white precipitate
on the addition of more ether.

Toluifcra Balsaiiiuiii is a tree about 25 INI. high, with a straight
trunk, on which the branches first appear at a height of from
15 to 20 M., and is found growing in Northern South America.
The leaves are compound and with seven to eleven alternate,
oblong, acuminate, glandular-punctuate leaflets ; the flowers are
white and in simple axillary^ racemes ; the fruit is a winged,
indehiscent, i-seeded legume. The plants yield a balsam (official

298 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in all the pharmacopoeias and known as Balsam of Tolu) which
occurs in schizogenous cavities in the bark of young twigs, and is
obtained by incising the bark, it being usually collected in
gourds. The balsam consists of 75 to 80 per cent, of resin, which
is a compound of tolu-resinotannol, cinnamic and benzoic acids ;
18 to 20 per cent, of free cinnamic acid ; 0.2 to i per cent, of a
volatile oil ; and 0.05 per cent, of vanillin. A good tolu balsam
is also obtained from T. peruifera growing in the northeastern
part of South America.

Toluifera Percircc is a tree about 15 M. high, which has a
short trunk and begins to branch at a height of 2 or 3 M. It
otherwise resembles T. Balsaimim. It is found over the whole of
Northern South America, extending through Central America
to Mexico, and is cultivated in Singapore. The balsam, which
is formed as a result of injury to the trunk, consists chiefly of
esters of benzoic and cinnamic acids, some free cinnamic acid, and
vanillin. A very fragrant vanilla-like balsam is obtained
from the fruit of this same plant, and in San Salvador it is known
as white Peru balsam to distinguish it from the black Peru balsam
obtained from the trunk.

Physostigma vcnenosuni is a woody climber. The leaves are
3-foliate, the leaflets being ovate-acuminate ; the flowers are violet
in color and in axillary racemes ; the fruit is a broadly linear,
somewhat flattened, distinctly veined, dehiscent pod which tapers
at both ends, and usually contains two or three seeds. The
seeds are ofificial as Physostigma (p. 438).

The blue coloring principle indigo is mostly obtained from
the herbs Indigofera tinctoria and /. Anil which are indigenous
to, and cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is
prepared by extracting the leaves with water. The glucosidal
principle indican (or mother-substance of indigo blue) undergoes
oxidation and the insoluble indigo blue separates out. This is the
commercial indigo. A similar principle is found in the wild indigo
(Baptisia tinctoria) of the United States and Canada; the leaves
of Robinia Pseudacacia of North America ; several species of
Psoralea and Amorpha, as well as some other Leguminosse. It is
also found in other families, as in Polygonaceae, Cruciferae, As-
clepiadaceae, and Apocynacese.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 299

A yellow coloring principle is found in the dyer's broom
(Genista tinctoria) of Europe and Asia and naturalized in the
New England States. G. ovata of Europe yields a similar dye.

Copal Resins are derived from a number of the Leguminosae :
American copal from Hymciicca Coubaril of the West Indies and
South America ; Brazilian copal from H. Martiana of Rio Negro ;
Zanzibar or Chakazzi-copal from Trachylobmm mozamhicensis of
Western Africa; Sierra Leone copal (yellow gum, red gum) from
Copaiba Guibourtia of Sierra Leone; Inhambane copal from Co-
paiba conjngata and C. Gorskiana of Singapore, Jamaica and
Australia.

Probably the majority of the loco- weeds or plants containing
principles poisonous to cattle belong to the Leguminosse, and of
these the following may be mentioned : California -loco-weed
(Astragalus crotalarico) , Texas or woolly loco-weed (A. molUs-
simiis), rattle-box (Crotalaria sagittalis) found in the Eastern
United States and Canada. The poisonous action of these plants
is apparently due in some cases to the presence of barium salts.
Clitoria glycinoidcs of Brazil, Phaca ochrolcucaca of Chile and
Oxytropis Lambertii of Mexico are poisonous to horses and
should probably be included with the loco-weeds.

A large number of the plants belonging to the Leguminosae
contain toxic principles and those which have not already been
considered might be grouped according to the principles which
they contain.

1. Arrow-poison group, including the genera JLrythro-
phloeum, Afzelia and Pithecolobium.

2. FiSH-POisoN group, including the genera Albizzia. Afzelia,
Bauhinia, Barbiera, Enterolobium, Leucaena, Millettia. Tephrosia,
Acacia, Abrus, Clitoria, Mundulea, Derris, Lonchocarpus, Pisci-
dia (P. Erythrina or Jamaica dogwood, which contains a curare-
like alkaloid).

3. SAPONiN-containing plants, as the genera Acacia, Albizzia,
Entada (E. scandens or the sea bean of the East and West Indies),
Enterolobium, Gleditschia and Gymnocladus (G. dioica or Ken-
tucky cofifee-tree growing in the United States and Canada).

4. CvTisiNE-containing plants ; the alkaloid cytisine is found in
Laburnum vulgare and L. alpinum growing wild in Southern

3O0 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Europe and also cultivated, and in one or more species of the fol-
lowing genera : Anagyris, Baptisia, Coronilla, Crotalaria, Genista,
and Ulex.

Abrin, composed of a globulin and albumose and whose prop-
erties are affected at a temperature of 50° C. or over, is found in
the seeds of Jeouirity (Abrus prccatoriiis) and Cassia hispid iila
of Mexico; two alkaloids (lupinine and lupinidine) and a bitter
glucoside (lupinin) are found in the white lupine (Lap inns
albiis) of Europe and in other species of Lupinus; a glucoside
(wistarin) and a poisonous resin are found in Wistaria (Kraun-
hia Horibunda) a common woody climber in cultivation as an orna-
mental plant ; the glucoside ononin is found in Radix Ononidis
the root of Ononis spinosa of Europe ; the glandular hairs on the
pods of Miicuna pruricns and M. urens grov/ing in the Tropics
of both hemispheres constitute the cowhage of medicine ; butyric
acid is found in St. John's bread the fruit of Ceratonia Siliqua
which grows in European countries bordering the Mediterranean,
and also in Epcrua falcata of Guiana.

A bitter principle, bondicine, known as poor man's quinine,
is found in Ccesalpinia Bonducella and other species of Ccrsalpinia
growing in Sumatra, Borneo, New Zealand and Brazil ; the seeds
of Phascolns hinatns of the East Indies contain a principle from
which hydrocyanic acid is derived.

The seeds of many of the plants belonging to the Leguminosae
are rich in starch and proteins and hence are used as foods. The
protein legumin is characteristic of this family. The following
are some of the important food plants: the garden pea (Pisum
safi-i'iini), the garden bean (Pliascoliis I'lili^an's) ; lentil (Lens
esculenfa), Japanese Soy bean (Glycine hispida). The peanut
(Arachis hypoga-a) indigenous to Brazil and extensively culti-
vated in most of the Southern States and in Southern Europe,
belongs to the group of plants which have geocarpic fruits, that
is, fruits which penetrate the soil during their development and
ripen under ground (Fig. 88). In peanuts the starch is replaced
by a fixed oil which is present to the extent of about 45 per cent,
and which is an article of commerce. In addition to the seeds
mentioned those of a number of other plants as well as some
fruits, roots and leaves are used as foods in various parts of the

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 301

world, particularly in the Tropics. The plants of a numher of
species are used as forage, as those of clover (Trifolium) ; some
are cultivated as ornamental plants, as sweet pea (Lathyrus odor-
atits), and some yield valuable timber, as the locust (Robinia),

XVI. ORDER GERANIALES.

This order includes a number of families of economic import-
ance. The sepals are mostly distinct ; the stamens are few ; the
carpels are united, and the ovules are pendulous (epitropous).

a. GERANIACE^ OR GERANIUM FAMILY.— The
plants are herbs with alternate or opposite, usually stipulate
leaves, regular and perfect flowers, and capsular fruit (Fig.
89. C).

Geraniuui jiiaciilattiin is a perennial herb (Fig. 155) with a
short, thick, horizontal rhizome, from which arises a simple, some-
what branching, hairy stem, with 3- to 5-parted, variously toothed
and cleft, petiolate leaves, those on the upper part of the stem being
opposite; the flowers are regular and 5-merous, occurring singly
or in twos in the axils of the leaves ; the petals are rose-purple
and hairy at the base ; the fruit is a dehiscent capsule ; the five
carpels when ripe separate and roll upwards remaining attached
to a central column by means of a slender carpophore, the indi-
vidual carpels being in the nature of akenes. The rhizome con-
stitutes the official geranium (p. 505).

The cultivated geraniums belong to the genera Pelargonium,
and some of the species furnish oil of rose geranium, as P. odora-
tissimiiiii. P. capitatiiui and P. raditla, all of which are cultivated
in France, Spain, Germany, Algiers and Reunion for the oil, which
is largely used in perfumery. The oil contains geraniol. cit-
ronellol, and various esters. The leaves of Pelargonium peltatnm,
growing in certain parts of Africa and Australia, contain oxalic
acid and acid oxalates.

b. OXALIDACE^ OR WOOD-SORREL FAMILY.— To
this family belongs the genus Oxalis, some species of which have
leaves that are quite sensitive to light as well as mechanical
stimuli, which applies especially to the cultivated forms of South
Africa, and to the common wood-sorrel {Oxalis Acetosella) of

302

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The leaves contain oxalic

the United States and Canada, as well.
acid and acid oxalates.

c. THE TROP^OLACE^E OR NASTURTIUM FAM-
ILY comprises but a single genus, Tropseolum. Some species

Fig. iss. Geranium maculatum showing typical dicotyledonous flowers
and the 5-parted, reticulately-veined leaves.

are cultivated for ornamental purposes and are the nasturtiums
of the gardens. The young shoots are succulent and taste like
some of the cresses, hence they have received the name " Indian
cress." They contain volatile constituents resembling those of
the Cruciferas, and in the leaves of Tropcroluui ma jus benzyl

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 303

mustard-oil is found. The flower-buds and young fruits of this
species are used for pickling like capers.

d. LINACE^ OR FLAX FAMILY.— The most important
plant of this family is the common flax {Linum usitatissimum) .
This is an erect, slightly branching annual herb with alternate,
lanceolate and 3-nerved leaves. The flowers are in terminal, leafy
panicles, the pedicels being slender, the calyx non-glandular, and
the petals blue (Fig. 134, A). The fruit is a lo-locular, lo-seeded
capsule. The seeds are official (p. 426). There are a number of
cultivated varieties and the seeds of the var. Humile contain a glu-
coside which yields, under the influence of ferments, hydrocyanic
acid. A cathartic principle has been found in L.catharticiim grow-
ing in Europe. The bast fibers of Linn in usitatissimiim are used
in the manufacture of linen. These fibers are distinguished from
many other vegetable fibers in not containing lignin.

e. ERYTHROXYLACE^ OR COCA FAMILY.— This
family contains but two genera, one of which is Erythroxylon.
The official coca leaves (p. 604) are obtained from Erythroxylon
Coca. The plant is a shrub and requires a very humid atmosphere
and a comparatively high elevation. The leaves are alternate,
petiolate and entire ; the flowers are white and very small ; the
fruit is a i -seeded, reddish drupe resembling that of dogwood
(Fig. 260).

Other species of Erythroxylon also yield useful products.
An aromatic oil is found in the wood of E. monogynnm of Ceylon
and India, and the wood is known as " bastard cedar " or " bast-
ard santal." A brownish-red coloring principle is found in the
red-wood {E. ccrolatnm) of Jamaica and in E. suherosum and E.
tortuosiiin. Purgative and anthelmintic principles are found in
some species of this genus.

f. ZYGOPHYLLACE^ OR CALTROP FAMILY.— The
plants are mostly herbs and shrubs which are widely distributed
in warm-tropical regions. The leaves are mostly opposite, pin-
nate and stipulate. The genus Guaiacmn is of interest on account
of the wood containing considerable resin, which is used in
medicine.

Guaiacum officinale is a small tree with 4- to 6-foliate leaves,
the leaflets being ovate, entire and sessile ; the flowers are large,

304

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

blue, and in axillary clusters ; and the fruit is a 2-valved capsule
(Fig. 156). G. sanctum is a tree resembling G. officinale, but is
distinguished by having leaves which are 8-foliate and with
smaller leaflets, and a 4- to 5-valved capsule. The resin of both
species is official (p. 668).

A resin having an odor resembling that of creosote occurs in
the CREOSOTE BUSH {CovUlea tridcntata) of Mexico and Texas.

Fig. 156. Guaiacum officinale: A, flowering and fruiting branch; B, gynaecium in
longitudinal section showing the pendulous ovules; C, a seed; D, E, the fruit in longitudinal
and transverse sections. — After Berg and Schmidt.

The juice of Pegaiiiiin Harmala contains a yellow coloring
principle used in dyeing. A number of the plants of this family
contain powerful poisonous principles.

g. RUTACEyE OR RUE FAMILY.— The plants are shrubs
or trees, seldom herbs, with lysigenous oil-secretion cells. The
leaves are usually alternate, simple or compound and glandular-
punctuate (Fig. 134, C).

Xanthoxylum aiucricanmn or northern pricklv ash, is a shrub
or small tree with 5- to 11 -compound leaves, the leaflets being
ovate and nearh sessile; the flowers are dioecious, e^reenish, and

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

305

in axillan- cymes ; the fruit is a black. 2-valved capsule. X. Clazv-
Hcfcnlis or the southern prickly ash is a very prickly shrub, which
is characterized by having cork-wings on the bark. The leaves
are 5- to 17-foliate, the leaflets being ovate and crenulate ; the
flowers arc in terminal racemes and have a calyx of 4 or 5 sepals,

Fig. 157. Cocaine: A, monoclinic crystals of cocaine; B.orthorhombic cr\-stals of co-
caine hydrochloride; C, monoclinic crystals of cocaine hydrochloride and palladous chloride;
D, skeleton aggregates cf cocaine hydrochloride and palladous chloride.

the calyx being wanting in A^. americanum. The bark of these
two species is official (p. 532).

Pilocarpus. — To this genus belong a number of species which
are shrubs or small trees and indigenous to tropical America.
The Ifeaves are mostly pinnately-compound. the leaflets being
coriaceous and entire; the flowers are small, greenish and in

3o6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

axillary or terminal racemes; the fruit is a i-seeded, 2-valved
capsule (Fig. 257). The leaves of three species are official as
Pilocarpus or Jaborandi (p. 596).

Barosma. — The buchu leaves of m.edicine are obtained from
several species of Barosma (see Buchu). The plants are branch-
ing shrubs with opposite, coriaceous, serrate or dentate leaves
with glandular margins ; the flowers are white or red and occur,
I to 3, in the axils of the leaves ; the fruit is a 5-valved capsule.
The leaves contain a volatile oil, one of the constituents of which
is diosphenol (Figs. 158, 259).

Citrus. — The fruits of a number of species of this genus are
edible, and the plants are also valued for their volatile oils. They
are aromatic, glandular, mostly thorny shrubs or small trees
indigenous to tropical and sub-tropical Asia, and now extensively
cultivated in tropical, sub-tropical and warm-temperate regions.
The leaves are more or less winged-petiolate, glaucous, coria-
ceous, mainly unifoliate (or trifoliate) ; the flowers are complete,
with 3- to 6-toothed gamosepalous calyx, and 4 to 8 glandular
petals ; the stamens are 20 to 60, in groups of i to 9 ; the ovary
is subtended by a cushion-shaped disk, and the fruit is a spher-
ical, oblong or pear-shaped berry, having a coriaceous pericarp
with numerous lysigenous oil-glands, a juicy pulp made up of
peculiar hair-structures which arise from the endocarp, and in
which are embedded white polyembryonic seeds (Fig. 134, C).

Botanists have divided this genus into two sub-groups: (a)
the Pseudo-^gle group is represented by the trifoliate orange
(Citrus trifoliata), cultivated widely in the United States as a
hedge. The leaves are trifoliate and deciduous, the petals spatu-
l?.te and the ovary and disk hairy, (b) Tn the Eucitrus group the
leaves are unifoliate and evergreen, the petals oblong, and the
ovary and disk glabrous. This latter group includes the two
species which yield most of the edible Citrus fruits.

Cifrus Aitranfiitin includes a number of sub-species and
varieties. The plants are small trees with leaves having winged
petioles (Fig. 158) ; white flowers; and a more or less globular
fruit. The Sweet Orange (Malta, Portugal) is derived from the
sub-species sinensis. The Bitter Orange (Seville, Curagao) is
derived from the sub-species amara. The flowers of both the

CLASSIFlCATIOlN OF ANGIOSPERMS.

30^

Sweet and Bitter Orange tree contain a volatile oil known as Oil
OF Neroli, and composed of limonene, geraniol, linalool, etc. The
oil from the rind of the fruit is known as oil of orange peel, and
is obtained chiefly from Italy and Sicily. It is composed of
limonene, citral, citronellol, etc. The oil from the Bitter Orange
peel has a superior flavor and is known as Bigaradia oil. The
Bergamot Orange is the fruit of the sub-species Bergamia, culti-
vated in Europe, but only rarely in the United States. The oil of
the rind of the fruit is known as Bergamot oil and consists

Fig. 158. Transverse section through the leaf of Barosma serratifolia Willd: e, epi-
dennal cells of upper surface, the inner walls of which are mucilaginous. The mucilage (m)
frequently includes dendritic excretions of hesperidin, which dissolve in solutions of potas-
sium hydroxide, giving a yellow color; p, palisade cells, some of which contain rosette aggre-
gates of calcium oxalate; c, chlorenchyma, some of the cells containing rosette aggregates
of calcium oxalate, also a large vascular bundle (mestome strand) with a stereomatic peri-
cycle forming an arch on the dorsal face; d, epidermis of lower (or dorsal) face of the leaf.
— After Solereder.

largely of linalyl acetate. In the group of Mandarin or Kid-
glove oranges {Citrus nobilis) the fruit is compressed, spherical,
5-6 cm. in diameter and with an orange-yellow, loose and easily
removable rind. The shaddock or grape-fruit is derived from
the sub-species sinensis var. decumana, a tree indigenous to
the Malay Archipelago and extensively cultivated in India, Flor-
ida, California and elsewhere. The fruits are quite large, some-
times weighing several kilograms, and those which are round are
the most valuable commercially, being known as Pomelos or
Grape-fruits. The Blood Orange is the fruit of the sub-species
sinensis var. sangninea. The Otaheite Orange which is ex-
tensively cultivated as a dwarf pot plant and the foliage and
flowers of which resemble those of lemon, is probably a variety of

3o8 BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGXOSY.

the sub-species sinensis, or it may be a hybrid of lemon and orange.
The Navel Orange is a sweet orange in which an additional com-
pound ovary is developed within the fruit.

Lemon and lime fruits are derived from sub-species of Citrus
nicdica, which are mostly shrubs with simple, petiolate leaves,
reddish twigs and flowers, and more or less ellipsoidal fruits.
Lemons are derived from the sub-species Linwnuni. The rind of
the fruit yields the oil of lemon, which consists of limonene,
citral, etc. Most of the commercial article comes from Sicily and
Calabria. Lime fruits or limes are derived from the sub-species
acida, a shrub cultivated in the West Indies and Florida. The
Citron fruit, the rind of which is used in the making of preserves
and confections, is derived from the sub-species genuina. The
fruit is large and lemon-like but with a thick rind, the plant being
cultivated to some extent in Florida and California.

The KuMQUAT Orange is obtained from Citrus japonica, a
thornless tree with spreading dwarf habit extensively cultivated
in China and Japan and very hardy even in Northern Florida. The
fruit is round or oblong, from 3 to 5 cm. long and 2 to 3 cm. in
diameter, and of an orange-yellow color; the rind is sweet while
the pulp is acid, and usually free from seeds, although from
I to 4 slightly beaked seeds may be present.

The inner white portion of the rind of the Citrus fruits con-
tains a crystalline, tasteless glucoside known as hesperidin. Those
which are bitter contain in addition several bitter glucosides,
namely, aurantiamarin and naringin. (See Aurantii Amari Cor-
tex, p. 592, and Aurantii Dulcis Cortex, p. 591.)

Volatile oils are also found in other members of the Rutacese.
The garden rue (Rnta graveolens) , the leaves of which are used
in medicine, contains a volatile oil consisting of several ketones.
It also contains a glucoside known as rutin which resembles the
barosmin of buchu ; and quercetin, which is said to be derived from
rutin. The Hop tree {Ptclea trifoliata) of Eastern North Amer-
ica contains besides a volatile oil, a resin and an alkaloid. The
volatile oil of pepper-moor {licinthoxyhiui pipcrifuin) of China
and Japan is known as Japanese oil of pepper.

Angustura bark obtained from Cnsparia trifoliata or C.
ofUcinalis, plants growing in the region of the Orinoco River, con-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

309

tains a volatile oil, resin, a bitter principle and four alkaloids.
The wood of Amyris balsamifera of Guiana and Jamaica, yields
on distillation a volatile oil resembling Oleum Rhodii.

h. SIMARUBACE^ OR AILANTHUS FAMILY.— The
plants are chiefly shrubs or trees with alternate and pinnately-
compound leaves. The flowers are regular, dicEcious or polyg-
amous and in axillary racemes. The plants are natives of
tropical countries and are distinguished from the Rutaceae, which
they somewhat resemble, by the absence of oil ducts or reservoirs.

Fig. i5g. Caffeine gold chloride; crystals formed on the addition of a solution of gold
■ chloride to a dilute aqueous solution of caffeine.

They are widely employed 'particularly in the tropics, on account
of their bitter principles and are considered valuable tonics, febri-
fuges and remedies for dysentery.

Picrasma cxcelsa is a small tree with 9- to 17-foliate leaves,
the leaflets being ovate and more or less tomentose. particularly
in the bud ; the flowers are yellow, polygamous and in axillary
panicles ; the fruit is a large, spherical drupe. The wood of the
plant constitutes Jamaica quassia (p. 544).

Quassia amara is a small tree or shrub with 4- to 5-foliate
leaves ; the leaflets are narrow, obovate and acuminate, and the

310 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

rachis and petiole or stalk are winged ; the flowers are her-
maphrodite, with lo stamens, bright red corolla, and in terminal
racemes ; the fruit is a 5-valved indehiscent pod or nutlet. The
wood constitutes Surinam quassia (p. 544).

A red coloring principle is found in Samadcra indica of India,
Ceylon and Java. The alkaloid cedronin is found in the seeds of
Simaba Cedron of New Granada, the seeds being used as an anti-
dote for the bites of poisonous animals. A similar principle may
exist in the bark of Simaruha versicolor of Brazil, the plant being
used for a similar purpose. The alkaloid brucamarine is found
in the fruit of Brncea sumatrana. A tragacanth-like gum is ob-
tained from Ailanthiis excelsa of India. Dika or Gabun Choc-
olate is obtained from the seeds of Irvingia gahonensis of trop-
ical West Africa. Cay-Cay-Butter is obtained from the seeds of
Irvingia Oliveri and /. Malayana of ^Malacca and Cochin China.

A gum resembling acacia is also obtained from the bark, peti-
oles and seeds of the species of Irvingia.

i. BURSERACEyE OR MYRRH FAMILY.— The plants
are shrubs or trees, the latter being sometimes quite large, with
resin-canals in the bark, and alternate compound leaves ; the
flowers are small, occurring in racemes. The members of this
family are found in tropical countries.

Commiphora abyssinica is a shrub 10 M. high, the branches
being modified to thorns ; the leaves are trifoliate, the leaflets being
oblong, dentate, sessile and the terminal one much larger than
the other two ; the flowers are dioecious, and the fruit is a drupe
with fleshy, resinous sarcocarp (Fig. 160). The official Myrrh
is obtained from this plant (p. 673).

A number of other resinous products are yielded by plants of
this family. West India Elemi resin or Elemi Occidentale
(Anime) is obtained from the stems oi Protium Icicariba of Brazil.
The resin is greenish-yellow, soft, with a bitter taste and dill-like
odor. Manila Elemi is a soft, granular, lemon-yellow or grayish-
white resin derived from Canariiim commune of the Philippine
Islands. Bengal Elemi is derived from Commiphora Agallocha
of the East Indies and Madagascar. The Tacamahac Resins
are balsamic resins, of which there are several commercial
varieties : Mauritius tacamaliaca is obtained from Protium hepta-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

311

phyllinn of Columbia, and Mexican or West Indian tacamahaca
from Bursera touicntosa of Mexico, West Indies, and South
America. India Bdellium is a resin obtained from the bark of
Commiphora Roxburghiana of Northwestern India and Behi-
chistan. CoPAL-Hke resins are obtained from Canarium Ben-
galense (East Indian Copal) and possibly several species of

Fig. 160. Cross-section of the bark of one of the Burseraceas probably Commiphora
Myrrha: P, bark made up of sclerotic cells (st) and cork (d) ; o, more or less regular secretion
canals, one of which (o) shows the irregular spreading of the gum-resin; m, medullary rays;
b, bast fibers; k, crystals of calcium oxalate; p, parenchyma. — After Vogl.

Bursera. Black Dammar resin is obtained from Canaruun ros-
tratum of the Molucca Islands. Olibanuim or Frankincense is a
gum-resin obtained from several species of BoszveUia of Asia and
Somali Land. American Olibanum or Soft Resin of Cayenne
exudes spontaneously from the stems of Protiitin heptaphylUim
and P. gitianeiisc. Gilead Balsam is obtained from Protium
altissimnm and P. carana of Guiana and Brazil. Mexican Lin-

312

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ALCE Oil is obtained from Bursera gravcolcns, and several species
of Bursera of Mexico are used as a substitute for Aloe wood.

j. MELIACE^ OR MAHOGANY FAMILY.— This is a
large family of tropical trees and shrubs with mostly alternate,
compound and exstipulate leaves, the leaflets being entire, with
secretion cells, but not glandular-punctate (Fig. i6i). The
flowers are complete, the filaments being united into a tube ; and

Fig. i6i. Pride of China {Melia Azedarach) : A, flowering branch; B, a part
of the inflorescence. — After Harms.

they occur in axillary clusters or racemes ; the fruit is a capsule,
berry or drupe ; the seeds are sometimes winged and with fleshy
or leaf-like cotyledons.

The bitter principle mangrovin is found in the bark of the
China Tree or Pride of China (Mclia Aacdarach) indigenous to
Asia, and extensively cultivated in tropical and warm-temperate
regions, and naturalized in the southern part of the United States
(Fig. i6i). A similar principle is found in other plants of this
family..

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 313

Carapa Oil, which has a characteristic odor and bitter taste
and is toxic to insects, is obtained from the seeds of Carapa pro-
ccra and C. gnianensis, of tropical West Africa and tropical
America, and also from Simetenia Mahagoni (Mahogany Tree).
Cedar-wcod oil (" Oleum Cedrelse ") is obtained from several
species of Cedrela growing in tropical America. The most impor-
tant constituent of the oils is cadinine. Oils with a garlic-like
odor are found in the seeds of Mclia Azedarach, the bark of
Ccdrcia aiistralis of Australia and the fruit of Dysoxyliiin biuec-
farifcniiii of Java. Besides the Alahogany tree there are other
trees of this family wdiich yield valuable woods. Cigar boxes and
sugar boxes are made from the wood of Cedrela odorata of the
West Indies and Guiana, and from other species of Cedrela.

k. MALPIGHIACEiE is a rather large family of shrubs,
small trees, or lianes with anomalous stem-structure, found in
the Tropics, principally in South America. The leaves are usu-
ally opposite, the sepals are glandular, and the fruit is a winged
samara somewhat like that of maple {Acer).

The plants contain a notable amount of tannin and the woods
of some species contain a red coloring principle.

1. POLYGALACE.^ OR MILKWORT FAMILY.— The
members of this family are herbs or shrubs, occurring in all parts
of the world except in the Arctic regions.

Polygala Senega is a perennial about Yz M. high. It has
a fleshy root, producing at the crown a large number of buds and
giving rise to a cluster of stems or so-called plants (Fig. 197)-
The leaves are alternate, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate and ses-
sile; the flowers are faintly greenish-white and in cylindrical
spikes ; the capsule is loculicidally dehiscent, and the seed is hairy
and slightly longer than the lobes of the caruncle. The root is of-
ficial (p. 456).

Polygala alba or White Milkwort yields the White or Texas
senega. The stems are mmierous and taller than those of P. Sen-
ega : the leaves are narrow-lanceolate or linear with revolute mar-
gin ; the flowers are white and in elongated conic spikes ; the
caruncle lobes are about half as long as the seed. The plant is
found west of the Mississippi River extending as far south as
Texas and Mexico and west as far as Arizona and New Mexico.

314 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

m. EUPHORBIACE.E OR SPURGE FAMILY.— The
plants are herbs, shrubs or trees with acrid and often milky latex.
The fruit is mostly a trilocular, dehiscent capsule; the seeds are
anatropous and have an oily endosperm.

Stillingia sylvatica or Queen's-Root yields the official Stillingia
(p. 462). The plant is a perennial herb about i M. high and
diffusely branched. The leaves are obovate, short-petiolate, with
glandular-serrate margin ; the flowers are in terminal spikes,
light yellow, monoecious, the staminate being above and the
pistillate below, the latter solitary in the axils of the lower
bractlets (Fig. 162).

Ricinus communis or Castor-Oil Plant is an annual herb in the
temperate regions but is shrub-like and perennial in tropical and
sub-tropical countries. In temperate regions the plant is from
I to 5 M. high ; the leaves are peltate and 6- to i i-palmately-lobed ;
the flowers are greenish, apetalous, monoecious and in racemes,
the pistillate being above the staminate on the flower-axis ; the
fruit is a 3-locular, oval, spinous capsule, which dehisces sep-
ticidally (Fig. 90, B). The seeds are anatropous, somewhat flat-
tened-oblong ; 10 to 16 mm. long and 4 to 8 mm. in diameter;
smooth, mottled grayish-brown or yellowish-red, with a promi-
nent caruncle ; hard but brittle testa, thin white tegmen, large oily
endosperm, and thin foliaceous cotyledons at the center. The
seeds contain 45 to 50 per cent, of oil which constitutes the Castor
Oil of medicine and a large amount of proteins in the form of
aleurone grains (Fig. 122, D). The cake from which the oil is
expressed contains a poisonous principle known as ricin which
is apparently poisonous to cattle, but not to poultry.

Crofon Tiglium is a shrub or small tree indigenous to tropical
Asia and extensively cultivated in tropical countries ; the leaves
are alternate, oblong-lanceolate with petioles which are glandular
at the base, but wanting in the star-shaped hairs so characteristic
of other species of this genus ; the flowers are small, monoecious
and in terminal racemes, the pistillate being above and the stam-
inate below ; the fruit is a 3-locular. septicidally dehiscent capsule.
The seeds resemble those of Ricinus in size and structure, except
that they are less smooth, more brownish in color and the caruncle
is quite small.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERAIS.

315

They contain a fixed oil which is obtained by expression and
which is poisonous and a powerful cathartic. The seeds of a
number of the other members of the Euphorbiace<E contain fixed
oils resembling" those of Croton and Ricinus, as Curcas the seeds
of Jatropha Curcas of tropical America. Mexican Croton Oil

Fig. 162. StilUngia sylvatica: showing the more or less closely arranged leaves
and the terminal spike of flowers. — After Bentley and Trimen.

is obtained from the seeds of Euphorbia calyciilafa. The seeds of
the Caper Spurge or Wild Caper (Euphorbia Lathyris) nat-
uralized in the United States from Europe, also contain a fixed
oil resembling that of Croton. The seeds of Joanncsia princeps
of the maritime provinces of Brazil are also powerful purgatives.

3i6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Mallotus philippinensis is a shrub or small tree found in trop-
ical countries of the Eastern Hemisphere. The leaves are alter-
nate, petiolate, ovate, acuminate, coriaceous and evergreen; the
flowers are small, dioecious, and in racemes ; the fruit is a 3-locular,
glandular-hairy capsule. The hairs of the capsule are ofhcial in a
number of pharmacopoeias under the name of Kamala and occur
as a reddish-brown, granular powder, consisting of two kinds of
hairs, the one colorless and occurring in branching clusters
(Fig. 284, B) and the other with yellowish-red, multicellular,
glandular heads. The important constituent is about 80 per cent,
of a dark brownish-red resin composed of a crystalline principle
rottlerin ; isorottlerin ; two reddish-yellow resins ; a coloring prin-
ciple and wax. It also contains a trace of volatile oil, starch,
sugar, tannin, oxalic and citric acids.

A red coloring principle is found in the bark of Aleiirites
triloba of the Polynesian Islands, Euphorbia parviflora of Ceylon,
E. pnlcherrima of Mexico and Brazil and the other species of
Euphorbia.

Cascarilla bark is obtained from Croton elntcria and other
species of Croton growing in the Bahama Islands and other parts
of the West Indies and Florida. Cascarilla bark is official in a
number of pharmacopoeias. It occurs in small curved pieces or
quills, I to 3 mm. thick, externally brownish-gray ; inner surface is
reddish-brown, the fracture short, resinous ; odor aromatic ; partic-
ularly on burning; taste aromatic and bitter. Cascarilla contains
I to 1.5 per cent, of a volatile oil, containing eugenol, limonene, an
oxygenated portion, and some other constituents; 15 per cent, of
resin ; a bitter principle, cascarillin ; tannin and vanillin.

CoPALCHi bark or Quina blanca which is derived from Croton
niveus of Mexico contains a bitter principle, copalchin, which is
also found in other species of Croton. Malambo bark is derived
from Croton Malambo of Venezuela, the latter two barks being
sometimes substituted for Cascarilla bark.

Elastica or India Rubber (Caoutchouc) is the prepared milk-
juice obtained from one or more species of the following genera :
Hevea, Mabea, Euphorbia and Excoecaria. The fresh latex of a
number of species is a powerful irritant, as that of the Sand-box
tree {Hura crepitans) of tropical America, which contains

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 317

a highly toxic albuminoid ; the Blinding-tree ( Excoccaria A^^al-
locha) of Southern Asia and Australia, the juice of which pro-
duces blindness.

The gum-resin euphorbium is obtained from Euphorbia res-
inifcra. a cactus-like plant of Morocco, and is also found in other
species of Euphorbia. It contains, among other constituents, 38
per cent, of an acrid resin, and 22 per cent, of a crystalline prin-
ciple euphorbon.

The milk-juice of several species of Euphorbia is used in
the preparation of arrow poisons in Brazil. One or more species
of the following genera are used as fish poisons : Flueggea, Phyl-
lanthus, Bridelia, Excoecaria and Euphorbia. A number of plants
are used as remedies for the bites of serpents, as the bark of
Phyllaiithus niollis of Java and Euphorbia pilulifcra of South
America and India. Euphorbia pilulifcra, common in tropical
countries, contains an alkaloid, a wax-like substance, several
resins and tannin. {Ph. Jour., 29, July 31, 1909, p. 141-)

A camphor-containing oil is found in the bark of Pcntalo-
stigma quadriloculare of Australia ; the aromatic wood of Col-
liguaya odorifera of Chile is used as a substitute for santal and
on burning emits a rose-like odor ; the leaf of Croton mentho-
dorus of Peru contains an oil with an odor of mentha ; a balsam
resembling Copaiba is derived from the bark of Croton origani-
folius of the West Indies; methylamine is found in Mcrciirialis
annua of Europe and other species of Mercurialis. Tannin is
found in the following genera: Macaranga, Phyllanthus and
Bridelia; Brazil kino is obtained from a species of Croton (C
erythrcEusf) of Brazil. A gum-lac is formed on the stems of
Aleuritcs laccifcra of the Antilles and Ceylon as a result of the
sting of an insect, and contains among other substances a large
amount of melyl- and ceryl-alcohols. and a substance resembling
abi^ic acid. The sap of Euphorbia cyparissias of Europe yields
a resin which is sometimes substituted for scammony.

A reddish resinous substance resembling dragon's blood is
obtained from Croton erythrema of Brazil; a yellow coloring
principle is found in the seed of Croton tinctorius of Mexico;
poncetin, a violet coloring principle, occurs in Euphorbia hetero-
phylla of Brazil; a blue coloring principle is found in Chro::o-

3i8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

phora tinctoria of Southern Europe and Africa and in Argitham-
nia tricuspidata lanceolata of Chile; an indigo-hke principle is
obtained from Mercurialis perennis of Europe. The fresh latex
of Euphorbia phosphorca of Brazil is phosphorescent.

Quite a number of the seeds of this family contain fatty oils.
The Chinese Tallow tree {Sapiiim sehiferum) yields a fat which
is used for burning and for technical purposes; a similar fat is
obtained from the seeds of several species of Aleurites and
Euphorbia.

Tapioca starch is derived from the tuberous roots of Manihot
utilissima, extensively cultivated in tropical countries ; other spe-
cies of Manihot also yield starchy food products.

Edible fruits are obtained from the following genera : Phyl-
lanthus, Baccaurea and Antidesma ; the seeds of Hevea brasiliana
are edible ; a sweet sap is found in Baccaurea ramiflora of Cochin
China and Brazil ; a peptone-like ferment is found in Euphorbia
heterodoxa of South America and other species of Euphorbia.

XVII. ORDER SAPINDALES.

The plants of this order are chiefly trees and shrubs. The
flowers are mostly regular and the seeds usually without endo-
sperm. The order has a number of representatives in both trop-
ical and temperate regions.

a. EAMILY CORIARACE^.— This family is represented by
but a single genus, Coriaria. The plants are shrubs found in
Europe, Asia and South America, and yield several important
economic products. The leaves and bark of C. myrtifolia of j
Southern Europe and Northern Africa are rich in tannin and used
in dyeing. This plant also contains a narcotic principle, resem-
bling picrotoxin, known as coriamyrtin, which is also found prob-
ably in C. atropurpurea of Mexico. The leaves of Coriaria imrfi-
folia or tanner's sumac are coriaceous, distinctly 3-nerved,
astringent and bitter and were at one time substituted for senna
leaves. A black dye is obtained from C. ruscifolia of New Zealand
and Chile. While the fruits of some species are quite poisonous
the sap of the fleshy leaves is used in New Zealand in making
an intoxicating drink

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 319

b. BUXACE^ OR BOX TREE FAMILY.— The plants are
shrubs with alternate or opposite, evergreen leaves, and usually
axillary monoecious or dioecious flowers. The most important
plant of this family is the Box tree (Biixus scmpervirens) which
is extensively cultivated. The wood is used for making musical
instruments and for other purposes, and the twigs have been used
in medicine. The latter contain several alkaloids, the most impor-
tant being buxine which resembles beberine ; a volatile oil con-
taining butyric acid and a wax containing myricyl alcohol and
myricin.

c. ANACARDIACE.-E OR SUMAC FAMILY.— The plants
are trees or shrubs with an acrid, resinous or milky latex, and
alternate leaves.

Rhus radicans, Poison Ivy or Poison Oak, is a woody vine,
climbing by means of aerial roots and sometimes becoming quite
shrub-like, which is common along roadsides in the United States.
The leaves are 3-foliate, the leaflets being ovate, acuminate, nearly
entire, inequilateral and with short stalks; the flowers are green
and in loose axillary panicles ; the fruit is a globular, glabrous,
grayish drupe (Fig. 163). The poisonous properties of this plant
are due to a brownish-red resin which is soluble in alcohol. A
vesicating principle cardol is found in the Cashew Nut. The
latter is the fruit of Anacardimn occidentalc, a shrub growing in
tropical America. A principle resembling cardol is found in the
East India Marking tree or Ink tree (Semecarpits Anacardimn)
and Holigarna fcrniginea of India.

The Poison Sumac or Poison Elder (Rhus vernix) is a
shrub or small tree found in swamps in the United States and
Canada. The leaves are 7- to 1 3-foliate, with obovate or oval,
acuminate, entire leaflets ; the flowers are small, green, and in
axillary panicles; the fruit resembles that of R. radicans (Fig.
163)^ The plant is poisonous like R. radicans and probably
contains the same principle. Other species of Rhus are also
poisonous, as the western Poison Oak (R. diversiloba) of the
Pacific Coast, and the Japanese Lacquer or Varnish tree (R. ver-
nicifcra and R. siiccedanea). The lacquer trees grow wild in
both China and Japan where they are also cultivated. The lac
is obtained by incising the bark and removing it with a pointed

320

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

spatula. The grayish-white emulsion is strained and on exposure
to air it changes to brown becoming finally black. This change

Fig. 163. Leaves and fruit of the poison ivy {Rhus radicans). This is a 3-foliate com-
poundleaf, the leaflets being ovate and having veins whicU bifurcate and end free.

is due to the oxidizing enxyme laccase. The natural lac (Ki-
urushi) contains a non-volatile poisonous resin-like principle

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

321

and is closely associated with other resinous substances. Japanese
lac is thinned with camphor, or mixed with linseed oil and on
drying in a moist atmosphere forms the most indestructible
varnish known. Various pigments are used, as vermillion, gam-
boge, acetate of iron and other substances. The best glossy
black colors are obtained by the addition of iron.

Rhus glabra or the Scarlet Sumac is a smooth shrub.
The leaves are 11- to 31 -foliate, the leaflets being lanceolate, acu-

"mm

Fin. 164. Gallic acid: long orthorhombic crystals obtained from an aqueous solution.

minate, sharply serrate, dark green above and tomentose below ;
the flowers are greenish, polygamous and in terminal panicles ;
the fruit is official (p. 569).

Chinese galls are excrescences produced on Rhus semialata
as a result of the stings of an Aphis. Japanese galls are similar
formations occurring on Rhus japonica. (See Galla.)

Pistacia Lentiscus is a shrub or tree, which is found growing
in the Grecian Archipelago. The leaves are pinnately compound
and with winged axis, the leaflets being alternate, oblong, entire.

322 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

sessile ; the flowers are small, dicecious, and in axillary clusters.
In the bark of this plant there are large cavities which contain
an oleo-resin that is official as Mastic in a number of pharma-
copoeias (p. 645). The wood of ScJiiiiopsis Lorentzii and ^. Bal-
ans<£, growing in Argentine and Paraguay, is known in commerce
as Quebracho Colorado. It is red. very hard and contains
tannin, gallic and ellagic acids.

The PiSTACio nuts or Pistacia almonds are obtained from
Pistacia vera indigenous to Syria and Mesopotamia and ex-
tensively cultivated in the countries bordering llie Mediterranean.
The kernels are used extensively in confectionery. The nuts are
about 20 mm. long, somewhat quadrangular in cross-section, and
the seed consists of two fleshy, green cotyledons. The seeds of
Buchania latifolia and other species of Biichania are used in India
much like almonds.

Gums are found in several species of Anacardiiim and Sclcro-
carya. Acajou gum is obtained from Anacardiiim occidentale.
Considerable sugar and citric acid are found in Mangos, the
fruit of Mangifera indica native of Farther India and Ceylon
and cultivated in the Tropics. A fruit used like lemons is obtained
from Dracontomelnm inangiferuiii of 3.1alacca and the Sunda
Islands.

d. AQUIFOLIACE^ (ILICACE^) OR HOLLY FAM-
ILY.— The plants are mostly shrubs or trees v/ith alternate,
petiolate, simple leaves and small, white, regular flowers. The
fruit is a bcrrv-like drupe containing several nutlets. The most
important genus of this family is Ilex, a number of species of
which are found in the L'nited States.

The European holly (Ilex Aqiiifoliiiiii) contains a bitter gluco-
sidal principle, ilicin, v/hich is found in the bark as well as the
drupes. The drupes contain a principle which is a homologue
of benzvl alcohol, and a glutinous substance which renders them
useful in the manufacture of birdlime. The American holly (/.
opaca) growing in the Eastern United States, probably contains
similar constituents to the European holly. This is the plant
which furnishes the Christmas holly.

Mate. Paraguay or Brazilian tea, consists of the leaves of
Ilex paraguayensis found in Southern Brazil, Argentine and

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 323

Paraguay. They contain about 2 per cent, of caffeine, 11 per
cent, of tannin and some volatile oil, and are used like tea in the
making of a beverage. Cassine or Appalachian tea consists of
the leaves of the Dahoon holly i^Ilcx Cassine) growing in the
Southern United States. These leaves contain about half as much
caffeine and tannin as Mate.

e. CELASTRACE.^ OR STAFF-TREE FAMILY.— These
are shrubs, as Eiionymus, or woody climbers, as the climbing bit-
tersweet (Cclasfriis scandens). The plants are especially char-
acterized by their dehiscent fruits and scarlet or reddish arilled
seeds.

Euonyniiis afro pur [aureus (Wahoo or Burning Bush) is a
shrub or small tree. The twigs have four distinct cork-wings
making them somewhat 4-angled. .The leaves are opposite, petio-
late, ovate-oblong, acuminate, crenulate-serrulate and hairy be-
neath. The flowers are purplish and in axillary cymes. The fruit
is a 3- to 4-lobed, persistent, loculicidally dehiscent capsule with
6 to 8 scarlet seeds. The bark of the root is official (p. 531).

The leaves of Catha edulis growing in Arabia and Abyssinia
are chewed and also used like tea. They contain the alkaloids
cathine and celastrine which are supposed to have similar proper-
ties to cocaine, as well as tannin and an ethereal oil. A yellow
coloring principle is found in the bark of Eiionymus tingens of
the East Indies. The yellow coloring principle in the arils of the
seeds of Celastrus and Eiionymus appears to closely resemble
carotin. The seeds of a number of plants of this family contain
a considerable quantity of fixed oil, as Celastrus macrocarpus of
Peru, and Maytemis Boaria of Chile.

f. ACERACE^ OR MAPLE FAMILY.— The plants of this
family are trees or shrubs, the most widely distributed repre-
sentative of which is the maple (Acer). The most distinguishing
character of this family is the fruit, which is a double samara.
The sap of a number of species of Acer contains cane sugar or
sucrose, and the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccharinum) which
grows in the L^nited States and Canada contains from 3 to 4 per
cent. The making of maple syrup and maple sugar is quite an
industry in some localities. Maple sugar Is also obtained from
the black sugar maple {Acer nigrum) and the ash-leaved maple

324 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY,

(A. Negiindo). The bark of the latter species is used to some
extent in medicine. Valuable timber is yielded by the maple trees.

g. HIPPOCASTANACE^ OR BUCKEYE FAMILY.—
The plants are shrubs or trees with opposite, petiolate, and 3- to
9-digitately-foliate leaves. The flowers are in terminal panicles
and the fruit is a 3-lobed capsule, which usually contains one
large, shiny seed.

The horse-chestnut (Aisciilus Hippocastamim) contains in the
bark two fluorescent bitter principles, aesculin and paviin, the
former of which is in the nature of a glucoside, and in the bark,
leaves and flowers the coloring principle, quercitrin is present;
in the seed-coat saponin is supposed to occur, and the glucoside
aesculin as well. The cotyledons contain considerable starch, some
proteins and sugar, a small quantity of a fixed oil, and argyresin
to which the antihemorrhoidal action appears to be due. A
narcotic principle is present in the bark, twigs and leaves of the
red buckeye (ALscukts Pavia) of the Southern United States.

h. SAPINDACEzE OR SOAPBERRY FAMILY.— The
plants are mostly trees or shrubs indigenous to the Tropics. In
some genera there are herbaceous or woody vines (lianes). The
plants of this family usually have either a milky sap or contain
saponin, and it seems strange that a plant yielding caffeine,
namely, PauUinia Cnpana, which furnishes the official Guarana
(p. 441), should belong to this group.

The fruit shells of Ncphcliitm lappaceuiu contain a toxic sapo-
nin (Ph. Weekblad., 45, i, 156, 1908). Four or five per cent.
of SAPONIN is found in the fruit of Sapindus trifoliatus of India.
A principle related to saponin is found in Sapindus Sapoiiaria of
tropical America. Saponin is also found in the fruits of other
species of Sapindus, the bark of Pometia pinnata of the Sunda
and .South Sea Islands, and the kernels of the seeds of the two
species of Magonia indigenous to Brazil. The latter plants also
yield a poisonous nectar and the root-bark is used in the poison-
ing of fish. A shellac is obtained from ScJilcichcra trijiiga of
India and the seeds of this plant yield "marcassa oil."

Paidlinia Cnpana is a woody climber indigenous to and culti-
vated in Northern and Western Brazil. The leaves are alternate
and 5-foliate, the leaflets being oblong, acuminate, coarsely, irreg-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGlOSPJiRAIS. 325

ularly dentate, and with short stalks ; the flowers are yellow and
in axillary panicles ; the fruit is a 3-locular, 3-seeded sub-drupose
capsule (Fig. 165).

Pig. 165. Flowering and fruiting branch of Brazilian cocoa [Paullinia Cupana). —

After Radlkofer.

i. BALSAMINACE^ OR JEWEL-WEED FAMILY.—
The plants are succulent herbs wnth alternate, petiolate leaves and
conspicuous axillary flowers ; the fruit is a capsule which at
maturity breaks into five valves, discharging the seeds with con-
siderable force.

326 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The balsam of the gardens {Impatiens Balsamina), which
flowers all summer, belongs to this family. Other species of
Impatiens are also cultivated.

The stem sap as well as that of the flowers of a number of
species of Impatiens is used on account of its red and yellow col-
oring matters, to color the skin of the han-ds and feet as also the
nails by the people of India, Tartary and Japan. The seeds of
some species of Impatiens yield an oil which is used for burning.

XVIII. ORDER RHAMNALES.

This order includes two large families which are characterized
by having 4 or 5 stamens which are either alternate with the'
sepals or opposite the petals when the latter are present. The
ovules are atropous.

a. RHAMNACE^ OR BUCKTHORN FAMILY.— The
plants are woody climbers, shrubs or small trees.

Rhamnus Purshiana is a large shrub or small tree. The leaves
are petiolate, oblong, elliptical, acuminate, finely serrate and pubes-
cent beneath ; the flowers are small and in axillary umbellate
cymes, and the fruit is 3-lobed, black, ovoid, and drupaceous.
The bark constitutes the official Cascara sagrada (p. 523).

Rhamnus Frangula or Alder Buckthorn, is a shrub the botan-
ical characters of which closely resemble those of R. Purshiana.
The bark of this plant is also official (p. 521).

The leaves of the shrub known as New Jersey Tea {Ceanothus
americanus) are said to have been used as a substitute for tea
during the Revolutionary times. This plant is found in the East-
ern United States and Canada and the root, which contains con-
siderable tannin and possibly an alkaloid, has been used in medi-
cine. The leaves of Sageretia theecaus of Asia have also been
used as a substitute for tea. A number of plants of this family
have been substituted for hops in the fermentation industry, as
Ceanothus recUnatus of the West Indies ; Coliibrina fermenta of
Guiana, and Coitania domingensis of Martinique and Hayti.
Saponin is found in the bark of Gouania touicntosa of Mexico.
A crystalline bitter principle, colletin, occurs in the wood of Col-
letia spinosa of South America. The bark of Discaria febrifuga

CLA'SSIFICATIOX OF AXGIOSPERMS. 327

of Brazil has been used as a substitute for cinchona. A nunil)er
of genera furnish fish poisons, as Zizyphus, Tapura, and Gouania.
Gum-lac is formed on the twigs of Zhypluis Jujnba of Asia as
the result of the sting of an insect i^Coccns lacca).

The fruits of several species of Zizyphus, thorny shrubs found
growing in South America, are edible and enter into the French
or Spanish confection known as Jujube-paste.

b. VITACE.E OR GRAPE FAMILY.— The plants of this
family are woody climbers or erect shrubs with alternate, petiolate
leaves, and small, greenish, regular flowers, the fruit being a berry.

The most important genus, economically, is \ltis to which
belong the cultivated grapes, the fruits of which furnish raisins,
wine and brandy. The grape-vine indigenous to Europe (J'itis
vinifcra) is cultivated in all temperate and sub-tropical countries,
and the variety silvestris which is found distributed in the Medit-
erranean countries as far east as the Caucasus Mountains is sup-
posed to have furnished the cultivated wine grape. The Concord
and Catawba grapes are cultivated varieties of the northern Fox-
or Plum-grape (rifis Labntsca) indigenous to the Northern
United States east of Minnesota. The Delaware grapes are cul-
tivated varieties of the frost-grape (V. cordifolia) and the sweet-
scented grape {V. vulpina) of the Eastern United States. The
pulpy part of the grape contains from 9 to 18 per cent, of grape-
sugar and 0.5 to 1.36 per cent, of tartaric acid. In unfavorable
seasons the tartaric acid is replaced in part by malic acid. The
soil has a marked influence on the quality of grapes, a sandy soil
producing a light colored wine, a soil rich in calcium a sweet
wine, and a clay soil a fine boquet, etc.

Wines are made by fermenting the grape juice, and contain
from 5 to 20 per cent, of alcohol, from i or 2 to 12 per cent, of
sugar, about 0.5 per cent, of tartaric, acetic and other fruit-acid'^,
tannin and coloring matter from a trace to 0.3 per cent., an'l
various compound ethers, giving them their characteristic flavors
or boquets. White wines are made from the juice of the pulp
of the w^hite or colored grapes after separation from the epicarp
and seeds. In the manufacture of red wine no care is taken to
separate the seeds and skins of colored grapes or even the stems
on which the fruits are borne. Port wine is made from a grape

328 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

grown in Portugal, the wine being chiefly exported from Oporto.
The term claret is appHed to a red wine containing a small
amount of alcohol. Brandy is obtained by the distillation of the
fermented juice of the grape. Champagne is a product obtained
by fermenting grape juice to which other substances have been
added, and contains about lo per cent, of alcohol and 67 per cent,
of carbon dioxide. Raisins are obtained from a variety of Vitis
vinifcra containing a high percentage of sugar. In the prepara-
tion of raisins the ripe grapes are dried either by exposure to the
sun or artificial heat. In grape preserves in addition to the indis-
tinguishable cells of sarcocarp. raphides of calcium oxalate occur.
A principle resembling toxicodendrol is found in Vitis incon-
stans of Japan. A greenish-blue coloring principle occurs in Vitis
sicyoides of South America. The leaves and twigs of Virginia
CREEPER or American ivy (Parthenocissiis qiiinqiie folia) contain
tartaric acid, glycoUic acid, paracatechin and inosit.

XIX. ORDER MALVALES.

This order includes several families having rather diversified
characters. The stamens are numerous, the sepals are valvate
and the placentas are axillary.

a. FAMILY EL^OCARPACE.E.— The members of this
family are shrubs or trees mostly indigenous to the Tropics.
They are distinguished from the plants of the other families of
this order in not containing lysigenous mucilage canals. A prin-
ciple yielding hydrocyanic acid is found in Echinocarpns Sigun
of Java. A yellow coloring principle is found in the leaves of
Vallca cordifolia of Peru. A fatty oil is found in the seeds of
several species of Elccocarpns. A number of fruits of this family
are edible. Maqui Fruit is obtained from Aristotelia Maqiii of
Chile and is used to color wine. The seeds of Sloanea dcntata are
eaten like chestnuts in Guiana.

b. TILIACE.E OR LINDEN FAMILY.— The plants are
shrubs or trees with alternate, simple leaves, and with white
flowers in cymes or panicles. In the Linden or Basswood {Tilia)
the peduncles are partly adnate with the long, leaf-like bracts.
The fruits are dry drupes.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 329

The flowers of the European Linden (Tilia enropcca) contain
a fragrant volatile oil and are used in medicine. The flowers of
other species of Tilia also contain volatile oils, and the flowers of
Tilia tomentosa of Southern Europe are used to flavor champagne.
The leaves of Tilia enropcca contain the glucoside tiliacin. Sev-
eral species of Grczvia are used as fish poisons. A purgative
principle is found in the seeds of Corchorus olitorins of Southern
Asia, Africa and South America. A bitter principle occurs in
the seeds of Corchorus t ride us of Arabia, India and Egypt. A
reddish-colored, fatty oil known as Apeiba oil is obtained from
the seeds of Apeiba Tibourbon of Guiana. The root of Grcwia
scabrophylla is used as a substitute for Althrea in India. Mucilage
is found in the flowers and fruits of a number of genera. The
leaves of Corchorus siliquosns are used in Panama as a substitute
for tea.- A number of the fruits of this family are edible, as of
Muntingia and Apeiba. The bast fibers of several species of Cor-
chorus, particularly C. capsularis of China and India, constitute
jute, which is used in the making of cordage. The fiber is sep-
arated by cold retting in stagnant water.

c. MALVACEAE OR MALLOW FAMILY.— The plants are
mostly herbs or shrubs with alternate, simple leaves, and regular,
perfect, large flowers, with the stamens united into a column which
encloses the styles (Fig. 82. E), and a capsular fruit. The culti-
vated ornamental Hollyhock and Althaea belong to this family.

Althcca ofHciualis or marshmallow is a perennial herb about i
M. high with broadly ovate, petiolate, acute, dentate a,nd lobed,
pubescent leaves ; the flowers are 2 to 4 in number in the axils of
the leaves and have rose-colored petals. The bractlets are linear
and the fruit consists of 15 to 20 indehiscent carpels. The root
is official (p. 450).

GossYPiUM species.— The plants are herbs or shrubs with
3- to 5-lobed leaves, and large axillary flowers ; the fruit is a 5-loc-
ular, dehiscent capsule or pod ; the seeds are spherical or some-
what angular and covered with long i -celled hairs, which latter
constitute cotton (p. 440).

There are three important cultivated species. (i) Sea
Island Cotton is obtained from Gossypinm barbadense, a plant
which is principally cultivated in the Southern L^nited States and

330

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

also in Northern Africa, Brazil, Peru and Queensland. This spe-
cies is distinguished by the fact that after removal of the hairs
from the seeds they are smooth. (2) G. arhorcuui has purplish-
red flowers, yields a particularly white cotton, and is cultivated
in Egypt, Arabia and India. (3) G. hcrbaccuin is distinguished
by its broadly lobed leaves and yellowish flowers. The plant has

Fig. 166. Transverse (t) and longitudinal (1) sections of commercial fibers: A, long
staple cotton from the seeds of Gossyphttn; B, Kentucky hemp, the bast of Cannabis
saliva; C, jute, the bast of Corchorus; t). sisal, the fibers from the leaves of the Century
plant {Agave rigida Sisalana) ; E, raphia. the outer layers of leaflets of Raphia pedunculata;
F. ramie, the fibers from a Formosa nettle; G, Merino wool; H, silk; I, artificial silk, the
figure on the left showing a false lumen due to the infolding of the edges, f. fungal hyphae;
c, rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate; p. parenchyma cells.

been cultivated for over 26 centuries in Arabia and the East
Indies, and since 1774 in the United States. Of this latter species
there are a number of cultivated varieties. The bark of the root
constitutes the cotton-root bark of medicine (p. 527).

The seeds of the genus Gossypium contain a large percentage
of fixed oil. which is obtained by expression and is official as

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 331

Cotton seed oil. The residue is known as cotton seed oil-cake,
and contains a considerable amount of proteins with a small quan-
tity of oil and a poisonous principle, ricin. A fat resembling that
of Cacao is obtained from the seeds of Pachira tnacrocarpa of
Brazil ; Kapak oil is derived from the seeds of Eriodendron
anfractuosnin caribaiim of the West Indies.

The flowers of some of the members of the Malvaceae contain
coloring principles, and have been used for dyeing, as Hollyhock
(Althcca rosa) and Mallow {Malva sylvestris) . Musk seed or
Amber seed, which is used in perfumery as a substitute for musk,
is obtained from AhelmoscJius moscJiatiis indigenous to the East
Indies and now cultivated in other tropical countries. Malva inos-
chata also has the odor of musk, and is found in Middle and
Southern Europe.

Saponin is found in the roots of Sida jainaiccnsis and Hibiscus
Sabdariffa of the East and West Indies ; Sida panicnlata of Peru
is used as an anthelmintic and the action is supposed to be due
to the secreting hairs. The seeds of several members of this
family are used as substitutes for coffee, as Abutilon mnticinn of
Egypt, and Okra or Gumbo {Hibiscus csculentiis). The leaves
of Sida canarietisis and ^. rctusa, the latter of India, have been
substituted for tea leaves. The fruits of several of the members
of this family are edible, as Hibiscus csculentiis, which yields the
vegetable okra, and H. ficulncus of Ceylon and Egypt which are
used like beans.

Fibers are obtained from a number of the other members of
this family, as the bast fibers of Hibiscus tiliaceus of the Tropics,
H. caiiuabinus of the East Indies, Urcna lobata, Abutilon indicuui,
Sida rctusa, and Xapcca Iccvis, all cultivated more or less in tropical
countries.

d. FAMILY BOMBACE^.— This is a group of tropical trees
yielding a variety of useful products. A gum is obtained from
Bombax malabariciiui. and mucilage is contained in the genus
Ochroma and several species of Bombax. The root of Bombax
malabaricuni contains tannin in addition. The bast fibers of a
number of the plants of this family are used like cotton in making
fabrics, as species of Bombax, Chorisia and Adansonia. The
fruits of several of the Bombacese contain tartaric acid, as the

332 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Sour Cucumber tree or Cream-of-tartar tree (Adansonia Greg-
orii) of Northern Australia ; and the Monkey-bread tree or
Baobab {Adansonia digitata) of India and South America, which
attains a diameter of 9 ]\I. The green fruit of Matisia cordata
of the Andes region is edible. The seeds of Bomhax insigne
and Matisia Castonon of South America yield a product on
roasting which is used like cacao bean. The seeds of Cava-
nillesia umhellata of Peru are edible and contain a considerable
quantity of fixed oil.

e. STERCULIACE.^ OR COLA FAMILY.— The plants are
herbs, shrubs or trees, sometimes lianes, with mostly simple, petio-
late, alternate leaves; the flowers are small and form a rather
complex inflorescence.

Tlicobronia Cacao is a small tree 5 to 10 M. high, with cori-
aceous, glaucous, entire leaves, and clusters of brownish 5-mer-
ous flowers arising from the older branches or stem ; the
fruit is large, fleshy, ovoid, lo-furrowed longitudinally, yellow
or reddish, and contains five rows of seeds, 10 or 12 in each row
(Fig. 167). The seeds are ovoid, somewhat flattened, and with
large, convoluted cotyledons which break up into more or less
angular fragments on drying. The seeds contain 35 to 50 per cent,
of a fixed oil known as Caco butter and ofificial as Oleum Theo-
bromatis ; 15 per cent, of starch; 15 per cent, of proteins; i to 4
per cent, of theobromine ; 0.07 to 0.36 per cent, of cafifeine, about
0.5 per cent, of sugar, and also a small amount of tannin. The
red color of the seed is due to a principle known as cacao-red
which is formed by the action of a ferment on a glucoside.

The Cacao tree is indigenous to the countries bordering the
Gulf of Mexico and is now cultivated in many tropical countries.
Most of the cacao of the market is obtained from Ecuador (the
Guayaquil variety being especially valued), Curasao, Mexico,
Trinidad, and the Philippine Islands. The seeds of the wild
plants contain a bitter principle, the quantity of which is found
to be greatly reduced in the plants when under cultivation.
The bitter principles in the raw product are more or less destroyed
by the process of fermentation to which the seeds are sub-
jected in preparing them for use, which at the same time develops
the aroma.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

333

Cola acuminata is a tree with lanceolate or obovate, acuminate,
entire, petiolate leaves. The flowers are yellowish, unisexual,
and in small axillary clusters, frequently arising from the old
wood ; the fruit consists of five follicles, each containing 4 to 8
seeds. The seed is made up of two large, fleshy cotyledons. They
have much the same constituents as Cacao, but the proportions
of these dififer. (See Cola.) The leaves of Waltheria glomcrata
are used as a hemostatic in Panama like matico, as are also the

Fig. 167. Cocoa tree (Thcohroma Cacao) showing the peculiar habit of the fruits in
developing on the main axis as well as on the branches. — After Baillon.

leaves of Ptcrospermuni Acerifoliuin. The inne'r bark of Fremon-
tia calif or nica is used for purposes similar to those of elm bark.
Mucilage is also found in the following genera.: Pcnfapetes, Wal-
theria, Guasuma, Hclicteres, and Sterciilia. Tannin is found in
the bark of Guacuina iilmifolia of South America. An oil is
■ manufactured from the seeds of Stercnlia fa^tida of the Eqst
Indies and Cochin China. The seeds of a number of species of
Sterculia are edible. Ahromn angusta of India yields a fiber which
has been suggested as a substitute for silk.

334 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

XX. ORDER PARIETALES.

This is a group of plants of rather wide distribution, and
includes perennial herbs like the violets ; evergreen shrubs, such
as the Tea plant ; and vines like the Passion flower. As the name
indicates the plants of this order are characterized by the flowers
having, for the most part, ovaries with parietal placentas.

a. FAMILY DILLENIACE^E.— The plants are mostly trop-
ical trees which yield valuable timber. The w^ood of a species of
Dillenia growing in the East Indies also contains red coloring sub-
stances. The fruits of Dillenia indica contain citric acid and are
used like lemons. The leaves of Curatclla ainericaiia contain con-
siderable silicon and are used to polish wood. Dillenia speciosa of
India contains a large percentage of tannin. Some species of
Dillenia are cultivated and the foliage and flowers combine to
make the plants the most beautiful in the plant kingdom.

b. MARCGRAVIACE.E.— The members of this family are
partly epiphytic, and have dimorphic leaves, the smaller ones being
pitcher-like. The plant which is cultivated in greenhouses, Marc-
grama iiuibcUata. is used in the Antilles in medicine.

c. THEACE.E OR TEA FAMILY.— The plants are shrubs
or trees with alternate, evergreen leaves, and perfect, regular
flowers with numerous stamens, occurring one or more in the
axils of the leaves. The fruit is a 3- to 5-locular, dehiscent capsule.
The most important member of this family is Thea sinensis, the
two varieties viridis and Bohea furnishing the leaves known as
TEA. The Tea tree is indigenous to Eastern Asia, and is now
extensively cultivated in China. Japan. India. Java. Brazil, Sicily,
Portugal and France, and to some extent in the Southern L'nited
States.

The fresh leaves of Thea do not have the properties which
characterize the commercial article, the aroma and other qualities
being developed after special treatment. Two general classes of
tea are found in commerce, these depending on the mode of treat-
ment. Those which are rapidly dried by means of artificial heat
constitute Green tea. The leaves which are slowly dried, per-
mitting fermentation to set in. furnish Black tea. Tea leaves
contain 1.5 to 3.5 per cent, of cafifeine; theobromine and the-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 335

ophylline (an isomer of theobromine) ; 10 to 20 per cent, of gallo-
tannic acid ; quercitrin, and a volatile oil containing among other
components, methyl salicylate. The seeds contain about 30 per
cent, of fixed oil. i per cent, of caffeine, and saponin. The leaves
furnish one of the sources of the official caffeine. Saponin is
found in the seeds of Thca Sassanqua of China and Japan. Two
saponin-like substances (assamin and assaminic acid) are found
in the seeds of Thca assaniica. The flowers of T. Sassanqua are
used in Chiin and Japan to flavor teas. The flowers and leaves
of I'lica kissi are used as an insecticide. The red colored sap of
Laplacca Hccmatoxylon of New Granada is used in medicine.

d. GGTTIFErIe or gamboge FAMILY.— The plants
are principally shrubs and trees of the Tropics, that is, if we
exclude the Hypericaceae which are now put in a group by
themselves.

Garcinia Hanhuryi is a tree with ovate, petiolate, coriaceous,
opposite leaves. The flowers are small, yellow, dioecious, occur-
ring in small clusters in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a
pome-like berry, with a papery cndocarp and an oily sarcocarp,
and 3 or 4 seeds, I in each loculus (Fig. 168). The trees are
chiefly valued on account of the gum-resin known as gamboge
(p. 648), which they contain.

A resin used in making plasters is obtained from Calophyllum
brasUiensc of Brazil. Balsams resembling Copaiba have been
obtained from Calophyllum Calaba of the West Indies. Balsams
known as Tacamahac are also derived from the following plants:
Bourbon Tacamahac from Calophyllum Tacamahaca, India Taca-
mahac from C. apctalum and Brazilian Tacamahac from Rhcedia
Madruiuw. Balsams are also obtained from Caralpa o-raudiflora
of r.razil, and Rhcedia acuminata of Peru. 'Resins and balsams
are obtained from a number of species of Chtsia.

A yellow coloring principle, mangostin, is obtained from the
bark and fruit of ^langosteen (Garcinia Mangostana) of the East
Indies. Yellow coloring principles are found in Ochrocarpus
lougifolius of India and Vismia acuminata of South America.
Tannin occurs in Mahurea palustris of Brazil, Mcsua fcrrea of
the East Indies, the flower-bud? of Ochrocarpus longifolius of
India, and several species of Cratoxylujn of China and Java.

336

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

A butter-like fat is obtained from the seeds of Garcinia indica.
A fixed oil known as Laurel-nut oil is derived from the seeds
of Calophylhiui Iiiophylliiiii and other species of Calophyllum
growing in the East Indies. Cochin China and Brazil, as well as
the seeds of Symphonia fasiculata of Brazil.

Fig. i68. Gamboge plant (Garcinia Hanburyi). A branch showing the

a.xillary pistillate flowers and pome-like fruits. — After Baillon.

The bark of Cliisia Pseudo-china is used in Peru as a substi-
tute for cinchona. An alkaloid is found in J'ismia robusta of Java.
A gum is obtained from Calophylluni touirntosuin of India and
Vismia acuminata , that of the latter being purgative. The flower
buds of the India Suringi (Ochrocarpus longifolius) have an
aromatic odor resembling cloves. Aromatic principles are also
found in other plants of this family.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 337

Edible fruits are yielded by the following plants : Mango
FRUIT from Garcinia Mangostana and other species of Garcinia;
Mammei apple or Apricot of St. Domingo from Manimea amer-
icana of tropical America, the latter being used in the prepara-
tion of Mammey wine or " Toddy " and a liquor known as " Eau
de Creole." The seeds of Platonia insignis are used like almonds
in Brazil and Paraguay ; the fruit of the latter plant is quite acid
and is eaten with sugar.

e. HYPERICACE^ OR ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY.—
The plants are herbs or shrubs of the temperate regions, and are
represented in the United States by the Hypericums, which are
quite common. The flowers are characterized by the numerous
stamens which are united into distinct groups or clusters. The
flowers of Hypericum perforatum or Common St. John's-wort
contain yellow and red coloring principles. Yellow coloring prin-
ciples have also been isolated from Hypericum laricifolium of
Ecuador and H. elodcs of Northern Europe. The entire plant of
H. perforatum is used in medicine and contains considerable resin,
and a small amount of volatile oil.

f. FAMILY DIPTEROCARPACE^.— The plants of this
family are principally trees and indigenous to tropical Asia. The
family derives its name from the winged fruits of the principal
genus Dipterocarpus. A number of economic products are fur-
nished by this group of plants. Borneo camphor is obtained
from Dryobalanops aromatica. The camphor separates in canals
in the older parts of the wood and between the wood and bark,
and is obtained by felling the trees, splitting the wood, and then
removing the camphor by hand. Owing to the fact that some of
the trees do not contain camphor, it is sometimes necessary to fell
a hundred trees in order to obtain 6 or 8 K. of the product. The
young twigs of this plant as well as the older wood yield a volatile
oil known as Oil of Borneo camphor.

GuR-jUN BALSAM or Wood oil is obtained from a number of
species of Dipterocarpus growing in the East Indies by incising
the stems as in the collection of turpentine. The balsam is used
as a substitute for copaiba and contains an ethereal oil which
consists chiefly of a sesquiterpene, an indifl^erent resin, and gur-
junic acid. Sindor balsam is obtained from Dipterocarpus mar-

338 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY

ginatus of Borneo. A resin known as " Piney resin," which is
used as a substitute for Dammar, is obtained from a number of
species of Valeria growing in India. Chaia resin is obtained
from Shorea nibi folia of Cochin China. The bark of Shorca
robusta of Northern India contains 32 per cent, of tannin. The
seeds of species of Shorea, Pinanga, Gysbertsiana and Isoptera
yield the fatty oil known in Java as Tangkawang. The seeds of
a number of plants of this family contain considerable starch, as
Vateria, Vatica and Doona. The woods of the following genera
are extensively used: Vatica, Shorea, and Hopea.

g. FAMILY TAMARICACE^.— The plants are halophytic
shrubs found in the desert regions of Central Asia and Mediter-
ranean countries and one genus (Foitqiticria) is found in Mexico.
Fonqideria splendens is cultivated to some extent, and is known
as Ocotilla or Coach-whip Cactus. The bark contains gum, resin
and wax ; the latter is known as Ocotilla w- ax and resembles
beeswax. The twigs of Myricaria germanica of Europe are used
as a substitute for hops. A manna-like sugar is formed on the
stems of Taniarix niannifcra growing in Egypt, Arabia and
Afghanistan, as the result of the sting of an insect {Coccus inanni-
parus). Tannin is found in a number of species of Tamarix as
well as in the galls formed on the plants, the tannin being used
for dyeing. A table salt is prepared from the ash of several
species of Rcaniniiria found in Northern Africa and the East
Mediterranean region.

h. FAMILY BIXACE^. — These are shrubs or trees found
in the Tropics, and are of interest chiefly on account of the seeds
of Bixa Orellana which furnish the coloring matter known as
Annatto (Orlean. Arnotta). The plant is found in tropical
America and also in Polynesia and ^Madagascar. The seeds are
covered with a fleshy arillus from which the coloring matter is
prepared by means of water. The insoluble matter is collected,
made into cakes and chiefly used for dyeing and coloring. Annatto
contains a red crystalline principle, bixin. a yellow coloring prin-
ciple, orellin. and an ethereal oil. The root of this plant also con-
tains some coloring matter. A acIIow coloring principle is found in
Cochlospcrmnm tinctorinm of Senegambia and an aromatic resin is
obtained from Cochlospermuin Gossypium of Ceylon and Malabar.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 339

i. FAMILY WINTERANACE^ OR CANELLACE^.—
These are trees with aromatic barks having an odor of cinnamon ;
pellucid-punctate leaves; and golden-yellow flowers. The most
important member of this family is IVinterana Canella growing in
the Antilles and in Southern Florida, which furnishes the Canella
BARK or False Winter's bark used in medicine. The bark occurs
in large quills or broken pieces, from 3 to 10 mm. thick, with the
periderm nearly entirely removed, the outer surface yellowish or
orange-red v/ith transversely elongated patches of cork and shal-
low, whitish depressions ; the fracture is short with numerous resin
canals ; the odor aromatic ; taste aromatic, bitter and pungent. It
contains mannitol, resin and 0.5 to 1.28 per cent, of a volatile oil
containing eugenol, cinneol, caryophyllene and pinene. The bark
of one or more species of Cinnamodendron of tropical America is
sometimes substituted for Canella bark, but it is distinguished by
containing tannin, which constituent is not found in Canella.

j. YIOLACE^E OR VIOLET FAMILY.— The plants are
herbs or shrubs with basal or alternate leaves, perfect, irregular
flowers, and 3-valved dehiscent capsules (Fig. 134, /). The best
known representatives of this group are the cultivated species of
the genus Viola, including the English or sweet violet ( Viola odor-
afa), which produces a volatile oil containing ionon ; and the varie-
ties of Viola tricolor vulgaris which furnish the pansies of the
garden. The entire herb of Viola tricolor has been used in
medicine and contains the yellow coloring principle viola-quercit-
rin, salicylic acid and methyl salicylate (Figs. 70, 100, 118).

k. FAMILY FLACOURTIACE^.. — These are tropical
shrubs and trees, and are chiefly of interest because of their valua-
ble woods and acid, juicy fruits. A number of them are of medicinal
interest. Chaulmugra oil is said to be obtained from the seeds
of Gynocardia odorata of Farther India. The seeds also contain
gynocardic acid and hydrocyanic acid. The latter is also present
in the seeds of Hydnocarpus venenata of Southern India and
Ceylon and the leaves of Kiggelaria africana.

A number of species of Lcetia growing in Cuba yield a resin
resembling sandarac. The Coccos oil which is used in perfumery
is obtained from several species of Myroxylon growing in Poly-
nesia. The fixed oils from the seeds of Gynocardia odorata and of

340 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

several species of Pangium are used in cooking. A bitter principle
occurs in the bark of Casearia adstringens of Brazil. A purgative
principle is found in C. esculenta of tropical Asia and Australia.
The root of Honialium racemosum of Guiana contains an astrin-
gent principle.

1. FAMILY TURNERACE^.— These plants are herbs,
shrubs and trees mostly found in tropical America, and are of
interest on account of the leaves of Tiirncra diffusa, particularly
the variety aphrodisiaca, which yield the Damiana of medicine
esteemed as a tonic laxative like Rhamnus Purshiana. The drug
usually consists of leaves although the reddish stems, yellowish
flowers and globular capsules may be present. The leaves are about
25 mm. long, varying from oblanceolate to obovate ; the margin is
serrate-dentate ; the color, light-green (older leaves somewhat cori-
aceous and pubescent) ; the odor aromatic; taste aromatic and bit-
ter. Damiana contains a volatile oil, resin, and the bitter principle
damianin. Ethereal oils are found in other species of Turnera.
and T. angustifolia of Mexico contains considerable mucilage.

m. PASSIFLORACE^. OR PASSION-FLOWER FAM-
ILY.— The plants are mostly herbaceous or woody vines climbing
by means of tendrils, with alternate, palmately-lobed, petiolate
leaves and solitary, perfect, regular flowers. The flowers are
peculiar in that between the corolla and stamens there are numer-
ous, frequently petaloid, colored, sterile, filamentous bodies which
are known collectively as the "corona." The fruit is a berry or
dehiscent capsule. The genus Passiflora is known as the Passion-
flower because the flowers are considered to be emblematic of the
Crucifixion, the corona representing the crown of thorns, the
stamens the nails, and the gynsecium with its three styles, the
three thieves. The rhizomes of the Passion-flowers of the South-
ern States {Passiflora incarnata and P. lit tea) have been used in
medicine. Not much is known with regard to the active principles
of these two plants or of the thirty other species of Passiflora which
are used in medicine. The fruits of several species of Passi-
flora are edible, and a number of them are cultivated on account
of their beautiful as well as odorous flowers.

n. CARICACE^ OR PAPAW FAMILY.— This family is
composed of two genera of latex-containing trees growing in trop-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 341

ical America, the best known of which is the genus Carica. The
Papaw or Melon tree {Carica Papaya) is a small tree with a
straight, slender, usually unbranched trunk which bears at the
summit a cluster of long-petiolate, deeply-lobed leaves. The
flowers are dioecious, and the fruit is a large, melon-like berry.
The green fruits as well as the leaves contain a milk- juice which
is obtained by incising them. The material is dried and is used
in medicine on account of its containing a proteolytic ferment,
papain or papayotin, which is active in the presence of both acids
and alkalies. The leaves and fruit also contain the alkaloid car-
paine, and in addition the leaves contain the glucoside carposid.
The root contains a glucoside somewhat resembling potassium
myronate and a ferment which has a decomposing action upon it.
A proteolytic ferment is also present in the leaves of Carica quer-
cifolia of Argentina. The melon tree is cultivated on account of
the fruits, which are edible.

o. BEGONIACE^. — This is a family of tropical plants which
are extensively cultivated. They are herbs or shrubs frequently
with tuberous rhizomes and with characteristic, asymmetric, varie-
gated leaves. They are easily propagated by cuttings providing
they have sufficient moisture, even the leaves giving rise to new
plants. The roots of Begonia anemonoides of South America and
B. gracilis of Mexico contain purgative principles. Calcium oxal-
ate and acid oxalates are found in the leaves of probably all of the
species of Begonia. The roots of a number of species of this
genus are astringent.

p. DATISCACE^. — The plants are trees or shrubs found
principally in the Tropics. A bitter principle is found in the Yel-
low hemp {Datisca cannabina) of Southern Europe and the
Orient. The root contains a yellow coloring principle, datiscin,
which is used in the dyeing of silk. The wood of Octomeles and
Teframeles is used in the making of tea-chests.

XXI. ORDER OPUNTIALES.

The plants of this order are succulent, with much reduced
leaves, and with flowers characterized by having a perianth with
numerous segments and an inferior ovary.

342 BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGNOSY.

a. CACTACE^ OR CACTUS FAMILY.— This is a remark-
able family of succulent plants growing largely in the arid regions
of Mexico, Brazil and other parts of America. The stems are
more or less flattened, terete or tuberculated, in some cases becom
ing branched and woody. The leaves are reduced to scales, b
are sometimes larger, more or less cylindrical or dorsiventral, and
usually drop off sooner or later. In the axils of the leaves or leaf-
scars there are usually groups of hairs and spines. The flowers
are mostly solitary, sessile, perfect, regular and conspicuous. The
fruit is usually a fleshy berry, the fruits of a number of species
being edible.

Quite a number of the Cacti have been used in medicine, the
one most commonly employed being the Night-blooming Cereus
{Cereus grandi-ftorns) , which is extensively cultivated on account
of its flowers. The flowers and fresh stems are the parts used.
They contain several acrid principles including probably an alka-
loid and a glucoside, the drug resembling in its action digitalis.

Mescal buttons (Anhaloniitm) , are the dried tops of several
species of Lophophora growing in Northern Mexico. The main
axis of the plant is under the ground and produces at certain
points small aerial shoots which are more or less button-shaped
or disk-like, being about 20 to 50 mm. in diameter. In the center
of the disk occur tufts of hairs which vary in the different species,
and among which are usually found one or more pinkish flowers.
The drug has been used like Night-blooming Cereus, and con-
tains several alkaloids, namely, anhalonine (similar to pellotine),
mescaline, anhalonidine and lophophorine. Alkaloidal principles
are also found in other members of this family.

The sap of several species of Cereus of the Antilles has anthel-
mintic properties, as also that of certain species of Rhipsalis and
Opuntia. A caoutchouc-like exudation is obtained from Opuntia
vulgaris and other species of Opuntia growing in the West Indies.
An astringent principle is found in the root and bark of Opuntia
Kariviuskiana of Mexico. A tragacanth-like gum is found in
Peireskia Guacamacho of Venezuela, Opuntia rubcscens of Brazil
and 0. Tuna of the West Indies, Mexico and South America. An
alcoholic beverage is made by the Indians of Sonora from the
fruit-juice of Cereus Thunhergii.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 343

A number of species of Opuntia yield edible fruits. The
Prickly pear is the fruit of Opuntia Tuna growing in the
West Indies and tropical America; Indian fig is derived from
Opuntia Ficus-Indica growing in Southern Europe, particularly
Sicily ; a fruit also known as Prickly pear or Indian fig is derived
from Opuntia vulgaris, a common Cactus growing in sandy soil
in the Eastern United States. The Cochineal insect which is
official under the name of coccus in a number of pharmacopoeias
{Pseudo-coccus Cacti) lives on the following Cacti: Nopalca
coccinellifcra of Jamaica and South America, Opuntia Tuna and
O. Dillenii both of tropical America, and Peireskia aculeata of
the An'tilles.

XXII. ORDER MYRTALES OR MYRTIFLORyE.

The plants are herbs or shrubs with complete flowers, rarely
apetalous, producing one or more ovules in each loculus.

a. THYMELyEACE^. OR MEZEREUM FAMILY.— The
characters of this family are illustrated by the Spurge laurel or
Mezereon {Daphne Mezereum) which is a small shrub about i M.
high, with oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, sessile leaves, and small
groups of fragrant flowers, the perianth tube of which is purplish-
red or white. The fruit is an ovoid, reddish drupe. The bark of
Daphne Mezereum and other species of Daphne is used in
medicine (p. 536).

The bark of Funifera iitilis of Brazil contains a vesicating
principle. A principle with similar properties is found in the
bark of Leather wood {Dirca palustris) of the Eastern United
States and Canada. The fruit and leaves of Gnidia carinata of
Cape Colony contain emetic and drastic principles. A poisonous
principle is found in Pimelea trichostachya of Australia. A
yellow coloring principle is found in several species of Daphne
and Thymelcca. The wood of Aqiiilaria Agallocha oi India and
China is aromatic and resembles the " Aloe wood." A balsam is
obtained from the wood of Piuielca oleosa of Cochin China. The
bast fibers of quite a number of plants are used in the making of
paper, as of Daphne in India, Gnidia of Madagascar, Lagetta (L.
lintearia or Lace-tree) of Jamaica and St. Domingo, Thym'elcpa

344 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

of the Mediterranean countries and Linodendron of Cuba. The
fibers of Leather wood (Dirca palustris) of the Eastern United
States and Canada are said to be used in a similar manner.

b. FAMILY EL^AGNACExE.— This is a small family
represented in the L^nited States by several genera, among which
is the Buffalo berry {Lepargyrcca argentea), a thorny shrub found
in the western part of the United States and the Northwest Terri-
tory. The fruit is a reddish drupe-like berry which contains a
small amount of citric and malic acids, 5 per cent, of sugar, and
in composition is much like the currant. It is eaten by the Indians,
and used to a great extent in the Western States in the making of
jellies. The leaves and flowers of a number of species of
Elaeagnus are used in medicine.

c. LYTHRACE^ OR LOOSESTRIFE FAMILY.— The
members of this family are herbs, shrubs and trees usually with
opposite, entire leaves. The flowers are in racemes and the fruit
is a capsule. Quite a number of the plants yield valuable woods
and a number are cultivated as ornamental plants.

The flowers of Woodfordia Horibunda of India contain a red
coloring principle, and the bark and leaves of Lafoensia Pacari of
Brazil contain a yellow coloring principle. Considerable tannin
is found in the root of the Purple loosestrife {Ly thrum Salicaria)
of the Northern United States and Canada, and widely distrib-
uted in the Old World ; and also in the fruit of JVoodfordia
Hoi'ibunda, a plant which is extensively cultivated in greenhouses.
A bitter principle, nessin, is found in the leaves of Nescca syphili-
tica of Mexico and probably other species of this genus. Ciiphea
viscosa of Mexico is said to resemble digitalis in its physiological
action. A vesicating principle, resembling cantharidin in its
action, is obtained from the fresh leaves of Ammanni haccifcra of
India. A narcotic principle is found in the seeds of Lagerstrccuiia
Flos rcgincc of India. The flowers of Lazvsonia iiiennis, native to
and cultivated in the Orient, have an odor resembling that of the
Tea rose. The shrub is also cultivated to some extent in the West
Indies and is known in the Orient as the Henna plant. The
leaves are used in the preparation of the cosmetic Hinna. They
contain an orange or brownish-yellow dye which is used in the
dyeing of the skin and hair.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 345

d. PUNICACE^ OR POMEGRANATE FAMILY includes
a single genus of two species. The Pomegranate {Pitiiica gmiia-
tum) indigenous to the Levant and now extensively cultivated is
of chief interest. The plants are small trees, the young twigs of
which are 4-angled and frequently thorn-like. The leaves are
opposite, ovate-lanceolate, entire, short-petiolate. The torus,
calyx and corolla are scarlet, and the gynaecium consists of two
whorls of carpels. The fruit is an inferior edible berry with hard
pericarp or rind. The pulpy portion is formed from the outer
layer of the seed-coat. The bark of the root and stem is used
in medicine. (See Granatum, p. 534.) The rind of the fruit is
used as an astringent because of the tannin which it contains-
It does not appear, however, to contain the alkaloids found in the
official bark.

e. FAMILY LECYTHIDACE^.— The plants are mostly
shrubs and trees indigenous to the Tropics. They are of
chief interest on account of the Brazil-nut or Para-nut
obtained from Bertholletia excelsa, and the Sapucaya-nut
obtained from the Monkey-pot tree (one or more species of
Lecythis), both genera of South America. The seeds (so-called
nuts) are rich in oil and proteins and are edible. The fruit of
Careya arborea is drupaceous and is also edible, the seeds being
considered, however, to be poisonous. Bitter narcotic or poisonous
principles are also found in the fruit of Planchonia valida of the
Molucca Islands and the seeds of a number of species of Lecythis.
The fruits and roots of a number of species of Barringtonia are
used in China and Java to stupefy fish. The pericarp of the fruit
of Fcetida moschata of Guiana contains considerable quantities of
an ethereal oil. The flowers of Grias cauUflora of the Antilles
are used like tea. A cooling drink is made from the sarcocarp of
Couroupita guiancnsis of the West Indies and Guiana.

f. RHIZOPHORACE^ OR MANGROVE FAMILY.—
These are tropical shrubs or small trees wdth evergreen, cori-
aceous leaves, small cymose and axillary flowers, and seeds which
germinate while the fruit is still attached to the plant. The best
known genus of this family is Rhizophora (Mangrove tree), of
which there are three species, the American Mangrove being R.
mangle. This tree produces aerial roots on the stems and

346 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

branches, and leaves which are characterized by a number of layers
of water-containing cells. The plants grow in muddy swamps,
or along the sea-coast where the water is brackish, a number
together forming the so-called " Mangrove swamps."

The root and bark of the Mangrove, as well as other species
of Rhizophora and several species of Bruguiera, contain a large
quantity of tannin which resembles catechu. The aerial roots of
Rhizophora are used by the natives of Polynesia in the making of
bows, and the woods of several genera are used in carpentry.

g. MYRTACE^ OR MYRTLE FAMILY.— This is a group
chiefly of shrubs and trees, some, as of species of Eucalyptus,
being the loftiest trees known, attaining a height in some instances
of 105 M. The plants are indigenous to Australia and tropical
America and some are extensively cultivated.

Eucalyptus species. — The leaves frequently vary in shape
and in arrangement on the young and older branches of the same
plant. On the young branches they may be, as in Eucalyptus
Globulus, ovate or broadly elliptical, opposite and sessile, while
on older branches they are scythe-shaped, glandular-punctate,
petiolate and alternate (Fig. 258). In the latter case the petioles
are twisted and the leaves stand edgewise so that both surfaces are
equally exposed to the light and hence of similar structure. The
flowers are solitary, or in cymes or umbels, occurring in the axils
of the leaves. Petals are wanting and the whitish stamens, which
are numerous and inflexed in the bud, are covered by an oper-
culum or lid which is considered to be formed by the union of
the sepals, and which dehisces on the maturing of the stamens,
this being one of the most characteristic features of the genus.
The fruit is a 3- to 6-locular truncated capsule or pyxis.

This is a very important genus from an economic point of
view, among the products being the volatile oil (oil of eucalyptus),
and eucalyptol, both of which are ofificial, and the tannin or so-
called " gum." known as Eucalyptus kino (p. 655).

Jainhosa Caryophyllus (Eugenia Caryophyllata). — This is a
small tree indigenous to the Molucca Islands and now extensively
cultivated in the Tropics. The leaves are opposite, ovate-lance-
olate, acuminate, petiolate, entire and evergreen. The flowers are
rose-colored and in cymes ; the fruit is berry-like and constitutes

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 347

the Anthoph}lli or Mother-clove. The unexpanded flower-buds
constitute the drug or spice known as Cloves. (See Caryophyllus.)

Piijiciita omcinalis is a tree with opposite, lanceolate, acute,
petiolate, pellucid-punctate and evergreen leaves. The' flowers are
small, white and in axillary racemes. The fruit is used for
flavoring and in medicine. (See Pimenta.)

Not only are ethereal oils obtained from the genera Euca-
lyptus, Jambosa and Pimenta already described, but also from
other members of the Myrtacege. Oil of Bay or oil of Myrcia
is distilled from the leaves of Pimenta acris of the West Indies.
The oil consists largely of eugenol, methyl-eugenol, chavicol,
methyl-chavicol, citral, phellandrene and myrcene, and is used in
the preparation of Bay rum. The fruits of P. acris yield 3.3 per
cent, of an oil resembling the leaf oil.

Cheken leaves are obtained from Eugenia Clieken. They are
about 25 mm. long, ovate or rectangular, with entire, somewhat
revolute margin, light green, pellucid punctate, aromatic, astrin-
gent and bitter. Cheken leaves yield about i per cent, of a volatile
oil containing cineol and pinene ; 4 per cent, of tannin ; a volatile
alkaloid and a glucoside.

Oil of Cajeput is obtained from the leaves and twigs of Mela-
leuca Leucadcndron, particularly the varieties Cajepiiti and minor
of the East Indies. The principal constituents of this oil are
cineol, terpineol, pinene, and a number of aldehydes and acid
esters. An oil resembling Cajeput oil is obtained from the leaves
and flowers of Myrceugenia catnphorata of Chile.

The leaves of Myrtns communis, a plant extensively cultivated
in the Mediterranean countries of Europe, yield a distillate with
water known as Ealt d'ange and used as a toilet article.

The leaves of the following plants are used as substitutes for
tea leaves : Myrtns Molincc of Chile, Melaleuca genistcefolia of
Australia, and Leptospermum scopariuni and other species of
this genus growing in New Zealand. The seeds of Eugenia dis-
ticJia are known in the Antilles as Wild coffee. Quite a number
of the genera of this family yield edible fruits. Guava or Guay-
ava fruit is obtained from Psidium Gnayava of tropical America.
Rose apple is the fruit of Jambosa malaccensis, growing in the
East Indies and Oceanica. Jambuse berries are derived from

348 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Jambosa vulgaris which is extensively cultivated in the Tropics.
The lemon-like fruit of Myrcia coriacca is used in medicine, the
bark in tanning, and the wood in dyeing. The fibrous bark of
Eugenia ligustrina is used like oakum.

h. FAMILY COMBRETACE^.— The members of this fam-
ily are shrubs or trees, sometimes climbing, with usually alternate,
petiolate, simple leaves ; sessile flowers in racemes ; somewhat
fleshy, winged, i-seeded fruits, and are mostly found in the
Tropics.

Like the Fagacese the plants of this family contain a tannin,
similar to gallotannic acid, in nearly all parts of the plant. The
Myrobalans of the East Indies are the young fruits of Tcruii-
nalia Cliebiila. The pericarp contains from 5 to 45 per cent, of
tannin, the latter amount being found in the fruits known as Long
or Chebula Myrobalans. The fruits also contain ellagic and
chebulinic acids. The fruits of Terininalia helerica constitute the
Beleric Myrobalans. The galls of Terininalia maeroptcra of
Africa and other species of Terminalia as v/ell as of Bucida
Bneeras of tropical America are particularly rich in tannin. A
yellow coloring principle is found in Terminalia Brozvnii of
Africa and is used in dyeing leather. The bark of T. Catappa of
Asia and Africa is used to dye leather black.

A gum-jesin with cathartic properties is obtained from Terini-
nalia fagifolia of Brazil. An aromatic resin is found in Tenninalia
angiistifoliuiii of the East Indies. The fruits of one or more of
the Combretaceas are said to be used in the preparation of the
arrow-poison of the Negritos. The seeds of Tenninalia Catappa
and Conibretnm bntyrosuni contain about 50 per cent, of fixed oil.
These seeds as well as those of other species of Terminalia and
Quisqualis indiea of Farther India and tropical Africa are edible.
The seeds of the latter plant when unripe are said to be used like
mustard. The woods of a number of the plants of the Combre-
tacese are valuable for building purposes, and some of the genera
furnish ornamental plants which are cultivated in greenhouses.

i. FAMILY MELASTOMACE^.— This is a large family
of herbs, shrubs and trees with opposite, 3- to 9-nerved leaves
and regular, perfect, often showy flowers. They are chiefly found
in South America and are represented in temperate regions by

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 349

the Meadow beauty (Rhexia). Quite a ininil)cr of the plants are
cultivated and a large number yield edible fruits. The fruits,
barks and leaves frequently contain coloring principles. A yel-
low coloring principle is found in the leaves of a number of species
of Memecylon of the East Indies and Africa, which resembles
that of saffron and curcuma. Red coloring principles are found
in the berries of a number of species of Blakea of South America.
A black coloring principle is obtained from the fruit of several
species of Tamonea of tropical America, Mclastoma malabathri-
cum of the East Indies and Tococa guiancnsis of Northern South
America and Tiboiicliiiia Maximiliana of Brazil. Tannin is found
in considerable quantity in the barks of Tibouchina, Dissotis and
Rhynchanthera.

The leaves of Tamonea thecesans are used in Peru as a sub-
stitute for tea. A mucilage is found in the bark of Medinilla
crispata of the Molucca Islands. The flowers of the latter plant
as well as of M. macrocarpa are used as a remedy for the bite of
poisonous serpents.

j. ONAGRACE^ OR EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY.
These are mostly annual or perennial herbs with usually entire
or toothed, simple leaves. The flowers are perfect, regular or
irregular, epigynous, variously colored, solitary in the axils of the
leaves or in somewhat leafy spikes. The fruit is a dehiscent
capsule, berry, drupe, or nut. This family is represented in
temperate regions by such plants as the Willow herb (Epilobium),
Evening primrose (CEnothera), on which de Vries has carried
on his famous mutation experiments, and Enchanter's nightshade
(Circ^ea). The cultivated Fuchsia also belongs to this family.
The subterranean parts of Prinnila officinalis^ contain two crystal-
line glucosides, primeverin and primulaverin, which by the action
of the ferment, primeverase, produce an anise-like odor. The
odors of the other species of Primula are probably due to distinct
glucosides: (a) one producing an anise-like odor as in P. offici-
nalis, P. capitata and P. dcnticulata; (b) one producing the odor
of methyl salicylate, as in P. longiflora, P. elatior and P. vulgaris;
(c) one producing the odor of coriander, as in P. auricula, P.
panonica and P. palinuri. The flowers of a number of genera
are light in color and somewhat luminous in the dark.

350 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

A yellow coloring principle is obtained from the herb and unripe
fruits of Jussieua pilosa of Brazil. The roots of (Enothera bien-
niis, O. niuricata and other species of this genus are edible.

k. HYDROCARYACE^ OR TRAPACE^.— These are
aquatic plants comprising a single genus, one of which Trapa
natans or Water chestnut is naturalized to some extent in the
ponds of ^vlassachusetts and New York. The fruit is coriaceous,
2- to 4-spinose, and i -seeded. The cotyledons are unequal, rich in
starch, and are edible, sometimes being ground and made into
bread by the people of Europe and Northern Asia.

XXIII. ORDER UMBELLALES OR UMBELLIFLOR.E.

The plants of this order are widely distributed in northern
temperate regions although there are some representatives in the
Tropics. The flowers are small, 4- or 5-merous and epigynous.

a. ARALIACE^ OR GINSENG FAMILY.— The plants
are mostly trees or shrubs with alternate, petiolate, simple or 3- to
7-compound leaves. The flowers are either in umbels or panicles.
The fruit is a drupe or berry. The best known representatives of
this family are the English ivy {Hedera helix) of Europe, and
Ginseng {Panax qitinquefolium) (Fig. 169) growing in the East-
ern and Central E^nited States. This plant is the source of the
ginseng root of commerce, considerable quantities of which are
exported to China where it is used like the root of Panax Ginseng,
a plant growing v/ild in Manchuria and Korea. Both plants are
also cultivated in the L^nited States, the roots from the wild plants
being preferred. The root contains a volatile oil, and considerable
starch. Several species of Aralia are used in medicine (p. 450).

The leaves of the English ivy contain the glucoside helixin,
and a carbohydrate, inosit. They also contain formic, oxalic,
malic, tannic and hederic acids, besides the yellow principle
carotin. The fruits of the ivy contain a purplish-red colorin^^
substance and are said to be poisonous.

The Chinese rice paper is made from the pith of Tetrapanax
papyrifer which grows wild in Formosa and is extensively culti-
vated in China. The pith is cut spirally into thin strips which
are spread out flat and then cut into pieces varying from 15 to

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

351

30 cm. long and 10 to 12 cm. broad. This paper dififers from
other papers in that it is a natural product.

Fig. 169. Panax quinquefolium (Ginseng): A, upper portion of plant showing pal-
mately-compound leaves with long-stalked leaflets, the berry-like drupes; B, fusiform
root: C, roots showinR charscteristic stem scars at the upper portion.- — From a photograph
by Wyss. (See also Fig. 63, p. 98.)

The rhizome of Panax re pens growing- in Japan, contains 20.8
per cent, of a non-toxic saponin with hemolytic properties.

352 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

b. UMBELLIFER^ OR CARROT FAMILY.— The plants
are herbs, frequently with hollow stems ; alternate, simple or
compound leaves, the base of the petiole often forming an
inflated sheath ; and small white, yellowish, greenish or somewhat
purplish flowers occurring in simple or compound umbels. The
fruit is a cremocarp, having characters which are of important
taxonomic valvie, as the presence or absence of secondary ribs,
number and position of the vittse, etc.

Coriandrnm sativiun is an annual herb the fruits of which
are official (p. 562). The leaves are bi-or tri-pinnate, the leaflets
being narrow linear-lanceolate; and the flowers are white or
rose-colored.

Coniiim maciilatuin or Poison Hemlock is a tall, erect, branch-
ing, biennial plant, with purplish spotted stems, large pinnately
decompound leaves and small, white flowers. The fruit is official

(p. 567)-

Carum Carvi (Caraway) is a biennial herb with bi- or tri-
pinnate, deeply incised leaves, and white flowers. The fruit is
official (p. 565) and the leaves are also used in medicine.

Pimpinella Anisum is a small, hairy, annual herb. The leaves
are variable, the lower being somewhat cordate and serrate, the
middle distinctly lobed. and the upper ones trifid ; the flowers are
white. The fruit is official (p. 560) and is also used for flavoring.

Foeniculum vulgare is an annual or perennial, glabrous herb
with very finely dissected leaves, the divisions being narrow-
linear. The flowers are yellow, and the involucre and involucels
are wanting. The fruit is official (p. 563).

Ferula fcctida is a stout, perennial herb with few, ternately
compound leaves and small, polygamous, light yellow flowers.
The root is rather large and yields the gum-resin asafetida (p.
671). Asafetida is also derived from other species of Ferula.

Ferula Siimhul is a tall perennial herb with purplish latex-
containing stems. The basal leaves are ternately compound and
with amplexicaul base. The leaves decrease in size from the base
upward, becoming bract-like near the inflorescence. The flowers
are polygamous, resembling those of F. fa:tida. The root is
official (p. 462) and is probably also obtained from other closely
related species of Ferula.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

353

Fig. 170. Cicuia maculata (Water Hemlock): A, upper part of stem with leaves and
compound umbels; B, base of the stem and the thick tuberous roots; C, cross-section of
stem showing part of a mestome strand and the pith with three oil-ducts (a), vessels (v),
libriform (St), pith (p); D, a flower showing petals with long inflexed apex and the five
stamens inserted on the disk that crowns the ovary; E. the fruit; F, fruit in longitudinal
section showing the two ovules; G, cross-section of a mericarp showing the six vittse or oil-
tubes. — After Holm.

354 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

A large number of the plants belonging to the Umbelliferse
contain essential oils, resins, gum-resins and related substances.
The gum-resin ammoniac is an exudation found on the stem and
branches of Doreuia Animoniacum and other species of Dorema
as a result of the sting of an insect. The plant is found in Western
Asia. The gum-resin occurs in yellowish-brown, globular, or
somewhat flattened tears which are brittle, milky-white internally,
with a distinct balsamic odor and bitter, acrid, nauseous taste. It
contains a small quantity of volatile oil having the odor of
Angelica. African ammoniac is obtained from Ferula tingitana
growing in Northern Africa and Western Asia.

The gum-resin galbanujni is obtained by incising the root of
Ferula galbanifnla and other species of Ferula growing in the
Levant. Galbanum occurs in pale yellowish-brown agglutinated
tears, forming a more or less hard mass, \vhich is brittle when
cold but soft and sticky at 37° C. ; the odor is distinct, balsamic ;
the taste bitter and acrid. It contains from 10 to 20 per cent, of a
volatile oil coniposed of d-pinene, cadinene, and other principles.

A volatile oil, known as Ajowan oil, and containing thvmol,
is obtained from the fruit of Carum Ajozvan of Europe, Asia and
Africa. A volatile oil containing apiol is found in the fruit and
leaves of the garden parsley {PctroscUnum sathum). Dill oil
is obtained from the garden Dill {Ancthum gravcolens) . The
fruit of Sweet cicely (PVashiiigfonia loiigistylis) yields a volatile
oil knowm as sweet anise oil, which contains anethol. The o!I
of water fennel {CEnanthe Phellandri) contains about 80 per cent,
of phellandrene. Cumin oil is obtained from Cnminnm Cyminiim
of Turkestan and Egypt, and contains cymene.

The roots of a number of the plants of this family contain
volatile oils, as Lovage {Levisticum officinale) of Southern
Europe; European angelica or garden angelica (Angelica Arch-
angelica) ; American angelica or the purple-stemmed angelica
(A. atropurpurca) found in the Northern and Eastern United
States and Canada ; Wild angelica {A. svlvestris) of Europe.

c. CORNACE^ OR DOGWOOD FAMILY.— The plants
are shrubs or trees with simple, opposite leaves, and flowers in
cymes or heads, which in the case of the Flowering dogwood

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 355

(Cornns florida) are subtended by four large, petal-like, white, or
pinkish bracts.

The bark of Cornus florida, a shrub or small tree growing in
the United States, contains a bitter principle, cornin ; and a small
quantity of gallic and tannic acids.

Auciiha japonica, a plant indigenous to the Himalayas, China
and Japan and extensively cultivated on account of its crimson
berries, contains a glucoside aucubin. It is found in the different
varieties and varies in amount from 0.31 to 1.96 per cent.

METACHLAMYDE.E OR SYMPETAL^.

This is the highest group of plants and is marked by the fol-
lowing characters : The corolla is sympetalous ; the flowers are
mostly perigynous or epigynous and both the corolla and stamens
are borne on the perianth tube. The number of parts is definite,
there being 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 or 10 stamens and 2 or 5 carpels.
This sub-class includes but six orders, to which, however, belong
a large number of medicinal and economic plants.

I. ORDER ERICALES.

The plants of this order are distinguished by the fact that the
stamens are mostly free from the perianth tube.

a. PYROLACE^. — The plants are small, mostly evergreen
perennials, and are represented in the United States by several
genera.

Chimaphila nmbellata (Prince's pine or Pipsissewa) is a small
trailing or creeping plant producing distinct flower- and leaf-
branches. The leaves are official (p. 603).' The flowers are in
small corymbs and the petals are white or pinkish. In Chima-
phila macidata the leaves are lanceolate, mottled with white along
the veins and the flowers are considerably larger.

With the P}Tolacese are sometimes grouped the saprophytic
plants of the genus Monotropa. There are two representatives of
this genus which are common in the United States, namely, Indian
pipe {Monotropa uniHora) and false beech-drops {M. Hypopitys)
The latter contains a glucoside or an ester of methyl salicylate,
and a ferment gaultherase.

356

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

b. ERICACE^ OR HEATH FAMILY.— This is a large
family and the plants are widely distributed, especially in the
northern mountainous parts of both the Eastern and Western Con-
tinent. They vary from perennial herbs to trees. The flowers
are usually regular, the stamens being mostly 2-spurred (Fig.
8i, S), and the fruit is either a superior or inferior drupe or
berry (Fig. 134, H).

Fig. 171. GauUheria prcc:i>nhens: .\, entire plant showing horizontally creeping stolons
and solitary axillary flowers; B, flower showing hypocrateriform corolla; C, stamen; D,
young fruit; E, section of fruit showing the baccate or berry-like calyx which encloses the
real fruit or capsule; F, leaf showing venation; G, cross-section of leaf showing epidermis
(e), three layers of palisade cells (p). and chlorenchyma (c); H. cross-section of margin of leaf
showing in addition a large group of sterome cells. — After Holm.

Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi is a low branching shrub which trails
or spreads on the ground. The leives are used in medicine
(p. 601). The flowers are small, white or pink, few and in short
racemes. The fruit is a red, globular drupe.

Trailing arbutus (Epigcua repens) is a trailing, shrubby, hairy
plant with broadly elliptical or ovate, coriaceous, evergreen leaves
and white or rose-colored, fragrant flowers which are either
perfect, with styles and filaments of varying length, or dioecious.
The leaves contain gimilar constituents to those in Uva Ursi and
Chimaphila,

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 357

The leaves of vvintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) are the
source of true oil of wintergreen, which consists almost entirely
of methyl salicylate. It contains a small quantity of an alcohol
and an ester giving the characteristic odor. The same principles
probably also occur in several other species of Gaultheria (Fig.

171)-

The poisonous principle andromedotoxin is found in a number

of species of Rhododendron, Leucothoe, and Pieris. This prin-
ciple is a powerful emetic and one of the most toxic principles
known. It probably occurs in the nectar of the flowers of Kalmia
and Rhododendron, being the cause of the poisonous properties
of the honey from this source. The leaves of several species of
laurel (Kalmia) contain considerable quantities of this principle,
and are poisonous to cattle.

The plants of the genus Gaylusaccia are small shrubs distin-
guished by having an inferior, berry-like drupe with ten loculi.
To this genus belong the huckleberries, as black huckleberry
{G. resinosa) ; blue huckleberry {G. frondosa) ; and dwarf huckle-
berry {G. dumosa). The latter plant grows in sandy swamps
in both the United States and Canada and the fruit ripens in
May and June. The fruits of the other two species ripen in
July and August.

The plants belonging to the genus Vaccinium vary from very
small shrubs to tree-like shrubs and the fruit is an inferior.
5-locular berry with numerous seeds. The blueberries or bilber-
ries (whortleberries) are the fruits of several species of Vacci-
nium. The low bush blueberry (V. pennsyhanicum) yields the
berries which ripen in June and July, while the high bush blue-
berry (V. corymbosum) furnishes the fruits which are found in
the market in July and August.

The bilberry of Europe, Vaccinium Myrtillus, a plant growing
in Northern Europe and Asia and the Western United States and
Canada, is said to destroy Bacillus typhosus and B. Coli, an
infusion of the dried berries being used for this purpose. The
leaves of this plant contain ericolin and kinic acid.

Cranberry is the fruit of several species of Vaccinium which
are sometimes grouped in a separate genus, Oxycoccus. There
are two principal species : The large or American Cranberry ( V.
macro car pum) in which the berries are ovoid or oblong and the

35S BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

small or European Cranberry (V. Oxycoccus) in which the ber-
ries are globose. The berries contain from 1.4 to 2.8 per cent,
of citric acid ; and a bitter glucoside, oxycoccin.

II. ORDER EBENALES.

This order includes three families which are chiefly indig-
enous to the Tropics. The leaves are alternate, and the flowers
vary in the different families, the fruit being a berry or drupe.

a. SAPOTACE^ OR SAPODILLA FAMILY.— The plants
usually have a milky latex, and many of them yield gutta-
percha, of which the following may be mentioned : Palaqiiium
Giitta, P. ohlongifolium, P. horneense and P. Trenbii, all growing
in the East Indies. The latex is obtained by incising the trees
and collecting the exuding juice in suitable vessels. It soon coag-
ulates and forms grayish or reddish-yellow hard masses, which
are plastic at 65° to 70° C. Owing to the fact that the material
is plastic when heated and firm and tenacious when cold, it is
used for a variety of purposes, as in the manufacture of surgical
instruments and as a material for filling teeth. Gutta-percha as
it exudes from the tree is supposed to consist of a terpene-like
hydrocarbon, which on coagulation is oxidized, forming a number
of resinous compounds. The plants of other genera of this family
also yield gutta-percha, as Mimusops Balata, M. Elcngi and about
fifteen species of Payena growing in the East Indies.

Gum Balata is obtained from Mimusops Balata, a tree of
Guiana. The gum is more resinous and flexible than gutta-
percha. It contains /3-amyrin acetate and probably lupeol acetate.

A gum resembling gutta-percha is obtained from the Sabodilla
tree (Achras Sapota). This gum is known in commerce as Gum
chicle and is obtained from Yucatan. It is whitish, brittle, and
yet somewhat elastic, aromatic, and contains 45 per cent, of a
colorless crystallizable resin, soluble in alcohol and ether; and 18
per cent, of caoutchouc. It is used in large quantities in the mak-
ing of chewing gum.

The seeds of Illipc butyracea yield a fixed oil which is known
as VEGETABLE BUTTER. A fixed oil is also obtained from other
species of Tllipe as well as various species of Bassia, Argania and

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 359

Butyrospermum, that from the latter being known as " shea
butter."

The family is notable on account of the hard woods, known as
Ironwoods, which it furnishes, these being yielded by Mimnsops
Kauki of Farther India and tropical Australia and Argaiiia Sidc-
roxylon of Southwestern Morocco.

A number of species also yield highly prized edible fruits, as
the Sapotilla yielded by Achras Sapota indigenous to the Antil-
les and cultivated in tropical countries, and Star apple yielded
by Chrysophyllum Cainito of tropical America.

b. EBENACE^ OR EBONY FAMILY.— The plants differ
from those of the preceding family in not containing a latex.
The flowers are monoecious or dicecious and they usually have
from two to eight styles. The chief interest is in the genus
Diospxros, which yields the wood known as ebony. Black ebony
is obtained from various species of Diospyros growing in tropical
Africa, and Asia, and the Philippine Islands. White ebony is
obtained from several species of Diospyros growing in the Philip-
pines. A red ebony is obtained from D. rubra of Mauritius, a
green ebony from D. cliloroxyloii of Farther India, and a striped
ebony from several species growing in the Philippines.

Persimmon fruit is obtained from Diospyros virginiana, a
tree growing from Rhode Island south to Texas. The astrin-
gency of the unripe fruit is due to the tannin which it contains.
When it is ripe, which is not until after the appearance of frost,
it is palatable and contains considerable malic acid and sugars.
The Japanese persimmon is a cultivated variety of D. Kaki and
produces a large orange-colored fruit which is not uncommon in
the fruit markets in many parts of the world. At the present
time the plant is cultivated in California.

The bark of our native persimmon is used in medicine. It
contains considerable tannin which resembles gallotannic acid,
and a crystalline resinous principle with a peculiar odor and
slightly astringent taste.

c. STYRACE.E OR STORAX FAMILY.— The flowers of
this family somewhat resemble those of the Ebenacese. but the
filaments of the stamens are united in a single series, and there
is a single slender style.

36o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Styrax Benzoin is a medium-sized tree with long, ovate,
acuminate leaves which are very hairy on the under surface. The
flowers occur in terminal racemes, and are silvery white on the
outer surface and reddish-brown on the inner surface. The bal-
samic resin yielded by this plant is official as benzoin (p. 672).

III. ORDER GENTIANALES OR CONTORTS.

The plants of this order have opposite leaves, the flowers are
regular and the gynascium consists of two separate carpels. The
order includes five families all of which furnish medicinal plants.

a. OLEACE^ OR OLIVE FAMILY.— This family is
chiefly of interest because of the olive and manna trees.

The olive tree {Olea europcea) is indigenous to the Orient and
is now cultivated extensively in Southern Europe, Northern
Africa, the islands of the Mediterranean, tropical America,
including the Southern United States, and in California. The
leaves are narrow-lanceolate, entire, coriaceous and evergreen.
The flowers are small, white, diandrous and in axillary racemes.
The fruit is a drupe, the sarcocarp of which is rich in a fixed
oil known as olive oil. The oil is obtained by expression, and
is official. Depending upon the character of the fruits and
the amount of oil which they yield, over forty varieties are recog-
nized. The fresh green olives contain a glucoside oleuropein.
which disappears on the maturation of the fruit.

Fraximis Ornus is a tree resembling the ash, with 7-foliate
leaves, and polygamous flowers occurring in compound racemes.
The fruit is a flat samara with the wing at the apex. The sac-
charine exudation from this plant is official as manna (p. 649).

The white ash (Fraxinus aincricana) is a valuable tree on
account of the timber which it yields. The bark contains a bitter
glucoside, fraxin, the solutions of which are fluorescent; a bitter
substance, fraxetin ; an ethereal oil of a butter-like consistency, and
tannin. Some of these principles are also found in other species
of Fraxinus growing in the United States and Europe.

The bark of the fringe tree (Chionanthus virginica) of the
Southern United States, contains an intensely bitter glucosidal
principle, chionanthin, and possibly also saponin.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

361

The leaves of the garden Hlac (Syringa vulgaris) contain a
crystalHne ghicoside, syringin. and syringopicrin, both of which

Fig. 172. Carolina pink iSpigelia marilandica') showing the rhizome bearing two
branches with opposite leaves and flowers in terminal scorpioid cymes.

are probably also found in other species of Syringa as well as
the bark and leaves of privet (Ligitsfrnin vtilgare) which latter
plant is extensively used for hedges.

362 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

b. LOGANIACE^ OR LOGANIA FAMILY.— The plants
are variable in character, being herbs, shrubs, trees or vines.

Yellow jessamine {Gclsemium scmpcrvircns) is a twining
woody vine, sometimes trailing on the ground for a considerable
distance. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate and evergreen. The
flowers are bright yellow and dimorphic. The fruit is a septi-
cidally dehiscent capsule. The rhizome and roots are official
(p. 480).

Carolina pink {Spigelia marilandica) is a perennial herb with
ovate-lanceolate, more or less acute and nearly sessile leaves. The
flowers are yellow on the inner and scarlet on the outer surface,
and occur in a i -sided spike or scorpioid cyme. The fruit is a
circumscissile, 2-valved capsule (Fig. 172). The rhizome and
roots are official (p. 503).

Strychnos Nitx-voinica is a small tree with broadly elliptical.
3- to 5-nerved, reticulately-veined, somewhat acuminate, cori-
aceous leaves. The flowers are whitish and in terminal cymes.
The fruit is a berry of varying size and contains several seeds,
the seeds being official (p. 436).

Curare which is used by the Indians of South America as
an arrow-poison is supposed to be made from the bark of Strych-
nos toxifcra growing in Guiana, and probably other species of
this genus. The active principle of this poison is the alkaloid
curarine, which when administered hypodermically has a powerful
action resembling that of digitalis.

c. GENTIANACE^ OR GENTIAN FAMILY.— The
plants are mostly herbs with regular, perfect, showy flowers occur-
ring usually in small cymes or racemes.

Yellow gentian {Gcntiana lutea) is a large, perennial herb
(Fig. 209) with large, 5- to 7-nerved, broadly elliptical leaves.
The flowers are yellow and occur in axillary cymes. The fruit is a
2-valved, ovoid capsule. The rhizome and roots are official (p. 483).

Sweertia Chirata. — The entire plant is official (p. 637).

Herba Centaurii minoris, the entire plant of Erythrcra Ccn-
taurcum of Europe, contains a glucoside, erytaurin, which forms
small colorless prismatic and bitter crystals and is slowly hydro-
lyzed by emulsin. Sabbatia Elliottii occurring in the pine barrens
of the Southern States is known as the " quinine herb."

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 363

d. APOCYNACE.E OR DOGBANE FAMILY.— The plants
vary from perennial herbs to shrubs and trees, contain an acrid
latex, and have flowers with the stigmas and styles united and the
stamens distinct. They are mostly found in the Tropics.

Apocyiiiim cannabiiniiii is a perennial herb with erect or
ascending branches. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate, opposite,
nearly sessile or with short petioles (Fig. 201, C, D). The flowers
are greenish-white, the lobes of the corolla being nearly er^ct and
the tube about as long as the calyx. The fruit is a slender, terete
follicle containing numerous seeds tipped at the micropylar end
with a tuft of hairs. The root is official (p. 467).

The root of a closely related species, namely, spreading dog-
bane {Apocynuin androsamifoliiim) is sometimes substituted for
the official drug. The plant is distinguished by being more
spreading in its habit. The leaves are ovate (Fig. 201, A, B),
the flowers are pinkish, the lobes being revolute and the tube
several times as long as the calyx.

Strophanthus Kornbe. — The plant is a woody climber w'ith
elliptical-acuminate, hairy leaves. The flowers are fev/, character-
ized by long styles, and occur in axillary racemes. The fruit con-
sists of two long follicles containing numerous awned seeds (Fig.
185), which are official (p. 430). In the closely related plant S.
hispidus the flowers are numerous and occur in terminal cymes.

Quebracho or Aspidosperma is the bark of Aspidosperma
Qnebracho-hlaiico, a tree growing in Argentine. It occurs in
nearly flat pieces which are i to 3 cm. thick ; the outer, surface
is yellowish-gray and deeply fissured, the inner bark being very
hard and tough. It is aromatic and bitter and contains six alka-
loids, all of which are present in the commercial aspidospermine.
They are aspidospermine, which is colored brown, then cherry-
red or purplish by sulphuric acid and potassium dichromate ;
aspidosamine, which is colored blue by sulphuric acid and potas-
sium dichromate ; aspidospermatine, which is colored deep red
by perchloric acid like the two preceding alkaloids, but not by
sulphuric acid and potassium dichromate ; quebrachine, wdiich is
colored yellow by perchloric acid ; and quebrachinamine, which
resembles quebrachine but has a much lower melting point. The
bark is used for tanning leather and yields a commercial extract.

364

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The leaves and bark of the cultivated oleander {Ncri]iui Olean-
der) contain the glucoside oleandrin, resembling digitalin in its ac-
tion ; a fluorescent principle, and probably several other principles.

Fig. 173. A, cells of endosperm of the seed of the date palm {Phanix dactylifera) , the
one normal and the other showing the stratification of the wall after treatment with
chlor-zinc-iodide.

B, cell of endosperm of PhytelepJtas macrocarpa (vegetable ivory) showing lamellation
and spherite structure in the wall after treatment with chlor-zinc-iodide, clove oil, chromic
acid or certain other reagents.

C, cell of endosperm of Strychnos Nux-vomica after treatment with iodine and potas-
sium iodide solution.

D, opposite pores in the walls in contiguous cells of vegetable ivory showing striae
between them after treatment with iodine solution.

The common periwinkle {Vinca minor) contains the principle
vincin which is supposed to be a glucoside and which probably
occurs in other species of Vinca.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 365

e. ASCLEPIADACE^ OR MILKWEED FAMILY.— The
plants somewhat resemble those of the Apocynaceae. The flower,
however, is distinguished by having distinct styles, a 5-lobed
corona connecting the corolla and stamens, which latter are mostly
monadelphous, and pollen grains that are coherent, forming char-
acteristic pairs of pollinia. It may be noted that while this
family contains a large number of plants that are used in medicine
none of them are ofiicial. Pleurisy root, which was formerly
ofificial, is obtained from Asclepias tuberosa, a plant growing in
the Eastern United States and one of the two members of this
genus that have orange-colored flowers. The root is more or less
fusiform, wrinkled, about i or 2 cm. thick, and is usually cut into
longitudinal pieces. In the dried condition it is light brown exter-
nally, more or less irregular, with a tough fracture and a bitter,
slightly acrid taste. The active principle is the glucoside asclepia-
din. A similar principle is found in the root of other species of
Asclepias.

CoNDURANGO is the bark of Marsdenia Cundurango, a liane of
Ecuador and Columbia. It occurs in quilled pieces, the bark being
from 2 to 6 mm. thick. Externally it is brownish-gray and with
a more or less scaly cork. The taste is bitter, acrid and aromatic.
The drug contains an amorphous glucoside ; an unsaturated alco-
hol occurring in large prisms; and a volatile oil (0.3 per cent.).

IV. ORDER POLEMONIALES OR TUBIFLOR^.

This is a large order of plants, which are mostly herbaceous.
The leaves are either opposite or alternate ; the flowers are reg-
ular or irregular, the stamens being usually adnate to the corolla.

a. CONVOLVULACE^ OR MORNING-GLORY FAM-
ILY.— The plants are mostly herbs or shrubs, frequently twining
(to the left). They are found mostly in the Tropics, but quite a
number of genera occur in temperate regions (Fig. 174).

Exogonium Ptirga is a perennial twining herb with distinctly
veined, cordate leaves ; purple flowers with the stamens exserted,
and occurring in cymes. The fruit is a 2-locular capsule. The
plants produce slender rhizomes with tuber-like roots, these being
used in medicine (p. 451). •

366

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Convolvulus Scammonia is a perennial twining herb, with a
large tap root, containing a resinous latex, and is the source of
the ofificial scammony (p. 656). The leaves are sagittate; the
flowers are large, yellowish-white and funnel-form, as in the
morning-glory, and occur in the axils of the leaves, either solitary
or in clusters. The fruit is a 4-seeded, 4-locular, dehiscent capsule.

Fig. 174. Great bind weed (Convolvulus sepium) showing trailing or twining habit,
the hastate leaves and funnel-shaped corolla. The plant is very resistant to noxious fumes
and is usually found in smelter regions.

A number of the plants of the Convolvulacese are cultivated,
probably the most important of which is the sweet potato vine
(Ipoiiia-a Batatas), a plant extensively cultivated in tropical and
sub-tropical countries on account of the edible tuberous roots.
The roots contain from 3 to 10 per cent, of sugar and 9 to 15 per
cent, of starch, which occurs in larger proportion in plants grown
in sub-tropical countries. The starch is a commercial product
and is kiwwn as sweet-potato starch or Brazilian arrow-root.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 367

The grains are more or less bell-shaped and 2- or 3-compound,
about the size of wheat-starch grains, and in other ways resemble
those of tapioca.

To this family also belongs rather an interesting group of
parasitic plants, namely, dodder (Cuscuta). They contain the
principle cuscutin, and quite a number have been used in medicine.

b. HYDROPHYLLACE/E OR WATERLEAF FAMILY.
The plants are herbs or shrubs which are indigenous to Western
North America. Very few of the plants of this family are of
use medicinally, although quite a number are ornamental plants.

Eriodictyon calif ornicnui (£. ghitinosuin) or Yerba Santa
is a shrub growing in Northern Mexico and California. The
leaves are official (p. 612). The flowers are funnel-form, white
or purple, occurring in cymes. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule
and the seeds are small and few.

c. BORAGINACE.E OR BORAGE FAMILY.— The plants
are mostly herbs with regular blue flowers, occurring in scor-
pioid inflorescence. The best examples of the group are the
forget-me-not {Myosotis), the roots of several species of which
have been used in medicine; and the garden heliotrope (Hclio-
tropiiJii pcntz'iamtiii) , the fragrance of the flowers being due to a
volatile oil. This plant, as well as other species of Heliotropum,
contains a poisonous volatile alkaloid.

At one time considerable interest attached to alkanet, the root
of Alkanna tinctoria of Southern Europe and Asia, on account
of the red coloring principle alkannin, which is soluble in alcohol,
ether, fixed and ethereal oils, but insoluble in water. Comfrey
or SYMPHYTUiM IS the root of Symphytum officinale and other
species of this genus naturalized from Europe in waste places in
the L^nited States. It occurs on the market' in small, purplish-
black, more or less curved pieces, which are quite mucilaginous and
■astringent to the taste. The drug contains a gluco-alkaloid, con-
solidin, and an alkaloid, cynoglossine. It also contains a small
amount of dextrin-starch, i.e., one v/hich is not colored blue with
iodine, and tannin. The root and herb of hound's tongue {Cyno-
glossum officinale) are both used in medicine. The drug contains
the powerful alkaloid cynoglossine, which resembles curarine in
its action ; and the gluco-alkaloid, consolidin.

368 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

d. VERBENACE^ OR VERVAIN FAMILY.— The plants
are chiefly herbs or shrubs with usually opposite or verticillate
leaves and more or less irregular flowers.

To this family belongs the group of verbenas, some of which
are used in medicine, as blue vervain (Verbena hastata), which
resembles eupatorium in its medicinal properties ; nettle-leaved
vervain {V. urtici folia) which contains a bitter glucoside. The
drug LiPPiA MEXiCANA consists of the leaves of Lippia diilcis
mexicana, and contains a volatile oil, the camphor lippiol, tannin
and quercetin. Lippia citriodora, found growing in the central
part of South America, contains a volatile oil, of which citral is
a constituent. Teak-wood, which is one of the hardest and most
valuable of woods, is derived from the teak tree ( Tectona
grandis) , a large tree indigenous to Farther India and the East
Indies.

e. LABIATE OR MINT FAMILY.— The plants are mostly
aromatic herbs or shrubs, with square stems, simple, opposite
leaves, bilabiate flowers and a fruit consisting of four nutlets.
The calyx is persistent, regular or 2-lipped and mostly nerved.
The corolla is mostly 2-lipped, the upper lip being 2-lobed or
entire, and the lower mostly 3-lobed. The stamens are adnate
to the corolla tube, and are either 4 and didynamous, or 2 per-
fect and 2 aborted. The ovary is deeply 4-lobed (Fig. 134, /).

The Labiatse are especially distinguished on account of the
volatile oils which they yield and a few contain bitter or glucosidal
principles.

I. The following plants are official:

Scutellaria lateriflora (skullcap). The entire plant is official.
(See page 638.) The plant is a perennial herb producing slender
stolons somewhat resembling those of peppermint and spearmint.
The stems are erect or ascending, commonly branching and from
22 to 55 cm. high.

Marrnhium vidgare (white hoarhound) is a perennial woolly
herb with ascending branches, the leaves and flowering tops being
official (p. 628).

Salvia officinalis or garden sage is a perennial, somewhat
shrubby, pubescent herb. The leaves are official (p. 612). The
flowers are bluish, somewhat variegated, the calyx and corolla

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

369

both being deeply bilabiate. Only the two anterior stamens are
fertile (bear anthers) ; the connective is transverse, the upper

Fig. 175. Peppermint (Mentha piperita): B, portion of shoot showing petiolate leaves;
C. transverse section of leaf showing several forms of glandular hairs on lower surface,
loose parenchyma (m) and palisade cells (p) ; D, lower surface of leaf showing stoma (s) and
glandular hair (g). Spearmint (Mentha spicata): A. portion of shoot showing flowers and
nearly sessile leaves; E, flower; F, outspread corolla showing cleft posterior lobe (p) and
the four adnate. included stamens; G, H. hairs from calyx; I, sphere crystals (spheerites) of
a carbohydrate found in the corolla and style; J, pollen grains.

end bearing a perfect pollen-sac and the lower, a somewhat
enlarged rudimentary pollen-sac (Fig. 84, F).

Hcdcoma pulegioides (American pennyroyal) (see p. 628).

370 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Mentha species. — The plants are nearly glabrous, diffusely
branching herbs, which form leafy stolons that are perennial
(Fig. 175). The leaves and flowering tops of both Mentha
piperita (p. 631) and Mentha spicata (p. 632) are official.

2. Volatile oils of the following plants are official :
Rosmarinus officinalis is a shrub growing in the Mediterranean

countries. The plant has linear, coriaceous leaves, and bluish, bila-
biate flowers, the middle lobe of the lower lip of the corolla being
large, concave, and toothed on the margin. The flowering tops
yield from i to 1.5 per cent, of oil which is composed of 15 to 18
per cent, of borneol ; about 5 per cent, of bornyl acetate ; and
pinene, camphene, camphor and cinneol. There are two commer-
cial varieties of the oil, the Italian and French, the latter having
the finer odor.

Lavandula officinalis (garden lavender) is a shrub growing in
the Northern Mediterranean countries, as well as in England. The
leaves are linear, coriaceous ; the flowers are small, light blue,
bilabiate, with a tubular calyx, and occur in opposite cymes
(verticillasters).

The oil is derived from the fresh flowering tops, the flowers
yielding about 0.5 per cent. Two kinds of oil are on the market,
namely, French and English. The French oil contains 30 to 45
per cent, of 1-linalyl acetate ; linalool ; geraniol, both of which
latter constituents occur free and as esters. The English oil con-
tains about 5 to 10 per cent, of linalyl acetate and a slight amount
of cineol. Spike lavender (Lazmndula spica) is sometimes dis-
tilled with true lavender (p. 371).

Thvinns I'lilgaris (garden thyme) is a small shrub having
linear or linear-lanceolate leaves, and pale blue flowers with
strongly bilabiate, hairy calyx that occur in axillary cymes. The
plant grows in the mountains of Southern France. The herb
contains from 0.3 to 0.9 per cent, of volatile oil, which is of a
dark reddish-brown color, and contains from 20 to 25 per cent, of
thymol ; and cymene, 1-pinene, borneol and linalool. The Spanish
oil of thyme contains from 50 to 70 per cent, of carvacrol. but no
thymol.

3. Of OTHER plants OF THE LABIATE which are of interest,
the following may be mentioned :

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 371

Lavandula spica yields oil of spike, which has an odor of
lavender and rosemary. The oil contains camphor, borneol, cineol,
linalool and camphene,

Origaiiuui ijiajoraiia (Sweet marjoram) is an annual culti-
vated herb that has more or less oval, entire leaves, white flowers
and an aromatic odor and taste. It produces a volatile oil which
contains terpinene and d-terpineol. Origanum vulgare (Wild mar-
joram) grows in fields and waste places in the Eastern United
States and Canada. The calyx is equally 5-toothed and the
corolla varies from white to pink or purple. It contains a volatile
oil having an odor somewhat like that of the oil of O. majorana.
Origanum liirfum and O. Onites yield an origanum oil containing
carvacrol and cymene. The oils obtained from Cretian Origanum
are the source of commercial carvacrol.

Pogosfemon Patchouli, a plant cultivated in Southern China
and the East and West Indies, furnishes the oil of patchouli
used in perfumery. Patchouly camphor and cadinene have been
isolated from the oil, but nothing, however, appears to be known
of the nature of the odorous principle.

Hyssopus officinalis (Garden hyssop) contains about 0.5 per
cent, of a volatile oil to which the characteristic odor of the plant
is due. Saturcja hortensis (summer savory) yields a volatile oil
containing carvacrol, cymene and terpene. Ocimum basiltcum
(Sweet basil) is an herb growing in Europe, and yields an oil
which is used in the preparation of Chartreuse and similar liquors.
The oil contains methyl chavicol, linalool, cineol, camphor, pinene
and terpin hydrate.

Melissa officinalis (Sweet balm) is a perennial herb indigenous
to Europe and Asia and also cultivated. The leaves are ovate,
dentate, and the flowers are bilabiate, the calyx being bell-shaped
and 13-nerved. The taste is bitter, this being due to a bitter
principle. The fresh leaves are quite aromatic and produce from
0.1 to 0.25 per cent, of a volatile oil containing a stearoptene.

Several species of Monarda known as itorsemint or wild
bergamot are used in medicine. The oil was at one time official.
The oil of Monarda punctata, a perennial herb found growing
from New York to Texas, contains thymol, thymoquinone, hydro-
thymoquinone, carvacrol, cymene and limonene.

372 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Ncpcta Cataria (catnip) is a perennial herb naturalized in
the United States from Europe (Fig. 74). It contains a bitter
principle, tannin, and an oxygenated volatile oil. Glecoma hede-
racea or ground ivy is a creeping perennial herb with blue bilabi-
ate flowers and reniform, crenate leaves. It contains a bitter
principle and volatile oil. Cunila origanoides or American
DITTANY, is a small perennial herb growing from New York to
Florida, and characterized by its pungent aromatic properties.

