ART
COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
EDITED BY
JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
ALLAN MARQUAND
A. L. FROTHINGHAM, JR.
COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART
EDITED BY
JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.
PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF ART IN RUTGERS
COLLEGE
HISTORY OF PAINTING
By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the "Series. With
Frontispiece and no Illustrations, Bibliographies, and
Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M., Professor of the History
of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. With
Frontispiece and 235 Illustrations and Diagrams, Biblio-
graphies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and a General
Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D. , Professor of Art and
Archaeology in Princeton University, and ARTHUR L.
FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D. With Frontispiece and 113
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50.
FARNESE HERA. NAPLES.
A TEXT-BOOK
OF THE
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
BY
. ALLAN MARQUAND, PH.D., L.H.D.
PROFESSOR OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF ART IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
AND
ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, JR., PH.D.
NEW EDITION, REVISED
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
FOURTH AVENUE & SOTH ST., NEW YORK
LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
COPYRIGHT, IQII, BY
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
AH rights reserved
FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER, 1896
REPRINTED DECEMBER, 1898. (REVISED)
REPRINTED AUGUST, 1901. (REVISED)
FEBRUARY, 1904; SEPTEMBER, 1905; AUGUST, 1907; DECEMBER, 1909; OCTOBER, 1910
NEW EDITION, REVISED, OCTOBER, 1911
Press of J. J. Little & Ives Co.
425-435 East 24th Street, New York
PREFACE.
THE object of this volume is to provide students in schools
and colleges with a concise survey of the history of sculpture,
so that they may be able to comprehend intelligently the sculp-
ture of the past and the present in the countries with which
our own civilization has been and is most intimately connected.
It has seemed unnecessary to treat of prehistoric sculpture in
general ; its connection with the flow of civilization is at
present too remote and ill defined. Nor have we entered upon
the history of Saracenic, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese sculp-
ture, although all of these have had some influence on Euro-
pean art. The various phases of Oriental art are, from an
historical standpoint, in great measure still a mystery to the
Western world. This is equally true of the art of the semi-
civilized nations whose influence once spread so widely upon
our own hemisphere. That portion of the general history of
sculpture which comes within our survey is itself imperfectly
known. In some countries it has been easy to trace the general
development of the art; in others, the lack of systematic
scientific study still hides from us most important treasures.
The history of sculpture can be studied best with the
assistance of casts and photographs . In the absence of the
originals, these are preeminently the source upon which we
must rely. As these are now within the grasp of every school
Vi PREFACE.
and college, we have published a brief list indicating where
such casts and photographs may best be obtained. In almost
every case the illustrations for this volume have been repro-
duced from photographs taken directly from the original ob-
jects. Special acknowledgment is due to the editor of the
Series for many helpful suggestions.
ALLAN MARQUAND.
ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, JR.
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, June 25, 1896.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY . '. xv
SPECIAL BIOGRAPHIES xvi
ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE .... xviii
ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS xx
INDEX 287
CHAPTER I.
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE . . . I
CHAPTER II.
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE Continued 13
CHAPTER III.
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE . . . . 9 . . . .21
CHAPTER IV.
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE . 36
CHAPTER V.
PERSIAN SCULPTURE . . . 48
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
PAGE
HITTITE SCULPTURE ......... 53
CHAPTER VII.
PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE . .... 60
CHAPTER VIII.
GREEK SCULPTURE .68
CHAPTER IX.
GREEK SCULPTURE Continued . 8l
CHAPTER X.
GREEK SCULPTURE Continued. Developed Ionic and Doric Sculp-
ture . . 94
CHAPTER XI.
GREEK SCULPTURE Continued. Fourth-Century and Hellenistic
Sculpture 104'
CHAPTER XII.
ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE 113
CHAPTER XIII.
ROMAN SCULPTURE . 122
CHAPTER XIV.
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE .... 130
TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX
CHAPTER XV.
PAGE
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY ...... 143
CHAPTER XVI.
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE . . . . . . 153
CHAPTER XVII.
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY 164
CHAPTER XVIII.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Early Renaissance
(1400-1500) ._'-. . . .176
CHAPTER XIX.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY Continued. The Early
Renaissance (1400-1 500) .183
CHAPTER XX.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Early Renaissance
Continued .......... lo'
CHAPTER XXI.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. The Developed Renaissance
(1500-1600) and the Decadence (1600-1800) .... 206
CHAPTER XXII.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 219
X TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIII.
PAGE
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS,
SPAIN, AND ENGLAND 230
CHAPTER XXIV.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN ITALY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, GERMANY,
AND RUSSIA 240
CHAPTER XXV.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE 256
CHAPTER XXVI.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND 267
CHAPTER XXVII.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA 275
NOTE.
Chapters i and 2, 8 to n, and 18 to 27 are by Professor
Marquand : chapters 3 to 7 and 12 to 17 are by Professor
Frothingham.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Farnese Hera, Naples Frontispiece
PAGE
1 The Sheik-el-Beled, or Mayor of the Village. Cairo Museum . 3
2 Royal Scribe in the Louvre. Ancient Empire .... 5
3 Hyksos Chief from the Fayoum. Cairo Museum ... 7
4 Ra-hotep and his Wife Nefert. Thirteenth Dynasty. Cairo
Museum .......... 9
5 Seti I. Worshipping. Eighteenth Dynasty. Abydos . . n
6 Rameses II. Nineteenth Dynasty. Ipsamboul . . .15
7 Ptolemy crowned by Upper and Lower Egypt. Edfou . . 17
8 Sarcophagus of Peti-Har-si-ese as the Goddess Hathor. Ptole-
maic period. Berlin Museum ...... 19
9 Statue of Gudea from Tello. Louvre, Paris .... 23
10 Head with Turban from Tello. Louvre 26
11 Impression from a Babylonian Cylinder. Berlin Museum . 29
12 Two Divinities escorting a King. Berlin Museum ... 32
13 Assur-nazir-pal and Attendant. British Museum 37
14 Relief from Khorsabad. Louvre 40
15 Capture of Lachish by Sennacherib. British Museum . . 43
16 Assur-bani-pal stabbing a Lion. British Museum ... 46
17 Lion attacking a Bull. Apadana of Xerxes. Persepolis . . 49
1 8 Bull Head Capital. Palace of Artaxerxes at Susa. Louvre . 51
19 Hittite Relief at Carchemish-Jerablus 55
20 " " from Saktche-Gozii 57
21 " " at Boghaz-Keui 58
22 Phoenician Head from Athieno. Metropolitan Museum, New
York 61
23 Cypriote Statue in the Assyrian style. Metropolitan Museum,
New York 63
24 Cypriote Statue in the Egyptian style. Metropolitan Museum,
New York 65
25 Lion Gate at Mykenai 69
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
26 Apollo of Tenea. Glyptothek, Munich 71
27 Bronze Head of an Athlete. Naples Museum , . . 73
28 Head of Dionysos. Naples Museum ..... 75
29 Doriphoros after Polykleitos. Naples Museum ... 77
30 Metope of the Parthenon. British Museum .... 83
31 Theseus, or Olympos, from Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon.
British Museum ......... 85
32 Nike from Western Pediment of the Parthenon. British Museum. 86
33 Restoration of the Nike of Paionios . . . . . .88
34 Poseidon, Apollo, and Demeter, from Eastern Frieze of the Par-
thenon. Athens Museum 90
35 Head of the Hermes by Praxiteles. Olympia .... 95
36 Faun after Praxiteles. Vatican, Rome ..... 97
37 Aphrodite of Melos. Louvre . . 99
38 Apoxyomenos after Lysippos. Vatican 101
39 The Farnese Bull. Naples Museum ...... 105
40 The Dying Gaul. Capitol, Rome 108
41 Athene Group from Altar at Pergamon. Berlin Museum . 1 1 1
42 Etruscan Sarcophagus. British Museum 114
43 Artemis from Lake Falterona. British Museum . . . 117
44 Etruscan Cinerary Urn. Volterra 120
45 Statue of Augustus. Vatican 123
46 Statue of Juno. Baths of Diocletian, Rome . . . .125
47 Marciana, Sister of Trajan 127
48 Marcus Aurelius sacrificing before the Temple of Jupiter. Capi-
tol, Rome ........... 128
49 The Good Shepherd. Lateran, Rome 131
50 Early Christian Sarcophagus. Lateran, Rome .... 133
51 Christian Sarcophagus in S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura. Rome . 135
52 Ivory Triptych of the Crucifixion 137
53 Bronze Statue of Heraclius. Barletta 139
54 Episcopal Chair of Maximianus. Ravenna .... 141
55 The Nativity. Panel from Pulpit at Pisa. Niccola Pisano . 144
56 Charity and the Four Cardinal Virtues, by Giovanni Pisano.
Camposanto, Pisa 147
57 Portion of Baptistery Gate, by Andrea Pisano. Florence . . 149
58 The Betrothal of the Virgin, by Orcagna. Or San Michele,
Florence . 151
59 Sculptures of Portal. St. Trophime, Aries . . . .154
60 Roof Sculptures. Notre Dame, Paris 157
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii
61 Sculptured Figures, left portal of Cathedral at Rheims . . 160
62 Sculptures of South Door, Cathedral at Amiens . . . 162
63 Book Cover attributed to Tutilo. Monastery of St. Gall . . 165
64 Bronze Doors, Cathedral of Gnesen (Bode, Ges. d. D. Plastik, p. 31) 168
65 Statue of Sibyl, Cathedral of Bamberg (Bode, op. at. p. 66) . 171
66 Figure from the left portal of the Cathedral of Strassburg . 174
67 Story of Abraham, by Ghiberti. Baptistery Gate, Florence . 177
68 Head of the St. George, by Donatello. Or San Michele, Florence 180
69 Equestrian Statue of Gattamelata, by Donatello. Padua . i85
70 Lunette, by Luca della Robbia. Via dell' Agnolo, Florence . 188
71 Bust of Bishop Leonardo Salutati, by Mino da Fiesole. Fiesole
Cathedral . . . " 191
72 Pulpit by Benedetto da Majano. S. Croce, Florence . . 194
73 Bartolommeo Colleoni, by Verrocchio. Venice . . . .195
74 Ilaria del Caretto, by Jacopo della Quercia, Lucca Cathedral . 198
75 Sculptures from the Certosa at Pavia ..... 200
76 Sculptured Base at S. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice . . . 202
77 Head of Statue of David, by Michelangelo. Museo Nazionale,
Florence . . . . . , . . . . 211
78 Tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici. Medici Chapel, S. Lorenzo,
Florence . . . . : . . . . . . . 213
79 Base of Statue of Perseus, by Benvenuto Cellini, Loggia dei
Lanzi, Florence . . . . . . . . 215
80 The Prophet Daniel, by Bernini. S. Maria del Popolo, Rome . 217
8 1 St. George and the Dragon, by Michel Colombe. Louvre . 220
82 Water Nymphs, by Goujon. Louvre ..... 223
83 Mourning Figure from the Tomb of Cardinal Mazarin, by Coy-
sevox. Louvre ......... 225
84 Horses of the Sun. Hotel de Rohan, Paris . . . .226
85 The Marechal de Saxe, by Pigalle. Louvre .... 227
86 Head of Voltaire, by Houdon. Louvre . . . . .228
87 King Arthur, by Peter Vischer. Innsbruck .... 232
88 Death of the Virgin, by Riemenschneider. Wiirzburg Cathedral 234
89 Mask of a Dying Warrior, by Schliiter. Arsenal, Berlin . . 236
90 Carved-wood Altar-piece at Lombeek Notre Dame . . . 238
91 Cybele. Late Spanish Renaissance 241
92 Perseus, by Canova. Vatican 243
93 Giotto, by Dupre. Portico of the Uffizi, Florence . . . 245
94 Monument to Prof. Vacca Berlinghieri, by Thorwaldsen. Cam-
posanto, Pisa 247
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
95 Ariadne, by Dannecker. Frankfort . ... . 249
96 The Two Princesses, by Schadow. Castle, Berlin . . .251
97 Monument of Frederick the Great, by Rauch. Berlin . . 252
98 Russian Standard Bearer, by Lancere . . . . . 254
99 The Departure of the Volunteers of 1792, by Rude. Arc de
Triomphe, Paris . . . . . . . .257
100 The Lion and the Snake, bronze by Barye. Tuileries, Paris . 259
101 The Florentine Singer, by Paul Dubois. Luxembourg, Paris 261
102 The Secret of the Tomb, by Saint Marceaux. Luxembourg, Paris 263
103 Pan and the Bears, by Fremiet. Luxembourg, Paris . . 264
104 John the Baptist, by Rodin. Luxembourg, Paris . . . 265
105 Pauline Bonaparte, by Thomas Campbell. Chatsworth, England 268
106 Lord Beaconsfield. Westminster Abbey, London . , . 270
107 Dancing, by Onslow Ford . . . . . . . , . 272
108 Washington as Olympian Zeus, by Greenough. Washington. 276
109 The Greek Slave, by Powers, owned by Duke of Cleveland,
England. Replica in Boston Museum .... 278
no Bronze Relief of President McCosh, by Augustus St. Gaudens.
Princeton University Chapel . . . . . 280
in Death and the Sculptor, by D. C. French. From a cast in
Chicago Art Institute . . . , . . 282
112 Nathan Hale, by MacMonnies. City Hall Park, New York . 284
113 Ideal Head, by Herbert Adams. Possession of the Artist . 285
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
D'Agincourt, Histoire de I* Art.
American Journal of Archeology.
L'Arte.
Burchardt, Der Cicerone.
Clarac, Muse'e de Sculpture.
Cicognara, Storia della Sculptura.
Cavallucci, Manuale di Storia della Sculptura.
Gazette des Beaux Arts.
Gazette Arche'ologique.
Iconographic Encyclopedia. Vol. III.
Kugler, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte.
Kiihn, Allgemeine Kunstgeschichte.
Lubke, History of Sculpture.
Liibke u. Caspar, Denkmaler der Kunst.
Monuments et Me'moires de V Acade'mie des Inscriptions.
Mitchell, A History of Ancient Sculpture.
Nagler, Allgemeine s Kiinstlerlexicon.
Paris, Manual of Ancient Sculpture.
Radcliffe, Schools and Masters of Sculpture.
Rayet, Monuments de rArt Antique.
Reber, History of Ancient Art ; History of Medieval Art
Schnaase, Geschichte der bildenden Kunste.
Seemann, Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen.
Springer, Kunstgeschichte.
Von Sybel, Weltgeschichte der Kunst.
Winckelmann, History of Ancient Art.
SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES.
See BOOKS RECOMMENDED at heads of chapters, to which
add as follows:
CHAPTER
I. For text, consult Maspero, The Dawn of Civilization;
The Struggle of the Nations; The Passing of the
Empire.
von Bissing-Bruckmann, Denkmaler Aegyptischer
Sculptur.
VIII. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie.
Kekule, Die griechische Skulptur.
P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of Hellas; von Mach,
Greek Sculpture.
IX. Joubin, La sculpture grecque entre les guerres mediques
et Vepoque de Pericles. .
Lechat, La sculpture attique avant Phidias.
Perrot and Chipiez, La Grece Archaique, La Sculpture.
X. Mahler, Polyklet und seine Schule.
Murray, Sculptures of the Parthenon.
XI. Collignon, Scopas et Praxitele; Lysippe.
Klein, Praxiteles; Praxitelische Studien.
XIII. Cicorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssaule.
Courbaud, Le bas-relief romain.
Petersen und Domaszewski, Die Marcussdule zu Rom.
Strong, Roman Sculpture from Augustus to Constantine.
Wickhoff, Roman Art.
XIV. Cattaneo, L* architecture en Italic du VI e au XP siecle.
Graeven, Fruhchristliche und mittelalterliche Elfenbein-
werke.
Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church.
Michel, Histoire de Vart depuis les premiers temps
Chretiens jusqu'a nos jours, Vol. I.
Venturi, Storia delV arte italiana, Vol. I.
Wiegand, Das altchristliche Hauptportal an der Kirche
der hi. Sabina zu Rom.
SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES. xvii
CHAPTER
XV. Bertaux, L'art dans Vltalie meridionale.
Frothingham, Monuments of Christian Rome.
Reymond, La sculpture florentine.
Sauerlandt, Ueber die Bildwerke des Giovanni Pisano.
Supino, L'arte pisana.
Zimmermann, Oberitalische Plastik im friihen und
hohen Mittelalter.
XVI. Kleinclausz, Claus Sluter.
Male, L'Art religieux du XIII* siecle en France; L'art
religieux de la fin du Moyen Age en France.
Marcou, Album du Musee de sculpture comparee.
Michel, Histoire de I' art, Vols. II-IIL
Vitry et Briere, Sculpture franqaise du Moyen Age.
XVII. Hasak, Geschichte der deutschen Bildhauerkunst im
XIII te Jahrhundert.
Miinzerberger und Beissel, Zur Kenntniss und Wur-
digung der mittelalterlichen Altar e Deutschlands.
XVIII. Bode, Florentine Sculptors of the Renaissance.
Cruttwell, Luca and Andrea delta Robbia; Antonio
Pollaiuolo; Verrocchio.
Makowsy, Verrocchio.
XIX. Angeli, Mino da Fiesole.
XX. Cornelius, Jacopo delta Quercia.
XXI. Reymond, Michelange; Le Bernin.
Supino, L'arte di Benvenuto Cellini.
XXII. Koechlin et Marquet de Vasselot, La Sculpture a
Troyes et dans la Champagne meridionale au XV I e
siecle.
Vitry, Michel Colombe.
XXIII. Haendcke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen
Plastik.
XXVII. Caffin, American Masters of Sculpture.
Taft, The History of American Sculpture.
ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE.
EGYPT Administration of Gizeh Museum, Cairo.
Sebah, Cairo.
FRANCE . . Braun, Clement & C ie , n Boulevard
des Italiens, Paris.
Giraudon, 9 Rue des Beaux-Arts, Paris.
J. Levy & C ie (lantern slides), Boulevard
de Sebastopol, Paris.
Neuerdein, 52 Avenue de Breteuil, Paris.
Trocadero Museum, Paris.
Vasse (monuments historiques) , 19 Quai
Malaquais, Paris.
GERMANY Amsler & Ruthardt, 29 Behrenstr.,
Berlin.
Berlin Photographic Co., Schlossfreiheit,
Berlin.
Bruckmann, 21 Kaulbachstr., Munich.
Franz Hanfstaengl, Maximilianstr,,
Munich.
J. Lowy, i Weihburggasse, Vienna.
Norn-ing, 67 Breitestr., Liibeck.
Seemann, Leipzig.
GREECE Central Direktion des Archaeologischen
Instituts, Corneliusstr. II, Berlin.
English Photograph Co., Athens.
Rhomaides, Athens.
Sebah, Constantinople.
ADDRESSES FOR PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURE. XIX
Scull (mythological sculpture), Porter &
Coates, Philadelphia, Pa.
C. A. Young, Columbia College, New
York.
GREAT BRITAIN Autotype Co., 74 New Oxford St., Lon-
don.
Bedford, Lemere & Co., 147, Strand,
London.
Berlin Photographic Co., New Bond
St., London.
Clark & Davies, Museum St., London.
W. A. Mansell, 405, Oxford St., London.
Photograph Department of the Victoria
and Albert Museum, London.
Spooner, 379, Strand, London.
Stereoscopic and Photographic Co.,io6,
Regent Street, London.
G. W. Wilson & Co., Aberdeen, Scot-
land.
ITALY Alinari, 20 Via Tornabuoni, Florence,
Anderson, 85 Piazza di Spagna, Rome
Brogi, i Via Tornabuoni, Florence.
Lombardi, Siena.
Montabone, 7 Piazza Durini, Milan.
Moscioni, 10 Via Condotti, Rome.
Naya, 75 Piazza. S. Marco, Venice.
Noack, i Vico del Filo, Genoa.
Poppi, 19 Via d' Azeglio, Bologna,
Rossi, Milan.
Sommer, Naples.
XX ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS.
UNITED STATES Berlin Photographic Co., 14 East 23d St.,
New York.
Braun, Clement & Co., 256 Fifth Ave.,
New York.
C.H. Dunton, i36Boylston St., Boston.
Fr. Hanfstaengl, 28 West 38th St., New
York.
Hegger, 37 East 28th St., New York.
T. H. McAllister (lantern slides), 49
Nassau St., New York.
Soule Photo. Co,, 338 Washington St.,
Boston.
ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS.
Plaster casts may be obtained at the following addresses :
ATHENS P. Kawadias, Central Museum.
BERLIN Sekretar d. General Verwaltung, For-
merei der Koniglichen Museen.
(General.)
G. Eichler, 17 Jagerstrasse. (Tanagra
figurines and general.)
Gebriider Micheli, 76 a Unter den Lin-
den. (Modern.)
BOSTON Museum of Fine Arts.
P. P. Caproni, 12 Province Court.
(Ancient and modern.)
CAIRO Atelier de Moulage. Musee du Caire.
(Egyptian.)
Jean JeMadon. (Arabic.)
ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS. xxi
CHRISTIANIA Guidotti Brothers, O'Rugh Museum.
COLOGNE August Gerber.
COPENHAGEN V. Steffensen, Royal Museum.
DRESDEN Formerei des Kgl. Albertinums. (An-
cient and modern.)
FLORENCE Oronzio Lelli, 95 Corso de' -Tintori.
(Renaissance.)
LONDON D. Brucciani, 40 Russell St., Covent
Garden. (British Museum sculpture
and general.)
Arundel Society, 19 St. James St., S. W.
(Ivories.)
Elkington & Co., 22 Regent St.
(Ivories and metals.)
Aug. Ready, Great Russell St. (Ivories
and gems.)
Victoria and Albert Museum. (Medi-
aeval, Renaissance.)
MILAN Edouardo Pierotti, 3 Via Filangieri.
(Renaissance.)
MUNICH Joseph Kreittmayer, 12 Hildegard-
strasse. (German Mediaeval and
Renaissance.)
G. Geiler, Formator an der Kgl. Akad.
der Kiinste. (Ancient.)
Conservator! um der Antikensammlungen
der Kgl. technischen Hochschule.
(Ancient.)
XXH ADDRESSES FOR PLASTER CASTS.
NAPLES ............ The Director of the Museo Nai/onale.
(Ancient.)
NEW YORK ........ Metropolitan Museum, Central Paik.
NUREMBERG ........ J. Rothermundt, Langegasse 30. (Ger-
man Mediaeval and Renaissance.)
PARIS .............. Atelier de Moulage, Ecole des Beaux
Arts, 14 Rue Bonaparte. (General
sculpture.)
Eug. Arrondelle, Chef du Moulage,
Pavilion Daru, Muse"e du Louvre.
(Sculptures of the Louvre and general.)
J. Pouzadoux et Fils, 45 Rue Monsieur
le Prince. (Sculptures at the Troca-
ROME ............ Michele Gherardi, 87 Via Si&tina.
Cesare Malpieri, 54 Via del Corso.
(General.)
VENICE ............ Antonio di Paoli, S. Trovaso, Calle
delle Cento Pietre 1202.
VIENNA ............ Formerei des K. K. Oesterr. Museum
fur Kunst und Industrie. (General.)
CHAPTER I.
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. For illustration, consult the plates
in Prisse d'Avennes' Histoire de VArt Egyptien. Lepsius,
Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Nubia. Champollion, Monu-
ments de rfegypte et de la Nubie. Mariette, Album photogra-
phique du Muse'e de Boulaq. Rosellini, / Monumenti dell 1
Egitto e della Nubia.
For text, consult Budge, The Mummy. Edwards, Pharaohs,
Fellahs, and Explorers. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt.
Mariette, Monuments of Upper Egypt. Maspero, Egyptian
Archeology ; Guide du Visiteur au Muse'e de Boulaq ; The
Dawn of Civilization. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art
in Ancient Egypt. Soldi, La Sculpture Egyptienne. Wilkin-
son, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. Ancient Egypt con-
sisted of two principalities : the land of the south, or Upper
Egypt, extending from the city of Elephantine, near the first
cataract, to Memphis, not far from the modern Cairo ; and
the land of the north, or Lower Egypt, which stretched from
Memphis, widening with the mouths of the Nile, and form-
ing a delta at the Mediterranean. These two principalities
represented the consolidation of smaller prehistoric states
or nomes, and were themselves united as one nation under
the Pharaohs. This country extended along the fertile
banks of the winding Nile a distance of seven hundred and
thirty-one miles, and it to-day averages in width about nine
miles.
The prehistoric tribes probably became united at a remote
date before Menes, after whose reign it is customary to treat
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
of Egyptian history as a series of successive dynasties. These
dynasties are sometimes named from the city which served as
the capital, and sometimes from the conquering nation ^vhich
furnished the kings. Historians and Egyptologists differ
widely in respect to the dates of the earlier dynasties, but
the difference grows less with the later dynasties and disap-
pears when the period of Greek rule is reached. The follc--
ing table, based upon Manetho, is given by Mariette as an
approximate guide :
NUM
BER OF DYNASTY.
NAME OF DYNASTY.
DURATION.
DATE B.C.
I
THINITE.
253 years.
5004
J
II ..
302 "
4751
HI .
MEMPHITE.
4449
F S
IV
284
4 2 35
3
V ..
u
248
395 1
VI
ELEPHANTINE^
373
*
VII
MEMPHITE.
70 days.
3500
VIII
142 years.
3500
i
IX
HERACLEOPOLITE
30C8
^
X
185
3249
XI
THEBAN. )
i
XII
213
3064
^ .
XIII
u '
2851
s \
XIV. .,
XOITE.
184 "
2398
F-5,
XV. ..
HYKSOS, OR SHEPHERDS. )
.y ^
XVI
*s
XVII
I
XVIII
THEBAN.
I7O3
XIX
XX. ..
u
178
1288
XXI
TANITE
j>
XXII
BUBASTITE.
980
8.
XXIII
TANITE.
g '
8 10
5
XXIV...
SAITE.
g i
721
^ 1
XXV
ETHIOPIAN.
50 *
715
XXVI
SAITE
138 '
665
^
XXVII...
PERSIAN.
121
527
*
XXVIII .
SAITE
406
XXIX...
MENDESIAN.
21 *
399
XXX
SEBENNYTE.
08 '
378
XXXI
PERSIAN
8 '
34
fc*
XXXII. .
MACEDONIAN.
27 4t
332
g'r .
XXXIII. .
GREEK.
275 4i
35
H^
XXXIV
ROMAN
At the head of the social organism stood the king, or Pha-
raoh, an absolute monarch, worshipped as a divinity after he
ascended the throne. He was supreme in ecclesiastical as
well as civil matters. Below him were the several orders of
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE.
priests, the governors, scribes, and other civil functionaries,
with the generals and officers of the army. These constituted
a privileged, hereditary nobility, in whose hands was consid-
erable power, and the
ownership of the soil.
Much that remains to
us of the sculptures of
the Ancient and Middle
Empires is the result of
the patronage of these
classes. Architects and
sculptors were highly
esteemed, and the vari-
ous artisans, musicians,
and commercial traders
had the same legal rights
as the tillers of the soil.
According to Herodotos,
there were twenty thou-
sand cities in Egypt,
representing a total
population of over five
millions, and there was,
therefore, a large mass
of the population which
could be turned to the
construction of public
works or to foreign con-
quest.
RELIGION. The relig-
ion of the Egyptians
was somewhat analogous to their political organization. Many
traces of a prehistoric fetichism are found, in which different
animals, such as the bull, the ibis, the crocodile, were the
totems of different tribes. There was also a polytheism, in
FIG. I. THE SHEIK-EL-BELED, OR MAYOR OF THE
VILLAGE. CAIRO MUSEUM.
4 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
which divinities were grouped in triads or enneads, with one
divinity as supreme and all powerful. Underlying this was a
worship of the powers of nature, especially of the sun, moon,
and stars, and a manifest tendency toward organization into a
unified system of monotheism or pantheism.
Intimately connected with their social and religious system
was the idea of immortality. Each person in a measure
reflected the constitution of the social fabric. His body was
presided over by a ka, which, like a Pharaoh, ruled the body,
and was in form its ethereal duplicate. The ka remained with
the mummy in the tomb ; it required nourishment, and it was
provided with permanent bodily form in the shape of one or
more statues of the deceased. The higher elements of per-
sonality enjoyed greater freedom. The ba, or soul, wandered
through the Valley of Shades; the khou, or intelligence,
followed the gods, while the ab, or heart, the khaibit, or
shadow, and the ren, or name, awaited the final reunion,
when the individual secured his immortality and became
a god.
SUBJECTS. The sculpture of the Egyptians was largely con-
nected with the temple and the tomb. The temple was con-
structed as if it were the tomb or eternal dwelling-place of a
divinity whose statue was concealed within a succession of
closed halls, opened to view only for a brief interval, when the
sun or moon or particular star reached a point on the horizon
from which their rays could shine directly upon the innermost
shrine. These temple statues were consulted as oracles, but
were seldom of imposing size. The art of the sculptor was
also employed for wall-reliefs, capitals of columns, colossal
figures guarding the pylons, and for long avenues of sphinxes.
The scenes upon the temple walls illustrate frequently the piety
of kings as well as their foreign conquests.
The tombs called for the most extensive use of the sculp-
tor's art. Here were placed portrait statues of the deceased.
Of this nature were many of the statues of Pharaohs, public
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 5
functionaries, and scribes, and the groups representing a man
and his wife. The walls of the earlier tombs resemble an
illustrated book of the manners and customs of the people.
Here are represented hunting, fishing, and agricultural scenes ;
artistic and mercantile pursuits, such as the making of statues,
FIG. 2. ROYAL SCRIBE IN THE LOUVRE. ANCIENT EMPIRE.
or glass, or metal-ware, or the building. of pyramids; women
at their domestic duties, or wailing for the dead ; boys engaged
in athletic games. Such reliefs indicate a confident belief in
the future as an untroubled extension of the present life. At
a later period, beginning with the tombs of the New Empire,
the gods appear more prominently in scenes of judgment;
6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
revealing a less certain attitude of mind concerning the hap-
piness of the future state.
The sculptor's art also lent a charm to the minor objects of
domestic and daily use ; to household furniture with its rich
divans, to tables and chests, and to all forms of metal work
and jewelry. Such objects as toilet boxes, mirrors, and
spoons assumed forms derived from the floral, animal, or
human world. Sacred plants, especially the lotus, were the
naturalistic basis for a large and varied series of forms which
influenced the decorative art of the entire ancient world.
MATEEIALS, METHODS, AND CONVENTIONS. In the Ni le valley
grew the sacred acacia and the sycamore, which furnished the
sculptor material for statues and sarcophagi, for thrones and
other objects of industrial art. The hillsides on both banks of
the Nile, as far south as Edfou, furnished a coarse nummulitic
limestone, and beyond Edfou were extensive quarries of sand-
stone, both of which materials were employed for sculptural
as well as for architectural purposes. Near the first cataract
may be still seen the quarries of red granite utilized not only
for obelisks, but also for colossal statues, sphinxes, and sarcoph-
agi. Alabaster was quarried at the ancient Alabastron, near
the modern village of Assiout. From the mountains of the
Arabian desert and the Sinaitic peninsula came the basalt and
diorite used by the early sculptors, the red porphyry prized
by the Greeks and Romans, and copper. The Nile mud was
moulded and baked, and even covered with colored glazes,
from the earliest dynasties of Egyptian history. At the same
early period we find the Egyptian sculptor handling with skill
various imported materials, such as ebony, ivory, gold, silver,
and iron.
When the Egyptians wished to give permanence to their
sculptures, as, for example, to the statues and sarcophagi of
their Pharaohs, they utilized the hardest material, such as
basalt, diorite, granite. These materials they handled with
no less skill than they did wood and ivory and softer stones.
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 7
The fine details were probably executed with instruments of
flint. Other implements, made apparently of hardened bronze
or iron, were the saw with jewelled teeth, tubular drills of vari-
ous kinds, the pointer, and chisel. Statues of hard stone were
carefully polished with crushed sandstone and emery; those of
the softer materials were generally covered with stucco and
FIG. 3. HYKSOS CHIEF FROM THE FAYOUM. CAIRO MUSEUM.
painted, the coloring being applied in an arbitrary or conven-
tional manner.
The wall-sculptures are executed in different modes of
relief :
(1) Bas-relief, in which the figures project slightly in front
of the background.
(2) Sunken-relief, in which the background projects slightly
in front of the figures.
8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
(3) Outline-relief, in which only the outline of figures is
chiselled.
(4) High-relief, in which the figures project strongly from
the background.
Almost all the wall-sculptures of the Ancient Empire are
in the form of bas-relief; sunken and outline relief are the
most common methods during the New Empire. High-relief
is found occasionally in tombs of the Ancient Empire, other-
wise it is almost exclusively confined to the New Empire and
to such forms as Osiride and Hathoric piers and to wall stat-
ues. In its treatment of figures in the round, Egyptian sculp-
ture is limited to a few forms. There is the standing figure,
with left foot slightly in advance of the right, the head erect,
and the eyes looking straight forward. Variants are formed by
changing the pose of the arms. In the seated figures there is
the same fixity of the head, body, and lower limbs. Beside
these, the kneeling and squatting attitudes frequently occur,
with little variation. Statues in the round usually represented
the gods, Pharaohs, or civic officials, and were composed with
special reference to the preservation of straight lines. The
more important monuments were thus limited in type and
pose, but a whole series of statues illustrating domestic sub-
jects show freer modes of composition. Little attention was
given to grouping. It was usually a mere juxtaposition of two
standing or two seated statues, or of one standing and one
seated figure. A god and a man, or a husband and a wife,
were placed side by side. In family groups the figure of a
child was sometimes added. Statues of Isis suckling Horus
formed the only prominent exception.
Symbolism usually governed the representations of the gods.
When portrayed as human beings they were distinguished by
emblems, but they were more frequently represented as com-
posite creatures with animal heads on human bodies. Thus,
Horus has the head of a hawk ; Anubis, that of a jackal ;
Khnum, a ram ; Thoth, an ibis ; Sebek, a crocodile ; Isis, a
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. g
cow; and Sekhet-Bast, a lion or cat. The same method of
representation placed a human head upon an animal body and
formed fantastic combinations of various creatures, birds, ani-
mals, and men.
As the statues represented the permanent body of the
FIG. 4. RA-HOTEP AND HIS WIFE NEFERT. THIRTEENTH DYNASTY. CAIRO MUSEUM.
deceased, so the relief-sculptures reproduced the scenes in
which his ethereal body might continue to move. They were
not intended as mere architectural decorations, but had pri-
marily a recording or immortalizing purpose. They covered
the outer and inner walls of temples, the galleries and walls
of tombs, without much regard to aesthetic considerations or
10 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
decorative effect. On the exterior walls of temples they were
often irregularly disposed over the surface, but in interiors
they were arranged in superposed, horizontal rows. They were
not pictures, but picture-writing in relief, and were little more
than enlarged hieroglyphs. Such being their character, there
was little stimulus to the production of artistic compositions.
Relief-composition consisted merely in the arrangement of
figures in horizontal lines so as to record an event or depict an
action. The principal objects were distinguished from the
rest by their size ; thus, gods were larger than men, kings than
their followers, and the dead than the living. Subordinate
actions were juxtaposed in horizontal bands. In other
respects there was little regard for unity of effect; and
spaces seem to have been filled with figures and hieroglyphs
on the principle that decorators abhor a vacuum. In com-
position of this kind, constructed like sentences, there was
little or no need of perspective. Scenes were not represented
as they appeared within the field of vision, but their individ-
ual components were all brought to the plane of representa-
tion, and spread out like writing. A man with head in pro-
file, but eye en face, with shoulders in full front, but trunk
turned three-quarters and legs in profile, is not the picture of
a man as he appears to the eye ; but as a symbolic represen-
tation of a man, it was perfectly clear and intelligible. In
the same symbolic way a pond was indicated by a rectangle,
the water in it by zigzag lines, while the trees around it pro-
jected from the four sides of the rectangle. An army was
portrayed with its remoter ranks brought into the plane of rep-
resentation and superposed in horizontal lines one above the
other. Frequently a row of individuals projecting from the
spectator was represented along a horizontal line, the nearer
figures partly covering the remoter. In a few instances the
effects of perspective were suggested, but being foreign to the
purposes of Egyptian art they bore no fruit.
Egyptian reliefs were covered with stucco and painted, The
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE.
II
colors used were vivid in tone, few in number, and durable
in quality. They were applied in uniform flat masses, juxta-
FIG. 5. SETI I. WORSHIPPING. EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY. ABYDOS.
posed in striking contrasts. Chiaroscuro and color-perspec-
tive lay outside the Egyptian conception of painting. The
painting of reliefs served to make the figures more distinct,
12
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
not more natural. Color was rarely used to suggest rotundity
of form, and was applied ordinarily in a purely conventional
manner. The faces of men were usually reddish brown, and
those of women yellow; but the gods might have faces of any
color. Statues of wood or of soft stone were frequently in
like manner covered with stucco and painted.
NOTE. Since this volume was written, Egyptian chronology has been
reconstructed, and Marriette's tables, published on p. 2, are no longer
generally accepted. Although Egyptologists are far from having reached
a general agreement, the dates assigned by Breasted may be assumed as
a safer guide. These are as follows:
DYNASTY
I-II
III...
IV...
V..