Lcominis Cardiaca or motherwort is a perennial herb nat-
uralized in the United States and Canada from Europe. The
leaves are 3-lobed ; the calyx is 5-nerved and with 5 prickly
teeth ; the corolla varies from white to pink or purple. The plant
contains a volatile oil of rather an unpleasant odor ; a bitter prin-
ciple ; two resins and several organic acids, namely, malic, citric
and tartaric.

f. SOLANACE^ OR POTATO FAMILY.— The family
includes herbs, shrubs, trees and vines, which are most abundant
in tropical regions. The leaves are alternate and vary from entire
to dissected. The flowers are mostly regular, except in hyos-
cyamus. The stamens are adnate to the corolla tube, the anthers
connivent and the pollen-sacs apically or longitudinally dehiscent.
The fruit is a berry or capsule in which the sepals mostly persist
and sometijnes become enlarged or inflated. The seeds have a
large reserve layer and the embryo is frequently curved.

Datura Stramonium (Jimson weed) is a large, annual, branch-
ing herb (Fig. 269), found in waste places in the United States
and parts of Canada, being naturalized from Asia. The leaves
and flowering tops are official (p. 622). The large, spiny capsule
is shown at Fig. 89, B. The seeds are described on page 624.

Atropa Belladonna (Deadly nightshade) is a perennial herb
producing a large fleshy root, which is used in medicine (p. 463),
as are also the leaves and flowering tops (Fig. 268, p. 620).

ScopoUa caniioUca is a perennial herb with nearly entire or
somew^hat irregularly toothed leaves. The flowers are campan-
ulate and dark purple. The fruit is a globular, transversely
dehiscent capsule (pyxidium). The rhizome is official (p. 509).

Hyoscyamus nigcr or henbane is a biennial herb (Fig. 26y),
the leaves and flowering tops of which are official (p. 617).

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

373

Pichi is the dried leafy twigs of Fahiana inihricata, a shrub
with small, scale-like leaves, indigenous to Chile. It contains a
volatile oil; o.i per cent, of a bitter alkaloid; a glucoside resem-
bling sesculin ; and a bitter resin.

Solanum Dulcamara (Bitter sweet) is a perennial, climbing
herbaceous plant, indigenous to Europe and Asia and naturalized

A ^.^^ E

0 o

0 0
Q 0 O

Fig. 175 a. Scopola {Scopolia carnioUca); A. rhizome showing prominent stem scars;
B, longitudinal section showing reticulate tracheae, parenchyma cells containing starch and
one with sohenoidal micro- crystals of calcium oxalate; C. individual crystals which sepa-
rate from sections or in the powder, the single crystals being from 5 to lo m in diameter and
the aggregates being 15 <i in diam.eter; D. isolated starch grains, which are s to 20 m in diam-
eter; E, field showing starch grains and crystals of calcium oxalate under polarized light.

in the Northern United States. The branches which have begun
to develop periderm are collected, and were formerly official as
Dulcamara. They are cut into pieces lo to 20 mm. long which
are greenish-brown, hollow, with a sweetish, bitter taste and con-
tain a glucoside, dulcamarin, and the gluco-alkaloid solanine.

374 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGINOSY.

Solanuni carolinense (Horse nettle) is a perennial herb having
numerous yellow prickles on the branches and leaves. The leaves
are oblong or ovate, irregularly lobed (Fig. 176). The flowers

Fig. 176. Horse nettle (Solanum carolinense'): A, portion of shoot showing flowers
and fruits and spines on leaves and stem; B. longitudinal section of spine (s) and portion
of stem showing glandular (g) and non-glandular (h) hairs, and cells containing crypto-
crystalline crystals (ca) ; C, thick-walled, strongly lignified cells of spine; D, portion of
fibrovascular bundle showing cryptocrystalline crystals (ca) of calcium oxalate in the cells
accompanying the sieve; E, stellate, non-glandular hair; F, stoma of stem; G, diagram of
cross section of flower showing sepals (s), petals (p), stamens (a), ovary (c) ; H, longitudinal
section of flower; I, stamen showing terminal pores; J, cross section of 2-locular berry;
K, pollen grains, 30 y- in diameter.

are white or light blue and occur in lateral cymes. The fruit is
an orange-yellow, glabrous berry. The plant is common in waste
places in Canada and the United States east of the Mississippi.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 375

The root and berries are used in medicine. The root is simple
and quite long, 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, yellowish-brown, the
bark readily separating from the wood. It has a narcotic odor
and a sweetish, bitter, somewhat acrid taste. Both the root and
berries contain the gluco-alkaloid solanine, which varies' from 0.15
(in the root) to 0.8 per cent, (in the berries).

Capsicum fastigiafinii (Cayenne pepper) is a perennial,
smooth, herbaceous, or somewhat shrubby plant, with ovate, acu-
minate, petiolate, entire leaves ; the flowers are greenish-white,
and solitary in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is official and is
known in commerce as African pepper (p. 578). This plant
and a number of other species of Capsicum are indigenous to trop-
ical America, where they are extensively cultivated, as also in
Africa and India.

Nicotiana Tabacnm (Virginia Tobacco plant) is a tall annual
herb indigenous to tropical America and widely cultivated. The stem
is simple, giving rise to large, pubescent, ovate, entire, decurrent
leaves, the veins of which are prominent and more or less hairy. The
flowers are long, tubular, pink or reddish, and occur in terminal
spreading cymes. The various forms of tobacco are made
from the leaves, which are hung in barns, whereby they
undergo a slow drying or process of curing. Other species of
Nicotiana are also cultivated, as A^ pcrsica, which yields Persian
tobacco ; and ^V. nistica, the source of Turkey tobacco. Tobacco
leaves contain from 0.6 to 9 per cent, of the alkaloid nicotine ; an
aromatic principle nicotianin or tobacco camphor, to which the
characteristic flavor is due and which is formed during the curing
of the leaves. The dried leaves yield from 14 to 15 per cent, of
ash, consisting in large part of potassium nitrate.

Solanuvi tiibcrosuni (Potato plant) is indigenous to the Andes
region of South America and is extensively cultivated on account
of the edible tubers. The tubers (potatoes) contain about 75 per
cent, of water, 20 per cent, of starch, and nearly 2 per cent, of
proteins in the form of large protein crystalloids. The fruits and
young shoots contain the gluco-alkaloid solanine and the alkaloid
solanidine. The tubers contain a small amount of solanine, which
is increased when they are attacked by certain fungi or exposed
to light.

376 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Besides the potato plant, several other plants belonging to the
Solanacege yield vegetables, as the Tomato plant {Solanum Lyco-
pcrsicnm) and the Egg plant (Solanum Melongena). Various
cultivated species of Capsicum annuum furnish the common red
peppers of the market.

g. SCROPHULARIACE^ OR FIGWORT FAMILY.—
The plants are herbs, shrubs or trees with opposite or alternate
leaves and perfect, mostly complete and irregular flowers. The
corolla and stamens show some resemblance to those of the Labi-
ata; in that the corolla is frequently more or less 2-lipped and the
stamens are didynamous. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule and
the seeds have a reserve layer and a straight or slightly curved
embryo.

Lcptandra virginica {Veronica virginica) or Culver's root, is
a perennial herb with leaves in whorls of 3 to 9, those on the upper
part of the stem being opposite. They are lanceolate, serrate,
and pinnately veined; the flowers are white or bluish, tubular, and
in dense racemes. The rhizome and roots are ofificial (p. 501).

Digitalis purpurea (Foxglove) is a tall, biennial, pubescent
herb, producing the first year a large number of basal leaves
(Fig. 265), and the second, a long raceme of drooping, tubular,
slightly irregular, purplish flowers ; the inner surface of the
corolla is spotted, the stamens are didynamous and the upper
calyx segment is narrower than the others. The leaves are official
in all the pharmacopoeias (p. 613).

The Scrophulariaceae are well represented in the United States,
and a number of the plants have medicinal properties. The
common mullein (Verbascuni Thapsus) contains a volatile oil,
two resins and a bitter principle. The flowers of mullein contain
the same principles and in addition a yellow coloring principle.
Other species of Verbascum are used in medicine in different
parts of the world.

BuTTER-AND-EGGS (Li)iaria -iiiJgaris) contains a crystalline
principle, linariin, antirrhinic acid, a volatile oil, resin and tannin.
Several species of Scrophularia, as .S. nodosa of Europe and 6".
marilandica of the Eastern United States, contain a pungent
resin and a trace of an alkaloid. Turtle-head (Chclonc glabra)
contains a bitter principle and gallic acid. The entire plant of

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 377

HYSSOP (Gratiola ofHcinalis) of Europe contains gratiolin, a bitter
glucoside, and gratiosolin. The leaves of Curanga amara of the
East Indies contain a glucoside, curanjiin, which resembles digi-
talin in its action.

h. BIGNONIACE^ OR TRUMPET-CREEPER FAM-
ILY.— The plants are shrubs, trees or woody vines, and are repre-
sented in the United States by the catalpa tree (Catalpa bigiio-
nioidcs) and the trumpet creeper {Tccoina radicans). The bark,
pods and seeds of Catalpa have been used in medicine and con-
tain a bitter principle, catalpin, a glucoside and several crystalline
principles. The trumpet cre-Eper contains narcotic poisonous
principles. The leaflets of Carooa {Jacaranda Copaia), and other
species of Jacaranda contain the alkaloid carobine. an aromatic
resin, carobone and a principle having the odor of coumarin.

i. PEDALIACE^. — The plants are herbs indigenous to the
Tropics of the Old World, some of which are now cultivated in
the Tropics of both hemispheres. Benne oil (oil of sesame) is
obtained from the seeds of Sesamnm indicum by expression. It
consists chiefly of a glycerite of oleic acid, a glycerite of linoleic
acid, and myristin, palmitin and stearin. It is a bland, non-drying
oil and is used like olive oil.

j. ACANTHACE.E OR ACANTHUS FAMILY.— The
plants are mostly tropical perennial herbs, or shrubs with opposite
leaves, in the mesophyll or epidermal cells of which cystoliths
usually occur (Fig. 221). Several genera are represented in
the United States, one of which, Ruellia {Ruellia ciliosa), is the
source of the spurious spigelia which has been on the market for
some years past (p. 504).

Ruellia ciliosa is a perennial herb which is distinguished from
the other species of the genus Ruellia by the leaves, stems and
calyx being distinctly pubescent. The leaves are ovate-lanceolate,
nearly sessile and entire ; the flowers are blue, sessile, solitary, or
two or three in a cluster, in the axils of the leaves ; the stamens are
4, and exserted. The fruit is an oblong, terete capsule containing
from 6 to 20 orbicular seeds. The plant is found from New
Jersey and Pennsylvania to Michigan and as far south as Florida
and Louisiana. Long cystoliths are found in some of the epi-
dermal cells of both surfaces of the leaf.

378 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Quite a number of the plants of the Acanthacese are used in
the Tropics in medicine. One of these, Adhatoda vasica of trop-
ical Asia, contains the alkaloid vasicine, and is said to have the
property of destroying algae which grow in the rice swamps.

k. PLANTAGINACE^ OR PLANTAIN FAMILY.— The
plants are annual or perennial herbs, represented by but few
genera, but numerous species. The principal genus is Plantago,
which includes 200 species that are widely distributed. Several
species of Plantago are used in medicine. The common plantain
{Plantago major) contains a glucoside. acubin ; emulsin ; and
invertin, and the short rhizome, considerable starch. The seed-
coat has an outer mucilaginous layer, and the mvicilage of the
seeds of Plantago psyllium, P. arenaria (both of Europe) and
P. ispaghul (of the East Indies) is used as a sizing material.
The seeds of a number of the species of Plantago are used as
bird food, particularly for canaries,

V. ORDER RUBIALES.

The plants of this order are distinguished from all of the
preceding Sympetalae by having flowers which are distinctly
epigynous. The leaves are opposite or verticillate.

a. RUBIACE^ OR MADDER FAMILY.— The plants are
herbs, shrubs or trees, and of the representatives found in the
United States the following may be mentioned: Bluets (Hous-
tonia species). Partridge-berry {Mitchella rcpcns) and Bedstraw
(Galium species). In Mitchella and Houstonia the flowers are
dimorphic.

Cinchona species. — The plants are mostly trees, or rarely
shrubs, with elliptical or lanceolate, entire, evergreen, petiolate,
opposite leaves (Fig. 177). The flowers are tubular, rose-colored
or yellowish- white, and occur in terminal racemes. The fruit is
a capsule, which dehisces into two valves from below upward,
the valves being held above bv the persistent calyx. The seeds
are numerous and winged. There are from 30 to 40 species of
Cinchona found growing in the Andes of South America at an
elevation above 800 M. and in a restricted area about 500 miles
in length extending from Venezuela to Bolivia. The plants are

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

379

cultivated in Java, Ceylon, New Zealand and Australia, as well
as in Jamaica.

There are two species which furnish the Cinchona bark (p.
517) of medicine : (i) Cinchona Ledgeriana (C. Calisaya Ledg-
criana), which has small, elliptical, coriaceous leaves, the under
surface of which is reddish ; small, yellowish, inodorous flowers,
and a short capsule; (2) C. succiruhra which has large, thin,
broadly-elliptical leaves, purplish-red calyx, rose-colored petals and

Fig. 177. Cinchona Ledgeriana: A, flowering branch; B, bud and open flower*
C, fruiting branch. — After Schumann.

a very long capsule. While C. Ledgeriana yields barks containing
the highest amount of alkaloids, C. succiruhra is most cultivated.
Uragoga (Cephaclis) Ipecacuanha. — The plants are perennial
herbs 10 to 20 cm. high, with a creeping, woody, hypogeous stem.
The roots are official in all of the pharmacopoeias (p. 467). The
leaves are elliptical, entire, short-petiolate. and with divided stip-
ules (Fig. 178). The flowers are white and form small terminal
heads. The fruit is a blue berry, with characteristic spiral
arrangement of the carpels.

38o

BOTAxNY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Coffca arabica is a small evergreen tree or shrub with lanceo-
late, acuminate, entire, slightly coriaceous, dark green, short-
petiolate leaves, which are partly united with the short inter-
petiolar stipules at the base. The flowers are white, fragrant, and
occur in axillary clusters. The fruit is a small, spherical or ellip-

FiG. 178. Ipecac plant [Cephaelis (Uragoga) Ipecacuanha]: A, flowering shoot; B,
flower in longitudinal section; C, fruit; D, fruit in transverse section; E.seed; F, annulate
root. — After Schumann.

soidal drupe with two locules, each containing one seed, or coffee
GRAIN. The coffee plant is indigenous to Abyssinia and other
parts of Eastern Africa, and is widely cultivated in tropical coun-
tries, notably in Java, Sumatra, Ceylon and Central and South
America, particularly Brazil, over 600,000 tons being produced

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 381

annually in the latter country. The yield of one tree is between
I and 12 pounds. There are two methods of freeing the seeds
from the parchment-like endocarp: In the one case the fruits
are allowed to dry and are then broken ; in the other case, which
is known as the wet method, the sarcocarp is removed by means
of a machine, and the two seeds with the parchment-like endocarp
are allowed to dry in such a manner as to undergo a fermentation,
and after drying the endocarp is removed. Cofifee seeds contain
from I to 2 per cent, of caffeine ; from 3 to 5 per cent, of tannin ;
about 15 per cent, of glucose and dextrin ; 10 to 13 per cent, of a
fatty oil consisting chiefly of olein and palmitin ; 10 to 13 per
cent, of proteins ; and yield 4 to 7 per cent, of ash. The official
caffeine is derived in part from coffee seeds.

In the ROASTING of coffee there is a change in the physical
character of the seeds, as well as a change in some of the constit-
uents. The AROMA is supposed to be due to an oil known as
coffeol, which is said to be a methyl ether of saligenin.

YoHiMBi (Yohimbihi) bark is obtained from Corynanthe Yo-
himbi, a tree growing in the Cameroon region of Africa. The
pieces of bark are 25 cm. or more in length, 5 to 8 mm. thick,
externally dark brown or grayish-brown, and somewhat bitter.
Numerous bast fibers are present but no sclerotic cells. It yields
4 alkaloids (0.3 to 1.5 per cent.), the principal one being yohim-
bine (corymbine or corynine), which forms white prismatic
needles, soluble in alcohol and almost insoluble in water, and on
treatment with nitric acid becomes first deep green and then
yellowish, changing to a cherry-red if followed with an alcoholic
solution of potassium hydroxide (distinction from cocaine).

A number of the Rubiacese contain valuable coloring prin-
ciples, as the madder plant (Rubia tinctoriim) , which is a peren-
nial herb occurring wild in Southern Europe and formerly culti-
vated in France and Germany on account of the coloring principle
in its roots. The root is known commercially as madder, and con-
tains when fresh a yellow coloring principle, which on the drying
of the root breaks up into several glucosides, one of which on
further decomposition yields alizarin, the principle to which the
red color of the dried root is due. At present alizarin is made
artificially from anthracene, a coal-tar derivative.

Morinda citrifolia, a shrub widely distributed in tropical coun-

382 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tries, contains a red coloring principle in the flowers and a yellow
coloring principle in the roots, the latter being known as morindin
and resembling the color principle in madder.

The pulp of the fruit of Cape jasmine (Gardenia jasminoidcs)
contains a yellow coloring principle resembling crocin, found in
Crocus.

The stem and root barks of Button-bush {Cephalanthus occi-
dcnfalis) common in swampy regions in the United States, are
sometimes used in medicine. The barks contain a bitter glucoside,
cephalanthin, and a tasteless glucoside which is fluorescent in solu-
tion. MitchcUa repens contains a saponin-like body in the fruit
and a tannin and bitter principle in the leaves. Quite a number of
species of Galium (bedstraw) are used in medicine and for other
purposes. A principle resembling glycyrrhizin is found in wild
licorice {Galium circcccaus) , a perennial herb growing in dry
woods in the United States, and also in Galium lanceolatum, which
is found from Virginia northward to Ontario. The yellow bed-
straw (Galium vcrum), naturalized from Europe, contains a milk-
curdling ferment.

b. CAPRIFOLIACE.^ OR HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY.—
The plants are perennial herbs, shrubs, trees, or woody climbers
with opposite, simple or pinnately compound leaves. The flowers
are perfect, epigynous, regular, or bilabiate, and arranged in
corymbs. The fruit is a berry, drupe or capsule. They are mostly
indigenous to the northern hemisphere.

Vihiirnum prunifolium (Black haw) is a shrub or small tree
25 cm. in diameter. The winter buds are acute and reddish-
pubescent ; the leaves are ovate, elliptical, obtuse or acute at the
apex, somewhat rounded at the base, finely serrulate, glabrous
and short-petiolate (Fig. 179) ; the flowers are white and in
nearly sessile cymes; the fruit is a small, oval, bluish-black,
glaucous, inferior drupe. The root-bark is official (p. 525).

Viburnum Opulus (Wild guelder-rose or cranberry-tree) is
a shrub about half the height of V. prunifolium, with broadly
ovate, deeply 3-lobed and coarsely dentate pubescent leaves. The
flowers are white and in compound cymes, the outer being
sterile and large and showy. Tlie fruit is a reddish, globular,
very acid drupe. The bark is official (p. 532). The Snow-ball

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

383

or guelder-rose of the gardens is a sterile variety of this species.
Another variety {edule) is also cultivated on account of its edible
fruits, particularly in Canada and the Northern United States.
A number of species of Viburnum are rather common in
various parts of the United States, as the Maple-leaved arrow-

</^ -N,

^f^-

yf 1 M m^^^!^ ^^^^^^^^^ ■ B^y iVHi

l^S.'^^m/

4%^y'

^2lL

\ U ^^^jSMjl, wfL T X. ^^^^L^^^J^^^^BflBF^^g—

Fig. 179- Fruiting branch of Viburnum prunifoliutn.

wood (F. Acerifolium), which is a small shrub with deeply
3-lobed, coarsely dentate leaves and small, nearly black drupes ;
Arrow-wood (F. dentaUim), with broadly ovate, coarsely
dentate leaves and blue drupes, which become nearly black
when ripe; Soft-leaved arrow-wood {V. molle), which somewhat

384 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

resembles V. dentatmn, but has larger leaves that are crenate
or dentate and stellate-pubescent on the lower surface ; Larger
withe-rod (F. nudum), having nearly entire leaves and a pink
drupe, which becomes dark blue.

Sambuciis canadensis (American elder) is a shrub growing
in moist places in the United States as far west as Arizona and in
Canada. The leaves are 5- to 7-foliate. the leaflets being ovate,
elliptical, acuminate, sharply serrate and with a short stalk ; the
flowers are small, white and in convex cymes. The fruit is a
deep purple or black berry-like drupe. The dried flowers are used
in medicine. They are about 5 mm. broad, with a 5-toothed,
turbinate calyx, and a 5-lobed, rotate corolla, to which the 5 sta-
mens are adnate. The odor is peculiar and the taste is mucil-
aginous and somewhat aromatic and bitter.

The active principles have not been determined, but are prob-
ably similar to those of 5". nigra. The inner bark is also used in
medicine and contains a volatile oil, a crystallizable resin and
valerianic acid. It does not appear to contain either tannin or
starch. The roots of elder contain a volatile principle somewhat
resembling coniine. The pith consists chiefly of cellulose, is deli-
cate in texture and has a variety of uses.

The Black elder {Sambiicus nigra), which is a shrub com-
mon in Europe, is characterized by narrower leaflets, a 3-locular
ovary and black berries. The flowers are official in some of the
European pharmacopceias. They contain about 0.4 per cent, of
a greenish-yellow, semi-solid volatile oil, which when diluted has
the odor of the flowers. They also contain an acrid resin.

The Red-berried elder or mountain elder (S. puhcns) some-
what resembles the common elder, but the stems are woody, and
the younger branches have a reddish pith. The flowers are in
paniculate cymes, and the fruits are scarlet or red.

Other plants of the Caprifoliaceas are also used in medicine.
Horse gentian {Triostcmn pcrfoUatnm), a perennial herb with
connate-perfoliate leaves and small, orange-red, globular drupes,
growing in Canada and the United States as far west as Kansas,
furnishes the drug (rhizome) known as Wild ipecac or Trios-
teum. The rhizome is yellowish-brown, somewhat branched,
cylindrical, 10 to 20 cm. long, id to 15 mm. in diameter, with

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 385

numerous cup-shaped stem-scars, and coarse, spreading roots ;
it is rather hard and tough, and has a bitter, nauseous taste.
Triosteum contains an emetic alkaloid, triosteine, and considerable
starch. The seeds of Triosteum perfoliatum are sometimes roasted
and employed like coffee, the plant being known as Wild coffee.
The roots and stems of the following plants are sometimes
employed: The Snowberry (Symphoricarpos racemosus) , the
Bush honeysuckle {Dicrvilla Loniccra) and various species of
Lonicera, these being also known as honeysuckles.

VI. ORDER VALERIANALES OR AGGREGATE.

The plants are mostly herbs with an. inferior ovary, which is
either unilocular with a single pendulous ovule, or tri-locular
with frequently but a single anatropous ovule.

a. VALERIANACE.F] OR VALERIAN FAMILY.— The
plants are herbs with opposite, exstipulate leaves, small, perfect,
or polygamo-dioecious flowers, occurring in corymbs. The fruit
is dry, indehiscent and akene-like. The calyx is persistent, becom-
ing elongated and plumose, and resembling the pappus in the
Compositse.

Valeriana ofUcinalis (Garden or Wild valerian) is a tall, peren-
nial herb, more or less pubescent at the nodes. The leaves are
mostly basal, pinnately parted into "seven or m.ore segments,
which are lanceolate, entire or dentate. The flowers are white
or pink and arranged in corymbed cymes. The calyx is much
reduced, consisting of 5 to 15 pinnately branched teeth (pappus) ;
the corolla is tubular, somewhat sac-like on one side, but not
spurred as in other members of this family ; the stamens are 3 in
number and adnate to the corolla tul)e ; the stigma is 3-lobed. The
fruit is ovoid, glabrous, and with a conspicuous plumose pappus.
The rhizome and roots are official (p. 504).

The young leaves of several species of Valerianella are used
as a salad and are cultivated like spinach, as the European corn-
salad (V. olitoria), which is also cultivated to some extent in
the L^nited States.

b. DIPSACACE.^ OR TEASEL FAMILY.— The plants
are annual or perennial herbs, chiefly indigenous to the Old

386 BOTAXY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

World. The flowers are arranged in heads on a common torus,
resembling in some cases those of the Compositae.

Some of the plants are used in medicine, as the roots, leaves,
flowers and seeds of Fuller's teasel {Dipsaciis fullomim), the
roots of Succisa pratcnsis of Europe, and several species of Scabi-
osa and Cephalaria. The seeds of Ccplialaria syriaca w'hen ad-
mixed with cereals give a bread that is dark in color and bitter.
This family is, however, chiefly of interest on account of Fuller's
teasel, which is a cultivated form of Dipsaciis ferox, indigenous
to Southwestern Asia, the plant being cultivated in Europe and
New York State. The elongated, globular heads, with their firm,
spiny and hooked bra-cts, are used in the fulling of cloth.

VIL ORDER CAMPANULAT.E.

This order differs from the two preceding by having the
anthers united into a tube (syngenesious). It includes three prin-
cipal families, which are distinguished by differences in the char-
acter of the androecium : (a) Cucurbitacese, in which there are
three stamens, having not only the anthers united but the fila-
ments also ( monadelphous ) ; (b) Campanulaceae, in which there
are five stamens, both the filaments and anthers being united into
a tube; (c) Compositae, in v/hich there are five stamens, but the
anthers only are united, the filaments being separate (Fig. 82, A).

a. CLXURBITACE.E OR GOURD FA^IILY.— The plants
are mostly annual, tendril-climbing or trailing herbs (Fig. 66),
mainly indigenous to tropical regions. The leaves are alternate,
being opposite the tendrils, petiolate, and entire, palmately lobed
or dissected. The flowers are epigynous ; the petals are borne on
the calyx tube and frequently are united (campanulate) ; the ovary
is I- to 3-locular and with few or many anatropous ovules. The
fruit is a pepo. which is indehiscent but may burst somewhat
irregularly.

CitrnUits Colocynthis is a trailing herb with deeply lobed
leaves. The flowers are yellow, axillary and moncecious, the
staminate being with short filaments and glandular pistillodes
(aborted pistils), and the pistillate having a 3-locular. globose
ovarv and three short staminodes. The fruit is globular, 5 to 10

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 3S7

cm. in diameter, smooth, greenish and mottled (Fig. 254). The
fruit deprived of the epicarp (Fig. 254) is official (p. 583).

Cucurbita Pepo (pumpkin-vine) is an extensively trailing
hispid vine, with large, nearly entire, cordate leaves with long
petioles. The tendrils are branching. The flowers are large,
deep yellow and monoecious ; the staminate ones being in groups
and the pistillate single. The fruit is a large, yellowish berry,
sometimes weighing from 10 to 72 K. The seeds are numerous
and are official as Pepo (p. 429).

EchalUum Elatcrinm (Squirting cucumber) is a bristly-hairy,
trailing perennial herb with thick, rough-hairy, cordate, some-
what undulate leaves. The flowers are yellow, monoecious. The
fruit is ellipsoidal, about 4 cm. long, rough-hairy or prickly, pend-
ulous, and at maturity separates from the stalk, when the seeds
are discharged upward through a basal pore. The plant is indig-
enous to the European countries bordering the Mediterranean,
the Caucasus region. Northern Africa and the Azores. The juice
of the fruit yields the drug Elaterium, which is official in the
British Pharmacopoeia. Elaterium yields 30 per cent, of the
ELATERiN of the Pharmacopoeias. From the latter by fractional
crystallization from 60 to 80 per cent, of a-elaterin. a Isevo-rota-
tory crystalline substance is separated, which is completely devoid
of purgative action ; and varying amounts of j8-elaterin, a dextro-
rotatory crystalline compound which possesses a very high degree
of physiological activity. (Power and Moore. Ph. Jour., 29, Oct.
23, 1909, p. 501 ; and Proc. Chem. Soc, No. 362, 1909, p. 1985).

Bryonia or bryony is the dried root of Bryonia alba (White
bryony), a climbing herb indigenous to Southern Sweden, East-
ern and Central Europe, including Southern Russia, and North-
ern Persia (Fig. 66). Bryony occurs in the market in nearly
circular disks, which are 2 to 10 cm. in diameter, 5 to 10 mm.
thick, white or yellowish-white, with concentric zones of collateral
fibrovascular bundles ; short, mealy fracture ; slight odor, and
bitter, nauseous taste. The drug contains two bitter glucosides.
bryonin and bryonidin ; two resinous principles and considerable
starch. Bryonia dioica (Red bryony) also has medicinal prop-
erties and is a source of the drug. B. dioica has red berries, while
the fruit of B. alba is black. The latter plant is sometimes known

388 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

as Black bryony, but this plant should not be confounded with
Tamus communis (Fam. Dioscoreacese), of Southern Europe,
the rhizome of which is known commercially as Black bryony.

The fruits and seeds of various members of the Cucurbitaceae
contain powerful drastic and anthelmintic principles. A number
of the plants, however, are cultivated on account of the fruits,
which are used as food, as the pumpkin already mentioned, the
WATER MELON {Citrullus vulgaHs), indigenous to Southern Africa
and cultivated in Egypt and the Orient since very early times;
CANTALOUPE or musk-mclou, derived from cultivated varieties of
Cuciimis mclo, indigenous to tropical Africa and Asia, also culti-
vated since early times. The common cucumber is obtained
from Cucumis satknis, which is probably indigenous to the East
Indies. These fruits contain from 90 to 95 per cent, of water,
and the water melon contains 3.75 per cent, of dextrose, 5.34 per
cent, of saccharose and yields 0.9 per cent, of ash.

Luff a cylindrica is an annual plant indigenous to the Tropics
of the Old World. It is cultivated to some extent in America,
but especially in the Mediterranean region. The fruit is more or
less cylindrical and 20 cm. or more long. The pulp is edible and
the fibrovascular tissue forms a tough network, which, when the
seeds, epicarp and pulpy matter are removed, constitutes the

LUFFA-SPONGE.

The fruits of Luff a operculata and L. cchiuafa, both found in
Brazil, contain a bitter principle resembling colocynthitin.

b. CAMPANULACE^ OR BELL-FLOWER FAMILY.—
The plants are mostly annual or perennial herbs, but are some-
times shrubby, with an acrid juice containing powerful alkaloids.
The rhizomes and roots of about twelve of the genera contain
inulin. The leaves are alternate; the corolla is regular, cam-
panulate and rotate, or irregular, as in Lobelia. The fruit is a
capsule or berry containing numerous small seeds.

Lobelia iiiflafa (Indian or Wild tobacco) is an annual pubes-
cent, branching herb (Fig. 272), the dried leaves and tops of
which are official (p. 633). About 15 different species of Lobeha
are used in medicine. The most important of those growing in
the United States is the Cardinal flower or Red lobelia (Lobelia
cardiuQlis), a plant found in moist soil from Canada to Texas,

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

3S9

and characterized by its long, compound racemes of bright scarlet
or red flowers. The Blue cardinal flower or Blue lobelia (L.

Fig. 180. Scutellaria lateriflora: A, portion of branch showing the ovate, serrate leaves
and the axillary one-sided racemes; B, lower surface of leaf showing elliptical stomata;
C, D, hairs from the stem and lower surface of leaf; E, section of flower showing calyx (c)
with crest on one side, 2-lipped corolla (p), the didynamous stamens (s), and 4-locular
ovary (n); F, pollen grain 18 m in diameter. Hairy skullcap (Scutellaria pilosa) : G, branch
showing crenate leaves and helmet-shaped capsular fruits; H, capsule after dehiscence
showing nutlets (n). Scutellarta canescens: I. view of lower surface of leaf showing numer-
ous broadly elliptical stomata and wavy cuticle; J, K, hairs from the leaf.

syphilitica) is a plant of nearly the same habit and same general
character, except that the flowers are of a bright dark blue color
or occasionally white.

390

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. i8i. Flowers of the Compositae: A, ligulate and tubular florets of Inula Helcnium ;
B, united anthersof same showing hairs (h) on the filaments; C, hairs of filaments magnified;
D, portion of barbed hair of pappus; E, akene; F, double hairs of akene; G. cells of epi-
dermis of akene containing prisms of calcium oxalate about 25 n long; H, pollen grains in
different views. I, tubular floret of safflower (Carthamus linctorius) . J, ligulate floret of
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale): K. one of the akenes showing spreading pappus on long
stalk which developes after fertilization; L, hairs of corolla. M, ligulate floret of coltsfoot
(Tussilago Farfara). N. ligulate floret of marigold (Calendula officinalis); O, one of the
hairs of corolla. P. pappus of yellow goat's-beard (Tragopogon pratensis) ; R. one of the
long slender hairs in the pappus; S, hair from akene. T. two double hairs from akene of
Tagetes tennifoha. c, corolla; t, stigma; s, stamens; p, pappus.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 391

c. FAMILY COMPOSITE.— This is a large group of
plants, which are annual, biennial or perennial herbs, under-
shrubs, shrubs, trees and twiners or even climbers, a few being
aquatic. They contain inulin, a constituent peculiar to this group
of plants. The most distinguishing character is the inflorescence,
which is a head or capitulum (Figs. 181, 242), consisting of i or
2 kinds of flowers, arranged on a common torus, and subtended
by a number of bracts, forming an involucre. The flowers are
epigynous and the fruit is an akene, usually surmounted by the
persistent calyx, which consists of hairs, bristles, teeth or scales,
which are known collectively as the pappus (Fig. 241).

The individual flowers are called florets (Figs. 241, 242),
and may be hermaphrodite or pistillate, monoecious, dioecious or
neutral. Depending upon the shape of the corolla, two kinds of
flowers are recognized, one in which the corolla forms a tube,
which is 5-lobed or 5-cleft, known as tubular flowers (Figs.
241, C ; 242, C) ; and one in which the petals are united into a
short tube, with an upper part that forms a large, strap-shaped,
usually 5-toothed limb, known as ligulate flowers (Figs. 241,
8:242, D).

In some of the plants of the Compositae the head consists of
ligulate flowers only, but in the larger number of plants the head
is composed of both tubular and ligulate flowers or tubular flowers
alone and accordingly two main groups or sub-families are dis-
tinguished. The sub-family in which all of the flowers are lig-
ulate is known as Liguliflor.^, or Cichoriace.e, by those who
give the group the rank of a family. This group includes plants
like dandelion, chicory, lettuce and Hieracium. The group or
sub-family in which the flov/ers are all tubular or ligulate on the
margin only, is known as the Tubuliflor.e. When the head
consists only of tubular flowers it is called discoid, but when
ligulate flowers are also present it is called radiate. When the
heads are radiate, as in the common daisy, the tubular flowers
are spoken of as disk-flowers, and the ligulate flowers as ray-
flowers. The disk-flowers are usually perfect, while the ray-
flowers are pistillate or neutral (without either stamens or pistils).
By some systematists the Tubuliflorse are divided into groups
which have been given the rank of families. This division is

392 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

based especially on the characters of the stamens. In a small
group represented by the ragweed and known as the Ambrosi-
ACE.^, the anthers, while close together (connivent) are not
united, and the corolla in the marginal or pistillate flowers is
reduced to a short tube or ring. In a large group, which includes
probably 10,000 species and which is considered to be the Com-
posite proper, the stamens in the tubular flowers are syngene-
sious and the marginal or ray flowers are distinctly ligulate. This
group includes the daisy, sunflower, golden-rod, aster, thistle and
most of the plants which yield official drugs.

It may also be added that the Compositae is considered to be
the highest and youngest group of plants.

Taraxacum ofHciiialc (Dandelion) is a perennial, acaulescent
herb with milky latex; oblong-spatulate, pinnatifid or runcinate,
decurrent leaves, and with a i -headed scape, the stalk of which is
hollow. The flowers are ligulate, golden-yellow and numerous ;
the involucre consists of two series of bracts, the inner one of
which closes over the head while the fruit is maturing, afterward
becoming reflexed. The fruit consists of a loose, globular head
of akenes, each one of which is oblong-ovate and with a slender
beak at the apex which is prolonged into a stalk bearing a radiate
tuft of silky hairs, which constitute the pappus. The root is fusi-
form and usually bears at the crown a number of branches 2 to 5
cm. long, having a small pith and other characters of a rhizome.
The root is official (p. 458).

Lactiica virosa (Poison lettuce) is a biennial prickly herb,
with milky latex and oblong-obovate, spinose-toothed, runcinate
basal leaves and with alternate, somewhat sessile or auriculate,
scattered stem leaves, the apex and margin being spinose. The
flowers are pale yellow and occur in heads forming terminal pani-
cles. The involucre is cylindrical and consists of several series
of bracts. The flowers are all ligulate and the anthers are sagit-
tate at the base. The akenes are flattish-oblong, and the pappus,
which is raised on a stalk, is soft-capillary, as in Taraxacum.
The prepared milk-juice is official as Lactucarium (p. 649).

Eupatoriiini perfoliatum (Boneset or Common thoroughwort)
(see Fig. 270). The leaves and flowers are official (p. 625).

Eupatorium scbandianum, which is added to Mate as a sweet-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 393

ening agent, contains two sweet glucosides ; eupatorin and reban-
(lin ; a bitter principle, and a resin.

Grindelia species. — The plants are perennial, greenish-yellow,
resinous herbs, sometimes being under-shrubs, with alternate,
sessile or clasping, oblong to lanceolate, spinulose-dentate leaves,
and large, terminal, yellowish heads, consisting of both ligulate
and tubular flowers. The leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia
robitsta and G. sqiiarrosa are official (p. 626).

Erigeron canadensis (Leptilon canadensc) (Canada fleabane)
is an annual or biennial, hispid-pubescent herb found growing in
fields and waste places in nearly all parts of the world. The
stems are simple, with numerous crowded leaves and numerous
flowers occurring in terminal panicles. The plants are sometimes
branched and i to 3 AI. high. The leaves are linear, nearly
entire, of a pale green color, the lower and basal ones being spat-
ulate, petiolate and dentate or incised. The flowers are white and
the heads are composed of both ligulate and tubular florets, the
former being pistillate and not longer than the diameter of the
disk. The pappus consists of numerous capillary bristles and
the involucre, which is campanulate, consists of five or six series
of narrow, erect bracts. The fresh flowering herb contains 0.3
to 0.4 per cent, of a volatile oil which is official, tannin, and a
small amount of gallic acid. The oil is obtained by distillation
and consists chiefly of d-limonene.

The genus Erigeron includes a number of species which have
medicinal properties. E. anmius (Sweet scabious or Daisy flea-
bane) is a low, branching, annual herb, characterized by its linear-
lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate leaves and its conspicuous flowers,
which resemble those of the common daisy, the ray-flowers often
being tinged with purple (Fig. 181). It contains a volatile oil
resembling that of Canada fleabane, and tannin. The Philadel-
phia fleabane {Erigeron philadelphicns) is a perennial herb pro-
ducing stolons, and has clasping or cordate leaves, the basal being
spatulate, and is further distinguished by its light purplish-red
ray-flowers.

Antheniis nobilis (Roman chamomile) is an annual or peren-
nial, procumbent, branched herb, with numerous 2- to 3-pinnately
divided leaves, the ultimate segments being narrow-linear. The

394 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

flowers occur in terminal heads with long peduncles, a conical
torus and few white pistillate ray-flowers. The flowers of culti-
vated plants are official (p. 554), the heads consisting mostly of
ligulate flowers, forming so-called " doul)le flowers," as in the
cultivated chrysanthemums.

Anacyclus Pyre thrum (Pellitory) is a perennial herb resem-
bling Anthemis nobilis in its general characters. The ray-flowers,
however, are white or purplish, and the pappus consists of a ring
or scale. The root is official (p. 455).

Matricaria ChamomiUa (German chamomile) is an annual,
diffusely branched herb, with pinnately divided leaves, consisting
of few, linear segments. The flowers are official (p. 553).

Arnica montana is a perennial herb with small rhizome ;
nearly simple stem ; opposite, somewhat connate, entire, spat-
ulate, hairy leaves, and yellow flowers in large heads with long
peduncles. The flowers are official (p. 551).

Arctium Lappa (Burdock) is a coarse, branched, biennial or
perennial herb, with alternate, broadly ovate, repand, entire,
tomentose, mostly cordate leaves, the basal ones being from 30
to 45 cm. long. The flowers are purplish-red or white, tubular
and form rather large corymbose heads ; the involucre consists
of numerous lanceolate, rigid, nearly glabrous bracts, which are
tipped with hooked, spreading bristle^. The akenes are oblong
and somewhat 3-angled, and the pappus consists of numerous
short bristles. The root is official (p. 465).

The common burdock (Arctium minus) resembles A. Lappa,
but is a smaller plant and is more common in the United States.
The heads are smaller and the inner bracts are shorter than the
tubular flowers, the bristles of this series being erect and with
the outer spreading.

Calendula oificinalis (Marigold) is an annual herb, with alter-
nate, spatulate, oblanceolate, entire or serrate leaves. The flowers
are yellow and form solitary heads, consisting of both ray and
tubular florets. In the cultivated varieties most of the tubular
florets are changed to ligulate, the latter being official (p. 555).
While the Compositse include a large number of genera and
species, the plants do not yield many important drugs, although a
number are used in medicine and for other purposes.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS.

395

The so-called Insect Flowers {Pyrcthri Flores) are the
partly expanded flower-heads of several species of Chrysanthe-
mum, and are used in the preparation of a powder which is a
powerful insecticide. The plants are perennial herbs resembling

Fig. i8ia. Daisy-fleabane (Erigeron annuus).

in their habits the common white daisy (C Leucanthemuin) . The
Dalmatian Insect Flowers are obtained from C. cinerariifoUiun,
growing in Dalmatia, and cultivated in Northern Africa, Cali-
fornia and New York. The heads as they occur in the market
are about 12 mm. broad, light yellowish-brown and have a slightly

396 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

rounded or conical torus, which is about 12 mm. in diameter and
2 or 3 series of lanceolate, obtuse, involucral scales. The ray-
florets are pistillate, the corolla varying in length from i to 2 cm.
and having numerous delicate veins and 3 short, obtuse or rounded
teeth. The tubular flowers are perfect and about 6 mm. long. The
ovary is 5-ribbed and the pappus forms a short, toothed crown.
The odor is distinct and the taste bitter.

Persian Insect Flowers are derived from C. roscnm and C.
Marshallii, growing in the Caucasus region, Armenia and North-
ern Persia. The he'ads are about the same size as those of C.
cinerariifolinm; the torus is dark brown; the involucral scales
and ray-florets are purplish-red; the ovary is lo-ribbed.

Insect flowers contain from a trace to 0.5 per cent, of a vola-
tile oil, the Persian flowers containing the larger proportion, and
the amount decreasing with the maturing of the flowers. They
also contain two resins, varying from 4 to 7 per cent., the larger
amount being found in the Dalmatian flowers ; a small quantity
of a glucoside and a volatile acid.

The principle toxic to insects is Pyrethron, an amber-yellow,
syrupy substance which is the ester of certain unidentified acids,
and on saponification yields the alcohol pyrethrol which crystal-
lizes in fine needles. The acids combined in the ester pyrethron
do not give crystalline salts.

Wormwood or Absinthium consists of the dried leaves and
flowering tops of Artemisia Absinthiiun, a perennial, somewhat
woody, branching herb, indigenous to Europe and Northern
Africa, cultivated in New York, Michigan, Nebraska and Wis-
consin and naturalized in the United States from plants that have
escaped from cultivation. The leaves are grayish-green, gland-
ular-hairy, I- to 3-pinnately divided, the segments being obovate,
entire, or lobed ; the flowers are yellowish-green, the heads being
about 4 mm. broad and occurring in raceme-like panicles ; the
torus is hemispherical and the involucre consists of several series
of linear bracts, the inner being scale-like ; the florets are all
tubular, the outer ones sometimes being neutral. The herb is
aromatic and very bitter.

The fresh drug contains about 0.5 per cent, of a volatile oil
which is of a dark green or blue color, has a bitter, persistent taste

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 397

but not the pleasant odor of the plant, and consists of d-thujone
(absinthol), thujvi alcohol free and combined with acetic, iso-
valerianic and palmitic acids, phellandrene and cadinene. The
other constituents of the drug include a bitter glucosidal principle,
ABSINTHIIN, which forms white prisms and yields on hydrolysis
a volatile oil ; a resin ; starch ; tannin ; succinic acid, potassium
succinate, and about 7 per cent, of ash. The plant is used in the
preparation of the French liquor known as Absinthe.

Artemisia Cina furnishes the official Santonica (p. 350).

Other species of Absinthium also yield volatile oils, as the
Common mugwort {Artcjiiisia I'ulgaris), which yields from o.t.
to 0.2 per cent, of an oil containing cineol ; Artemisia Barrelieri,
which contains an oil consisting almost entirely of thujone, and
said to be used in the preparation of Algerian absinthe.

Safflower consists of the dried florets of Carthamus tinct-
oriiis, an annual herb which is known only in cultivation. The
florets are tubular, yellowish-red, the corolla tube being about 2
cm. long and with 5 small, linear lobes ; the stamens are exserted.
The ovary with the long, slender style is usually not present in
the drug (Fig. 296, C). Saftiower contains a small percentage
of a yellow coloring principle (safflower-yellow), which is soluble
in water, and 0.3 to 0.6 per cent, of a red coloring principle (car-
thamin or carthamic acid), which is insoluble in water but soluble
in alcohol, the solution having a purplish-red color. A volatile
oil is also present. Carthamin is used in conjunction with French
chalk in the preparation of a rouge.

Tansy is the dried leaves and tops of Chrysanthemum (Tana-
cetnm) vulgare (Fig. 75), a perennial herb indigenous to Europe,
extensively cultivated and naturalized in the United States. The
leaves are large and pinnately divided, and the flowers, both tub-
ular and ligulate, are yellow, the heads being in terminal corymbs.

The plant yields from o.i to 0.3 per cent, of a volatile oil,
consisting of thujone, borneol and camphor ; and 3 resins.

Elecampane {Inula Helenium) is a large, perennial, densely
pubescent herb with alternate leaves and large, solitary terminal
headf,, consisting of yellow tubular and ligulate florets (Fig. 182).
The plant is indigenous to Central Europe and Asia, and nat-
uralized in North America from Canada to North Carolina. The

398

BOTAXY AXD PHAR.MACOGXOSY.

root is used in medicine and was formerly official as Inula. It is
cylindrical, tapering, and in preparing the drug it is usually cut
into longitudinal pieces, which after drying are grayish-brown or
dark brown and longitudinally wrinkled on the outer surface,

Fig. 182. Elecampane (Inula Heleniuni): A, one of the smaller leaves near the inflor-
escence; B, under surface of the leaf; C. hairs of leaf; D, transverse section of petiole
showing parenchyma (p), lignified bast fibers (b). sieve (s), tracheas (t), and somewhat
thickened cells of wood (w) ; E, F, G, successive stages in the development of the inter-
cellular or schizogenous oleo-resin canals of very young roots; H, sphere-crystals of inulin
as seen in the root after treatment with alcohol; I. single sphere-crystal.

somewhat lighter in color on the cut surface ; the fracture of
thicker pieces is tough, of thinner pieces, short when dry; it is
pale yellow internally, with numerous radiate resin canals ; the
odor is aromatic ; the taste bitter and acrid. It is distinguished

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 399

from belladonna root (Fig. 200), which has been sometimes sub-
stituted for it, by the latter having a characteristic odor and
taste and containing starch (p. 463) (Fig. 182).

Inula contains about 44 per cent, of inulin, which on hydro-
lysis yields levulose, which latter replaces inulin in the roots gath-
ered in spring. From i to 2 per cent, of a crystalline substance
is obtained by distillation with water, which consists of a color-
less, crystalline principle, alantolactone, that is insoluble in sodium
carbonate solution, and alantolic acid, which crystallizes in fine
needles, is soluble in sodium carbonate solution and is largely
decomposed on heating with water. The drug also contains hele-
nin, which crystallizes in 4-sided prisms and is not affected by
ordinary reagents ; and alantol, a yellowish liquid isomeric with
common camphor and apparently occurring only in the fresh root.

The root of Polymnia Uvedalia, a plant closely related to
Inula, but indigenous to the United States east of the Mississippi,
contains a volatile oil, a glucoside, tannin, and a resinous sub-
stance consisting of two resins, one of which is pale yellow and
soft, the other dark brown and hard.

The following Compositse, while not of very great importance,
are used in some localities :

Yarrow {Achillea Millefolium) is a common weed naturalized
from Europe and Asia, and contains about o.i per cent, of a dark
blue volatile oil with a strongly aromatic odor and a small amount
of a bitter alkaloid, achilleine. The roots of yarrow, on the other
hand, yield a volatile oil with a valerian-like odor. Achillea
nobilis of Europe contains an oil resembling that of yarrow, but
it is of finer quality and has a spice-like taste. Achillea moschata,
an alpine plant of Europe, yields three alkaloids and a volatile
oil containing cineol, and is used in Italy in the preparation of
the liquor, " Esprit d' Iva." Achillea tanacetifolia yields a blue
volatile oil having the odor of tansy.

The High Golden-rod (Solidago canadensis) yields 0.63 per
cent, of a volatile oil, consisting chiefly of pinene. with some phel-
landrene and dipentene, and containing about 9 per cent, of
borneol, 3 per cent, of bornyl acetate and some cadinene. The
True or Anise-scented Golden-rod (Solidago odorata) yields
an aromatic volatile oil and a small amount of tannin.

400 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The rhizome of the large Button-snakeroot (Lacinaria scari-
osa), growing in the eastern and central portion of the United
States and Canada, contains o.i per cent, of volatile oil, about 5
per cent, of resin, and 2 per cent, of a caoutchouc-like substance.

Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara) is a plant indigenous to
Europe and naturalized in the Northern United States and Can-
ada. It is an acaulescent herb with a slender rhizome 30 to 40
cm. long ; nearly orbicular, somewhat lobed and tomentose leaves,
and large, solitary, yellow flowers appearing before the leaves.
The plant contains an acrid volatile oil, a bitter glucoside, resin
and tannin.

Echinacea is the root of Brauncria (Rudbeckia) purpurea,
a plant growing in rich soil from A^irginia to Illinois and south-
ward, and of B. pallida, growing from the Northwest Territory
to Texas. It occurs in pieces from 5 to 10 cm. long and 5 to 15
mm. in diameter ; it is grayish-brown or reddish-brown exter-
nally, longitudinally wrinkled, sometimes spirally twisted ; the
fracture is short, the fractured surface exhibiting a number of
resin cells and a greenish-yellow wood. The odor is distinct
and the taste is aromatic, acrid and pungent. The drug contains
an alkaloid and 0.5 to i per cent, of an acrid resinous substance
to which the medical properties are due.

Rosin Weed or Compass Plant {Silphium laciniatum),
found growing from Ohio to South Dakota and south to Texas,
p-oduces an oleo-resin which exudes either spontaneously or from
the punctures of insects, and contains about 19 per cent, of vola-
tile oil, and 37 per cent, of acid resin.

The Thistle (Ciiicus boicdicfus) contains a crystalline bitter
principle, cnicin, which is colored red with sulphuric acid.

The Mexican drug pipitzahoac is the rhizome of Perezia
Wrightii, P. nana and P. adnata, plants found in Southwestern
Texas and Mexico. It contains about 3.6 per cent, of a golden-
yellow crystalline principle, pipitzahoic acid, which appears to be
related to oxythymoquinone and is colored an intense purple with
alkalies and alkaline earths.

Lion's foot, the root of A'abalus Scrpcntaria, N. alba and
other species of Nabalus growing in the United States, contains
bitter principles, resin and tannin. Mio Mio (Baccharis cordi-

CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS. 401

folia), of South America, is poisonous to sheep and cattle and
contains an alkaloid, baccharine, and a bitter principle. Spiny
CLOTBUR (Xaiithiuiii spinosiiin) contains a bitter resin and possi-
bly a volatile alkaloid. The fruit of Xanthinm striimarium, a
common weed naturalized from Europe, contains an amorphous,
non-glucosidal substance, xanthostrumarin, which forms precip-
itates with a number of the alkaloidal reagents. Sneeze-weed
(Hclciiiuni aiituuinalc) contains a volatile oil, a bitter glucoside
and tannin. Heleniuin fciinifoliiiiii, of the Southern United States,
is a narcotic poison. Para cress {SpiUvithcs olcracca), of trop-
ical America, contains a soft pungent resin and a crystallizable
principle, spilanthin. The common white daisy (Chrysanthciuum
Lciicaiithcminii) yields about 0.15 per cent, of a greenish volatile
oil with the odor of chamomile and mint.

Chicory, the root of Cichorinui Intyhiis, a perennial herb
with blue ligulate florets, indigenous to and cultivated in Europe
and naturalized in certain localities in the United States, is used
in medicine as well as in the preparation of a coffee substitute.
The root is spindle-shaped, somewhat resembling Taraxacum, but
is of a light brown color and the laticiferous vessels are arranged
in radial rows in the somewhat thinner bark. It contains a bitter
principle and a large amount of inulin. In the preparation of a
coffee substitute the root is cut into rather large, equal pieces and
roasted, after which it is ground to a yellowish-brown, coarse
powder. The grains are heavier than water, imparting to it a yel-
lowish-brown color. Under the microscope it is distinguished by
the branching latex-tubes and rather short, oblique tracheae with
rather large, simple pores.

The Sunflower {Helianthus anuiiiis) is an annual herb indig-
enous to tropical America and extensively cultivated. The plant
is grown on a large scale in Russia, Hungary, Italy and India for
its fruits, which yield a fixed oil resembling that of cotton seed.
The akenes (so-called seeds) are obovate, flattened, externally
black or with alternate white and black stripes, the pappus con-
sisting of two deciduous, chaffy scales. Sunflower seed-cake is
readily distinguished by a few of the fragments of the epicarp,
with the characteristic twin, unicellular, non-glandular hairs and
large, oblique, but rather short, sclerenchymatous fibers. Besides

402 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

40 per cent, of a fixed oil, the seeds contain a peculiar glucosidal
tannin, helianthic acid, which is colored deep green with ferric
chloride and yellow with alkalies. The root contains inulin ; the
shoot asparagin, and the fresh pith about 1.5 per cent, of potas-
sium nitrate. The latter has been used in the preparation of
MoxA, a combustible vegetable material which burns without fus-
ing and is used by the Portuguese to destroy any deep-seated
inflammation. The pith of various species of Artemisia, which
also contains considerable potassium nitrate, furnishes the Chinese
Moxa.

Jerusalem Artichoke (Hcliaiithiis tiihcrosiis) is a large,
coarse, pubescent herb with yellow ray-florets, which is indigenous
to the Middle United States and sometimes cultivated. The
tubers, which resemble artichokes, are more or less elongated or
pear-shaped, reddish-brown, somewhat annulate, and internally
white or reddish. They have been used as a substitute for pota-
toes and contain about 16 per cent, of the following carbohydrates :
Inulin, pseudo-inulin, inulenin, saccharose, helianthenin, and
synantherin. In early spring with the development of the tubers
there is formed a small quantity of dextrose and levulose.

The Globe artichoke of the gardens {Cynara ScoJymns) is a
hardy perennial and is valued on account of the fleshy involucral
scales and torus, which are edible.

The pollen of a number of plants of the Compositje, as rag-
weed (Ambrosia), goldenrod (Solidago), aster and chrysanthe-
mum, is said to be responsible for the autumnal cold, known as
HAY FEVER. A Similar disease is produced in spring and early
summer by the pollen of certain grasses. It has been found that
the pollen grains of these plants contain a highly toxic substance,
belonging to the toxalbumins, which is the cause of the disease.
By inoculation of rabbits, goats and horses with this toxalbumin
a serum containing an antitoxin is obtained which neutralizes the
pollen toxin and protects those who are susceptible to hay fever
from its attacks. In practice the serum is prepared by injecting
the toxalbumin subcutaneously into horses, the serum being known
in commerce as pollantin.

The flowers of the Japanese chrysanthemum " Riuno-kiku ''
{Chrysanthcinmn Sincnsc Jaf^ouicuiii) yield 0.8 per cent, of a
volatile oil containing an optically inactive crystalline iso-camphor.

CHAPTER V.
CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS.

There is a growing scarcity of many of the native medicinal
plants in the United States, due both to the destruction of the
woodlands where they grow and to the direct extermination of the
plants themselves by drug collectors, and it seems not improbable
that if the collecting of vegetable drugs continues at the present
rate it will not be many years before a number of the most impor-
tant drug-yielding plants will be exterminated, unless some meas-
ures are taken to conserve them in their native localities or to prop-
agate them by cultivation. There seems, however, to be little chance
for their conservation unless by cultivation, for already the
demand is far greater than the supply and in some cases the
drugs are scarcely to be had at all. Of the important medicinal
plants which are becoming markedly limited in their area of
growth may be mentioned those yielding the drugs serpentaria,
senega, cypripedium, hydrastis, spigelia and cascara sagrada.

Not only is there a necessity for the cultivation of medicinal
plants on account of the scarcity of the drugs yielded by them,
but experiment has shown that in some instances the drug has
been improved by giving attention to cultural conditions. The
possibilities of what can be done in this direction are shown in
the case of coca and cinchona, where by selection and cultivation
the plants have not only been conserved but the yield of the
medicinal products has been greatly increased. It is true also
that very many of our economic plants have been improved by
selection and cultivation, as corn, wheat, potatoes, fruits of
various kinds, and there is reason to believe that like results
would follow the cultivation of medicinal plants. The fact should
not, however, be overlooked that in some instances the wild plants,
as those of the solanaceous-drug group, are said to give a better
yield of the active principles than the cultivated ones ; but this
would probably not result if the nature of the plants were better
understood and the methods of cultivation improved accordingly.

403

404 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

It is well known that when growth is very rapid the plant will
produce few or no flowers, whereas if growth is slower the pro-
duction of flowers and seed will be increased. So in the case of
some of the medicinal plants it is probable that the yield of active
principles would be less in a very vigorous plant than in one less
thrifty. The conditions must, therefore, be studied in relation
to the object to be attained.

In undertaking the cultivation of native medicinal plants they
should first be studied in their natural surroundings until a
knowledge is gained of the peculiar requirements and habits of
each, including the composition and physical condition of the
soil, the climatic conditions, their relation to other plants, etc.
It should at the same time be borne in mind that most plants
can in time adapt themselves to surroundings differing from
those of their original habitat. Still, notwithstanding this gen-
eral law of adaptation, in order to be sure of results we must
take into consideration the particular conditions under which a
given species will thrive best, or yield the largest percentage of
active principles. For example, some plants appear to prefer a
dry soil, as Sassafras officinale; others, a damp location, as J^cra-
trnm viride ; some, a rich soil, as Asariim canadense, while still
others grow in waste places and on ballast, as Matricaria Chamo-
milla. Some prefer shade, as Ariscema triphyllnm, and others ex-
posure to direct sunlight, as Datura Stramonium. Among the
other factors which must also be taken into consideration is that
of altitude, some plants appearing to thrive best high up on hills
and mountains, while others are found in the lowlands and
marshes. The question of latitude must also be considered owing
to the extremes in our country in this particular.

PROPAGATION.— The methods of propagation used in the
cultivation of other useful plants apply also to medicinal plants.
These include propagation from seeds, from cuttings, and from
grafts. A CUTTING is a severed portion of a plant having one or
more nodes or buds. A graft is a severed twig or branch which
is embedded in a branch of another plant in such a way that the
cambiums or growing regions of the two branches are brought
into such intimate contact that they fuse or grow together. This
method is largely followed in fruit culture, the branch of a more

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS. 405

desirable fruit tree being frequently engrafted on one which pro-
duces an inferior grade of fruit ; besides, the process consumes
much less time than would be required for a fruit-bearing tree
to develop from seed.

Most annuals and biennials are propagated from seeds. Con-
siderable care is necessary in the buying of seeds in order to
obtain those that will germinate and are true to name. Fre-
quently some of the seeds are immature, and in some cases many
of them are sterile, as those of Eucalyptus (Fig. 258, H). This
latter fact may explain why it is so difficult to grow the eucalypts
from seeds. In some instances the seeds may be sown where
the plants are to be grown, but probably in most cases it would
be better to germinate them under glass or in seed boxes and
then transplant the young, plants when the conditions are most
favorable. It may be pointed out that there is much variation
in seeds in regard to the length of time required for germination.
This applies not only to seeds of different species, but even to
seeds of the same plant. With many plants, as corn, wheat, beet
and others, it has been found that by selecting the best seeds or
those produced by plants having some specially desirable quality,
as a large percentage of oils, proteins, or sugar, and repeating the
selection from year to year, decided improvements have been
brought about and maintained. It is reported that in the cinchona
plantations in Java methods of selection have largely superseded
the system of "mossing" (p. 518) for increasing the alkaloidal
percentage.

Cuttings are extensively employed in the propagation of
plants, particularly by florists. They are derived either from
over-ground shoots, as in carnation, rose, geranium and coleus,
or, where the plant produces root-stocks or rhizomes, they are
made from these rather than from the over-ground shoots. Not
all plants can be propagated equally well from cuttings. Some
plants are readily propagated in this way, as the willows, the
twigs of which when they fall off or are broken off frequently
take root in the moist soil. Other plants, like the oak, are very
difficult to grow from cuttings. In propagating plants from rhi-
zomes the latter are cut into pieces, each of which has one or two
buds, and these pieces are planted. Among the medicinal plants

4o6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

which have been grown from cuttings of rhizomes are Hcorice
and ginger, but it is Hkely that all plants which produce rhizomes
can be readily propagated from cuttings. Cuttings of over-
ground stems are made from the growing parts of branches,
and it is necessary to have them of such a length that at least one
node may be placed in the soil. These are at first planted in
micaceous soil or river sand, which should be kept well moistened.
It is desirable that the leaves be as few as possible, so as to reduce
the transpiring surface until the young roots have been formed,
which may take several weeks or several months. Usually the
lower leaves should be cut off entirely, while the others may be
partially trimmed. The cuttings should also be protected from
strong light, as this tends to increase transpiration, and also
against a dry atmosphere, which may be accomplished by cover-
ing them with glass, particularly during the day, when the
weather is dry. Cuttings of hard wood plants intended for out-
door culture should be made in the fall. They should be 6 or 8
inches in length, kept covered with sand in a suitable place during
the winter, and planted in the spring.

One of the methods for producing new varieties is by hybrid-
ization, or cross-pollination, of different related species or varie-
ties. The offspring is known as a hybrid, and has a blending of
the qualities or characters of the two parent plants. This method
is mostly employed by florists who desire to produce some new
or striking flower, or by horticulturists who desire to establish
some new quality or transfer a desirable quality from a foreign
plant to one which is adapted to a given locality. The method
has not been largely employed in the cultivation of medicinal
plants, except in the case of cinchona, where it is claimed that the
barks richest in alkaloids are the direct result of hybridization
and selection. By transplanting and special methods of treatment,
as that of mossing, the alkaloidal percentage has been increased
from 8 per cent, to lo, whereas by hybridization the amount of
total alkaloids has reached as high as i6 per cent., about three-
fourths being quinine.

THE COLLECTION, CURING AND YIELD OF DRUGS.
On page 418 are given some general rules for the collection of
vegetable drugs, and attention is directed to the importance of

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS. 407

properly drying them and preparing them for the market. When
not only the nature of the plant but the diversity of the constit-
uents of vegetable drugs is taken into consideration, it will be seen
that the collection and preparation of them for the market is really
a fine art, requiring extended knowledge and experience, and a
keen appreciation of the difiference in quality due to factors of
this kind. The large crude-drug collectors give instruction to
their employes as to the methods to be followed in the preparation
of the drug, this knowledge having been acquired as the result of
years of experience. We are apt to think that the only drugs that
require particular care are those like tobacco, vanilla and gentian,
in which in addition to drying there is a curing process that takes
place ; but this is true also of digitalis, the solanaceous leaves and
many of the other important drugs. While the quality thus
acquired, like that of teas and wines, etc., cannot readily be deter-
mined by any assay process, the therapeutist is able to detect the
difference between the drug that has been carefully collected and
prepared and the one that has been carelessly handled.

It has already been pointed out that plants consist in large
proportion of water, and when they are collected and dried there
is necessarily considerable loss. The loss is greater in the case
of herbaceous plants, where the yield of crude drug is only about
10 per cent., as in eupatorium and stramonium. Roots and rhi-
zomes yield on an average from 20 to 30 per cent, of dried drug.
In some cases, as in hops, the yield of dried drug is over 60 per
cent., and in fruits and seeds there is very little loss.

CULTIVATED MEDICINAL PLANTS.— Of the strictly
medicinal plants which are under successful cultivation in the
United States attention may be called to the following: Mentha
piperita, Crocus sativus, Digitalis purpurea; Atropa Belladonna,
Conium maculatum, Matricaria Chamomilla, Calendula officinalis,
Valeriana ofUcinalis, Inula Hclenium, Ricinus coninninis, Panax
quinque folium, and Urtica nrens. In addition, a number of
medicinal plants are cultivated as garden herbs for domestic use,
some of them since colonial times, as anise, balm, sweet basil,
bene, boneset, borage, caraway, catnip, coltsfoot, coriander, cumin,
dill, sweet fennel, hoarhound, lavender, pennyroyal, rosemary,
rue, sage, summer and winter savory, sweet marjoram, symphy-

4o8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tuni, tansy, tarragon, thyme, and wormwood. A number of other
plants have been successfully grown in an experimental way, as
Glycyrrhisa glabra, Hyoscyamus nigcr. Pa paver somiiiferum,
Cinnamonmm Camphora, Citrullus Colocynthis, Capsicum fastigi-
atitiii, Datura Tatula, Scopolia CarnioHca, Cassia angustifolia,
Convallaria niajalis, Anacyclus Pyrethrnin, Ciirysanthemiim cin-
erariifolinm, Aristolochia Serpentaria, and Althcca officinalis.

CULTIVATED ECONOMIC PLANTS WHICH ARE
ALSO OF MEDICINAL VALUE.— Several hundred of the
plants cultivated in the United States either for the food products
which they yield or for ornamental or other purposes, are more or
less esteemed for their medicinal properties. To this class belong
the following plants, both the name of the drug, or the part of the
plant used in medicine, and the botanical name of the plant being
given. The name of the drug is sometimes synonymous with the
common name of the plant.

Deciduous and Evergreen Trees. — The buckeye or Amer-
ican horse-chestnut {^senilis glabra) ; the European horse-
chestnut {Alsculns Hippocastanum) ; tree of heaven (Ailanthus
glandulosa) ; black birch bark {Bctula lenta) ; chestnut (Castanea
dentata) ; Judas tree {Cercis canadensis) ; orange and lemon
(Citrus species) ; dogwood (Cornus florida) ; persimmon bark
{Diospyros virginiana) ; eucalyptus (Eucalyptus Globulus) ; red
gum (Eucalyptus rostrata) ; American or white ash bark (Frax-
inus amcricana) ; black ash bark (Fraxinns nigra) ; butternut
(Jnglans cinerea) ; black walnut (Juglans nigra) ; juniper (luiii-
perns communis) ; savine (Juniperus Sabina) ; tamarac bark or
American larch (Larix amcricana) ; spice bush or fever bush
(Lindera Benzoin) ; sweet gum bark (Liquidambar Styraciflua) ;
tulip tree bark (Liriodendron Tiilipifera) ; sweet bay or magnolia
bark (Magnolia glanca) ; pride of China (Melia AccdaracJi) ;
ironwood (Ostrya virginiana) ; white pine (Finns Sfrobns) ; bal-
sam poplar (Popnlus candicans) ; white poplar (Populus trem-
nl aides) ; wild cherry (Friinus serotina) ; hop tree or wafer ash
(Ptelea trifoliata) ; mountain ash (Sorbus amcricana) ; apple tree
bark (Pyrits Mains) ; white oak bark (Qnercus alba) ; red oik
bark (Quercits rubra) ; black oak bark (Qnercus velutina) ; white
willow (Salix alba) ; black willow (Salix nigra) ; sassafras (Sas-

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS. 409

safras officinale) ; hemlock spruce {Tsiiga canadensis) ; elm bark
(Uhiiiis fitha) ; prickly ash {Xanthoxylum americanuni).

Deciduous and Evergreen Shrubs. — Swamp-, bush- or tag-
alder (Alniis scrnilata) ; barberry bark (Berberis vulgaris) ; box-
wood (Biixiis scuipervircns) ; Jersey tea (Ceanothus anieri-
caiiiis) ; fringe tree {Chionanthus virginica) ; sweet fern (Coinp-
tonia percgrina) ; red osier bark {Cornns stolonifera) ; English
hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) ; mezereum {Daphne Mese-
rcuiii) ; American burning bush or wahoo {Euonymus atropur-
purcus) ; broom tops (Cytisus Scoparius) ; witchhazel (Haniam-
clis z'irgiiiiana) ; hydrangea (Hydrangea arhoresccns) ; black
alder (Ilex vcrticillata) ; mountain laurel {Kalmia lafifolia) ;
sweet bay (Laurus nobilis) ; wax myrtle or bayberry (Myrica
cerifera) ; peach (Amygdalus persica) ; buckthorn berries (RJiani-
nus cathartica) ; buckthorn bark (Rhamnus Frangula) ; cascara
sagrada (Rhamnus Purshiana) ; sumac (Rhus glabra) ; rose
flowers (Rosa gallica and Rosa centi folia) ; rosemary (Rosmar-
inus officinalis) ; elder flowers and bark (Sambncus canadensis) ;
European elder (Sambucus nigra) ; hardback (Spircca tomcn-
tosa) ; common arbor vitas (Thuja occidentaUs) ; cramp bark
(J'iburnum opulus) ; black haw (Viburnum prunif olium) .

Twining 'AND Climbing Plants. — American ivy or Virginia
creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) ; staff vine or false bitter-
sweet (Celastrus scandens) ; Carolina jasmine (Gelsemiuni scm-
pervirens) ; hops (Humuhis Lupulus) ; yellow parilla or moon-
seed (Menispermiun canadense) ; passion-flower (Passiffora
incarnata) ; bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara) .

Herbaceous Perennials. — Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium) ;
aconite (Aconitum Napellus) ; sweet flag (Acorus Calamus) ;
star grass (Aletris farinosa) ; garlic (Allium sativum) ; holly-
hock (Althaa rosea) ; pulsatilla (Anemone species) ; chamomile
(A)ithemis nobilis) ; pleurisy root (Asclepias tubcrosa) ; wild
indigo (Baptisia tinctoria) ; wood betony (Bctonica officinalis) ;
American senna (Cassia niarilandica) ; helonias or blazing star
(ChanKTlirium luteum) ; black snake root (Cimicifuga racemosa) ;
bitter apple (Citrullus Colocynthis) ; lily-of-the-valley (Conval-
laria majalis) ; foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) ; echinacea (Echi-
nacea an gustifolia) ; water eryngo (Eryngium aquaticum) ; fennel

410 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

{Fceniculum vulgare) ; cranesbill {Geranium maciilatum) ; Indian
physic {Gillenia trifoliata) ; blazing star {Lacinaria spicata) ;
ground ivy {Glecoma hcderacea) ; liverwort (Hepatica triloba) ;
lavender {Lavandula vera) ; peppermint {Mentha piperita) ;
peony {Pceonia ofUcinalis) ; ginseng {Panax qn in que folium) ;
anise {Pimpinella Anisum) ; Solomon's seal {Polxgonatum
biflornni) ; abscess root {Polemoniiim reptans) ; thimbleweed
{Rndheckia laciniata) ; East Tennessee pink root {Ruellia cili-
osa) ; rue {Ruta graveolens) ; sage {Salvia officinalis) ; rosin-
weed or compass plant {Silphiuui lociniatmn) ; garden thyme
{Thymus vulgaris) ; blood root (Sangiiiiuvia canadensis) ; com-
frey {Symphytum officinale); beth-root {Trillium erectum) ;
white and red squill {Urginea marifiina and its varieties).

The Cacti. — Night-blooming cereus {Cereiis grandiflorus) ;
and mescale {Lophophora Lezvinii).

Annuals. — Broom corn seed {Andropogon arundinaceus
vulgare) ; hemp {Cannabis sativa) ; cayenne pepper {Capsicum
fastigiatum) ; common or garden parsley {Petroselinum sativum) ;
caraway {Caruui Carvi) ; coriander {Coriandruni sativum) ;
watermelon {Citridlus vulgaris) ; pumpkin {Cncnrbita Pepo) ;
larkspur seed {Delphinium Consolida) ; cotton {Gossypinm spe-
cies) henbane {Hyoscyamus niger) ; lactucarium {Lactnca virosa
and other species of Lactnca) ; garden marigold {Calendula
officinalis) ; tobacco {Nicotiana Tabacum) ; sweet basil {Ocinuiin
Basilicnm) ; sweet marjoram {Origanum Majorana) ; poppy
{Papavcr soinnifcrum) ; horseradish {Roripa Armoracia) ; sum-
mer savory {Saturia hortensis) ; red clover {Trifolium pratense) ;
white clover {Trifolium repens) ; corn silk {Zea Mays).

The following orchids may be obtained through nurserymen:
Small yellow lady's slipper {Cypripedinin parviflorum) ; yellow
lady's slipper {Cypripedium hirsntum).

The following ferns may likewise be procured : Male fern
{Aspidium marginale) ; polypody leaves {Polypodium vulgare) ;
maiden hair {Adiantum hirsutum).

INDIGENOUS OR NATURALIZED MEDICINAL
PLANTS. — The following medicinal plants, not mentioned in
the preceding lists, grow in such numbers in this country that it
ought not to be difficult to procure them or their seeds for pur-

CULTRVVTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS. 411

poses of cultivation. Possibly the cheapest way to procure both
American and foreign plants for purposes of cultivation would
be to purchase the fresh or green drug, as of roots, rhizomes,
etc., gathered at the resting period of the plant. The recently
gathered drug will in some instances contain mature fruits and
seeds from which plants may be successfully grown, as the leaf-
and herb-drugs of the Compositse, Labiatae, Solanaceae, etc.

Balsam fir or spruce (Abies balsamca) ; calamus (Acorns
Calamus) ; European agrimony (Agrimonia Eupatoria) ; couch
grass or dog grass (Agropyroit rcpens) ; tree of heaven (Ailan-
thns glandulosa) ; common chickweed (Alsine media) ; marsh-
mallow (Altlicra officinalis) ; scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arzrii-
sis) ; angelica seed (Angelica Archangelica) ; mayweed (Anthe-
inis cotiila) ; bitter root (Apocynnrn androscemifoliuin) ; Canadian
hemp (Apocynnrn cannahinum) ; dwarf elder (Aralia hispida) ;
American sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaiilis) ; Uva Ursi (Arctosta-
phylos Uva-Ursi) ; mescale (Anhalonium Leivinii) ; burdock
(Arctium Lappa) ; manzanita (Arctostaphylos glatica) ; Indian
turnip (Arisccma triphyllnni) ; serpentaria (Aristolochia Serpeii-
taria) ; southern wood (Artemisia Abrotaniim) ; common worm-
wood (Artemisia Absinthium) ; wormwood, mountain sage, or
Sierra salvia (Artemisia frigida) ; common mugwort (Artemisia
vulgaris) ; Canada snake root (Asarum canadense) ; white Indian
hemp (Asclepias incarnata) ; silkweed (Asclepias syriaca) ; paw-
paw seed (Asimina trdoba) ; spice bush (Lindera Benzoin) ;
Oregon grape (Berberis Aquifolium) ; black sampson or purple
cone flower (Echinacea angustifolia, syn. Brauneria purpurea) ;
borage (Borago oificinalis) ; Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa) ;
shepherd's purse (Capsella Bnrsa-pasforis) ; blessed thistle (Cnicus
benedictus) ; pond-lily or sweet-scented white water-lily (Castalia
odorata) ; blue cohosh (CaulophyUuin fhaiictroides) ; red root or
New Jersey tea (Ceanothns auiericaniis) ; true unicorn root, star
grass (Chamccliriuiu hiteum) ; celandine (Chelidoninni ma jus) ;
turtle head or snake head (Chelone glabra) ; American wormseed
(Chenopodium anthelminticum) ; pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbel-
lata) ; common feverfew {Chrysanthemum. Partheniuin) ; Canada
thistle (Carduus arvensis) ; black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) ;
stone root (Collinsonia canadensis) ; sweet fern (Comptonia pere-

412 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

griiia, syii. Myrica asplcnifolia) ; gold thread {Copt is t^-ifolia) ;
coral root or crawley root {Corallorhiza odontorhiza) ; green osier
bark (Corjiiis circinata) ; red osier dogwood (Coriuis stoloni-
fera) ; American dittany (Cu)iila origanoides) ; broom tops {Cyti-
siis Scoparius) ; stramonium leaf and seed {Datura Straiiwininn) ;
turkey corn or squirrel corn {BicucnUa canadensis) ; wild yam
root {Dioscorca villosa) ; sundew {Droscra rotundifolia) ; male
fern {Aspidinui inarginalis and A. Filix mas) ; bittersweet {Sola-
num Dulcamara) ; scouring rush {Equisetum hyemalc) ; fireweed
{Erechtitcs hicracifolia) ; fleabane {Erigcron canadensc) ; yerba
santa {Eriodictyon calif ornicnm) ; European centaury {Erythrcca
Centaiirinm) ; boneset {Eupatorium perfoliatiim) ; joe-pye weed
{Eupaforiiini piirpurcum) ; yerba reuma or flux herb {Frankcnia
grandifolia) ; European wood-strawberr}' leaves {Fragaria
vcsca) ; American columbo {Frascra carolincnsis) ; cleavers {Gal-
iuni aparinc) ; California fever-lnish ( Garrya Frcniontii) ; winter-
green {Gaultheria procumbcns) ; 5-flowered gentian {Gentiana
qiiin que folia) ; purple or water-avens {Geum rivalc) ; sweet or
fragrant life-everlasting {Gnaphaliuni obtusifoliuni) ; grindelia
{Grindelia robusta and G. squarrosa) ; pennyroyal {Hcdeoma
piilegioides) ; frostwort {Helianthem,um canadensis) ; false uni-
corn root {Helonias bullata) ; masterwort, cow parsnip {Herac-
leum lanatujn) ; hydrastis {Hydrastis canadensis) ; common St.
John's w'ort {Hypericum perforatum) ; hyssop {Hyssopus oifici-
nalis) ; wild -celandine, pale touch-me-not {Impaticns aurea) ;
twin leaf {leffersonia diphylla) ; mountain or sheep laurel {Kal-
mia latifolia) ; mountain mint {Koellia incana and K. virginiana) ;
lactucarium {Lactuca virosa) ; motherwort {Leonurus cardiaca) ;
cancer root or beech drop {Leptaniniiun virginianum) ; Culver's
root {Lcptandra z'irginica) ; lovage {Lez'isticuin officinale) ; deer
tongue, vanilla plant, vanilla leaf (Liatris odoratissinia, syn. Tn-
lisa odoratissinia) ; lobelia {Lobelia inflata) ; bitter bugle-weed,
water or marsh horehound (Lycopus europceus) ; purple bugle-
weed (Lycopus virginicus) ; low, dwarf or running mallow
{Malva rotundifolia) ; horehound {Marrubiuin rulgarc) ; wild or
German chamomile (Matricaria CJwnioniilla) ; yellow sweet clo-
ver, yellow melilot (Melilotus oHicinalis) : spearmint (Mentha
spicafa) ; buckbean, marsh or bean trefoil (Menyanthes trifoli-

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS. 413

ata) ; verba buena {Microineria Doiiglasii) ; squaw-vine, part-
ridge berry (Mitchella rcpens) ; horsemint leaves (Monarda punc-
tata) ; catnip (Nepeta Cataria) ; large yellow pond lily {Nymphaa
advciia) ; common evening primrose {CEnothcra biennis) ; sour-
wood leaves (Oxydcndruni arborcum) ; field, red or corn poppy
flowers {Papaver Rhcras) ; American ivy or Virginia creeper
[Parthenocissus quinqucfolia) ; ditch or Virginia stonecrop {Pen-
tlioKum scdoides) ; American mistletoe (Phoradendron flaves-
cens) ; poke root and berries {Phytolacca decandra) ; small burnet
saxifrage, small pimpernel {Pimpinella Saxifraga) ; common or
greater plantain leaves {Plantago major) ; mandrake {Podophyl-
liiiii peltatum) ; poison-ivy {Rhus toxicodendron) ; senega {Poly-
gala Senega) ; American, dotted or water smartweed {Polygonum
punctatum) ; bearsfoot {Polymina Uvcdalia) ; hair cap moss
{Polytrichum juniperinum) ; balm of gilead buds or balsam pop-
lar buds {Populus candicans) ; Indian black-root {Ptcrocaulon
pvchnostachyum) ; dewberry, low running blackberry {Rubus
canadensis) ; wild red raspberry leaves (Rubus strigosus) ; high
bush blackberry root {Rubus nigrobaccus) ; sheep sorrel {Riimex
Acetosella) ; yellow dock {Rumcx crispus) ; saw palmetto {Serc-
noa scrrulata) ; red or American centaury {Sabbatia angularis) ;
quinine flower {Sabbatia Elliottii) ; blood root {Sanguinaria can-
adensis) ; soapwort {Saponaria officinalis) ; trumpet plant {Sar-
racenia flava) ; pitcher plant {Sarracenia purpurea) ; Maryland
figwort, heal-all or pilewort {Scrophidaria marilandica) ; mad-
dog skullcap {Scutellaria lateriflora) ; uncum or Viieroot .{Senecio
aureus) ; button snake-root, rosin weed {Silphium terebintha-
ceum) ; carrion flower {Smilax herbacea) ; bamboo-brier root
{Smilax Pseudo-chitia) ; horsenettle {Solanum carolinense) ; sweet
or anise-scented goldenrod {Solidago odora) ; European golden-
rod {Solidago Virgaurca) ; pink-root {Spigelia marilandica) ;
marsh-rosemary {Limonium carolinanum) ; queen's root {Still-
ingia syhatica) ; pencil flower {Stylosanthes biflora) ; skunk cab-
bage {Spathyema foctida) ; tansy {Tafiacetum vulgare); dande-
lion {Taraxacum officinale) ; cancer root or beech drop {Thelcsia
uniflora) ; vanilla leaf, deer-tongue {Trilisa odoratissima) ; hem-
lock {Tsuga canadensis) ; coltsfoot {Tussilago Farfara) ; Cali-
fornia laurel {Umbellularia calif ornica) ; stinging or great nettle

414

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

(Urtica dioica) ; American hellebore {Vcratrum viridc) ; mullein
{Verbascum Thapsns) ; blue vervain {Verbena hastata) ; com-
mon speedwell {Veronica officinalis).

Foreign Medicinal Plants. — The following are some of the

Fig. 182, a. a seedling plant of Digitalis about six months old.

foreign plants that have been profitably cultivated in this coun-
try: safflower or American safifron {Carthauiiis tinctorhis) ; an-
gelica root {Angelica Archangelica) ; Roman chamomile {An-
theuiis nobilis) ; arnica {Arnica montana) ; belladonna {Atropa
Belladonna) ; borage {Borago officinalis) ; cayenne pepper (sev-

CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS.

415

eral species of Capsicum, see p. 578) ; senna {Cassia acutifolia
and C. angiistifolia) ; lippia Mexicana {Ccdronella uicxicana) ;
colocynth (Cifnilliis Colocynthis) ; colchicum corm and seed {Col-
cJiiciini aiituiiiiiale) ; conium (Coniiim maculatum) ; stavesacre

Fig. 182, B. Cannabis saliva: Young plant grown from seed found in the drug Cannabis

indica.

seed {Del ph ill in 111 Sfaplnsagna) ; licorice {Glycyrrhiaa glabra
and the var. gland iilif era) ; black hellebore {Hellehorus niger) ;
henbane {Hyoscyamiis niger) ; elecampane {Inula Helenium) ;
Florentine orris root {Iris florentina) ; laurel, sweet bay {Laiirus

4i6

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

nobilis) ; wild or German chamomile {Matricaria Chainoinilla) :
poppy {Papavcr somniferum) ; rhubarb {Rheum officinale); sco-

Fiu. 182, C. Seedling plants of Erythroxylon Coca (A) and Eucalyptus globulus (B).

pola {Scopolia camiolica) ; squill [Uri^iiiea maritiina) ; valerian
{Valeriana officinalis) ; pansy {Viola tricolor).

PART II.— PHARMACOGNOSY .

CHAPTER I.

CRUDE DRUGS.

INTRODUCTORY.

Pharmacognosy is a term derived from two Greek words
which, together, mean a knowledge of drugs. According to mod-
ern usage it is generally understood to mean the study of the
structure and chemical constituents of crude drugs.

The word drug is derived from the Arabic word " dowa,"
meaning " cure," and was transformed into the Latin " dogua,
doga," with the euphonic intercalation of " r."

The NATURAL ORIGIN is the scientific name (generic and spe-
cific names) of the plant or animal yielding the drug. In the case
of vegetable drugs the natural origin is spoken of as the botan-
ical ORIGIN. A vegetable drug usually represents some special
part of the plant, but in some instances the entire plant is em-
ployed, as chirata.

The habitat of plants is the region where they grow. Some-
times this term is applied erroneously to the drugs themselves.
Neither the scientific name of the plant nor the commercial name
of the drug may be relied upon as indicating the true habitat of
medicinal plants. For example, the specific name of Spigelia
niarilandica indicates that the plant is found in greatest abundance
in Maryland, whereas it is only occasionally' met with in that
State. In other cases plants are common to a much larger terri-
tory than the specific name would indicate, as Pninits virginiana.
The geographical names associated with drugs frequently apply
to the places from which they are exported, rather than to the
habitat of the plant yielding the drug. as. for example. Para
sarsaparilla, which is obtained from a plant growing in the upper
Amazon region, is shipped to Para, from whence it is exported.

27 417

4i8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Plants which yield drugs may grow wild, as is most usually
the case, or they may be cultivated, as those yielding anthemis,
cannabis indica and the solanaceous leaves. Plants growing in
their native countries are said to be indigenous to those regions,
as Stillingia sylvatica, of the Southern United States ; Aconitum
Napellus, of the mountainous regions of Europe, etc. Plants are
said to be naturalized when they grow in foreign land or in
another locality than their native home. Some of these may have
been distributed by natural agencies, or they may have escaped
from cultivation, or they may have been introduced with the seeds
of cultivated plants or with the ballast of ships.

The term commercial origin applies solely to the drugs them-
selves, and indicates their commercial source, which may be either
the country where the plant yielding the drug is grown, or the
port from which the drug is sent into the marts of the world.
English hyoscyamus leaves are gathered from plants grown in
England; Canton rhubarb is the product of plants grown in
various parts of China, but shipped by way of Canton.

The official or phar^macopceial titles of vegetable drugs are
derived from either the generic name of the plant, as gelsemium,
or the specific name, as ipecacuanha, or they may include both the
generic and specific names, as viburnum prunifolium, or they may
be derived from other sources, as opium and sarsaparilla.

In addition to the botanical names of plants and the pharma-
copoeial titles of drugs, a number of vernacular names and syno-
nyms are also applied to vegetable drugs, as licorice root for
glycyrrhiza, prickly ash for xanthoxylum.

The official or pharmacopceial definition of drugs is given
in the leading paragraph under each drug in the dilTerent pharma-
copoeias, and includes the botanical origin as well as the name of
the part of the plant yielding the drug ; and in some cases other
special features or requirements are given, as the habitat of the
plant yielding the drug, the time of collection, mode of preserva-
tion, etc.

The time of the collection of vegetable drugs is of prime
importance, and, while we may not be able to make extended
generalizations, still, the following general rules for the collection
of various drugs may be given :

CRUDE DRUGS. 419

(i) Roots, rhizomes and barks should be collected immedi-
ately before the vegetative processes begin in the spring, or
immediately after these processes cease, which is usually in the
fall.

(2) Leaves should be collected when the CO2 assimilation
process is most active, which is usually about the time of the
development of the flowers and before the maturing of fruit and
seed.

(3) Flowers should be collected prior to or just about the
time of pollination.

(4) Fruits should be collected near the ripening period, i.e.,
full grown but unripe.

(5) Seeds should be collected when fully matured.

The PRESERVATION of Vegetable drugs is likewise deserving
of careful consideration, and attention should be given to the
influence of temperature, moisture, air and light, and the attacks
of insects. The temperature of the room or part of the store
devoted to the storage of dry drugs should not be more than
about 25° C, and nearly uniform throughout the year.

Drugs containing volatile principles require to be kept in air-
tight containers, as the herbs of the Labiatae and Composltse, and
wild-cherry bark. Air-tight tin cans are probably the most eco-
nomical and satisfactory containers for the purpose, and the sug-
gestion has been made to paint the edges of the cans wath melted
beeswax. Drugs are sometimes stored in wooden boxes or in
drawers. This method is objectionable, not only because they
are more lialjle to deteriorate, but because the odors are com-
municable from one to the other. The storage of drugs in parcels
is the most objectionable, particularly, as is usually the case, when
the different parcels are stored together.

Those drugs that are difficult to dry, as the inulin-containlng
drugs, and some fleshy roots and rhizomes, as Veratrum, are
liable to become moldy and should be thoroughly dried before
placing them permanently in containers.

The preservation of drugs against the attacks of insects is,
unfortunately, generally overlooked. Most drugs are subject to
their depredations, and are usually attacked by the insects in the
larval stage. The insects which infest vegetable drugs belong

420 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

chiefly to the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera. The Lepi-
doptera are the most destructive, and include the cornmeal moth
(Tinea sea), which, during its larval (the caterpillar or grub)
stage, is known to attack aconite, capsicum, ergot, lappa, linseed,
rhubarb, taraxacum and many other drugs. Among the Coleop-
tera are various members of the Ptinedae, as Ptitius hninnciis,
Anobium panicemn and Lasiodcrma scrricorne, which attack the
spices chiefly, as capsicum, cinnamon and pimenta. Chief among
the Diptera is Trypcta arnicivora, which is sometimes found in
arnica flowers.

For the destruction of these insects and prevention of their
attacks a number of substances and methods have been employed,
the simplest method of all being to expose the drug to a tempera-
ture of about ioo° C. This method is, however, open to objec-
tion, as there is liability either to decomposition or loss of active
principle. Camphor and tar-camphor have been employed, but
it is doubtful if they should be used, unless in the case of animal
drugs. In some instances, as with nutmeg and ginger, the drug
is sprinkled in the drying- room, and when packed for market,
with quicklime. Benzin and carbon disulphide have been pro-
posed, but these are of a disagreeable odor as well as inflammable.
Ether has been suggested, but it is very volatile and inflammable.
Formaldehyde has been proposed for the preservation of orris
root. The use of chloroform as a preservative was formerly sanc-
tioned by the U.S. P. in the case of ergot, and is probably the best
preservative that has been proposed. A few drops of chloroform
added to a drug on placing it in the container will usually pre-
vent it from becoming " zvormy." Some drugs, however, as tar-
axacum and glycyrrhiza, may require inspection from time to
time and the addition of a little more chloroform.

Commercial Forms of Drugs. — Vegetable drugs are brought
into market in various forms ; they may be crude, that is. more or
less entire, or in a powdered condition. Crude drugs may be
nearly entire, as seeds, flowers, fruits, leaves, and some roots and
rhizomes ; or they may be cut or sliced, as in woods, barks, many
roots and a few rhizomes. They may be more or less matted
together, as in chondrus and the solanaceous leaves; or they may
be pressed together by means of hydraulic pressure, giving the

CRUDE DRUGS. 421

so-called pressed drugs ; or they are first powdered and then
molded into forms, as " rhubarb fingers." In some cases the
periderm is removed, as in a number of roots (althaea) rhizomes
(zingiber) and barks (ulmus).

The QUALITY of vegetable drugs is injured by a number of
factors, of which the following may be mentioned: (i) lack of
knowledge or want of care in collecting them; (2) carelessness in
drying and keeping them; (3) insufficient care in garbling and
preparing them for the market ; (4) inattention in preserving them
and storing them; (5) accidental admixture in the store, and (6)
adulteration and substitution.

The influence which the time of collection has on the quality
of vegetable drugs may be best shown by a few illustrations. It
is well known that when the fruits of conium are green they will
yield over 3 per cent, of coniine, but when they become yellow
the alkaloid diminishes rapidly in quantity, and, therefore, much
of the commercial drug will not yield i per cent, of coniine. The
same thing may be said of santonica : when the flower heads are
unexpanded they will yield over 3 per cent, of santonin, but just
so soon as the flower matures there is a rapid disappearance of
the anthelmintic principle. Dealers in insect powder (Flores
pyrethri) know that the flowers gathered when they are closed
produce the finest and most powerful insect powder, worth nearly
twice as much as that made from the half-closed or open flowers.
It may be that the variation in quality of some of the commercial
aconite is due to improper drying, or to the extraction of the active
principles ; still, there is no doubt but that much of the trouble with
this drug is due to the variation in the time of collection in dififer-
ent countries, as well as to its being collected from dififerent species.

Another factor affecting the quality of vegetable drugs is
carelessness in drying them and caring for them after they are
gathered. In some cases the Pharmacopoeia specifies that the drug
shall be kept a certain length of time before being used, as in the
case of frangula. A similar specification should be made in regard
to rhamnus purshiana ; but since the results of the changes on
keeping are now ascertained, and since a similar effect may be
obtained by heating the bark at 100° C. for forty-eight hours, this
specification seems no longer necessary.

42^ BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

In some drugs a sort of ripening process takes place in the
drying, as in gentian, guarana, vanilla and the solanaceous leaf
drugs. In still others a marked deterioration takes place if they
are placed in heaps and allowed to ferment, as in the case of laven-
der and most other drugs yielding essential oils. In the prepara-
tion of oil of peppermint, the yield of oil is greater and the quality
better if the plants are allowed to dry and are distilled immediately
or soon after. On the other hand, the yield of methyl salicylate is
greater in the leaves of Gaulthcria procumhcns or the bark of
Betiila lenta if they are first macerated in water for about 12 hours.

Quite a number of drugs are not infrequently observed in com-
merce in a moldy condition, as taraxacum, veratrum, aconite,
maranta starch, etc. The question as to what influence this mold
has on the quality of the drug has not been decided.

A third cause of inferiority of vegetable drugs is lack of suf-
ficient care in garbling. This applies to a number of drugs, as
leaves, with which may be admixed a large number of stems and
roots ; rhizomes and tubers, in which the proportion of stem-
remnants may be excessive, or, as in other cases, the proportion
of roots to rhizomes may be large. The roots contain much less
of the active principles, and have been found in cypripedium and
hydrastis to the extent of 50 per cent.

A fourth factor influencing the quality of drugs is the manner
OF PRESERVATION. While it is generally conceded that most drugs
deteriorate on keeping, still this depends largely upon the manner
in which they are kept. Thus, the Pharmacopoeia limits the time
of keeping of ergot and states how it shall be preserved; yet a
number of writers call attention to the fact that, if properly pre-
pared and preserved, the time of keeping may be very much
extended. In order to preserve ergot, Grover proposed the removal
of the oil, and Moss found the drug thus treated to retain its
therapeutic value for six and a half years. Zanon suggests plac-
ing the drug in alternate layers with sand and keeping it in a
closely sealed jar. Others grind the fresh ergot and preserve
with chloroform in paraffin paper, while some first extract the
oil from the powder with alcohol or ether.

Accidental admixture in the store or warehouse depends upon
the care of the individual, and need not receive attention here.

CRUDE DRUGS. 423

The adulterations, substitutions and sophistications will be
considered under the respective drugs.

The Valuation of Drugs.— In the identification of vegetable
drugs certain characters are taken into account, such as color,
odor, general appearance, structure, texture, etc., these at the
same time indicating in a greater or less degree the qualitative
value of the drug. While these characters may enable the expert
to detect very slight variations in quality, and to estimate approx-
imately the value of a given drug, still the true value is based upon
the amount of the medicinal principles or so-called active con-
stituents. The methods employed in the valuation of drugs may
be grouped as follows: (i) Chemical, (2) Physical, (3) Micro-
scopical, and (4) Biological.

( 1 ) Chemical methods are more generally employed and
usually involve the isolation and estimation of the active principles.

(2) Physical methods involve such processes as the deter-
mination of specific gravity of the drug, as of jalap, or the deter-
mination of the elasticity or measurement of the fibers, as of
cotton, and still other special methods which apply to individual
drugs, showing indirectly their quality.

(3) Microscopical methods of valuation may oftentimes be
employed when other methods fail, as, for example, when foreign
starches are added to starchy products, as the cereals and spices.
Microchemical reactions may also be depended upon in some
instances to indicate the value of a drug, as in strophanthus, where
the quality of the drug appears to bear a direct relation to the
number of seeds giving a green coloration with sulphuric acid.
The separation of the salts of the alkaloids in hydrastis on the
addition of sulphuric acid is also of value in determining the
quality of this drug.

(4) Biological methods involve the consideration of the efifects
of drugs upon animals or plants. They may be conveniently
grouped as follows: i. Effects or influence upon animals, includ-
ing (a) those dependent upon the perceptions or senses of the
experimenter or tester, as color, taste and odor; (b) those which
are physiological or pathological. These are usually determined
by experiments upon lower animals, as insects, frogs, rabbits,
guinea pigs, fowls, and even upon man. 2. The efifect or influence

424

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

produced upon plants by drugs, or solutions of their active prin-
ciples. For experiments of this kind seedlings are usually em-
ployed and the effects are based upon the amount of growth of
the root of the plant in a given time when placed in the solution.
Some of the lower plants (p. 5) are also used in testing the
properties of chemicals, which may have a toxic action on the
protoplast or a plasmolytic action on the protoplasm (Fig. 55, //).

Fig. 183. Case for drug specimens.

Drug Collections. — It is important that the student, phar-
macist and analyst possess a collection of typical drug specimens.
It is necessary in the study of drugs and also for purposes of
identification and comparison. Specimens may be kept in various
kinds of boxes and bottles, but one of the most satisfactory ways
is to keep them in type cases (Fig. 183) such as are used by
printers, the top being covered with glass which can be removed.

CRUDE DRUGS. 425

The glass can be kept in place by means of long, broad-headed
tacks or can be fastened permanently by means of hinges. The
frames may be hung on the wall or held by means of molding.

DRUGS DERIVED FROM ANGIOSPERMS.

I. SEEDS.

Seeds should, as a rule, be collected when they are ripe and
carefully preserved against the attacks of insects and changes of
various kinds, as those incident to germination. They may, or
may not, be dried before using.

The medicinal seeds may be classified as follows :

I. ENTIRE SEEDS.

I. Not more than 5 to 6 mm. long.

1. With an appendage (canincU') :

Ovoid or irregularly globular, dark brown ....Colchici Semen

2. Without an appendage :

A. Anatropous.

a. Ovate, flattened, smooth Linum

b. Triangular or quadrangular, reticulate. .. .Staphisagria

B. Cainpylotropous.

Yellowish-brown Sinapis Alba

Reddish-brown Sinapis Nigra

II. From 10 to 20 mm. long.

Whitish, smooth Pepo

Yellowish-green or light brown, hairy Strophanthus

III. From 20 to 30 mm. long.

1. More or less flattened:

a. Ovate or oblong-lanceolate.

Taste bitter Amygdala Amara

Taste bland .' Amygdala Dulcis

b. Plano-convex or 3- to 6-sided Cola

c. Orbicular, hairy Nux Vomica

d. Reniform, brownish-red Physostigma

2. Ellipsoidal Myristica

II. PRODUCTS OF OR PARTS OF SEEDS.

Hairs Gossypium Purificatum

A paste of the crushed seeds Guarana

The arillode of Myristica Macis

426

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

COLCHICI SEMEN.— COLCHICUM SEED.— The dried,
ripe seeds of Colchicuni autumnalc (Fam. Liliaceae), a perennial
bulbous plant, native of and growing in moist meadows in South-
ern and Middle Europe and Northern Africa (p. 236). The com-
mercial supplies come chiefly from England and Germany.

Description. — Hemi-anatropous, ovoid or irregularly glob-
ular, more or less beaked, with an easily detachable strophiole,
2 to 3 mm. in diameter; externally dark brown, becoming darker
with age. minutely pitted, the epidermis detached in irregular
patches in older seeds ; frequently agglutinated when fresh, due
to the presence of a saccharine exudation ; very hard when dry,
tough when damp, internally whitish, endosperm hard, embryo

^-0
-CO

Fig. 184. Transverse section of flaxseed; E, epidermal cells with small lumen and
very thick outer wall showing mucilage lamellae; PY, PC, parenchyma cells; ST, stone
cells; P, parenchyma below stone cells; O, obliterated ceils; CO, cells with reddish-
brown contents; EX, endosperm.

0.5 mm. long and situated at end opposite the strophiole ; nearly
inodorous ; taste feeble, bitter and somewhat acrid.

Constituents. — Proteins ; fixed oil about 6 per cent. ; a tan-
nin-like substance in the seed-coat ; starch grains in the caruncle ;
an alkaloid colchicine 0.4 to 0.6 per cent. (0.55 per cent, required
by the U.S. P.) ; a resinous principle colchicoresin ; ash about 2.5
per cent. (See also Colchici Cormus.)

LINUM.— LINSEED OR FLAXSEED.— The seed of Li-
nuni usitatissiiintm (Fam. Linacese), an annual, which is culti-
vated in nearly all temperate and tropical regions, either for the
fiber (flax) or seed (p. 303).

Description. — Anatropous, ovoid or oblong-lanceolate, flat-
tened, somewhat less rounded on one side and on one margin, apex
acute or beaked, chalazal end rounded, plano-convex in trans-

CRUDE DRUGS. 42;

verse section, 4 to 5 mm. long, 2 to 2.5 mm. broad, 0.5 to 0.75
mm. thick; externally light brown, very smooth and glossy, the
raphe extending as a distinct, light-yellow ridge along one edge,
outer wall of epidermal cells transparent, mucilaginous and swell-
ing in water ; easily cut ; endosperm white, adhering to the seed-
coat, embryo light green, straight, 3 to 4 mm. long, i to 2 mm.
broad, cotyledons plano-convex ; odor slight ; taste mucilaginous
and slightly unpleasant.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 99, A; 184; 293.

Constituents. — Fixed oil 30 to 40 per cent. ; proteins about
25 per cent. ; mucilage in outer walls of the epidermal cells ; ash
I to 4 per cent.

Ground flaxseed (flaxseed meal or crushed linseed) is not
infrequently deficient in oil on account of its being admixed with
" oil-cake " or " cake-meal." The latter is the residue after
expressing about 20 to 30 per cent, of the oil naturally occurring
in the crushed linseed, and the deficiency is sometimes made up
by the addition of mineral oils. Ground flaxseed sometimes con-
tains fragments of the cereals rye and wheat, which is partly due
to the fact that these cereals grow in with the flax, and partly
because it is sometimes shipped in meal or flour sacks.

STAPHISAGRIA.— STAVESACRE.— The ripe seed of Del-
phiniinn Staphisagria (Earn. Ranunculacese), an annual or bien-
nial native of Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and cultivated in
Austria (Trieste), Italy and Southern France, from which latter
countries the commercial supplies are obtained (p. 270).

Description. — Anatropous, irregularly triangular or some-
what tetrahedral, one side convex, the others plane, the micropylar
end acute or obtuse, 5 to 6 mm. long, 3 to 6 mm. broad ; externally
dark brown, becoming lighter and duller with age, more or less
uniformly reticulate, the pits being about 0.5 mm. in diameter,
raphe forming a more or less distinct ridge on the largest of the
plane surfaces or on the edge of two united sides, epidermis
modified to distinct papillae ; inner seed-coat yellowish-brown,
adhering to the endosperm when moistened, the latter white or
yellowish, and enclosing at the pointed end a small, straight
embryo i mm. long and with a relatively large hypocotyl ; slightly
odorous ; taste of endosperm intensely bitter and acrid.

428 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Two alkaloids, about one per cent. These
are delphinine, which crystallizes in rhombic prisms and resem-
bles aconitine in its physiological action ; and staphisagroine,
which is amorphous and insoluble in chloroform. The alkaloids
delphisine and delphinoidine are probably decomposition products
of delphinine. The seeds also contain 25 to 30 per cent, of a fixed
oil ; an equal amount of proteins ; 8 or 9 per cent, of ash ; and
several resins.

Allied Plants. — A number of other species of Delphinium
have been investigated and found to have poisonous properties.
The seeds of Delphinium consolida resemble stavesacre, but are
only about one-fifth the size.

SINAPIS ALBA.— WHITE MUSTARD.— The dried, ripe
seeds of Sinapis alba (Fam. Cruciferae), an annual native of
Europe and Southwestern Asia and naturalized and extensively
cultivated in many countries. The commercial supply of the drug
is obtained from plants grown in England, Germany, Holland
and Italy (p. 283).

Description. — Campylotropous, irregularly spherical, some-
what compressed, i to 2 mm. in diameter, externally yellowish-
brown, seed-coat membranaceous, and minutely pitted, marked on
one side by a distinct ridge and two parallel furrows formed by
the hypocotyl and cotyledons ; internally light yellow, without a
reserve layer, hypocotyl curved, cotyledons conduplicate ; inodor-
ous ; taste pungent and acrid.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 294; 302, E. F.

Constituents. — Fixed oil 20 to 25 per cent. ; mucilage in the
outer wall of the epidermal cells ; proteids about 30 per cent. ; a
glucoside sinalbin (C30H44N0S2OJ6), and a ferment myrosin,
which yield on interaction a yellowish non-volatile oil (acrinyl
sulphocyanide) which is pungent to the taste, but owing to its
non-volatile character, does not afifect the eyes or nose. In the
reaction there is also formed glucose and acid sinapine sulphate.
Sinapine is an alkaloid which is decomposed, on heating its solu-
tions with alkalies, into choline and sinapic acid.

Adulterants. — While the whole mustard is seldom, if ever,
adulterated, ground mustard may contain wheat middlings or
shorts, and occasionally rice or pea flour; when these flours are

CRUDE DRUGS. 429

employed, turmeric is also added to bring up the color, which latter
may be detected by means of the microscope (Fig. 290) and by its
becoming deep red with sulphuric acid and blue with iodine.

Allied Plants. — The seed of Tumip {Brassica campesiris)
is supposed to be the white mustard of Sanscrit writers.

SINAPIS NIGRA.— BLACK MUSTARD.— The dried, ripe
seeds of Brassica nigra (Fam. Cruciferse), an annual occurring
much the same as Sinapis alba (p. 283).

Description. — Campylotropous, ellipsoidal or irregularly
spherical, i to 1.5 mm. in diameter; externally brownish-red,
seed-coat membranaceous, finely pitted, hilum whitish, forming a
conical projection, micropyle occurring as a slight depression ;
without a reserve layer, hypocotyl curved, cotyledons condupli-
cate ; inodorous ; taste pungent and acrid.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 295.

Constituents. — Black mustard contains the same constit-
uents as white mustard, save that it contains more fixed oil (30
to 35 per cent) ; less of the ferment, myrosin ; and the sinalbin is
replaced by the glucoside, sinigrin (potassium myronate), which is
present to the extent of about i per cent, and yields on interaction
with the myrosin a light yellowish volatile oil (allyl isosulpho-
cyanide or volatile oil of mustard), which has an acrid, burning
taste, pungent odor, and also affects the eyes. In the reaction
there is also formed glucose and potassium acid sulphate.

Allied Products. — Of the seeds of the other Cruciferse which
somewhat resemble black mustard, the following may be men-
tioned : The seeds of Field mustard or Sinapis arvensis, which are
almost black and perfectly smooth : the seeds of Sarepta mustard,
(Brassica Bcsscriana), which are larger and distinctly reticulate;
Rape or colza seeds (Brassica Napits), which-are larger, not retic-
ulate and of a bluish-black color ; Turnip seeds yielded by Bras-
sica cauipcstris, which are somewhat larger but less acrid, and are
used in India in place of black mustard ; and Brassica juncea,
which is cultivated in tropical Asia for the same purpose.

PEPO.— PUMPKIN SEED.— The ripe seeds of Cucurbita
Pcpo (Fam. Cucurbitacese) , a procumbent herb native of tropical
America and possibly tropical Asia, and long cultivated in tropical
and temperate zones (p. 387).

430 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — Anatropous, broadly elliptical, acute, acumin-
ate or truncate, flattened, about 20 mm. long, 10 mm. broad, about
2 mm. thick ; externally white or light yellow, very smooth or
somewhat rough from adhering fruit pulp, marked by a shallow
groove or slight ridge parallel to and within i mm. of the margin ;
raphe not conspicuous, hilum characterized by a minute depres-
sion; seed-coat consisting of two distinct layers — the outer white
and coriaceous and the inner dark green and membranaceous;
embryo white, straight, with a small hypocotyl and two plano-
convex cotyledons ; slightly odorous when contused ; taste bland.

Constituents. — Fixed oil about 40 per cent. ; starch about 30
per cent. ; proteins : a resin. There is no indication of the pres-
ence of any principle possessing anthelmintic properties. Any
therapeutic value must be attributed solely to mechanical action.

Allied Plants. — The seeds of other species of Cucurbita are
also used in medicine ; in Italy C. maxima and in the West Indies
C. occidcntalis are the sources of the drug.

The seeds of other members of the Cucurbitacese are also
employed in medicine ; they include the seeds of watermelon
(Cifnilhis vulgaris), cucumber (Ciicitmis sativus), muskmelon
{Cucurnis melo) and lagenaria (Cucurbita Lagenaria) .

STROPHANTHUS.— The ripe seeds of Strophanthus Komhe
(Fam. Apocynacese), a twining shrub found in Zambesi and other
parts of Eastern Africa (p. 363). The plumose awns at the apex
of the seeds are usually removed before exportation (Fig. 185).

Description. — Hemi-anatropous, oblong-lanceolate or spatul-
ate, acute or acuminate, unevenly flattened and in transverse sec-
tion deltoid or plano-convex, 8 to 15 mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. broad, i
to 1.5 mm. thick; externally yellowish-green, covered with long
hairs giving a silky appearance to the seed, the raphe extending
as a distinct ridge from the hilum about half the length of the
seed ; fracture short ; internally whitish, endosperm about 0.2 mm.
thick, embryo 6 to 12 mm. long and i to 2 mm. broad, cotyledons
plano-convex, about i mm. thick, hypocotyl conical, 2 mm. long;
inodorous except when broken ; taste very bitter.

When treated with concentrated sulphuric acid the endosperm,
in about 65 per cent, of the seeds, becomes green ; the cotyledons
red or purple and finally green, in some instances.

CRUDE DRUGS.

431

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 186; 284, A; 306.

Constituents. — Strophanthin, a crystalline principle occur-
ring chiefly in the endosperm and varying from 0.95 to 3 per cent. ;
strophanthin is colored greenish with sulphuric acid, and yields on
decomposition a crystalline body called strophanthidin ; the other
constituents are kombic acid and about 30 per cent, of a fixed oil.

Allied Plants. — The seeds of a number of other species and
varieties of Strophanthus find their way into the market, but

Fig. 185. A dehiscent follicle of strophanthus showing plumose seeds.

these are usually more or less deficient in strophanthin and hence
do not give a greenish color v.ith sulphuric acid. The most
important of these are the seeds of Strophanthus hispidiis, a plant
growing in Upper Guinea and other parts of Western Africa.
These are smaller, thicker and less hairy than those of S. Komhe
and yield less than i per cent, of strophanthin. The commercial
drug may contain other Strophanthus seeds, some of which con-
tain calcium oxalate prisms.

432

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Another principle, pseudo-strophanthin, has been isolated from
the seeds of some undetermined species of Strophanthus. This

Fig. 186. Transverse section of strophanthus seed; SC, seed-coat with unicellular
non-glandular hairs (H); R, raphe; E, endosperm; C,C, cotyledons with fibrovascular
bundle (V) and palisade cells (P).

principle appears to be more powerful than strophanthin, but is
less satisfactory as a heart tonic.

CRUDE DRUGS.

433

AMYGDALA AMARA.— BITTER ALMOND.— The ripe
seed of Primus Amygdalus amara (Fam. Rosaceae), a tree native
of Asia Minor, Persia and Syria, and cultivated and naturalized
in tropical and warm-temperate regions (p. 287). The commer-
cial product is obtained mostly from Sicily, Southern France,
Southern Italy and Northern Africa. In commercial almonds the
yellowish, more or less porous, fibrous and brittle endocarp is
frequently present, and this should be removed (Fig. 187).

Description. — Anatropous, ovate or oblong-lanceolate, flat-
tened, more rounded on one margin, apex acute or beaked, chahzal
end rounded or obliquely truncate, 20 to 30 mm. long, 11 to 17

Fig. 187. Drupe-like fruit of almond (Prunus Amygdalus): A, whole fruit wlfh
distinct suture; B, longitudinal section showing fibrous sarcocarp, and thin shell-endocarp;
C, D, E, sections of the seed; c, cotyledons; w, hypocotyl; v, epicotyl or plumule. — After
Focke.

mm. broad, 7 to 9 mm. thick ; externally light brown, with numer-
ous parallel veins extending from the chalaza to the micropyle,
outer walls of epidermal cells modified to distinct papilla, seed-
coat thin, membranaceous, easily removed on soaking the seed in
water, the raphe extending on the more rounded edge as a more
or less distinct ridge from the hilum to or near the chalaza ; frac-
ture short ; without reserve layers, embryo straight, whitish, hypo-
cotyl conical, 2 to 3 mm. long, cotyledons plano-convex, sometimes
slightly unequal, plumule i mm. long; odorless, except on treat-
ment with water, when an odor of hydrocyanic acid is emitted, or
of benzaldehvde when old ; taste bitter.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 188; 302, D; 319.

434

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Fixed oil 45 per cent. ; proteins 25 to 30 per
cent. ; a glucoside, amygdalin, i to 3 per cent. ; and a ferment,
emulsin, which acts upon amygdalin, decomposing it into a vola-
tile oil (benzaldehyde or oil of bitter almond) and hydrocyanic
acid. In addition to the protein emulsin, there is another casein-
like protein present, amandin, both of which act as emulsifying
agents in the preparation of emulsion of almonds.

E—

E' -

X. AT-

Fig. 188. Sections of almond seed: A, cross section of seed-coat treated with cola
potassium hydrate solution and showing outer epidermis (E), inner epidermis (Ei), between
which is rather loose parenchyma (p), tissues of nucellus (N) and endosperm (En). B,
parenchyma (p) with large intercellular spaces and the inner epidermis of the seed-coat
(Ei). C, transverse section of inner epidermis (Ei) and the outer cells of the nucellus (N).
D, more or less obliterated cells of nucellus (N) and two layers of the endosperm (En),
which remain intact in the ripe seed. — After Meyer.

Amygdalin, or a similar principle, is found in the young shoots
and flower-buds, as well as seeds, of apricot, peach, plum, cherry
and cherry laurel. (See Wild Black-cherry Bark.)

AMYGDALA DULCIS.— SWEET ALMOND.— The ripe
seeds of Pntniis Amygdalus dulcis (Fam. Rosacese), a tree like
the bitter almond but more extensively cultivated. The commer-
cial supply is obtained from Northern Africa, Southern France,
Italy and Spain, the choicest seeds being imported from Malaga
and known as " Jordan almonds " (p. 287).

CRUDE DRUGS. 435

Description. — Closely resembling the Bitter Almond but giv-
ing no odor of hydrocyanic acid when treated with water, or of
benzaldehyde when old ; taste bland and sweet.

Constituents. — Resembling bitter almond, but containing
slightly more fixed oil (about 50 per cent.), and being free from
amygdalin.

COLA. — KOLA. — The kernel of the seed of Cola acuminata
(Fam. Sterculiaceae), a tree indigenous to Guinea, and now
extensively cultivated in the West Indies and South America.
The commercial supplies come principally from Western Africa
and the West Indies. The seed obtained from the West Indies
is known commercially as Bicliy or Bissy-bissy nut. The ker-
nels are used in a fresh condition or the cotyledons are separated
and dried (p. 333).

Description. — Anatropous, plano-convex, polygonal, three to
six-sided, 18 to 35 mm. long and 5 to 20 mm. in diameter ; exter-
nally yellowish or yellowish-red when fresh, but becoming darker
with age and on drying, wdth a shallow furrow indicating the line
of union of the two cotyledons, micropyle forming a distinct cleft
at one end, otherwise nearly smooth ; easily cut when fresh, but
hard when dry ; without reserve layers, cotyledons unequal and
varying from two to five in number, the hypocotyl small ; odor
distinct ; taste astringent, somewhat sweet.

Constituents. — Starch 35 to 40 per cent., the grains resem-
bling those of potato starch but uniformly smaller; caffeine 1.5
to 3.6 per cent. ; theobromine 0.02 to 0.09 per cent. ; 1.5 to 4 per
cent, of a tannin ; an enzyme similar to the lipase found in nutmeg
and black pepper which decomposes fats.

Caffeine or theine (trimethyl xanthine or methyl theobro-
mine) also occurs in coffee (p. 380), tea (p. 334), cacao (p. 332)
and Paraguay tea (p. 322). It separates in the form of acicular
crystals having a bitter taste, is soluble in water and alcohol, the
solutions being neutral ; and may be sublimed without decomposi-
tion on heating. On treating a small quantity of caffeine with a
few drops of nitric acid or chlorine water and evaporating the
solution to dryness on a water bath the reddish-yellow residue
is colored purplish by ammonia. A similar reaction is also ob-
tained by treating the alkaloid with hydrochloric acid and a crystal

436 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

of potassium chlorate, evaporating the solution and adding a
drop of ammonia water to the residue. (See also Fig. 159.)

Theobromine (dimethyl xanthine) also occurs in cacao (p.
332) and crystallizes in rhombic prisms, which are sparingly
soluble in water and alcohol, the solutions being slightly acid. It
sublimes on heating without decomposition, and forms crystalliz-
able salts with mineral acids, which are readily decomposed with
water. Theobromine on treatment with methyl iodide yields
caffeine. Both caffeine and theobromine are also prepared syn-
thetically.

Fresh kola nuts also yield from 0.3 to 0.4 per cent, of a
crystalline tannin-containing substance, kolatin, which is com-
bined with the caffeine as kolatin-caffeine. The latter is unstable
and is easily decomposed on curing or drying the drug. Kolatin
resembles pyrocatechin in its reactions and appears to neutralize
the physiological action of caft'eine, and hence the dried kola nuts
are more active than the fresh nuts.

The red color in dried kola seeds is due to an oxydase similar
to that which causes the darkening of apples when freshly cut and
exposed to the air. If the seeds are first heated in boiling water
for 30 minutes and then dried they do not darken.

Allied Plants. — The seeds of a number of other plants are
said to be -sometimes admixed with kola, and of these the follow-
ing may be mentioned : Cola Ballayi, a plant growing in the
Gaboon, the seeds of which contain six cotyledons and are defi-
cient in alkaloids. The seeds of Garcinia Cola (Fam. Guttiferse)
have been substituted for Cola under the name of " Stamimte
Cola." These seeds do not contain caffeine, but two resins which
seem to have a physiological effect similar to Cola. The seeds of
Pentadesma hutyraccum, of Sierra Leone, have also been used as
a substitute for Cola ; they contain a fat, having a turpentine-
like odor, which is used by the natives in place of butter, and
hence the tree is known as the " Butter or Tallow tree."

NUX VOMICA.— The dried, ripe seeds of Strychnos Nux-
vomica (Fam. Loganiaceas), a small tree native of the East Indies
and also found growing in the forests of Ceylon, on the Malabar
Coast and in Northern Australia. The fruit is a kind of berry
with from three to five seeds, which are freed from the bitter
pulp by washing, and dried before exportation (p. 362).

CRUDE DRUGS. 437

Description. — Orbicular, compressed, concavo-convex, some-
times irregularly bent, margin acute or rounded, 17 to 30 mm. in
diameter, 3 to 5 mm. thick ; externally grayish-yellow or grayish-
green, covered with long hairs giving the seed a satiny luster,
sometimes with adhering dark-brown fragments of the fruit pulp,
hilum near the center of one side, and a more or less distinct
ridge resembling a raphe extending from it to the micropyle ; very
hard when dry, tough when damp; internally whitish, horny, endo-
sperm in two more or less regular concavo-convex halves, embryo
small, situated near the micropyle, and with two heart-shaped
cotyledons ; inodorous ; taste intensely and persistently bitter.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 173, 283, B; 318.

Constituents. — Ash i to 4 per cent.; chlorogenic (formerly
called igasuric acid), which is a dibasic acid and crystallizes in
needles, the solutions giving a green color with ferric chloride; 1.5'
to 5 per cent, of alkaloids consisting of strychnine and brucine, the
former comprising from one-third to one-half of the total amount.
Strychnine crystallizes in rhombic prisms and gives with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, in connection with potassium dichromate,
a blue or violet color. Brucine forms rectangular octohedra and
gives a deep-red color with nitric acid. A glucoside, loganin, is
present in the seeds in small amount, but it is found in the pulp of
the fruit to the extent of 5 per cent. The alkaloids .are probably
distributed in both the cell-contents and cell wall. Their presence
in the wall is shown by the use of iodine solution and in the con-
tents by the use of potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. The
thick cellulose walls give the hard, horny character to these seeds
(Fig. 173), as also the date seed. A small amount of starch is
found in the fragments of adhering pulp. The seeds are some-
times made to look fresh by the use of a blue dye which is soluble
in dilute alcohol.

Allied Plants. — The seeds of Strychiws Ignatii, a woody
climber of the Philippine Islands, contain about the same amount
of total alkaloids as nux vomica, of which one-third to two-thirds
is strychnine. The seeds are irregular, somewhat oblong or ovoid,
pebble-like, 20 to 30 mm. long, grayish or brownish-black, more
or less translucent, and are nearly free from lignified hairs, such
as are found in nux vomica.

438 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

PHYSOSTIGMA.— CALABAR BEAN.— The ripe seeds of
Physostigma vcncnosum (Fam. Leguminosae), a woody climber
growing in the region of the Gulf of Guinea on the western coast
of Africa (p. 298). The seeds are also known as "the ordeal
bean of Calabar " (Fig. 189).

Description. — Anatropous, somewhat reniform or irregularly
oblong or ellipsoidal, 25 to 30 mm. long, 15 to 18 mm. in diam-

FiG. i8g. Physostigmine salicylate: orthorhombic crystals from a solution in chloroform.

eter, 10 to 15 mm. thick, with a brownish-black groove from i to 2
mm. in diameter extending about half-way around the edge, con-
taining the raphe as a narrow line, and in which is frequently
found the remains of the white membranaceous funiculus, the
micropyle occurring near one end of the groove as a slight depres-
sion ; seed-coat brownish-red, hard, thick, smooth, but somewhat
rough near the groove ; reserve layers wanting, embryo large,
white, with short hypocotyl and two concavo-convex cotyledons :
inodorous ; taste starchy.

CRUDE DRUGS. 439

Constituents. — Starch about 45 per cent. ; proteins about 20
per cent. ; fixed oil about 2 per cent. ; ash about 3 per cent. Sev-
eral alkaloids have been isolated, the most important of which is
physostigmine (eserine), which occurs in the embryo to the extent
of 0.1 to .25 per cent. It crystallizes in rhomboidal plates; has a
strong alkaline reaction, is colored red with alkalies and yellow
with sulphuric or nitric acid. With the latter reagent the solu-
tion changes to olive-green. The aqueous solutions of physostig-
mine are easily decomposed and a reddish colored substance,
rubreserine, separates. The salicylate and sulphate of physostig-
mine are official, the solutions of the former being more stable.
Physostigma also contains eseridine (isophysostigmine), an alka-
loid resembling physostigmine in its physiological action ; a liquid
alkaloid, calabarine, which is physiologically antagonistic to phy-
sostigmine, and a crystalline alkaloid, eseramine, which is inactive.

Allied Plants. — The seeds of P. cylindrospcrmmn have been
substituted for Calabar bean ; they are nearly cylindrical and are
said also to contain physostigmine.

The lenticular, brown, glossy seeds of Entada scandcns have
been offered as a substitute for physostigma. Canavalia obtusi-
folia, of the East Indies, is also said to have been used as an
adulterant of physostigma.

MYRISTICA.— NUTMEG.— The kernel of the seed of My-
ristica fragrans (Fam. Myristicacese), a tree indigenous to the
Molucca and neighboring islands, and now extensively cultivated
in other tropical regions, including the West Indies. The com-
mercial supply is largely derived from the Malay Archipelago,
from whence it is shipped to Amsterdam and London. The testa
and arillode are removed, the latter constituting mace. With the
exception of those from Penang, nutmegs .are not infrequently
partially coated with lime to protect them from the attacks of
insects (p. 277).

Description. — Ellipsoidal, 20 to 30 mm. long, 15 to 20 mm. in
diameter; externally light brown, usually whitish from a dressing
of lime, reticulately furrowed, at one end a white, smooth pro-
jection 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, in the center of which is the micro-
pyle, the chalaza indicated near the other end by a slight, dark
depression, from which there extends a more or less distinct fur-

440 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

row indicating the position of the raphe ; easily cut, the surface
having a waxy luster, and mottled by reason of the light-brown
perisperm penetrating into the yellowish-brown endosperm, the
shrunken embryo lying in an irregular cavity about 4 or 5 mm.
long, near the micropyle ; odor and taste aromatic and pleasant.

Constituents. — Fixed oil, sometimes occurring in prismatic
crystals, 25 to 40 per cent. ; volatile oil 8 to 15 per cent. The oil
is official as oleum myristicae and contains myristicin and a num-
ber of terpenes. Nutmegs also contain considerable proteins and
starch, the latter being colored blue by iodine solutions.

Allied Plants. — Other species of Myristica yield nutmegs
which are used by the natives, as M. succedanca of Timor, M.
fatua of the Indian Archipelago, and M. Komho of Guinea. The
kernels of the seeds of M. fatua constitute the long, wild, or male
NUTMEG. They are narrow-ellipsoidal, feebly aromatic and have
a more or less disagreeable taste. The seeds of AI. officinalis and
AI. Bicuhyba of Brazil have medicinal properties, a balsam being
obtained from the latter, which is used as a substitute for copaiba.
The so-called African nutmegs derived from .1/. suriiiaincnsis of
the West Indies soon lose their odorous properties. M. sehifcra
of Guiana yields a fatty oil which has but little odor of nutmeg.
Fatty and ethereal oils resembling those of nutmeg are found
in the " American nutmegs " obtained from Cryptocarya moschata
(Fam. Lauracese) of Brazil.

Adulterants. — False nutmegs consist of exhausted powdered
nutmegs or defective nutmegs and mineral matter.

GOSSYPIUM PURIFICATUM.— PURIFIED COTTON.
The hairs of the seeds of Gossypinm hirsiitnm, G. harbadcnse,
and other species of Gossypium (Fam. Malvaceae), biennial or
triennial shrubs indigenous to sub-tropical Asia and Africa, and
cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical countries (Fig. 166).
The seeds are hand-picked, freed from dust by screens or drums,
and the cotton removed in the cotton-gin. It is then freed from
mechanical impurities, deprived of fatty and other substances and
finally bleached. It is estimated that 1000 million K. of cotton are
produced annually. Long staple or sea-island cotton is obtained
from G. hirsutuvi, while short staple or upland cotton is derived
from G. barbadensc (p. 329).

CRUDE DRUGS. 44i

Description. — A white, soft tufted mass, consisting of some-
what flattened, twisted and spirally striate, i -celled, non-glandular
hairs, from 2.5 to 4.5 cm. long; inodorous and tasteless.

Absorbent cotton is soluble in ammoniacal solution of cupric
oxide, yields less than i per cent, of ash, and on treating it with
water the solution should have a neutral reaction and not give any
reaction with ammonium carbonate, barium chloride, mercuric
chloride or silver nitrate.

Adulterants. — Various substances may be added to absorbent
cotton to increase the rate of absorption of water, as chlorides of
calcium, magnesium and zinc, glycerin and glucose; as loading
materials, barium and calcium salts, and clay are added to inferior
grades of the article.

The hairs from immature seeds are known as " dead cotton "
and are distinguished by having very thin walls, a thin outer
layer of cutin, but lack the essential properties for technical uses.

GUARANA. — A dried paste consisting of the crushed seeds
of Paullinia Ctipana (Fam. Sapindacese), a climbing shrub native
of Brazil and Uruguay. The commercial product is obtained from
cultivated plants. The ripe seeds are deprived of the appendage
or aril, crushed, made into a doughy mass with ^yater, sometimes
tapioca being added to increase the adhesiveness, molded into
forms and dried at a gentle heat. During the drying the mass
undergoes a kind of curing. Considerable skill is required in
supervising the operation, which is performed by special work-
men. In addition to its use in medicine, Guarana is used in the
preparation of a beverage which is used like tea and cofifee by the
people of Brazil (p. 324).

Description. — Cylindrical sticks, 15 to 30 cm. long, 35 to 50
mm. in diameter ; externally blackish-brown, -surface marked by
depressions, but otherwise smooth ; hard, heavy and brittle, the
fracture being uneven ; internally light brown to reddish-brown,
somewhat variegated from the fragments of contused seeds ; odor
slight; taste astringent, bitter.

Constituents. — CaiTeine 2.5 to 5 per cent. ; tannin (catechu-
tannic acid) about 25 per cent. ; ash about 2 per cent. Guarana
also contains considerable starch, a small amount of catechin, a
volatile oil, an acrid, green fixed oil, and saponin. (Also see Cola.)

442

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

MACIS.— MACE.— The arillode of the seed of Myristica
fragrans (Fam. Myristicaceas). (See Nutmeg.) According to
Warburg the arillode arises in the region of the hilum before the
flower opens and fertilization is effected (p. 2"^"/).

Description. — In coarsely reticulate bands about i mm. thick,
the whole having the outline of the nutmeg, the basal portion

<0 «

Fig. 190. Mace: E, epidermal cells, which in transverse section are nearly isodia-
metric, but in longitudinal section are elongated, sometimes being i mm. in length; P,
parenchjTna cells with small starch grains which are colored reddish with iodine; Z, large
oil cells showing oil globules and protoplasmic contents lining the walls; T, trachea-; S,
small, irregular starch grains.

united, but with a small, irregular opening; usually in compressed,
nearly entire pieces, reddish or orange-brown, somewhat translu-
cent, brittle when dry ; odor and taste aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 190.

Constituents. — An aromatic balsam 24.5 per cent. ; volatile
oil 4 to 7 per cent, and resembling that obtained from nutmegs
but containing a larger percentage of terpenes; fixed oil, and con-

CRUDE DRUGS. 443

siderable starch, which is colored red by iodine sohition, distin-
guishing it from nutmeg starch. Mace also contains from 2 to 4
per cent, of a dextrogyrate sugar.

True mace should yield from 20 to 30 per cent, of non-volatile
ether extract, from 20 to 30 per cent, of starch, and not more than
3 per cent, of ash.

Allied Plants. — Macassar or Papua mace, derived from
Myristica argentea, is somewhat darker and with broader seg-
ments than true mace. It gives a cherry-red color with concen-
trated sulphuric acid, is very pungent and yields over 50 per cent,
of non-volatile ether extract, and less than 10 per cent, of starch.

Bombay mace, or wild mace, is the product of Myristica iiiala-
barica; it is distinguished from true mace in that the entire mace
is narrow-ellipsoidal, the reticulations are not so coarse, the apex
is divided into numerous narrow lobes, and it is darker in color.
With alkalies or sulphuric acid wild mace assumes a darker color
than the true mace does. It is slightly aromatic, but has little
value as a spice, and yields nearly 60 per cent, of non-volatile
ether extract.

II. ROOTS AND RHIZOMES.

Roots and rhizomes represent those parts of plants which
develop under ground, the latter having all of the characteristics
of stems except their manner of growth. Most drugs derived
from roots and rhizomes possess the typical characteristics of
these plant parts, the commercial products being readily distin-
guishable as such. There are some, however, that are more or
less intermediate in character, and, while commonly spoken of as
roots, thev are in reality modifications of the stem, at least in
part, as aconite, gelsemium, glycyrrhiza and rhubarb. For this
reason, and in order to facilitate their study, roots and rhizomes
are here considered in one class, which is subdivided as follows :
( I ) True Roots ; (2) Rhizomes that are root-like, at least in part ;
(3) True Rhizomes; (4) Corms ; (5) Bulbs.

Some of the roots and rhizomes that are employed in medi-
cine are prepared for market by removing a part of the periderm ;
in a general way this treatment is objectionable, particularly in
the case of those drugs containing volatile principles, as these

444 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

exist in greatest amount in the cortical portion, and the periderm
serves to prevent the volatiHzation as well as deterioration of these
principles.

Rhizomes are distinguished as upright, horizontal or oblique,
depending upon their manner of growth, and this may be deter-
mined in the drug by placing the rhizome in such a position that
the stem-scars are horizontal.

I. True Roots.

1. Monocotyledons Sarsaparilla

2. Dicotyledons.

A. Periderm removed Althaea

B. Periderm present.

a. Roots nearly entire.

Tuber-like Jalapa

Long, thin and of a reddish color Krameria

Fusiform, very acrid Pyrethrum

Keeled, crown knotty Senega

Fusiform, small, yellowish central wood. .Taraxacum

b. Roots cut into transverse pieces.

Yellowish-green disks Calumba

Concentric zones of collateral fibrovascular

bundles Pareira

Bark soft, spongy and finely fibrous Stillingia

"• Very light in weight, wood large with

fibers interlacing Sumbul

C. Roots cut into longitudinal pieces.

Characteristic odor and taste Belladonnse Radix

Horny, tough, pith white Lappa

Ribbon-like slices, very fibrous Phytolacca

d. Roots more or less broken into pieces.
Bark transversely fissured and easily

separable from the wood Apocynum

Somewhat tortuous, bark irregularly
annulate and sometimes transversely
fissured Ipecacuanha

II. Rhizomes that are Root-like.

A. Periderm removed.

Yellowish, fibrous, taste sweetish Glycyrrhiza (Russian)

Reddish-brown, heavy, granular Rheura

CRUDE DRUGS. 445

II. Rhizomes that are Root-like. — Continued.

B. Periderm present.

Tuber-like Aconitum

Cylindrical, fracture tough, wood whitish Gelsemium

Cylindrical pieces, tough, wood yellowish Berberis

Annulate above, odor characteristic Gentiana

Fibrous, taste sweetish Glycyrrhiza (Spanish)

III. True Rhizomes.

1. Filices See Aspidium

2. Monocotyledons.

A. Periderm removed Zingiber

B. Periderm present.

a. Rhizome and roots.

a Horizontal in growth.

Light brown, few roots Convallaria

Dark brown with densely matted

roots Cypripedium

Small pieces, grass-like, hollow

in the center Triticum

^ Rhizome upright Veratrum Viride

b. Rhizome without roots Calamus

3. Dicotyledons.

a. Rhizome with roots.

a Rhizome horizontal.

Numerous upright or curved branches

and few roots Cimicif uga

Internally deep yellow Hydrastis

Light brown and with numerous coarse

roots Leptandra

/3 Rhizome oblique.

Odor terebinthinate Serpentaria

Odor aromatic Spigelia

7 Rhizome upright Valeriana

b. Rhizome without roots.

a Entire rhizomes.

Tuberculate Geranium

Prominent seal-like stem-scars Podophyllum

Internally with reddish resin cells Sanguinaria

/3 Longitudinal pieces Scopola

IV. Corm.

Transverse reniform disks Colchici Cormus

V. Bulb.

Narrow, light yellow pieces Scilla

446

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

SARSAPARILLA.— The dried root of various species of
Smilax (Fam. Liliaceae), perennial climbers indigenous from
Mexico to Brazil (p. 238). There are four principal commercial
varieties: (i) Honduras sarsaparilla yielded by Smilax oMci-

^^©@-^^€,

Fig. 191. Different kinds of tracheae. A, transverse section of stem of grape-vine
(Vtiis vinifera) showing three tracheae from the older wood containing tyloses, w, wood
fibers; m. medullary rays. The tyloses or thyllen. are in the nature of ingrowths from the wood
fibers and protrude through the adjoining pores, at the end of the season's growth closing
the cavities of the tracheae. B, longitudinal section of belladonna root showing a large
trachea with bordered pores (t),a trachea with simple pores (s). wood fiber with oblique
pores (w) and parenchyma (p) containing starch. C, longitudinal .section of Phytolacca root
showing a trachea with bordered pores (t). trachea with reticulate thickening (r), wood fibers
(w) and parenchyma (p) containing starch. D, longitudinal section of scopola rhizome show-
ing reticulate tracheas and parenchyma containing stprch.

nalis, growing in Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, and
exported from Honduras and Belize; (2) Para sarsaparilla,
yielded by Smilax papyracca, growing in the upper Amazon
region, and exported from Para; (3) Mexican sarsaparilla.
yielded by Smilax mcdica (Fig. 131), growing in Mexico, and

CRUDE DRUGS.

447

exported from Vera Cruz and Tampico, and (4) Jamaica or
Central American sarsaparilla, derived from Smilax ornata, grow-
ing in the United States of Colombia, Costa Rica and Nicaragua,
and shipped to Jamaica, from whence it is exported — chiefly to
London. There is also a native Jamaica sarsaparilla which is
obtained from plants cultivated 'in Jamaica. The Honduras and
Mexican varieties are chiefly used in this country, although Para
sarsaparilla has been employed to a certain extent for years.

Description. — Honduras Sarsaparilla. — In bundles about
I M. in length and from 8 to 15 cm. in diameter, consisting of

yCl^ -^^^ . .v'^.wr^'^

^ ^

Fig. 192. Transverse section of American sarsaparilla (rhizome oi Aralia nudicaulis)
showing cork (k), hypodermis (h), rosette aggregates (ca) of calcium oxalate (75 n in diam-
eter), parenchyma (p) containing angular starch grains (3 to 10 /u. in diameter), oil secretion
reservoirs (o), sieve (s), medullary rays (m), cambium (c), tracheae (t), wood fibers (w).

the long, folded roots, and rhizomes, bound together by roots of
the same plant or stems of some other plant, the ends of the
bundles rarely being trimmed at the present time : roots
about 2 M. long and uniformly about 2 to 6 mm. in diameter ;
externally dark or reddish-brown, longitudinally furrowed,
minutely hairy and having slender rootlets, the furrows usually
free from soil ; fracture fibrous ; internally consisting of a white
pith, a light-yellow, porous, central cylinder and a grayish-white or
dark-brown cortex, the latter being lighter and more starchy
near the growing end, and darker (more resinous) near the union
with the rhizome; odor slight; taste slightly acrid (Fig. 193).

448

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 193. Transverse section of Honduras sarsaparilla in which the middle portion
of the cortex is omitted; e. epidermis with root hairs; s, hypodermis; A, outer portion of
cortex; B, inner portion of cortex; k, endodermis; g, trachea; b, sieve cells; m, parenchy-
ma at the center of the root. The thick-walled cells around the tracheae and sieve cells are
sclerenchyma fibers. — After Luerssen.

CRUDE DRUGS.

449

The cells of the endodermis and hypodermis are oblong in
transverse section and nearly uniformly thickened (Fig. 194).

Mexican Sarsaparilla. — In bundles, with the roots usually
more or less free; the latter grayish-brown, somewhat
shrunken, the furrows containing larger or smaller amounts of

Fig. 194. I, transverse section of Honduras sarsaparilla showing the hypodermal
cells (e) with cork lamellce (k) ; 2, similar section of Mexican sarsaparilla; 3, transverse
section of Honduras sarsaparilla showing endodermal cells (e) with cork lamellae (k) and
lignified walls (H) ; 4, similar section of Mexican sarsaparilla showing endodermal cells (E).
— After Meyer.

soil. The outer walls of the cells of the hypodermis and the inner
walls of the cells of the endodermis are considerably thickened
(Fig. 194.)

Para Sarsaparilla. — Closely resembling Honduras sarsapa-
rilla in structure, but coming into market in the form of rather
large bundles, closely bound by means of the stem of a vine,
and the ends evenly trimmed.

450 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Jamaica Sarsaparilla occurs in rather loose bundles. The
roots are especially marked b}' the numerous coarse rootlets. The
cells of the hypodermis and endodermis somewhat resemble those
of Mexican sarsaparilla.

Constituents. — Sarsaparilla contains three glucosidal prin-
ciples, which are present to the extent of about 3 per cent. — paril-
lin, saponin and sarsosaponin, of which the latter is the most
active; it also contains about 15 per cent, of starch; raphides of
calcium oxalate ; volatile oil, and resin.

Allied Products. — American Sarsaparilla is the rhizome
of wild or Mrt^inia sarsaparilla {Aralia niidicauUs, Fam. Arali-
acese), a perennial acaulescent herb, indigenous to Canada and the
Northern United States as far west as Nebraska. The rhizome
is of variable length, from 5 to 15 mm. thick ; externally brownish-
gray and somewhat annulate ; internally light brown, more or
less spongy, and having an aromatic odor and taste. It contains
about 0.33 per cent, of a volatile oil, which is bitter and pungent ;
2 per cent, of resin ; tannin, starch and rosette aggregates of
calcium oxalate (Fig. 192).

The rhizome and roots of American spikenard (Aralia racc-
iiwsa), growing in the Eastern and Central United States, have
constituents similar to those of A. nudicauUs, but are more aro-
matic. The bark of Hercules' Club {Aralia spinosa), of the East-
ern and Central United States, contains the glucoside araliin and
possibly also saponin.

The roots of Coccuhis viUosns (Fam. Menispermacese) are
used in the East Indies like sarsaparilla.

ALTH^A.— MARSHMALLOW.— The dried root of Al-
thcca oMcinalis (Fam. Malvaceae), a perennial herb (p. 329) native
of Central and Southern Europe, and naturalized in the United
States in the marshes from Massachusetts to Pennsylvania. The
commercial supply is obtained from plants cultivated in Germany,
France and Holland. The roots are collected from plants of the
second year's growth, and the periderm and rootlets are removed.

Description. — Nearly entire, cylindrical, tapering, 10 to 20
cm. long, 5 to 20 mm. in diameter; externally very light brown,
obscurely 4- to 6-angled, deeply furrowed longitudinally, covered
with detachable bast fibers, with few circular root-scars ; fracture

CRUDE DRUGS. 451

of bark tough, fibrous, of wood short and granular ; internally
light brown, finely radiate, bark 0.5 to 2 mm. thick, and easily sep-
arable from the wood, cambium zone marked by a distinct brown
line, wood porous ; odor faint, aromatic ; taste sweetish, mucil-
aginous (Fig. 99, B).

Constituents. — Mucilage 25 to 35 per cent. ; asparagin
(amido-succinamide) i to 2 per cent., which occurs in hard crys-
tals with an acid reaction, insoluble in alcohol but soluble in 50
parts of cold water; starch about 35 per cent.; pectin about 10
per cent. ; sugar about 10 per cent. ; ash about 5 per cent. An
infusion of althaea is colored bright yellow with dilute solutions of
the alkalies.

Allied Plants. — The roots of a number of other genera of
this family are used for similar purposes, as those of Kosteletsyka
pentacarpa of Southern Europe ; Hibiscus Bancroftianus of the
West Indies ; Malvavisciis pcntacarpus of Mexico ; H. Rosa Sinen-
sis of tropical Asia and cultivated ; Althcoa rosea of the Levant and
cultivated; and Sida ovalis of Peru. Mucilage is also found in
the flowers and leaves of one or more species of Malva, Sida,
Pavonia, Hibiscus, Pachira and Eriodendron.

JALAPA. — JALAP. — The tuberous root or tubercle of Exo-
gonium Purga (Fam. Convolvulaceae), a perennial twining herb
(p. 365) native of the eastern slopes of the Mexican Andes, and
cultivated in Jamaica and India. The roots are collected in the
fall and dried by artificial means, the larger ones being first cut
into longitudinal pieces. Mexico furnishes the principal part of
the commercial supply, which is exported from Vera Cruz.

Description. — Fusiform, irregularly ovoid or pyriform, upper
end more or less rounded, lower end obtuse or slightly acuminate ;
3 to 8 cm. long, i to 5 cm. in diameter; externally dark brown,
deeply and irregularly furrowed longitudinally, otherwise nearly
smooth or wrinkled, with numerous lenticels 2 to 4 mm. long and
few circular rootlet-scars ; fracture horny and resinous ; internally
dark brown and marked by more or less distinct, secondary, concen-
tric cambium zones ; odor fruity ; taste starchy and slightly acrid.

Tubercles which have a specific gravity less than 1.275 and are
white internally should be rejected.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 195,

452

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Resin 8 to 12 per cent., 85 to 90 per cent, of
which is insokible in ether. Power and Rogerson (/. Am. Che in.
Soc, 32, 1910, p. 80) isolated from the ethereal extract of the
resin a new dihydric alcohol (ipurganol) which crystallizes in
colorless needles and yields color reactions similar to those given
by the phytosterols. From the chloroform extract they isolated a
small amount of ^-methylsesculetin. The petroleum ether extracts
showed the presence of palmitic and stearic acids in the free state.
On treatment with alkalies and dilute sulphuric acid some of the
extracts of the resins yield a number of acids and there are indi-
cations that a portion of the chloroform extract of the resins is

Fig. 19s. Transverse section of jalap: Ph, cork cells; Se, resin cells; O, rosette aggre-
gates of calcium oxalate; Si, sieve cells; G, tracheae; C, primary cambium; C'-, secondary
cambium. — After Meyer.

of a glucosidal nature. The alcohol extract of the resin, which
represented 38.8 per cent, of the total resin, was obtained, after
treatment with animal charcoal, in the form of a nearly white
powder. When subjected to alkaline hydrolysis with baryta,
this alcohol extract yielded a number of organic acids together
with a hydrolyzed resin of very complex composition. Jalap also
contains a volatile oil, calcium oxalate, starch, gum and sugar.

Allied Plants. — Turpeth root or Indian Jalap is the root of
Operciilina Tnrpetliuin, a plant growing in the East Indies. It
contains a resin consisting chiefly of turpethin and turpethein,
a glucosidal, ether-soluble resinoid substance.

Male Jalap or Orizaba is the root of Ipouioca oriaahcnsis. a
plant indigenous to Mexico. The drug consists of the entire,

CRUDE DRUGS. 453

spindle-shaped roots, or of more or less rectangular pieces, and
contains about lo per cent, of scammonin.

Iponicca simidans, indigenous to the eastern slope of the Mex-
ican Andes, yields the Tampico jalap, which is more or less uni-
form in thickness, somewhat tortuous, and without any lenticels;
it contains about lo per cent, of resin, which is completely soluble
in ether and resembles scammonin.

Wild jalap is the tuberous root of Iponicca pandurafa, a plant
growing in the Eastern and Southern United States. It contains
1.5 per cent, of an active resin.

From the aerial stems of the common morning glory (Iponicca
purpurea Roth) Power and Rogerson (Am. Jour. Pharni., 80,
251, 1908) isolated a volatile oil and 4.8 per cent, of a soft resin
of which 15.5 per cent, is soluble in ether.

The roots and stems of Ipomoca fistulosa, of South America,
yield 0.2 per cent, of jalapin (orizabin), a hexose, wax and tannin.

KRAAIERIA.— RHATANY.— The dried root of various spe-
cies of Krameria (Fam. Leguminosae), small shrubs indig-
enous to South America, Mexico and the West Indies (p. 295).
There are three principal commercial varieties : ( i ) Peruvian
Rhatany, which is derived from plants of Krameria triandra,
growing in Peru and Bolivia; (2) Savanilla Rhatany, which is
derived from more or less disputed species of Krameria (K.
Ixina), growing in the United States of Colombia, British Guiana
and Brazil, and (3) Para or Brazilian Rhatany, which is sup-
posed to be derived from Krameria argentea, growing in Brazil.

Peruvian Rhatany. — Consisting of a more or less cylindrical
crown 50 mm. long and 15 to 20 mm. in diameter, and numerous
cylindrical, somewhat tapering, branching roots 10 to 40 cm. long
and I to 7 mm. thick ; externally brownish-red ; crown with rugged
and scaly bark ; roots smooth or slightly wrinkled longitudinally ;
fracture of bark slightly fibrous, of wood, tough and splintery ;
internally reddish, bark i to 2 mm. thick, somewhat easily sep-
arable from the lighter colored, slightly radiate wood ; odor slight ;
wood nearly tasteless, bark astringent (Fig. 196).

Savanilla Rhatany. — Crown more or less cylindrical or
spherical, rough, knotty; root externally dark reddish-brown,
somewhat purplish, with numerous transverse fissures at more or

454

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fio. 196. Peravian rhatany: A, transverse section showing cork (k), a group ot
6ast fibers (sk), parenchyma of cortex (p), one cell near the middle containing a mono-
clinic p>rism of calcium oxalate (o), medullary-ray cells of bark (m), cambium (c), tracheae
(t), wood fibers (sc), wood parenchyma (hp), medullary-ray cells (m); B, bast fiber; C,
wood fiber with neighboring parenchyma cells which are somewhat elongated and have
somewhat thickened, porous walls; D. trachea. — After Meyer.

CRUDE DRUGS. 455

less regular intervals ; periderm not scaly ; bark about twice as
thick as that of Peruvian rhatany.

Para Rhatany closely resembles the Savanilla variety.

Constituents. — Tannin from 8 to 20 per cent., krameric acid,
starch, an uncrystallizable sugar, and calcium oxalate. The tannin
is colored dark green with ferric salts and is in the nature of a
glucoside resembling the one found in Potentilla Tormciitilla
(Fam. Rosaceae) and ^senilis Hippocastanmn (Fam. Hippo-
castanaceae). The tannin also yields phloroglucin and proto-
catechuic acid.

The tincture of Savanilla rhatany forms a clear solution with
water, which gives with alcoholic lead acetate test-solution a
purplish precipitate and a colorless filtrate ; the tincture of Peru-
vian rhatany forms a cloudy mixture with water, and gives with
alcoholic lead acetate test-solution a reddish-brown precipitate and
a light-brown filtrate.

Allied Plants. — Krameria lanceolata of the Southern United
States furnishes the Texas krameria, and K. cistoides of
Chile is the source of the Payta krameria. The root of Lcea
speciosa (Fam. Vitacese) of India has been used as a substitute
for Krameria.

PYRETHRUM.— PELLITORY.— The root of Anacyclus
Pyrcthriim (Fam. Compositse), a perennial herb indigenous to
Northern Africa and Southern Europe (p. 394), the commercial
article coming from Algeria. The root is collected in autumn
and dried.

Description. — Nearly cylindrical, slightly tapering, or broken
into irregular pieces, 2.5 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 20 mm. in diameter;
externally dark brown, wrinkled and some^yhat furrowed longi-
tudinally, with few rootlets or rootlet-scars ; crown somewhat
annulate from scars of bud-scales, and sometimes tufted with
coarse fibers of fibrovascular tissue or with long, soft-woolly,
nearly straight, one-celled hairs ; fracture short and horny when
dry, tough when damp ; bark dark brown internally, with two
circular rows of secretion reservoirs, 0.5 to i mm. thick, and
closely adhering to the light-yellow, radiate, porous wood, in the
medullary rays of which secretion reservoirs are also found ; odor
distinct, penetrating; taste pungent, acrid.

456 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. loi, E.

Constituents.— An alkaloid pyrethrine, which occurs in col-
orless, acicular crystals, has an intense pungent taste, and which
is decomposed by alkalies into piperidine (a pungent principle
occurring in black pepper) and pyrethric acid, a principle resem-
bling piperic acid. Pyrethrum also contains a brown acrid resin,
two other acrid resins, a volatile oil and about 50 per cent, of inulin.

Allied Plants. — German pellitory, the root of Anacyclus
ofUcinarum, is smaller ; the bark contains but one row of secretion
reservoirs, which are wanting in the medullary rays ; and the roots
contain tannin in addition to the constituents found in Pyrethrum.

SENEGA.— SENEGA ROOT.— The dried root oi Poly gala
Senega (Fam. Polygalacese), a perennial herb (p. 313) found in
Canada and the Eastern United States as far south as North Caro-
lina and as far west as Minnesota and Missouri (Fig. 197).
There are two representative commercial varieties — the northern,
collected in Manitoba and in the State of Minnesota ; the south-
ern, from Virginia to Texas.

Description. — Southern Senega. — Nearly entire, with
broken and detached rootlets, crowned with numerous buds and
short stem-remnants, slenderly conical, more or less tortuous,
somewhat branched, 3 to 8 cm. long, 2 to 6 mm. thick ; externally
dark yellow, the crown being rose-tinted, longitudinally wrinkled,
slightly annulate, marked with circular scars of detached rootlets
and in some cases by a keel which is more prominent near the
crown and in perfectly dry roots ; side opposite keel more or less
flattened; cross-section elliptical or triangular; fracture short
when dry, tough when damp ; internally, wood lemon-yellow, 2 to
5 mm. in diameter, usually excentral, bark dark yellow, much
thickened on one side, forming the keel on drying; odor slight,
penetrating; taste sweetish and acrid (Fig. 197).

Manitoba Senega is 8 to 15 cm. long, 6 to 12 mm. thick,
externally dark brown and somewhat purplish near the crown.

Constituents. — The principal constituents are about 5 or 6
per cent, of two glucosides : senegin, which resembles saponin,
and polygalic acid, which is sternutatory. The root also contains
0.12 per cent, of a volatile oil which is chiefly methyl salicylate;
resin, pectin, sugar and considerable proteins.

CRUDE DRUGS.

457

Allied Plants. — Saponin-like substances and methyl sali-
cylate are found to a greater or less extent in other species of
Polygala, of which at least forty have been used in medicine.
Other genera of the Polygalaceee seem to have constituents
similar to Senega, as Comesperma of Australia and Monnina of
South America.

Adulterants. — The rhizomes and roots of Cypripedium hir-
siituin and C. specfabile of the United States are said to be some-
times used as adulterants of Senega (Fig. 213).

"t n'

-Tft/

Fig. 197. Transverse sections of senega, the two on the left being of the dry drug,
and the one on the right showing the appearance after soaking the material in water: R,
outer bark; Ri, bark on the side having abnormal development of wood; B, inner bark,
which gives gives rise to the " keel " on the drying of the root; H.wood; C, C^ cambium; m,
medullary rays; m"-, parenchyma developed in place of wood on one side. — After Meyer.

TARAXACUM.— DANDELION.— The root of Taraxacum
oMcifiale ( Fam. Composite ) . a perennial herb indigenous to
Europe and Asia, but now naturalized in all civilized parts of the
world (p. 392). The root should be collected in spring or in
autumn either directly before or directly after the vegetative
activity of the plant. It is used in either the fresh or dried condi-
tion, the principal supply of the dried root coming from Europe.
The pith of the rhizome portion is liable to be attacked by insects.

Description. — -Somewhat cylindrical, tapering, more or less
flattened, slightly branched or broken into irregular pieces 6 to
15 cm. long, 5 to 15 mm. in diameter; externally light brown,
wrinkled, v/ith numerous rootlet-scars ; crown simple or branched,
slightly annulate from numerous leaf-bases ; fracture short, horny
when dry, tough when damp ; internally, bark light brown, 2 to 6
mm. thick, made up of concentric layers of laticiferous vessels

458

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

and sieve alternating with white parenchyma, wood lemon-yellow,
I to 4 mm. thick, porous and non-radiate ; odor slight ; taste bitter.
Inner Structure. — See Figs. loi, D ; 197a.

Fig. 197a, Taraxacum: A, transverse section of root showing cork (k), parenchyma
containing inulin (p) , laticiferous vessels (1) , phloem groups (s) composed of sieve and laticif-
erous vessels, cambium (c), tracheae (t), modified, non-lignified wood-fibers (Ersatzfasem)
(w); B, longitudinal section of xylem showing several of the reticulate tracheae and the
modified wood-fibers with oblique pores that are apparent in preparations made with chlor-
zinc-iodide; C, longitudinal section of a phloem group showing branching laticiferous vessels
(1) , sieve cells (s) , containing sphere cryitals of inulin.

Constituents. — The drug contains about 0.05 per cent, of a
bitter principle, taraxacin, which gives reactions with certain of
the alkaloidal reagents ; it also contains two resins, one soluble in

CRUDE DRUGS.

459

alcohol and the other in chloroform; a waxy substance, taraxa-
cerin ; 24 per cent, of inuHn ; and about 5 per cent, of ash.

CALUMBA.— COLUMBO.— The root of Jateorhiza palmata
(Fam. Menispermacese), a perennial herbaceous climber, native of

^ _ In'

Fig. 198. Calumba: A, transverse section showing bark (R), cambium (C), and
wood (H), wood fibers (II), tracheae (g), periderm (Pe) and sieve (s); B, longitudinal
section of periderm showing parenchyma (p), small-celled cork (k) and large-celled cork
(k^); C, transverse section near cambium showing tracheae (g, g), intermediate fiber (f)
cambium (c), parenchyma (p) and sieve cell (s); D, stone cell from the periderm contain-
ing calcium oxalate. — After Meyer.

the forests of Eastern Africa (p. 274). The large, fleshy roots
are collected in the dry season, cut into transverse pieces, dried
and exported by way of Zanzibar and Bombay.

Description. — In nearly circular or elliptical disks, some-
times irregularly bent, 2 to 5 cm. in diameter, 2 to 10 mm. thick ;

46o BOTANY AND PttARMACOGNOSY.

bark externally yellowish-green or dark brown, wrinkled ; frac-
ture short, mealy; internally, radiate, yellowish-green, collateral
wood bundles forming a concentric zone, bark 4 to 6 mm. thick,
cambium zone distinct, center either depressed or more or less
prominent ; odor slight ; taste bitter and aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 198.

Constituents. — Two yellowish alkaloids, closely resembling
berberine and varying from 0.98 to 1.38 per cent, in the bark and
1.02 to 2.05 in the wood. To one of these bases the name colum-
bamine has been given. Calumba also contains a volatile oil 0.0056
per cent., starch about 35 per cent, pectin 17 per cent., resin 5
per cent., calumbic acid, calcium oxalate, mucilage, and yields 6
per cent, of ash.

Substitutes. — Various substitutes for calumba have been
ofifered, but these are free from starch, or they may contain tannin,
as American columbo, the root of Frasera carolinensis (Fam.
Gentianacese), an herb indigenous to the Eastern United States.
This root formerly occurred in the market in transverse disks
somewhat resembling calumba, but without the radiate structure.
It contains a larger amount of a yellow coloring principle and
less gentiopicrin than gentian.

Adulterants. — Calumba has been adulterated with the roots
of Tinospora Bakis of tropical Africa and Coscinnm fcncstratnin
(both of the Fam. Menispermacese), the latter growing in India.
The disks are woody, the center being prominent and not
depressed, and the ash varies from 11. 9 to 16.6 per cent.

PAREIRA.— PAREIRA BRA VA.— The root of Chondro-
dendron tomentosum (Fam. Menispermacese), a perennial climber
indigenous to Brazil and Peru (p. 274). The commercial article
is exported from Rio Janeiro.

Description. — Nearly cylindrical, more or less tortuous, cut
into pieces of various lengths, usually from 10 to 20 cm. long
and 10 to 30 mm. in diameter, rootlets few; externally brownish-
black, longitudinally furrowed and transversely ridged and fis-
sured, with numerous rootlet-scars and occasional grayish patches
of lichens ; fracture fibrous, lustrous when cut ; internally dark
brown, with three or more irregular, excentral and distinctly
radiate, concentric zones of secondary fibrovascular bun-

CRUDE DRUGS.

461

dies, each 2 to 3 mm. wide, and separated by distinct, concentric
zones of parenchyma and stone cells ; odor slight ; taste slightly
bitter.

Constituents. — An alkaloid pelosine (cissampeline) about i
per cent., somewhat resembling beberine in bebeeru bark (Nec-
tandra Rodicci, one of the Lauracese) and buxine in box wood
(Bii.viis scinpervirens, one of the Sapindaceae) ; starch, tannin,
wax, ash 4 to 5 per cent.

Fig. 199. Atropine: long orthorhombic prismatic crystals from an alcoholic solution.

Substitutes. — Other roots are frequently substituted for gen-
uine pareira brava. which are no doubt derived from other meni-
spermaceous plants ; these roots are of a brownish color, possess
numerous concentric zones of fibrovascular bundles, and do not
have a waxy luster when cut.

False Pareira is obtained from a related species {Cissani-
pdos Pareira), growing in South America, West Indies and East
Indies. The root is somewhat flattened, externally dark brown,
internallv vellowish-brow^n, free from the concentric zones of wood
bundles, and contains about 0.5 per cent, of pelosine.

462 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The stems of Chondrodendron toinentosum are also some-
times found in the drug ; these are more woody, possess a distinct
pith and are marked externally by the apothecia of lichens.

The roots of several other plants of this family are used as
substitutes for pareira, among which may be mentioned Chondro-
dendron platyphyllum of Brazil and Paraguay, and Stephaiiia
discolor of India. White Pareira is obtained from Abuta rufe-
scens, the roots of which are whitish or pale yellow and very
starchy. Yellow Pareira is obtained from A. amara. The root
is bright yellow internally, very bitter and apparently contains
alkaloids resembling beberine and berberine.

STILLINGIA.— QUEEN'S ROOT.— The root of Stillingia
sylvatica (Fam. Euphorbiacese), a perennial herb (Fig. 162)
indigenous to the Southern United States (p. 314). The root is
collected in August; it is deprived of its rootlets, cut into trans-
verse pieces and carefully dried.

Description. — Cylindrical, tapering, and slightly branched,
about 40 cm. long; usually cut into pieces 2 to 10 cm. long, 5 to
30 mm. in diameter; externally dark brown, longitudinally wrin-
kled, rootlets or rootlet-scars few ; fracture of bark fibrous ; inter-
nally, bark light reddish-brown, 0.5 to 4 mm. thick, soft, spongy,
with numerous resin cells and easily separable from the porous,
radiate wood ; odor faint ; taste bitter, acrid and pungent.

Constituents. — A volatile oil with the odor and taste of the
root from 3 to 4 per cent. ; an acrid resin sylvacrol ; an acrid fixed
oil; 10 to 12 per cent, of tannin; starch; calcium oxalate; ash
about 5 per cent.

SUMBUL. — The dried rhizome and root of Ferula Snmhul
(Fam. Umbelliferse), a perennial herb indigenous to Turkestan
(p. 352). The drug is exported by way of St. Petersburg, and is
commonly known as musk-root.

Description. — In cylindrical, sometimes branched, transverse
segments, 3 to 10 cm. long and 1.5 to 7 cm. in diameter, very
light; externally light to dark brown, distinctly annulate, peri-
derm easily separable ; the upper part of the rhizome with occa-
sional circular scars and leaf-remnants consisting of stout fibers ;
fracture short, fibrous but irregular ; internally, light yellow,
resinous, spongy, porous, arrangement of wood irregular, due to

CRUDE DRUGS. 463

anomalous secondary cambiums, bark dark brown, about 0.5 mm.
thick; odor musk-like; taste bitter, pungent.

Constituents. — Volatile oil having the taste of peppermint,
from 0.3 to I per cent. ; two balsamic resins, one soluble in alcohol
and having the odor and taste of the root, the other soluble in
ether; fixed oil 17 per cent.; ash about 8 per cent.; starch and
several acids, as angelic, valerianic and methyl-crotonic.

BELLADONNA RADIX.— BELLADONNA ROOT.— The
root of Atropa Belladonna (Fam. Solanaceae), a perennial herb
(p. 372), native of Central and Southern Europe, and cultivated
in England and Germany, from which countries most of the com-
mercial supply is obtained (Fig. 268). The roots are collected in
autumn from plants three to four years old and carefully dried.

Description. — Cylindrical, slightly tapering, somewhat
twisted, or split into longitudinal pieces 5 to 15 cm. long, 4 to 25
mm. in diameter; externally light brown, smooth, longitudinally
wrinkled or fissured, sometimes with transverse ridges and with
rootlet-scars or fragments of rootlets ; fracture short, mealy when
dry and emitting a dust consisting of starch grains and fragments
of cells, tough when damp ; internally light yellow, slightly radiate,
bark 0.5 to 2 mm. thick, not fibrous, and adhering closely to the
wood, cambium zone distinct ; odor narcotic ; taste sweetish, acrid.

Roots that are shrunken, spongy, dark brown and free from
starch should be rejected, as also old woody roots and stem-
remnants.

Phytolacca root and Althaea are distinguished from belladonna
root by having numerous sclerenchymatous fibers, while inula
has neither starch nor cryptocrystalline crystals of calcium oxalate.

Inner Structure. — See Figs 199, 200, 281, 303.

Constituents. — There are two principal alkaloids — hyoscya-
mine and atropine — which together amount to 0.2 to i. per cent.,
the proportions of these varying according to the age of the
root, the hyoscyamine, however, usually being in excess. The
atropine appears to be derived from its isomer hyoscyamine and
not to preexist in the root ; a small amount of scopolamine
(hyoscine) is also present. Other alkaloids, as belladonnine, apo-
atropine, etc., have been isolated, but these are decomposition
products of hyoscyamine. The drug also contains a fluorescent

464

BOTANY AND PHAPMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 200. A, transverse section of Phytolacca root, showing the fibrovascular bundles
(V, V, V",) which are produced by distinct cambiums (C). The parenchyma contains little
starch, and some of the cells (R) show short raphidesof calcium oxalate, many of the crystal
being distributed in the section.

B. Transverse section of Belladonna root which is two or three years old. There is but
one cambium zone (C). Most of the parenchyma contains starch (St), the remaining cells
containing cryptocrystalline crystals of calcium oxalate.

K. cork; S, sieve; W, wood fibers and T, tracheas, both of which are strongly lignified in
Belladonna root; M. medullary rays.

CRUDE DRUGS. 465

principle, B-methyl sesculetin, considerable starch and calcium
oxalate in the form of sphenoidal micro-crystals. See also Hyo-
scyamus (p. 619), Belladomice Folia (p. 620) and Stramonium
(p. 622). (For atropine crystals see Fig. 199.)

Allied Plants. — Mandragora or European mandrake is the
root of Atropa Mandragora. The drug occurs in fusiform, some-
what bifurcated pieces and contains two mydriatic alkaloids : man-
dragorine (isomeric with atropine) and an alkaloid resembling
hyoscyamine.

LAPPA.— BURDOCK.— The root of Arctium Lappa and of
other species of Arctium (Fam. Compositse), biennial herbs (p.
394) indigenous to Europe and Northern Asia, and naturalized
in waste places in the United States and Canada. The fleshy
root is collected in autumn from plants of the first year's growth,
and carefully dried.

Description. — Nearly cylindrical, slightly tapering, or broken
and split longitudinally into pieces, 10 to 20 cm. long, 5 to 20 mm.
in diameter ; externally, bark dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled,
with few rootlets or rootlet-scars, crown somewhat annulate from
scars of bud-scales and sometimes surmounted by a soft, woolly
tuft of leaf-remains with i-celled, twisted hairs; fracture short,
horny when dry, tough when damp ; internally light brown, radi-
ate, bark 2 to 3 mm. thick, wood porous, cambium zone distinct ;
odor feeble ; taste mucilaginous, slightly bitter.

Old woody roots in which the pith is more or less obliterated
and which have been collected from the fruiting plant should be
rejected.

Constituents. — Inulin about 45 per cent. ; a glucoside prob-
ably identical with that found in the seed, to which the name lappin
has been applied ; and about 0.4 per cent, of a fixed oil.

PHYTOLACCA.— POKE ROOT.— The root of Phytolacca
dccandra (Fam. Phytolaccacese), a perennial herb (p. 265)
indigenous to Eastern Nortli America, and naturalized in the
\A'est Indies and Southern Europe (Fig. 139). The root is col-
lected in autumn and, after removal of the rootlets, cut into trans-
verse and longitudinal pieces and dried.

Description. — Fusiform or nearly cylindrical, tapering, usu-
ally in longitudinal ribbon-like slices, 8 to 16 cm. long, 5 to 15

466

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

mm. in diameter, 2 to 10 mm. thick ; externally, bark dark brown,
more or less wrinkled ; fracture fibrous, tough ; internally light
brown, characterized by alternating zones of collateral fibrovas-
cular bundles and parenchyma formed by secondary cambiums ;
odor slight; taste acrid. (Fig. 200).

Constituents. — A bitter, acrid glucoside resembling saponin ;
a crystalline alkaloid phytolaccine, which is soluble in alcohol and

Fig. 201. Apocynmn androscBmifoliutn: A, flowering branch; B, a fruit consisting of 2
follicles; E, flower; G, longitudinal section of flower; H, single stamen with long spurs (s) ;
J, multicellular hair from leaf; K, tracheae with bordered pores (t) and wood fibers (w) ; I.,
a few bast fibers and adjoining parenchyma cells containing starch. Apocynum cannahiniim:
C, two of the opposite, nearly sessile leaves; D, fruit; F, flower; 1, seed with coma of long.
1-celled, hyaline hairs.

sparingly soluble in water ; sugars lo per cent. : starch lo per
cent. ; phytolaccic acid ; formic acid ; potassium formate 2 per
cent. ; calcium oxalate 6 per cent. ; and ash 13 per cent., of which
about one-half is potassium oxide.

Phytolacca Fructus or Phytolacca Fruit occurs in agglu-
tinated masses of a purplish-black color, and consisting of the
compound berries, which are about 8 mm. in diameter and com-

CRUDE DRUGS. 467

posed of 10 loculi, each of which contains a single, lenticular, black
seed. The sarcocarp is fleshy, sweet and slightly acrid and con-
tains a purplish-red coloring principle which is soluble in water
but not in alcohol, and which is decomposed on heating the aque-
ous solution. The fruit also contains phytolaccic acid, several
fruit-acids and phytolaccin, a substance resembling tannin.

APOCYNU^I.— CANADIAN HEMP.— The dried root of
Apocynum caiinabiiiiun (Fam. Apocynacese), a perennial herb
(p. 363) growing in fields and thickets in the United States and
Southern Canada (Fig. 201).

Description. — Cylindrical, somewhat branched, usually
broken into pieces 4 to 10 cm. long, 5 to 10 mm. in diameter;
externally light brown, longitudinally wrinkled and transversely
fissured, with few rootlets or rootlet-scars ; fracture short ; inter-
nally, bark light brown, i mm. thick, easily separable from the
lemon-yellow, porous, slightly radiate wood ; odor slight ; taste
of bark bitter and acrid, of wood slightly bitter.

Stem fragments are distinguished by having a comparatively
thin, finely fibrous bark and a hollow center.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 202.

Constituents. — Cynotoxin (apocynamarin), a dilactone of
Kiliani's oxydigitogenic acid, or of an isomeride, forms small
rhombic pyramids, which are sparingly soluble in water and
the usual organic solvents, and is extremely bitter. Apocynin
(0.2 per cent.) occurs in slender colorless prisms with a slight
odor of vanillin. There are also present a volatile oil, resin,
tannin, starch and about 10 per cent, of ash.

Allied Plants. — The commercial article frequently contains
the root of A. androscomif olium (p. 363, Figs.. 201 and 202).

IPECACUANHA.— IPECAC— The dried root of Ccphaclis
Ipecacuanha (Uragoga Ipecacuanha) (Fam. Rubiacese). a shrub
indigenous to Brazil, and sparingly cultivated near Singapore
(Fig. 178). The commercial supply is obtained from Matta
Grosso. Brazil, and is known as Rio. Brazilian or Para Ipecac.
The roots of Cephaelis acuminata, a plant closely related to
Cephaclis Ipecacuanha and indigenous to the northern and central
portion of the United States of Colombia, are exported from
Carthagena and Savanilla, and are known commercially as Car-

468

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

thagena Ipecac. Two commercial sub-varieties of Ipecac are also
recognized, depending upon the proportion of wood and bark in

Fig. 202. A, transverse section of the root of Apocynuni cannabinum showing cork
(K); latex cells (L) in the cortex; sieve (S), beneath which is the cambium zone; wood
fibers (SF), trachea; (T), and medullary rays (MR). B, transverse section of the root of
Apocynuni androsccmi folium showing in addition groups of stone cells (St) in the cortex.

the drug. Specimens in which the wood is more pronounced are
known as " wiry roots," while those which are characterized by a
thicker bark are called " fancy " or " Bold " roots (p. 379).

CRUDE DRUGS. 469

Rio or Brazilian Ipecac. — Cylindrical, more or less tortuous,
5 to 15 cm. long, I to 5 mm. in diameter; externally dark brown,
irregularly annulate, sometimes transversely fissured, with occa-
sional rootlets or rootlet-scars ; fracture of bark brittle, of the wood
tough; internally, bark light brown, 0.5 to i mm. thick, easily sep-
arable from the dark-yellow, non-porous wood ; odor slight ; taste
bitter, acrid.

An aqueous infusion of ipecac gives a copious precipitate with
potassio-mercuric iodide solution ; a hydro-alcoholic infusion gives
a yellow precipitate with picric acid, or if hydrochloric acid and
potassium chlorate are added the solution becomes orange-red
with a reddish fluorescence.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 203, 291.

Carthagena Ipecac closely resembles the Rio or Brazilian
ipecac, but the roots are uniformly thicker (4 to 7 mm. in diam-
eter), of a brownish-gray color, and the annulations are less
pronounced.

The stems are usually more slender, 5 to 10 cm. long, i to 1.5
mm. in diameter, nearly smooth or longitudinally wrinkled ; bark
o.i mm. thick, with bast fibers either single or in groups; pith
distinct, 0.5 mm. in diameter.

Constituents. — Ipecac contains three alkaloids (2 to 3 per
cent.) — emetine, cephaeline and psychotrine, that are said to be
contained chiefly in the bark, which makes up about 90 per cent.
of the drug.

Emetine (methyl-cephaeline) is white, amorphous, forms
crystalline salts, becomes darker on exposure to light, and with
Froehde's alkaloidal reagent (consisting of 0.0 1 Gm. of sodium
molybdate in I c.c. of concentrated sulphuric. acid) becomes dirty
green, changing to a bright green on the addition of hydrochloric
acid. Cephaeline occurs in silky needles, forms amorphous salts
and is quite unstable, becoming yellow even in the dark. With
Froehde's reagent, cephaeline changes to purple, becoming deep
blue on the addition of hydrochloric acid. Psychotrine is amor-
phous, quite unstable, and becomes purplish with Froehde's rea-
gent, changing to green on the. addition of hydrochloric acid.
Ipecac also contains 2.25 per cent, of ipecacuanhic acid, with
which the alkaloids are combined ; a glucoside resembling saponin ;

470

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 203. Ipecac. A, transverse section of Rio ipecac showing outer layers ot
cork (a) ; cork cells (b) ; phellogen (m) ; parenchyma containing starch (p) ; raphides (x) ;
cambium (c) ; tracheids (t). B, longitudinal section of a portion of the wood showing duct-
like tracheids (a) ; tracheids with bordered pores (b) , linear pores (c) and oblique linear
pores (d); transition tracheids (e); tracheids with delicate pores (f). C, starch grains of
Rio ipecac. D, slightly larger starch grains of Carthagena ipecac. — After Schneider.

CRUDE DRUGS. 471

about 40 per cent, of starch; and calcium oxalate in the form of
raphides.

The total amount of alkaloids in Rio and Carthagena ipecac
not only varies but there is a dilTerence in the proportions of
emetine (the expectorant alkaloid) and cephaeline (the emetic
alkaloid) ; in Rio ipecac the proportion is one-third cephaeline to
two-thirds emetine, while in Carthagena ipecac there are four-
fifths cephaeline to one-fifth emetine.

Allied Plants. — A number of drugs, some of which resemble
ipecac, sometimes find their way into commerce, and, while they
all possess emetic properties, none of them contain emetine. The
following drugs obtained from plants of the Rubiace.e have been
substituted for Ipecac. Undul.\ted (or Farinaceous) Ipecac
from Richardsonia scabra, a plant growing in tropical and sub-
tropical America, is an undulate, annulate root, the bark of which
is nearly as thick as the yellowish, soft wood. Striated Ipecac
from Ccphaclis emetica, a plant growing in South America, is a
dark purplish-brown root, with a few transverse fissures and a
thick bark in which starch is absent. Several members of the
RosacevE contain emetic principles and the roots of the following
plants growing in the United States have been substituted for
Ipecac: American Ipecac (Porteranthus Gillenia Stipulatus) ;
the root is annulate, and somewhat resembles ipecac, but has
a thinner bark with numerous resin cells ; and Indian Physic
{P. trifoliatiis) , the roots of which resemble those of American
Ipecac but are not annulate.

The roots of several of the plants of the Eupiiorbiace.e are
used as emetics. Ipecac spurge is the root of Euphorbia Ipecac-
uanha, a plant common in sandy soil of the Eastern United States.
The roots are 30 cm. or more long, about i cm. thick, nearly
cylindrical, light brown ; internally the wood is yellow and the
bark white and with numerous latex vessels. The taste is sweet,
somewhat acrid and bitter. Ipecac spurge contains a crystalline
resin, euphorbon ; probably a glucoside, and starch. Purging or
Emetic root is obtained from the large flowering spurge (Eu-
phorbia corollata), a plant found in sandy soil east of the jNIissis-
sippi. The root resembles the Ipecac spurge but is dark brown or
brownish-black externallv, and the constituents are similar.

472 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The following emetic drugs are obtained from plants belonging
to the ViOLACE/E : lonidium or the so-called White Ipecac is ob-
tained from the root of Hybanthus Ipecacuanha of Brazil. It is eas-
ily distinguished from ipecac by being somewhat branched, larger
and with a thin bark. An emetic principle is also present in the
roots of other species of Hybanthus, the root of Anchieta salutaris
of Brazil, and possibly also in the rhizome of Vioki odorata.

A few emetic drugs are also obtained from plants belonging
to the Meliace.e. The alkaloid naregamine is found in the Goan-
ese Ipecac derived from Naregamia alata of the East Indies. The
alkaloid rusbyine is found in the bark of Cocillana (Giiarca
Rusbvi ) of Bolivia, a drug having properties similar to those of
Ipecac. The roots of several of the Polygalas (Fam. Poly-
GALACE.E) possess euictic properties, viz.: P. scoparia of Mexico
and P. angulata of Brazil. The root of the latter plant, which is
also known as White Ipecac {Poaya blanca) resembles senega,
is free from starch and contains considerable saponin.

GLYCYRRHIZA.— LICORICE ROOT.— The dried rhizome
and root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, and of the var. glanduUfera (Fam.
Leguminosse), perennial herbs (Fig. 151), found growing in the
countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region and Eastern Asia
and cultivated in Spain, Russia, other parts of Europe and to a
limited extent in the United States (p. 294). There are two
principal coitimercial varieties : ( i ) Spanish Licorice, yielded by
cultivated plants of G. glabra, and chiefly exported from Spain
and Southern France, and (2) Russian Licorice, obtained from
wild plants of G. glabra glandidifera or G. cchinata, growing in
Southern Russia. The latter consists more largely of roots which
arc deprived of the periderm, whereas the Spanish variety con-
sists mostly of rhizomes.

Spanish Licorice. — Nearly cylindrical, more or less tortuous,
cut or broken into pieces 14 to 20 cm. long, 5 to 25 mm. in diam-
eter; crown knotty; externally dark brown, longitudinally wrin-
kled or furrowed, with few rootlet-scars, rhizome with corky
patches and numerous small conical buds ; fracture coarsely
fibrous ; internally lemon-yellow, radiate, bark i to 3 mm. thick,
wood porous, rhizome with small pith ; odor distinct ; taste sweet-
ish, slightly acrid.

CRUDE DRUGS.

473

Fig. 204. Glycyrrhiza: A, transverse section; B, longitudinal section. B, bark;
li, wood; X, cambium zone; ph, cork cells; rp, cortex; p, parenchyma; k crystal fibers;
s, sclerenchyma fibers; t, tracheae; m, medullary rays. — After Meyer.

474 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 104; 204; 282, B.

Russian Licorice. — Nearly cylindrical, tapering, sometimes
split longitudinally, 15 to 30 cm. long, 10 to 30 mm. in diameter;
externally lemon-yellow, nearly smooth, porous, with detachable
bast fibers and circular rootlet-scars, cork, if present, more or less
easily detachable ; internally lemon-yellow, bark, coarsely fibrous,
wood radially cleft, not so fibrous as the Spanish variety.

Constituents. — About 3 per cent, of glycyrrhizin, a crys-
talline, intensely sweet substance consisting of the calcium and
potassium salts of glycyrrhizinic acid, which latter is an ester of
glycyrrhetinic acid; asparagin 2 to 4 per cent, (see Althaea) ;
a bitter principle glycyramarin, which occurs principally in the
bark and hence is less abundant in the Russian licorice ; a volatile
oil 0.03 per cent. ; mannit ; considerable starch and calcium oxal-
ate chiefly in crystal fibers.

Allied Plants. — The root of wild or American licorice,
Glycyrrhi::a lepidota, a perennial herb indigenous to Western
North America, is somewhat similar to Spanish licorice. It con-
tains 6 per cent, of glycyrrhizin and considerable glycyramarin.

A number of plants of this family contain principles similar
to glycyrrhizin, as the root and leaves of Indian or Jamaica
licorice (Abriis prccatoriiis) of India and the West Indies; the
root of Ononis spinosa, a perennial herb of Europe, and other
species oi Ononis as well; the locust (Robinia Psendacacia) of
the United States and Canada ; Caragana pygniora of Siberia and
Northern China; Hedysaruui auicricanuui of the Northern
United States and Canada; Periandra niediterraiica, and P. dulcis
of Brazil and Paraguay ; the rhizome of Polypodium vulgare
(Filices). (See also Galium, p. 382.)

The root of G. uralcnsis of Siberia is said to be only slightly
inferior to the best kind of Russian licorice.

RHEUM.— RHUBARB.— The rhizome of Rheum oiUciuale,
Rheum pahnatiim, Rheum paluiafum tanguficuni. and probably
other species of Rheum (Fam. Polygonacess), perennial herbs
(Fig. 205) indigenous to Northwestern China and Eastern Thibet,
and sparingly cultivated in other parts of the world (p. 262).
The rhizomes are collected in autumn from plants that are eight
to ten vears old, most of the bark is removed, and thev are then

CRUDE DRUGS.

475

Fig. 205. Rheum officinale, growing in the Chelsea Physic Garden (London). —

After Perredes.

476 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

perforated, strung on ropes and dried either in the sun or by
artificial heat. The drug is exported chiefly from Shanghai. The
principal commercial varieties are known as Chinese rhubarb,
Canton rhubarb and Shensi rhubarb, the latter being preferred.

Description. — Cut into irregular plano-convex and oblong
pieces, frequently with a large perforation, hard and moderately
heavy, 5 to 15 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. broad and 3 to 6 cm. thick;
externally mottled from alternating striae of light-brown paren-
chyma cells and dark-brown medullary rays, occasionally with
reddish-brown cork patches and small radiate scars of fibro-
vascular tissue, smooth and sometimes covered with a light-brown
powder ; fracture somewhat granular ; internally light brown ; odor
distinct ; taste bitter, astringent and gritty.

Light and spongy rhizomes should be rejected.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 281, A; 289.

Constituents. — The principal constituent appears to be a
glucoside (possibly the chrysophan of some authors) or an unde-
termined substance which yields successive oxidation products,
viz.: chrysophanic acid (di-oxy-methyl-anthraquinone), emodin
(tri-oxy-methyl-anthraquinone), and rhein (tetra-oxy-methyl-an-
thraquinone). Chrysophanic acid crystallizes in golden-yellow,
clinorhombic prisms and dissolves in alkalies and in concentrated
sulphuric acid, the solutions having a deep-red color. It is
re-formed in rhubarb after extracting it by exposing the moistened
root to air. Emodin occurs to the extent of 1.5 per cent, and
forms orange-red needles which are soluble in hot toluene and
give with alkalies and alkali carbonates purplish colored solu-
tions. RiiEiN forms yellowish-brown scales which are insoluble
in hot toluene, soluble in hot acetic acid and produce purplish-red
solutions with the alkalies or alkali carbonates. Recently another
oxymethylanthraquinone-yielding substance, rheopurgarin, has
been isolated from Shensi rhubarb. It forms yellow needles, and
appears to be composed of four glucosides : (a) one related to
emodin, (b) one related to rhein, (c) chrysophanein, which
yields chrysophanic acid, and (d) rheochrysin, which yields a
yellow crystalline body, rheochrysidine, considered to be identical
with Hesse's rhabarberon or iso-emodin. The following glu-
cosidal tannoid constituents are also present : glucogallin, yield-
ing gallic acid, and tetrarin, yielding in addition to gallic acid.

CRUDE DRUGS. 477

cinnamic acid and rheosmin, an aldehyde having the odor of
rhubarb. A catechin resembhng the catechin of gambir has also
been found. Rhubarb also contains considerable starch ; calcium
oxalate; and yields about 15 per cent, of ash.

Allied Plants. — The rhizomes of other species of Rheum
are also used to a limited extent, as English or Austrian rhubarb
from Rheum rhaponticniii; they are more or less cylindrical, dis-
tinctly radiate, and contains, besides chrysophanic acid, rhapontin.
Rhcuni palmatinii which is cultivated in France. Germany and
Russia, produces rhizomes that are lighter in color and less valu-
able than the Chinese rhubarb, the constituents being similar to
those of Austrian rhubarb.

ACONITUAL— ACONITE.— The tuberous root of Aconitmn
NapcUus (Fam. Ranunculaceae), a perennial herb (Figs. 84, 141),
growing in the mountainous districts of Europe, Asia and West-
ern North America. It is also cultivated in temperate regions
(p. 268). The commercial supplies are obtained from England
and Germany, and in England the root is collected in autumn
from cultivated plants after the overground parts have died down,
whereas in Germany the roots are collected from wild plants dur-
ing the flowering period, this being done to distinguish the partic-
ular species yielding the drug. The root should be carefully dried.

Description. — More or less conical or fusiform, 4 to 10 cm.
long, 5 to 20 mm. in diameter ; externally dark brown, smooth or
somewhat wrinkled, the upper portion with a bud, remains of
bud-scales or stem-scars, with numerous root-scars or short roots ;
fracture horny, somewhat mealy ; internally, bark light or dark
brown, i to 2 mm. thick, cambium irregular, 5- to 7-angled, wood
yellowish, in small bundles at the angles, pith light brown, about
2 to 6 mm. in diameter ; odor very slight ; taste sweetish, acrid,
pungent, accompanied by a sensation of numbness and tingling.

The shrunken, hollow, older tubers, together with the over-
ground stem-remnants, should, be rejected.

Inner Structure. — See Figs 206, 309.

Constituents. — A number of alkaloids have been isolated, of
which aconitine is the most important ; it occurs to the extent
of about 0.75 per cent., and forms prisms (Fig. 142), which are
not colored by concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid. An aqueous
solution of the alkaloid, after acidulating with acetic acid, gives on

478

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the addition of a solution of potassium permanganate a red crys-
talline precipitate. Aconitine decomposes quite readily and sev-
eral of its derivatives have been isolated : benzaconine, an inert
alkaloid and aconine which produces apparently contrary physio-

FiG. 206. Transverse section of aconite: K, cork; E, epidermis; ST, stone cells;
EN, endodermis; C, cambium; T, tracheae; P, parenchyma.

logical effects to aconitine. The alkaloid napelline may be iso-
meric with aconine. Aconite also contains considerable aconitic
acid which is chiefly combined with calcium and occurs in other
genera of the Fam. Ranunculacese, viz. : Delphinium and Adonis ;

CRUDE DRUGS.

479

considerable starch ; a little mannitol and a resin. The other alka-
loids are amorphous and non-toxic, and of these isaconitine (napel-
line) has been employed medicinally.

Fig. 207. Culver's-root {Leptattdra virginica) showing the verticillate leaves and the long

spike-like terminal racemes.

Allied Plants. — Japanese aconite is obtained from Aco-
iiititm Fischcri; the root- is smaller, conical, nearly smooth and
with starch grains that are much larger than those of the official

48o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

drug (Fig. 309). Indian aconite, the product of Aconitum ferox,
is a much larger root and somewhat horny, owing to the gela-
tinization of the starch in its preparation for market.

A very large number of species of Aconitum are used medi-
cinally. These may be brought into five groups : ( i ) Those con-
taining the alkaloid aconitine, as Aconitum Napcllus; (2) those
containing pseudaconitine, which, while it resembles in some of
its properties aconitine, is not chemically identical with it. and
is found in the Indian aconite obtained from A. ferox, A.
luridmu and A. palmatum; (3) those containing the alkaloid,
japaconitine, which closely resembles pseudaconitine and is found
in Japanese aconite, obtained from A. Fischeri; (4) those which
contain the narcotic bases, lycaconitine and myoctonine, found in
A. lycoctormm of Asia and Europe; (5) those yielding lappaco-
nitine, a powerful alkaloid occurring in A. septentrionalc, a nearly
related species to A. lycocfonvm.

Aconite leaves, the dried leaves (Fig. 141) of Aconitum
Napellns, are extensively used (p. 268). The constituents resem-
ble those of the tuber and the amount of aconitine varies from
0.25 to 0.50 per cent. The ash is about 16 per cent. In Great
Britain the fresh or recently dried leaves are largely employed.

GELSEMIUM.— YELLOW JESSAMINE, YELLOW JAS-
MINE.— The dried rhizome and roots of Gelseinium sempcr-
virens (Fam. Loganiacese), a smooth, perennial climber of
the Southern United States and Guatemala (p. 362). The drug
should be collected in autumn.

Description. — Rhizome horizontal, cylindrical, usually cut
into pieces 9 to 20 cm. long, 4 to 15 mm. in diameter; externally
light brown, longitudinally wrinkled, transversely fissured; upper
surface with few stem-scars ; under and side portions with numer-
ous roots and root-scars ; fracture tough, wiry ; internally light
brown or pale yellow, bark about i mm. thick, wood distinctly
radiate, excentral, with four groups of internal phloem, pith dis-
integrated ; odor slight ; taste bitter.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 208, 208a.

Roots light brown, 3 to 20 cm. long, 2 to 8 mm. thick; inter-
nally light yellow, bark about 0.5 mm. thick, wood distinctly
radiate.

CRUDE DRUGS.

481

The overground stem is dark or reddish-brown, longitudinally
wrinkled and has numerous lenticels and few, somewhat elliptical
l)ranch-scars ; the bark is about 0.2 mm. thick and somewhat

greenish.

Fig. 208. Transverse section of rhizome of gelsemium: K, cork; C, cortex; WF, wood
fibers; T, trachese; MR, medullary raj's; Ph, internal phloem.

Constituents. — Two alkaloids of great toxicity, the one
known as gelsemine, crystallizes in silky needles and on the addi-
tion of concentrated nitric acid and heating the solution is colored
reddish and then dark green ; the other gelseminine, occurring
in amorphous masses and forming yellowish amorphous salts, is
colored greenish on the addition of nitric acid. In addition the

482

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

drug contains 0.2 to 0.5 per cent, of B-methyl-sesculetin (gelsemic
acid), which also occurs in scopola and other plants, and which
gives with solutions of the alkalies, a bluish fluorescence; 0.5
per cent, of a volatile oil; about 4 per cent, of resins, one
of which is acrid ; starch ; and calcium oxalate in the form of
monoclinic prisms.

Fig. 208a. Transverse section of gelsemium near the cambium: P, parenchyma; S,
sieve; C, cambium; Ca, calcium oxalate crystals; SK, SF, wood fibers; T, trachea;; MR,
medullaiy rays.

BERBERIS.— OREGON GRAPE-ROOT.— The rhizome
and roots of Berberis Aquifolium (Fam. Berberidace?e), a low
trailing shrub (p. 272), which is indigenous to the Rocky
Mountain region of the United States, extending into British
Columbia and as far east as Nebraska.

Description.^ — Tn cylindrical pieces which vary from 8 to 12
cm. long and 1.5 to 3.5 cm. in diameter; externally pale yellowish-
brown to dark vellowish-brown. longitudinally wrinkled, with few
root branches and occasionally rootlets; hard and tough. Inter-
nally, bark dark brown, less than i mm. thick and rather soft;

CRUDE DRUGS. 483

wood lemon-yellow, distinctly radiate, with narrow medullary
rays ; pith bright yellow, 2 or 3 mm. in diameter. Slightly
odorous. Taste bitter.

Constituents. — Four alkaloids, namely, berberine ; oxyacan-
thine, which acquires a yellow color in sunlight ; berbamine, which
is distinguished from the above-mentioned alkaloids by being
soluble in water ; and another alkaloid whose properties have not
been investigated. The drug also contains resin and considerable
starch.

Allied Plants. — Berberis vulgaris (European barberry),
naturalized in the United States, furnishes a drug which has sim-
ilar properties. Not only the rhizomes and roots but also the
stem and root barks are employed, the root bark containing a
larger amount of alkaloids than that of the stem.

The bark and root of Berberis asiatica of the Himalaya region
and B. aristata of India are similarly employed, the latter con-
taining about 2 per cent, of berberine.

The flowers and berries of Berberis Aquifoliuin and B.
vulgaris contain berberine, oxyacanthine, volatile oil, about 6 per
cent, of malic acid and 3.5 to 4.7 per cent, of sugar.

The alkaloid berberine is also found in Argemone mexicana
(Fam. Papaveracese) and in the following members of the Ranun-
culacese: Hydrastis canadensis, Coptis frifolia and Xanthorrhiza
apiifoUa.

GENTIANA.— GENTIAN.— The rhizome and roots of Gcn-
tiana lutea (Fam. Gentianaceae), a perennial herb (Fig. 209) in-
digenous to Central and Southern Europe and Asia Minor (p.
362). The fleshy rhizomes and roots are collected in autumn and
frequently cut into longitudinal pieces and slowly dried, during
which latter process they develop a distinctive color and odor,
losing thereby some of the gentiopicrin. The commercial sup-
plies are obtained from France, Germany, Spain and Switzerland.

Description. — Nearly cylindrical and sometimes branched,
split longitudinally or broken into irregular pieces, 3 to 15 cm.
long, 5 to 40 mm. in diameter ; externally light brown, the upper
or rhizome portion annulate from scars of bud-scales, longitud-
inally wrinkled, and with few buds, stem- and root-scars, roots
longitudinally wrinkled ; fracture short when dry, tough and flex-

484

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ible when damp ; internally dark yellow, bark 0.5 to 2 mm. thick,
porous, cambium zone distinct ; odor heavy ; taste bitter.
Inner Structure. — See Fig. 210.

Fig. 209. Gentiana lutea, growing in the Royal Botanic Society's Gardens (London).

—After Pgrredes.

Constituents. — A bitter glucoside gentiopicrin, about o.i
per cent., occurring in yellow needles which are readily soluble
in water but less so in alcohol and to which the drug owes its
peculiar bitterness and odor; a coloring principle gentisin (gen-
tianin or gentisic acid), occurring in yellowish prisms which are

CRUDE DRUGS.

485

soluble in alcohol but nearly insoluble in water, and becoming
greenish-brown with ferric salts, whence some consider it to be
a kind of tannin and have named it gentiotannic acid ; quercitrin,

Fig. 210. Longitudinal (A) and transverse (B) sections of gentian: a, cork; b, a
kind of hypodermal layer; c, sieve; f, cambium; e, elongated fiber-like cells; h, somewhat
elongated parenchyma cells; g, short parenchyma cells. — After Meyer.

or an allied product, crystallizing in yellowish needles ; gentianose,
a crystalline carbohydrate which occurs in the fresh root and
which does not reduce Fehling's solution; 12 to 15 per cent, of
glucose; and pectin. Gentian also contains two other glucosides:

486

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

gentiamarin. which is amorphous, has a disagreeable bitter taste
and gives a sHght darkening with iron salts ; and gentianin, which
occurs in yellowish needles, gives a greenish-black color with
ferric salts and on hydrolysis yields gentienin, xylose and glucose.
Allied Plants. — The rhizomes and roots of various other
European species of Gentiana are sometimes collected and em-
ployed medicinally, as of Gentiana purpurea, collected in Switzer-
land, and G. Pannonica and G. Punctata, collected in Austria.
The rhizome and roots of Elliott's gentian, Gentiana Elliottii,
indigenous to the southeastern part of the United States, was at
one time official in this country.

Fig. 211. Rhizome of African ginger showing scars of overground branch (Ls) and
buds (k). The more or less parallel lines represent leaf-scars and scars of bud-scales, and
the small circles, root-scars. — After Meyer.

The root of American Columbo, also known as yellow gentian
{Frasera carolinensis) , a perennial herb growing in the Eastern
United States and Canada, resembles in the whole condition the
official gentian, but is of a lighter color (p. 460).

ZINGIBER. — GINGER. — The rhizome of Zingiber officinale
(Fam. Zingiberacese), a perennial herb (Fig. 132) indigenous to
Asia, and cultivated in tropical countries, notably in the West
Indies, India, and Africa (p. 242). The rhizomes are collected
between December and March ; they are cleaned by washing,
peeled, again washed in water, sometimes containing juice of the
lime fruit, and dried in the sun. There are several kinds of the
drug, depending upon the manner of treatment. That from

CRUDE DRUGS.

487

Africa has the periderm removed from the vertical sides only,
and is known as " coated " ginger ; in the Jamaica variety the peri-
derm is completely removed and the product is known as " peeled "
or " uncoated " or " scraped " ginger. The latter is sometimes
steeped in milk of lime to protect it against the attacks of insects.
The Jamaica variety is the official ginger.

Fig. 212. Transverse section of portion of rhizome of ginger: P, parenchyma con-
taining ovoid starch grains; O, oil cells; R, cells containing resin; SF, sclerenchymatic
fiber; T, tracheae; S, sieve.

Jamaica Ginger. — Horizontal, laterally compressed, irregu-
larly branched pieces (Fig. 211), 4 to 10 cin. long, 4 to 20 mm.
broad, 5 to 10 mm. thick; externally light brown, longitudinally
wrinkled, with somewhat elliptical, depressed stem-scars, with few
fibers of fibrovascular tissue or adhering fragments of periderm ;
fracture mealy and with short projecting fibrovascular bundles ;
internally, cortex light brown, o.i to 0.4 mm. thick; central cylin-
der with numerous circular groups of fibrovascular tissue and
yellowish secretion cells ; odor strongly aromatic ; taste pungent.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 212, 214.

Ginger which is bleached by means of sulphur fumes or bleach-

488 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ing powder (chlorinated lime) or that is coated with lime should
not be used.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, possessing the aromatic odor
of the drug, i to 3 per cent., and consisting chiefly of a sesqui-
terpene, some dextro-camphene and phellandrene ; a colorless,
viscid principle gingerol, which has the pungent taste of the drug,
0.5 to 1.5 per cent. ; two resins, one of which is acid in character;
starch, 20 per cent.

Commercial varieties. — The following are derived from
Zingiber oiUcinale: (i) Natural Jamaica ginger occurs in long,
slender, flattish, branching, light yellowish-brown pieces, the peri-
derm being completely removed. (2) Bleached Jamaica ginger
is the natural Jamaica rhizome frequently coated with lime. (3)
African ginger consists of grayish-brown pieces which are partly
peeled on the flattened sides, in section exhibit garnet resin dots,
and the taste is intensely acrid. (4) Calcutta ginger resembles
African ginger, but has a greater proportion of cork, and yields
a higher percentage of ash than the other commercial gingers.
(5) Calicut ginger also resembles African ginger. (6) Cochin
ginger is a scraped ginger, internally is of a light cream color
and exhibits numerous black resin dots. (7) Japan ginger is
probably derived from Z. Zerumbet. It belongs to the class of
scraped and limed gingers, and has a short and mealy fracture.
The resin dots are reddish, and it differs from all the other gingers
in having numerous compound starch grains varying from 4 to
25 fx in diameter.

In fresh ginger and in the confection " crystallized ginger "
the contents of the secretion cells are oily and of a yellow color,
but in old dried rhizomes the contents are darker and insoluble
in alcohol, ether, glacial acetic acid, potassium hydrate and chloral

hvdrate.

CONVALLARIA.— LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY.— The dried
rhizome and roots of ConvaUaria inajaUs (Eani. Liliacese), a
perennial herb (p. 238) indigenous to Europe, Asia and the higher
mountains of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina and
extensively cultivated for its flowers. The rhizome and roots
should be collected late in summer and carefully dried. The
leaves and flowers have also been used in medicine.

CRUDE DRUGS.

489

Description. — Rhizome horizontal, cylindrical, and sometimes
branched, jointed, in pieces from 3 to 17 cm. long, internodes 10 to
50 mm. long, i to 3 mm. in diameter, nodes with a circular scar,
not much thickened ; externally light or dark brown, longitudinally
wrinkled, somewhat annulate from scars of bud-scales, mostly
smooth between the nodes, upper surface of nodes marked by

Fig. 213. Transverse section of central cylinder and portion of cortex of root of
Cypripedium hirsutum: E, epidermis; H, hypodermis; Ca, Raphides of calcium oxalate;
P, parenchyma containing starch (St) ; En, endodermis; F, Hgnified sclerenchymatous fibers;
T, tracheee; B, non-lignified, thick-walled fibers exterior to sieve groups; L, peripheral layer
of central cylinder. The latter usually consists of 6 to 8 radial fibrovascular bundles.

stem-scars, side and under surface with root-scars, or usually with
three to five roots, fracture short or fibrous ; internally light or
dark brown, cortex 0.5 mm. thick, separable from the central cyl-
inder ; odor faint ; taste bitter, slightly acrid.

490 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Roots somewhat tortuous, 5 to 6 cm. long, about 0.3 to 0.5
mm. in diameter, rootlets few.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 114.

Constituents. — A bitter, somewhat crystalline glucoside,
convallamarin, about 0.6 per cent., which is soluble in water,
alcohol and ether and has a physiological action similar to digi-
talin. An acrid glucoside, convallarin, forming rectangular prisms
which are insoluble in ether and sparingly soluble in water, the
solution foaming on shaking like a saponin solution.

The FLOWERS of Lily-of-the-valley contain a volatile crystalline
principle which is fragrant in even dilute solutions.

CYPRIPEDIUM.— LADY'S SLIPPER.— The dried rhizome
and roots of Cypripedium pubescens {C. hirsutum), and Cypri-
pediiim parviHorum (Fam. Orchidaceae), perennial herbs (Fig.
133) native in woods and thickets of the Eastern and Central
United States and Canada (p. 245).

Description. — Rhizome horizontal, somewhat tortuous and
bent, 3 to 7 cm. long, 2 to 4 mm. in diameter; externally dark
brown, annulate from scars of bud-scales, upper surface with
numerous large, sometimes depressed scars, under and side por-
tions with numerous roots and few root-scars ; fracture short ;
internally light brown, cortex about 0.5 mm. thick, central cylin-
der somewhat porous, and with numerous scattered fibrovascular
bundles; odor heavy, distinct; taste bitter, somewhat pungent.
The walls of the endodermal cells are slightly cutinized (Figs.

133. 213).

Roots 3 to II cm. long, 0.5 to 1.5 mm. in diameter; externally
light or dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled ; fracture somewhat
fibrous ; internally, cortex white, central cylinder yellowish.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, several resins, a bitter glucosidal
principle, tannin, gallic acid, starch, calcium oxalate in the form
of raphides, and ash about 6 per cent.

TRITICUM.— COUCH GRASS.— The rhizome of Agropy-
ron (Triticuin) re pens (Fam. Gramineae), a perennial grass in-
digenous to Europe and Asia, and naturalized in North America,
except in the Arctic region (p. 227). The rhizome is gathered
in spring, deprived of the rootlets, cut into pieces and carefully
dried. Our commercial supplies come chiefly from Central
Europe.

CRUDE DRUGS.

491

t>Q

■.t

^?O^|>0^

o C

^
i^^

■~^,

c:?

:>Q_

Oc?

Fig. 214. Powdered ginger containing foreign tissues. The following are the typical
elements of ginger: F, sclerenchyntatous fibers which vary from 0.3 to 1.3 mm. long and from
20 to 30 ft. in diameter, the walls being somewhat undulate, about 3 n thick, slightly yel-
lowish, non-lignified and having slender, oblique, simple pores; T, reticulate trachecF varying
from 30 to 60 M in diameter, the walls consisting mostly of cellulose, and with phloroglucin
giving but a faint reaction for lignin: SC . secretion cells, the walls of which are suberized and
the contents of which in the fresh rhizome are oily and of a light yellow color, changing to
golden yellow with sulphuric acid, whereas in the older commercial specimens the contents
are yellowish, or reddish-brown, balsam-like or resinous, becoming of a deep brownish-
black on treatment with sulphuric acid; K, cork cells which on an average are about 60 n long
and 25 n. wide; S, starch grains which vary from 20 to 60 ij. in length, the largest being found
in Jamaica ginger, have indistinct lamellae, and do not polarize well unless mounted in a
fixed oil, as almond or olive; W, swollen starch grains; L, small, swollen, altered starch
grains; P, parenchyma cells; H, F, hyphae and spores of a fungus, which are usually present
in African ginger and easily detected in mounts prepared with sulphuric acid. In Calcutta
ginger occur a large number of spherical starch grains resembling those of wheat, whereas
in Japan ginger there are numerous compound grains. Adulterated ginger may contain
fragments of tissues of Capsienm (Y), stone cells of endocarp of olive (N), or tissues of soap
bark (Fig. 315;.

492 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — Horizontal, somewhat cylindrical or 4- to
6-angled, usually cut into pieces 5 to 8 mm. long, i to 2 mm. in
diameter; externally light yellow, longitudinally furrowed,
smooth, shiny, nodes with circular leaf-scars and few root-scars;
fracture tough, fibrous ; internally, bark light brown, about 0.5
mm. thick, wood light yellow and porous, center hollow ; odor
slight, taste sweetish, slightly acrid.

Constituents. — Triticin, a Igevo-rotatory carbohydrate resem-
bling inulin, 8 per cent. ; dextrose and levulose 2.5 to 3.3 per
cent. ; a nitrogenous, gummy substance, 1 1 per cent. ; acid malates ;
and about 4.5 per cent, of ash containing much silica. The rhi-
zome is free from starch and calcium oxalate, and the lactic acid
found in the extract is apparently a fermentation product.

VERATRUM. — The rhizome and roots of Vcratrum viride
(Fam. Liliacese), a perennial herb (Fig. 129) found growing in
wet meadows usually associated with skunk cabbage {Spathycina
fcctida), and indigenous to the Eastern and Central United States
and naturalized in Canada, British Columbia and Alaska ; and
Veratrum album, a similar plant, indigenous to Central and South-
ern Europe, the former being known as American or green helle-
bore and the latter as European or white hellebore. The plant
dies down early in the summer and the rhizome may be collected
soon thereafter. It is cut longitudinally and dried. Aluch of the
drug used in this country is derived from Veratrum album and
imported from Germany (p. 235).

American or Green Hellebore. — Rhizome upright, obcon-
ical, usually cut longitudinally into halves or quarters, 2.5 to 5
cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. in diameter; externally dark brown or
brownish-black, rough and wrinkled, somewhat annulate from
scars of bud-scales, top truncate, lower part more or less decayed,
with numerous roots and few root-scars ; fracture hard and homy ;
internally light yellow, cortex 2 to 3 mm. thick, endodermis dis-
tinct, central cylinder with scattered yellow fibrovascular bundles ;
odor slight ; taste bitter and acrid.

Roots yellowish-brown, nearly cylindrical, 3 to 8 cm. long,
2 to 3 mm. in diameter ; externally yellowish-brown, longitudinally
or transversely wrinkled (Fig. 113) ; internally, bark white, i to 2
mm. thick ; wood porous, cylindrical ; fracture short.

CRUDE DRUGS.

493

European or White Hellebore closely resembles the Amer-
ican Hellebore, but the color varies from whitish to yellowish-
brown and usually the rootlets are removed.

The drug should be kept in well closed vessels, and the leaf
and stem bases, if present, should be removed.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 215, 216.

Constituents of Veratrum album. — The drug contains a
number of alkaloids, of which the most important is protovera-

Fig. 215. Cross section of rhizome of Veratrum viride: a, section of a root near its origin ;
b, endodermis; c, one of the wavy fibrovascular bundles in th& cortex; d, parenchyma;
e, fibrovascular bundle of the central cylinder; f, parenchyma. — After Bastin. '

trine, which occurs to the extent of 0.03 per cent, and forms
monoclinic prisms which are insoluble in water, soluble in strong
alcohol, and with concentrated sulphuric acid give a greenish-
colored solution which gradually changes to blue and finally to
violet. It also contains the following alkaloids which are physio-
logically inactive or but feebly toxic: Jervine (o.io to 0.13 per
cent.) forms satiny, lustrous prisms which are colored yellow with
hydrochloric acid, the solution afterwards changing to green ;

494

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

RUBijERViNE (about 0.005 per cent.) forms long prisms which
are colored yellow with concentrated sulphuric acid, the solution
becoming orange and finally red ; pseudojervine forms hexagonal
prisms which are colored yellow with concentrated sulphuric acid ;
PROTOVERATRiDiNE is a decomposition product of protoveratrine
and forms cubical prisms which are colored violet with concen-
trated sulphuric acid, the solution afterward becoming cherry-red.
Veratrum also contains a bitter glucoside veratramarin ; jervic

Pig. 216. Several parenchyma cells from rhizome of Veratrum viride: a, cells con-
taining starch grains; b, cell containing raphides of calcium oxalate. — After Bastin.

acid, which is identical with chelidonic acid, and crystallizes in
silky needles ; considerable starch ; ash 3 to 4 per cent. ; and
calcium oxalate in the form of raphides.

Constituents of Veratrum Viride. — Green hellebore con-
tains about 0.08 per cent, of total alkaloids. Of these about one-
half consists of CEVADiNE, an exceedingly toxic ether-soluble alka-
loid, also found in Sabadilla seeds, which crystallizes in needles
and gives a violet color on warming with nitric acid, the solution
changing to scarlet-red on boiling. The remainder consists
chiefly of the ether-insoluble alkaloids jervine and pseudojer-

CRUDE DRUGS. 495

VINE, both of which are found in Veratrum album; a small
quantity of veratrine, that occurs as an amorphous, resinous
mass which is colored yellow with concentrated sulphuric acid, the
solution becoming deep red (thus resembling protoveratrine) ; and
VERATALBiNE, an amorphous alkaloid. Veratroidine is now con-
sidered to be a mixture of amorphous bases.

Allied Plants. — The rhizome of Veratrum viridifolium, a
plant with greenish flowers growing in the mountainous districts
of Europe and Northern Asia, contains jervine and veratroidine.
The rhizome of I'cratnun nigrum, a plant with purplish-red
flowers, indigenous to Middle and Eastern Europe, Siberia, Man-
churia and Japan, contains jervine.

Sabadilla seeds are the source of the official veratrine. They
are obtained from Schoenocanlon officinale (Fam. Liliacese), a
bulbous plant indigenous to Mexico and the West Indies. The
seeds are brownish-black, 5 to 8 mm. long, narrow, angular, flat,
beaked and have a very bitter and acrid taste. They are fre-
quently exported from Mexico in the small trilocular dehiscent
capsules there being 3 to 6 seeds in each loculus. They contain
about I per cent, of a mixture of alkaloids known as veratrine.
This consists of cevadine and veratrine (veratridine), both of
which are found in the rhizome of Veratrum viride, and three
other alkaloids : cevadillme, sabadine and sabadinine, the two latter
being crystalline.

The bulbs of Death Camas (Zygadenus vencnosus), known
to the Nez Perce Indians as " Wa-i-mas," contain the alkaloids
veratalbine, sabadine and sabadinine.

Black Hellebore consists of the rhizome and roots of Helle-
borus nigcr (Fam. Ranunculacege), a perennial herb indigenous
to the Eastern and Southern Alps and also cultivated. The rhizome
is 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, 6 to 12 mm. in diameter; with numerous
sTiort, knotty branches and short, brittle roots ; externally, of a
grayish-black color ; internally, with a characteristic dicotyle-
donous structure ; odor slight ; taste sweet, somewhat bitter and
acrid. The drug contains two crystalline glucosides : helleborin.
a narcotic poison with a burning taste, and helleborein, a cardiac
stimulant and having a sweetish taste. The former gives a violet-
red color with concentrated sulphuric acid and the latter a deep

496 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

violet color with the same reagent. The drug also contains a vola-
tile oil, two acrid resins, an acrid fixed oil, aconitic acid and gal-
lates of calcium and potassium.

The rhizome of Hellebonis I'iridis (so-called " Green Helle-
bore "), a plant found in Middle and Southern Europe, has been
used similarly to that of H. nigcr. It contains the same principles
as H. niger, the helleborein apparently predominating.

False Hellebore is the entire herb of Adonis vernaUs (Fam.
Ranunculaceas) and other species of Adonis indigenous to Europe
and Asia. The drug contains adonidin, a mixture of several prin-
ciples, the most important being the amorphous glucoside picra-
donidin, a principle resembling digitalin in its physiologic action.

CALAMUS.— SWEET FLAG.— The dried, unpeeled rhizome
of Acorns Calamus (Fam. Aracese), a perennial herb widely dis-
tributed in all north-temperate regions (p. 233). The com-
mercial supplies are obtained from the United States, Germany,
England, Russia and India. The rhizomes are collected in
autumn, the drug from India being the more aromatic, whereas
the German product, on account of the removal of the outer por-
tion of the rhizome, is jprobably the least aromatic. A confection
was at one time made by " candying " the fresh rhizome.

Description. — Horizontal, cylindrical, slightly compressed,
usually split longitudinally into pieces 5 to 15 cm. long, 5 to 12
mm. in diameter; externally light brown or yellowish green,
annulate from remnants of circular bud-scales, upper surface with
triangular leaf-scars or hair-like fibers of fibrovascular tissue, the
sides with large circular branch-scars, and the under and side
portions with root-scars or short fragments of roots ; fracture
short ; internally light brown, distinctly porous, with numerous
intercellular spaces, endodermis distinct ; odor aromatic ; taste
strongly aromatic (Fig. loi, B).

Constituents. — Volatile oil 1.5 to 3.5 per cent., having the
odor and taste of the drug; acorin, a bitter, viscid, aromatic gluco-
sidal principle, which when hydrolized in a current of hydrogen
yields oil of calamus; choline (trimethyl-oxyethyl ammonium
hydrate), a strong, non-poisonous base, and formerly known as
calamine ; a soft resin about 2.3 per cent. ; tannin ; mucilage ; starch
and calcium oxalate.

CRUDE DRUGS.

497

An Indian variety contains from i to 2.5 per cent, of oil and
is mostly preferred.

CIMICIFUGA.— BLACK SNAKEROOT, BLACK CO-
HOSH.— The dried rhizome and roots of Ciniicifnga raccmosa

Fig. 217. Cimicifuga. Transverse section of the central part of a mature root in
which the secondary changes are completed: a, parenchyma; b, endodermis; c, cambium
zone; d, tracheae in secondary xylem; e, broad, wedge-shaped medullary ray; f, outer
portion of one of the primary xylem bundles; g, parenchyma beneath the endodermis;
h, inter-fascicular cambium. — After Bastin.

(Fam. Ranunculacese), a perennial herb (Fig. 140), indigenous
to Asia, Eastern Europe and North America (p. 268). The drug
is collected in autumn, the United States furnishing the principal
supply.

498 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — Rhizome horizontal, with numerous upright
or curved branches and few roots, 2 to 15 cm. long, i to 2.5 cm.
in diameter ; externally dark brown, slightly annulate from cir-
cular scars of bud-scales, the upper surface with buds, stem-scars
and stem-remnants, under and side portions with numerous root-
scars and few roots ; fracture horny ; internally, bark dark green,
about I mm. thick, wood dark brown, 4 to 5 mm. thick, distinctly
radiate ; pith 3 to 5 mm. in diameter ; odor slight ; taste bitter and
acrid.

Roots brittle, nearly cylindrical or obtusely quadrangular;
externally dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled, 3 to 12 cm. long,

1 to 2 mm. in diameter ; fracture short ; internally, bark dark
brown, 0.2 to 0.4 mm. thick, wood light brown, usually four-rayed.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 217.

Constituents. — Two crystalline principles soluble in chloro-
form ; a colorless crystalline substance soluble in ether ; a crystal-
line principle soluble in water; a trace of an alkaloid and several
organic acids ; considerable starch and a tannin-like principle
giving a green color with ferric salts, thus distinguishing the
drug from the rhizome of Hclleborus niger (p. 495).

HYDRASTIS.— GOLDEN SEAL.— The dried rhizome and
roots of Hydrastis canodciisis (Fam. Ranunculacese), a perennial
herb (Fig. 218) indigenous to the Eastern United States and
Canada (p. 268). The rhizome and roots are collected in autumn.

Description. — Rhizome horizontal or oblique, sub-cylindrical,

2 to 5 cm. long, 3 to 6 mm. in diameter ; externally yellowish or
dark brown, slightly annulate from circular scars of bud-scales,
upper surface with numerous short stem-remnants or stem-scars,
under and side portions with numerous roots or root-scars ; frac-
ture short, waxy ; internally deep yellow, bark about 0.5 mm.
thick, wood radiate, about i mm. thick, pith light yellow ; odor
distinct ; taste bitter.

Roots 4 to 7 cm. long, 0.2 to 0.4 mm. in diameter; internally
bright yellow, wood somewhat quadrangular.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 219, 292.

Constituents. — Two alkaloids — one, hydrastine, occurring to
the extent of 2 to 3 per cent., and forming colorless, tasteless
4-sided prisms, although the salts are pale yellow and bitter ; the

CRUDE DRUGS 499

other, berberine, occurring to the extent of 3 to 4 per cent, in
the form of yellow needles, which are bitter and readily form
compounds with acetone, alcohol and chloroform. In addition,
the drug contains a small amount of an alkaloid, canadine (tetra-
hydro-berberine), and considerable starch. Calcium oxalate is
wanting.

Fig. 218. Golden seal (Hydrastis canadensis): overground branch showing the two
palmately lobed leaves and head of berries, which are crimson and resemble a raspberry
fruit.

Allied Plants. — The alkaloid berberine, or a principle closely
resembling it, is found in the following plants of the Ranun-
culacege: False rhubarb (Thalictnim flavum) of Europe; and the
following plants growing in the United States : Gold-thread
(Coptis frifolia), yellow root {Xanthorrhisa apiifolia), and marsh
marigold (Caltha palustris). A principle resembling berberine is
found in the following plants belonging to the Rutacese : Several

50O

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

species of Zieria found in Southern Australia and Tasmania, and
Toddalia aculeata found in the mountains of Eastern Africa, trop-
ical Asia and the PhiHppine Islands (see also p. 483).

F:g. 219. Transverse section of a part of the rhizome of hydrastis near the cambium:
P, parenchyma; S, sieve; C, cambium; T, tracheas; F, wood fibers.

LEPTANDRA.— CULVER'S ROOT.— The dried rhizome
and roots of Leptandra virginica (Fam. Scrophulariacese), a per-
ennial herb growing in meadows and moist woods of the Eastern

CRUDE DRUGS. 501

and Central United States and Canada (p. 376). The rhizome
and roots are collected in autumn from plants of the second year's
growth. When fresh the drug has an almond-like odor and a
bitter, nauseous taste, which it loses in a measure on drying, and
may be kept indefinitely (Fig. 207).

Description. — Rhizome horizontal, nearly cylindrical, some-
what branched, 4 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 8 mm. in diameter ; exter-
nally light brown to brownish-red ; annulate from circular scars
of bud-scales, upper surface with conical buds, short stem-rem-
nants or stem-scars, the under and side portions with numerous
roots or root-scars ; fracture tough ; internally, bark dark brown,
0.3 to I mm. thick, wood about 0.5 to 1.5 mm. thick, pith light
brown or brownish-black ; odor slight ; taste bitter, slightly acrid.

Roots from i to 4 cm. long, 0.5 to i mm. in diameter, exter-
nally smooth ; longitudinally wrinkled, fracture short ; internally,
bark brownish-black, wood light brown.

Constituents. — Leptandrin, a glucoside, occurring in yellow-
ish-green crystals ; resin, about 6 per cent. ; saponin ; tannin ; and
starch. The drug yields a distillate containing formic acid.

SERPENTARIA. — The rhizome and roots of several species
of Aristolochia (Fam. Aristolochiacese), perennial herbs indig-
enous to the Southern United States. There are two commercial
varieties: (i) Virginia Snakeroot, yielded by Aristolochia Ser-
pciifaria, found growing east of the Mississippi, and (2) Texas
or Red River Snakeroot, yielded by Aristolochia reticulata, grow-
ing west of the Mississippi. The rhizome and roots are collected
in autumn and dried (p. 260).

Virginia Snakeroot. — Rhizome oblique, sub-cylindrical, with
numerous slender roots and frequently with leaves or fruiting
stems, 10 to 25 mm. long, and i to 2 mm. in diameter; externally
dark brown, slightly annulate from scars of bud-scales, upper por-
tion with stem-scars or stem-remnants, under' and side portions
with numerous roots and root-scars; fracture short; internally,
bark dark brown, 0.3 to 0.5 mm. thick, wood yellow, radiate,
porous, I to 1.5 mm. thick, pith i mm. in diameter; odor tere-
binthinate ; taste bitter, aromatic.

Roots nearly straight, 4 to 7 cm. long, about 0.3 mm. in diam-
eter, longitudinally wrinkled, bark light brown, wood yellowish,
5-rayed.

502

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

4^-~

Fig. 2 20. Pinkroot {Spigelia marilandica): A, transverse section of root showing
epidermis (e), parenchyma containing starch (p), peripheral layer of central cylinder (1),
endodermis (e), internal layer of cortex (i). The central cylinder consists of six to eight
radial fibrovascular bundles, and some of the tracheae contain a brown gummy substance.
B, transverse section of rhizome showing epidermis (t), the outer wall of which contains a
yellowish-brown substance, parenchyma (p) of cortex containing starch, sieve of cortex
(s), cambium (c), tracheae (t), tracheae (r) containing globular or somewhat irregular
yellowish-brown masses, tracheids (h), internal sieve groups (s), parenchyma of pith (p')
containing starch. C, longitudinal section of the woody part of the rhizome; D, isolated
starch grains, which are 2 to s n in diameter.

CRUDE DRUGS.

503

Texas Snakeroot. — Rhizome 10 to 40 mm. longf, i to 3 mm.
in diameter; roots about 0.5 mm. in diameter, with numerous
more or less interlacing- rootlets.

Constituents. — Volatile oil 0.5 to i per cent., the important
constituent of which is borneol ; a bitter poisonous principle, aris-
tolochin (serpentarin) ; an alkaloidal principle, aristolochine ; sev-
eral organic acids ; starch ; ash about 10 per cent.

End.

Fig. 221. Ruellia ciliosa, the rhizome and roots of which are a common adulterant
of spigelia. A, transverse section of a secondary root: C, cortical parenchyma with one
cystolith and a number of stone cells with very thick walls and radiating simple pores;
End, endodermis. B, longitudinal section of the same root, showing a single cell with an
elongated cystolith, the encrustation being of calcium carbonate. — ^After Holm.

SPIGELIA.— PINKROOT.— The rhizome and roots of Spi-
gelia marilandica (Fam. Logan iaceae), a perennial herb (Fig.
172) indigenous to the Southern United States (p. 362). Spi-
gelia should be collected in autumn, carefully dried and preserved,
and not kept longer than two years.

Description. — Rhizome horizontal or slightly oblique, more
or less branched, 1.5 to 3 cm. long, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter; exter-
nally dark brown, slightly annulate from scars of bud-scales, the
upper portion with stem-scars or stem-remnants, under and side
portions with numerous roots and root-scars ; fracture short ; inter-

504 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

nally, bark dark brown, 0.2 to 0.5 mm. thick, wood yellow, slightly
radiate, i to 1.5 mm. thick, pith i mm. in diameter; odor slightly
aromatic ; taste bitter, pungent.

Roots 5 to 10 cm. long, about 0.3 mm. in diameter, with
numerous rootlets; externally dark brown, longitudinally wrin-
kled ; internally light brown, wood nearly cylindrical, porous.

C0NSTITUENT.S. — A crystalline, volatile alkaloid, spigeline,
which somewhat resembles coniine and nicotine and which forms
precipitates with iodine or Mayer's reagent that are soluble in
mineral acids; a bitter, acrid principle, volatile oil, resin, tannin
and starch.

Adulterants. — For some years past another rhizome has been
substituted for Spigelia, viz.: that of Ruellia ciliosa (p. 377).
The rhizome is oblique, with shorter internodes at the lower por-
tion and the basal part of the aerial shoots usually remains
attached. The roots are quite long, sparingly branched and
generally coarser than those of Spigelia. The inner structure of
Ruellia is quite distinct from Spigelia, showing numerous stone
cells and cystoliths in the cortex (Fig. 221).

VALERIANA.— VALERIAN.— The rhizome and roots of
Valeriana officinalis (Fam. Valerianacese), a perennial herb (p.
385) indigenous to Europe and Asia, and cultivated in Holland,
Germany, England and the New England States, being more or
less naturalized in this country as far south as New York and
New Jersey. The rhizome is collected in autumn, cut into longi-
tudinal slices and dried by artificial heat. There are several com-
mercial varieties, and it is said that some of the drug is derived
from Valeriana sylvatica.

Description. — Rhizome upright, slightly ellipsoidal, more or
less truncate at both ends, from 2.5 to 4 cm. long and i to 2 cm.
in diameter, usually cut longitudinally into two, four or more
pieces; externally dark brown, upper portion with circular stem-
and leaf-scars, the sides sometimes with short branches or stolons
from 5 to 8 cm. long, wdth numerous roots and few root-scars ;
fracture short, horny ; internally light brown ; odor pronounced,
becoming stronger on keeping the drug ; taste somewhat aromatic.

Roots 3 to 10 cm. long, 0.5 to i mm. in diameter, longitudinally
wrinkled ; fracture brittle.

CRUDE DRUGS. 505

Constituents. — Volatile oil 0.5 to 3 per cent., of which 9.5
per cent, is bornyl valerate. It also contains bornyl formate,
acetate and butyrate ; borneol ; pinene ; camphene, and a sesqui-
terpene. The odor of valerian is due to the isovalerianic acid
which is formed from the bornyl valerate by the action of an oxy-
dase during the drying of the drug. The fresh drug contains
0.015 per cent, of an alkaloid and also a glucoside and a resin,
all three of which are physiologically active, the two former
being unstable. The drug also contains free formic .and acetic
acids and malates ; tannin ; saccharose ; and starch.

Allied Plants. — Kesso root oil is obtained from Japanese
Valerian (Valeriana angustifoJia). The constituents are similar
to those of the volatile oil in Valerian, but it contains in addition
kessyl acetate and kessyl alcohol. Mexican Valerian, derived from
V. mexicana, yields an oil containing about 89 per cent, of iso-
valerianic acid.

The small rhizomes of Valeriana celtica, a plant growing in
the Styrian Alps, yield a volatile oil with an odor resembling that
of Anthemis and patchouly.

Adulterants and Substitutes. — The most dangerous ad-
mixture that has been reported is Veratrum, which is readily
distinguished (p. 492). Cypripedium macranthnm (Fam. Orch-
idacese), of Germany, has been used as a substitute for valerian.

GERANIUM.— WILD OR SPOTTED CRANESBILL.—
The dried rhizome of Geranium maculatum (Fam. Geraniacese),
a perennial herb (Fig. 155), indigenous to Canada and the East-
ern and Central United States (p. 301). The rhizome is collected
in the late summer or early autumn.

Description, — Horizontal, cylindrical, tuberculate, curved or
bent pieces, 2.5 to 5 cm. long, 3 to 10 mm. "in diameter; exter-
nally dark brown, wrinkled, upper and side portions with numer-
ous buds or circular stem-scars, under surface with numerous root-
scars ; fracture short ; internally light brown, bark thin, wood
indistinct, pith large ; odor slight ; taste astringent.

Constituents. — Tannin 15 to 25 per cent., which on hydro-
lysis yields gallic acid ; starch ; and calcium oxalate.

Allied Plants. — Other species of geranium contain similar
principles.

5o6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

PODOPHYLLUM.— MAY APPLE.— The rhizome of Podo-
phyllum peltatuni (Fam. Berberidaceae), a perennial herb (Fig.
222) indigenous to Eastern North America (p. 273). The rhi-
zome is collected late in summer and dried, after the removal of
the rootlets. (Fig. 104.) Most of the commercial supplies come

Fig. 222. Top of fertile shoot of May apple {Podophyllum peltatum) having two large
peltate palmately lobed leaves, in the axil of which is the fleshy fruit containing numerous
truncate ovoid seeds.

from the Central States. Both the leaves and the fruit apparently
contain a purgative resin similar to that found in the rhizome.
The berry, which is known as May, Indian, Hog or Devil's
apple ; wild or ground lemon, and Raccoon-berry, is generally
considered to be edible, but several cases of poisoning from it
have been recorded.

Description. — Horizontal, nearly cylindrical, flattened, some-
times branched, jointed, in pieces 3 to 8 cm. long, internodes 4 to
10 cm. long, 5 to 9 mm. in diameter, nodes 7 to 18 mm. in diam-
eter and 5 to 12 mm. thick; externally dark brown, longitudinally
wrinkled or nearly smooth, with irregular scars of bud-scales,

CRUDE DRUGS.

507

nodes annulate from remains of bud-scales, upper part marked
with large circular, depressed stem-scars and sometimes with buds ;
numerous root-scars at and near the lower portion of the nodes;

Fig. 223. Transverse section of podophyllum rhizome: E, epidermis; P, parenchyma
containing starch; S, sieve; C, cambium; T, tracheae.

fracture short ; internally lemon-yellow, bark i mm. thick, wood
yellowish, 0.5 mm. thick, pith large, white; odor slight; taste
somewhat bitter and acrid.

5o8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 223.

Constituents. — Resin (ofificial as Resin of Podophyllum)
3.5 to 5 per cent., consisting of two poisonous principles; (a)
podophyllotoxin, 20 per cent., occurring in white crystals that
are sparingly soluble in water and yield on treatment with water
podophyllic acid and picropodophyllin ; and (b) picropodophyl-
lin (an isomer of podophyllotoxin), which crystallizes in needles
and is insoluble in water but soluble in 90 to 95 per cent, alcohol.
The resin also contains a yellow crystalline coloring principle
resembling quercetin, a green fixed oil and podophyllic acid. The
rhizome also contains a purgative resin, podophylloresin ; consid-
erable starch, and some gallic acid.

Allied Plants. — The rhizome of Podophyllum Emodi, a
plant growing on the lower slopes of the Himalayas, is larger and
yields 11.4 to 12 per cent, of resin, which consists of but half as
much podophyllotoxin as the resin obtained from P. pcltatum.

SANGUINARIA.— BLOODROOT.— The rhizome of San-
guinaria canadensis (Fam. Papaveraceas), a perennial herb (Fig.
148) indigenous to the Eastern and Central United States and
Canada (p. 280). The rhizome should be collected in July or
August and dried.

Description. — Horizontal, irregularly cylindrical, flattened,
sometimes branched, 2.5 to 6 cm. long, 5 to 10 mm. in diameter;
externally dark brown, slightly annulate, with few buds or stem-
scars on upper surface and numerous root-scars on lower surface ;
fracture short and somewhat waxy ; internally, bark dark brown,
about 0.5 mm. thick, wood and pith with numerous reddish resin-
cells ; odor slight ; taste bitter and acrid.

Shriveled rhizomes which are gray internally and free from
starch should be rejected.

Constituents. — The drug contains a number of alkaloids, of
which the most important is sanguinarine; it occurs to the
extent of about i per cent., crystallizes in colorless needles and
yields reddish salts wdth nitric or sulphuric acid. The other
alkaloids include chelerythrine, which forms yellowish salts ;
protopine, also found in other plants (p. 282), and (3- and y-homo-
chelidonine, which, like the last two alkaloids, are found in Cheli-
donium and some other plants (p. 281). In addition, the drug

CRUDE DRUGS. 509

contains a reddish resin, several organic acids, as citric and malic,
and considerable starch.

SCOPOLA.— BELLADONNA SCOPOLIA.— The dried
rhizome of Scopolia carjiiolica (Fam. Solanacese), a perennial
herb growing in the region of the Eastern Alps, Carpathian Moun-
tains and neighboring regions.

Description. — Rhizome horizontal, nearly cylindrical, some-
what tortuous, usually cut longitudinally into pieces 5 to 12 cm.
long, 7 to 15 mm. in diameter; externally grayish-brown, longi-
tudinally furrowed, slightly annulate, with numerous circular
stem-scars about 5 mm. in diameter, under portion with root-
scars and root-remnants ; fracture short, mealy ; internally whitish
or light grayish-brown, bark i mm. or less thick, wood slightly
radiate, rather large, horny pith ; odor slight ; taste starchy, sweet-
ish, afterward acrid. (Fig. 175a.)

The roots, which are attached to the rhizome or in separate
pieces, are cylindrical, tapering, varying in diameter from 2 to 10
mm., longitudinally wrinkled, and marked by lenticular whitish
areas resembling lenticels.

Constituents. — About 0.6 per cent, of total alkaloids, includ-
ing atropine, hyoscyamine and scopolamine (hyoscine). Scopola-
mine is official as a hydrobromide, and exists in the drug to the
extent of 0.06 per cent. Scopolamine decomposes into scopoline
and atropic acid when treated with boiling baryta water. Scopo-
line resembles tropine, a principle formed from atropine and
hyoscyamine, when similarly treated (see Fig. 341).

Allied Plants. — Japanese belladonna is the rhizome of Sco-
polia japonica, growing in Japan, and closely related to S. carui-
olica. The drug resembles scopola and apparently contains the
same principles. The rhizomes of six other species of Scopolia
are also used.

Scopolia Leaves are used in medicine like belladonna leaves,
and are said to be sometimes admixed with them. They are obo-
vate, slightly acuminate, and taper gradually into the rather long
petiole (p. 372; Fig. 273).

COLCHICI CORMUS.— COLCHICUM CORM.— The corm
of Colchiciim autumnale (Fam. Liliaceae), a perennial bulbous
plant, native of and growing in moist meadows and pastures of

5IO BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

England, Southern and Middle Europe and Northern Africa
(p. 236). The corm is collected in early summer before the
flowering period, deprived of the membranous, scaly coat, cut into
transverse pieces, and dried at a temperature below 65° C. Tubers
that are collected in the fall either during the flowering season
or later are considered to be more active. The commercial supply
is obtained from England and Germany. .

Description. — Obconical, with a groove on one side, some-
times with fragments of the flower-stalk, usually in transverse,
reniform sections from 15 to 20 mm. long, about 12 mm. wide and
3 to 5 mm. thick ; externally dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled ;
fracture short, mealy ; internally light brown, with numerous scat-
tered fibrovascular bundles ; odor slight ; taste bitter and acrid.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 310.

Constituents. — A yellowish, amorphous alkaloid, colchi-
cine, about 0.4 per cent., which has a peculiar odor, particularly
on heating slightly, is soluble in hot water and gives with con-
centrated sulphuric acid a yellowish solution which is colored
deep red on heating. If the sulphuric acid contains a mere trace
of nitric acid the solution of the alkaloid becomes yellowish-
green, green, bluish-green, blue, violet, wine-red and finally yel-
low. The salts of colchicine are quite unstable. The drug also
contains the alkaloid colchiceine, which crystallizes in needles
and is apparently formed during the extraction of the drug by
reason of the decomposition of colchicine. The latter may be
formed on the esterification of colchiceine with methyl alcohol.
The corm also contains two resins ; a large amount of starch ; ash
about 2.5 per cent.

SCILLA.— SQUILL.— The fleshy scales of the bulb of Urgi-
nea maritiina (Fam. Liliacese), a perennial herb indigenous to the
Mediterranean region. The bulbs are collected late in August,
and after the removal of the membranous outer scales and the
central portion, the fleshy scales are cut into transverse pieces
and dried in sunlight or by artificial heat. The article used in
France is collected from bulbs having reddish scales and is
obtained from Algeria and Malta (p. 238).

Description. — In irregular, curved, flat, narrow, somewhat
translucent pieces 3 to 5 cm. long, 5 to 8 mm. wide, 2 to 7 mm.

CRUDE DRUGS. 511

thick, whitish, lemon-yellow or light brown, epidermis forming a
thin layer, mesophyll more or less shrunken, slightly crystalline
and with numerous circular projections of fibrovascular bundles ;
fracture brittle when dry, tough when damp ; odor slight ; taste
bitter and acrid.

Constituents. — Squill contains a number of active principles,
of which the most important are the amorphous glucoside scilli-
toxin, which resembles digitoxin physiologically, and scillipicrin,
an amorphous, bitter principle, which is employed as a diuretic. It
also contains a yellow crystalline glucoside scillin ; an amorphous
bitter glucoside, scillain ; a little volatile oil ; sugar, about 22 per
cent.; considerable calcium oxalate in the form of raphides (Fig.
281, B), w^hich is associated in the parenchyma cells with a
peculiar mucilage sinistrin, which yields levulose on hydrolysis.

Allied Plants. — The bulbs of several species of Crinttm
(Fam. Amaryllidaceae) found growing in Brazil, China, Southern
Asia and the East Indies are used as substitutes for squill.

III. parts of roots and stems.

PITH, WOOD AND BARK.

The active principles are not uniformly distributed throughout
all parts of the plant, but occur in greater amount in the bark
than in the wood, as in Ipecac ; in larger proportion in the root
bark than in the stem bark, as in Granatum ; and in larger amount
in the inner bark and cortex than in the periderm layers, as in
Quercus alba. This is in general true of herbaceous plants, as
well as of trees and shrubs, but in most of the medicinal roots and
rhizomes it has not been fovmd economical to separate the bark
from the wood, which usually contains some of the active prin-
ciples. A large number of the barks alone of shrubs and trees are
used medicinally. By the term bark is usually meant all that
portion of the root or stem which is developed outside of the cam-
bium, and this is commonly differentiated into two distinct parts —
one next to the cambium, in which the life-processes take place,
contains the greatest amount of active principles, and is known
as the INNER BARK (Figs. 22y, 231, 234) ; another, external to

512 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

this, having a greater or less development of corky layers
among more or less obliterated sieve and parenchymatous cells,
is known as the outer bark. The term bark is sometimes
restricted to this outer layer, but this is more or less confusing
and has not been generally adopted. The term bork is frequently
applied to the outer corky layers and the dead tissues enclosed by
them (Figs. 237, 238). The term periderm is applied to all the
tissues produced by the phellogen. the older layers of periderm
being included in the bork.

In a few cases the wood alone is employed in medicine and,
like the bark, may be differentiated into two layers — the one next
to the cambium, in w^hich the ascent of the cell-sap takes place,
known as the sap-wood, and another at the center of the trunk or
stem, which is usually darker in color and may contain resinous,
coloring and other substances, and denominated the he art- wood,
the latter being the part usually employed in medicine and the arts.

The pith being in the nature of a reserve tissue may contain
various of the carbohydrates. Sassafras pith furnishes an example
of this, being used in medicine on account of the mucilage it
contains.

The following artificial classification may be found of assist-
ance in the study of the drugs of this class :

I. Barks.

I. With periderm.

A. Ycllozi'ish-red to dark brown.
a. Fracture short.

a Aromatic odor and taste.

Dark brown Cinnamomum Saigonicum

/3 Without aromatic odor and taste.
* Usually in quills.

Few lenticels Cinchona

Numerous lenticels Frangula

** Usually in flattened or transversely curved
pieces.
Inner surface reddened

with alkalies...' Rliamnus Pursliiana

Odor of Valerian. .. .Vilnirnum Prunifolium
Astringent Hamamelidis Cortex

CRUDE DRUGS. 513

I. Barks. — Continued.

b. Fracture fibrous.

Tough-fibrous Gossypii Cortex

Short-fibrous Rubus

B. GrayisJi to grayish-black.

a. Fracture fibrous.

Fracture silky-fibrous Euonymus

Fracture uneven, fibrous Viburnum Opulus

b. Fracture short.

a With conical cork-wings. .. Southern Prickly Ash

j3 Cork-wings wanting.

Inner surface with acicular

crystals Northern Prickly Ash

Inner surface non-crystalline Granatum

C. Greenish in color.

Fracture tough-fibrous Mezereum

Fracture short, granular Prunus Virginiana

2. Periderm removed.

A. Aromatic odor and taste.

Yellowish-brown Cinnamomum Zeylanicum

Reddish-brown Sassafras

B. Without aromatic properties.

a. Surface crystalline Quillaja

b. Surface non-crystalline.

Taste astringent Quercus Alba

Taste mucilaginous Ulmus

II. Woods.

1. Light or bright yellow Quassia

2. Yellowish-red to yellowish-brown.

A. Imparts a violet or zvine-color to zvater Haematoxylon

B. Coloring matter insoluble in wa^tT. .*. . . .Santalum Rubrum

III. Pith.

Whitish, light in weight Sassafras Medulla

CINNAMO!^IUM.— CINNAMON BARK.— The dried bark
of the stem and branches of various species of Cinnamomum
(Fam. Lauracese), trees indigenous to tropical Asia (p. 278),
where they are now extensively cultivated, and from which three
commercial kinds of bark are obtained : ( i ) Saigon Cinnamon,

514

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

obtained from Ciniiaiiiomuni Loureirii (f) and other species culti-
vated in Cochin China and other parts of China, and exported

Fig. 224. Transverse section of Cassia cinnamon bark: k, cork; x, thick-walled cork
cells; y, cork cells, the outer walls of which are thickened; phg, cork cambium; scl, stone
cells; X, parenchyma cell with larpre pores; B, bast fibers; gR, short sclerenchyma; z,
parenchyma separating the groups of sclerenchyma tissue; pPh, protophloem; obi, obliter-
ated sieve; Sch, mucilage canals; php, bast parenchyma; o, oil cells. — After Tschirch
and Oesterle.

from Saig-on ; (2) Cassia Cinnamon, yielded by Ciiiiiainoiiiiiin
Cassia^ cultivated in the southeastern provinces of the Chinese

CRUDE DRUGS.

515

Empire, and exported by way of Calcutta, and (3) Ceylon Cinna-
mon, collected from Cinnamomnui zeylanicum, indigenous to and
cultivated in Ceylon (Fig. 146).

Saigon Cinnamon. — In bundles about 30 to 40 cm. long, and
20 cm. wide, 10 cm. thick, weighing 1.5 to 2 K., and consisting of

Fig. 225. Radial-longitudinal section of China Cassia {Cinnamomum Cassia) bark:
pr, parenchyma of outer bark; bp, parenchyma of the inner bark, some of the cells of
which contain raphides; b, bast fibers; st, stone cells; sch, mucilage cells; s, sieve; m,
medullary rays. — After Moeller.

pieces varying in size and color from small, brownish-black single
quills to large, thick, grayish-brown, transversely curved pieces.
Pieces 6 to 30 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. in diameter: bark 0.2 to 2
mm. thick ; outer surface dark brown, longitudinally wrinkled,
with grayish patches of foliaceous lichens, and numerous lenticels ;

5i6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

inner surface light brown, smooth ; fracture short ; thick inner
bark separated from the very thin periderm by a layer of small
stone cells ; odor aromatic ; taste mucilaginous, aromatic and
pungent.

Cassia Cinnamon. — In quilled pieces, usually shorter than
those of Saigon Cinnamon, the periderm more or less removed,
and the bark aromatic and somewhat astringent.

Ceylon Cinnamon occurs in closely rolled double quills com-
posed of numerous thin layers of the inner bark of the shoots ; the
odor is delicately aromatic, and very distinct from either Cassia
or Saigon bark.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 224, 225, 305.

Constituents. — The most important constituent is the vola-
tile oil, which in Ceylon cinnamon is delicately aromatic and
amounts to from 0.5 to i per cent., in Cassia from 0.93 to 1.64
per cent., and in the Saigon from 3 to 6 per cent., the latter bark
being most pungent and aromatic. The oil of cinnamon consists
in large part of cinnamic aldehyde (not present in the oil of the
root bark) and other compounds, such as camphor, which is present
in the oil from the root bark ; safrol, which is found in the leaves ;
and eugenol, which is found in both leaves and stem bark and
which gives the characteristic odor to Ceylon Cinnamon.

Cinnamon also contains the hexatomic alcohol mannitol (cin-
namanin) giving the sweetish taste to the several barks; a tannin
(3 to 5 per cent.) somewhat resembling that in Qucrcus alba and
found in greatest amount in Cassia bark and least in the Saigon
variety ; a bitter principle especially characteristic of Cassia bark ;
and a mucilage which may be the source, at least in part, of the
volatile oil.

Allied Plants. — Batavia Cassia or Fagot Cassia is the bark
of Cinnamomum Burmanni. In double quills, the larger some-
times enclosing smaller quills, 5 to 8 cm. long, 5 to 15 mm. in
diameter, bark 0.5 to 3 mm. thick ; outer surface light or reddish-
brown, nearly smooth ; inner surface dark-brown with occasional
longitudinal ridges and depressed areas ; fracture short ; odor pro-
nounced, aromatic ; taste aromatic and distinctly mucilaginous.
It forms a shiny glutinous mass with water and yields with alcohol
II to 17 per cent, of extract. A number of barks come into the

CRUDE DRUGS. 517

market under the name of " Cassia bark." In fact Cassia Cin-
namon is frequently known as China Cassia, or Canton Cassia or
Cassia Hgnea, all being synonymous for the same variety of bark.
Saigon Cinnamon is also known commercially as Saigon Cassia.
The barks of other species of Cinnamomum also find their way
into market and are used as substitutes or adulterants of Cassia
Cinnamon. These are bitter or nearly tasteless and are free from
any aromatic properties.

Clove bark is obtained from Dicypellium caryophyllatum
(Fam. Lauraceae), a tree indigenous to Brazil. The bark comes
in long quills consisting of 6 to 10 pieces of bark. Externally
dark brown or purplish-brown ; fracture short, with a circle of
whitish stone cells near the periderm ; odor clove-like ; taste mucil-
aginous and aromatic, resembling cinnamon.

A number of other products are also derived from species of
Cinnamomum, as the immature fruits of C. Loureirii, which con-
stitute the Cassia buds of the market. The latter are club- or top-
shaped, 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, with a short stem or pedicel,
externally dark brown, the 6-lobed perianth folded over the de-
pressed and smooth ovary. The odor is aromatic ; taste pungent,
aromatic and astringent. Cassia buds yield a volatile oil contain-
ing cinnamic aldehyde, which resembles that of Cassia Cinnamon.

Wild Cinnamon, the bark of Cinnamomum pedatinervnm, a
tree indigenous to the Fiji Islands, yields a volatile oil containing
from 40 to 50 per cent, of linalool and safrol, 15 to 20 per cent,
of a terpene ; i per cent, of eugenol, and about 3 per cent, of
eugenol methyl ether.

CINCHONA.— CINCHONA BARK.— The dried bark of the
stem and branches of various species of Ciijchona (Fam. Rubi-
aceae), trees indigenous to South America, but cultivated in nearly
all tropical countries, from which latter the commercial supplies
are obtained. There are two principal commercial varieties : ( i )
Red Cinchona, which is yielded by Cinchona succintbra (p. 379),
and (2) Calisaya Bark, yielded by Cinchona Ledgeriana Calisaya.
When the trees are from 6 to 9 years old they are considered
to have the maximum amount of alkaloids and the bark of the
trunk as well as the roots is removed and allowed to dry. The
BARK OF THE STEM is used in the manufacture of galenicals, while

5i8

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the ROOT BARK is employed for the extraction of the alkaloids,
especially quinine. Owing to the fact that light influences the
production of quinine in the plant, it was customary to cover
the bark of the trunk with moss or other materials, and this
is known as " mossed bark." For some time the cultivators
removed the bark from the trunk in alternate strips, the de-

FiG. 226. Quinine sulphate: long orthorhombic needles from a dilute alcoholic solution.

nuded places being again covered, after which another layer
of bark develops that is very rich in alkaloids and is known
as " RENEWED BARK." The outcr bark, consisting of the periderm
layer and some of the cortex, is flattened out and allowed to dry
under pressure, and constitutes the "flat" (or Tambla) bark
(Fig. 226).

Most of the cinchona bark of commerce is now obtained from
trees cultivated in Java. During the year 1902 some 600,000
kilos of cinchona bark were exported from this island alone. The
older methods of cultivation have been entirely replaced by the
selection of seeds from those plants that run high in alkaloids.
The yield and quality of alkaloids in the bark are improved by
hybridization of the best trees.

CRUDE DRUGS. 519

Red Cinchona. — Usually in double quills or rolled pieces
which are cut uito lengths from 25 to 40 cm. long, 15 to 20 mm.
in diameter, bark 2 to 5 mm. thick ; outer surface reddish or dark
brown, with grayish patches of foliaceous lichens, longitudinally
wrinkled, with few usually widely separated transverse fissures ;
inner surface reddish-brown, distinctly striate; fracture smooth in
periderm, in inner bark with projecting bast fibers ; odor distinct ;
taste bitter, astringent.

Calisaya Bark. — Gray or brownish-gray, with numerous
patches of foliaceous lichens, having brownish-black and reddish-
brown apothecia, and numerous transverse fissures, which give
the bark a very characteristic appearance.

The trunk bark is comparatively thick, while renewed bark is
comparatively smooth and uniform in color.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 227; 299, B; 307; 307a.

Constituents. — A large number of alkaloids have been iso-
lated from this drug, of which the most important are quinine,
quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. The total alkaloids
amount to about 6 or 7 per cent., of which from one-half to two-
thirds is quinine in the yellow barks, whereas, in the red barks,
cinchonidine exists in greater proportion. Quinine occurs in
small crystals which are sparingly soluble in water, soluble in
alcohol and readily form crystallizable salts with acids. On the
successive addition of dilute sulphuric acid, bromine or chlorine
water and ammonia water the solution becomes of an emerald-
green color (thalleioc[uin). Quinidine, an isomer of, quinine,
crystallizes in rhombohedra or monoclinic prisms which are nearly
insoluble in water and otherwise conforms to the characteristics
given for quinine. The solutions of quinidine are, however, dex-
trogyre, while those of quinine are Isevogyre". Cinchonine sep-
arates in lustrous prisms or needles which are nearly insoluble in
water, and does not give the thalleioquin test, but forms a white
precipitate upon the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, bromine
W'ater and ammonia. Cinchonidine crystallizes in prisms and
resembles cinchonine in many of its properties. Its solutions,
however, are l?evogyre, while those of cinchonine are dextrogyre.

The other important alkaloids of Cinchona which have been
separated are: Quinamine, hydroquinine, hydroquinidine, hydro-

520

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cinchonidine and homocinchonidine. Of the other alkaloids which
have been isolated the following' may be mentioned : Conquina-
mine, paranine, paricine and quinamidine. Among the other

Fig. 227. A, transverse section of red cinchona: K, cork; Ca, cryptociystalline crystals
of calcium oxalate; P, parenchyma containing starch; L, latex cells containing gum, resin
and tannin; MR, medullary rays; BF, bast fibers; S, sieve. B, longitudinal section of
same showing two bast fibers surrounded by parenchyma cells.

constituents of Cinchona are: Kinic acid from 5 to 9 per cent.,
which forms colorless rhombic prisms and yields a sublimate con-
sisting- of golden crystals of kinone (quinone) on treatment with
manganese peroxide and sulphuric acid; kinovin (quinovin) an

CRUDE DRUGS. 521

amorphous, bitter glucoside, to the amount of o.ii to 1.74 per
cent. ; cinchotannic acid from 2 to 4 per cent., which decom-
poses into the nearly insoluble cinchona red, occurring in red
barks to the extent of 10 per cent. ; considerable starch ; calcium
oxalate in the form of cryptocrystalline crystals ; and ash about 3
per cent. The red color in cinchona bark is due to an oxydase
similar to that which causes the darkening of fruits when cut.
If the fresh bark is heated in boiling water for 30 minutes and
then dried it does not become red (see also Figs. 226, 233).

Allied Plants. — Loxa or Huanco (Cinchona pallida) bark
is obtained from Cinchona officinalis, a shrub indigenous to Ecua-
dor, which was the species first discovered. The plant is culti-
vated in nearly all the large cinchona plantations and yields a bark
(Fig. 226) that contains i to 4 per cent, of total alkaloids, from
one-half to two-thirds of which is quinine.

CuPREA BARK is obtained from Rcmijia Purdicana and R.
pediincnlata, of Central and Southern Colombia. It has a copper-
red color, is hard, compact and heavy, contains numerous trans-
versely elongated stone cells and 2 to 6 per cent, of alkaloids, of
which one-third may be quinine. Cinchonidine has never been
isolated from this bark. Cuprea bark also contains caffeate of
quinine and caffeic acid, of which there is about 0.5 per cent.,
and which closely resembles the same acid obtained from caffeo-
tannic acid in coffee.

FRANGULA.— ALDER BUCKTHORN BARK.— The
dried bark of the stem and branches of Rhamnus Frangnla (Fam.
Rhamnacese), a shrub indigenous to Europe, Northern Africa and
Central Asia ; and naturalized in Northern New Jersey and Long
Island. The bark is collected in spring and kept at least one year
before being used, so as to render inert the irritating and nauseat-
ing principles which are destroyed by a ferment during the curing
of the drug. The same results are said to be obtained by heating
the bark at 37.7° C. for 48 hours (p. 326).

Description. — In single or double quills and transversely
curved pieces, 2 to 20 cm. long, i to 3 cm. in diameter, bark 0.3
to I mm. thick ; outer surface dark brown or purplish-black,
longitudinally wrinkled, with numerous lenticels i to 3 mm. long,
and with grayish patches of foliaceous lichens and groups of

522

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

light brown or brownish-black apothecia ; inner surface yellowish
or dark brown, smooth, longitudinally striate, and reddened by
alkalies; fracture short, with projecting bast fibers in inner bark;
odor slight ; taste slightly bitter.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 228.

Constituents. — A glucoside frangulin (rhamnoxanthin),
which forms yellow crystals, is insoluble in water and nearly so in
alcohol, gives a bright purple color on the addition of solutions

h —

...»

m m

Fig. 228. Transverse section of inner bark of Rhainmts Frangida: b, bast fibers;
surrounded by crystal fibers; m, medullary rays; parenchyma containing rosette aggre-
gates of calcium oxalate. — After Vogl.

of the alkalies, and on hydrolysis yields rhamnose and emodin
fsee Rhubarb). It also contains the glucoside pseudofrangulin
(frangulic acid), which yields pseudoemodin ; rhamnoxanthin, a
coloring principle ; a volatile oil ; tannin ; starch ; calcium oxalate ;
and ash 5 to 6 per cent.

Allied Plants. — The bark of Rhauinus CarnioJica has been
substituted for R. Fraiv^ula. The older pieces are distinguished
by having a deeply fissured cork and groups of stone cells. In

CRUDE DRUGS.

523

the younger bark the meckillary rays are from 4 to 7 cells wide ;
otherwise the pieces resemble Frangula.

Fig. 229. Bark of Rhammis Purshiana showing large whitish patches of lichens,
and numerous lens-shaped lenticels.

RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.— CASCAR A SAGRADA.—
The bark of Rhamnns Purshiana (Fam. Rhamnaceae), a shrub
indigenous to Northern California, Washington, Oregon and the

524

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

southwestern part of British America (p. 326). The bark is col-
lected in spring and early summer, and kept at least one year
before being used.

Description. — Usually in flattened or transversely curved
pieces, occasionally in quills 2 to 10 cm. long, i to 3 cm. in diam-
eter, bark i to 3 mm. thick ; outer surface dark brown or brownish-
red, frequently completely covered with grayish or whitish lichens
(Fig. 229), several of which are peculiar to this bark, and with

- -I

-«t

-6

H^/-\,

m m

Fig. 229a. Transverse section of inner bark of Rhamnus Purshiana: st, group of
stone cells; b, groups of bast fibers surrounded by crystal fibers; m, medullary rays; sb,
sieve cells; parenchyma containing rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate. — After Yogi.

small groups of brownish apothecia, longitudinally wrinkled,
sometimes with numerous lenticels 3 to 6 mm. long ; inner surface
light yellow or reddish-brown, smooth, longitudinally striate, turn-
ing red when moistened with solutions of the alkalies ; fracture
short, with projections of bast fibers in the inner bark, the medul-
lary rays one to two cells wide, forming converging groups ; in
cross section the inner surface of the bark indistinctly crenate;
odor distinct ; taste bitter, slightly acrid.

CRUDE DRUGS. 525

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 229a, 304.

Constituents. — The nature of the active constituents of this
drug is not known. It may contain the glucoside cascarin (pur-
shianin), which on hydrolysis yields emodin and one or more
active principles ; and the neutral principle chrysarobin, which
yields chrysophanic acid (see Rhubarb). The bark apparently
contains emodin ; isoemodin, a principle which is isomeric with
emodin, insoluble in ammonia and resembles a similar principle
in Frangula ; a principle which }ields on hydrolysis syringic acid ;
a fat consisting of rhamnol arachidate ; a bitter principle ; several
resins ; tannin ; glucose ; starch ; calcium oxalate ; and ash about 7
per cent.

Adulterants. — Rliainiiits calif ornica, a shrub indigenous to
Southern California and the neighboring States, yields a bark
which closely resembles that of Rhamnus Purshiana, but may be
distinguished from it by the medullary rays, which are from 3 to 5
cells wide, and occur in more or less parallel wavy rows, and by
the distinct crenation of the inner margin of the bark.

Allied Plants. — The fruits of Rhammis cathartica, a shrub
indigenous to Central and Southern Europe and Asia, are used
under the name of Buckthorn berries. They are globular, about
5 mm. in diameter, greenish-brown or black, and consist of four
i-seeded nutlets; the seeds are dark brown and triangular-convex.
The odor is slight but disagreeable. The taste is bitter and acrid,
the saliva being colored yellow. The fruits contain a glucoside,
rhamnonigrin, which yields emodin ; a bitter principle ; and three
yellow coloring principles, viz. : rhamnocitrin, rhamnolutin and
rhamnochrysin (see Fig. 92).

The fruits of Rhanimis cathartica, as well as of R. infcctoria
(known as French Berries) and of R. sa.vatilis (called Persian
berries) have been used as yellow dyes. The fruits of several
species growling in China yield a green indigo.

VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.— BLACK HAW BARK.
The dried bark of the root of Viburnum prunifolium or of V.
Lentago (Fam. Caprifoliaceae), shrubs or small trees indigenous
to the Eastern and Central United States (p. 382). The root
bark is more highly esteemed than that of the stem and branches
(Fig. 179).

526

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Stem Bark. — In transversely curved pieces, or irregular
oblong chips, 1.5 to 6 cm. long, 0.5 to 1.5 cm. in diameter, 0.5
to 1.5 mm. thick; outer surface brownish-red or grayish-brown,
longitudinally wrinkled, periderm occasionally exfoliated, with
occasional grayish patches of foliaceous lichens and numerous

K -:

H-
CA-

CF-
ST-

M-
C- -

Fig. 230. Hamamelis virginiana: A, Transverse section of twig: K, cork; H, cells
of hypodermis with simple pores, the cells containing chloroplasts and small starch grains",
Ca, calcium oxalate crystals; Cf, crystal fibers; F, bast fibers with thick, strongly ligni-
fied walls; S, sieve cells; M, medullary rays; C, cambium; W, wood fibers; T, trachea;. B,
tangential section of a twig showing stone cells (St), crystal fibers (Cf), and thick- walled
bast fibers.

lenticels ; inner surface yellowish- or reddish-brown, longitud-
inally striate ; fracture short, periderm brownish-red, inner bark
with numerous light yellow groups of stone cells ; odor slight ;
taste astringent and bitter.

Root Bark. — Somewhat resembling the stem bark, but
smoother externally, without lichens and having fewer lenticels.

CRUDE DRUGS. 527

Constituents. — A bitter, somewhat resinous principle, vibur-
nin ; valerianic (viburnic) acid and other organic acids; resin;
tannin; calcium oxalate; ash about 10 per cent.

Adulterants. — The barks of one or more allied species, espe-
cially Jlbitniiiiii dentatnin (page 383), are said sometimes to be
substituted for the official bark.

HAMAMELIDIS CORTEX.— WITCHHAZEL BARK.—
The bark and twigs of Hamamclis virginiana (Earn. Hamameli-
dacese), a shrub (Fig. 264) indigenous to Canada and the United
States west to Minnesota and south to Texas (p. 286).

Description.— Bark in transversely curved pieces 5 to 20
cm. long, 5 to 15 mm. in diameter, bark 0.5 to i mm. thick; usu-
ally with the grayish-brown or reddish-brown periderm removed,
outer surface light browaiish-red, smooth ; inner surface light
reddish-brown, longitudinally striate; fracture short-fibrous; odor
slight ; taste astringent.

Twigs 2 to 5 mm. in diameter; the outer surface varying in
color from yellowish-brown to blackish-brown, smooth or some-
what scurfy, longitudinally wrinkled, and with numerous small
lenticels ; small twigs somewhat zigzag from numerous leaf-scars ;
bark thin, easily separable from the whitish, hard, radiate wood ;
pith small (Eig. 230).

Constituents. — Gallotannic acid, a glucosidal tannin, and
gallic acid. The bark apparently also contains a volatile oil con-
sisting chiefly of a terpene which is obtained by distillation in the
preparation of hamamehs water or extract of witchhazel.

GOSSYPII CORTEX.— COTTON ROOT BARK.— The
dried bark of the root of Gossypium hcrbaccmn, and of other
species of Gossypium (Fam. Malvaceae), biennial or triennial
herbs or shrubs indigenous to sub-tropical Asia and Africa, and
now cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical countries (p. 329).

Description. — 'In flexible, transversely curved or slightly
quilled pieces, 6 to 30 cm. long, 5 to 15 mm. in diameter, bark
0.2 to I mm. thick ; outer surface light brown, longitudinally wrin-
kled, with small lenticels, periderm frequently exfoliated ; inner
surface light brown, longitudinally striate ; fracture tough, fibrous,
surface light brown, tangentially striate, readily separable into
fibrous layers ; odor faint ; taste slightly astringent and acrid.

528

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

sat^,^T9

'^^fw^p'^m

.-:/J,V&_^y V*^,_,/

*-?' r-i^iA'iiiX'

■4

^^1^^;!^^

Fig. 231. Transverse section of cotton root bark: C, cork; Cr, rosette aggregates
of calcium oxalate; B, bast; M, medullary rays; T, cells containing tannin; S, sieve.—
After Morgan.

CRUDE DRUGS.

52Q

hM • •'-^j^^-'

Fig. 231a. Longitudinal section of cotton root bark; C, cork cells; P, parenchyma;
B, bast fibers; SR, secretion reservoirs; M, medullary rays; T, cells containing tannin;
K, rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate. — After Morgan.

530

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 231 ; 231a ; 300, H.

Constituents. — About 8 per cent, of a peculiar, colorless
acid resin, which is soluble in water and becomes reddish and
insoluble on exposure to air. The drug also contains fixed oil ;
tannin ; starch and calcium oxalate.

Fig. 232. Euonymus airopropureus: A, flowering branch showing distinctly petiolate
leaf; B, cluster of the smooth capsular fruits; E. americantis: C, fruiting branch showing
the opposite almost sessile leaves and axillary verrucose capsule; D, cross-section of stem
showing a stoma sunk beneath the epidermis; E, cross-section of stem showing epidermis
(e), hypodermis (h), palisade cells of cortex (p), parenchyma cells (pa), pericycle (s) and
portion of the leptome (1). — After Holm.

The FLOWERS of the cotton plant contain an interesting gluco-
side, gossypetin, which becomes green on oxidation and is colored
orange-red with solutions of the alkalies. It somewhat resembles
a similar principle found in arbor vit?e {Thuja occidentalis) .

RUBUS.— BLACKBERRY BARK.— The bark of the rhi-
zome of the perennial shrubs (p. 288) Rubits villosus, R. nigro-

CRUDE DRUGS. 531

baccus and R. cuneifolius (Fam. Rosacese). R. villosus occurs
in dry fields from Canada to Virginia and as far west as Kansas.
R. nigrobacciis (R. allegheniensis) or common blackberry occurs
in woods in the Eastern and Central United States and extensively
cultivated. R. cuneifolius is the sand blackberry and is found in
sandy woods from New York to Florida and west to Missouri
and Louisiana. The bark should be collected in spring or autumn
and dried.

Description. — In flexible, transversely curved or slightly
quilled pieces 4 to 20 cm. long, 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, bark 0.2
to 2 mm. thick ; outer surface light brown, longitudinally wrinkled,
with few root-scars, periderm frequently exfoliated ; inner surface
light brown, coarsely striate longitudinally ; fracture short, fibrous,
surface light brown, with oblique radiate wedges of bast; odor
slight ; taste astringent.

Constituents. — Tannin 10 to 20 per cent. ; gallic acid about
0.4 per cent. ; a bitter, crystalline glucoside villosin somewhat
resembling saponin, about 0.8 per cent. ; starch ; calcium oxalate ;
ash about 3 per cent.

Allied Plants. — Blackberries (the fruits of R. nigrobac-
cus, R. nigrobacciis sativiis and R. villosus), Red Raspberries
(the fruit of R. Idccus, a plant native to the old world). Black
Raspberries (the fruit of R. occidentalis, native of the Northern
United States) and Strawberries (the fruits of cultivated varie-
ties of Fragaria chilcoisis, F. vesca and F. virginiana) all contain
about 2 per cent, of malic and citric acids, 4 per cent, of levulose,
about 4 per cent, of pectin substances and a small amount of
volatile oil to which their distinctive flavors are due. Blackberries
contain in addition considerable tannin and the wine made there-
from is valued in addition for its astringency.

EUONYMUS.— WAHOO BARK.— The dried bark of the
root of Euonyuius atro purpureas (Fam. Celastracese), a shrub
(p. 323) indigenous to the Central and Eastern United States and
Labrador.

Description. — Usually in transversely curved pieces, occa-
sionally in single quills, 3 to 7 cm. long, 0.5 to 1.5 cm. in diam-
eter, bark 0.5 to i mm. thick ; very light ; outer surface light brown,
somewhat wrinkled, with scaly patches of soft cork, few lenticels,

532 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

root-scars and adhering roots, which frequently perforate the
bark ; inner surface light brown, longitudinally striate, somewhat
porous, occasionally with small pieces of yellow wood adhering;
fracture short, with silky, projecting, modified bast fibers, cork
light brown, inner and middle bark somewhat tangentially striate
and with irregular, dark brown bast areas ; odor faint ; taste bitter ;
acrid (Fig. 232).

The stem bark occurs in very long, fibrous strips with a gray-
ish-black cork and should be rejected.

Constituents. — Euonymin, a crystalline bitter glucoside 2.16
per cent., which resembles digitalin in its physiological action ;
volatile oil about 1.3 per cent. ; a yellow and brown resin ; dulcitol
(isomeric with mannitol) ; euonic, malic, citric and tartaric acids;
starch ; and calcium oxalate.

Allied Plants.. — E. enropceus and other species of Euonymus
are also used in medicine, and probably contain the same con-
stituents.

VIBURNUM OPULUS.— CRAMP BARK.— The dried bark
of the stem and branches of Viburmtm Opuliis (Fam. Caprifoli-
aceae), a shrub with nearly erect branches indigenous to the
Northern United States and Southern Canada, and also found
growing in Europe and Asia (p. 382).

Description. — In transversely curved pieces, 6 to 20 cm.
long, I to 2 cm. in diameter, 0.5 to 1.5 mm. thick; outer surface
light brown or brownish-black, longitudinally wrinkled, periderm
sometimes exfoliated, revealing a nearly smooth reddish-brown
surface, with numerous grayish patches of foliaceous lichens, and
small brownish-black apothecia and large brownish lenticels ; inner
surface light or reddish-brown, finely striate longitudinally, frac-
ture uneven, fibrous, surface light or reddish-brown, with groups
of stone cells and bast fibers ; odor slight ; taste astringent, bitter.

Constituents. — The constituents resemble those of Vibur-
num prunifolium.

XANTFIOXYLUM.— PRICKLY ASH BARK.— The dried
bark of Xanthoxyhim amcricanmn and Fagara (Xanthoxylum)
Clava-HcrcuUs (Fam. Rutace?e). X. anicncanum is a shrub or
small tree (p. 304) indigenous from Quebec to Virginia and west
to South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas, and yields Northern

CRUDE DRUGS.

533

I'rickly Ash. F. Clava-H erculis is a shrub (p. 305) found south
from Virginia to Texas, and furnishes the Southern Prickly Ash.
The latter, however, appears to be less valuable medicinally.