3400-2980
.... 2980-2900
2900-2750
2750-2625
VI 2625-2475
VII-VIII 2475-2445
IX-X 2445-2160
XI . . . . '., . .. . . . : 2160-2000
B.C.
xm-xvn 1788-1580 '
XVIII 1580-1350 "
DYNASTY
XIX ........... 1350-1205
XX ........... 1200-1090
XXI ........... 1090-945
XXII ........... 945-745
XXIII ........... 745-7i8
XXIV ........... 718-712
XXV ........... 712-663
XXVI ........... 663-525
xxvii-xxxi.... 525-332
XXXII-XXXIII . . 332-30
B.C.
CHAPTER II.
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. CONTINUED.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books before mentioned; also,
see General and Special Bibliographies.
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. In spite of wealth of materials and
quantity of production, Egyptian sculpture changed so slowly
that it is difficult to trace its history. From the very earliest
dynasties we find a fully developed art. Sculptors handled
readily the hardest stones and cast with much skill in bronze.
There is no archaic period to show the struggle by which this
mastery was reached. Egypt has not yet enlightened us as to
a prehistoric art of her own, nor is it proved that some foreign
nation provided her with an art already in its prime. What-
ever its origin, the continuity of Egyptian art during the his-
toric period is more marked than its changes. Nevertheless,
the modification of Egyptian sculpture at different periods
may be roughly distinguished.
ANCIENT EMPIRE. The art of the Ancient Empire centred
about Memphis, although the Delta, Abydos, the neighbor-
hood of Thebes, and Elephantine furnish illustrations of some
of its later phases. There are no temples remaining from this
period; the sculptures come exclusively from tombs. In
character these Memphite sculptures weie strongly naturalistic
when compared with the later products of Egyptian art. The
portrait statues are varied and often striking in character, and
the wall-pictures depict many scenes from daily life. Gen-
eralized or typical forms are not wanting in the very earliest
times, as witness the colossal sphinx at Gizeh and the statues
of Chephren, builder of the second pyramid. The natural-
14 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
istic tendency led to a peculiar treatment of the eye, found
in statues of this period, but discontinued in later times.
The pupil was represented by a glistening silver nail set in the
midst of rock crystal or enamel, while the dark eyelashes were
made of bronze. This treatment was followed in the case of
statues in limestone, wood, and bronze, but not in the statues
made of basaltic rocks. The heads of these early statues seem
to indicate a strongly marked Egyptian type, not unmixed in
some cases with negroid and other foreign races. The wall-
sculptures, and even the hieroglyphs executed in low-relief, were
finely carved. The slender type of the human form was not
wanting, but short, thickset, muscular bodies were more com-
mon. From the fact that many middle-aged men and women
were represented, it would seem as if childhood and old age
were somehow looked upon as disappearing in the future life.
The faces reflect the lives of a peaceful, happy people, to whom
future life implied no great change in the mode of existence.
MIDDLE EMPIRE. The period called the Middle Empire
may be divided into the first Theban period, extending from
the eleventh to the fifteenth dynasty, and the Hyksos period,
from the fifteenth to the eighteenth dynasty. The centre of
government had now shifted from Memphis to Thebes. The
later period of Memphite rule and the first dynasty of the
Middle Empire seem to have produced little sculpture of
monumental value. But the strong reign of the Usertesens and
the Amenemhats of the twelfth dynasty marks a revival of
Egyptian art. The sculpture represented in general a contin-
uance of the art of Memphis, but there were already some
changes. A desire for colossal statues of Pharaohs began to
be felt, and bodily forms were given with slenderer trunks and
limbs. The wall -sculptures presented subjects similar to those
of earlier days, but were less individual and natural ; and in
many cases wall-paintings were substituted for reliefs. The
temple statues from Karnak of the twelfth dynasty indicate that
votive offerings of statuary were not uncommon, the fine statue
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 1 5
of Sebek-hotep III. of the thirteenth dynasty, in the Louvre,
bearing witness to a new departure in the sculptor's art.
FIG. 6. RAMESES II. NINETEENTH DYNASTY. IPSAMBOUL.
This revival of art, which began in the twelfth and continued
through the thirteenth dynasty, was checked in the fourteenth
l6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and fifteenth dynasties by the invasion of barbarous foreign
rulers known as the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. The ethno-
logical affinities of these Shepherd Kings is an unsettled prob-
lem, the Shemitic influences which they introduced being
offset by their apparently Turanian facial type. The sculp-
tured sphinxes and statues were still executed by Egyptian
sculptors, but in the gray or black granite of Hammanat or of
the Sinai tic peninsula, instead of the red granite of Assouan.
The Hyksos centres of activity were Tanis and Bubastis, their
influence being less strongly felt in Upper Egypt. The most
striking characteristic of their sculpture was the non-Egyptian
cast of 'countenance, showing small eyes, high cheek bones,
heavy masses of hair, an aquiline nose, a strong mouth with
shaven upper lip, and short whiskers and beard.
NEW EMPIRE. The second Theban or early portion of the
New Empire included the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twen-
tieth dynasties. Egypt now freed herself from Hyksos rule
and extended her empire to Assyria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus
in the east and north, and to Nubia and Abyssinia in the
south. Numerous large temples were erected, especially dur-
ing the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. These furnished a
new stimulus to the sculptor's art. Colossal temples led nat-
urally to colossal statuary. The seated statues of Amenophis
III., at Thebes, are fifty-two feet high, those of Rameses II.,
at Ipsamboul, are seventy feet high, while the standing Ram-
eses at Tanis, according to Mr. Petrie, stood ninety feet high
without its pedestal. The slender proportions of the human
form which prevailed in the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties
were continued and even advanced, especially in the bas-reliefs
of the New Empire. The primitive simplicity of dress, char-
acteristic of earlier days, was now replaced by greater rich-
ness in personal adornment, and elaborate crowns and highly
ornamented garments were not uncommon. Foreign fauna
and flora, as well as foreign men and women, were represented
more frequently and in far greater variety than in earlier days.
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE.
Scenes of warfare and foreign conquest were portrayed, and
images of the gods were now abundant. A single small tem-
ple at Karnak contained five hundred and seventy-two statues
of the goddess Sekhet-Bast, but at Tell-el-Amarna the heretic
n a j 'tg ^*:lll*'ul]f ! 1 *~LJK3
FIG. 7. PTOLEMY CROWNED BY UPPER
king Khou-en-Aten stimulated his sculptors to break with tra-
ditional themes and to portray military .reviews, chariot driv-
ing, festivals, palaces, villas, and gardens.
The. school of sculptors now established made itself felt
18 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
throughout the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. The fine heads
of Queen Taia and Horemheb and the remarkable limestone
reliefs at Seti's temple in Abydos may be traced to its influ-
ence ; so, also, the beautiful seated statue of Rameses II. in
the Museum of Turin. Royal tombs of this period main-
tained the traditional excellence of relief sculpture, but the
demand for carved scenes upon the outer walls of temples was
probably too great for the supply of sculptors. At all events,
we find here poverty of invention in the subjects and haste in
the execution. After the brilliant reign of Rameses II. Egypt
lost much of her military spirit, the country was divided, and
the decadence of art began. This was a gradual decline,
with here and there an upward struggle, as shown, for instance,
in the reliefs of the twentieth dynasty at Medinet-Abou.
During the later portion of the New Empire, from the
twenty-first to the thirty-second dynasty, the power of Egypt
was broken. She yielded now to the Ethiopians, to the Assyri-
ans, and once and again to the Persians. Her seat of empire
shifted to Tanis, to Bubastis, to Mendes, to Sebennytos, and
for a long time remained at Sais. This period is therefore
characterized as the
SAITE PERIOD. Under such shifting conditions it was hardly
possible for art to flourish. Sometimes sculptors turned back
to Ancient-Empire work for inspiration, and modelled forms
which might readily be mistaken for the products of earlier
days. Under Psammetichos I. of the twenty-sixth dynasty
there was something of an artistic revival. He restored the
temples and revived the demand for sculpture and painting.
Sculptors again attacked the hardest stones, as though they
would prove to the world that their knowledge of technique
had not suffered ; but the green-basalt statues of Osiris and
Nephthys and the Hathor-cow supporting a statuette of the
deceased, in the museum at Cairo, show that the sculptors of
the reign of Psammetichos I. were possessed of an artistic
sense which preferred effeminate and refined to sharp and vig-
EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE.
orous forms. No change in the current of Egyptian sculp-
ture was produced by the Persian conquest.
GB-ECO-ROMAN PERIOD. When Egypt became subject to
Macedonian rule, her art did not wholly
submit to foreign taste. Ptolemaic
temples, though characterized by cer-
tain changes, especially in the capitals
of columns, were not constructed in
Hellenic style. Similarly, Ptolemaic
statues are still Egyptian. The suc-
cessors of Alexander became Pharaohs ;
they did not convert the Egyptians into
Greeks. But the presence of Greek
cities in Egypt from the seventh cen-
tury B.C. made it impossible that Greek
and Egyptian types should remain for-
ever separate. It was inevitable that
in certain directions a Graeco-Egyptian
style should arise; and this was the
case.
In architecture even the Caesars con-
tinued the restoration of temples in
the Egyptian manner, but in sculpture
they stimulated a mixed style in which
the Egyptian is the retreating and the
Greek and Roman the advancing ele-
ment. Even Christian civilization,
under Byzantine rule, failed to sub-
ject Egyptian art. The final surrender
was made in 638 A.D. to the Moham-
medans.
FIG. 8. SARCOPHAGUS OF
i^TI-HAR-SI-ESE AS THE
GODDESS HATHOR. PTOLE-
MAIC PERIOD. BERLIN.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Egyptian sculpture may be best studied in
Egypt at the temples of Abydos, Thebes, Edfou, Esneh, Philoe, and
Ipsamboul ; at the tombs about Memphis, Beni-Hassan, and Thebes; and
20 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
especially at the Museum of Cairo. Important collections exist in the
Vatican, Rome ; the Museo Archeologico, Florence ; the Museo Egizio,
Turin ; the Royal Museum, Berlin ; the Louvre, Paris ; the British Mu-
seum, London ; the Metropolitan- Museum and the Historical Society,
New York. Minor collections may be seen in the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston ; the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia ; the
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore ; and the Field Columbian Museum,
Chicago.
NOTE. Prehistoric sculpture in Egypt has received considerable atten-
tion in recent years. The results, summarized by Capart, in his Primitive
Art in Egypt, point to the occupancy of the Nile Valley by Libyan tribes.
That the Pharaonic invaders came from Asia would appear to be indicated
by the affinities in style between the carved slate palettes of the first
dynasty and the monuments of Chaldaea. The general study of Egyptian
sculpture has been greatly facilitated by the publication of von Bissing's
Denkmaler Aegyptischer Sculptur, in which the principal monuments in
the museums of Europe are finely illustrated and described. Very
notable additions to the decorative arts of ancient Egypt have been
made through the systematic excavations of Theodore M. Davis in the
Valley of the Kings at Thebes. These sculptures now enrich the Museum
at Cairo.
CHAPTER III.
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Babelon, Manual of Oriental
Antiquities. De Sarzec and Heuzey, Ddcouvertes en Chalde'e.
Heuzey, Un Palais Chaldeen. Loftus, Travels and Researches
in Chaldcea and Susiana. Maspero, The Dawn of Civiliza-
tion. Menant, Collection de Clercq, Catalogue des Cylindres
Orientaux ; Recherches sur la Glyptique Orientale. Perrot
and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldaa and Assyria.
Rassam, Recent Discoveries of Ancient Babylonian Cities.
Reber, Ueber altchaldaische Xunst (in Zeitschrift fur Assyrio-
logie, 1886). Taylor, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
Vol. XV. Ward, Seal Cylinders and Other Oriental Seals
(Handbook 12, Metropolitan Museum, New York).
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. The earliest centre of
civilization in Western Asia was in the lower part of the
valley through which the Tigris and Euphrates take their
course before emptying into the Persian Gulf. This civiliza-
tion was that of Babylonia. Its early history is not nearly as
well known as that of Egypt ; we cannot yet say which was the
more ancient, though the probabilities seem to be in favor of
an antiquity for the culture of western Asia equal to that of
Egypt. The situation of Babylonia favored the growth and
spread of its influence. The empire, of Elam developed by
its side along parallel lines ; Assyria was its heir as well as its
rival. Their collective civilization, by conquest and influence,
moulded the development of Persia, Syria, Phoenicia, Arme-
nia, the Kingdoms of the Hittites, of Upper Mesopotamia,
and southeastern Asia Minor.
In Babylonia the population was of mixed race, partly
22 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Shemitic and partly non-Shemitic. The probability is that
the Shemites acquired supremacy as early as about 4000 B.C.,
and maintained it with slight exceptions until the seventeenth
century B.C., when the Kosseans, or Kassites, from the eastern
mountains established a dynasty in Babylon. The earliest
political condition shows us, not a united state, but a number
of independent cities. These were divided into two groups,
one at the south and one at the north. The principal southern
cities were Eridu, the sacred city nearest to the sea; Ur, the
largest in the group; Larsa, Erech, Lagash, Mar, and Nisin.
To the northern group belong Nippur, Borsippa, Babel ol
Babylon, Kish, Kutha, Agadhe, and Sippara.
Native traditions indicate the cities nearest to the Persian
Gulf as the earliest to become civilized under the influence of
Ea, the god of Eridu, the divinity of the sea and of wisdom,
half-fish and half-man, who came up out of the waters of the
gulf to teach mankind civilization. The two terms, Sumei
and Akkad, served in Babylonian literature to designate the
two main divisions of the race and land. Chaldaea was the
most southern region, and its name came into prominence at
about the time when the writers of the Old Testament came
into contact with the civilization of Babylonia. The name is
not applicable to the whole country, though in some books it
is so used. Under the heading " Babylonia " we include the
entire country.
The parallel lines of the two rivers made possible a great
system of irrigation by means of canals that added to the
natural fertility of the soil and gave it an almost fabulous pro-
ductivity. The chief energies of the Babylonian rulers were
directed toward maintaining and perfecting this system, by
public works that had no equal until Roman times. But two
great curses often sapped agricultural prosperity ; the south
and east winds that swept over the country, overwhelming it
with sands from the desert, and the swarms of locusts that left
pot a blade standing in their path. Many are the exorcisms
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE.
of Babylonian magic against these, and Babylonian imagination
could conjure up nothing more fearful in the world of evil spirits.
HISTORY. We conjecture that before 4000 B.C. there was a
period characterized by
independent cities,
which developed a more
or less autonomous sys-
tem of religious belief
and social and political
institutions. Apparently
the first sovereign to
found an empire was
Sargon I., of Agadhe,
who lived circa 3800 B.C.
He was of S h e m i t i c
race, and his reign was
one of great military
achievement and cul-
tured advance. His
conquests brought the
coasts of P h ce n i c i a ,
Syria, and Palestine, and
even Cyprus, under Baby-
lonian influence.
Shortly afterward the
regime of independent
cities appears to have
returned until about
2900, when Ur became,
under King Ur-bau, the
capital of a dynasty that
held sway over the
greater part of Babylo-
nia, and established for
FIG. 9. STATUE OF GUDEA FROM TELLO.
that city a preeminence LOUVRE.
24 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
which it retained until about seven hundred years later,
when Babylon took its place. Then came a period when the
Elamites under Kudur-mabug invaded and conquered the
country, making the kinglets of the Babylonian cities their
viceroys.
The Elamite was driven from the land shortly after 2200
B.C. by Hammurabi, who founded a dynasty at Babylon, and
that city became, for the first time, and thenceforth remained,
the political and religious capital of the country. This dy-
nasty was the last before the decay of the country set in. When,
about four centuries later, the Kossean mountaineers came
down from the east and overturned the national rulers, the
harmonious development of the state was imperilled, and
shortly afterward the Assyrians, emboldened by this evident
weakness, commenced the long struggle, first for indepen-
dence and then for supremacy, which, after lasting with vary-
ing fortunes for some eight centuries, ended in the complete
subjugation of the southern empire to her more vigorous and
compact northern rival.
As a people the Babylonians typify the most refined civiliza-
tion of Asia. They were apparently without crudeness of any
sort. At all times literature, art, and science were held by
them in the highest esteem. They were by nature imagina-
tive, fanciful, symbolic in their thought, creators and lovers
of abstractions far more than the more matter-of-fact Egyp-
tians. Their civilization was determined by their religion,
which was theocratic. All victories and all successes were
attributed to the gods. Hence the temple was the great cen-
tre of each Babylonian city. The priests were the most im-
portant class of citizens, and the king was the high-priest
even more than the political ruler. This is what made sepa-
ratism so difficult to eradicate, for the religion and the state
centred around the special patron deity in each city.
RELIGION. There was no unity in religious belief during
the early period of Babylonian development. On the one
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 25
hand, there was a belief in a world of spirits, in which the
hosts of good and evil were opposed, and none of these spirits
seemed to stand out separately from the mass. On the other
hand, there was a more systematic and simple belief in three
great gods : Anu the heaven-god, Bel the demiurge, and Ea
the god of the sea and the under- world. Connected with them
were minor deities that stand in a relation of dependence.
Each male deity had its female counterpart, usually a mere
reflection. Midway between these two beliefs stood the ma-
jority of early cults. The same gods were worshipped in
different cities under different names and with varying attri-
butes. With political centralization came also religious uni-
fication. There were no longer as strict racial distinctions
as at first ; a national pantheon was made necessary, and the
principal deities, patrons of the various cities that formed the
empire, were brought into a system with a planetary basis,
made all the easier because the sun, the moon, and the stars
had always been more or less the symbols of the principal
deities. After the supreme trio of Anu, Bel, and Ea come
Shamash the sun-god, Sin the moon-god, Ramman the god of the
atmosphere, Marduk (Jupiter), Ishtar (Venus), Adar (Saturn),
Nergal (Mars), Nabu (Mercury). This system passed over to
the Assyrians, for whom these formed, with Asshur, the twelve
great gods.
The Babylonians lived in a constant superstitious terror.
For them the air was peopled with innumerable armies of
maleficent demons and beneficent spirits marshalled into many
classes. Their art, literature, medical practice, astrology,
magic, daily life, and thoughts were profoundly moulded by
this belief and constant preoccupation. They recited incan-
tations, offered sacrifices, hung up and buried statuettes and
reliefs in order to conjure or combat the machinations of the
evil spirits.
The power of the Babylonian fancy was never exercised in
a more original manner than in the creation of sculptural
26
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
types embodying their conceptions of these spirits of differ
ent and opposite order. On the one hand were the noble
monsters that defended the people, the city, and the king from
evil, placed at the gates of cities, temples, royal palaces, and
private houses. These were the lion-headed men, fish-men,
griffins, winged lions, and man-headed winged bulls, creatures
of calm power or repressed impetuosity, strongly built and
made to seem most real, however hybrid they might be in form.
On the other hand, and opposed to these, were the more lithe
evil demons, ghoul-like,
snarling and vicious,
ready to spring and
swoop, full of cunning
perversity and malice.
SUBJECTS, The Baby-
lonian did not aim at
the preservation of the
body of the deceased,
but burned it. Hence
he lacked all the incen-
tives that stimulated the
early Egyptian sculptor
to reproduce realistically
the external form of the
deceased and to depict faithfully his different occupations and
possessions. He turned therefore at once to religious, historic,
and symbolic subjects. The monuments as yet discovered have
been so few as to make any adequate classification or knowl-
edge impossible. This is due, not to any lack of productivity
for the excavations at Tello have shown that sculpture was
popular from the earliest period but to the fact that no scien-
tific excavations in Babylonia have been undertaken until the
present decade.
It was therefore not the tomb, but the temple and the pal-
ace, that were the home of early sculpture. The form of the
FIG. 10. HEAD WITH TURBAN FROM TELLO.
LOUVRE.
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 2/
Babylonian temple was peculiarly suited to the natural con-
formation of the land. It arose from a wide platform in the
form of a great stepped pyramidal mound. In the courts
around its base were minor sanctuaries, while the great god
dwelt in the higher structure. The pyramidal form seems to
have been determined by their idea of the form of the uni-
verse. The sky was a great metal dome, resting on a circulai
base ; within it, at the bottom, rose the earth, washed by watei
that divided it from the base of the heavens, while at the east
and west were the gates of the sun. The earth itself rose
under this dome in the form of a stepped pyramid.
In connection with the main temple and its satellites there
usually arose a royal palace of considerable extent, with three
divisions: (i) for the king and state ceremonies; (2) for the
harem (3) for the dependencies. In them the mass of sculp-
ture was placed. Under the thresholds were the " teraphim,"
or small images of metal or terracotta, to frighten away the
evil spirits : at the gateways stood the protecting genii : in the
courts were erected the triumphal and commemorative carved
stelae and the royal statues : in the temple-cellas were the
figures of the gods. Several classes of subjects can be distin-
guished.
First, the representations of the gods in relief and in the
round, which were far more common in Babylonian than
they were in the later Assyrian sculpture. There were many
small figures of the gods in terracotta, buried in the ground,
and others in bronze ending in spikes, stuck in the ground
to ward off evil. The gods were also carved on reliefs used
for wall decoration or cut on the faces of commemorative
steles, and sometimes appeared in the form of statues which
were placed in the inner sanctuaries. Miniature reproductions
of the statues and reliefs of the gods can be studied in great
numbers in the cut seals and cylinders.
In a second series of subjects the gods were no longer alone,
but were represented in relief, receiving the sacrifices, the
28 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
offerings, or merely the homage of their worshippers. Often
each god was accompanied by his goddess, and the worship-
pers were shown as being brought forward by the priest.
Related to these scenes were a series of mythological or
legendary subjects from the histories of gods and heroes. The
greatest favorites among these last were the combat of Mero-
dach with the powers of chaos, which ended in the creation
of the world, the legends of Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus,
and the adventures of Izdubar, or, as his name is now read,
Gilgames, the prototype of,Herakles and the beau-ideal of
Babylonian heroism.
At the very outset the Babylonian sculptor created also a
purely historical class of compositions, in which the king was
either represented at peace, surrounded by his court, or at war,
fighting, overthrowing and executing his enemies, burying his
dead, and offering thank-sacrifices to his gods. There are
traces, also, of genre scenes showing the labors and amuse-
ments of daily life, such as husbandry and music. And then
came those fantastic creations of good and evil spirits which,
in conception and technical conventions, stand quite apart.
Of all these works of sculpture the statues of the divinities
placed in the temples were the most sacred possessions of the
city. They were the palladium, to be carefully hidden or
carried away from the enemy. When taken they were prized by
the captors as the greatest trophy of the victory. There are
many cuneiform texts attesting this. The memory of such
sculptures was handed down for centuries. An instance is the
statue carried back from Susa to Nineveh \>y Assur-bani-pal, who
notes that thirteen hundred years before it had been carried
away from Assyria by the Elamite conquerors (circa 2200
B.C.).
TECHNICAL METHODS AND CONVENTIONS. Stone, terracotta,
bronze, and rare stones were employed by the earliest Babylo-
nian artists with whom we are acquainted. In the absence of
home quarries, the stone was brought not from the mountains
I 1
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 29
which, at a later period, provided the Assyrians with the soft
and fine limestone and alabaster slabs, but it came by sea,
apparently, from quarries in the land of " Magan." The
favorite quality of stone employed for large statuary was a
variety of diorite, almost as hard as granite or porphyry, and
similar to that used by the Egyptian sculptors of the Ancient
Empire. The mechanical difficulties of so obdurate a mate-
rial prevented any such lavish display as was made by the Assyr-
ian artists in decorating with rows of reliefs all their principal
halls. Softer stones were employed for delicate work in
relief in smaller sculptures, and in the time of Naramsin (circa
FIG. II. IMPRESSION FROM A BABYLONIAN CYLINDER. BERLIN.
3750 B.C.) the material was worked with matchless fineness.
In bronze -work future discoveries will doubtless show that
hammered work preceded casting. At present, however, fig-
ures of cast bronze are found among the earliest works in the
reign of Ur-Nina of Lagash, probably before 4000 B.C. Hith-
erto, no reliefs in bronze have come to light. It is to be sup-
posed that ivory, so great a favorite with the Assyrians, was not
neglected by Babylonian artists, but no works in this mate-
rial have yet been found. The long, flat plain of the Tigris-
Euphrates was not diversified by any forests that could afford
a convenient supply of timber for purposes of sculpture, and
probably for this reason wooden statues appear hardly to have
30 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
existed. It was natural that terracotta should be a favorite
material for the sculptor, but it appears to have been used only
for small figures, and not for work entirely in the round. The
figurines were cast in a mould, and not executed or even fin-
ished by hand. No trace of polychromy has been found,
though there is every reason to suppose the Babylonians em-
ployed it in connection with their reliefs.
In the earliest monuments, like those of Ur-Nina of Lagash,
the workmanship is extremely crude, the relief low, the out-
lines poor. At this early date the names of the persons were
written on or beside the reliefs. The features, such as nose,
eyes, and ears, were of immense size. As early, however, as the
time of Sargon (3800 B. c.) the sculptors were in possession of
all their technical skill, and the art then developed its perma-
nent characteristics.
The conventional attitude of the figures in relief was to
show the head in profile, the shoulders partly or entirely in
front view, and the lower limbs again in profile. The shoul-
ders were not always as absolutely equilateral as in Egypt, nor
were they as frankly profilized as in Assyria. Quite often a
front view of the face was given. It is worthy of note that
the full face of the national hero, Gilgames, was quite gener-
ally given, perhaps so as to show more clearly his lion-like
lineaments and mane-like hair. While the Assyrians seldom
allowed themselves to represent the nude body, the Babylo-
nians had no such scruple : Ishtar and Belit, Gilgames, and
Heabani, the various good and evil spirits, were some of the
types usually undraped. The bodies of the slain in battle were
also shown undraped. The wonderful skill shown in anatom-
ical drawing in some of the earlier gems proves that the Baby-
lonians excelled all artists in this respect until surpassed by
the Greeks at the close of the sixth century B.C. In some of
the Tello sculptures there is shown a talent for realistic por-
traiture in face and body that was always foreign to Assyria.
The drapery was given in a simple and interesting fashion.
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 31
The garment of the Babylonians was a woollen mantle with a
shawl -like fringe called kaunakes, which was wound around
the figure many times and draped over one shoulder, leaving
the other shoulder and arm bare. It is this peculiarity which
makes the robes of priests and divinities appear like pleated
skirts. And this use of heavy woollen stuffs concealed the
figure far more effectually than the gauze-like garments of the
Egyptians, and probably accounts for a more rigid figure in
Babylonian art than in Egyptian art. There is no attempt at
perspective, or at representing figures on more than one plane.
The reliefs are arranged in superposed bands, sometimes giving
successive stages of one action.
The Babylonians were decidedly more anthropomorphic than
the Egyptians, both in their ideas and in their representations
of the gods. One god was not distinguished from another by
having the head of a hawk, a dog, a cat, or a jackal on a
human body, but each god had his full complement of human
form and was distinguished by some emblem carried in the
hand (as was later the case in Greek art) or placed near the
figure. The emblem of Shamash was the sun, of Sin the moon,
of Ramman the thunderbolt, of Ishtarthe star Venus, of Ea the
serpent, of Ninip the bull. Where animals were used as
symbols they were commonly placed under the feet of their
deity and were often astronomically related to them. Some-
times, especially in later Babylonian sculpture, the symbols
were employed alone, without the divine figures, and were set
up for worship or carved on boundary stones to terrify the
evil-doer. There are, however, some traces of the existence
of representations of the gods with heads and other parts of
animals, as in Egypt, though such forms were not artistically
welcomed.
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Five periods may be distin-
guished :
(i) The PRIMITIVE PERIOD, lasting until shortly after 4000
B.C.
32 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
(2) The ARCHAIC, extending from before the time of Sargon
I. (3800 B.C.) to Ur-Gur of Ur (2900 B.C.).
(3) The DEVELOPED, ending with the advent of the Kossean
or Kassite dynasty in the seventeenth century.
(4) The DECADENCE, ending with the completion of the
Assyrian conquest in the ninth century.
FIG. 12. TWO DIVINITIES ESCORTING A KING. BERLIN.
(5) The ARCHAISTIC REVIVAL, during the century covered
by the period of the Neo-Babylonian empire founded byNabo-
polassar and Nebuchadnezzar and ended by the conquest of
Cyrus.
PRIMITIVE PERIOD. The earliest works yet known are in
low relief and belong to a period apparently earlier than 4000
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 33
B.C., though how much earlier we cannot yet assert. The
style is crude and heavy, with weak outlines and details
marked always with scratched lines. Several works of this
class have been found at Tello, the ancient Lagash. Of a
style somewhat less crude are three naive plaques of King
Ur-Nina of Lagash in which the details are no longer scratched
but carved.
ARCHAIC PEEIOD. Toward 4000 B.C. a great advance appears
to have been made, for the monuments inscribed with the
names of Sargon I. (3800) and his son Naramsin prove that
the Babylonian sculptors had attained to a high degree of
artistic perfection. We may place at the beginning of this
period the monuments of King Eannadu of Lagash, whose
" Stele of the Vultures " is so dramatic and forceful in con-
ception. Toward the close of this, the epic period, should be
placed the monuments of Sargon and Naramsin, for they
show, together with strength and simplicity, that union of deli-
cacy and refined treatment of detail which became the char-
acteristic of the succeeding period.
DEVELOPED PERIOD. In the few pieces of this period that
have been found there is an exquisite refinement that antici-
pates the style of the eighteenth dynasty in Egypt and makes
it possible to gain a clear idea of the details of costume and
decoration. This was also the period of monumental sculpture
in connection with a great development of temple and palace
architecture. The large statues of Gudea found at Lagash
have the merits and the defects of an art whose greatest suc-
cesses were attained in gem-cutting and minute stone and
metal sculpture. This developed style was probably that of
the schools of Ur, Erech, and other cities during the reigns of
the kings of Ur, Ur-gur and his son Dunghi (circa 2850), and
also under the Babylonian dynasty of Hammurabi. It is nat-
ural to suppose that it ceased with the advent of the Kossean
invaders in the seventeenth century. At all events, we find
proof that shortly after their advent Babylonian sculpture
3
34 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
declined. It was during this developed period that we may
place the bulk of Babylonian gem-cutting, though it did not
surpass in perfection the developed gem-cutting of the Sargon
period.
DECADENCE. Sculpture between 1600 and 800 had lost in
vitality and in strength. Apparently it was no longer much
used in monumental works or works in the round, but mainly
for miniature carvings in low relief. The sacred relief of the
temple of the Sun-god at Sippara, the royal stele of King
Marduk-iddin-akhi, and the numerous boundary stones and
reliefs now in the British Museum, show great care in the
workmanship, and an elaborate and faithful reproduction of
detail. The difference between the Babylonian sculpture of the
period of decadence and contemporary Assyrian sculpture can
be appreciated by a comparison between any Assyrian relief of
the time of Assur-nazir-pal and the interesting small slab from
the temple of Shamash at Sippara. Both were executed in the
first half of the ninth century.
REVIVAL. The last period of Babylonian art is still as
obscure in history as the earliest. From the numerous inscrip-
tions we judge that the dominant idea of Nabopolassar and
Nebuchadnezzar was a return to the traditions of early Baby-
lonia, and this was broken, first by the Kosseans and then by
the Assyrians. Everywhere their restoration of the temples
erected by such early kings as Hammurabi (2200), Ur-gur
(2900), and Naramsin (3750) is praised as being exactly in
the style of the old work. The seals and cylinders show that
the art was then, in a sense, archaistic, in the same way as the
sculpture of Augustus was in one of its phases a revival of
the archaic Greek style of the pre-Pheidian period.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The principal monuments thus far known are
those unearthed at Tello, the ancient Lagash, by the French consul, M.
de Sarzec. Almost all of these, including the statues of Gudea and the stele
of the Vultures, were taken to the Museum of the Louvre (Paris) : some
pieces recently found have gone to Constantinople. The Museum of
BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE. 35
Constantinople has a number of other Babylonian sculptures. The British
Museum has a fine collection of small works illustrating the later period,
principally boundary stones and slabs, carved with symbols of the gods
and astronomical symbols, scenes of adoration, etc. The two most inter-
esting pieces are the small sacred relief of the temple of Shamash at Sip-
para and the royal stele of King Marduk-iddin-akhi.
Some idea of Babylonian sculpture may be gathered from the collections
of Babylonian carved gems. The most important of these are in (i) the
Metropolitan Museum, New York ; (2) the British Museum ; (3) the col-
lection of M. de Clercq, in Paris ; (4) the Museum of the Louvre, Paris ;
(5) the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
CHAPTER IV.
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. For illustrations, consult Botta et
Flandin, Monuments de Ninive. Layard, Monuments of Nine-
veh. Pinches, The Gates of Balawat. Place, Ninive et I' As-
sy rie. The British Museum series of photographs of sculpture.
For text : Babelon, Manual of Oriental Antiquities. Layard,
Nineveh and its Remains . Merrill, in Bibliotheca Sacra, April,
1875. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldcea and
Assyria. George Smith, Assyrian Discoveries.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS, HISTORY, RELIGION. During the second
millennium B.C., a country had been developing on the north-
ern boundary of Babylonia which, after being the dependent
and then the rival, finally became the conqueror of the older
empire. This was Assyria. The country was a narrow, insig-
nificant strip of land, hardly sixty miles in width, between the
Tigris and the mountains. Its inhabitants were a hardy and
vigorous race who made up in unity what they lacked in num-
bers. They were not of mixed race, like the Babylonians, but
were pure Shemites. Not until the very close of their history
do they show signs of being contaminated by the luxurious life
of the Babylonians. In religion they worshipped Asshur as
supreme god, and Ishtar was their goddess ; but they followed
the example of the Babylonians, and, besides their special
patrons, adopted the official Babylonian mythology with its
twelve great deities.
In the seventeenth century B.C. the rulers of Assyria first
took the title of kings; and in the fifteenth and fourteenth
centuries they were in frequent conflict with the Babylonian
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE.
37
kings. The period of conquest did not begin, however, until
the time of Tiglath-pileser I. in the twelfth century, to be
renewed on an even grander scale by Assur-nazir-pal in the
ninth century, though between the times of these two great
FIG. 13. ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL AND ATTENDANT. BRITISH MUSEUM.
monarchs the Assyrian empire had relost nearly all its accre-
tions. From Assur-nazir-pal's reign until the fall of Assyria
two and a half centuries later, there was an uninterrupted
course of conquests. Armenia, the Hittites, Babylonia, Pal-
38 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
estine, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, and finally Elam became sub-
jects of Nineveh. The Assyrian kings ruled from the Persian
Gulf to Asia Minor. Nineveh became the commercial and
artistic as well as the political capital of the entire East ; until
the unity, so burdensome to the subject races, was finally burst
asunder by the Babylonians shortly before 600 B.C.
The strength of the Assyrians lay in their wonderful polit-
ical and social organization, which enabled them to establish
securely their hold upon new conquests. We know far more
of the Assyrian organization than of the Babylonian. The per-
sonality of the king, by a gradual growth, came to overshadow
the whole land. He, and not the priests, was the direct
intermediary between the gods and the country. He was the
favorite, the " firstling," the beloved, of the gods. His per-
sonality was blazoned forth in a palace that was his very own,
built for him, and made to glorify his reign. Its inscriptions
and its sculptures were the official records of his deeds.
Imprecations were called down upon any of his successors who
either failed to keep his palace in repair or diverted any of
its decoration from its purpose.
No city in the Oriental world could compare with the Nine-
veh of the Sargonid kings as a world metropolis, as a centre
of art, industry, and commerce, as a place where works of art
were brought from all countries, where colonies of foreign
artists settled and worked, and where Assyrian art, with its
clearly defined and impressive individuality, could exercise an
influence that would be spread over the entire East and be car-
ried by the Phoenicians as far as the Greek islands.
The Assyrians were not by nature a literary or artistic peo-
ple. They appropriated much from the older civilization of
Babylonia, upon which they were at first largely dependent.
The Assyrian kings established libraries like those which had
existed since 4000 B.C. in the Babylonian cities, and caused
the contents of the Babylonian libraries to be copied for the
use of the Assyrian people. Thus the northern race entered
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 39
into the inheritance of the southerners, and borrowed from their
mythology, their literature, and their art. But, while this led
at first to almost complete dependence, as soon as the latent
qualities of the Assyrians were developed, toward the twelfth
century, a civilization radically opposed in many ways to the
Babylonian resulted. This is shown very clearly in the polit-
ical organization of Assyria. For as strongly as Babylonia
stands for local government, just so strongly does Assyria rep-
resent centralization. The difference between the two peoples
is shown even more clearly in sculpture.
SUBJECTS. The Assyrian royal palace, more than the temple,
was the shrine of art. Every king wished to build at least one
palace that should be a memorial of his reign and perpetuate
his name forever. Of the three sections into which the royal
palace was always divided state apartments, harem, and ser-
vants' quarters the first was more or less thoroughly deco-
rated with sculptures in relief throughout the main halls and
corridors, and Place calculates that the reliefs in the palace of
Sargon at Khorsabad, if placed end to end, would cover a
distance of about a mile and a half.
In the temples were placed images of the gods. Judging
from the bas-reliefs which represent soldiers carrying such
images, they appear to have been less than life-size, usually
from three to four feet high. Mythological subjects were but
seldom represented, except in the seal cylinders. The scenes
with which the discoveries of Layard and Place have made us
familiar are almost entirely secular and genre subjects. They
differ from the corresponding subjects in Egyptian art in not
relating to the lives of private individuals, but to the life of
the king. His horses are represented led by grooms to water.
His private parks are shown stocked with lions and gazelles.