Northern Prickly Ash. — In transversely curved pieces,
occasionally in single quills, 2 to 17 cm. long, i to 2 cm. in diam-
eter, 0.5 to 3 cm. thick ; oviter surface light brown to brownish-
black, with grayish patches of foliaceous lichens, numerous small
black apothecia and whitish lenticels; fracture short, uneven;

Fig. 233. Cinchonine sulphate: orthorhombic crystals from a saturated aqueous solution.

inner surface light brown, finely striate longitudinally, with
numerous acicular crystals, phelloderm layer dark green, inner
bark with groups of converging medullary rays ; odor slight ;
taste bitter, acrid and pungent.

Southern Prickly Ash. — Transversely curved or irregularly
oblong flattened pieces, occasionally in single quills 5 to 30 cm.
long, I to 7 cm. in diameter, i to 4 mm. thick ; outer surface with
numerous conical cork-wings or their scars ; inner surface free
from acicular crystals (Fig. 238).

534 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Two resins, one acrid, the other crystalline
and bitter ; an acrid volatile oil ; a bitter, alkaloidal principle, some-
what resembling berberine ; a crystalline phenol compound xan-
thoxylin; ash about 12 per cent.

Allied Plants. — The fruits of both X americamim and
Fagara Clava-Hcrculis are found in commerce and known as
Prickly Ash berries. They consist of 2 to 3 follicles, each of which
is 5 to 6 mm. long, brownish-green, dehiscent along the ventral
suture and contains one or two sub-globular, somewhat flattened,
black, glossy seeds ; odor is aromatic ; taste pungent and bitter.
Xanthoxylum fruits contain a volatile oil and resin.

GRANATUM.— POMEGRANATE BARK.— The dried
bark of the root and stem of Pitnica Granatnm (Fam. Punicaceae),
a shrub ( p. 345 ) indigenous to Northwestern India, and culti-
vated in the sub-tropical regions of the Old World. The bark of
the root is preferred to that of the stem and by some the drug
obtained from wild plants is also preferred. The bark deterior-
ates with age and should not be used after it is a year or two old.

Stem Bark. — Usually in transversely curved pieces, occa-
sionally in single quills, 2 to 8 cm. long, 5 to 20 mm. in diam-
eter, bark 0.5 to 2 mm. thick ; outer surface yellowish-brown, with
grayish patches of foliaceous lichens, brownish-black apothecia
and small lenticels, longitudinally wrinkled ; inner surface light
yellow or yellowish-brown, finely striate, smooth ; fracture short,
smooth, phelloderm layer dark green, inner bark light brown,
somewhat checkered ; odor slight ; taste astringent.

Root Bark. — Dark brown, with slight longitudinal patches
and scales of cork, green phelloderm layer wanting, medullary
rays extending nearly to the outer surface.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 234.

Constituents. — Four alkaloids to the extent of i to 3 per
cent, in the root bark, but only about half as much in the stem
bark. The most important of these alkaloids is pelletierine, the
tannate of which is official. Pelletierine (punicine) is a color-
less, volatile liquid alkaloid, which readily absorbs oxygen and
becomes dark on exposure to air. Its sulphate is Lnevorotatory.
Isopelletierine (isomeric with pelletierine) is optically inactive
and forms an amorphous sulphate. Methylpelletierine some-

CRUDE DRUGS.

535

Fig. 234. Transverse section of granatttm; K, corky layer composed of thin-walled
cork cells (k^) and thick-walled cork cells (k) only the inner walls (v) of which are thick-
ened; Pd, phelloderm cells; pr, some parenchyma cells of the primary cortex; Sk, stone
cells with thick, lamellated walls and fine branching pores; O, rosette aggregates of calcium
oxalate; O^, monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate; m^, medullary rays; s, sieve cells;
p, parenchyma cells; c, cambium. — After Meyer.

536 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

what resembles pelletierine, but its hydrochloride is dextro-
rotatory. PsEUDOPELLETiERiNE (methylgraiiatonine) occurs in
prisms, is optically inactive, and resembles in its reactions and
decomposition products tropinone. The latter is formed from
tropine, a compound which results on the decomposition of most
of the solanaceous alkaloids. Granatum also contains 20 to 22
per cent, of a mixture of tannins, one of which yields gallic acid
and the other ellagic acid. A yellow coloring principle, consid-
erable starch and calcium oxalate are also present in the drug.

Allied Drugs. — The rind of the fruit of Piinica Granatum,
known as pomegranate rind, occurs in irregularly curved yellow-
ish-brown fragments about 2 min. thick. It contains 23.8 to 25
per cent, of a tannin which is colored bluish-black with ferric salts.

MEZEREUM.— MEZEREON BARK.— The dried bark of
Daphne Mesereum, and of other species of Daphne (Fam. Thyme-
laceaj), shrubs indigenous to Europe and Asia, and naturalized in
New England and Canada (p. 343). The bark is collected in
early spring; it is dried and frequently made up into small bun-
dles, the commercial supplies being obtained from Thuringia,
Southern France and Algeria.

Description. — In flexible double quills or somewhat flattened
strips 10 to 90 cm. long, 3 to 20 mm. in diameter, bark about 0.3
mm. thick; outer surface light or dark brown, smooth, obliquely
striate or wrinkled, with numerous lenticels, occasional brownish-
black apothecia, and sometimes with buds or bud-scars ; inner
surface yellowish-green, somewhat lustrous, finely striate ; frac-
ture tough, fibrous, the dark-brown periderm readily separable
from the yellowish-green cortex, inner bark yellowish-green,
lamellated ; odor slight ; taste very acrid.

Constituents. — An acrid resin known as mezerein ; a crys-
talline, bitter glucoside daphnin (isomeric with gesculin) occurring
in greatest amount in the stem bark during the flowering and
fruiting season ; volatile and fixed oils ; malic acid ; several sugars ;
and starch.

Allied Drugs. — The berry-like fruits of Daphne Mezerenm
and D. Gnidimn are sub-globular, dark brown or brownish-black,
about 5 mm. in diameter, with a black, glossy seed and acrid
pungent taste. The fruits contain 0.38 per cent, of coccogonin, a

CRUDE DRUGS. 537

principle which on subHmation gives off an odor of coumarin ;
0.22 per cent, of an acrid resin; and 31 per cent, of a fixed oil
which absorbs oxygen on exposure to air and is in the nature of
a drying oil.

The barks of a number of other plants of this family are used
like that of Mezereum, as DapJmopsis Schzvartzii of the West
Indies, LasiosipJion eriocephalus of India and Ceylon, and various
species of Stellera, Struthiola and Thymelaea.

PRUNUS VIRGINIANA.— WILD BLACK CHERRY
BARK. — The bark of the stem and branches of Pruniis serotina
Ehrhart (Syn. Primus virginiana JMiller) (Fam. Rosacese), a
tree (Fig. 150) indigenous to the Eastern and Central United
States and Canada. The bark is collected in autumn, and should
be carefully dried and preserved in air-tight containers (p. 287).

Description. — Usually in transversely curved pieces 2.5 to 8
cm. long, I to 5 cm. in diameter, 0.5 to 4 mm. thick ; outer surface
light brown or greenish-brown, somewhat glabrous, with numer-
ous lenticels 3 to 4 mm. long ; inner surface light brown, longitud-
inally striate and occasionally fissured ; fracture short, granular ;
cork dark brown, thin, easily separable from the green phello-
derm, inner bark porous and granular ; odor of the drug distinct,
and on the addition of water developing an odor of benzaldehyde
and hydrocyanic acid; taste astringent, aromatic (Fig. 235).

The bark of the trunk is dark brown and rough externally.

Constituents. — A cyanogenetic glucoside, identified by
Power and Moore as 1-mandelonitrile glucoside, a compound
which has been prepared by Fischer by the partial hydrolysis
of amygdalin and is isomeric with sambunigrin (d-mandelo-
nitrile glucoside) from the leaves of Samhucus nigra and prulau-
rasin (dl-mandelonitrile glucoside) from the leaves of Primus
lauroccrasus. It also contains a ferment resembling emulsin ;
)8-methyliesculetin (methyl ether of di-hydroxy-coumarin) which
probably occurs in combination as a crystalline glucoside. the
solutions giving a blue fluorescence ; a phytosterol ; l-mandelic
acid, oleic acid ; p-coumaric acid ; tri-methyl-gallic acid ; ipu-
ranol ; dextrose ; sugar ; tannin 2.5 to 4.5 per cent. ; starch and
calcium oxalate. The yield of hydrocyanic acid varies from 0.23
to 0.32 per cent, (inner bark) to 0.03 per cent, (trunk bark) and

538

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

varies even in the bark of the same thickness from the same
tree. When the exposure is such that the chloroplastids are
abundant in the cells of the bark, then the per cent, of the
1-mandelonitrile glucoside is higher, whereas when the exposure is
such that the cells do not take an active part in photosynthesis
the per cent, of the glucoside is lower. In the latter case the

Fig. 235. Prunus serotina Ehrhart: A, longitudinal section of inner bark, showing
crystals of calcium oxalate (a), medullary ray cells (b and d) containing starch, leptome or
seive (c); B, transverse section of stem bark showing cork, probably secondary periderm
(a), cells of cortex (b) containing chloroplasts, groups of sclerotic cells (c), compressed lep-
tome in the outer portion of the bast layer (d), medullary ray cells (e), group of sclerotic
cells (f), fissures (g) between medullary ray cells and adjacent phloem tissues, cambium zone
(i), vessel or trachea in mature wood (k). — After Bastin.

bark is yellowish-brown. On keeping the bark for a year it
deteriorates from 10 to 50 per cent.

The bark of Prunus pseudo-cerasns var. Sieholdi of Japan,
contains a glucoside (sakuranin) which crystallizes in needles
and is soluble in dilute alcohol, the solution being colored yellow
with ferric chloride.

CRUDE DRUGS. 539

Adulterants. — It is likely that the barks of other species of
Prunus are now entering the market. They are more astringent
and less aromatic.

Allied Plants. — The leaves of the Cherry laurel (Prunus
Laiiro-Ccrasus) are used in the fresh condition. They are oblong
or oblong-lanceolate, about 15 cm. long, sharply serrate, cori-
aceous, with an almond-like odor on being bruised and an aro-
matic, bitter taste. They contain about 1.3 per cent, of a gluco-
side laurocerasin, which is associated with amygdalic acid ; a
ferment emulsin, which acts on the laurocerasin, causing it to be
more slowly decomposed than amygdalin and yielding but half as
much hydrocyanic acid (about 0.12 per cent.) and benzaldehyde
(about 0.5 per cent). The leaves also contain a crystalline prin-
ciple phyllic acid, which is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol
and occurs in the leaves of almond, peach and apple. A glucoside
resembling laurocerasin is found in the leaves of Sainbucits nigra.

The leaves of the Peach (Persica 2'nlgaris), which is exten-
sively cultivated for its fruit, contain about 3 per cent, of amyg-
dalin (see Almond).

The fruit of Prunus scrotina consists of small, black drupes
(Fig. 150), which when ripe are sweet, slightly acid and astrin-
gent. They are used in making a wine and might be employed
in other preparations of wild cherry.

SASSAFRAS.— SASSAFRAS BARK.— The bark of the
root of Sassafras officinale (Fam. Lauracese), a tree (Fig. 73)
indigenous to Eastern North America (p. 2yy). The bark is col-
lected in the early spring, or autumn, deprived of the periderm,
and used either in the fresh or dried condition.

Description. — In transversely curved or^recurved, irregular,
oblong pieces, 3 to 8 cm. long, 10 to 30 mm. in diameter, 0.5 to 3
mm. thick ; outer surface light reddish-brown, nearly smooth,
somewhat porous ; inner surface distinctly striate, somewhat
scaly ; fracture short, soft, surface slightly porous ; odor aromatic ;
taste somewhat mucilaginous, astringent and aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 236.

Constituents. — A^olatile oil 5 to 9 per cent. ; tannin about 6
per cent.; a reddish-brown altered tannin compound (sassafrid)
about 9 per cent. ; resin and starch.

540

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Pig. 236. Transverse section of root bark of sassafras: a, cork; b, oil cells; c, tannin cells;
d, medullary rays; e, bast fibers; f, cambium.— After Bastin.

CRUDE DRUGS. 54i

The principal constituent of the volatile oil is safrol. The oil
from the leaves differs essentially in composition from that of the
root bark, containing linalool and geraniol.

Allied Plants. — Other plants of this family also yield a vola-
tile oil containing safrol, as Bcilschmicdia oppositifolia of Queens-
land and New South Wales; Mcspilodaphnc Sassafras and Nec-
tandra Fuchiiry-ininor, both of Brazil.

QUILLAJA.— SOAP BARK.— The bark of Quillaja Sapon-
aria (Fam. Rosacese), a large tree indigenous to Chile and
Peru. The bark is removed in large pieces, deprived of the peri-
derm and dried (p. 290).

Description. — In flat pieces 25 to 90 cm. long, 10 to 15 cm.
wide, 4 to 6 mm. thick ; outer surface light brown, longitudinally
striate, with numerous crystals of calcium oxalate and occasional
patches of the dark-brown periderm ; inner surface yellowish-
brown, finely wrinkled, with numerous crystals of calcium oxalate,
and occasional circular depressions, conical projections or trans-
verse channels ; fracture uneven, coarsely fibrous, surface porous
and with groups of white sclerenchymatous fibers ; odor slight ;
taste acrid.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 315.

Constituents. — The drug contains two amorphous gluco-
sides amounting to about 9 per cent., which are closely related to
saponin — one soluble in alcohol and known as quillajic acid, and
the other nearly insoluble in alcohol and known as quillajasapo-
toxin ; it also contains starch and about 10 per cent, of calcium
oxalate.

Substitutes. — A spurious Quillaja is being oft'ered at the
present time. The bark yields less saponin,^ is more brittle than
the official bark and is covered with a thin, brownish layer.

QUERCUS.— WHITE OAK BARK.— The bark of Quercus
alba (Fam. Cupuliferas), a tree indigenous to the Eastern and
Central United States and Canada. The bark is collected in spring
from the branches and trunks of trees from ten to twenty-five
years of age, and deprived of the periderm and dried (Fig. 135)

Description. — In flat, irregular, more or less oblong pieces
5 to 30 cm. long, 10 to 20 mm. in diameter, 2 to 4 mm. thxk ; outer
surface light brown, longitudinally striate, with occasional patches

542

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

of dark-brown periderm ; inner surface yellowish-brown, coarsely
striate and fissured longitudinally, and with detachable bast fibers;
fracture uneven, coarsely fibrous, surface porous and dotted with

■• *:^.|^

^»

iiisiirilife""" ■

mmgmm i

jjiip

5||4

k„J'''''lMM

!^r

^^^^H

Mil^Hiy

111

l^ffiPf w

Fig. 237. 'W'hite oak bark with the fissured corky layers (bork) still present.

groups of white sclerenchymatous cells and fibers ; odor slight ;
taste astringent (Figs. 237; 300, B; 301. ./).

Constituents. — Tannin about to per cent. ; starch and cal-
cium oxalate. The tannin yields upon sublimation a crystalline

CRUDE DRUGS.

543

principle resembling pyrocatechin ; npon fusion with potassium
hydrate a phenol similar to protocatechuic acid is formed ; dilute
solutions are colored olive-brown with ferric chloride and possess
a slight fluorescence ; alkalies give a deep red color to the solutions.

Fig. 238. Southern prickly ash [Fagara (Xanthoxylum) Clava-Herculis]: A, transverse
section showing cork (k), stone cells (st), groups of primary bast fibers (b), calcium oxalate
(ca), medullary rays (m), parenchyma (p) containing starch, oil-secretion reservoirs (o),
sieve (s), cambium (c); B, isolated stone cell showing pores and lamellae; C, group of bast
fibers found in young, thin bark and surrounding parenchyma (p); D, longitudinal section
near a group of bast fibers showing non-lignified bast fibers (b), calcium oxalate (ca) in
crystal fibers, medullary rays (m), parenchyma (p) containing starch.

Allied Plants. — Oucrciis robcr, indigenous to Europe, is
the source of the bark used in England and Continental Europe ;
the bark closely resembles that of Quercus alba, but the periderm
is not removed; it contains from 10 to 16 per cent, of tannin,
besides gallic and ellagic acids. Quercus velutina, or black oak,
yields the quercitron bark, which resembles that of Quercus alba

544 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

but is reddish-brown, and tinges the saHva yellowish ; it contains
besides tannin a yellow glucosidal principle quercitrin, which
yields quercetin, a yellow coloring principle.

ULMUS.— SLIPPERY-ELM BARK.— The bark of Ulnms
fulva (Earn. LHrnacese), a tree indigenous to the Eastern and
Central United States and Canada (p. 254). The bark is col-
lected in spring (Eig. 99, C), deprived of the periderm and dried,
the commercial article coming chiefly from Michigan.

Description. — In flat oblong pieces about 30 cm. long, 10 to
15 cm. in diameter, 3 to 4 mm. thick; outer surface light brown,
longitudinally wrinkled and furrowed and with occasional dark-
brown patches of periderm ; inner surface yellowish or light
brown, more or less uniformly wrinkled longitudinally; fracture
fibrous, surface light brown, porous from large mucilage cells;
odor slight, distinct ; taste mucilaginous.

Inner Structure. — See Eig. 99, C.

Constituents. — The principal constituent is mucilage ; it also
contains starch and calcium, oxalate.

Allied Plants. — Ulmiis campcstris, or European elm, yields
a bark which is dark brown, and contains, besides mucilage, a
bitter principle and tannin.

QUASSIA.— QUASSIA WOOD.— The wood of Picrasma
excelsa (Eam. Simarubaceae), a tree indigenous to Jamaica and
other islands of the West Indies (p. 309). The trees are felled
and cut into billets. The latter are exported and afterward man-
ufactured into " quassia cups," the shavings constituting the drug
known as Jamaica Quassia. The market supply of this drug was
at one time almost exclusively obtained from Quassia amara
(Eam. Simarubaceae), a small tree or shrub indigenous to
Brazil and cultivated in Columbia, Panama, West Indies and
other tropical countries (p. 309). The wood exported from
Surinam is known as Surinam Quassia ; this is the variety used
in continental Europe and is now also official.

Jamaica Quassia. — Usually in raspings, light or bright yel-
low, medullary rays two to five cells wide in transverse section
(Eig. 239, A), the cells containing tetragonal prisms or crypto-
crystalline crystals of calcium oxalate ; fracture fibrous ; odor
slight ; taste bitter.

CRUDE DRUGS.

545

Surinam Quassia usually occurs in small billets ; the medul-
lar}- rays are i to 2 cells wide in transverse section, and calcium
oxalate crystals are wanting (Fig. 239, B).

Constituents. — Jamaica quassia contains from 0.05 to 0.75
per cent, of a bitter crystalline substance quassiin. This really
consists of two crystalline bitter principles — a-picrasniin and

Fig. 239. A, transverse section of Jamaica quassia; B, transverse section of Surinam
quassia: g, tracheae; f, wood-fibers; hp, wood parenchyma; o, cells containing calcium
oxalate; m, medullary rays. — After Meyer.

/?-picrasmin. Jamaica Quassia also contains a crystalline alka-
loidal principle which gives a blue fluorescence in acidified alco-
holic solution.

Surinam quassia contains one or more bitter principles, which
are related to the picrasmins of Jamaica quassia, and which are
known as quassiins.

546 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Allied Drugs. — The barks of Picrasma excelsa and Quassia
ainara are used in medicine and probably contain similar principles
to the wood. The Surinam bark occurs in thinner, light-colored
pieces and is sometimes admixed with the powdered drug. It is
determined by the large stone cells. The wood of Picrcena quas-
sioidcs quite closely resembles Jamaica Quassia in general appear-
ance, microscopical structure and chemical constituents. Bitter
principles are also found in other species of Picrasma and
Quassia. An allied bitter principle and an alkaloid are found in
Cascara Amarga or Honduras Bark, which is derived from
Picrcena Vellozii, of Southern Brazil.

SiMARUBA is the bark of the root of Simaruha aiuara and S.
officinalis, plants growing in Guiana. The bark comes in flat or
somewhat curved pieces about i AI. long. 7 cm. wide. 3 to 5 mm.
thick ; the outer corky surface is bluish-brown or dark brown, the
periderm, however, being frequently removed, when it is grayish-
or yellowish-brown ; the fracture is tough-fibrous, and the surface
shows the presence of light yellow stone cells. The taste is very
bitter. Simaruba contains a crystalline bitter principle, giving
a violet color with sulphuric acid ; a crystalline non-bitter sub-
stance ; a fluorescent principle ; a resin ; a volatile oil with an odor
of benzoin ; gallic acid, and calcium oxalate and malate.

H^MATOXYLON.— LOGWOOD.— The heartwood of
Hcemafoxyloii caiiipccJiianiim (Fam. Leguminosge). a tree indig-
enous to Central America, and naturalized in tlie West Indies.
Much of the commercial logwood being used for dyeing is allowed
to ferment, and as a result the chips become dark red and have a
greenish, metallic lustre, but it is the unfermented wood that
should be used for medicinal purposes (p. 295).

Description. — Usually in small chips, externally reddish-
brown, freshly cut surface dark yellowish-red, in transverse sec-
tion slightly radiate and with numerous, alternate, yellowish and
reddish concentric rings, medullary rays four cells wide ; fracture
hard, fibrous ; odor slight ; taste sweet, astringent ; the wood
imparting to water a violet or wine color.

Constituents. — Haematoxylin. 10 to 12 per cent., occurs
in colorless or pale yellow needles or prisms (Fig. 154). tastes like
glycyrrhizin, becomes red on exposure to light and is soluble in

CRUDE DRUGS. 547

water and alcohol. The solutions are colored with the alkalies,
purplish-red, then purple and finally deep red. The compound
formed with ammonia yields hsematein, a dark violet, crystalline
principle having a green, metallic lustre and which is supposed
to form in the fermented wood used by dyers. Logwood also
contains volatile oil, resin, tannin and calcium oxalate.

Allied Plants. — The woods of certain species of Ccvsalpinia
also contain red coloring principles and furnish the red woods of
tropical America. Brazil wood is obtained from C. echinata and
contains the principle known as brasilin, which is colorless when
first extracted but assumes a red color on exposure ; Sappam or
false sandal v/ood is obtained from C. Sappam of Farther India.
Red coloring principles are also found in other species of Ccrsal-
piiiia and in a number of other genera of the Leguminosse as well.

SANTALUM RUBRUWI.— RED SAUNDERS.— The heart-
wood of Pterocarpus santalinus (Fam. Leguminosse), a tree (p.
295) indigenous to the southern part of Farther India, and culti-
vated in the Southern Philippines, Ceylon and Southern India, the
chief supplies coming from Madras.

Description. — Usually in small chips or coarse powder, red
or brownish-red, in transverse section slightly radiate, with numer-
ous alternate lighter and darker concentric rings, medullary rays
one cell wide ; fracture hard, fibrous ; inodorous ; taste slight.

Constituents. — A coloring principle santalin (santalic acid),
which occurs in red needles that are insoluble in water, soluble
in alcohol, forming a deep red solution which is colored violet
with solutions of the alkalies. It also contains tannin and several
colorless crystalline principles.

Allied Plants. — The African sandal wood or barwood is
obtained from P. saiitalinoides of tropical West Africa. Cam-
wood or African red-wood (obtained from Baphia iiifida, in
Sierra Leone) is also valued on account -of its red coloring
principle.

SASSAFRAS MEDULLA.— SASSAFRAS PITH.— The
pith of young stems and branches of Sassafras officinale (Fam.
Lauracese), a tree (Fig. 73) indigenous to Eastern North America
(p. 277). The pith is collected late in autumn, after frost, and
dried.

548 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — Cylindrical, cut longitudinally into pieces 2 to
10 cm. long, about 5 to 7 mm. in diameter, or in irregular, some-
what curved or angled pieces ; very light ; externally whitish or
light brown, occasionally with small fragments of wood adhering ;
consisting of parenchyma cells with slightly lignified walls, having
simple pores, and swelling perceptibly in water (Fig. 326) ;
fracture short ; slight odor of sassafras ; taste mucilaginous.

Constituents. — The principle constituent is the mucilage,
which is not precipitated by alcohol ; it also contains a trace of
volatile oil.

IV. FLOWERS.

In quite a number of plants, particularly the Labiatge and Com-
positge, principles having medicinal and other properties occur in
relatively large amount in the flowers. These principles are, as a
rule, more or less volatile and aromatic, many of them being used
in perfumery and for flavoring, as well as for medicinal purposes.

KEY FOR THE STUDY OF FLOWERS.

I. Flower Buds.

With a stalk and globular upper portion Caryophyllus

Small, ellipsoidal, composite heads Santonica

II. Expanded Flowers.

1. Flower heads.

A. Tubular and ligulatc florets.

Ligulate florets, bright yellow Arnicse Flores

Ligulatc florets, whitish Matricaria

B. Chiefly ligulate florets.

Whitish globular heads Anthemis

2. Ligulate florets only.

Corolla bright yellow Calendula

III. Entire Inflorescence.

Flowers pistillate, reddish-brown Cusso

IV. Part of Flower,

Petals only Rosa Gallica

Style and Stigma Zea

CRUDE DRUGS. 549

CARYOPHYLLUS.— CLOVES.— The flower-buds of Jam-
bosa Caryophyllus (Syn. Eugenia Caryophyllata and E. aromat-
ica) (Earn. Alyrtaceae), an evergreen-tree indigenous to the Mo-
hicca Islands, where it is also cultivated, as well as in Zanzibar,
Ceylon and Java (p. 346). The flower-buds are collected, dried in
the sun or artificially, the color changing from a crimson to a
brownish. The chief commercial supplies come from Amboyna,
Penang and Zanzibar, the former two varieties being preferred.

Description. — About 15 mm. long, 3 to 6 mm. in diameter,
more or less cylindrical, dark brown, calyx epigynous (Fig 83,
B), with four incurved teeth about 3 mm. long, surmounted by a
light brown globular portion consisting of four petals which are
imbricated, punctate and alternate with the calyx teeth ; stamens
numerous, crowded and incurved, style one, ovary 2-locular, with
numerous ovules ; odor and taste strongly aromatic.

Cloves should not contain more than 5 per cent, of clove stems
or yield more than 8 per cent, of ash ; nor yield less than 10 per
cent, of volatile ether extract or 12 per cent, of gallotannic acid.

Inner Structure. — See Eig. 312.

Constituents. — The chief constituent is the volatile oil, which
occurs to the extent of 15 to 20 per cent., and consists of caryo-
phyllene and eugenol. the latter constituting 50 to 85 per cent, of
the oil. The darkening of old oil of cloves is supposed to be due
to furfurol, an aldehyde formed on decomposition of some of the
carbohydrates and albuminoids. Cloves also contain an odorless,
tasteless principle caryophyllin, which crystallizes in silky needles
and yields upon the addition of fuming nitric acid crystals of
caryophyllinic acid; vanillin; eugenin (isomeric with eugenol or
eugenic acid), which resembles caryophyllin but becomes reddish
with nitric acid; gallotannic acid 10 to 13 per cent.; calcium
oxalate, and 5 to 7 per cent, of ash.

Adulterants. — Clove stalks are less aromatic and yield from
4 to 7 per cent, of volatile oil. The so-called mother of cloves is
the nearly ripe fruit of Jamhosa Caryophyllus or clove tree, which
furnishes cloves. The fruit is an ovoid, brownish berry about 25
mm. long ; it is less aromatic than cloves and contains large,
branching stone cells, or short bast fibers, and numerous pear-
shaped or truncated starch grains from 10 to 40 jx in diameter.

550

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY

It is stated that artificial cloves have been made by using starch,
g-um and oil of cloves ; or from dough and clove powder. These
are easily distinguished by adding the spurious article to water,
when the compound disintegrates.

Fig. 240. Santonica. A, transverse section of the wall of the ovary: E, Ei, e, epider-
mal cells; g, tracheae; s, sieve. B, longitudinal section through a flower bud showing
involucre (H); C, stamen; D, glandular hair of a bud-scale; E, glandular hair as viewed
from above; F, style; G. transverse section of the wall of the ovary showing trachea
(g. g') and conducting cells traversed by pollen tube (1); H, pollen grain; J, flower bud
showing ovary (f); K, expanded flower showing stamens (S). — After Meyer.

SANTONICA.— LEVANT WORMSEED.— The flower-
heads of Artemisia Cina (Earn. Compositre), a small shrub (p.
397) indigenous to the deserts in Northern Turkestan. The
flower-heads are collected in July and August before they expand,
and carefully dried and preserved.

CRUDE DRUGS. 551

Description. — Oblong or ellipsoidal, 2 to 4 mm. long, i to
1.5 mm. in diameter; involucre ovoid, consisting" of twelve to
eighteen closely imbricated, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, glandular,
somewhat shiny bracts, about 2 mm. long, with a yellowish-green
or greenish-brown middle portion and whitish margin ; torus flat,
naked, with three to six unexpanded, perfect tubular flowers
about 1.5 mm. long and completely inclosed by the upper bracts;
ovary oblong ; pappus wanting ; odor distinct ; taste aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 240.

Constituents. — A crystalline neutral principle, santonin,
which occurs to the extent of 2 to 3.5 per cent, just before the
expansion of the flowers; volatile oil about 2 per cent., consisting
chiefly of cineol, some terpineol, terpinene and inactive pinene ;
a crystalline principle artemisin, which is apparently oxysantonin ;
and a resin. Santonin crystallizes in rhombic prisms, becoming
yellow on exposure to light ; it is nearly insoluble in water, spar-
ingly soluble in alcohol ; and colored red by alcoholic solutions
of the alkalies.

Allied Plants. — Artemisia gallica, a plant abundant in
France, contains santonin and about i per cent, of a volatile oil.

ARNICA.— ARNICA FLOWERS.— The dried, expanded
flower-heads of Arnica montana (Fam. Compositse), a perennial
herb (p. 394) indigenous to Central Europe, and growing in the
mountains of Switzerland, Asia and Western North America.
In Germany, on account of the involucre and torus being injured
by the larvae of the insect Trypcta aniiciz'ora, these parts are
removed and the florets alone used.

Description. — Sub-globular or truncate-conical, about 15
mm. in diameter ; involucre campanulate, bracts twenty to twenty-
four in two rows, linear-lanceolate, dark green, pubescent, gland-
ular; torus solid, slightly convex, deeply pitted, bristly hairy; ray
or ligulate florets (Fig. 241, B), fourteen to tw^enty, about 2 cm.
long, bright yellow, pistillate, corolla 3-toothed, 7- to 12-veined,
very pubescent and glandular below, ovary about 4 mm. long.
erect, pubescent and glandular, pappus consisting of a single row
of about thirty rough bristles; disk or tubular florets (Fig. 241,
C), forty or fifty, about 17 mm. long, perfect, bright yellow,
corolla 5-toothed, very glandular and pubescent below, ovary about
6 mm. long, glandular and pubescent ; akene spindle-shaped, dark

552

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

brown, finely striate, glandular-pubescent and surmounted by a
pappus of white barbed bristles about 7 mm. long; odor distinct;
taste bitter and acrid.

Constituents. — A bitter crystalline principle, arnicin, about 4
per cent. ; and volatile oil 0.04 to 0.07 per cent, consisting of a
butyraceous substance.

Adulterants. — Arnica flowers are not infrequently adulter-
ated with the flowers of various other Compositae, or even entirely
substituted by them ; of these may be mentioned the flowers of
Calendula officinalis (see Calendula) ; species of Inula, the akenes

Fig. 241. Arnica florets: A, overlapping hairs of pappus considerably magnified;
B, ray floret; C, disk floret. AC, inferior ovary becoming in fruit an akene; PA, pappus;
P, corolla; A, anthers; Y, style; T, stigma.

of which are glabrous ; and Tragopogon pratensis, the ligulate
florets of which are 5-toothed at the apex (Fig. 181).

Allied Drugs. — The rhizome and roots of Arnica niontana
are official in a number of pharmacopoeias. The rhizome is
oblique, about 5 cm. long and 3 mm. thick, the upper portion witli
buds or stem-remnants, externally dark brown, longitudinally
wrinkled and irregularly annulate, with numerous liq-ht brown,
fragile roots which may be 10 cm. long; fracture short, bark
rather thick, v/ith a single circle of large resin canals. The drug
contains the bitter principle arnicin, which is also found in the
flowers; and a volatile oil. 0.5 to o.i per cent., with a radish-like
odor and consisting of hydrothymoquinone methyl ether, phloryl

CRUDE DRUGS.

553

rneth}'! ether, phloryl isobutyrate and formic and butyric acids.
Arnica rhizome also contains about lo per cent, of inuHn.

Fig. 242. Matricaria: A, longitudinal section of head showing torus (a), involucre
(b), ray florets (c) and disk florets (d). B, head with the florets removed, showing the long
conical torus and the involucre (H). C, tubular floret showing the ovary (f) with glandular
hairs (D^) and the embryo (S), which develops after fertilization; style (g) and bifid stigma
(N), the surface of which is covered with hairs; n, nectaries; b, corolla tube with narrow
lobes (a); stamens showing filaments (st), united anthers (A) and apex of connective (sp).
D, ligulate floret showing ovary (F), and bifid stigma (N); tube of corolla (R) and the
upper ligulate portion (Z). — After Meyer.

MATRICARIA.— WILD OR GERMAN CHAMOMILE.—
The flower-heads of Matricaria ChamomiUa (Fam. Compositse),
an annual herb (p. 394), indigenous to Europe and Western Asia,
and naturalized in Australia and certain parts of the United States,

554 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

including' New York and Pennsylvania. The flower-heads are
collected, when they are mature or expanded, from wild plants.

Description. — Rounded, conical, 3 to lo mm. broad (Fig.
242); peduncle 0.5 to 3.5 cm. long, nearly glabrous; involucre
hemispherical, scales twenty to thirty, imbricated, oblanceolate, the
middle portion brownish, margin whitish, pubescent ; torus
ovoid, becoming conical and hollow, deeply pitted, naked, 3 to 5
mm. high, about 1.5 mm., in diameter; ray or ligulate florets
(Fig. 242, D), twelve to eighteen, pistillate, about 12 mm. long,
corolla white, 3-toothed, 4-veined ; disk or tubular flowers (Fig.
242, C), numerous, yellowish, perfect, oblong, small, somewhat
glandular, about 2.5 mm. long; akenes somewhat obovoid, about
0.5 mm. long ; faintly 3- to 5-ribbed ; pappus none, or forming a
membranous crown ; odor distinct ; taste aromatic and bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, about 0.25 per cent., of a viscid
consistency and an intense blue color. The color is due to azulene,
a principle similar to that found in the volatile oils derived from
Absinthium, Achillea (yarrow), Sumbul and Valerian. The
flowers are also said to contain a bitter principle anthemic acid,
which forms colorless, silky needles soluble in water and alcohol,
and anthemidin, which separates from the alcoholic solution in the
form of a tasteless crystalline compound. Malic acid and tannin
are also present in the drug. The oil when distilled from the
involucre soon changes to yellow, finally becoming brown ; while
the oil from the flowers alone retains its deep-blue color even
when exposed to light for some weeks.

Adulterants. — In Anthcmis arvcnsis the receptacle is solifl
and conical and the involucral scales are lanceolate. In Anthemis
Cotiila the peduncles are slightly pubescent and the ligulate
flowers neutral.

ANTHEMIS.— ROMAN OR ENGLISH CHAMOMILE.—
The expanded flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis (Fam. Compos-
itse), a perennial herb indigenous to Southern and Western
Europe and cultivated in Belgium, England, France, Germany,
Hungary and the United States, and naturalized from Rhode
Island to Michigan and south to Delaware (p. 393). The flowers
are collected from cultivated plants, and dried by artificial means,
the principal supplies coming from Belgium, France and Saxony.

CRUDE DRUGS. 555

Description. — Globular, compressed, 1.5 to 2 cm. in diameter;
involucre hemispherical, with two or three rows of imbricated,
nearly equal, somewhat elliptical, very pubescent scales, having a
greenish middle portion and a yellowish margin ; torus conical or
convex, solid, 3 to 4 mm. high, occasionally hollow, and some-
times containing the larvae of an insect ; chaff-scales resembling
the involucral scales, about 2 mm. long; ligulate florets numerous,
6 to 10 mm. long, corolla white, 3-toothed, 4-nerved, ovary about
I mm. long, glandular, style slender, stigma bi-cleft ; tubular
florets few or none, lemon-yellow, perfect; akene oblong, pappus
none ; odor distinct ; taste aromatic and bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, which is bluish-green when
fresh, 0.8 to i per cent. ; a bitter crystalline glucoside anthemic
acid (see Matricaria) ; 5.25 per cent, of resin; 1.50 per cent, of
a bitter crystalline wax ; and tannin. The volatile oil consists
principally of the isobutyl, amyl and hexyl esters of butyric,
angelic and tiglic acids, and anthemol, an isomer of camphor.

CALENDULA.— MARIGOLD.— The ligulate florets of Cal-
endula officinalis (Earn. Compositse), an annual herb indigenous
to Southern Europe and the Levant, and widely cultivated as a
garden plant. The flowers are collected when fully expanded,
and dried (p. 394).

Description. — Florets usually without the ovary ; corolla
bright yellow, 15 to 25 mm. long, i- to 3-toothed, 4- or 5-veined,
margin nearly entire, tube sometimes inclosing the remains of a
filiform style and bifid stigma, pubescent on the outer surface ;
ovary oblong, about 0.5 mm. long, pubescent ; odor distinct ; taste
faintly saline, slightly bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil ; an amorphous bitter principle ;
a gummy substance, calendulin, which forms with water a trans-
parent mucilage that is not precipitated by tannin ; and resin.

Allied Plants. — The florets of various Compositse are some-
times admixed with or substituted for Calendula, of which the
following may be mentioned together with their principal dis-
tinguishing characteristics : The ligulate corolla of Taraxacum
officinale is 5-toothed ; the ligulate corolla of Arnica niontana is
7- to i2-veined; the ligulate corolla of Tussilago Far far a is linear,
about 13 mm. long and about 0.3 mm. broad, apex acute, entire;

556

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

and the ray florets of Tagctcs patnla are somewhat spatulate,
about 20 mm. long and 10 mm. wide, sometimes marked with
darker stripes, and have undulate margins (Fig. 181).

CUSSO.— KOUSSO, BRAYERA.— The pistillate flowers of
Hagenia ahyssinica (Fam. Rosacese), a tree indigenous to

Fig. 243. Cusso: A, longitudinal section through an expanded pistillate flower
showing bracts (d), outer series of sepals (e), inner series of sepals (f), petals (g), perianth
tube (k), sterile stamens (h), pistil (i). B, mature flower viewed from above and showing
the relation of sepals and petals. C, flower just before the maturing of the fruit showing
pericarp (p), seed (s). D, mature pistillate flower as seen from above. E, pistil showing
cylindrical ovary, slender style with hairs (h) and large, slightly lobed stigma. — After Meyer.

Northeastern Africa, and cultivated in Abyssinia. The entire
panicles (Fig. 243) are collected soon after pollination and dried
in the sun ; the flowers are sometimes stripped from the jxinicles,
or the panicles are made into rolls (p. 290).

Dkscription. — In more or less cylindrical rolls about 30 cm.
long and about 5 cm. in diameter; branches C}lindrical, flattened,

CRUDE DRUGS. 557

about 3 mm. in diameter, longitudinally furrowed or wrinkled,
internodes about 15 mm. long, externally light brown, tomentose,
glandular, internally, cork yellowish-brown, fibrovascular bun-
dles in distinct wedges, bast and wood fibers yellow, distinct,
pith large, yellowish-brown; flowers (Fig. 243) subtended by
two ovate, reddish, pubescent and glandular bracts, pedicel short,
calyx turbinate, pubescent below, consisting of two alternate
whorls of four or five obovate or oblanceolate sepals, the outer
ones 10 to 12 mm. long, obtuse, entire, purplish veined, persistent
and becoming much elongated in the fruit, the inner about 3 to 4
mm. long, becoming shriveled and bent over the young fruit ;
carpels two, ovary about i mm. long, the upper portion very
pubescent, styles exserted,' about as long as the ovary, stigma
large, compressed, with prominent papillae; fruit an ovoid akene,
about 2 mm. in diameter, inclosed by the remains of the calyx;
odor slight; taste bitter and acrid.

Constituents. — The active principle appears to be an amor-
phous substance cosotoxin ; several other principles have been
isolated, but their real nature and properties have not been fully
determined ; the drug also contains about 3 per cent, of an inac-
tive crystalline principle cosin (koussein or brayerin). which is
bitter and acrid, and sparingly soluble in water but soluble in
alcohol ; a crystalline principle which on hydrolysis yields iso-
butyric acid ; about 6 per cent, of a resinous principle ; volatile
oil ; tannin about 24 per cent., and about 5 per cent, of ash.

Adulterants. — Sometimes the flowers are stripped from the
panicles and sold as such, when the drug is known as " loose
cusso." In this condition they are likely to be admixed with
the staminate flowers, which, with their numerous stamens, are
readilv distinguishable and inferior in quality.

ROSA GALLICA.— RED ROSE.— The petals of Rosa gal-
lica (Fam. Rosace?e), a shrub (p. 289) indigenous to Southern
Europe and probably Western Asia, and extensively cultivated
in all parts of the world. The petals are obtained from culti-
vated plants before the expansion of the flower, the lower clawed
portion usually being removed ; they are used fresh or are
carefully dried and preserved. The chief supply of the drug is
from the south of France.

558 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Descrii'tion. — Imbricated, numerous, usually in small cones;
petals broadly ovate, the upper part rose-colored and retuse, the
lower part brownish-red, more or less rounded, acute or trun-
cate, with numerous papillae and fine longitudinal veins; texture
velvety ; odor agreeable ; taste astringent and slightly bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil in small amount ; a yellow, crys-
talline glucoside quercitrin, which yields, on decomposition, quer-
cetin; tannin and gallic acid. The coloring principle is .soluble
in water and alcohol and gives a deep yellowish-red color with
acids; a green color changing to brown with alkalies; purple or
violet with potassium alum or iodine solutions; and a deep blue
with ferrous or ferric salts.

Allied Plants. — The petals of Rosa ccntifolia are collected
after the expansion of the flowers and dried ; they are brownish
and not so fragrant as those of Rosa gallica. The flowers of
cultivated plants of Rosa damascena yield the commercial volatile
oil of rose (p. 289).

ZEA. — CORN SILK. — The fresh styles and stigmas of Zca
Mays (Fam. Gramineae), an annual plant indigenous to tropical
America and known only in cultivation, being cultivated widely
in nearly all tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions (p. 228).

Description. — In matted masses consisting of several hun-
dred or more slender, very delicate, thread-like, purplish-red to
greenish-white, more or less translucent styles; 10 to 20 cm.
long; stigmas bifid, slender, 2 to 3 mm. long; slightly odorous;
taste insipid.

When viewed under the microscope the upper part of the
styles and the stigmas are seen to have numerous multicellular,
non-glandular hairs from 0.2 to 0.5 mm. long, among which are
numerous spinose pollen grains 10 to 15 /x in diameter.

Constituents. — Not much is known concerning the constit-
uents of this drug, and the analyses have been chiefly of the dried
commercial article. The fresh drug contains about 83 per cent,
of water. The dried drug contains a volatile alkaloid ; two resins
about 5.5 per cent. ; a crystalline principle, maizenic acid, about
1.25 per cent.; fixed oil, 5.25 per cent.; sugar; ash, about 12 per
cent. The coloring principle of the fresh drug is soluble in water
and alcohol and is changed to yellowish-red with acids, green

CRUDE DRUGS. 559

with alkalies, purple with potassium alum, and olive-green chang-
ing to greenish-brown with ferric chloride.

V. FRUITS.

The fruits of a large number of plants are used in medicine ;
these vary greatly, not only in their medicinal properties, but also
in their botanical origin. The active principles of fruits vary
according to their stage of development, so that fruits which
contain relatively large amounts of poisonous principles when
green or immature, may be quite free therefrom and even edible
when they are ripe. It is for this reason that by far the larger
number of medicinal fruits are collected in the fully developed
but unripe condition. (See Classification of Fruits, p. 151-)

KEY FOR THE STtJDY OF FRUITS.

I. Entire Fruits.

I. Not more than 10 mm. long (exclusive of the stalk).

A. Cremocarps.

a. Hairy.

Slender pedicel, 4 to 10 mm. long Anisum

b. Nearly smooth.

a Mericarps more or less united.

Nearly globular Coriandrum

Oblong, pedicel, 3 to 10 mm. long Foeniculum

P Mericarps usually separate.

Dark brown, odor and taste aromatic Carum

Grayish-green, odor peculiar Conium

B. Dry drupes.

a. Hairy.

Pericarp reddish Rhus Glabra

h. Not hairy.

a Coarsely reticulate.

Slender pedicels, 5 to 7 mm. long Cubeba

Stalk wanting Piper

/3 Not reticulate.

Inferior drupe Pimenta

C. Caryopsis or Grain Barley

56o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

I. Entire Fruits. — Continued.

2. Between lo and 50 mm. long.

A. Drupes.

Epicarp thin and wrinkled ; sarcocarp sweet Prunum

Epicarp coriaceous, nearly smooth; sarcocarp acrid. . .Sabal

B. Not drupes.

Berry Capsicum

Capsule Cardamomum

Strobile Humulus

3. More than 50 mm. long.

Berry ; . Colocynthis

Indehiscent legume Cassia Fistula

Pod Vanilla

Syconium Ficus

II. Parts of Fruits.

1. Outer rind.

A. Fresh.

From sweet oranges Aurantii Dulcis Cortex

From lemons Limonis Cortex

B. Dried.

In quarters or in ribbon-like bands. .Aurantii Amari Cortex

2. Pulp.

Blackish-brown masses or cakes Tamarindus

3. Glandular Hairs.

A glandular powder Lupulinum

ANISUM.— ANISE.— The dried, ripe fruit of Pimpinclla
Anisum (Fam. Umbelliferse), an anntial herb (p. 352), indig-
enous to Asia Minor, Egypt and Greece, and cuhivated in South
America, Germany, Spain, Italy and Southern Russia. The drug
is derived from cultivated plants, and that obtained from Spain,
and known as " AHcante Anise," is preferred.

Description. — Mericarps usually coherent and attached to a
slender pedicel 4 to 10 mm. long; cremocarp ovoid, laterally com-
pressed, 4 to 5 mm. long, about 2 mm. in diameter, externally
greenish-brown or grayish-green, with ten yellowish, filiform, pri-
mary ribs, finely pubescent, apex with a ring-like disk and two
projecting divergent styles about 0.5 mm. long; internally yel-

CRUDE DRUGS.

561

Fig. 244. Anise: A, transverse section of cremoc:;rp showing carpophore (cp). wide
vittae (of) on ventral (commissural) surface and smaller vittae (6, ok) between the ribs on
the dorsal surface, fibrovascular bundles of ribs (Gb), sclerenchyma fibers (sk), an air
cavity in the wall of the pericarp on the ventral side (h), raphe tissue (R) with fibrovas-
cular bundle (r), seed-coat (Sa) and endosperm (Ed). B, inner epidermis of pericarp.
C, epidermis of seed-coat. D, cell of endosperm showing a number of aleurone grains con-
taining small rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate, a large nucleus in the center of the
cell, and a few isolated aggregates of calcium oxalate (d). E, sclerenchyma cells of the inner
epidermis of the pericarp in the neighborhood of the carpophore. F, transverse section of
pericarp and seed-coat showing epidermal cells (E) and a non-glandular hair with thick,
cutinized walls (h), parenchyma (p), a vitta (6), inner epidermis (Ei) and seed-coat (Sa). — ■
After Meyer.

562 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

lowish-brown, with a slender carpophore attached to each meri-
carp, the latter in section irregularly plano-convex, slightly con-
cave on the commissural side and usually with two large vittae on
each face, dorsal surface with 30 to 40 vittse ; seed somewhat reni-
form in section, closely cohering to the pericarp, with a small
embryo at the upper end of the reserve layer ; odor and taste
pleasantly aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 244.

Constituents. — Volatile oil (i to 3 per cent.) consisting of
about 80 to 90 per cent, of anethol (p-propenylanisol), and
methyl-chavicol and terpenes ; fixed oil 3 to 4 per cent. ; calcium
oxalate ; ash about 7 per cent.

Russian aniseed is used chiefly for the manufacture of the
volatile oil.

Allied Drugs. — Illicium or star-anise (p. 274) yields an oil
closely resembling that of anise. It contains 80 to 90 per cent,
of anethol, d-pinene. d-phellandrene, ethyl ether of hydroqui-
none and possibly safrol (Fig. 144).

Pimpernel (or Pimpinella) the root of Pimpinclla Saxi-
fraga and P. magna, is used like anise. It occurs in fusiform
pieces about 8 to 10 cm. long, 4 to 10 mm. in diameter, externally
yellowish-brown, fracture short, internally whitish, with numerous
yellowish resin canals : the taste is acrid, pungent and aromatic.
The drug contains a volatile oil, an acrid resin, a tasteless crys-
talline principle pimpinellin, about 8 per cent, of sugar, starch
and tannin.

Adulterants. — Italian aniseed is sometimes contaminated with
conium, and the friuts of some of the grasses and rushes as well.

CORIANDRUM.— CORIANDER.— The dried, ripe fruit of
Coriandrum satknnn (Fam. Umbelliferse), an annual herb (p.
352), indigenous to the Mediterranean and Caucasian region,
naturalized in the temperate parts of Europe, and cultivated there
and in Africa and India. The fruit is collected when full grown
from cultivated plants, from which it is separated by thrashing,
and dried. The fruits from plants grown in Russia and Thuringia
are preferred. The young plants, particularly the leaves, as well
as immature fruits, emit a disagreeable odor, whence the name
Coriandrum.

CRUDE DRUGS.

563

Description. — Mericarps usually coherent; cremocarp (Fig.
245) nearly globular, 4 to 5 mm. in diameter, externally light
brown or rose-colored, with ten prominent, straight, longitudinal
primary ribs, between which are faint, somewhat undulate sec-
ondary ribs, apex with 5 calyx teeth and a conical stylopodium
about 0.5 mm. long, internally with a slender carpophore attached
to each mericarp, the latter grayish-purple, concavo-convex, with
two vittae on the commissural surface ; seed plano-convex, with a
small embryo at the upper end of the reserve layer ; odor and
taste aromatic.

Fig. 245. Coriander: A, cremocarp showing remains of two stigmas (a), stylopodia
(thickened persistent styles) (b), calyx teeth (c), straight primary ribs (d) and wavy, some-
what obscure, secondary ribs (e); B, transverse section of the cremocarp showing primary
ribs (a), secondary ribs (d), vittae (c) on commissural side, and seed (b). — After Bastin.

Constituents. — Volatile oil 0.5 to i per cent. ; fixed oil about
13 per cent.; tannin; calcium oxalate; ash about 5 per cent.
The volatile oil consists of about 90 per cent, of d-linalool (cori-
androl), about 5 per cent, of d-pinene and some other con-
stituents.

The unripe fruits are said to yield a volatile oil that has a
fetid, bedbug-like odor, which it loses on keeping.

FCENICULUM.— FENNEL.— The fruit o{ Fccnicuhnn vul-
gare, and of the var. didce (Fam. Umbelliferse), perennial herbs
indigenous to the Mediterranean region of Europe and Asia, and
cultivated in France, Galicia, Germany, Roumania, Russia, India,
and Japan. The fruit is collected when ripe and dried. That

564

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

obtained from plants cultivated in Germany (Saxony and Thu-
ringia), Galicia and Russia is preferred (p. 352).

Description. — Mericarps usually separated ; cremocarp ob-
long or nearly cylindrical, straight, 4.5 to 8 mm. long, 2 to 3
mm. in diameter, externally yellowish-green, apex with a some-
what depressed disk, and a conical stylopodium about 0.5 mm.
long, each mericarp with five prominent, yellowish, slightly
winged primary ribs, internally somewhat greenish-brown, with
a slender carpophore attached to each mericarp, the latter une-

FiG. 246. A, transverse section through a mericarp of fennel: O, outer epidermis of
pericarp; I, inner epidermis of pericarp; F, fibrovascular bundles; V, vittae; S, seed-coat;
EN, endosperm; C, section through the carpophore, which is composed chiefly of scleren-
chymatous cells. B, isolated aleurone grains from cells of endosperm of fennel showing
globoids and small rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate.

qually 5-angled in cross-section, the commissural surface slightly
grooved and with two vittae, dorsal surface with a single vitta
between each of the primary ribs ; seed irregularly plano-convex,
with a small embryo at the upper end of the reserve layer ; pedicel
3 to 10 mm. long ; odor and taste aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 246.

C0N.STITUENTS. — Volatile oil 2 to 6.5 per cent. ; fixed oil about
12 per cent. ; calcium oxalate, and about 7 per cent, of ash.

The volatile oil of fennel contains 50 to 60 per cent, of ane-
thol ; about 20 per cent, of fenchone, which gives the fruit its

CRUDE DRUGS. 565

characteristic odor and taste; chavicol (isomer of anethol) ; anise
ketone ; anisic aldehyde ; anisic acid, d-pinene and dipentene.

The sw^et or Roman fennel, obtained from plants {F. duke)
cultivated in Southern France, has longer and somewhat curved
mericarps, and yields about 2 per cent, of oil, containing con-
siderable anethol but no fenchone. Macedonian fennel oil con-
tains considerable anethol, some limonene and phellandrene, but
no fenchone. Wild bitter fennel oil obtained from wild plants
contains scarcely any anethol, but consists in part of phellandrene
and fenchone.

Adulterations. — Fennel is frequently contaminated with
wheat screenings, undeveloped fruits, various other umbelli-
ferous fruits and dirt.

Allied Drugs. — The more or less fusiform root of Fcenic-
iiliiin I'ulgare is also used like fennel. It is 8 to 15 cm. long,
and has an aromatic odor and taste. Fennel root contains a
volatile oil, resin, starch and sugar.

CARUxM.— CARAWAY.— The fruit of Carnm Carvi (Fam.
Umbelliferse), a biennial herb (p. 352) indigenous to Europe and
Asia, and cultivated in England, Germany, Holland, Norway,
Russia, Sweden and the United States, being naturalized in the
Northern United States and parts of Canada. The plants are cut
when the fruits are ripe, the latter being separated by thrashing.
The fruits from plants grown in Holland are preferred.

Description. — Mericarps usually separated ; cremocarp ob-
long, laterally compressed, 4 to 6 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. in diam-
eter, externally dark brown, surmovmted by a small, somewhat
globular stylopodium and 5 minute calyx teeth ; primary ribs 10
in number, filiform, yellowish, between each of which are slight,
secondary ribs ; internally dark brown, mericarps curved, nar-
rowed at both ends, and with a slender carpophore attached to
each, the latter 5-angIed in cross-section, the commissural surface
with 2 vittae, the dorsal surface with a vitta between each of
the primary ribs ; seeds irregularly oblong in section, with a small
embryo at the upper end of the reserve layer; odor and taste
aromatic.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 247.

Constituents. — Volatile oil from 5 to 7 per cent. ; fixed oil ;
tannin ; calcium oxalate, and 5 to 8 per cent, of ash.

566

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

or.

Fig. 247. Caraway: A, transverse section of a mericarp and carpophore (Ft) sho'W'ing
vittae (6, or), primary ribs Cr, rr,), with flbrovascular bundle (ok), tissue of raphe (f) and
endosperm (Ed). B, transverse section through a primary rib showing part of pericarp
and seed-coat, outer epidermal cells (E), a small vitta (O), sieve (Si), tracheae (g), around
which are thick-walled sclerenchymatic fibers; parenchyma (p, p'), inner epidermis (Ei),
outer epidermis of seed-coat (Sa) and collapsed cells (L) of remainder of seed-coat. C,
longitudinal section through part of a mericarp showing outer epidermis (E), parenchyma
(p. pi), epithel (Ep) and separating wall (Sch) of vittae (Se), inner epidermis of pericarp
(Ei) and seed-coat (Sa). D, surface view of outer epidermis of fruit showing a single stoma.
— After Meyer.

CRUDE DRUGS. 567

Volatile oil of caraway contains 50 to 60 per cent, of d-car-
vone (carvol), and 40 to 50 per cent, d-limonene (carven). Car-
away oil, particularly carvone, is colored yellow on exposure to
air, and the old oil gives a reddish-violet color with ferric chloride
solution.

Allied Drugs. — The seeds of Nigella sativa and N. damas-
cena (Fam. Ranunculaceae), are used in medicine and for flavor-
ing like caraway. They are commonly known as Black Cara-
way. The seeds are ovate, 3- to 4-angled, about 3 mm. long,
externally black and reticulate; internally, a large, white, oily
reserve layer in which is embedded the small, greenish embryo.
Black caraway contains 1.5 per cent, of a volatile oil; 1.5 per
cent, of a glucoside. melanthin, which resembles saponin and
helleborin ; a fluorescent alkaloid, damascenin, giving the volatile
oil from N. dmnascena its fluorescence ; another alkaloid, conni-
gelline ; and about 35 per cent, of a fixed oil.

CONIUM.— POISON HEMLOCK.— The fruit of Conium
maculatum (Fam. Umbelliferae), a large biennial herb in-
digenous to Europe, and naturalized in North and South Amer-
ica and in various parts of Asia (p. 352). The fruit is collected
when full grown but still green from wild plants, carefully dried
and preserved.

Description. — Mericarps usually separated ; cremocarp
broadly ovoid, slightly compressed laterally, 3 to 4 mm. long,
about 2 mm. in diameter, with a pedicel 3 to 5 mm. long, exter-
nally grayish-green, with 10 straight more or less crenate yellow-
ish ribs, stylopodium depressed, internally greenish-brown, with
a slender carpophore attached to each mericarp, the latter
5-angled in cross-section and without any vittse ; seeds reniform,
with a deep furrow on the commissural side, and with a small
embryo at the upper end of the reserve layer; odor distinct; taste
slight.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 248.

Constituents. — The most important constituent is the liquid
alkaloid coniine (hexa-hydropropyl pyridine), which exists to
the extent of 0.5 to 3 per cent. ; the drug also contains conydrine
(oxyconiine), which crystallizes in plates, is dextrorotatory and
very poisonous; pseudoconydrine (an isomer of conydrine),

568

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

which crystalhzes in needles; y-coNicEiNE, which is a colorless,
oily alkaloid with a disagreeable odor, and i8 times more poison-
ous even than coniine ; volatile oil, fixed oil, starch, calcium
oxalate, and yields about 6 per cent, of ash.

Coniine is naturally combined in the drug with organic acids,
from which it is liberated on treatment with alkalies, and may be
readily extracted from the mixture by means of ether. When
pure, coniine is a colorless, nearly odorless liquid and forms a

- m

Fig. 248. Cross section of a mericarp of conium: c, c, commissural surface; e, por-
tion without secondary ribs; o, portion showing slight development of secondary rib;
o\ secondary rib; v, fibrovascular bundle of pericarp (m); t, t^, layers containing coniine;
a, endosperm; b, tissues of the embryo. — After Fliickiger.

num.ber of crystalline salts. On the addition of concentrated sul-
phuric acid to coniine the latter is colored blood red and after-
wards green. The disagreeable odor in commercial coniine, as
well as in conium, is due to the alkaloid coniceine.

Allied Drugs. — The entire fresh plant of Conium maculatum
is used in the preparation of Succus Conii. It probably con-
tains the same constituents as the fruit, but in smaller amounts.
The root contains 0.018 to 0.047 P^^ ^^^'^^- of total alkaloids; the
stems 0.064 per cent.; the leaves 0.187 per cent, and the flowers
and flower stalks 0.236 per cent.

CRUDE DRUGS. 569

Water hemlock {Ciciita inaciilata) is a stout, perennial
herb growing- in wet meadows throughout the United States
and Canada. The stems are streaked with purple, the leaves are
pinnately compound, the leaflets being oblong-lanceolate and
coarsely serrate ; the flowers are white, occurring in large com-
pound umbels. The fruit is ovoid, with prominent ribs and
six conspicuous vittse. The rhizome is large and fleshy and some-
times mistaken for parsnip. The fruits contain a volatile alka-
loid, cicutine, which is said to resemble coniine, and about i per
cent, of a volatile oil resembling oil of cumin. The rhizome,
stems and leaves contain a resinous substance, cicutoxin, which
is said to be quite poisonous.

RHUS GLABRA.— SUMAC BERRIES —The fruit of Rhi:.;
glabra (Fam. Anacardiacese), a smooth, glaucous shrub, indigen-
ous to Canada and the United States, extending as far west as
Arizona (p. 321 ).

Description. — Drupe dry, superior, nearly globular, flat-
tened, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, 2.5 mm. thick, and with a slender
peduncle about 2 mm. long ; reddish externally, very pubescent,
apex with a scar and with the remains of the style, base occa-
sionally with the 5-cleft calyx; endocarp smooth, shiny, light red;
i-locular, i-seeded; seed campylotropous, dark brown, smooth,
hilum marked by a distinct scar, reserve layer wanting, embryo
curved ; inodorous ; taste acidulous and astringent.

Constituents. — Tannic acid about 2 per cent. ; gallic acid,
and acid calcium and potassium malates.

Allied Drugs. — The leaves of Rhus glabra contain from
16 to 25 per cent, of tannin. The galls formed on the petioles
and leaves resemble the Chinese or Japanese. galls and contain
about 60 per cent, of tannin and some gallic acid (p. 649).

CUBEBA.— CUBEB BERRIES.— The fruit of Piper Cu-
beba (Fam. Piperacese), a woody climber (p. 249), indigenous
to Borneo, Java and Sumatra, where it is apparently also culti-
vated. The fruit is gathered when full grown but still green,
and carefully dried in the sun, the commercial supplies being
shipped from Batavia and Singapore.

Description. — Drupe dry, superior, globular, 4 to 6 mm. in
diameter, with a straight, slender peduncle 5 to 7 mm. long;

570

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

externally dark brown, coarsely reticulate, apex with remains of
3 to 4 stigmas ; pericarp about 0.3 mm. thick ; internally light
brown, smooth, oily, i-locular, i-seeded; seed atropous, broadly

Fig. 249. Pericarp of fruit of Juglans regia: A, stomata of epicarp; B, cross-section
of pericarp showing epidermis (e), cells with reddish-brown contents (c), sclerotic cells (s),
parenchyma (p) containing protoplasm and starch grains; C, mestome strand of the sarco-
carp showing vessels (v), libriform (1), leptome (s), parenchyma containing protoplasm and
starch (p); D, non-glandular hairs from the apical and basal portions of fruit; E, glandular
hairs from base of fruit similar to those found in large numbers on the surface of the butter-
nut (Juglans cinerea): F. rosette aggregates resembling the membrane crystals of Rosanoff;
G, sclerotic cells found in the powder; H, fragment of non-glandular hair; K, starch grains
from 2 to lo M in diameter; L, tracheae with annular markings; M, calcium oxalate crystals.

ovoid, 4 to 5 mm. in diameter, reddish-brown, straight, mostly
smooth on one side where it lies against the pericarp, chalazal end
with a broad scar, micropyle with a slight depression, a small

CRUDE DRUGS. 57i

embrvo at the upper end of the reserve layer ; odor distinct ; taste
aromatic and pungent.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 250.

Constituents. — Volatile oil 10 to 18 per cent., consisting
chiefly of terpenes and sesquiterpenes and a sesquiterpene
hydrate known as cubeb camphor; several resins, 2.5 to 3.5 per
cent., one of which is acrid and one a so-called indifferent resin ;
cubebic acid, i to 3.5 per cent., this being colored reddish with
sulphuric acid ; a bitter crystalline principle, cubebin, 0.4 to 3
per cent. ; fixed oil, i per cent. ; gum, 8 per cent. ; starch, and
about 6 per cent, of ash.

Allied Plants. — A number of other species of Piper yield
fruits resembling cubeb, as Piper Clusii, of West Africa ; P. hor-
honense, of Bourbon, P. sitiiiatraiuiin and P. pedicellosnm, of
Farther India.

The fruit of Toddalia lanccolata (Fam. Rutaceae) is used
in Africa in place of cubeb (berries). The fruits of Litsca
citrata have been sold as false cubeb, and those of Litsea Cubcba
(Fam. Lauracese) are substituted for cubeb in Cochin China
and China.

Adulterants. — The fruits of other species of Piper some-
times find their way into market ; these are grayish in color,
somewhat bitter, and do not give a wine-colored reaction with
sulphuric acid. Not infrequently a considerable amount of the
rachis is present and this contains a relatively small amount of
the active principles.

PIPER.— BLACK PEPPER.— The fruit of Piper nigrum
(Fam. Piperacese), a woody, perennial climber (p. 247), indig-
enous to Cochin China and various parts of India and cultivated
in the East Indies, West Indies and other tropical countries.
The fruit is gathered when full grown, removed from the rachis
and dried in the sun. The commercial supplies are obtained
from plants cultivated in Java, Sumatra and other islands of the
Malay Archipelago, the principal points of export being Batavia
and Singapore. The latter furnishes the best grade of black
pepper and as it is dried by artificial heat it has a somewhat
smoky odor and taste. The most of the other black peppers or
peppercorns are dried in the sun.

57^

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — Drupe dry, superior, nearly globular, 4 to 6
mm, in diameter, epicarp very thin, easily separable from the
sarcocarp ; externally blackish-brown, coarsely reticulate, apex
with remains of sessile stigma, base with scar of pedicel, sarco-
carp and endocarp dark brown and with numerous longitudinal
veins; seed atropous, broadly ovoid, 4 to 5 mm. in diameter,

:n-

FiG. 250. Cubeb: A, transverse section of the pericarp showing epidermis (Ep),
stone cells (Sc), oil cells (Se), parenchyma (P), collapsed parenchyma tissue (z), endocarp
(En) composed of stone cells. B, spike showing bracts (o), young sessile fruits (d), and a
mature fruit with long pedicel (e). C, longitudinal section of mature fruit showing peri-
carp (i), union (1) of seed and pericarp, large perisperm (k), small endosperm (m), which
surrounds the embryo (E). D, flower diagram showing the position of the flower in refer-
ence to the rachis (a), bract (D) and pericarp (c) which surrounds the ovule (S). — After
Meyer.

externally reddish-brown, micropylar end pointed, chalazal end
marked by a small scar ; internally yellowish-green ; perisperm
large and usually with a cavity near the middle i mm. or more
wide, the endosperm small, situated at one end of the fruit
and embryo small, frequently more or less shrivelled ; odor aro-
matic, slightly empyreumatic ; taste aromatic and pungent.

CRUDE DRUGS. 573

Black pepper should yield not less than 6 per cent, of a non-
volatile ether extract nor less than 25 per cent, of starch. The
ash should he not more than 7 per cent., of which only two per
cent, is insoluble in hydrochloric acid. The crude fiber should
be not more than 15 per cent.

Inner Structure. — The epicarp consists of a layer of poly-
gonal cells with dark brown contents ; beneath this, one or more
interrupted rows of strongly lignified, more or less radially
elongated stone cells occur ; the sarcocarp contains a more or less
interrupted layer of oil cells with suberized walls ; the endocarp
consists of characteristic stone cells, which are horse-shoe shaped,
the inner and radial walls being thickened and commonly
referred to as " beaker cells." The perisperm consists chiefly of
radially elongated cells containing numerous starch grains which
are 2 to 6 ;«, in diameter ; some resin cells ; cells containing needle-
shaped crystals of piperine, and in the outer layers small aleurone
grains (Figs. 121, B; 311).

Constituents. — Volatile oil i to 2 per cent., containing
dipentene, phellandrene and a peculiar terpene ; the alkaloid
piperine, 4.5 to 8 per cent., which crystallizes in colorless, taste-
less, 4-sided prisms which are colored bright green by means of
concentrated sulphuric acid and formaldehyde, and with potassium
hydrate or sulphuric acid give a red color ; piperidine, a colorless
liquid alkaloid, which is a derivative of piperine, about 0.5 per
cent. ; a pungent resin, chavicin ; starch, 25 to 40 per cent. ; tannin ;
proteins, about 10 per cent.; ash, about 5 per cent. (Fig. 340).

Allied Products. — The fruits of Piper nigrum are some-
times allowed to ripen and the epicarp is separated by hand or
machinery after the fruits have been soaked in salt water or lime
water. The fruits are then known as white peppercorns or
white pepper, are nearly smooth, of a light gray or yellow color,
and while less aromatic and pungent than the black pepper or
black peppercorns, possess a fine flavor. White pepper yields
3.9 to 6.47 per cent, of piperine.

Piper longum, a shrub indigenous to the Malay Archipelago,
yields the so-called " long pepper," which consists of the entire
spikes of the immature fruit; the spikes are cylindrical, from
2.5 to 4 cm. long, about 5 mm. thick, of a grayish-black color,

574 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

and the drupes are less aromatic and pungent than the official
pepper. In structure long pepper is distinguished by the absence
of oil cells in the sarcocarp, and " beaker cells " of the endocarp,
and the larger starch grains (2 to lo /a) in the perisperm. Long
pepper yields about i per cent, of a volatile oil with the pungent
taste of the oil of pepper but an odor resembling that of ginger ;
and about 4.24 per cent, of piperine.

Long pepper is also obtained from Piper ofUcinariim, of Java,
India and the Philippine Islands ; Piper sylvaticum, of Eastern
India ; Chavica oificinarmn, of the West Indies ; and Peperomia
acuminata, of Peru.

Adulterants. — The poorer black peppers, known as Acheen
pepper, are light in weight, consist more or less of shells and
are usually considerably broken. They are frequently contam-
inated with stems, earth and small stones. Penang white
PEPPER has a grayish color and is coated with a substance con-
taining considerable calcium carbonate. Pepper hulls or pepper
shells, representing the broken pericarp of the fruit obtained in
the preparation of white pepper, consist of small grayish-black
fragments, containing numerous stone cells, and they yield a
high percentage of fiber and ash.

Substitutes. — The fruit of Embelia rihes (Fam. Myrsin-
acese), a small tree of India, has been used as an adulterant of
both pepper and cubeb. The blackish drupes resemble black pep-
per. They are very aromatic and yield a principle, embelic acid,
which crystallizes in golden-yellow prisms, the alcoholic solution
of which is colored red with ammonia.

The fruit of Polyadcnia pipcricarpa (Fam. Lauraceae), of
Sumatra, is also used in place of pepper. The fruits of a number
of species of Xylopia (Fam. Anonacese) contain aromatic and
bitter principles, some of these being used as a condiment like
pepper, as A', crthiopica, which are also used as a medium of
exchange by the natives of Uadai (Africa), and A^. grandiHora,
X. sericea and X. fnitcsccns of Brazil. A', aromatica yields the
Guinea pepper.

PIMENTA.— ALLSPICE.— The fruit of Pimenta officinalis
(Fam. Myrtaceae), a tree (p. 347) indigenous to the West Indies,
Mexico, Central America and Venezuela, where it is also culti-

CRUDE DRUGS. 575

vated, especially in Jamaica. The panicles are collected when
the fruit is full grown but still green, and dried in the sun, the
fruit being subsequently separated.

Description. — Drupe dry, inferior, sub-globular, 5 to 7 mm.
in diameter ; externally dark brown, glandular-punctate ; apex
with four minute calyx teeth or forming a minute ring and sur-
rounding the remnants of the somewhat depressed style ; base
with scar of pedicel or occasionally with a pedicel 4 to 6 mm.
long ; pericarp about i mm. thick ; internally light brown, 2-locu-
lar, 2-seeded, dissepiments thin ; seeds campylotropous, plano-
convex, slightly reniform, about 4 mm. long and about 3 mm.
thick, externally reddish-brown, smooth, somewhat wrinkled,
shiny, internally dark brown, reserve layer wanting, embryo spi-
rally curved, with a long, thick radicle and minute cotyledons ;
odor and taste aromatic, supposed to resemble those of a mixture
of cloves and other spices, whence the name '* Allspice."

Constituents. — Volatile oil (3 to 4 per cent.) consisting of
about 60 per cent, of eugenol ; resin ; an acrid fixed oil about 6
per cent. ; tannin ; starch ; calcium oxalate ; ash about 4 per cent.

Allied Plants. — A variety of P. officinaUs yields a fruit
with large drupes known as Tobasco or Mexican Allspice. The
structure of this fruit resembles that of pimenta, as also does the
Crown Allspice obtained from P. acris, a tree of tropical America,
the fruits of which are 8 to 10 mm. long.

MALTUM.— MALT.— The partially germinated and dried
grains of Hordeuiii sativum, particularly of the variety %'nlgarc
(Fam. Graminese) (p. 228). In the preparation of malt the
barley grains are soaked in water for 12 to 24 hours, placed in
heaps, allowed to germinate, being occasionally stirred so that
the heat generated on germination does not become excessive.
After the protrusion of the caulicle and radicle the material is
quickly dried and deprived of these parts.

Barley. — Narrow-ellipsoidal, somewhat 4-angled, 8 to 10
mm. long. 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, having an outer, readily sep-
arable coat consisting of the inner and outer pales, which are
membranous, chafif-like, pale straw-color and somewhat trans-
lucent ; within the pales and adhering to the base of the grain,
two very small lodicules consisting chiefly of unicellular hairs

576 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

from 0.5 to I mm. long. Grain nearly smooth, grooved on one
side and with a slight projection at the apex consisting of numer-
ous I -celled hairs, usually with pollen grains adhering, embryo
on side opposite the groove and forming a slight projection at
the base of the grain ; endosperm large and consisting chiefly of
cells filled with spherical starch grains resembling those of wheat,
the two to four outer layers of cubical cells containing aleurone
grains. The embryo is connected with the endosperm by means
of a sheathing membrane (by some regarded as a modified coty-
ledon), through which it obtains nutriment during germination.
( )n germination the embryo produces about 5 multiple primary
rootlets and a stem portion with sheathing green leaves (Fig.321).

Malt. — Grains resembling those of barley, of a yellowish-
brown to dark brown color, and with a short fracture ; starch
grains altered, exhibiting numerous radial and concentric fissures ;
odor agreeable and taste sweetish.

Constituents.- — Barley grains contain from 60 to 68 per
cent, of starch; 12 to 18 per cent, of proteins; about 1.5 per cent,
of sugar, and i to 3 per cent, of fixed oil. Two ferments are
developed during the process of germination, namely, diastase,
which acts on the starch, changing it to dextrin and maltose ; and
another ferment which acts on the proteins, converting them into
peptones. The germinating seeds of barley contain a white crys-
tallizable alkaloid, hordenine, which is slightly toxic.

Commercial malt contains nearly the same constituents as
are found in barley, the starch grains being somewhat altered
and converted partly into soluble starch through the action of the
ferment diastase, a small amount of which is still present in malt
after drying. In the preparation of the extract of malt the
starch is mostly converted into dextrin and maltose, the propor-
tion of the latter being larger.

PRUNUM.— PRUNE.— The fruit of Primus domestica, and
of the var. Juliana (Fami. Rosacese), a small tree (p. 287) indig-
enous to Southern Europe, and largely cultivated in Southern
France, Germany, Asia Minor and California, but not found
growing wild. The fruit is collected when ripe and partially
dried by artificial means, or completely dried in the sun. The
fruit exported from Bordeaux is of superior quality.

CRUDE DRUGS.

577

Description. — Drupe superior, fleshy, ellipsoidal, more of
less compressed, 3.5 to 4 cm. long, about 3 cm. broad; exter-
nally brownish-black, glabrous, wrinkled, with two faint lines

Fig. 251. Saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulaia): A, fruiting branch; B, longitudinal sec-
tion of fruit showing short stalk (s), epicarp (c), sarcocarp (s),.endocarp (n), and anatropous
seed with raphe (a); C, cross-section of outer portion of fruit showing epidermis (e) com-
posed of several layers of cells having a dark reddish-brown content, cells of sarcocarp (p)
with reddish-brown content and oil; D, a sclerotic cell from the sarcocarp showing the fine
radiating pores and concentric lamella of the wall; E, sclerotic cells from endocarp; F,
cross-section of portion of seed showing epidermal cells (e), large parenchyma cells (p),
inner epidermis (x), perisperm (r), endosperm (n) ; G, some thick-walled endosperm cells
from the inner portion of seed.

indicating the dorsal and ventral sutures, apex wdth a slight scar
from the remains of the style, base with a depressed stalk-scar
3 to 5 mm. in diameter, sarcocarp yellowish-browai, fleshy, some-
what stringy, 1.5 cm. thick; taste sweet and acidulous; endocarp

578 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ellipsoidal, flattened, about 2 mm. thick, externally dark brown,
reticulate, with a groove on one side, frequently extending nearly
around the edge, internally light brown, smooth, i-locular,
i-seeded, occasionally 2-seeded ; seed about 2 cm. long, 8 mm.
wide, 5 mm. thick, closely resembling Bitter Almond (see Amy-
dala Amara).

Constituents. — Sugar 25 to 44 per cent. ; organic acids, as
malic and tartaric, partly free and partly combined, chiefly with
potassium, about 2 per cent., and water about 30 per cent.

SABAL.— SAW PALMETTO.— The ripe drupe of Sabal
(Serenoa) scrriilata (Fam. Palmte), a small palm found growing
in sandy soil from South Carolina to Florida. The fruit is par-
tially dried by artificial means (p. 231 ; Fig. 251).

Description. — Drupe superior, ellipsoidal, ovoid or some-
what globular, 1.5 to 3 cm. long, i to 1.5 cm. in diameter; exter-
nally brownish-black, smooth, somewhat oily, with few large,
somewhat angular depressions due to the contraction of the inner
layer on drying ; apex marked by remains of style ; base marked
bv stem-scar or with remains of stem ; epicarp and sarcocarp
together forming a thin coriaceous shell enclosing a hard but
thin endocarp which is externally reddish-brown and somewhat
fibrous, as is also the inner layer of the sarcocarp ; inner layer of
endocarp smooth, enclosing an ellipsoidal or ovoid, hard, some-
what flattened, anatropous, reddish-brown seed which is marked
on the raphe side by an arillus-like appendage and on the oppo-
site side near the end by the micropyle, which forms a slight
projection ; internally, wuth a large endosperm of thick- walled
parenchyma and a very small embryo at the micropyle ; odor
pronounced, aromatic and fruity ; taste sweetish, aromatic and
slightly acrid.

Constituents. — About 1.2 per cent, of a volatile oil (in the
fresh fruit) ; 4 to 5 per cent, of a green or brownish oil, con-
sisting of a number of fatty acids and their esters, as caproic,
caprylic, capric, lauric, palmitic and oleic; a resin; considerable
glucose and possiblv an alkaloid.

CAPSICUM.— CAYENNE PEPPER (AFRICAN PEP-
PER).— The dried ripe fruit of one or more species of Capsicum,
probably Capsicum fastigiatnui, Capsicum frufcsccus, and Cap-

CRUDE DRUGS.

579

sicum ininiiiiiiin (Fam. Solanaceae), shrubs indigenous to tropical
America, and cultivated in tropical Africa, India and America,
and Japan. The commercial supplies are obtained from plants
cultivated in Natal, Sierra Leone and Zanzibar. The latter variety

Fig. 252. Garden pepper {Capsicum annuwn): A, transverse section of pericarp
showing epidermis (ep) ; hypodermis (ko), some of the cells of which have thick suberized
walls and contain oil (o) and resin; parenchyma (pa); fibrovascular bundle (g) ; inner
epidermis (i, ep) composed of thick, lignified. porous cells. B, diagram of fertilized ovule
showing hilum (N), micropyle (m), integument (J), fibrovascular bundle (gf), embryo-sac
(Es), egg-cell (e), antipodal cells (a). C, longitudinal and transverse sections of a stone
cell from the inner epidermis showing the thickening of the inner and side walls. — A, after
Hanausek; B, C, after Meyer.

furnishes one of the best grades. Cayenne pepper is also known
as red pepper or chillies (p. 375).

Description. — Oblong, conical, laterally compressed, 1.5 to
4 cm. long, 6 to 10 mm. in diameter, with an inconspicuous
5-toothed calyx and sometimes a slender, straight pedicel about

58o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

15 mm. long; externally yellowish- or brownish-red, glabrous,
shiny, somewhat translucent, more or less shriveled ; apex acute,
base somewhat rounded ; pericarp coriaceous, thin ; inner surface
with two or three distinct longitudinal ridges, longitudinally stri-
ate, 2- or 3-locular, dissepiments thin, united below ; seeds
10 to 20, campylotropous, irregularly circular or obovate, flat-
tened, pointed, about 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, 0.5 mm. thick, edge
slightly thickened, embryo curved, embedded in the endosperm;
odor distinct ; taste of pericarp pungent, of dissepiments, very
pungent.

Cayenne pepper should yield not less than 15 per cent, of non-
volatile ether extract; nor more than 1.5 per cent, of starch; 6.5
per cent, of ash.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 252; 301, C.

C0NSTITUENT.S. — Two crystalline pungent principles which
are found principally in the dissepiments of the fruit : capsaicin,
which is slightly soluble in water and is volatile at 115° C,
forming irritating vapors ; and capsacutin, which is so powerful
that I part in 11,000,000 of water has a distinct pungent taste.
Capsicum also contains a volatile alkaloid resembling coniine ; a
volatile oil with an odor of parsley ; resin ; a small quantity of
starch; a fixed oil, consisting of oleic, palmitic and stearic acids;
and yields 4 to 6 per cent, of ash.

Allied Drugs. — A capsicum of inferior quality known as
Bombay pepper is obtained from plants growing in the vicinity
of the River Niger in Africa. The fruits are dull yellow or
brown in color, 2 to 3 cm. long and about 10 mm. in diameter.

Japan pepper resembles the official Cayenne pepper in size.
The fruits are of a bright yellowish-red color, and more shiny
but not so pungent. Garden or pod-pepper, also known as
paprika or Spanish pepper, is the product of Capsicmn annuum,
an herb extensively cultivated in Hungary, Italy and Spain, and
this kind is recognized by the German Pharmacopoeia. The
fruits when fresh are 5 to 10 cm. long. 5 to 7 cm. in diameter,
more or less inflated, externally of a bright green, yellow or
red color ; the pericarp is 2 to 3 mm. thick, enclosing a large
cavity, which has I or 2 dissepiments at the base, and contains
numerous flattened seeds about 3 to 5 mm. in diameter.

CRUDE DRUGS.

581

CARDAMOMUM.— CARDAMOM.— The fruit of Elettaria
Cardaiiioinniii (Syn. E. re pens) (Fam. Zingiberaceae), a peren-
nial herb (p. 242) indigenous to Farther India, and cultivated
near the Malabar Coast and in Ceylon. The commercial article
is obtained from wild plants growing in the southern part of
the western coast of Farther India. The fruit is gathered in
autumn — either the entire spike, when some of the fruits have
matured, or the full-grown fruits are cut from the rachis in suc-
cession as they ripen ; they are bleached by exposure to the sun,

h slpajuo

Fig. 253. Cardamom: A, transverse section showing the arillus (h), the several
layers of the seed-coat (T, 1, V), perisperm (i), endosperm (2) and embryo (3) at the center.
B, transverse section of the seed-coat and perisperm of Malabar cardamom showing epider-
mal cells (o), cells having a brown content (qu), cells containing ethereal oil (p), brown
stone cells (St) with very thick inner walls, and perisperm (e), the cells of which contain
numerous small starch grains and usually a pair of small crystals which may be seen on
treating sections with chloral. — A, after Meyer; B, after Moeller.

sometimes sulphurous acid or steam being also used, after which
they are dried and freed from extraneous matter. Seeds which
have been discharged from the capsules are inferior to those
which have been retained. A greater portion goes to Bombay,
from where it is estimated that 100,000 kilograms are exported
yearly to London. The commercial varieties are known as Mala-
bar and Mysore Cardamom.

Malabar Cardamom. — Capsule loculicidally dehiscent,
broadly ellipsoidal, occasionally ovoid, more or less triangular in

582 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

transverse section, 10 to 17 mm. long, 6 to 8 mm. in diameter,
pericarp about 0.5 mm. thick; externally light brown or faintly
pink, apex slightly beaked, and with remnants of style, base
rounded, with scar of stalk, longitudinally striate, 3-grooved,
3-valved, 3-locular, dissepiments thin; seeds 15 to 18 in num-
ber, anatropous, irregularly angular, enclosed in a thin mem-
branous aril, about 3 mm. long, externally dark reddish-brown,
deeply wrinkled, embryo small, straight, endosperm and peri-
sperm distinct; odor aromatic; taste aromatic, pungent (Fig.
90, C).

Mysore Cardamom. — Ovoid, somewhat oblong, white or very
light brown, 12 to 20 mm. long, 7 to 9 mm. in diameter, nearly
smooth or faintly striate longitudinally; seeds 9 to 12, and less
pungent than those of Malabar Cardamom.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 253.

Constituents. — Volatile oil 4 to 5 per cent., with a pene-
trating but agreeable odor and a camphoraceous, burning taste ;
fixed oil 10 per cent.; starch about 3 per cent.; calcium oxalate;
ash 4 to 6 per cent. The pericarp contains about 0.2 per cent,
of a volatile oil.

Allied Plants. — Ceylon Cardamom is obtained from wild
plants of Elcttaria major. The capsules are 2 to 4 cm. long and
about 10 ram. in diameter, distinctly triangular in transverse
section, deeply striate longitudinally and slightly pubescent. In
each loculus there are about 20 seeds, which are about 4 mm. long,
bitter and less aromatic than the ofificial cardamom.

The so-called bastard cardamoms are yielded by one or more
species of Amomum, but these rarely find their way to market.

HUMULUS.— HOPS.— The fruit of Humuius Lupnlus
(Fam. Moracese), a perennial herbaceous climber (Fig. 136),
indigenous to Europe, Asia and North America, and extensively
cultivated in England, Germany and various parts of the United
States, South America and Australia, where it is also naturalized
(p. 255). Hops are collected in September, when they are ripe,
carefully dried by means of artificial heat, and packed into bales
or sent loose into commerce. Thev are sometimes treated with
sulphur dioxide to improve the color and to prevent change of the
active principles. The development of the odor of valerianic

CRUDE DRUGS. 583

acid is said to be prevented by sprinkling the hops with a small
quantity of alcohol before packing them. Hops lose their active
properties on keeping.

Description. — Cone-like, flattened, oblong or ovoid, 2 to 3
cm. long. 1.5 to 2 cm. wide, about 7 mm. thick, consisting of a
sharp-undulate rachis and about 50 membranous bracts, the lat-
ter distinctly veined, light green or brownish-green, glandular-
hairy, entire, 10 to 14 mm. long, 7 to 11 mm. broad, with acute
apex and rounded base, frequently infolded on one side and en-
closing a sub-globular, light-brown, very glandular akene ; the
seed with two flat, spirally coiled cotyledons and without a reserve
layer ; odor aromatic ; taste bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil about 0.7 per cent., of which 60
to 70 per cent, is humulene ; a crystalline, bitter principle, lupa-
maric acid; tannin 4 to 5 per cent.; resin 10 to 18 per cent.;
asparagin, about i per cent. ; trimethylamine ; choline or lupu-
line ; malic and citric acids, chiefly in the form of salts ; calcium
oxalate, and ash about 10 per cent.

COLOCYNTHIS.— BITTER APPLE.— The fruit of Cit-
ritUiis Colocynthis (Fam. Cucurbitaceae), a perennial herbaceous
vine (p. 386), indigenous to warm, dry regions of Africa and
Asia, and cultivated in the northwestern provinces of India and
the countries bordering the Mediterranean. The fruit is col-
lected in autumn when ripe, and after removal of the epicarp by
paring, is quickly dried in the sun or by artificial means. The
commercial supplies are obtained from Turkey and Spain, the
finer grade coming from Turkey. The seeds should be removed
from the pulp before it is used.

Description. — Berry nearly globular, S to 7 cm. in diam-
eter (Fig. 254); light; externally yellowish-white; internally,
with three longitudinal, somewhat elliptical fissures 8 to 14 mm.
wide ; seeds numerous, ovoid, compressed, yellowish-green, and
borne on the divided parietal placentas betw'een the fissures ; odor
sHght; taste very bitter (Fi^. 93).

Constituents. — A bitter glucoside, colocynthin, 0.2 to 0.5
per cent., which may be crystallized but usually is obtained as an
amorphous powder that is inflammable, soluble in water and alco-
hol, and yields upon hydrolysis colocynthein ; a tasteless resin,

584

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

CRUDE DRUGS. 585

colocynthitin, which occurs in small, white prisms ; fixed oil in
pulp about 3 per cent., and in seeds about 15 per cent.; ash about
10 per cent, in pulp and about 3 per cent, in the seeds.

Attempts have been made to grow Colocynth in England and
in New Mexico. The fruits are much larger than the official,
and while very bitter appear to be less active than the fruits
obtained from wild plants.

CASSIA FISTULA.— PURGING CASSIA.— The ripe fruit
of Cassia Fistula (Fam. Leguminosae), a tree (p. 293) indig-
enous to India, and naturalized in tropical Africa, South Amer-
ica and the West Indies. The principal supply of the drug used
in this country comes from tropical America.

Description. — Legume straight, many-locular, indehiscent.
cylindrical, 25 to 50 cm. long, 15 to 20 mm. in diameter; exter-
nally reddish-brown, apex acute or acuminate, base rounded,
sometimes with a woody pedicel about 15 mm. long and 4 mm.
in diameter, smooth, shiny, transversely striate, on one side a
longitudinal groove (the ventral suture), and on the other a
smooth line or slight ridge (the dorsal suture) ; pericarp hard
and woody ; internally divided by transverse partitions into
numerous compartments about 5 mm. long, each containing a
brownish-black pulp and a single seed ; seed anatropous, ovoid,
compressed, about 8 mm. long, 6 mm. wide, 4 mm. thick, light
brown, the raphe as a distinct line on one of the compressed
sides, internally light yellow, embryo curved and embedded in
the endosperm ; odor of pulp distinct, prune-like ; taste sweet.

Constituents. — The fruit yields about 30 per cent, of pulp,
which contains 40 to 60 per cent, of sugar. The drug appar-
ently does not owe its laxative properties to any of the anthra-
quinone derivatives found in senna and related plants.

Allied Plants. — The legumes of related species of Cassia
found in tropical America are similar to those of Cassia Fistula,
and are also used in medicine.

VANILLA.— The fruit of Vanilla planifolia (Fam. Orchid-
aceae), a perennial climbing plant indigenous to Eastern Mex-
ico, and now cultivated (p. 245) in various tropical islands,
including the Seychelles, Mauritius, Java, as well as in the prov-
inces of Vera Cruz and Oaxaca, in Mexico, from whence the best

586

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Fig. 255. A mixture soid as ground black pepper: A, stone cells of olive endocarp;
S, com and wheat starch grains; B, stone cells of pepper hulls; C, fragments of seed coat
and pericarp of cayenne pepper; L, crystals of calcium sulphate which separate on mount-
ing the specimen in 25 per cent, sulphuric acid.

CRUDE DRUGS. 587

fruit is derived. Most of the vanilla used in the United States
comes from Mexico. Some of the Reunion (or Bourbon) fruit
is now also entering the market. For method of curing the fruit
see p. 245.

Mexican Vanilla. — Pods narrow, linear, about 20 cm. long,
7 mm. in diameter, 4 mm. thick ; apex oblique, with a circular
scar; base curved or bent, with a slightly enlarged circular scar;
externally blackish-brown, longitudinally wrinkled, moist, glossy,
sometimes with acicular crystals or monoclinic prisms ; pericarp
about I mm. thick; internally dark brown, i-locular, with numer-
ous seeds embedded in a dark-colored pulp ; seeds anatropous,
ovoid, flattened, 0.2 to 0.3 mm. in diameter, black, iinely retic-
ulate, reserve layers wanting, embryo shrunken ; odor and taste
distinct.

Bourbon Vanilla resembles the Mexican Vanilla, but is
about two-thirds as long and the outer surface is usually covered
with crystals.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 256, 313.

Constituents. — An odorous crystalline principle, vanillin,
from 1.5 to 3 per cent.; an odorous, balsamic or resinous prin-
ciple, which is developed during the process of curing and to
which the peculiar odor of vanilla is due; sugar about 10 per
cent.; fixed oil about 10 per cent.; calcium oxalate in raphides ;
ash about 5 per cent.

Vanillin or methyl protocatechuic aldehyde is manufactured
on a large scale from eugenol or coniferin. It occurs in white,
acicular crystals, which are sparingly soluble in water, soluble
in aclohol and glycerin, the solutions being colored blue with
ferric chloride. Vanillin may be formed as a result of certain
oxidation changes rather than through the action of a ferment
like emulsin which, as has been recently shown, does not exist in
the fresh pods (Fig. 128).

The fruits of a number of species of Vanilla yield vanillin,
which is also found in the Orchid Selenipedmin Chica, of Pan-
ama; the fruit of Rosa canina, of Northern and Middle Europe;
the flowers of Spircca Uhuaria; the balsams and resins of the
genus Tohiifcra; in the seeds of Lupinus alhus, of Europe, which
is cultivated ; and in the bulbs of Dahlia.

588

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Commercial Varieties. — In addition to the Mexican and
Bourbon beans other varieties are found in the market. Mau-
ritius Vanilla occurs in cylindrical pods that are nearly as long
as the Mexican variety, but paler in color and less odorous.

Fig. 256. Vanilla: 3, transverse section of an unripe fruit showing lines of union
of the three carpels (a, b, c), line of dehiscence (D), placenta (.t), seeds (S), fibrovascular
bundle (g), papillaj (P). i, radial- longitudinal section of the outer part of the pericarp
showing epidermis (E), and parenchyma cells with oblique pores (v). 2, tangential-
longitudinal section of the outer part of the pericsrn showing cells with oblique pores (v)
and spirally thickened bands (So). 4. inner layer of the pericarp showing the very long
simple hairs or papillae seen at P in No. 3. — After Meyer.

Tahiti Vanilla, which is produced on the Island of Tahiti and
the Hawaiian Islands, occurs in somewhat broader, flattened
pods. The pods are nearly as long as the Mexican varietv and
sharply attenuated and twisted at the lower portion. The color

CRUDE DRUGS. 589

is reddish-brown and the odor is disagreeable, unfitting it for
use for flavoring. Vanillons are the fruits of wild plants and
are used in the manufacture of tobacco and sachet powders.
They are 10 to 12 cm. long, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. in diameter, gradually
tapering towards each end, somewhat triangular in outline, exter-
nally dark-brown to reddish-brown, frequently with transverse
markings, due to their being wrapped with twine during the
process of curing, when they are spoken of as " braided," and
generally longitudinally split ; the odor is peculiar, somewhat
resembling " heliotrope," and is due to the phenol aldehyde helio-
tropin (piperonal) which is closely related to vanillin.

PoMPONA Vanilla is the fruit of wild and cultivated plants of
Vanilla ponipona, which is considered to be the original plant
from which V. planifolia has been derived by cultivation. The
fruits resemble the vanillons in appearance, but the odor is dis-
agreeable, like that of Tahiti \^anilla.

Vanilla splits and cuts represent the more mature fruits in
which dehiscence has taken place and which are cut up into
short lengths.

Tonka seeds contain the odorous principle coumarin, which
somewhat resembles vanillin. The ripe seeds of Coumarouna
odorata (Fam. Leguminosse), growing in the northern part of
the Amazon region, furnish Dutch tonka, and C. oppositifolia,
of Northern Brazil and Guiana, yields the English tonka. The
seeds are oblong-ovoid, somewhat flattened, 3 to 4 cm. long and
about I cm. wide, externally nearly black, frequently with numer-
ous white crystals, the coriaceous testa being deeply wrinkled ;
internally yellowish-brown, consisting of two plano-convex coty-
ledons, enclosing a plumule with two pinnately-compound leaves
and a fleshy radicle which is directed towards the micropyle sit-
uated at the rounded end of the seed ; the odor is fragrant, and
the taste aromatic and somewhat pungent. Tonka seeds contain
1.5 to 3 per cent, of coumarin or ortho-oxycinnamic anhydride,
which forms colorless prisms having a fragrant odor and a bitter,
aromatic taste. Coumarin is sparingly soluble in water, but quite
so in alcohol. Tonka also contains a large quantity of a fixed oil,
irregularly elongated aleurone grains 10 to 35 /a long, and spher-
ical starch grains from 4 to 9 ju, in diameter (Fig. 131).

590 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Coumarin is rather widely distribvited in nature. Of the
plants in which it has been found the following may be men-
tioned: Vanilla grass or sweet vernal grass {Anthoxanthimi
odoratum) ; Carolina vanilla or dog's tongue (Trilisa odoratis-
sima), one of the Compositse; the yellow melilot (Melilotiis
officinalis.) , a leguminous herb found in waste places in the East-
ern United States and in which it occurs free as well as com-
bined with melilotic acid; other species of Melilotus, as well as
in other genera of the Leguminosse ; sweet-scented bed straw
{Galium triHornm), an herb of the Rubiaceae growing in the
United States; the rhizome of Vitis scssilifolia (Vitacege) of
Brazil, and in Primus Mahaleh (Fam. Rosacege), of Europe.

A number of the orchids contain coumarin, and these belong
chiefly to the genus Orchis, as Orchis odoratissima, of Europe ;
O. coriopliora, of Europe and the Orient; O. Simia, of Europe
and the Orient; O. nu'lifaris, of Europe and Asia; Hahcnaria
conopsca. of Europe and Asia; Aceras anthropophora, of Europe
and Arabia.

FICUS. — FIG. — The fruit of Ficus Carica (Fam. Moracese),
a tree indigenous to Persia and cultivated in most sub-tropical
and tropical countries. The fruit is collected when ripe, par-
tially dried in the sun, and tightly packed in boxes (p. 255).

Description. — Syconium pyriform or obovoid, usually com-
pressed, about 6 cm. long and 1.5 cm. in diameter; externally
light brown, longitudinally veined, wrinkled, frequently with an
efflorescence of grape sugar, apex with a small scaly orifice, base
with a scar or stalk about 7 mm. long and 4 mm. thick, and also
with a leaf-remnant ; torus hollow, the walls 2 to 3 mm. thick,
coriaceous, tough, the inner portion with numerous lanceolate
divisions, upon which are borne numerous ovoid, brownish-yellow,
glossy akenes about i mm. in diameter, the latter with a reserve
layer and a curved embryo ; odor distinct, fruit-like ; taste sweet.

Constituents. — Grape sugar 50 to 60 per cent.; about 1.5
per cent, of fat in the form of oily globules found in the milk-
vessels ; starch in the form of spherical grains ; water about 30
per cent, in the partially dried fruit.

Allied Pl.ants. — Other species of Ficus also yield edible
figs, as the mulberry fig tree (F. Sycomorus), of Africa; F.

CRUDE DRUGS. 591

rcgligiosa, of India ; F. glomerata, of Burmah ; the false banyan
tree, F. bcngalcnsis, of tropical Africa and India; and F. Rnm-
phii, of Asia.

A peptonizing ferment is obtained from the milk- juice of
Ficus Carica, F. Sycomorus, of Africa, and F. exima, of Brazil.

When figs are dried, roasted and ground they form a coffee
substitute kown as Fig Coffee^ which is also used sometimes as
an adulterant of coffee. It is detected by the large, thin-walled
and broad non-glandular hairs of the outer epidermis ; the broad
latex-tubes, 30 to 50 ix wide, and the small akenes. The latter
somewhat resemble the akenes of strawberry fruits, but are dis-
tinguished by the reticulated thickening of the outer cell-wall.

AURANTII DULCIS CORTEX.— SWEET ORANGE
PEEL. — The outer layer of the rind of the fresh fruit of
Citrus Aiirantium sinensis (Earn. Rutaceae), a tree quite exten-
sively cultivated in sub-tropical countries and warm-temperate
regions (p. 306). The outer yellowish layer is the part employed,
and is usually removed from the fruit by grating. The dried
rind is an article of commerce.

Description. — Cut into small pieces or shreds, externally
orange-yellow, with numerous circular depressions and numerous
large oil-secretion reservoirs ; texture coriaceous, tough ; soft
when fresh ; odor aromatic ; taste slightly bitter.

Constituents. — Resembling those of bitter orange peel,
except that there is but a very small quantity of the bitter prin-
ciple. The volatile oil which exists in large reservoirs beneath
the epidermis is obtained by expression from the fresh peel and is
offfcial. It consists of about 90 per cent, of d-limonene and 5 per
cent, of citral, citronellal and the methvl ester of anthranylic acid.

LIMONIS CORTEX.— lemon' PEEL.— The rind of the
fresh fruit of Citrus uicdica Limonum (Earn. Rutacese), a tree
(p. 308) indigenous to Northern India and cultivated in the
European countries bordering the Mediterranean, the West Indies
and other tropical and sub-tropical countries. The outer yel-
lowish layer is the part used and it is removed by grating.

Description. — In freshly grated, lemon-yellow fragments,
with numerous large oil-secretion reserv^oirs and oil-globules ;
odor aromatic ; taste aromatic and slightly bitter.

592 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Volatile oil ; a very small quantity of hes-
peridin and other bitter principles (see -bitter orange peel) ; a
principle resembling tannin ; calcium oxalate ; ash about 4 per
cent. The volatile oil obtained by expression from fresh lemon
peel consists of 90 per cent, d-limonene ; 7 to 10 per cent, of citral,
which is the most important constituent ; and a small quantity
of citronellal, geranyl acetate, terpineol, methyl heptenone, a
sesquiterpene and octyl and nonyl aldehydes.

AURANTII AMARI CORTEX.— BITTER ORANGE
PEEL.— The rind of the unripe fruit of Citrus Aurantium amara
(Earn. Rutaceae), a tree (Fig. 158) indigenous to Northern
India and cultivated in the Mediterranean region, the West Indies
and the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico (p. 306). The
fruit is collected before it is ripe, the rind removed and used either
in the fresh or dried condition. The commercial article is
obtained from Malta, Sicily and Spain.

DE.scRiPTioN.^Usually cut longitudinally into quarters ; ellip-
tical, acute at both ends, 4 to 6 cm. long, 2 to 3 cm. wide, 2 to 6
mm. thick ; externally yellowish or brownish-green, with numer-
ous circular depressions, a scar at one end and occasionally the
remains of the calyx; internally light yellowish-brown, wrinkled,
with numerous conical projections and numerous large oil-secre-
tion reservoirs ; fracture short, tough, surface porous ; odor aro-
matic ; taste aromatic and bitter.

Occasionally in ribbon-like bands 2 to 12 cm. long, 5 to 10
mm. wide, about 2 mm. thick ; externally yellowish-brown.

Constituents. — ^Volatile oil, resembling that of sweet orange
peel but with a superior flavor and a bitter taste ; several bitter
principles: (a) aur.\ntiamarin (1.5 to 2.5 per cent.), an amor-
phous, bitter glucoside, to which the bitter taste is chiefly due ;
(b) aurantiamaric acid fo.i per cent.), a very bitter, green,
amorphous, resinous principle; (c) naringin (aurantiin), a
yellowish, crystalline, bitter glucoside; (d) isohesperidin (0.4
to 3 per cent.), a slightly bitter glucoside. The drug also con-
tains 5 to 8 per cent, of a white, crystalline, tasteless glucoside
HESPERiDiN, which separates in sphere-crystals on placing the
fresh fruit in alcohol. Hesperidin is colored reddish-brown with
ferric chloride and on hydrolysis yields a sweet principle hespere-

CRUDE DRUGS.

593

tin, which crystalHzes in prisms. A fixed oil, resin, and a prin-
ciple resembling tannin ; calcium oxalate, in the form of rhombo-
hedral crystals ; and ash about 5 per cent, are also present.

Allied Drugs. — The immature fruits of Citrus Anrantiimi are
sometimes collected and are known as orange berries. They are
nearly globular; 5 to 20 mm. in diameter, greenish or brownish-
black, granular rugose; the internal structure resembles that of
orange fruits, but the seeds are rudimentary ; and the taste is
aromatic and bitter.

Fig 256a. Tamarindus indica: A, flowering branch with paripinnate leaves; B,
flower bud; C, dorsiventral (irregular) flower; D, longitudinal section of flower showing
unilocular ovary; E, somewhat curved, indehiscent legume; F, G, transverse and longi-
tudinal sections of the seed. — After Taubert.

TAMARINDUS.— TAMARIND.— The preserved pulp of
the ripe fruit of Tainarindus indica (Fam. Leguminosae), a tree
(Fig. 256a) indigenous to tropical Africa and cultivated in the
West and East Indies (p. 294) from whence the two chief
commercial varieties are obtained.

West Indian Tamarind. — Usually a blackish-brown mass,
with a distinct odor and strongly acidulous, sweet taste, and in
which are embedded numerous seeds enclosed in a loose, tough

594 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

membrane ; seeds anatropous, oblong or flattened-quadrangular,
12 to 14 mm. long, 8 to 11 mm. broad, 5 to 7 mm. thick, dark
reddish-brown, smooth, one edge furrowed, transversely striate,
very hard ; cotyledons plano-convex.

East Indian Tamarind. — In blackish cakes, containing less
sugar and more acid.

Constituents. — Tartaric acid 5 to 9 per cent. ; citric acid 3
to 6 per cent. ; potassium bitartrate 6 to 7.3 per cent., and other
salts of organic acids ; invert sugar ^^ to 42 per cent. ; tannin (in
the seed-coats).

Allied Plants. — The pulp of the fruits of several species of
Nephelium (Fam. Sapindacese), of Southern China, resembles
tamarind.

LUPULINUM.— LUPULIN.— A powder separated from
Hops (see Humulus), and consisting chiefly of the glandular
hairs. Lupulin may be systematically separated from the hops,
or it may be obtained as a by-product during the handling of the
hops. Commercial lupulin consists for the most part of sweep-
ings collected where hops are prepared for the market, the extra-
neous matter being removed by sifting and washing. The pow-
der is then carefully dried and preserved.

Description. — Granular, yellowish- or reddish-brown, con-
sisting of glandular hairs with a somewhat globular or ellipsoidal,
bright-yellow, multicellular head o.i to 0.3 mm. in diameter
(Figs. 136, /; 298) ; odor aromatic; taste aromatic and bitter.

Not less than 60 per cent, of lupulin should be soluble in
ether, and the ash should not be more than 10 per cent.

Constituents. — A volatile oil, identical with that of hops,
about 3 per cent. ; a crystalline bitter principle lupamaric acid
(hop bitter), v.hich becomes yellow on exposure to air and on
hydrolysis yields lupuliretin and a crystalline substance lupulic
acid ; a tasteless resin ; myricin ; valerianic acid, which together
with the oil is obtained on the distillation of lupulin with water;
and ash from 3 to 5 per cent.

The volatile oil of hops or lupulin is sparingly soluble in alco-
hol and is not converted into valerianic acid by means of oxidizing
agents. This acid is, however, produced upon treating the extract
of hops with potassium permanganate.

CRUDE DRUGS. 595

VI. LEAVES AND HERBS.

Some of the most valuable and potent vegetable drugs are
those furnished by leaves and herbs. In quite a number of
instances the leaves alone are collected; not infrequently, as with
herbaceous plants, the leaves, together with the flowering and
fruiting tops, are collected ; rarely, however, are the tops alone
employed ; occasionally the drug may consist of the entire plant.
It may be noted in this connection that some of the so-called leaf-
drugs, as belladonna, hyoscyamus and stramonium, may contain
tlie tops of the plants as well, and some of the commercial herbs,
as lobelia, may consist entirely of leaves.

KEY FOR THE STUDY OF LEAVES AND HERBS.

L Leaves.

1. Whole Leaves.

A. Texture coriaceous.

a. Margin entire.

a Glandular-punctate.

Apex emarginate Pilocarpus

Scythe-shaped Eucalyptus

/3 Not glandular-punctate.

Apex obtuse Uva Ursi

b. Margin dentate or serrate.

Glandular-punctate Buchu

Not glandular-punctate Chimaphila

B. Texture not coriaceous.

a. Margin entire.

Not less than 15 mm. broad Coca

Not more than 15 mm. broad. Senna

b. Margin not entire.

Margin sinuate Hamamelis

Margin crenulate Salvia

2. Leaves crumpled or in broken fragments.

A. Texture coriaceous.

Upper surface resinous Eriodictyon

B. Texture not coriaceous.

a. Hairy.

Surface reticulate, veins whitish Digitalis

Surface reticulate, veins brownish Matico

Surface not reticulate Hyoscyamus

596 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

I. Leaves. — Continued.

b. Not very hairy.

Margin entire Belladonnae Folia

Margin sinuate Stramonii Folia

II. Leaves and Flowering Tops.

1. With composite flowers.

Leaves reticulate Eupatorium

Leaves resinous Grindelia

2. With labiate flowers.

A. Very hairy.

Taste bitter Marrubium

B. Not very hairy.

a. Margin slightly serrate.

Leaves dark green, pubescent Hedeoma

h. Margin serrate, midrib and veins
somewhat rose- or purple-colored.
Taste aromatic, followed by a

cooling sensation Mentha Piperita

Taste aromatic Mentha Viridis

3. Odor heavy, like that of tobacco.

A. Margin entire.

Purplish flowers, brownish berries Belladonnae Folia

B. Margin not entire.

Margin sinuate, surface hairy Hyoscyamus

Petiolate, margin four-lobed,
V surface not hairy Stramonii Folia

4. With inflated capsules.

Leaf divisions with gland-like apex Lobelia

III. Flowering Tops, leaves few.

Compressed resinous masses Cannabis Indica

IV. Stem Tops, leaves few.

Branches with yellowish-green wings Scoparius

V. Entire Plant.

Stems cylindrical, leaves entire, capsule bicarpellary Chirata

Stems square, leaves serrate, flowers bilabiate Scutellaria

PILOCARPUS.— JABORANDL— The leaflets of various
species of Pilocarpus (Fam. Rutaceae), shrubs (Fig. 257) indig-
enous to Brazil. There are three principal commercial varieties:
(i) Pernambuco Jaborandi, obtained from P. Jahorandi; (2)

CRUDE DRUGS.

597

Paraguay Jaborandi, yielded by P. pinnatifolins, and (3) Maran-
ham Jaborandi, obtained from P. micro phyllus. The name, jabor-
andi, is applied to a number of other plants growing in Brazil
besides those of the genus Pilocarpus (p. 305).

Fig. 257. Pilocarpus pinnatif alius: A, transverse section of lamina showing upper
epidermis (E), oil gland (Se), palisade cells (P), some of which contain rosette aggregates
of calcium oxalate, loose parenchyma (m), some of the cells of which contain calcium
oxalate (o), and lower epidermis with a stoma (Sp). B, surface view of epidermis showing
basal portion of a non-glandular hair (h). The remains of hairs are often found, the hairs
themselves having been rubbed off. C, view of the under surface of the lamina showing
stomata (sp). D, diagram showing the arrangements of the tissues in one of the secondary
veins: P, palisade cells; m, loose parenchyma; Sc, sclerenchyma; s, sieve; g, tracheae.
E, transverse section of the primary or middle vein showing palisade cells (P), elongated
parenchyma (p), oil glands (Se), sieve (s), tracheae (g), which surrounds parenchyma (m),
thus distinguishing it from the secondary vein. F, surface view of upper epidermis of
lamina. — After Meyer.

Pernambuco Jaborandi. — Elliptical, lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, 6 to 12 cm. long, 1.5 to 4 cm. broad; apex obtuse,
more or less emarginate ; base rounded or acute, unequal ; margin

598 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

entire, slightly revolute ; upper surface dark green or brownish-
green, glabrous, midrib more or less depressed near the apex, veins
of the first order prominent, diverging at an angle of 35° to 50°
and uniting with each other near the margin ; under surface
yellowish- or greenish-brown, pubescent, with numerous light-
brown projections, midrib prominent, yellowish-brown ; petiolule
3 to 5 mm. long ; glandular-punctate ; texture coriaceous, brittle ;
odor slight ; taste bitter, somewhat aromatic, becoming pungent.

Paraguay Jaborandi. — Oblong-lanceolate, ovate or obovate,
8 to 12 cm. long, 2.5 to 5 cm. broad; apex slightly emarginate;
base equal ; margin very slightly revolute ; upper surface dark
green, midrib and veins of the first order not very prominent,
the latter diverging at an angle of 25° to 45° ; under surface
grayish-green or light green, glabrous, with numerous papillae ;
midrib yellowish, with few short hairs ; frequently with numerous
black disks of a species of Puccinia on both surfaces ; texture
as in Pernambuco jaborandi, but only about one-half as thick.

Maranham Jaborandi. — Oblong-ovate, or oblanceolate, 1.5
to 4 cm. long. 1.5 to 2.5 cm. broad; apex deeply emarginate; base
tapering into the petiolule ; margin distinctly revolute ; upper
surface bright green, glabrous, sometimes shiny, midrib promi-
nent, veins of the first order not very prominent, diverging at an
angle of 35° to 45°; under surface grayish-green; frequently
with numerous black disks of a species of Puccinia on both sur-
faces; petiolule about 8 mm. long; texture as in Paraguay jabor-
andi but thinner.

Inner Structure. — See Fig. 257.

Constituents. — About 0.5 to i per cent, of the alkaloid
pilocarpine, which occurs as a colorless, syrupy liquid, but forms
well-defined crystalline salts, the hydrochloride and nitrate being
official. It is very soluble in water, the solutions being dextro-
rotatory. Pilocarpine is decomposed by heat or alkalies and yields
an isomeric substance, isopilocarpine, which is an oily compound
and is usually present in the commercial nitrate of pilocarpine.
The alkaloid pilocarpidine has been obtained from the mother
liquors, after the crystallization of pilocarpine, as a syrupy sub-
stance forming a crystalline nitrate and resembling somewhat
pilocarpine in its physiological action. An alkaloid related to

CRUDE DRUGS. 599

pilocarpidine has been isolated from the leaves of P. pinnatif olius
in the form of an amorphous substance called jaborine, and
resembling atropin in its physiological properties. Recent inves-
tigations do not seem to show that these alkaloids occur in either
the leaves of Paraguay or Maranham Jaborandi. Fresh pilocarpus
leaves also yield 0.2 to i.i per cent, of a volatile oil which con-
tains a hydrocarbon pilocarpene and a stearoptene belonging to
the olefine series.

Allied Drugs. — Nearly all of the species of Pilocarpus con-
tain some pilocarpine, as well as other principles which are found
in the official leaves. Many of these find their way into commerce
and in some instances their assays compare favorably with the
official leaves. Aracati Jaborandi is obtained from P. spicatus,
the leaflets being broad and coriaceous and said to contain 0.16
per cent, of alkaloids. The leaflets of P. racemosiis of the West
Indies are large and membranous and contain about .66 per cent,
of pilocarpine.

EUCALYPTUS.— The leaves of Eucalyptus Globulus (Fam.
Myrtaceae), a tree (Fig. 258) indigenous to Eastern Australia
and Tasmania, and cultivated in Southern Europe, California
and the Southern United States (p. 346). The leaves are col-
lected from older parts of the tree and dried, the principal part
of the commercial supply coming from the south of France.

Description. — Bilateral, lanceolate, scythe-shaped, 15 to 30
cm. long. 2.5 to 5 cm. broad ; apex acuminate ; base somewhat
unequal, acute ; margin entire, revolute ; surface light green, glab-
rous, with numerous small, circular, reddish-brown depressions
or projections in the neighborhood of the stomata and veins, con-
sisting of cork cells ^ ; midrib usually with a -small groove on one
side; veins of the first order diverging at an angle of about 55°,
running to within i mm. of the edge, where they anastomose,
forming a vein parallel with the margin ; petiole 2 to 3 cm. long,
flattened and somewhat twisted ; glandular-punctate ; texture cori-
aceous ; odor slightly aromatic ; taste aromatic, somewhat bitter
and cooling.

' These corky patches appear to be due to an irritation caused by
some of the constituents.

6oo

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Volatile oil 3 to 6 per cent., of which over
60 per cent, is eucalyptol (cineol), the remainder consisting of
d-pinene (eucalypten) and other terpenes ; several resins, one
of which is crystalline and colored brownish-red with ferric
chloride; a neutral bitter principle; eucalyptic acid; tannin and
calcium oxalate.

Fig. 258. Eucalyptus Globulus: A, young branch with opposite, oblong, dorsiventral,
sessile leaves. B, flowering branch with scythe-shaped, petiolate, scattered, bilateral leaves.
C, flower-bud showing the detached upper portion of the perianth (operculum or lid) which
covers the stamens until they are fully mature. D, longitudinal section of a flower bud
showing incurved filaments which curve outwards when the flower matures. E, stamens
in two views, F, truncated capsule or pyxis. G, two fertile seeds. H, sterile seed, seeds of
this kind usually being most numerous. J, two germinating plants. — A-F, after Niedenzu;
G-J, after Miiller.

Allied Plants. — The following Eucalypts yield an oil con-
sisting principally of eucalyptol and pinene, and in which the
eucalyptol exceeds 40 per cent., phellandrene being absent : Euca-
lyptus resinifera, E. polyauthema, E. Bchriana, E. Rossii, E.
pendula, E. dcalbata, E. tercticornis linearis, E. rostrata borealis,
E. maculosa, E. camphora, E. punctata, E. squamosa, E. Bridge-
siana, E. goniocalyx^ E. hicolor, E. vivnnalis, E. populifolia,

CRUDE DRUGS. 6oi

E. longifolia, E. Maidcni, E. Globulus, E. pulvcrulciita, E. cinerea,
E. Stuartiaua, E. Stuartiana var. cordata, E. Morrisii, E. Sinithii
and E. sideroxylon.

UVA URSL— RED BEARBERRY.— The leaves of Arcto-
staphylos Uva-iirsi (Earn. Ericaceae), a procumbent shrub indig-
enous to Europe, Asia and the Northern United States and
Canada (p. 357).

Description. — Obovate. spatulate, 18 to 30 mm. long, 6 to 10
mm. broad; apex obtuse; base acute, tapering; margin entire,
slightly revolute ; upper surface dark green, glabrous, finely retic-
ulate ; under surface yellowish-green ; petiole about 3 mm. long,
slightly pubescent ; texture coriaceous, brittle ; odor slight ; taste
slightly bitter, astringent.

When a solution of vanillin and hydrochloric acid, to which a
few drops of fresh ferrous sulphate solution are added, is applied
to a section of Uva Ursi a crimson color is produced which dis-
tinguishes the drug from its adulterants, with the exception of
Vacciiiiujn J'itis-Idcea. It is distinguished from leaves of the
latter plant as well as other adulterants by becoming bluish-black
with ferrous sulphate.

Constituents. — Two glucosides — arbutin and ericolin ; a
crystalline, resinous principle ursone ; tannin about 5 per cent. ;
gallic acid ; ellagic acid ; a yellow, crystalline coloring principle ;
calcium oxalate ; ash about 3 per cent.

Arbutin forms colorless, bitter needles, which are soluble in
water and alcohol, the solutions being colored azure blue upon
the addition of an alkali followed by phosphomolybdic acid. It
yields on hydrolysis hydroquinone (arctuvin) and methyl hydro-
quinone.

Ericolin is a yellow, hygroscopic, bitter substance, which
yields on hydrolysis the volatile oil ericinol. Ursone occurs in
tasteless needles insoluble in water and capable of being sublimed.

Allied Plants. — ^Various other species of Arctostaphylos
contain principles similar to Uva Ursi. The leaves of trailing arbu-
tus {Epigaa re pens) contain ericolin and possibly arbutin. Erico-
lin occurs in a number of species of Ledum and Rhododendron,
and European huckleberry (Vacciniuiu myrtilhis) , small cranberry
{Oxycoccus paJnstris) and heather (Calluna vulgaris), all of

6o2

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Europe. The two latter plants are naturalized in New Jersey, the
New England States and Eastern Canada. A number of species
of Rhododendron contain, in addition to andromedotoxin (see
page 357), the same principles found in Uva Ursi. Marsh tea
or narrow-leaved Labrador tea (Ledum palustre), growing in
the Northeastern United States and Canada, as well as North-
ern Europe and Asia, contains ericolin, arbutin, an ethereal oil
(the principal component of which is Ledum camphor), valer-
ianic, acetic and butyric acids. (Compare also Chimaphila.)

Fig. 259. Buchu leaves showing oil glands which give the leaves the glandular-
punctate appearance: i, Barosma crenata oralis; 2, B. crennlaia latifolia; 3, B. betuUna;
4, B. serratifolia; s, Empleurum ensatum; 6, dehiscent fruit of B. crenulata; 7, flower
of the same. — After Tschirch.

BUCHU. — The leaves of several species of Barosma (Earn.
Rutacese), a shrub indigenous to Cape Colony. There are two
chief commercial varieties : ( i ) Short Buchu obtained from B.
hctulina and (2) Long Buchu. obtained from B. serratifolia, the
short buchu being official (p. 306; Fig. 259).

Short Buchu. — Obovate. rhomboid-obovate, ovate or ellip-
tical or somewhat cuneate ; 9 to 18 mm. long, 6 to 12 mm. broad;
apex obtuse, somewhat recurved ; base acute or cuneate ; margin
sharply dentate or denticulate and with an oil-secretion reservoir
at the base of each tooth ; upper surface yellowish-green, glab-

CRUDE DRUGS. 603

rous ; under surface yellowish-green, longitudinally striate ; both
surfaces papillose ; petiole about i mm. long ; texture coriaceous ;
odor and taste distinct, aromatic (Fig. 158).

Long Buchu. — Linear-lanceolate, 25 to 40 mm. long, 4 to 6
mm. broad ; margin sharply serrate and glandular ; apex some-
what rounded or truncate.

Constituents. — Short buchu contains about 1.2 to 1.45 per
cent, of volatile oil, of which about 30 per cent, is the crystalline
body diosphenol ; long buchu contains only about one-third as
much volatile oil and it contains little or no diosphenol ; buchu also
contains two crystalline glucosides, diosmin and hesperidin (see
Aurantii Amari Cortex) ; mucilage and calcium oxalate.

Allied Plants. — The leaves of Barosma crenulata are occa-
sionally found in the market ; they are ovate, obovate or oblong-
lanceolate, about twice as broad as long buchu, with slightly
toothed and glandular margin, more or less rounded apex, and
yield 1.6 per cent, of volatile oil resembling that of short buchu.

Adulterants. — The leaves of Emplcuruni cnsatmn (Fam.
Rutaceae) have been offered for long buchu. (See Fig. 259.)
They have a bitter taste and yield about i per cent, of a volatile
oil which does not contain a crystalline principle.

The trifoliate leaves of Psoralca obliqna are obtained from
a South African shrub. The leaflets are oblique or unequal-sided,
dentate, bitter, glandular and have numerous simple hairs.

Karoo Buchu is derived from Diosma succulenta, of South
Africa. The leaves are ovate, 3 to 6 mm. long, coriaceous, obtuse
and slightly recurved at the apex. They yield an oil with a
peppermint-like odor containing diosphenol, and 26 per cent, of
extractive. The leaves of aniseed buchu '{B. pulchella) are
smaller than those of B. betulina and have an odor of citronella.

CHIMAPHILA.— PIPSISSEWA.— The dried leaves of
CJiimaphila iimbeUata (Fam. Ericaceae), a perennial herb (p.
355) indigenous to the United States and Southern Canada and
Northern Europe and Siberia.

Description. — Lanceolate or oblanceolate. 2.5 to 5 cm. long,
8 to 18 mm. broad; apex obtuse or acute; base acute or cuneate;
margin sharply serrate; upper surface dark green, not mottled,
glabrous, shiny ; midrib and veins depressed, the latter diverging

6o4 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

at an angle of about 60° and uniting with each other near the
margin ; under surface yellowish-green ; petiole about i mm.
long ; texture coriaceous, brittle ; odor slight ; taste astringent,
bitter.

Constituents. — A neutral, tasteless principle chimaphilin,
occurring in golden-yellow needles ; two glucosides — arbutin and
ericolin (see Uva Ursi) ; several other crystalline principles; a
volatile oil ; tannin 4 to 5 per cent. ; calcium oxalate ; ash about
5 per cent.

COCA.— COCA LEAVES.— The leaves of Erythroxylon
Coca, and its varieties (Fam. Erythroxylaceas), shrubs (Fig.
260) probably indigenous to Bolivia and Peru, where they are
extensively cultivated, as well as in Java and Ceylon (p. 303).
The leaves when fully grown are picked and quickly dried in the
sun; Two or three harvests are obtained a year. There are two
principal commercial varieties — Bolivian (Huanco) and Peruvian
(Truxillo), the former being preferred. On keeping the leaves
the alkaloid cocaine is dissipated and they lose their stimulating
properties, particularly if they are not thoroughly dried.

Bolivian Coca. — Oval, obovate or elliptical, 3 to 7 cm. long,
2 to 3 cm. broad (Fig. 260) ; apex acute, slightly mucronate; base
acute ; margin entire, somewhat revolute ; upper surface dark
green, glabrous, midrib with a distinct ridge ; under surface yel-
lowish-green, distinctly undulate, with numerous minute papillae,
frequently with a parallel line about 4 mm. from the midrib on
either side and extending from the base to the apex ; petiole dark
brown, i to 6 mm. long; texture somewhat coriaceous; odor dis-
tinct ; with a bitter taste, and producing a sensation of numbness.

Peruvian Coca. — Leaves usually more broken, 3 to 5.5 cm.
long. 1.5 to 2 cm. broad; upper surface light green, ridge on the
midrib faint or wanting; under surface light yellowish-green,
the curved line on either side of the midrib visually wanting ; more
or less fragile ; sensation of numbness on tasting the drug not so
pronounced.

The flowers of a species of Inga (Fam. Leguminosoe) are
frequently present. The pedicel is about 2 mm. long ; the calyx
yellowish-brown, about i cm. long, five-toothed, pubescent;
corolla cylindrical, or somewhat funnel-shaped, 5-toothed, about

CRUDE DRUGS.

605

I cm. long, yellowish-brown, very pubescent; stamens numerous,
more or less united into a tube, exserted ; filaments reddish-brown.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 261, 286.

Constituents. — Several alkaloids, including cocaine, cinna-
myl-cocaine, truxilline and ecgonine. Of these cocaine is the

Fig. 260. Flovvenng branch of Erythroxylon Coca showing the parallel lines on either
side of the midrib, which are not true veins, but due to an extra development of hypodermal
cells in this region, — After Reiche.

most important, the Bolivian leaves containing the greatest
amount, or 0.5 to i per cent. ; the other alkaloids preponderate
in the Peruvian leaves, which usually do not contain more than
one-half or two-thirds as much cocaine as the Bolivian leaves ;
the Java leaves also contain benzoyl-pseudotropine ; in addition.

6o6

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY

coca leaves contain a volatile aromatic principle ; a tannin giving
a green color with ferric salts ; and calcium oxalate.

Cocaine (benzoyl-methyl-ecgonine) occurs in monoclinic
prisms which are sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol.

Fig. 261. Transverse section of coca leaf near the midrib; U. upper epidermis; P,
palisade cells, some of which contain monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate; M, loose paren-
chyma, some of the cells of which also contain monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate; L,
lower epidermis with distinct papillae; CA, monoclinic prism of calcium oxalate, SF,
sclerenchymatic fibers; T, traclieae; S, sieve.

the solution having a bitter taste and producing a characteristic
numbness. It forms crystalline salts and yields, on hydrolysis.
which is rather easily accomplished, benzoic acid, methyl alcohol
and ecgonine. (See Fig. 157, also Part IV.)

CRUDE DRUGS. 607

EcGONiNE crystallizes in monoclinic prisms, which are slightly
bitter, readily soluble in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol.
CiNNAMYL COCAINE is found in commercial cocaine and occurs
in rosettes of needle-shaped crystals which are nearly insoluble
in water, soluble in alcohol and on hydrolysis yield cinnamic
acid, methyl alcohol and ecgonine. a-TRUXiLLiNE (cocamine) is
a bitter alkaloid which occurs either in an amorphous form or in
large crystals and yields on hydrolysis truxillic acid, methyl alco-
hol and ecgonine. Truxilline occurs sometimes to the extent of
0.5 per cent, in Peruvian (Truxillo) leaves. Cocaine is found
in the seeds and roots as well as in the leaves. The leaves contain
a small amount of methyl salicylate.

It has been shown that young coca leaves contain 2.02 per cent,
of total alkaloids, or more than twice as much as the older leaves,
while the amount of ash yielded by them is slightly less, being
6.4 per cent. The constituents of Ceylon Coca resemble those of
the Java variety.

SENNA.— SENNA LEAVES.— The leaflets of various spe-
cies of Cassia (Fam. Leguminosse), small shrubs indigenous to
Upper Egypt and Southern Arabia. There are two important
commercial varieties : ( i ) Alexandrian Senna, derived from
wild plants (Fig. 262) of Cassia acufifolia, a small shrub growing
in the region of the Nile River from Assouan to Kordofan (p.
292), and exported by way of Alexandria and Red Sea ports;
(2) Indian or Tinnivelly Senna, derived from cultivated plants
of Cassia angusfifolia, growing on the East African coast, in
Arabia and Northwestern India, and cultivated in Southern
India (p. 292). The leaves are carefully collected and dried, the
Tinnivelly variety being more largely used, .although the Alex-
andrian is more highly esteemed.

Alexandrian Senna. — Lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate; 1.5
to 3 cm. long, 5 to 8 mm. broad (Fig. 262, F) ; apex acute,
mucronate ; base unequal, acute; margin entire; upper surface
pale green, nearly glabrous, midrib sometimes depressed, veins of
first order more or less prominent, under surface light grayish-
green, midrib prominent, minutely pubescent, especially near the
veins ; petiolule about i mm. long ; texture coriaceous, fibrous ;
odor slight ; taste somev/hat bitter.

6o8

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

TiNNivELLY Senna. — From 2.5 to 5 cm. long (Fig. 262, H),
upper surface light green, lower surface slightly pubescent.
Inner Structure. — See Fig. 263.

Fig. 262. Cassia acutifoUa: E, fruiting branch-, F, a single leaflet; G, a pod. Cassiu
angustiiolia: H, a single leaf; J, a pod. — After Taubert.

Constituents. — Senna leaves contain several glucosides
which yield oxymethylanthraquinone compounds resembling those
found in aloes and rhubarb ; a glucosidal substance, anthr.\glu-
COSENNIN, which occurs as a brown-black powder and yields on
hydrolysis senna-emodin (tri-oxymethylanthraquinone) and

CRUDE DRUGS.

60Q

seniia-chryosphanic acid (di-ox}methylanthraquinone). (See
Rhubarb.) Anthraglucosennin when acted upon by alkalies pro-
duces an amorphous black powder, sexna-xigrin, which also

Fig. 263. Cassia angiistifolia (India senna): A. transverse section through tht
middle vein showing upper epidermis (E), palisade cells (P), rosette aggregate of calcium
oxalate (Od"), monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate (o). tracheae (G), sieve (Sg), sclerenchyma
fibers (F). lower epidermis with rather thick-walled cells (E). B, transverse section through
portion of leaf between the veins showing the absence of monoclinic prisms of calcium oxa-
late, the presence of palisade cells and stomata in both the lower and upper portion, and
a hair (H) on the lower surface. C, lower epidermis on surface view; D, upper epidermis
showing stomata and a single hair. E, diagram of section through the middle vein, the
letters corresponding to those in A. — After Meyer.

yields on hydrolysis emodin and chrysophanic acid. Senna also
contains a yellowish, amorphous glucoside, glucosennin" ; a red-
dish-brown, amorphous substance, senna-rhamnetin^ which dif-

6io BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

fers from rhanmetin found in the fruit of Rhanuius cathartica in
that the latter is crystaUine and forms a fluorescent solution with
sulphuric acid; senna-isoemodin (isomeric with senna-emodin),
which is soluble in petroleum ether ; cathartic acid ; calcium
oxalate ; and ash lo to 12 per cent. The active principles of senna
are emodin, chrysophanic acid and cathartic acid. The percentage
of emodin is from 0.8 per cent, in Tinnivelly leaves to i per cent,
in the Alexandria variety.

Allied Plants. — Senna pods (Fig. 262), derived from both
C. acutifolia and C. aiigitstifolia, are also found in the market,
either admixed with the leaves or sold separately ; they are from
3.5 to 7 cm. long and about 2 cm. broad, greenish to dark brown
externally, and contain from five to seven obovate, dark brown,
nearly smooth seeds. They contain apparently the same active
principles as the leaves.

Similar principles are found in other species of Cassia, espe-
cially in the American senna (C. niarilandica), which is an
herbaceous perennial (Fig. 152), indigenous to the Eastern and
Central United States and Canada, with 12- to 20-foliate leaves,
yellow flowers and a linear, slightly curved legume. The leaves
of senna are sometimes admixed with those of Cassia ohovata,
which are broad and obovate, while the pods of the latter species
are distinctly curved. Mecca or Arabian senna is obtained from
a variety of C. aiigiisfifolia, growing in Arabia. The leaves of
C. holoscricca. of Abyssinia, are quite hairy and found occa-
sionally in the market under the name of Aden senna. The
leaves of other members of the Leguminosge are used like senna,
as Cytisus pitrgans of Southern France, Tcphrosia ApoUinca of
Egypt, and Colnfca cruenta of the Caucasus region.

The root of Viviania esculenta (Fam. Geraniaceae), of the
East Indies contains a principle resembling cathartic acid, a gluco-
side also found in senna and rhubarb.

HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA.— WTTCHHAZEL LEAVES.—
The leaves of HarnaincUs virginiana (Fam. Hamamclidaceae), a
shrub (Fig. 264) indigenous to the Eastern and Middle L'^nited
States and Canada (p. 286). The leaves are collected in autumn,
and are used in the fresh condition, or dried ; when dried they
should be carefully preserved and not kept longer than one year.

CRUDE DRUGS.

6ii

Description. — Broadly elliptical, or rhomboid-obovate, more
or less unequal; 3.5 to 12 cm. long-, 2.5 to 7 cm. broad; apex
rounded, acute or acuminate; base obliquely cordate; margin sin-

JjPy^Pf^^B

|PH^^Bfl|||:,/ ^^^^hEX^^^^^H^t

»_^^SHw^eL.^j»* ' *• ...g

-mj^wm^

L\^^

Fig. 264. Branch of Witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana) showing alternate, short-
petiolate and pinnate-reticulately. veined leaves, having a broadly oval or obovate out-
line, round, acute, or slightly acuminate apex; slightly cordate, inequilateral base; and
undulate or sinuous margin.

uate or sinuate-dentate ; upper surface dark green, veins of the
first order diverging at an angle of about 60° and running nearly
parallel to the margin, with grayish patches of a mold and slightly

6i2 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

pubescent ; under surface light green, pubescent, midrib and veins
prominent; petiole 5 to 12 mm. long; texture coarse, brittle; odor
slight; taste astringent.