He is portrayed as reclining at a banquet, his table being sup-
plied by a procession of viand-bearing attendants. He starts
out to hunt the lion, the wild ass, or the gazelle, in his char-
iot or on his horse, accompanied by soldiers, courtiers, and
4O HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
huntsmen. Sometimes the hunt is open, and at other times
great battues are organized and the game surrounded by serried
lines of warriors into which the king breaks to bring the hunt
to a close. Then he returns, his attendants bearing the game.
The bodies are laid on the ground and offered to Asshur by the
pouring out of a libation. If there is war and conquest, the
FIG. 14. RELIEF FROM KHORSABAD. LOUVRE.
court sculptor, in true Oriental style, gives all the credit to
the royal prowess. The king is the central figure in the march
and in the stricken field. The camp is depicted, the groom-
ing of horses, the cooking of rations, the establishment of
t$tes-de-pont, the propitiatory offerings on the march, the set-
ting up of commemorative stelae as the army passes along after
victory. We see all the details of the attack on a walled city
the archers firing from behind skin-covered shields, the sol-
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 41
diers pushing forward a battering-ram and pouring water upon
its front to prevent it from being fired by the torches cast down
by the besieged, and, in front of the gates, prisoners being
impaled to strike terror, while others are led away. In the
representations of battle-scenes many successive stages of the
conflict are given, even portraying (as in the siege of Susa) the
rate of the particular leaders. Then follow the submission of
the vanquished, the presentation of tribute, the soldiers bring-
ing in the heads of slain enemies to be counted.
Thus the Assyrian sculptor excelled in telling a story, clearly
and with no superfluous details. His work was naturalistic
and somewhat narrow in its scope, but it was greatly varied in
its detail. The power of observation was cultivated far more
man with the Babylonians. And there was a sympathy with
animal life that went far to redeem the hardness and rigidity
of the style. The lions and lionesses, in repose and action,
Dounding to the attack or in their last agonies ; the fleeing,
prancing, kicking wild asses, the horses stretching themselves
in fleet course, with quivering nostrils are given with wonder-
ful naturalness and artistic sense : they are full of life and of
true plastic simplicity. The reality is so great that one can
scientifically identify many breeds of birds and animals from
tne sculptures. With plants, trees, and flowers the sculptor
nad far less success, as his material was less suited to their
representation in the low relief which was his only method of
modelling.
MATEEIALS, METHODS, AND CONVENTIONS. The Assyrians did
not employ to any extent diorite or other hard stone for sculp-
ture, as did the Babylonians. Such stones were suited more
particularly to work in the round, for which the Assyrians did
not care. At most they used such material for an occasional
commemorative stele or obelisk. Bas-relief was their specialty,
and they found excellent material in the alabaster and soft lime-
stone quarried from the mountains on their borders. This use
(h. soft material, so easilj handled by the sculptor, was not
42 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
without influence both on the quality and quantity of the monu-
ments produced. The Assyrian sculptor seemed to revel in
the facility with which he could fashion the stone, indulging
in the minutest detail work and exaggerating lines, muscular
development, and expression.
This artistic plasticity and freedom of hand, with which
the Assyrian artist appears to have been far more liberally
endowed than his Babylonian predecessor, is nowhere more
clearly shown than in the terracottas. These were not cast in
moulds as with the Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Greeks
but executed with free hand in the lump of clay. At other
times, when the clay was covered with a glaze, a mould was
employed, but the style remained free and bold.
Bronze figures were not, apparently, so common as with the
Babylonians, but, on the other hand, the working of bronze in
relief was carried to a perfection unknown to Babylonia. The
hammer, chisel, and burinwere used with wonderful skill in
the production of bronze doors, plaques, dishes, vases, etc.
The delicacy of touch and beauty of detail that distinguished
Assyrian artists were also shown in their ivory carvings. Amid
Egyptian and Phoenician imported works, so numerous among
the finds at Nineveh, the native Assyrian ivories stand out
most markedly. They are in precisely the same style as the
larger sculptures, but with freer modelling and greater refine-
ment of type.
The Babylonian custom of using seals and cylinders in all
public documents was followed in Assyria, and the character-
istics that we find in large sculpture are equally evident in
these small works of the engravers. It is as easy to distin-
guish Assyrian from Babylonian work in cut seals as in the
larger monuments. We find in them the same sharp outlines,
the same precise rendering of details and muscular exaggera-
tion, the same symmetry of composition as contrasted with the
less artistic grouping of the Babylonian artists.
Beside the mass of work in low relief, some few statues in
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 43
the round have been preserved, and a number of statuettes, but
they are in themselves proof of the inaptitude of the Assyrian
artists to work in the round. It is true that many statues of
the gods are mentioned in the texts as existing in the temples,
and in the bas-reliefs we see Assyrian soldiers transporting such
FIG. 15. CAPTURE OF LACHISH BY SENNACHERIB. BRITISH MUSEUM.
divine statues on their shoulders, but sculpture in the round
was not the best or the most frequent expression of the Assyr-
ian artist. The colossal figures of genii that guarded the city
and palace gates were of a type midway between statuary and
relief, and they were certainly the most original and impressive
works of the school.
44 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
One must not overlook the fact that the Assyrians followed
the common Asiatic custom of carving colossal reliefs on the
surface of rocks along the course of their expeditions. These
were monuments to commemorate treaties or victories, and
representing the gods and the king. Such a monument is that
at Bavian, of the time of Sennacherib, and another is at Mai-
thai. Analogous works were executed by the Elamites and
Hittites.
As a rule, the sculptor showed remarkable ability in elimi-
nating all superfluous elements from the compositions. The
figures were always arranged on a single plane, except where
two figures were shown standing side by side, one imme-
diately behind the other. When an action was depicted which,
like the drawing of a colossus on rollers, necessitated the
deployment of several lines of men, the lines were placed one
over the other in profile, their grouping being in plan. So, if
it was desired to show soldiers mounting a hillside, they were
carved in profile ascending along a section of the hill marked
by a line drawn along its surface, upon which the soldiers
stepped.
The figure was represented quite perfectly in profile, and
here we see marked superiority to the Babylonian school, but,
on the other hand, we find no examples of the use of the full
face, which was by no means unknown to the Babylonians.
The sculptor employed but a single type of face that of the
Shemitic Assyrians its only variant being a reproduction of
the cognate Jewish type.
The master sculptors appear to have executed models on a
small scale both in terracotta and in stone, which were after-
ward used by the workmen to whom the bulk of the execution
was confided. The production of bas-reliefs was so immense,
at the time of the construction of any royal palace, that some
such method as this was required in order to insure uniformity
of style and type in the different parts. Color was quite an
important element in the effect. The hair, eyes, and drapery
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 45
were generally brightened with it, and it is probable that this
peculiarity passed from the Assyrians to the Greeks, who suc-
ceeded them in the perfect mastery of relief sculpture.
The sculptors were, so to speak, a part of the organization
of the state, and their work was an official act. They were
not only employed in temples and palaces, but accompanied
the army on its campaigns to carve memorials of its victories
on the nearest cliff or to erect obelisk-like stelse carved with
images of the king and the figures or symbols of the great
gods, and sometimes, even, scenes from the campaign.
HISTORY. There is less variety of style in Assyrian than in
Babylonian sculpture. There seems to have been but one
school, one technique, one style. And yet it is possible to
distinguish at least two periods of production; one from the
beginning up to the reign of Sargon, the other from Sennach-
erib to the fall of Nineveh. One of the earliest pieces of
Assyrian sculpture is a nude female figure of a goddess in the
British Museum, with an inscription of King Assur-bel-Kala,
which reproduces so perfectly a well-known type on the Baby-
lonian seal cylinders that it would lead one to conjecture
that in the twelfth century, when Assyria was in the course of
establishing an autonomous civilization, she had not yet broken
loose from an imitation of Babylonian work. At the same
time, the few remains of the reign of Tiglath-pileser I. prove
that at this date (circa 1120) the Assyrian artists had formed
their style. We know nothing of the development of Assyrian
sculpture during the following centuries. The next monuments
in date are those of the reign of Assur-nazir-pal (885-860)
which constitute one of the greatest series known, and are the
most impressive and grand of all the Assyrian work. The
artists had reached their apogee in the reliefs from the royal
palace at Kalah. The figures are large, and the story is told
simply and clearly. There are no backgrounds of scenery, no
elaborate attempts at establishing different planes in the same
relief. The carved marble dado along the palace halls has but
46 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
a single row of figures. The relief is exceedingly low, but
the muscularity and the features are strongly accentuated.
The desire to tell the story clearly is so predominant as often
to lead the sculptor to carve the historic inscriptions straight
across the reliefs which illustrate them, much to the detriment
of artistic effect. It was at this period that the colossal genii
that flanked the palace gates, the lions, and the man-headed
bulls were executed with greatest power. The same style was
followed under Assur-nazir-paPs successors. There remain
two remarkable monuments of the reign of his son Shalmaneser
II., a basalt obelisk found at Nimroud and the bronze gates to
FIG. 16. ASSUR-BANI-PAL STABBING A LION. BRITISH MUSEUM.
a palace which he built at Balawat. The few sculptures from
that date to the reign of Tiglath-pileser II. (745~7 2 7) con-
tinue the traditions of the previous century.
With Sargon (722-705) comes the decadence of the grand,
epic style. The figures are less lifelike, the relief is higher,
but character and sharpness are lost instead of gained by a
softer gradation of the surfaces. The inscriptions no longer
cross the reliefs, and occasionally an attempt is made to intro-
duce picturesque accessories into the background. Sennach-
erib, his immediate successor (705-681), inaugurated a new
artistic ideal ; and the art of his time aims at being pictu-
resque, varied, lifelike, and dramatic. We find scenery and
ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 47
accessories, a multitude of small figures, a detailed representa-
tion of incident. The stone dado is carved in several super-
posed lines of relief, so that the processions of impressive
large figures are lost. But the change of style seems unfortu-
nate, and the effect is confused. The artists of a later king,
Assur-bani-pal (668), the last great patron of art, showed better
insight. They returned in part to the old simple style, with
greater delicacy of treatment and higher finish. In composi-
tions, such as battle-pieces, they retained the style of Sennach-
erib, but succeeded better" in being dramatic, and in portray-
ing scenes full of a multitude of small figures without lapsing
into confusion. Such are some of the hunting and garden
scenes. On the other hand, in the battle-pieces, like that of
the defeat of the Elamites at Susa, the artist has not succeeded
wholly in avoiding the confused compositions characteristic of
the reliefs of Sennacherib.
EXTANT REMAINS. Rock-cut sculptures of Tiglath-pileser I., at
Korkhar (N. of Diarbekr) ; of Sennacherib at Bavian (N.N.E. of Mosul);
of Essarhaddon and other kings near the Nahr-el-kelb in Phoenicia (near
Beyrouth) ; of a Sargonid king at Maltha'i (N. of Mosul). The British
Museum contains the results of Layard's excavations, especially the numer-
ous series of reliefs of Assur-nazir-pal and Assur-bani-pal, and less im-
portant series of Tiglath-pileser III. and Sennacherib, the obelisks of
Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser II., and the latter's bronze gates. The
Museum of the Louvre is especially rich in the series of Sargon reliefs
found in this king's palace by Place. There are small collections of
reliefs at the Vatican Museum, at the Historical Society in New York, at
Amherst College, etc. The British Museum is especially rich in remains of
industrial art of all kinds, while Assyrian seals and cylinders are numer-
ous, not only there and at the Louvre, but also in the collections men-
tioned on p. 35 as being rich in Babylonian carved gems.
CHAPTER V.
PERSIAN SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Coste et Flandin, Voyage in Perse.
Dieulafoy, L'Art Antique de la Perse; L'Acropole de Suse.
Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de V Orient. Noldeke, Per-
sepolis, Die Achaemenischen und Sassanidischen Denkmdler,
with photographs by F. Stolze. Perrot and Chipiez, History of
Art in Persia. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies of
the Ancient Eastern World. Texier, Description de rArmtnie,
de la Perse et de la Me'sopotamie.
THE ELAMITES. The Elamite kingdom, with its capital at
Susa, rivalled in antiquity the civilization of Babylonia. In
fact, for a certain period in the third millennium B.C., it held
a large part of Babylonia under its dominion. We know from
documentary evidence that the Elamites practised sculpture,
but, as no excavations have been undertaken as yet that would
disclose their monuments, we can judge of their style merely
from a few rock-cut sculptures. The kingdom was destroyed,
shortly before 650 B.C., by the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal,
and the country afterwards became a province of the Persian
empire, distinguishing itself in art from Persia proper by a
stricter adherence to Assyrian and Babylonian traditions, as
has been shown by the interesting discoveries made by M.
Dieulafoy at Susa, where the use of enamelled bricks for relief
sculpture prevailed over stone.
THE PERSIAN EMPIEE AND ART. The Persian civilization
arose, at the close of the sixth century, upon the ruins of the
Babylonian and Assyrian powers, and it inherited their artistic
style, which was at first the predominant element in the devel-
PERSIAN SCULPTURE.
49
opment of the different branches of art throughout the empire.
This element was, however, speedily tempered by the introduc-
tion of two strong influences ; that of Egypt after its conquest
by Cambyses, and that of Greece after the Persian contact
with the Greek cities of Asia Minor.
In sculpture, however, the Assyro-Baby Ionian style was at
first preserved in almost its original purity. Some subjects,
such as the human-headed bulls and the king fighting monsters,
FIG. 17. LION ATTACKING A BULL. APADANA OF XERXES. PERSEPOLIS.
were treated so much in the same style that they appear to be
almost copies. The main difference lay in the greater round-
ness of Persian technique, in its loss of the force and directness
of Assyrian art, in the lack of vitality and expression in the
figures, and in the narrowness of the range of subjects all of
which are qualities that might be expected in an art that was
not original but derived. At the same time, there was often
visible a trace of archaic Greek influence, especially in the
treatment of drapery and in the decoration. As in Assyria,
the relief was the favorite form of sculpture, and it was also
4
50 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
in connection with the royal palaces that the great masses of
sculpture were employed. The new form of the Persian pal-
aces made the arrangement of the sculptures somewhat differ-
ent from that in the Assyrian royal residences, and there was
not the same opportunity for continuous friezes and for variety
of subjects. Reliefs decorated both sides of the main stair-
way ascending to the palace. The entrances were flanked, as
in Assyria, by colossal winged bulls. The Apadana, or main
hall, of the Persian palace, which, with its many rows of col-
umns, was quite an innovation in the East, was decorated
with the reliefs of the king and his attendants. The reliefs
were not upon slabs used as a facing for brick walls, as in
Assyria, or for detached decoration, as often in Babylon, but
were carved in the stone used in the construction itself, in the
limestone sub-structures of the palace platforms and the faces
of the limestone portals. No full-sized statues in the round
are known to have existed.
HISTORY, SUBJECTS, METHODS. Persian sculpture flourished
little over a century, consequently it has but little history and
varies only slightly during the course of its development. We
notice toward the close the increased influence of Greek ar-
tists from Thessaly or from Asia Minor. The earliest sculpture
known is that of the winged figure of King Cyrus, standing in
an attitude of adoration, carved over a door jamb at Pasar-
gadae, and dating probably from the first years of Darius. The
largest series of sculptures thus far discovered is that of the
palace of Darius at Persepolis. The subject of these sculp-
tures is the glorification of the king. All the figures are rep-
resented as directing their steps toward a central point. A
double procession, on either side of the stairway, mounts the
steps, and there is another procession higher up on the inner
faces of the door frames. These are the subject-peoples bring-
ing to the king their gifts and tributes horses, wild asses,
camels, rich stuffs, rare products, objects in precious metals ;
and these figures are passing through the long array of life-
PERSIAN SCULPTURE. $1
guards, officers, and courtiers, the Medes in flowing garments
and the Persians in tight-fitting dress. Further on we see
the king, either enthroned on his high platform supported by
caryatid- like figures of the conquered nations, or walking
under a sunshade, or plunging a dagger into some wild beast
who represents the foes of his majesty.
The range of Persian sculpture was the glorification of the
FIG. 18. BULL-HEAD CAPITAL. PALACE OF ARTAXERXES AT SUSA. LOUVRE.
king in one great composition. In the rock-cut relief of the
royal tombs the same subject was repeated in a simplified form.
There was no variety, as in Assyrian art, either in subject or
in treatment. As no distinct event, but only a symbolic rep-
resentation, was given, the scene had an air of unreality. At
the same time, it had distinct merits. For the first time
Oriental sculpture attempted to give the soft texture of dra-
,$2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
pery and imitated its natural folds, and here we trace dis-
tinctly the influence of archaic Ionic Greek sculpture. There
was also a distinct advance in the ability to bring sculpture
into its proper relationship to architecture. Instead of scat-
tering scenes broadcast over the surface, as in Egypt, in fine
disregard of any distinctive grouping or subordination; instead
of using sculpture as an art connected with architectural struct-
ure, as in Assyria, the Persians showed some of the Greek con-
ception of the harmonious relationship possible between the
two arts. Thus, the processions carved on the sides of the
staircases followed the natural architectural outlines, as was
the case later with the stairway at Pergamon, and the faces of
the limestone portals were used for reliefs, like the inner sides
of the Roman triumphal arches. But this peculiar merit was
shown especially in the use of sculpture for distinctly archi-
tectural decoration. The colossal bull-capitals at Persepolis
and Susa were masterpieces. The treatment of the bulls in
these works was the greatest triumph of Persian sculpture, for
naturalism, technique, and spirit.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Casts of a number of the sculptures of Per-
sepolis have recently been made for the South Kensington (London) and
Metropolitan (New York) Museums. Aside from the great capital from
Susa, in the Louvre, there are no important pieces of Persian sculpture in
Western museums.
CHAPTER VI.
HITTITE SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Earth, Reise von Trapezunt. De
Cara, Git Hethei-Pelasgi. Hirschfeld, Paphlagonische Felsen-
grdber ; Die Felsenreliefs in Kleinasien und das Volk der
Hittiter. Humann und Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und
Nordsyrien. Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Sardinia,
Judcza, Syria, and Asia Minor. Perrot et Guillaume, Ex-
ploration Arche'ologique de la Galatie et de la Bithynie. Puch-
stein, Pseudohethitische Kunst. Ramsay, Articles in Journal
of Hellenic Studies ; " Early Historical Relations of Phrygia
and Cappadocia," in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol.
XV. Sayce, in publications of the Society of Biblical Archae-
ology. Texier, Description de r Asie Mineure. Ward and
Frothingham, in American Journal of Archaeology ', 1888-89.
Wright, The Empire of the Hittites.
THE HITTITE KINGDOM. Under the general term of Hittite
we group the sculptures produced in the north of Syria and
in a large part of Asia Minor, especially in that part adjacent
to the Assyrian frontier and in Cappadocia. The Hittites
were for many centuries the dominant element in a group of
tribes in this region, and formed a state that often withstood
successfully such great powers as Egypt and Assyria. Their
racial affinities and their language are still a mystery, and,
until we can read their inscriptions, we can know but little of
their history and culture. Carchemish on the Euphrates,
Kadesh and Hamath on the Orontes, are the cities of which we
read in Egyptian and Assyrian annals. Around them the wars
were waged, and they are more familiar to us than the Hittite
cities of Asia Minor. The centre from which the Hittites
54 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
started in their career of conquest was the northeast of Syria
and Armenia, and they gradually subdued the populations of a
large part of Asia Minor and the Rutennu tribes of central Syria,
finally transmitting the culture of Babylonia to the ^Egean and
standing by the side of the Phoenicians in acting as a link
between the East and the West.
HISTOBY AND STYLES. As far as we can judge, the period
during which Hittite civilization and art flourished covers some
seven or eight centuries, from the time when the Hittites
became formidable to Egypt under Seti I. (fifteenth century),
until the year 717, when the last of the Hittite states, that of
Carchemish, was conquered by Sargon of Assyria. Perhaps
the Hittite state of Pteria in Cappadocia was the last survivor
of their power, not coming to an end until Croesus brought
destruction upon their great fortified capital on the approach
of Cyrus.
The primitive source of much that was radical and important
in early Hittite culture was Babylonia. When that great
southern empire held sway as far as Syria and Armenia, it
impregnated with its mythology, its legends, and its art the
populations of the mountainous plateaux of Armenia ; and when
the various tribes which we include under the name of Hittites
started on their career of conquest they carried with them
these ideas, profoundly modified by native traits, to the less
civilized populations of Asia Minor and the ^Egean. Perhaps
there is some truth in the legends that Tiryns and Mykenai
were founded by emigrant princes from Asia Minor. We may
conjecture that the Hittites afterwards felt the influence of
Egypt, and we know that the cuneiform system of writing, as
well as their own hieroglyphics, were known to them. At the
close of their civilization Assyrian art asserted its supremacy
over the Hittites even before their cities were brought under
the dominion of the Assyrian kings. This is proved by the
late German excavations at Sendjirli.
Contemporary records would seem to prove that the Hittites
HITTITE SCULPTURE.
55
were very skilful in the use of metals for sculpture, and were
renowned for the production of gold and silver vessels. But
the only sculptures that have been preserved, beyond a certain
number of carved gems, are the reliefs cut in the natural rock
FIG. 19. HITTITE RELIEF AT CARCHEMISH-JERABLUS.
or carved on slabs of stone and marble used for lining the
walls of Hittite palaces. In style these sculptures form a
class somewhat apart from the plastic development of Western
Asia. While Babylonian, Asiatic, and Persian sculpture
developed on the same general lines, each merely a different
56 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
phase of the same style, Hittite sculpture has very marked
racial characteristics. This is especially the case with the
monuments in Asia Minor, for those of Syria show strong
traces of both Babylonian and Assyrian influence. As a class
these sculptures certainly cannot be later than the close of the
eighth century B.C. nor earlier than the thirteenth or fourteenth
century B.C., and of these the Assyrian examples appear to
be the latest in date.
TYPES AND METHODS. There are certain characteristics that
can be applied to the style as a whole. The figures are thick-
set and usually with prominent noses and large eyes ; they wear
shoes with turned-up points, and usually on their heads high
conical caps or diadems, though in many cases the female fig-
ures merely have their heads draped in a garment which
descends over their shoulders. There is a lack of detail, of
life, and of animation, and where, as in some cases, the artist
has attempted to use detail he shows his lack of artistic abil-
ity. In general the work is extremely mechanical, and quite
lacking in any of the qualities of high art that characterize
Assyrian work of the same period.
Again r there are certain general followings of Assyria, such
as in the arrangement of the palaces, in the use of colossal
figures of genii at the entrances, in the lining of the lower
part of the walls of the interiors with bas-reliefs. There was,
however, a far more abundant use of sculpture carved in the
natural rock in long processions of divinities, genii, priests,
and male and female worshippers. Besides such processional
series, we find two or three subjects in very frequent use, espe-
cially in Hittite monuments of Syria. These are the hunting
scenes copied from those of Assyria ; the scene with two female
figures of religious import seated on either side of a sacri-
ficial table ; and single figures of gods and goddesses and of
priests and worshippers.
AKT HISTOEY. Hittite art was never wholly original : at the
same time it was far more so than the art of the Phoenicians^
HITTITE SCULPTURE.
57
and showed an ability to assimilate foreign elements. It may
even be possible that Assyria reversed matters by borrowing
from it something in the arrangement of its palaces. The
great similarity makes one original necessary, and this original
in its general features was probably the Babylonian palace;
though in the text of Sargon's inscription in which he describes
the construction of his great palace, excavated by Place at
Khorsabad, it is expressly stated that its entrance was con-
structed on the plan of a Hittite palace.
At Boghaz-Keui, evidently the capital of Pteria, there is
a great sanctuary called lasili-Kaia, not far from the fortified
FIG. 20. HITTITE RELIEF FROM SAKTCHE-cSzO.
city, in the form of an open-air temple among the rocks.
There is a long corridor-like space for the gathering of the
people, connected by a narrow passage with a smaller adyton,
to which the priests alone must have had entrance. The
faces of the rocks in both open halls are used for sculptures in
low relief. In the main hall are two parallel processions
occupying the right and left walls and meeting on the short
cross-wall at the end. On the left are forty-five figures, all of
them men, while the twenty-two figures on the right side, with
one exception, are all women. They represent the male and
female deities of the Pterians, with their priests and worship-
pers. Single figures of deities and priests are in the inner
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
sanctuary. The figures are in many cases more slender and
graceful than any other works of Hittite art, and in some cases
show imaginative and symbolic power.
The mound of Sendjirli, recently excavated by the Ger-
mans, is but one of over a hundred artificial circular mounds
in Northern Syria, in each of which lies buried a town or city,
with its double or triple
circuit of fortified walls
studded with towers and
monumental gates, and
with its walled citadel
within which are the
royal palaces. Three
periods of Syrian or
Hittite art and history
have been here brought
to light: (i) The early
period before the ninth
or eighth century, a
time of independence
in politics and in art,
though even then we
trace a correspondence
to Assyrian work; (2)
the period of the eighth
and part of the ninth
century, one of vassal-
age to Assyria and imi-
tation of Assyrian art by native artists ; (3) the seventh century,
when the local kinglets were replaced by Assyrian governors
and artists either trained in the Assyrian school or themselves
Assyrians working in the city. The city of Sendjirli seems to
have been destroyed, never to be rebuilt, as early as the sixth
century. The sculptures of the gates of both city and citadel
belong to the first of these three periods. The citadel gate
FIG. 21. HITTITE RELIEF AT BOGHAZ-KEUI.
HITTITE SCULPTURE. 59
was decorated with a dado of sculptured slabs containing some
forty figures, mostly belonging to one grand royal hunting
scene, with lions, bulls, deer, hare, and other wild animals
the continuity of the subject being broken merely by the
figures of the protecting genii. The principal decoration of
the city gates are pairs of colossal guardian lions, one of
which was recarved in order to make it more Assyrian in style.
There are many other examples of this style of sculpture in
this region of Syria, especially at Carchemish, where the
Assyrian influence exercised an especially refining influence
upon the native style. More crude, and less dependent on
Assyria, is a group of monuments from Marash and Rum Qalah.
EXTANT REMAINS. Only a few Hittite sculptures have been removed
to Western museums. A few pieces, especially from Carchemish and
Biredjik, have gone to the British Museum. Others, beginning with the
Marash lions, have gone to Constantinople. The most important ac-
cession to the Berlin Museum has been that of the Sendjirli sculptures.
The sites in Syria where the most interesting sculptures have been found
are Marash, Hamath, Carchemish, Saktche-gozii, Rum Qalah, and, espe-
cially, Sendjirli. In Cappadocia are the rock-cut sculptures of lasili-Kaia,
the lions of Boghaz-Keui, and the reliefs and sphinxes of Euyuk. There
are rock-sculptures with Hittite hieroglyphs, or in the Hittite style,
scattered over a large part of Asia Minor, especially in the inland prov-
inces : for example, in Phrygia at Giaour-Kalessi, in Lycaonia at Ibreez
and Eflatoun-Bounar ; in Lydia at Nymphi, or Karabel, and Mt. Sipylos.
CHAPTER VII.
PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. A. P. Di Cesnola, Cyprus Antiqui-
ties ; Salaminia. L. P. Di Cesnola, A Descriptive Atlas of the
Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities ; Cyprus, its Cities,
Tombs, and Temples. Colonna Ceccaldi, Monuments Antiques
de Chypre, de Syrie et d^gypte. Heuzey, Catalogue des Figu-
rines Antiques de Terre Cuite du Musee du Louvre. Holwerda,
Die alten Kyprier in Kunst und Cultus. Metropolitan Museum
Handbook No. 3, Sculptures of the Cesnola Collection. Ohne-
falsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer. Perrot and
Chipiez, History of Art in Phoenicia and Cyprus. Reinach,
Chronique d' Orient in Revue Arche"ologique.
HISTORY. The principal intermediaries between the civili-
sation of the East and that of the West were the Phoenicians.
In its physical characteristics, the land that was once called
Phoenicia is quite unique. Its narrow band of coast, that
stretches between the Mediterranean and the slopes of the
Lebanon, is so often interrupted by the extension of the
mountains to the sea line that the ancient cities of Phoenicia
had no communication by land, but were a series of detached
ports, each one a centre of municipal life an aristocratic
republic. The geographical form of their existence precluded
any close union even in the stress of greatest danger. Conse-
quently, a common style of art or of industry could hardly
be expected. Again, the population of the Phoenician cities
was so small and variable, so little given to home-staying, so
taken up with life at sea, that no great monuments of art,
such as were created by the great Eastern civilizations, were
PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE.
6l
possible to them. It was entirely in the commercial spirit that
works of art were produced by the Phoenicians. They were
executed not for home use, but for sale and barter, and conse-
quently there was every reason why the style of their execu-
tion should have been, as it was, imitated from that of their
more powerful neighbors
who had developed a
monumental art. We have
no traces of monuments
belonging to the early
period of Phoenician his-
tory. There are none of
the second age that of
the supremacy of Sidon.
It is only after Tyre had
wrested from her older
friend and neighbor the
supremacy of the sea
(circa 1000-900 B.C.),
that we begin to find
traces of Phoenician art
monuments the dates of
which are more or less
certain. Before this
period, Sidon had occu-
pied the islands of Cyprus
and Crete, had establish-
ments in Rhodes, the
Sporades, and the Cyc-
lades, in Thera, Melos,
Thasos, and Cythera, and had established relations with
the mainland of Greece. In Africa it had built several
cities, especially Utica, and had marts in Malta and Gozo.
We may attribute to the Sidonian merchants the earliest
traces of Oriental artistic influence in Greek lands during this
IG. 22. PHOENICIAN HEAD FROM ATHIENO.
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK.
62 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
period, the influence of Egypt being then supreme with the
Phoenicians.
Tyre was far more enterprising than Sidon ; she carried her
commerce very much further, occupied Sardinia and Spain, and
established many important colonies in Africa, of which the
greatest was Carthage. Until the middle of the eighth century
the maritime supremacy of Tyre was not disputed. Then it
began to be opposed, and in many cases superseded by the
navies of the Greeks and the Etruscans. From that time,
therefore, the influence of Tyre was on the wane. While this
was going on, Carthage was building up an important empire.
She alone of all Phoenician cities undertook a policy of set-
tled conquest the ruling of a large territory, the permanent
establishment of a trained army. When Tyre let fall the
sceptre of the sea, the many Phoenician colonies scattered
along both basins of the Mediterranean naturally turned to
Carthage for help. Then began that memorable contest
between Carthage on the one hand and the Greeks, and after
them the Romans, on the other, which ended only in the
third century B.C. with the downfall of Carthage.
The three great names that are significant, therefore, in the
development of Phoenician art and in the history of the Phoe-
nicians as intermediaries between the East and the West are
Sidon, Tyre, and Carthage. To these we may add a fourth,
Cyprus. While in Cyprus the Phoenician and native art came
in contact with the Greeks in a way elsewhere unknown, the
importance of Carthage was especially great for the influence of
Greece and the Orient upon Italy. Italian trade remained
largely in the hands of the Carthaginians, and the contents of
the Etruscan tombs of the sixth, fifth, and fourth centuries
are ample proof of the fact that the Carthaginians did not dis-
dain to convey to Italy not only Oriental wares, but also the
products of their natural enemies the Greeks. After the sub-
jection of Carthage the Phoenicians, not only of Africa but
of Syria, came under Roman influence, and the great bulk of
PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE.
their monuments that are now remaining such as the votive
stelae belong to the centuries of Roman rule. In them we
still see lingering something of
the Oriental spirit, but the
dominating style of art is as
thoroughly Roman as in the
old days it was Persian, Assyr-
ian, Egyptian, or Babylonian.
MATERIALS AND METHODS.
The Phoenician coast did not
afford any favorable stone or
marble for the use of sculpture.
The local stone was far inferior
to the corresponding material
used by the Egyptian and As-
syrian artists, and when a very
choice work was to be executed
the material was imported from
Egypt. In the sixth century
importation of marble from
Greece commenced, and after
that period was quite frequently
used. But the sculptures in
stone, such as the anthropoid
sarcophagi, statues of gods, the
stelae, and architectural deco-
rations, form a very incomplete
series, and one that does not
represent at all continuously
the history of Phoenician sculp-
ture. The history is represented
much better by small sculp-
tures in bronze and in terracotta. Phoenician monuments in
these two materials are found in almost every country where
the Phoenicians had settlements or commercial relations. The
FIG. 23. CYPRIOTE STATUE IN THE AS-
SYRIAN STYLE. METROPOLITAN MU-
SEUM, NEW YORK.
64 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
main centres, however, were Syria, Cyprus, and Sardinia. The
bronzes were generally of a very crude type, poor in execu-
tion, and were in the style which was imitated very largely
throughout the mainland of western and northern Asia. The
most common figure reproduced was that of a standing war-
rior. If the Phoenicians were comparatively unsuccessful in
the casting of metal, they excelled in the engraving and ham-
mering in relief of various metals, a branch of industrial art
in which they produced many exquisite works, especially the
bowls and platters of silver and bronze in the manufacture of
which they had a monopoly throughout the East. Analogous
to this work was that of the great shields in bronze, whose
design in circular bands was very similar to that of the bowls,
and brings Phoenicia into closest relation with early Greek
art, as, for example, the Corinthian school of vase painting.
In the making of terracotta figures the Phoenicians bor-
rowed both from Assyria and Egypt, taking from the former
the idea of painting terracotta figurines, and from Egypt the
idea of faience figures, showing a sandy frit covered with
enamels of different colors. This glazed earthenware was
used, however, more largely for decorations than for figures.
At an early date, when Assyrian influence was predominant,
the Phoenician artists used ivory with great skill as a material
for reliefs in the decoration and manufacture of large and
small objects, such as thrones, door-panels, caskets, perfume-
boxes, and small statuettes.
TYPES AND SUBJECTS. The types and subjects that were the
peculiar creation of Phoenician art were very few. The Phoe-
nician gods, the Baals, the Molochs, the Astartes, the type of
the dwarf Herakles, were more or less purely native products,
because they were connected with the original worship of the
people. But in many cases, as the Phoenicians adopted the
worship of the gods of different countries, they also adopted
their artistic type. In the elaborate scenes that are often por-
trayed upon such works as the silver bowls, we find i* often
PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE.
difficult to ascertain the nature of the subject. The theme
frequently seems to be used merely for a decorative purpose,
without any regard to the
significance ; and in some
instances it is made up of
elements borrowed from
different sources. The
Phoenicians appear to have
been the first civilized na-
tion to employ figured
compositions, primarily
not for the sake of their
significance, but purely as
decorative material pleas-
ing to the eye and leading
to a readier sale.
CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. It
is usual to treat Cypriote
sculpture as a branch of
Phoenician art, and yet it
forms a very distinct class,
having but slight connec-
tion with what we know of
various branches of Phoe-
nician art. Cypriote
sculpture has far closer
analogy than Phoenician
with the development of
the art in Egypt and As-
syria on the one hand and
in Greece on the other.
In contrast to the products of Phoenician industry, its works
were executed for the island itself, and not for export and sale.
It therefore developed the monumental side of sculpture
instead of the industrial, and the greater part of its produo
5
FIG. 24. CYPRIOTE STATUE IN T1IK KGVIT.'AN
STYLE. METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK.
66 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
tions were executed in the round. The Cypriote artist used
stone in preference to any other material, and in this also he
varied from his Phoenician brother. The art showed great
activity between the seventh and the third centuries B.C., and
proofs of the immense production of its artists can be seen
in many museums, especially at New York, in the British
Museum, the Louvre, and at Berlin.
The population of Cyprus was of a mixed character, in
part Asiatic and in part Greek. Constant communication was
maintained with both the East and the West by means of the
Phoenicians, who had important stations on the island. The
Cypriote civilization was therefore called upon to combine, in
a way perhaps unique in history, the elements of Oriental and
Greek culture. The earliest sculptures thus far discovered are
influenced very strongly by Assyrian models, and yet it is evi-
dent that this influence is not directly through the study of
original- Assyrian work, but indirectly through the medium of
Phoenician copies. The fundamental Oriental influence upon
Cyprus was always that of Egypt. Assyria merely touched
the surface. The analogies to Assyria in the early works lie
mainly in the profile and form of the face, in the long beard
and pointed cap. Even in these works we find no trace of the
vigorous modelling of the Assyrians, their strong muscular
development, their love of detail. At the close of the seventh
century or the beginning of the sixth, the Egyptian influence
superseded the Assyrian and lasted until it was replaced by the
influence of the Greeks. This Egyptian influence showed itself
in the attitude of the figure, in the clinging character of the
drapery, in the head-dress, in the drapery about the waist,
and the designs upon it borrowed from Egyptian monuments.
There follows, in the fifth century, a Grseco-Cypriote style.
For a long time it was thought that Cypriote sculpture served
as a model and an example to archaic Greek sculpture ; but,
now that the origin of archaic Greek art has been pushed back
into the seventh century, before Cyprus had produced any
PHOENICIAN AND CYPRIOTE SCULPTURE. 6/
works that could have served as models for Greek sculpture as
we know it, it is evident that the influence was of Greece upon
Cyprus. The resemblance between Greek and Cypriote sculp-
ture during the course of the fifth century was far closer than
between the earlier Cypriote examples and the Oriental works
that influenced them. Cypriote statues of this period had
great analogy to works of the Ionic school, with greater soft-
ness and heaviness of proportion. The figures often have the
same archaic smile that we see in the figures on the Acropolis
at Athens and the sculptures of yEgina.
The statues were usually of life size or slightly larger, and
generally represented the divinities worshipped on the Island
of Cyprus, such as Aphrodite, Herakles, etc. Relief sculp-
ture was practised with considerable skill, both in high and
low relief; but sculpture in the round was a more favorite
branch of art. Some of the stone sarcophagi in the Metropoli-
tan Museum are among the finest works of the school. One
of these a sarcophagus from Amathous shows an interesting
combination of Greek with Egyptian and Assyrian art, while
a bas-relief representing Herakles and Eurytion, although it
treats of a Greek subject, does so in a style almost purely
Assyrian.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The largest collection of Cypriote sculpture
the Cesnola collection is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. The
Louvre possesses many works of the Carthaginian (African) and Tyrian
(Asiatic) schools, as well as some Cypriote sculpture, of which there are
also examples in Berlin. Works of Phoenician industrial art are frequent
in the museums of Italy, the British Museum, etc. The collections estab-
lished by the French in Algeria and Tunisia are rapidly assuming impor-
tance.
CHAPTER VIII.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Consult the General Bibliography ;
also, Bliimner, Technologic und Terminologie der Gewerbe und
Kilnste bei Griechen und Romern. Brunn, Geschichte der grie-
chischen Kunstler ; Denkmaler griechischer und romischer Sculp-
tur. Collignon, Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque ; A Manual of
Greek Archeology ; Manual of Mythology in Relation to Greek
Art. Dumont et Chaplain, Les CJramiques de la Grtce propre.
E. A. Gardner, A Handbook of Greek Sculpture. P. Gardner,
Types of Greek Coins. Heuzey, Les Figurines antiques de Terre
cuite du Louvre. Jones, Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture.
Kekule", Dieantiken Terracotten. Loewy, Inschrif ten griechischer
Bildhauer. A. S. Murray, A History of Greek Sculpture ; Hand-
book of Greek Archceology. Overbeck, Geschichte der griechischen
Plastik ; Die antiken Schriftquellen. Perry, Greek and Roman
Sculpture. Reinach, Repertoire de la Statuaire Grecque et
Romaine.
CATALOGUES OF MUSEUMS. Athens (Kawadias). Boston
(Robinson). Berlin Museum (Conze) i; cast catalogue (Fried-
rich-Wolters). British Museum (Smith). Hermitage (Guede-
now). Louvre (Froehner). Munich Glyptothek (Brunn). Roman
Museums (Helbig).
JOURNALS. Antike Denkmaler des k. d. archceologischen In-
stituts. Bulletin de Correspondance Helttnique. Jahrbuch des k.
d. arch. Inst. Journal of Hellenic Studies. Mittheilungen des k. d.
arch. Inst. Athenische Abtheilung. Mittheilungen des k. d. arch.
Inst. Romische Abtheilung. Revue Archtologique.
DICTIONARIES. Baumeister, Denkmaler des klassischen Alter-
tums. Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiques Grecques
et Romaines. I wan Mil Her, Handbuch der klassischen Alter turns -
Wissenschaft. Roscher, Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen
und romischen Mythologie. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Antiquities ; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. Ancient Hellas signified any country
where the Greeks lived. It comprised not merely the country
GREEK SCULPTURE.
69
now called Greece, but also an insular Greece, consisting of
the islands of the ^Egean and Ionian Seas; an eastern, or
Asiatic Greece, with important cities on the coast of Asia
Minor, and extending under Alexander as far east as modern
India ; an African Greece, with cities in Egypt and on the north
coast of Africa ;
and an occidental
Greece, with col-
onies in South-
ern Italy, Sicily,
France, and
Spain. This dis-
continuity of
country tended to
produce a diver-
sity of interests
and character, but
the sea was to the
Greeks a bond of
union. It was
their Nile, their
Tigris and Eu-
phrates.
Greece proper
is characterized
by its diversity of
landscape and cli-
mate. It has
many mountains,
rivers, and plains.
Its inhabitants
lived, therefore,
under changeable conditions, and had to adapt themselves to
summer heat and winter cold. The clear atmosphere permitted
the sharply cut features of the landscape to be seen from long
FIG. 25. LION GATE AT MYKENAI.
70 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
distances. Thus the very configuration of the country was a
constant object-lesson in clean-cut forms, and it would be
strange indeed if, sooner or later, it had not influenced in part
the sculptural sense and the plastic mind of its inhabitants.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS. The history of the Greek world exhib-
its a lack of continuity similar to that of the land itself.
Though springing apparently from the same parent stock,
tribal distinctions divided the race. This appears to have
been the case in the prehistoric period as well as in later
times. That this original stock was Aryan cannot be posi-
tively determined by the monuments. A Shemitic and Egyp-
tian impress is apparent upon the earliest Greek art, but from
what source springs its independent creative energy is still
unrevealed by monumental evidence. Language, mythology,
and comparative politics, however, assign to the Greeks an
Aryan ancestry.
Geographical conditions led naturally to decentralized forms
of government. We find, accordingly, a number of small
cities or commonwealths instead of a large, central capital ;
local rulers instead of a universal monarch ; government by
aristocratic councils and popular assemblies rather than by a
king. The Greek idea fostered local independence and indi-
vidual freedom. As a consequence of such a system of gov-
ernment, the artistic energies of the people were stimulated
by a healthy rivalry. The temples and other monuments were
widely diffused, and local schools of art became established
at an early period.
Religion was a factor of prime importance in determining
the character of Greek sculpture. Originally a worship of the
powers of nature, it became under Greek mytho- poetic fancy
a complicated system of polytheism. It contained a supreme
divinity, but his functions were limited by the existence of
other aristocratic divinities and a larger assembly of inferior
gods. Below these were the heroes, of semi-human and semi-
divine origin. Greek poetry had long stimulated and fostered
GREEK SCULPTURE.
these supernatural beliefs. So the sculptor was provided with
ideal themes and legends, the common possession and inspi-
ration of his race.
Though separated from each other
in a measure by geographical barriers,
the Greeks were united not merely by
the hereditary bonds of a common
ancestry, but by a common warfare
against their enemies and by common
interests in times of peace. The
memorable victories over the Persians
effectually preserved Greece from be-
coming an Oriental province. In the
wake of these wars followed a period
of unparalleled artistic activity.
The festivals and games, espe-
cially the Olympic games, constituted
another strong bond of union. Nor
was Greek commerce the least im-
portant factor in determining the di-
rection of artistic forms. The early
intercourse of the Greeks with Egypt
brought them many impressions
which became indelibly stamped
upon their architecture, sculpture,
and painting. Their long and often
intimate association with the Phoe-
nicians brought Babylon and Assyria
to their doors, while their cities in
Asia Minor received secondary in-
fluences of a similar character.
SUBJECTS. The themes Of Greek FIG - ^.-APOLLO OF TENEA.
MUNICH.
sculpture were not limited to any
one phase of local life. They were religious, civic, domestic,
sepulchral, according to the demand.
72 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
By far the largest and most important class of Greek sculp-
ture was of a religious character, and more or less closely con-
nected with the temple. Within the temple was the image of
the divinity. In the earliest times these images were mere
symbols, shapeless stones supposed to have fallen from heaven,
or masses of wood or stone hewn in some geometric shape, such
as a pillar, column, or pyramid. Even before they assumed hu-
man form, these idols were robed, crowned with garlands, and
treated as personal beings. Gradually the symbolic stage dis-
appeared, and the gods were fashioned in the likeness of man.
Sometimes they were of colossal stature or constructed of costly
materials. Other statues, also of a votive character, were placed
within and without the temple. These were statues of priests
and priestesses or unofficial individuals. Besides statues, there
were offered to the gods tripods, vases, images of sacred ani-
mals, armor, jewelry, and other objects of a sculptural character.
The sculptor had also much to do with the external decora-
tion of the temples. Into his hands fell not merely the deli-
cate carving of the capitals of the columns, but the figures for
the pediments, highly relieved metopes, and the continuous
friezes in low-relief. The subjects of the pedimental sculp-
tures were usually, but not always, associated with the divinity
to whom the temple was dedicated. In the case of the Par-
thenon the pedimental subjects were intimately connected with
Athene, but in the Temple of Athene at ^Egina and of Zeus
at Olympia the divinities stand unconcernedly, as if they were
invisible spectators of the memorable contests of war and
athletic prowess. In some cases the divinity of the temple
was not even represented in the sculptures of the pediments.
The subjects of the metopes and friezes were usually unrelated
to the divinity of the temple. The discontinuous nature of the
metopes made the labors of Herakles, contests of the gods
and giants, or of Greeks and Amazons, favorite subjects, while
processions, assemblies, or battle-scenes were better adapted
for the continuous friezes.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
73
In connection with the temples we find represented the
whole range of Greek mythology. Here were the twelve
Olympian divinities, Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo,
Artemis, Hephaistos, Athene, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes7~and
Hestia ; and the minor divinities, Dionysos, and his cycle of
satyrs, seilenoi, nymphs, maenads, and centaurs; Eros, Psyche,
and Ariadne ; the Muses, Graces, Seasons, and Fates ; Pluto and
Persephone and Thanatos ; Helios and Nyx ; the Winds, Tritons,
Nereids, River-gods,
personifications of
mountains and cities;
and the heroes, Her-
akles, Theseus, Achil-
leus, Perseus, and the
Dioskouroi.
Besides religious
sculpture, there is a
class of Greek monu-
ments of purely civic
character. These are
usually stelae recording
treaties of alliance,
honorary degrees, finan-
cial records, and the
like. Upon these
monuments the state,
the senate, or the peo-
ple are represented in
FIG. 27. BRONZE HEAD OF AN ATHLETE. NAPLES.
mytho-poetic fashion;
thus Athens appears as
Athene, the senate as a woman, the people as a man. Of civic
character also are the official busts, placed on pillars or columns.
Another group of subjects was furnished by the great
national games. This class of sculpture consisted of athletes
of various kinds, chariot-racers, discus-throwers, runners,
74 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
wrestlers, athletes scraping themselves or binding the taenia
around their brows, victors in musical contests, or in dramatic
or comic poetry. Such occasions furnished one of the early
incentives to portraiture, a form of art practised occasionally
in Greece from the archaic period onward, but more commonly
after the time of Alexander.
Historical sculpture as it had existed in Egypt and Assyria
was almost unknown in Greece. Events of importance were
commemorated by sculptural monuments, but in mytho-
poetic, not prosaic fashion. The ^Eginetans commemorated
the victory at Salamis by erecting a temple to Athene, and
decorated its pediments by representations of the mythic com-
bats of Greeks and Trojans. The Messenians recorded their
victory over the Akarnanians by erecting a lofty pier on which
stood a beautiful figure of Nike. Even in the declining years
of Greek history, we find at Pergamon the chief memorial of
the conquest over the Galatians to have been a huge altar with
an enormous frieze representing the Gigantomachia. At the
same town, however, a more realistic record was made of the
same victories by statues of dying Galatians and fallen Per-
sians.
When we turn from the public to the private life of the
Greeks, we find the sculptor and his associates, the workers in
bronze and precious metals, the wood-carvers, gem-cutters,
and potters all contributing their share toward throwing into
beautiful and permanent form the objects which adorned the
home. Such were the tables, chairs, chests, vases, cups, lamps,
mirrors, and mirror cases, which artistic workmen ornamented
with mythological representations ; also the objects of personal
adornment the coronals, necklaces, bracelets, and gems. A
large class of objects of domestic character is to be found in
the terracotta figurines. At an early date these may have
been chiefly votive offerings, or, like the Egyptian oushabti,
made expressly for the tomb ; but from the fourth century B.C.
they seem certainly to have had a wider function, and to have
GREEK SCULPTURE.
75
been made to give pleasure to the living. These figurines,
whether in single figures or groups, are like character studies,
furnishing valuable evidence of the life and costumes of the
period. Subjects of mythological interest and figures of
divinities are common, and occasionally copies or variants of
famous statues are preserved in the terracottas. Grotesque
FIG. 28. HEAD OF DIONYSOS. NAPLES.
subjects also occur; but a larger number are of figures of
women, sometimes of extraordinary grace and beauty.
The skill of the sculptor was employed also to beautify the
memorials to the dead. In various quarters of the Greek
world tombs in the form of temples or chapels, or rock-cut
dwellings with sculptured fa9ades, existed from the earliest
times, but in Attica and in the Peloponnesos and in Northern
76 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Greece it was customary to mark the last resting-place of the
departed with a stele or sculptured slab. These stelae were
variously decorated ; some by an anthemion, others represented
a doorway or aedicula, in which appears the figure of the
departed. Sometimes the deceased was represented in his
character as a warrior, a shepherd, a knight ; again, his rela-
tives gather about him in a farewell scene or are gathered at a
funeral banquet. The burial scene itself, or the funeral pro-
cession, was less frequently represented.
TECHNICAL METHODS. The Greeks derived from the older
civilizations considerable knowledge of the technique of sculp-
ture, but physical, intellectual, and spiritual conditions gave
their art a new direction. For stone sculpture they were
practically limited to the calcareous rock and to marble. The
rougher material (poros or tufa), though frequently used, was
not conducive to the development of a fine art ; but, fortu-
nately for sculpture, Greece was well provided with marble.
Athens had the quarries of Pentelikos and Hymettos at her
very doors ; there were quarries also in Lakonia and Boiotia ;
western Asia Minor was rich in various kinds of marble, and
the Italo-Greeks could draw upon what are now the quarries of
Carrara. But the most brilliant and uniformly grained marble
came from the Greek islands. Of these the marble of Paros
was most esteemed, while that of Naxos, Thasos, and Andros
was not much inferior.
All Greek sculpture until the time of Lysippos, or possibly a
century later, was freehand carving. The instruments used
were, a saw to prepare the rough block, sharp-pointed punches
to give the first vague form, square and curved-edged and claw
chisels to define the surfaces, and a drill for the deep cutting
of the drapery. A rod was sometimes fastened upon the front,
so that the sculptor might more easily preserve the balance of
the two sides of his statue. The most famous sculptors did
not hesitate to build up their statues from several pieces of
marble or to leave portions of the original mass as supports.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
77
The final surface was rendered more life-like by being rubbed
down with oil and molten wax, but the statue was not complete
until it was colored and gilded. The rough poros statues were
first covered with a thin layer
of stucco, with which the color
was mixed, or on which it was
laid. For marble statuary this
stucco covering was unneces-
sary. In crude examples bril-
liant color was applied gener-
ally and in broad masses, but
in the finer works color was
more specifically applied for
the emphasis of details. Prax-
iteles considered as his best
works those for which he had
the cooperation of the distin-
guished painter Nikias. Gild-
ing for marble statuary was ap-
plied to details, as upon the
wings of the Eros of Praxiteles
or the hair of the Venus de'
Medici. Other means were
also employed to give color
to sculpture, as, for example,
the use of bronze for the weap-
ons, etc. The freehand carv-
ing of reliefs made that pro-
cess the reverse of the modern
method. The modern concep-
tion of relief, based upon the
building up of a clay model upon a flat surface, is that of
projection from a background. The background is thought
of as fixed, and the figured relief varies in projection. The
ancient relief was, on the contrary, a carved drawing or
FIG. 29. DORIPHOROS AFTER POLYKLEI-
TOS. NAPLES.
78 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
picture, the external surface of which is the fixed plane,
from which in varying degrees the background is cut away.
Reliefs, as well as statues, were not finished until polished and
colored.
In metal sculpture the Greeks were well versed from early
times. Gold and silver and bronze were used for many pur-
poses, where cheaper materials are now employed. Iron and
steel played a smaller part. The metals were given form by
various processes. A common class of objects were the thin
plates of gold, silver, or bronze applied as superficial decora-
tion upon walls, furniture, robes, etc. These were pressed
or hammered into ornamental shape either freehand by the
repousst method, or more mechanically by the aid of pre-
pared blocks of wood or stone. In early times even metal
statues were constructed of thin wrought plates. Again, form
was given to metal in the hard state by chiselling and engrav-
ing. To this class belonged small wrought objects, also
engraved mirrors and cistae, seals, dies for coins, and inlaid
metal -work. The implements used for such purposes were
chisels, gouges, burins, files, drills, and polishers. The
Greeks were acquainted with various methods of casting
metals. They used stone and metal moulds for casting in
solid form ; and lime, sand, wax, and clay for various meth-
ods of hollow casting. As in marble sculpture, they built
up bronze statues from a number of parts and welded them
together. They understood the gilding of bronze, and the
production of bronzes of various shades of color. Thus ath-
letes were of a brownish bronze, and sea figures sometimes of a
more silvery hue. Additional polychromatic effect was pro-
duced by the inlaying of metals and the use of artificial eyes.
But Plutarch's statement that Silanion's bronze statue of the
dying lokaste had pale cheeks, produced by the admixture of
silver, and Pliny's that the statue of the raging Athamas by
Aristonidas had red cheeks, produced by the admixture of iron
with the bronze, were probably not based upon personal obser-
GREEK SCULPTURE. 79
ration. It is now definitely known that the Greeks sometimes
coated their bronzes with an artificial patina.
Wood-carving, an art which the Greeks attributed to their
mythical Daidalos, was long held in high esteem. Even in
the most flourishing period, the crude ancient wooden images of
the gods were honored with special reverence. The methods
of carving in wood were also, in a measure, transferred to the
earliest attempts in stone. There were many woods in Greece
which lent themselves to statuary, such as the cedar, cypress,
beech, oak, laurel, myrtle, pear, and olive. These woods
were carved in the green condition, were painted, and some-
times covered with thin plates of metal. The latter practice
probably led to the production of chryselephantine sculpture,
of which the most famous examples were the Zeus Olympics
and the Athene Parthenos of Pheidias, and the Hera of Poly-
kleitos. These statues were hollow, with an inner framework
of iron upon which was an outer shell of wood. On this shell
were laid thin plates of ivory and of gold, to represent, respec-
tively, the nude and draped portions of the statue. By some
process, unknown to us, the ivory was probably softened and
the separate sections juxtaposed with a skilful concealing of
the joints. The ivory was then carefully polished and probably
colored.
As a material for sculpture, terracotta was used as early as
wood. Images of the gods and architectural decoration in
terracotta were in common use before stone and marble and
metal were employed for these purposes. The larger images
were sometimes built up in separate parts, but more commonly
the clay was modelled around an inner core of wood which
acted as a support. The smaller images, or figurines, were
sometimes solid and modelled freehand, but usually were
cast in moulds. They were, in the latter case, hollow, and
ordinarily had a quadrangular opening in the back, which per-
mitted a more uniform contraction when baking. The figu-
rines of finer quality were carefully retouched before they were
8o HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
baked. Special parts, such as the bases, hats, fans, were
modelled separately and subsequently affixed. After the
baking, color was applied. Sometimes only details were
marked by color, but more frequently the original material was
entirely concealed. A groundwork of white was first laid over
the figure, and upon this the colors and gilding were applied.
Thus, in all forms of sculpture stone, metal, wood, and terra-
cotta the finished work was polychromatic.
CHAPTER IX.
GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The works on Greek sculpture
before mentioned ; also, consult : Articles, Arbores Sacrce^
Bcetylia, and Argot Lithoi in Daremberg and Saglio's Diction-
naire. Athenian female figures, Jahrbuch, II., p. 216; Musses
(FAthtnes; Gazette Arche'oL, 1888, p. 84. Athenian poros sculp-
tures, Mitth. Athen., XL, p. 61 ; XIV., p. 67; XV., p. 84.
Beule" , Histoire de la Sculpture avant Phidias. Brunn, Griechische
Ktinstgeschichte /., Die Anfdnge und die alteste decorative Kunst.
Conze, Zur Geschichte der Anfdnge griechischen Kunst. Delos
sculptures, Bull, de Corr. Hell., III., p. 393; IV., p. 29.
Delphi sculptures, Gaz. des Beaux Arts, XII. , p. 441 ; XIII. ,
p. 207 and p. 321. Furtwangler, Die Bronzefunde aus Olympia
and Die Bronzen, forming Vol. IV. of the official publication
on Olympia. Helbig, Das homerische Epos aus den Denk-
mdlern erldutert. Homolle, De Antiquissimis Diana Simula-
cris Deliacis. Lange, Die Composition der Aegineten. Milch-
hoefer, Die Anfdnge der Kunst in Griechenland. Perrot and
Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive Greece. Schliemann, Ilios,
Troja, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Tiryns. Schuchhardt, Schlie-
mann's Excavations.
PREHISTORIC SCULPTURE IN GREECE. The objects found in
the earliest cities at Hissarlik, in the northern end of the
acropolis at Tiryns, in the pre-Phcenician tombs of Cyprus, in
several of the Greek islands, and in the twelfth-dynasty city of
Kahun in Egypt point to a prehistoric civilization in Greek
lands antedating in its origin that at Mykenai by perhaps a
thousand years. The fact that five successive cities lie buried
at Hissarlik below the level of the city of the Mykenaean type,
is indicative of the probable long duration of this primitive
6
82 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
civilization. We find that stone implements then predomi-
nated, though the use of all the metals, even iron, was not
absolutely unknown. Pottery was usually handmade, unpainted,
and adorned by scratched designs of the simplest character,
such as points, zigzags, and straight lines. Even at this
early period, however, there was produced occasionally the
rosette and a rude scroll-work suggestive of an imperfect
acquaintance with Egyptian art. Among the statuettes,
crude as was the modelling, the most common form was that
of a nude female, in type not unlike the Babylonian goddess.
MYKENJEAN SCULPTURE. The crude prehistoric art was fol-
lowed by an art represented in the rich finds made at Myke-
nai. Mykenaean art extended over a period of several centu-
ries (roughly, from 1500-1000 B.C.), and was widely distributed
over the ancient world. Its centre was in Argolis, at Myke-
nai and at Tiryns. But remains of a similar type have been
found in Lakonia, at Amyklai and at Vapheio ; in Attika, at
Athens, Spata, and Menidi ; in Boiotia, at Orchomenos ; in
the Troad, at Hissarlik ; in Karia and Phrygia ; in Egypt ; in
Crete and others of the Greek islands ; and in Italy, espe-
cially in Sicily. It was a powerful type of art, which in-
trenched itself behind strong walls, in well-built palaces and
finely decorated tombs. Mykenaean sculpture was not wholly
unrelated to that of the preceding type, but was much further
developed, and entered into rivalry with the art of Egypt and
Assyria. If the prehistoric period be broadly characterized
as the stone age of Greek art, the Mykenaean may be called
its age of bronze. Metals were now extensively used, and
handled with great skill. Gold and silver were fashioned into
diadems, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, ornamental plaques,
and masks to cover the faces of the dead. Bronze was exten-
sively used for architectural decoration, as well as for imple-
ments of warfare or of peace. The high degree of advance-
ment in metal-work of this period may be illustrated by the
two gold cups from Vapheio, and by the inlaid bronze pon-
GREEK SCULPTURE. 83
iards from Mykenai. On one of the Vapheio cups are repre-
sented wild bulls untamed, in the other the same animals
subjugated by man. Taken together, the subjects of these cups
reveal a principle of contrast destined to play a long role in
FIG. 30. METOPE OF THE PARTHENON. BRITISH MUSEUM.
Greek art. The careful modelling of the forms of the bulls
exhibits a naturalistic spirit and a power of observation supe-
rior to that displayed by the Assyrian sculptors. The bronze
poniards were evidently inspired by Egyptian example, with
84 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
figured designs beautifully inlaid but the forms and adapta-
tion of the subjects to the space are Mykenaean and not Ori-
ental.
Decorative sculpture in stone, as it appeared on the col-
umns of the tomb of Atreus or the alabaster frieze from
Tiryns or the ceiling of the tomb at Orchomenos, was a trans-
lation into stone of ornamental forms more commonly beaten
from metal; but the lions in high-relief over the gates of
Mykenai exhibit a remarkable freedom of treatment which
presupposes some experience in sculpture in the round.
Mykenaean gems, to which class belong the so-called " island
stones," reveal an attempt to adapt the composition to the
space and a full possession of the technical ability of model-
ling upon a minute scale. These gems betray the prevalence
of an animal worship in which the worshippers are clad in
artificial skins of animals, such as the lion, bull, horse, ass,
stag, goat, or hog. Recently Mykenaean inscriptions have
been discovered in Crete, showing the use of a pre-Phoenician
hieroglyphic and syllabic type of written language.
To whatever department of art we turn, we find that the
Greeks of this period absorbed many of the ideas, forms, and
methods of Egyptian and Babylonian art, not in servile imi-
tation, but reconstructing and adapting them to new purposes.
THE DAKK AGES OF GBEEK SCULPTUBE. The disappearance of
Mykenaean art appears to have been due to the inroads of Hel-
lenic tribes from Thessaly, especially the Dorians and lonians.
The process by which new forms were finally established was a
gradual one. In some quarters Mykenaean types continued to
be reproduced as late as the sixth century B.C. : in other quar-
ters there appear to have been transitional stages, more or less
clearly marked, in which changes occurred and yet the conti-
nuity of artistic forms was in large measure preserved. These
stages are best followed in the pottery, which enables us to
distinguish a geometric style, in which many Mykenaean motives
were reproduced in rectilinear or more rigid form. Then fol-
GREEK SCULPTURE. 85
lowed the so-called Oriental style. Mykenaean motives were
assigned an inferior position, and greater prominence was
given to rows of animals disposed in parallel or concentric
bands. Oriental motives, such as inlanders, rosettes, lotus
flowers, and various forms of volutes, rilled the interspaces.
The designs upon metal-work were of a similar character.
It was, however, during this period thr.t Greek mythology
FIG. 31. THESEUS, OR OLYMPOS, FROM EASTERN PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON.
BRITISH MUSEUM.
was being formulated and Greek poetry was popularizing many
legends suitable for representation in sculpture and the arts of
design. If we compare the shield of Achilles, as described by
Homer (ninth century), with the shield of Herakles, described
by Hesiod (seventh century), we see that the former contained
generic subjects the earth, the seasons, a city in time of
peace in contrast with a city in lime of war, choral dances,
and the ocean : whereas the design of the later shield was not
86
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
only more complex, having a large number of subjects, but
more specifically Hellenic, being adorned with scenes taken
from the new mythology. The early bronze shields found in
Crete, and the incised patera from Cyprus and Southern Italy,
illustrate well the
decorative sculpture of
this period. Its cul-
mination was exempli-
fied by the famous
chest of Kypselos,
seen by Pausanias in
the Heraion at Olym-
pia, and now assigned
to the early years of the
sixth century. Mere
space-filling ornamen-
tation had disappeared,
and figured design of a
mythological character
was firmly established.
The old scheme of
parallel bands was pre-
served, and the design
appears to have been
arranged partly upon
the Doric metopal and
partly upon the Ionic
frieze principles.
Sculpture in the round made slower progress. This was
due to various causes. An imageless worship at first prevailed,
and it was by very slow stages that, from rude or geometrically
shaped blocks of wood or stone, images of the gods in human
shape at length arose. The wooden xoana, with bodies like
tree-trunks or square piers, retarded rather than advanced the
progress of sculpture. Nor did the Greeks entertain the
FIG. 32. NIKE FROM WESTERN PEDIMENT OF THE
PARTHENON. BRITISH MUSEUM.
GREEK SCULPTURE. 8/
Egyptian conception of immortality which would lead them
to make statues for the dead. Technical difficulties also
stood in their way. The art of stone-carving came slowly,
and only after considerable progress had been made in
softer materials, such as wood and clay. The first stimulus
to stone and marble sculpture would seem to have been given
by the practice of making votive offerings. Thus, in the
seventh century, Nicandra of Naxos dedicated an image, prob-
ably of herself, to the goddess Artemis of Delos; and, in
the same century, Iphikartides, also a Naxian, made and dedi-
cated an image of himself to Apollo. These two types the
draped female and the nude male constituted a generic
form for statues of gods, heroes, and commonplace individ-
uals. In these statues there was no apparent relationship to
the sculpture of the Mykenaean period, but they none the less
revealed similar influences from Oriental and especially from
Egyptian sources. Both types show a rapid development in
the following, or archaic stage of Greek sculpture.
AECHAIC IONIC AND DORIC SCULPTURE. By the sixth century
the progress and individuality of Hellenism made themselves
felt. Temples of stone or marble were erected on the coast
lines of Asia Minor, in Greece proper, in Magna Grsecia, and
Sicily. Under Oriental, especially Egyptian, tutelage, types
of architecture were formed, easily distinguished as Doric and
Ionic. The /Eolians seem to have been possessed of less artis-
tic individuality, and produced no distinctive types either in
architecture or sculpture. Sculpture in this century began to
lose its Oriental cast and became a national art. Artists were
now held in high esteem, and literary traditions concerning
their works, as well as a considerable quantity of the monu-
ments themselves, are preserved to us. The art of working in
stone and marble was rapidly mastered, and bronze-casting
reached a high stage of development.
The migratory nature of the early Hellenic sculptors makes
it difficult in all cases to distinguish Ionic from Doric work-
88 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
manship. Nevertheless, the two classes may be broadly char-
acterized. The lonians were the earliest in the field. They
learned from Egypt the lesson of bronze-casting, and carried
it even to Dorian settlements. They also were the first to
' "':'
FIG. 33. RESTORATION OF THE NIKE OF PAIONIOS.
ascertain the value of marble and to practise the art of mar-
ble sculpture. Their work shows a preference for round forms
and slender proportions ; for light draperies falling in deli-
cate folds, so as to reveal the figure ; for frieze-like composi-
GREEK SCULPTURE. 89
tions involving organic groups. The draped female type was
rapidly developed by the lonians.
Doric forms were sturdier, of less slender proportions, of
more pronounced muscularity, and with heavy draperies fall-
ing in massive folds. The Doric compositions were metopal
in character, with figures juxtaposed rather than organically
grouped. The nude male type was developed chiefly in the
Doric schools. Athenian sculpture, the product of artists of
all schools, represented a fusion of Ionic and Doric influences.
ARCHAIC IONIC SCULPTURE. Ionic sculpture of this period
is well represented by the draped female figures from Delos
and the similar series from the Acropolis at Athens. In these
figures the arms were no longer drawn close to the body, but
were extended, sometimes gently raising the drapery. Uni-
formity of type was disregarded, and considerable variety
prevailed in pose, in the arrangement of the drapery, the
hair, and other details. The nude male type began also to
show more freedom. The Egyptian pose of the figure, stand-
ing with left foot slightly in advance of the right, remained
the same ; but the proportions became more normal and the
arms freer. The colossal statue of the Didymaian Apollo in
the old temple of the Branchidai, near Miletos, was of this
character. The type is well preserved in the bronze statue
found at Piombino, Italy, and now in the Louvre Museum.
The early method of forming statues from plates of bronze
riveted together was now replaced by the art of moulding,
which Theodores is said to have introduced and with which he
doubtless became acquainted during his visit to Egypt. Seated
figures, such as the statues which lined the approach to the tem-
ple of Apollo, near Miletos, were a common type in Ionian
sculpture of the sixth century. A series of these, chronolog-
ically arranged, would exhibit the rapid progress made in
naturalistic treatment of drapery, and in the observation of
the human form. Ionian sculptures in relief, as illustrated in
the Harpy tomb from Xanthos, in sarcophagi from Cyprus,
90 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and funerary stelae from many quarters, show continuous com-
positions with organic groups and rounded forms covered by
transparent drapery. The principal Ionian sculptors of this
period were Archermos of Chios, who is credited with having
first given wings to marble statues (circa 580 B.C.) ; Boupalos
and Athenis, who developed the draped female type (circa 540
B.C.) ; Rhoikos and Theodores, who introduced improved
methods of metal casting (circa 575 B.C.).
FIG. 34. POSEIDON, APOLLO, AND DEMETER, FROM EASTERN FRIEZE OF THE PARTHE-
NON. ATHENS.
ARCHAIC DORIC SCULPTURE. The principal Doric centres of
sculptural activity were Argos, Sikyon, ^Egina, and the provin-
cial schools of Boiotia, Lakonia, Magna Graecia, and Sicily.
The great games, especially those held at Olympia, proved a
powerful stimulus to the development of an athletic type of
sculpture. The nude figure, in its anatomical structure and pro-
portions, was carefully studied, and a greater variety of poses
introduced. The principal centres gave thus a new direction
GREEK SCULPTURE. 9!
to sculpture, especially to workmanship in bronze. Sculpture
in the round occupied the principal, and relief the inferior,
share of Doric activity. Figures of the gods retained in many
cases the old xoanon type at the same time that a revolution
in sculptural form was in progress. But even the gods soon
submitted to the general transformation, and became more
and more like the figures of men. The school of Argos held
the leading position in the archaic period, and may now be
studied in the sculptures recently found at Delphi. The stat-
ues of Kleobis and Biton are heavy in proportion, dating from
the earliest years of the sixth century. The metopes of the
Treasury of Sikyon, finished about 570 B.C., are more compli-
cated than might have been anticipated, and are suggestive of
Ionian influence. Ionian methods of composition are still
more evident in the frieze of the Treasury of Siphnos (525-510
B.C.). Here the assembly of the gods may be regarded as a
prototype of the eastern frieze of the Parthenon, while the
Gigantomachia and the combat of Hektor and Menelaos present
more than one motive, which yEginetan and Athenian sculp-
tors carried to a higher stage of development.
In Boiotia the series of statues found at the shrine of the
Apollo Ptoos, near Akraiphiai, exhibit a very gradual progress
in the direction of more perfect form, but this development
was arrested by the more rapid advance of other schools. A
similar slow progress is observable in the funerary stelae of
Lakonia ; so slow, that when the inhabitants of Amyklai wished
for a throne for their colossal xoanon of Apollo, they sent for
an Ionian sculptor from Magnesia. In like manner, Sicily and
Magna Graecia could not wait for the growth of local talent.
The metopal sculptures of the oldest temple at Selinous in
Sicily exhibit provincial Doric execution of motives which
may well have been drawn from an Ionian source.
The acme of archaic Doric sculpture is best illustrated by
the pedimental groups from the temple of Aphaia at yEgina,
which date from the early years of the fifth century. Here
92 HISTORY OF -SCULPTURE.
we see in marble the results reached by a severe training in
bronze. This is apparent from the freedom in the attitudes
of the figures, which could hardly have been reached if the
artists had been trained in so friable a material as marble. It
is evident, also, from the general treatment of the surfaces. The
composition as a whole is an application of sculpture in the
round to architectural purposes. Each figure is a unit by itself,
and these units are juxtaposed rather than organically con-
nected. The Greeks upon one side of the pediment corre-
spond, man for man and pose for pose, with the Trojans on the
other side. These marble groups were harmonized with the
poros stone of the temple by means of color. Some of the
accessories were of bronze, others were enlivened by brilliant
color, and the whole thrown in strong relief by a blue back-
ground.
Prominent among the Doric sculptors of this period were
Glaukias and Onatas of ^Egina (fl. 490-460 B.C.), Kanachos of
Sikyon, Dontas of Sparta, Klearchos of Rhegion, and Ageladas
of Argos (circa 520-465 B.C.).
ARCHAIC ATTIC SCULPTURE, Athens drew to herself artists
from Ionic and Doric schools, and thus secured both grace and
strength. The series of poros stone pedimental sculptures
recently found in the Acropolis are remarkable for being in
low-relief and containing organic compositions. Relief sculp-
ture became now the typical decoration for Attic pediments,
and grouping rather than mere juxtaposition of figures the law
of composition.
Important also are the series from the Acropolis of draped
female figures, developed from Delian prototypes. Ionic
influence prevailed again in funerary stelse such as that of the
Discus-thrower, and in reliefs like that of the Apobates mount-
ing to his chariot. It is in the standing male figures that
Doric influence is most evident. Antenor's (fl. 510-480 B.C.)
famous group of the Tyrannicides seems to have combined
Doric strength and proportions with the Ionic mode of com-
GREEK SCULPTURE. 93
position. The stele of Aristion (circa 520 B.C.), by Aristokles,
shows the same fusion of influences.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Archaic Greek sculpture- may be best studied
from the originals in the museums of Athens, Naples, Munich, Berlin,
Paris, and London ; and from the collection of casts in Berlin, Dresden.
Boston, and New York.
NOTE. Prehistoric sculpture in Greek lands has been enriched in recent
years chiefly through the excavations in Crete. The engraved gems and
ivory carvings form an interesting series, but the most striking objects
discovered have been the statuettes in glazed faience representing a Snake
Goddess and her Votaries found at Knossos, and a steatite vase from
Hagia Triada on which is represented a religious procession remarkable for
its independence and freedom. The Snake Goddess is published in the
Annual oj the British School at Athens, No. IX; and the steatite vase in the
Monumenti Antichi, XIII, 77-132.
Bronzes from the Dark Ages of Greek sculpture have been unearthed
in considerable quantity by the French excavators at Delphi and the
Americans at Argos. For the archaic period the most notable discovery
has been that of the Bronze Charioteer from Delphi, published in the
Monuments Piot, No. IV. The excavations of Furtwangler at ^Egina have
led to renewed interest in the pediments of the Temple of Aphaia and the
studies of Lechat on Attic sculpture before Pheidias have advanced our
knowledge of this particular field.
CHAPTER X.
GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED.
DEVELOPED IONIC AND DORIC SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the general histories of
Greek sculpture, consult: Baumeister, Denkmdler des klassischen
Altertums : Articles, Olympia, Parthenon, Pheidias, Polykleitos.
Collignon, Pheidias. Conze, Die attischen Grabreliefs. Flasch,
Der Parthenon-fries. Furtwangler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculp-
ture. Hamdy-Bey et Theo. Reinach, Une Ne'cropole Royale at
Sidon. Kekule, Die Reliefs an der Balustrade der Athena Nike.