Constituents. — Volatile oil ; a bitter principle ; tannin, about
3 per cent. ; gallic acid, and calcium oxalate.

The distillate, obtained on distilling either the fresh or dried
leaves of Hamamelis with water, contains an aromatic substance
that apparently does not exist as such in the leaves. The sub-
stance sold as hamamelin is a mixture consisting of an evaporated
alcoholic extract of either the leaves or bark, that of the former
being greenish-black and more permanent and the latter brownish-
black and more or less hygroscopic.

SALVIA. — SAGE. — The leaves of Sak'ia officinalis (Fam.
Labiatse), a perennial herb (p. 368) indigenous to Southern
Europe, and cultivated in England, France, Germany and the
United States, both for use as a drug and as a pot herb. The
leaves are collected when the plants are in flower, and carefully
dried in the shade.

Description. — Oblong-lanceolate or ovate, 2 to 10 cm. long,
I to 2.5 cm. broad; apex acute; base rounded or somewhat heart-
shaped, frequently lobed ; margin crenulate ; upper surface gray-
ish-green, densely pubescent (Fig. 284, F) when the leaves are
young, the older leaves being nearly smooth, midrib and veins
depressed ; under surface light grayish-green, midrib prominent,
veins of first order diverging at an angle of 55° and running
nearly parallel to the margin, minutely reticulate and densely
pubescent ; petiole i to 4 cm. l-^ng, upper side grooved, grayish
purple ; texture velvety, more or less pliable ; odor aromatic ; taste
aromatic and bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil 0.5 to 2.5 per cent., containing
pinene, cineol, thujon and borneol ; a bitter principle somewhat
resembling marrubiin ; resin ; and tannin, or a principle closely
resembling it in its astringency and behavior with ferric salts.

Allied Plants. — The oil from r^Tuscatel Sage (Salvia Scla-
rca) has an odor of lavender and apparently contains linalyl
acetate.

ERIODICTYON.— VERBA SANTA.— The dried leaves of
En'odicfyon caUfoniicum (Syn. E, glntinosum) (Fam. Hydro-

CRUDE DRUGS. 613

phyllacese), an evergreen shrub (p. 367) indigenous to the moun-
tains of California and Northern Mexico.

Description. — Usually broken into fragments ; lamina lance-
olate, 7 to 15 cm. long, I to 3 cm. broad; apex acute; base acute,
slightly tapering into the petiole ; margin nearly entire or unevenly
serrate ; upper surface yellowish-green, glabrous, resinous ; under
surface grayish-green, reticulate, minutely tomentose between the
reticulations, midrib light yellow, prominent; petiole 5 to 10 mm.
long ; texture coriaceous, brittle ; odor and taste balsamic.

Constituents. — A greenish-yellow acrid resin about 9 per
cent.; a yellow crystalline principle eriodictyonic acid (about 2
per cent.), with a somewhat sweetish but acid taste and becom-
ing reddish-black with ferric chloride; volatile oil; ericolin (see
Uva Ursi) ; an inert resin; tannin, and calcium oxalate.

DIGITALIS.— FOX GLOVE.— The leaves of Digitalis pur-
purea (Fam. Scrophulariacese), a biennial herb (Fig. 265) prob-
ably indigenous to Central and Southern Europe, and cultivated
and naturalized in various parts of Europe and the United States
and Canada (p. 376). The leaves are collected in June from
plants of the second year's growth, just before the commencement
of flowering, immediately dried (preferably with the leaves on
the stem as in the drying of tobacco), and carefully preserved.
Germany furnishes the chief supply, the leaves from both culti-
vated and wild plants being used. Digitalis leaves should be
carefully dried, stored in bottles or tight tin cans in which a
bottle containing freshly burnt lime is placed, the latter container
being covered with perforated parchment. The leaves should
not be kept longer than one year.

Description. — Usually more or less crumpled and broken
into fragments; lamina ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate, 10 to 25
cm. long, 5 to 15 cm. broad; apex obtuse or rounded; base some-
what cuneate, tapering into the petiole ; margin dentate or crenate,
the divisions with a yellowish-brown gland-like apex ; upper sur-
face dark green, minutely hairy, somewhat wrinkled, with a single
water-pore near the apex of each tooth ; under surface grayish-
green, midrib grayish-brown, prominent, from which veins of the
first order diverge at angles of 45° to 65° and unite with one
another near the margin, and from which arise other anastomos-

6i4

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ing- veins, giving a distinctly reticulate appearance; distinctly
pubescent on the veins and frequently on the reticulations ; petiole

Fig. 265. Foxglove {Digitalis purpurea): The terminal i-sided raceme with slightly
irregular, declined, tubular flowers, and a leaf of the first year's plant with long, winged
or laminate petiole.

about one-third the length of the lamina or in the upper leaves
nearly wanting, grayish-brown, laminated; texture fragile; odor
distinct ; taste bitter.

CRUDE DRUGS.

615

Leaves that are more than 30 cm. long should be rejected, as
also the tuft of radical leaves of the first-year plant.
Inner Structure. — See Fig. 266.

Fig. 266. Transverse section of digitalis leaf through one of the veins: UE, uppe»
epidermis; P, mesophyll; LE, lower epidermis; G, glandular hairs; N, non-glandular hairs;
C, coUenchyma; T, tracheae; S, sieve.

Constituents. — Several crystalline glucosides, including digi-
toxin (0.2 to 0.3 per cent.), digitalin and digitonin, the former
two being the more important. The drug also contains a volatile
oil containing a stearoptene digitalosmin, which has the odor of

6i6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

digitalis and a nauseous, acrid taste; a volatile principle, antir-
rhinic acid, somewhat resembling valerianic acid; digitalic acid,
separating in white needles ; two coloring principles, one red and
the other yellow, resembling chrysophan, a glucoside found in
rhubarb ; an oxydase ferment which occurs in the recently dried
leaves; and ash lo to i6 per cent, (see Fig. 335).

DiGiTOXiN occurs in white, needle-shaped crystals which are
insoluble in water but more or less soluble in alcohol, of a bitter
taste and colored deep green with hydrochloric acid. Digitalin
(digitalinum verum) occurs in white, rather characteristic gran-
ules which are sparingly soluble in water and more or less soluble
in alcohol, forming yellowish-colored solutions with concentrated
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. If the latter acid contains a trace
of ferric sulphate solution a permanent bluish-red color is pro-
duced. DiGiTONiN is a saponin-like crystalline substance which
is nearly insoluble in water, somewhat soluble in alcohol, and
remains colorless on treatment with hydrochloric acid, but a dilute
sulphuric acid solution becomes garnet-red in color on boiling
for some time. Digitalein occurs as a yellowish-white powder
and is supposed to be a mixture of digitoxin, digitalin and digi-
tonin. French digitalin consists chiefly of digitoxin, while in
German digitalin the principal substance is digitonin. The
latter is distinguished by being more soluble in both water and
alcohol. Digitin is a physiologically inactive substance. Nati-
velle's digitaline cristallisee consists chiefly of digitoxin.

Allied Drugs. — The seeds of Digitalis purpurea are about
I mm. or less in diameter, yellowish- or dark-brown, oblong or
spatulate in section, more or less plano-convex and somewhat
tuberculate. They contain apparently the same principles as the
leaves. The digitoxin is said to be different from that obtained
from the leaves and is known as a-digitoxin. It is claimed that
the leaves of the first year's non-flowering plant when properly
dried are equally as active as the official leaves.

The leaves of Digitalis grandiflora growing abundantly in
Switzerland appear to be as efficient as those of Digitalis purpurea.

Adulterants. — The leaves of other cultivated varieties of
Digitalis have been substituted for those of D. purpurea, as those
of the Mammoth Foxglove (D. monstrosa), which is distin-

CRUDE DRUGS. 617

guished by producing long, spike-like racemes which are ter-
minated by one large flower.

MATICO. — The dried leaves of Piper angustifoliiiin (Fam.
Piperacese), a shrub indigenous to Peru and Bolivia (p. 249).

Description. — Usually in large, compressed, matted masses ;
lamina narrow, oblong-lanceolate, 10 to 20 cm. long, 2 to 5 cm.
broad ; apex acute and long-tapering ; base unequal, slightly cord-
ate ; margin finely crenulate, with broad, truncate teeth ; upper
surface dark green, tessellated, harsh to the touch from the pres-
ence of numerous very small papillae and minute, bristly hairs ;
lower surface grayish-green, reticulate, matted hairy, velvety to
the touch, the veins being very prominent and yellowish-brown,
those of the first order diverging at an angle of 65° to 80°, then
curving and converging at the apex ; petiole 2 to 3 mm. long,
texture fragile when dry ; odor pronounced, aromatic ; taste aro-
matic, pungent, pepper-like.

The drug is generally admixed with the flower spikes, which
are 2.5 to 15 cm. long and about 2 mm. in diameter, yellowish-
brown, and consisting of very small perfect flowers, which are
subtended by bracts fringed on the margin with long, multicel-
lular, non-glandular hairs ; or the spikes may bear the mature
fruits, consisting of somewhat cubical or tetragonal, reddish-brown
drupes, which are 0.5 to i mm. in diameter and finely reticulate,
somewhat like the seeds of lobelia (see p. 629).

A few of the jointed,stems with swollen nodes are also present.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, resin, a bitter principle, and
artanthic acid (see p. 249). For analyses of recent admixtures
and substitutes see Thoms in Arbeiten a. d. Ph. Ins., Berlin, 1910.

Allied Plants. — The drug is frequently admixed with, or
entirely substituted by, other species of Piper. Of these may
be mentioned P. camphoriferum (the oil of which contains bor-
neol and camphor), P. lineatuin, P. aiignstifoliuup Ossaiiiiiii, P.
acutifolium subvcrbascifolium,P. mollicomiim and P. aspcrifolimn.

HYOSCYx\MUS.— HENBANE.— The leaves and flowering
tops of Hyoscyamus niger (Fam. Solanaceas), an annual or bien-
nial herb (Fig. 267) probably indigenous to Europe, Western
Asia and Northern Africa and cultivated in Germany, Russia,
England and the Northern United States and Canada, and also

6i8

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

naturalized in waste places (p. 372). The leaves are collected
shortly after flowering from biennial plants of the second year's
growth, and carefully dried and preserved. The commercial
article comes chiefly from Germany.

Fig. 267. Leaves and fruits of solanaceous drugs: A, D, Belladonna; B, F, Stramo

nium; C, E, Hyoscyamus.

Description. — Usually in irregular, matted fragments. Stem
hollow, cylindrical, flattened, longitudinally furrowed and wrin-
kled, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter ; internodes i to 3.5 cm. long. Leaves
ovate or ovate-lanceolate. 5 to 10 cm. long. 2 to 7 cm. broad, apex
acuminate ; base amplexicaul ; margin acutely four-lobed ; upper

CRUDE DRUGS. 619

surface dark green and pubescent ; under surface grayish-green
and glandular-pubescent (Fig. 287, B) ; midrib yellowish-green,
from which veins of the first order diverge at an angle of from
10° to 35° and pass into the lobes; texture fragile. Flowers soli-
tary and with a pedicel about 4 mm. long; calyx tubular,
5-toothed, about 10 mm. long, outer surface very pubescent;
corolla 5-parted, the lobes more or less unequal, somewhat spread-
ing, the tube purplish, the limb yellowish, reticulate from purplish
veins ; stamens five, declined, mostly exserted ; stigma capitate.
Fruit, a two-locular pyxis. Seeds numerous, campylotropous,
somewhat reniform, flattened, i mm. long, light brown, finely
pitted, with a curved embryo embedded in the endosperm. Odor
distinct. Taste bitter and somewhat acrid.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 282, A; 287, B ; 302, A.

Constituents. — The alkaloids hyoscyamine and hyoscine
(scopolamine) 0.08 to 0.15 per cent., of which three-fourths is
hyoscyamine ; an odorous principle in the nature of a butyric ether
or butyrin ; a glucosidal bitter principle, hyospicrin ; potassium
nitrate, about 2 per cent., and calcivmi oxalate.

Hyoscyamine (an isomer of atropine) occurs in colorless,
silky needles with an acrid, disagreeable taste, partly soluble in
water, soluble in alcohol, and is readily decomposed into atropine.
It forms crystalline salts, of which the hydrobromide is official.
Hyoscine forms prismatic crystals, which are soluble in water
and alcohol, and yields scopoline (oscine) and tropic acid.

Allied Plants. — Hyoscyamine is also found in Datura Stra-
monium, Atropa Belladonna, Anisodus Inridns, Duboisia niyo-
poroidcs, Lactuca sativa and L. virosa (p. 392), the two latter
plants belonging to the Compositas. Hyoscipe (scopolamine) is
also present in belladonna root, the seeds of Hyoscyamus niger
(p. 372), the leaves of Datura Stramonitini, Datura fastuosa of
the East Indies, the leaves of Duboisia myoporoides and the
roots of Scopolia japonica and 6". atropoidcs.

The leaves of Hyoscyamus muticus (Fig. 269), a plant grow-
ing in Egypt, yield 1.34 per cent, of alkaloids consisting of prac-
tically pure hyoscyamine.

Duboisia leaves are obtained from Duboisia myoporoides, a
large shrub indigenous to Australia. They are short-petiolate, 7

620 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

to lo cm. long, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. broad, with acute or narrow apex
and base, and entire or somewhat revokite margin. In the drug
they usually occur in broken fragments, which are thin, greenish-
brown, and have a slight narcotic odor and bitter taste. They
contain in addition to hyoscyamine (duboisine) and hyoscine, the
alkaloid pseudohyoscyamine, which occurs in small, needle-
shaped crystals that are difficultly soluble in water but readily
soluble in alcohol. Duboisia Lcichardtii also contains a large
amount of alkaloids resembling those of Duboisia. Pituri or
Australian tobacco is the leaf of Duboisia Hopwoodii, and is used
in Australia like tobacco. It contains 2.5 per cent, of a liquid
alkaloid piturine. which has a pungent odor and taste, and closely
resembles nicotine.

BELLADONNA FOLIA.— BELLADONNA LEAVES.—
The leaves and flowering tops of Atropa Belladonna (Fam. Sol-
anaceae), a perennial herb (Fig. 268) native of Central and
Southern Europe, Asia Minor and Persia, and cultivated in Eng-
land and Germany, from which countries most of the commercial
supply is obtained (p. 372). The leaves and tops are gathered
when the plants are in flower, and used fresh or after being dried.

Description. — Usually in irregular, matted fragments. Stem
hollow, cylindrical, flattened, longitudinally furrowed and wrin-
kled, 1.5 to^2 mm. in diameter, internodes from 2.5 to 6.5 cm.
long. Leaves single or in unequal pairs, broadly ovate or some-
what elliptical, 6 to 15 cm. long, 2.5 to 7 cm. broad; apex acum-
inate ; base acute, somewhat unequal and tapering into the petiole ;
margin entire : upper surface dark green, glabrous, epidermis with
distinct papillse ; under surface grayish-green, slightly pubescent
(Fig. 287, 0 on the veins, epidermis distinctly sinuate, midrib
dark brown, the veins of the first order diverging from it at angles
of about 45° and running nearly parallel to near the margin;
petiole dark brown, 5 to 15 mm. long and semi-circular in cross
section; texture fragile." Flowers solitary, pedicel 1.5 to 2 cm.
long; calyx deeply 5-cleft, about i cm. long, outer surface slightly
pubescent ; corolla 5-parted, about 2 cm. long, campanulate, yel-
lowish-purple ; stamens five, included ; style somewhat exserted.
Fruit, a superior berry, globular, dark green, 7 to 10 mm. in
diameter, 2-locular, many-seeded. Seeds campylotropous, some-

CRUDE DRUGS.

621

what reniform, flattened, light brown ; testa finely pitted, with a
curved embryo embedded in the endosperm. Odor distinct, heavy.

Taste somewhat disagreeable.

Fir, 368. Atropa BeUadnnna sb'Ti-inq tiip pltprnate, netiol^te, ovate, entire leaves,
in the axils of which are the solitary fruits or flowers with large, leafly bracts.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 285, K: 287, C.

GoNSTiTUENT.s. — Several alkaloids amounting to from 0.3 to
0.7 per cent., of which hyoscyamine (see Hyoscyamus) exists in
largest proportion. The drug also contains hyoscine (scopola-

622 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

mine), atropine, formed from hyoscyamine, and belladonnine,
formed from atropine ; a fluorescent principle ^-methyl-sesculetin
(atrosin or chrysatropic acid), which resembles a similar principle
found in gelsemium ; malic acid and calcium oxalate in the form
of sphenoidal micro-crystals (Fig. 287, C).

Atropine is a powerful mydriatic alkaloid which occurs in
colorless or white acicular crystals that are soluble in alcohol
but sparingly soluble in water. It is optically inactive and may
be sublimed without decomposition. The aqueous solutions are,
however, easily decomposed, acquiring a yellow color and a dis-
agreeable odor. On treating atropine with nitric acid and potas-
sium hydrate a violet color is produced. On hydrolysis atropine
yields tropin and tropic acid. Upon heating atropine with nitric
acid so as to cause the loss of a molecule of water the alkaloid
APOATROPiNE (atropamine or anhydro-atropine) is formed, which
has been isolated from belladonna root and which does not possess
any mydriatic properties. On heating apoatropine with hydro-
chloric acid or upon simply heating it for some time alone the
base BELLADONNINE (oxyatropine) is formed (see Figs. 142, 341).

The amount of alkaloids varies in difl:'erent parts of the plant
and has been given as follows : Roots, 0.06 per cent. ; stems, 0.04
per cent. ; leaves, 0.2 per cent. ; unripe berries, 0.19 per cent. ; ripe
berries, o.2i per cent. ; and seeds, 0.33 per cent.

Adulterants. — The leaves of Scopolia carniolica (p. 509;
Fig. 273) and Phytolacca decandra (Fig. 139) have been recently
reported as substitutes.

STRAMONIUM.— STRAMONIUM LEAVES.— The leaves
and flowering tops of Datura Stramonium (Fam. Solan-
aceae), an annual herb (Fig. 267) probably indigenous to the
region of the Caspian Sea, naturalized in waste places in Europe
and North America, and cultivated in France, Germany and Hun-
gary (p. 372). The leaves and tops are collected when the plant
is in flower, and are carefully dried and preserved, the chief of
the commercial supply being obtained from cultivated plants.

Description. — Usually in irregular, matted fragments. Stem
cylindrical, flattened, longitudinally furrowed and wrinkled, 2 to

5 mm. in diameter; internodes 1.5 to 2 cm. long. Leaves ovate,

6 to 20 cm. long, 2 to 12 cm. broad ; apex acuminate ; base
unequal, one side extending 3 to 12 mm. below the other; margin

CRUDE DRUGS.

623

irregularly sinuate-lobed, the lobes acute ; upper surface dark
green, nearly glabrous, under surface yellowish-green, glabrous,
slightly pubescent (Fig. 287, D) on the veins, midrib dark brown,

Fig. 269. Hyoscyamus muticus: A, leaf; B, portion of upper surface of leaf; C,
portion of lower surface; D, section of flower showing calyx (c), lobed corolla (p), stamens
inserted on corolla tube (s), ovary (o); E, portion of stalk with fruits showing cylindri-
cal calyx; F, pollen grains in diff'erent views; G, portion of xylem of stem showing trachese
(t) with bordered pores, wood fibers (w) with oblique simple pores; H, characteristic branch-
ing hairs found on the stem, leaves and calyx; K, crystals of calcium oxalate; L, seed with
epidermal cells having wavy walls, those at the edge being seen in section and showing that
the outer wall is not thickened.

veins of the first order diverging from it at an angle of 45° to
65°, dividing near the margin and the main branches passing into
the lobes ; petiole dark brown. 0.5 to 4.5 cm. long, circular in cross-
section ; texture fragile. Flowers solitary, pedicel 2 to 10 mm.

624 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

long, calyx 5-toothed, about 4 cm. long, separating transversely
near the base at maturity, the upper part falling away ; corolla
funnel-shaped, yellowish- or purplish-white, about 8 cm. long,
limb plaited, 5-lobed ; stamens five, included, inserted near the
middle of the corolla tube ; stigma slightly 2-lobed. The immature
fruit somewhat conical, 4-valved. Seeds numerous. Odor dis-
agreeable. Taste unpleasant, nauseous.

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 117; 287, D; 285, C.

Constituents. — The important constituents of Stramonium
leaves are similar to those of belladonna leaves, the amount of
total alkaloids, however, being about one-half less (0.2 to 0.4 per
cent). The substance known as daturine is a mixture of hyoscy-
amine and atropine, the former being in excess (see Belladonnie
Folia and Hyoscyamus). Stramonium leaves also contain a vola-
tile oil, resin, and yield about 17 per cent, of ash, containing con-
siderable potassium nitrate.

The amount of total alkaloids varies in different parts of the
same plant and has been reported as follows : Roots, 0.02 per
cent. ; stems, 0.02 per cent. ; leaves, 0.07 per cent., and seeds, 0.25
per cent.

Stramonii Semen (Stramonium Seed). — Campylotropous,
reniform, flattened, about 3 to 4 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm.
broad ; externally bluish-black, minutely reticulate ; hard but
easily cut lengthwise along the edge; internally (Fig. 122, B)
whitish, the reserve layer occupying about one-half the seed, the
embryo crook-shaped ; odor slight, disagreeable when the drug is
bruised ; taste bitter. They contain about 25 per cent, of fixed oil ;
proteins ; about 0.4 per cent, of alkaloids, consisting principally of
hyoscyamine, together with a small proportion of atropine and
scopolamine (hyoscine) ; ash 2 to 3 per cent.

Allied Drugs. — See Hyoscyamus and Belladonnse Folia.

The Purple Stramonium {Datura Tatiila) which is naturalized
in the United States from tropical America resembles D. Stram-
oniwn, but the stems and flowers are purplish. The constituents
in the two plants are similar. Several other species are also used
in medicine, as Datura arhorea indigenous to Chile and Peru, and
cultivated for its handsome flowers. The leaves contain 0.44 per
cent, of total alkaloids.

CRUDE DRUGS.

625

EUPATORIUM.— BONESET.— The leaves and flowering
tops of Eupatoriinn pcrfoliatuui (Fam. Compositse), a perennial
herb (Fig. 270) indigenous to Eastern and Central North Amer-
ica (p. 392). Boneset is collected in July and August and dried.

Fig. 270. I. Eupatorium pcrjoliatum with opposite, connate-perfoliate leaves and
nose-paniculate inflorescence. 2. Eupatorium purpureum with verticillate, petiolate
I'es, and a large terminal panicle of flowers.

cymose
leavi

Description. — Usually in more or less broken fragments.
Stem cylindrical, somewhat quadrangular, flattened, about 3 mm.
in diameter, longitudinally wrinkled, tomentose ; internodes 5 to
8 cm. long. Leaves lanceolate, opposite. 10 to 20 cm. long, 2 to 4
cm. broad ; apex acuminate ; base connate-perfoliate ; margin cre-
nate-serrate ; upper surface dark green, midrib and veins de-
pressed, reticulate, glabrous, except near the margin; under sur-

626 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

face yellowish- or brownish-green, midrib prominent, reticulate,
very tomentose, with glistening yellow resin masses. Flowers in
large cymose panicles; heads lo- to 15-flowered, about 5 mm.
long, torus flat ; involucre light green, oblong, the scales imbri-
cate, linear-lanceolate, hairy ; corolla 5-toothed, whitish ; anthers
purplish, included ; style deeply cleft, much exserted. Akenes
5-angled, pappus consisting of a single row of about twenty
rough bristles. Odor aromatic. Taste bitter.

Constituents. — Volatile oil ; a bitter, crystalline glucoside
eupatorin ; resin ; a crystalline wax ; a glucosidal coloring prin-
ciple related to tannin but crystallizing in small yellow needles,
and giving an orange-red precipitate with lead acetate solution;
a glucosidal tannin, which is colored deep green with ferric chlor-
ide and gives a yellow precipitate with lead acetate solution ; gallic
acid ; ash 7.5 to 9.9 per cent.

Allied Plants. — Purple boneset or Joe-pye weed {Eupa-
torium purpureum) , a common herb (Fig. 270) in low grounds
in Eastern and Central North America, is a tall stout herb, with
oblong-lanceolate leaves, 3 to 6 in a whorl and light purplish-red
flowers in dense corymbs. Purple boneset contains a volatile oil,
0.07 per cent. ; a yellow crystalline principle euparin, which some-
what resembles quercitrin ; resin, 0.25 per cent. ; calcium oxalate,
1.82 per cent.; and ash, 14 per cent. Dog-fennel {E. fcciiicula-
ceiim), a perennial herb, with alternate, i- to 2-pinnately parted
leaves and white flowers, which is common in the Southern States,
yields a volatile oil which contains considerable phellandrene.

The root of Enpatorium perfoliatnm contains about 5 per
cent, of inulin.

GRINDELIA. — The leaves and flowering tops of Grtndelia
rohusta and Grindelia sqiiarrosa (Fam. Compositge), perennial
herbs (p. 393) indigenous to Western North America, G. rohusta,
growing west of the Rocky Mountains, and G. squarrosa. east-
ward therefrom as far as the Mississippi. Grindelia is collected
in early summer when the leaves and tops are covered with a
resinous exudation, and dried.

Grindelia Robusta. — Stem cylindrical, lemon-yellow or rose-
colored, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, longitudinally wrinkled, gland-
ular-hairy, nearly glabrous, resinous ; internodes 8 to 35 mm. long.

CRUDE DRUGS. 627

Leaf lanceolate or elliptical ; apex acute ; base sessile or
amplexicaul ; margin entire or spinosely toothed ; upper surface
light green or yellowish-green, covered with resin and with occa-
sional black disks of a species of Puccinia; under surface grayish-
green, somewhat resinous ; texture somewhat coriaceous, brittle
when dry. Heads many-flowered, globular or truncate-conical,
about I to 2 cm. in diameter, with numerous lanceolate-acumin-
ate, imbricate and resinous involucral bracts ; torus flat, deeply
pitted ; ray-flowers brownish-yellow and pistillate ; tubular flowers
yellowish-brown, perfect. Akenes slightly curved, somewhat
compressed, about 3 mm. long, and i- to 2-dentate or auriculate-
bordered at the summit. Odor aromatic ; taste aromatic and bitter.

Grindelia Squarrosa. — The leaves are linear, the akenes are
4-angled and more or less truncate at the apex.

Constituents. — Resinous substances amounting to about 21
per cent., including a soft greenish resin soluble in petroleum
ether, a dark colored resin soluble in ether and a dark colored,
amorphous resin soluble in alcohol ; a Isevo-rotatory sugar
I-glucose ; tannin 1.5 per cent. ; a volatile oil having the character-
istic odor of the drug ; and about 8 per cent, of ash. The drug
has also been reported to contain two glucosides, 0.8 per cent.
{G. squarrosa) to 2 per cent. {G. robusta), somewhat resembling
the saponins in quillaja and senega; and a bitter crystalline
alkaloid, grindeline.

Substitutes. — Most of the drug on the market at the present
time appears to be derived from Grindelia camponim, the common
Gum plant of California. The upper leaves are more or less
oblong or spatulate and the akenes are usually bi-auriculate at the
summit.

The commercial drug is also derived from Grindelia cuneifolia
and its variety paludosa, growing in the marshes of upper Califor-
nia. The leaves are cuneate and less coriaceous than those of
G. camporum, but the akenes are similar.

Allied Plants. — Other species of Grindelia growing in the
Western United States and Mexico are similarly employed, as G.
hirsiittila, the stems of which are purplish-red and pubescent; and
G. glntinosa, in which the leaves are glabrous, rounded at the
apex and the pappus 5- to 8-toothed,

628 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

MARRUBIUM.— WHITE HOREHOUND.— The leaves
and flowering- tops of Marrnhium vulgare (Earn. Labiatae), a
perennial herb (p. 368) indig-enous to Europe and Asia, and cul-
tivated in various parts of Europe and the United States, being
naturalized in waste places from Texas and Mexico to Maine
and Ontario.

Description. — Stem quadrangular, yellowish- or grayish-
green, 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, very pubescent; internodes 2 to 5
cm. long. Leaves broadly ovate, opposite, 1.5 to 6 cm. long, 8 to
25 mm. broad; apex obtuse; base acute or rounded; margin
coarsely crenate; upper surface dark green, pubescent, veins
depressed, those of the first order diverging at an angle of about
65° and branching near the margin; under surface grayish-green,
very pubescent, veins prominent ; petiole 0.5 to 3 cm. long, very
pubescent. Elowers sessile, in axillary clusters ; calyx tubular,
about 5 mm. long, 5- to lo-nerved, very pubescent and with 10
recurved, bristle-like lobes ; corolla whitish or light brown, about 7
mm. long, upper lip erect, entire or bifid, lower lip 3-lobed, the
middle lobe the largest and emarginate ; stamens four, included.
Nutlets brownish-black, ellipsoidal, slightly compressed, about 1.5
mm. long, nearly smooth. Odor slight, aromatic. Taste aromatic
and bitter.

Constituents. — A bitter, somewhat acrid principle marru-
biin, 0.02 to 4 per cent., which forms prismatic crystals and is
sparingly soluble in water ; several other bitter principles ; a vola-
tile oil ; a resin ; and tannin.

Allied Plants. — Black horehound or Marrnhium pere grinnm ,
an herb of the old world, has ovate or lanceolate, dentate-serrate,
grayish, hairy leaves and flowers with straight calyx-lobes.
Ball Ota nigra (Fam. Labiatae) has cordate, rough-hairy, dark
green leaves, pale purple flowers and a disagreeable odor. Water
horehound or Lycopus europceus has ovate-lanceolate, lobed or
divided leaves, the calyx lobes being triangular.

HEDEOMA.— AMERICAN PENNYROYAL.— The leaves
and flowering tops of Hedcoina pulegioides (Fam. Labiatae), an
annual herb (Fig. 271) indigenous to the Eastern and Central
United States and Canada (p. 369). Pennyroyal should be col-
lected in July or August and dried.

CRUDE DRUGS.

629

Description. — Stem quadrangular, i to 2 mm. in diameter,
light or reddish-brown, with numerous spreading hairs. Leaves

Fig. 271. Matico: A, branch with leaves and flower spikes (f); B, section of leaf
showing one of the truncate teeth, fibrovascular bundle (v), oil-secretion reservoirs (o);
C, transverse section of leaf near two veins, showing upper epidermis of several layers (e),
palisade cells (p), tracheae (t), sieve (s), collenchyma (c), loose parenchyma containing
crystals of calcium oxalate (ca), hairs (h); D, transverse section of leaf showing in addi-
tion an oil-secretion reservoir (o); E, portion of lower epidermis showing three stomata;
F, portion of upper epidermis; G, portion of leaf showing the glandular- punctate character
due to the oil-secretion reservoirs (o); H, non-glandular hairs; I, stamen; J, pollen grains,
which are about lo /ai in diameter; K, prisms of calcium oxalate; L, a hair from the oeri-
anth; M, tracheae from the stem with spiral and annular markings.

elliptical or ovate, opposite, 15 to 35 mm. long, 5 to 14 mm.
broad ; apex obtuse ; base tapering into the oetiole ; marfjin

630 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

remotely serrate ; upper surface dark green, pubescent on the
nerves, slightly glandular-hairy ; under surface light green, pubes-
cent, glandular-hairy, veins of the first order diverging at an angle
of 45° to 65°, curving upwards and uniting near the margin;
petiole 3 to 6 mm. long, with numerous spreading hairs and
slightly laminate in the upper portion. Inflorescence in six-
flowered axillary whorls ; calyx tubular, about 5 mm. long, ovoid
or slightly curved on the lower side near the base, bilabiate, upper
lip 3-toothed, lower lip with two linear-lanceolate divisions, 13-
nerved, longitudinally striate, pubescent ; corolla about the size
of the calyx, purplish, pubescent, upper lip erect, flat, emarginate,
the lower spreading and 3-lobed ; fertile stamens two, exserted,
ascending, the sterile upper pair rarely with anthers. Nutlets
nearly spherical or ovoid, about 0.5 mm. in diameter. Odor
strongly aromatic. Taste aromatic.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, a bitter principle and tannin.
The dried leaves yield about 3 per cent, of volatile oil, while the
dried stems and leaves yield only 1.3 per cent. The volatile oil
is official and consists chiefly of a ketone pulegone, which gives
the oil its peculiar properties. The oil also probably contains
two other ketones: (a) hedeomol and (b) another resembling
menthone. Several acids have also been found in this oil : formic,
acetic and isoheptylic.

Allied Plants. — Mentha Puleghim, or European pennyroyal,
apparently contains principles similar to the American penny-
royal, and is distinguished from the latter by the more or less oval,
serrate leaves, and the cymose inflorescence and four-lobed corolla.
The oil of European pennyroyal closely resembles that of Hede-
oma and is frequently substituted for it.

Wild Mint {Mentha canadensis), a perennial herb common
in wet places in the United States, has ovate-oblong or lanceolate
leaves, in the axils of which whorls or globular clusters of flowers
arise. The plant has an odor of pennyroyal and yields 1.25 per
cent, of a volatile oil from which pulegone and thymol or carvacrol
have been isolated.

Water Mint {Mentha aqnatica), a plant found in wet places
from New England to Delaware, yields about 0.34 per cent, of a
volatile oil having the odor of penn3T03^al.

CRUDE DRUGS. 631

Oil of Russian pennyroyal contains pulegone, but the botanical
origin is not known.

MENTHA PIPERITA.— PEPPERMINT.— The leaves and
flowering tops of Mentha piperita (Earn. Labiatae), a perennial
herb (Eig. 175) indigenous to Europe, naturalized in the Eastern
and Central United States and Canada, and cultivated in Michigan
and New York (p. 370). Peppermint should be collected during
dry weather, in August and September, when the plant is in
flower, and carefully dried and preserved. Peppermint is culti-
vated in Michigan chiefly for its volatile oil. This State produces
annually over 6,800 K. of peppermint oil. Wayne County, in
New York State, produces 1,480 K. ; Indiana State, 1,280 K., and
other localities about 400 K. annually. Japan produces about
70,000 K. annually ; England, 9,000 K. ; France, 3,000 K. ; Russia,
1200 K. ; Germany, 800 K., and Italy, 600 K.

Description. — Stem quadrangvdar, i to 3 mm. in diameter,
purplish-green, with scattered deflexed hairs, internodes 1.5 to 5
cm. long. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, opposite, 1.5 to 8 cm. long,
0.5 to 2.5 cm. broad ; apex acute ; base acute or rounded ; margin
sharply serrate ; upper surface dark green, midrib and veins rose-
colored, the latter diverging at an angle of about 60°, curving
upward and uniting near the margin ; under surface light green,
slightly pubescent on the veins, glandular-pubescent ; petiole 4 to
10 mm. long, slightly pubescent. Inflorescence in axillary whorls
or in compact spikes ; peduncle wanting or about 3 mm. long,
pedicel about i mm. long; calyx tubular, equally 5-toothed, about
2 mm. long, purplish, glandular-punctate ; corolla tubular, nearly
regular, 4-cleft, about 3 mm. long, purplish ; stamens four, erect,
distant. Nutlets ellipsoidal, about 0.5 nini. in diameter, blackish-
brown. Odor aromatic. Taste aromatic, followed by a cooling
sensation.

Constituents. — Volatile oil, containing 50 to 60 per cent, of
menthol, about i per cent. ; resin and tannin. American pepper-
mint oil consists of about 17 different chemical constituents, a
larger number than is found in any other oil. The most impor-
tant constituent is the stearoptene menthol, of which 40 to 45 per
cent, is free and 8 to 14 per cent, is combined in various esters.
Menthol occurs in colorless, acicular crystals, which are insoluble

632 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in water but soluble in alcohol, and on boiling with a sulphuric
acid solution (50 per cent.) it becomes of a deep blue color, the
acid solution becoming brown. American peppermint oil also con-
tains : Acetaldehyde, isovaleraldehyde, acetic acid, valerianic acid,
pinene, phellandrene, cineol, 1-limonene, menthone, menthyl
acetate, menthyl iso-valerianate, menthyl ester, a lactone cadinene,
amyl alcohol, and dimethyl sulphide.

English peppermint oil is very highly prized on account of
its fine aroma and pleasant taste. It consists of 50 to 60 per cent,
of free menthol, 3 to 14 per cent, of menthol combined as esters,
and 9 to 12 per cent, of menthone, a substance capable of being
transformed into menthol. This oil also contains: Phellandrene,
limonene, cadinene, acetic acid and iso-valerianic acid.

Japanese peppermint oil is obtained from Mentha arvensis
piperascens. The oil has a bitter taste and consists of free men-
thol 65 to 85 per cent. ; menthol combined as esters, 3 to 6 per
cent. ; and a body isomeric with borneol.

MENTHA VIRIDIS.— SPEARMINT.— The leaves and
flowering tops of Mentha spieata (Syn. Mentha viridis) (Fam.
Labiat.x), a perennial herb indigenous to Europe and cultivated
and naturalized in various parts of North America. It should
be collected in the same manner as peppermint (p. 370).

Spearmint is extensively cultivated in Michigan and New
York, these states producing annually about 500 K. of volatile oil.

Description. — Closely resembling peppermint (see Mentha
Piperita), but the stems are usually more purple, the leaves sessile
or nearly so, inflorescence either in slender, interrupted cylindrical
spikes or crowded lanceolate spikes ; odor and taste aromatic,
characteristic, the taste not being followed by a cooling sensation.

Constituents. — Volatile oil about 0.3 per cent, in the fresh
leaves ; resin, and tannin. American oil of spearmint consists
of about 56 per cent, of carvone, a considerable amount of 1-limo-
nene and possibly also 1-pinene. The constituent giving the oil its
characteristic odor is not known.

Allied Plants. — Russian spearmint oil is obtained from an
undetermined plant and consists of 1-linalool, 50 to 60 per cent. ;
20 per cent, of cineol, 5 to 10 per cent, of 1-carvone and possibly
also 1-limonene.

CRUDE DRUGS. 633

German spearmint oil is obtained from Mentha crispa, which
is regarded as a cultural variety of M. arvoisis. The plant is
sparingly naturalized in the United States from Europe. It some-
what resembles M. piperita, but is distinguished by its cuspid,
irregularly dentate leaves. It yields an oil containing carvone.

LOBELIA. — The leaves and flowering tops of Lobelia infiata
(Fam. Campanulacese), an annual herb (Fig. 272) indigenous to
the Eastern and Central L'nited States and Canada, and cultivated
in New York and Massachusetts (p. 388). Lobelia should be col-
lected after a portion of the capsules have become inflated, care-
fully dried and preserved.

Description. — Stem cylindrical, somewhat angular, slightly
winged, light brown, with numerous spreading hairs, internodes 2
to 3 cm. long. Leaves elliptical or ovate-lanceolate, alternate, 4
to 9 cm. long, 8 to 30 mm. broad ; apex acute or acuminate ; base
obtuse or acute ; margin irregularly denticulate, the divisions with
a yellowish-brown, gland-like apex ; upper surface yellowish-green
or light brown and with scattered bristly hairs ; under surface
light brown, with numerous bristly hairs, the veins of the first
order diverging at an angle of about 65° and curving upward near
the margin ; petiole either wanting or about i mm. long. Inflor-
escence in leafy spikes; pedicel about 3 mm. long; calyx 5-parted,
about 5 mm. long, the subulate lobes about as long as the tube;
corolla 5-parted, tubular, about as long as the calyx, pale blue,
upper portion cleft nearly to the base, the lobes on either side of
the cleft erect or recurved, the other three united ; stamens with
anthers united above into a curved tube ; stigma 2-lobed, ovary
2-locular. Fruit an ovoid, inflated capsule 5 to 8 mm. long, open-
ing at the summit, apex with the remains .of the calyx. Seeds
numerous, brownish, somewhat ellipsoidal or ovoid, about 0.7 mm.
long, coarsely reticulate. Odor slight ; taste mild, becoming acrid.

Constituents. — An amorphous, acrid, emetic alkaloid j.obe-
LiNE, which decomposes readily on heating, and is contained in
greatest amount in the seeds ; a non-acrid but pungent volatile
oil LOBELiANiN ; a colorless, tasteless, crystalline, neutral principle
iNFLATiN, which IS intimately associated with the alkaloid; and
lobelic acid, which is combined with the alkaloid lobeline. Lobe-
LACRiN is regarded as the lobelate of lobeline. The seeds contain

634

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in addition a fixed oil which when pure is bland, non-acrid and
somewhat resembles that of linseed. As it is usually seen on the

Fig. 272. Indian tobacco {Lobelia inflata): A, upper portion of shoot showing the
dentate-denticulate leaves and the inflated capsules which develop soon after fertilization;
B, transverse section of leaf showing the large epidermal cells (e), palisade cells (p), tra-
chea? (t), loose parenchyma (m) and lower epidermis (i); C, surface section of lower epi-
dermis showing 3 elliptical stomata; D, surface section of upper epidermis; E, one of the
hairs which are found on the stems and leaves; F, wood fibers of the stem; G, a flower;
H, longitudinal section of flower showing the ovary with ovules (o), style (s), hairy bifid
stigma (t), united stamens (a), corolla (p) and calyx (c); I, longitudinal section of stamen
showing the hairy apex; J, hair from stamen; K, pollen grain; L, hair from calyx; M,
seed with reticulate seed-coat; N, upper epidermis of corolla showing spherite crystals of a
carbohydrate.

market it is of a greenish color and quite acrid and is said to con-
tain all the active principles of the drug.

CRUDE DRUGS. 635

Allied Plants. — Red lobelia or Cardinal flower, Lobelia
cardinalis, and blue lobelia, L. syphilitica, as well as a large
number of other species of Lobelia, are used to some extent in
medicine. Lobelia iiicotiancefolia of India and Delissea acuminata
of the Hawaiian Islands have properties similar to Lobelia inflata.

Adulterants. — The seeds of mullein {Verbascum Thapsus)
are commonly used as an adulterant of Lobelia seeds, but are
distinguished from them by not being reticulate.

CANNABIS INDICA.— EAST INDIAN HEMP.— The
flowering tops of the pistillate plants of Cannabis sativa (Earn.
Moracese), an annual herb (Eig. 273) indigenous to Central and
Western Asia, and cultivated in India and other tropical coun-
tries and also in temperate regions for the fiber and seed (p.
255). The drug, however, is obtained from plants cultivated in
tropical India. The flowering tops are made into more or less
compressed masses, forming what is known as " ganja " or
" guaza." The best grade of ganja is obtained from unfertilized
plants grown in Bengal. The leaves may be collected and dried
separately and constitute what is known as " bhang." The resin
which separates from ganja and bhang, or that which is collected
from the growing plant, constitutes the product' known as
" charas " (p. 255). Cannabis sativa has become naturalized in
the Central United States, and, while the American drug was at
one time official, is now but little used in medicine. Eruiting
spikes with mature seeds should be removed.

Description. — Casually in compressed masses 5 to 14 cm. long.
Stem cylindrical, about 3 mm. in diameter, longitudinally fur-
rowed and wrinkled, light green, pubescent, internodes 2 to 20
mm. long. Leaf digitately compound, witii three to seven linear-
lanceolate, nearly sessile leaflets, apex of leaflets acuminate, base
acute or cuneate, margin deeply serrate ; upper and under sur-
faces dark green, pubescent, glandular, veins of the first order
diverging at an angle of 65° and terminating in the teeth ; petiole
I to 5 cm. long. Inflorescence in sessile spikes, each flower sub-
tended by an ovate, pubescent bract ; calyx entire, ovate or oblong-
acuminate, about 4 mm. long, dark green, pubescent, split longi-
tudinally on one side, somewhat enlarged at the base and folded
around the ovary ; styles two, about 8 mm. long, filiform, pubes-

636

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cent, ovary oblong, about i mm. long, with a single campylo-
tropous ovule. Odor distinct. Taste slightly acrid.

Constituents. — From 15 to 20 per cent, of a resin (called
cannabin), consisting of a number of substances, one of which,

273- Scopolia carniolica: A, leaf; B, a fruit showing long stalk and slightly
lobed calyx; C, portion of calyx showing broadly acute lobes; D, E, transverse sections
of leaf showing upper epidermis (e), palisade cells (p), loose parenchyma (m), collen-
chyma (c), lower epidermis (1), fibro vascular bundle with a single trachea (v), stoma (s);

F, epidermal cells of lower surface showing foldings due to irregularity of the outer walls;

G, epidermah cells and stoma from lower surface; H, glandular hairs (which are only
occasionally found); I, fragment of leaf showing spiral trachea; (t). cells containing crypto-
crystallme crystals of calcium oxalate (c); K. isolated crystals of calcium oxalate, which
sometimes occur ni aggregates from 25 to 40 m in diameter; L, fragment of stem showing
trachea with reticulate thickening (r), simple pores (p) and spiral thickening (s).

cannabinol (cannabindon) occurs as a red, oily substance and
is said to possess the intoxicating properties of the drug. The
drug also contains 0.3 per cent, of a yellowish volatile oil. which
consists chiefly of a sesquiterpene, cannibene and a stearoptene.
A similar sesquiterpene is present in the staminate plant of Canna-

CRUDE DRUGS. 637

bis gigaiitea. The non-flowering herb yields about i per cent, of
a narcotic volatile oil which has an odor that is not unpleasant.
The volatile alkaloid cannabinene is supposed to be trimethylamine.

Allied Drugs. — The alkaloids harmine and harmaline are
found in the seeds of Pcgannm Harmala (Fam. Zygophyllaceae)
of India, and have narcotic properties similar to Cannabis indica.

SCOPARIUS.— BROOM.— The tops of Cytisiis Scoparius
(Fam. Leguminosse), a shrub (p. 294) indigenous to the tem-
perate parts of Europe, and naturalized in waste places from Vir-
ginia to Nova Scotia. The tops are gathered before flowering and
are used in the fresh condition, or they are dried.

Description. — Usually cut into pieces ; branches alternate,
pentangular, 2 to 3 mm. thick ; externally dark green, with 5 yel-
lowish-green wings and numerous reddish-brown cork patches,
the younger branches somewhat pubescent ; fracture short, fibrous,
or of the larger pieces, tough, splintery; internally yellowish, bark
thin, wood slightly porous, pith large, about i mm. in diameter.
Leaves elliptical, obovate, simple above, 5 to 10 mm. long, 3 to 4
mm. broad, digitately trifoliate below ; apex of both leaves and
leaflets acute ; base acute ; margin entire ; upper surface dark
green, nearly glabrous ; under surface slightly pubescent ; petiole
wanting in the simple leaves and about 5 mm. long in the com-
pound leaves, pubescent. Odor peculiar. Taste bitter.

Constituents. — A volatile liquid alkaloid sparteine (0.03
per cent.), forming crystalline salts, the sulphate of which has
physiological properties similar to digitalin ; a yellow crystalline
principle scoparin, which yields picric acid on treatment wath
nitric acid ; volatile oil ; tannin ; ash about 5 per cent.

Allied Plants. — Several plants of the' Leguminosre are used
like Scoparius. Spanish broom is obtained from Spartium jitn-
ceiim, a shrub indigenous to the Mediterranean region. Coronilla
scorpwides yields a yellow glucoside coronillin.

CHIRATA. — The entire plant of Sweertia Chirata (Fam.'
Gentianaceje). an annual herb (p. 362) indigenous to the moun-
tains of Northern India. The plants are collected after the cap-
sules are fully formed, dried and made into bundles.

Description. — Usually in flat bundles tied with a strip of
bamboo and about i M. long, 15 cm. wide and 7 cm. thick. Root

638 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

simple, tapering, about 7 mm. thick near the crown ; externally
yellowish-brown, wrinkled, with few rootlets ; internally, bark
whitish, about 2 mm. thick, wood yellow, porous, radiate. Stem
cylindrical, flattened, quadrangular above, each angle with a decur-
rent wing, about i M. long, 4 to 6 mm. thick, yellowish- or pur-
plish-brown, longitudinally wrinkled, internodes 3 to 8 cm. long;
internally, bark yellowish-brown, very thin, easily separable, wood
yellowish, slightly porous, radiate, 0.5 to i mm. thick, pith lemon-
yellow, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, easily separable from the wood,
sometimes wanting. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, about 6
cm. long, 2.5 cm. in diameter; apex acuminate; base somewhat
amplexicaul ; margin entire ; upper and under surfaces brownish-
green, midrib prominent and with 3 to 7 parallel lateral veins.
Inflorescence a large panicle ; flowers numerous, regular ; calyx
about 4 mm. long and with 4 lanceolate divisions ; corolla yellow,
rotate, about 10 mm. long, with 4 lanceolate lobes, each with a
pair of nectaries near the base ; stamens 4, inserted at the base of
the corolla tube ; style slender, with two recurved stigmas ; ovary
i-locular, with 2 parietal placentas. Fruit a superior, ovoid,
pointed, yellowish-brown, bicarpellary, unilocular capsule. Seeds
numerous, anatropous, somewhat oblong, flattened, about 0.5 mm.
long, testa reticulate ; embryo small, straight, embedded in the
endosperm. Odor slight. Taste extremely bitter.

Constituents. — A bitter glucoside chiratin, w'hich is precip-
itated by tannin and yields on hydrolysis two bitter principles :
ophelic acid and chiratogenin. the latter being insoluble in water.
Ophelic acid is a brown hygroscopic substance which is readily
soluble in water and alcohol and heating with Trommer's reagent
causes the deposition of yellowish cuprous oxide. The drug also
contains resin, tannin and 4 to 8 per cent, of ash.

Allied Plants. — Other species of Szvecrtia, as well as other
bitter plants known in India as " chiretta," find their way into the
market, but are, however, easilv distinguished from the true drug.

SCUTELLARIA.— SKULLCAP.— The dried herb of Scu-
tellaria lateriflora (Fam. Labiatae), a perennial herbaceous plant
growing in wet places in the United States and Canada. The
plant blooms from July to September, when the herb should be
collected (p. 368, Fig. 180).

CRUDE DRUGS. 639

Description. — Stem quadrangular, i to 4 mm. in diameter,
varying in color from yellowish-green to purplish-red, mostly
glabrous below and hairy above. Leaves ovate, ovate-oblong, or
ovate-lanceolate, opposite, 1.5 to 8 cm. long, 0.5 to 2.5 cm. broad;
apex acute or acuminate ; base acute, rounded or sub-cordate ;
margin coarsely serrate ; upper surface dark green, glabrous ;
under surface light green, nearly smooth, veins of the first order
diverging at an angle of 65°, curving upward and anastomosing
near the margin ; petiole 2 to 10 mm. long. Flowers axillary and
solitary above or in i-sided racemes; calyx campanulate, toothed,
about 2 mm. long ; corolla white or blue, about 6 mm. long, the
limb 2-lipped ; stamens 4, didynamous, hairy, the anthers of the
upper pair with 2 pollen sacs, the lower with one ; style unequally
2-cleft and ovary deeply 4-parted. Fruit consisting of 4 ellip-
soidal, distinctly tuberculate, light brown nutlets about i mm.
long, borne on an enlarged torus known as the gynobase, and
enclosed by the persistent bilabiate calyx, the upper part of which
becomes helmet-shaped after fertilization, whence the name
" Skullcap." Odor slight. Taste bitter.

Constituents. — A bitter crystalline glucoside scutellarin; a
small quantity of volatile oil, of which little is known.

Allied Plants. — Several species of Scutellaria growing in
the United States are sometimes substituted for the official drug,
nearly all of which have the flowers in terminal panicled racemes.
Heart-leaved skullcap (Scutellaria cordifolia) is densely gland-
ular pubescent, even the corolla being hairy; Hairy skullcap {S.
pilosa) is pubesceiit below, with numerous glandular hairs above,
and the corolla is nearly glabrous; Hyssop skullcap {S. integri-
folia) has linear entire upper leaves; in Marsh skullcap {S.
galericulata) the flowers occur in the axils of the nearly sessile,
narrow leaves. The European skullcap (S. altissima) has broad,
ovate, glabrous leaves and terminal panicles of blue flowers.

Substitutes. — Scutellaria canescens. a plant growing west
of the Mississippi, furnishes much of the drug on the market.
The plant is more robust than 6'. lateriflora: the leaves are oblong,
petiolate, 10 to 12 cm. long, 3 to 5 cm. broad, very hairy on the
under surface, with prominent veins, and crenate-dentate mar-
gin ; and the flowers are large, blue and in terminal racemes.

640 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

VII. EXUDATIONS, JUICES AND OTHER PLANT PRODUCTS.

A large number of substances are used in medicine which
represent to a greater or less extent the constituents of the cells
or alteration or decomposition products of them. These include
exudations, inspissated juices, extracts, products of distillation,
etc. The exudation products of milk-vessels or secretion reser-
voirs are eliminated either through natural or artificial wounds
of the stem, and they are collected in special receptacles, as in the
case of gamboge, scammony and turpentine ; or they are allowed
to dry and more or less harden on the stem, afterward being col-
lected, as acacia and tragacanth ; or the more or less plastic or
partially dried exudation may be made into masses, as those of
lactucarium and opium. These products may be grouped accord-
ing to their origin, some of them being derived from the Coniferae :

I. Natural Exudations.

Carbohydrates ...[ Gummy exudations {; ' ^ ^'^ ;;_' ; ; ;;;_';;'^,'_'; ^ ^ , Tragacantha

Saccharine exudation Manna

Balsam Styrax

Balsamic resin Benzoin

Resinous products

Oleo-resins / • ■ ■ ■ ■ •.• • • ; Terebinthina

( lerebmthina canadensis

Asafetida

Gum-resins Cambogia

Myrrha

. Scammonium

Guaiacum

'- Resins J Mastiche

I Fix burgundica

Elastica

Milk-juices J Lactucarium

(^ Opium

2. An Excrescence.
Formed as a result of the puncture of an insect Galla

3. Artificially Prepared Products.

Carbohydrates — Starch grains Amylum

TvT u u J . ( Extract Gambir or Catechu

JNon-carbohydrates J . ,

(inspissated juices. . / -r--

Product of destructive distillation Fix Liquida

Residue from the distillation of turpentine Colophony

CRUDE DRUGS. 641

For convenience in study, as well as identification, the drugs
of this class may also be grouped as follows :

I. Solid.

1. In powder form.

White, inodorous, nearly tasteless Amylum

2. In tears and masses.

A. More or less spherical in form.

a. In tears.

Whitish or yellowish-white, mucilaginous Acacia

Pale yellowish or greenish-yellow, resinous.. .Mastiche

b. Excrescence.

Somewhat spherical Galla

B. In cylindrical pieces.

Grayish orange-brown Cambogia

Blackish-brown (see seeds) Guarana

C. In cubes.

Dull reddish-brown Gambir

D. In quadrangular pieces, one side conve.v.

Dull reddish- or grayish-brown, odor
opium-like Lactucarium

E. In tliree-sided elongated pieces.

Yellowish-white, odor of maple sugar Manna

F. In bands.

Whitish or pale-yellowish, mucilaginous Tragacantha

G. In angular fragments.

Whitish, inodorous and nearly tasteless Amylum

Amber-colored, odor terebinthinate. .. .Colophony (Resina)
Small, dark, reddish-brown, brittle, astringent pieces. .Kino
Greenish-gray or brownish-black, odor
peculiar Scammonium

H. In rounded masses.

Grayish-brown, odor distinct, heavy Opium

/. In irregular masses.

Orange-brown to blackish-brown, odor distinct,

taste bitter Aloe

Dark reddish-brown, astringent Catechu

Brownish-black, elastic Elastica

Greenish-brown, odor balsamic Guaiacum

Reddish-brown or yellowish-brown, odor

terebinthinate Fix Burgundica

642 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

I. Solid. — Continued.

J. In irregular masses composed of matrix and tears.

Whitish tears, matrix yellowish-brown or

brownish-gray, odor alliaceous Asafetida

Yellowish-brown tears, matrix reddish-brown,
odor balsamic Benzoinum

K. In masses composed of tears.

Brownish-red or yellowish-brown, balsamic Myrrha

Yellowish, terebinthinate Terebinthina

II. Liquid or Semi-Liquid.

Blackish-brown, empyreumatic and terebinthinate Pix Liquida

Grayish, balsamic Styrax

Pale yellowish, transparent, terebinthinate. .Terebinthina Canadensis

AMYLUM.— STARCH.— The starch grains obtained from
the grains of wheat (Trificiim sativum and its varieties), corn
(Zea Mays, p. 228) and rice [Oryca satiz'a) (Fam. Graminege).
The grains are separated from the cells, purified in various ways,
and subsequently washed v/ith large quantities of water. In the
U. S. Pharmacopoeia corn starch alone is recognized.

In the preparation of corn starch the corn grains are softened
by being placed in running water and kept at a temperature of
about 60° C. for several days, care being taken to prevent any
fermentation. The grains are then crushed between burr-stones
and the paste carried by means of water to large sieves, the
strained magma then being reground and carried to sieves made
of bolting cloth. The milky-fluid containing the starch is then
run into settling vats, the starch separating out. The starch
is then freed from oil, albuminoids and other substances by treat-
ing it with a 15 per cent, solution of caustic soda. The super-
natant liquid is removed and the starch washed v.-ith water to
remove all traces of alkali. The starchy mixture is allowed to
stand, when the starch separates out and is dried. Commercial
starch is likely to contain some free alkali, which is readily
detected by the addition of an aqueous solution of fuchsin, which
becomes decolorized immediately in the presence of a starch con-
taining free alkali.

CRUDE DRUGS. 643

Corn Starch. — In fine powder or irregular, angular, white,
inodorous, tasteless masses ; grains somewhat spherical, but usually
polygonal, with a lenticular, circular or triangular point of origin
of growth, about 10 to 25 |Li in diameter ( Fig. 316,/)). Corn starch
grains differ in structure in the different varieties (p. 229).

Wheat Starch. — Usually in a fine powder consisting of
nearly spherical or ellipsoidal grains with point of origin of
growth and lamellae more or less indistinct, about 15 to 40 /a in
diameter (Fig. 316, C).

Rice Starch. — Usually in a grayish- white pow^der consisting
of minute angular grains about 5 to 8 //. in diameter and with
point of origin of growth and lamellae indistinct.

Starch is insoluble in cold water or alcohol, but forms a white
jelly when boiled with water, which, when cool, gives a deep-blue
color with iodine and should give a neutral reaction to litmus
paper (commercial cornstarch is usually alkaline) ; ash not more
than I per cent.

Structure of Starch Grains. — See Figs. 96, 97, 316, 317.

Composition of Starch Grains. — See p. 162.

ACACIA.— GUM ARABIC— A dried, gummy exudation
from the stem and branches of Acacia Senegal and probably other
species of Acacia (Fam. Leguminosae), trees (Fig. 153) growing
in sandy soil and forming forests in tropical Africa (p. 294).
The gum exudes spontaneously from the bark of the tree and is
apparently formed by the action of a ferment on the cell-contents
as it does not contain any remains of cell walls. The trees are
also incised, which increases the production of gum. The more
or less hardened pieces are collected and then sorted into different
grades, the market supplies being obtained from Egypt by way
of Alexandria (Kordofan gum), from the Soudan by way of
Suakin (" Turkey sorts " and " Trieste picked "), and from Sene-
gambia by way of the port of St. Louis. The Kordofan gum is
considered to be the best.

Description. — In roundish tears of variable size, or broken
into angular fragments ; externally whitish or yellowish-white,
with numerous minute fissures ; translucent ; very brittle, with a
glass-like, sometimes iridescent fracture ; nearly inodorous ; taste
mucilaginous.

644 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Acacia is not soluble in alcohol, but is completely soluble in
cold water ; the solution is adhesive, gives an acid reaction with
litmus paper, lo c.c. of a lo per cent, solution does not yield
a gelatinous precipitate with 0.2 c.c. of normal lead acetate test
solution, but is precipitated with o.i c.c. of a test solution of
ferric chloride (Mesquite gum is not precipitated) ; a cold solu-
tion does not give a bluish or reddish color with iodine (absence
of artificial gums containing starch or dextrin), or a brownish-
black precipitate with ferric chloride (absence of gum of Aus-
tralian species). A 10 per cent, aqueous solution of acacia when
examined by the polariscope should show but a slight Isevoration.

The powder contains few or no altered or unaltered starch
grains or vegetable tissues.

Constituents. — A crystalline glucoside, which is apparently
arabic acid (arabin or gummic acid) in combination with cal-
cium, magnesium and potassium, and which constitutes the greater
part of the gum ; water, 12 to 17 per cent. ; ash 2.7 to 4 per cent.

Allied Plants.- — The best grade of gum Arabic (gum Sene-
gal) is obtained from Acacia Senegal and A. glancophylla, both of
tropical Africa. Gums with a brown or red color are obtained
from A. arabica, A. Seyal, A. stenocarpa and A. Ehrenhergiana.
There are a number of gvmis which have many of the properties
of gum AralDic. as Cape gum, from A. horrida and A. Giraffcc;
Australian or wattle gum, from the golden wattle {A. pyc-
nantha), tan wattle {A. dccurrens) and A. homalophylla. Gums
are also obtained from other genera of the Leguminosse, as
Mesquite gum, from Prosopis juMora, of the Southern United
States and Mexico.

Giiatti gum or Indian gum is an exudation from the wood
of Anogcissus latifolia (Fam. Combretaceas) a tree indigenous
to India and Ceylon. It occurs in yellowish-white tears with a
dull rough surface and a vitreous fracture. It is entirely soluble
in cold water, forming a very viscous mucilage.

An artificial gum has been prepared by heating starch with
sulphuric acid in an autoclave, the resulting product being neu-
tralized, washed and then dried. It is said to resemble acacia in
appearance and adhesiveness.

The powder, while sometimes adulterated with dextrin and

CRUDE DRUGS. 645

rice starch, is more frequently mixed with inferior gums, espe-
cially the Mesquite gum. The tears of Mesquite gum are nearly
smooth, light yellowish-brown to dark-brown, more or less opaque,
but translucent and glassy when fractured. The powder is of a
whitish or grayish-white color. The gum is further distinguished
by not giving precipitates with lead sub-acetate, ferric chloride
and sodium borate. A'lesquite forms an adhesive mucilage and
can be used as an emulsifying agent.

MASTICHE.— MASTIC— The dried, resinous exudation
from Pistacia Lentiscus (Fam. Anacardiacese), a large shrub
(p. 321) indigenous to the Mediterranean region. The resin
exudes through incisions made in the bark, and when dry is col-
lected. The chief source of supply is the island of Scio.

De.scription. — Somewhat globular or ovoid tears 3 to 7 mm.
long, pale yellow or greenish-yellow, translucent, having a glass-
like luster, comparatively free from a whitish dust ; brittle ; frac-
ture conchoidal, becoming plastic when chewed ; odor slight, bal-
samic ; taste mild, terebinthinate.

Mastic is completely soluble in ether, acetone and volatile
oils. It is almost completely soluble in alcohol, the solution giv-
ing an acid reaction with litmus paper.

Constituents. — About 90 per cent, of a resin, consisting of
a-resin (mastichic acid), which is soluble in alcohol, and ^-resin
(masticin), which is insoluble in alcohol; a volatile oil, i to 2.5
per cent., with the balsamic odor of the drug and consisting chiefly
of d-pinene. A small quantity of a bitter principle is also present,
which is soluble in hot water and is precipitated by tannin.

Sandarac (p. 81) is a resin which somewhat resembles mas-
tic. It occurs in pale yellow, cylindrical tears which are brittle
and not plastic on being chewed. It is soluble in alcohol and
ether, and only partially soluble in chloroform, oil of turpentine
and carbon disulphide. Sandarac consists chiefly of resin which
is composed of sandaracinic acid, sandaracinolic acid, sandaraco-
pimaric acid, small quantities of two other resin acids, and
sandaracoresene. It also contains about i per cent, of volatile
oil which is composed principally of pinene.

Allied Plants. — Various other species of Pistacia found in
India and Northern Af'-i-:a ^ield resins resembling mastic. Amer-
ican mastic is obtiincd from the Peruvian Peppertree {Schiniis

646 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Mollc). Similar resins are found in other genera of the Ana-
cardiaceae, as Astronium and Semccarpiis.

Chios Turpentine is a product resembling mastic which is
obtained from Pistachia terehinthinus (Fam. Anacardiacese) and
consists of 10 to 12 per cent, of a volatile oil (consisting chiefly of
pinene) and 80 to 90 per cent, of resin.

GALLA.— NUTGALL. — An abnormal development on the
young twigs of Quercus infectoria (Fam. Cupuliferse), due to
the puncture and presence of the deposited ova of a Hymenop-
terous insect, Cynips tinctoria. The galls are collected before the
maturing of the insect, and are obtained principally from Aleppo,
in Asiatic Turkey (p. 252).

Aleppo Galls. — Somewhat spherical, i to 2 cm. in diameter;
externally grayish-brown or dark grayish-green, more or less
tuberculate above, the basal portion nearly smooth, and con-
tracted into a short stalk, sometimes with a perforation on one
side ; heavy ; fracture horny ; internally yellowish or dark brown,
consisting of a central portion which contains starch, and occa-
sionally the partly developed insect, and an outer zone which is
porous, lustrous and occasionally traversed by a radial canal,
these two zones being separated by a layer of nearly isodiametric
'stone cells or parenchyma cells with thick cellulose walls; odor
slight ; taste strongly astringent.

Constituents. — The principal constituent is tannic acid,
which is found to the extent of 50 to 70 per cent. ; the drug also
contains gallic acid 2 to 4 per cent., starch and resin.

Tannic acid (gallotannic acid or digallic acid) is a yellowish-
white amorphous substance, with a characteristic odor and
astringent taste. It is soluble in cold water and alcohol; forms
amorphous salts; gives a blue color and precipitate with ferric
chloride ; forms a soluble compound with iodine and prevents the
latter from giving the characteristic reaction with starch.

Two classes of tannic acid are recognized, depending on their
behavior with iron salts and other reagents: (i) Tannic acid,
giving a bluish color with ferric chloride, as that of Aleppo galls,
and also found in chestnut (Castanca), pomegranate (Piinica)
and sumac (Rhus) ; (2) tannic acid, giving a greenish color with
ferric chloride, as that contained in oak barks (Quercus), cate-

CRUDE DRUGS. 647

chu (Acacia), kino (Ptcrocarpiis) , rhatany (Krameria) , canaigre
(Kuiiicx), tormcntilla {Potcntilla) and mangrove {Rhicophora).

Gallic acid crystallizes in silky needles or prisms which are
inodorous and possess a faintly astringent taste. It is sparingly
soluble in cold water, but soluble in alcohol ; forms crystalline
compounds with the alkalies, alkaline earths, lead and copper
salts ; and gives a bluish-black ppt. with ferric chloride, which is
soluble in acetic acid and loses its color on boiling (Fig. 164).

There are three stages in the development of galls correspond-
ing to the development of the insect and during which the com-
position varies : ( i ) When the galls are first formed and the larva
is beginning to develop, the cells of the outer zone, as well as
those of the central zone, contain numerous small starch grains.
(2) When the insect reaches the chrysalis stage the starch in the
cells near the middle of the galls is replaced in part by gallic
acid, while the cells at the center and near the periphery contain
masses of tannic acid. (3) When the winged insect is developed
nearly all of the cells contain amorphous masses of tannic acid
with some adhering crystals of gallic acid. After the insect has
emerged from the gall the constituents again undergo change,
depending largely on the presence of moisture, when the tannic
acid is changd into an insoluble oxidation product and the gall
becomes more porous, constituting the so-called white gall of
commerce.

Allied Plants. — On a number of species of Rhus, galls due
to the stings of certain plant lice (Aphis) are formed, as Chinese
GALLS, formed on Rhus seniialata ; Japanese galls, formed on
R. japonica, and American Rhus galls, formed on Rhus glabra
(Fig. 164) and R. hirta. Chinese and Japanese galls are very
rich in tannin, and as they contain less coloring matter than the
oak galls are used in the manufacture of gallic acid. They are
more or less irregular in shape, but somewhat ovoid, more or less
tuberculate, grayish-brown, very hairy, light in weight, brittle.
The wall is about i mm. thick, and the cavity contains the remains
of numerous insects.

American nutgalls are formed on Onerciis coccinca and
Q. imhricaria by Cynips aciculata. When fresh they are globular,
1.5 to 3 cm. in diameter, and of a yellowish, somewhat mottled

648 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

color. On drying they become yellowish or dark brown and much
shrivelled externally. Texas nutgalls are formed on the live
oak {Quercus virens) and yield 40 per cent, of tannic acid.
California oak balls are excrescences on Quercus lobata and
are about 5 cm. in diameter, and said to contain considerable
tannic acid.

Other tannin-yielding plants are found in the following fam-
ilies: Combretaceae (p. 348), Leguminosse (p. 292), Myrtacese

(P-346).

CAMBOGIA.—GAMBOGE.— A gum-resin obtained from
Garcinia Hanburyi (Fam. Guttiferse), a tree (Fig. 168) found
growing on the Malabar coast and in Travancore ( p. 335) . Spiral
incisions are made in the bark of the trees, and the gum-resin
which exudes is collected in hollow bamboo stems ; it is then
allowed to dry slowly, after which the bamboo is removed. It
is chiefly exported by way of Singapore and is known commer-
cially as pipe gamboge.

Description. — In cylindrical pieces, frequently hollow in the
center, of variable length, 2 to 5 cm. in diameter; externally gray-
ish orange-brown, longitudinally striate, due to the ridges on the
inner surface of the bamboo canes in which they have been dried ;
hard ; fracture short, the fractured surface being orange-red,
waxy and somewhat porous ; inodorous ; taste very acrid.

The powder is bright yellow, sternutatory, and contains few
or no starch grains ; not more than 25 per cent, should be insoki-
ble in alcohol. The resin is soluble in solutions of the alkalies,
with the production of an orange-red color.

Constituents. — Gum allied to arabin, 15 to 20 per cent.; a
resin known as cambogic acid, about 75 per cent. ; a volatile oil ;
ash, I to 3 per cent.

Cake gamboge is collected in Saigon and Cochin from the
same plant that yields pipe gamboge. The product is, however,
collected in leaves and then allowed to dry. It occurs in irregular
orange-red masses, weighing i to 2 K., and is not so brittle as
pipe gamboge, but is less uniform in composition and may contain
impurities.

Allied Plants. — A drastic gum-resin is also obtained from
Garcinia Morella and other members of the Guttiferse. of India

CRUDE DRUGS. 649

and Malaya, as G. colliiia, of New Caledonia; Vismia laccifcra, of
Brazil ; Clitsia rosea, of the West Indies and South America, and
Cliisia macrocarpa, of Guiana. Gamboge of a poor quality is
obtained from Arasina Gurgi, of India.

Adulterants. — Gamboge is sometimes adulterated with veg-
etable fragments, inorganic substances, as sand, etc., and wheat or
rice flour, which it may contain to the extent of nearly 50 per cent.

LACTUCARIUM. — The dried milk-juice of Lactnca virosa
and other species of Lactnca (Fam. CdniposittX ) , biennial herbs
(p. 392) indigenous to Central and Southern Europe and culti-
vated in France, England and Germany, certain species being
more or less naturalized in the United States. Lactucarium is
obtained by cutting off the tops of the stems ; and when the latex
which exudes is partially hardened, it is collected and dried in
hemispherical earthen cups until it can be cut into pieces, which
are usually four in number, these being further dried.

Description. — In irregular, angular pieces or quadrangular
sections, one surface of which is convex ; externally dull reddish-
or grayish-brown ; fracture tough, waxy ; internally light brown or
yellowish, somewhat porous ; odor distinct, opium-like ; taste bitter.

Lactucarium is partly soluble in alcohol and in ether, and
about 50 per cent, is soluble in water, but the solution should not
give a reaction for starch.

Constituents.— -Three bitter principles : lactucin. which
occurs in white rhombic prisms that are sparingly soluble in
water; lactucopicrin, a brown, amorphous, very bitter principle
which is readily soluble in water and alcohol ; and lactucic acid,
a yellow, very bitter substance crystallizing with difficulty and
colored red by alkalies. The drug also contains about 50 per
cent, of a colorless, odorless and tasteless crystalline principle,
lactucerin (lactucon) ; a- and ^-lactucerol in the form of acetates;
volatile oil ; mannitol ; organic acids, as citric, malic and oxalic,
and 7 to 10 per cent, of ash.

A mydriatic alkaloid has been found in Lactnca virosa and in
L. miiraJis.

MANNA. — The dried, saccharine exudation from the stems
of Fraxinns Ornus (Fam. Oleacege), a small tree (p. 360) indig-
enous to Southern Europe, where it is also cultivated, particularly

650 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in Sicily. Manna is obtained by making transverse or oblique
incisions in the bark, the exudation flowing down the side of the
tree where it hardens, or it is collected in special receptacles.
Several commercial varieties are recognized : large flake manna,
consisting of light-colored pieces 10 to 20 cm. long; and small
FLAKE manna, which occurs in smaller light yellowish-brown
pieces. The former is preferred.

Description. — In irregular, 3-sided, more or less elongated
pieces, one side being smooth and concave ; externally yellowish-
white ; friable, somewhat waxy ; internally whitish, porous and
crystalline ; odor suggestive of maple sugar ; taste sweet, slightly
bitter and acrid.

Constituents. — The principal constituent is mannitol (80
to 90 per cent.), which crystallizes in colorless needles that are
soluble in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol ; on sublimation
it yields a sweet, syrupy liquid, mannitan ; the solutions of
mannitol do not ferment nor is it decomposed with dilute acids.
Manna also contains a green, fluorescent glucosidal principle
FRAxiN (resembling sesculin), which occurs in bitter, colorless
prisms that are soluble in water and alcohol; dextrose, as high as
16 per cent. ; mucilage; resin, and 1.3 to 4 per cent, ash (Fig. 149).

Allied Products. — A number of other species of Fraxinus
indigenous to Europe also yield manna. The term " manna " is
applied to a number of exudations obtained from different sources
and of varying composition. ( See Ebert in Zcits. allgcm. ocstcrr.
Apoth. Ver., 46, p. 427, 1908, and Apoth. Zeit., 24, p. 44, 1909).
For crystals of mannitol, see Fig. 149, p. 290.

Manna of inferior quality, known as " sorts," is obtained
from incisions lower down on the stem, and consists of brownish-
yellow, more or less agglutinated tears, which are sticky and \n\i
slightly crystalline.

The leaves of a number of species of Eucalyptus (Fam. Myr-
tacese) secrete a manna-like carbohydrate, as E. Gunnii and /:.
resinifera. (See in this connection Coniferse, p. 81 ; Legumin-
osae, p. 292; Myrtaceffi, p. 346.)

TRAGACANTHA.— TRAGACANTH.— A gummy exuda-
tion from the stem of Astragalus giimmifer and other species
of Astragalus (Fam. Leguminosae), small shrubs indigenous

CRUDE DRUGS.

651

to Southeastern Europe and Western Asia (p. 294). Some of
the walls of the pith and medullary rays are transformed into
mucilage (Fig. 274), which exudes spontaneously, but is obtained
in commercial quantities by making incisions in the bark, the gum

mst

Fig. 274. Cross section through pith (m) and the inner portion of the wood (lb)
of Astragalus gummifer showing stages in the modification of the cell-walls in the formation
of gum tragacanth (0,1,2,3, 4). Some of the tracheae (c) contain globular masses of gum. —
After Tschirch.

being collected after it dries. The principal points of export are
Smyrna and various ports along the Persian Gulf ; that obtained
from the latter is known as Persian or Syrian Tragacanth and
is preferred.

652 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSV.

Persian or Syrian Tragacanth. — In flattened, lamellated,
ribbon-like pieces, 0.5 to 2.5 cm. long, about i cm. wide and from

1 to 3 mm. thick, irregularly oblong, more or less curved ; exter-
nally nearly colorless or pale yellowish, with numerous concentric
ridges or lamellae ; translucent ; fracture short, tough, horny, ren-
dered more easily pulverizable by a heat of 50° C. ; inodorous ;
taste insipid.

Constituents. — Bassorin (traganthin), 60 to 70 per cent.,
which gives the mucilage made from this gum its peculiar density,
and which serves to distinguish it from acacia, which contains
little or no bassorin ; a carbohydrate apparently in the nature of
an insoluble compound of arable (gummic) acid, which swells in
water but is insoluble in it; aracin, about 10 per cent., soluble
in water and probably formed from traganthin ; starch ; ash about
3 per cent., of which one-half is calcium carbonate.

A solution of 2 Gm. of gum tragacanth and 100 c.c. of water
is neutral in reaction to litmus ; gives a blue color with iodine ;
froths on shaking with an equal volume of a 5 per cent, solution
of potassium hydroxide, becoming yellow on heating; darkens
slowly when 2 per cent, of powdered borax is dissolved in it
in the cold, but does not change in consistency even on standing

2 or 3 days (while Indian gum becomes slimy and stringy).

Indian gum is obtained from Cochlospermnm gossypiiini
(Fam. Bixacese) and is used in India as a substitute for traga-
canth. This name is also applied to a gum obtained from
Sterciilia iircns, a tree growing in Africa and Australia. The
gum occurs in vermiform or rounded tears, with a dull, rough
surface and uniform vitreous fracture. For detection in
tragacanth, see above.

Ghatti gum is also called Indian gum (p. 644).

Sarcocolla is a gummy exudation of Pencra SarcocoUa and
P. mucronata (Fam. Penasacese, one of the Myrtiflorae), small
shrubs indigenous to Southern and Central Africa. The gimi
occurs in small, globular, yellowish-red or brownish-red friable
grains, which are often agglutinated into masses and admixed
with a few hairs. Sarcocolla has a licorice-like taste. It is soluble
in water and alcohol, and contains an uncrystallizable principle
sarcocollin, having a taste of glycyrrhizin ; a resin ; and a gum.

CRUDE DRUGS. 653

COLOPHONY.— ROSIN OR RESIN.— The residue after
the distillation of the crude oleo-resin (or turpentine) of
Pimis pahistris and other species of Pinus (Earn. Coniferae),
evergreen trees (Fig. 47, B) indigenous to the Southern United
States (p. 81). There are two commercial varieties of Colo-
phony : ( I ) one which is amber colored and derived from the
oleo-resin of trees tapped for the first time; and (2) a yellowish-
red or reddish-brown variety derived from the oleo-resin of trees
that have been tapped for a number of years. The former kind
is preferred.

Description. — Usually in sharp, angular fragments ; trans-
lucent, amber-colored, usually covered with a yellowish dust, hard,
brittle, pulverizable, fracture shiny and shallow-conchoidal ; odor
and taste faintly terebinthinate.

Resin has a specific gravity of 1.070 to 1.080, and it is soluble
in alcohol, ether, benzol, carbon disulphide, acetic acid, fixed and
volatile oils and in solutions of potassium or sodium hydrate.

On heating a small quantity of colophony and neutral methyl
sulphate or neutral ethyl sulphate in a test-tube the mixture
assumes a rose, then violet and finally a deep violet color.

Constituents. — From 80 to 90 per cent, of an anhydride of
abietic acid, which on treatment with alcohol is changed into
abietic acid, which latter is crystalline ; sylvic acid, which is prob-
ably a decomposition product of abietic acid ; ash, about i per cent.

White rosin, prepared by agitating melted rosin in water,
occurs in whitish, opaque masses, due to inclusion of air.

Rosin is not infrequently used as an adulterant of other resin-
ous products, as of Burgundy pitch and Venice turpentine. A
mixture of rosin and oil of turpentine is sometimes substituted
for the latter.

Resins are a class of substances which may be looked upon
as final products in destructive metabolism. They result from the
oxidation of oils and allied products and usually accompany them,
as oleo-resins, gum-resins, etc. They are insoluble in water, solu-
ble in alcohol, acetone, ether and similar solvents, and burn with a
yellow flame, forming considerable soot. Several kinds of
resins are recognized, depending upon the nature and constitution
of their important constituents :

654 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

( 1 ) Resinolic Acid Resins include those that contam a
larg'e proportion of oxy-acids, which liave been obtained in a crys-
talHne condition, as abietic acid in colophony ; copaivic and oxy-
copaivic acids, in copaiba ; guaiaconic acid, in giiaiac ; pimaric
acid, in Burgundy pitch and frankincense ; and sandaracolic acid,
in Sandarac.

(2) Resinol Resins are alcoholic or phenolic resins,
a number of which have been crystallized, as benzoresinol, from
benzoin; storesinol, from styrax ; gurjuresinol, from gurjun bal-
sam ; and guaiacresinol, from guaiac resin.

(3) Resinotannol Resins are aromatic derivatives that
behave towards iron salts and some other reagents like tannin
and yield picric acid on oxidation with nitric acid. The follow-
ing have been isolated : Aloeresinotannol, from aloes ; ammoresino-
tannol and galbaresinotannol, from ammoniac ; peruresinotannol,
from balsam of Peru; siaresinotannol and sinnaresinotannol, from
benzoin ; and toluresinotannol, from balsam of tolu.

(4) Resene Resins form a group of resins which appear to
be associated with bitter principles. They are insoluble in alka-
lies and with difficulty acted upon by reagents. They include
alban and fluavil, from gutta percha ; copalresene, from copal ;
dammaresene, from dammar; dracoresene, from dragon's blood;
olibanoresene, from olibanum.

(5) Glucoresins or glucosidal resins, as the resins of Jalap
(p. 452) and scammony (p. 657).

Resins occur in 33 families of the Spermophytes.

KINO.— MALABAR OR EAST INDIAN KINO.— The
inspissated juice of Ptcrocarpiis Marsiipiiim, and probably other
species of Pterocarpus (Fam. Leguminosae)', trees (p. 294)
indigenous to Southern India and Ceylon. The juice exudes
through incisions made in the bark, and is allowed to dry in the
sun. The drug is exported from Madras and is known as Mala-
bar or East Indian Kino.

Description. — Small, angular, opaque, black or reddish-
black, translucent, glistening, brittle pieces, nearly free from dust ;
the thin laminae appearing transparent and ruby-red at the edges ;
inodorous ; sweetish, very astringent and adhering to the teeth
when chewed, the saliva being colored red.

CRUDE DRUGS. 655

Kino is entirely soluble in alcohol, only partly soluble in cold
water, and not less than 80 per cent, should be soluble in boiling
water, the solution having an acid reaction.

Constituents. — Tannin, 40 to 80 per cent., which resembles
catechutannin and gives a blackish-green color and precipitate
with ferric chloride, a violet color with ferrous salts, and the
aqueous solutions of which deposit on exposure to air an insolu-
ble, amorphous, reddish substance, kino red; 1.5 per cent, of
kinoin. a colorless, crystalline substance, which is sparingly solu-
ble in water and yields on hydrolysis, kino red. Kino also con-
tains a small quantity of catechol (pyrocatechin), kino red, gallic
acid, resin, gum, pectin, 13 to 15 per cent, of moisture; and yields
2 to 6 per cent, of ash.

Allied Products. — The term kino is applied to various
astringent plant juices which, while they contain large amounts
of tannin, do not appear to be as valuable as either the Malabar
or Australian kino.

Allied Plants. — Australian kino (Red gum or Eucalyptus
gum) is obtained from Eucalyptus rostrata and other species of
Eucalyptus. It occurs in masses or small fragments, which are
of a ruby or garnet-red color (not reddish-black), somewhat
dusty, but not so brittle as Malabar kino. It contains 45 to 50
per cent, of tannic acid ; kino red, and catechin. About 80 to 90
per cent, is soluble in cold water, the solution having a neutral
reaction. Australian kino seems to be more unstable than Mala-
bar kino and is converted into insoluble kino red, particularly if
not thoroughly dried.

■Eucalyptus kino is also obtained from the following species :
Iron-bark tree {E. Lcucoxylon), E. Giinnii, E. obliqua, E. pipcr-
ata, E. ficifolia, E. stclliitata, E. macrorhyncha, E. amygdalina
radiata. vSeveral species of Angophora yield a kino which is
wholly soluble in alcohol and is entirely free from gum. So-called
Botany Bay (Australian) kino was at one time supposed to be
obtained from Eucalyptus resinifera.

Jamaica kino is obtained from Coccoloha uzifcra (Fam. Poly-
gonaceas. A number of other India species of Ptcrocarpus also
furnish kino. An African or Gambia kino is obtained from P.
eriuaccus, of Senegambia.

656 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

BuTEA or Bengal kino is obtained from Butea monosperma,
a tree growing in Western India and Farther India.

American dragon's blood, resembling black kino, is obtained
from P. Draco, of the West Indies and Guiana. A false dragon's
blood is obtained from Copaiba Mopane, of Southwestern Africa.

A tannin resembling kino is obtained from the Jambul tree
{Syzygimn Jamholana) , of India. Tannin is also found in the
root bark of Jauihosa vulgaris, of the East Indies ; the bark of
Myrtus brabantica, of Mexico and Peru. A tannin and a color-
ing principle are found in the bark of Myrtus Arayan, of Mexico
and Peru. A tannin and resin are found in the bark of Psidium
Guajava, of South America and the West Indies ; Spcrmolcpis
gummifera, of New Caledonia, and the Myrtle tree {Myrtus
communis) , of Southern Asia and the Mediterranean region, the
tannin in the latter plant occurring in larger proportion in the
galls which are produced upon it.

SCAMMONIUM.— SCAMMONY.— A gum-resin obtained
by incising the root of Convok'ulus Scammonia (Fam. Convolv-
ulaceae), a perennial, twining herb (p. 366) indigenous to Syria,
Asia Minor and Greece. The incisions are made in the upper
part of the root in June, and the exuding gum-resin is collected
in mussel shells, the product from a number of roots being mixed
together, after which it is allowed to dry. The principal points
of export are Smyrna and Aleppo. The natural exudation free
from extraneous matter is known as native or virgin scammony.

Smyrna Scammony. — In circular, flattened cakes, 10 to 12
cm. in diameter and about i cm. in thickness, or irregular, anguhr
pieces of variable size ; greenish-gray or brownish-black, often cov-
ered with a grayish-white powder, formed by the rubbing of the
pieces against one another in transportation ; very brittle ; fracture
sharp; internally porous, lustrous and of a uniform brownish-
black color, being more or less translucent in thin fragments ; odor
peculiar, somewhat cheese-like ; taste slightly acrid.

Scammony is easily powdered and forms a milky emulsion
with water. It does not effervesce on the addition of diluted
hydrochloric acid (absence of calcium carbonate) ; an alcoholic
solution is not colored blue on the addition of tincture of ferric
chloride (absence of guaiac resin) ; ether dissolves not less than

CRUDE DRUGS. 657

70 per cent, (distinction from jalap resin), and when the residue
on evaporation of the ethereal solution is dissolved in a hot
solution of potassium hydrate it is not reprecipitated on the addi-
tion of diluted sulphuric acid. The saponification value of
genuine scammony resin is from 238 to 240.5.

Constituents. — From 75 to 95 per cent, of a glucosidal resin
(scammonin), which is completely soluble in ether; gum, 5 to 8
per cent. ; ash, not more than 3 per cent. Scammonin is appar-
ently identical with the resin in Ipouia-a orizahcnsis and the ether-
soluble resin in jalap. It occurs as a white powder, which on
treatment with alkalies yields the glucoside Scammonic acid.
The latter on hydrolysis decomposes into scammonolic acid and
glucose. An anhydride of scammonolic acid, scammonol, some
valerianic acid and sugar are formed on treating scammonin with
mineral acids. The peculiar cheese-like odor of the resin is due
to the formation of a volatile, fatty acid during the drying process.

Adulterants. — Scammony is adulterated with inorganic sub-
stances, various starchy products, foreign resins, such as guaiac,
and an extract of the juice of the root of Convolvulus althccoides,
a plant indigenous to the countries of the Mediterranean.

Mexican scammony resin is obtained from Ipomcca oriza-
bensis (yield 16 per cent.). The saponification value is about 186.

Montpellier Scammony is the natural exudation of Mars-
denia erecta (Fam. Asclepiadaceae), a plant indigenous to South-
ern Europe. It contains 50 to 60 per cent, of starch, 10 to 21 per
cent, of resin, and yields 11 to 18 per cent, of ash.

Scammony Root is official in the British Pharmacopceia. It
is the dried root of C. Scammonia, and occurs in large, nearly
cylindrical, spirally twisted pieces from 2.5 to 7.5 cm. in diam-
eter ; externally it is yellowish-gray or brownish-gray and is longi-
tudinally furrowed ; the fracture is coarsely fibrous from the pres-
ence of projecting wood fibers ; internally it is whitish-gray, with
the collateral fibrovascular bundles in radial rows forming con-
centric circles, the phloem of each containing numerous dark
resin cells ; the odor is like that of jalap, and the taste is first
sweetish and then acrid. Scammony root contains about 5 per
cent, of the glucoresin, scammonin ; starch, and a sugar. It is
used in the preparation of an alcoholic, resinous extract, known as

658 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ScAMMONi/E Resina, which occurs in brownish, translucent
pieces that are brittle, shiny on the broken surfaces, fragrant
and acrid. It does not form an emulsion with water (distinction
from the natural resin), and is readily soluble in ether, consisting
almost entirely of scammonin.

OPIUM. — The dried milk-juice of the capsules of Papaver
somnifentm (Fam. Papaveracese), an annual herb (Fig. 147),
probably indigenous to Asia (p. 280), and now cultivated in Asia
Minor, China, India, Persia and European Turkey. Experiments
have been made both in this country and Europe to cultivate the
opium poppy, but so far these experiments have been unprofitable.
Opium is obtained by making transverse, oblique or longitudinal
incisions in the unripe capsule (Fig. 91) ; the latex which exudes
is collected when partly dry and made into a mass. The latter
is enclosed in a covering of rumex or poppy leaves and further
dried, subsequently being packed in bags with rumex berries to
prevent the masses from sticking together. While there are a
number of varieties of opium, that used in this country is prin-
cipally from Turkey and is exported chiefly from Smyrna and
Constantinople. There are two principal kinds of Smyrna opium,
namely, Karahissar, which occurs in spherical, somewhat flattened
masses, and Balukissar, which is in the form of flattened, plano-
convex masses, both kinds being wrapped in poppy leaves, packed
with Rumex seeds, and yielding about 13 per cent, of morphine.

Turkey Opium.— In irregular, flattened, more or less rounded
masses of variable size and weighing from 250 to i .000 grammes ;
externally grayish-brown, covered with remnants of poppy leaves
and with occasional fruits of a species of Rumex ; internally dark
brown, granular, somewhat lustrous, more or less plastic when
fresh, but becoming hard and darker on keeping ; odor distinct,
heavy; taste peculiar, bitter (Fig. 314).

Constituents. — A large number of alkaloids have been
obtained from opium and its extracts, some of which are, no
doubt, alteration products of the alkaloids naturally occurring in
the drug ; the most important of these is morphine, which exists
to the extent of 5 to 22 per cent., the largest amount being
obtained from Turkey opium, the Persian ranking next, and the
smallest amount being obtained from Indian opium.

CRUDE DRUGS. 659

Morphine occurs in rhombic prisms or fine needles, which
are nearly insoluble in water or oil of anise, and sparingly soluble
in alcohol, and it forms crystallizable salts which are readily solu-
ble in water, the solutions being laevorotatory. On the addition of
morphine to concentrated sulphuric acid containing a little potas-
sium dichromate, little or no change is produced at first, but the
solution later becomes of a green color. On the addition first of
some cane sugar to morphine and then of concentrated sulphuric
acid and a little bromine water, the solution becomes purplish-red,
changing to violet-blue, blue-green and finally a dingy yellow.
Morphine gives a blue color with dilute solutions of ferric chlor-
ide, which is destroyed on heating, and it gives an orange or red-
dish color with nitric acid. On heating morphine in a sealed
tube with hydrochloric acid a new salt is formed, known as apo-
MORPHiNE hydrochloride. The latter occurs in minute, nearly
colorless, monoclinic prisms, which become greenish on exposure
to air and moisture ; and the solutions are colored reddish on the
addition of dilute solutions of ferric chloride. Pseudomorphine
is a crystalline compound that is formed on heating alkaline solu-
tions of morphine with oxidizing agents. It is insoluble in water,
alcohol or even dilute sulphuric acid, but is readily soluble in a
solution of potassium hydrate (Fig. 338).

Codeine (or methyl morphine) occurs in opium to the extent
of 0.5 to 2 per cent. It forms translucent, octahedral crystals or
rhombic prisms, which are soluble in alcohol and oil of anise;
somewhat soluble in water, and readily forms crystallizable salts.
On heating codeine with concentrated sulphuric acid the solution
is colored blue. On the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid
containing traces of iron or nitric acid to .codeine the solution
becomes green, changing to blue, a blue precipitate finally separat-
ing. Dilute solutions of ferric chloride give a blue color with
codeine, which is permanent if the solution be gently warmed.
Codeine crystals are colored red with nitric acid, the solution
remaining colorless or only becoming yellow on heating. On
heating a solution of codeine hydrochloride in an autoclave with
zinc chloride, an amorphous, yellowish-gray powder is formed,
known as apocodeine hydrochloride, and having the same physio-
logical action as apomorphine hydrochloride (Figs. 332, 333).

66o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Some opium obtained from plants cultivated in France yielded
2.81 per cent, of codeine, while the morphine was but 2.41 per
cent, and the narcotine o.io per cent.

Narcotine (opianine) occurs to the extent of 0.75 to 9 per
cent, in opium, chiefly as a free base. It is found in greater
amount in Persian and Indian opium than in Turkey opium. It
forms colorless, shining, rhombic prisms or needles, that are taste-
less, insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol. With concentrated
sulphuric acid narcotine is colored greenish-yellow, the solution on
heating changing to red and finally violet. It may be. converted
into a number of compounds, of which hydrocotarnine and vanil-
lin are probably the most interesting (Fig. 339).

Papaverine occurs to the extent of about i per cent, and
forms colorless needles or prisms, which are partly soluble in
water and alcohol, and colored deep purple or violet-blue on
warming with sulphuric acid.

Thebaine (paramorphine) occurs to the extent of 0.15 per
cent, in opium. It crystallizes in prisms which are insoluble in
water or alkaline solutions, soluble in alcohol, and gives with
sulphuric acid a deep red color.

Narceine (o.i to 0.2 per cent.) occurs m silky needles or
quadrangular prisms, which are nearly insoluble in cold water
and alcohol, and are colored blue with iodine solutions and blood-
red with chlorine water and ammonia.

PROToriNE occurs in monoclinic prisms, which are insoluble
in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol, the solution having a
bitter taste. Sulphuric acid dissolves protopine with a beautiful
blue-violet color, which later becomes dull violet and finally green-
ish. Protopine is also found in a number of other plants of the
Papaveracese, as the roots of Macleya cordata and Chclidonium
ma jus ; the rhizome of Sanguinaria, and other plants as well
(p. 282).

Of the other alkaloids in opium the following may be men-
tioned : Codamine, cryptopine, gnoscopine. lanthopine, laudanine,
laudanosine, meconine, meconidine and xanthaline.

Opium also contains from 3 to 5 per cent, of meconic acid,
which exists in combination with morphine, codeine and other
alkaloids. It forms rhombic prisms that are soluble in water and

CRUDE DRUGS. 66i

alcohol and give a deep red color to solutions of ferric chloride,
which is not altered on the addition of dilute hydrochloric acid.

The yield of ash in Opium is from 4 to 8 per cent.

Persian Opium. — Usually in masses weighing about 350
grammes, and internally more or less homogeneous. There are
three commercial kinds of Persian opium : ( i ) Persian green,
which is in plano-convex masses that are of a greenish color and
with a closely adhering covering of leaf-tissue; (2) Persian white,
which is in oblong, cubical masses, that are coated with a layer
of closely adhering white paper; (3) Persian red, which is in
either oblong, cubical, or truncate, cone-like masses, that are cov-
ered with a grayish-white layer and usually wrapped in red paper.

Turkey Opium is produced in various parts of European and
Asiatic Turkey, and there are three principal kinds on the market,
namely: (i)Malatia opium, which is in the form of ellipsoidal
or oblong, flattened cakes, with a closely adhering coating of leaf-
tissue, and yields about 10 per cent, of morphine; (2) Salonica
opium, which is in the form of long, broad, flattened cakes, coated
with leaf-tissue, and yields about 15 per cent, of morphine; (3)
Gheve opium, which is obtained from plants with red flowers,
occurs in flat, oval masses, wrapped in poppy leaves, and yields
12.5 per cent, of morphine.

Egyptian Opium is in flat, nearly square masses, that are
covered with poppy leaves, and yields from 3.5 to 7 per cent, of
morphine.

Indian Opium is in flat cakes weighing about 200 grammes,
or rounded masses weighing about 2 kilogrammes, wrapped in
oiled paper. This variety is sent chiefly to China.

Adulterants.- — Opium sometimes contains fragments of the
capsules, the pulp of figs and other fruits, tragacanth, starch, and
various inorganic substances, as clay, sand, stone, lead piping,
lead bullets, etc. While starch is not usually admixed with Tur-
key opium it is nearly always present in the Persian variety.

ALOE. — ALOES. — The inspissated juice of the leaves of
various species of Aloe (Earn. Liliaceae), perennial succulents
(Fig. 130) indigenous to Africa and India and naturalized in the
West Indies (p. 2.yj). There are three principal commercial
varieties of aloes: (i) Socotrine (and Zanzibar) Aloes, derived

662

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

from Aloe Perryi, and probably other species of Aloe, growing on
the island of Socotra and in Eastern Africa, and exported by
way of Bombay; (2) Curasao (and Barbadoes) Aloes, obtained
from Aloe chinensis and Aloe vera, growing in Cura(;ao and other

O-^O

3€^ ^^ o

Fig. 275. Crystals from exudations and extracts: A, crystals found in the residue
after treatment of catechu with water; B, long prisms of catechin (d) found on treatment
of gambir with chloral solution, the crystals soon dissolving, and prismatic plates (e)
usually seen in glycerin mounts of gambir; C, crystals from aloes, including aloin (a),
broad prisms (b) from Barbadoes aloes, and plates (c) from Cape aloes; D, crystals of
benzoic acid obtained by subliming benzoin on a slide or in a watch crystal.

islands of the Dutch West Indies; and (3) Cape and Uganda
Aloes, obtained probably from Aloe ferox, growing in Southern
Africa, and exported from Cape Town and Mossel Bay.
The leaves of the Aloe plant are cut transversely and the juice
which exudes is allowed to evaporate spontaneously, it being

CRUDE DRUGS. 663

usually, however, concentrated by boiling and then poured into
boxes or gourds, and occasionally it is found in commerce enclosed
in monkey-skins (Fig. 275). Socotrine aloes commands the high-
est price. The latter variety when fresh has an unpleasant odor,
but on keeping develops an odor resembling myrrh and saffron.

1. Socotrine Aloes. — In yellowish-brown to dark-brown
opaque masses, or smooth and glassy, fracture somewhat conch-
oidal ; odor saffron-like ; powder yellowish-brown or brownish-
yellow, giving a yellowish or reddish-brown color with nitric acid.
About 50 per cent, of socotrine aloes is soluble in cold water.
It is almost completely soluble in 60 per cent, alcohol or in water
at 100° C. On cooling the latter solution there separates from
40 to 60 per cent, of the so-called " resin of aloes," which is solu-
ble in alkalies with a red color and is reprecipitated on the addi-
tion of acids. About 36.6 per cent, of aloes is soluble in chloro-
form, and from 4 to 5.5 per cent, in ether, the solution being of a
yellow color. It should contain not more than 8 per cent, of
moisture and yield not more than 4 per cent, of ash.

Zanzib.\r Aloes is a hepatic (or liver-colored) variety of
Socotrine Aloes, produced by slowly evaporating the juice of the
plant. It comes into market frequently in monkey-skins, has a
dark brown color, a dull, waxy fracture, and a nearly smooth,
even surface. It is crystalline under the microscope and forms a
reddish-yellow powder that is colored dark yellow with nitric acid.

2. Curasao Aloes. — Orange to blackish-brown opaque
masses, translucent in thin pieces ; fracture uneven, waxy, some-
what resinous, occasionally exhibiting microscopical crystals of
aloin ; odor distinct, unpleasant ; taste nauseous, bitter. The pow-
der is dark brown and gives an immediate deep reddish color
WITH COLD nitric ACID or with solutions of the alkalies.

About 70 per cent, of Curacao Aloes is soluble in cold water.
It is almost completely soluble in 60 "per cent, alcohol or boiling
water ; on cooling the solution made with boiling water there sep-
arates from 40 to 60 per cent, of " resin of aloes," which is sim-
ilar to that of Socotrine aloes. About 66.6 per cent, is soluble in
chloroform and not less than 10 per cent, in ether. It contains
less than 8 per cent, of moisture and yields from 1.5 to 4 per cent,
of ash.

664 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Barbadoes Aloes is a hepatic variety of Curasao Aloes, which
is not obtained at the present time from Barbadoes, but from the
Dutch West Indies. It occurs in dark brown, dull, opaque masses,
giving- a yellow powder that is colored red with nitric acid. About
72.4 per cent, of fresh and 62.8 per cent, of old Barbadoes aloes
is soluble in chloroform. It contains about 9 per cent, of moisture.
3. Cape Aloes. — Of a reddish-brown or of an olive-black
color, transparent in thin pieces ; fracture smooth and glassy ;
powder greenish-yellow, becoming light brown and giving a
greenish color with nitric acid.

About 65 per cent, of Cape aloes is soluble in cold water.
It is almost completely soluble in alcohol or boiling water; and
the latter solution gives a precipitate of 60 per cent, of " resin
of aloes." From 81 to 86.8 per cent, is soluble in chloroform,
and from 1.5 to 6.5 per cent, in ether. It contains about 9 per
cent, of moisture, and yields but a small percentage of ash.

Uganda (or crown) Aloes is a hepatic variety of Cape
Aloes prepared by allowing the juice to stand and undergo a
partial fermentation, after which the clear liquor is decanted and
evaporated by exposure to the sun. It occurs in reddish-brown
masses, producing a powder, which is colored yellow to brown
with nitric acid.

Constituents. — A crystalline, bitter principle, aloin, the per-
centage (4.5 to 30 per cent.) and composition of which vary in
the different varieties, and which is supposed to occur in largest
amount in old aloes; emodin (see Rhubarb) ; a pale yellow, vola-
tile oil, which is apparently not identical in the different varieties,
giving them their characteristic odors; 13 to 63 per cent, of res-
inous material, which consists chiefly of a resinotannol ester of
cinnamic acid (Curacao and Barbadoes Aloes) or of a resino-
tannol ester of paracumaric acid (Cape Aloes) ; and i to 4 per
cent, of ash.

Aloin is a neutral, bitter principle, which on distillation with
zinc dust yields anthracene. It forms minute, lemon-yellow to
yellowish-brown acicular crystals, which are sparingly soluble in
water but more so in alcohol, the solutions becoming brown on
standing. Alkaline solutions of aloin have a deep red color and
exhibit a greenish-red fluorescence. Upon the addition of aloin

CRUDE DRUGS. 665

to sulphuric acid a yellowish-red solution is formed, which upon
the addition of a small quantity of potassium dichromate is
changed to olive-green and finally to a blue color. Ferric chlor-
ide gives a brownish-green color to an alcoholic solution of aloin.
The amount of aloin varies from 4 to 10 per cent, in Socotrine
(Zanzibar) aloes, is about 6 per cent, in Cape (Uganda) aloes
and is stated to range from 10 to 30 per cent, in Curasao (Bar-
badoes) aloes. The aloin obtained from Curasao or Barbadoes
aloes gives with nitric acid a cherry-red color or with Klunge's
reagent a deep red color. These color reactions are due to the
presence of about 0.5 per cent, of an isomeric body (isobarbaloin),
which is not found in the aloins of Socotrine and Cape Aloes.
Alcoholic solutions of barbaloin and isobarbaloin lose their bitter-
ness on standing, the aloin being replaced in part at least by a
suerar aloinose, which forms yellow crystals that are colored red
and then green with concentrated hydrochloric acid and orcin.
Aloin is considered by some to be an emodin-glucoside which on
oxidation splits ofif emodin, the latter on further oxidation form-
ing rhein. (See also Fig. 275, C.)

Adulterants. — Aloes formerly contained various mechanical
impurities, and this was the reason for the introduction of a puri-
fied aloes into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. As heat impairs the
quality of aloes and as the requirements forbid adulteration the
untreated aloes should be employed. The aloin is sometimes
removed, as in the Curacao aloes, when it has the appearance of
Cape aloes and is sometimes sold for it. Recently aloes has been
coming into market packed in thin layers separated by paper.

Allied Plants. — Natal Aloes is a hepatic variety of Aloes
which was at one time exported from Natal, the botanical origin
being unknown. It occurs in grayish-brown or greenish-
black, dull, opaque masses, often covered with a brownish pow-
der. The odor somewhat resembles that of Cape Aloes. The
powder is grayish-green or pale yellowish-brown and microcrys-
talline, giving a permanent crimson color with nitric acid and a
deep blue with sulphuric acid and vapor of nitric acid. The latter
test serves to distinguish this aloes from all the other varieties.
The drug contains aloin (nataloin), but not emodin. Both Natal
Aloes and nataloin are physiologically inactive.

666 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Jaffarabad Aloes is a vitreous variety obtained from the
East Indies and is exported from Bombay. It occurs in circular,
flattened cakes, of a deep black color externally, and with a black,
glossy, slightly porous or somewhat laminated fracture. It yields
13 to 20 per cent, of aloin, which is apparently chiefly barbaloin,
and gives a deep crimson color with nitric acid.

CATECHU. — An extract prepared from the heartwood of
Acacia Catechu (Fam. Leguminosge), a tree (p. 294) indigenous
to India and Burmah, and from the leaves and twigs of Uncaria
(Ourouparia) Gambir (Fam. Rubicacese), a climbing shrub or
liane indigenous to Malacca, Java and Sumatra and mostly culti-
vated near Singapore, the former being known as " black catechu "
or " cutch," and the latter as " pale catechu," " gambir," or " terra
japonica." These extracts are prepared by boiling the parts of
the trees and shrubs yielding them with water, evaporating the
strained liquid to a syrupy consistence and allowing it to harden.

Black Catechu. — In irregular masses, with fragments of
leaves or mats upon the outside, dark brown, somewhat shiny;
brittle, more or less porous internally ; odor slight ; taste astrin-
gent and sweetish.

Catechu is somewhat soluble in cold water, the undissolved
portion containing acicular crystals of catechin and cr}'stals of
another substance resembling octahedra (Fig. 275, A), but aniso-
tropic ; almost entirely soluble in boiling water, the solution giving
an acid reaction, a dense precipitate with copper sulphate and a
greenish-black precipitate with dilute ferric chloride solution ;
not less than 70 per cent, should be soluble in 90 per cent, alcohol.
Few or no starch grains or vegetable tissues should be present,
and the ash should not be more than 5 per cent.

Gambir or Pale Catechu. — Usually in more or less porous
irregular cubes, about 25 mm. in diameter ; externally dull red-
dish-brown ; friable ; internally paler, consisting chiefly of micro-
scopic crystals when examined in a drop of oil ; odor slight ;
taste bitter and very astringent. The aqueous solution gives an
intense green color with dilute ferric chloride and does not yield a
precipitate with copper sulphate solution. (See also Fig. 275, B.)

Constituents.- -Catechutannic acid, 25 (black catechu) or
22 to 50 per cent, (pale catechu), giving a green color and pre-

CRUDE DRUGS. d^y

cipitate with ferric chloride and in other respects resembHng the
tannin in oak bark, kino and krameria ; a substance somewhat
resembHng gaUic acid, catechin, which crystaUizes in silky
needles; catechu-red; quercetin (p. 544), and ash about 3 per
cent. Pale catechu contains in addition a fluorescent principle.

Allied Plants. — Black catechu is also extracted from the
wood of Acacia Suma, of India. The barks of a number of spe-
cies of Acacia growing in Australia, and known as wattle
BARKS, are used in the preparation of an extract resembling black
catechu. The tannin of Acacia arabica and of several species of
Cccsalpinia yield on hydrolysis gallic and ellagic acids.

A tannin resembling catechu is obtained from the bark of
Eugenia Smithii (Fam. Myrtaceae), of Australia. A catechu-
like extract is obtained from the bark of the Mahogany Tree
{Sivietenia Mahogoni), one of the ]\Ieliaceae, of the West Indies
and Peru.

An extract (known as Than), prepared from Terminalia
Olivcri (Fam. Combretacese), a large tree growing in the dry
regions of the Irrawaddy Valley, is used to adulterate Catechu. It
contains a dark red coloring principle, but apparently no tannin,
although the latter has been reported as occurring to the extent
Df between 14 and 68 per cent.

Mangrove extract is sometimes sold for catechu (p. 346).

ELASTICA.— CAOUTCHOUC, INDIA-RUBBER.— The
latex or milk- juice of Hevea brasiliensis , and probably other spe-
cies of Hevea (Fam. Euphorbiaceae), trees indigenous to Brazil
(p. 316). The milk-juice is obtained by making incisions in the
bark of the tree and is collected in small cups fastened to the
trees. This is then poured into a larger vessel in which is placed
a wooden paddle. The latter, with adhering latex, is dexterously
revolved in an open fire until coagulated, new material being added
from time to time until flask-shaped masses are formed, which are
then removed, and constitute the commercial article known as
" bolacho." The best grade, known as Para Rubber, is official.

Description. — In elastic flask-shaped masses or pieces of
varying form and size ; light, floating in water ; externally brown-
ish to brownish-black ; internally brownish, consisting of a number
of thin, alternate light and dark layers, due to the superimposed

668 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

coats of latex formed during the drying process ; odor slight,
empyreumatic ; nearly tasteless.

Caoutchouc is insoluble in water, dilute acids, or dilute solu-
tions of the alkalies ; more or less soluble in chloroform, carbon
disulphide, oil of turpentine, benzin and benzol. It melts at about
125° C, remaining soft and adhesive after cooling.

Constituents. — Caoutchouc consists chiefly of two hydro-
carbons, one of which is ductile and readily soluble in chloroform,
and the other elastic and less soluble in chloroform ; it also con-
tains I to 2 per cent, of resin, volatile oil, etc.

Allied Plants. — African rubber is obtained from several
species of Landolphia and Kichsia africana (Fam. Apocynaceae).
Bahia rubber is derived from Hancornia speciosa (Fam. Apocy-
naceae). Central American or Panama rubber is obtained
from Castilloa elastica (Fam. Moraceae). Ceara rubber is the
product of Manihot Gladovii (Fam. Euphorbiaceae). East India
rubber is the product of the commonly cultivated rubber plant,
Ficus elastica (Fam. Moraceae). Penang or Borneo rubber is
the product of several species of Urceola (Fam. Apocynaceae).

Vulcanization of Rubber. — Caoutchouc retains its elastic
and other properties and is not affected by heat if it is first purified
and then mixed with sulphur or sulphides. Ordinary rubber
articles are prepared in this manner. Hard rubber articles are
manufactured from Borneo rubber, to which colophony, gum
balata and caoutchouc are added ; a number of mineral substances
being added to cheapen as well as to color the final product.

GUAIACUM.— GUAIAC RESIN.— A resin obtained from
the stem and branches of Guaiacum officinale, a small tree grow-
ing in Florida, the Antilles and Northern South America, and
Guaiacum sanctum (Fam. Zygophyllaceae). indigenous to the
West Indies and the northern part of South America. The resin
exudes spontaneously or is obtained from incisions in the bark or
by heating the fallen trunks. The commercial article comes chiefly
from Cuba and Hayti. The resin obtained from trees growing
in the Bahama Islands is most highly esteemed (p. 303 ; Fig. 156).

Description. — Usually in irregular masses ; externally green-
ish-brown, frequently covered with a greenish powder ; brittle,
the fracture having a glassy luster and being yellowish-green or

CRUDE DRUGS. 669

reddish-brown and more or less transparent in thin pieces; fusible;
odor balsamic ; taste somewhat acrid.

The powder of guaiac is of a grayish color, but becomes green
on exposure to the air, and on heating gives off an odor of ben-
zoin. It is readily soluble in ether, alcohol, chloroform, solutions
of the alkalies or chloral hydrate. It is sparingly soluble in ben-
zol, fixed or volatile oils. The alcoholic solution has a brown
color, which is changed to blue by the addition of ferric chloride,
or oxidizing agents (as chromic acid or ozone) or through the
action of chlorine, bromine or iodine. An alcoholic solution of
guaiac is colored blue by enzymes. The blue color is destroyed on
the addition of reducing substances.

Constituents. — Several acids are present, including guaia-
conic, guaiaretic, guaiacresin, guaiacinic, and guaiacic. GuAiAr
CONIC acid (alpha resin) occurs to the extent of 50 to 70 per
cent., and forms a brown powder which is insoluble in water,
soluble in alcohol and gives a blue color with nitric acid and other
oxidizing agents ; and on dry distillation yields guaiac oil and
pyroguaiacin. Recent investigations show that guaiaconic acid
consists of two crystalline substances : a-guaiaconic acid and
^-guaiaconic acid. The latter crystallizes in rhombohedra and
does not give a blue color with oxidizing agents. When a solution
of a-guaiaconic acid in chloroform is treated with lead peroxide
GUAIAC BLUE is formed, which may be obtained as a blue mass
with metallic luster on evaporating the chloroformic solution.
On reduction with sulphurous acid it is changed to a-guaiaconic
acid. Guaiaretic acid (about 10 per cent.) occurs in
colorless needles and forms crystalline salts with the alkalies.
Guaiacresin acid occurs in white, shining* plates that are soluble
in alcohol and give on dry distillation the same products as guaia-
conic acid. Guaiacinic acid (beta resin) occurs as a yellowish-
brown powder and yields on dry distillation tiglic aldehyde (di-
methyl acrolein). Guaiacic acid forms colorless needles which
are soluble in water, but probably does not occur in the natural
product, being in the nature of a decomposition product. Guaiac
resin also contains a yellow coloring principle, guaiac yellow
(about 0.7 per cent.), which occurs in light yellow, hard octa-
hedra that are sparingly soluble in hot water and give a blue color

670 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

with concentrated sulphuric acid ; and a Hght yellow, rather thick-
ethereal oil (guaiac oil), which cannot be obtained by distillation
and possesses a characteristic aromatic odor. Among the other
constituents are vanillin and a yellow gum. The yield of ash
should not be more than 4 per cent. Guaiac wood yields from
20 to 25 per cent, of resin.

Of particular interest are the decomposition products obtained
on heating guaiac resin. On dry distillation the following sub-
stances are obtained : Tiglic aldehyde ; a colorless, aromatic
liquid with the odor of benzaldehyde ; guaiac oil ; and a crystal-
line substance, pyroguaiacin, which on distillation with zinc yields
guaiacene (an aldehyde of tiglic acid).

FIX BURGUNDICA.— BURGUNDY PITCH.— The resin-
ous exudation of the stems of the Norway Spruce Fir, Picea
excelsa (Fam. Coniferge), an evergreen tree indigenous to Europe
and Northern Asia (p. 81). The resin is obtained by making
incisions through the bark into the wood, the resin exuding and
solidifying ; it is then collected and purified by melting it in hot
water and straining the mixture. The chief supplies of the drug
come from Finland, the Black Forest (Germany) and the Jura
Mountains. It is doubtful if the commercial supplies have ever
been derived from the French province. Burgundy, from which
it takes its name.

Description. — Irregular, hard, opaque or translucent pieces,
more or less plastic and strongly adhesive, yellowish-brown or
reddish-brown, brittle, the fracture shiny, conchoidal ; odor agree-
ably terebinthinate ; taste aromatic and sweetish.

Burgundy Pitch is partly soluble in cold alcohol (i to 20), and
almost entirely soluble in boiling alcohol or in glacial acetic acid.

Constituents. — Chiefly resin, consisting of two crystallizable
resin acids : dextropimaric and laevopimaric acids ; a volatile oil
(isomeric with oil of turpentine), about 5 per cent., to which its
peculiar fragrance is due; and about 10 per cent, or less of water,
which is included during the preparation.

Adulterants. — Burgundy pitch is sometimes substituted by
various mixtures, as of other coniferous products and palm oil :
these are distinguished by being more or less opaque and some-
what porous, and not having the characteristic odor of the gen-

CRUDE DRUGS. 671

uine article, and also by the formation of a turbid mixture on the
addition of two parts by weight of glacial acetic acid.

Allied Plants. — Canada (or Hemlock) Pitch is the oleo-
resin of the common Hemlock [Tsiiga (Abies) canadcusis]
which is obtained by making incisions in the trunk and collect-
ing the exudate, or by boiling pieces of the wood and bark and
skimming off the melted oleo-resin. It occurs in dark, reddish-
brown, opaque or translucent pieces resembling Burgundy Pitch,
and probably contains similar constituents.

ASAFETIDA. — A gum-resin obtained from the root of
Ferula fcvtida and other species of Ferula (Fam. Umbelliferse),
perennial herbs (p. 352) indigenous to Eastern Persia and West-
ern Afghanistan. Asafetida is obtained by incising the crown
of the root, when the gum-resin exudes, hardens and is then
scraped from the root. It is exported by way of Bombay.

Description. — In irregular masses composed of tears, from
I to 2.5 cm. in diameter, which when fresh are tough, yellow-
ish-white and translucent or milky white and opaque, changing
gradually to pinkish and finally reddish-brown, and becoming, on
drying, hard and brittle ; internally yellowish and translucent or
milky white and opaque ; odor persistent, alliaceous ; taste bitter,
alliaceous and acrid.

Asafetida yields a milk-white emulsion when triturated with
water, which becomes yellowish on the addition of solutions of
the alkalies. Treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the filtrate
gives a blue fluorescence on making it alkaline with ammonia
water (distinguishing it from ammoniac). The freshly fractured
surface gives a greenish color on the application of a few drops
of 40 per cent, nitric acid solution (distinguishing it from gal-
banum). Not less than 40 to 50 per cent, should dissolve in
alcohol.

Constituents. — About 60 per cent, of a reddish-brown amor-
phous RESIN (consisting of the ferulaic ester of asa-resinotannol),
yielding on dry distillation umbelliferone ; on treatment with sul-
phuric acid, resorcin, and on fusion with potassium hydrate, pro-
tocatechuic acid ; from 3 to 6.y per cent, of a volatile oil, con-
sisting in part of hexenyl sulphide, hexenyl disulphide. pinene and
cadinene, and to which the odor of the drug is due; about 1.28

672 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

per cent, of ferulaic acid (chemically related to vanillin, eugenol
and cinnamic acid), which occurs in iridescent, tasteless, odorless
needles and yields on fusion with potassium hydroxide, acetic,
oxalic and protocatechuic acids. The drug also contains 0.06
per cent, of vanillin ; 0.60 per cent, of free asa-resinotannol, and
formic, acetic, valerianic and malic acids ; and ash 5 to 10 per cent.

Adulterants. — Asafetida frequently contains fragments of
vegetable tissues, red clay, sand and stones ; it is sometimes
adulterated with dirty white, gritty masses of gypsum, at other
times with barley or wheat flour or translucent gums. Recently
it has been adulterated with pieces of rose-colored marble.

BENZOINUM.— BENZOIN.— A balsamic resin obtained
from Styrax Benzoin, and probably other species of Styrax (Fam.
Styracese), trees (p. 360) indigenous to Java, Sumatra and Siam.
The resin flows from incisions made in the bark, hardens, and is
then collected, the commercial varieties being known as Siam
and Sumatra Benzoin, the former being preferred. The compo-
sition of the resin varies according to the age of the tree, the
youngest trees yielding the best product. The constituents of the
commercial resin are not found in the tissues of the tree, but
appear to develop as a pathological product due to an injury of
the trees resulting from the manner of incising the bark, although
probably the exposure of the resin to the air has an influence on
the constituents.

Sumatra Benzoin. — In irregular masses composed of yel-
lowish or reddish-brown tears of variable size and a reddish-
brown and translucent or grayish-brown and opaque matrix ; brit-
tle, the tears internally being milky white ; becoming soft on
warming, and yielding benzoic acid on sublimation ; odor agree-
able, balsamic, resembling that of styrax ; taste slightly aromatic.
About 80 per cent, is soluble in a solution of potassium hydroxide
or in 95 per cent, alcohol.

Siam Benzoin occurs in concavo-convex tears ; it has a
vanilla-like odor and is almost completely soluble in solutions of
the alkalies or in alcohol ; it is further distinguished from the
Sumatra variety in not containing cinnamic acid, and therefore
does not yield benzaldehyde on boiling an acidulated solution with
potassium permanganate.

CRUDE DRUGS. 673

Constituents of Sumatra Benzoin. — About 75 per cent,
of a resinous substance, benzoresin, which consists of two esters :
(a) an ester of cinnamic acid and resinotannol (92.6 per cent),
and (b) an ester of cinnamic acid and benzoresinol. Benzoresin
on decomposition yields 30.3 per cent, of cinnamic acid, 64.5 per
cent, of resinotannol, which is sokible in a concentrated sodium
saHcylate solution, and 5.2 per cent, of benzoresinol.

Sumatra benzoin also contains traces of benzaldehyde and
benzol; 0.1 to I per cent, of vanillin; i per cent, of the phenyl-
propyl ester of cinnamic acid; 2 to 3 per cent, of styracin (cin-
namic cinnamate) ; and 14 to 17 per cent, of insoluble matter
consisting chiefly of woody tissues.

Constituents of Siam Benzoin. — It consists largely of a
resinous substance, siabenzoresin, which is composed of about
90 per cent, of an ester of benzoic acid and siaresinotannol, and
about 10 per cent, of an ester of benzoic acid and benzoresinol.
Slxbenzoresin on saponification yields 38.2 per cent, of benzoic
acid, 56.7 per cent, of siaresinotannol, and 5.1 per cent, of
benzoresinol.

Siam benzoin also contains 0.3 per cent, of a neutral aromatic
liquid, which is probably an ester of benzoic acid, the nature of
the alcohol not having been determined as yet; 0.15 to 1.5 per
cent, of vanillin ; a small quantity of free benzoic acid, and 1.3
to 3.3 per cent, of impurities in the form of woody tissues.
Penang Benzoin has an odor of styrax, and in composition re-
sembles Siam benzoin. It contains considerable benzoic acid,
and it and Palembang benzoin, also from Sumatra, are a source
of benzoic acid.

MYRRHA.— MYRRH.— The dried gum-resin from the stem
of Coiniiiiphora abyssinica and C. Schimpcri (Fam. Burse-
raceae), rather large shrubs indigenous to Northeastern Africa
(chiefly Somali Land) and Southern Arabia (p. 310). The gum-
resin exudes spontaneously or from incisions made in the bark ;
it is first of a yellowish color but soon hardens, becoming darker,
and is then collected. There are two principal commercial varie-
ties of Myrrh, the one known as African or Somali Myrrh, and
the other as Arabian or Yemen Myrrh, the former being consid-
ered the better.

674 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — In irregular agglutinated tears or masses of
variable size ; externally rough and uneven, yellowish- or reddish-
brown, covered with a yellowish powder; brittle, the fractured
surface waxy, granular, oily, slightly mottled, somewhat trans-
lucent in thin pieces; odor balsamic; taste aromatic, bitter and
acrid.

Myrrh forms a brownish-yellow emulsion when triturated with
water (distinction from other gum-resins) ; an ethereal solution
treated with bromine vapor becomes reddish (distinction from
East Indian myrrh) ; when moistened with nitric acid it becomes
purplish (distinction from false myrrh or bdellium) ; not more
than 70 per cent, is insoluble in alcohol.

Constituents. — A yellowish or yellowish-green, rather thick
volatile oil, 2.5 to 8 per cent., having the characteristic odor of
myrrh; resin, 25 to 40 per cent., composed of several constituents,
one of which yields protocatechuic acid and pyrocatechin ; gum,
about 60 per cent., consisting of a soluble and insoluble portion
and forming a mucilage that does not readily ferment ; a bitter
principle, sparingly soluble in water but soluble in alcohol ; ash,
5 to 10 per cent.

The volatile oil of myrrh consists of cuminal (about i per
cent.), eugenol, meta-cresol, pinene, limonene, dipentene and two
sesquiterpenes. The acidity of old oil is due to free acetic and
palmitic acids.

Adulterants. — Myrrh is frequently admixed with gums and
other gum-resins, including several kinds of Bdellium which
are obtained from various species of Commiphora, and which are
characterized by not giving a purplish color with nitric acid. Of
these the following may be mentioned: African bdellium,
which occurs in yellowish-brown masses, that are reddish in trans-
mitted light and have a pepper-like odor and bitter taste ; Indian
bdellium, occurring in irregular, reddish-brown masses, covered
with minute spicules of resin, and having a terebinthinate odor
and an acrid taste; and opaque bdellium, which occurs in yel-
lowish, hard, opaque masses, with a faint odor and bitter taste,
and the alcoholic solution of which is colored black with ferric
chloride. Thin pieces of a bark are frequently present in opaque
bdellium.

CRUDE DRUGS. 675

BiSABOL, or East Indian myrrh, is exported from Eastern
Africa and Asia ; it closely resembles true myrrh, but is distin-
guished from it by the ethereal solution not becoming reddish
with bromine vapor. Furthermore, on mixing 6 drops of a
petroleum ether solution (one part of myrrh to 15 of ether) with
3 c.c. of glacial acetic acid and then adding this liquid carefully
to 3 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, a rose-colored zone is at
first developed, and finally the entire acetic acid solution assumes
the same color. With genuine myrrh the solution is colored a
very pale rose color.

Allied Plants. — Opopanax is a balsam-like product obtained
from Commiphora Kataf, a plant indigenous to Arabia, and is
supposed to be the Myrrh mentioned in the Bible. It yields from
6 to 10 per cent, of a greenish-yellow volatile oil with a pleasant
balsamic odor; and also contains opo-resinotannol (a compound
not yielding umbelliferone on distillation) both free and com-
bined with ferulaic acid ; free ferulaic acid ; vanillin, and a gum
containing bassorin.

Mulu Kilavary is a gummy exudation obtained from Com-
miphora Berryi, a plant growing in India. It occurs in yellowish-
brown or dark brown translucent fragments, having a conchoidal,
oily fracture, and consists chiefly of gum, with a small quantity
of a tasteless resin and a volatile oil.

TEREBINTHINA.— TURPENTINE.— An oleo-resin ob-
tained from Piniis pahistris and other species of Pinus (Earn.
Coniferas), evergreen trees (Figs. 47, 48) indigenous to the
Southern United States (p. 81). The oleo-resin is secreted in
the sapwood and is obtained by making triangular incisions in
the bark and wood in the spring; it flows inio cavities (or boxes)
made lower down on the trunk, from which it is dipped into
barrels or other receptacles. The product of the first year's cut-
ting is of superior quality and is known as " virgin " turpentine.
It yields about 15 per cent, of oil of turpentine, while the product
of the second or third year yields 10 per cent.

Description. — In yellowish, opaque masses, brittle in the
cold ; lighter internally, sticky and more or less shiny ; odor and
taste terebinthinate. One part dissolved in 5 parts of alcohol
gives a clear solution having an acid reaction,

676

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Constituents. — Turpentine consists of 70 to 80 per cent, of
resin and 15 to 30 per cent, of volatile oil ; it also contians a bitter
principle and various organic acids, as pinic, sylvic, etc.

Oil of Turpentine is obtained chiefly from the following
pines growing in the Southern States: Finns palitsfris, P. glabra.
P. ciibciisis, P. cchinata and P. Tccda. The important constituent
is the hydrocarbon pinene (C^oHje), which in the oil from some
plants is dextro-rotatory, while in that from other plants it is

Fig. 276. Typical view in the Adirondacks showing the spire like balsams (Abies
balsamea) and a single white pine (Pinus Strobus).

Isevo-rotatory. On allowing a moisture-containing oil to stand
exposed to the light, crystals of pinol hydrate separate out in the
course of time.

Allied Plants. — Various other species of Pinus yield an
oleo-resin resembling turpentine, as Pinus Tccda. a tall tree
growing in the regions where Pinus paliistris is found ; the
yield of oleo-resin from this and other trees is considerably less.
Pinus syhestris, or Scotch fir, which is indigenous to the moun-
tains of Europe and Asia and extensively cultivated in this coun-
try, is the source of much of the turpentine used in Europe.

CRUDE DRUGS. (^77

Bordeaux turpentine is a product resembling American tur-
pentine, and is obtained from Piiiiis maritima and other species of
Pinus growing in Southern France, the resin consisting chiefly,
however, of the anhydride of pimaric acid.

Austrian turpentine oil is obtained from Pinus Laricio,
and apparently consists of dextro-rotatory pinene.

The oil known as French turpentine oil is derived from
Pinus pinaster, and, while it resembles the American variety, con-
sists entirely of Isevo-rotatory pinene.

Pine needle oil is 9btained by steam distillation from the
leaves of Pinus pitmilio, a tree of the Tyrolese Alps. It is a color-
less oil with an aromatic odor and taste, and contains from 5 to
7 per cent, of bornyl acetate, cadinene, phellandrene, pinene and
sylvestrine.

Pine needle oil is also obtained to a limited extent from the
Scotch fir (Pinus sylvcstris). The German product closely
resembles the oil obtained from Pinus pumilio, as probably also
does the Sw^edish oil, but the English oil is tevo-rotatory.

PIX LIQUIDA.— TAR.— A product obtained by the destruc-
tive distillation of the wood of Pinus palnstris and other species of
Pinus (Earn. Coniferje), evergreen trees (Figs. 47, 276) indig-
enous to the Southern United States, particularly near the Atlantic
Coast and the Gulf of Mexico (p. 81). Tar is obtained by dis-
tillation of the wood without access of air, the tarry liquid being
separated from the aqueous mixture consisting of wood naphtha
and pyroligneous (crude acetic) acid. The amount of tar obtained
in the operation varies, depending on how rapidly the wood has
been heated. If the wood is heated slowly the yield is about 5
per cent., if rapidly heated it is increased 'to nearly 10 per cent.

Description. — Semi-fluid, viscid, blackish-brown, non-crys-
talline, transparent in thin layers, becoming granular or crystal-
line (due to the separation of pyrocatechin) and opaque with age;
odor peculiar, aromatic, taste pungent. Tar is soluble in alcohol,
fixed or volatile oils, and solutions of potassium or sodium hydrate ;
it is heavier than water and slightly soluble in it ; the solution
is of a pale yellowish-brown color, has an acid reaction, yields
with a dilute solution of ferric chloride, a reddish color, with
the test-solution, an olive-green color, due to the presence of

6/8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

pyrocatechin (this distinguishing it from Juniper Tar), and is
colored brownish-red by an equal volume of calcium hydrate test-
solution. The petroleum ether extract is colored greenish by a
O.I per cent, solution of copper acetate.

Constituents. — Tar consists of a resinous substance, with
which are admixed a small quantity of turpentine, acetic acid,
methyl alcohol and various volatile empyreumatic substances.
On distillation 4 distinct classes of products are obtained : ( i )
An AQUEOUS DISTILLATE, from 10 to 20 per cent., consisting chiefly
of acetic acid, methyl alcohol and acetone. (2) A light oily
DISTILLATE, from lo to 1 5 per cent., coming over under 150° C,
and consisting of mesit, toluene, xylene, cumene, methene and
eupion, which products are used as solvents for varnishes
and similar substances. (3) A heavy oily distillate, about 15
per cent., distilling over between 150° and 250° C, and consisting
of the creosote oils, viz.: phenol, cresol, creosote, paraffin, naph-
thalene, pyrene, chrysene, retene and some other substances. (4)
A black resinous mass, called pitch (50 to 65 per cent.) which
has the odor of tar and is still official in some pharmacopoeias.

In the distillation of pine wood tar the distillate which is
lighter than water contains a volatile oil known as oil of tar
(Oleum Picis Liquids). When recently prepared it is colorless,
but it gradilally darkens, becoming finally dark reddish-brown,
there separating at the same time a blackish, resinous substance.
Oil of tar consists chiefly of oil of turpentine, with some of the
lighter hydrocarbons and phenol compounds, acetic and other
acids, and a number of empyreumatic products.

Allied Products. — Beech wood tar is the product of the
destructive distillation of the wood of Fagns sylvatica and F.
ferruginea (Fam. Fagacese). It is distinguished from pine tar
by the petroleum ether extract not giving a green color with
copper acetate solution, and in the creosote oils containing a
considerable amount of guaiacol. The official creosote is a mix-
ture of guaiacol and creosol with some other phenol derivatives,
as xylenol, methyl creosol and methyl guaiacol, obtained from
the heavy oily distillate of beech wood tar. Guaiacol is of inter-
est because on treatment with chemicals it may be converted into
vanillin.

CRUDE DRUGS. 679

Birch tar is the product of the destructive distillation of the
wood and bark of the white birch (Betula alba). It is chiefly
made in Russia, has a strong, penetrating odor and does not
solidify. It is distinguished from beech wood tar and pine tar
in not being completely soluble in 95 per cent, acetic acid, and is
distinguished from juniper tar by not being entirely dissolved in
anilin and in being colored greenish with ferric chloride.

An oily product is obtained in the destructive distillation of
the wood of the Prickly cedar {Juniper us Oxycedrus) , a tree
indigenous to the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and is
official as oil of cade. It is a brown, viscid liquid with a tarry
odor and a pungent, bitter taste. The oil varies in composition
and the only constituent that has been isolated is the sesquiter-
pene cadinene. Of the phenols which it contains nothing is
known.

An oil known as Kien oil is obtained by the destructive dis-
tillation of the wood of the root of Pinus sylvestris. The oil is
prepared in Germany, Russia, Finland and Sweden, and consists
of d-pinene, d-sylvestrine and in addition, in all except the
Swedish oil, dipentene has been determined.

STYRAX.— STORAX.— A balsam obtained from the trunk
of Liquidambar oricntalis (Fam. Hamamelidacese), a tree (p.
286) indigenous to Asia Minor and the Levant. The balsam is a
pathological product and is produced by bruising the bark of the
tree, removing it and then boiling the inner bark in sea-water,
the balsam which rises to the surface being skimmed ofT.

Description. — A viscid, grayish, more or less opaque semi-
liquid mass, depositing on standing a heavier, dark brown, oleo-
resinous stratum ; translucent in thin layers ; odor agreeable ; taste
balsamic.