Lessing, Laokoon. Michaelis, Der Parthenon. Petersen, Die
Kunst des Pheidias. Treu, Die Bildwerke in Stein und Thon,
forming Vol. III. of the official publication on Olympia.
Waldstein, Essays on the Art of Pheidias.
THE IONIAN SCHOOL. In the early part of the fifth century
the technique of marble sculpture had been so far mastered as
to permit much freer expression of individual character and
sentiment. The difference in temperament between the Ionian
and Doric races was now more fully marked. This difference
would have been even greater, but for the uniting influence of
the wars against the Persians and the concentration of artistic
interests in Athens. The Ionian schools suffered the severer
shock from Persian devastation, while the remoter Dorians rose
to their greatest strength. Even the Athenian sculptors sought
instruction in Doric schools.
Apart from the influence exerted by Pheidias, the two sculp-
tors who did most to preserve Ionic traditions in this fifth cen-
tury were Kalamis and Kresilas. Kalamis (fl. 460-445 B.C.),
possibly of Samian origin, was the earlier and more thoroughly
GREEK SCULPTURE.
Ionian sculptor. He worked with equal ease in bronze, mar-
ble, or gold and ivory, and was a popular sculptor of divini-
ties. The Apollo Alexikakos, which he made for Athens, and
his Hermes Kriophoros at Tanagra appear to have been dis-
tinguished for gracefulness. Lucian praises the bashful
demeanor, the unconscious and modest smile, and the well-
ordered and becoming drapery of his Sosandra. Thus, in the
hands of Kalamis, the
Ionian draped female
statue reached the stage
when expressive feeling was
as much the sculptor's aim
as bodily form.
Kresilas (circa 480-410
B.C.), though of Cretan
origin and a worker in
bronze, is to be classed
with the Ionian sculptors,
since he also valued the
expression of sentiment
above that of bodily
strength. This would seem
to be evident from his suc-
cess in representing a Wounded Man, and an Amazon made for
the temple at Ephesos. His portraits, as exemplified in the
bust of Perikles, were also of a character to please the most
refined Attic taste.
THE DORIC SCHOOL. Doric sculpture in the fifth century is
best represented by the works of Pythagoras of Rhegion (fl.
484-460 B.C.) and of Polykleitos of Argos (fl. 460-420 B.C.).
The activity of Pythagoras lay in the first half of this century
and that of Polykleitos chiefly in the second. Both were emi-
nent as sculptors of athletes. The nude male type reached, in
their hands, a high degree of development. Pythagoras was a
Samian by birth, but his work was essentially Doric. He is
FIG. 35. HEAD OF THE HERMES BY PRAX-
ITELES. OLYMPIA.
9 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
said by Pliny to have been eminent for the expression of mus-
cles and veins, and for improved methods of representing the
hair. Diogenes Laertius quotes him as especially successful in
the proportions and rhythmical character of his work. The
latter quality apparently meant the flowing lines which were
now introduced, in opposition to the stiff parallelism of archaic
statuary. Wrestlers, boxers, runners, pancratiasts, were accu-
rately distinguished; bodily pose as well as muscular develop-
ment was expressed with almost perfect freedom. There was
doubtless a touch of Ionic gracefulness in the Doric statues of
Pythagoras.
In the mean time the old school of bronze-workers at Argos
continued to be a centre of academic training. Myron from
Northern Greece and Pheidias from Athens attended the
school of Ageladas at Argos. But the old traditions were
more thoroughly represented in the work of the native sculptor,
Polykleitos. His statue, called the Doryphoros, of a victo-
rious athlete holding a spear over his shoulder, is typical of
the highest development of purely Doric sculpture in one of
the oldest schools. Strong muscular form, without exaggera-
tion, was here brought to such a stage of perfection as to fur-
nish a canon, or norm, of proportions suitable for all similar
works. Polykleitos is said by Galen to have reduced to writ-
ing a canon of the ideal relations of finger to finger, of the
fingers to the hand, of the hand to the wrist, of the wrist to
the elbow, of the elbow to the arm, and so on throughout the
whole body. There is some reason to believe that a scale of
proportions, somewhat different in character, was employed
also in early Doric and Attic sculpture, but no school is likely
to have had as rigid followers of mathematical formulas as the
school of Argos. The Diadumenos, or athlete binding the
fillet on his head, was probably made by Polykleitos at a later
period of his career, as in the copies remaining to us the atti-
tude is less rigid, the forms rounder, and the hair is treated in
a more plastic fashion. Other athletic statues by Polykleitos,
GREEK SCULPTURE.
97
if we may judge from the bases inscribed with his name at
Olympia, did not vary greatly in type. Of statues of the gods
he seems to have made few ; but one, the ivory and gold statue
of Hera for the temple at
Argos, became the standard
for subsequent representations
of that goddess. Several of
the decorative sculptures of
that temple, perhaps by the
scholars of Polykleitos, have
been recently recovered by
the American School of
Classical Studies at Athens.
TEMPLE SCULPTURES AT
OLYMPIA. The metopes and
pedi mental sculptures of the
Zeus temple at Olympia illus-
trate the fusion of the Doric
and Ionic spirit which espe-
cially characterized the Attic
school. Doric forms and
costumes occur in conjunction
with Ionic methods of com-
position. The metopes, repre-
senting the twelve labors of
Herakles, show considerable
ingenuity in the variation of
the lines of composition.
These are in most cases sim-
ple and rigid, and symmetri-
cal enough to be classed as
Doric ; but occasionally, as in the metope representing Her-
akles and the Stymphalian birds, the Ionic pictorial frieze-
method was adopted. The pediments illustrate still better
the fusion of Doric and Ionic elements. In the eastern pedi-
7
FIG. 36. FAUN AFTER PRAXITELES.
VATICAN.
98 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
ment, the chariot race between Oinomaos and Pelops is Doric
in composition. The figures are independent of each other,
and the two sides of the pediment balance as rigidly as at
ygina. But the backs of the figures are not finished, and
their slight thickness betrays the influence of Ionic methods.
The western pediment, representing the contest of Lapiths and
Centaurs at the marriage feast of Peirithoos, is Ionic in com-
position as well as treatment. It involves organic groups,
and may be described as a frieze composition applied to the
triangular gable. The sculptor or sculptors of these pedi-
ments were probably of Peloponnesian origin and trained in
the Attic school.
MYRON. The transformation of the Doric by the Athenian
spirit is well illustrated by the works of Myron (circa 492-430
B.C.), a native of Boiotia, trained at Argos, who afterward
became an Athenian. In his hands strength and energy and
bodily form ceased to be ends in themselves; and were no
longer subject to schematic regulation. Myron's aim was
essentially naturalistic. He represented the Discus-thrower
and the Runner in their most characteristic attitudes. His Cow
was considered so life-like as almost to be mistaken for reality.
His Athene and Marsyas formed a group impressive, first of all,
for its meaning. We no longer think of the nude male and
the draped female, nor of Doric and Ionic qualities. His
work was broadly Greek, transcending local schools. Myron's
style was more varied and original than that of Polykleitos,
and his spirit less academic and traditional. He opened the
way for the grand style of Pheidias. The influence of Myron
may be recognized in the sculptures of the so-called Theseion.
The pediments contained compositions arranged on different
principles : the eastern pediment followed the Peloponnesian
manner and had a middle figure ; in the western pediment this
figure was replaced by a group. Of the metopes, eighteen were
sculptured with scenes from the struggles of Herakles and of
Theseus ; the remaining fifty were probably decorated with paint-
GREEK SCULPTURE.
99
ings of similar groups. Whether an attempt was made to unify
the compositions on the long sides of the temple, it is now
impossible to determine. The
style of the sculptured metopes
reveals the varied action char-
acteristic of Myron, is more
refined than that of the metopes
of the Zeus temple at Olympia,
and is equal to that of the older
metopes of the Parthenon. The
frieze shows the same character-
istics, and foreshadows the
principles of composition which
are brought to such perfection
in the Parthenon frieze.
PHEIDIAS AND HIS SCHOOL.
After Myron, it is more difficult
to trace the distinctions between
Doric and Ionic sculptures. The
Attic style, having united the
best elements from both sources,
superseded all others. This was
due not so much to the political
eminence of Athens as to the
superiority of her artists. The
greatest of these was Pheidias
(circa 488-432 B.C.). His ca-
reer reached its highest develop-
ment under the protection of
Perikles, from the year 449 B.C.
until his death in 432 B.C. ; but
many important works were exe-
cuted during the rule of Kimon.
If we may accept the testimony of Pliny, Pheidias began
his career as a painter, but soon turned his attention to
FIG. 37. APHRODITE OF MELOS.
LOUVRE.
100 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
sculpture, at first under Hegias of Athens, then under
Ageladas of Argos. Sculptural rather than pictorial con-
siderations determined the character of his work. His early
training enabled him to attain success in chryselephantine
work and in bronze. To the former class belong an Athene
at Pellene, an Aphrodite Ourania for a small temple in Elis,
and his later and more celebrated Zeus at Olympia and Athene
Parthenos at Athens. Of his bronze works his Athene Proma-
chos and the Lemnian Athene, the former famous for its size
and the latter for its beauty, were probably both executed
under the rule of Kimon. His marble works belong chiefly to
his later period. Of these may be mentioned the Amazon
for the temple of Artemis at Ephesos, an Aphrodite, and the
decorative sculptures of the Parthenon for Athens.
It is difficult to bring the work of Pheidias into comparison
with what had gone before, so marked is the advance in concep-
tion, in treatment, and in artistic power. He seems to have
torn the veil from Olympos and revealed to us the gods in all
their grandeur. His Zeus exercised a lasting influence upon the
ancient world, as did also his Athene Parthenos. The majesty,
dignity, and elevated beauty of his conceptions gave to his
work an ideal, poetic character, even in the few instances in
which he dealt with purely athletic subjects. His Pelopon-
nesian training gave him a thorough knowledge of proportions
and bodily form. But his treatment was more thoroughly
plastic, and made its appeal by the total mass rather than by its
details. His figures were naturalistic, not mere anatomical
studies ; and his drapery was no longer stiff and conventional,
but fell in natural folds and revealed rather than obscured the
form beneath.
In the metopes, the frieze, and pedimental sculptures of the
Parthenon we can best study Pheidias's ability in plastic com-
position. The decoration with sculpture in high-relief of
ninety-two metopes, thirty-two on each of the longer and
fourteen on each of the shorter sides of the building, presented
GREEK SCULPTURE.
101
a problem as yet untried. And yet, as well as may be judged
from their present condition, he succeeded in giving on each
side of the temple a united effect with varied individual parts.
The frieze was even more
effective as a triumph in the
art of composition. It was
a narrow band, about four
feet high and five hundred
and twenty-three feet in
length, encircling the tem-
ple cella at a height of
thirty-nine feet from the
stylobate. The Panathe-
naic procession here repre-
sented begins on the western
end of the temple, and, with
its various elements horse-
men, chariots, musicians,
and participants in the sac-
rifices proceeds along the
northern and southern sides,
until at the eastern end is
represented the head of the
procession, the waiting
magistrates, the priest and
priestess of Athene in the
presence of the gods. On
each side the frieze pre-
sents a composition com-
plete within itself, composed
of minor unities and form-
ing a part of the greater whole. Through it all there is a
flow of movement, resembling the crescendo and diminuendo
in music, terminating with a final chord.
A similar independence and artistic power was displayed in
}. APOXYOMENOS AFTER LYSIPPOS.
VATICAN.
102 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
the two pediments. On the western pediment were repre-
sented Athene and Poseidon, with other local divinities and
heroes closely associated with the Acropolis ; on the eastern
pediment the birth of Athene was shown as a fact of cosmic
importance, in the presence of Olympian and other divinities.
The lines of the pediments were not allowed to obstruct the
freedom of the composition, and sufficient symmetry and bal-
ance were preserved without the effect of parallelism. In
some cases, heads of figures projected above the gable lines
of the tympanon ; in others, the imagination was called upon
to complete a group below the line of the pediment ; in the
centre of the composition was placed a group, not a single
6gure, as at JEgina, and Olympia. Pheidias thus rose above
the limitations of archaic composition, and produced a freer
method for all classes of decorative sculptures.
THE FOLLOWERS OF PHEIDIAS. The grand style of Pheidias
was carried on by his pupils and associates, Alkamenes, Agora-
kritos, Kolotes, and others, whose works now escape identifica-
tion. In the sculptures of the Erechtheion the Pheidian style
survived, especially in the majestic figures of the Porch of the
Maidens. A number of funerary reliefs also preserve the style
of Pheidias, and closely connected in style with the Erech-
theion sculptures is the external frieze of the little temple of
Athene Nike on the Acropolis at Athens. The eastern portion
of the frieze, with its assembly of the gods, contained more
than one motive derived from Pheidias. In the scenes of com-
bat represented on the other sides we find a mannerism which
soon degenerated into lifelessness. Of a different character
are the balustrade reliefs, with graceful figures of Nike ; these
already foreshadow the spirit of fourth-century sculpture. Not
far removed in style from the Nike temple frieze is the figure
of Nike made by Paionios for the Messenians and erected at
Olympia. In style this figure represents the transition from
Pheidias to Skopas. The same transitional character may be
observed in the frieze of the Temple of Apollo, near Phigaleia.
GREEK SCULPTURE. 103
This frieze repeats the hackneyed contests of Greeks and
Centaurs and of Greeks and Amazons, and exhibits groups
juxtaposed without organic relation. The mannerism of the
Nike temple frieze was here carried by provincial sculptors to
an extreme.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Developed Greek sculpture may be best
studied in the museums of Athens, Olympia, Constantinople, Naples,
Rome, Berlin, Paris, and London, and through the collections of casts in
the Berlin. Dresden, Boston, and New York museums.
NOTE. Our knowledge of the period during which Polykleitos flour-
ished has been advanced by the date of his statue of Kyniskos, 460 B.C.,
revealed in a papyrus from Oxyrrinchus. His style may also be better
appreciated since the discovery at Delos of a very fine replica of his
Diadumenos. This is published in the Monuments Piot, III, pi. 14.
The style of Myron is also better known since the discovery at Castel
Porzianio of a splendid replica of his Discus-thrower, published by Lan-
ciani in the Monumenti Antichi, XVI, 241-274.
CHAPTER XI.
GREEK SCULPTURE. CONTINUED.
FOURTH-CENTURY AND HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE,
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The works on Greek sculpture
before mentioned. Also : Baumeister, Denkmdler, articles
Mausoleum, Pergamon, Praxiteles, Skopas. Brunn, Ueber die
kunstgeschichtliche Stellung der pergamenischen Gigantomachie.
Comparetti e De Petra, La Villa Ercolanese. Hauser, Die
neuattischen Reliefs. Schreiber, Hellenistische Relief bilder. Ur-
lichs, Skopas* Leben und Werke.
FOURTH-CENTURY SCULPTURE. Perikles's dream of a polit-
ical Greece under Athenian rule could not be realized* Polit-
ical supremacy, after the Peloponnesian war (431-405 B.C.)
went to Sparta, then to Thebes, and finally to Macedon; but
Athens still remained the centre of literary and artistic
accomplishment. The fourth century witnessed the decline
of state power and the rise of that of the individual ; the
weakening of supernatural conceptions in religion and a
strengthening of naturalistic beliefs ; and, finally, a general
development in the direction of cosmopolitanism.
The most distinguished sculptors "of this century were
Skopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippos, whose styles may be taken
roughly as representative of the early, middle, and late por-
tions of the century.
SKOPAS (fl. 360 B.C.) in his early works resembled Paionios
and the sculptor of the Nike temple frieze, who represented
accentuated movement. He decorated both pediments of the
temple of Athena Alea, at Tegea (395 B.C.), with excited com-
GREEK SCULPTURE. 105
positions, one being the hunt of the Kalydonian boar, the
other the combat between Telephos and Achilles. The heads
of heroes, which have been recovered in the excavations at this
temple, show that this quality extended to facial expression as
FIG. 39. THE FARNESE BULL. NAPLES.
well as to bodily form. A stronger example of the same ten-
dency is to be looked for in his Bacchante, where he is said to
have breathed divine frenzy into the marble. Something of
the violence of the Bacchante is preserved to us in the Amazon
IO6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
frieze from the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos (350 B.C.), upon
which Skbpas was employed. According to Pliny, Skopas
wrought the sculptures on the eastern side of this mausoleum,
Bryaxis (fl. 350-312 B.C.) on the north, Timotheos on the south,
and Leochares (circa 372-324 B.C.) on the west. It is interest-
ing to find that the sculptures excavated on the eastern side of
the mausoleum are of finer quality than the others. The com-
position is at once simpler and more expressive ; the figures
are fewer in number, but massed against each other with great
effectiveness. There is also in the figures attributed to Skopas
a vigorous, living quality, and a preponderance of nude forms.
In other portions of the frieze we find juxtaposed groups and
mannered drapery hardly superior in style to the frieze from
the Apollo Temple, near Phigaleia. The difference in date
between the Tegean sculptures and those of the Mausoleum
indicate a long period of activity for Skopas, which may be
divided into a Peloponnesian period, in which he seems to
have perpetuated the traditions of Polykleitos ; an Athenian
period, in which were developed refinements of his style ; and
an Asia Minor period, in which, as in the productions of a
virtuoso, there is already evident something of a struggle for
effect.
PRAXITELES (fl. 350 B.C.) is the central figure in Greek
sculpture of the fourth century. Somewhat younger than
Skopas, he represented more fully the ideals of graceful,
domestic beauty, which had replaced the more heroic concep-
tions of the preceding century. While Skopas perpetuated
the traditions of action and movement, Praxiteles was the
sculptor of rest. He was varied in conception, inventive of
new forms, accomplished in technique. Nearly fifty of his
works are mentioned by ancient authors. These involve a
number of groups of two or three divinities, many single fig-
ures of divinities, and a few of human subjects. Though not
exclusively occupied with marble, he was, like Skopas, emi
nently a marble sculptor. Delicate modulations of surface
GREEK SCULPTURE. IO?
and a massive treatment of form replaced the sharper contrasts
necessitated by the use of bronze. His preference for nude and
youthful forms suggests the probability that his early works fol-
lowed the line of Polykleitan traditions. But he freed the
standing figure from the somewhat constrained attitude of the
Doryphoros, and gave it an easy, graceful pose, often placing
it against a tree-trunk in such a manner as to .give to the chief
line of the body a rhythmical curve. The proportions of the
figure became in his hands more refined and slender, and an
oval replaced the square face of Polykleitos. His figure of
Hermes carrying the youthful Dionysos, found at Olympia in
1877, enables us to judge of his style by means of an undoubted
original. In this group we see a graceful but dignified com-
position, marvellous technical excellence, and a masterful
expression of individual character. The Hermes was probably
not a very early nor yet a late work, but one which represented
the sculptor in his prime. The reliefs from the base of his
group of divinities at Mantineia, made probably from his
designs, may be taken as representing his earlier style. They
resemble the work of Kephisodotos and of Silanion. The
divinities represented in the works of Praxiteles are chiefly
those of the second order. Praxiteles may be said to have
established the type for Eros and the Satyr, conceiving them
anew in forms of youth and beauty. He also gave new beauty
to Aphrodite in his statues of that goddess (undraped) at
Knidos and (draped) at Kos. The weakness of the art of
Praxiteles lay in its tendency to exaggerate the quality of
refinement and grace. In the Sauroktonos and similar statues
Apollo lost his manly quality and appeared as a boyish, effemi-
nate divinity.
LYSIPPOS (fl. 330 B.C.) was the most prolific sculptor of the
fourth century. His aim appears to have been to produce an
effect. This he accomplished sometimes by emphatic size, as
in the colossal statues of Zeus and of Herakles for Tarentum,
and the diminutive statue of Herakles Epitrapezios ; some-
108 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
times by individual characterization, as in the striking por-
traits he made of Alexander and his generals. Again, he
appears to have resorted to picturesque modes of composition,
as in the battle-group of Alexander at Granikos or in the hunt-
ing scene set up at Delphi. A native of Sikyon, he repre-
sented the fourth-century bloom of Peloponnesian sculpture.
His departure from the Polykleitan canon, which he is said to
have taken as his guide, is strongly marked ; his statue, the
Apoxyomenos, or athlete scraping himself, embodied a new
FIG. 40. THE DYING GAUL. CAPITOL, ROME.
scheme of proportions. Other sculptors Praxiteles, Silanion,
and Euphranor had contributed to the formation of slenderer
proportions ; but Lysippos pushed this tendency further, and
made a small round head and long limbs emphatic elements of
style. Thus Lysippos represented the ebbing glory of fourth-
century sculpture.
DOMESTIC AND CIVIC SCULPTURE. The fourth century ex-
tended the field of sculpture to the civic and domestic spheres
of life. Evidence of this is found in the frieze of the cho-
ragic monument of Lysikrates (335 B.C.), with its legendary,
lyric theme of Tyrrhenian robbers cast into the sea; also in
GREEK SCULPTURE. IOQ
the statues of philosophers and poets which decorated the
theatres and public places. The tombstones of Athens, with
their scenes of e very-day life or of tender farewells, also
experienced a rapid development in this century; as well as
the terracotta figurines of domestic subjects, whether made in
Tanagra, Asia Minor, or Sicily. The influence of the best
Athenian sculpture was felt over a wide region. From Southern
Italy have been recovered the Siris bronzes, showing extraor-
dinarily skilful workmanship. From Melos came a majestic
head of Asklepios, and that archetype of graceful beauty, the
Aphrodite of Melos, which some recent writers would have us
assign to the second century B.C. From Knidos came a Deme-
ter of dignified beauty and pathos ; from Ephesos a sculptured
column-drum, recording the sad story of Alkestis. Far-away
Armenia has given us a fourth-century bronze head, which pre-
serves the qualities for which the Aphrodites of Praxiteles were
celebrated. And, finally, Sidon has yielded magnificent sar-
cophagi with sculptured reliefs of the best fourth-century type.
Four of these, in the Constantinople Museum, are of special
interest. The oldest sarcophagus is in style somewhat sug-
gestive of the pediments of Olympia, and may perhaps be
referred to the late fifth century. The so-called Lykian Sar-
cophagus is finer than anything Lykia had produced. Its very
spirited composition has analogies with the Theseion frieze
and other Athenian sculptures. The figures on the Sarcophagus
of the Mourners resemble the Muses on the base of the group
of statues by Praxiteles at Mantineia. The reliefs on the
Large Sarcophagus represent a lion-hunt, and one of Alexan-
der's battles, possibly that of Issos. The fine proportions,
delicate moulding, vigorous reliefs, and original coloring of
this sarcophagus make it one of the most important monu-
ments in the history of Greek sculpture. It was at first de-
scribed as the sarcophagus of Alexander, but is now with
greater probability thought to be the sarcophagus of Laome-
don, satrap of Babylonia, Syria, and Phoenicia.
HO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
HELLENISTIC SCULPTURE (323-133 B.C.). The death of
Alexander in 323 B.C. left the Greeks in possession of the civi-
lized world, without the centralized power to maintain a king-
dom of such wide extent. It was inevitable that separate
kingdoms should be founded, as by the Ptolemies in Egypt,
the Attalidae at Pergamon, the Seleukidae in Syria and Meso-
potamia. It was inevitable, also, that Greek art should become
modified in different localities by contact with the older civi-
lizations. The monuments of this locality, viewed as a whole,
should fall into large classes, such as Graeco- Egyptian, Graeco-
Asiatic, and Graeco-Persian.
GB.ECO-ECrYPTIAN art is characterized by the intermingling
of Egyptian and Greek motives, as also by the development
of the pictorial form of relief. Jupiter Ammon, the Greek
Isis, the Hermaphrodite, the personification of the Nile,
the Negro, the more frequent use of the Sphinx, may be
traced to this source. Relief sculpture, as used in Alexandria,
and which found its way to Pompeii and Herculaneum, now
made use of landscape backgrounds and other picturesque
details which were foreign to earlier and more exclusively
Greek methods.
GRJECO-ASIATIC art, as represented at Pergamon, Rhodes, and
Tralles, showed a change in spirit rather than in form. A new
vigor, excited possibly by conflict with the Gauls and a prefer-
ence for showy, striking themes, characterized the art of this
locality. The sculptures from Pergamon bear witness that
Greek artists still retained the highest technical excellence.
These sculptures fall into two classes : (i) Those referable to
the time of Attalos I. (241-197 B.C.) and (2) those of Eume-
nes II. (197-159 B.C.). To the former class belong a series
of statues representing fallen Gauls, Persians, Amazons, and
Giants, probably copies of a bronze group sent by Attalos to
Athens. A marble original, the famous Dying Gaul, formerly
known as the Dying Gladiator, is a fine example of this class.
The sculptures of Eumenes are represented by extensive remains
GREEK SCULPTURE.
Ill
of two friezes from the great altar of Zeus at Pergamon. The
larger frieze portrayed the Gigantomachy, and the smaller the
history of Telephos, the legendary founder of Pergamon.
These friezes exhibit advanced anatomical knowledge, origi-
nality and variety in design, and extremely vigorous action.
Several famous statues of this period the Apollo Belvidere, the
Diana of Versailles, the torso of the Belvidere, and the Lao-
coon show such strong analogies to certain groups in these
friezes as to enable us to associate them in the same general
FIG. 41. ATHENE GROUP FROM ALTAR AT PERGAMON. BERLIN.
class. The names of several sculptors who worked at Per-
gamon are known. They are Isigonos, Pyromachos, Strato-
nikos, Antiochos, Praxiteles, Xenokrates, Athenaios, and
Epigonos.
The group of the Laocoon, a typical example of emotional
sculpture, was executed by three Rhodian sculptors, Agesan-
dros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros. It can be assigned to the
same general class as the Pergamene sculptures, and does not
differ from them sufficiently to be made the basis for a distinct
Rhodian school.
112 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Somewhat further removed in type is the group known as the
Farnese Bull, by Apollonios and Tauriskos of Tralles. Here
an elaborate story is told in a complex group. A dramatic
moment is selected in which Zethos and Amphion are about to
fasten to a wild bull Queen Dirke, the oppressor of their mother
Antiope. The group was probably designed for an open park,
and was intended to be seen from all points of view. This
involved principles of composition for which Greek sculpture
had furnished few examples. But, aside from this, the group
is overcrowded with incident and displays pictorial methods
in sculpture. Emotional, dramatic sculpture, a straining for
effect, seemed to be demanded by the spirit of the times.
GRJECO-PERSIAN sculpture may be looked for where Persian
influences had previously prevailed. We recognize this mixed
art in many of the objects from the Cimmerian Bosphoros
and from Northern Russia. In the relief sculptures of Hel-
lenistic temples or tomb fapades in Asia Minor we frequently
see Persian motives, such as the Lion attacking the Bull, the
Chimaera with sharply curved wings, the Horned Lion. In
Delos we find columns with bull-headed capitals; and in the
Propylaia, at Eleusis, reliefs and goat-headed capitals which
may be described as Grseco-Persian. In Antioch in Syria has
been discovered a beautiful sarcophagus, with reliefs of Graeco-
Persian lions attacking bulls.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Originals by Skopas are in Athens and the
British Museum ; the Hermes of Praxiteles is at Olympia, the Aphrodite
of Melos in the Louvre ; the Sidon sarcophagi are in Constantinople, the
Pergamene sculptures at Berlin. Hellenistic sculpture abounds in the
museums of Italy.
NOTE. Among the most important accessions for a knowledge of this
period may be mentioned a fine replica of the Eirene of Kephisodotos, now
in the Metropolitan Museum, New York; a marble replica of the Agias
of Lysippos, in the Museum at Delphi; and a fine bronze statue in the
Museum at Athens found in the sea off the north coast of the island of
Antikythera.
CHAPTER XII.
ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Annali, Bullettino e Monumenti
deir Istituto di Correspondenza Archeologica. Brunn and Korte,
I Rilievi delle Urne Etrusche. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of
Etruria. Falchi, Vetulonia. Inghirami, Monumenti Etntschi.
Martha, DArt Etrusque. Micali, Monumenti per servire alia
Storia degli Antichi Popoli Italiani ; Monumenti Inediti. Milani,
1 Frontoni di un Tempio Toscanico. Monumenti Antichi (Acad.
Lincei). Museo Gregoriano. Museo Italiano di Antichita
Classica, 1884. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichita. Zannoni,
Scavi della Certosa.
ANCIENT ITALY AND ITS SCULPTURE. The history of Italy
until two centuries after the foundation of Rome still remains
extremely obscure. The peoples that inhabited it, the time of
their advent into the peninsula, the circumstances of their pro-
gress and decline, their relation to each other, are all largely a
matter of conjecture, based either upon literature, tradition, or
archaeological evidence. We can hardly state more than that
there were from the earliest times two currents of emigration,
one by land from the north and the other by sea from the
south ; that the land invaders were probably the more numerous
and certainly the least civilized ; that the Oriental and Greek
civilizing influences came in periodic waves, through immigra-
tion and commerce, and powerfully affected the less civilized
races.
There is but little unity in the pre-Roman sculpture of Italy,
in its styles, its subjects, its methods, or its growth. The char-
acter of the monuments first brought to the notice of *J*> inhab-
8
114 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
itants by means of commerce was not calculated to develop
the sentiment for monumental sculpture, or to relate the art
integrally to the life of the people. Nor was there any plastic
sense among the Italic tribes, the Etruscans, or the native
tribes of Hellenic origin. Sculpture, when developed, was
essentially utilitarian and had little aesthetic mission. It was
employed to decorate objects of use and ornament, and when
it was brought, at a late date, to the service of mythology, that
FIG. 42. ETRUSCAN SARCOPHAGUS. BRITISH MUSEUM.
mythology was but a transcript of those scenes from Greek
myths that seemed to the Etruscans suitable to illustrate the
life, death, and future of their dead.
MATERIAL AND METHOD. Bronze, terracotta, stone, marble,
and silver were used by the Italic and Etruscan sculptors. In
bronze work the earliest reproductions are in repoussJ relief,
of which good examples are the situlae or buckets, especially
interesting for the development of sculpture in the region north
ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE. 11$
of the Po during the fifth and fourth centuries, and, in a more
advanced style, in the third century. The similarity of the
Tuscan work to the Greek is sometimes so great as to make it
almost impossible to distinguish them apart. Terracotta was,
however, the favorite material for sculpture throughout Central
and Southern Italy from the sixth to the third centuries, and
nowhere can the sculpturesque possibilities of this material be
seen so well exhibited as in the history of sculpture in these
early Italian schools. It was used instead of stone or marble
during nearly the entire period for the temple sculptures.
The gables and friezes were of terracotta slabs, in high or low
relief, fastened to the wooden framework. Similar reliefs
were used on a smaller scale in the decoration of tombs. The
acroteria and antefixes were usually figures, busts, or heads, in
relief, of terracotta, and were used on a large scale throughout
the south of Italy.
Stone was used at first mainly in connection with funerary
sculptures. At least as early as 600 B.C. reclining stone
statues on funeral beds were executed for the domical tomb of
Vetulonia. Soon afterward carved stone stelae were erected to
mark the site of the graves through a great part of Etruria.
Not until late in the fifth century does the use of large carved
stone or terracotta sarcophagi come in, and then only for a
limited time and in a restricted region. In the following cen-
tury, when Etruscan art had taken so overwhelming a Greek
character, it became the fashion (cremation being the favorite
rite) to preserve the ashes of the deceased in small oblong mar-
ble urns with covers. The faces of the effigies were covered
with reliefs of funerary significance, and the cover was sur-
mounted by the figure of the deceased individual and his wife.
The great mass of late Etruscan sculptures belongs to this
class of monuments, which exercised considerable influence
upon the formation of Roman sculpture, and then, in its turn,
was reacted upon by the Roman school.
HISTORY. An examination of the Peninsula as a whole shows
Il6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
that the earliest monuments of sculpture date no further back
than the eighth century B.C., and that they are to be found
mainly in maritime Tuscan Etruria. The entire region north
of the Po was unproductive until the fifth century, when it
began to produce certain funerary and industrial objects in a
barbarous style that can be divided into two schools : the
Euganean, with its centre at Este, which was thoroughly inde-
pendent, and the Villanova style, with its centre at Bologna,
which was a crude branch of Etruscan art. These two schools
remained almost unchanged until the time of Roman domina-
tion. South of the Po we find that the present province of
Tuscany, with part of Umbria and the Roman section of Etru-
ria, furnished the great bulk of sculpture during the entire
pre-Roman period. The Roman province proper, with the
cities of the Sabines, Marsi, Volsci, and Hernici, have thus far
furnished hardly a single monument. Farther south the art
was essentially Greek, except at Capua, which appears to have
been a meeting-place for early Etruscan and archaic Greek
art.
ORIENTAL OE ARCHAIC GREEK. Confining ourselves, there-
fore, to Etruria proper, where alone we have a continuous
series of monuments interesting in the history of art, we find
that the first period that of the eighth, seventh, and sixth
centuries is essentially Oriental or Archaic Greek. At
that time Etruria was still dependent for its objects of
luxury and art upon the Eastern market and upon the Phoe-
nician merchants, especially those of Carthage, who still
retained the dominion of Italian waters. The Etruscans them-
selves were slowly making their conquering way through the
cities north and east of their primitive settlement near Monte
Amiata. This movement, begun in the eighth century, did
not end until the close of the sixth century, with the conquest
of Perugia. Clusium, Arretium, Volaterrse, Ruscellae, and
Vetulonia were among the last cities to resist them. In sev-
eral of the cities of Etruria which were, according to tradition,
ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE.
117
of " Pelasgic " (i.e., primitive Greek) foundation, we find
monuments apparently antedating the Etruscan conquest.
The Regulini-Galassi tomb at Vulci, and other tombs with
domical or arched
vaults, notably the re-
cently discovered cham-
ber at Vetulonia, were
certainly not the work
of the Etruscans, whose
tomb-chambers invari-
ably copied wooden
constructions with flat
or gabled ceilings. The
contents of the tombs of
this class, and of thou-
sands of contemporary
tombs of lesser impor-
tance, show that sculp-
ture was at that time put
almost entirely to dec-
orative purposes and
utilized in the service
of industrial and not of
monumental art, and
that, furthermore, the
great majority of the
objects found were im-
ported, and were either
of Phoenician manufact-
ure or brought by the
Phoenicians from Egypt
and Western Asia. Extreme luxury was indulged in by the
women, who wore earrings, bracelets, and necklaces of gold
having decorations of heads, figures, and reliefs. The house
furniture appears to have been rich, judging from the tombs,
FIG. 43. ARTEMIS FROM LAKE FALTERON/
BRITISH MUSEUM.
Il8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
which contained silver bowls, bronze tripods, and candelabra,
jewelry cases, couches, etc. The style of these works is always
Oriental, even when one discerns the hand of a native artist,
and it bears not even a remote resemblance to the later native
Etruscan art. The same judgment may be passed upon the few
remains of contemporary monumental sculpture. The earliest
examples appear to be the stone female figures, about life-size,
lately discovered in the domical chamber of la Pietrera at
Vetulonia. They are completely nude, and are represented
either rigidly reclining on their backs on funereal couches, or
standing upright, the pointed base on which they stand being
fixed in the ground. The proportions are good, and the heads
interesting and of precisely the same type as the heads on the
gold jewelry found in the earliest Vetulonian tombs. Almost
contemporary with these unique female figures are the earliest
of the stone stelae usually marking the tombs of men, especially
warriors. The connection with Greece as well as with the
Orient is based not only upon the traditions of Greek emigra-
tions, but upon the continuous relations with Greece as shown
by the fact that Caere, and probably also Tarquinii, had treas-
uries at Delphi, and were therefore regarded as Greek cities
during the seventh century. Bronzes of the sixth century, found
at Perugia (Perusia) and Chiusi (Clusium), antedating the cap-
ture of these cities by the Etruscans, are of purely Ionian Greek
style. These objects, therefore, although not equalling the
Oriental in number and influence, hold a distinct place in
this early period.
The next period is that of the
ARCHAIC ETRUSCAN style, in all its primitive crudeness, real-
ism, and love of the horrible ; and it is the only period when
Etruria is but little influenced by other nations, although even
now we perceive traces both of the lingering of Oriental and
the more frequent incoming of Greek wares. It lasts through
the fifth century and the early part of the fourth. The impor-
tation of Greek Corinthian and black-figured vases had a
ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE. 1 19
strong influence upon the style of Etruscan sculpture, especially
upon the funeral bas-reliefs and the bronzes. The shapeless-
ness of the figures betrays the copying of flat models. The
sites of the tombs are now often marked by sculptured stelae
and figures in place of the earlier undecorated cones. In the
warrior figures on the stelae, in the winged lions or sphinxes in
stone that guard the entrances, we trace Oriental traditions.
Some early reliefs on large sarcophagi seem copied from the
banquet scenes on Greek vases; while on some carved stone
cippi there are mourning scenes in low-relief of extreme real-
ism, which give the truest measure of early Etruscan sculpture,
with its lack of artistic sense both in composition and design.
This lack of artistic sense is also well illustrated by some
early cinerary urns of stone or terracotta in the form of hollow
statues, seated or standing, with removable heads. Among the
large sculptured sarcophagi of the period are two of remark-
able interest one in the Louvre and the other in the British
Museum. The realism of the strongly marked and ugly features
is enhanced by brilliant coloring and by an elaboration of the
most minute details of costume and ornament. During this
period we no longer find as great a wealth of jewelry and other
objects in metal in the tombs : these are partly replaced by
the less expensive earthenware vases, at times imported from
Greece, especially Attica, at times of home manufacture. The
most important works were, without doubt, the terracotta sculp-
tures with which the gables of the Etruscan texiiples were
decorated. Such were the gables of the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus in Rome, executed by Etruscan sculptors.