Storax is insoluble in water ; between 60 and 70 per cent, is
soluble in warm alcohol, and the residue on evaporation of
the alcoholic solution is almost completely soluble in ether, carbon
disulphide, or benzol, but insoluble in benzin ; the portion undis-
solved after thorough extraction with boiling alcohol should not
be more than 4 per cent. When boiled with a solution of potas-
sium dichromate and sulphuric acid it evolves an odor resembling
that of bitter almonds (due to the presence of cinnamic acid) ;

68o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

it forms little or no foam when mixed with an equal volume of
alcohol and shaken with ammonia water, indicating the absence
of turpentine and fixed oils.

Constituents. — Storax consists of about 50 per cent, of two
resin alcohols, a-storesin and /3-storesin, which are partly free,
partly in combination with cinnamic acid and partly with sodium.
a-STORESiN (a-storesinol) is an amorphous substance that is very
sparingly soluble in water and forms a crystalline compound with
potassium. /J-storesin (|8-storesinol ) occurs in white flakes
which are somewhat soluble in water but do not form a crystal-
line compound with potassium. Storax also contains from 10 to
20 per cent, of an ester consisting of cinnamic acid and storesin ;
from 5 to TO per cent, of cinnamyl or styryl cinnamate (styra-
cin) which occurs in colorless, odorless and tasteless needles
and which on hydrolysis yields cinnamic alcohol (styrone) and a
salt of cinnamic acid ; about 10 per cent, of an odorless, viscid
substance, phenyl propyl cinnamate; from 2 to 3 per cent,
of phenyl ethylene (styrol or styrene), which occurs as a
colorless liquid possessing the odor and pungent taste of storax;
from 0.5 to I per cent, of a volatile oil which is Isevo-rotatory
and consists of a hydrocarbon, styrene, about 0.4 per cent, of an
oxygenated compound (styrocamphene), and cinnamates of ethyl,
benzyl, phenyl-propyl and cinnamic alcohols ; from 2 to 5 per
cent, of free cinnamic acid ; a small quantity of iso-cinnamic acid
which occurs in colorless crystals ; a crystallizable susbtance,
styrogenin ; about 0.15 per cent, of vanillin; a trace of benzoic
acid ; ethyl vanillin ; resin, and caoiitchouc. Storax sometimes
yields more than 20 per cent, of free cinnamic acid and is the
best available source of this substance.

Allied Plants. — Liquidamhar Styraciflua, a tree indigenous
to the Eastern and Southern United States and Mexico, yields the
American storax, which occurs as a yellowish-brown, semi-liquid
mass somewhat resembling Levant storax. It probably contains
related storcsins (storesinols), which appear to form similar com-
binations with cinnamic acid. On distillation of the fresh balsam
about 7 per cent, of a volatile oil is obtained, which is dextro-
rotatory and contains styrol and a body with the odor of oil of
turpentine, the cinnamyl-ethyl-ester and cinnamyl-benzyl-ester

CRUDE DRUGS 68i

being wanting. It also contains phenyl propyl cinnamate, styra-
cin, styrol, free cinnamic acid and vanillin.

Styrax is also obtained from Altingia excelsa, of the Indian
Archipelago. It yields a soft, white, crystalline balsam develop-
ing the fragrant odor of styrol and contains about 50 per cent, of
an ester of cinnamic acid. A brown solid balsam is also obtained
from this tree. It has an odor of cinnamon and contains a trace
of free cinnamic acid and 9.7 per cent, of cinnamic acid in the
form of an ester. The oil from this plant is known as " Rasamala
wood oil," and contains a ketone.

TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS.— CANADA TURPEN-
TINE, CANADA BALSAM OR BALSAM OF FIR.— A liquid
oleo-resin obtained from Abies balsamea (Earn. Coniferse), a tall
evergreen tree (Fig. 276) indigenous to the Northern United
States and Canada (p. 79). The oleo-resin occurs normally in
reservoirs in the bark and forms in vesicles or blisters on the
surface, from which it is obtained by puncturing them with the
spout of a can used by the balsam collectors. Canada Turpentine
is collected chiefly in Quebec.

Description. — Viscid, pale yellow or greenish-yellow, occa-
sionally with a greenish fluorescence ; transparent ; odor agreeable,
terebinthinate ; taste bitter, slightly acrid.

When exposed to the air Canada turpentine gradually dries,
forming a transparent varnish ; it solidifies on mixing 5 or 6
parts with i part of magnesia previously moistened with water
(distinguishing it from other coniferous resins) ; it is completely
soluble in ether, chloroform, benzol or oil of turpentine, and
about 80 per cent, is soluble in alcohol (distinguishing it from
other coniferous resins).

Constituents. — About 75 per cent, of a resinous substance,
consisting chiefly of 4 acid resins : canadinic, canadolic, and
a- and ;8-canadinolic resins, and 11 to 12 per cent, of an indiffer-
ent resin canadoresene : 16 to 25 per cent, of a volatile oil, con-
sisting chiefly of 1-pinene ; and pimaric acid.

Allied Plants. — Strasburg turpentine is the product of
the European silver fir (Abies alba). It closely resembles the
Canada turpentine, but has a lemon-like odor. It contains 24 to
30 per cent, of a greenish, fluorescent volatile oil, consisting

682 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

chiefly of 1-pinene ; 46 to 50 per cent, of a- and ^-abietinolic acid ;
about 2 per cent, of a crystalline resin, abietolic acid; 10 per cent,
of an amorphous resin, abiennic acid ; and small quantities of a
bitter principle, succinic acid and a coloring principle.

Venice Turpentine is the product of the European larch
{Larix dccidua) and occurs as a yellowish or greenish-yellow,
nearly transparent, slightly turbid, viscid liquid, with a tere-
binthinate odor and a bitter, aromatic taste. It consists of about
20 per cent, of a volatile oil, consisting chiefly of pinene ; 60 to
64 per cent, of three acid resins, one of which is crystalline ; and
about 15 per cent, of an indiflferent resin.

DRUGS DERIVED FROM THE CONIFER.^.

In addition to the volatile oils, resins and allied products
obtained from the Coniferae (described under Exudations, pages
653-682), the tops and fruits of several of the plants are
official in the various pharmacopoeias. In the Coniferae the
tracheae and wood fibers are replaced by tracheids (p. 191).
This structure is for the most part characteristic of the Gymno-
sperms, and there are very few Angiosperms in which tracheids
alone are found, ipecac root being one of the exceptions (Figs.
203, 291). The flowers of the Coniferae have open carpels, and
the fruits consist of dry cones or of berry-like cones, in which
there is partial coalescence of the fleshy scales or carpels (p. 78),

SABINA. — SAVIN. — The young and tender, green branches
of Juniperns Sahina (Fam. Coniferae), an evergreen shrub indig-
enous to the mountainous regions of Southern and Central Europe
and extending as far as Siberia. The young branches are col-
lected in the spring, stripped from the older woody branches and
dried. In the preparation of the volatile oil, which is official,
they are used in the green state.

Description. — Branchlets i to 5 cm. long, i to 2 mm. in
diameter; covered with closely appressed (except those at the
base of the branches or branch-scars), grayish- or brownish-green,
rhomboidal, scale-like leaves which are about i mm. long,
4-ranked, closely imbricated, thus completely covering the branch-
lets, and show in cross-section a single large oil-gland directly

CRUDE DRUGS. 683

beneath the epidermis of the dorsal surface. Some of the berry-
Hke fruits are usually present. They are globular or ellipsoidal,
brownish-yellow or purplish-black, 5 to 7 mm. in diameter, with
a whitish bloom, more or less tuberculate, due to the tips of the
fleshy scales, and wrinkled ; the pulp is brownish and contains
from 2 to 6 ovoid, yellowish-brown seeds, 3 to 4 mm. long, longi-
tudinally grooved, particularly on the dorsal side, and enclosed by
a resinous membrane. The odor is slightly terebinthinate, and the
taste, bitterish and resinous. (See also Fig. 51.)

Constituents. — From 4 to 6 per cent, of a volatile oil con-
sisting of about 10 per cent, of an alcohol sabinol, 40 to 44 per
cent, of an ester of sabinol and acetic acid, a sesquiterpene, and a
principle with an odor of cumin aldehyde ; resin, and a small
amount of tannin.

Allied Plants. — Red Cedar (Jiiuipcnis virginiana) is a tree
or shrub of wide distribution in North America. The fruits are
purple, smaller, and contain fewer seeds than those of /. Sahina.
The constituents are also similar. The volatile oil of the wood
is known as red cedar wood oil and occurs to the extent of 2.5
to 4.5 per cent. The oil consists of so-called cedar camphor, or
cedrol, and cedrene.

Juniper Berries are obtained from Juniperiis communis, a
small evergreen tree with subulate, prickly-pointed, verticillate
leaves, which is indigenous to North America, Europe and Asia.
The berry-like fruits are nearly globular, from 5 to 10 mm. in
diameter, somewhat wrinkled, purplish-black or dark brown, fre-
quently with a whitish bloom, with 3 to 6 minute bracts at the
base, and a triangular scar at the apex marking the line of separa-
tion of the carpels. The pulp is brownish and usually contains
three ovoid seeds, attached to which are 3 to 4 ellipsoidal oleo-
resinous masses. The odor is slight and the taste is sweet and
resinous. Juniper berries contain 0.5 to 1.5 per cent, of a volatile
oil containing pinene, cadinene, and a juniper camphor; 10 per
cent, of resin; 15 to 30 per cent, of dextrose; a yellow coloring
principle ; and yield 2 to 4 per cent, of ash. The oil and the fruits
are chiefly used in the manufacture of gin.

The young twigs of arbor vit^ {Thuja occidcnfalis) , a coni-
cal tree indigenous from Canada to Virginia and extensively

684 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cultivated, are also used in medicine. The leaves are 4-ranked,
of two kinds, those of the lateral pairs being more or less elon-
gated, clasping, and triangular in section, those of the other pair
being flattened, appressed and with a prominent oleo-resinous
gland near the middle on the dorsal or outer surface, the arrange-
ment of the leaves being such as to give the branches a flattish
appearance. The fruits are small cones with six to ten carpels,
each bearing a narrow-winged seed. Thuja contains i per cent, of
a volatile oil with an odor resembling tansy and containing d-pi-
nene, 1-fenchone, d-thujone. and an inactive oxime ; two resins; a
glucoside thujin, which resembles quercitrin ; a bitter glucoside
pinicrin, and pinitannic acid (which two latter principles are also
found in Pin us sylvestris) .

DRUGS DERIVED FROM THALLOPHYTES AND
ARCHEGONIATES.

Not very many of the lower plants furnish important drugs,
there being probably not more than five or six drugs from this
source that are official in the different pharmacopoeias. For pur-
poses of identification they may be grouped as follows :

Rhizome^ Aspidium

Entire, yellowish-white, cartilaginous thallus. . . .Chondrus

Entire, grayish-brown, papery thallus Cetraria

Purplish-black cylindrical grains Ergota

Light yellow powder Lycopodium

ASPIDIUM.— MALE FERN.— The rhizome and stipes
of Aspidium (Dryoptcris or Nephrodiuui) Filix mas and Aspid-
ium marginale (Fam. Polypodiacese), perennials, of which Aspid-
ium Filix mas (Fig. 277) is more widely distributed, being
indigenous to Europe, Asia, North America, west of the Rocky
Mountains, and in the Andes of South America; while A. mar-
ginale is found in the Eastern and Central United States and
extends north to Prince Edward's Island (p. 61). The rhizome
is collected in early autumn, the leaves cut off, leaving the lower
portions or stipes attached to the rhizomes ; the dead portions of

CRUDE DRUGS.

685

i-^ V

■■>■■■-

Fig. 277. Leaf and a portion of rhizome of Aspidiuni marginale, the upper pinnae (divisions)

showing the sori near the margins.

686

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

the rhizomes and the chaff are removed. Usually the drug con-
sists of the stipes only, which are separated from the rhizome,
the periderm being removed (Fig. 277a, A). The drug is care-
fully dried and preserved and should not be used after it loses its
green color.

Description. — Of horizontal or oblique growth, 5 to 15 cm.
long and i to 2.5 cm. thick, mostly covered with nearly cylindrical,

Fig. 277a. A, B, Aspidium Filix mas showing a decorticated stipe and piece of
rhizome (A), and rhizomes with stipes attached (B); C, probably the rhizome of Osmunda
Claytoniana, which is sometimes substituted for Aspidium.

slightly curved stipe-remnants (Fig. 277a), which are about
25 mm. long and 5 to 10 mm. thick, between which is a dense
mass of dark -brown, glossy, transparent and soft-chaffy scales ;
internally spongy, pale green, becoming brownish with age ; in
transverse section showing an interrupted circle of about six {A.
marginal c) or seven to nine (A. Filix uias) groups of fibro-
vascular tissue, each of which is surrounded by an endodermis-
like layer ; odor slight^ taste acrid, somewhat bitter and nauseous.

CRUDE DRUGS. 687

Inner Structure. — See Figs. 45, 278, 297.

Constituents. — An active, amorphous substance, filicic
ACID, 2 to 8 per cent., being contained apparently in greatest
abundance in rhizomes collected in autumn, and readily decom-
posing with the formation of an inactive but crystalline anhy-
dride; and FILICIC anhydride (filicin, or so-called crystalline
filicic acid). The latter occurs from 19 to 31 per cent, in the
drug, and may be converted into filicic acid by dissolving in alka-
lies and precipitating with acids. The drug also contains from
0.025 to 0.045 P^^ cent, of a light yellow volatile oil with an
intense odor of the drug and an aromatic, burning taste. It con-
sists of free butyric and allied acids and hexyl and octyl esters of
the fatty acid series, ranging from butyric acid to pelargonic.
From 6 to 7 per cent, of a green fixed oil is present, which con-
sists of the glycerides of filixolic and filosmylic acids, the latter
being volatile. Among the other constituents are a small amount
of a bitter principle; about 10 per cent, of filixtannic acid; a soft
black resin and a hard red resin ; about 1 1 per cent, of an uncrys-
tallizable sugar ; starch, and 2 to 3 per cent, of ash.

Allied Plants. — The rhizome of Aspidiiim spimilosum
appears to possess properties similar to the official drug ; it some-
what resembles that of A. Fili.v mas, but the chalTy scales possess
marginal glandular hairs and the number of fibrovascular bundles
in the rhizome is usually but 6 or 7.

Adulterants. — The rhizomes of other ferns are sometimes
substituted for those of the true drug. The botanical origin of
these substitutes is not clear. A very common substitute is shown
in Fig. 277a, C, which is derived from Osniiinda Claytoniana
(Fig. 45) or a related species. It occurs in large pieces with
coarse, wirv roots, flattened stipes and is free from chaffy scales.

CHONDRUS.— IRISH MOSS OR CARRAGHEEN.—
The entire plant of Chondrus crispus (Fam. Gigartinaceae), a
common red alga (Fig. 9) found along the northwestern coast of
Ireland and the coast of Massachusetts (p. 16). The plants
are collected chiefly during June and July, spread out on the
beach and bleached by the action of the sun and dew, then treated
with salt water, finally dried and stored. The chief points of col-
lection in this country are 15 to 25 miles south of Boston.

688

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Description. — Consisting of a number of dichotomously
branching, somewhat enlarged segments, becoming emarginate or
two-lobed, which arise from a slender, somewhat flattened base
about one-half the length of the entire thallus ; yellowish-white,
translucent, sometimes with fruit-bodies or sporangia embedded

Fig. 278. Transverse section of stipe of Aspidium marginale showing epidermis
(E), hypodermis (H). endodermis (N) of fibrovascular bundle (V), sieve (S), trachese (T).

near the apex of the segments ; somewhat cartilaginous ; having a
slight saline odor and a mucilaginous, somewhat saline taste.

One part of Chondrus boiled for ten minutes with 30 parts of
water yields a solution which gelatinizes on cooling, and is not
colored blue by iodine test-solution (absence of starch) ; nor pre-
cipitated by alcohol (distinction from true plant gums) ; nor pre-
cipitated by tannin (distinction from gelatin) ; nor precipitated
by lead acetate (distinguishing it from pectin).

CRUDE DRUGS.

689

Constituents. — From 55 to 90 per cent, of carrageenin, a
mucilaginous principle which is but slightly adhesive; about 10
per cent, of proteins, and 10 to 15 per cent, of ash, consisting of
calcium oxalate and compounds of sodium, potassium, magnesium
and calcium with chlorine, iodine, bromine and sulphur.

Allied Plants. — Gigartina nmmillosa (Fig. 278a) somewhat
resembles Chondrus, but it is most abundant north of the
region, where Chondrus is gathered and so rarely enters com-

FiG. 278a. Gigartina mamillosa. a red seaweed closely related to Chondrus crispus,
showing dichotomously branching thallus bearing at the upper part numerous cylindrical
outgrowths in which the fruit bodies (sporangia) are found. — After Kutzing.

merce. It is distinguished by having the sporangia borne on
short, tuberculated projections or stalks scattered over the upper
portion of the segments.

For other Marine Algae used in medicine, see p. 16.

An ARTIFICIAL GUM is prepared by adding starch to the muci-
lage of chondrus. and is said to be a good substitute for acacia
and mav be employed as a base for fixing colors in fabrics.

CETRARIA.— ICELAND MOSS.— The entire dried plant
of Cetraria islandica, one of the Ascolichens (Fig. 26),

690 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

which is widely distributed over the northern part of both conti-
nents (p. 40). The chief commercial supplies are obtained from
Scandinavia, Germany, Switzerland and parts of Austria.

Description. — Consisting of a number of somewhat dichoto-
mously branching, more or less curled, papery, fringed segments,
5 to 10 cm. long and about 5 mm. wide ; upper surface greenish-
brown, with occasional dark reddish-brown cupular apothecia ;
under surface grayish, with numerous small, whitish, depressed
spots ; tough when damp, but brittle when dry ; odor slight ; taste
mucilaginous and bitter.

Constituents. — The principal constituents are lichenin and
isolichenin (about 70 per cent.), the former of which appears to
be intermediate between starch and cellulose, and is soluble in
hot water, the solution becoming gelatinous on cooling, but not
colored blue with iodine; isolichenin (dextrolichenin) somewhat
resembles soluble starch, being soluble in cold water and giving a
blue reaction with iodine. The drug also contains 2 to 3 per cent,
of a bitter crystalline principle, cetrarin, which is colored blue with
concentrated hydrochloric acid and yields on hydrolysis cetraric
acid, which is also intensely bitter ; i per cent, of a tasteless, crys-
talline principle, lichenostearic acid ; several organic acids, as
oxalic, tartaric and fumaric (lichenic) ; about 15 per cent, of
cellulose ; about 3.6 per cent, of an uncrystallizable sugar ; 3.7
per cent, of gum ; a principle resembling chlorophyll thallochlor,
which is unaffected by hydrochloric acid, and yields less than
2 per cent, of ash.

The bitter principle in Cetraria may be removed by treating
the drug with a i per cent, solution of potassium carbonate at
about 60° C. for several hours.

Iceland moss jelly {Gclatina lichenis islandica) is official in the
German Pharmacopoeia, and is prepared by making a decoction
of 3 parts of washed cetraria and 100 parts of water, adding
three parts of sugar and evaporating the whole to 10 parts. Dried,
saccharated Iceland moss, which is official in the French Codex, is
prepared somewhat similarly to the Iceland moss jelly, but the
product is evaporated to dryness and then powdered.

Allied Plants. — Usnca barbata and Cornicularia acnlcata
contain a principle resembling lichenin, which on hydrolysis yields

CRUDE DRUGS. 691

glucose. Evernia prnnastri contains a carbohydrate evernin, which
resembles lichenin but is dextrogyrate. The following lichens
do not contain lichenin. but yield carbohydrates which on hydro-
lysis give little or no glucose: Cladonia rangiferina contains 30
per cent, of mannose ; Stercocaulon pascalc and Pcltigeria
aphthosa yield on hydrolysis dextromannose and dextrogalactose.

ERGOTA.— ERGOT OF RYE.— The sclerotium of Clavi-
ceps purpurea (Fam. Hypocreacese), a fungus having two dis-
tinct periods in its life history — an active and a resting stage
(Fig. 19). During the latter it forms a compact mycelium, or
sclerotium, which replaces the flowers and grains of rye. Ergot
is picked by hand from the ears of rye, or it is separated after the
thrashing of the rye ; it is carefully dried, and preserved against
the attacks of insects by the use of small quantities of chloro-
form. It deteriorates with age, particularly when powdered, and
is not considered so valuable after one year. Various methods
have been proposed for preparing the drug so as to preserve its
medicinal properties for a longer period of time (p. 422). Rus-
sia, Spain and Germany furnish the chief part of the commercial
supply, the Russian drug being considered the most active (p. 27).

Spanish ergot usually consists of large grains, having a fine
appearance, but is not so active as that from the other countries
mentioned, and contains considerable starch.

Description. — Sub-cylindrical, tapering toward but obtuse at
both ends, somewhat curved, 2 to 4 cm. long and about 3 mm.
thick ; externally purplish-black, longitudinally furrowed, occa-
sionally transversely fissured, one end with the whitish remains
of mycelial threads, fracture short ; internally whitish or pinkish-
white, sections somewhat triangular or two-lobed ; odor peculiar,
heavy, increased by trituration with potassium or sodium hydrate
solution ; taste oily and disagreeable.

Constituents. — The constituents of ergot have been the sub-
ject of considerable investigation, and the results have been more
or less contradictory. Of the large number of substances which
it contains the following may be mentioned :

The most important physiologically active substances are
cornutine and sphacelinic acid. The crystallizable alkaloid cornu-
TiNE of Keller is insoluble in water and the dilute alcoholic solu-

692 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tions have a blue fluorescence. With concentrated sulphuric acid
it produces a violet-blue color. Sphacelinic acid (sphacelo-
toxin) is a non-nitrogenous, resinous substance, which is insoluble
in water but soluble in alcohol and is readily decomposed by
chemicals.

An amorphous alkaloid ergotoxine has recently been isolated.
It forms crystallizable salts with oxalic, tartaric and phosphoric
acids and possesses the physiological properties of the drug. The
dose of the alkaloid is a few milligrams and for injection it is
dissolved in a dilute solution of sodium hydrate. Ergotoxine is
supposed to be an anhydride of ergotinine which crystallizes in
long needles but does not form crystalline salts.

The alkaloid ecboline (Wenzell), which exists to the extent
of 0.16 per cent., somewhat resembles cornutine in its physio-
logical action in contracting the muscles. The alkaloid ergotine
(about 0.04 per cent.) described by Wenzell may be (like the alka-
loid picrosclerotine of Dragendorfif) similar to the ergotinine
of Tanret, which, according to Keller, owes its activity to the
presence of cornutine.

The substance known as secalintoxin is a compound of
sphacelinic acid (sphacelotoxin) and a physiologically inactive
crystalline substance, secaline. The drug also contains a crys-
tallizable phenolic body, chrysotoxin ; an amorphous, nitrogen-
ous, glucosidal acid, ergotinic acid (sclerotic acid), which
is soluble in water and easily decomposed by the digestive secre-
tions; choline; leucine (amido-caproic acid) ; a crystalline mona-
tomic alcohol, phytosterin (cholesterin), also found in some ani-
mal fats ; a crystalline substance, ergosterin ; an amorphous red
coloring principle, sclererythrin ; about 2 per cent, of a crystalline
sugar, mycose, occurring in rhombic octahedra ; 13 to 35 per cent,
of a yellowish, non-drying oil which is bland when pure, consist-
ing of 68 per cent, of oleic acid, 22 per cent, of oxyoleic and 5 per
cent, of palmitic acid ; a fat hydrolyzing enzyme ; and starch.
The pressor activity of aqueous extracts is due to p. hydroxy-
phenylethylamine and a trace of isoamylamine.

Allied Pi^\nts. — Ergot is also found on other cereals, as
wheat, barley and rice.

Ustilago Maydis (Earn. Ustilaginacese), the fungus found
upon the stem and flowers of Zea Mays, was formerly official as

CRUDE DRUGS.

693

Ustilago (corn smut) ; it occurs in irreg-ular, somewhat cylindrical
or globose masses from 10 to 15 cm. in diameter (Fig. 22), con-
sisting of a whitish membrane, becoming dark with age, and a
brownish-black mass of spores, which are nearly spherical and
about 7 ix in diameter (Fig. 23). The drug has a heavy odor
and a disagreeable taste. Ustilago should be carefully dried and
not kept longer than one year. Corn Smut contains a crystalliz-
able alkaloid, ustilagine, which is soluble in water and alcohol
and forms crystalline salts; from 0.5 to 5.5 per cent, of a crys-
tallizable acid substance, maizenic acid, which resembles sclerotic

Fig. 278b. Spores of various species of Lycopodium. A, B, reticulated spores ot
Lycopodium davatum; C, D, spores of L. phyllanthum marked by pores;' E, F, spinous
spores of L. densuni; G, H, J, spores of L. inundatum with wavy reticulations. — After Pritzel.

acid; about 1.5 per cent, of a volatile base resembling trimethyla-
mine ; 2.5 to 6.5 per cent, of a dark brown, fixed oil, insoluble in
alcohol and having the odor of the drug ; about 8 per cent, of two
resins, one being soluble in alcohol and the other in ether; 3.75
per cent, of a non-reducing sugar which crystallizes in needles ;
and yields 4.5 per cent, of ash.

LYCOPODIUM. — The spores of Lycopodium clavafum, and
of other species of Lycopodium (Fam. Lycopodiacese), perennial
herbs (Fig. 46) indigenous to Europe. xA.sia, North America and
Central America. The spores are obtained from the ripened
cones by shaking the fruiting tops (sporogonia) and the extrane-

694 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

ous matter is removed by sieving. The principal sources of supply
of Lycopodium are, Germany, Russia and Switzerland (p. 66).

Description. — A light-yellow, very mobile powder, nearly
inodorous and tasteless, floating upon water and not wetted by
it, but sinking on being boiled with it, and burning quickly when
thrown into a flame.

Spores tetrahedral (Fig. 278b), from 25 to 40 ix in diameter,
with one convex side, and delicately reticulate on the surface.

Constituents. — About 50 per cent, of a deep green, odorless,
non-drying oil with an acid reaction, which consists chiefly of
oleic acid, with some lycopodic (di-oxy-stearic), palmitic, and
myristic acids (Rathje, Archil'. Pharm., 246, p. 699, 1908) ; a
small amount of phytosterin, and 3 to 8.2 per cent, of glycerin.
The spores also contain 5.3 per cent, of a nitrogenous substance ;
about 3 per cent, of a sugar, and yield about i per cent, of ash.
On heating with a solution of potassium hydrate monomethyla-
mine is liberated, and on macerating the spores in alcohol a
part of the alcohol is converted into an aldehyde.

Allied Plants. — The spores of other species of Lycopodium
are sometimes collected with those of L. clai'atnm, as Fir club
moss (L. Sclago) ; stiff club moss (L. annotinuni) ; bog club
moss (L. wundatum), and the ground pine (L. complanatnm)
(Fig. 46, illus. 2). From the latter an alkaloid, lycopodine, has
been isolated. A toxic alkaloid, piliganine, has been obtained
from piligan (L. Saururus), growing in Brazil. L. polytrichoidcs,
of the Hawaiian Islands ; L. rubrum, of Venezuela ; L. cernuum,
of the Tropics, and L. Sclago of Europe, are also employed in
medicine.

Adulterants. — Lycopodium is sometimes admixed with pine
pollen, starchy materials, and various inorganic substances, as
sulphur, talc and gypsum. A recent adulterant of Lycopodium
has been found to consist of corn starch which had been treated
in a special manner and then colored with methyl orange. An
artificial lycopodium is prepared by treating Bordeaux turpentine
(galipot resin) at near the melting point with dry ammonia, the
resulting product being then dried and powdered. The fragments
are irregular, transparent and are readily detected by means of the
microscope.

CHAPTER II.
POWDERED VEGETABLE DRUGS AND FOODS.

Inasmuch as a large proportion of vegetable drugs frequently
occur in the market in a powdered or ground condition, it becomes
of first importance to be able to identify them, as well as to deter-
mine their quality in this form. Without a microscopical exam-
ination or chemical analysis this would then depend on such
factors as color, odor and taste. With some drugs an estimation
of quality based on these properties would be of more or less
value, particularly those containing aromatic and bitter principles ;
yet it would soon be found that a more detailed examination
would be required to determine their degree of purity or even to
identify them with certainty in all cases.

Classification. — It was not considered desirable to give a
detailed description of the powder under each drug in the chapter
on crude drugs, for the reason that the identity of the drug as a
root, rhizome, bark, etc., is lost, and in the examination of a
given powder it is usually found advantageous to compare it with
those powders having a similar color. By a careful comparison
of the powders of the vegetable drugs, it has been found that
according to their colors they form five main groups, as follows :
(i) Greenish powders, (2) yellowish pow^ders, (3) brownish
powders, (4) reddish powders, (5) whitish powders. These
groups are then subdivided according to the kinds of cells and the
nature of the cell-walls and cell-contents. .

Adulterants. — Powdered drugs are frequently adulterated
either by the use of wheat middlings or by the use of exhausted
powders, i.e., those from which the active or important consti-
tuents have been extracted. The following examples serve to
illustrate the methods in use : Powdered cloves are occasionally
admixed with the exhausted powder, or the exhausted powder
alone, to which a small quantity of oil of cloves and some color-
ing matter are added, is sold as powdered cloves. Exhausted
gentian, to which has been added a small quantity of a bitter

695

696 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

drug like aloes is sold in place of the genuine drug. In some
cases, as in that of ground flaxseed, an attempt is made to supply
the deficiency in oil of the exhausted product by adding a petrol-
eum oil. In the case of a number of drugs, such as rhubarb,
licorice and belladonna root, much of the commercial powder
consists, in part at least, of the exhausted powder. In order to
guard against the use of exhausted drugs there is a disposition
to lay considerable stress upon the amount of extractive
(aqueous, alcoholic or ethereal) yielded by different drugs.
In many instances drugs that are worm-eaten, or admixed with
other drugs or plant parts, are used in the preparation of powd-
ered drugs.

Reagents. — For the rapid differentiation and study of the
characteristic tissues and cell-contents of the powder it is neces-
sary to employ reagents which render the particles more or less
transparent and at the same time do not destroy their characters.
The most satisfactory reagent of this kind for general purposes is
an aqueous solution of chloral or a solution of chloral and glyc-
erin ; about a milligram of the powder is mounted in a few drops
of the solution, the preparation is gently heated, then allowed to
cool, and examined ; if it is not sufficiently transparent, it is heated
again. The reagent causes a swelling of the cell-wall and is not
applicable in the study of starch grains, but it is very useful in the
study of mechanical tissues, hairs and calcium oxalate.

After having determined the presence of starch, a separate
mount of the powder in water is made and the size and markings
of the grains noted.

For the examination of more or less lignified cells, mounts
are made, either in phloroglucin or aniline sulphate solution ; in
some cases it is advantageous to apply these solutions after the
specimen has been previously treated with chloral. Sometimes it
is desirable to study the mechanical cells more closely, and
Schulze's macerating fluid (p. 188) may be used for isolating
them.

Examination. — Before making a microscopical examination
of coarsely comminuted or powdered drugs or foods it is desirable
to mix a small quantity of the material with a little water con-
tained in a watch crystal or small beaker and note such features

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 697

as the following: (i) If the particles sink or Hoat. In all gen-
uine coffee, for instance, the particles rise to the surface, whereas
in the substitutes and adulterants they sink. (2) If the particles
disintegrate. All artificial products, as coffee and nutmeg, when
made from exhausted powders or spurious substances, slowly
disintegrate, leaving a fine sediment. (3) The color of the solu-
tion. A chelidonium powder, for instance, gives a golden-yellow
solution, as also do many drugs containing berberine and allied
principles. (4) Behavior of the solution and particles toward
alkalies or dilute hydrochloric acid. Drugs containing oxy-
methyl-anthraquinone derivatives, as senna, rhubarb, aloes, fran-
gula and cascara sagrada, are colored a deep red with alkalies.
The particles of ruellia give a distinct eft'ervescence with hydro-
chloric acid particularly if the mixture is slightly heated. The
presence or absence of starch may be determined by heating the
mixture, to which has been added a few drops of dilute hydro-
chloric acid, filtering, and adding iodine to the filtrate when cool.
(5) The odor of the mixture, particularly on warming, is of con-
siderable value, as in the detection of belladonna in inula or of
conium in anise. The odor is also of value in recognizing the
specimen, as very many drugs have a characteristic odor. The
odor of a specimen is sometimes, however, misleading, as a num-
ber of substances not at all related may have a similar odor. The
odor of elm bark, for instance, is possessed by other substances,
as fenugreek and wheat middlings, particularly if these substances
are kept in a closed vessel.

The fixed oil which occurs in considerable quantity in many
seeds interferes with their microscopical examination, and it is
necessary to remove this before making mounts of the material.
This can be accomplished by treating the powder with chloro-
form, xylol, acetone, ether, or other similar solvents. Alcohol as
a rule is not a good solvent for these oils. The solvent may be
added directly to the mount and the solution absorbed by means
of filter paper. The following drugs and foods contain fixed oil
and should be treated in this way : Almond, anisum, cacao, carda-
mom, carum, conium, coriandrum, cubeba. ergota, linum, macis,
myristica, pimenta, pepo, piper, sinapis alba, sinapis nigra, staphis-
agria, strophanthus, and the various cereal products.

698 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

All powders contain a certain amount of fragments of cell
walls and other materials which are more or less alike in the dif-
ferent powders, and it is important that this fact be borne in
mind in order that attention may be especially directed to those
elements of the powder which have a diagnostic value. The latter
while relatively few in number, are easily identified and the dis-
tinguishing features readily determined in nearly all cases.

Inasmuch as the size and shape of starch grains and calcium
oxalate crystals are characteristic for very many drugs, classifica-
tions of these based on the foregoing characters are given before
taking up the study of the individual powders.

A. DRUGS AND FOODS CONTAINING STARCH.

The more important vegetable drugs, including some of the
commercial starches, are here grouped according to the size and
shape, or other characters, of the starch grains :

SIMPLE SPHERICAL GRAINS.

Not more than 5 M in diameter : Cimicifuga, cypripedium, frangula
(Fig. 228), Hydrastis (Fig. 292), leptandra, piper (Fig. 311), prunus
virginiana, quassia (Fig. 239), quercus alba, rhamnus purshiana (Figs.
229a, 304), spigelia, viburnum opulus and viburnum prunifolium.

Not more than 10 M in diameter: Calamus (Fig. loi, B), euonymus,
gelsemium (Fig. 208), granatum (Fig. 234), quillaja (Figs. 281, C; 315).
sanguinaria, serpentaria, tonka, ulmus, xanthoxylum.

Not more than 15 fJ- in diameter: Apocynum (Fig. 202), cinchona
(Figs. 227, 307, 307a), colchici semen (in caruncle only), convallaria,
sumbul, Valeriana.

Not more than 20 m in diameter: Glycyrrhiza (Figs. 104; 2%2,B ;
204), Phytolacca.

Not more than 30 m in diameter: Rumex, stillingia.

COMPOUND SPHERICAL OR POLYGONAL GRAINS.

Two- to three-compound: Belladonnse radix, 5 to 15 /^ (Figs. 200;
281, D; 303) ; sassafras, 7 to 20 /^ (Fig. 236) ; and veratrum viride, 7 to
20 M (Figs. 215, 216).

Two- TO four-compound: Aconitum, 4 to 12 m (Figs. 206, 309);
cinnamomum, 7 to 15 M (Figs. 224, 225, 305) ; colchici cormus, 7 to 20 m;

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 699

ipecacuanha, 4 to 14 M (those of Carthagena ipecac being uniformly
larger) (Figs. 203, 291) ; krameria, 20 to 30 M (Fig. 196) ; rheum, 5 to 20
M (Figs. 281, A; 289), and sarsaparilla, 7 to 20 M (Figs. 193, 194).

Two- TO six-compound: Podophyllum, 5 to 12 ,ti (Fig. 223).

More than six-compound: Capsicum, 3 to 7 M (Figs. 252; 301, C) ;
cardamomum, i to 4 /* (Fig. 253) ; cubeba, i to 4 M (Fig. 250) ; gossypii
cortex, 5 to 20 /i (Figs. 231, 231a); mezereum, 10 to 15 m; myristica,
5 to 7 m; pimenta, 7 to 10 M, and rubus, 3 to 7 M.

ELLIPSOIDAL OR OVOID GRAINS.

Althaea, 10 to 20 /"; geranium, 10 to 15 m; glycyrrhiza, 5 to 10 M (Figs.
104 i 282; B) ; pareira, 7 to 15 m; physostigma, 25 to 40 M ; rumex, 10 to
20 M : stillingia, 15 to 30 /^ ; strophanthus, 2 to 4 M (Figs. 186, 306), and
zingiber, 15 to 30 /^ (Figs. 212; 317, C).

GRAINS OF CHARACTERISTIC SHAPE.

Calumba, 25 to 35 m (Fig. 198) ; iris florentina, 15 to 30 /^ (Figs. 317,
320), and potato and other starches (pp. 785^789) •

ALTERED GRAINS.

Guarana, 10 m; jalapa, 15 to 35 M (also two- to three-compound) (Fig.
288) ; tragacantha, 2 to 10 m; turmeric in masses, 70 to 140 /x (Fig. 290).

AMYLODEXTRIN GRAINS.

Mace (Fig. 190) contains starch grains, which give a reddish color
with iodine.

B. DRUGS AND FOODS WITHOUT STARCH.

The following are some of the drugs which do not contain

starch :

Amygdala amara and A. dulcis (Figs. 187; 188; 302, D ; 319), anisum
(Fig. 244), aurantii amari cortex, aurantii dulcis cortex, coffee, carum,
caryophyllus (Fig. 312), cocculus, colocynthis, conium (Fig. 248). cori-
andrum (Fig. 245), cydonium, foeniculum, gentiana (Fig. 300, A), haema-
toxylon, illicium (Fig. 302, /), lappa, limonis cortex, linum (Figs. 184,
293), nux vomica (except in pulp adhering to seed) (Fig. 318), pyrethrum,
quassia (Figs. 239; 299, C), rhus glabra (Fig. 285, /), santalum rubrum,
scilla (Fig. 281, B), senega, sinapis alba (Fig. 302, E, F), sinapis nigra,

700 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

staphisagria, stramonii semen, taraxacum (Fig. loi, D) ; triticum and
vanilla (Figs. 256; 285, G; 313).

Leaves, herbs and flowers do not, as a rule, contain reserve starch.

A. DRUGS AND FOODS WITH CALCIUM OXALATE

CRYSTALS.

I. CRYSTALS IN ROSETTE AGGREGATES.

Not more than 7 m in diameter: Anisum (Fig. 244), calendula (Fig.
296), carum (Fig. 247), conium (Fig. 248), coriandrum (Fig. 245), foenic-
ulum (Fig. 246).

Not more than 15 A* in diameter: Caryophyllus (Fig. 312) and
humulus (Fig. 298).

Not more than 25 m in diameter: Althaea (Fig. 99, 5), buchu, can-
nabis indica (Fig. 279), castanea, cusso, eriodictyon (Figs. 283, A; 285,
F), euonymus (Fig. 300, E), frangula (prisms and pyramids also occur)
(Fig. 228), galla, gossypii cortex (Fig. 231), granatum (Fig. 234), pimenta
(Fig. 302, B), senna (Fig. 263), stramonii folia (Fig. 117).

Not more than 35 /"■ in diameter: Jalapa (Fig. 288), pilocarpus (Fig.
257), rumex, stillingia, viburnum prunifolium and viburnum opuius
(occasionally).

Not more than 100 y^ in diameter: Chimaphila, 40 to 60 /^ ; gera-
nium, 45 to 70 /i, and rheum, 50 to 100 M (Figs. 281, A; 289).

2. CRYSTALS IN MONOCLINIC PRISMS OR PYRAMIDS.

Not more than 10 m in diameter: Coca (Fig. 286), hyoscyamus
(Fig. 282, A), and uva ursi (Fig. 300, D).

Not more than 30 m in diameter: Calumba (in stone cells, Fig. 302,
H), frangula (Fig. 228), granatum (rosette aggregates also occur, Fig.
234), hamamelis, quercus alba (rosette aggregates also occur) (Figs. 300,

B, F), rhamnus purshiana (Fig. 229a), and senna (Figs. 263).

Not more than 30 m in diameter: Cardamomum (Fig. 253), euca-
lyptus, gelsemium (Fig. 208), pimenta (occasional) (Fig. 302, B), prunus
virginiana, quassia (cryptocrystalline crystals also occur) (Fig. 239),
vanilla (Figs. 256, 313), viburnum opuius, viburnum prunifolium (occa-
sional), and xanthoxylum.

Not more than 100 or 200 /" in diameter: Krameria, about 100 M
(Figs. 196; 300, C), and quillaja, 35 to 200 fj- (Figs. 315; 281, C; 300, G).

3- CRYSTAL FIBERS PRESENT.

Crystal fibers occur in the following drugs, which are grouped
according to the size of the individual crystals :

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 701

Not more than 10 /^ in diameter: Uva ursi (Fig. 300, D).

Not more than 20 m in diameter: Frangula (Fig. 228), glycyrrhiza
(Figs. 104, 282, B), hamamelis, hsematoxylon, quercus alba (Fig. 300,
B, F) and rhamnus purshiana (Figs. 229a, 304).

Not more than 30 /^ in diameter: Prunus virginiana.

About 35 m in diameter: Quillaja (Figs. 315; 281, C; 300, G).

4. CRYSTALS IN RAPHIDES.

Raphides are found in the following drugs, and of the length

given with each :

Belladonnae folia (occasionally) (Figs. 285, K; 287, C) ; cinnamomum,
about 5 M (Figs. 224, 225, 305) ; convallaria, about 45 m; cypripedium, about
40 /i; ipecacuanha, 20 to 40 m (Figs. 203, 291) ; Phytolacca, about 30 /*;
sarsaparilla, 6 to 8 A^ (Figs. 193, 194) ; scilla, o.i to i.o mm. (Fig. 281, 5) ;
vanilla, about 400 M (Figs. 256; 285, G; 313) ; veratrum viride, about 45 /*
(Figs. 215, 216).

S. SPHENOIDAL MICRO-CRYSTALS.

Sphenoidal micro-crystals are found in the following drugs :
Belladonnae folia (Fig. 287, C), belladonnae radix (Fig. 281, D), cin-
chona (Figs. 227, 307), dulcamara, Phytolacca, quassia, solanum caroli-
nense and tabacum.

6. MEMBRANE CRYSTALS.

Membrane crystals are found in the following drugs :
Aurantii amari cortex, 15 to 20 M, and aurantii dulcis cortex, 20 to 30 M.

B. DRUGS WITHOUT CALCIUM OXALATE.

In the following drugs, calcium oxalate crystals are either
wanting entirely or so few as to be without any diagnostic value :

Aconitum, apocynum (Fig. 202), arnica (Fig. 241), capsicum (Figs.
252; 301, C), chirata, cimicifuga, colchici cormus, colchici semen, colo-
cynthis, cubeba (Fig. 250), digitalis (Figs. 266; 284, E; 285, D ; 287, A),
eupatorium, gentiana (Fig. 300, A), grindelia, hydrastis (Figs. 219, 292),
lappa, leptandra, linum (Figs. 184, 293), lobelia, marrubium, mentha
piperita, mentha viridis, mezereum, myristica, nux vomica (Figs. 283, B;
318), pareira, physostigma, piper (Fig. 311), podophyllum (Fig. 223),
rhus glabra (Fig. 285, /), rosa gallica, sabina, sanguinaria, santonica
(Fig. 240), sassafras (Fig. 236), senega, serpentaria, sinapis alba (Figs.
294; 302, E, F), sinapis nigra (Fig. 295), spigelia, staphisagria, strophan-
thus (Figs. 186; 284, A; 306), sumbul, Valeriana and zingiber (Fig. 212).

702 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

C. SUBSTANCES MISTAKEN FOR CALCIUM OXALATE.

Calcium oxalate crystals have been mistaken for crystalline
sugar, and it should also be pointed out that some of the soluble
carbohydrates, as hesperidin and inulin, may be mistaken for
sphero-crystals of calcium oxalate, which latter are of rare occur-
rence. Some of the soluble carbohydrates, including inulin (Fig.
105) occur in sphero-crystals or irregular spherical aggregates,
which are more or less easily soluble in water. They are found in
buchu, hedeoma, inula, lappa, pyrethrum, taraxacum and triticum.

D. DRUGS CONTAINING CALCIUM CARBONATE.

Cannabis indica (Fig. 284, C) and ruellia (Fig. 221).

KEY FOR THE STUDY OF POWDERS.
POWDERS OF A GREENISH COLOR.

I, Crystals of Calcium Oxalate present.

A. Crystals in rosette aggregates.

a. Glandular and non-glandular hairs present.

Cystoliths of calcium carbonate i. Cannabis Indica

V Twisted non-glandular hairs 2. Eriodictyon

Starch grains 15 to 40 M in diameter 3. Galla

Large multicellular glandular hairs 4. Humulus

Numerous pollen grains 5. Insect Powder

Glandular hairs few 6. Stramonii Folia

b. Glandula'r hairs wanting.

Hairs with slight projections 7. Pilocarpus

Characteristic stone cells 8. Tea

c. Glandular and non-glandular hairs wanting.

Sphere-crystals of a carbohydrate 9. Buchu

Crystals i to 2 m in protein grains 10. Conium

Crystals 15 M ii- Castanea

Crystals 40 to 60 M 12. Chimaphila

Outer wall of epidermal cells very thick 13. Eucalyptus

Crystal fibers I4- Granatum

B. In monoclinic prisms.

a. Glandular and non-glandular hairs present.

Crystals about 10 /u 15. Hyoscyamus

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 703

B. In monoclinic prisms. — Continued.

b. Only non-glandular hairs present.

Characteristic stone cells 16. Cardamomum (Ceylon)

Crystal fibers 17. Hamamelidis Folia

Fragments reddish with alkalies 18. Senna

Non-glandular hairs few 19. Uva Ursi

c. Glandular and non-glandular hairs wanting.

Epidermal cells with papillae 20. Coca

Few fragments of tissues 21. Guaiacum

Few crystal fibers and non-glandular hairs. .. .22. Uva Ursi

C In crystal fibers.

Rosette-shaped crystals numerous 23. Granatum

Crystal fibers few 24. Uva Ursi

D. In sphenoidal micro-crystals.

(7. With hairs.

Hairs few 25. Belladonnse Folia

Non-glandular hairs numerous 26. Tabacum

Starch grains 10 to 35 M 27. Solanum Carolinense

b. Hairs few or wanting.

Starch grains 5 to 7 m 28. Dulcamara

II. Calcium Oxalate Crystals wanting.

A. Cystoliths of calcium carbonate present.

Glandular and non-glandular hairs 29. Cannabis Indica

Stone cells characteristic 30. Ruellia

B. Calcium carbonate wanting.

o. Glandular and non-glandular hairs present,
a Fragments of pappus present.

Pollen grains 10 to 20 At 31. Eupatorium

Pollen grains about 25 M 32. Grindelia

/3 Fragments of pappus wanting. .

1. Glandular hairs with i- and 2-celled heads.

Non-glandular hairs characteristic. .. .33. Digitalis

2. Glandular hairs with i- to 8-celled head.

Odor characteristic 34. Hedeoma

Non-glandular hairs twisted 35. Marrubium

Non-glandular hairs i- to 8-celled.

36. Mentha Piperita
Non-glandular hairs i- to 3-celled. .T^y. Scutellaria
Non-glandular hairs parallel with surface of leaf.

38. Salvia

704 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

B. Calcium carbonate wanting. — Continued.
b. Glandular hairs wanting.

a With non-glandular hairs.

1. Pollen grains present.

* Hairs numerous.

Non-glandular hairs i-celled 39. Lobelia

Non-glandular hairs i- to 6-celled. .40. Matico

** Hairs very few.

Cells of non-glandular hairs very short,
oblong 41. Tanacetum

2. Pollen grains wanting.

Hairs i-celled, with thick walls 42. Scoparius

/3 Non-glandular hairs wanting.

Starch grains present 43. Cardamomum

With tracheids 43a. Sabina

Without starch grains 44. Staphisagria

Aqueous solution of a golden-yellow color.

45. Chelidonium

POWDERS OF A YELLOWISH COLOR.

I. Fragments of Vegetable Tissue present.

A. Containing starch.

a. IVitJi calcium oxalate crystals,
a In rosette aggregates.

Crystal fibers 46- Frangula

Isodiametric stone cells 47- Galla (Aleppo)

Starch grains swollen 48- Jalapa

Calcium oxalate crystals 50 to 100 M 49. Rheum

/3 In monoclinic prisms.

Characteristic starch grains 50. Calumba

Starch grains swollen 5i- Curcuma

Crystal fibers 52. Frangula

Long sclerenchymatous fibers 53- Gelsemium

Trachese with bordered pores 54- Quassia

7 In crystal fibers.

With cork fragments 55- Glycyrrhiza (Spanish)

Without cork fragments 56. Glycyrrhiza (Russian)

S In r aphides.

Tracheids with bordered pores 57. Ipecacuanha

Long sclerenchymatous fibers 58. Phytolacca

Endodermal cells with thick walls. 59. VeratrumViride

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 705

A. Containing starch. — Continued.

b. Calcium oxalate zvanting.
a. Stone cells present.

Characteristic starch grains 60. Calumba

^ Stone cells wanting.

1. Starch grains 15 to 30 M in diameter.

With yellow oil-secretion cells 61. Zingiber

2. Starch grains 5 to 15 /" in diameter.

Long non-lignified bast fibers 62. Mezereum

Ducts large 63. Pareira

Lignified sclerenchymatous fibers. .64. Serpentaria
Powder lemon-yellow 65. Berberis

3. Starch grains less than S M in diameter.

Crystals of alkaloids with sulphuric acid.

66. Hydrastis

4. Starch grains altered.

Large cells with swollen grains 67. Curcuma

B. Starch grains few or none.

a. Calcium oxalate crystals present.

a In rosette aggregates.

Non-glandular hairs 68. Anisum

Oil-like globules in epidermis 69. Calendula

Non-glandular hairs wanting 70. Fceniculum

/S In monoclinic prisms.

Crystals 15 to 20 M 71. Aurantii Amari Cortey.

Crystals 20 to 30 M 72. Aurantii Dulcis Cortex

7 In raphides.

Crystals o.i to i mm. long 73. Scilla

b. Calcium oxalate crystals icanting.

a. Sclerenchymatous cells or fibers present.

1. Dark pigment cells wanting.

Stone cells with thickened inner walls.

74. Sinapis alba
Stone cells ellipsoidal, uniformly thickened.

75. Pepo
Parenchyma cells large, thin-walled.

76. Colocynthis

2. Pigment cells present.

Stone cells with thickened inner walls.

77. Sinapis Nigra
Characteristic sclerenchymatous cells and fibers.

78. Fenugreek

7o6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

2. Pigment cells present. — Continued.

Short sclerenchymatous fibers 79. Linum

A colorless layer of cells with minute starch

grains 80. Cydonium

/3 Sclerenchymatous tissue wanting.

1. Pollen grains numerous.

Fragments of pappus 81. Arnicse Flores

Pollen grains smooth 82. Sambucus

Pollen grains spinose 83. Matricaria

2. Pollen grains few.

Pollen grains prickly 84. Calendula

Pollen grains nearly smooth 85. Crocus

Corolla white 86. Anthemis

Bitter, ducts scalariform 87. Chirata

3. Pollen grains wanting.

* Fibrovascular tissue present.

Containing inulin masses ,....88. Lappa

Sclerenchymatous fibers numerous. 89. Senega
Starch and scalariform tracheae. .90. Aspidium
** Fibrovascular tissue wanting.

Few fragments of tissues 91. Cambogia

Large glandular hairs 92. Lupulinum

Tetrahedral spores 93. Lycopodium

LI. Few or No Fragments of Vegetable Tissue.

A. Giving off odor of sulphur dioxide on heating.

Rounded masses in chains 94- Sulphur Lotum

Rounded masses in irregular groups.. 95. Sulphur Prsecipitatum

B. No ODOR OF SO: ON HEATING.

a. Nearly colorless in glycerin mount.

Transparent, irregular masses 96- Mastiche

b. Yellowish in glycerin mount.

a Containing oil globules.

Irregular masses 97- Scammonium

/3 Transparent or translucent.

Soluble in cold alcohol 98- Colophony

Insoluble in cold alcohol 99- Sandarac

Reddish with alkalies 100. Aloe (Cape)

y More opaque.

Light or grayish particles loi. Ammoniac

Yellowish particles 102. Cambogia

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. /O?

POWDERS OF A BROWNISH COLOR.

I. Fibrovascular Tissue present.
A. Containing starch.

c. Calcium oxalate crystals present.
a In rosette aggregates.

1. With sclerenchymatous fibers.

* Containing oil, resin or tannin masses.

Sclerenchymatous fibers few.

103. Belladonnse Radix
Starch grains 4 to 20 M- • - 104. Gossypii Cortex
Starch grains 3 to 7 M, compound. .105. Rubus

Crystals 10 to 35 M 106. Juglans

Crystals 35 to 70 M 107. Aralia Nudicaulis

Starch grains 15 to 30 M 108. Stillingia

Modified bast fibers 109. Euonymus

Red with alkalies no. Rumex

Fibers few i loa. Canella

** No resin or tannin masses.

Crystals about 25 ^ in. Althaea

2. Sclerenchymatous fibers wanting.

* Containing tannin.

t With oil-secretion reservoirs.

Starch grains ellipsoidal. 1 12. Fruit of Clove
Reddish brown tannin masses. 113. Pimenta

ft Oil-secretion reservoirs wanting.

Light-brown tannin masses 114. Galla

Calcium oxalate 45 to 70 M.nS- Geranium
Calcium oxalate ^0 to 100 M. . .116. Rheum
** Without tannin.

Sphenoidal micro-crystals.

• 117. Belladonnse Radix

jS Crystals in monocUnic prisms and pyramids.

Crystal fibers 118. Frangula

Sclerenchymatous fibers characteristic. .. 119. Krameria
Crystal fibers and stone cells.. 120. Rhamnus Purshiana
Crystals in stone cells 121. Juniperus

7 Crystal fibers present.

I, Sclerenchymatous fibers strongly lignified.

* Colored reddish with alkalies.

Without stone cells 122. Frangula

With stone cells 123. Rhamnus Purshiana

7o8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

1. Sclerenchymatous fibers strongly lignified. — Continued

** Not colored reddish with alkalies.

Stone cells characteristic. .. 124. Quercus Alba
Stone cells characteristic.

125. Primus Virginiana

Taste bitter, acrid 126. Myrica Cerifera

Taste sweetish, slightly bitter.

127. Pulvis Glycyrrhizae Compositus

2. Sclerenchymatous fibers not strongly lignified.

Fragments of ducts 128. Calamus

No fragments of ducts 129. Ulmus

5 Calcium oxalate in raphides.

1. Raphides not more than 10 /^ long.

No fragments of ducts 130. Cinnamomum

Fragments of ducts present 131. Sarsaparilla

2. Raphides 40 to 45 m long.

Spherical starch grains 3 to 12 m.

132. Convallaria
Thick-walled parenchyma with simple pores.

^33- Cypripedium
Ellipsoidal starch grains 7 to 20 M.

134. Veratrum Viride

3. Raphides 200 M long.

^ Starch grains 4 to 15 M 135. Hydrangea

e Calcium oxalate in sphenoidal micro-crystals.

Sclerenchymatous fibers few.... 136. Belladonnse Radix

Cast fibers characteristic 137. Cinchona

b. Calcium oxalate crystals wanting.
a. With non-glandular hairs.

Greenish fragments with sulphuric acid.

138. Strophanthus
/3 Non-glandular hairs wanting.

I. Sclerenchymatous fibers present.
* Tracheae numerous.

t Starch grains 2 to 5 M in diameter.

Ducts large and with bordered pores.

139. Cimicifuga
Thick-walled parenchyma with simple

pores 140. Cypripedium

Scalariform ducts 141. Leptandra

Tracheae with reddish contents. 142. Spigelia

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 709

'•' Tracheae numerous. — Continued.

tt Starch grains 5 to 15 or 20 M in diameter.

Characteristic starch grains. 143. Zingiber

Odor of coumarin 144. Tonka

Chocolate taste 145. Cocoa Shells

Fragments of milk vessels. 146. Apocynum

Raphides 45 M long 147. Convallaria

Raphides 6 to 8 M long. . .148. Sarsaparilla
Ducts with bordered pores... 149. Sumbul
Stone cells characteristic. . .150. Valeriana

Stone cells 151. Methysticum

** Tracheae few or none.

Characteristic bast fibers 152. Cinchona

Raphides about 5 M long... 153. Cinnamomum

Short sclerenchymatous fibers 154. Coffee

Starch grains 7 to 20 m, compound.

155. Sassafras
2. Sclerenchymatous fibers wanting.
* Stone cells present.

t Giving tannin reaction with ferric salts.

Stone cells characteristic 156. Cacao

Altered starch grains 157. Guarana

Stone cells characteristic 158. Piper

Thick-walled endosperm cells.

159. Colchici Semen
ft Not becoming blue or green with ferric salts.

Starch grains 4 to 12 m 160. Aconitum

Starch grains 25 to 40 ya.i6i. Physostigma
** Stofie cells wanting.

Starch grains 7 to 20 M. . . 162. Colchici Cormus

Altered starch grains 163. Guarana

Numerous oil globules 164. Myristica

Amylo-dextrin starch grains 165. Macis

Few fragments of vegetable tissue. 166. Opium

Starch grains 5 to 12 M 167. Podophyllum

Odor characteristic 168. Chenopodium

B. Starch grains few or none.
a. Containing calcium oxalate,
a In rosette aggregates.

I. Small crystals in aleurone grains.

With non-glandular hairs 169. Anisum

Calcium oxalate 0.5 to i m 170. Carum

Calcium oxalate 3 to 7 At 171- Coriandrum

Calcium oxalate i to 2 m 172. Foeniculum

710 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

a In rosette-shaped crystals. — Continued.
2. Crystals not less than lo ," in diameter.
* Pollen grains numerous.

Crystals numerous 173. Caryophyllus

Crystals few 174. Insect Powder

** Pollen grains few.
t Ducts present.

Glandular and non-glandular hairs.

175. Cusso
tt Ducts wanting.

Stone cells few.... 176. Viburnum Opulus
Stone cells numerous.

177. Viburnum Prunifolium
/3 Calcium oxalate in monoclinic prisms.

1. Numerous seeds.

Characteristic odor 178. Vanilla

2. Seeds wanting.

Stone cells few 179. Viburnum Opulus

Stone cells numerous, characteristic.

180. Viburnum Prunifolium

Numerous oil globules 181. Xanthoxylum

7 Calcium oxalate in crystal fibers.

Stone cells characteristic 182. Quercus Alba

b. Calcium oxalate wanting.

a Containing pollen grains.

s. Non-glandular hairs numerous 183. Arnicse Floics

Spherical pollen grains 184. Crocus

Non-glandular hairs few 185. Santonica

/3 Pollen grains zvanting.

1. Stone cells numerous.

Fragments wine-colored with sulphuric acid.

186. Cubeba

Characteristic stone cells 187. Delphinium

Green fluorescence in chloral mount.

188. Stramonii Semen
Ducts reticulate 189. Pyrethruni

2. Stone cells wanting.

Non-lignified intermediate fibers. ... 190. Gentiana

Few fragments of tissues 191. Opium

Trachcc-e with elongated, narrow pores.

192. Taraxacum

Trache?e with large, simple pores 193. Chicory

Ducts spiral, annular or with simple pores.

194. Triticum

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 711

II. Without Fibrovascular Tissue.

A. With cellular tissues.

Spores about 7 t^ I95- Ustilago

Numerous oil globules 196. Ergota

Thick-walled cells of capsules 197. Opium

Fragments of woody tissues 198. Goa Powder

•B. Without cellular tissues.

a. Possessing oil.

Grayish fragments 199. Asafetida

Yellowish or yellowish-brown fragments 200. Myrrha

b. Without oil.

a Remaining opaque in glycerin.

Characteristic odor 201. Aloes (Socotrine)

Characteristic odor 202. Benzoinum

Grayish opaque fragments 203. Elaterinum

Brownish angular masses 204. Lactucarium

P More or less translucent in glycerin.

Dark brown 205. Aloes (Curagao)

Yellowish-brown 206. Aloes (Socotrine)

With acicular crystals 207. Gambir

With rhombohedral crystals 208. Catechu

Fragments translucent, deep red 209. Kino

POWDERS OF A REDDISH COLOR.

I. Containing Starch.

Very light pink, crystals present 210. Quillaja

Reddish, crystals wanting 211. Sanguinaria

II. Without Starch.

A. Stone cells present.

Characteristic stone cells 212. Capsicum

Characteristic stone cells 213. Illicium

Mucilage cells and sclerenchymatous fibers 214. Cydonium

Characteristic glandular hairs 215. Rhus Glabra

Non-glandular hairs 0.5 to 2 mm. long. .216. Ross Caninse Fructus
Woody tissues only 217. Willow Charcoal

B. Stone cells wanting.

a. With wood fibers.

Coloring principle soluble in water 218. Hsematoxylon

Coloring principle insoluble in water. 219. Santalum Rubrum

b. Wood fibers wanting.

Blue with sulphuric acid 220. Crocus

Containing tannin 221. Kino

Large glandular hairs 222. Lupulinum

712 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

b. Wood fibers wanting. — Continued.

Characteristic odor 223. Opium

Epidermal cells with papillae 224. Rosa Gallica

Fragments of anthers 225. Ros.a Centifolia

Long, slender styles 226. Zea

POWDERS OF A WHITISH APPEARANCE.

I. Plant Tissues or Cell-Contents recognizable.

A. Containing starch.

a. Only unaltered starch grains present.

Excentral and fissured point of origin of growth.

227. Maranta Starch
Excentral and circular point of origin of growth.

228. Potato Starch

Polygonal grains 229. Corn Starch

Small, polygonal, compound grains 230. Rice Starch

Ellipsoidal, point of origin of growth indistinct.

231. Wheat Starch
Characteristic grains 232. Other Starches

b. Altered and unaltered starch grains present.

Becomes pasty on addition of cold water 233. Dextrin

Becomes pasty with hot water 234. Sago

Disintegrates with water 235. Sago (Imitation)

c. Plapt tissues in addition to starch.

a Do not readily dissolve or swell in cold water.

Polygonal starch grains 236. Corn Meal

Free from hairs 237. Corn Bran

Starch grains 5 to 40 M in diameter. . . .238. Wheat Flour
Hairs with thick walls and narrow lumen.

239. Wheat Middlings
Starch grains 20 to 60 f^ in diameter. . . .240. Rye Flour
Thin-walled hairs with large lumen. 241. Rye Middlings
Starch grains 5 to 25 M in diameter. ..242. Barley Flour
Sclerenchyma fibers with brown contents.

243. Buckwheat Flour

Starch grains 2 to 10 m in diameter 244. Rice Flour

Hairs broader near the middle 245. Oat Meal

Lignified hairs, starch grains few 246. Nux Vomica

Characteristic starch grains 247. Orris Root

Very long prisms of calcium oxalate 248. Quillaja

Raphides of calcium oxalate 249. Bryonia

Aromatic odor 249a. Calamus

Thin-walled bast fibers 249b. Ulmus

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 713

c. Plant tissues in addition to starch. — Continued.

y3 Soluble or swelling in cold water to form a sticky mass.

Starch and fragments of ducts 250. Tragacantha

B. Without starch.

a. Calcium oxalate present.

Raphides o.i to i mm 251. Scilla

b. Calcium oxalate wanting.

Characteristic lignified hairs 252. Nux Vomica

Characteristic stone cells 253. Almond

II. Absence of Plant Tissues.

A. Soluble in water.

Forming a mucilage with water 254. Acacia

Monoclinic prisms 255. Saccharum

B. Insoluble in water.

a. Soluble in alcohol.

Irregular fragments 256. Camphora

b. Insoluble in alcohol.

a Reddish color with sulphuric acid.

Gritty; monoclinic prisms of various sizes.

257. Saccharum Lactis
P No color reaction with sulphuric acid.

1. Soapy feel.

Broken crystals 258. Talc

2. Soluble in acetic acid.

* With efifervescence.

In prisms or irregular angular fragments.
259. Precipitated Calcium Carbonate
An amorphous powder. . .260. Prepared Chalk
Rhombic crystals or irregular fragments.

261. Barium Carbonate
** Without effervescence.

Rounded masses 262. Heavy Magnesia

Very light 263. Light Magnesia

3. Insoluble in acetic acid.

* Soluble in nitric acid.

Tetragonal or cubical crystals.

264.Precipitated Calcium Phosphate

Acicular crystals 265. Calcium Sulphate

Rhombic prisms or crystals of various sizes.

266. Barium Sulphate
Irregular fragments 267. Terra Alba

714 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

POWDERS OF A GREENISH COLOR.

In this group are included all those drugs which in a pow-
dered condition are of a light-green, yellowish-green or dark-
green (sap-green) color. Most of the powders of the leaves and
herbs belong to this class.

I. CRYSTALS OF CALCIUM OXALATE PRESENT.
A. CRYSTALS IN ROSETTE AGGREGATES.

a. GLANDULAR AND NON-GLANDULAR HAIRS PRESENT.

1. CANNABIS INDICA.— Dark green (Figs. 284, C; 279) ;
non-glandular hairs, i -celled, more or less curved, with numerous
slight projections, and sometimes with cystoliths of calcium
carbonate ; glandular hairs two kinds — either with short unicel-
lular or multicellular stalks — and 8- to i6-celled glandular heads;
calcium oxalate, in rosette aggregates about 20 fx in diameter;
numerous oil globules and resin fragments ; few nearly spherical
pollen grains 25 to 35 ix in diameter, with numerous centrifugal
projections, among club-shaped unicellular hairs of style ; ducts
spiral or with simple or bordered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers
long, thin-walled, non-lignified, and with few simple pores ; lati-
ciferous vessels with reddish-brown contents. When mature seeds
are present, palisade-like stone cells occur, which are very thick-
walled, and have a small lumen.

2. ERIODICTYON. — Dark green ; calcium oxalate in rosette
aggregates, 20 to 25 jx in diameter; non-glandular hairs i -celled
and thick-walled (Fig. 283, A) ; glandular hairs with i -celled
stalk and 6- to 8-celled glandular head (Fig. 285, F). In pow-
der of the stems occur : ducts, spiral or with simple or bordered
pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers either non-lignified and thin-
walled, or lignified and thick-walled, and with numerous simple
pores ; pith cells somewhat tabular, thick-walled, slightly ligni-
fied, and with numerous simple pores.

3. GALLA (Chinese or Japanese). — Grayish-green; calcium
oxalate crystals about 20 /a in diameter; starch grains 15 to 40 /n

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

715

in diameter ; non-glandular hairs ; milk vessels accompanying
ducts. Mounts in glycerin may show acicular crystals.

4. HUMULUS. — Light green; calcium oxalate in rosette
aggregates, 10 to 15 ju, in diameter; non-glandular hairs unicel-
lular, more or less bent, thin-walled, 0.2 to 0.3 mm. long ; gland-
ular hairs of two kinds (Fig. 298), either with a 3-celled stalk

Fig. 279. Cannabis indica: Cy, non-glandular hairs containing calcium carbonate
in the form of cystoliths; G, multicellular glandular hairs of the bracts; Gs, multicellular
heads of glandular hairs; S, papillae of stigma; B, tracheae .with bordered pores, present
in stem fragments; T, tracheae with annular markings; P, pollen grains; Ca, rosette
aggregates of calcium oxalate; N, thick- walled non-glandular hair with numerous papillae
on the surface.

and a nearly colorless, multicellular, glandular head about 50 /n in
diameter, or with a short 4-celled stalk and a multicellular, bright
yellow, glandular head o.i to 0.3 mm. in diameter (Fig. 136).

5. INSECT POWDER (Persian) (p. 395).— Grayish-green
(Fig. 280) ; with numerous rounded and prickly pollen grains,
25 /A in diameter; a few crystals 2 to 8 /^ in diameter, in stone
cells or in parenchyma adjoining; sclerenchyma fibers about 20 /j.

7i6

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in diameter and lOO to i6o fx. long; fragments of T-shaped non-
glandular hairs less numerous than in Dalmatian powder; char-
acteristic, isolated, somewhat rounded or elliptical parenchyma
cells, also occurring in papillae-like fragments ; fragments of

Fig. 280. Flores Pyrethri (Insect flowers): sc, stone cells; ep, upper epidermis ot
a bract; h, h, non-glandular hairs of bracts; ept, papilte on the upper surface of the ligulate
corolla; St, St', loose parenchyma of the ligulate corolla; g, a trachea of a bract with annular
thickening; S, tooth of a tubular floret, some of the cells of which contain rosette aggregates
of calcium oxalate; ep', epidermis of the under surface of a ligulate corolla; P, section of
pappus showing some of the lignified cells, some of which contain monoclinic prisms as
shown at rh; pa, parenchyma of a bract; Fr, somewhat thickened, porous cells of the
pericarp; D, glandular hairs found on the wall of the ovary; po, pollen grains; iep, cells
of the involucre between the bracts. — After Hanausek.

acute papillae (epidermis of corolla), which are more numerous
than in Dalmation powder ; glandular hairs about 50 /x in diameter,
being smaller than in Dalmatian powder ; rose-colored fragments
in chloral mounts possibly more numerous in the Persian powder.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 717

6. STRAMONII FOLIA.— Dark green (Fig. 117); cal-
cium oxalate in rosette aggregates 10 to 20 fx. in diameter;
non-glandular hairs few, 2- to 3-celled, with numerous slight
centrifugal projections; glandular hairs few, stalk i- to 2-celled,
glandular head 2- to 4-celled (Figs. 106, A; 285, C; 287, D).

b. GLANDULAR HAIRS WANTING.

7. PILOCARPUS. — Dark green (Fig. 257) ; epidermal cells
on surface view 5- to 6-sided, walls straight ; calcium oxalate
crystals in rosette aggregates, 20 to 30 /j. in diameter, frequently
in palisade cells and also in cells in the air spaces of the stomata ;
mesophyll cells frequently with reddish-brown tannin masses,
turning green with ammonio-ferric sulphate solution ; non-gland-
ular hairs i -celled, thick-walled, with numerous slight centrifugal
projections, 0.4 to 0.6 mm. long in P. Jahorandi and 40 to 60 /x
in P. pinnatifoliiis and P. microphyllus. In P. microphylhis the
stomata are smaller than in the other two species.

8. TEA. — Large, elongated, irregular and colorless stone
cells (idioblasts) ; numerous unicellular, long, thick-walled, non-
glandular hairs 10 /a wide; rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate
10 /x in diameter; characteristic stomata 30 to 60 /x in diameter,
with 3 or 4 accompanying cells. Adulterants are distinguished
by possessing chiefly other forms of calcium oxalate crystals and
hairs.

Allied Plants. — Mate or Paraguay tea (p. 322) is distin-
guished by the stomata, which are much larger than the epi-
dermal cells of the lower surface ; the epidermal cells occurring
near the veins are in nearly parallel row's and with a striated
surface ; sclerenchymatous fibers are associated with the tracheae,
and calcium oxalate occurs in rosette aggregates.

Adulterants. — Ash leaves (species of Fraxinus) have
rather characteristic " horned " stomata, due to the extra develop-
ment of the cutinous layers at the poles of the stomata ; the epider-
mal cells are very wavy in outline. Camellia leaves contain idio-
blasts (similar to those in tea leaves) and calcium oxalate crystals,
but the lower epidermis is thick-walled and with centripetal thick-
ening. Cherry leaves {Primus avium) have numerous small rosette

7i8

BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGNOSY.

aggregates of calcium oxalate in the lower epidermal cells. Crom-
well leaves {Lithospcrnuim officinale) have stiff, scythe-shaped
hairs with centrifugal thickening of cuticle. Maple leaves {Acer

Fig. 281. Forms of calcium oxalate crystals: A, transverse section of rheum show-
ing rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate in three of the cells and starch grains in some of
the others; B, longitudinal section of scilla showing raphides; C, longitudinal section of
quillaja showing large monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate and also some starch grains;
D, transverse section of belladonna root showing one cell filled with sphenoidal micro-crys-
tals, the remaining cells containing starch.

Negnndo) have non-glandular and glandular hairs, the latter with
2- to 3-celled stalk and large, unicellular head. Meadow-sweet
(Spircca Ulniaria) has unicellular, thin-walled, non-glandular
hairs, the hasal walls of which are truncate ; the glandular hairs

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 719

have either a 3-celled or multicellular stalk and a large, multicel-
lular head. Mountain Ash or European Rowan {Sorbiis Aucii-
paria) possesses long, thin-walled, non-glandular hairs with
rounded base. Mulberry leaves {Morns alba and M. nigra)
have cystoliths in epidermal cells, non-glandular and glandular
hairs, the latter with unicellular stalk and 5- to 9-celled head.
Oak leaves (Qncrcus pcdiinculata and Q. scssiliUora) have 2- to
3-celled, non-glandular hairs and stomata only on epidermis of
lower surface. Sloe leaves {Prunus spinosa) have rather char-
acteristic crystal fibers. Strawberry \Fragaria vesca) has long,
unicellular, non-glandular hairs, the basal portion of which has
a thick wall with simple pores, and glandular hairs consisting
of a 3-celled stalk and large head, the cells swelling considerably
in chloral solutions. The leaves of the willow-herb {Epilo-
hium angustifoliuiu) contain numerous raphides and the non-
glandular hairs are slightly wavy, rather broad and with rounded
ends. Willow leaves (species of Salix) have small stomata
(about 25 IX in diameter) with two accompanying cells; the hairs
are crooked and with thin walls ; the calcium oxalate occurs in
rosette aggregates and monoclinic prisms. Wistaria (Kraunhia
Horihiinda) has non-glandular hairs with 2 short basal cells and
a long, thin-walled pointed cell ; stomata only occur in the lower
epidermis.

c. glandular and non-glandular hairs wanting.

9. BUCHU. — Light green ; calcium oxalate in rosette aggre-
gates, 15 to 25 /x, in diameter ; epidermal cells with irregular masses
or sphero-crystals of a carbohydrate, 30 to .50 ix in diameter, and
with walls modified to mucilage ; oil globules numerous (Fig. 158).

10. CONIUM. — Grayish-green or yellowish-brown (Fig.
248) ; calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates, i to 2 ju, in
diameter, those in aleurone grains about 5 /* in diameter; paren-
chyma with chloroplastids and starch grains 2 to 4 /a in diameter ;
sclerenchymatous fibers long, thin-walled, wath numerous simple
oblique pores ; intermediate fibers with reticulated walls ; cells
of pericarp nearly isodiametric, yellowish, irregularly thickened,
somewhat collenchymatous ; oil globules numerous.

720

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

11. CASTANEA. — The cells contain tannin masses, giving a
blue color with ferric chloride. (See No. i8, under Senna.)

12. CHIMAPHILA. — Dark green; calcium oxalate in rosette
aggregates 40 to 60 /x in diameter ; mesophyll with irregular, red-
dish-brown tannin masses.

13. EUCALYPTUS. — Light green ; calcium oxalate in rosette
aggregates or monoclinic prisms 15 to 25 /x in diameter; outer
wall of epidermal cells about 20 /x thick. In leaves from younger
parts of the tree the outer wall of the epidermal cells is 5 to 8 /*
thick.

14. GRANATUM.— (See No. 23.)

Fig. 282. A, transverse section of hyoscyamus leaf showing monoclinic prisms of
calcium oxalate, also a twin-crystal; B, longitudinal section of glycyrrhiza showing a
crystal fiber, i.e., a row of superimposed cells, each containing a polygonal monoclinic
prism of calcium oxalate, the crystal filling the cell. Adjoining the crystal fiber is a group
of bast fibers on one side and some cells containing starch on the other.

B. CALCIUM OXALATE IN MONOCLINIC PRISMS.

a. GLANDULAR AND NON-GLANDULAR HAIRS PRESENT.

15. HYOSCYAMUS.— Dark green (Fig. 282, A), calcium
oxalate in single or twin monoclinic prisms about 10 fi in diam-
eter, occasionally in rosette-shaped crystals ; non-glandular hairs
numerous, i- to 5-celled ; glandular hairs numerous, of three dif-
ferent kinds, stalks i- to 4-celled, glandular heads one- to many-
celled (see also Figs. 287, B; 302, A).

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

721

b. ONLY NON-GLANDULAR HAIRS PRESENT.

16. CARDAMOMUM.— (See No. 43.)

17. HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA.— Dark green ; calcium oxalate
in monoclinic prisms 7 to 20 /x, in diameter, frequently in crystal
fibers; non-glandular hairs i-celled. about 0.5 mm. long, more
or less curved, thick-walled, with yellowish-brown contents,
arranged in groups of about fifteen, and spreading from the base ;
mesophyll with irregular tannin masses ; sclerenchymatous fibers
thick-walled, lignified and with simple pores.

Fig. 283. Forms of non-glandular hairs: A, twisted hairs from under surface of
leaf of eriodictyon; B, lignified hairs from the epidermis of nux vomica; C, branching
hairs from the leaf of mullein {Verbascum thapsus).

18. SENNA. — Light green (Figs. 263; 284, D) ; non-gland-
ular hairs o.i to 0.2 mm. long, i-celled, thick-walled, the wall of
the upper part strongly cutinized, with nunierous slight centrif-
ugal projections ; calcium oxalate in rosette aggregates, or occa-
sionally in monoclinic prisms, 10 to 20 ix in diameter; fragments
colored reddish with potassium hydrate solution.

The powder of Indian senna (Cassia angusttfolia) is dark
green and has relatively few non-glandular hairs. In the powder
of Argel Leaves (Solenostemma Argel, Fam. Asclepiadacege) the
non-glandular hairs are 3- to 4-celled. In the leaves of Castanea
dentata (Fam. Fagacese) the non-glandular hairs are relatively
few, 0.2 to 0.5 mm. long, nearly smooth, thick-walled, occasionally

'J22

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in groups of three to eight and spreading from the base. The
calcium oxalate crystals are numerous, in rosette aggregates or
in monoclinic prisms, lo to 35 /x in diameter, occasionally in crys-

ww^^

Fig. 284. Forms of non-glandular hairs: A, hair from the epidermis of strophanthus;

B, a hair from the capsule of MalloHis philippinensis (found in the drug known as kamala) ;

C, hairs from the leaves and bracts of cannabis indica, two of them containing cystoliths
of calcium carbonate; D, a hair from the under surface of the leaf of senna; E. hairs from
leaf of digitalis; F, two forms of hairs from sage leaf; G, two forms of hairs from the leaves
of wormwood {Artemisia Absinthium) : a T-shaped non-glandular hair and a short glandular
hair.

tal fibers ; the parenchymatous cells contain irregular yellowish-
brown tannin masses which are colored blue wnth ammonio-ferric
alum solution.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

7^1

19. UVA URSL— (See No. 22.)

Fig. 285. Forms of glandular hairs: A, corkscrew-like hairs from the inner surface
of the spurred corolla of lavender; B, longitudinal section of rhizome of Aspidium marginale
showing large intercellular space and an internal oil-secretion hair; C, hairs from stra-
monium leaf; D, hairs from digitalis; E, hair from sage; F, hair from eriodictyon; G,
hairs from inner walls of pericarp of vanilla; H, hair from cannabis indica; I, hairs from
surface of fruit of Rhus glabra; K, hairs from belladonna leaf.

724

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

C. GLANDULAR AND NON-GLANDULAR HAIRS WANTING.

20. COCA. — Dark green (Fig. 286), calcium oxalate in
monoclinic prisms 3 to 10 /^ in diameter; walls of under epidermal
cells extended as minute papillae (Fig. 261).

21. GUAIACUM. — Dark green (p. 669) ; numerous lemon-
yellow or dark brown resin masses, which when mounted in

-5^d ^°

Fig. 286. Coca leaf: O, hexagonal prisms of calcium oxalate; U, surface view of
a cell of the upper epidermis; L, view of fragmients of lower epidermis in surface and cross
sections, showing elliptical stomata, and cells with circles which represent papilte in
surface view; S, sclerenchymatic fibers; M, loose parenchyma. Two fragments with an-
nular tracheae are also shown.

chloral are wine-colored at the margin ; few fragments of tissues
with characteristic sclerenchymatous cells and fibers ; few crystals
of calcium oxalate in monoclinic prisms.

22. UVA URSI. — Yellowish-green ; calcium oxalate in mono-
clinic prisms 7 to 10 ^u in diameter, frequently in crystal fibers;
non-glandular hairs few, somewhat curved, i-celled, thick-walled,

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 725

long-itudinally striate ; mesophyll with irregular, yellowish-brown
tannin masses; characteristic sclerenchymatous fibers (Fig.
300, D).

C. CALCIUM OXALATE IN CRYSTAL FIBERS.

2T,. GRANATUM.— Dark green (Fig. 234), crystal fibers
containing calcium oxalate in rosette aggregates and monoclinic
prisms, about 15 /* in diameter; sclerenchymatous cells non-
lignified, thick-walled, with distinct lamellae, simple, more or
less branching pores ; starch grains spherical, 5 to 7 /x in diameter ;
some parenchymatous cells with marked centripetal thickenings,
others with irregular tannin masses. The powder of the root
bark is free from chloroplastids ; the cork cells are more numerous
and the sclerenchymatous cells more irregular in shape.

24. UVA URSL— (See No. 22.)

D. CALCIUM OXALATE IN SPHENOIDAL MICRO-CRYSTALS.

a. WITH HAIRS.

25. BELLADONNA FOLIA.— Dark green (Fig. 287, C) ;
calcium oxalate in sphenoidal micro-crystals ; non-glandular hairs
few, simple, 2- to 5-celled ; glandular hairs few, of two kinds,
stalks one- to three-celled, glandular heads one- to many-celled
(Fig. 285, K).

26. TABACUM. — Greenish-brown ; non-glandular hairs, 3- to
6-celled, with a broad basal cell and not infrequently branching
apical cells ; glandular hairs of two kinds, either with a i-celled
stalk or 3- to 5-celled stalk, the head in each case being rather
small and with 8 to 9 cells ; stomata large and with 2 or 3 neigh-
boring cells; epidermal cells striated and somewhat granular on
surface view ; the cells of the mesophyll with a greenish-brown
content, and some of them with sphenoidal micro-crystals. The
following leaves have been used as adulterants: Chestnut (see
No. 11), cherry (see No. 8), rose, melilot, cabbage, chicory,
beet, and lappa. In the manufacture of plug tobacco various other
substances are added; as, licorice (Figs. 104; 204; 282, B),

^26 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cloves (Fig. 312), anise (Fig. 244), orris root (Figs. 317, 32^'/),
vanilla (Figs. 256, 313), tamarinds, prunes, besides other sidb-
stances.

2^. SOLANUM CAROLINENSE (Horse nettle).— Starch
grains spherical, ellipsoidal, ovoid and 2- to 4-compound, varying
in size from 10 to 35 /a and with distinct lamellae; non-glandular
hairs, stellate, i- to 2-celled ; abundance of parenchyma with
sphenoidal micro-crystals ; ducts very broad, with oblique cir-
cular pores closely resembling those in glycyrrhiza; wood fibers
long, the walls being i to 2 fx thick (Fig. 176a).

h. HAIRS FEW OR WANTING.

28. DULCAMARA. — Calcium oxalate in sphenoidal micro-
crystals ; starch grains 5 to 7 /x in diameter ; acicular crystals in
parenchyma of bark ; tracheae with bordered pores, 35 to 45 /i
wide, and accompanied by sclerenchymatic fibers ; an occasional
single bast fiber; cork cells present. The following drugs have
been substituted for Dulcamara : The stems of false bittersweet
(Celastrus scandens) which are more woody and not hollow;
hop stems which are rough hairy ; and the rhizome of Saponaria
which is terete and wrinkled.

H. CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS FEW OR

WANTING.

A. CYSTOLITHS OF CALCIUM CARBONATE PRESENT.

29. CANNABIS INDICA.— (See No. i.)

30. RUELLIA. — This is a rather common adulterant of spi-
gelia, and somewhat resembles it, but is readily distinguished
from it by an effervescence on the addition of dilute hydrochloric
acid. This effervescence is due to the presence of cystoliths in
some of the cells of the cortex (Fig. 221). The cystolith-contain-
ing cells are spherical in transverse section and about 20 fi wide,
but in longitudinal view are about 80 fi long. Numerous stone
cells also occur; these are thick-walled and with numerous radiate
simplr pores.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 72J

B. CALCIUM CARBONATE WANTING.

a. GLANDULAR AND NON-GLANDULAR HAIRS PRESENT.

a Fragments of Pappus Present.

31. EUPATORIUM. — Dark green; non-glandular hairs of
two kinds, 2- to 8-celled, thin-walled, finely striate, one kind with
acute end-cell and the other with rounded end-cell; glandular
hairs either 6- to 8-celled in a double row, and with 2-celled
glandular head, or short-stalked and with 4- to 1 2-celled gland-
ular head ; pollen grains ellipsoidal, 10 to 20 /* in diameter and
with numerous centrifugal projections; pappus occurring as a
multicellular axis about 30 fx in diameter and with short uni-
cellular alternate branches ; ducts spiral, annular, or with bordered
pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers thin-walled, non-lignified, with
few, simple, oblique pores.

32. GRINDELIA. — Light green ; tracheae spiral, annular, or
with bordered pores, strongly lignified ; sclerenchyma fibers thin-
walled, non-lignified, with numerous simple more or .less oblique
pores ; pollen grains spherical, about 25 fx in diameter, with
numerous centrifugal projections ; glandular hairs depressed, glob-
ular, multicellular ; numerous oil globules and resin masses ;
pappus consisting of a multicellular axis with minute teeth.

P Fragments of Pappus Wanting.

33. DIGITALIS.— Dark green (Figs. 284, E ; 287, A) ; non-
glandular hairs simple, consisting of 2 to 5 superimposed cells,
straight or slightly curved ; glandular hairs with i-celled stalk
and I- to 2-celled glandular head; stone ce}ls, star-shaped hairs
and calcium oxalate crystals wanting (Figs. 266; 285, D).

Adulterants. — The leaves of Matico (see No. 40) have
numerous stomata and the non-glandular hairs are from 2- to 6-
celled. The leaves of Salvia Sclarca (Fam. Labiatae) have non-
glandular hairs somewhat resembling Digitalis, but the gland-
ular hairs are of the labiate type with large, 8-celled, glandular
heads. The leaves of Verhascum Phlomoides (Fam. Scrophu-
lariaceae) have multicellular, branching, non-glandular hairs re-
sembling those of V. thapsiis (Fig. 283, C), and small glandular

728

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

^ rt^

4^ G *

Fig. 287. A, Digitalis; B, Hyoscyamus; C, Belladonna; D, Stramonium. — a, upper epi-
dermis; b, lower epidermis; c, non-glandular hairs (which in stramonium are tuberculate);
d, glandular hairs; e, calcium oxalate crystals; f . fragments of xylem showing trachea
with bordered pores (s), reticulate markings (r), simple pores (p), spiral thickening (1,) and
wood fibers (w); g, bast fibers, which together with wood fibers are wanting in digitalis.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 729

hairs resembling those of digitahs. The non-glandular hairs of
Inula Cony::a (Earn. Compositae) are 3- to 4-celled, with thick
walls, the basal cell being broad and truncate.

34. HEDEOMA. — Dark green ; non-glandular hairs slightly
curved, 2- to 3-celled, thick-walled, with numerous slight centrif-
ugal projections; glandular hairs with i-celled stalk and 8-celled
glandular head; pollen grains somewhat spherical, about 35 /<, in
diameter, nearly smooth ; tracheae spiral or with simple and bor-
dered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, thin-walled, lignified,
with numerous simple pores ; epidermal cells with sphere-crystals
or irregular masses of a carbohydrate.

35. MARRUBIUM. — Dark green ; non-glandular hairs much
twisted, I- to 7-celled, thin-walled, smooth, frequently arranged
in groups of about six or eight, and spreading from the base ;
glandular hairs with i -celled stalk and 8-celled glandular head;
pollen grains spherical, about 25 /^ in diameter, and with numerous
centrifugal projections ; tracheae spiral, annular, or reticulate,
slightly lignified ; sclerenchymatous fibers thin-walled, non-ligni-
fied, with few simple pores.

36. MENTHA PIPERITA.— Dark green; non-glandular
hairs i- to 8-celled. thin-walled, with numerous slight projec-
tions; glandular hairs two kinds, i- or 3-celled stalk and i- or
8-celled glandular head ; pollen grains somewhat spherical, smooth,
about 35 /i. in diameter ; tracheae spiral, or with simple and bor-
dered pores, and slightly lignified ; sclerenchymatous fibers thin-
walled, non-lignified, with numerous oblique pores. Contamina-
tion with M. spicata is said to be common (Eig. 175).

37. SCUTELLARIA. — Dark green ; non-glandular hairs, l-
to 3-celled. 100 to 200 ^ long, the walls with numerous slight
centrifugal projections, the basal cell being large, broadly cylin-
drical, and the apical cell narrow and with a sharp, frequently
recurved apex; glandular hairs with a i- to 2-celled stalk and
large, glandular head, composed of 6 or 8 cells placed side by
side, indistinct ; pollen grains nearly spherical or ellipsoidal,
smooth and 15 to 25 /x, in diameter; fragments of corolla colored
light pink with chloral solution ; narrow tracheae with scalariform
and reticulate thickenings, or bordered pores ; sclerenchymatous
fibers narrow, with walls 4 or 5 /x thick and with simple pores;

730 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

epidermal cells of stem and corolla with distinct striae ; the sto-
mata broadly elliptical and with very small openings. In Scutel-
laria cancscens the non-glandular hairs are 3- to 5-celled and vary
in length from 0.3 to i mm. ; the glandular hairs have a 4-celled
stalk and 8-celled head, are larger and more prominent than in
^. lateriflora; and the opening between the guard cells is on sur-
face view long and narrow (Fig. 180).

38. SALVIA. — Dark green ; non-glandular hairs i- to 6-
celled, filled with air (Fig. 284, F) glandular hairs numerous, of
two kinds, stalks i- to 3-celled, glandular heads unicellular or
8-celled (Fig. 285, E).

b. GLANDULAR HAIRS WANTING.

a With Non-gla)idular Hairs.

39. LOBELIA. — Dark green ; non-glandular hairs, l-celled,
0.3 to 0.6 mm. long, walls moderately thick, with numerous
slight centrifugal projections; pollen grains ellipsoidal, smooth.
15 to 30 /i. in diameter; laticiferous vessels branched; tracheae
spiral, or with scalariform and bordered pores; sclerenchymatous
fibers comparatively thin-walled, non-lignified, and with simple
oblique pores. Seeds about 100 /a long, reticulate (Fig 2^2).

40. MATICO. — Grayish-green ; non-glandular hairs numer-
ous I- to 6-celled, varying from 0.2 to i mm. in length, with
walls 2 to 4 /A thick and striate, the apical cell being sharply
pointed ; numerous globular, yellowish or reddish resin masses
in oil glands of leaf ; fragments of perianth with fan-shaped upper
portion, composed of numerous long, non-glandular hairs, which
are much collapsed and deeply striate; seeds reddish-brown and
distinctly reticulate (Fig. 271).

41. TANACETUM. — Yellowish-green; non-glandular hairs
few, 4- to 5-celled, about 150 ^u, long, the individual cells being
somewhat oblong and with yellowish-brown contents ; glandular
hairs on akenes with short stalk and large, ellipsoidal head ; involu-
cral bracts with a row of transparent marginal cells and central
portion with narrow, thick-walled, libriform cells with numerous
simple pores ; pollen grains spherical or somewhat triangular,
thick-walled and with numerous spinose, centrifugal projections ;

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 73 1

narrow tracheae with scalariform and reticulate thickenings or
bordered pores ; sclerenchymatic fibers thin-walled and free from
pores.

42. SCOPARIUS. — Dark green; non-glandular hairs i-celled,
0.5 to 0.7 mm. long, thick-walled ; tracheae spiral or double spiral,
slightly lignified ; sclerenchymatous fibers narrow, thin-walled and
with simple pores.

/8 N on- glandular Hairs Wanting.

43. CARDAMOMUM.— Greenish-brown; stone cells dark
brown, slightly elongated, 15 to 25 /x in diameter, the inner
wall thickened ; outer epidermal cells 20 to 30 ju, in diameter,
elongated on surface view, inner and outer walls thickened ; oil-
secretion cells with suberized walls ; starch grains spherical or
angular, single or compound, i to 4 /x in diameter; monoclinic
prisms of calcium oxalate few, 10 to 25 /x in diameter. The pow-
der of the pericarp and seeds is pinkish and contains in addition,
sclerenchyma fibers which are non-lignified, relatively thin-walled
and wath simple, slightly oblique pores; not more than 10 per
cent, of ash. The powder of Ceylon cardamom contains the uni-
cellular hairs of the capsule; and the cells, as also the starch
grains and calcium oxalate crystals, are larger (Fig. 253).

43a. SABINA. — Starch, 4 fi; characteristic hypodermis, con-
sisting of long fibers 15 fx wide, associated with epidermis; nar-
row tracheids; numerous oleo-resin masses (Fig. 51).

44. STAPHISAGRIA. — Dark green; sclerenchymatous cells
somewhat ovate in cross-section, more or less thick-walled and
non-lignified ; parenchyma containing oil and aleurone.

45. CHELIDONIUM. — Light green; aqueous solution golden
yellow ; numerous small, somewhat plano-convex or reniform,
slightly reticulate seeds, which are about i mm. long; fragments
of leaves wnth spiral tracheae, and latex tubes with light yellowish
contents ; elliptical or spherical stomata on lower surface only,
walls rather indistinct ; pollen grains spherical, nearly smooth,
with 3 pores and 20 to 25 /x in diameter ; fragments of petals with
distinctly yellowish fibrovascular bundles. Hairs, starch grains
and calcium oxalate crystals are wanting.

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

POWDERS OF A YELLOWISH COLOR.

In this group are included all those powdered drugs which are
of a light yellow (light yellow ochre), dark yellow (dark yellow
ochre), lemon-yellow, bright yellow (luminous yellow) or yellow-
ish-brown color. Representatives of all the different kinds of
drugs are found in this group.

I. FRAGMENTS OF VEGETABLE TISSUE PRESENT.
A. CONTAINING STARCH.

— a

Fig. 288. Jalap: pr, parenchyma containing unaltered starch grains; pr', paren-
chyma containing swollen starch grains; a, starch grains; K, rosette aggregates of calcium
oxalate; m, globular mass of resin; sp, fragment of trachea with bordered pores. — After
Vogl.

a. CALCIUM OXALATE PRESENT.

a In Rosette Aggregates.

46. FRANGULA.— (See No. 52.)

47. GALEA (ALEPPO). — Dark yellow crystals lO/*; starch
grains 10 fx. in diameter, single or sometimes in groups; stone
cells ; tannin ; crystals of gallic acid. Chinese or Japanese Galls. —
Grayish-green ; crystals few, about 20 /x in diameter ; starch grains
about 40 fi in diameter; non-glandular hairs; milk vessels accom-
panying ducts. The mounts in glycerin show acicular crystals
of gallic acid.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

733

48. JALAPA. — Dark yellow ; crystals of calcium oxalate in
rosette aggregates, 30 to 35 fi in diameter ; starch grains ellipsoidal
and ovoid, with somewhat excentral lamellae, 15 to 35 /x in diam-
eter, I- to 3-compound and in some cases more or less swollen;
resin cells }eIlowisli-brown ; sclerenchymatous fibers few, with
simple pores (Fig. 195). Tubers deficient in resin are lighter in
color, contain more starch and less calcium oxalate (Fig. 288).

Fig. 289. Rhubarb: C, rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate; P, parenchyma
containing starch grains (S) ; T, tracheae; E, sieve; R, reddish- brown masses.

49. RHEUM. — Yellowish-brown (Figs." 281, A; 289) ; crys-
tals of calcium oxalate in rosette aggregates, 50 to 100 ft in diam-
eter; starch grains somewhat spherical, 5 to 20 /x in diameter,
either single or 2- to 4-compound ; tracheae few, scalariform. The
powder is colored reddish with alkalies. A common adulterant
is "wheat middlings." (See No. 239.) The exhausted drug
is frequently added to the powder and may be detected by the
somewhat altered starch grains and the decrease in the amount
of the aqueous or dilute alcoholic extract, which in genuine
rhubarb is about 35 per cent.

734

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Rhapontic rhubarb contains a crystalline gliicoside rhapon-
ticin, which is colored purplish-red with sulphuric acid, changing
to orange. It is insoluble in ether and readily separates from a
dilute alcoholic fluid extract on the addition of ether.

Fig. 290. Curcuma (Turmeric): P, fragments of parenchyma containing swollen
and altered starch grains which form an indistinguishable mass within the cells and consti-
tute the greater proportion of the powder; T, tracheae; S, unaltered starch grains.

)8 In Monoclinic Prisms.

50. CALUMBA.— (See No. 60.)

51. CURCUMA. — Bright yellow (Fig. 290) ; crystals few,
2 to 4 /x, in diameter; altered starch grains (test with iodine) in
irregular masses from 100 to 140 fx in diameter, having the shape
of the cell in which they occur ; bright yellow oil-secretion cells ;
the pigment is soluble in solutions of chloral or chloral-glycerin,
essential oils and alcohol. The latter solution becomes cherry-red
with boric acid, changing to bluish-black with ammonia. Curry
POWDER consists of allspice, caraway, cardamom, clove, coriander,
fenugreek, ginger, pepper and turmeric.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 735

52. FRANGULA.— Yellowish-brown (Fig. 228); bast fibers
lignified, much thickened, with numerous pores ; crystal fibers
containing small monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate; calcium
oxalate also in rosette aggregates or monoclinic prisms, 5 to 20 /u
in diameter ; starch grains nearly spherical, about 4 fi in diameter,
not numerous ; parenchymatous cells with yellowish contents col-
ored red by alkalies.

53. GELSEMIUAL— Dark yellow (Fig. 208) ; trachea with
simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, narrow, lignified ;
starch grains spherical, from 4 to 8 /* in diameter ; calcium oxalate
in monoclinic prisms 15 to 30 /x in diameter. In the powder of
the overground stem collenchymatous cells containing chloro-
plastids occur (Fig. 208, A).

54. QUASSIA. — Light yellow (Fig. 239) ; tracheae large,
with bordered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, thin-walled
and with oblique pores ; medullary rays with calcium oxalate in
monoclinic prisms or in cryptocrystalline crystals, or with few
spherical starch grains. When bark of the wood is present a few
stone cells and cork cells are also present. In the bark of Surinam
quassia stone cells are numerous. (See also Fig. 299, C.)

y In Crystal Fibers.

55. GLYCYRRHIZA (SPANISH).— Bright yellow (Figs.
104; 204; 282, B) ; sclerenchymatous fibers numerous; crystal
fibers containing monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate ; starch
grains somewhat spherical, 2 to 20 ;«, in diameter ; fragments of
cork. The aqueous extract amounts to about 30 per cent.

56. GLYCYRRHIZA (RUSSIAN).— Bright yellow; con-
taining few or no fragments of cork; taste not so bitter as that
of Spanish licorice.

S In Raphidcs.

57. IPECACUANHA.— Dark yellow (Figs. 203; 291; 299,
A) ; tracheids with simple oblique or bordered pores, sometimes
containing starch grains ; calcium oxalate in raphides 20 to 40 /a
long; starch grains ellipsoidal, 4 to 14 /a in diameter, single or
2- to 4-compound. In Carthagena ipecac the starch grains are
uniformly larger, 4 to 15 /<, in diameter.

7Z^

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Substitutes of Ipecac. — The root of Richardsonia scahra
has simple and compound starch grains from 20 to 40 fx in diam-
eter ; the root of Triostcuin perfoliatnm and the bark of Nar-
egamia alata contain starch grains and rosette aggregates of
calcium oxalate, the latter containing in addition orange-red secre-
tion cells; the root of Hctcroptcris panciflora (Fam. Malpigh-
iacese) is free from starch but contains rosette aggregates of
calcium oxalate, brown pigment cells and stone cells.

Fig. 291. Rio ipecac: T, tracheids; P, parenchyma contrinmg starch; S, starch
grains; Ca, raphides of calcium oxalate.

58. PHYTOLACCA. — Dark yellow ; sternutatory ; fragments
with long sclerenchymatous fibers and large scalariform tracheae ;
starch grains 7 to 18 /* in diameter ; calcium oxalate in raphides
30 fx. long, or in cryptocrystalline crystals (Figs. 191, 200).

59. VERATRUM. — Yellowish-brown (Figs. 215, 216) ; ster-
nutatory ; tracheae slightly lignified. scalariform or reticulate ;
sclerenchymatous fibers thin-walled, narrow, slightly lignified ;
calcium oxalate in raphides 45 /x long; starch grains nearly ellip-

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. -jyj

soidal, 7 to 20 /A in diameter, single or 2- to 3-cornpound, point of
origin of growth circular or slightly cleft ; endodermal cells thick-
ened on the inner tangential wall. The powders of Vcratrum
album and Veratruui viride cannot be distinguished one from
the other by their microscopic characters, but appear to differ
chemically, a mount of V. viride in concentrated sulphuric acid
having a yellowish-red color and that of V. album a dull red
color. The so-called powdered hellebore, used as an insecticide
by gardeners consists of either V. album or V. viride, the former
being mostly employed.

b. CALCIUM OXALATE WANTING.

a Stone Cells Present.

60. CALUMB A.— Bright yellow (Figs. 198; 302, H) ; stone
cells containing one or more monoclinic prismatic crystals of
calcium oxalate ; starch grains single, irregular, 25 to 35 fx long,
with excentral and distinct lamellae.

P Stone Cells Wanting.
I. Starch Grains 15 to 30 /* in Diameter.

61. ZINGIBER. — Light yellow (Figs. 212, 214, 317) ; starch
grains ellipsoidal or somewhat ovoid, slightly beaked, 15 to 60 /a in
diameter; secretion cells with suberized walls and yellowish, oily
contents ; trachese large, thin-walled, annular or reticulate ; scleren-
chymatous fibers long, thin-walled, with oblique pores. The
powder of African Ginger is dark yellow ov dark brown, more
aromatic and pungent, and has numerous fragments of cork.

In Japan Ginger (p. 488) there are numerous compound
grains varying from 4 to 25 /a in diameter, while in Calcutta gin-
ger there are numerous spherical grains (15 to 25 jx) resembling
those of wheat. Exhausted ginger is sometimes used to adulterate
powdered ginger. If the exhaustion has been by means of water
the starch grains are somewhat altered. If the extraction has
been made with alcohol the yellowish-brown resinous cells are
not so pronounced. Ginger, particularly the decorticated varie-
ties, loses on keeping part of the pale yellowish oil, which is

73^

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

replaced in part by a reddish resin. Ginger is also sometimes
adulterated with wheat middlings (No. 239), and flaxseed meal
(Figs. 184, 293). Curcuma (Fig. 290) is sometimes added to
an exhausted or adulterated ginger to bring up the color to that
of the normal drug.

0°

'ift'

,,crm

Fig. 292. Hydrastis: P, parenchyma; S, parenchyma containing starch; T, tracheae
with annular and reticulate thickenings of the walls; F, tracheids with simple pores; C,
cambium; K, cork; B, parenchyma cells showing the separation of acicular crystals of
one of the alkaloids on the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid; H, prisms of one of
the alkaloids which separate on the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a powder
previously moistened with water.

2. Starch Grains 5 to 15 /x in Diameter.

62. MEZEREUM.— Dark yellow; sternutatory; bast fibers
numerous, long, thin-walled, non-lignified ; starch grains some-
what spherical, 10 to 15 /«. in diameter, single or compound.

63. PAREIRA. — Dark yellow ; sclerenchymatous cells numer-
ous, more or less thick-walled and slightly lignified ; sclerenchy-

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 739

matous fibers slightly lignified and with oblique, simple or bor-
dered pores ; tracheae nearly 0.2 mm. in diameter, short, non-
lignified and with simple pores ; starch grains nearly ellipsoidal,
7 to 15 /A in diameter.

64. SERPENTARIA. — Dark yellow ; tracheae lignified, spiral
or with simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers lignified ; paren-
chyma with yellowish or dark brown contents ; starch grains
nearly spherical, 10 fx in diameter. The rhizome of yellow root
{Jeffersonia diphylla) is sometimes substituted for serpentaria,
from which it is distinguished by its lack of odor and by having
a bitter, acrid taste.

65. BERBERIS. — Tracheae 50 //, wide, with bordered pores
and scalariform and reticulate thickening of the wall ; wood fibers
20 IX wide and with walls 8 fx thick ; medullary rays yellow, about

9 row^s wide, the cells containing starch grains wdiich are about

10 fx. in diameter; bast fibers about 15 fx wide and with walls 4 ix
thick ; cork cells distinct ; parenchyma of cortex with brownish-
colored substance.

3. Starch Grains Less Than 5 /* in Diameter.

66. HYDRASTIS.— Bright yellow; tracheae with simple
pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers short, thin-walled, with simple
pores; starch grains spherical, about 4 /x in diameter (Figs. 219,
292).

4. Starch Grains Altered.

67. CURCUMA.— (See No. 51.)

B. STARCH GRAINS FEW OR NONE.

a. CALCIUM OXAL.ATE CRYSTALS PRESENT.

a In Rosette Aggregates.

68. ANISUAI. — Yellowish-brown; non-glandular hairs 25 to
200 IX long and 10 to 15 /x wide, i -celled, straight or curved, with
numerous slight centrifugal projections ; calcium oxalate crystals
rosette-shaped, 2 to 3 /a in diameter, in aleurone grains about 6 /*

740 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in diameter; vittse (in fragments) from lo to 150 /x, wide and
showing a marked tendency to branch ; long, narrow, brownish
epidermal cells ; sclerenchymatous cells of carpophore short, with
simple pores and occasional scalariform thickenings (Fig. 244).
Italian Anise is occasionally admixed with conium, which is
distinguished by the absence of hairs and vittse and the presence
of coniine, which is determined by the development of the charac-
teristic odor on rubbing up the powder with alkalies or placing
the powder in a solution of potassium or sodium hydrate. The
following micro-chemical tests may be useful in determining the
presence of coniine, which occurs in the parenchyma and epi-
dermal cells of the fruit: Ammonium vanadinate and sulphuric
acid produce a blue color; iodine solution gives a reddish-brown
color; and picric acid gives a granular precipitate.

69. CALENDULA. — Bright yellow; epidermal cells long,
narrow, with numerous oil-like globules, irregular chromoplas-
tids and somewhat sinuate walls ; pollen grains spherical, with
numerous centrifugal projections, 3-pored, about 40 /x in diam-
eter ; non-glandular hairs consisting of a double row of cells and
with a I- or 2-celled apex; calcium oxalate in rosette-shaped
crystals about 4 /x in diameter. On adding the powder to water
the latter becomes a pale straw-color (Fig. 296, B).

70. FCENICULUM.— Yellowish-brown ; calcium oxalate in
rosette aggregates i to 2 /x in diameter, in aleurone grains 3 to 6
[I in diameter ; fragments containing vittae, which are 100 to 200 /x
wide; short, narrow, yellowish-brown epidermal cells of pericarp;
sclerenchymatous fibers few, thick-walled, with oblique pores;
parenchymatous cells slightly elongated or thick-walled, with
numerous simple pores, and occasionally reticulately thickened ;
oil globules numerous (Figs. 97, 246).

13 In Monoclijtic Prisms.

71. AURANTII AMARI CORTEX.— Dark yellow; paren-
chymatous cells either somewhat collenchymatous or with simple
pores, walls 10 to 15 /a thick; calcium oxalate in monoclinic prisms
15 to 20 iJL in diameter; tracheae few, spiral, annular or with simple
pores.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

741

^2. AURANTII DULCIS CORTEX.— Light brown; cal-
cium oxalate in monoclinic prisms 20 to 30 /x in diameter ; walls of
parenchymatous cells about 4 /x thick.

y In Raphides.

73. SCILLA. — Light yellow ; calcium oxalate mostly in raph-
ides from 0.1 to I mm. in length; few tracheae and fragments of
epidermis (Fig. 281, B).

Fig. 293. Ground flaxseed: p, epidermis; c, epidermal cells with broken cutinized
layer; E, parenchyma cells beneath the epidermis; f, short sclerenchymatic fibers; qu,
colorless cells beneath the sclerenchymatic fibers; g, pigment cells with thick porous walls
and yellowish-brown contents; C, cells of cotyledons containing aleurone grains. — After
Moeller.

b. CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS WANTING.

a Sclercnchymatous Cells or Fibers Present.

I. Dark Pigment Cells Wanting.

74. SINAPIS ALBA.— Light yellow (Figs. 294; 302, E, F) ;
fragments of seed-coat with mucilaginous epidermal cells ; a sub-
epidermal collenchymatous layer of i or 2 rows of cells ; a layer
of radially elongated palisade or stone cells (forming the so-
called " beaker cells "), the walls of the lower part being slightly
thickened and polygonal in surface view ; two or more inner
layers of thin-walled colorless cells ; a single layer of cells con-
taining aleurone grains and fixed oil, and some obliterated cells,

742

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

which together constitute the endosperm. The embryo makes up
the greater portion of the seed, and the cells contain aleurone
grains with fixed oil.

Ground Wpiite Mustard or white mustard flour is prepared
from the seed of Sinapis alba with or without the removal of a
part of the seed-coat (hulls) and the fixed oil. In fact, not infre-
quently mustard seed-cake is employed.

Prepared Mustard (German Mustard, French Mustard or
Mustard Paste) is a paste composed of a mixture of ground
mustard (either Sinapis alba or Brassica nigra, or both), salt,
spices and vinegar. It should contain not more than 24 per cent.

Fig. 294. White mustard. Surface view of the different tissues as seen in the powder:
ep, polygonal cells of the outer epidermis showing mucilage lamellae and the reduced lumen
due to swelling of the lamellas; se, collenchymatic cells beneath the epidermis; b, elongated
stone cells (so-called beaker cells); i, parenchyma cells beneath the stone cells, which are
distinguished from the corresponding layer in a number of other seeds by not containing
any pigment; P, cells of endosperm containing aleurone; C, tissue of cotyledon containing
aleurone grains and oil. — After Moeller.

of oil ; not less than 35 per cent, of protein substances, and not
more than 12 per cent, of crude fiber. Prepared mustard is some-
times adulterated with white mustard hulls separated from the
seed before expression of the fixed oil.

Allied Plant. — In Indian Colza (Brassica campestris Sarson)
the epidermis forms a homogeneous layer, a sub-epidermal layer
not being present.

75. PEPO. — Few ellipsoidal starch grains 2 to 4 ^u, in diam-
eter in cells of outer epidermis and endosperm ; charac-
teristic, ellipsoidal, lignified, thick-walled cells, from 45 to 100 /u,
in diameter and with simple pores ; yellow pigment cells of seed-
coat ; oil and protein grains in embryo.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 743

J^i. COLOCYNTHIS.— Light yellow; stone cells isodiamet-
ric, slightly thickened, non-lignified, with large simple pores;
parenchymatous cells large, thin-walled, with large, simple pores.
The powder in which seeds are present contains numerous oil
globules, and the outer epidermal cells have reticulated thicken-
ings ; the stone cells are nearly isodiametric or irregular, with
straight or undulate walls, which are more or less thickened,
strongly lignified and with simple pores (Fig. 93).

2. Pigment Cells Present.

jy. SINAPIS NIGRA.— Yellowish-brown (Fig. 295) ; frag-
ments of seed-coat with mucilaginous epidermal cells ; a single
layer of thin-walled, unequal sub-epidermal cells ; a layer of palis-
ade or stone cells (so-called " beaker cells "), thickened much the
same as in Sinapis alba, but of unequal height, giving a section a
somewhat reticulate appearance (Fig. 295, B) ; a pigment layer of
one or two cells which may be tabular or considerably elongated
tangentially and with a brown content which is colored blue with
ferric chloride, as in flaxseed. The endosperm and embryo con-
tain fixed oil and aleurone grains, these layers practically making
up most of the drug. Starch grains are not present in mustard
and the powder should not contain more than ten granules to a
milligram.

Ground Black Mustard or Black Mustard Flour is usually
prepared from the cake which has been deprived of the hulls and
part of the oil. It is customary to mix some of the white mustard
with the black mustard, it being supposed that the excess of the
ferment in S. alba will change the unconverted glucoside into
volatile oil of mustard. It is likely, however, that the enhanced
quality of the product is due to the pungent and non-volatile
character of the oil in white mustard.

Mustard Paste (see Sinapis alba. No. 74) is sometimes adul-
terated with starches. At one time this was considered to be
necessary on account of the pungency of the drug.

Allied Plants. — In Russian or Sarepta Mustard (Brassica
Besseriana) the sub-epidermal cells are scarcely apparent and the
stone cells are somewhat triangular on surface view. In Charlock

744

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

seeds (Brassica Sinapistrum) the stone cells contain a brown
pigment which is colored deep red on treatment with chloral
hydrate, particularly if the preparation is heated.

78. FCENUM GR^CUM (FENUGREEK).— The dried,
ripe seeds of Trigonella Fcenum-grcBcum (Fam. Leguminosse), an
herb which is cultivated in Southern Europe and in tropical and
sub-tropical Asia and Africa. The seeds are oblong, flattened,
about 3 mm. long and broad and 2 mm. thick; brownish-yellow,
with a diagonal groove, otherwise nearly smooth; they are hard,
and have a peculiar odor and bitter, mucilaginous taste. Fenu-
greek contains 22 per cent, of proteins ; 28 per cent, of mucilage

Fig. 295. Black mustard. A, surface view of some of the characteristic cells seen
in the powder: p, elongated stone cells (beaker cells), beneath which is the pigment layer
(g); K, endosperm cells containing aleurone; c, cells of cotyledon containing aleurone and
oil. B, enlarged surface view of the stone cells, showing a shadow-like reticulum composed
of broad lines which appearance is due to the fact that some of the cells are higher than
others. — After Moeller.

(in the cells of the endosperm) ; 0.13 per cent, of trigonelline
(isomeric with pyridine-betaine) ; 0.05 per cent, of choline; and
an odorous hydrocarbon.

Powder. — Yellowish-brown ; an outer epidermal layer of
mucilage cells beneath which occur i to 3 layers of radially
elongated stone cells with a triangular lumen and thick, porous
walls. As seen in transverse section the stone cells are polygonal
in outline and have simple, narrow, and distinct pores ; beneath
the latter is a layer of broad, thick-walled cells with large, radiate,
simple pores ; the endosperm consists chiefly of mucilage cells
with wavy mucilaginous inner walls and a single layer of small
aleurone cells ; the embryo consists of yellowish cells containing
aleurone grains.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 745

79. LINUM (Linseed or Plaxseed Meal). — Lemon-yellow
(Fig-s. 99, A; 184; 293); fragments of seed-coat with muci-
laginous epidermal cells; a sub-epidermal tissue composed of
two rows of yellowish cells with rather large intercellular
spaces ; a layer of sclerenchymatous fibers, which are 100 to
250 fi long and about 10 /x in diameter and with numerous simple
pores ; several layers of obliterated cells ; and a layer of pigment
cells which are more or less tabular or polygonal, tangentially
elongated and with a reddish- or yellowish-brown pigment, which
is colored dark blue with ferric chloride. The endosperm is made
up of 2 to 6 layers of cells containing oil and difficultly distinguish-
able protein grains. The embryo contains considerable oil and
large aleurone grains 10 to 20 /a in diameter, the crystalloids of
which can be more readily discerned on treating the material first
with chloroform and then mounting it in iodine solution. Flax-
seed does not contain starch and the commercial product should
not show more than 10 starch grains to a milligram of powder;
it should yield not less than 30 per cent, of a saponifiable oil, and
not more than 3.5 per cent, of ash.

Ground flaxseed is sometimes infested by maggots. In order
to obviate this it should be recently prepared and carefully pre-
served in tin cans with the addition of a few drops of chloroform.

Allied Plant. — In False Flax (Camelina sativa) of Europe,
the sclerenchymatous fibers are replaced by broad, short stone
cells, and the epidermal cells on the addition of water eject a
central column of mucilage.

80. CYDONIUM.— Yellowish-red or reddish -brown ; frag-
ments of seed-coat with polygonal, mucilaginous epidermal cells,
the walls of which are readily stained witji methylene blue ; a
number of rows of sclerenchymatous fibers with strongly thick-
ened walls and brown contents ; several layers of elongated, thin-
walled cells resembling the " tube cells " in cereals ; a colorless
layer with minute starch grains ; and an inner epidermis, the cells
of which contain a brown pigment. The perisperm consists of
several layers of more or less obliterated cells. The outer layers
of the endosperm, as well as the cells of the embryo, contain
aleurone grains and a fixed oil. The structure of quince seed
resembles quite closely that of pear and apple seeds.

746 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

/8 Sclerenchymatoiis Tissue Wanting.
I. Pollen Grains Numerous,

81. ARNICA FLORES. — Yellowish-brown; pollen grains
spherical, with numerous centrifugal projections, 3-pored, 25 to 35
fjL in diameter; non-glandular hairs of three kinds — either uni-
cellular, 5- or 6-celled or consisting of a pair of united unicellular
hairs with numerous pores on the dividing wall ; glandular hairs
of three kinds — either with a large unicellular stalk and unicellular
glandular head, or with a stalk of a single row of 4 cells and a
i-celled glandular head, or a stalk of a double row of 5 cells and
a 2-celled glandular head ; pappus consisting of a multicellular
axis with unicellular branches (Figs. 119, B; 241).

82. SAMBUCUS. — Starch grains not present; pollen grains
numerous, spherical or elliptical and nearly smooth, about 18 /x
in diameter ; numerous fragments composed of broken or whole
anthers ; corolla with dentate papillae ; oil globules from secretion
cells ; in calyx some rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate ; in
flower stalk, large spiral duct 30 /x wide, and parenchyma with
brown contents.

83. MATRICARIA. — Pollen grains numerous, nearly spher-
ical or triangular, very spinose, from 18 to 25 fi in diameter;
fragments of corolla with glandular hairs ; characteristic cells of
anther ; stigma with papillae ; peculiar ladder-like cells of wall
of akene ; sclerenchyma fibers of involucral scales.

2. Pollen Grains Few.

84. CALENDULA.— Bright yellow (Fig. 296, B) ; charac-
teristic tissue of petals containing oily drops ; few pollen grains ;
colored brownish with sulphuric acid.

85. CROCUS. — Orange-red (Fig. 296, A) ; glycerin mount
of deep orange color ; few, nearly smooth, nearly spherical pollen
grains, 85 to 100 /x in diameter ; papillae of stigma ; coloring prin-
ciple soluble in water but not in fatty oils, being the reverse in
capsicum ; with sulphuric acid fragments become blue immediately.

86. ANTHEMIS.— Non-glandular and glandular hairs;
spherical, prickly pollen grains about 30 /x in diameter, which are

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

747

not usually very numerous ; papillse of corolla and stigma ; scler-
enchyma fibers lo fi wide, the walls of which are very much
thickened ; small rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate some-
times present ; characteristic cells of anther.

Fig. 296. A, Crocus (Spanish saffron) showing two spherical pollen grains, a fragment
of stigma with papilte, and fragment of an anther; B, Calendula showing 3 spinose pollen
grains and fragment of corolla, the cells of which contain oil-like globules; C, Carthamus
(so-called American saffron) showing 2 slightly spinose pollen grains and a fragment of
the corolla with brown laticiferous vessels and numerous unicellular hairs. — After Weakley.

87. CHIRATA. — Dark yellow ; tracheae spiral, scalariform or
with simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, narrow, thick-
walled, more or less lignified. and with oblique pores ; parenchy-
matous cells of pith large, slightly lignified, and with numerous

748

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

simple pores; pollen grains oblong or ellipsoidal, very prickly,
about 35 iJL in diameter; coUenchymatous cells with yellowish-
brown resin and tannin masses.

3. Pollen Grains Wanting.
* Fibrovascular Tissue Present.
88. LAPPA. — Light yellow ; parenchymatous cells with irreg-
ular crystalloidal masses of inulin ; tracheae few, reticulate, some-
times associated with few narrow sclerenchymatous fibers.

Fig. 297. Aspidium: P, parenchyma containing starch grains; S, starch grains;
T, tracheae; H, hypodermal cells with thickened walls and simple pores, C, yellow, thick-
walled cells of chaff.

89. SENEGA.— Dark yellow ; odor penetrating ; slightly ster-
nutatory; sclerenchymatous fibers thick-walled, non-lignified. with
oblique simple pores ; trachese short, lignified. with simple and
bordered pores; medullary-ray cells soitiewhat lignified, with
large simple pores. Ouillaja (Figs. 281, C : 300. G : 315) is dis-
tinguished from senega by having large monoclinic pyramids of
calcium oxalate, starch and numerous lignified bast fibers and
stone cells.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

749

90. ASPIDIUM. — Light brown or light greenish-brown
(Figs. 2'j'^; 285, B ; 2gy) ; starch grains numerous, elHpsoidal,
ovoid, oblong and irregularly shaped, varying in length from 2 to
18 fx.; numerous small oil globules seen in chloral mounts;
tracheae long and with scalariform and reticulate thickenings, the
cells being 25 to 75 jx in width. The tracheae are colored reddish-
violet on the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid, the reaction
resembling that of lignified cells with phloroglucin ; few reddish-
brown epidermal cells are present, and the strongly lignified cells

QOlDQ

■odto

JP QQIQQ

qqcjCdd

Fig. 298. Ltipulin: a-h, successive stages in the development of the glandular hairs
on the bracts and floral envelopes of Humulus; g, longitudinal section through a mature
hair as seen at h; i, glandular hair with the cuticle raised due to the accumulation and
pressure of the oily secretion beneath it. — After Holzner.

of the hypodermis resemble the libriform cells in higher plants.
Many of the cells of the parenchyma contain nuclei which may
be differentiated by the use of iodine green or methyl green.

** Fibrovascular Tissue Wanting.

91. CAMBOGIA. — Bright yellow; sternutatory; containing
few or no starch grains. ' Not more than 25 per cent, should be
insoluble in alcohol, arid the ash should not be more than 3
per cent. (p. 648).

92. LUPULINUM.— (See No. 222.)

93. LYCOPODIUM.— Light yellow; spores tetrahedral, deli-
cately reticulate, 25 to 40 yu, in diameter (Fig. 278b).

750 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

II. FEW OR NO FRAGMENTS OF VEGETABLE TISSUE.

A. GIVING OFF ODOR OF SULPHUR
DIOXIDE ON HEATING.

94. SULPHUR LOTUM.— In small chain-like masses in
glycerin mounts.

95. SULPHUR PR^CIPITATUM.— Small rounded masses
in irregular groups in glycerin mounts.

B. NO ODOR OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE WHEN HEATED.

a. NEARLY COLORLESS IN GLYCERIN MOUNT.

96. MASTICHE. — Transparent, irregular masses. (See p.
645-)

h. YELLOWISH IN GLYCERIN MOUNT.

a Containing Oil Globules.

97. SCAMMONIUM. — Irregular masses. (See p. 656.)

)8 Transparent or Translucent.

98. COLOPHONY. — Irregular masses, soluble in cold alco-
hol (95 per cent.) forming a straw-colored liquid, which becomes
milky-white on addition of water ; on heating fragments of resin
in water they melt, run together and form a sticky mass.

99. SANDARAC. — Almost insoluble in alcohol (95 per
cent.), the solution remaining almost colorless; the fragments
do not melt when heated with water. (See p. 81.)

100. ALOE (CAPE). — In glycerin mount some fragments
are conchoidal ; the particles become clear and dissolve, leaving a
few colorless lens-shaped or fine acicular crystals. The latter are
more abundant in Barbadoes aloes. (See p. 664.)

y More Opaque.

loi. AMMONIAC. — Irregular, faint yellow, opaque masses,
made up of small, whitish or grayish particles.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 751

102. CAMBOGIA. — Irregular, bright yellow masses, made
up of small yellow particles (p. 648).

POWDERS OF A BROWNISH COLOR

This group includes all those powdered drugs which have a
light brown (raw sienna or raw umber), dark brown (Vandyke
brown), blackish-brown (sepia), or grayish-brown color. This
is the largest group and includes most of the powdered roots, rhi-
zomes and barks, together with a few flowers, fruits and seeds.

I. FIBROVASCULAR TISSUE PRESENT.

A. CONTAINING STARCH.

a. CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS PRESENT.

a In Rosette Aggregates.

I. With Sclerenchymatous Fibers.

* Containing Oil, Resin or Tannin Masses.

103. BELLADONNA RADIX.— (See No. 117.)

104. GOSSYPII CORTEX.— Light brown (Figs. 231 ; 231a;
300, H) ; bast fibers long, narrow, thick-walled, lignified ;
starch grains somewhat spherical, 4 to 20 /a in diameter, single or
compound ; parenchymatous cells with irregular yellowish and
reddish tannin masses ; calcium oxalate crystals rosette-shaped,
about 20 IX in diameter.

105. RUBUS. — Light brown; bast fibers numerous, long,
thick-walled, lignified ; calcium oxalate in 'rosette aggregates 25
to 30 fx in diameter ; starch grains nearly spherical, 3 to 7 /x in
diameter, single or compound.

106. JUGLANS. — Crystals usually in rosette aggregates 15
to 35 iM or sometimes in monoclinic prisms 10 to 15 fx, occurring
in parenchyma or occasionally in crystal fibers ; bast fibers, 30 /x
wide and very long; stone cells, 35 to 50 /x; oily drops and pur-
plish-brov.m tannin masses in parenchyma. /. cinerea is distin-
guished from /. alba and J. nigra in that both of the latter possess
numerous crystal fibers containing prismatic or rhombohedral

752

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

crystals. /. nigra has also in the medullary rays rosette aggre-
gates of calcium oxalate. /. regia appears more nearly to resem-
ble /. cinerea.

107. ARALIA NUDICAULIS (American Sarsaparilla).—
(Fig. 192.) Light brown; rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate
from 35 to 70 /x ; spherical starch grains, from 10 to 15 /u,;
tracheae with scalariform and reticulate thickenings, also simple
and bordered pores ; wood fibers long, with slightly thickened
walls and simple pores ; large oil glands, and brown cork cells.

Fig. 299. Several forms of sclerenchymatic fibers: A, intermediate fibers from wood
of ipecac showing lignified walls with oblique simple pores and one cell containing starch;
B, bast fibers from cinchona showing in transverse section a stratification of the wall,
and in longitudinal section a striation of the walls; C, longitudinal section of quassia showing
tracheids with bordered pores and medullary-ray cells.

108. STILLINGIA. — Light brown ; sclerenchymatous fibers
very long, thick-walled and swelling perceptibly in potassium
hydrate solution; starch grains spherical or ellipsoidal, 15 to 30 ix,
in diameter; secretion cells containing oil. resin and a brown pig-
ment ; calcium oxalate crystals rosette-shaped, 35 /x in diameter.

109. EUONYMUS.— Light brown (Fig. 300, E) ; bast fibers
long, thin-wallcd, non-lignified, the walls frequently modified to
mucilage and possessing numerous small, more or less oblique
pores, and irregular ends ; starch grains spherical, 4 to 10 ,u in

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

753

diameter; cork, thin-walled, white; secretion cells with yellowish
or brownish masses; rosette agt^regates of calcium oxalate, 15 to
20 IX in diameter. The stem-bark as well as the whole twigs .of
E. atropurpureus are frequently admixed with or substituted for
Euonymus (Fig. 27,2).

Fig. 300. Various forms of sclerenchymatic fibers: A, intermediate fiber of gentian
the walls consisting of cellulose and having simple oblique pores; B, transverse section of
a group of bast fibers in white oak bark, and a few crystal fibers; C, portions of two bast
fibers from krameria; D, sclerenchymatous fiber from leaf of uva ursi; E, portion of modi-
fied bast fiber of euonymus; F, portions of bast fibers and a crystal fiber of white oak bark
G, portions of sclerenchymatous fibers of quillaja showing unequal thickening; H, portion
of bast fiber of cotton root bark; I, isolated sclerenchymatous fiber of ginger.

1 10. RUMEX. — Dark brown; calcium oxalate in rosette
aggregates from 20 to 35 /^ in diameter ; starch grains numerous;
ellipsoidal or narrowly elongated, from 10 to 18 jx in length ; stone

754

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

cells occurring beneath the cork cells, 40 to 125 /x in diameter,
with walls that are somewhat lamellated, 15 to 20 fi thick and
with few simple pores ; cork cells light brown ; sclerenchymatic
fibers wanting; tracheae about 100 /x wide, with scalariform and
reticulate thickenings of the wall. On mixing the powder with
water and adding a solution of one of the alkalies a red color
is produced. In Riimcx hymcnoscpahis the parenchyma cells are
about 200 fx. in diameter, with reddish colored walls and contain
numerous spherical or ellipsoidal starch grains from 8 to 15 /x
in diameter ; calcium oxalate crystals are few or wanting.

Fig. 301. Several forms of stone cells. A, white oak bark; B, white cinnamon or
canella bark (Canella alba) ; C, seed-coat of capsicum.

iioa. CANELLA (White Cinnamon). — Light brown or light
reddish-brown ; calcium oxalate in rosette aggregates, from
20 to 50 yu, in diameter ; starch grains simple or 2- to 3-com-
pound, 5 to 10 /x in diameter; numerous stone cells, about 75 /x in
diameter, the inner walls of which are considerably thickened,
and with branching pores ; sclerenchymatic fibers occasionally
present; numerous large oil cells with suberized walls (Fig.
301, B).

** No Resin or Tannin Masses.

III. ALTH^A. — Light brown (Fig. 99, B) ; sclerenchyma
fibers long and not strongly lignified ; rosette aggregates of cal-
cium oxalate, about 25 fi in diameter; starch grains somewhat
ellipsoidal, 10 to 20 /x in diameter.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

755

2. Sclerenchymatous Bribers Wanting.

* Containing Tannin.

t With Oil-Secretion Reservoirs.

Fig. 302. Various forms of stone cells: A, epidermis of hyoscyamus seeds; B,
pericarp of pimenta, containing brownish tannin masses; C, seed-coat of coffee; D, seed-coat
of almond; E, transverse section of seed-coat of white mustard showing beaker cells; F,
surface view of beaker cells of seed-coat of white mustard; G, transverse section through
stone cells of endocarp of olive, the lumen containing air; H, a stone cell from the periderm
of calumba, containing numerous monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate; I, various forms
of stone cells isolated from pericarp of star anise.

112. CLOVE FRUIT.— (See No. 173.)

113. PIMENTA.— Dark brown (Fig. 302. B) : rosette
aggregates of calcium oxalate, occasionally in monoclinic prisms,

756 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

about lo ft in diameter; starch grains somewhat spherical, about
lo ju in diameter, single or 2- to 3-compound, each with a distinct
cleft at the middle ; stone cells nearly isodiametric, thin-walled,
with numerous simple pores and branched canals and nearly col-
orless contents ; oil-secretion reservoirs with wine-colored con-
tents ; oil globules numerous ; parenchymatous cells occasionally
lignified, and with irregular reddish-brown tannin masses, which
are colored greenish with ammonio-ferric sulphate solution ; non-
glandular hairs from 100 to 200 //. long, with very thick walls and
narrow lumen, particularly towards the apex.

Allspice stems, which are always present to a greater or less
extent in ground Pimenta have rather characteristic unicellular
hairs that are somewhat swollen on one side.

Ground allspice has been adulterated with clove stems (Fig.
312), cocoa shells (No. 145), and the endocarp of the olive (Fig.
302, G). The presence of cocoanut shells is determined by the
yellow stone cells, which have thick yellow walls with branching
pores and dark brown contents. The stone cells vary from poly-
gonal and isodiametric cells to cylindrical and wedge-shaped
forms that are quite characteristic ; fragments of long, thick-
walled, porous fibers with accompanying stegmatic cells, each con-
taining a spherical, tuberculated silicious granule, are also present.
The dark brown fragments in the powder are not affected by
bleaching agents, such as Schulze's macerating solution.

The various spices have been adulterated with the following
substances : The hulls of Sinapis alba (see No. 74) ; walnut shells
{Juglans regia) which are distinguished by their colorless stone
cells and brown parenchyma ; and shells of the Brazil nut
{BerthoUetia excclsa, Fam. Myrtacese) which are identified by
the isodiametric stone cells with colorless walls and dark brown
contents, and the brown parenchyma.

tt Oil-Secretion Reservoirs Wanting.

114. GALLA (ALEPPO).— Dark yellow; crystals of cal-
cium oxalate 10 /x in diameter; starch grains 10 to 40 jx in diam-
eter, single or sometimes in groups ; stone cells ; tannin ; crystals
of gallic acid.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

757

115. GERANIUM. — Dark brown; starch grains somewhat
ellipsoidal or ovoid, 10 to 15 /x in diameter; rosette aggregates of
calcium oxalate, 45 to 70 fi in diameter ; tracheae annular or scalari-
form ; parenchyma with irregular tannin masses.

116. RHEUM.— (See No. 49.)

S&^e?

Fio. 303. Belladonna root: S, parenchyma cells containing starch; CA, cells con-
taining cryptocrystalline crystals of calcium oxalate; K, cork; T, fragments of tracheae
with annular markings or simple pores; P, parenchyma; F, wood fibers with narrow
oblique pores.

** Without Tannin.

117. BELLADONN.^ RADIX.— Light brown (Figs. 191,
199, 303) ; calcium oxalate in sphenoidal micro-crystals; tracheae
few, scalariform or with bordered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers
relatively few; starch grains numerous, spherical, 5 to 15 /x in
diameter (Fig. 200).

758

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

j8 Crystals in MonocUnic Prisms and Pyramids.

ii8. FRANGULA.— (See No. 52.)