THE HELLENIC PERIOD, or the third period, lasts during a
great part of the fourth and third centuries. Etruscan art
became more supple and varied in its forms, threw off some
of the crude qualities of its realism, and not only attempted
to copy closely the style of the numerous works of Greek art
imported either directly or from the cities of Southern Italy,
but adapted to its use a large number of the scenes of Greek
120
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
mythology. Terracotta, which had hitherto been the favorite
material, was now rivalled by bronze and marble. With the
spread of the practice of incineration, the small marble cin-
FIG. 44. ETRUSCAN CINERARY URN. VOLTERRA.
erary urn, with reliefs on its sides and reclining figures on its
cover, were manufactured by the thousand. The bronze-
workers had become so skilful that their works were eagerly
sought for, even in Attica. There was a revival of decorative
ITALIC AND ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE. 121
art, shown especially in the multitude of bronze engraved mir-
rors, in the famous eista, or jewel-cases, in arms and armor,
and in statues. The Romans found two thousand bronze
statues in Volsinii alone in 280 B.C. Very few bronze statues
have been preserved that may be regarded as Etruscan. The
Wolf of the Capitol, the Minerva, and the Chimaera seem to
be Greek. The Mars of Todi, the Orator of Florence, and
the Child with the Bird in the Vatican seem genuine exam-
ples of Etruscan work. Terracotta continued to be in use for
temple sculptures. Only a few fragments of the gable statuary
of this period remain; for example, some figures from a
temple at Luni, in the Florence Museum, others from an
unknown temple in the Vatican Museum, and from the temple
of Juno at Falerii, in the Papa Giulio Museum at Rome. The
style of these works is partly or entirely Hellenic.
There came a time when Etruscan sculpture, after having
exercised considerable influence in Rome, became merged in
the general development of Italian sculpture under the direc-
tion of the Greek artists established in Rome during the last
two centuries of the Republic.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Etruscan sculpture may be best studied in
Italy at the Museo Civico of Bologna, the Museo Archeologico at Flor-
ence, the local museums of Volterra, Perugia, Corneto, and Chiusi, and
at Rome in the Vatican and Papa Giulio Museums. The British Museum
and the principal Continental museums have representative examples of
Etruscan urns, terracottas, bronzes, sarcophagi, and jewelry.
CHAPTER XIII.
ROMAN SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie.
Brunn, Denkmdler griech. u. romischer Skulptur ; Griechische u.
romische Portraits. Courbaud, Le Bas-relief Remain a Repre-
sentations Historiques. Detlef sen, De Arte Romanorum Antiquis-
sima. Diitschke, Antike Bildwerke in Oberitalien. Imhoof
Blumer, Portrdtkopfe auf rom. Munzen. Lanciani, Ancient
Rome. Martha, L ' Arche'ologie jfrtrusque et Romaine. Matz und
von Duhn, Antike Bildwerke in Rome. Overbeck, Geschichte
der griechischen Plastik. Perry, Greek and Roman Sculpture.
Philippi, Ueber die romischen Triumphalreliefs. Robert, Die
antiken Sarcophagreliefs. Schreiber, Atlas of Classical Antiq-
uities.
ROME. It may seem at first singular that sculpture should
have developed so late in Rome. The Etruscans to the north,
and the Greek and Graeco-Italic cities to the south, practised
it in profusion during the fourth and fifth centuries of Roman
history, while Rome appeared to remain perfectly aloof, or
satisfied itself with occasional terracotta sculptures from the
hand of Etruscan sculptors as in the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus or dedicated an occasional statue in imitation
of the Greek custom. Even -in the fourth and third centuries
B.C., the numerous portrait-statues and busts set up in Rome,
the works of mediocre Etrusco-Greek sculptors, appear to have
been valueless for the history of art, and interesting mainly as
showing how the Roman mind sought to make sculpture of
practical service, for the satisfaction of personal vanity or
ambition.
But there were several reasons for the entire lack of a native-
born, national Roman art of sculpture. As a people the
ROMAN SCULPTURE. I2J
Romans were as devoid of true plastic sense as the Etruscans,
and as a people they also held the practice of art in the greatest
contempt, and as work fit only for slaves.
PORTRAITURE. The very fact that there never was any devel-
opment of plastic art
in Rome in the ser-
vice of religion but
only in the service of
ancestral worship and
self-glorification car-
ried with it as a con-
sequence the absence
of all idealism and all inspiration.
The thousands of portrait statues
that encumbered the Forum in the
third and second century B.C. were
probably the work of Etruscans.
The restriction of sculpture to so
naturalistic a branch, and the de-
velopment of an extremely realistic
kind of portrait sculpture, were en-
couraged by the Roman practice of
having in their houses the effigies
of all their ancestors, rendered as
faithfully as possible. As drapery FIG - 45.-sT AT uE OF AUGUSTUS.
VATICAN.
was quite conventional, the resem-
blance was confined to the heads, and this led to the sale of
ready-made statues, the heads of which were separate and
executed to order. The funeral procession which formed so
large a part of Roman public display was the occasion for
bringing forth all these ancestral effigies. Living persons
resembling the deceased were made to take part, and in all
cases the utmost fidelity of detail was aimed at, as in the
case of a figure representing Caesar, showing his gaping wounds.
Surpassing in numbers the class of works just mentioned
124 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
were the honorary statues. These were of many varieties :
military statues (loricate}, and civil and religious (togate)\
equestrian, standing and seated; statues to women, statues
erected by decree, by subscription, or by private individuals to
themselves or members of their family. The ultimate devel-
opment of this fashion led to the erection in all important
cities of statues of the deified emperors and their families,
often in special temples. Beginning with the reign of Augus-
tus, mythology was more fully represented in sculpture by
combining Greek and Roman myths, by copying Greek types
of all periods, and by affording hospitality to many varieties
of Oriental myths such as the Persian and Egyptian. The
minor native deities, the genii, the lares and penates, Silvanus
and the rural gods, found expression as soon as the Roman
mind became more plastic and receptive.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. Terracotta soon went out of
fashion, and bronze remained the favorite material until Greek
influence became supreme. Sculpture in the round was almost
exclusively used up to the time of Augustus, when marble began
to replace bronze. Sculpture in relief received a consequent
development and became, if we except portrait busts, the most
characteristic form of Roman sculpture. In pursuance of the
"true Roman policy of the supremacy of utilitarian motives, the
Romans developed all forms of architecture connected with
secular and popular display, ceremony, use, or pleasure ; and
sculpture was used almost entirely, not, as in Greece, in con-
nection with the temples and sacred enclosures, but as a deco-
ration for forums, peristyles, theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas,
baths, circuses, gateways, bridges, arches, and columns. There
were as many as three thousand bronze statues in the theatre
erected by Scaurus in 58 B.C. Then came the development
of those unique and magnificent forn\s of architecture com-
bined with sculpture which are exemplified by the triumphal
arches, the commemorative columns, and the Altar of Peace
(Augustus). The desire for such a display spread to private
ROMAN SCULPTURE.
125
individuals, whose houses and villas were filled with statuary
of every quality.
GREEK INFLUENCE. The artistic education of the Romans
really began during the course of their conquests of the Greek
cities of Sicily, Magna
Graecia, Asia Minor, and
Greece itself. The impres-
sions produced by the thou-
sands of examples of the
greatest productions of
Greek sculpture, then
brought to Rome, was fun-
damental in forming Roman
taste. It is also well known
how many Greek sculptors
established themselves at
Rome during the two cen-
turies before and after
Augustus, coming from
every part of the Hellenic
world to the one city whose
wealth afforded an oppor-
tunity for the exercise of
their talent. And yet, how
different was their public
position from the honored
one enjoyed by their prede-
cessors of the free Hellenic
world. In Roman estima-
tion art was a thing to be
turned out by the yard, and
slaves were the sort of men
to do it. It cannot be said that the Romans lacked the oppor-
tunity to realize the beauties of sculpture. There was a continu-
ous influx of masterpieces of all periods, from the time of the
FIG. 46.-
STATUE OF JUNO. BATHS OF DIO-
CLETIAN, ROME.
126 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
capture of Syracuse by Marcellus in 212 B.C. until the reigns of
Nero and even Hadrian, when there was collected in Rome a
majority of all the great works produced by five centuries of
Greek art throughout the Hellenic world in Europe and Asia.
All the art treasures amassed by such rulers as Philip, Pyrrhos,
and Perseus, all the monuments of Capua, Tarentum, Corinth,
and the principal Greek sanctuaries and cities of the main-
land and Asia Minor, were collected in the capital of the Empire.
And yet they excited at most an intellectual curiosity and enjoy-
ment, but did not stimulate emulation. After the supply of
originals was exhausted, recourse was had to numerous copies
of famous works. The desire to collect and hoard was appar-
ently insatiable among the wealthy Romans, and if this led to
carelessness of execution and true artistic value, it has been of
use to science, because the types of valuable originals irrepa-
rably lost have thus been preserved in copies.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. Although Hellenic influence
can be traced quite early in Rome, the Etruscan style seems to
have preponderated until the close of the third century B.C.
After that, though the city was rapidly filled with Greek works,
it is difficult to find traces of a school of Roman sculpture
until just before the time of Augustus. During the emperor's
reign a spirit pervaded sculpture different from anything
before or after, and approaching more closely to the Greek
standpoint. This idealism of the Augustan sculptures is
well exemplified by the beautiful reliefs of the Ara Pads
Augusta, the famous Altar of Peace erected in 12 B.C. on the
return of Augustus and the pacification of the Empire. The
largest of the two series of reliefs that decorated the wall sur-
rounding the altar contained two sacrificial processions moving
forward with slow dignity and comprising many members of
the imperial family, the college of priests, attendants, and
victims. The heads of the imperial personages are so ideal-
ized as to make identification almost impossible in most cases,
quite in contrast to the novel realism of Roman portraiture.
ROMAN SCULPTURE.
127
Although eminently graceful, the figures lack the force given to
later sculptures by a higher relief, greater vigor of movement,
and an individual character. Augustus was noted for his love of
simplicity in art, and for a strong predilection for the archaic
masters of Greek sculp-
t u r e . He not only
brought to Rome many
masterpieces of p r e -
Pheidian sculpture, such
as works by Bupalos,
Endoios, Hegias, and
Myron, but he encour-
aged the imitation of the
style by contemporary
Greek artists of the
" archaistic " school,
such as Pasiteles and
Arkesilaos. As soon,
however, as the influence
of Augustus was removed,
the Roman school showed
a tendency to follow the
picturesque, comic, and
grotesque style of the
genre school of Alexan-
dria, as well as the dra-
in a t i c style of Asia
Minor. At this time the
respect with which works
of Greek art had usually
been treated seems to
have largely disappeared. Nero and Caligula were more de-
stroyers than patrons of sculpture, and surpassed in their
vandalism the earlier exploits of Verres, stigmatized by Cicero.
The development of relief sculpture on sarcophagi, which
FIG. 47. MARCIANA, SISTER OF TRAJAN.
128
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
in the time of Augustus was rescued from the mechanical level
of the Etruscans and raised to the sphere of an art, continued
on a grand scale. Many of the sarcophagi of the first two
centuries of the Empire, such as those of the Licinii, are
superb works. Portraiture also, reached, during these two cen-
turies, its greatest per-
fection before dying
out under Caracal la.
The Greeks never did
any work in this do-
main as great as was
then done by the ar-
tists of Rome. The
artists of the Ptole-
mies alone, had fore-
shadowed this applica-
tion of psychological
intuition to sculpture,
and the Herculaneum
bronzes show, as mere
art, an even higher
power than the best
Roman work. But
Roman portrai ture
was a whole art- wo rid
in itself.
Roman relief sculpture during the first century of our era
developed away from the idealism of Augustus, and produced
a series of important decorative works on a large scale, such
as the arches of Titus and Trajan, the columns of Trajan and
Marcus Aurelius, which are of extreme interest to the student
of history. The finest of these monumental sculptures are
those of the reign of Trajan, especially his arch at Beneven-
tum, which shows a distinct advance on the reliefs of Titus,
themselves more life-like and effective than the low reliefs of
FIG. 48. MARCUS AURELIUS SACRIFICING BEFORE
THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER. CAPITOL, ROME.
ROMAN SCULPTURE.
I2 9
Augustus. The pictorial element predominates, the figures
are in different planes; there is more movement, animation,
effectiveness. The figures themselves are heavier, the draper-
ies more rich. Almost as fine, from the purely artistic stand-
point, are the reliefs of the column of Trajan, which possess an
equal value as giving a picture of the Roman army in all the
vicissitudes of a campaign camping, marching, and fighting.
At the same time, pure Greek idealism and the reproduction
of Greek divine types of the best period are a feature of such
works as Trajan's Beneventum arch. Single figures among
Trajan's sculptures, like those of the barbarian prisoners, show
that in larger works Roman sculpture had gained rather than
lost in power and dramatic intensity.
Aside from a cold and artificial revival in the time of Ha-
drian, when, by the choice of rich materials and the use of high
finish, the artists sought to make up for their loss of mastery,
there is almost an uninterrupted decadence, at first slow, under
the Antonines, who sought to arrest the decay, but becoming
quite rapid in the third century, until, in the time of Max-
entius and Constantine, there were no sculptors capable even
of making fair copies. During this century there was a return
to the mechanical multiplication of carved sarcophagi, as in
earlier Etruscan days.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Besides the important standing monu-
ments in Rome, Beneventum (arch), the Rhenish province, the south of
France, Roumania (Adam-Klissi), and Africa, works of Roman sculpture
are present in large numbers in almost every museum : in Rome, in the
Vatican, Lateran, Albani, Torlonia, Capitoline, and Baths of Diocletian
Museums ; in Naples, in the Museo Nazionale. The British Museum,
the Louvre, and the Berlin Museum are especially rich among the collec-
tions outside of Italy. In these and other more local collections we can
study the variations of Roman art that arose in Gaul, along the Rhine, in
Egypt, in Northern Africa, and among the Phoenicians.
CHAPTER XIV.
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Bayet, L?Art Byzantin ; Re-
cherches pour servir a P Histoire de la Peinture et de la Sculpture
Chre'tiennes en Orient. Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana. De
Rossi, Roma Sotterranea. Diehl, Ravenne. Ficker, Die alt-
christliche Bildwerke im christlichen Museum des Laterans. Gar-
rucci, Storia deW Arte Cristiana (2 volumes on sarcophagi,
ivory carvings, etc.). Grimoard de Saint Laurent, Guide de
r Art Chretien. Kraus, Real-Encyclopaedie der christlichen
Alterthiimer ; Geschichte der christlichen Kunst. Le Blant, Les
Sarcophages Chretiens de la Gaule ; Les Sarcophages Chretiens
Antiques de la Ville d } Aries. Martigny, Dictionnaire des An-
tiquite's Chre'tiennes. Perate, D Archeologie Chretienne. Revue
de r Art Chretien. Romische Quartalschrift der christlichen Alter-
thiimer. Schultze, Archaeologie der christlichen Kunst. Smith
and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. Venturi,
Storia deir Arte Italiana.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. The most characteristic fact
about the development of art from the rise of Christianity to
the Renaissance in the fifteenth century was the supremacy of
architecture. The aesthetic qualities involved in love of
beauty, orderly symmetry, and artistic form, in poetic concep-
tions and exuberance of imagination, all have their outlet in
architecture. In painting, not external beauty but internal
significance, was required. Sculpture, on the other hand, was
not used either as a medium for teaching, as painting was, or,
like architecture, as an aesthetic vehicle. It therefore played
a very secondary part, and not until the close of the twelfth
century did it begin to resume its old part as an important
factor in the development of art. The Gothic cathedral paved
the way for the Renaissance.
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 131
The vicissitudes of sculpture during the fourteen centuries
before the Renaissance may be described under three heads :
I. EARLY CHRISTIAN third to sixth centuries.
II. BYZANTINE sixth and seventh centuries.
III. MEDIAEVAL eighth to fifteenth centuries.
Early Christian sculpture began
at the time when the technique of
the art was on the high road to
decay. The first two centuries of
the Christian era were barren of
any Christian monuments. In the
third century a few works show
that technical decadence was not
yet complete, but, this being the
period of greatest persecution, no
development was possible. No
workshops for the free treatment
of themes of Christian sculpture
could be established when it was
a capital offence to be known as a
Christian. Many examples of
carved sarcophagi found in the
catacombs of Rome show that the
Christians did not hesitate to order
and purchase, for their more illus-
trious deceased, sarcophagi
carved by pagan workmen in pagan
workshops, whenever the orna-
mentation or the figures did not
convey a pagan religious signifi-
cance, or when such subjects had been adopted, as in the
case of the group of Cupid and Psyche, into the cycle of
Christian subjects and were thus common to both. Only
with the reign of Constant! ne, early in the fourth century,
FIG. 49. THE GOOD SHEPHERD.
UATERAN, ROME.
132 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
did sculpture of a strictly Christian character make a forward
movement, and that at a time when the art had reached the
lowest technical decadence. The multiplication of works
which ensued is, therefore, interesting mainly from the point
of view of iconography ; that is, the development of Christian
ideas and subjects in art. Sculpture at this time brings us
face to face with the ideas of early Christians about death
and future life, and shows us the form of their faith as sharply
and as clearly as do the works of the Church Fathers. And
it does this in a way to bring us closer, perhaps, to the inner
heart of the people. The early Christians followed the ex-
ample of the Etruscans and Romans in covering their sar-
cophagi with subjects that had no special connection with the
particular deceased, but were related to conceptions of death
and the future life. The subjects selected were often taken
from the primitive liturgy that was recited at the bedside of
the dying, and, as in the words of the litany the soul about to
take its flight calls upon Christ to deliver it from eternal death
as in the times of the past He delivered the three children
from the fiery furnace, Daniel from the lions, and brought the
Hebrews across the Red Sea, so sculptors represented these
prayers upon the sarcophagi by carving the very scenes from
the Old Testament.
Non-religious sculpture for some time varied but little in its
technique and themes from that of the pagan period. Art
continued its earlier traditions, and the Byzantine emperors
followed in the footsteps of the emperors at Rome. Tri-
umphal arches and columns and statues were decorated and
erected in a style that shows a continuous decadence. Such
were the arch of Constantine -at Rome and the columns of
Theodosius and Arcadius at Constantinople. Numerous statues
of emperors and empresses, and of families of great person-
ages, continued to be executed with diminishing frequency and
skill. Great use was made for decorative purposes of earlier
works. Even in imperial images painting gradually superseded
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 133
sculpture, so that, finally, in the seventh or eighth century,
sculpture had ceased entirely to be employed for these pur-
poses. During this period, marble came to be used less and
less as the favorite material, while metal increased its vogue.
The last of the fine imperial statues appears to have been the
great equestrian bronze figure of Justinian, which he erected
after his victory over the Persians in 543. After his reign,
other statues were erected of Justin the second, Mauritius,
Justinian the second, Phokas, Philippicus, and, even at the
cl^se of the Iconoclastic period, of the Empress Irene and
FIG. 5O. EARLY CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS. LATERAN, ROME.
her son. All these have perished, and Italy appears to possess
the only remaining example of these late imperial statues. It
is a standing figure of bronze, thought to represent Heraclius,
the conqueror of the Persians. It was washed ashore on the
shipwrecked vessel that was probably bearing the statue from
Constantinople to be set up in Rome or Ravenna.
MATEKIALS AND SOURCES. Great varieties of materials were
employed. Marble served mainly for the sepulchral monu-
ments and for the carved sarcophagi in the catacombs, and in
the cemeteries above ground. In a few cases marble was also
used for statues, as in the statue of St. Hippolytus, and a
number of statuettes of the Good Shepherd. Marble reliefs
134 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
were also used to decorate the church pulpits, as in the am-
bones of Ravenna and Salonica. Internally, stucco work
was employed very successfully to decorate walls or ceilings.
Examples of this rare kind of work are in the vault of a
chapel in the catacomb of Calixtus at Rome, dating from the
third century; on the walls of the baptistery at Ravenna, and
forming the dado of the inner walls of the cathedral at Ra-
venna, of the fifth century. However, as the divorce between
architecture and sculpture had been pronounced at the very
beginning of Christian art, it is natural that the sculptors
should turn themselves more and more to the employment of
metals, especially gold, silver, and bronze. There was also
some religious sentiment that led to the preference of precious
material in the making of the figures that formed the object
of religious cult. This tendency, which became more pro-
nounced in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, is the
main reason for the destruction of the majority of the works
of this period and for our consequent imperfect acquaintance
with its sculptural development. The decoration was usually
centred around the high altar and the confessional beneath it*
Here were often figures or reliefs of Christ and the apostles,
and scenes from the life of Christ and from the Old Testa-
ment. The objects used in the services, and which were kept
in the treasury of each church, although belonging to the cate-
gory of smaller sculpture, become more and more our main
reliance for tracing the history of the art. Such are the pyxes,
the diptychs, and the book covers of carved ivory, the patens,
the ampullas, and other vases of gold and silver, the eucha-
ristic doves, altar fronts, and altar canopies.
SUBJECTS. Symbolism played such an important part in the
art, as well as in the literature, of the early Christian period
that it is not surprising to find that it permeates sculpture so
thoroughly. Inanimate symbols were employed, such as the
vine, the Constantinian monogram, the Alpha and Omega as
symbols of Christ, the palm emblematic of martyrdom, the
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 135
ship of the church, and the four rivers of the four Gospels.
Other symbols were animate ; for example, the dove as a sym-
bol of the soul, the sheep or lambs representing the disciples,
the peacock as a symbol of immortality. Figured composi-
tions also had usually a symbolic meaning. Sometimes they
were borrowed directly from pagan art, even in detail. Such
was the case with Cupid and Psyche, and Orpheus. Sometimes
there was only an external and fortuitous resemblance, as in
the case of the similarity of the Good Shepherd to the Hermes
FIG. 51. CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGUS IN S. LORENZO FUORI LE MURA.
bearing the Ram. Very often subjects were taken from the
Old Testament, which was always close to the hearts of the
early Christians, and in this case those were selected that were
either closely connected in the Christian mind with providen-
tial care and the future life, or were types that could be used
as symbolic or allegorical of the new dispensation. Examples
of the first category are those illustrating the liturgy for the
dying already referred to, such as Daniel with the lions ; ex-
amples of the second are Moses striking the rock, the tempta-
tion by the serpent, and the translation of Elijah. More
popular than all, however, were instances of miracles in the
136 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
life of Christ. Finally, there were scenes from daily life,
portraits, and decorative designs similar to those of pagan art.
The latest sarcophagi, with their scenes of Christ triumphant
and as teacher, are intimately connected with the contemporary
monumental decoration of the basilicas of the fourth century,
especially with the wall-mosaics.
MONUMENTS AND HISTOEY. The sarcophagi, which form the
great bulk of the monuments upon which these scenes were
carved, were of a size suited to contain one or two bodies, and
were carved usually on all four sides. On a small number there
was a single continuous relief covering the entire front, espe-
cially in the subject of the Crossing of the Red Sea. The reliefs
were usually arranged in one or two stories, each consisting of
a number of compositions. Very often these compositions
were separated by columns bearing an architrave, a gable, an
arch, or a 'shell-like top, but even more often the subjects were
placed side by side without any separation. At times, only
a few separate figures were carved, in the centre and at the
angles, the rest of the surface being strigillated; The covers
of the sarcophagi were also often carved, both at the corners
and along the edges, with a narrow band of reliefs. In the
centre of the front there was frequently a circle or a shell,
and within it portrait busts of the deceased. The positions
were usually quite simple, the figures were few and arranged
upon a single plane. They were carved in high-relief, and
have little or no background or decorative setting. In this
characteristic, in which they present so strong a contrast with
the picturesque compositions of Roman historic sculpture,
they show a return to Greek simplicity. The most interesting
collections of sarcophagi are in the Lateran Museum at Rome
and in the museum at Aries.
The most noted single sarcophagus is that of the prefect of
Rome, Junius Bassus. This sarcophagus, which dates from the
year 359, is a good instance of the more elaborately carved
works, and an enumeration of its subjects will give a good idea
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. 13;
of the usual grouping of subjects in early Christian sculpture.
Beginning from the left-hand side of the upper zone we have :
(i) The Sacrifice of Isaac; (2) the Denial of Peter; (3) Christ
enthroned teaching; (4) the Arrest of Christ; and (5) Pilate
washing his Hands. On the lower zone we have : (6) Job on
the Dung-hill ; (7) the Temptation of Adam and Eve ; (8)
Christ entering Jerusalem ; (9) Daniel between the Lions ; and
(10) the Arrest of Peter. It is very seldom that an entire sar-
FIG. 52. IVORY TRIPTYCH OF THE CRUCIFIXION.
cophagus is devoted to a single subject. This is done only
in such cases as the History of Jonah, the Crossing of the Red
Sea by the Israelites, and the subject of Christ and the Apostles
or Christ teaching. Only a few of the sarcophagi carved with
figures date from the third century; the great majority belong
to the fourth and early fifth centuries.
Rome appears to have been the centre of early Christian
sculpture in the reigns of Constantine and his successor dur-
ing the fourth century. This was quite natural, for the greater
138 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
part of the important works of art executed throughout the
empire were by order of the emperors. The political centrali-
zation which was the keynote of Roman polity extended to
the fine arts, which were practised by large guilds whose
members had but little independence. Hence there was great
uniformity of style. The south of France, especially the city
of Aries, appears to have followed very closely in the footsteps
of the Roman school, with some interesting variations, and, as
a source of information, it is of great value in point of numbers
and interest. When, in the fifth century, the imperial capital
was transferred to Ravenna, that city became the successor
of Rome in sculpture as well as in other branches of the fine
arts, changing the Roman style for one with stronger Oriental
elements. This school flourished until the close of the early
Christian period ; but, coming as it did at a time when marble
sculpture was declining in favor, its productions were less
numerous and less representative of the art of the age.
There are a number of monuments of sculpture dating from
the fifth century which form a connecting link between the
early Christian and Byzantine styles. Chief among these
are an ivory lipsanoteca now at the Museum of Brescia, and
the carved wooden door of S. Sabina in Rome. These two
monuments are superior to the bulk of earlier sculpture,
in having more grace and more perfect technique, a greater
refinement of type, and a more spiritual conception of the
subjects of Christian art. They represent the first wave of
Greek influence in Italy. The gate of S. Sabina probably
dates from the time of Pope Celestin I. (424). It originally
included twenty-eight panels in relief twelve large and six-
teen small ones arranged in rows of four. In this work the
artist sought to establish, as was so often done in the sculptures
of the sarcophagi, an analogy between Old and New Testament
subjects. Ten panels have disappeared. Among those that
remain, three large compositions belong to the Life of Moses,
pne to the History of Daniel, and one to that of Elijah, In
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE.
'39
the series from the New Testament the most important are
those from the Passion of Christ, for they are among the
earliest attempts to represent this part of the life of Christ,
which was repugnant to
the early artists. In
fact, on this door there
is probably the earliest
known representation of
the Crucifixion. In the
largest of these compo-
sitions we find a wealth
and picturesqueness of
detail, a skill in the
juxtaposition of e p i -
sodes, and a freedom of
handling far surpassing
the work of the sarcoph-
agi. The last and most
poetic of the composi-
tions represents the
youthful Christ between
A and 1 in a laurel
circle, holding an open
scroll with the letters of
his symbolic name,
IX9T2. This work
stands for the symbolism
of Byzantine art in con-
trast with the purely
historical tendencies of
the Roman school. It
is imaginative and dramatic. At the same time, it stands half-
way between monumental sculpture and the smaller works in
ivory and the miniatures which form the bulk of the remaining
figured monuments of succeeding centuries.
FIG. 53. BRONZE STATUE OF HERACLIUS.
LETTA.
140 HISTORY OF. SCULPTURE.
The ivory box at Brescia is earlier than the door of S.
Sabina, and although it contains five subjects from the cycle of
the Passion, it stops short of the last painful episodes which
appear on the door. Contemporary with the developed style
of the sarcophagi, it has a poetry, delicacy, and dramatic
power far superior, and yet it shows that Italian art had not
yet felt the influence of Constantinople. This is but one of a
number of works which show that we must regard the majority
of carved sarcophagi as the work of artisans, for the sculptors
who produced the great majority of ivory carvings of the same
period have a style that is far more correct, more artistic, and
representative of the highest development of the period.
BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. The earliest monuments of Byzan-
tine sculpture are those in which we notice that the Chris-
tian art of the East had begun to throw off some of its Roman
characteristics and to show itself a descendant of Greek art.
This style announces itself early in the fifth century in such
works as the ivory reliefs of Galla Placidia and Valentinian,
and it ceases with the reign of Justinian, in the middle of the
sixth century, which marks the beginning of a rapid decay.
The works of this period in the Orient show a decided superior-
ity over contemporaneous sculpture in the West. There was
greater refinement, elevation of type, purity of form, and per-
fection of technique. In consequence of the loss of the
greater part of the works then produced, largely through their
destruction by the Iconoclasts, we are obliged to judge of their
style from portable works of sculpture carried by commerce
or conquest to the West and thus preserved. The most im-
portant of these are the carved ivories both secular and
religious, ecclesiastical diptychs, book-covers, and church
vessels. The new style of decorative sculpture which arose at
this time and spread from the East through the greater part of
Italy is well illustrated in the capitals and carved screens at
Ravenna, Constantinople, and Venice.
The downfall of sculpture was facilitated in the East by the
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE SCULPTURE.
persecution of the Iconoclasts, while in the West it had already
fallen into decay in consequence of the invasion of the Bar-
barians and the complete break in artistic tradition which
they caused. The history of Byzantine sculpture is almost a
blank to us during the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries.
Shortly before the year 900, the great artistic revival under the
Macedonian dynasty
enabled sculpture to
come to feeble life
once more. It never
was, however, a favor-
ite branch of art in the
Christian East. The
Oriental love of color
was so strong that it
alone was selected as a
medium both for fig-
ured and ornamental
decoration. The
Iconoclastic move-
ment, although de-
feated, had left a deep
mark, and it was di-
rected even more
against sculpture than
against painting, be- M^- 54. EPISCOPAL CHAIR OK MAXIM i ANUS.
Cause Sculpture W a S RAVENNA.
more closely connected with pagan worship, and could more
clearly produce the illusion of life the b&te noire vi the Icono-
clasts. The new school of Byzantine sculpture may be studied
in works extending for about three centuries, ending with the
capture of Constantinople in 1204. Its remaining works are
more numerous in Italy than in the East itself. Venice,
Sicily, and Southern Italy enable us to follow its different
phases with considerable accuracy.
142 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The finest collection of sarcophagi is that of
the Lateran Museum, Rome. Next in importance are the groups of sar-
cophagi at Aries and Ravenna. Numbers are scattered through the south
of France, Rhenish Germany, Spain, and throughout Italy. Early ivories
of importance are found in the Louvre, British Museum, Berlin Museum,
the Vatican, St. Petersburg. The Museum of Constantinople contains a
few interesting fragments of early Byzantine stone sculpture, and some
still remain in the churches of that city. The reliefs with which the
exterior of S. Marco, Venice, is studded are the best examples of later
Byzantine sculpture. The ivory carvings are scattered in many museums.
Of especial interest, however, are the collections at St. Petersburg and
Florence.
CHAPTER XV.
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the general histories, con-
sult : Bode, Beschreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen Epoche
im Museum zu Berlin ; Die italienische Plastik. Meyer, Lom-
bardische Denkmdler. Perkins, Historical Handbook of Italian
Sculpture ; Italian Sculpture ; Tuscan Sculptors. Schmarsow,
6 1 . Martin von Lucca und die Anfdnge der toskanischen Skulptur
im Mittelalter. Schultz, Die Kunst des Mittelalters in Unter-
Italien.
SCHOOLS OF NORTHERN, CENTEAL, AND SOUTHERN ITALY.
During the eleventh and twelfth centuries sculpture was the
least important of the fine arts in Italy. The sterility of
four centuries of figured compositions could not easily be
broken. In Italy the artistic revival centred on the develop-
ment of architecture far more than in other European coun-
tries, for public structures became the representatives of that
intensely local pride which distinguished the free Italian cities.
Hand in hand with the development of municipal institutions
and local independence went the erection of cathedrals and
town halls. Architecture in these works relied less for decora-
tion upon the aid of sculpture than upon that of painting.
At the same time, in certain parts of Italy, especially Lom-
bardy in the north and Apulia in the south, sculpture was used
as an integral part of architecture, in the decoration of por-
tals and other parts of the facade, very much as it was employed
in France and in Germany. But, studying Italy from one end
to the other, we find sculpture in this period confined usually
to independent works, especially church furniture that could
144
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
be executed in sculptors' workshops, and not in connection
with the erection of buildings. Such were pulpits, sepulchral
monuments, paschal candle-sticks, altar-fronts, and altar-taber-
nacles.
For purposes of study, Italy's schools of sculpture during
this period may be regarded as corresponding quite closely to
her general political divisions. The Lombard school is by far
FIG. 55. THE NATIVITY. PANEL FROM PULPIT AT PISA. NICCOLA PISANO.
the most important. Although extremely rude in the beginning,
it contains a germ of strength and character that appears in
full force in the school of Parma toward the close of the twelfth
century. The earliest in date are the schools of Pavia and
Milan. Somewhat later is the school at Verona, established
toward the close of the eleventh century, and possessed of less
crudity and more symmetry and delicacy. Finally, the group
of cities to the southeast of the province Parma, Borgo S.
Donnino, and Modena show the highest excellence of any
Italian Romanesque school . In them sculpture is employed with
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 145
more freedom and on a monumental scale, and the associa-
tion with architectural forms is more organic. We feel here
the influence of France. The sculptures on the fagade of the
Cathedral of Borgo S. Donnino are attributable to Benedetto
Antelami. Inside and outside the baptistery at Parma are
the finest works before Niccola Pisano. The Byzantine influ-
ence visible in Antelami 's works is even more evident in the
Pisan school, especially in the reliefs on the portals of the
baptistery. Venice also was under the artistic rule of Byzan-
tium when the revival of sculpture took place. S. Marco is
decorated with numerous sculptures of the eleventh, twelfth,
and thirteenth centuries which are almost as purely Byzantine
in style as the mosaics and the architecture of the church. In
metal work this influence of Byzantium is even more widely
extended. Throughout a large part of the south of Italy are
scattered churches with inlaid bronze doors, made either in
Constantinople by Greek artists or in Italy by their imitators,
who quickly passed to work in relief, as in the case of Bari-
sanus of Trani.
In Tuscany hardly any sculpture seems to have been executed
during the eleventh century, but in the twelfth several local
schools were founded, and in many cases the artists' names
have been preserved. Pisa is represented by Bonusamicus,
Biduinus, and especially Bonannus : to Lucca belongs Rober-
tus; to Pistoja, Ridolphmus and Enrichus. In the latter
half of the century Gntamons of Pisa threw off some of the
early rudeness and was more symmetrical and artistic. Still,
Tuscany lagged behind the rest of Italy in sculpture, her pro-
ductions being neither as monumental as the Lombard nor as
symmetrical as the Venetian.
In the south of Italy the provinces that were strongly impreg-
nated with Byzantine influence paid but slight attention to
sculpture. It was developed almost exclusively in the province
of Apulia. Sicily and the Neapolitan province devoted them-
selves entirely to the development of mosaic decoration. The
10
146 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
style of Apulian sculpture was so strongly Lombard as to lead
us to suppose that its artists belonged either to local Lombard
guilds or were artists from Lombardy itself.
Rome was perhaps the last of the great art centres to revive
sculpture, but the revival, early in the thirteenth century, was
of considerable importance, because it was directed, more than
was the case with the other schools, to the production of stat-
uary instead of bas-reliefs.
REVIVAL OF SCULPTURE AT PISA. At the time when Italy was
feeling in its ^architecture the influence of the new Gothic style,
shortly before the middle of the thirteenth century, there began
a revival in sculpture which brought it back for the first time
into the rank of an art possessed of aesthetic qualities. It is
customary to give the entire credit of this revival to the school
of Pisa and Tuscany founded by Niccola Pisano (1206 ?-
1 280 ?) ; but although this school certainly acquired paramount
influence throughout Italy, yet in this case, as in other vital
movements, the revival was almost simultaneous in different
parts of the peninsula. This was especially the case with the
southern school in the time of the Emperor Frederick II., and
in Rome at the same time. In both of these schools, as in the
Pisan school, we find a decided return to the study of antique
models. The southern sculptures at Ravello and Capua are
distinctly an effort at an imitation of Greek types. So are
the coins of Frederick II. We know that one of the Roman
sculptors had set up in his workshop a Roman statue of JEscu-
lapius, which he used as a model, and at whose base he carved
his name. Certainly, the Roman school was the centre of the
revival of classic forms in architecture and decoration as well
as in sculpture, and this movement in Rome and the South
may almost be called a proto- Renaissance movement.
The style of sculpture in Lombardy and in Tuscany in the
middle of the thirteenth century, when Niccola Pisano founded
his school, is well exemplified by the pulpit in the church of
San Giovanni at Pistoja. It is signed by a Lombard, Guido da
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
147
Como, and dated 1250. The general scheme of composition
is the same as that used by the later Pisan school, but the
figures are still heavy and lifeless. Niccola Pisano had
already begun his work at that time. His early style, as exem-
plified in the Cathedral of
Lucca, culminated in his
great pulpit in the baptistery
at Pisa in 1260. The nov-
elty of his genius consisted
in the invention not of new
subjects, but of powerful in-
dividual types of humanity,
and he was thoroughly suc-
cessful only in his heads and
in some of his nude figures.