119. KRAMERIA.— Light brown (Figs. 196; 300, C) ; scler-
enchymatous fibers peculiarly bent, 0.3 to 0.5 mm. long and 15 /x
thick; calcium oxalate in monoclinic prisms and pyramids about
0.1 mm. long; starch grains somewhat spherical, 20 to 30 /a in

MRS

Fig. 304. Rhamnus Purshiana: B, BF, bast fibers; CF, crystal fibers; Ca, Calcium
oxalate crystals; S, starch grains; P, parenchyma; MR, medullary rays; St, stone cells;
C, thick-walled parenchyma of outer cortex; K, cork.

diameter, single or 2- to 4-compound. In Savanilla rhatany the
sclerenchymatous fibers are 0.5 to 0.8 mm. long and 10 to 40 /u.
wide.

An alcoholic extract of Peruvian rhatany gives with alcoholic
lead acetate a reddish-brown precipitate and a light-brown filtrate.
The tincture of Savanilla rhatany gives a purplish precipitate
and a colorless filtrate with this reagent.

120. RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.— (See No. 123.)

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 759

121. JUNIPERUS. — Calcium oxalate in monoclinic prisms
about 30 fi in diameter, occurring in stone cells, which are about
60 fi in diameter and with walls that are about 15 /u, in thickness;
a small number of nearly spherical starch grains from 5 to 7 yu, in
diameter; fragments with oil glands and brown pigment cells.

y Crystal Fibers Present

I. Sclerenchymatous Fibers Strongly Lignified.

* Colored Reddish With Alkalies.

122. FRANGULA.— (See No. 52.)

123. RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.— Light brown (Figs. 229,
A; 304); bast libers long, much thickened, lignified; stone cells
very thick-walled, about 50 fx. in diameter ; crystal fibers contain-
ing monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate ; calcium oxalate also
in rosette aggregates or monoclinic prisms 5 to 20 ^ in diameter ;
starch grains spherical, about 4 fj. in diameter; parenchymatous
cells with yellowish contents colored red with alkalies.

** Not Colored Reddish With Alkalies.

124. QUERCUS ALBA.— (See No. 182.)

125. PRUNUS VIRGINIANA.— Light brown; bast fibers
and stone cells with much thickened and strongly lignified walls ;
crystal fibers containing monoclinic prisms and rosette aggregates
of calcium oxalate 20 to 30 /x in diameter; starch grains nearly
spherical, 3 to 4 /x in diameter.

126. MYRICA CERIFERA.— Greenish-brown (p. 250) ;
crystals in rosette aggregates about 45 /x in diameter, or in mono-
clinic prisms from 15 to 20 ^ in diameter ; crystal fibers, accom-
panying long bast fibers, the latter being 100 /x in diameter and
with walls about 25 /x in thickness ; starch grains about 7 fx in
diameter, also occurring in 2- to 4-compound grains.

127. PULVIS GLYCYRRHIZ.F: COAIPOSITUS.— Tissues
of glycyrrhiza (Figs. 104; 204; 282, B) and senna (Figs. 263;
284, D) ; granules of sulphur (see No. 94) ; crystals of sugar,
and masses of manna.

76o BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

2. Sclerenchymatous Fibers Not Strongly Lignified.

128. CALAMUS.— Light brown (Fig. loi, B) ; tracheae
spiral, scalariform or reticulate ; sclerenchymatous fibers slightly
lignified, with oblique simple pores ; starch grains nearly spherical,

4 to 8 fi in diameter ; crystal fibers containing monoclinic crystals
of calcium oxalate ; oil-secretion cells with suberized walls ; con-
tents of parenchymatous cells colored ruby-red by a strong alco-
holic solution of vanillin and hydrochloric acid. The powder of
the peeled rhizome is less aromatic, and cells of the epidermis and
cork, and crystal fibers are wanting. The yield of aqueous extract
should be between 18 and 20 per cent. Powdered calamus has
been reported as being admixed with as much as 30 per cent, of
diatomaceous earth.

129. ULMUS. — Light brown (Fig. 99, C) ; bast fibers thin-
walled, non-lignified ; crystal fibers containing monoclinic prisms
of calcium oxalate 10 to 25 ^ in diameter; starch grains spherical,

5 to 10 /Li in diameter.

Ground elm bark has been reported to be adulterated with
wheat starch or wheat middlings, but this does not seem to be
the case. The small quantity of wheat starch which is some-
times detected is considered to be in the nature of an accidental
contamination. The usual adulterant is a bark from which the
mucilage has been extracted or at least barks poor in mucilage
are sometimes found on . the market. Good elm bark gives a
rather thick mucilage on digesting one part of the ground bark
in 40 to 45 parts of cold water.

8 Calcium Oxalate in Raphidcs.

130. CINNAMOMUM (Saigon).— Dark brown; bast fibers
much thickened ; stone cells nearly isodiametric, more or less thick-
ened, with numerous pores ; calcium oxalate in raphides about 5 fi
long; starch grains somewhat spherical, 7 to 15 /x in diameter,
single or 2- to 4-compound ; parenchyma with irregular tannin
masses ; oil-secretion cells. Cassia Cinnamon has fewer cork cells
and more sclerenchymatous cells and fibers. Ceylon Cinnamon has
no cork cells and the stone cells are more elongated, irregular in
outline and unevenly thickened (Figs. 224. 225, 305).

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

761

The powder of Cassia buds (flowers of Cinnauwmum Cassia)
is characterized by numerous thick-walled, irregularly curved
simple hairs ; fragments of reticulate and scalariform tracheae ;
and broad, blunt bast fibers.

131. SARSAPARILLA.— Dark brown (Figs. 193, 194) ;
sclerenchymatous fibers very thick-walled, somewhat lignified ;
tracheae large, strongly lignified, scalariform, reticulate, and with
simple pores ; the walls of endodermis and hypodermis variously
thickened ; starch grains somewhat spherical, 7 to 20 )u, in diameter.

Fig. 305. Cassia cinnamon: st, stp, stone cells; pr, bp, parenchyma containing
starch grains; bf, bast fibers; P, cork cells with lignified walls. Numerous simple and
compound starch grains are shown at the left and among the fragments of tissues. — After
Moeller.

single or 2- to 4-compound ; calcium oxalate in raphides 6 to 8 /x
long. It is distinguished from American Sarsaparilla, yielded by
Aralia nudicaiilis, in that the latter has rosette aggregates of
calcium oxalate 35 to 80 ix in diameter (Fig. 192).

132. CONVALLARIA.— Dark brown (Fig. 114); calcium
oxalate in raphides about 45 /x long; starch grains somewhat
spherical, 3 to 12 /x in diameter, single or 2- to 4-compound ;
tracheae spiral or scalariform ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, thin-
walled, with simple pores ; endodermis with inner walls much
thickened.

762

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

133. CYPRIPEDIUM.— Yellowish or brownish-black; cal-
cium oxalate in raphides about 40 /x long ; starch grains somewhat
spherical, 2 to 4 /a in diameter, single or compound ; tracheae
spiral, scalariform or with simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers
long, thin-walled; parenchyma thick-walled, with numerous
simple pores (Fig. 213).

Fig. 306. Strophanthus: H, fragments of upper portion of non-glandular hairs;
L, basal portion of non-glandular hairs; E, cells of endosperm with aleurone grains (A)
and starch grains (S); P, parenchyma of cotyledons with aleurone grains; T, tracheae;
C, collapsed cells of seed-coat; A, aleurone grains; O, parenchyma containing oil globules.

134. VERATRUM VIRIDE.— (See No. 59.)

135. HYDRANGEA ARBORESCENS.— Raphides 200 /x
long; starch grains 4 to 15 /x, in diameter; numerous sclerenchyma
fibers with very thick walls, narrow lumen and simple pores.

£ Calcium Oxalate in Sphenoidal Micro-crystals.

136. BELLADONNA RADIX.— (See No. 117.)

137. CINCHONA.— (See No. 152.)

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 763

b. CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS WANTING.

a With N on- glandular Hairs.

138. STROPHANTHUS.— Dark brown (Figs. 186; 284, A;
306) ; epidermal cells modified to long, i -celled, non-lignified hairs,
containing, in S. Kombe, colorless or yellowish-green granules and
in S. hispidus, dark brown granules ; parenchyma with fixed oil
and aleurone grains ; starch grains ellipsoidal, 4 fx in diameter.

P Non-glandular Hairs Wanting.

I. Sclerenchymatous Fibers Present.

* Trachece Numerous.

t Starch Grains 2 to 5 m in Diameter.

139. CIMICIFUGA.— Brownish-black (Fig. 217); tracheae
large, scalariform or with bordered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers
numerous ; starch grains nearly spherical, 3 to 5 yu, in diameter ;
cells of periderm thick-walled and with reddish-brown contents.

140. CYPRIPEDIUM.— (See No. 133.)

141. LEPTANDRA. — Dark brown; tracheae scalariform or
with simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers narrow, thick-walled,
with numerous simple pores ; starch grains nearly spherical, 2 to 4
ju, in diameter ; parenchymatous cells nearly isodiametric or elon-
gated, containing starch grains and a brownish-black pigment.

142. SPIGELIA. — Brownish-black; tracheae few, lignified,
spiral or with simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, narrow,
lignified, with simple, oblique pores ; starch grains spherical, about
4 /Lt in diameter (Fig. 220). A not unusual substitute for spigelia
is the rhizome and roots of Ruellia ciliosa (Fig. 221) (No. 30).

ft Starch Grains 5 to 15 or 20 M in Diameter.

143. ZINGIBER.— African and Calcutta ginger (p. 488) are
light brown in color, and the tissues resemble those in Jamaica
ginger (Fig. 214 ) (No. 61).

144. TONKA. — The parenchyma cells of the cotyledons con-
tain numerous spherical starch grains from 4 to 9 /n in diameter ;

764

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

large, irregular aletirone grains 20 to 35 /a long, and- considerable
fixed oil. The easily separable seed-coat contains rather charac-
teristic stone cells, which on surface view are polygonal and pos-
sess rather porous, somewhat thickened walls and brownish-red
or brownish-black contents. Beneath the stone cells is a layer
of broad, irregularly-shaped cells with rather thick walls and
numerous intercellular spaces.

Fig. 307. Cinchona: B, bast fibers; Ca, cryptocrystalline crystals of calcium oxalate;
P, parenchyma containing few small spherical starch grains; E, sieve; K, cork.

145. COCOA SHELLS.— Little or no starch; oil globules;
characteristic, brownish, adhesive fragments, possessing more or
less hexagonal epidermal cells ; peculiar, small, tabular mucilage
cells and a layer of nearly isodiametric stone cells 10 by 10 /x, the
walls of which are 4 /a thick (Fig. 308).

146. APOCYNUM.— Dark brown (Fig. 202) ; sclerenchy-
matous fibers numerous ; fragments of laticiferous vessels yel-
lowish; starch grains somewhat spherical, 7 to 15 ;U in diameter.
In Apocynum androscumifolium small groups of stone cells occur^

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 765

147. CONVALLARIA.— (See No. 132.)

148. SARSAPARILLA.— (See No. 131.)

149. SUMBUL. — Dark brown ; sclerenchymatous fibers nu-
merous, narrow and ligniiied ; tracheae short, hgnified, scalari-
form, or with simple or bordered pores ; oil and resin-secretion
reservoirs; starch grains nearly spherical, 4 to 15 /* in diameter.

150. VALERIANA. — Brownish-black; tracheae strongly Hg-
nified, scalariform or with simple pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers
thin-walled, more or less lignified, with numerous simple pores ;
starch grains nearly spherical, 7 to 15 /a in diameter; stone cells
nearly isodiametric, with very thick walls and numerous simple
pores.

151. METHYSTICUM (KAVA-KAVA).— Starch grains
numerous, spherical, about 35 fi in diameter, often with radial
clefts or triangular fissures at the center ; yellowish resin and oil
cells ; sclerenchyma fibers narrow, with thin, strongly lignified
walls.

** Trachea Few or None.

152. CINCHONA.— Light brown (Figs. 227; 299, B; 307;
307a) ; bast fibers spindle-shaped, thick- walled, strongly lignified,
with numerous simple pores ; starch grains nearly spherical, 4 to
12 ju, in diameter ; parenchymatous cells with reddish-brown tannin
masses.

153. CINNAMOMUM.— (See No. 130.)

154. COFFEE. — Brownish; characteristic fragments of seed-
coat made up of parenchyma and spindle-shaped stone cells 0.2 to
I mm. long and 15 to 50 /a wide, the latter occurring singly or in
pairs with more or less thickened, porous walls. The cells of the
endosperm have brownish-colored, porous walls, 10 ix thick, and
contain oil, aleurone and starch. Ground colTee varies in the fine-
ness of the particles, which are lighter than water and float on
the surface. This is an important distinction between genuine
coffee and the " substitutes " or " imitation " products which sink
on being mixed with water (Fig. 302, C).

Coffee Hulls, also known as Sultan or Sacca cofTee, are
sometimes substituted for cofTee. These consist of the outer
layer of the pericarp and are characterized by a layer of some-

766

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

what curved, elongated cells which lie close to one another (pali-
sade cells), and the walls of which are mucilaginous and stained
by safranin and methylene blue, the yellowish protoplasmic con-
tents not being affected.

Carob Bean (Ccratonia Siliqua, Fam. Leguminosse) in a
ground condition is not only used as cattle food, but has been

Fig. 307a. A, C, bast fibers of the bark of Cinchona succirubra; B, bast fibers of the
bark of Cinchona Ledgeriana; D, stone cells of Cuprea bark (Remijia pedimcidata). — After
Oesterle and Tschirch.

substituted for coffee. It is distinguished by the sclerenchymatic
and crystal fibers, and the cells of the mesocarp, whiJi contain
reddish-brown, spiral masses that are colored a deep violet or blue
on heating with solutions of the alkalies.

Coffee Substitutes. — The following are commonly em-
ployed: Chicory (see No. 193); a number of the cereals and
cereal products (see Nos. 236 to 245) ; and soja beans; lupines,
peas, beans and hedionda, the seeds of Cassia fatida. Of the

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 767

latter may be mentioned the Mogdad Coffee, the seeds of Cassia
occidcu talis which are used in various tropical countries. The
seeds are free from starch and the cells of the endosperm are
thick-walled and contain a brown protein substance.

Of Coffee adulterants the following may be mentioned:
Ground ivory nut (Phytclcphas macrocarpa (Fig. 173), which
is distinguished by the thick-walled cells of the endosperm; and
the ground kernels of the acorns of several species of Quercus,
which are readily identified by the elongated, more or less swollen,
distorted starch grains that have a prominent elongated cleft in
the middle (Fig. 135).

155. SASSAFRAS.— Light brown (Fig. 236); bast fibers
thick-walled, lignified, usually single or not more than two or
three together ; starch grains 7 to 20 /a in diameter, single or 2- to
3-compound ; parenchymatous cells with irregular masses of
tannin ; oil globules numerous. The stem bark contains groups
of bast fibers and stone cells, and the parenchymatous cells contain
chloroplastids.

2. Sclerenchymatous Fibers Wanting.

* Stone Cells Present.
t Giving Tannin Reaction with Ferric Salts.

156. CACAO. — -Reddish-brown (Fig. 308) ; consisting chiefly
of protein grains, oil and starch (grains 4 to 8 ju, in diameter) ;
fragments with brownish or purplish-brown contents (cacao red) ;
fat crystals in little prisms or needles ; few fragments of seed-coat
consisting of hexagonal epidermal cells, a peculiar mucilage layer
of small tabular cells and a layer of nearly isodiametric stone cells
10 by 10 jx, the walls of which are 4 n. thick.

Cacao starch grains show a tendency to cohere and on gently
heating a section in water, after removal of part of the oil with
ether or chloroform, the compound grains swell into angular,
spherical or irregular masses which vary from 15 to several
hundred microns in diameter (Fig. 308). The smaller masses
thus produced bear a close resemblance to the starch grains of
corn and wheat. The central triangular marking of the mass
which resembles that of a corn starch grain is formed from the

768

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

adjoining walls of three individual grains. Most of the aggre-
gates, however, swell into rounded masses (35 /x in diameter)
resembling wheat starch grains, and have a clearly defined wall
and nearly homogenous, hyaline contents. They may be distin-
guished from wheat starch by the use of dilute alkali or acid
solutions, which cause an immediate breaking down of the
masses without the successive changes in structure noticed on
similar treatment of wheat starch grains (Fig. 96).

0 0
CD

Fig. 308. Cacao starch: A, starch grains of commercial cacao powder, or chocolate,
after removal of the oil by means of ether; B, altered starch grains of cacao produced by
making sections or scrapings of the raw cacao bean, removing the oil with ether, mounting
on a slide in water and heating at a temperature of 70° C, for a few seconds; a, b, c, d,
successive stages in the alteration of 2-, 3-, and 4-compound grains, the various masses
showing resemblance in size and form to the single grains of corn, wheat and even potato
starch as seen in some of the swollen masses (S).

Plain chocolate or cocoa mass is obtained by grinding the
broken cotyledons (cocoa nibs) in a mill and separating the pasty
mass, which is molded into forms that usually weigh a pound.
Cocoa is the plain chocolate from which a part of the fat (cocoa
butter) has been removed, the resulting product being then pow-
dered. Sweet chocolate is plain chocolate to which sugar and
various flavoring substances are added. Milk chocolate is a
sweet chocolate to which " milk powder " is added.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

709

Adulterants. — All chocolate products may be adulterated
with any of the cereal starches, those of corn, wheat and rice being
usually employed.

157. GUARANA. — Dark brown; parenchyma thin-walled,
containing nearly spherical, more or less altered starch grains 10 fj.
in diameter ; sclerenchymatous cells nearly isodiametric, non-ligni-

o Q CD
0 t^„ (g)

Fig. 3og. Aconite: T, tracheae with scalariform thickenings or bordered pores,
ST, stone cells; P, parenchyma with starch grains; S, starch grains; C, E, cork.

fied ; sclerenchymatous fibers few, narrow ; tracheae few, narrow,
annular or scalariform. (See also Fig. 159.)

158. PIPER. — Dark brown (Fig. 311) ; stone cells nearly iso-
diametric, uniformly thickened or with only three walls thick-
ened, the contents consisting of yellowish-brown tannin masses,
which give a blue reaction with ferric ammonium sulphate solu-
tion; starch grains spherical, i to 2 /i. in diameter; pirenchyma
with remains of chromoplastids and reddish-brown tannin masses ;

770

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

oil-secretion cells with suberized walls; oil g-lobules numerous.
(For chemical standard of purity see page 573.)

Adulterants. — Ground black pepper is sometimes adulter-
ated with PEPPER HULLS or pepper shells, which are the outer
layers of the ripe fruit and are obtained in the preparation of
white pepper (Fig. 255). Pepper hulls consist chiefly of the stone

)/^

Dvy GOO

Fig. 310. Colchicum corm: S, 2- to 4-compound starch grains which make up the
greater proportion of the powder; P, parenchyma with numerous starch grains; T, tracheae;
E, sieve.

cells described above. They increase the percentage of crude fiber
and ash in the powder, the latter being due to adhering dirt.
Ground l)lack pepper sometimes consists of a mixture of pepper
hulls, capsicum (Figs. 252; 301, C^ and the endocarp of the olive
(Fig. 302, C). Tn the latter the lumen of the stone cells is filled
with air. Black pepper has also been adulterated with flaxseed
meal and buckwheat hulls (Fig. 138). The latter arc dis-

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 771

tinguished by the epidermal cells with peculiar diagonal thick-
ening of the walls and the hypodermal fibers which have thick,
porous walls and brown contents. (See also under Pimenta,
No. 113.)

159. COLCHICI SEMEN.— Light or dark brown; scleren-
chymatous cells with pigment soluble in potassium hydrate solu-
tion, and reacting with iron salts somewhat like tannin ; cells of
endosperm thick-walled, with simple pores and few oil globules ;
parenchymatous cells of strophiole thin-walled, and with numer-
ous nearly spherical starch grains 7 to 15 /x in diameter.

tt Not Becoming Blue or Green with Ferric Salts.

160. ACONITUM. — Dark brown (Figs. 206, 309) ; tracheae
few, spiral, scalariform, reticulate, or with simple pores ; stone cells
nearly isodiametric, variously thickened, associated with thick-
walled parenchyma, the latter swelling in water ; starch grains
somewhat spherical, 4 to 12 /x in diameter, single or 2- to 4-
compound.

161. PHYSOSTIGMA.— Brownish-black ; taste starchy;
stone cells nearly isodiametric or elongated, the contents red-
dened by alkalies ; starch grains ellipsoidal, about 25 to 40 jx in
diameter; oil globules numerous. (See also Fig. 189.)

** Stone Cells Wanting.

162. COLCHICI CORMUS.— Light or dark brown; starch
grains irregularly spherical or ovoid, 7 to 20 /x in diameter, single
or 2- to 4-compound; tracheae few, spiral or scalariform (Fig.
310).

163. GUARANA.— (See No. 157.)

164. MYRISTICA. — Light brown; perisperm cells with red-
dish contents ; starch grains somewhat spherical, 5 to 7 /x in diam-
eter, generally in groups ; globules of fixed oil numerous.

165. MACIS. — Amylodextrin starch grains (Fig. 190) which
are colored red with iodine. For other characteristics of gen-
uine mace and the study of allied products and substitutes see

P- 443-

166. OPIUM.— (See No. 197.)

^^2 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

167. PODOPHYLLUM.— Light brown (Fig. 223) ; starch
grains somewhat spherical, 5 to 12 /x in diameter, single or 2- to
6-compound ; tracheae few, scalariform, spiral, reticulate, or with
simple pores.

168. CHENOPODIUM.— Yellowish-brown ; seeds blackish,
shiny, reniform, about 150 ^i in diameter ; seed-coat with polygonal,
thin-walled pigment cells ; numerous starch grains and small
aleurone grains.

B. STARCH GRAINS FEW OR NONE.

a. CONTAINING CALCIUM OXALATE.

a In Rosette Aggregates.
I. Small Crystals in Aleurone Grains.

169. ANISUM.— (See No. 68.)

170. CARUM. — Dark brown (Fig. 247) ; calcium oxalate
crystals in rosette aggregates, 0.5 to i /x in diameter in aleurone
grains ; fragments of light yellow vittas, together with nearly
isodiametric or polygonal, yellowish-brown, inner epidermal cells
of pericarp ; sclerenchymatous fibers few, thick-walled, slightly
lignified, with mnnerous simple pores ; oil globules numerous.

171. CORIANDRUM.— Light brown (Fig. 245); calcium
oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates and 3 to 7 /x in diameter in
aleurone grains ; fragments of light yellow vittas and long, nar-
row, yellowish, inner epidermal cells ; sclerenchymatous cells irreg-
ularly curved, yellowish, thick-walled, lignified and with numerous
simple pores ; oil globules numerous.

172. FCENICULUM.— (See No. 70.)

2. Crystals Not Less Than 10 fx in Diameter.
* Pollen Grains Niuncrous.

173. CARYOPHYLLUS.— Light brown (Fig. 312); pollen
grains tetrahedral, somewhat spherical, with three pores, about
15 /x in diameter; calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates
10 to 15 /x in diameter, occasionally in crystal fibers; sclerenchy-
matous fibers spindle-shaped, thick-walled, strongly lignified and
with simple oblique pores; tracheae spiral, thick-walled; oil glob-

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

773

ules numerous. The powder of clove stems is less aromatic and
contains numerous yellow, nearly isodiametric and irregular thick-
walled stone cells with numerous canals and also scalariform and
reticulate tracheae. The powder of the fruit of cloves, or so-called
MOTHER OF CLOVES, coutains numerous single, oblong and irreg-

ani

1st- •

...^..-'^"^ i

Fig. 311. Black pepper: ep, polygonal cells of the epicarp, beneath which are the
hypodermal stone cells (ast); bf, elongated bast fibers; bp, short bast fibers; sp, trachese
with spiral markings; ist, stone cells of the endocarp; is, as, fragments of tissues beneath
the endocarp; am, parenchyma cells of perisperm containing starch grains; A, starch
grains; p, oil cells. — After Moeller.

ular starch grains with excentral point of origin of growth, and
varying in size from 10 to 35 /x. The pericarp of the fruit also
contains numerous irregular stone cells and sclerenchyma fibers,
the latter varying from short to 5 mm. or more in length and being
very irregular or knotty in outline. (For adulterants see Pimenta
No. 113 and p. 549.)

174. INSECT POWDER.— (See No. 5.)

774 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

** Pollen Grains Few.
t Trachece Present.

175. CUSSO. — Light brown (Figs. 150, 243) ; calcium oxal-
ate in rosette aggregates, about 20 ix in diameter ; non-glandular
hairs i-celled, curved, thick-walled, 0.2 to 0.5 mm. long; gland-
ular hairs with 2- or 3-celled stalk, glandular head unicellular or
consisting of one or two pairs of cells ; trachese spiral, scalariform,
or with bordered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, thick-
walled, strongly lignified, with numerous simple oblique pores;
parenchyma of pith more or less lignified and with simple pores ;
pollen grains few, somewhat ellipsoidal, 25 to 40 jx in diameter,
with three pores.

ft Trachea Wanting.

176. VIBURNUM OPULUS.— (See No. 179.)

177. VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.— Dark brown; cal-
cium oxalate in rosette aggregates and few monoclinic prisms 15
to 35 IX in diameter; crystal fibers with rosette aggregates and
occasional monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate ; stone cells large,
numerous, irregular, thick-walled and with a few canals ; bast
fibers comparatively few, lignified. The barks of other species of
Viburnum are frequently substituted for V. priinifolium.

P Calcium Oxalate in Monoclinic Prisms.
I. Numerous Seeds.

178. VANILLA. — Blackish-brown (Figs. 256; 285, G; 313) ;
calcium oxalate in monoclinic prisms 7 to 35 /a in diameter or in
raphides about 0.4 mm. long; occasional unicellular glandular
papillae with rounded apex and containing oil-like globules of a
balsam ; sclerenchymatous fibers more or less thick-walled,
strongly lignified and with numerous oval pores ; tracheae with
spiral or reticulate thickenings ; minute, black, ovoid seeds about
0.5 mm. in diameter, the structure being apparent only after boil-
ing with chloral solution or solutions of the alkalies. The powder
on treatment with a phloroglucin solution and sulphuric acid
assumes a deep red color, due to the presence of vanillin.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

775

The powder is frequently admixed with tonka, which is easily
determined by the presence of starch grains (see No. 144). Some
of the so-called vanilla powders are mixtures containing vanillin
or coumarin but none of the tissues of either vanilla or tonka.

Fig. 312. Cloves: B, bast fibers; A, fragments of anther showing cells with char-
acteristic marking or thickening of the walls; P, pollen grains which appear triangular in
outline when mounted in water: O, oil glands, the large one to the left being from a petal;
E, surface view of epidermal cells of petal; P, parenchyma; C, calcium oxalate; T, tracheae;
St, seven stone cells from the young branches or twigs, the so-called "clove stems."

2. Seeds Wanting.

179. VIBURNUM OPULUS.— Light brown ; calcium oxal-
ate in monoclinic prisms, or few rosette aggregates 15 to 30 ^u
in diameter ; crystal fibers with monoclinic prisms of calcium
oxalate ; stone cells few, relatively thick-walled ; bast fibers numer-
ous, lignified.

776 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

i8o. VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.— (See No. 177.)

181. XANTHOXYLUM.— Dark brown; calcium oxalate in
monoclinic prisms 10 to 25 /x in diameter; starch grains nearly
spherical, 4 to 10 /x in diameter; oil-secretion cells colorless; cork
cells strongly lignified ; bast fibers few, thick-walled, slightly ligni-
fied, swelling perceptibly in chloral (Fig. 238).

In Southern Prickly Ash (Fig. 233) occur groups of large,
more or less lignified sclerenchymatous cells, and the lignified
cork cells are more numerous.

y Calcium Oxalate in Crystal Fibers.

182. OUERCUS ALBA.— Light brown (Figs. 135, 300);
bast fibers long, thick-walled, lignified ; crystal fibers containing
rosette aggregates or monoclinic prisms of calcium oxalate about
10 to 20 fi in diameter ; stone cells thick-walled, with numerous
lamellae and simple pores (Fig. 301, A) ; parenchyma with irregu-
lar yellowish-brown tannin masses.

b. CALCIUM OXALATE WANTING.

a Containing Pollen Grains.

183. ARNICA FLORES.— (See No. 81.)

184. CROCUS.— (See No. 85.)

185. SANTONICA. — Light brown (Fig. 240) ; pollen grains
nearly spherical, nearly smooth, 3-pored, 15 to 20 /* in diameter;
glandular hairs of two kinds, either with i or 2 short cells or with
2 to 3 pairs of cells. If a few c.c. of an alcoholic (95 per cent.)
extract be heated with a few drops of potassium hydrate solution,
a reddish color is produced.

/? Pollen Grains Wanting.
I. Stone Cells Numerous.

186. CUBEBA. — Light brown (Fig. 250) ; stone cells single
or in isolated groups, nearly isodiametric, thick-walled, with nu-
merous simple pores, and colorless or light-yellow contents ; scler-
enchymatous fibers few, short, thick-walled, strongly lignified;
parenchymatous cells with reddish-brown tannin masses ; oil-secre-

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

717

tion cells with siiberized walls ; oil globules numerous ; fragments
of powder becoming wine-colored with sulphuric acid (Fig. 334).
187. DELPHINIUM. — Grayish-brown or light brown; stone
cells of outer epidermis radially elongated, with thick w^alls and
simple pores resembling those of staphisagria ; a layer of pigment
cells ; fixed oil, and aleurone grains.

Fig. 313. Vanilla: S, fragments of seeds showing characteristic stone cells; B,
parenchyma cells with narrow-elongated simple pores; P, parenchyma containing oil
globules; T, tracheae; L, lignified cells with simple pores; Ca, raphides of calcium oxalate;
H, papilte-like hairs from the inner surface of the pericarp which are occasionally seen
massed together.

188. STRAMONII SEMEN.— Brownish-black or grayish-

black (Fig. 122, 5) ; epidermal cells with thick mucilaginous
outer walls, a small lumen and dark brown contents. Beneath the
epidemiis is a layer of thick-walled, nearly colorless cells with
distinct, crescent-shaped lamell?e in the radial walls and reticulate
pores. The cells of the endosperm contain considerable oil and
more or less numerous aleurone grains, the latter having i or 2
crystalloids and a number of globoids.

77^

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

189. PYRETHRUM. — Dark brown; parenchymatous cells
with irregular crystalloidal masses of inulin; periderm with
nearly isodiametric stone cells, the contents of which are yellow-
ish-brown ; tracheae reticulate, narrow ; sclerenchymatous fibers
few; secretion reservoirs with oil and resin (Fig. loi, £).

Fig. 314. Powdered opium: M, protoplasm-like latex, which constitutes the greater
proportion of the powder; S, St, thick- walled cells of capsule; A, needle-shaped crj^stals
which sometimes separate in a chloral-iodine mount. The following Rumex tissues are also
generally present: E, epidermal cells of leaf; B, bast fibers and T, tracheae from Rumex
fruit; C, crystals (probably of calcium oxalate).

The root of Anacychts officiiianim contains tannin and an
aqueous extract gives a precipitate with ammonio-ferric-alum
solution.

2. Stone Cells Wanting.

190. GENTIAN A. — Light brown (Figs. 210, 300) ; ducts sea-
intermediate fibers non-lignified and with

lariform or reticulate

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 779

irregular, simple, oblique pores ; few globules of fixed oil ; aqueous
extract not less than 33 per cent. A substitute has been ofifered
consisting of the exhausted drug to which aloes had been added.
Ground olive endocarp has also been found in the powder.

191. OPIUM.— (See No. 197.)

192. TARAXACUM. — Light brown ; parenchyma containing
irregular crystalloidal masses of inulin ; laticiferous vessels yel-
lowish-brown (Figs. loi, 197a) ; trachese reticulate; intermediatie
fibers non-lignified, with irregular simple and oblique pores.

193. CICHORIUM (or Chicory). — Irregular masses of inu-
lin in the parenchyma cells ; branching latex vessels from 5 to
10 /u, wide ; tracheae short, more or less cylindrical, with pointed
ends, from 100 to 200 /a long and 20 to 40 fx wide, with large,
elliptical, simple pores. Associated with the tracheae are slightly
thickened, elongated parenchyma cells with narrow, oblique pores.

194. TRITICUM. — Light brown ; tracheae lignified, with spi-
ral or annular thickenings or simple pores ; sclerenchymatous
fibers long, thick-walled, strongly lignified ; endodermal cells with
inner walls thickened and slightly lignified : parenchyma with
irregular masses of a soluble carbohydrate.

II. WITHOUT FIBROVASCULAR TISSUE.
A. WITH CELLULAR TISSUES.

195. USTILAGO. — Grayish-brown (Figs. 22, 2^) ; nearly
spherical spores 7 by 7 /x ; little or no foreign substances. Spores
of Coprinus comatns, blackish and ellipsoidal. 5 by 10 fx. Spores
of Agaricns campestris more brownish than those of corn smut,
ovoid and about 5 by 7 ju..

196. ERGOTA. — Oil globules ; red or violet coloration in
chloral or sulphuric acid ; false parenchyma of compacted hyphas.

197. OPIUM. — Brownish (Fig. 314) ; in glycerin mounts
showing grayish-brown, irregular granular masses 35 to 40 /a in
diameter ; little or no starch ; thick-walled polygonal cells of epi-
dermis of capsule; epidermal cells of Rumex leaves (used in
wrapping opium) somewhat polygonal on surface view, with ellip-
tical stomata about 70 /x long, having a narrow opening; frag-
ments of wings of Rumex fruits (used to prevent cohesion of

78o BOTANY AND PHARAIACOGNOSY.

opium masses), wiLh prominent, brown-colored fibrovascular tissue
composed of spiral tracheae and narrow sclerenchymatic fibers ;
parenchyma of seeds colorless, containing air ; epidermal cells
with large, elliptical, oblique pores ; taste bitter ; sparingly soluble
in water or potassium hydrate solution. The Smyrna opium has
the largest number of epidermal cells of capsule, the Indian few
or none and the Persian very few. The Persian always has an
appreciable amount of starch.

198. GO A POWDER is formed as a result of pathological
changes in the woody tissues of Vonacapona Araroba (Fam.
Leguminosse), a forest tree of Brazil. It is obtained by cutting
down the trees, splitting the trunk and removing the powder
from the clefts or cavities. When fresh the powder is of a light
yellow color, but on exposure to air it becomes dark brown or
brownish-purple. It is composed of small, wine-colored, some-
what translucent, irregular, angular fragments, with a few
fragments of tracheae and libriform cells with bordered pores. It
is nearly insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, chloroform and
solutions of the alkalies, the latter being colored deep red and
showing a green fluorescence. It should contain between 50 and 75
per cent, of a neutral principle, chrysarobin, which is official. The
latter is a crystalline yellow substance. Chrysarobin forms a red
colored solution with solutions of the alkalies (due to the forma-
tion of chrysophanic acid) or sulphuric acid; on pouring the
sulphuric acid solution into an excess of water the chrysarobin is
re-deposited. Goa powder also contains about 2 per cent, of resin ;
7 per cent, of bitter extractive ; a small amount of chrysophanic
acid, and yields about 3 per cent, of ash. Alounts of the powder
sometimes show colorless prismatic crystals.

B. WITHOUT CELLULAR TISSUES.
a. POSSESSING OIL.

199. ASAFETIDA. — In a glycerin mount the powder shows
irregular grayish (or gray streaked with brown) masses; these
are opaque and become milky white on the edge from the pres-
ence of oil. The stony asafetida is pulverulent and contains less
oil (p. 671).

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 781

200. MYRRH A. — In glycerin mount the powder appears in
yellowish or yellowish-brown irregular fragments made up of a
grayish matrix containing yellowish or yellowish-brown oil
globules (p. 674).

b. WITHOUT OIL.

a Remaining Opaque {Not Affected) in Glycerin.

201. ALOES (SOCOTRINE).— Slightly affected. (See No.
206.)

202. BENZOINUM. — Irregular, colorless and wine-colored
fragments ; some rosette-shaped groups and collections of small
tetragonal crystals. Upon covering a fragment on a slide with a
watch crystal and cautiously heating, crystals of benzoic acid
are sublimed on the watch crystal (p. 672).

203. ELATERINUM. — Grayish and grayish-brown, more or
less opaque, irregular fragments ; upon heating a fragment with
phenol, and when cool, adding sulphuric acid, a deep-red colora-
tion is produced. Potassium hydrate has no action on elaterin

(P- 387).

204. LACTUCARIUM. — Grayish-brown and dark brown,
irregular and rather angular masses ; with alkalies they become
reddish-brown and then a dirty brown ; with sulphuric acid they
are but slightly affected (p. 649).

P Becoming More or Less Translucent in Glycerin.

205. ALOES (CURASAO). — In a glycerin mount the parti-
cles become clear and behave like Cape aloe's, but generally numer-
ous acicular, or large prismatic crystals remain, or separate in the
clear yellow space where the fragment of aloes was originally.
The fragments are colored red with solutions of the alkalies
(p. 663). (See also Fig. 275, C.)

206. ALOES (SOCOTRINE).— In a glycerin mount the
fragments are not very perceptibly affected. At the most there
is but a faint yellowish color around the grayish or grayish-brown
masses. In old Socotrine aloes the gray masses look like rosette
crystals. The fragments are colored red with alkalies (p. 663).

782 . BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

207. GAMBIR. — Dark brown (p. 666) ; with numerous
acicular crystals 10 to 60 yu. long; occasionally large cubical
prisms; also fragments of vegetable tissue. In inferior grades
of gambir spores of fungi are sometimes abundant (Fig. 275).

208. CATECHU. — Large, opaque, dark brownish-red masses
which gradually become transparent on the edge and dissolve with
a sherry-wine color; fragments of sclerenchyma (Fig. 275).

209. KINO. — The blackish-brown fragments become clearer
and of a deeper red color as compared to catechu (p. 654).

POWDERS OF A REDDISH COLOR.

This group includes those powdered drugs which are of a
pinkish, reddish, brownish-red (brown madder), or rose color.

I. CONTAINING STARCH.

•210. QUILL A J A. — Pinkish (Figs. 281, C; 300, G; 315) ;
very sternutatory; calcium oxalate in monoclinic pyramids from
35 to 200 IX long; bast fibers numerous, thick-walled, strongly
lignified; crystal fibers containing monoclinic prisms of calcium
oxalate; stone cells more or less thick-walled and with simple
oblique pores ; starch grains nearly spherical, 3 to 10 /i, in diameter.

211. SANGUINARIA. — Reddish; starch grains spherical, 4
to 8 /x in diameter ; reddish secretion cells ; tracheae few, reticulate.

II. WITHOUT STARCH.
A. STONE CELLS PRESENT.

212. CAPSICUM. — Brownish-red (Figs. 252; 301, C) ;
stone cells of two kinds, either nearly isodiametric, uniformly
thickened and with middle lamella slightly lignified. or somewhat
elongated on surface view, convolutely thickened on the inner
and side walls and strongly lignified ; starch grains somewhat
spherical, about 3 to 7 /x in diameter, single or compound ; gland-
ular hairs with I- to 3-celled stalk and multicellular glandular
head ; collenchymatous cells with suberized walls ; parenchymatous
cells with yellowish-red oil globules and irregular masses of
chromoplastids. (See Figs. 214, 255.)

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

783

Powdered capsicum is sometimes admixed with about i per
cent, of a fixed oil to improve its appearance, and such powders
are Hkely to contain in addition some of the commercial starches
or by-products obtained in the manufacture of cereal products.

213. ILLICIUIM (or Star Anise). — Dark reddish-brown
(Fig. 144) ; stone (or palisade) cells 0.3 to 0.6 mm.
long and 20 to 50 /x wide, with slightly thickened walls and

o'h
000

Fig. 315. Soap bark: Ca, pyramids of calcium oxalate; B, bast fibers; St, stone
cells; S, starch grains- P, parenchyma containing starch and calcium oxalate; MR, medul-
lary rays; A, parenchyma with simple pores.

simple pores ; isodiametric stone cells with thickened walls and
branching pores (astrosclereids) ; long sclerenchymatic fibers with
more or less irregularly thickened walls and simple pores ; outer
epidermal cells with striated cuticle; aleurone grains from 10 to
20 fi in diameter, usually containing globoids. The poisonous
shikimi fruit is distinguished by somewhat shorter palisade cells ;
somewhat rounded stone cells ; the aleurone grains contain crys-
talloids ; alcoholic solutions yield an oil with a disagreeable odor.

784 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

214. CYDONIUM.— (See No. 80.)

215. RHUS GLABRA.— Brownish-red (Fig. 285. /) ; non-
glandular hairs unicellular, narrow, thick-walled, filled with air, or
multicellular, cylindrical, ellipsoidal or spatulate and with a wine-
colored pigment; glandular hairs with i-celled stalk and multi-
cellular globular or ellipsoidal head, with yellowish-brown con-
tents ; stone cells about 20 /jl in diameter, thick-walled, strongly
lignified, with numerous pores ; oil globules numerous.

216. ROSA CANINA (or Rose Hips).— Dark brownish-
red ; non-glandular hairs of torus unicellular, from 0.5 to 2
mm. long, about 35 fx wide, gradually tapering toward the base
as well as apex, with very thick walls and narrow lumen ; paren-
chym.a cells with brownish-red masses of plastids ; calcium oxalate
crystals in rosette aggregates from 35 to 50 /x in diameter ; scleren-
chymatous cells and fibers of seed-coat with colorless, rather thick
walls and numerous simple and branching pores ; an inner epi-
dermis of elongated cells containing a brown pigment ; the cells
of the embryo with small, nearly spherical aleurone grains and
considerable oil.

217. WILLOW CHARCOAL.— Wine-colored or dark red-
dish, or blackish, irregular-shaped fragments, composed of woody
tissues. Willow charcoal is frequently used to color cattle-foods,
particularly those the basis of which is wheat-middlings.

B. STONE CELLS WANTING.

a. WITH WOOD FIBERS.

218. H^MATOXYLON.— Reddish ; tracheae with simple
pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, thin-walled ; crystal fibers
with monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate.

219. SANTALUM RUBRUM.— Reddish; trachese with bor-
dered pores ; sclerenchymatous fibers long, thin-walled ; crystal
fibers with monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate. The coloring
principle is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and solutions
of the alkalies.

b. WOOD FIBERS WANTING,

220. CROCUS.— (See No. 85.)

221. KINO.— (See No. 209.)^

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 785

222. LUPULINUM.— Reddish-brown (Fig. 298) ; large,
characteristic glandular hairs about 20 /x in diameter. In fresh
Lupulin there are more light yellow glandular hairs than in old.
In the latter there are browner or grayish-brown resinous masses
replacing the light yellow oil. The amount of Humulus fragments
should not be too large in Lupulin of good quality (Fig. 136).

223. OPIUM.— (See No. 197.)

224. ROSA GALLICA. — Rose-colored ; epidermis with acute
papillae; pollen grains few, broadly spherical, 30 /x in diameter

(P- 557)-

225. ROSA CENTIFOLIA.— Pollen grains nearly smooth

and elliptical, from 15 to 30 /x long; fragments of corolla pinkish
with chloral ; papillae of corolla somewhat rounded ; cells of
anther; long, i-celled, non-glandular hairs around ovary. A
hydro-alcoholic solution becomes yellowish-red with acids.

226. ZEA. — Style with spiral and annular tracheae ; numerous
non-glandular hairs consisting of 2 parallel rows of cells, and
from 0.5 to I mm. long (p. 558).

POWDERS OF A WHITISH APPEARANCE.

This group includes all those powders which are light in color,
and comprises chiefly the commercial starches, cereals, gums and
some of the inorganic substances which are occasionally used as
adulterants.

I. PLANT TISSUES OR CELL-CONTENTS RECOG-
NIZABLE.

A. CONTAINING STARCH.

a. ONLY UNALTERED STARCH GRAINS PRESENT.

Grains characteristic for each ; completely soluble in glycerin
on heating, and precipitated on the addition of alcohol, the pre-
cipitate being soluble in water.

227. ARROWROOT STARCH.— There are a number of
commercial kinds of this starch, depending upon the countries in
which it is produced (p. 244). Bermuda arrowroot is in the form
of somewhat hard, irregular granules or masses, varying from

786

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

I to 6 mm. in diameter. When rubbed between the fingers it is
reduced to a smooth powder, which is velvety to the touch. The
starch grains (Fig. 316, Z?) vary in shape from elHpsoidal to ovoid

O C^r\^

.y.\^^

< — -

° Qd

<Q . G„^ U 0

Fig. 316. A, potato starch grains showing the excentral and circular point of origin
of growth, and lamellce; B, maranta starch grains showing fissured point of origin of growth,
and distinct lamellrc; C, wheat starch grains sliowing indistinct point of origin of growth,
and lamella:: D. corn starch grains, which are more or less polygonal in outline and have a
3- to 5-angled point of origin of growth.

or oblong, and from to to 65 /t in diameter. The lamellse are
mostly indistinct and there is usually a transverse or crescent-
shaped cleft at the middle or near the broad end of the grain.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 787

MoNTSERRAT arrowroot closely resembles the Bermuda starch,
but the grains are a little larger and more of them show the
cleft. St. V^incent arrowroot is slightly darker in color and
is in the form of masses or granules, which are sometimes 20
mm. in diameter. The starch grains resemble those of the Ber-
muda arrowroot, but the grains having clefts are more numerous.
The arrowroot starches all show a distinct cross with the
micropolariscope and a marked play of colors when a selenite
plate is used. These starches usually contain about 15 per cent,
of water, the remainder being composed of the starch grains.

228. POTATO STARCH occurs as a more or less finely
granular powder, and appears to have less tendency to form
coherent masses than arrowroot starch. The grains (Figs. 95;
96; 316, A) are somewhat shell-shaped, having distinct lamellae
and a circular point of origin of growth, which is at the smaller
end of the grain. They vary in size from 50 to 100 fx,, there being
a large number of smaller, somewhat ellipsoidal or spherical
grains, and a few 2- or 3-compound grains. Under the micro-
polariscope the grains show a distinct cross (Fig. 95), and a
striking play of colors when a selenite plate is used. On heating
the starch to a temperature of 65° C. or treating it with very
dilute alkali or acid solutions, the grains swell to four times their
original size and finally burst, passing through the successive
changes in structure illustrated in Fig. 96.

229. CORN STARCH. — This occurs as a fine, somewhat
cream-colored, mobile powder, which is practically free from
cohering particles. The starch grains (Fig. 316, D) are more
or less polygonal or somewhat rounded, usually wdth a distinct
circular, or 2- to 5-rayed cleft in the cenfer, and vary from 10
to 35 fjL in diameter. When examined by means of the micro-
polariscope the grains show^ a distinct cross, but the display of
colors when the selenite plate is used is less pronounced than in
potato starch. This starch frequently contains traces of alkalies,
which may be detected by adding 0.5 Gm. of the starch to 2 c.c.
of an aqueous solution of fuchsin, when the latter is decolorized.
Corn starch is official (p. 642). It should also be stated that the
different kinds of corn produce starches that are somewhat
different in character (p. 229).

788

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

230. RICE STARCH. — This is prepared by the use of chem-
icals much the same as in the preparation of corn starch (p. 643) .
and is either in the form of a white or cream-colored powder or
small, irregular masses. The individual grains like those of oat
(Fig. 317, E), are polygonal, from 2 to 10 yu, in diameter,
with a central cleft, and usually united into small aggregates of
two or more. The product sold for rice starch is frequently rice
flour, and is characterized by the large, oval aggregates of
numerous grains, as well as cellular tissue. (See No. 244.)

a 'S'
E

Fig. 317. A, starch grains of Iris florentina showing peculiar horseshoe-like fissure
extending from point of origin of growth; B, irregular starch grains of calumba root; C,
peculiar beaked starch grains of ginger rhizome; D, starch grains of bean showing irregular
longitudinal fissures; E, compound starch grains of oat.

231. WHEAT STARCH usually occurs in very hard, some-
what elongated and columnar or irregular masses, varying from
I to 3 cm. in length. The starch grains are more or less rounded
or flattened-circular, and depending upon the surface presented to
view under the microscope, appear circular or elliptical in out-
line; they vary from 15 to 35 /a in diameter and are without dis-
tinct markings except when heated or treated with dilute acid
or alkaline solutions (Fig. 96). When viewed under the micro-
polariscope the grains do not show a distinct cross and the play
of colors when the selenite plate is used is scarcely discernible.
Wheat starch does not agglutinate on mixing with water as
wheat flour does (Fig. 95).

232. OTHER STARCHES.— Among the other commercial
starches the following may be mentioned :

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 789

a. Consisting of Single Grains: Yam starch (from several
species of Dioscorea) occurs in narrow, ellipsoidal grains, 30 to 50
ju, long, with distinct lamellse and point of origin of growth at nar-
row end. Canna starch (tons Ics mois arrowroot), derived from
several species of Canna, occurs in broadly elliptical or ovate grains
varying from 50 to 125 /a in diameter and with distinct lamellae
and circular point of origin of growth. Bean starch consists of
ellipsoidal or reniform grains, which vary from 25 to 50 /x in
length and have a distinct, branching, elongated cleft in the middle.
PEA-starch grains resemble those of bean starch, but the grains
are smaller and more or less irregular on the surface (Figs. 95;
317, D). Queensland arrowroot is obtained from Canna
ednlis.

b. Consisting of 2- to 3-compound grains : Cassava or tapi-
oca starch is obtained from the Sweet and Bitter Cassava (p.
318), and occurs in somewhat plano-convex or bell-shaped, 2- to
3-, or even 4- to 8-compound grains, which vary from 6 to 30 /*
in diameter and have a distinct central, circular, or radiating cleft.
Sweet potato starch resembles Cassava starch, but some of the
grains are larger.

h. altered and unaltered starch grains present.

233. DEXTRIN. — Sticky mass with water, consisting chiefly
of altered starch grains, but usually sufficient unaltered grains
are present to determine the source of the dextrin.

234. SAGO starch is obtained from Cycas rcvoluta and other
cycads as well as a number of palms (p. 233). It occurs in
commerce in small, horny granules, whfch are slowly affected
by cold water, when there separates the characteristic elliptical
or truncate-elliptical starch grains. The latter vary from 15
to 50 IX long and have a large central area surrounded by rather
narrow, distinct, altered lamellae.

235. SAGO (IMITATION).— Breaks down quickly in water
and shows characteristic corn starch grains.

C. PLANT TISSUES IN ADDITION TO STARCH GRAINS.

The former remain upon treatment with hot glycerin.

790 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

a Do Not Readily Dissolve or Swell in Cold Water.

236. CORN MEAL is whitish or yellowish, and in addition
to the parenchyma which contains oil and characteristic starch
grains there are also present fragments of the pericarp. The
latter are free from hairs ; the cells of the epicarp have thick walls
with simple pores; beneath the latter occurs a layer of paren-
chyma cells which are thin-walled, more or less branching, between
which are large intercellular spaces ; running at right angles across
the branching parenchyma cells are narrow, thin-walled tube cells,
which are also found in the other cereals. Corn Meal contains
more starch and oil and little hull, as compared to corn bran.
In Broom Corn and Sugar Sorghum the tangential walls of the
cells of the epicarp are undulate and distinctly porous; and the
more or less polygonal cells of the perisperm are quite prominent.
These two kinds of cells serve to distinguish these fruits from
either corn or any of the other cereals.

237. CORN BRAN.— Less starch and oil and more hull, as
compared to cornmeal. (See No. 236.)

238. WHEAT FLOUR.— Agglutinates with water (distinc-
tion from wheat starch) ; little tissue of wheat grain. (See No.
239)

239. WHEAT MIDDLINGS are grayish-white and in addi-
tion to the characteristic starch grains (Figs. 95; 96; 316, C)
there are numerous fragments of tissues, as the thick-walled poly-
gonal cells of the endosperm, which contain small aleurone grains
and have a more or less distinct nucleus ; the cells of the embryo
containing aleurone grains and fixed oil; and the tissues of the
pericarp. The latter include unicellular hairs, which are 0.5 to i
mm. in length and 15 to 25 /^ in diameter, have a sharply pointed
apex and rounded base, and a narrow lumen, which is but i or 2 /i,
wide ; a layer of tangentially elongated cells from 100 to 200 ^i long
and 15 to 25 /A in diameter, which are slightly thickened and with
snnple pores ; and running across the latter are a number of more
or less isolated vermiform cells with rounded ends (Fig. 321).

Wheat bran is said to be sometimes adulterated with " inner
cofifee hulls," which consist of the inner tissues of the pericarp of
the coffee fruit (see No. 154), and are readily detected by the

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 791

fragments of palisade cells and the somewhat elongated, narrow,
sclerenchymatic fibers which cross one another.

240. RYE FLOUR is faintly grayish-white, the starch grains
closely resembling those of wheat, but sometimes larger (20 to
60 fx) ; the lamellae are distinct and the point of origin of growth
is sometimes marked by a star-shaped cleft or fissure. Rye
flour when mixed with water does not agglutinate like wheat flour.
A few fragments of the pericarp are also present (Fig. 321).

241. RYE MIDDLINGS.— In addition to the starch grains
in rye flour a considerable amount of the tissues of the pericarp
are present. The latter closely resemble those of wheat, but hairs
from the apex of the fruit have thinner walls, the lumen being
2 or 3 times the thickness of the walls ; and the tangentially
elongated cells have simple pores only on the tangential walls,
and do not lie close together, so that there are intercellular
spaces between them (Fig. 321).

242. BARLEY FLOUR. — The starch grains closely resemble
those of wheat, but are smaller, usually not more than 25 /x in
diameter, and in the case of malt the grains show distinct radial
and circular clefts, due to the action of the diastase ; the hairs
from the apex of the grain resemble those of both wheat and
rye but are shorter than either, being from 40 to 150 ;u, long;
the tangentially elongated cells are non-porous, the walls being
I to 2 /x thick (Fig. 321).

243. BUCKWHEAT FLOUR.— Light grayish-brown ; peri-
carp of elongated epidermal cells with latticed walls, due to the
pores of the outer and inner walls running obliquely and at right
angles to each other; short sclerenchymatic fibers with somewhat
curved or oblique end walls, large simple "pores and brown con-
tents ; parenchyma with brown contents. Seed-coat showing in
surface section epidermal cells with undulate walls ; branching
parenchyma with greenish or brownish-yellow contents ; and an
inner epidermis of elongated cells. Endosperm having a layer
of cells containing aleurone grains, resembling those found in
the true cereals, and parenchyma with numerous angular or some-
what rounded or ellipsoidal starch grains (resembling those of
rice or oat), with distinct central cleft and varying from 5 to 12 ytt
in diameter (Fig. 138).

792

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

244. RICE FLOUR consists chiefly of the small, angular
starch grains and aggregates like those of oat (Fig. 317, E).
There are also present some of the polygonal cells containing
aleurone grains and a few fragments of the pericarp. The
latter is especially characterized by the radially elongated cells of
the epicarp, which are 100 to 500 /x long and 25 to 100 /x wide,
and the end walls of which are deeply undulate, resembling the
epidermal cells of some leaves.

Fig. 318. Nux Vomica: H, fragments of lignified hairs of seed-coat; B, basal portion
of hairs; E, thick- walled parenchyma cells of endosperm containing one or more oil globules
and protoplasm; P, isolated protoplasmic substance from endosperm cells.

245. OATMEAL OR ROLLED OATS.— The starch grains
are small and, like those in rice, in aggregate masses, which are
more or less rounded, polygonal or pear-shaped. The endosperm
consists of a single layer of cells containing aleurone grains, but
the walls are 3 to 5 ^ thick. The cells of the epicarp are longi-
tudinally elongated and possess very thin, porous walls, those
situated at the upper end of the grain having long, unicellular
hairs, which are about 20 fi wide near the middle portion, and

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 793

taper gradually towards the base as well as towards the apex.
The other tissues of the pericarp are not so conspicuous as in
the other cereals (Fig. 120).

246. NUX VOMICA.— (See No. 252.)

247. ORRIS ROOT. — Characteristic starch grains 15 to 30 /n
in diameter ; scalariform tracheae 25 fj. in diameter ; no cork ;
calcium oxalate in raphides or in long pyramids (Figs. 317, A;
320). Coarse angular fragments of orris root, which have been
colored with yellow, green and red aniline dyes, are sometimes
present in a so-named Japanese pot pourri which is used for filling
rose jars.

248. OUILLAJA.— (See No. 210.)

249. BRYONIA. — Starch grains single or two or more com-
pound, from 10 to 20 /x in diameter ; occasional acicular crystals
200 /x in length ; tracheae 35 to 60 fx wide, associated with yellowish
colored cells ; cork cells yellow ; powder colored purplish and
reddish-brown with sulphuric acid.

249a. CALAMUS.— (See No. 128.)
249b. ULMUS.— (See No. 129.)

j8 Soluble in or Swelling in Cold Water to Form a Sticky Mass.

250. TRAGACANTHA.— Slowly affected by water; frag-
ments of tracheae and parenchyma ; starch grains more or less
spherical and from 2 to 10 fx in diameter (p. 652).

B. WITHOUT STARCH.

a. CALCIUM OXALATE PRESENT.

251. SCILLA. — Raphides very long, being sometimes i or 2
mm. in length, and occurring either in mucilage cells or free in
the powder or agglutinated mass ; also isolated fragments of fibro-
vascular tissue (Fig. 281, B).

h. CALCIUM OXALATE WANTING.

252. NUX VOMICA.— Grayish-white (Figs. 173. 318) ;
odor slight; taste intensely and persistently bitter; epidermal cells
modified to strongly lignified hairs ; endosperm cells containing

794

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

a fixed oil and aleurone grains (Fig. 318, E). Small, nearly
spherical starch grains occur in the tissues of adhering fruit pulp.
It is occasionally adulterated with olive endocarp and seeds of
Metroxylon viticnsc.

253. ALMOND. — Both bitter almonds and sweet almonds
have characteristic, rectangular, somewhat rounded stone cells in
the outer epidermal layer of the seed-coat. These stone cells are
from 70 to 17s F- ^o"fe a^d from 65 to 100 |U, wide; the walls are
from 10 to 15 |Li thick and have numerous simple pores. The seed-

FiG. 319. Alrnond meal: a, stone cells of the outer epidermis; K, brown hypodermal
cells; sp, spiral tracheae of the seed-coat; ep, cells of inner epidermis with brown contents;
E, cells of the endosperm containing numerous small aleurone grains; Ca, epidermal cells
of cotyledons; C, parenchyma of the cotyledons containing aleurone grains and oil. — After
Moeller.

coat also contains tracheae with spiral thickenings, associated with
which are cells containing rosette-shaped or prismatic crystals of
calcium oxalate that are about 7 i". in diameter. The endosperm
consists of a single layer of nearly cubical cells about 15 ju. in
diameter. The cells of the embryo contain numerous aleurone
grains, which are from 5 to 15 /x in diameter and consist of crys-
talloids, globoids and calcium oxalate (Figs. 187; 188; 302, D ;

319)-

Substitutes. — The seeds of other plants of the Rosaceae are
sometimes substituted for Almond seeds. These usually have a
bitter and more or less disagreeable taste : the outer epidermal
cells in apricot and plum being elongated tangentially, while
those of peach are somewhat narrower and more or less conical.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

795

Almond meal consists chiefly of the tissues of the embryo.
The so-called almond meal which is used as a cleansing agent
consists of al:mond cake, a by-product in the manufacture of
almond oil, to which are added other substances to give it a pleas-
ant odor, as orris root (see No. 247). A spurious almond meal
consists of wheat middlings to which powdered soap and some
volatile oil or triple extract are added.

-fP

Fig. 320. Orris root: pr, parenchyma containing starch grains; a, starch grains
with characteristic cleft; pr', parenchyma with narrow obhque pores; sp, fragments of
tracheae; K, prisms of calcium oxalate. — After Vogl.

11. ABSENCE OF PLANT TISSUES.
A. SOLUBLE IN WATER.

254. ACACIA (WHITE).— Soluble in cold water forming
a sticky mass; few plant tissues present (p. 643).

255. SACCHARUM. — Crystals in rhombic prisms which
are insoluble in fixed oils, chloroform or ether, but soluble in
water, alcohol or glycerin.

B. INSOLUBLE IN WATER.

a. SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL.

256. CAMPHORA. — Liquefies in mounts of glycerin and
chloral ; glycerin mounts show irregular masses, nearly insoluble
in water but soluble in alcohol, and fixed and volatile oils.

796

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

b. INSOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL.

a Reddish Color With Sulphuric Acid After Souic Time.
257. SACCHARUM LACTIS.— Small and large irregular-
shaped crystals insoluble in mounts of glycerin, or alcohol.

■mPoO o p o o

OOmO

Fig. 321. Wheat grain {Triticum sativum): A, transverse section showing epicarp
(e), cells of mesocarp (m), tangentially elongated cells (querzellen) (t), tube cells (c),
spermoderm (s), perisperm (p), aleurone cells (a), parenchyma containing starch (st);
B, surface section of pericarp showing relation of epidermal cells (e) to tangentially elon-
gated cells (t); C, hair from the apex of the grain with thick wall and very narrow lumen;
D, apical portion of a hair; E, starch grains.

Rye grain (Secale cereale): F, hair with wall comparatively thinner than in the hair
of the wheat grain; G, apical portion of a hair; H, tangentially elongated cells in which
the pores occur only on the tangential walls; I. starch grains which vary from 20 to 70 /i
in diameter, and occasionally have delicate clefts.

Barley grain (Hordeum sativum): J, transverse section of palet (pa) and pericarp (pe),
aleurone layer (a) composed of two or three rows of cells, parenchyma of endosperm con-
taining starch fst); K, hair from epicarp with very thin wall and large lumen; L, tan-
gentially elongated cells which differ from those of wheat and rye in being without pores;
M, starch grains which resemble those of wheat but are uniformly smaller.

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS. 797

(3 No Color Reaction With Sulphuric Acid.
I. Soapy Feel.

258. TALCUM (MAGNESIUM SILICATE).— Rather
long, irregular, lustrous and broken crystals.

2. Soluble in Acetic Acid.
* With Effervescence.

259. CALCII CARBONAS PR^CIPITATUS.— By adding
hot solution of ammonium oxalate to an acetic acid solution of
this salt on a slide, crystals of calcium oxalate are obtained.
Mounts in glycerin show rosette aggregates or cubical crystals
of a rather uniform size.

260. CRETA PR^PARATA.— Same treatment as above.
The resulting calcium oxalate crystals are triangular and cubical
and not of uniform size.

261. BARIUM CARBONATE.— Add sulphuric acid, and in
glycerin mount the barium sulphate precipitate occurs in very
small particles.

** Soluble in Acetic Acid Without Effervescence.

262. MAGNESIA PONDEROSA.— In glycerin mount alone
small, rounded masses are observed, frequently grouped together ;
if a few milligrams be dissolved in citric acid on a slide or watch
crystal, then a few drops (excess) of ammonium hydrate and
sodium phosphate solution be added, and stirred vigorously with a
glass rod, triangular or tetragonal crystals are formed.

263. MAGNESIA. — In a glycerin mount the masses have the
appearance of heavy magnesia, but are larger and more trans-
parent. On treatment with citric acid, ammonium hydrate and
sodium phosphate, the crystals of ammonium-magnesium phos-
phate in glycerin mount are large, star-shaped, and look like
snow crystals.

3. Insoluble in Acetic Acid.

* Soluble in Nitric Acid.

If necessary, in deciding on any of the next four powders, they
are to be fused with potassium carbonate or sodium carbonate,
and a regular qualitative chemical separation effected.

798

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

264. CALCII PHOSPHAS PR^CIPITATUS.— In glycerin
mount alone small tetragonal and cubical crystals are observed.

Fig. 322. Larger grains of various starches as viewed through the micropolariscope
when mounted in oil: A, potato (70-80 fi); B, wheat (30-40 m); C, ginger (30-50 fj.); D,
galangal (45-55 >i); E, calumba (40-60 fi); F, zedoary (50-75 n); G, maranta (35-50 fi);
H, colchicum (10-20 (i); I, com (20-25 m); J. cassava (20-35^ )", K, orris root (30-35 n)

If to a few milligrams of the powder on a slide a f^ew drops of
nitric acid are added, and then a small quantity of ammonium

POWDERED DRUGS AND FOODS.

799

molybdate solution, stirring well with a glass rod, small, yellow,
diamond-shaped crystals are observed, which are permanent in
glycerin mounts.

Fig. 322. A. Cantharides (Cantharis vesicatoria): abd, fragments of abdomen; ai.
fragments of wings; ac, fragments of mites; el, fragments of elytra showing the external
surface; eli, fragments of elytra showing internal surface, when cleared with Javel water;
m, fragments of muscles; in, undetermined fragments; oa, eggs of mites; p, hairs from
abdomen, thorax and wings. — After Collin.

265. CALCII SULPHAS. — In glycerin mount alone needle-
shaped crystals, or long crystals in masses which look like a group
of sclerenchyma fibers, are observed.

PART III.— REAGENTS AND MICRO-
SCOPIC TECHNIQUE.

The reagents that have been recommended for microscopical
work are quite numerous, and while nearly all of them may have
more or less special merit, the number of reagents actually
required in practice is fortunately quite small.

It is important that the student recognize the necessity for a
thorough understanding of the structure of the material under
examination rather than place too much dependence upon the
effects produced by reagents ; in other words, the study of struc-
ture should precede the use of reagents, particularly stains, when
it will often be found that the latter can be dispensed with entirely.

The chemicals that are employed in microscopical work, either
as reagents or for other purposes, may be classified as follows :
(i) Preservatives, (2) Fixing and Killing Agents, (3) Harden-
ing and Dehydrating Agents, (4) Clearing Agents, (5) Stains
and (6) Special Reagents.

Preservatives are substances used to preserve material which
is to be examined. The most important of these are alcohol
(from 40 to 95 per cent.) and formalin [2 to 6 per cent, aqueous
or alcoholic (60 per cent, alcohol) solution], the latter of which
is considered advantageous in the preservation of specimens con-
taining coloring substances, as leaves, flowers, etc. Almost any
antiseptic of the proper strength may be used as a preservative.

Fixing or Killing Agents are more especially employed in
the study of the protoplasmic cell-contents, where by their use
the life-processes of the cell are brought to a sudden termination,
the object being to fix the contents in a condition approaching as
nearly as possible the normal living state. In order to carry out
this operation successfully, the living specimen must be placed in
the fixing or killing agent as soon as collected, and if the specimen
is large it should be cut into small pieces. The following are some
of the common fixing agents : Chromic acid in 0.5 to i per cent,
aqueous solution ; osmic acid in i to 2 per cent, aqueous solution ;
800

REAGENTS. 8oi

Flemming's mixture, which is an aqueous solution of chromic acid
(0.25 per cent.) containing o.i per cent, of osmic acid and o.i per
cent, of acetic acid; picric acid in concentrated aqueous or alco-
hoHc solution ; picric-sulphuric acid, a concentrated aqueous solu-
tion of picric acid containing 2 per cent, by volume of sulphuric
acid; and mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) used in 0.1 to
I per cent, aqueous or alcoholic solution.

Hardening or Dehydrating Agents are those substances
which are employed for the purpose of hardening the specimen so
as to facilitate sectioning and for removing the water, which
would interfere with its examination. Alcohol is to be regarded
as the principal hardening or dehydrating agent, and considerable
care is necessary in its use ; the specimen is treated successively
with alcoholic solutions of gradually increasing strength, begin-
ning with a 35 per cent, solution, in which the specimen is kept
for twenty-four hours ; then it is placed in 50 per cent, alcohol for
from six to twenty-four hours, and then in 70 per cent, alcohol,
in which it may be kept until ready for use. In order to avoid
shrinking of the material at this stage, it may be kept, in a solu-
tion of alcohol and glycerin, or oil of bergamot, or a mixture of
xylol and paraffin. When the material is to be examined it
should be removed to 85 per cent, alcohol for from six to twenty-
four hours, then to 95 per cent, alcohol and absolute alcohol suc-
cessively for the same length of time. Of the other dehydrating
agents the most important are anhydrous glycerin, pure carbolic
acid, and anhydrous sulphuric acid, the latter being used in a
desiccator and not applied directly to the specimen.

Making of Sections. — Sections of roots, stems, barks and
many fruits and seeds can be made directly without embedding
the material, and while sections can be made holding the material
in the hand, between the thumb and three fingers, the hand micro-
tome for holding the material may be used by those who are less
experienced. In the sectioning of leaves and other material that
is not firm, and fruits and seeds which are too small to hold in
the hand, the material should be embedded in some substance
which will hold it and give it stability. When the tissues are not
too hard the material may be placed between pieces of elder or
sunflower pith. In some cases the making of sections is facili-

8o2 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

tated by moistening both the pith and the razor. In the case of
seeds and frnits which are very small and at the same time very
hard, as colchicum and mustard, it is best to use a velvet or fine
grade of cork for holding the material. The cork is indented by
means of forceps and the seed or fruit forced into the cavity.

In the case of very delicate tissues, where the protoplasmic
contents of the cells are to be studied, as in the ovaries of flowers,
prothalli of ferns and other parts of the plant, where cell division
is going on, the material should be embedded in paraffin or celloi-
din, subsequently hardened, and sectioned by means of a finely
adjusted microtome.

Clearing Agents. — Most dehydrating agents are also clearing
agents, because of the fact that the air and water in the specimen
are replaced by a medium having greater refractive properties.
Some clearing agents act chemically on the tissues and cell-
contents. Among the clearing agents most frequently employed
are: Chloral in saturated aqueous solution, and chloral-glycerin
solution (a solution of equal parts of glycerin and water sat-
urated with chloral). Essential oils, as clove, turpentine, cedar,
marjoram, etc., are also useful for this purpose, particularly when
the specimen is to be mounted in Canada balsam.

Staining Agents are those that produce more or less defi-
nitelv colored compounds with the cell-contents or walls. They
include: (i) the Aniline Dyes and (2) Non-aniline Stains.

The aniline stains may be used in aqueous solutions, weak alco-
holic solutions or strong alcoholic solutions, containing from I to
3 per cent, of the dye. The following are the aniline stains most
frequently employed: Aniline blue, Bismarck brown, fuchsin,
gentian violet, methylene blue, methyl violet and safranin. In
addition to these, aniline hydrochloride or sulphate is used in what
is known as Wiesner's Reagent, which is a 25 per cent, solution of
alcohol containing 5 per cent, of either of these salts, a drop of
either hydrochloric or sulphuric acid being used with a drop of the
solution, according as the hydrochloride or sulphate has been used.
Lceffler's Methylene Blue. — This reagent is prepared by
adding 30 c.c. of a concentrated alcoholic solution of methylene
blue to 100 c.c. of water containing 10 milligrams of potassium
hvdrate.

REAGENTS.

803

Ziel's Carbol-fuchsin. — This solution is prepared by adding
15 CO. of a concentrated alcoholic solution of fuchsin to 100 c.c.
of water containing 5 grams of carbolic acid.

Aniline Dyes are usually employed in concentrated aqueous
solution, but owing to the difference in solubility of the dyes the
solutions vary in strength. Saturated solutions of eosin or gentian
violet may be prepared by dissolving i gram of the dye in 100 c.c.

Fig. 323. Reagent bottle for sterile solutions.

of water, while to make a saturated solution of methylene blue
requires 0.400 Gm. of the dye to 100 c.c. of water. Some investi-
gators prefer to replace the distilled water with aniline water,
which is prepared by adding about 3 grams of anilin oil to 100
c.c. of distilled water.

Reagent Bottle for Sterile Solutions. — The solutions of
the aniline dyes as ordinarily prepared deteriorate more or less
rapidlv and are usually made up fresh each time they are required
for use. These solutions, as well as other reagents that are prone

8o4

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

to decomposition, may, however, be kept for months or even years
by preparing them with care and keeping them in a special kind
of bottle (Fig. 323). An ordinary bottle may be used, and is
fitted with a rubber stopper perforated so as to allow the intro-
duction of two glass tubes. These tubes are bent twice at right

Fig. 324. Method of applying reagent to material already mounted, g, pipette; f,

filter paper.

angles and the free ends directed downwards. One of the tubes
is connected with an atomizer bulb and serves for forcing out the
liquid. A small plug of absorbent cotton is placed in the tube
at the point C, so as to filter the air. This may be improved by
blowing a bulb in the tube for holding the cotton. The bottle
should be sterilized before placing the solution in it, and the solu-
tion should be made by adding the dye to sterile water contained

REAGENTS.

805

iodide

Sulphuric
acid

solution
Chlor-zinc-

glucin and

hydro-
chloric acid

Anilin sul-
phate and
sulphuric
acid

Iodine

water

Chloral
solution
or potas-
sium hy-
drate
solution

Phloro-

0
re*

Brings out
the structure

Swell and
finally dis-
solve

The acid

brings out

the structure

of the grains,

finally dis-
solving them

The acid

brings out

the structure

of the grains,

finally dis-
solving them

Pale blue to

bluish-black,

depending

upon the

strength of

reagent

Swell and are
colored blue

Dissolve

Causes sep-
aration of
calcium sul-
phate needles

Clears the
sections,
bringing
out the defi-
nition of the
crystals

The acid

dissolves
the crystals

Cause the
separation

of fine

needles of

calcium

sulphate

Calcium
Oxalate

Crystals

Clears the

tissues,
bringing out
the lamellas

and pores

The walls

become

purplish-red

The walls
become
bright-
yellow

The walls
turn yellow

The walls
turn yellow -
ish- to red-
dish-brown

Swell and

finally

dissolve

s I

2.
If)

Clears the
tissues, bring-
ing out the
markings of
the walls

The walls

become

purplish-red

The walls be-
come bright
yellow

The walls
turn yellow-
ish-brown

Swell and

dissolve

slowly

Clears the
tissues, bring-
ing out the
pores

The walls

may or may

not be colored

purplish-red

The walls
may or may
not be col-
ored bright
yellow

The walls
turn yellow-
ish-brown

The walls

turn yellow-
ish- to red-
dish-brown

Swell and

finally

dissolve

•rjO.
re 3

The walls

are colored

yellow

The walls
become
lavender
_^ or violet

Dissolves

Has a

clearing

effect, and

swells the

walls

3
3
0

1
P

The walls

are colored

yellow

The walls
become

yellowish-
brown

Dissolve
very slowly

Become
yellow

Cork and
Cutin

Dissolves the
ground-mass,
bringing out
the defini-
tion of the
crystalloids
Dissolve

The acid
has a sol-
vent effect

The crystal-
loids are
colored yel-
lowish or
yellowish-
brown

Become
yellowish-
brown.
Dissolve

Dissolve
slowly

0
^^

?V3

p ?;

tsre

2.3-

yellow

Dissolve
slowly

yellowish
Become

Cd
re

Swell and

finally

dissolve

Protoplas-
mic
Contents

W
O
H

o
o

>
r

w
>
o
w
2,

H
CO

8o6 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

in the bottle. The sokition may be afterwards further steriUzed
by means of steam if this should be found necessary, as in this
way only a perfectly sterile solution could be produced.

The non-aniline stains give, as a rule, more reliable and con-
stant results in the study of cell walls, as in the roots, stems and
other parts of the plant, than the aniline stains. They include
the following:

Beale's Carmine Solution, which is made as follows: Mix
0.6 Gm. carmine with 3.75 Gm. ammonia water (10 per cent.) ;
heat on a water-bath for several minutes ; then add 60 Gm. of
glycerin, 60 Gm. of water and 15 Gm. of alcohol, and filter.

Grenacher's Borax-Carmine Solution. — Dissolve 2 to 3
Gm. of carmine and 4 Gm. of borax in 93 c.c. of water and then
add 100 c.c. of alcohol (70 per cent.) ; shake and filter. When
this stain is employed the sections are freed from an excess by
the use of alcoholic solutions of borax or oxalic acid.

Hover's Picro-Carmine Solution is made by dissolving
carmine in a concentrated solution of neutral ammonium picrate.
A solution of carmine and picric acid is known as Picro-Carmine
Solution. Carmine solutions give, with cellulose, the nucleus and
proteins a red color.

Chlor-zinc-iodide Solution, or Schulze's Cellulose Reagent,
consists of anhydrous zinc chloride, 25 Gm. ; potassium iodide, 8
Gm., and water, 8.5 Gm., to which as much iodine is added as
the solution will dissolve. This reagent gives a violet color with
cell walls containing cellulose. Of the cell contents starch is the
only one which is affected by it, being colored blue.

Bohmer's Hematoxylin Solution is prepared by mixing
the two following solutions and filtering after allowing the mix-
ture to stand for several days: (a) one part of a 3.5 per cent,
alcoholic (95 per cent.) solution of haematoxylin and (b) three
parts of a 0.4 per cent, aqueous solution of potassium alum.

Delafield's Hematoxylin Solution, which is also incor-
rectly called " Grenacher's Hsematoxylin Solution," is made by
mixing the following solutions: (a) Hsematoxylin 4 Gm.. alcohol
25 c.c. and (b) 400 c.c. of a saturated aqueous solution of ammo-
nia alum ; this solution is exposed to the light for three or four

REAGENTS.

807

days, filtered, and then 100 c.c. each of glycerin and methyl alco-
hol are added, the solution allowed to stand for several days and
finally filtered. An excess of the stain is removed from the sec-
tions by subsequent washing either with a 2 per cent, alum solu-
tion or an acidified alcoholic solution. This solution gives to
cellulos,e, lignin and the protoplasmic cell contents a violet color.

Fig. 325. Diagrams showing the difference between an air- bubble and an oil-globule
in different foci; When the focus is above, as at A, the air-bubble (C) is dark gray and
the oil-globule (E) light gray. When the focus is at the lower portion, as at B, the air-
bubble (D) is light in the center and the oil-globule (F) dark gray. The same optical effects
as are obtained with oil-globules are observed with cell walls, starch grains and crystals.

Iodine and Potassium-Iodide Solution consists of iodine,
13 Gm. ; potassium iodide, 20 Gm. ; water, 100 c.c.

Iodine Water is prepared by adding as much iodine to dis-
tilled and sterilized water as it will dissolve (about 1:5,000).

Chloral-Iodine Solution consists of a saturated aqueous
solution of chloral, to which iodine is added. This reagent is
useful for staining the starch grains in the chloroplasts.

8o8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Phloroglucin Solution, used as a test for lignin (p. 182),
is a 0.5 to 2 per cent, alcoholic solution of phloroglucin, which is
used in conjunction with hydrochloric acid.

Iron Solutions are aqueous or alcoholic solutions containing
5 to 20 per cent, of ferric acetate or f,erric chloride. These are
mostly used as tests for tannin, giving either a bluish-black or
greenish-black coloration or precipitate.

Copper-Acetate Solution is a 7 per cent, aqueous solution
of cupric acetate (p. 181). It is the most distinctive test for
tannin, particularly with fresh material, producing a reddish-
brown precipitate in the cells containing tannin. The fresh
material should be cut into small pieces and immediately placed
in the solution of copper acetate and allowed to remain for from
24 to 48 hours. The excess of the reagent is then washed out
and the material placed in alcohol.

Schulze's Macerating Solution is prepared by adding
crystals of potassium chlorate from time to time to warm con-
centrated nitric acid. It is employed in the isolation of lignified
cells. The material is allowed to remain in the solution for a
short time or until there appears to be a disintegration of the
tissues. A large excess of water is then added. The material is
carefully washed, the cells teased apart and mounted in a solution
of methylene blue.

Special Reagents comprise all those substances which are
employed in the morphological study of the cells, and include solu-
tions of the alkalies (o.i to 6 per cent.), solutions of the mineral
acids, which may be weak or concentrated, and solutions of
organic acids, as acetic and citric.

Double Staining, or the use of two stains in the examination
of a specimen, furnishes not only a means of beautifying the speci-
men, but also has a certain diagnostic value. The following are
some of the combinations used: (a) aqueous solutions of car-
mine in connection with alcoholic solutions of iodine green; (b)
alcoholic solutions of haematoxylin and safranin ; (c) solutions of
eosin and methylene blue; (d) solutions of fuchsin and methylene
blue; (e) solutions of gentian violet and Bismarck brown.

MOUNTING OF SPECIMENS.— Microscopic preparations

REAGENTS.

809

or mounts are of two kinds : they may serve a temporary pur-
pose only or they may be prepared so as to serve for future study,
the latter being known as permanent mounts.

^cu —

Fig. 326. A cell from sassafras pith showing intercellular space (i); middle lamella
(m); layer of lignin (1); and layer of cellulose (c), which is subsequently modified to muci-
lage; simple pores (p) which are seen in the lower wall, the section being slightly oblique.
B, portion of wall showing the appearance of the pores when the view is transverse to the
wall and the focus is at the upper part of the pore (a) or at the lower part (b).

In taking- up the study of a specimen it should first be mounted
in water and examined ; then the water may be replaced by a weak
aqueous solution of glycerin (5 to 10 per cent.) and the specimen

8io

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

examined again. After this preliminary examination other agents
and reagents may be employed. Specimens mounted in glycerin
will keep for several days and even months. Generally speakmg,
the only effect which the glycerin has on the tissues or contents

Fig. 327. Crystals of some of the common reagents which not mfrequently sepa-
rate on the slide and may be mistaken for cell contents: A, isotropic crystals ot chloral
which occur in cubes about 10 fi in diameter or long needles about 50 n long; a. pnioro-
glucin which occurs in broad rectangular plates or ellipsoidal discs from 10 to 35 ^^ in ai^m-
eter which are doubly lefracting with a play of colors; C, cubes of potassium iodide whicn
are isotropic; D, crystals from potassium hydrate solution which separate in broad pnsms
and branching chains that are doubly refracting and give marked color effects.

is that of swelling them, which is obviated, to a greater or less
extent, however, if the glycerin is washed out after an exam-
ination is made.

In addition to the methods involving the use of glycerin, there
are two ways of making permanent mounts, depending upon the
employment either of Canada balsam or glycerin jelly as the

REAGENTS.

8ii

mounting medium. The method involvin
IS the simpler, and leav,es the specimen in
re-examination with reagents can be
made if desirable. Glycerin-jelly
mounts are made as follows : Specimens
which have been previously treated are
transferred to glycerin and allowed to
remain for several hours, the excess of
glycerin removed, and the specimen
transferred to a warm slide on which a
drop of glycerin jelly ^ has been placed.
The preparation is warmed slightly to
remove air-bubbles, and a warm cover-
glass applied, care being taken to prevent
the formation of air-bubbles. Evapora-
tion of the glycerin jelly is prevented by
the use of shellac cements, asphalt var-
nish or candlewax.

The following method may be used
for the preparation of Canada balsam
MOUNTS : The specimen is cleared, dehy-
drated by the use of alcohol and then
* placed in chloroform or benzol. The
clearing of the specimen is materially
assisted by placing it in oil of cloves or
turpentine prior to mounting it. A drop
of Canada balsam solution ( i part of
balsam to 3 parts of chloroform or
benzol) is placed on a slide and the speci-
men mounted. When nearly dry, scrape
off the excess of balsam, clean the slide
and coverglass with chloroform or
benzol, and ring with cement.

g the use of the latter
such a condition that a

Fig. 328. Section of micro-
scope showing the relation of
the ocular micrometer (o) and
the stage micrometer (s). As
here represented 20 divisions
of the ocular scale are equiva-
lent to 4 divisions of the stage
micrometer, and thus each di-
vision of the ocular is equiva-
lent to 2 microns (see p. 813).
d, diaphragm in eye-piece,
on which the ocular microm-
eter rests.

^ Kaiser's Glycerin Jelly. — Soak 7 Gm. of gelatin in 42 Gm. of water
for two hours : dissolve i Gm. of carbolic acid in 49 Gm. of glycerin ; mix
the two solutions ; heat on a water-bath, with occasional stirring, for
fifteen minutes, and finally filter through glass wool. The jelly is warmed
slightly to liquefy it before using.

8i2 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Dried Material. — Most of the vegetable drugs and some of
the vegetable foods occur in commerce in a more or less dried
condition, and in order to study them microscopically it is usually
necessary to give them some preliminary treatment. With the
majority of drugs, soaking in hot or cold water for from a few
minutes to a few hours will render them sufficiently pliable or soft
for sectioning. After this the material is hardened by placing it
in alcohol (60 to 70 per cent.) for a few hours or over night.
It may then be sectioned and treated with special reagents or
stains as desired. Very hard material, as the shells of nuts and
seeds, may be softened by soaking in solutions of potassium
hydrate.

Some Practical Suggestions. — The following are some of
the rules which should be borne in mind by the student when
using the microscope- in the examination of vegetable drug
material :

1. Always mount the sections (including powdered material)
in water or other suitable reagent prior to examination, never
attempting to examine dry material except in special cases.

2. Use sufficient of the mounting medium or reagent to cover
the specimen, but avoid an excess or more than will be held under
the cover-glass.

3. Always endeavor to have the object properly illuminated
by making use of the concave mirror.

4. Always be pa/ticular about having the eye-piece and objec-
tives clean.

5. In examining a preparation, always use the low-power
objective first. _

6. The edge of a section is always the thinnest, and this part ¥
being the best for study, should be brought to the center of .the
field.

7. When the object is properly centered, raise the objective, A
swing it to one side, bring the high-power objective into its place,

and cautiouslv lower it until it is brousfht to about the distance
of a millimeter from the cover-glass. Then holding the slide
with the left hand, the proper focus of the object is obtained by
making use first of the coarse adjustment and then of the fin,e
adjustment, the right hand being used for this purpose. In

REAGENTS. 813

examining the object always hold the sHde with the left hand,
and use the right hand for maintaining the proper focus by means
of either the coarse or fine adjustment.

8. In all cases where practicable make drawings of the sec-
tions examined.

9. In some cases it is desirable to apply a reagent after the
material has been mounted, as in the addition of an iodine solution
to a section to determine the presence of starch, and this is
accomplished by placing a drop or two of the reagent, by means
of a pipette or dropper, near the edge of the cover on one side
and taking up tli^e excess of liquid by temporarily placing a piece
of filter paper on the opposite side (Fig. 324).

Air-Bubbles. — The beginner in the use of the microscope is
often confused by the presence of air-bubbles, mistaking them
'for portions of the material under examination, as starch grains,
oil-globules or even the cells themselves. While it is not prac-
ticable to avoid their presence entirely, their identity may be
determined by the manner of focussing upon them. When
focussing above on an air-bubble it always appears dark (Fig.
325, C), but when the focus is lowered, it becomes lighter
(Fig. 325, D) ; while in the case of an oil-globule or starch grain
the reverse is true, i.e., it is lightest when the focus is above
(Fig. 325, E) and darker when the focus is lowered (Fig. 325,
F). To obviate as much as possible the formation of air-bubbles,
the edge of the cover-glass should first be applied to the liquid
on one side and then allowed to drop upon it. When particular
care is required, a pair of forceps may be used for holding the
cover and lowering it gradually.

Frequently also simple pores in the cell-walls are mistaken
for cell-contents, and sometimes even the lumen of the cell has
been mistaken for a prism of calcium oxalate. The beginner
will therefore find it an advantage to study the simple pores in
the pith cells of elder or sassafras (Fig. 326). In sections show-
ing either the upper or lower wall of the cells, the pores appear
as circular or elliptical markings, which may be mistaken for cell-
contents, but which in focussing upon them are seen to be optical
or microscopical sections of the pores.

Micrometry or Microscopic Measurement. — In the micro-

8i4 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

scopic study of vegetable drugs a knowledge of the comparative
size of the elements is often of much help in determining the
identity of material under examination, and for this reason the
student should early learn to measure the characteristic elem,ents,
or those showing a variation in size in different plants, as starch
grains, calcium oxalate crystals, diameter of cells, thickness of
cell-walls, etc. The method best adapted for this work is that
involving the use of a micrometric scale which is placed in the
eye-piece and known as the ocular micrometer. But to determine
the value of the ocular micrometer it is necessary to use another
scale known as the stage micrometer. The stage micrometer, as
its name indicates, is used on the stage, and when placed in juxta-
position to an object indicates its size. However, it is obviously
impracticable always to place an object along side of the scale,
and hence in practice the ocular micrometer is used, the value'
of the divisions of which are determined by comparison with
those of the stage micrometer (Fig. 328). The value of the
divisions of the ocular scale varies for different objectives, eye-
pieces and tube lengths, hence it is necessary to ascertain the value
of the divisions for the different optical combinations and tube
lengths employed. The stage micrometer is usually divided into
tenths and hundredths of a millimeter, and the millimeter being
equivalent to 1000 microns {[x), the smaller divisions are equiva-
lent to 10 microns (10 /x). For example, we may suppose, using
a low-power objective, that 10 divisions of the ocular scale equal
20 of the smaller divisions of the stage microm,eter. Thus, 20
divisions of the stage micrometer are equivalent to 20 times 10 fi,
or 200 /a; then, since 10 divisions of the ocular scale equal 20
divisions of the stage micrometer, one division of the ocular scale
is equivalent to i/io of 200 fi, or 20 fi. Or, using the high-power
objective, we may suppose that 80 divisions of the ocular scale
equal 24 divisions of the stage micrometer. Thus, i division of
the ocular micrometer is equivalent to 1/80 of 240 /x, or 3 fx.
Then, if an object has a diameter covering 3 divisions of the
ocular micrometer, its diameter is equivalent to 3 times 3 fx (the
value of one division), or 9 fx.

The MiCRO-POLARiscoPE is a useful accessory in conjunction
with the microscope. It is useful in the study of technical

REAGENTS. 815

products, and is chiefly applicable in the examination of crystals,
starch grains and cell-walls. A number of substances, owing to
certain peculiarities of structure, are double-refracting or
ANISOTROPIC, i.e., they polarize light. If the double refraction
is strong enough these substances show a play of colors. Of
these may be mentioned the raphides and the rosette aggregates
of calcium oxalate, cane sugar, citric acid, benzoic acid, caffeine,
salicin, aloin. phloroglucin, and the salts of berberine, strychnine,
and atropine. The acicular crystals which separate in chloral
preparations of gambir also show a play of colors. Among the
substances which are anisotropic but give no chromatic effects
are starch grains, inulin, mannit, the rhombohedra in catechu and
the various types of cell-walls. All substances which form crys-
tals belonging to the isometric system are isotropic or single-
refracting, i.e., do not polarize light, as sodium chloride, the
octahedra in gambir, potassium iodide and chloral.

When glass, which is an isotropic compound, is heated and
suddenly cooled it is changed into an anisotropic body. Micro-
scopic glass beads formed by quickly cooling very thin pieces of
glass show polarization effects similar to those of wheat starch
grains. This has led to the supposition that the polarization
effects produced by starch grains are due to tension rather than
to a crystalline structure. But this point cannot be definitely
settled until it has been determined whether any of the substances
composing the layers of the starch grain are capable of crys-
tallization.

The MICRO-SPECTROSCOPE is useful in the study of chlorophyll
either in the plant cells or in solution. It may also be used in the
study of the absorption spectra of other plant color substances.

PART IV.— MICRO-ANALYSIS.

The value of the microscope is well established in the exami-
nation of drugs, foods and technical products. In the preceding
pages the greatest prominence is given to the anatomical or
HISTOLOGICAL METHOD of analysis, based largely upon the study
of the form of cells, and the structure and composition of cell
walls. In a number of instances, the study of cell-contents, as
of starch grains and crystals of calcium oxalate, affords as was
seen an important clue to the identity of a product. There are,
however, many plant substances which are found in a crystalline
condition in the living plant and commercial product
and in the preparations made from them. A number of books
have been published dealing with the micro-chemistry or histo-
chemistry of some of these substances. For the most part the
study of these microscopic crystals has been of a very general
nature, in that statements are given regarding the general shape A
of the crystals or their aggregates and their behavior with
certain test solutions. The time has come when the study of
the crystalline substances found in drugs and their preparations
requires, if any real progress is to be made in this direction,
that the crystallographic method of analysis be introduced
into pharmacognosy. This method originated in the examination
of thin sections of rocks and it has been possible by this study
to identify the numerous rock-forming mineral species. In
those species which are mixed crystals, i.e., made up of isomor-
phous mixtures of two or more components, it has been possible
to determine with some accuracy their composition simply by
their optical properties, as for example the feldspars. Further-
more, it has been possible to draw conclusions as to the ultimate
composition of rocks and the conditions under which they were
formed.

The value and possibilities of the employment of the crystal-
lographic method in biological studies is well exemplified in
the recent work of Reichert and Brown, " The Crystallography
8i6

Salicin. Drthorhombic crystals from alcoholic solution.

Cocaine hydrochloride. Aggregates from aqueous solution.
CRYSTALS IN POLARIZED LIGHT (Crossed iiicols).

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 817

of the Hemoglobins." * By special means individual crystals
of the hemoglobins were obtained and by purely crystallographic
methods, including a study of the forms and optical properties
of such crystals, the hemoglobins of the 200 species of animals
studied were differentiated in a manner that could not have been
accomplished by chemical analysis or other methods of procedure.

A careful study of much that has been written, and especially
of the illustrations that have been made, of micro-crystals in
plants and drugs, shows that erroneous conclusions may be easily
drawn from the general appearance of crystalline precipitates or
aggregates of crystals that are formed. For instance, Vogl
has shown that the sphero-crystals, found in the glandular hairs
of Mentha piperita and considered by some to be menthol, are
found in leaves of many of the Labiatse. (See also Figs. 158,
175, 272.) Again very many substances produce aggregate
groups which closely resemble each other, as of citric acid, cocaine
hydrochloride, etc.

In regard to the value of the crystallographic method we
quote the following paragraph from Brown {loc. eif.) : "When
a chemical compound solidifies from fusion, solution or vapor
under conditions which are favorable to the development of
individuals, its particles tend to arrange themselves in regular
order, so that a definite structure is produced. The external
form of the individuals is also regular, being bounded by planes
in definite relation to each other so that polyhedral solids are
produced which are called crystals. The regular arrange-
ment of the atoms among themselves, and of the molecules
which they build up, is so characteristic of substances of definite
composition that the crystalline condition of dead matter is the
normal condition. Differences in chemical constitution are ac-
companied by differences of physical structure, and the crystal-
lographic test of differences of chemical constitution is recognized
as the most delicate test of such differences."

It is apparent that apart from their solubility, color reactions,
behavior towards reagents, etc., the substances with which we
are dealing should be prepared in such a manner that isolated

* Published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1909.

8i8 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

crystals are formed and not aggregates or groups. These
isolated crystals can then be studied independently. The reason
why aggregates are formed is because the crystals are per-
mitted to grow too rapidly on the slide. This is usually the case
in the usual method of procedure in securing crystals, i.e., by
adding a drop of a solution to the slide, and then allowing it to
evaporate spontaneously, under ordinary conditions. If on the
other hand the rate of evaporation is lessened so that there is a
slowing down of the growth of the crystals, individuals may be
obtained of almost any size desired. And it will be found that
these isolated crystals may be quite as easily prepared as the
aggregates which seem so characteristic to the average student.
Special methods, however, may be necessary to obtain such
isolated crystals. For instance, single crystals of menthol ( Fig.
^Tiy, A) arc obtained by means of sublimation rather than from
solutions. Cumarin crystals (Fig. 131) are easily obtained
by controlling the temperature of the melted mass, etc.

The interest in these crystalline substances is becoming greater
as foods and drugs and technical products are subject to stand-
ards of purity. Most of the crystalline constituents common to
plant products are usually said to be calcium oxalate. This
substance is insoluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, soluble
in the mineral acids and occurs usuall\' in definite crystals.
These crystals are rather easily studied in Iris (Fig. 320),
Ouillaja (Fig. 281, C) etc. (see page 170). They are found
to crystallize either in the tetragonal or monoclinic systems,
sphenoids of the latter being present in Belladonna (Fig. 281,
D), Scopola .(Fig. 175, a), etc.

Some substances occur in a crystalline form even upon the
commercial product as vanillin upon vanilla pods and cumarin
upon tonka seeds ; or crystals may be found in special cells
as in Piper album and Piper nigrum. In alcoholic material
particularly of fresh drugs characteristic sphero-crystals are
found as in Inula (Fig. 182). Sometimes similar sphero-
crystals are observed upon soaking the drug of commerce in
water and then adding alcohol as in Scilla. Again crystalline
substances separate upon the addition of mineral acids, as when
nitric acid or sulphuric acid is added to sections of Hvdrastis

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 819

(Fig. 292). Again upon dissolving the product either in water,
as with catechu (Fig. 275, A) or in solutions of chloral, as with
gambir (Fig. 275, B) a crystalline residue remains. Finally
upon extracting the dried drug with suitable solvents as ProUius'
solution and evap'orating the solvent, characteristic crystals
separate as with coca, hydrastis, nux-vomica, cinchona, cola,
guarana, etc. ; or distinct crystalline precipitates may be obtained
upon addition of special reagents as palladous chloride to solu-
tions containing cocaine hydrochloride (Fig. 157), or gold
chloride to solutions containing cafifeine (Fig. 149).

Cognizance of these crystals is being taken to some extent
in all of the progressive pharmacopoeias and in numerous papers
published during the past ten years. The subject is in a more
or less chaotic condition at present and pharmacognosists must
recognize the importance of the careful study of these micro-
scopic crystals. Superficial descriptions and color reactions will
not alone serve to identify these substances. Like the miner-
alogist in the study of rock sections the pharmacognosist must
employ the petrographical microscope, and it is at once apparent
that sooner or later the principles of physical and chemical
crystallography must be employed by students in pharmacy as
well as by the analyst. The work is by no means so simple as
in ordinary microscopic work, but when the principles governing
the optical study of crystals are mastered, the study will be
found quite as satisfactory, and will appeal to the pharmacist
not only as a fertile field for research, but as one of the most
promising methods for the identification of drugs and affording
an important clue to their quality and real vgiluation.

The study of microscopic crystals is accomplished by means
of the petrographical microscope. Brown (loc. cit.) has stated
succinctly the nature and use of this instrument :

" The necessity of studying small crystals, . . . has re-
sulted in the evolution of a form of microscope which is at once a
goniometer, a polariscope, and an instrument for measuring
optic axial angles — in short, for determining the physical crys-
tallographic constants of small crystals. . . . The polari-
scope portion of the petrographical microscope enables the ob-
server to determine the position and relative value of the elasticity

820 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

axes of crystals, to observe the position of the optic axes, and
to determine their incHnation to each other and to the elasticity
axes. From these data the optical character of the crystal is
determined. These optical reactions may be studied by this
instrument with as much ease, and in general with as much
accuracy, as with the larger and better graduated polariscope ;
and the data thus obtained are quite as accurate in most cases
as those obtained by the use of the larger instruments. The
use of the special eye-pieces arranged with artificial, twins of
calcite or quartz enables the observer to determine the extinction
angles of the crystals with as much accuracy as can be done with
any form of polariscope.

" From such observations made witli the aid of this form of
microscope, the following constants may be determined :

"(i) The plane angles of the crystals, in most cases the
interfacial angles, giving the data from which the axial ratios
are computed — in other words the morphological constants of
single crystals.

"(2) The relation of the composite crystals or twins to each
other, their angles, and the position of the twin plane, twin axis,
composition plane, and other constants of the twin crystals.

"(3) The pleochroism of the crystals, the character of the
colors of the light vibrating parallel to the elasticity axes in
the crystal. This is effected by the use of the single polarizing
prism below the stage. By analyzing this light with the micro-
spectroscope the differences of tint and color may be given
quantitative values in wave lengths.

"(4) The position and relative values of the light elasticity
axes in the crystals, upon which depend the angles of extinction
of the crystals, measured from certain crystallographic axes or
planes or edges. In uniaxial crystals (tetragonal and hexagonal
systems) there are two such elasticity axes — the ordinary ray des-
ignated as CO, and the extraordinary ray, designated as e. Either
one of these may be the axis of greater or less elasticity ; and
according as the extraordinary ray is the axis of less elasticity
or of greater elasticity the crystal is called optically positive
or optically negative. In biaxial crystals (orthorhombic, mono-
clinic and triclinic systems) there are three elasticity axes at

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 821

right angles to each other, and these are designated as fl, the

axis of greatest elasticity; U, the axis of mean elasticity; and
C, the axis of least elasticity.*

"(5) The position and angle of inclination of the optic axes
or lines of single refraction through the crystals. These always

lie in the plane of the elasticity axes fl and C and the angles
between the optic axes are bisected by the axes Q. and C Accord-
ing as to whether C or fl is the axis bisecting the acute angle, the
ACUTE BISECTRIX, Bxa, the Crystal is called optically positive
or optically negative. Thus if Bxa=^t, the optical character is
POSITIVE. The apparent angle between the optic axes is de-
termined by means of an eye-piece micrometer in an observa-
tion of the interference figure, looking along the acute bisectrix
of the optic axes and this angle is designated as 2E. The
character of the double refraction may be determined by this
angle."

It is not possible in this work even to attempt to treat of the
principles underlying the study of physical crystallography. The
study is one requiring special laboratory instruction. Of the
excellent works which the student will find useful the following
may be mentioned :

P. Groth : Physikalische Krystallographie, 4tli Ed., 1905.

Theodor Liebisch : Grundriss der Physikalischen Krystallographie, 1896.

Henry A. Miers : Mineralogy, 1902. In this work will be found several

excellent chapters dealing with the principles of the measurement of

crystals and the study of their optical properties.
RosENBUSCH AND WuLFiNG : Mikroskopische Physiographie der Min-

eralien und Gesteine.
P. Groth : An introduction to chemical crystallography. Translated by

Hugh Marshall, 1906.

In the Zeitschrift fi'ir Krystallographie will be found refer-
ences to the crystallographic studies which have been made upon
some of the important plant constituents, but as these studies
were mostly made upon relatively large crystals, which could be
measured and examined by means of the goniometer, these ob-

* Elasticity in the optical sense is the reciprocal of refractive index;
hence a, 6, C, are the axes of least, mean and greatest refractive index.

822 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

servations had to be interpreted and applied to crystals which
were formed upon microscopic slides. The author was fortunate
in having the co-operation of Charles Travis, Ph.D., of the
University of Pennsylvania, to whom is due the credit for the
careful studies of the crystals described in this part of this text-
book.

A rather large number of substances were examined and
only a few of the more important are included at this time.
While drawings might have been made to illustrate the form
of crystals and optical orientations it was deemed advisable
to use some of the photo-micrographs made by the author.
The four-color plate is introduced to show the chromatic effects
observed by using crossed nicols. The plate illustrates salicin
and cocaine hydrochloride and is a nearly exact reproduction of
the effects obtained with the micro-polariscope, the electros
having been made from Lumiere autochrome plates, using direct
sunlight.

The method of obtaining the crystals was rather simple. The
solvents used were distilled water, alcohol, ether, chloroform
and a mixture of chloroform and alcohol. To a weighed amount
of the substance was added a sufficient quantity of solvent to
give a saturated solution. A drop of this w^as added to a slide
which was covered either with a bell- jar or the cover of a Petri
dish. If the crystals formed too rapidly, giving rise to crystal
aggregates, more dilute solutions were made from the original
solution until single crystals were obtained therefrom. In some
instances as with physostigmine salicylate, where the edges of
the crystal are likely to be re-dissolved, the slides were finally
dried in a desiccator over sulphuric acid. With caffeine gold
chloride, the best crystals were obtained when the solutions were
relatively weak. Again, it was found that after crystals were
mounted in balsam, as cocaine hydrochloride, caffeine gold chlo-
ride, etc., that the isolated crystals grew considerably in size at
the expense of amorphous material. A rather unique instance
of growth of large crystals was with menthol when the slide con-
taining the silky aggregates was covered with another slide.
Finally it should be stated that some patience and experience are
necessary to obtain satisfactorv crvstals.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

823

The scope of this vohime is necessarily Hmited but the ex-
amples which follow will be at least sufficient to show the
possibilities of the crystallographic method of study,

ACONITINE (C34H47NO1J.

Occurrence : See pp. 477-480.

Aconitine (acetyl-benzoyl-aconine) occurs in colorless, nearly
transparent, glistening crystals. From alcoholic solution ortho-
rhombic prisms (Fig. 142) usually predominate while from

^%^-

Fig. 329. Berberine hydrochloride: small orthorhombic .needles, from aqueous solution.

solutions in which chlorofomi is the solvent, the tendency
is for small isolated rosette-aggregates to separate. The crystals
vary in length from o.i mm. to i mm., although crystals as
large as i cm. in length and 0.5 cm. in thickness have been
obtained. Upon rapidly heating the M. P. is ig'/°-ig8° C. At
25° C. one part of aconitine is soluble in 3226 parts of water;
22 parts of alcohol ; 44 parts of ether; and 5.6 parts of benzene.*

* Atherton Seidell, Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances.

824 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

The gold salt of aconitine is amorphous when first precipitated
but may be obtained in three crystalline modifications by the
use of various solvents.*

Aconitine. — Crystals from alcoholic solutions (Fig. 142).

Orthorhombic : a: b: c = 0.5456 ; i : 0.3885.!

Forms observed: Brachypinacoid (010); macropinacoid
(100); and pyramid (121).

Angles: The angle between the edges of the pyramid (121)
on the brachypinacoid (010-121 A010-I21) = 70° 54' (normals);
angle between the edges of the same pyramid on the macro-
pinacoid (100-121 A ioo-i2i)=:75° 40'.

Cleavage parallel to the macropinacoid.

Habit : Commonly tabular on the brachypinacoid ; the crystal
more or less elongated on the c axis and bounded by the macro-
pinacoid and the pyramid (121); sometimes tabular on the
macropinacoid. In the former case the angle of the termination
is 109° 06' and in the latter 104° 20'.

Optical properties: 9 = c; Jl = 6; t^^a. The axial plane
is the brachypinacoid. Bxa^= a; optical sign H-. 2E^^=^^6° 10'.
Dispersion of the axis strong ^ p <^y. When the crystal is of the
second habit mentioned, i.e., tabular on the macropinacoid. an
interference figure is observed. Owing to the strong dispersion
of the axes the hyperbolae are colored.

ASPARAGIN (C^H.N.Og + H.O).

Asparagin (y8-asparagin, the monamide of aspartic acid)
is an amido compound which is most widely distributed
throughout the vegetable kingdom. It is not only found in
reserve organs as the tubers of the potato and dahlia, the roots
of althaea, belladonna, etc. , and the seeds of the chestnut tree ,
but it also occurs in young shoots as of asparagus and in peas,
beans, and other members of the Leguminosas. Asparagin has also
been detected in some of the fungi as the Agaricineae and certain
of the Myxomycetes. Unlike certain derivatives of urea it is a

*J. W. Rriihl, Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide.

fA. E. Tutton, Zeitschr. f. Krystallog., i8gi, 19, p. 178.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

825

plastic product playing a very important role in plant metabolism.
On account of its crystalline character and solubility in water,
it is classed among the translocatory substances, appearing not
only when proteids are being utilized by the plant, but when
they are being formed. The crystals of asparagin are formed
rather easily from the expressed juices of young shoots, and may
be obtained even in sections upon mounting them in glycerin.
The crystals vary in length from 0.3 mm. to 1.5 mm.

Fig. 330. Berberine sulphate: orthorhombic crystals trom aqueous solution.

Asparagin occurs in two fomis, one of which is laevo-
rotatory and the other dextro-rotatory; the former is the one
usually present in plants. At 17.5° C. i part of asparagin is
soluble in 47 parts of distilled water; at 98° C, i part is soluble
in 1.9 parts of distilled water.

Asparagin. — Crystals from aqueous solutions (Fig. 95).
Orthorhombic ( sphenoidal ?) : a: b: c =^ 0.4735 • i • 0.8273.*

* Grattarola, Zeitschr. f. Krysfallog., iSg2; 20, p.-6i8.-

826

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Forms observed: Base (ooi) ; unit prism (no) ; brachydome

(on).

Angles: Angle iioAiIo = 50° 40Y (normals).

Habit : Crystals tabular on the base. The smaller crystals
are combinations of base (001) and prism (no) (Fig. 95, a);
often with one or both of the acute angles of the prism trun-
cated by the faces of the brachydome (on) (Fig. 95, b). In
the larger crystals the brachydome is more developed, and the

Fig. 331. Brucine sulphate: orthorhombic crystals from aqueous solution.

crystal is either equidimensional (Fig. 95, c) or elongated on
the a axis (Fig. 95, d).

Optical properties: 3= a; h^b; C=<:. Axial plane the
brachypinacoid. Bxa^c. Optical sign +. Axial angle large,
2V:^ca. 87°.

BRUCINE SULPHATE [Co3H26N204)2HoS04 + 3^HoO] ,

Occurrence : See p. 437.

Brucine is always associated in the plant kingdom with
strychnine. It contains two methoxyl-groups and is looked upon

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 827

as being di-methoxy-strychnine. If crystallized from hot water
it contains 4 molecules of water of crystallization, but when
crystallized from alcoholic solutions it contains but two molecules,*
A number of salts are used in medicine and the sulphate alone
was examined. The crystals of brucine sulphate vary in length
from I to 2.5 mm. (Fig. 331).

Brucine Sulphate. — Crystals from saturated aqueous solu-
tion.

Orthorhombic : a: b: c =^ 0.8329 : i : c.

Forms observed: Base (001); brachypinacoid (010); and
unit prism (no).

Angles: Angle no A iio= 79° 35^ Cleavages parallel to
the unit prism and base.

Habit : Tabular on the base ; the crystal elongated along
the a axis, bounded by the brachypinacoid and unit prism (Fig.
331). In some cases the pyramid (nc) replaces the prism, or
at least truncates the prism base edge. The base is often replaced
by a series of flat brachydomes so that a cross-section of the
crystal parallel to the macropinacoid is lens-shaped.

Optical properties : SL^^a; \X =^c; t=^b. Axial plane the base
(001). Bxa'=h; optical sign 4-. 2£^ = large. An interference
figure is visible on the brachypinacoid.

Caffeine (CgH^oN^O. -f- H.O).

Occurrence : See pp. 435, 436.

Caffeine (theine, or trimethyl-xanthine), while it can be
produced synthetically, is usually prepared from tea and tea dust
or sweepings. If crystallized from aqueous solutions it con-
tains one molecule of water of crystallization which is wanting
if it is crystallized from alcohol, chloroform or ether. The
crystals from aqueous solutions may attain a length of 20 mm.

At 25° C. one part of caffeine is soluble in 45.6 parts of
water; 53.2 parts of alcohol; 375 parts of ether; and 8 parts
of chloroform.

Caffeine. — Crystals from aqueous solutions.
* O. A. Oesterle, Grundriss der Pharmakochemie.

828 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

JMonoclinic ( ?) : No axial ratios obtainable.

Fomis observed : The crystals are very fine needles and the
forms appearing cannot be identified.

Optical properties : Certain of the crystals extinguish
straight, and others at a maximum angle of 313^°, which would
indicate that the crystals are monoclinic and are observed in
different aspects. Calling c the direction of elongation of the
needles the orientation is: * ^/\c = i\\°; CAc = 58^°. Some of
the crystals show no complete extinction, as was also seen to be
the case with cocaine palladous chloride, and probably for the
same reason (see page 833).

Caffeine Gold Chloride (CgHioN^Oo.HCl.AuCls + 2H2O).

Solutions of caffeine give with gold chloride and some other
reagents crystalline precipitates. f To prepare caffeine gold
chloride the caffeine may be dissolved in distilled water, dilute
alcohol, absolute alcohol or a mixture of equal parts of absolute
alcohol and chloroform. One or two drops of the caffeine solu-
tion are placed upon a slide, to which is then added one or
two drops of an aqueous solution of gold chloride. The two
solutions are mixed by the use of a glass rod and then allowed
to crystallize. Crystals of caffeine gold chloride (Fig. 159)
are usually formed rather quickly, larger crystals being obtained
from the more dilute solutions of caffeine. The crystals are
also formed in solutions of caffeine acidulated with hydrochloric
acid. The microscopic crystals of caffeine gold chloride vary in
length from 0.4 mm. to 4 mm. They are said to be decomposed,
at least in part, on washing with either alcohol or water. The
Pharmacopoeia Helvetica gives the following micro-chemical test
for determining the presence of caffeine in cola: Transverse
sections of the cotyledons are placed in strong hydrochloric acid
and slightly heated ; then one or two drops of a solution of gold

* Here a and C arc simply the axes of greatest and least refractive
index for the ohserved aspect of the crystal, and not necessarily the
greatest and least for the whole crystal.

t Nicholson, Ann. Chcm. Phanii., 1847, 62, p. 71 ; and E. Schmidt,
Ibid., 1883, 217, p. 283.

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 829

chloride are added and the sections pushed to one side. The
hqiiid is allowed to evaporate and near the edge of the residue
branching groups of needles of caffeine gold chloride separate.

Caffeine Gold Chloride.

Orthorhombic : No axial ratio determinable.

Forms observed: The three pinacoids (100), (010) and
(001).

Habit : Tabular on the brachypinacoid, elongated on the c
axis with a ratio of length to width of 10: i or over. The
terminations of the rod are often more or less imperfectly
formed, perhaps from re-solution, the ends sometimes being
concave as in Fig. 159. but more often convex.

Optical properties : The extinction is straight. The axis of
least refractive index is the long dimension of the crystal (fl^c).

Pleochroism: fl pale lemon yellow.

t somewhat darker yellow.

Among the larger lath-shaped crystals of the caffeine gold
chloride there may be observed smaller, needle-like crystals,
resembling the former in color and pleochroism but sometimes
showing oblique extinction. Calling c the direction of elonga-
tion, the angle £lAc = 30° approximately.

The pleochroism is the same as in the larger lath-shaped
crystals, i.e.;

^ pale lemon yellow.

C somewhat darker yellow.

The relationship between these two kinds of crystals is not
clear. It is possible that the larger crystals are a pseudosym-
metric modification of the second type; or again, the second
kind of crystal agrees so closely in habit and optical orientation
with caffeine, that it may be simply caffeine colored by absorption
of gold chloride, or of the double salt.

Cocaine (Ci,H,,NOJ.

Occurrence : See pp. 604-607.

Cocaine (the methyl ester of benzoyl-ecgonin). At 25° C.
one part of cocaine is soluble in 600 parts of water; 5 parts of

830 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

alcohol ; 3.8 parts of ether ; and one part of chloroform or
benzene. It is insoluble in glycerin. The individual crystals as
usually obtained on a microscopic slide vary in length from 0.4
mm. to 2 mm. (Fig. 157, A).

Cocaine. — Crystals from dilute alcohol, or a mixture of
alcohol, ether and chloroform.

Monoclinic : a: b: c ^ 0.8432 : i : 1.032 ; ^ = 73° 50'.*

Forms observed : Base (001); orthopinacoid (100); prism
(no); and clinodome (oli) (?).

Angles : Angle on the base between the prism-base edges
(ooi-i 10 Aooi-Iio) = 99° 44' (normals) .

Habit : Tabular on the base, elongated along the b axis.
The crystals are apparently hemimorphic, the termination on
one end of the b axis being the prism faces, and on the other
end the clinodome. This hemimorphism is, however, not certain.
It was not observed by Fock (loc. cit.).

Optical properties : As viewed on the base, the elongation
of the crystal (b axis) is the direction of least refractive index.
The optical orientation further than this was not determined.

Cocaine Hydrochloride (Ci-H^jNO^.HCl).

Cocaine hjtirochloride occurs in two forms, the hydrous salt
crystallizing from aqueous solutions ; and the anhydrous, from
non-aqueous solvents, such as alcohol. The latter is supposedly
the official salt and is erroneously stated in the U. S. P. to
crystallize in monoclinic prisms. At 25° C. one part of cocaine
hydrochloride is soluble in 0.4 part of water ; 2.6 parts of
alcohol; 18.5 parts of chloroform; and 4 parts of glycerin. The
microscopic crystals of the anhydrous salt may attain a length
of 3 mm. (Fig. 157, B). The hydrous salt affords long needles
or elongated plates, which, when crystallized on a microscopic
slide, may be as much as 20 mm. long.

Cocaine Hydrochloride (anhydrous). — Crystals from solu-
tion in a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and chloroform.

* Tschermak in Lossen's paper, Ann. Chem. Pliarm., 1865. 133, p. 355.
See also A. Fock. Zeitschr. f. Krysiallog., 1890, 17, p. 370.

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 831

Orthorhombic sphenoidal : a: b: c = 0.3294 : i : 0.9758.*
• Forms observed: Base (001); macropinacoid (100);
brachypinacoid (010); macrodome (101); and prism (140).

Angles: Angle 140 A 140 =105° 36'.

Habit: Tabular on the base, bounded by the brachypinacoid
and macropinacoid or macrodome, the elongation being in the
direction of the b axis, with a ratio of length to width of about
2 or 3: I. It is possible that the macropinacoid does not appear,
since it is difficult to distinguish between the macropinacoid and
the two faces on the macrodome in thin crystals. One or more
faces of the prism (140) are usually present, unsymmetrically
arranged. Interpenetrating twins on the prisms (470) and (130)
are observed, the angles between the longer axes being approxi-
mately 60° and 90° in the two cases respectively.

Optical properties: a=c; h=b; t=a. The axial plane is the
brachypinacoid. Bxa=c. Optical sign - — . An interference
figure is visible on the base.

Cocaine Hydrochloride (C17H21NO4.HCI + 2H2O). — Crys-
tals from aqueous solution.

Orthorhombic : a: b: c ^ 0.894 : i : r.

Forms observed: Base (001); brachypinacoid (010);
macropinacoid (100); and unit prism (no).

Habit : Tabular on the base, elongated along the a axis,
the crystals being extremely thin but having considerable width.
In some cases, however, they become quite narrow and needle-
like ; this is often the case when radiating aggregates are formed.
(See four-color plate.)

Optical properties: ^=a; 6=6; t=C. Axial plane the
macropinacoid. Bxa=c, Optical sign +. A very good inter-
ference figure is seen on the base and shows that 2E is not
very large, although the emergence of the optic axes was not
observed.

Cocaine Hydrochloride and Palladous Chloride.

Cocaine and cocaine hydrochloride give with a number of
reagents, including palladous chloride, characteristic crystalline

* Valentin, Zeitschr. f. Krystallog., 1889, 15, p. 36.

832 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

double salts/'- The crystals of cocaine hydrochloride and pal-
ladous chloride are prepared in the same manner as the caffeine
gold chloride, with the exception that to the solution containing
the cocaine hydrochloride a small quantity of hydrochloric acid
is added. To a few drops of this solution upon a slide are added
a few drops of the solution of palladous chloride, the two are
mixed by means of a glass rod and the slide is set aside to allow
the crystals to form. This frequently occurs almost immediately.
The individual crystals (Fig. 157, C^) vary in length from 0.3 mm.
to 1.6 mm. Skeleton crystals are also formed from .5 mm. to
6 mm. long (Fig. 157, D).

Cocaine Hydrochloride and Palladous Chloride.

Monoclinic ( ?) : a: b: c= ? (3 = 109°.

Forms observed : Clinopinacoid (010); orthopinacoid (100);
and base (001).

Angles: Angle iooAooi=7i° (normals).

Habit : Tabular on the clinopinacoid and elongated along the
c axis, the usual ratio of length to width being 10: i or over.

Twins. — (a) Twinning plane the orthopinacoid and com-
position face the same plane (gypsum type), (b) Twinning
plane the orthopinacoid and composition face the clinopinacoid
(Carlsbad type). The occurrence of the latter type of twinning
is assumed largely for optical reasons as is noted below.

The crystals have a strong tendency to fonn radiating aggre-
gates (Fig. 157, C) , and skeleton crystals (Fig. 157. D), due
no doubt to the fact that the substance is only slightly soluble
and the crystals therefore form rapidly.

Optical properties: The extinction direction is 20° from the
long dimension of the crystal and lies in the acute angle ; this
direction is that of least refractive index. The orientation is
therefore : fl A c = 20° in the acute angle ; C A a = 39° in the
obtuse angle. f

* W. Lessen, Ann. Chem. Pharm., 1865, 133, p. 355 : and Howard
and Stephenson, Proc. A. O. A. C, Nov., 1908, printed in Bulletin No.
122, pp. 97-100, of Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

t See footnote (*) on p. 828.

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 833

Certain crystals have no definite extinction, but show a direc-
tion of minimum illumination at 15° or less from the long direc-
tion of the crystal. This might be explained by the Carlsbad
twinning, referred to above, which explanation is rendered more
probable by the fact that the position of minimum illumination
in such crystals varies in different parts. The fact that such
crystals show a strong double refraction would preclude the possi-
bility of their being in such a position that an optic axis is nearly
vertical.

Pleochroism: a=pale yellow.

C— reddish-yellow.

An interference figure was not obtained.

Codeine Sulphate [ (Ci8H,,N03),.H,SO, -f sH.O].

Occurrence : See p. 659.

Codeine (the methyl ether of morphine) forms anhydrous
crystals from solutions in ether or benzol but the crystals from
aqueous solutions contain one molecule of water of crystalliza-
tion.* Microscopic x-shaped skeleton crystals separate from
alcoholic solutions which vary in length from about 50 /* to 100 [x
(Fig. S3~^- It forms crystallizable salts, of which the sulphate
only will be described. At 25° C. one part of codeine sulphate is
soluble in 30 parts of water, and 1035 parts of alcohol. It is
insoluble in chloroform or ether. The microscopic crystals from
hot alcoholic solutions vary in length from 0.3 mm. to 2.5 mm.
(Fig. 333)-

Codeine Sulphate. — Crystals from alcoholic solution.

Orthorhombic : a: b: c ^ 0.288 : i : 0.419.

Forms observed: Macropinacoid (100); base (001); unit
prism (no) ; brachydome (on) ; and brachypinacoid (010) (?).

Angles: Angle iioA 110 = 32° approximately; oiiAoIi =
45° 30^

* Oesterle, Pharmakochemie, p. loi ; and Briihl, Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide,
P- 341-

834

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Habit : Tabular on the macropinacoid, the crystal being
elongated on the c axis and terminated by the faces of the
brachydome (on j. The ratio of length to width is 2 : i or over,
the crystals often appearing rod-like and needle-like. The base
sometimes appears to the exclusion of the brachydome, giving
a s(|uare-ended crystal. The prism bevels the long edges of the
crystal at a very acute angle, which was only approximately
determined, hence the a: b ratio given above is largely in error.

Fig. 332. Codeine: x-shaped skeleton crystals from lo per cent, alcoholic solution.

X-shaped interpenetrating twins are observed, the angle between
the long dimensions of the two individuals being about 30°. The
twinning law was not determined.

Optical properties : The direction of greatest elongation of
the crystal (c) is the direction of less refractive index for the
aspect on the macropinacoid. No good interference figure was
obtained, although it is probable that the axial plane is the
brachypinacoid (010). If this is the case the orientation is
ei=c; 6=6; C=a.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

835

CUBEBIN (C10H10O3).

Occurrence: See p. 571-

Cubebin is prepared by first removing the oil from the Cubeb
fruits by distillation and then extracting the cubebin with boiling
alcohol. The solvent is then removed by distillation and the
residue washed with water and treated with a mixture of 5 parts
of alcohol (90 p. c.) and 2 parts of water, which dissolves

Fig. 333. Codeine sulphate: orthorhombic crystals from hot alcoholic solution.

the cubebin leaving the fatty substances behind. The alcoholic
solution is evaporated and the reddish-brown residue treated
with a potassium hydrate solution (1:4) until all the resin is
removed. The residue contains the cubebin as a pale yellow
substance which upon re-crystallization from hot alcohol is
obtained in the pure condition. It occurs in white rod-like

836

BOTAiNY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

crystals which are nearly insoluble in \\ater and at 15° C. one
part dissolves in 75 parts of alcohol and 30 parts of ether. It
is also soluble in chloroform and acetic acid.* The micro-
scopic crystals obtained from ProUius' solution vary in length
from 100 IX to 300 p. (Fig. 334). In among the crystals liquid
drops of amorphous material were observed, which later changed
to more or less distinct crystalline aggregates.

Fig. 3J4. Cubebin: urthorhombic cr\slals fruiu t'rulliu^' bulutioii, t>hu\ving various
types of twinning (a, b, c); d, amorphous material in the form of oily drops (under-cooled
liquid); e, this amorphous material crystallizing in aggregates.

Cubebin. — Crystals obtained from ProUius' solution.

Orthorhombic : &.■ c = i : 0.273 ( ?).

Habit : The crystals of cubebin observed were rods elongated
on the c axis, wath a ratio of length to width of about 10: i ;
they were not well terminated. Three kinds of twinning were
observed, giving x-shaped or branched crystals ; the angles be-
tween the c axes in these twins measured about 40°, 69° and 85°

* E. Schmidt, Lehrbuch der Pharmaceutischen Chemie.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

^2>7

respectively. In addition, in a very few cases a terminal edge
was observed, making an angle of 75° with the c axis. If we
assume that these twins are seen in the same aspect and that
this is the macropinacoid, i.e., that all the twinning planes and
the termination are brachydomes, we have an axial ratio b:c^=
1:0.2734, and the three kinds of twins may be explained as
follows :

Calculated.

1. Twinning plane 043, angle cAc' = 4o° 14'

2. Twinning plane 052, angle cAc' = 68° 40'

3. Twinning plane 041, angle cAc' = 84° 52'
Termination (on), angle on A 011 = 149° 24'

Observed.
,0

40
69°

150'

Fig. 33S- Digitoxin: sphero-crystals from an alcoholic solution.

The twinning planes and the termination may, however, be
pyramids with the same a: b ratio.

Optical properties : The extinction is straight. In the ma-
jority of cases, the length is the direction of least refractive
index, l)ut in others the reverse is true. This would indicate
that \y =c. This is confirmed by the interference figure which

838

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

is given by the larger crystals, which shows that the axial plane
is perpendicular to the long dimension of the crystal. No in-
terference figure was obtained on the twinned crystals (which
were smaller), so that their orientation is doubtful as noted
above.

Fig. 336. Hydrastine: large nearly equidimensional crystals from alcoholic solution.

Hydrastine (CoiHoiNOq).

Occurrence : See p. 498.

Hydrastine occurs in the drug in part in the free condition
as well as combined. At i8°-22° C. one part of hydrastine is
soluble in 30,303 parts of water; about 130 parts of alcohol;
196 parts of ether ; i part of chloroform ; and 1 1 parts of
benzene. At 80° C. one part of hydrastine is soluble in 4000

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 839

parts of water; and at 60° C. one part is soluble in 17 parts
of alcohol.* When crystallized upon a microscopic slide from
alcoholic solutions the crystals of hydrastine vary in length from
0.1 mm. to 1.2 mm. (Fig". 336).

Hydrastine. — Crystals from alcoholic solution.
Orthorhombic : a: b: c ^ 0.8461 : i : 0.3761.!
Forms observed: Prisms (no) and (870); macrodome
(201).

Angles: angle iioAtTo^8o° 28'
87oA87o = 73° 02'
201 A 201 = 83° 16'

Plane angle on (870) between the edges of (201) and (870)
(870-201 A 870-870) = 62° f.

Habit: Crystals usually show a combination of prism (870)
and macrodome (201), flattened on one pair of the prism faces
(Fife- 33*^ )• The larger crystals are nearly equi dimensional ;
the smaller ones often being elongated on the c axis, with the
ratio of length to width of 3:1 or over.

In the usual aspect, lying on one of the (870) prism faces,
the crystal appears as a flat plate bounded by six edges, making
angles with each other of approximately 120°. If the length and
width are the same, this gives the appearance of a more or less
distorted hexagon. As may be seen from the above, however,
this hexagon is not regular Imt has two angles of 124° and four
angles of 118° (118° = i8o°— 62°). The unit prism (no) is
of rare occurrence and is observed on the larger crystals.

Optical properties : Owing to the habit it is difficult to
obtain a crystal in such a position that it would afford a view
along one of the bisectrices. However, it would seem from what
could be obtained, that the axial plane is the brachvpinacoid
(010), and Bx^ = a. In the usual aspect of the crystals on the
prism face, the c axis is the direction of greatest refractive
index.

* A. Seidell, Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances,
t E. A. Wi'ilfing, Zeitschr. f. Krystallog., 1888, 14, p. 99.

840

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Menthol (C^qHsoO).

Occurrence: See pp. 631, 632.

Menthol, CgHg.CHg.OH.CaH^ (i, 3, 4), occurs in peppermint
oil only in the Isevorotatory modification.* It melts at about 42°
C. and on cooling crystallizes in aggregates composed of fine
needles ( Fig. 337, B ) . Upon sublimation short rods are obtained
(Fig. 337, A) ; and if a slide of the aggregates is covered with an-
other slide large needles may be formed. Menthol is very soluble
in alcohol, ether and chloroform and sparingly soluble in water.
It separates from peppermint oil upon cooling.

Fig. 337. Menthol: A, individual crystals obtained by sublimation; B, the commonly
occurring aggregates of very fine needles.

Menthol.

Orthorhombic.

Habit : Crystals appear as long needles without terminations.

Optical properties : The long dimension of the crystal is
uniformly the direction of least refractive index. This is con-
firmed by the interference figure which may be seen in certain
aspects and shows that the axial plane is parallel to the long
dimension. If this long dimension is called the vertical axis we
therefore have £l=c.

* Gildemeister and Hofifmann, Die Aetherischen Oele.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

841

Morphine Sulphate [(CitHi9N03),.HoS04 + 5H.O].

Morphine is a derivative of 3-6 clioxy-phenanthryleneoxide *
which crystalHzes from alcoholic solutions in orthorhombic prisms
or needle-like crystals, containing- one molecule of water of
crystallization (Ci^HigNOg.H^O)* which it gradually loses at
75° C. It forms a number of crystalline salts of which the

Fig. 338. Morphine sulphate: orthorhombic crystals from aqueous solution.

sulphate is here only described. There are at least two different
morphine sulphates,! the neutral salt containing 5 molecules of
water of crystallization being the article usually found in com-
merce. It readily loses some of its water of crystallization eyen
at a temperature of 30°-40° C. At 25° C. one part of

* Oesterle, Pharmakochemie.
t Briihl, Pflanzen-Alkaloide.

842 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

morphine sulphate is soluble in 15.3 parts of water; 465 parts
of alcohol ; it is nearly insoluble in ether or chloroform. The
crystals formed on a slide from alcoholic solutions vary in
length from o.i mm. to 0.8 mm. (Fig. 338). When prepared
from aqueous solutions they may attain a length of 20 mm.

Morphine Sulphate. — Crystals from aqueous solution.

Orthorhombic : a: b = 0-437 '■ i-

Forms observed: Base (001); brachypinacoid (010);
macropinacoid (100); and unit prism (no).

Angles: Angle iioA ilo = 47°-io.

Habit : Tabular on the base, elongated along the a axis,
the crystals appearing as needles which are often grouped in
radiating aggregates, or as long thin plates. The termination
is the unit prism, rarely the macropinacoid.

Optical properties: a = a; b = 6; t = c. An interference
figure is obtained on the base, which shows that the axial plane
is the brachypinacoid, but the apparent axial angle is so large
that it is impossible to state whether c is the acute or obtuse
bisectrix.

The crystals from alcohol seem to be optically identical with
the above. The unit prism, however, rarely appears, the crystals
being for the most part square ended rods.

Narcotine (C22H23NO7).

Occurrence : See p. 660.

Narcotine [Ci9Hi4N04.(OCH3)..] exists in opium to a very
large extent as a free base. At about 15° C. one part of nar- ^
cotine is soluble in 100 parts of alcohol (85 per cent.); 166
parts of ether ; 2.7 parts of chloroform ; and 22 parts of benzene.
One part of narcotine is soluble in about 7000 parts of boiling
water. Narcotine is a feeble base and fonns salts which for
the most part crystallize with difficulty or not at all. A crystalline
double salt, however, is readily formed with methyl-iodide.*
The crystals of narcotine prepared on microscopic slides from,
alcoholic solution vary in length from 0.4 mm. to 2 mm. (Fig.

339)-

* Briihl, Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

843

Narcotine. — Crystals from alcoholic solutions.

Orthorhombic sphenoidal : a: b: c = 0.532 : i:c.

Forms observed: Base (001); brachypinacoid (010); and

sphenoid ( 1 1 1 ) •

Angles: Angle on base between the base-sphenoid edge and
brachypinacoid (ooi-iii A 001-010)= 62° (normals).

Fig. 339. Narcotine: orthorhombic crystals from alcoholic solution.

Habit : Tabular on the base, elongated along the a axis, the
end terminations being the faces of the sphenoid ( 1 1 1 ) , which are
inclined to the base. By focussing down upon the crystal it is
seen that the edge between the two sphenoid faces slopes in
opposite directions at the two ends of the crystal.

Optical properties: A = a; h = b; C =^ c The axial plane is
the brachypinacoid. An interference figure is observed on the
base and shows that 2E is large ; apparently Bxa = c; and the
optical sign is -\-.

844 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Physostigmine Salicylate (CisH^iNgOo.QHeOs).

Occurrence : See p. 439.

Physostigmine (or eserine) forms from solutions in benzene
rather large crystals having a M. P. of 105-106° C. The salts
of physostigmine are quite easily decomposed and not easily
crystallizable. The benzoate, salicylate and the double salt
formed with potassium-mercuric-iodide yield, however, good
crystals. The salicylate of physostigmine usually occurs in
needle-like crystals or large prisms, one part at 25° C. being solu-
ble in 72.5 parts of water; 12.7 parts of alcohol; 8.6 parts of
chloroform; and 175 parts of ether. From solutions in chloro-
form single crystals may be obtained which vary in length from
0.4 to 1.5 mm. (Fig. 189) ; large characteristic aggregates are
also formed. The crystals are easily decomposed and best kept
in a desiccator.

Physostigmine Salicylate. — Crystals from solutions in
chloroform.

Orthorhombic : a: b: c = 0.869 : i : f .

Forms observed: Base (001); macropinacoid (100);
brachypinacoid (010); unit prism (no).

Angles: Angle iioAiTo = 82°.

Habit: Tabular on the base, elongated along the a axis. The
crystal is terminated by the macropinacoid or the unit prism.
The latter form may possibly be actually a pyramid, but this
cannot be definitely decided upon owing to the thinness of the
crystals on which it occurred. In the majority of cases the
crystal is terminated simply by the pinacoid with the corners
and faces more or less rounded as if by re-solution. The in-
dividuals are usually grouped in radiating aggregates.

Optical properties: a=6; i}=a; t=c. The axial plane is the
macropinacoid. Bxa=c. Optical sign +. The apparent
angle 2E, between the optic axes, is not large, so that both axes
may be observed in the interference figure seen on the base.
Certain individuals are in such a position on the slide that the
interference figure shows the emergence of one optic axis, and

i
I

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 845

from the figure it seems that the obhquity of such individuals is
nearly constant. These individuals may all be lying upon a
definite brachydome instead of upon the base.

PiPERINE (Ci.HigNOg).

Occurrence : See pp. 573, 574.

Piperine is rather easily prepared from white pepper as
follows : The ground pepper is mixed with an equal weight of
lime and a small quantity of water is added. The mixture is
heated to boiling for about 15 minutes, and is then evaporated
and carefully dried upon a water-bath. The residue is powdered
and extracted with ether. The ethereal solution contains the
piperine, which separates in the form of crystals. It is purified
by re-crystallization from hot alcoholic solutions.*

Piperine is a weak base, dissolving in dilute acids without
forming salts and on this account may be separated from acid
solutions with petroleum ether. It forms crystalline double salts
with platinic chloride, mercuric chloride and iodine-potassium-
iodide. At 25° C. one part of piperine is soluble in 15 parts
of alcohol; 36 parts of ether; and 1.7 parts of chloroform. It
is nearly insoluble in water. The individual crystals formed on a
microscopic slide from hot alcoholic solutions of piperine vary
in length from o.i mm. to 1.5 mm. (Fig. 340). Isolated
aggregates are also formed. As in cubebin we find numerous
oily-looking drops of the amorphous substance, but with piperine
they often have the outline of crystals, as if the latter were first
formed, and later transformed by fusion or otherwise into the
amorphous material. On the other hand the crystals grow, on
long standing, at the expense of the drops. In sections of the
crude drug it is not at all uncommon to find in the oil secretion
cells the characteristic crystals of piperine. Molisch f has given
a number of methods for the micro-detection of piperine in
sections.

* Briihl, Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide.

t Hans Molisch, Grundriss einer Histochemie der Pflanzlichen
Genussmittel. (1891), pp. 27-29.

846

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

PiPERiNE. — Crystals from hot alcoholic solutions (Fig. 340).
Monoclinic : a:b = 0.9837 : i ; (3 = 109° 37^'.*
Forms observed : Clinopinacoid (010); orthopinacoid (100);
and base (001).

Fig. 340. Piperine: monoclinic crystals, mostly on the clinopinacoid, showing the oblique
terminations, obtained from hot alcoholic solution.

Angles: Angle looAooi =70^° (70° 22^0-

Habit : Tabular on the clinopinacoid, elongated along the c
axis. The smaller crystals are rod-like or needle-like. In the
larger crystals the ratio of length to width may become as small
as 2 : I or less. These larger crystals are often thicker in the

* F. M. Jaeger, Zeitschr. f. Krystallog., 1907-08, 44, p. 574.

MICRO-ANALYSIS.

847

center than at the edges and are bounded by oscillatory com-
binations of the clinopinacoid with a prism and a clinodome
respectively.

Optical properties : The extinction angle measured from the c
axis is 36° in the obtuse angle, and this direction is that of least
refractive index for the expect given. No definite interference
figure is observed on the clinopinacoid, and the axial plane is
therefore apparently parallel to this form. If this is the case
the optical orientation is fl Ac =-^ 36° in the obtuse angle ; ll = 6;
CAa= i6i° in the acute angle.

Fig. 341. Scopolamine hydrobromide : crystal aggregates from an alcoholic solution.

Quinine Sulphate [(QoH^.N^OJo-H.SO, + 7H,0].

Occurrence: See p. 519.

The alkaloid quinine (C20H04N0O2) is the methoxy-derivative
of cinchonine and separates in anhydrous crystals from hot aque-
ous solutions. If the hot solution, in dilute alcohol, is kept for
some time at 30° C, then on cooling long silky needles form.
There is another modification, occurring as a flaky powder and

848

BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

containing three molecules of water of crystallization (C20H24N2-
O., + 3H2O), which is official. Some authors consider, however,
that there is only one molecule of water of crystallization in this
hydrous salt.* The hydrous salt has a M. P. of 57° while the
anhydrous crystals melt at 175°- Quinine is a strong base, form-
ing with acids basic and neutral salts. The neutral sulphate is
largely used and is here considered.

i if***

f- 1.. ^ ^

Pig. 342. Strychnine sulphate: tetragonal crystals from aqueous solution, in ordinary light,

showing basal and side aspects.

There are several modifications of quinine sulphate : ( i )
The neutral sulphate containing eight molecules of water of crys-
tallization [(CooHa^N.OJa-HoSO^ + 8HX)], is obtained upon
neutralizing the base with sulphuric acid and crystallizing from
hot water. (2) Upon exposing the former over sulphuric
acid it loses six molecules of water of crystallization giving
[(C2oH24N202)o.HoS04 -f- 2H0O]. This same salt is formed
upon re-crystallizing (i) from hot alcoholic solutions. (3) The

O. A. Oesterle, Grundriss der Pharmakochemie.

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 849

acid sulphate or bisulphate contains seven molecules of water of
crystallization (QoH^,4N20^,.HoS04 -|- /H.O), is also official, and
has been described.'^' (4) There is also a tetrasulphate of
quinine having the formula (Q0H20N2O0.2H0SO4 -|- 7H20).f

At 25° C. one part of quinine sulphate (containing SH.O) is
soluble in 720 parts of water ; 86 parts of alcohol ; 400 parts of
chloroform. It is readily soluble in a mixture of chloroform
(2 parts) and absolute alcohol (i part) ; and one part is soluble
in 36 parts of glycerin at 25° C. It is only sparingly soluble in
ether. When crystallized from a dilute alcoholic solution, upon
a microscopical slide, the individual needles may attain a length
of 4 mm. (Fig. 226).

(C,oH2nNoOo)o.HoS04 + SH.O. Crystals from aqueous solu-
tion.

Orthorhombic.

Forms observed: The three pinacoids : (100), (010) and
(001).

Cleavage parallel to (100) and (010).

Habit: Tabular on the base, elongated on the a axis, giving
cr}'stals which are commonly needle-like with square terminations.

Optical properties: a = c; \y = h; t^=a. An interference
figure is observed on the base, showing that the axial plane is the
brachypinacoid and that 2E is large.

Salicin (CigHigO^).

Occurrence : See p. 250.

Salicin, through the action of ferments, yields saligenin and
glucose. I The crystals of commerce occur' in the form of prisms
or needles. At 25° C. one part of salicin is soluble in 21 parts
of water and 71 parts of alcohol. It is insoluble in ether
and chloroform. The individual crystals, which separate upon a
microscopic slide from alcoholic or aqueous solutions, vary in
length from 0.3 mm. to 5. mm. (see four-color plate). The

*Th. HJortdahl, Zcitschr. f. Krystallog., 1879, 3, pp. 303, 304; see
also Hahn, Arch. d. Pharm., 1859, 99, p. 148.

t Briihl, Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide, pp. 182, 183.

t O. A. Oesterle, Grundriss der Pharmakochemie.

850 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

crystals have a tendency to arrange themselves in feather-like
aggregates.

Salicin. — Crystals from alcoholic solutions. No axial ratio
obtainable.

Orthorhombic.

Fig. 343. Strychnine sulphate: tetragonal crystals in polarized light, showing side aspect.

Forms observed: The three pinacoids: (100), (010) and
(001).

Habit : Tabular on the base, elongated along the a axis.
The crystals are commonly long thin plates, with square termina-
tions, and are often grouped in aggregates in which the in-
dividuals are nearly parallel (see four-color plate).

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 851

Optical properties: £L = a; b = 6; C = c. Axial plane the
brachypinacoid. A good interference figure is observed on the
base, and although the emergence of the axes was not observed,
c is probably the acute bisectrix with the value of 2E, large.

Strychnine Sulphate [(C2iH22N202)2-H2S04 -f 6H2O].

Occurrence : See p. 437.

Strychnine crystallizes in anhydrous orthorhombic crystals
from alcoholic solutions. It forms crystallizable salts with the
various acids, as well as double salts with platinic chloride and
gold chloride. Of the salts, the sulphates are commercially the
most important. According to Rammelsberg * there are three
strychnine sulphates : ( i ) An acid salt, with two molecules
of water of crystallization (C21H22N2O0.H2SO4 + 2H.O) and
crystallizing in needles, crystal form not given. (2) A neutral
salt with 5 molecules of water of crystallization [ (C2iH2oN202)2--
H2SO4 -f- 5H0O], orthorhombic ( ?), from hot aqueous solutions.
(3) A neutral salt with six molecules of water of crystallization
[(C2iH22N202)2-H2S04 -[- 6H2O], tctragoual, obtained from
aqueous solutions at the ordinary temperature. This latter is
the most characteristic form and is the one here described.
At 25° C. one part of strychnine sulphate is soluble in 31 parts
of water ; 65 parts of alcohol ; and 325 parts of chloroform. It
is nearly insoluble in ether. Crystals obtained on a microscopic
slide from solutions in water, alcohol, dilute alcohol or a mixture
of alcohol and chloroform vary in size from 0.40 mm. to 2.0
mm. (Figs. 342-344).

Strychnine Sulphate. — Crystals from aqueous solution.
Tetragonal trapezohedral : a: c ^ i : 3.3 12. f
Forms observed: Base (001); and pyramid of the first
order (221).

Angles: Angle 221 A 221 ^ 24° 6'.

* C. Rammelsberg, B^er. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 1881, 14, p. 1231 ;
abstract in Zeiischr. f. Krystallog., 1884, 9, p. 108.

t Des Cloizeaux. See Groth's Physikalische Krystallographie (1905),
4th Ed., p. 431.

852 BOTANY AND PHARMACOGNOSY.

Habit : Crystals commonly tabular on the base and appear-
ing as square plates. Occasional crystals are seen in the side
aspect showing the pyramid (221). This face does not appear
as a smooth plane, but as a rough striated surface more or
less curved, the striations being parallel to the base (Fig. 343).

Optical properties : Uniaxial, optical sign — ■. Small crystals
in the usual aspect (on the base) show no polarization effect.
Larger crystals show a faint illumination between crossed nicols,

Fig. 344. Strychnine sulphate: tetragonal crystals from aqueous solution, showing
basal aspect in polarized light. Also one large crystal of a second form (orthorhombic?)
of strychnine sulphate.

owing to optical anomalies and to the rotation of the plane of
polarized light, which amounts to about 10° per mm. thickness.
Crystals seen on the side view show a strong double refraction.

Vanillin (CgHgOa).

Occurrence: See pp. 587, 672, 673 and 680. See also
Czapek.*

* Czapek, Biochemie der Pflanzen, ii, p. 551.

MICRO-ANALYSIS. 853

Vanillin, or the methyl ether of protocatechuic aldehyde,
CgHs.CHO.OCHg.OHCi, 3, 4), is not found in the plant king-
dom as such but appears to be formed as a result of the decom-
position of other substances. It is prepared from vanilla pods,
potato paring-s and Siam benzoin. The commercial article is
prepared synthetically from eugenol, guaiacol and coniferin.*

The M. P. is 8o°-8i° C, which serves to distinguish it
from cumarin which has a M. P. 67° C. ; acetanilide (M, P.
113°) ; and benzoic acid (M. P. 120° C). At 80° C. one part
of vanillin is soluble in 15 parts of water and very soluble in
alcohol, ether, chloroform and glycerin. The individual crystals
from hot aqueous solutions vary in length from 0.3 mm. to 4
mm. (Fig. 128).

Vanillin. — Crystals from hot aqueous solutions.

Orthorhombic : a: b = 0.560: i.

Forms observed: Base (001); brachypinacoid (010); unit
prism (no); brachydome (oic) ; and pyramid (iic). These
two latter forms are doubtful.

Angles: Angles iioAiIo = 58° 30'.

Habit: Tabular on the base, elongated along the a axis, the
ratio of length to width being 10: i or over. The end of the
crystal is terminated by the unit prism, the two faces of which
are often unequally developed, one face being sometimes entirely
absent so that the termination is oblique.

Optical properties: The a axis is that of least refractive
index for the basal aspect. An interference figure is observed
on the base showing that the c axis is a bisectrix, and the axial
plane is probably the brachypinacoid. .If this is the case the
optical orientation is a = a; tl = b; 1="^.

* Oesterle, Grundriss der Pharmakochemie, pp. 261-268.

INDEX.

Abelmoschus, 331

Abies, 187

Abies balsamea, 79

Abortive, 135

Abrin, 300

Abroma, 333

Abrus, 299, 474

Absinthe, 397

Absinthiin, 397

Absinthium, 396
oil of, 396

Absinthol, 397

Abuta, 274, 462

Abutilon, 331

Acacia, 299, 643, 652,
667
artificial, 689
Catechu, 294
powder, 795
Senegal, 294
species, 644

Acajou gum, 322

Acanthaceae, 377

Acanthus family, 377

Accumbent, 155

Acer species, 323

Aceraceje, 323

Aceras, 590

Achillea species, 399

Achras, 359

Achyranthes, 265

Acid, abiennic, 682
abietinolic, 682
alantolic, 399
anisic, 565
anthemic, 555
arabic, 644, 652
artanthic, 617
aurantiamaric, 592
benzoic, 662, 673
butyric, 300, 319
caffeic, 521
cafifeotannic, 521
calumbic, 460
cambogic, 648
caryophyllinic, 549
catechutannic, 666
cathartic, 610
cetraric, 6go
chlorgenic, 437

Acid, chrysophanic,
476, 525,. 609
cinchotannic, 521
cinnamic, 673
citric, 594
cubebic, 571
dextropimaric, 670
digallic, 646
elateric, 387
ellagic, 536
embelic, 574
ergotinic, 692
eriodictyonic, 613
eucalyptic, 600
euonic, 532
ferulaic, 672, 675
filicic, 687
filixtannic, 687
frangulic, 522
gallic, 321, 647
gelsemic, 482
gentiotannic, 485
gentisic, 484
glycollic, 328
guaiacic, 669
guaiacinic, 669
guaiaconic, 669
guaiaretic, 669
gummic, 644, 652
hederic, 350
hydrocyanic, ^,37
igasuric, 437
ipecacuanhic, 469
isobutyric, 557
isovalerianic, 505
jervic, 494
kinic, 520
kombic, 431
krameric, 455
lactucic, 649
lasvopimaric, 670
lichenostearic, 690
lupamaric, 583, 594
lupulic, 594
maizenic, 558, 693
meconic, 660
ophelic, 638
pectic, 288
phyllic, 539
phytolaccic, 466, 467

Acid, pimaric, 681

pinitannic, 684

pipitzahoic, 400

podophyllic, 508

polygalic, 456

protocatechuic, 543

pyrethric, 456

quercitannic, 543

quillajic, 541

resinolic, 654

rheumic, 476

santalic, 547

scammonic, 657

sclerotic, 692, 693

sinapic, 428

sinapine sulphate,
428

sphacelinic, 692

syringic, 525

tannic, 646

tartaric, 594

valerianic, 527

viburnic, 527
Acid-resins, 654
Acids, fruit-, 288
Aconite, 477

Indian, 480

Japanese, 479

leaves, 480
Aconitine, 271, 477, 823
Aconitum, 477

Napellus, 268

powder, 771

species, 479, 480
Acorin, 496
Acrinyl sulphocyanide,

428
Actfea, 272
Actinomorphic, 136
Acuminate, 112
Acute, 112
Adansonia, 331, 332
Adder's tongue family.

63
Adhatoda, 378
Adhesion, 134
Adiantum, 58, 63, 64
Adlumia, 282
Adnate, 128
Adnation, 134

855

856

INDEX.

Adonidin, 496
Adonis, 272, 496
^cidiospores, 38
^cidium, 38
Probes, 222
^sculin, 324, 536
^sculus, 324
Afzelia, 299
Agar-Agar, 16
Agaric, deadly, 30

fly, 31

Agaricus campestns,

29. 30

trehalose in, 168
Agave, 240, 330
Aggregate, 385
Agropyron repens, 227
Agrostemma, 218
Ailanthus, 310
Ailanthus family, 309
Air-plants, 235
Aizoacese, 267
Akene, 147
AlcT, 248
Alantol, 399
Alantolactone, 399
Alaria, 16
Albizzia, 299, 644
Albumen of seed, 152
Alcohol, ceryl-, 317

melyl- 317

myricyl-, 319
Aleurites, 316-318
Aleurone grains, 173

in cereals, 226
Alfa. 230
Alizarin, 381
Alga-like Fungi, 18
Alga. 8

as foods. 16

Blue-green. 8

Brown, 8, 13

destruction of, 378

economic uses, 15

Green. 8

in medicine, 16

Red. 8. 13
Alkaloids, 168
Alkanet, 367
Alkanna, 367
Alkannin. 367
Allium, 239
Allspice, 574, 575

crown, 575

Mexican, 575

powder, 755

stems, 756

Allspice, Tobasco, 575
Almond, bitter, 433

cake, 795

meal, 795

meal, spurious, 795

powder, 794

sweet, 434
Almonds, 287, 322

Jordan, 434

pistacio, 322

substitute for,

3i7, 794

Aloe Perryi, 237
spicata, 238
vera, 238

Aloe wood, 312, 343

Aloes, 661

adulterants, 665
Cape, powder, 750
Curagao, powder,

781

Jafarabad, 666

Natal. 665

Socotrine, powder,
781

varieties, 663, 664
Aloin, 662, 664
Aloinose, 665
Alpinia, 242
Alsine, 268
Althaea,

329, 331, 450, 451

mucilage in, 176

officinalis, 329

powder, 754

substitutes, 451
Altingia 681
Alum root, 286
Alyssum, sweet, 284
Amanita muscaria, 31

phalloides, 30, ^2
Amarantaceas, 265
Amaranthus, 265
Amaryllidaceae, 239
Amaryllis, 240
Amaryllis family, 239
Amber, 81
Amber seed, 331
Ambrosiaceae, 392
Amelanchier, 287
Aments, 250
Amido-succinamide,

451
Ammanni, 344
Ammoniac, 354

powder, 750
Amomum, 242

Amorpha, 298
Amygdala amara, 433

powder, 794
Amygdala dulcis, 434

powder, 794
Amygdalin,

287, 434
Amylodextrin, 165, 367
Amylose, 164
Amylum, 642
Amyris, 309
Anabolism, 222
Anacardiaceae, 319
Anacardium, 319, 322
Anacyclus Pyrethrum,

394

species, 456
Anaerobes, 222
Anagyris, 300
Anamirta paniculata,

274
Ananas, 235
Anatropous, 126
Anchieta, 472
Androecium, 129
Andromedotoxin,

357, 602
Andropogon, 227, 230
Anemone, 271
Anemone camphor, 271

species, 116
Anemonin, 271
Anemonol, 271
Anemophilous, 142
Anethol, 562, 564
Anethum, 354
Angelica, 354

species, 354
Angiosperms, 82

economic importance,
90

outer morphology of.

Angustura bark, 308
Anhalonidine, 342
Anhalonine, 342
Anhydro-atropine, 622
Aniline dyes, 803
Aniline hydrochloride,

182
Anime, 310
Anise, 560

Italian, powder, 740

Japanese star, 274

powder, 739

powder, admixed,
740

I
I

INDEX.

857

Anise, star, 149, 274, 562-
Anisodus, 619
Anisomeria, 266
Anisum, 560
adulterants, 562
powder, 739
Annual ring, 209
Annuals, 410
Annular ducts, igo
Annulus, 59
Anobium, 420
Anogeissus, 644
Anona, 277
Anonaceae, 276
Antheniis, 554
nobilis, 393
powder? 746
species, 554
Anthemol, 555
Anther, 126

appendages of, 128
Antheridium, 7, 48
Antherozoid, 7
Anthoceros, 53
Anthophylli, 347
Anthotaxy, 137
Anthoxanthum,

230, 590
Anthraglucosennin, 608
Anthraquinone com-
pounds, 608
Anthraquinones, 476
Antiaris, 124, 256
Annual, 106
Apeiba, 329
Apical cell, 199
Apiol, 354
Apoatropine, 622
Apocarpous, 123
Apocodeine, 659
Apocynacese, 363
Apocynaniarin, 467
Apocynin, 467
Apocynum, 467, 764

species, 363
Apothecia, 40
Apple, 288
bitter, 583
May, 273
oxydase in, 436
star, 359
Apricot, 288

of St. Domingo, 337
seed, 794
Aquifoliaceje, 322
Aquilaria, 343

Arabin, 644, 648, 652
Aracese, 233
Arachis, 144, 300
Arales, 233
Aralia, powder, 761
nudicaulis, • 17
powder, 752
species, 450
Araliacese, 350
Araliin, 450
Arasina, 649
Arbor vitje, 683
Arbutin, 601
Arbutus stamen, 127

trailing, 356, 601
Archegoniates, 44

(drugs), 684
Archegoniuni, 4-I, 48
Archesporium, 48, 86
Archichlamydeae, 247
Arctium Lappa, 394

species, 153, 394
Arctostaphylos Uva-

Ursi, 356
Arctuvin, 601
Areca, 231
nut, 231
Arecaidine, 232
Arecaine, 2^2
Arecoline, 232
Argania, 359
Argel leaves, powder,

721
Argemone, 280, 483
Argithamnia, 318
Arillode, 15S
Arillus, 155
Arisa;ma, 234
Arisarum (stamen),

127
Aristolochia species,

260
Aristolochiacese. 260
Aristolochiales. 260
Aristotelia, 328
Arnica, 551

adulterants. 552
montana, 394
powder, 746
rhizome, 552
Arnicse flores, powder,

746
Arnicin, 552
Arnotta, 338
Arrow-poisons, 299
Arrowroot, Bermuda,
785

Arrowroot, Brazilian,
366
Maranta, 244
Montserrat. 787
Queensland, 789
St. Vincent, 787
Arrow-wood, 383
Artemisia, 551

species, 396, 397
Arthrospore, 42
Artichokes, globe, 402

Jerusalem, 402
Artocarpus, 257
Arum family, 233

water, 234
Asafetida, 671, 780
Asagraea, 495
Asarone, 260
Asarum, 120
canadense, 260
europoeum, 260
Asclepiadaceje, 365
Asclepiadin, 365
Asclepias, 365
Ascomycetes, 23
Ascophyllum, 16
Ascospores in yeasts,

24
Ascus, 18

Ash leaves, powder,
717
mountain, 287
prickly, 533, 543
white, 360
Asimina, 277
Asparagin, 162, 222,

451, 824
Asparagus, 239
Aspergillus, 26
Aspidium, S7- 60, 684,

687, 688, 749
Asplenium,

61, 62, 63, 64
Aspidosamine, 363
Aspidosperma, 363
Aspidospermatine, 363
Aspidospermine, 363
Assimilation parenchy-
ma, 184
Astragalus, 299
gummifer, 294
Astronium, 646
Atherosperma

(stamen), 127
Atriplex, 264
Atropa Belladonna,
272

858

INDEX.

Atropa Mandragora,465

Atropamin, 622

Atropine, 622

Atropous, 126

Attar of rose, 289

Aucuba, 355

Aurantiamarin,
308, 592

Aurantii Amari Cor-
tex, 592, 740

591. 741
Aurantiin, 592
Auxospores, 15
Avena, 227
Azorella, 653
Azulene, 554

Baccaurea, 318
Baccharine, 401
Baccharis, 400
Bacillus, 44

hay, 43

subtilis, 43

typhosus, 357
Bacteria, 42

classes, 44

occurrence, 43

spiral, 44

sulphur, 44
Bacterium, 44

soil, 99
Balanophora, 259
Balanophoraceje. 259
Balata gum, 358
Ballota, 628
Balm of Gilead, 250
Balm, sweet, 371
Balsam, garden, 326

of fir, 681
Balsaminaceae, 325
Balsams, 179
Bamboos, 226
Banana, 244
Banksia, 258
Banyan tree, (see Ficus
benghalensis), 257

false, 591
Baobab, 332
Baphia, 547
Baptisia, 298, 300
Barberry, European,

483

family, 272
Barbiera, 299
Barium carbonate, 796

sulphate, 797

Bark, 203
alder buckthorn, 521
blackberry, 530
black haw, 525

adulterants, 527
Calisaya, 519
cinchona, 517
cotton root, 527
cramp, 532
cuprea, 521
hamamelis, 527
Honduras, 546
Huanco, 521
inner, 511
loxa, 521
mezereon, 536
outer, 512
pomegranate, 534
prickly ash, 532
sassafras, 539
slippery-elm, 544
soap, 541
Wahoo, 531
white oak, 541
wild black cherry,

537
Barks, drug, 512

Picrasma, 546

Quassia, 546
Barley, 227, 575, 796

f^our, 791

plant, 228
Barosma species, 306
Barringtonia, 345
Basidia, 31
Basidiomycetes, 31
Basidiospore, 18, 31
Basidium, 18, 35, 38
Basil, sweet, 371
Bassorin, 652
Basswood, 328
Bast fiber, 187
Bauhinia, 299
Bayberry family, 250
Bay rum, 347
Bdellium, India, 311

varieties, 673
Beale's carmine solu-
tion, 806
Bean, garden, 300
Bearberry, red, 601
Bebeerine, 279
Bebeeru bark, 461
Beberine, 461
Bedstraw, 378, 382

sweet scented, 590
Beebcru, 279

Beech American, 254

family, 252

red, 254
Beech-drops, 413

false, 355
Beet, 265
Beggiatoa, 44
Begonia, 124, 190

species, 341
Begoniaceae, 341
Beilschmiedia, 541
Belladonna leaves, 6i8j

620, 725, 728
Belladonna root, 446,

461, 463, 757
Belladonnse folia, 620

powder, 725
Belladonnse radix, 463

powder, 757
Belladonna Scopolia,

509
Belladonnine, 622
Bell-flower family, 388
Benne oil, t,"/"]
Benzaconine, 478
Benzaldehyde,

434, 537. 539, (i7Z
Benzoin varieties, 672
Benzoinum, 662, 672

powder, 781
Benzol, 673
Benzoresin, 673
Benzoresinol, 673
Benzoyl-pseudotropine,

605
Berbamine, 483
Berberidaceas, 2^2
Berberine, 483, 500, 501

sulphate, 825
Berberis, 482

Aquifolium, 272

powder, 739

species, 483

stamen, 127
Bergamot oil, 307

wild, 371
Berries, cubeb, 569

Juniper, 683

orange, 593

prickly ash, 534
Berry, 147

Bertholletia, 172,345, 756
Beta, 265
Betel, 249

leaves, 249

nut, 231
Betula, 252

INDEX.

859

Bhang. 255, 635
Bichy, 435
Bicollateral, 206
Bicuculla, 282
Bidens, 155
Biennial, 106
Bifacial leaves, 107
Bigaradia oil, 30?
Bignoniace?e, Zll
Bilabiate, 130
Bilateral leaves, 108
Bilberries, 357
Bind weed, great, 366

Birch, 252

sweet, 252

white, 679
Bird food, 378
Bird-lime, 259, 322
Birthwort family, 260
Bisabol, 675
Bissy-bissy nut, 435
Bistorta, 264
Bitter principles, 258,
312, 326, 340, 360
Bittersweet, climbing,

Bixa, 338
Bixacese, 338
Black cohosh, 268

haw, 382, 525

mustard, 429
flour, 743
ground, 743

snakeroot, 268
^-Blackberries, 531
Blackberry, high bush,
288

low, 288

sand, 288
Bladders, 13
Blade, leaf, 106, 130
Blights, 20
Blinding tree, 317
Bloodroot, 280, 508
Blue flag, 240
Blueberries, 357
Bluets, 378
Bocconia, 282
Boehmeria,

188, 257, 258
Boerhavia, 265
Bohmer's hsematoxy-

lin solution, 806
Bolacho, 667
Bombacese, 331
Bombax, 284

species, 331

Boneset, 626
climbing, 390
purple, 626
Borage family, 367
Boraginaceae, 367
Border, 130
Bork, 512
Borneol, 279, 505
Bornyl valerate, 505
Boswellia, 311
Botrychium, 62, 63, 120
Bougainvillea, 132, 265
Bouncing bet, 267
Box tree, 319

family, 319
Box wood, 461
Boxes, cigar, 313
Brabeium, 258
Bracts, 131

structure of, 211
Brandy, 328
Brassica, 283, 284

nigra, 283, 742

species,
429, 742, 743, 744
Brauneria, 400
Brayera, 556
Brayerin, 557
Brazil-nut, 172, 345

shells, 756
Bread, bitter, 386

Indian, 34

St. Johns, 300
Bread-fruit, 257
Bread-stone, 15
Bridelia, 317
Brier, wild, 289
Bromeliacese, 235
Broom, 637

corn, 230, 790

green, 294

Scotch, 294

Spanish, 637
Brooms, 230
Brownish powders,

key, 707
Brucamarine, 310
Brucea, 310
Brucine, 437, 826
Bruguiera, 346
Bryonia, 387

powder, 793

species, 387

tendrils, 102
Bryonidin. 387
Bryonin, 387
Bryony, 387

Bryophytes, 45

economic uses, 55
Buchania, z^^
Buchu, 307, 602

Karoo, 603

powder, 719
Bucida, 348
Buckeye family, 324

red, 324
Buckthorn, alder,
326, 521

berries, 525

family. 326
Buckwheat, 263, 264

family, 262

flour, 791

flower. 141

hulls, 770
Budding, yeast. 23
Buds, 100
Buffalo berry, 344
Bulbil, 105
Bublet, 105
Bulbs, 106

Burdock, 153, 394, 465
Bursera, 311, 312
Burseraceas, 310
Bursine, 284
Bush, burning, 323
Butea, 656
Butter, cacao, 332
Cay-Cay. 310

shea, 358

tree, 436

vegetable, 358
Butter-and-eggs, 376
Buttercup, 271
Buttercup flower, 133
Butternut, 257

powder, 751
Button bush, 383
Buttons, 31, 231
.Buxacese, 319
Buxine. 461
Buxus, 279, 319. 461

Cabbage, 284

Cacao butter. 332
substitute, 331
powder. 767
substitutes. 332

Cacao-red, 332

Cactacese, 342

Cacti, 342, 410

Cactus family, 342

Cadinene, 679

86o

INDEX.

Caducous, 131
Caesalpinia, 300
Csesalpinia species, 547
Cassalpinioideae, 292
Caffeine, 435, 827
Cake-meal, 427
Calabar bean, 438
Calabarine, 439
Calamites, 69
Calamus,

185, 2i2, 2i2>, 496

powder, 760
Calcarate, 131
Calcii carbonas prsecip-

itatus, 796

phosphas praecipi-
tatus, 797

sulphas, 797
Calcium, 4

carbonate, 174, 702

oxalate, 171

drugs containing.

700
drugs without. 701
substances mis-
taken for, 702
Calendula, 390, 555

ofificinalis. 394. 740
Calendulin, 555
Calisaya bark, 519
Calla, 234

lily, 233

stamen, 127

Calligonum, 477
Calissia, 235
Callitris. 81
Calluna, 601
Callus, 191
Calophyllum species,

335. 336
Caltha, 501

edulis. 323
Calthrop family, 303
Calumba, 459

adulterants, 460

powder, 737

substitutes. 460
Calyptra, 48
Calyptrogen, 198
Calyx, 129

duration, 131

structure, 211
Camas, death, 495
Cambium, 199, 201

intrafascicular, 206

pro-, 206

ring, 206

Cambogia, 648

powder, 749
Camelina sativa, 745
Camellia leaves, 335

powder, 717
Campanulaceae, 388
Campanulatse, 386
Campanulate. 131
Camphor, 279

Borneo, 2i7
Camphora, powder, 795
Camptosorus, 62
Campylotropous, 126
Canada balsam, 681
Canadine, 500
Canadinic resin, 681
Canadinolic resin, 681
Canadolic resin, 681
Canadoresene, 681
Canaigre, 264, 647
Cananga, 277
Canarium, 310, 311
Canary grass, 124
Canavalia, 439
Cancer root, 413
Cane sugar, 227
Canella bark, 339

powder, 754
Canellaceae, 339
Canna species, 244

starch, 789
Cannabin, 636
Cannabindon, 636
Cannabinene, 637
Cannabinol, 636
Cannabis indica, 635
powder, 714

sativa, 255, 330, 415
Cannibene, 636
Cantaloupe, 380
Cantharellus, 30
Cantharides, 799
Cantharidin, 344
Caoutchouc, 316. 667
Caper, spurge. 315

wild. 315
Caprifoliace.T. 382
Capsacutin, 580
Capsaicin. s8o
Capsella. 88. 284
Capsicum, 578

powder, 782

species, 375

standard. 580
Capsule. 147
Caragana, 474
Caraipa, 335

Carapa, 313
Caraway, 565

black, 567

powder, jy2
Carbohydrates, 161-168

(drugs), 640
Carbon, 3

Carboniferous age, 68
Cardamom, 581

Ceylon, 582
Cardamoms, bastard,

582
Cardamomum, 581

powder, 731
Cardinal flower, 388
Cardol, 319
Carex, 231
Careya, 345
Carica. 2yy, 341
Caricacese, 341
Carina, 248
Carnation, 267
Carnauba-wax, 232
Carnivorous plants,

119
Carob bean, 766
Caroba, 2>77
Carobine, :iyy
Carpaine. 341
Carpel, 71
Carpels, 122
Carpinus, 252
Carpophore, 149
Carposid, 341
Carrageenin. 689
Carragheen, 687
Carrot, 354
Carrot family, 352
Carthamin. 397
Carthamus. 390. 397
Carum, 565

Ajowan, 354

Carvi, 352

powder. 772
Caruncle. 155
Carvacrol. 370. 371
Carven, 567
Carvol, 567
Carvone, 567, 632
Caryophyllacese, 267
Caryophyllene. 549
Caryophyllin, 549
Caryophyllus. 549

powder, 772
Caryopsis, 149
Cascara amarga, 546

sagrada, 523

INDEX.

86i

Cascara sagrada,
powder, 759
Cascarilla bark, 316
Cascarillin, 316
Cascarin, 525
Casearia, 840
Cashew nut, 319
Casparyan spots, 197
Cassava, 789

bitter, 789

sweet, 789
Cassia, 300

Batavia, 516

buds, 517
powder, 761

Canton, 517

fagot, 516

fistula, 585

lignea, 517

purging, 585

species,

292, 293, 610, 767
Castanea, 254, 646

powder, 720, 721
Castilloa, 668
Castor-oil, 124

plant, III, 314
Catabolism, iz2
Catalpa, y]-]
Catalpin, ZT]
Catechin, 662, 666
Catechol, 655
Catechu, 662, 666

powder. 782
Catkins, 250
Catnep, 113, zi^.
Cattle poisons, 357
Caulophyllum thalic-

troides, 273
Cavanillesia, 2,^2
Ceanothus species, 326
Cedar, bastard, 303

camphor, 683

prickly, 679

red, 79. 683
Cedar-wood oil, 313
Cedrela, 313
Cedrene, 683
Cedrol, 683
Cedronin, 310
Celandine, 281
Celastraceas, 323
Celastrus scandens,
Z2T,, 726

species, 2,2^
Cell, apical, 199

cavity, 186

Cell-contents, 156
examination, 180
non-protoplasmic,

161
protoplasmic, 156

division, 5, 9

fission, 5

mother. 6

wall, 181
Cells, beaker, 573

canal, 58

conducting, 188

forms, 184

guard, 193

helping, 86

kinds, 196

mechanical, 186

palisade, 211

protecting, 192

resting, 11

secretion, 197

tapetal, 84
Cellulose walls, 183
Celosia, 265
Centaury, 362
Central cylinder, 197
Centrifugal, 184
Centripetal, 184
Centrospermse, 264
Centrospheres, 158
Century plant, 240, 330
Cephaeline, 469
Cephaelis Ipecacuanha,

379

Cephalanthin, 382

Cephalanthus. 382

Cephalaria, 386

Ceramium, 16

Ceratonia, 300, 766

Ceratopteris, 63

Cereals, 22"]

Cereus, night-bloom-
ing, 342

Ceridine, 24

Cerin, 194

Cetraria, 40, 41, 689

Cetrarin, 690

Cevadilline, 495

Cevadine, 494

Chaff, 226

Chaia resin, 338

Chakazzi-copal, 299

Chamomile, English,

554
German, 394, 553
Roman, 393, 554
wild, 553

Champagne, 328
Chanterelle, 30
Charas, 635
Charcoal, 250

willow, 784
Charlock, 284

seeds, 743
Chaulmugra oil, 339
Chavica, 574
Chavicin, 573
Chavicol, 565

methyl, 371
Cheken. 347
Chelerythrine, 281, 508
Chelidonine, 508
Chelidonium, 281

powder, 731
Chelidoxanthin, 281
Chelone, 376
Chenopodiacese, 264
Chenopodiales, 264
Chenopodium, 264

powder, ']T2

species, 264, 265
Cherry, 288

choke, 287

flower, 133

laurel, 539

leaves, powder, 717

wild black, 287, 537
Chestnut, horse, 324

leaves, powder,
720, 721

water, 350

wild, 258
Chestnuts, 254

substitute, 328
Chicle, gum, 358
Chicory, 401

powder, 779
Chillies, 579
Chimaphila, 603, 720

species, 355
Chimaphilin, 604
China tree, 312
Chinquapin, no, 254
Chionanthin, 360
Chionanthus, 360
Chirata, 637

powder. 747
Chiratogenin, 638
Chiretta, 638
Chitin, 17
Chives, 239
Chloral iodine, 807
Chlorenchyma, 211
Chlorococcum, 39

862

INDEX.

Chlorophora, 257
Chlorophycese, 8
Chlorophyll, 160

parenchyma, 184
Chloroplastids, 159
Chlorosis, 134
Chlor-zinc-iodide solu-
tion, 806
Chocolate, 768, 769

adulterants, 769

Dika, 310

Gabun, 310

milk, 768

sweet, 768
Choline, 496, 692, 744
Chondrodendron, 462

tomentosum, 274
Chondrus, 13, 687
Chordaria, 16
Choripetalous, 130
Chorisepalous, 130
Chorisis, 134, 331
Christmas green, 70
Chromatin, 158
Chromophyll, 160
Chromoplastids,

159, 160
Chromosomes, 158
Chrozophora, 317
Chrysanthemum spe-
cies, 395. 397. 40i , 40^
Chrysarobin, 525, 780
Chrysophan, 476
Chrysophyllum, 359
Chrysosplenium, 286
Chrysotoxin, 692
Cicely, sweet, 354
Cichoriaceae, 391
Cichorium, 401

powder, 779
Cicuta, 353
Cicutine, 569
Cicutoxin, 569
Cigar boxes, 313
Cilia, 42

of sperms, 56
Cimicifuga, 497

powder, 763

racemosa, 268
Ciniicifugin, 498
Cinchona, 517

bark, 517

calisaya, 519

flat, 518

mossed, 518

pallida, 521

powder, 765

Cinchona, red, 519, 521

renewed, 518

root, 518

species, 378, 379

stem, 517

Tambla, 518
Cinchonidine, 519
Cinchonine, 519, 533
Cineol, 243, 551
Cinnamanin, 516
Cinnamodendron, 339
Cinnamomum, 513, 761

powder, 760

species,

278, 279. 513. 517
Cinnamon bark, 513

Cassia, 516
powder, 760

Ceylon, 516
powder, 760

Saigon, 515
powder, 760

varieties, 513

white, 754

wild, 517
Cinquefoil, 120
Circaea, 349
Circinate, 121
Circumnutation, 117
Cirrhiferous-pinnate,

114
Cissampeline, 461
Cissampelos, 461
Citrullus, 386, 388
Citrus fruit, 175
Citrus species, 306
Cladonia, 39, 40, 691

species, 41, 42
Claret, 328
Classes, 224
Clavaria, 30
Claviceps purpurea, 2^
Claw of petal, 130
Claytonia, 267
Clearing agents, 802
Cleft, 114, 164
Cleistogamous flowers,

135
Clematis, 271
Cliff brake, 61, 62
Climbers, 103
Climbing plants, 409
Clitoria, 299
Clotbur, spiny, 401
Cloth, fulling of, 380
Clove, 130
bark, 517

Clove, fruit, TJZ
powder, 772
stems, ^Ti
Clover, 301

Dutch, 230
white, 230
Cloves, adulterants, 549

artificial, 550

mother of, 347, 549

standard of, 549

substitute, 2,z^

varieties, 549
Club moss, varieties,

694
Clusia, 335, 336, 649
Cnicin, 400
Cnicus, 400
Coach-whip cactus,

338
Coal age, 69
Coalescence, 134
Coca, 416, 604

family, 303

powder, 724
Cocaine, 305, 605, 829

cinnamyl-, 605, 607
Cocci, 44
Coccogonin, 536
Coccos oil, 339
Cocculus, 274
Cocculus villosus, 450
Coccus, 267, 2,2J

insect, 343

species, 338
Cochineal insect, 343
Cochlearia, 283
Cochlospermum, 652

species, 338
Cocillana, 256, 472
Cock's-comb, 265
Cocoa, 768

butter, 768

shells, 764
Cocoanut, 231, 2^2)

palm, double, 155

shells, 756
Codamine, 660
Codeine, 659, 833
Coenocytic. 12, 20
Coffea arabica, 380
Coffee adulterants, 767

aroma, 381

fig, 591
gram, 380
hulls, 765
" imitation," 765
Mogdad, 767

INDEX.

863

Coflfee powder, 765

roasting, 381

sacca-, 765

substitutes, 331, 765

sultan, 765

wild, 347. 385
Coffee-tree, Kentucky,

299

Coffeol, 381
Cohosh, black, 497

blue, 273
Cola, 435

acuminata, 333

family, 332

species, 436

staminate, 436
Colchiceine, 510
Colchici cormus, 510

powder, 771
Colchici semen, 426

powder, 771
Colchicine, 426, 510
Colchicoresin, 426
Colchicum autumnale,
236

corm, 510
powder, 771
Colchicum seed, 426

powder, 771
Coleoptera, 420
Collateral, 206
Collection of drugs,

406
CoUenchyma, 186
CoUetia, 326
Colliguaya, 317
Colloid in starch, 164
Colloidal substances,

161
Colocynth, 583, 743
Colocynthein, 583
Colocynthin, 583 "
Colocynthis, 583

powder, 743
Colocynthitin, 585
Colophony, 653, 750
Coloring principles,

251, 349

black, 318, 348, 349

blue, 284, 298, 317

328, 331

green, 159, 252

purplish-red, 350

violet, 317

red, 254, 268, 27s

280, 285, 310, 326,

334, 344, 349. 381,

Coloring principles, red

546, 547, 558
yellow, 160, 252,
254, 257, 258, 262,
281, 299, 317, 325,
328, 335, 338, 341,
343, 344, 349, 381,
382, 483, 484, 498,
525, 543, 555, 558
(see also tannin}
Colors, cell-sap, 169

white, 171
Coltsfoot, 390, 400
Colubrina, 326
Columbamine, 460
Columbine stamen, 127
Columbo, 459

American, 460, 486
Columella stamen, 127
Columella, 22, 49
Column (in orchids),

245
Colutea, 610
Combretaceee, 348
Combretum, 348
Comfrey, 367
Commelina, 235
Commelinace?e, 235
Commiphora, 310, 31 1

species, 675
Compass plant, 400
Complete flower, 136
Compositae, 390, 392
Comptonia, 251
Concentric, 206
Conducting cells, 188

parenchyma, 185
Conduplicate, 121, 155
Condurango, 365
Cone, 150
Confluent, 128
Conhydrine, 567
Coniceine, 568
Conidia, 17, 34
Conifers (drugs), 682

economic uses, 78
Coniine, 567
Conium, 567, 568, 740

maculatum, 352

powder, 719
Conjugation, 11
Conjunctive tissue, 199
Connate-per foliate,

114
Connective, 127

forms, 128
Connigellin, 567

Connivent, 392
Conquuiamine, 520
Consolidin, 367
Contorts, 360
Convallamarin, 490
Convallaria, 488

majalis, 238

powder, 761
Convallarin, 490
Convolute, 121
Convolvulacese, 365
Convolvulin, 452
Convolvulus species,

366
Copaiba, 296, 299, 317

Langsdorffii, 296

species, 297

substitute, 337, 440
Copal, Inhambane, 299

resins, 299
Copalchi bark, 316
Copalchin, 316
Copal-like resins, 311
Copernicia, 232
Copper acetate solu-
tion, 808
Coptis, 483, 501
Corchorus, 329, 330
Coriaceous, 112
Coriamyrtin, 318
Coriander, 562

powder, 772
Coriandrol, 563
Coriandrum, 562

powder, 772

sativum, 352
Coriaracege, 318
Coriaria, 318
Cork cells, 194
Corm, 106
Corn, 227

bran, 790

cockle seed, 218

meal, 790

meal moth, 420

plant, 228

(root tip), 93

silk, 558
powder, 785

smut, 693

squirrel, 282
Cornacese, 355
Cornicularia, 6go
Corns, kinds, 229
Corn-salad, European,

385
Cornus, 355

864

INDEX.

Cornutine, 691
Corolla, 129

duration, 131

structure, 211
Corona in passion

flower, 341
Coronilla, 300, 637
Coronillin, 637
Cortex, 199, 202
Corydaline, 282
Corylus, 252
Corymb, 138
Corynanthe, 381
Coscinum, 460
Cosin, 557
Cosotoxin, 557
Coto bark, 280
Cotoneaster, 287
Cotton, 329, 330

adulterants, 441

dead, 441

purified, 440

substitutes, 331

varieties, 440
Cotton-root bark, 527

powder, 751
Cotyledons, 88. 154
Couch grass, 227, 490
Coumarin,

230, z-]-/, 589

in ferns, 64
occurrence, 590
Coumarouna species,

589
Couroupita. 345
Covillea, 304
Cowhage. 300
Cranberry, 357

small, 601

tree. 382
Cranesbill. 505
Crassulaceae, 285
Cratsegus, 292
Crateriform, 131
Cratoxylum. 335
Cream-of-tartar tree,

332
Creeper, Virginia, 328
Cremocarp, 149
Crenate, 114
Creosote, 254, 678

bush, 304
Cresol, 678
Cress, Indian, 302

Para, 401

water, 283
Creta prseparata, 796

Crinum, 240
Crocin, 241

resembling, 382
Crocus, powder, 746

sativus, 241
Crotalaria, 299, 300
Croton s'eds, 314

species, 316, 317

Tiglium, 314
Croup, 285

Crowfoot family, 268
Cruel ferae, 283
Cryptocarya, 440
Cryptocrystalline, see
micro-crystals, 171
Cryptopine, 660
Crystal fibers, 171
Crystalline substances,

167
Crystalloidal sub-
stances, 161
Crystals, micro-, 171

membrane, 171
Cubeb, adulterants, 571

camphor, 571

false, 571

substitutes, 571
Cubeba, 569

powder, 776
Cubebin, 571, 83s
Cucumber, squirting,

.387

tree, 275
sour, 332
Cucumis species, 388
Cucurbita, 185

Pepo. 387

species, 430
Cucurbitacese, 386
Cudbear, 42
Cudrania, 257
Culms, 225
Cultivated medicinal

plants, 407
Cultivation of medic-
inal plants, 403
Culver's root, 376, 479
Cumin aldehyde, 083
Cuminum, 354
Cuneate, 113
Cunila, 372
Cuphea, 344
Cups, quassia, 544
Cupule, 150
Cupules, 52
Curanga, Z77
Curare, 274, 362

Curarine, 362
Curatella, 334
Curcas, 315
Curcuma, 244, 738

powder, 734
Curcumin, 244
Curing of drugs,
406, 421, 422
Currant, buffalo, 286

fetid, 286

fruit like, 344
Currants, 286
Cuscuta, 2^^"]
Cusparia, 308
Cuspidate. 112
Cusso, 556

adulterants, 557

loose, 557

powder, 774
Custard apple, 277

family, 276
Cutin, 192
Cutting, 404, 405
Cyanophycese, 8
Cycas revoluta, 789
Cydonia flower, 141

vulgaris, 288
Cydonium, powder, 745
Cyme, 138

compound, 138
Cynara, 402
Cynoglossine, 367
Cynoglossum, 367
Cynomorium, 259
Cyperaceae. 230
Cyperus, 231
Cypripedium. 490

powder, 762

species, 245
Cystoliths. 174
Cytisine, 299
Cytisus, 610

Scoparius, 294
Cytoplasm, 2, 157

Daisy, 401
Damascenin, 567
Damiana, 340
Damianin, 340
Dammar, black, 311
Dandelion, 390, 392, 458
Daphne, 343
Daphnin, 536
Daphnopsis, 537
Oasya, 13

Date-palm, 231, 233
Datisca, 341

INDEX.

865

Datiscaceas, 341
Datiscin, 341
Datura species,
619, 624
Stramonium, 2>72.
Daturine, 624
Debregeasia, 258
Deciduous, 131
Deer berry, 128
Dehiscence, 147
circumcissile, 148
loculicidal. 14S
marginicidal, 147
septicidal. 147
septifragal, 148
Dehydrating agents,

801
[Delafield's hasmatoxy-
lon solution, 806
Delphinine, 428
Delphinium consolida,
428, 7-J7
Staphisagria, 270
Delphinoidine, 428
Delphisine, 428
Dentate, 114
Dent corns, 230
Dermatogen, 198
Derris, 299
Desmodium, 117
Development, arrested,

135
Devonian age, 68
Dextrin, 165, 789
Dextrin-starch, 367
Dextro-glucose, 167
Dextrolichenin, 690
Dextrose, 167
Dianthus, 267
Diastase. 179, 576
Diatoms. 13
Dibrachious, 138
Dicentra, 282
Dicotyledons, 84, 247

venation in, no
Dictyopteris, 16
Dicypellium, 279, 517
Didynamous, 129
Diervilla, 385
Digitalein, 616
Digitalin, 616
Digitalinum verum,

616
Digitalis. 414, 613, 728

adulterants, 727

powder. Tz'j

Digitalis purpurea, 376

species, 616

substitute, 342, 344
Digitalosmin. 615
Digitin, 616
Digitonin, 616
Digitoxin, 616, 837
Dillenia, 334
Dilleniaceae, 334
Direcious, 48, 136
Dionoea, 285
Dioscorea, 240, 789
Dioscoreacese, 240
Diosma, 603
Diospyros species, 359
Diphtheria, 285
Diplococci, 44
Dipsacacese, 385
Dipsacus, 386
Diptera, 420
Dipterocarpacese, 2)2>7
Dipterocarpus, 337
Dirca, 343, 344
Discaria, 326
Discoid, 391
Dissepiments, 124

false, 125
Dissotis, 349
Dittany, American,

Divergence, 118
Divided, 114
Doassansia, 36
Dock, curled, 263
Dodder, 367
Dogbane family, 363

spreading, 363
Dog's tongue, 590
Dogwood family, 355

flowering, 355

Jamaica. 299
Doona, 338
Dorema, 354
Dorsiventrai, 51

flowers, 137

leaves. 107
Dracaena, 238
Dracontomelum, 322
Dragon tree, 238
Dragon's blood,
232, 238, 317

American, 656
Dried material,

sectioning, 812
Drimys, 275
Drosera species, 119
Droseraceae, 284

Droseras, 285
Drug origin, 417

specimen case, 424
Drugs, collection of,
418, 421

collections, 424

crude, 417

forms of, 420

moldy, 422

preservation, 419, 422

pressed, 421

quality, 421

storing, 419

time of collecting,
418, 421

valuation, 423
Drupe, 149

dry, 149

fleshy, 149
Dryobalanops, 2)?)7
Dryopteris, 57
Duboisia, 619
Duboisia species, 620
Duckweed family, 233
Ducts, 186, 190

forms of, 190
Dulcamara, y]2,

powder, 726

substitutes, 726
Dulce, 16
Dulcitol, 168, 532
Durvillaea, 16
Dutchman's breeches,

282
Dye, black. 318, 348,

349

Dyer's broom, 299
Dyes, 341
Dysoxylum, 313

Earth, edible, 15
Eau d'ange, 347

de Creole, 2iy7
Ebenaceae, 359
Ebenales, 358
Ebony family, 359

kinds of, 359
Ecballin, 387
Ecballium Elaterium,

Ecboline, 692
Ecgonine, 605, 607
Echinacea, 400
Echinate, 210
Echinocarpus, 328
Ecology, I
Economic plants, 408

866

INDEX.

Edible bulbs, 239

flowers, 239, 259, J02
fruits, 233. 257, 258,

264, 277, 288. 289,
292, 300, 306, 318,
327, 328, 329, 331,
332, 22,7, 341. 343.
344, 347. 348, 531.
576. 590, 593

grains, 226
nuts, 251, 252
rhizomes, 235, 244,

268
roots, 283, 366
seeds, 241, 254, 258,

265, 267, 268, 300,
222, 332, 337, 349>

434
tubers, 234, 375> 402
Eel-grass, 13, 16
Egg, 7, 45
Egg cell, 86
Egg plant, 376
Elaeaginacese, 344
Elseis, 232
Elseocarpacese, 328
Elastica, 316, 667
Elaterin, 387
Elaterinum, 781
Elaterium, 387
Elaters, 52
Elder, American, 384
mountain, 384^
poison, 319
powder, 746
Elecampane, 390, 397
Elemi, Bengal, 310
Manila, 310
Occidentale, 310
West India, 310
Eleocharis, 231
Elettaria Carda-
momum, 242
Elm bark, mucilage
in, 176
powder, 760
European, 544
family, 254
white, 254
Emarginate, 112
Embelia ribes, 574
Embryo, development

of, 88
Embryo, pro-, 88
-sac, 86, 87
structure of, 218
Emetic drugs, 472

Emetic root, 471

Emetine, 469

Emodin, 476, 522, 525,

608, 610
Empleurum, 603
Emulsin, 434
Emulsion of almonds,

434
Endocarp, 145
Endodermis, 199
Endosperm, 90, 152, 364

structure of, 218
Endospores, 17, 42
Endothecium, 84
Entada, 299, 439
Enterolobium, 299
Entire, 130
Entomophilous, 142
Enzymes, 179
Enzymes in Sarrace-

niales, 284
Eperna, 300
Ephemeral, 131
Epicarp, 145
Epicotyl, 154
Epidermal cells, 192
Epidermis, 209
Epigsea, 356, 601
Epigynous, 132
Epilobium, 349
Equisetales, 56, 64
Equisetum, 64, 65, 69
Ergosterin, 692
Ergot, 27, 691

keeping of, 422

powder, 779

trehalose in, 168

varieties, 692
Ergotine, 692
Ergotinine, 692
Ergotoxine, 692
Ericaces, 356
Ericales, 355
Ericinol, 601
Ericolin, 601
Erigeron species, 393
Eriobotyra, 287
Eriodendron, 331, 451
Eriodictyon, 367, 612

powder, 714
Erysimum, 283
Erythrjea, 362
Erythroxylacese, 303
Erythroxylon Cocc,
303, 416, 604

stamens, 128
Eschscholtzia, 280

Eseramine, 439
Eseridine, 439
Eserine, 439
Esparto, 230
Esprit d'lva, 399
Estivation, 132
Etaerio, 149
Euasci, 23
Eucalypten, 600
Eucalyptol, 600
Eucalyptus, 416,599,650

kino, 655

powder, 720

species, 346, 600, 601,

655
Euchlsena, 124 ,

Eucitrus group, 3O6
Eugenia, 348, 667

Caryophyllata, 346

species, 347
Eugenol, 279, 549, 575
Eumycetes, 23
Euonymin, 532
Euonymus, 530, 531

atropurpureus, 323

powder, 752

species, 323, 532
Euparin, 626
Eupatorin, 626
Eupatorium, 626

species, 392, 626

powder, 727
Euphorbia, 315, 316

species, 317, 318, 471
Euphorbiacese, 314
Euphorbium, 317
Euryale, 268
Evergreens, 72
Evernia, 41, 691
Evolution, 3
Excoecaria, 316, 317
Exhausted powders,

695
Exine, 85, 214
Exocarp, 145
Exogonium, 365
Exospores, 17
Exothecium, 84
Extract of malt, 576
Extract of witchhazel,

527.
Extractive, amount of,

696
Extrorse, 126
Exudations (drugs),

640
Eyes, potato, 105

INDEX.

867

Fabiana, 373
Fagacese, 252
Fagales, 252
Fagara, 532, 543
Fagopyrum, 264
Fagus species, 254, 678
False bitter sweet, 726

flax, 745
Families, 224
Farinales, 235
Fastigiaria, 16
Fenchone, 564
Fennel, 563, 740

dog, 626

Macedonian, 565

Roman, 565

water, 354
• wild bitter, 565
Fenugreek, powder, 744
Ferment, peptonizing,

591
Ferments, 179
Fermentation, alco-
holic, 21, 24
Fern, cinnamon, 120

grape, 62

groups, 60

male, 57, 60, 684

ostrich, 62

spores, 63

sweet, 251

Virginia grape, 120

walking, 62
Ferns, 56, 57

tree, 60

true, 61

used as foods, 63
in medicine, 63

water, 63, 64
Fertilization, 48, 139

cross-, 141

in angiosperms, 88

self-, 140
Ferula species. 352, 354
Fibers, bast, 188

crystal, 172

isolation of, 188

textile, 235, 257, 329.

343
wood, 188
Fibrovascular bundle,

201
Ficus, 590, 688
Carica, 255
species, 256, 590, 591
Fig, 590
Indian, 343

Fig-tree, mulberry, 590
Figwort family, 376
Filament, 126

structure, 213
Filbert, 252
Filicales, 56, 57
Filicic anhydride, 687
Filicin, 687
Fir, California silver,

79
European silver, l8i

Scotch, 78

Fishberries, 274

Fish-poisons, 257, ^^74,

299, 327, 329, 345
Fissure, 164
Fixing agents, 800
Flacourtiacese, 339
Flag, sweet, 496
Flagella, 42
Flax, common, 303

family, 303
Flaxseed, 426

meal, 427. 745
Fleabane, Canada, 393

daisy, 393

Philadelphia, 393
Flemming's mixture,

799 .
Flindersia, 644
Flint corns, 230
Floats, 13

Floral envelopes, 129
Flores Pyrethri, 395
Florets, 391
Flowers, arnica, 551

classes of, 136

Compositse, 138

cotton, 530

disk, 138

double, 134

drug, 548

inner morphology,2ii

ligulate, 138, 391

moss, 54

ray, 138, 391

structure, 121

tubular, 138, 391
Flueggea, 317
Fodder plants, 226, 301
Foeniculum, 563

powder, 740

vulgare, 352
Foenum grsecum, 744
Foetidia, 345
Folia malabathri, 294
Follicle, 149

Fontinalis, 55
Food of plants, 219
Foods, 226, 231, 233,
234 (see also
Edible)
Forage, 226
Fore-leaves, 137
Forget-me-not, 367
Fouquieria, 338
Fourcroya, 124
Four-o'clock family,

265
Foxglove, 376
Fragaria species, 292
Fragilaria, 14
Frangula, 521

powder, 735
Frangulin, 522
Frankincense, 311

pine, 79
Frasera. 460, 486
Fraxetin, 360
Fraxin, 360, 650
Fraxinus species, 360
Fremontia, 333
French berries, 525
Fringe tree, 360
Fructose, 168
Fruit, 145
Fruit-sugar, 168
Fruity, 151

Daphne, 536

drug, 559

geocarpic, 300

inner morphology,
216

pomegranate, 536

Frunus serotina, 539

prickly-ash, 534

types, 146

wild black cherry,

539

xanthoxylum, 534

.Fuchsia, 134, 349, 35°
Fucus, 13, 16
Fuel, 55
Fugaceous, 131
Fumaria, 280, 282
Fumarine, 280, 282
Funaria, 46, 55
Fungi, 16

economic uses, 33

edible, 33

fission, 42

groups, 17

pore, 31

rust, 34, 36

868

INDEX.

Fungi, smut, 34
teeth-bearing, 31
true, 23

Fungus, fairy-ring,

30, 31

Funiculus, 87
Funifera, 343
Funnel-shaped, 131
Furfurol, 549
Fusanus, 259

Galangal, 242, 244
Galbalus, 149
Galbanum, 354
Gale, sweet, 251
Galeate, 131

Galium, 378, 382, 590
Gall fly, 646
Galla, 646

powder, '^2,2
Galls, Aleppo, 646

American, 647

Chinese, 321, 647
powder, 714

development, 647

European, 253

Japanese, 321, 647
powder, 714

on oaks, 252

powder, 732

rhus, 647

Turkish. 253

white, 647
Gambir, 662, 666

powder, 782
Gamboge, 648

adulterants, 649

family, 335

powder, 749
Gamete-bearer, 50
Gametes, 7, 45
Gametophyte. 45

in angiosperms, 85,86

in Coniferse, ^^
Gamosepalous, 130
Ganja, 635
Garbling, 422
Garcinia Hanburyi, 335

species, 335, 336, 337
436, 648, 649
Gardenia, 382
Garlic, 239
Gaultherase, 355
Gaultheria, 356, 357
Gaylussacia, 357
Gelidium species, 16
Gelsemine, 481

Gelseminine, 481
Gelsemium, 480

powder, 735

sempervirens, 362
Gemmae, .52
Generation, asexual,

45. 50

sexual, 45, 50
Genista, 299, 300
Gentiamarin, 486
Gentian, 483

allied plants, 486

family, 362

horse, 384

powder, 778
Gentiana, 483

lutea, 362

powder, 778

species, 486
Gentianacese, 362
Gentianales, 360
Gentianin, 484, 486
Gentianose, 168, 485
Gentienin, 486
Gentiopicrin, 484
Gentisin, 484
Genus, 224
Geotropic roots, 95

stems, 97, 100
Geranfaceje, 301
Geranium, 301, 505

maculatum, 301

powder, 757
German mustard, 742
Ghatti gum, 644
Gigartina, 16, 689
Gilead balsam, 311
Gills, 31
Gin, 683
Ginger, 486, 491

African, powder, 763

Calcutta, powder, 763

Japan, 488
powder, yyj

preserved, 488

varieties, 487, 488
Gingerol, 488
Ginseng, 98, 350, 351

family, 350
Girardinia, 257
Girdle, 15
Glabrous, 209
Glandular, 210
Glandular-punctate, 211
Glans, 150
Glaucium, 282
Glaucous, 210

Glecoma, 372
Gleditchia, 299
Gloeocapsa, 39
Glomerule, 138
Gluco-alkaloids, 169
Glucogallin, 476
Glucoresins, 654
Glucosennin, 609
Glucosidal resins, 654
Glucosides, 169
Glumes;, 225, 226
Glumiflorse, 225
Gluten cells, 226
Glycine, 300
Glycyrrhiza, 189, 472

allied plants, 474

glabra, 294

powder, 735
Glycyrrhizin, 474
Gnidia, 343
Gnoscopine, 660
Goa powder, 780
Golden-rod, 399

seal, 498
Gold-thread, 483, 501
Gonidium, 39
Gooseberries, 286
Gooseberry family, 286
Goosefoot family, 264
Gossypetin, 530
Gossypii cortex, 527

powder, 751
Gossypium purificatum,
440

species, 329, 330
Gouania, 326
Gourd family, 386
Gracilaria, it) j

Graft, 404 %

Grain, 149
Graniinales, 225
Gramineae, 225
Granatum, 534

powder, 725
Granulose, 164
Grape family, 327

fern. 62 4

-fruit, 307

-root, Oregon, 482

-sugar, 167

-vine, 327, 446

wine, ^,2"}
Grapes, Catawba, t^2'j

Concord, 327

Delaware, ^t^"]

dextrose in, 168

frost-, 2,2y

INDEX.

869

Grass of Parnassus,
286

sweet vernal, 590

vanilla, 590
Grasses, 225
Gratiola, j,T]
Gratiolin, 2)71
Gravity, influence of,

94
Greenish powders, key,

702
Grenadier's borax-car-
mine solution. 806
Grevillea, 258
Grewia, 329
Grias, 345
Griffithsia, 16
Grindelia, 626

powder, 727

species, 393, 627
Grindeline, 627
Grinnellia, 13
Gromwell leaves,
powder, 718
Grossulariaceae, 286
Ground pine, 70
Growth, factors

influencing, 3
Guaiac blue, 669

resin, 668, 724

yellow, 669
Guaiacol, 678
Guaiacresin, 669
Guaiacum, 668

powder, 724

species, 303, 304
Guarana, 441

powder, 769
Guard cells, 193
Guarea, 256, 472
Guava, 347
Guayava, 347
Guaza, 635
Guelder-rose, wild,

382, 383
Guevina, 258
Gulf weed, 13
Gum, Amrad, 644

arabic, 643

artificial, 689

Australian, 644

barrister, 644

Cape, 644

Gedda, 644

ghatti, 644, 645

Indian, 644, 652

lac, 257, 317, 327

Gum, mesquite, 644

Senegal, 644

Talca, 644

wattle, 644
Gumbo, 331
Gum-resins, 179
Gums, 174

of Rosaceas, 290
Gurjun balsam, },yj
Gutta-percha, 358
Guttiferae, 335
Guvacine, 232
Gymnocladus, 299
Gymnosperms, 71

characters of, 72, 78
Gynsecium, 123
Gynandrous, 129
Gynocardia, 339
Gypsophila, 267
Gysbertsiana, 338

Habenaria, 500
Habitat, 417
Hadrocentric, 198
Hadrome, 198
Hsematein, 547
Haematoxylin, 297, 546
Hsematoxylon, 546

campechianum, 295

powder, 784
Hagenia abyssinica, 290
Hair-restorer, 276
Hairs, glandular,
177, 192

mucilage, 177

non-glandular, 192

plant, 192
Half-compound, 164
Hamamelidacese, 286
Hamamelidis cortex,

527

folia, 610
powder, 721
Hamamelis, 286

bark, 526, 527

extract, 612

leaves, 610, 721
Hancornia, 668
Hardening agents, 801
Hardwickia, 297
Harebell, 131
Harmaline, 637
Harmine, 637
Hashish, 255
Haustoria, 34
Hawthorn, 292
Hay fever, 402

Hazelnut, 252
Chilean, 258
Head, 138
Heath family, 356
Heather, 601
Hedeoma, 369, 628, 729
Hedeomol, 630
Hedera, 350
Hedysarum, 474
Helenium, 401
Helianthenin, 167, 402
Helianthus, 401, 402
Helicoid, 138
Helicteres, 2)Z2>
Heliotrope, garden,

367
Heliotropin, 589
Heliotropism, 107
Heliotropum species,

367
Helixin, 350
Hellebore, American,
492

black, 271, 495

European, 493

false, 272, 496

green, 492, 496

powder, "72,7

white, 493
Helleborein. 271, 495
Helleborin, 495
Helleborus, 271

niger, 495

viridis, 496
Hematoxylin, 297
Hemiasci, 23
Hemlock, 671, 719

poison, 352, 567

water, 353, 569
Hemp, Canadian, 467

East Indian, 635

fiber. 330

sisal, 240

yellow, 341
Henbane', 372, 619
Henequen, 240
Henna plant, 344
Hepaticse, 51
Heerb, perennial, 94
Herba cochlearije, 283
Herbaceous perennials,

409
Herbs (drugs), 595
Hercules club, 450
Hermaphrodite, 136
Herniaria, 267
Hesperidin, 308. 592

870

INDEX.

Hesperidium, 149
Hesperis, 284
Heteropteris, powder,

736
Heterosporous, 56
Heuchera, 286
Hevea, 316, 318
Hibiscus, 331, 451
Hickorj, 120, 251
Hicoria, 251
Hierochloe, 230
Hilum, 154

of starch grain, 163
Hinna, 344
Hippocastanaceae, 324
Hirsute, 210 *
Hispid, 210
Histology, I
Holdfast, 13
Holigarna, 319
Holly, American, 322

Christmas, 322

Dahoon, 323

European, 322

family, 322
Hollyhock, 329, 331
Homalium, 340
Homocinchonidine, 520
Honesty, 283, 284 '

Honey, 145

dew, 2"]

poisonous, 145, 357
Honeysuckle, bush, 385

family, 382
Honeysuckles, 355
Hop, bitter, 594

tree, 308

stems, 726
Hopea, 338
Hops, 582, 715

powder, 753

substitutes, 326, 338
Hordeum, 227, 796

plant, 228
Horehound, black, 628

water, 628

white, 628
Hornbeam, 252
Horsechestnut, 324
Horse-nettle, 374

powder, 726
Horse poisons, 268
Horsemint, 371
Horseradish, 283
Horsetails, 64
Hound's tongue, 367
Houscleek, 285

Houstonia, 378
Hoyer's picro-carmine,

806
Huckleberries, 357
Huckleberry, Euro-
pean, 601
Humiri, stamen, 127
Humulene, 250, 583
Humulus, 582

Lupulus, 255

powder, 715
Hura crepitans, 316
Hybanthus, 472
Hybrid, 406
Hybridization, 406
Hydnocarpus, 339
Hydrangea, 286

arborescens, 762

garden, 286

wild, 286
Hydrangin, 286
Hydrastine, 498, 838
Hydrastis, 483, 498

canadensis, 268

powder, 739
Hydrocaryaceae, 350
Hydrocinchonidine, 520
Hydro-elaterin, 387
Hydrogen, 3
Hydrophilous, 142
Hydrophyllacege, 367
Hydroquinidine, 519
Hydroquinine, 519
Hydroquinone, 601
Hydrothymoquinone,

371, 552
Hymensea, 299
Hymenium, 31
Hymenocallis, 240
Hyoscine, 509
Hyoscyamine, 619
Hyoscyamus, 618, 619,
728

muticus, 619, 623

niger. zi^

powder, 720
Hypecoum, 280
Hypericaceae, t,'},']
Hypericum species, 2)Z7
Hypha, 17
Hypnum, 55
Hypocotyl, _ 154
Hypocrateriform, 131
Hypodermis, 192, 199
Hypogynous, 132
Hyssop, 371, 2<77
Hyssopus, 371

Iceland moss, 689

saccharated, 690
Ice-plant, 267
Idioblasts, 717
Ilex species, 322, 323
Ilicaceae, 322
Illicium, 149, 274, 562

powder, 783
Illipe., 358
Imbricated, 132
Impari-pinnate, 114
Impatiens, 326
Imperfect flowers, 136
Incumbent, 155
Indian colza,

powder, 742

pipe, 355
Indigo, 264, 284, 318

in Leguminosae, 298

wild, 298
Indusium, 59
Inflatin, 633
Inflorescence, definite.
138 .

determinate, 138

indefinite, 138

indeterminate, 138
Infundibuliform, 131
Inga flowers, 604
Inhambane copal, 299
Ink balls, 253

galls, 253

tree, 319
Innate, 128
Inosit, 328
Insect-catching plants,

284
Insect flowers, 395, 396

powder, 715
Insects infecting drugs,
420

protection against,
382
Integuments, 87, 90
Intine, 85, 213
Introrse, 126
Inula, 390, 397, 398

Conyza, powder, ']2(j

leaves, 390, 617

species. 552
Inulenin, 167, 402
Inulin, 166, 390

in drugs, 167

in Helianthus, 190

sphere-crystals, 185
Tnvertases, 179
Involucre, 138

INDEX.

871

Involute, 121
Iodine from sea-weeds,
16

solution, 807

water, 807
lonidium, 472
Ipecac, 467

allied plants, 471

powder, 735

spurge, 471

substitutes, 471, 736

varieties,

467, 469- 471

wild, 384
Ipecacuanha, 467

powder, 735
Ipoh arrow-poison, 256
Ipomcea species,
366. 453, 657
Iridacea?, 240
Iris family, 240

tlorentina. 105,241,320

species, 241

versicolor, 240
Irish moss, 687
Iron, 4

solutions, 803

woods, 359
Iron wood, 252
Irregular, 136
Irvingia, 310
Isaconitine, 479
Isatis, 284
Isoemodin, 525, 610
Isoetes, 6"]
Isohesperidin, 592
Isolichenin, 690
Isopelletierine, 534
'Isophysostigmine, 439
Isopilocarpine, 598
Isoptera, 338
Isorottlerin, 316
Isosporous, 56
Ivory nut, 767

vegetable, 231, 364
Ivy, American, 328

English, 350

ground, zi'^
Jaborandi, 596

Aracati, 599

powder, 717
Jaborine, 599
Jacaranda, yil
Jack-ln-the-pulpit, 234
Jack-tree, 257
Jalap, 451

allied plants, 453

Jalap, male, 452

powder, 733

substitute. 265

Tampico. 453

wild, 453
Jalapa, 451
Jalapin, 452
Jalapurgin, 452
Jambosa, 347. 348

Caryophyllus, 346
Jambul tree, 656
Jambuse berries, 347
Japaconitine, 480
Jasmine, Cape, 382

yellow, 480
Jateorhiza palmata, 274
Jatropa, 315
Jeffersonia diphylla,

739
Jelly, Iceland-moss,

690
buffalo-berry, 344
Jeq-uirity. 300
Jervine, 493. 494- 495
Jessamine, yellow,

362, 480
Jewel-weed family,

325
Jimson weed, 2)7^
Joannesia, 315
Joe-pye weed, 626
Juglandaceae, 251
Juglans, 251

alba, 751

cinerea, 751

nigra, 751

powder, 751

regia, 570, 752, 756
Jujube-paste, 327
Juncacese, 241
J uncus, 241
Jungermannia, 52, 55
Juniper berries, 78

camphor, 683

powder, 759
Juniperus, 79, 679

powder, 759

Sabina, 682

species, 81, 683

virginiana, 80
Jute, 329, 330

Kadsura, 275
Kaiser's glycerin

jelly, 811
Kalmia, 357
Kamala, 316

Kavaine', 249
Kava-kava, 249

powder, 765
Keel, 248
Kichsia, 668
Kid-glove orange, 307
Kien oil, 679
Kiggelaria, 339
Killing agents, 800
Kino, 654, 655, 782

varieties, 655, 656
Kinone, 520
Kinovin, 520
Ki-urushi, 320
Kleister, 165
Knight's experiments,

94
Kola, 435
Kolatine. 436
Kosteletzyka. 451
Koussein, 557
Kousso, 556

powder. 774
Krameria, 453, 647

allied plants, 455

powder, 758

species, 295, 455
Kraunhia, 300
Kumquat orange, 308

Labellum, 131
Labiatse, 368
Laburnum, 299
Lac, 320

gum-, 317, 327
Lace-tree, 343
Lacinaria, 400
Lacquer. Japanese, 319
Lactarius, 34
Lactuca species, 392, 649
Lactucarium, 649, 781
Lactucerin, 649
Lactucerol. 649
Lactucin, 649
Lactucon, 649
Lactucopicrin, 649
Lady's slipper, 490
Laetia, 339
Lafsensia, 344
Lagerstrsemia, 344
Lagetta, 343
Lamella, middle, 181

primary, 182

secondary, 182
Lamellae in starch

grains, 163
Lamina, 106, 130

872

INDEX.

Laminaria, 13, 16
Lamium, anther, 127
Lanate, 210
Landolphia, 668
Langsdorffia. 259
Lanthopine, 660
Laplacea, 335
Lapprtea, 257
Lappa, 465

powder, 748
Lappaconitine, 480
Lappin, 465
Lasioderma, 420
Lasiosiphon, 537
Lathyrus, 301
Laticiferous tissue,

195.
Laudanine, 660
Laudanosine, 660
Lauraceae, 2"]"]
Laurel family, 277
Laurocerasin, 537, 539
Lavandula officinalis,

370

spica, 371
Lavender, garden, 370
Lawsonia, 344
Leaf, base, 113

functions, 108

margin, 114

simple, 106

structure, 209

venation, 109
Leaflets, 114
Leather wood, 343, 344
Leaves, belladonna, 620

betel, 249

coca, 604

color in autumn, 170

compound, 114

(drugs), 595

duboisia, 619

floral, 122

forms, 112

kinds, 107, 108

light relation, 106

modified, 120

movement, 114

perich:etial, 53

scopolia, 509

senna, 607

stramonium, 622

surface, 112

texture, 112

witchhazel, 610
Lecanora, 42
Lecidea, 42

Lecythidacege, 345
Lecythis, 345
Ledum, 601, 602
Legume, 149
Legumin, 300
Leguminosae, 292
Lemnacese, 233
Lemon, 308

peel, 591

substitutes, 334
Lemons, 2)^2
Lens esculenta, 300
Lenticels, 195
Lentil, 300
Leonurus, 2i'j2
Lepargyrsea, 344
Lepidium, 283, 284
Lepidodendron, 69
Lepidoptera. 420
Leptandra, 479, 501

powder, 763

virgimca, 376
Leptandrin, 501
Leptilon, 2,*^z
Leptome, 191
Leptospermum, 347
Lessonia, 16
Lettuce, poison, 392
Leucadendron, 258
Leucsena, 299
Leucine, 692
Leucoplastids, 158, 159
Leucospermum, 258
Leucothce, 357
Levisticum, 354
Levo-glucose, 168
Levulose, 168
Lianes, 104, 313
Libriform, 187
Lice, plant, 647
Lichen groups, 40
Lichenin, 690
Lichens, 39

groups of, 40
Licorice, 189

American, 474

Indian, 474

Jamaica, 474

powder, compound,

759
root, powder, 735
substitutes, 474
taste like, 652
varieties, 472
wild, 382, 474
Life, physical basis of,

160

Light, 4, 106
Lignified, 182
Lignin, 182
Lignocellulose walls,

182
Lignone, 182
Ligulate flowers, 391
Ligule, 114
Liguliflorse, 391
Ligustrum, 361
Lilac, garden, 361
Liliacese, 235
Liliales, 235
Liliifloroe, 235
Lilium, 225
Lily family, 235

pond, 268

water, 268

white, 225
Lily-of-the-valley, 488

flowers, 490
Limb, 130
Lime, 308
Limnophila, 115
Limonis cortex, 591
Linacese, 303
Linaloe oil, Mexican,

312
Linalool, 517, 563, 632
Linaria, 376
Linden, 328, 329
Lindera, 279
Linen, 303

mildewed, 17
Linodendron, 344
Linseed, 426

crushed, 427

meal, 745
Linum, 426, 745

mucilage, 176

seed, 219

species, 303
Lion's foot, 400
Lip (in orchids), 245
Lippia, 368
Lippiol, 368
Liquidambar, 680

oricntalis, 286
Liriodendrin, 275
Liriodendron, 133, 274
Litmus, 42
Litsea, 280, 571
Liverwort groups, 52
Liverworts, 51

leafy, 52
Lobe, 114
Lobed, 114

INDEX.

873

Lobelacrin, 633
Lobelia, 633

blue, 389, 63s

powder, 730

red, 388, 635

species, 388, 635
Lobelianin, 633
Lobeline, 633
Loco-weeds, 299
Locules, 123
Locust, 113, 474
Lodicules, 226
Lodoicea, IS5
Loeffler's methylene

blue, 802
Logania family, 362
Loganiacese, 362
Loganin, 437
Logwood, 546

powder, 784
Lomatia, 258
Lonchocarpus, 299
Lonicera, 385
Loosestrife family,

purple, 142, 344
Lophophorine, 342
Loranthacese, 258
Loranthus, 259
Lotus, 268
Lovage, 354
Lufifa species, 388

sponge, 388
Lumen, 186
Lunaria, 283, 284
Lupinidine, 300
Lupinin, 300
Lupinine, 300
Lupinus, 300, 587
Lupulin, 594
Lupuline, 583
Lupulinum, 594, 785
Lupuliretin, 594
Luzula, 241
Lycaconitine, 480
Lychnis, 267
Lycoperdon species,

30, 34

Lycopodiales, 56, 66

Lycopodium, 693, 749
adulterants, 694
species, 70, 694
spores, 66

Lycopus, 628

Lyngbya, 39

Lysigenous, 175, 178

Lythraceas, 344

Lythrum, 344
flower, 141, 142

Mabea, 316
Macaranga, 317
Mace, 442

Bombay, 443

Macassar, 443

Papua, 443

powder, 771
Machilus, 279
Macis, 442

powder, 771
Madura, 257
Macrocystis, 16
Macrotin, 498
Macrotyn, 498
Madder, 378, 381
Magnesia, 796

ponderosa, 796
Magnesium, 4
Magnolia, 275, 276

family, 274

fruit, 140
Magnoliaceje, 274
Magnolin, 275
Mahogany family, 31J

tree, 667
Mahonia, trailing. 272
Mahurea, 335
Maiden hair spleen-

• wort, 61, 62
Malambo bark, 316
Mallotus philippi-

nensis, 316
Mallow, 331

family, 329

stamens, 128
Malpighiaceae, 313
Malt, 575
Maltose, 168
Maltum, 575
Malva species, 331
Malvaceae, 329
Malvales, 328
Malvaviscus, 451
Mammei apple, ;i;i7
Mammey wine, ;i;i7
Mandarin orange. 307
Mandelonitrile, 527
Mandragora, 465
Mandragorine, 465
Mandrake, European,

465
Mangifera. 322
Mango fruit. 337
Mangos, 322

Mangosteen, 335
Mangrove, 345

swamps, 346
Manihot, 318. 668
Manna, 649, 650

Briangon, 81

Coni ferae, 8*1

Israelites, 42

Luristan, 292
Manna-like sugar, 338
Mannitan, 650
Mannite, 290
Mannitol, 168, 288, 290

650
Maple family, 323

leaves, powder, 718

sugar, 323
Maqui fruit, 328
Marasmius, 30
Marcescent, 131
Marcgravia. 334
Marcgraviacae, 334
Marchantia, 51, 52, 55
Marigold, 390, 394, 555

powder, 740

marsh, 501
Marjoram, 371
Marking tree, 319
Marrubiin. 628
Marrubium, 628

powder, 729

species, 628

vulgare, 368
Marsdenia, 365
Marshmallow, 329, 450

substitutes, 451
Marsilia, 63
Marvel-of-Peru. 265
Mastic, 645

American, 645
Mastiche, 645, 75c
Masticin. 645
Mate, 322

powder, 717
Matico. 617. 629

powder, 727, 730

substitutes, 333
Matisia, 332
Matricaria, 553

adulterants, 554

Chamomilla, 394

powder, 746
May-apple, 105, 506
Maytenus, 323
Meadow beauty. 349
Meadow-sweet leaves,
powder, 718

874

INDEX.

Meal, corn, 790
flaxseed, 427, 745
mountain, 16
Meconidine, 660
Meconine, 660
Medicinal plants, 410
Medinilla, 349
Medlar, Japanese, 287
Medullary rays, 199
Megasporangia, 56
Megaspore, 56, 86
Megasporophyll, 75
Melaleuca species, 347
Melanthin, 567
Melastoma, 349
Melastomaceae, 348
Melia, 312, 313

stamens, 128
Meliacese, 312
Melilot, yellow, 590
Melilotus, 590
Melissa, 371
Melon tree, 341

water, 388
Membrane, primary,

182
Membranous, 112
Menispermacese, 273
Menispermum, loi, 208,

273.
Menispine, 273
Mentba piperita, 631, 729

species, 370, 630, 633

spicata, 6^2

viridis, 632
Menthol, 631, 840
Mercurialis, 317, 318
Mericarp, 149
Meristem, 181

primary, 198
Meristems, secondary,

198
Mescal buttons, 342
Mescaline, 342
Mesembryanthemtim,

267
Mesna, 335
Mesocarp, 145
Mesophyll, 211
Mcspilodaphne, 541
Mestome, 198
Metabolism, 219, 222
Metbyl-rescnletin, 482

-cephaeline, 469

-chavicol, 562

-granatonine, 536

-morphine, 833

Methyl-naphthoqui-
none, 285
-pelletierine, 534
salicylate, 225, 339.

355. 357
Methysticin, 249
Methysticum, 249. 765
Mezcal, 240
Mezerein, 536
Mezereon, 343
Mezereum, 343, 536

powder, 738
Mezoneurum, 644
Michelia, 274, 275
Micrococci, 44
Micro-crystals, 171
Micromeria, 413
Micrometer, 813
Micron, 15

Micropolariscope, 814
Micropyle, 154
Microscopic life, 13
Microsomata, 158
Microsomes, 158
Microspectroscope, 815
Microspermje, 244
Microsporangia, 56,

. 83, 84
Microspores, 56, 85
Microsporophyll, 65, 74
Micro-technique, 800
Mignonette, 284
Mikania, 390
Mildews, 20

downy, 20

green, 25

yellow, 25
Milk, blue color in, 204

juices (drugs), 640

tissue, 195
Milkweed family, 365
Milkwort family, 313

white, 313
Millettia, 299
Mimosoidere, 292
Minuisops, 358, 359
Mineral cellulose walls,

183
Mint family, 368

water, 630

wild. 630
Mio Mio, 400
Mirabilis, 265
Mistletoe, American,

European, 259
IVIitchclla, 142, 382
Mitella, 285

Mitrewort 285

false, 285
Mold, black, 20
Monarda, 371
Monkey-bread tree, 332

pot tree, 345
Monobrachious, 138
Monocarpia, 277
Monocotyledons,

83, 109, 225
Monoecious, 48, 136
Monotropa, 355
Moonseed, Canada, 273

family, 273
Moraceae, 254
Morchella, 30, 34
Morel, 30
Morinda, 381
Moringa, 284
Moringacese, 284
Morning-glorv family,

365
Morphine, 659, 841

methyl, 659

para, 660
Morphology, i

inner, 156
Morus, 257
Moss, Florida, 235

flower, 54

groups, 55

Irish, 13

plant, 46

wolf's, 41
Mosses, 53

club, 56, 66

scale, 52

true, 55
Mother of cloves, 773
Motherwort, 372
Mountain ash leaves,

powder, 719
Mounts, 808

Canada balsam, 811

glycerin-jelly, 811

permanent, 809
Mourera, 285
Movement of leaves,

114
Movements, sleep, 117
Mucilage, cell-content,
176

cell membrane, 177

cellulose walls, 183

hairs, 177

in Rosacese, 290
Mucilages, 174

INDEX.

875

Mucor mucedo, 20
Mucronate, 112
Mucuna, 300
Mugwort, 397
Mulberry, 257

family, 254

leaves, powder, 719
Mullein, 376

seeds, 635
Multinucleate, 12
Mulu kilavary, 675
Mundulea, 299
Muntingia, 329
Musa, 244
Musaceffi. 244
Musci, 53

Mushroom, common
field, 30

poisonous, 30, 31
Mushrooms, edible,

30, 31. 33
Musk root. 462

odor, 331

seed, 331
Mustard, black,
283, 429

family, 283

field, 429

flour, 742

French, 742

garlic, 283

paste, 742, 743

prepared, 742

(root hairs), 92

Russian, 743

sarepta, 429, 743

treacle, 283

yellow, 283

white. 283, 428

wild, 284
Mutations, 3
Mycelium, 17
Mycose, 692
Myoctonine, 480
Myosotis, 367
Myrceugenia, 347
Myrcia, 348
Myrica cerifera, 250

powder, 759
Myricales, 250
Myricaria. 338
Myricin, 319
Myristica. 439

fragrans. 277

powder. 771

species. 440
Myristicaceae, 277

Myristicin, 440
Myrobalans, 348
Myrosin, 428
Myroxylon, 339
Myrrh family, 310

varieties,
673. 674. 675
Myrrha, 311, dy^

powder, 781
Myrtacese, 346
Myrtle family, 346

wax, 250
Myrtus species, 347,
656

Nabalus, 400
Naked flowers, 137
Napsea, 331
Napelline, 478, 479
Narceine, 660
Narcissus, 240
Narcotine, 660, 842
Naregamia, 472

powder, 736
Naregamine, 472
Naringin, 308, 592
Nasturtium family,

302
Nataloin, 665
Naturalized plants, 418
Navicula, 14
Nectandra,

279. 461, 541
Nectar, 215

poisonous, 357
Nectaries, 145
Nelumbo, 268
Nepenthacese, 285
Nepenthes, 285
Nepeta, 113, 372
Nephelium, 324, 594
Nephrodium, 57, 60
Nerium, 364
Nesaea, 344
Neslia, 284
Nettle, dead, 127

family, 257

horse, 374
Nicotiana species, 375
Nicotine, 375
Nigella species, 567
Nightshade, deadly,
372

enchanter's, 349
Nitrification, soil, 43
Nitrogen, 3

atmospheric, 99

Nitroglycerin, storing,

15
Nomenclature, 223
Nopalea, 343
Nostoc, 39
Nucellus, 71, 86
Nucleoles, 158
Nucleus, 2

starch grain, 163
Nuphar, 268
Nut, 150
Nutation, 117
Nutgall, 646
Nutgalls, Texas, 648
Nutlet, 150
Nutmeg, 439

American, 440

false, 440

family, 277

powder, 771

varieties, 440
Nux vomica, 436

endosperm, 219, 364

powder, 793
Nyctaginaceae, 265
Nyctinastic, 117
Nyctitropic, 117
Nymphaea, 268

stamens, 127
Nymphaeaceae, 268
Nyssa, 259

Oak, 646

balls, California, 648

black, 253

leaves, powder, 719

poison, 319

red, 253

Spanish, 253

white, 253
Oaks, varieties, 543
Oat, 227
Oatmeal, 792
Oats, rolled, 792
Obcordate. 112
Ochrocarpus. 335
Ocimum, 371
Ocotea, 280
Ocotilla, 338
Octomeles, 341
Qinanthe, 354
CEnothera, 349, 350
Official. 223
Oil, Ajowan, 354

allspice, 575

anise, 354, 562

Apeiba, 329

876

INDEX.

Oil, bay, 347
betula, 252
bitter ahnond, 434
cade, 679

Borneo camphor, ^37
cajeput, 347
calamus, 496
Carapa, 313
caraway, 567
castor, 314
chamomile, 555
cinnamon, 516
clove, 549
coriander, 563
cotton seed, 331
croton, 315
cubeb, 571
cumin, 354, 569
cyperus, 231
dill, 354
erigeron, 393
fennel, 564
geranium-grass, 230
gingergrass, 230
hedeoma, 630
hops, 583, 594
juniper, 81
kapak, 331
kesso root, 505
laurel-nut, 336
lavender, 370
lemon, 308
lemon-grass, 230
lupulin, 594
marcassa, 324
marjoram, 371
myrcia, 347
Neroli, 307
olive, 360
orange, 591
orange peel, 307
palm, 232, 333
pennyroyal,

Russian, 631
pepper, 573
pepper, Japanese, 308
peppermint, 631, 632
pimenta, 575
pine needle, 677
red cedar wood, 683
rose, 289, 558
rosemary, 370
sage, 612
santal, 259
sassafras, 539
savin, 81, 683
sesame, 377

Oil, spearmint,
German, 633
Russian, 632

tar, 678

thyme, 370

turpentine, 676, 677
wintergreen, 252, 357
Oil-cake, 427
Oils, 178
Okra, 331
Oleacese, 360
Oleander, 364
Oleandrin, 364
Oleo-resins, 179
Oleum cedrelse, 313

myristicse, 440

picis Liquidae, 678

rhodii, 309

theobromatis, 332
Olibanum, 3rr
Olive endocarp, 491,
586. 770

family, 360
Omphalocarpum, 358
Onion, 239
Onoclea, 62
Ononin, 300
Ononis, 300, 474
Oogonium, 7
Oomycetes, 18
Oosphere, 7
Oospore. 7, 45
Opegrapha, 42
Operculina, 453
Operculum, 49
Ophioglossum, 63

species, 69
Opium, 658, 661

adulterants, 661
Opopanax. 675
Opuntia species,

342, 343
Opuntiales, 341
Orange, Bergamot, 307

bitter, 306

blood, 307

Curagao, 306

flower, 130

Malta, 306

mock, 286

navel, 308

osage, 257

Otaheite, 307

peel, bitter, 592

peel, sweet, 591

Portugal, 306

satsuma, 308

Orange, Seville, 306

trifoliate, 306
Oranges, moldy, 17
Orcein, 42
Orchidales, 244
Orchid-like flowers, 349
Orchil, 42
Orchis, 590
Ordeal bean, 438
Orders, 224
Orellin, 338
Organs,

inner structure, 197

nutritive, 5

plant, 5

propagative, 5
Orienting, 117
Origanum, Cretian, 371

species, 371
Origin, botanical, 417

commercial, 418

of growth, Point of,
163

natural, 417
Orizaba, 453
Orlean, 338

Ornamental plants, 231,
^V„ 240, 244. 257.
260, 264, 265, 267,
302, 314, 326, 334,
340, 341, 349, 408
Orotava dragon tree,

238
Orpine family, 285
Orris-root, 105

po-.vder, 793
Orthostichies, 118
Oryza, 227
Oscillaria, 44
Osmosis, 184, 221
Osmunda, 69, 687

species, 61

spores, 63
Ostrya, 252
Ourouparia Gambir,

381
Ovary, 123, 215
Ovule, development, 86

structure, 215
Ovules, forms, 126
Oxalidacege, 301
Oxalis, 301
Oxidation, 221
Oxyacanthine, 273, 483
Oxyatropine. 622
Oxycoccin, 358
Oxycoccus, 357. 601

INDEX.

8/7

Oxyconiine, 567
Oxydase enzymes, 180

in kola, 436
Oxygen, 3

Oxythynioquinone, 400
Oxytropis, 299

Pachira, 331, 45i
Pachyma cocos, 34
Palaquin species, 358
Pale, inner, 226

outer, 226
Palisade cells, 211
Palm oil, 233
Palmas, 231
Palmately-compound,

114
Palmately-veined, 1 12
Palmi-nerved, no
Palms, 231

resembling, 351
Panax species, 98, 350
Pangium, 340
Panicle, 137
Papain, 180, 277
Papaver capsules, 148

somniferum, 280
Papaver acese, 280.
Papaverales, 280
Papaverine, 660
Papaw, 341

family, 341

North American, 277
Paper of ancients, 231

rice, 350
Papilionaceous, 130
Papilionatse, 292
Pappus, 391
Papyrus, 231
Paracatechin, 328
Paradise grains, 242
Parallel-veined, 109
Paranine. 520
Para-nut, 345
Paraphyses, 53
Parasites, 16

half, 258
Pareira, 460

brava. 460

false, 461

powder, 738

substitutes, 461, 462

white. 462

yellow, 462
Parenchyma. 184

kinds, 184, 185

rays, 200

Parenchyma sheaths,

211
Paricine, 520
Parietales, 334
Parillin, 450
Pari-pinnate, 114
Parnassia, 286
Paronychia, 267
Parrya. 283
Parsnip, mistaken for,

569
Parthenocissus, 328
Partridge berry,

142, 378, 382
Passiflora species, 341
Passion-flower family,

341
Patchouli, 371
Paullinia Cupana, 324
Pavonia, 451

Payena, 3S8

Pea, garden. 92, 300

sweet, 301
Peach, 288, 539

seed, 794
Peaches, dextrose in,

167
Peanut, 144, 300
Pear, 288

prickly, 343
Peat, sphagnum, 55
Pecan, 251
Pectin, 288
Pectose. 288
Pedaliaceae. 2>^^
Pedicel. 137
Peduncle, 137
Peganum, 637

Harmala, 304
Peireskia, 342, 343
Pelargonium species,

301
Pellsea, 61, 62
Pelletierine, 534
PelHonia, 161
Pellitory, 455, 456
Pellotine. 342
Pelosine, 461
Peltigeria, 691
Pensea species. 652
Pencil flower, 413
Penicillium, 2S
Penny-cress, field, 283
Pennyroyal.

American. 369, 628

European, 630
Pentadesma, 436

Pentalostigma, 317
Pentapetes, ZiZ
Penthorum, 285
Peperomia, 124, 574
Pepo, 150, 429

powder. 742
Pepper. Acheen, 574

adulterants, 574, 770

African, 578

black, 249, 571
powder, 586, 769

Bombay, 580

Cayenne, 578, 782

garden, 580

-grass, 283

Guinea, 574

hulls, 574, 770

Japan, 580

long, 249, 573

-moor, 308

Penang, 574

pod, 580

red, 376, 579

standard, 573

substitutes, 573

wall-, 285

white. 249, 573, 574
Peppercorns, 571

white, 573
Peppermint, 631

powder, 729
Peppertree, Peruvian,

645
Perennial, 106
Perezia species, 400
Perfoliate, 114
Periandra, 474
Perianth, 129
Periblem, 198
Pericarp, 145
Perichaetia, 53
Periderm, 512
Perigynous, 132
Perisperm, 90. 152, 218
Peristome, 49
Periwinkle, 364
Peronospora, 19
Persea, stamen, 127
Persian berries, 525
Persica, 539
Persimmon, 359
Persistent, 131
Personate, 131
Persoonia, 258
Pertusaria. 41
Peru balsam, 298
Petaloid, 132

878

INDEX.

Petals, 129
Petiole, 106
Peziza, 22, 23
Phaca (Astragalus),

299
Ph?eophyce?e, 8, 13
Pharniacognosy, 417
Pharmacopoeial defini-
tion, 418

titles, 418
Phaseolus, 300
Phellogen. 199, 202
Phenol, 678
Phenyl ethylene, 680

propyl cinnamate,
680
Philadelphus, 286
Phloem, 201
Phlorizin. 292
Phloroglucin solution,

182, 808
Phloryl compounds, 552
Phlox Carolina, 188
Phcenix, 233, 364
Phoradendron, 259
Phosphorus, 4
Photosynthesis, 4, 109
Phycomycetes, 18, 21
Phyllanthus, 317, 318
Phyllophora, 16
Phyllotaxis, 118
Phyllotaxy, 118
Physcia, 41
Physic, Indian, 471
Physiology, I
Physostigma, 438, 771

venenosum, 298
Physostigmine, 439, 844
Phytelephas, 231, 364,

767
Phytolacca, 446, 464,
465

decandra, 265

fruit, 466

powder, 736
Phytolaccaceae, 265
Phytolaccine, 466
Picea, 75
Pichi, 373
Picradonidin, 496
Picr?ena, 546
Picrasma excelsa, 309

species, 546
Picrasmin, 545
Picro-crocin, 241
Picropodophyllin, 508
Picrosclerotine, 692

Pieris, 357
Pileus, 31
Piliganine, 694
Pilocarpene, 599
Pilocarpidine, 598
Pilocarpine, 598
Pilocarpus, 596

powder, 717

species, 305
Pilose, 210
Pimelea, 343
Pimenta, 574

acris, 347

adulterants, 755

officinalis, 347

powder, 755
Pimpernel, 562
Pimpinella, 562

Anisum, 352

species, 562
Pimpinellin, 562
Pinanga, 338
Pine cones, 79

frankincense, 79

Georgia, 78

ground, 70, 694

loblolly, 79

long-leaved, 78

pitch, 78

prince's, 355

running, 70

stem, 209

torch, 79
Pineapple, 235
Pinene, 676
Piney resin, 338
Pinicrin, 684
Pinkroot, 503
Pinks, 267
Pinnately-compound,

114
Pinni-nerved, no
Pinol hydrate, 676
Pinus, 41

species,
7Z, 78, 79, 81, 676
Piper, 571

angustifolium, 249

Cubeba, 249

fruit, 218

longum, 573

methysticum, 249

nigrum, 247

powder, 769

species, 571, 574

substitutes, 573
Piperaceae, 247

Piperales, 247
Piperidine, 573
Piperine, 573, 845
Pipitzahoac, 400
Pipsissewa, 355, 603
Piptadenia, 652
Pircunia, 266
Piscidia Erythrina, 299
Pistacia, 322, 646

Lentiscus, 321
Pistachio nuts, 322
Pistil, 123
Pistillate, 136
Pisum, 92, 300

stamens, 128
Pitch, 678

Burgundy, 81, 670

Canada, 81, 671

hemlock, 671
Pitcher plants, 119
Pitcher-plant family,

284
Pith, 203, 206

sassafras, 547
Pituri, 620
Piturine, 620
Pix Burgundica, 670

liquida, 677
Placenta, 124, 215
Plaited, 132
Planchonia, 345
Plankton, 13
Plantaginaceae, 378
Plantago species, 378
Plantain, 140, 378

family, 378
Plants, carnivorous,

Plastid pigments, 160
Plastids, 2, 158
Platonia, zn
Plerome, 198
Pleura, 15
Pleurisy root, 365
Pleurococcus, 9, 39
Pleurosigma, 14, 15
Plicate, 121, 132
Plum, French, 288

seed, 794
Plumule, 154
Pneumatic tissue. 211
Poaya blanca, 472
Pod. 150

Podophylloresin, 508
Podophyllotoxin, 508
Podophyllum, 273, 506

peltatum, 273

INDEX.

879

Podophyllum, powder,
172.

rhizome, 104

species, 508
Podostemacese, 285
Podostemon, 285
Pogostemon, 371
Poinsettia, 132
Point of growth, 93

vegetation, 93, 197
Poisons, testing, 5
Poisonous plants to
cattle, 299

horses, 268

sheep, 264
Poke, 265, 464

berries, 267

root, 265
Polariscope, 814
Polemoniales, 365
Poliantin, 402
Pollen grains, 85, 213

sacs, 83, 126
Pollination, 139

cross-, 141

self-, 140
Pollinia, 85
Pollinium, 128
Polyadenia, 574
Polygala species,

313. 472
Polygalaceae, 313
Polygamous, 136
Polygonaces, 113, 262
Polygonales, 262
Polygonum flower, 141

species, 104, 264, 477
Polymnia, 399
Polypodium, 62, 64, 474

spores, 63
Polyporus, 34
Polysiphonia, 13
Polytrichum, 46, 55
Pome, 150, 288
Pomegranate family,

345

bark, 534

powder, 725
Pomelos, 307
Pometia, 324
Pop corns, 229
Poplar, 250

balsam, 250
Popowia, 277

stamens, 127
Poppy. California, 280

capsules, 148

Poppy, celandine, 282

family, 280

Mexican, 280

opium, 280

yellow, 282
Populus, 250
Pore, bordered,
187, 191

fungi, 31

simple, 184

stoma, 193
Pores in fibers, 188

kinds, 184

water-, 193
Porteranthus, 471
Portulaca, 26
Portulacacese, 267
Potassium, 4

nitrate, 402
Potato, 375

Chinese, 240

family, ^n^.

sweet, 366

white, 105
Potentilla,

120, 292, 647
Pouzolzia, 258
Powders,

adulterants, 695

examination, 696

greenish, 714

key, 702

reagents, 696

reddish, 782

yellowish, ^2,2
Prefloration, 132
Prefoliation, 121
Preservatives, 800
Prickly ash bark, 533,

. 543. 776
Pride of China, 312
Primrose, evening,

. 349
Primula, species, 349
Prince's feather, 264
Principes, 231
Prisms, 171
Privet, 361
Promycelium, 35, 38
Propagation, 404
Propenylanisol, 562
Prophylla, 137
Prosopis, 644
Protea, 258
Proteacin, 258
Proteales, 258
Protecting cells, 192

Protective cellulose

walls, 183
Proteids (proteins),

158
Protein grains, 173
Proteolytic ferments,

179
Prothallus, 46
Protium, 310, 311
Protocatechuic alde-
hyde, methyl, 587
Protonema, 46, 49

in Hepaticae, 51
Protopine, 28^, 281,

282, 508, 560
Protoplasm, 2, 156
Protoplasmic cell-
contents, 156
Protoplast, 2, 156
Protoveratridine, 404
Protoveratrine, 493
Prune, 576
Prunum, 576
Prunus, 288, 290, 590

Amygdalus, 287

domestica, 287

serotina, 287

species, 537, ^38, 539

virginiana, 287, 537
powder, 759
Pseudaconitine, 480
Pseudo-segle group,

306
Pseudo-coccus, 343
Pseudoconydrine, 567
Pseudoemodin, 522
Pseudofrangulin, 522
Pseudohyoscyamine,

620
Pseudo-inuHn, 167, 402
Pseudojervine, 494
^ Pseudomonas, 99
Pseudomorphine, 659
Pseudopelletierine, 536
Pseudopodium, 55
Pseudo-strophanthin,

432
Psidium, 347, 656
Psoralea, 298, 603
Psychotrine, 469
Ptelea, 308
Pteridophytes, 55
Pteris, 58, 59, 64
Pterocarpus, 647

Marsupium, 294

santalinus, 295

species, 547

88o

INDEX.

Pterospermum, 3S3
Ptinedse, 420
Ptimis, 420
Pubernlent, 210
Pubescent, 210
Puccinia, 37
Puffball, 30
Pulegone, 630
Pulsatilla, 271
Pulse family, 292
Pulvinis, 117
Pulvis glycyrrhizse

compositus, 759
Pumpkin fruit, 387
seed, 429

powder, 742
vine, 387
Punica Granatum, 345

646
Punicacese, 345
Punicine, 534
Purging root, 471
Purshia tridentata,

292
Purshianin, 525
Purslane, 267
Putamen, 145
Pycnidia, 40
Pycnoconidia, 40
Pyramids, 171
Pyrenoids, 10, 15
Pyrethri Flores, 395
Pyrethrine, 456,
Pyrethrum, 185, 455

powder, 778
Pyridine, hexa-hydro-

propyl, 567
Pyrocatechin, 543, 677
Pyrolaccc-e, 355
Pyrus, 288
Pyxidium, 148
Pyxis, 148

Quaker button, 436
Quassia, 544

amara, 309

cups, 544

powder, 735

varieties, 544
Quassiin, 545, .546
Quebrachinamine, 363
Quebrachine, 363
Quebracho, 322, 363
Queen's-root, 314
Quercetin, 544
Quercitrin,

254, 324, 544

Quercus, 541, 646, 647

alba, 263, 776

species, 253, 543
Quillaja, 541

powder, 782

Saponaria, 290

spurious, 541
Quillajasapotoxin, 541
Qnina blanca, 316
Quinamidine, 520
Quinamine, 519
Quince, 288

flower, 141

seed, powder, 745
Quinidine, 519
Quinine, 518, 519, 847

herb, 362

poor man's, 300
Quinone, 520
Quinovin, 520
Quisqualis, 348

Raceme, 137
Rachis, 137
Radial, 137

leaves, 108
Radiate, 391
Radicle, 154
Radish, 283
Radix ononidis, 300
Rafflesiacese, 260
Raisins, 328
Rajania, 240
Ramie, 258, 330
Ranales, 268
Ranunculaceae, 268
Ranunculus, 271
Raphanus, 283
Raphia, 330
Raphides, 171
Rasamala-wood oil, 681
Raspberries, 531
Raspberry, red, 289
Rattle-box, 299
Ravensara, 279, 280
Ray flowers, 391
Reagent bottle, 803
Reagents, 696, 800

special, 808
Reaumuria, 338
Reclinate, 121
Red gum, 655

Saunders, 547
Reddish powders,

key, 711
Red-wood, 78
Regular, 136

Relationship,
tree of, 89
Rcpand, 114
Reseda, 284, 344
Resedaceae, 284
Resene resins, 654
Reserve cellulose waHs,

. 183

in seeds, 152

layers, 152

parenchyma, 185
Resin, 653

claretta, 653

galipot, 694

guaiac, 668

podophyllum, 508

scammony, 658

soft, 311 _
Resinol-resins, 654
Resinotannol, asa-,

671, 672
Resinotannol, opo-, 675
Resinotannol resins,

654
Resins, 178, 640

classes, 653, 654
Respiration, 109
Reticulate, 210
Reticulated ducts, igo
Reticulately-veined

leaves, in
Retuse, 112
Revolute, 121
Rhamnacese, 326
Ramnales, 326
Rhamnochrysin, 525
Rhamnocitrin, 525
Rhamnol arachidat^

525
Rhamnolutin, 525
Rhamnonigrin, 525
Rhamnose, 522
Rhamnoxanthin, 522
Rhamnus cathartica,

525
Frangula, 326
powder, 735
Purshiana, 326, 523

powder, 759
species. 522, 525
Rhaponticin, 734
Rhatany, 453

powder, 758
Rheedia, 335
Rhein, 476
Rheum, 474
powder, 733

INDEX.

88 1

Rheum species, 262
Rhexia, 349
Rhipsalis, 342
Rhizoids, 11, 46, 51
Rhizomes, 105

(drugs), 443

kinds, 444
Rliizophora, 345, 647
Rhizophoraceje, 345
Rhododendron,

357, 601, 602
Rhodophycese, 8, 13
Rhodymenia, 16
Rhceadales, 280
Rhoesmin, 476
Rhubarb, 262, 474

Austrian, 476

English, 476

false, 501

fingers, 421

Rhaptonic, powder,

734

powder, yii

substitutes, 477

varieties, 476
Rhus, 646

glabra, 569
powder, 784

species, 319
Rhynchanthera, 349
Ribes, 286
Riccia, 52
Rice, 227

tlour, 792

paper, Chinese, 350

starch, 788
Richardsonia, powder,

Ricm, 314, 331
Ricinus, 314

aleurone in, 2x9

seed, 218, 314
Ringent, 131
River-weed, 285

family, 285
Rivinia, 267
Robinia, 298, 301, 474
Roccella, 42
Root, 92

abnormal structure,
20s

absorption, 220

aerial, 97

belladonna, 46^

branches, 204

contraction, 204

Culver's, 501

Root, drugs, 443

embryo, 154

fennel, 565

hairs, 92, 94

kinds, 94

licorice, 472

modified, 97

perennial, 94

poke, 465

pressure, 221

scammony, 657

-stocks, 105

structure, 196

tubercles, 97

tuberous, 94

-tubers, 94
Roripa, 283
Rosa, 587

canina, powder, 784

centifolia, 558
powder, 785

gallica, 557
powder, 785

species, 289
Rosacese, 287
Rosales, 285
Rose apple, 347

family, 287

geranium, 301

hips, powder, 784

powder, 785

red, 557

wood, 279
Roses, green, 134
Rosette aggregates, 171
Rosin, 653

weed, 400
Rosmarinus officinalis,

370
Rotate, 131
Rottlerin, 316
Rouge, 397
Rubber, India, 316
667

varieties, 668

vulcanization, 66b
Rubia, 381
Rubiaceae, 378
Rubiales, 378
Rubijervine, 494
Rubreserine, 439
Rubus, 530

powder, 751

species, 288, 289, 531
Rudbeckia, 400
Rue family, 304

garden, 308

RuelHa, 504

ciliosa, T,7y, 726
Rugose, 210
Rumex, 647

Acetosella, 264

crispus, 262

hymenosepalus,

264, 754

powder, 753, 779

species, 477
Runners, 104
Rusbyine, 472
Rush, 241

family, 24 1

scouring, 56, 64

wood, 241
Rust, black, 36

wheat, 2)7
Ruta graveolens, 308
Rutacese, 304
Rye, 227

flour, 791

middlings, 796

Sabadilla seeds, 495
Sabadine, 495
Sabadinine, 495
Sabal, 578

serrulata, 231
Sabbatia, 362
Sabina, 682

powder, 731
Sabinol, 683
Saccate, 131
Saccharomyces, 23
Saccharose, 168, 402
Saccharum, 227, 795

lactis, 796
Sacci, 240
Sacs, 23

Safflower, 390, 397
Saffron, 241

powder, 746
Safrol, 517, 541
Sage, 612

Muscatel, 612
Sageretia, 326
Sago, imitation, 789

palms, 233

starch, 233, 789
Salep, 247
SalicaJes, 250
Salicin, 250, 8_;9
Salix, 250
Saltations, 3
Salvia, 612

corolla, 133

882

INDEX.

Salvia officinalis, 368

powder, 730

Sclarea, powder, y2'j

species, 612

stamens, 127
Salvinia, 62,, 64
Samadera, 310
Samara, 150

double, 150
Sambiicus

canadensis, 384

powder, 746

species, 384
Sandalwood family, 259

white, 259
Sandarac, 81, 645, 750

substitute, 339
Sand-box tree, 316
Sanguinaria, 508

canadensis, 280

powder, 782
Sangninarine, 508
Santal substitute, 317
Santalaceae, 259
Santalales, 258
Santalin, 547
Santalum, 259

rubrum, 547

powder, 784
Santonica, 550

powder, "jj^^
Santonin, 551
Sap, ascent, 221
Sapindaceje, 324
Sapindales, 318
Sapindus, 324
Sapodilla family, 358
Saponaria, 267

rhizome, 726
Saponin, 299, 324, 331,

335, 541
Sapotaccfe, 358
Sapotilla, 359
Saprolegnia, 18, 19
Saprophytes, 17
Sapucaya-nut, 345
Sarcocarp, 147
Sarcocollin, 652
Sarcolla, 652
Sarcophyte, 259
Sargassum, 13, 16
Sarracenia, 119, 284
Sarraceniales, 284
Sarracenine, 284
Sarsaparilla, 446
American, 447, 450,

752, 761

Sarsaparilla, powder,
761

substitute, 450

varieties, 446

Virginia, 450

wild, 450
Sarsosaponin, 450
Sassafras, iii, 539

bark, 195

leaves, iii

medulla, 547

officinale, 2"]^

powder, '](yj

varii folium, 277
Sassafrid, 539
Satureja, 371
Saunders, red, 547
Savin, 682

powder, 731
Savory, summer, 371
Saw palmetto, 231, 578
Saxifragaceje, 285
Saxifrage family, 285

golden, 286
Scabiosa, 386
Scalariform ducts, 190
Scales, 225
Scammonii Resina,

658
Scammonin, 657
Scammonium,

657, 750
Scammonol, 657
Scammony,

adulterants. 657

Montpellier, 657

varieties, 656
Schinopsis, 322
Schinus, 645
Schij^andra, 275, 276
Schizogenous, 178
Schleichera, 324
Sclerotic cell, 186
Schoenocaulon, 495
Schulze's cellulose
reagent, 806

macerating solution,
808
Scilla, 510, 741
Scillain, 511
Scillin. 511
Scillipicrin, 511
Scillitoxin, 511
Scirpus, 231
Scitaminales, 242
Scitaminje, 242
Scleranthus, 267

Sclereids (see Stone

cells), 187
Sclerenchyma, 186

fibers, 187
Sclererythrin, 692
Sclerotium, 29
Scoparin, 637
Scoparius, 637

powder, 731
Scopola, Z7Z, 446, 509
Scopolamine, 509, 847
Scopolia carniolica, 2>T2,

509, 619, 636
Scrophularia, 2)7^
Scrophulariaceae, 2>y^
Scurvy-grass, 283
Scutellaria, 638

canescens, powder,
730

lateriflora, 368

powder, 729

species, 639
Scutellarin, 639
Scytonema, 39
Sea bean, 299
Secale, 227, 796
Secaline, 692
Secalintoxin, 692
Secretion canals, 197

cells, 197
Sections, making, 801
Sedge famil}^, 230
Sedum, 285
Seed, 151

coat, 90, 152, 217

colchicum, 426

colza, 429

cucumber, 430

development, 90

digitalis, 616

dispersal, 155

edible pine, 81

germination. 405

lagenaria, 430

maw-, 280

muskmellon, 430

plants, 70, 71

pumpkin, 429

rape, 429

sabadilla, 495

stramonium, 624

structure, 151

turnip, 429

watermelon, 430
Seeds, drug, 425
Selaginella, 56, 65-69
Selection, 405

INDEX.

883

Selenipedium, 587
Semecarpus, 319, 646
Sempervivum, 285
Senega, 456

adulterants, 458

allied plants, 457

powder, 748

root, 456
Senegin, 456
Senna, 607

Aden, 610

American, 610

Arabian, 610

Mecca, 610

-nigrin, 609

pods, 610

powder, 721

-rhamnetin, 609
Sepals, 129
Sequoia, 78
Serenoa serrulata,

231, 577, 578
Sericeous, 210
Serpentaria, 501

powder, 739
Serrate, 114
Sesamum, 377
Sessile, 106
Seven barks, 286
Sex cells, 45
Shaddock, 307
Shellac, 257, 324
Shepherd's purse,

88. 284
Shoot, 92

assimilation, 92

hypogeous, 104

kinds, lOi
Shorea, 338
Shrubs, 409
Siabenzoresin, 67;^
Siaresinotannol, 673
Sida, 451

species, 331
Sideroxylon, 359
Siejas, 259
Sieve, 191

tubes, 191
Sigillaria, 69
Silica, 13, 172

in diatoms, 14

in Equisetales, 64
Silique, 150
Silk, 330
Silkworm, 257
Silphium, 400
Simaba, 310

Simaruba, 310, 546
Simarubace^e, 309
Sinalbin, 428
Sinapine, 428
Sinapis alba,

283, 428, 742

powder, 741
nigra, 429

allied products, 429

powder, 743
root-hairs, 92
species, 429
Sindor balsam, 2>i7
Sinistrin, 511
Sinuate, 114
Sinus, 114
Sisal, 330
Sisymbrium, 283
Skullcap, 638, 639
Skunk cabbage, 234
Sleep movements, 117
Sloanea, 328
Sloe leaves, powder,

Smilax species, 238
Smut, corn, 35
Smuts, 36
Snake poison, antidote,

274, 349
Snakeroot, black, 497

button-, 400

Canada, 260

Red River, 501

Texas, 501

Virginia, 501
Sneeze-weed, 401
Snow crystals, 171
Snow-ball, 382, 383
Snowberry, 385
Soap bark,

powder, 782
Soanberry family, 324
Sodium chloride in asK,

276, 285, 338
Soil-bacterium, 99
Solanacese, 372
Solanine, 373, 375
Solanum anther, 127

carolinense, 374, 726

Dulcamara, 2i73

species, T,y6

tuberosum, 375
Solenostemma, 721
Solidago species, 399
Solomon's seal, no
Sorbitol, 288
Sorbus, 287

Soredia, 40
Sorghum, 227
Sori, 59
Sorosis, 150
Sorrel, 264

sheep, 264
Spadix, 138
Spanish needles, 155

saffron, 241, 746
Sparteine, 637
Spathe, 138
Spartium, 637
Spathifioras, 233
Spathyema, 234
Spawn, 31
Spearmint, 632
Sperm, 7
Spermolepis, 656
Spermophytes, 70
Sperms in Bryophytes,

. 48

in Gymnosperms, 177

in Lycopodialcs, 68
Sphacelotoxin, 692
Sph<'ero])actcria, 44
Sphagnum, 49, 55
Sphere-crystalloids,

167
Spice bush, 279
Spices, adulterants, 756
Spiderworts, 235
Spigelia, 361, 502, 503

adulterant, 504

marilandica, 362

powder, 502, 763
Spigeline, 504
Spike, 138
Spikelets. 138, 225
Spikenard,

American, ^450
Spilanthes, 401
Spilanthin, 401
Spinach, 265

fruit, 218
Spinose, 210
Spiny clotbur, 401
Spiraea, 290, 587
Spiral ducts, 190
Spirogyra, 9, 10
Spleenwort, 61, 62
Spondias, 124
Sporangia in Angio-
sperms, 84

mega-, 56

micro-, 56
Sporangium, 6
Spore balls, 35

884

INDEX.

Spores, asexual, 6, 45
fern, 59, 63
mega-, 56
micro-, 56
moss, 49
resting, 11
sexual, 6

summer, 38

swarm, 7

winter, 38
Sporidia, 35
Sporogonium, 48
Sporophyll, 59
Sporophyte, 45
Spring beauty, 267
Springs, sulphur, 44
Spruce, 75

black, 79

gum, 81

hemlock, 81

Norway, 81
Spurge, caper, 315

family, 314

laurel, 343
Squill, 510

powder, 741
Staff-tree family, 323
Staining agents, 802

double, 808
Stamen, 126
Stamens, 122
Staminate, 136
Staminodes, 135
Staminodia, 135^
Staphisagria, 270, 427

powder, 731
Staphisagroine, 428
Star-anise. 149

powder, 783
Starch, 161, '642

acorn, 767

arrowroot, 785

barley, 791

bean, 789

cacao, 767

canna, 789

cassava, 789

commercial, 164, 785

composition, 162

corn, 643, 787

drugs with, 698

drugs without, 699

maranta, 785

paste, 165

pea, 789

polarization of, 165

potato, 787

Starch, properties, 165

reserve, 162

rice, 788

sago, 789

soluble, 164

structure, 162

sweet-potato, 789

wheat, 643, 788

yam, 789
Stavesacre, 427

powder, 731
Stegmatic cells, 756
Stele, 197
Stellera, 537
Stem branches, 100

monocotyledonous,
206

structure, 205
Stems, size and form,

104
Stephania, 462
Sterculia, ^^^i^, 652
Sterculiaceae, ^3^
Stereocaulon, 691
Stereome, 187
Sterile reagents, 801
Stichwort, 268
Sticta, 41

Stigma, 123, 125, 214
Stillingia, 462

powder, 752

sylvatica, 314
Stilophora, 16
Stimuli, chemical, 4
Stink-w^ood, 280
Stipa, 230
Stipe, 31

Stipules, 106, 113, iji
St. John's-wort family.

337
Stolons, 104
Stoma, 193
Stomata, 193
Stone cells, 186

cork, 104
Stonecrop, ditch, 285

mossy, 285

Virginia, 285
Storax, 679

American,

family, 359
Storesin, 680
Storesinol, 680
Stramonii folia, 622
powder. 717

semen, 624
powder, 777

Stramonium, 618, 622

leaves, 618, 622, 728
powder, 717

purple, 624

seed, 219
Strawberries, 531
Strawberry, 292

leaves, powder, 719
Strigose, 210
Strobile, 150
Strophanthidin, 431
Strophanthin, 431
Strophanthus, 430

powder, 763

species, 363
Strophiole, 155
Structure, plant, 2

primary, 198

secondary, 199, 200
Struthiola, 537
Strychnine, 437, 851
Strychnos Ignatii, 437

Nux-vomica, 362
Stylar column, 245
Style, 123

forms, 125

structure, 214
Stylophorine, 281
Stylophorum, 282
Stylosanthes, 413
Styracese, 359
Styracin, 673, 680
Styrax, 679

Benzoin, 360
Styrene, 680
Styrocamphene, 680
Styrol, 680
Styrone, 680
Sub-classes, 224
Succisa, 386
Succulent, 112
Sucrose, 168
Sugar, 578, 58s

apple, 277

beet, 265

boxes, 313

bush, 258

cane, 227

cane-, 168

corns, 230

fruit-, 288

grape, 590

sorghum, ground, 7Q0
Sugars, 167
Sulphur, 4

lotum, 750

prsecipitatum, 750

INDEX.

885

Sumac berries, 569

family, 319

galls on, 569

leaves, 569

poison, 319

scarlet, 321

tanner's, 318
Sumbul, 462

oil of, 554

powder. 765
Sundew family, 284
Sundew plants, 285
Sunflower, 401
Suppressed, 135
Suringi, India, :^^6
Suspensor, 78, 88, 90
Suture, dorsal, 124

ventral, 124
Sweertia Chirata, 362
Sweet birch, 252

orange peel, 591
powder, 741

potato, 366

sap, 252

scabious, 393

William, 267
Swietenia, 667
Syconium, 150
Sylvacrol, 462
Symmetrical, 136
Symphonia, 336
Symphoricarpos, 385
Symphytum, 367
Synantherin, 167, 402
Syncarpous, 123
Synergids, 86
Syngenesious, 129
Syphon, 12
Syringa, 361
Syringin, 361
Syringopicrin, 361
Syzygium, 656

Tabacum, 375

adulterants, 725

powder, 725
Tacamahac balsams, 335

poplar, 250

resins, 310, 311
Tagetes flower, 390, 556
Talauma, 275, 276
Talcum, 796
Tallow tree, 436
Tamaricaceas, 338
Tamarind, 593, 594
Tamarindus, 593

indica, 294

Tamarix, 338

Tamonea, 349

Tamus, 240, 388

Tanacetmn, 397
powder, 730

Tangkawang, 338

Tannin, 174, 646

Tannin-containing
plants, 174, 232,
250, 251, 252, 264,
286, 291, 323, 334,

339, 344, 345, 346,
348, 349, 355, 359,
455, 476, 516, 519,
531, 536, 537, 542,
549, 557, 569, 575,
646, 655, 666
Tannoids, 174
Tansy, 397

powder, 730
Tapetal cells, 84
Tapetum, 84
Tapioca, 318, 789
Tar, 677

beech-wood, 678

birch, 679

composition, 678

j uniper, 678

Norway spruce, 670
Taraxacerin, 459
Taraxacin, 458
Taraxacum, 185, 458

flower, 390, 555

officinale, 392

powder, 779
Tea, 334

adulterants, 717

Appalachian, 323

black, 334

Brazilian, 322

Cassine, 323

-chests, 341

family, 334

green, 334

Labrador, 602

marsh, 602

New Jersey, 326

Paraguay, 322
powder, 717

powder, 717

substitutes, 331
Teak tree, 368

wood, 368
Teasel family, 38=;

Fuller's, 386
Tectona, 368
Tegmen, 152

Telegraph plant, 117

Teleutospores, 36

Temperature, 4

Tentacles, 118

Tephrosia, 299, 610

Terebinthina, 675
Canadensis, 681

Terminalia, 667
species, 348

Terra alba, 797

Testa, 152

Tetradynamous, 129

Tetrameles, 341

Tetrapanax, 350

Tetrarin, 476

Thalictrum, 501

Thalleioquin, 519

Thallophytes, 8
drug, 684

Thallus, 8

Than, 667

Thea species, 334, 335

Theacese, 334

Thebaine, 660

Theca, 14, 127

Theine, 435

Thelesia, 413

Theobroma Cacao, 332

Theobromine, 436
methyl, 435

Theophylline, 335

Thistle, 400

Thlaspi, 283

Thorns, 103

Thuja, 683

Thujin, 684

Thujone, 684

Thyllen, 446

Thyme, garden, 370

Thymelaea, 343, 537

Thymelseacese, 343

Thymol, 354, 371

Thymoquinone, 371

Thymus vulgaris, 370

Tiarella, 286

Tibouchina, 349

Tilia, 328, 329

Tiliaceas, 328

Tillandsia, 235

Timber-yielding plants,
233, 250, 251, 252,
254, 258, 274, 277,
287, 301, 313, 319,
323, 324, 334, 359,

Tincture of krameria,

455
Tinea, 420

886

INDEX.

Tinospora, 460
Tissue, conjunctive, 199

laticiferous, 195
Tobacco, 375, 725

adulterants, 725

Australian, 620

camphor, 375

curing, 375

Indian, 388, 634

wild, 388
Tococa, 349
Toddalia, 501, 571
Toddy, S2,7
Tolu balsam, 298
Toluifera, 587

Balsamum, 297

Pereirje, 298
Tolu-resinotannol, 298
Tolyposporium, 36
Tomato, 376
Tomentose, 210
Tonka, 589

powder, 763
Tooth powder, 16
Toringin, 288
Tormentilla, 292
Torus, 122

forms, 132
Tous les mois,

244, 789
Toxicodendrol, 319, 328
Toxins, 44
Tracheae, 186, 190, 446

forms, 190
Tracheids, 187, 191
Trachylobium, 299
Tradescantia, 185, 235
Tragacanth, 310, 650

powder, 793
Tragacanth-like gums,

342
Tragacantha, 650

powder. 793
Traganthin, 652
Tragappgon, 390, 552
Transpiration, 109
Trapa, 350
Trapacese, 350
Tree of relationship, 89
Trees, deciduous, 408

evergreen, 408
Trehalose, 168
Triassic period, 72
Trichomes, 192
Trifolium, 301
Trigonclla Foenum-

graecum, 744

Trigonelline, 744
Trilisa, 590
Trimethylaminc, 583
Trimorphic, 142
Triosteum, 384, 385

powder, 736
Triticin, 492
Triticum, 227, 490

powder, 779, 796
Tropseolacese, 302
Tropseolum, 302
Tropic, 117
Truffles, 34
Trumpet creeper, 2i77
Truncate, 112
Truxilline, 605, 607
Trypeta, 420, 551
Tsuga, 81

Tube of corolla, 130
Tuberace?e, 34
Tubercles, 97
Tubers, 105
Tubular flowers, 391
Tubuliflorae, 365, 391
Tuckahoe, 34
Tulepo, 259
Tulip tree, 274
Turgescent, 194
Turmeric, 244

powder, 734
Turmerol, 244
Turnera, 340
Turneracese, 340
Turnip, 283

Indian, 234
Turpentine, 675

Bordeaux, 694

Canada, 81, 681

Chios, 646

Strasburg, 81, 681

varieties, 667

Venice, 81, 682
Turpeth root, 452
Turpethin, 453
Turtle-head, 2>7^
Tussilago, 400

flower, 390, 555
Twiners, loi, 103
Twining plants, 409
Tyloses, 446

Ulex, 300
Ulmacese, 254
Ulmus, 544

fulva, 254

mucilage, 176

powder, 760

Ulmus species, 254,

544.

substitute, 2i2i3
Ulothrix zonata, 6
Umbel, 138

compound, 138
Umbellales, 350
Umbelliferre, 352
Umbclliflorse, 350
Umbrella tree, 275
Unguis, 130
Uninucleate, 12
Unisexual, 136
Unona, 277

stamen, 127
Upas-tree, 124, 256
Uragoga Ipecacuanha,

379
Urari poison, 256
Urceola, 668
Urceolate, 131
Uredineae, 34
Uredospores, 38
Urena, 331
Urginea Scilla, 238
Ursone, 6or
Urtica, 257, 258
Urticaceae, 257
Urticales, 254
Usnea, 40, 690
Ustilaginese, 34
Ustilago, 692, 779

Maydis, 35

species, 36
Utricle, 150
Uva Ursi, 60T

powder, 724

Vaccinium, 60T

species, 2>S7
Vagnera, no
Valerian, 504

adulterants, 505

family, 385

garden, 385

oil, 554

powder, 765

varieties, 505

wild, 385
Valeriana, 504

officinalis, 385

species, 504, 505
Valcrianaccn?, 385
Valerianclla, 385
Valerianine, 505
Vallea, 328
Valvate, 132

INDEX.

887

Valves of diatoms, 14
Vanilla, 585

Bourbon, 587

Carolina, 590

grass, 230

Mauritius, 588

Mexican, 587

planifolia, 245

ponipona, 589

powder, 774

Tahiti, 588
Vanillin, S87, 672, 673,
680, 852

plants yielding, 587
Vanillons, 589
Varicose, 210
Varnish tree, 319
Vascular system in

Pteridophytes, 56
Vasicin, 378
Vateria, 338
Vatica, 338
Vaucheria, 11, 16
Vegetables, garden, 265,
331, 354, 366, 375.
388
Vegetation, point of,i97
Vegetative multiplica-
tion, 5
Venter in ferns, 58
Venus's flytrap, 285
Venus-hair fern, 58
Veratalbine, 495
Veratramarin, 494
Veratridine, 495
Veratrine, 495
Veratroidine, 495
Veratrum, 492

album, 236, 'j:S7

powder, 736

species, 495

viride, 235, 'J2,7
Verbascum, 376, 635

Phlomoides,
powder, 727
Verbena species, 368
Verbenacege, 368
Vernation, 121
Veronica. 376
Verrucose, 210
Versatile, 127
Verticillaster, 138
Vervain, 368
Vetiver, 230
Viburnin, 527
Viburnum, 774

opulus. 532, 775

Viburnum

prunifolium, 525, 774

species, 382, 383
Victoria, 268
Villosin, 531
Villous, 210
Vinca, 364
Viola odorata, 472

species, 339

tricolor, 212
Violaceae, 339
Violet, English, 339

family, 339

leaf development, 107

sweet, 339
Viscine, 259, 285
Viscum, 259
Vismia, 335, 336, 649
Vitacese, 2>-'7
Vitellaria. 358
Vitis, 4-t6, 590

species, 327, 328
Viviania, 610
Volva, 31

Vouacapoua Araroba,
780

Wahoo, 2)22,
Wa-i-mas, 495
Wall, cell, 181

kinds, 182

markings, 183

thickening, 183
Walnut, black, 251

English, 251

shells, 756

white, 251
Waltheria, 21>Z
Wandering Jew, 235
Washingtonia, 354
Water ferns, (^2,

hamamelis, 527

-hemlock, 353

hyacinth, 121

in plants, 407

lily stamens, 127

-pores, 193, 194

sulphur. 44
Waterleaf family, 367
Wattle barks, 667
Wax. Carnauba, 232
Weed, gulf, 13
Wheat, 227

bran, 790

flour, 790

middlings, 790, 796

starch, 43, 788

White mustard,
ground, 742
powder, 741
oak, 253, 541
powder, 776
Whitish powders,

key, 712
Whortleberries, 257
Wiesncr's reagent, 800
Wild black cherry
bark, 537, 759
ginger, 120
Willow herb, 349

leaves, powder, 719
leaves, powder, 719
Wine, blackberry, 531

wild cherry, 539
Wines, 327
Wings, 248
Winterana, 339
Winteranaceae, 339
Wintergreen, 357
Winterin, 275
Winter's bark, 275

false, 339
Wistaria, 300

leaves, powder, 719
Wistarin, 300
Witchhazel bark, 526,

' 527

family, 286

leaves, 610
Wood, 203

bar-, 547

Brazil, 547

drugs, 513

false sandal, 547

fibers, 188

heart-, 512

oil, 2>?^1

quassia, 544

red. 303, 547

sandal, 547

sap-, 512

Sappam, 547
Woodfordia species, 344
Wood-sorrel, 301
Wool. 330
Woolly, 210
Wormseed, 264

Levant, 550

Spanish, 264
Wormwood, 396
Wormy drugs, 420
Xanthaline. 660
Xanthine, dimethyl, 436

trimethyl, 435

888

INDEX.

Xanthium species, 401
Xanthorrhiza, 483,

501
Xanthosoma, 234
Xanthostrumarin, 401
Xanthoxylin, 534
Xanthoxylum, 532, 543

powder, T/(i

species, 304, 305, 308
Xylem, 201
Xylopia, 276, 277, 574
Xylose, 486
Xyridales, 235

Yam family, 240

root, 240
Yams, 240

Yarrow, 399

oil of, 554
Yeasts, 23

wild, 24
Yellowish powders,

key, 704
Yellow-root, 483, 501
Yerba buena, 413

Santa, 367, 612
Yohimbi, 381
Yohimbihi, 381
Ylang-ylang, 277

Zea, 277, 558
Mays, 92, 228
powder, 785
species, 229, 230, 231

Ziel's carbol-fuchsin,

803
Zeora, 42
Zingiber, 486, 491

adulterants, 'j'})!

officinale, 242

powder, Tz-]

adulterants, "j})!
Zingiberaceae, 242
Zizyphus species, 327
Zoogloea, 42
Zoospores, 7
Zygadenus, 495
Zygomorphic, 137
Zygomycetes, 18
Zygophyllacese, 303
Zygospore, 7
Zygote, 7

7644

■y.

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Full text of "A text-book of botany and pharmacognosy : intended for the use of students of pharmacy, as a reference book for pharmacists, and a handbook for food and drug analysts"

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