For while his drapery was
fine in i t s e 1 f , his draped
figures were usually far too
heavy. His art was purely
humanistic,and not religious,
and as the time had not yet
come for divorcing art from
religion Niccola failed to
impose his style upon the
school. In fact, the Roman
types which he created are
found in their original form
only on the Pisan pulpit. In
later works, like the pulpit
at Siena, in which he was
assisted by his school, we
find a return to a more relig-
ious style. Niccola was
Succeeded in the leadership FIG - S^-CHARITY AND THE FOUR CAROL-
NAL VIRTUES (BY GIOVANNI PISANO).
Of the School by hlS SOn CAMPOSANTO, PISA.
148 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Giovanni Pisano (1250 ?-i32o?), and by this time the school
had acquired supremacy throughout Tuscany. As soon as Gio-
vanni was released from his father's superintendence, he showed
himself to be animated by the facile, dramatic, and natural-
istic element of the Gothic movement. He seems to have felt
the influence both of the Rhenish school (Strassburg) and the
school of northern France (Amiens). His work was hardly
equal to the best productions of either of these schools. In
Giovanni's earlier work, after his father's death, he was still
dignified, calm, and broad. In this style are the Virgin and
Child of the Cathedral of Florence and the tomb of Benedict
XI. at Perugia. He became possessed more and more, how-
ever, by over-dramatic tendencies, and this extravagant manner
of his is admirably illustrated in the pulpit at Pistoja. Gothic
sculpture in both France and Italy is essentially allegorical
and symbolic, wherever it does not attempt purely historical
compositions. Giovanni seems to have been the first to intro-
duce this element very strikingly into Italian sculpture, and
he introduced it permanently. His greatest successor, Andrea
Fisano (1273 ?-i3i9), developed and perfected this element
in the school, and was a master of broader conceptions, more
perfect technique, and more creative imagination than Gio-
vanni. He did for sculpture in this respect what Giotto did
at the same time for painting. Under his leadership between
1310 and 1335 the Gothic school of sculpture reached its
highest point of perfection in Italy. Its two greatest works
in Tuscany are the four piers of the fagade of the Cathedral of
Orvieto and the series of reliefs on Giotto's Campanile in
Florence, both of which are important, not only for the
beauty of their execution but as the greatest cycles of connected
subjects which the school produced. Andrea's best work, and
the most exquisite single production of the school, is his bronze
door for the baptistery at Florence, which served as a model to
Ghiberti for his first door nearly a hundred years afterwards.
The mantle of Andrea Pisano fell upon the shoulders of Andrea
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 149
Orcagna (i329?-i368), a universal genius architect, sculp-
tor, and painter and one of the strongest artists that Italy
produced. Unfortunately, he appears to have devoted only a
small part of his artistic energy to sculpture. His masterpiece
is the shrine in Or San Michele at Florence.
THE EEVIVAL ELSEWHERE. In the mean time other schools
had been founded outside of Pisa and Florence under the
auspices of these schools. Agostino di Giovanni and Agnolo
FIG. 57. PORTION OF BAPTISTERY GATE (.BY ANDREA PISANO). FLORENCE.
di Ventura (1330) were leaders at Siena. The style was carried
to Milan by Giovanni di Balduccio (1300-1347) of Pisa, a
pupil of Andrea, who established the Lombard branch. Tino
di Camaino (1315-1336) of Siena carried it to Naples. At
the same time, there still remained some local schools which
were more or less outside of this Pisan and Florentine in-
fluence. The most important of these appears to have been
in Lombardy, with its centre at Verona. This school extended
during the fourteenth century to many cities even outside of
150 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Lombardy, especially to Padua and Venice. Its development
can best be studied, in Verona itself, in the monuments of the
princes of the Scaliger family. The most notable family of ar-
tists of this school is that of the Campionesi. It showed great
originality in the development of different types of sepulchral
monuments, many of them on a scale of great magnificence. The
Campion! family worked at Bergamo, Pavia, Milan, and Monza.
An independent branch of this school was established in Venice,
shortly after the middle of the fourteenth century, under the
leadership of theMassegne family (Jacobello and Pietro Polo).
The great mass of works produced by the different sections
of this Lombard school is composed of sepulchral monuments
with reclining figures and overhanging canopies placed against
church walls. They hardly vary in type throughout the entire
territory permeated by this style.
THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL produced during the fourteenth
century a great number of sepulchral monuments of a different
style, but very few of them rise to any degree of merit, notwith-
standing their ever-increasing size, elaboration, and multitude
of figures. The Roman school came to an end shortly after
1300, in consequence of the removal of the Papacy to Avignon
and the consequent decadence of the city. But during the sixty
or seventy years before this time it had taken an important share
in the early revival. The artists that stand out with especial
prominence are two of the same name and family, Vassalletto I.
and II. (fl. 1220-1276), and Giovanni Cosmati (fl. 1290-1304).
This Roman school created the type of sepulchral monuments
which was adopted by the Pisan artists. The best early ex-
ample is the tomb of Pope Hadrian V. at Viterbo, in which
we see that combination of sculpture with architecture and
brilliant mosaic ornamentation which was the specialty of the
Roman school. Giovanni Cosmati was its last prominent rep-
resentative, and he consummated the interweaving of Gothic
forms into the earlier Roman style, which up to the middle of
the thirteenth century had been purely classic.
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN ITALY. I$I
MATERIALS. Marble and stone were the favorite materials
of the Italian sculptor. Italy had not yet regained with any
degree of perfection the knowledge of metal-casting which had
been lost during the dark centuries that had gone before. The
earliest works in metal are either made up of small hammered
plates fastened with nails to a background, as in the earliest
FIG. 58. THE BETROTHAL OF THE VIRGIN (&Y ORCAGNA). OR SAN MICHELE,
FLORENCE.
Greek work, or consist of inlays upon metals copied from
Byzantine originals. Reliefs in bronze were the first attempts
at casting. The chief worker in bronze at the close of the
twelfth century was Bonannus of Pisa, but Andrea Pisano (fl.
1330-1350) carried the work of relief-casting to great per-
fection. In the casting of figures in the round, success was
152 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
not attained until the Renaissance. Nor did Italian sculptors
develop sculpture in gold and silver to as high a degree of per-
fection as did the artists of the north of Europe. Not until
the middle of the fourteenth century do we find a general
production of works in enamelled gold and silver gilt ; and in
this work the Florentine and Sienese schools appear to have
had the monopoly. Ivory was used especially at Venice, but
to a very small degree as compared with the schools of northern
Europe. Stone and marble were used not only as in the
north of Europe, when the sculpture, was an integral part of
the construction, but also in those free objects of church
decoration for which metal was the favorite material, i.e.,
baptismal fonts.
SUBJECTS. Until the advent of the allegorical school,
shortly before 1300, Italian sculpture showed itself singularly
unimaginative. It confined itself to historical and legendary
subjects of the traditional, time-honored scenes of the Old
and New Testaments, and to the legends of local scenes. This
naturalistic and purely psychological character of Italian sculp-
ture is quite in harmony with the national character and with
the subsequent development of the sister art of painting.
The fourteenth century, with its predominant mystical, alle-
gorical, and often pessimistic tendency, is an abnormal
period in Italian history. In its sculpture at this time Italy
was more in touch with the development of the rest of Europe
than at any other period, and parallels to the greater part of
the allegorical subjects employed in her schools can be found
plentifully in the French cathedrals. It is probable that we
have here one of the centres of that strong philosophic,
mystical, and literary influence exerted by the French, through
the University of Paris, upon the principal Italian thinkers
and leaders of the Gothic period.
CHAPTER XVI.
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Adams, Recueil de Sculptures Go-
thiques. Baudot, La Sculpture Fran$aise au Moyen-age et a la
Renaissance. Emeric-David, Histoire de la Sculpture Fran^aise.
Frothingham, Jr., " The Revival of Sculpture in Europe in the
Thirteenth Century," in Am. Jour, of Arch., 1885. Gonse,
L 1 Art Gothique ; La Sculpture Fran$aise. Viollet-le-Duc,
Dictionnaire RaisonnJ de I Architecture Fran$aise. Voge, Die
Anfdnge des monumentalen Stiles im Mittelalter, Eine Unter-
suchung ilber die erste Blutezeit franzosischer Plastik.
EAKLY FRENCH SCTJLPTUEE. In the Romanized portion of
ancient Gaul, sculpture had followed the same style as in
Italy during the fourth and fifth centuries. But the period
that immediately followed the decay of early Christian sculp-
ture was barren of works. Apart from a few Gallic versions of
late Roman style, there is nothing that can be mentioned in
the domain of monumental sculpture until we reach the
Romanesque period in the eleventh century. The Carlovingian
artistic revival was confined in sculpture to the industrial arts ;
and especially ivory-carving, which was practised with great
success in the monasteries the centres of art during the ninth
century. In France, as in Italy, it was probably the lack of
Byzantine models in sculpture that prevented any revival cor-
responding to that which took place in architecture, arid
especially in painting.
EEVIVAL OF SCULPTURE. While a new period began for
architecture in France at the very threshold of the eleventh
century, a considerable time elapsed before a similar impulse
was given to sculpture. It was not until the close of the
154
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
eleventh century that distinct schools of figured sculpture
may be said to have come into existence in different parts of
FIG. 59. SCULPTURES OF PORTAL. ST. TROPHIME, ARLES.
France. The earliest provinces to feel the revival were those
of the south. And from that time until the close of the
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 155
Middle Ages a regular and progressive development can be
traced. Comparing the works of France and Italy during the
Middle Ages, we are struck by several fundamental differences.
In Italy sculpture was, as a rule, confined to the lintels of
the church portals and to articles of church furniture, such as
pulpits, baptismal fonts, sepulchral monuments, etc. This
precluded the development of great systematic cycles of sculp-
tors, giving an inorganic character to the art, as well as
shutting out much sculpture in the round. The French artist,
on the other hand, had always a strong perception of the rela-
tion of sculpture to architecture and of their cooperative
value. He crowded with life-sized or colossal statues the
recesses of the church porches and the niches of the facade,
while he rilled the archivolts and tympana of the doorways
with high-reliefs. In the south of France this display of
sculpture reached the. extreme of exuberance. At Angouleme
and at St. Gilles the fagades were almost entirely covered.
Even in cloisters, statues were used as caryatides and were set
against the piers. So early as the Romanesque period the
French schools showed a clear-cut individuality with deep local
distinctions, and they were able to give more individual expres-
sion to their figures than any other European school. The art
may be somewhat hieratic, the figures architecturally still or
artificially animated according to the schools, but there appears
in the heads something unknown to other Romanesque schools
in Europe a study of character and portraiture that is more
Latin in the south, more French and Gallic in the north and
centre. Strange as it may seem, the heads of the stiff figures
in the portals at Chartres, Corbeil, Le Mans works of the mid-
dle of the twelfth century are more true to the types among
which the sculptor lived and worked than the heads of the far
more advanced and artistically perfect statues of the Gothic
cathedrals of the following century. For Gothic sculpture
created types rather than reproduced models.
SCHOOLS OF THE SOUTH, The earliest of the French schools
1 56 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
of the south are those of Toulouse, Limoges, Provence, and
Burgundy. There is but little Byzantine influence shown in
any of them. At opposite poles stand Provence and Bur-
gundy, the former being influenced by the numerous Roman
works still extant. in the cities, while the latter owed nothing
apparently to the study of the past. The sculpture of Pro-
vence was dignified and quiet. The rich decorative details in
which it surpassed all other schools were welded with taste into
a harmonious unity so as to conceal partly the defects of the
individual figures, which, especially in the bas-reliefs, were
often heavy and ill-proportioned. In Burgundy, on the
other hand, the technique was far more highly finished, and
the artists endowed with a more vivid fancy and invention.
They seemed to struggle to express an irrepressible life and
energy, and as a result often produced figures awkward and dis-
torted. They were gifted also with a keen sense of the gro-
tesque and the horrible. The school of Toulouse had not the
repose, naturalness, and harmony of the Provencal, nor the fancy
or energy of the Burgundian school. It united high finish with
artificially studied postures and drapery, and attempted some-
times dramatic effects. A fifth school extends from Cahors
to Angouleme, adjoining the province of Poitou and occupying
part of Perigord. This school was. in certain ways an advance
upon all others in France during the first half of the twelfth
century. Its most representative works are in the portal of the
Cathedral of Cahors and the facade of the Cathedral of Angou-
leme. In these works the double influence of the Carlo-
vingian school and of Byzantine style is extremely striking.
At Angouleme the entire facade is covered with groups and
single figures in high-relief, belonging, with but few excep-
tions, to the grand scene of the Last Judgment, which was the
favorite subject of Romanesque sculpture in France. The fig-
ure en aureole suggests the same sculptor as that of Cahors.
The school hardly seems able to achieve the coordination of
architecture and sculpture so well as the more southern
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
157
schools. The sculpture is in no way organic. There is a
tendency to violent action only less extravagant than that in
the Burgundian school ; while in other figures there is a nearer
approach to beauty, without any attempt at realism.
SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FEANCE. The last born of these
schools, that of the Ile-de-France, carried out from the begin-
ning the most perfect alliance of the two arts of architecture
and sculpture. Many of the figures on the old portals of
FIG. 60. ROOF SCULPTURES. NOTRE DAME, PARIS.
Chartres, Le Mans, Bourges, St. Denis, St. Loup, etc., seem
almost integral parts of the architecture, so well do the long
and immovable figures, with their narrow parallel folds of
drapery, harmonize with the general lines. The great advance
made by this school is in the us'e of statues of considerable
size in the lower part of all the recesses of the main portals,
transferring to this part the centre of sculptural interest. It
was inevitable that by this subordination sculpture should lose
in part its freedom of form and that the interest of the details
158 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
should be sacrificed to the general effect. But it was fortunate,
for the sake of the completeness of Gothic art, that the new
style of architecture arose in the very province where sculpture
was best prepared to become its intelligent handmaid and
fellow-laborer, and to carry out in plastic form the encyclo-
paedic conception of the builders of the great cathedrals. By
a gradual change during the second half of the twelfth cen-
tury, the severe stiffness of the early sculpture of the Ile-de-
France was lost, a greater suppleness and freedom of action
were introduced ; and about 1210 to 1220 sculpture had become
technically able in this school to express the great variety of
artistic subjects that were given to it to execute in connection
with the new buildings then being erected over the whole of
northern France.
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT. Among the earliest examples of
the new Gothic style are the portal of the Cathedral of Laon,
and the western portals of Notre Dame in Paris, finished about
1225. The next half-century saw the execution of a great mass
of statuary and reliefs for the new cathedrals, and one stands
amazed at the unexampled number and variety. Each cathe-
dral had several thousand figures, as instanced in such structures
as Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, and Notre Dame in Paris. In
these works the irregular and unsystematic selection of subjects,
which prevailed during the Romanesque period had given place
to an elaborate system and classification under the influence
of the literary leaders of the scholastic period. In the study
of this maze of sculptures the best key is that most universal
of mediaeval encyclopaedias, the Speculum Universal, written
by Vincent of Beauvais, the tutor of the children of St. Louis
of France. The aim of the sculptors was to represent the
creation, character, and history of the world, religious, sym-
bolic, ethical, and historical, in a series of epics in stone.
As in Byzantine painting, so in Gothic sculpture, every subject
had its position in the cathedral, and was a distinct link in a
long chain of kindred themes, to displace which would be to
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 159
rob them of the greater part of their significance. The period
of activity and perfection lasted from about 1225 to the close
of the century. It is not easy to characterize the style, on
account of the multitude and the multiplicity of work, and the
almost complete absence of artists' names around which to
group any distinct class of works. There is, in a certain sense,
a resemblance to the developed Greek art of the second half
of the fifth century B.C. in these sculptures, and yet there is
evidently no imitation of Greek models. It is also evident
that both the human body and drapery were closely studied
from models ; that, in fact, the Gothic figure was usually con-
ceived by the sculptor at first without drapery. At the same
time, it seems that, while a few artists went to nature and to
models, they nevertheless sought to establish, as the Greeks
did, canons of form. These canons were geometrical, and
were so elaborated as to cover every usual attitude of the
human body. By following these formulas fixed by the mas-
ters, even ordinary artists could obtain the same grace and
poise of figure. An illustration of this fact is afforded by the
drawings in the sketch-book of one of these artists Villard de
Honnecourt. It was in the study of drapery that the greatest
success was obtained, a success almost vying with that of the
Greek masters.
The sculpture of the late thirteenth and of the fourteenth
century loses some of the dignity and repose of the earlier
work. It is more humorous and more dramatic, and in seek-
ing after effectiveness it often falls into artificiality. It is apt
to charm by its quaint brightness, or by a touch of satire, and
its figures, with their alluring smile, flexible grace, and high
finish, evidently aim at the more seductive and realistic qual-
ities of art. In fact, modern writers have seen in this later
development of Gothic sculpture in the north of France a
renaissance of psychological sculpture which anticipates in
many ways the Italian Renaissance of the fifteenth century. At
the close of this period the centre of artistic action shifts from
i6o
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
the province of Paris northeastward to Flanders and Northern
Burgundy.
In the cathedrals of the thirteenth century the sculpture
was concentrated upon the exterior, and centred in and about
the portals. The main portal on the western fa9ade consisted,
as a rule, of three great pointed arches. The side portals in
the north and south transepts were sometimes single, some-
times double ; and besides these there were at times secondary
doorways, always ornamented with sculpture. At first the
FIG. 6l. SCULPTURED FIGURES, LEFT PORTAL OF CATHEDRAL AT RHEIMS.
recesses of the portals were opened up in the thickness of the
fagade walls (Notre Dame, Paris), but soon they were made to
project more or less, as at Amiens and Rheims ; sometimes
they projected so far as to form closed porches, as at Chartres.
In all cases large-sized statues were placed in single rows in
the recesses, their heads reaching to the spring of the arch.
To each figure there corresponded an archivolt above, in which
the place of the primitive moulding was taken by a line of
figures in high-relief, such as choirs of angels and series of the
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. l6l
prophets and the apostles . The tympanum which they encircled
'was filled with a large composition, and below it one of smaller
size filled the lintel. Beside and between the portals there
were inserted into the walls, especially so far as to form a
dado around the base line, series of small symbolic composi-
tions in low-relief. In the cathedrals of developed style a
gable usually surmounted each arch of the portals, and within
each one was a composition in relief or in the round. Above
the main portal on the western front was usually a gallery
filled with statues of the kings of France. Many disjointed
compositions and single figures were scattered over other parts
of the exterior.
VINCENT OF BEATJVAIS divided his encyclopaedia, or Uni-
versal Mirror, into four sections Nature, Science, Ethics, and
History. The order of his encyclopaedia is best followed in
the Cathedral of Chartres, and here we have a good illustration
of the artistic rendering of scholastic ideas. His first Mirror
is Nature, illustrated in the northern porch by thirty-six re-
liefs and seventy-five statues, beginning with the creation of
the heavens and the earth, and closing with the expulsion of
Adam and Eve from Paradise. The second Mirror shows the
first step in the redemption of man in the natural order by
labor. It is developed at Chartres in a series of one hundred
and three figures on the north porch. Here are illustrated the
labors of the country in their different seasons, the mechan-
ical arts of the towns, and the liberal or intellectual arts. The
third Mirror shows how man takes a still higher step in his
regeneration in the spheres of morality and religion. This
moral mirror is illustrated by one hundred and forty statues at
Chartres, symbolizing four orders of virtues, the personal, the
domestic, or family, virtues, the political or social, and the
religious, to each one of which the contrary vice is opposed.
Each one is typified by a figure and a symbolical composition.
Finally, the fourth Mirror expresses the history of the world
from the first scenes in the Old Testament to the Last Judg-
XI
1 62 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
ment, and aims at typifying the most important incidents in
the career of mankind. It is natural that a much larger num-
ber of compositions and statues should be devoted to this part
of the subject than to any other. The whole mirror, even in
this partial reproduction at Chartres, is represented by nearly
two thousand figures. Treated in this fashion, sculpture was
made to represent, almost as completely as literary productions,
FIG. 62. SCULPTURES OF SOUTH DOOR, CATHEDRAL AT AMIENS.
the complex thought and knowledge of the period, and its
study could not but be of extreme value.
MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUE. Metal work never attained in
Northern France to the popularity that it had in Germany and
Flanders. There is no great French Gothic school of gold
and silver work, like the Rhenish school. Monumental cast-
ing in bronze reached, it is true, perfection, especially in
sepulchral work such as the slab of Bishop Evrard de Fouil-
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 163
loy, the founder of the Cathedral of Amiens. The Gothic
artists were essentially stone-cutters, like the Greeks. They
conceived their works in connection with the monument for
which they were designed. If they carved them in their
ateliers, they did so with strict regard for the exact position
which the work was to occupy when in place, and modified
the proportions of the figures accordingly to suit the perspec-
tive. But often the reliefs must have been carved on the spot.
We must conceive of the clergy as exercising general super-
vision over the selection and arrangement of the compositions,
and we must imagine one artist having, as Pheidias did in the
Parthenon, a general supervision of the whole work. In the
thirteenth century, when so many architects were sculptors,
it is probable that in many cases this man was the architect
himself.
There is little to say of technical matters. The apprentice-
ship in this was served during the Romanesque period, and the
Gothic sculptor had, from the very beginning, the same mas-
tery over the technical part of his art as the Greeks in the fifth
century. Like the Greeks they were fond of polychromy,
and a complete recognition of the pervasiveness and impor-
tance of this characteristic of Gothic sculpture is almost as
new in art criticism as is the same recognition for early Greek
sculpture. The restored statues inside the Ste. Chapelle in
Paris, and a few statues over high altars, give some idea of the
richness and strength of the coloring employed.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Mediaeval French sculpture may be best
studied in the cathedrals and churches throughout France. For compara-
tive purposes, the collection of casts of monumental sculptures at the
Trocadero and of smaller originals at the Cluny Museum, Paris, are
invaluable.
.CHAPTER XVII.
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the general histories, con-
sult : Bode, Geschichte der deutschen Plastik. Forster, Die
deutsche Kunst in Wort und Bild ; Denkmdler deutscher Bau
kunst, Bildnerei und Malerei. Ltibke, Geschichte der deutschen
Kunst. Mithoff, Kunstdenkmdler und Alterthiimer im Han-
noverschen.
EARLY RHENISH AND SAXON SCHOOLS. The development of
Christian sculpture in Germany began only during the Carlo-
vingian period, and it was even then confined almost exclusively
to carving in ivory. In these works we see the imitation both
of early Christian and of Byzantine models. The principal
centre of this early school was the Monastery of St. Gall, which
was the focus of both art and learning during the early Carlo-
vingian period (circa 800 to 900). Among the artists of this
monastery, Tutilo was the most famous. The style spread from
St. Gall to the monasteries of Germany, such as Reichenau and
Hildesheim, which took in hand the task of spreading culture
in Rhenish, and especially Saxon, Germany. With the advent
of the dynasty of the Othos, in the tenth century, there was
a great development of art in these two provinces, resulting in
the establishment of two distinct schools, from which sprang
all those which afterwards came to exist throughout Germany.
Great cathedrals and monastic churches were erected, surpass-
ing in size all contemporary structures in the rest of Europe;
and yet there was no corresponding development of monu-
mental sculpture at the beginning of this period. It is inter-
esting to note that ivory carving, which continued to monopolize
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. 165
the best efforts of the sculptor, developed on entirely different
lines from the few known specimens of large monuments.
FIG. 63. BOOK COVER ATTRIBUTED TO TUTILO. MONASTERY OF ST. GALL.
The Rhenish and Saxon schools of the tenth century revert
1 66 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
directly to early Christian and Byzantine originals without the
mediation of Carlovingian influence. It is easy to explain the
double current. On the one hand, the assumption of imperial
dignity, the expeditions of the Othos to Italy, the consequent
familiarity with the remains of classic and early Christian art,
made a deep impression upon the upper clergy, who were the
directing force in the renovation of German art. On the
other hand, the marriage of Otho II. to the imperial Byzantine
princess Theophanu, with the consequent advent of Byzantine
artists and works of art, and the close intercourse with Con-
stantinople, exercised a strong influence on the formation of
more than one branch of German art, notably such branches of
industrial art as ivory carving and small work in gold, silver,
and bronze, as well as enamel.
Some of the German work of the early Saxon school is so
perfect a reproduction of early Christian or Byzantine work as
to make deception possible. There is the same choice and
arrangement of figures, treatment of drapery, and style of
ornament. Examples of this are the reliquary of Emperor
Henry at Quedlinburg, with its similarity to an early Chris-
tian sarcophagus; the book-cover of Otho I. at Milan, with
its portrait-like figures and Byzantine arrangement of the com-
position. As original characteristics we find a strong natural-
ism, an energy of movement, and an individuality of type
that foreshadow later Romanesque sculpture. In works like
the Crucifixion at Liverpool (with the Maries at the sepulchre
below) there is a grace and delicacy that remind one of the
best Byzantine work of the time of Theodoric and Justinian.
Evidently, there was an idealistic as well as a realistic current.
The contemporary Rhenish school was not only far less produc-
tive, but its works are lacking in true plastic sense. In this
region architecture and painting were the favorite arts, and
sculpture never gained a strong foothold until the time of the
Gothic cathedrals.
EISE OF MONUMENTAL SCULPTUBE. Early in the seventh
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. 167
century we can trace the rise in Saxony of the first school of
monumental sculpture. Strangely enough, the material in
which it worked was not stone, but bronze. The centre of this
school was Hildesheim and its founder Bishop Bernward,
whose journey to Italy had given him a knowledge of works of
ancient monumental sculpture. His admiration for the col-
umns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius led to his imitation of
them in a bronze column with similar spiral bands of reliefs,
erected in 1022. Already he had completed in 1015 bronze
doors for his cathedral. The thick set figures of the column
remind us of the reliquary of Henry the Fowler, while the
animated and slender figures of the doors, with their naive
directness, are quite unlike any contemporary work, but show
interesting and original use of semi-classic drapery, and in the
action a trace of the influence of Carlovingian ivories. At
the same time that these and other works of monumental
sculpture were being executed at Hildesheim, this school
developed also the more usual forms of metal work applied to
smaller articles of church furniture, such as book covers, can-
dlesticks, sacred vessels, and reliquaries. In general, it must
be confessed that, throughout the eleventh and twelfth centu-
ries, German artists even the best of the Saxon school
showed great inferiority in their monumental work as com-
pared with objects of smaller size for which alone good models
could be found in Byzantine and early Christian art. The
goldsmith school that produced small works in gold, silver,
enamel, and bronze had its centre not in Saxony but on the
Rhine, and its productions have never been surpassed in beauty
and richness. Its creation was due, without doubt, to the
direct influence of imported Byzantine models, and perhaps
also to emigrant Greek artists.
The monumental sculptor labored, therefore, under a disad-
vantage. He did not at first become emancipated from the
influence of the industrial arts, but produced articles of church
furniture in metal such as doors, altar-fronts, and baptismal
168
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
fonts. Such are the doors of Augsburg, Verona, and Gnesen,
the gold altar-front of Basel, the altar at Goslar, and the font
at Merseburg. The magnificent gold altar-front given to the
Cathedral of Basel by King Henry II. is not only a good exam-
FIG. 64. BRONZE DOORS, CATHEDRAL OF GNESEN. (BODE, " GES. D. D. PLASTIK," P. 31.)
pie of an art leaning towards the monumental, but is one of
the most conclusive proofs of Byzantine influence at the begin-
ning of the eleventh century. Bronze was soon applied to a
style of monument destined to become most popular in the
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. 169
late Middle Ages the sepulchral slab. One of the earliest
and finest works of this kind is the monument of King
Rudolph of Swabia (1080) in the Cathedral of Merseburg. In
all branches of metal sculpture, Germany easily excelled the
other countries of Europe during the entire Romanesque and
early Gothic periods.
Of stone sculpture there are but few traces during the
eleventh century. Even capitals carved with figures, so com-
mon in Italy and France, are rarely found. There are, how-
ever, some most interesting examples of sculpture in wood,
especially colossal crucifixes in the Munich and Nuremberg
museums, and some figures at St. Emmeran, Regensburg. The
southern school of Bavaria worked side by side with the Saxon
school in all kinds of subjects, and produced quite as remark-
able works. On the whole, as we review the development of
German sculpture during the eleventh century, we get ah im-
pression of disappointment. The sense of a free and creative
art given at the beginning was not followed up by a logical
development. There was a relapse on the one hand to bar-
barism, and on the other hand to a mere imitation of Byzantine
models and a reversion to the smaller branches of the art.
TWELFTH-CENTUEY SCHOOLS. As the twelfth century opened
a change came. Metal sculpture applied to monumental work
had had its day, and failed. Stone sculpture began to be used
in connection with architecture. Italy and France had both
slightly preceded Germany in this happy innovation, which
was to work so complete a revolution in the history of sculp-
ture. Shortly after the beginning of the century, German
artists conceived a way of connecting the two arts that appears
to have been original with them and productive of excellent
results. This was the use of iconic statuary in the interiors
of cathedrals, especially in the choirs. These statues were
adossed to the piers or columns sometimes even against the
walls and represented empresses and other princely founders
or benefactors of the church. Later we find allegorical per-
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
sonages, such as sibyls, joined to these purely historic figures.
By the side of the three schools already referred to the
Saxon, the Rhenish, and the Bavarian there arose a fourth
school in Westphalia, which bore some relation to that part of
the Saxon school which had its centre in the cities of the Harz
Mountains. Its finest work is the famous colossal rock-relief
on the Externstein near Horn, representing the Descent from
the Cross, in which a weird symbolism is combined with con-
siderable capacity for the expression of emotion. When the
school attempted figures on a smaller scale the result was usu-
ally crude. During this century the Rhenish school produced
little of monumental sculpture, while revelling in the smaller
branches of the art especially in goldsmith work. In the
southern or Bavarian school there was a marked decadence,
with increased crudity of style and barbarous weirdness of con-
ception. Such works as the portal of the Schottenkirche at
Regensburg or the pier in the crypt of Freising show to what
length this extravagance could be carried. The secondary
schools of Franconia and Alsace show similar tendencies. The
only noble works of the period belong to the Saxon school and
its neighbors in the Netherlands. The fine traditions of bronze
casting are continued in the tomb slabs, such as that of Arch-
bishop Frederick at Magdeburg, and a number at Quedlinburg.
The summit of perfection was reached in the famous bronze
baptismal font executed in 1112 by Lambert Patras, of Dinant,
for St. Bartholomew at Liege. The nobility and classic sim-
plicity of its figures anticipated the best qualities of the sculp-
ture of the following century.
THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. This is the golden age of Ger-
man sculpture. Never before did it reach such artistic perfec-
tion or such power. The more material and unsesthetic side
of the naturalism that was inherent in the German plastic sense
was kept in abeyance by a calm dignity and an idealism that
were soon to vanish and by a breadth of execution and of con-
ception that were soon to give way to the preciosity, the love
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY.
I/I
of exact detail, of overloaded decoration, and of strange and
exaggerated expressions that characterized late Gothic and
Renaissance sculpture in Germany.
This development is contemporary with the corresponding
efflorescence of sculpture in
France in the service of Gothic
architecture. France had started
the revolution early in the twelfth
century, and in the second decade
of the thirteenth had perfected it.
Germany was undoubtedly influ-
enced more quickly by the Gothic
sculpture of France than by her
architecture. Hence a radical
difference between the two coun-
tries up to the close of the thir-
teenth century, for German sculp-
ture was until then combined not
with Gothic but with pure Ro-
manesque or pointed architecture.
Hence we do not find in Germany
great cycles of reliefs filling
archivolts, tympana, and galler-
ies, ornamenting gables and pin-
nacles, extending, in fact, over
the whole surface of the walls.
The monuments are fewer and
more sober, less decorative and
less individual. There is no
attempt to represent in stone the
universe in all its aspects and
its history. In the interiors are
placed statues of the founders or benefactors of the church,
between the arches figures of angels, against the walls of the
choir the apostles. At the altar is a group of the Crucifixion
FIG. 65. STATUE OK SIBYL. CATHE-
DRAL OK BAMBEKG. (BODE, P. 66.)
1/2 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
with the Virgin and St. John; and on the pulpit, reliefs from
the Old and New Testament. On the exterior the tympana
of the portals sometimes have reliefs representing such sub-
jects as the Adoration of the Kings and the Last Judgment,
while against the jambs are figures of the prophets and evan-
gelists, of the Wise and Foolish Virgins, of Adam and Eve,
etc. As the century progressed, the cycle of subjects was
enlarged under French influence. This century is character-
ized by the almost complete abandonment of metal, and a
resort to the use of stone and, at times, of stucco.
LATER SAXON SCHOOL. The Saxon school again took the
lead, but the centre was in the south of the province, and with
it was closely connected the Franconian school. In North
Saxony (Harz) the style was softer and more graceful, and had
more elements both of classic and Byzantine tradition. The
more southern, and especially the Franconian, school showed
greater strength and individuality. The reliefs of prophets
and apostles in the choir of Bamberg are of intense interest
for their rare combination of naturalism and tradition. The
heads are not merely portrait-like, as in the case of some of
the French sculptures in the Ile-de-France, but are full of a
life and an energy foreign to the French works, and which were
to give way even in these German schools to a calmer and
higher ideal. Returning to the North Saxon school, we find
that Hildesheim, which led in the earlier period, still remained
an important centre. There are great distinction and delicacy
in the apostles and angels in stucco of the choir of St. Michael,
which dates from the very beginning of this period. The same
school is found at Hecklingen and Hamersleben, but its purest
and finest development is seen in the simple and classic figures
of apostles in the choir of the church of Halberstadt, where
the awkwardness of the earlier Hildesheim reliefs has been
replaced by grace and harmony of life.
The style of South Saxony, with its heavier and more impas-
sive figures, that remind us sometimes of Niccola Pisano's
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. 173
Pisan pulpit, is exemplified by the pulpit and Crucifixion
group at Wechselberg and the famous Golden Gate at the
Cathedral of Freiberg both works of the middle of the thir-
teenth century showing the influence of France. The same
school produced at the same time that noblest of early German
sepulchral monuments, the tomb of Henry the Lion and his
wife Mathilda, in the Cathedral of Brunswick. A quite differ-
ent spirit is shown in the few monuments of the Westphalian
school, which fell into exaggeration of sentiment and atti-
tude in its masterpiece the Cathedral of Magdeburg.
The culmination of German sculpture is reached in the
groups of statues in the Cathedrals of Naumburg and Barn-
berg, executed between 1250 and 1300. The princely men and
women, benefactors of the churches, whose portrait statues
stand against the piers are the ideals sung by the Minnesingers.
There is more realism in some of the Naumburg statues, and
greater simplicity. In both, the handling of the rich, heavy
drapery is superb and very original ; for instance, in the statue
of the man who has thrown his long robe over his right shoul-
der, hiding his left arm in its folds. The most remarkable
among the Bamberg statues is perhaps the ancient Sibyl.
LATER RHENISH SCHOOL. At the close of this period a new
centre of activity sprang up in the Rhenish province, and showed
itself in the earliest sculptures of the Cathedrals of Strassburg
and Freiburg. When Gothic architecture finally established
its sway in Germany, at the close of the thirteenth century,
sculpture had already passed its period of highest perfection.
The earliest monuments, it is true, came at the best time (circa
1250), as, for example, the sculptures of the Church of the
Virgin at Trier, of Wimpfen im Thai, of Freiburg im Breisgau,
and of the Cathedral of Strassburg. While acknowledging
the supremacy of the new French Gothic in their architecture,
the artists of these churches at the same time modified their
sculpture under the same influence. The Rhenish school,
especially, copied the lightness and grace of the French work,
174
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and substituted individual types for the strong realistic figures
of the Saxon school. A further and later development of the
same style appears in the numerous sculptures of the Cologne
Cathedral. In these works we
find the same multiplication of
minute figures in archivolts and
reliefs as in France, but the ex-
aggeration of this style is reached
during the fourteenth century by
the school of Nuremberg, which
is far more characteristically Ger-
man. Here there are usually no
large portal statues to give
strength and breadth to the com-
position. There is a great ex-
panse of reliefs, with many small
figures which seem but the enlarge-
ment of ivory carvings. This
style of the Nuremberg school
exercised a wide influence. Some
parts of Germany retained the
massive style which was but a
development of the old Saxon
school. A good example of this
is the decorations of the Cathe-
dral of Magdeburg.
RISE OF NATURALISM. As the
time of the Renaissance ap-
proached, naturalism again be-
came the predominant character-
istic of German sculpture, and
its temporary union with architecture was severed forever.
Except in the Rhenish province, it had never been a success.
The invasion of realism led to the increased use of color in
connection with sculpture, and to the adoption of wood as the
FIG. 66. FIGURE FROM THE LEFT
PORTAL OF THE CATHEDRAL OF
STRASSBURG.
MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE IN GERMANY. 1, ^
favorite material. The masterpieces of the new school are
altar-pieces, often of most elaborate composition, with a ten-
dency to exaggerated dramatic effects in the expression and
attitudes, to overloaded details in the backgrounds and the
accessories, to a loss of purity of outline in mass and detail.
Individual artists now came to the front and established schools.
The change from the Gothic to the naturalistic style took place
about the middle of the fifteenth century.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The best examples of the ivory sculptures of
the Carlovingian period can be studied in the following museums : Louvre,
Cluny, and Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris ; British Museum and South
Kensington, London ; and in the Berlin Museum. Monumental sculp-
ture is to be studied in the churches. Besides the churches, however,
there are a few museums of great value for monumental sculpture,
especially the national museums of Munich and Nuremberg.
CHAPTER XVIII.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Bode, Die italienische Plastik ;
Italienische Bildhauer der Renaissance ; Denkmdler der Sculp-
tur der Renaissance in Toskana. Bode und Tschudi, Be-
schreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen Epoche in Konigl.
Museum zu Berlin. Burchardt (Bode's Edition), Der Cicerone.
Burchardt, The Renaissance in Italy. Cavallucci et Molinier,
Les Delia Robbia. Dohme, Kunst und Kunstler Italiens. Mar-
quand, " A Search for Delia Robbia Monuments in Italy," in
Scribner's Mag., Dec., 1893. Muntz, JHistoire de V Art pendant
la Renaissance : Italic ; La Renaissance en Italie et en France ;
Les Pre'curseurs de la Renaissance. Paravicini , Le Arte del Di-
segno in Italia. Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors ; Italian Sculptors ;
Historical Handbook of Italian Sculpture ; Ghiberti et son
jfrcok. Reymond, La Sculpture Florentine ; Les Delia Robbia.
Robinson, Catalogue of Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages and
Period of the Revival of Art in the S. Kensington Museum.
Schmarsow, Donatello. Semper, Donatello, seine Zeit und
Schule ; Donatello' s Leben und Werke. Symonds, Renaissance
in Italy : The Fine Arts. Tschudi, Donatello e la Critics,
Moderna. Vasari (Milanesi's Edition), Le Vite de* piu Excel-
lenti Pittori, Scultori ed Architettori. Yriarte, Matteo Civitali.
Jahrbuch der Konigl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen.
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS. The transition from
feudalism to monarchy, which occurred in Spain, France,
Germany, and England, had no precise parallel in Italy. Feu-
dalism was a northern, not a southern, institution, and was
foreign to the Italian spirit. A variety of political conditions
existed in Italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
177
There were the Duchies of Savoy and of Milan, the Republics
of Genoa, Venice, Florence, and Siena; a large portion of
Central Italy was comprised in the States of the Church ; and
the whole of Southern Italy and Sicily belonged to the King-
dom of Naples. Nevertheless, a tendency toward monarchy
FIG. 67. STORY OF ABRAHAM (BY GHIBERTl). BAPTISTERY GATE, FLORENCE.
prevailed. Petty provinces were subjected by the stronger, and
families and individuals acquired power superior to that of the
commune. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the patron-
age of the arts came largely from families like the Visconti and
Sforza at Milan, the Gonzaga family at Mantua, the Monte-
feltro at Urbino, the Malatesta at Rimini, the Este at Ferrara
12
178 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and Modena, the Bentivoglio at Bologna, and the Medici at
Florence. The same furtherance of the arts was shown by the
popes of Rome, especially by Sixtus IV. and Julius II.
A similar transformation took place in the status of the
artist. The committee in charge of the construction of the
Duomoof Florence yielded to an individual architect Brunel-
leschi. Similarly, the habit of consigning the construction of
baptistery and sacristy doors, high altars and pulpits, to two or
more sculptors passed away, and greater recognition was given
to the result of a single mind. In fact, the history of all the
arts at this period becomes less and less a history of schools,
and is more and more concerned with the works of individual
artists. If individualism be an important feature of Renais-
sance civilization, a no less striking characteristic is its natural-
ism. The growth of physical and historical science, the culti-
vation of classical literature, the increase of comfort and
pleasure in all forms of social life, are witnesses to a new spirit.
This is seen in sculpture in the increase of contemporary sub-
jects as well as in the change from a conventional to a more
naturalistic treatment of proportions, -anatomical structure,
drapery, and perspective.
A third characteristic, implied in the name Renaissance, was
a revival of classical subjects, methods, and forms. Through-
out the Middle Ages, Italy never wholly lost the remembrance
of Greek and Roman art, but its power was seriously checked
by German and Lombard and Frankish influences. The return
to classical forms in sculpture maybe said to have begun at the
time of Niccola Pisano, and, though checked in the fourteenth
century, it continued in the fifteenth century. Through a
greater part of the fifteenth century Gothic traditions survived
in many directions, but usually assumed something of a classic
garb. The classic spirit did not have an all-controlling influ-
ence until the early sixteenth century.
SUBJECTS. The demand for sculpture in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries remained chiefly ecclesiastical. The exte-
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 179
riors of churches were decorated with sculptures, not only
around and over the portals, but sometimes the entire fagade
was covered with statues in niches and reliefs of figured or
decorative design. In the interiors were sculptured altar-
pieces, pulpits, choir -galleries, fonts, ciboria, tabernacles,
candlesticks, single statues of saints and angels, crucifixes,
Madonnas, and sometimes large groups of statues. Cathedral,
baptistery, and sacristy doors were frequently cast in bronze
and adorned with reliefs; while the choir stalls were orna-
mented with figured carvings and inlaid pictures of variegated
woods. On the interior walls of Renaissance churches were
large architectural tombs, commemorating not merely ecclesi-
astical rulers, but also generals, statesmen, poets, and mere
private individuals. The sepulchral slab on the church floor
was not infrequently carved in relief, with the figure projecting
sometimes above the floor or set upon a raised base.
Palaces and private houses were provided with sculptural
ornament about their portals, with friezes and chimney pieces,
carved or moulded ceilings, decorative furniture, portrait
statues and busts, statuettes, and a host of useful objects
which were carved or beaten or moulded into beautiful forms.
Open squares and private gardens were adorned with statues and
fountains and vases, executed by the most distinguished sculp-
tors. Even the country highways had their shrines, with cruci-
fixes or reliefs of Madonnas or saints, frequently a reproduction
in terracotta or stucco of the work of a master.
The subjects of ecclesiastical sculpture were naturally selected
from the Old and New Testament and from the lives of the
saints. The Madonna with the Child is the most universal and
characteristic subject during the Early Renaissance. Later she
appears frequently accompanied by saints. Legends from the
life of Christ, of the Madonna, of St. Francis or of special
patron saints, were common in sculpture as in painting. Deco-
rative motives of classic origin were freely introduced into
ecclesiastical sculpture, but mythological subjects more rarely.
i8o
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Amorini, or Cupids, were, however, used so frequently as to
render the putto, or child, a characteristic figure in Early
Renaissance sculpture. By the middle of the fifteenth century
such subjects as Leda and the Swan and Jupiter and Ganymede
were introduced upon the very portals of St. Peter's in Rome.
In sculpture of a civic or a domestic character, classic themes
were frequently em-
ployed. Ancient
myths were retrans-
lated into sculp-
ture ; ancient gems
and coins and
medals and statues,
which were now
being collected by
wealthy patrons of
art, and sometimes
by artists them-
selves, became an
important source of
inspiration both for
subjects and for
forms.
MATERIALS AND
TECHNIQUE. The
precious metals,
gol d and silver,
played a less im-
portant role than in
the Gothic period. The goldsmith's atelier continued for a
time to be the art school from which issued architects, sculp-
tors, and painters. But his influence was gradually restricted
to work in the precious metals, and the arts became more
independent of each other. Bronze now assumed a more im-
portant role, being used for reliefs first, then for statues, busts,
FIG. 68. HEAD OF THE ST. GEORGE (BY DONATELLO).
OR SAN MICHELE, FLORENCE.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. l8l
candelabra, and minor objects. It was a favorite material
with Renaissance artists, not only on account of its durability
and ductility, but also because of its brilliant effect when
gilded. Considerable difficulty was experienced at first in
bronze-casting. The form was crude, and the chisel had to be
used freely in finishing. The early bronzes were not highly
polished. In time these difficulties vanished, and a high
degree of technical perfection was reached in the sixteenth
century.
In stone sculpture the growing demand for delicate and
refined form, notably in decorative detail, led to an extensive
use of marble and the finer calcareous stones, such as the
pietra d' Istria, and the finer sandstones, such as the pietra
serena. The white Carrara marble was extensively used for
monumental sculpture, but was softened in color by the use of
wax. Details such as the hair, angels' wings, ornaments of
robes, and architectural mouldings were usually gilded. The
background, when not sculptured, was commonly colored a
grayish blue. Highly polychromatic marble sculpture was
rare.
The sphere of sculpture was considerably enlarged by the
use of terracotta. This afforded a cheap substitute for mar-
ble, and when glazed was equally durable. Coloring beneath
the glaze received also a permanent polychromatic character.
Altar-pieces, pulpits, fonts, tabernacles, and coats of arms, in
this material, became widely scattered, reaching the remotest
country towns. A still cheaper material was found in a fine
stucco, composed of marble dust and sand. Reproductions of
the works of master sculptors were thus placed in the hands of
the common people. Sculpture in wood was confined chiefly
to thickly wooded districts.
In technical execution the methods of classic sculptors were
largely employed. Similar implements were used and many
of the same conventions followed. But the spirit of the
Renaissance was more pictorial. Designs upon paper were
1 82
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
regarded by many as fundamental ; perspective, the multipli-
cation of the planes, the use of all gradations of relief, were
common. Preliminary studies, and models in clay, wax, or
wood, were sometimes carried far enough by the artist to per-
mit of the execution of the work in bronze or marble by an
artisan.
CHAPTER XIX.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. CONTINUED.
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1400-1500.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books before mentioned and
General and Special Bibliographies.
THE FLORENTINE SCHOOL. The impulse given to Flor-
entine sculpture by Andrea Pisano, Giotto, and Orcagna was
strongly felt in the early portion of the fifteenth century. The
goldsmiths, from whose ateliers issued the most distinguished
sculptors, also exerted a determining influence, as may be seen
by comparing such works as the silver altar-front in the cathe-
dral at Pistoja or the silver dossal from the Baptistery of
Florence with the Early Renaissance reliefs. The marble
sculptors employed upon the Cathedral of Florence at the end
of the fourteenth century, especially Piero di Giovanni Tedesco,
were already producing naturalistic sculptures and mingling
classic with Christian themes. Though probably of German
origin, Piero's work was thoroughly Italian, we may even say
Venetian, in treatment. The leading Florentine sculptors of
the first half of the fifteenth century were Ghiberti, Donatello,
and Luca del la Robbia.
LORENZO DI CIONE GHIBERTI (1378-1455) received his techni-
cal education from his stepfather Bartolo, a noted goldsmith.
He began his career as a painter, but his instincts were essen-
tially those of the sculptor of small objects. In his De
Orificeria Benvenuto Cellini says of him : " Lorenzo Ghiberti
was truly a goldsmith, not only in his graceful manner of pro-
1 84 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
ducing objects of beauty, but in the extreme diligence and
polish which he gave to his work. He put his whole soul into
the casting of miniature works, and though he sometimes
applied himself to sculpture upon a larger scale, still we can
see that he was much more at home in making smaller objects.'*
Ghiberti's chief works as a goldsmith were a golden mitre and
pluvial button for Pope Martin V. (1419) and a golden mitre
for Pope Eugenius IV. (1439). These magnificent mitres,
enriched with miniature reliefs and figures and adorned with
precious stones, seem to have been melted down in 1527 to
provide funds for the impoverished Pope Clement VII. More
fortunate were his works in bronze. As far as is known, these
all survive. Ghiberti applied himself to bronze with the spirit
of the goldsmith. Having in an open competition proved
himself superior to his Sienese, Aretine, and Florentine com-
petitors, he secured the contract for a pair of bronze doors for
the baptistery at Florence (1403-1424). These followed the
scheme of the doors made for the same baptistery by Andrea
Pisano, and represented in twenty-eight panels the life of Christ,
the four Evangelists, and the four Fathers of the Church.
As compared with Andrea's doors, those of Ghiberti were
richer in composition, higher in relief, and more naturalistic
in treatment. A fine sense of line is seen in the graceful,
flowing draperies which adorn Ghiberti's figures. The three
statues of John the Baptist (1414), St. Matthew (1420), and
St. Stephen (1422), which stand in niches on the exterior of Or
San Michele, show his rapid progress in monumental sculpture.
The St. Stephen alone frees him from the charge of being a
mere sculptor of miniatures. The transition from his first to
his second manner may be studied in the reliefs he made for
the font in the baptistery at Siena (1417-1427).
The fulness of Ghiberti's style was reached in his second
pair of doors for the baptistery at Florence. His aim, no
longer that of a Gothic sculptor, may be best stated in his own
words: " I tried as far as possible to imitate nature with all
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
I8 5
her varied qualities and to enrich my compositions with many
figures. In some of the reliefs I have put as many as a hun-
dred figures, in some more, in others less. I executed the
work with diligence and enthusiasm. In the ten subjects
treated, I have represented the buildings in such proportions
as they appear to the eye, and in such a manner that from a
distance they seem to be detached from the background. They
FIG. 69. EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF GATTAMELATA. PADUA.
have little relief and, as in nature, the nearer figures are larger
and the remoter smaller. With similar sense of proportion
have I carried out the entire work."
The most impressive quality of these baptistery doors is the
masterly treatment of sculptural perspective. Ghiberti had
advanced to the use of successive planes of graded relief, even
to the substitution of curved for flat planes. In this direction
186 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
he surpassed all of his contemporaries. As compositions, the
separate panels merit careful study, so harmoniously did he
combine various incidents, and arrange his figures so as to
make a single incident most significant. It was no empty
praise when Michelangelo declared these doors to be worthy of
standing as the gates to Paradise.
Contemporary with Ghiberti may be mentioned Filippo
Brunelleschi (1379-1446), one of the competitors for the first
baptistery doors, and a helpful friend to Donatello ; Nanni di
Banco (d. 1420), whose statues of St. Eligius at Or San
Michele, of St. Luke in the cathedral, and the Assumption of
the Madonna over the north portal are works of merit'; Niccolo
d' Arezzo (b. about 1370), who was associated with Piero di
Giovanni on the north portal of the cathedral. Lorenzo Ghi-
berti's son, Vittorio Ghiberti (b. 1417), author of the decorative
frieze around Andrea Pisano's doors, and his grandson, Buon-
accorso, both goldsmiths and bronze-casters, represent the
decadence of Ghiberti 's influence.
DONATELLO (1386-1466) was the most representative sculp-
tor of the Early Renaissance. His works, arranged in a chrono-
logical series, reflect the changing spirit of the times. Up to
the year 1425 his works were thoroughly Gothic in treatment.
His statues for the Cathedral, for the Campanile, and for Or
San Michele are in general awkward in pose, heavy with dra-
pery, and lacking in gracefulness. Evangelists and prophets
are little more than portrait statues of his own contemporaries.
Even the Christ is but a peasant. In this series the St. George
is a marked exception, an outburst of creative force and
energy.
From the year 1425 to his visit to Padua in 1444, Donatello
produced his best works. This may be considered his classic
period. His reputation now extended beyond Florence, and
we find him executing orders for Prato, Siena, Montepulciano,
Orvieto, Rome, and Naples. He associated with him Miche-
lozzo Michelozzi, an accomplished architect and bronze-caster.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 1 87
Michelozzo appears to have executed for him the greater part
of three important tombs ; that of Pope John XXIII. in the
Baptistery of Florence, the Brancacci tomb in Naples, and the
Aragazzi tomb at Montepulciano. In his relief work of this
period Donatello exhibited perspective effects by the use of
retreating flat planes, notably on the font in the baptistery of
Siena. Even in the use of somewhat higher relief, as in the
pulpit at Prato, and the organ gallery for the Florence Cathe-
dral, he followed the same method. The fertility of his fancy
is chiefly exhibited in his decorative compositions. What
could be more charming or, at the same time, more representa-
tive of the spirit of the times than his Bacchanalian Dance of
Young Angels for the organ gallery, or the Cupid and Psyche
composition on the base of the Judith and Holophernes group
in the Loggia dei Lanzi ! The realism of his earliest period
seems to have been replaced by a refined classicism in his
bronze David in the Muzeo Nazionale and in the beautiful
tabernacle containing Verrocchio's group of the Doubting
Thomas at Or San Michele. There was another side to
Donatello' s nature, a desire to produce a dramatic effect. This
we already perceive in the Assumption relief of the Brancacci
monument and in the Bewailing of the Dead Christ in the
sacristy of St. Peter's.
A third period of Donatello's career began with his visit to
Padua in 1444, and extended until his death in 1466. The
dramatic talent to which he had given but little expression in
earlier days, now reached its fullest development. His first
work for Padua, the equestrian statue of Gattamelata, exhibited
a considerable degree of classic restraint, but the history of his
work in relief, from the S. Antonio altar-reliefs in Padua to
the bronze pulpits of S. Lorenzo in Florence, is the story of
decline. Exaggerated emotion, confused composition, and a
lax handling of form and drapery characterize these later re-
liefs. They are prototypes of the Rococo spirit into which
Italian sculpture was destined to fall.
1 88 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Two sculptors may be associated with Donatello's early
manner : Nanni di Bartolo, called II Rosso, who made several
statues of prophets for Giotto's Campanile, and Bernardo
Ciuffagni (1385-1456), author of the seated St. Matthew in
the Florence Cathedral. Agostino di Duccio (1418-1481) drew
considerable inspiration from Donatello's best work, though his
treatment of drapery may be described as an exaggeration of
the manner of Ghiberti. Witness his interesting, but man-'
FIG. 70. LUNETTE (BY LUCA DELLA ROBBIA). VIA L>ELL* AGNOLO, FLORENCE.
nered, sculptures upon the facade of S. Bernardino at Perugia
and the reliefs in S. Francesco at Rimini.
Michelozzo Michelozzi (1391-1473) was closely associated
with Donatello during his best period, and executed some of his
designs; but Michelozzo's own work in sculpture was com-
monplace. More distinguished sculptors, Desiderio, the
Rossellini, and Mino da Fiesole, owed much to Donatello ;
and that master's later manner was followed and exaggerated
by Bertoldo di Giovanni (d. 1491), who completed the pulpits
at S. Lorenzo. It found followers also in the Paduan school
of sculpture.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 189
i LTJCA DELIA ROBBIA (1399-1482) was the equal of his great
contemporaries in the production of beautiful forms. Less
venturesome with new methods than Ghiberti, less dramatic in
spirit than Donatello, his Madonnas and Saints made him the
typical religious sculptor of his day. His early training is
said to have been under the goldsmith Leonardo di Ser Gio-
vanni. He is known to have executed a few works in bronze,
notably the dignified portals of the sacristy of the Cathedral
of Florence. As a marble sculptor, his choir-gallery reliefs
(1431-1440) show him to be a master of composition and
possessed of pure religious sentiment. His marble tomb of
Bishop Benozzo Federighi, now in the church of S. Trinita, is
full of quiet grandeur and is enshrined in a frame of ex-
quisitely beautiful design.
As the founder of a school of glazed terracotta sculpture,
Luca's influence was far-reaching. Hi^ own works were made
chiefly for Florence and its immediate neighborhood, while
those of his successors were widely scattered. His style exhib-
ited a continuous development without marked changes. In
his early works, such as the Resurrection (1443) and the Ascen-
sion (1446), lunettes in the cathedral, and the lunette from
S. Pierino, we may detect the influence of his goldsmith
master and of Ghiberti. More freedom and independence are
exhibited in his lunette of the Madonna and Child between
two Angels over a doorway from the Via dell' Agnolo, in the
Apostle medallions in the Pazzi Chapel, and in the beautiful
group of the Visitation at S. Giovanni Fuorcivitas, Pistoja.
It was in 1463 that he made the remarkable medallion for the
General Council of Merchants, and probably about the same
time the fine medallion for the Guild of Stone Masons and
Wood Carvers, both of which adorn the exterior of Or San
Michele. Among his later works may be placed the very
beautiful Tabernacle of the Holy Cross at Impruneta and a
charming Adoration in the possession of M. Foulc, Paris.
In some cases Luca made use of colored glazes, but more fre-
IQO HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
quently we find him following the habit of the marble sculp-
tors, merely coloring the details, such as the eyes and eyebrows,
or painting superficial ornament in gold.
A considerable impulse to the production of beautiful works
in glazed terracotta was given by Luca to his nephew,J\jidrea
della Robbia (1437-1528). Andrea made a wider use of terra-
cotta, and carried it into the smaller towns. In his earliest
works at La Verna and Arezzo, he exhibited much of the dignity
which characterized the style of his uncle. Then followed a
period of graceful works, best .illustrated by the altar in the
Osservanza near Siena and in the lunette over the entrance of
the cathedral at Prato. In the lunette of the cathedral at
Pistoja and in those over the doors of S. Maria della Quercia
at Viterbo his style lost something of its former refined senti-
ment and bordered upon sentimentality.
In the following century Andrea's sons contributed only to
the decline of art. Giovanni, the eldest (1469-1529), in his
early years produced the font for the sacristy (1497) of S.
Maria Novella, much in the spirit of his father. His more
independent works, such as the Nativity (1521) in the Museo
Nazionale, the Tabernacolo della Fontacine (1522) in the Via
Nazionale, and the medallions at the Ceppo Hospital at Pis-
toja, exhibit ignorance of composition and bad taste in color.
Fra Mattia in his high altar at Montecassiano (1527) showed
himself a better artist, but Fra Ambrogio in his crude, real-
istic Nativity (1504) at Siena was a mere artisan; and Luca
di Andrea, who executed from Raphael's designs the pave-
ments of the Vatican, was also incapable of producing artistic
work by himself. Girolamo, the youngest (1488-1566), carried
the traditions of the school to France. His decorative terra-
cotta work for the Chateau de Madrid, though much admired,
had little influence upon French art.
LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY FLORENTINE SCULPTURE. Dur-
ing the second half of the fifteenth century the demand for
monumental works in sculpture, both in marble and bronze,
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 19!
was much increased. The churches were supplied with altar-
pieces, pulpits, tabernacles, and tombs, sculptured in the
new style, and the palaces were provided not only with new
sculptured doorways, friezes, and chimney pieces, but were
FIG. 71. BUST OK BISHOP LEONARDO SALUTATI (BY MINO DA FIESOLE).
FIESOLE CATHEDRAL.
stocked with portrait busts. The most distinguished of the
Florentine marble sculptors of this half of the century were
Desiderio, the Rossellini, Benedetto da Majano, and Mino
da Fiesole. The best of the bronze-workers of the same
192 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
period were Verrocchio and Pollajuolo. Desiderio da Setti-
gnano (1428-1464) caught the spirit of Donatello's best work,
and added to it a sense of harmony and a refined elegance
which were distinctly his own. His wall tomb for the Chan-
cellor Carlo Marsuppini (d. 1455) in S. Croce stands at the
head of this class of monuments. So also is his marble tab-
ernacle in S. Lorenzo one of the finest of its kind. His
busts of Marietta Strozzi and of a Princess of Urbino are
models of dignity and refinement. His busts of children
have been frequently attributed to Donatello. Though short-
lived, his influence was lasting. Bernardo Rossellino (1409-
1464) was a refined technician, but as an artist lacked origi-
nality. In architecture he was almost a slavish follower of
Alberti, and in sculpture borrowed much from his predecessors
and contemporaries, as witness his celebrated tomb of Leo-
nardo Bruni (d. 1444). Antonio Rossellino (1427-1478), a
younger brother of Bernardo, surpassed him in the charm and
delicacy of his work. His St. Sebastian in the Collegiate
Church at Empoli ranks as one of the most graceful statues of
the Early Renaissance. His tomb of Cardinal Portogallo
(d. 1459) at San Miniato, though lacking in architectural sig-
nificance, is full of beauty. His low-reliefs of the Madonna
and Child, his busts and his heads of children are in quality
hardly inferior to the works of Desiderio.
Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484), according to Vasari the pupil
of Desiderio, produced an immense number of altars, taber-
nacles, tombs, reliefs, and busts. He was a skilful workman,
used no models, and brought his work to a high degree of finish.
His style exhibited much of Desiderio's refinement, without
its elevation { it had the charm of distinction, coupled with a
peculiar mannerism. In spite of successive visits and a long
residence in Rome, he received no new impulse from classic
antiquity. His Roman productions exhibit more elaborate
compositions, but are inferior to his best Florentine work. His
masterpieces are in the cathedral at Fiesole the tomb of
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 193
Bishop Leonardo Salutati, and an altar-piece representing the
Madonna with the Infant Christ and the little St. John, together
with S. Lorenzo and St. Remigius.
Benedetto da Majano (1442-1497) reflected well the general
spirit of his age, without marked individuality. His altar of
St. Savinus at Faenza (1470) showed strongly the influence of
Antonio Rossellino; his St. Sebastian in the Misericordia at
Florence was almost a copy of Rossellino's St. Sebastian at
Empoli. Rossellino's influence is also seen in Benedetto's
works at S. Gimignano. More important is his celebrated
pulpit at S. Croce in Florence, harmonious in its proportions
and adorned with picturesque reliefs from the life of St.
Francis. The problems of perspective, which were exercising
the attention of the painters, were here prominently illustrated
in sculpture. Benedetto's Madonnas, whether in relief or in
the round, lack the refinement and distinction of those by the
earlier masters. They are well-fed, luxurious women of the
middle class.
Matteo Civitali (1435-1501), though born at Lucca, is prop-
erly a representative of Florentine sculpture. We see in his
works the influence of Desiderio, of Antonio Rossellino, and
even of Benedetto da Majano. Nevertheless, there underlies
this an emotional element which is not so obvious in Floren-
tine work. His Christ is a man of sorrows ; his angels are
adoring, worshipful angels; his Madonnas are tender-hearted
mothers. Lucca and its vicinity, and Genoa, contain charming
examples of his work.
THE BRONZE- WORKERS. While the marble sculptors of
Florence contributed largely to the spread of grace and beauty,
the bronze-workers were no less active in bringing their art to
a higher stage of technical perfection. Antonio Pollajuolo
(1429-1498), a pupil of Ghiberti's stepfather Bartolo, attained
great skill as a goldsmith and caster of metals. His monu-
ment of Pope Sixtus IV., finished in 1493, was a develop-
ment of the slab tomb. The Pope reclines upon a highly
13
194 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
ornamented couch, on the top of which are reliefs of the seven
Virtues, and on the sides the ten Liberal Arts. In this tomb
Pollajuolo depended for effectiveness upon rich detail rather
FIG. 72. PULPIT CBY BENEDETTO DA MAJANO). S. CROCE, FLORENCE.
than simple mass. Somewhat incongruous was his tomb for
Innocent VIII., which, like the preceding, is in St. Peter's,
Rome. Here the Pope was represented as living and blessing,
enthroned above the sarcophagus on which reclines the Pope
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
'95
dead. In his little bronzes, in the National Museum, Florence,
of Marsyas and of Hercules and Cacus, we see the same striving
RTOLOMMEO COLLEONI (BY VERROCCHIO). VENICE.
for effect the foreshadow of a declining style. If the base of
a silver cross, highly ornamented with statuettes, in the Cathe-
196 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
dral Museum of Florence, be rightly attributed to Pollajuolo,
we must grant that he possessed an architectural sense of no
mean order. He was also the founder of the so-called gold-
smith school of painting.
Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-1488) represented the best
achievement in the metal work of his day. His master in the
goldsmith art was Giuliano Verrocchio, but he acquired style
from Dojoatello and Desiderio, and finally developed an inde-
pendent manner of his own. In his monument to Giovanni
ancLPiero di Cosimo de' Medici (1472), in the sacristy of S.
Lorenzo, he adopted from Desiderio the motive for the sar-
cophagus, in which, however, he exhibited a preference for
straight rather than curved lines. His bronze David (1476), in
the National Museum, breathes the spirit of Donatello, but is
somewhat more angular. More independent and original is
his Chrjsl-and the Doubting Thomas (1483) in a niche on the
exterior of Or San Michele, though here the drapery is some-
what heavy and angular, as it is also in the marble monument
to Cardinal Forteguerra in the cathedral at Pistoja. His
supreme achievement-was, the statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni
in Venice. Of this monument Dr. Bode well says : " The
Colleoni stands to-day for the most magnificent equestrian
statue of all times ; it fully deserves this reputation, since in
no other monument are both horse and rider conceived and
composed with such unity."
Florence was the centre and inspiration of Renaissance
sculpture during the fifteenth century, and her power was felt
all over Italy. Nevertheless, there were other centres, such as
Siena, Milan, and Pavia, Modena, Venice, Padua, and Palermo,
from which issued sculptors of independence and influence.
CHAPTER XX.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE. Continued.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. See the list of books at the begin-
ning of Chapter XVIII.
/ THE SIENESE SCHOOL. Siena remained longer than Florence
under the influence of Gothic art. Her most distinguished
sculptor, Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438), developed along
the same path as Donate! lo. His earliest works, as illustrated
by the Fonte Gaja (1409-1419) in Siena, w^re thoroughly
Gothic in character. Then followed a period when graceful
motives of classic origin controlled his style. To this time
belongs the beautiful tomb of Ilaria del Carettp (1413) in the
cathedral at Lucca. Later, a dramatic quality appeared in his
work. This character is exhibited by the reliefs about the
central portal of S. Petronio, Bologna (1425-1438). Though
somewhat heavy, their dramatic force had a perceptible influ-
ence upon the work of Michelangelo.
Quercia's influence was not marked in Siena. Something of
his Gothic manner was perpetuated in the hard, dry, but tech-
nically excellent work of Lorenzo Vecchietta (1412-1480), and
something of his classic manner may be seen in the harmoni-
ous work of Antonio Federighi (circa 1420-1490). The reliefs
and statuettes of Turino di Sano and Giovanni di Turino for
Quercia's celebrated font in the baptistery are lacking in style,
and Francesco di Giorgio's bronze angels (1439-1502) in the
cathedral are exceedingly mannered. Giacomo Cozzarelli
198
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
(1453-1515) was an excel lent workman in bronze, and produced
some interesting busts in terracotta. In Lorenzo di Mariano
(d. 1534) we recognize a typical Sienese artist of higher
quality. His high altar in the church of Fontegiusta exhib-
ited, in its sculptured Pieta, Sienese tenderness of sentiment,
and its elaborate architectural decoration was in the line of
development of Sienese ornament.
Quercia's remarkable work at Bologna did not secure for him
FIG. 74. ILARIA DEL CAKETTO (BY JACOl'O DELLA QUERCIA). LUCCA CATHEDRAL.
a school of followers there. Niccolo da Bari, called Niccolo
dell' Area (1414-1494), reflected something of his influence in
a terracotta Madonna outside of the Palazzo Pubblico, but the
work which gave Niccol6 his title to fame, the completion
of the Area di S. Domenico, was a thoroughly independent
work. The varied character of Niccolo's style may be still
further illustrated by a group of the Lamentation over the
body of Christ, in the little church of S. Maria della Vita,
Bologna. This realistic, emotional group seems to have given
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 199
an impulse to Guido Mazzoni (1450-1518), of Modena, whose
works of a similar character in his native town, in Ferrara, and
in Naples formed a distinct class of monuments, foreign to
the refined spirit of the Florentines, but popular with the phil-
istines in the provinces. Mazzoni made the Italian peasant
participate as principal actor in representations of sacred
story. His work may be regarded as one phase of Lombard
naturalism. Elsewhere in Lombardy, and in parts of Germany,
similar groups were popular.
THE MILANESE SCHOOL. In Lombardy, at Bergamo, Parma,
Cremona, and especially at Milan and Pavia, we find a school
of sculptors who left their mark over a large portion of Italy,
especially in the north. Gothic traditions, more firmly estab-
lished than in Florence, checked but did not overcome the
advance of the Renaissance. When Michelozzo came from
Florence to Milan he bent his style to suit Milanese taste.
Here there was a demand for luxuriant decoration, which was
easily embodied in terracotta. In this decoration we find a
multiplication of details rather than a massive treatment, a
subordination of the larger arts, architecture and sculpture, to
the minor arts of the joiner and the miniature painter. But if
we view Lombard sculpture apart from its surroundings, it has
a sharp, crisp, vigorous character which commands our attention
and not infrequently our admiration. Especially noteworthy
are the sculptures of the cathedral at Milan, of the Certosa
at Pavia, and of the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo. The Man-
tegazza brothers, Cristoforo (d. 1482) and Antonio (d. 1495),
chief sculptors at the Certosa, were among the first to represent
drapery in what has been termed the cartaceous manner, from
its resemblance to wet paper. This manner was hard, academic,
conventional. Their successor Giovanni Antonio Omodeo
(1447-1522), in his decorative sculptures for the Colleoni
Chapel, and in the tombs of Medea and Bartolommeo Colleoni
at Bergamo, in his work for the exterior and interior of the
Certosa at Pavia, and in the Borrommeo monuments at Isola
20O
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Bella in the Lago Maggiore, exhibited a marked advance in
the direction of naturalism and classic beauty.
Other Milanese sculptors, who lived on into the sixteenth
century, were : Cristoforo Solari, whose Beatrice and Ludo-
vico il Moro at the Certosa were conceived in the spirit of
the Early Renaissance, but whose works produced subsequent
to his visit to Rome showed the influence of Michelangelo ;
FIG. 75. SCULPTURES FROM THE CERTOSA AT PAVIA.
Caradosso (1445 ?-i527), who was considered by Benvenuto
Cellini the most skilful goldsmith he ever met, and whose
terracotta reliefs in the sacristy of S. Satiro were almost equal
to the works of Donatello ; and Agostino Busti, called Bambaja
(1480-1548), whose unfinished monument to Gaston de Foix,
though somewhat mannered in style, carried to its utmost
limit the application of the miniature style to monumental
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2OI
sculpture. When we add to these the names of Andrea Bregno
(1411-1506), of Andrea Fusina (fl. 1495), of Ambrogino da
Milano (fl. 1475), all of whom produced works of admirable
quality, we find a strong and powerful school of sculptors, not
the product of Florentine influence, but of local development.
Milanese sculptors largely supplied the demand for sculp-
ture in Genoa, Bergamo, Brescia, and other North Italian
towns. As we turn toward the east, the influence of Venice is
more apparent. Verona maintained her Gothic traditions
strongly enough to subject a Florentine sculptor, Giovanni di
Bartolo, to her methods. Her style was half- Lombard, half-
Venetian, as may be seen in the terracotta decoration by the
unknown " Master of the Pellegrini Chapel " in the church of
S. Anastasia.
THE VENETIAN SCHOOL. Venice produced an independent
school of sculptors, whose influence radiated to Istria and
Dalmatia on the one hand, and to Verona and Brescia on the
other. This school represented a taste for rich decorative
works, less prosaic than the productions of the Milanese, and
of a tenderer sentiment than those of the Florentines. Both
Milan and Florence appealed to the intellect, Venice to the
pleasurable emotions excited by graceful, luxuriant forms.
The Gothic style had assumed in Venice a too attractive char-
acter to be easily cast aside. Accordingly, the transitional
period, in which Gothic motives lived on by the side of those
of the Renaissance, was a long one in Venice. Outsiders like
Piero di Niccolo of Florence and Giovanni di Martino of
Fiesole, as may be seen in their tomb for the Doge Tommaso
Mocenigo (d. 1423), produced works in accord with Venetian
traditions. Neither Donatello and his followers at Padua
nor Antonio Rizo of Verona had any marked influence in
changing the trend of Venetian sculpture. The continuity of
its development is exhibited in the transitional work of Bar-
tolommeo Buon in the decoration of the Porta della Carta of
the Doge's palace, and reached the naturalistic, classic, and
202
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
humanistic stage in the work of Pietro Lombardo (d. 1515).
Lombard modes of composition are evident in his tombs for
the Doges Niccolb Marcello (d. 1474) and Pietro Mocenigo
(d. 1476), but a thoroughly Venetian charm and exquisite
FIG. 76. SCULPTURED BASE AT S. MARIA DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE.
fancy pervade his decorative sculptures at S. Maria dei Mira-
coli. His son, Tullio Lombardo, who may have assisted him at
S. Maria dei Miracoli, exhibited an artificial grace in his more
independent work for the Chapel of S. Antonio at Padua.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 203
Tullio's younger brother, Antonio Lombardo, lacked even
artificial gracefulness in his work. Alessandro Leopard! (d.
1522), however, showed himself a worthy successor of Pietro,
in his charming base for the Colleoni statue, in his sculptured
work for the tomb of the Doge A. Vendramin, and in the
bronze flagstaffs in the Piazza S. Marco.
The influence of the Venetian school of sculpture extended
southward to Ravenna, Cesena, Faenza, and Ancona.
THE PADTTAN SCHOOL, Padua during the fifteenth century
possessed a productive and influential, if not very distin-
guished, school of sculptors. She had forced Donatello to
change his style so as to accord with her inferior canons of
taste. His pupils became most popular sculptors. One of
the most skilful was Giovanni da Pisa, author of the terra-
cotta figures in the chapel to the right of the high altar in the
church of the Eremitani. More productive and more widely
known was Bartolommeo Bellano (1430-1498), whose lifeless
copies in Padua of the work of Donatello and Desiderio
showed his lack of originality, while the reliefs which he exe-
cuted for the pulpits in S. Lorenzo, in Florence, were full of
mannerism and a straining for dramatic effect. His manner
became somewhat softened after his residence in Venice,
where, about 1460, he executed a relief for the facade of S.
Zaccaria. His successor Andrea Briosco, called Riccio (1470-
1532), inherited something of his manner, but moderated by a
wider acquaintance with classic art. In the minor arts the
fancy of Riccio found constant stimulus. In the production
of small bronze reliefs for the decoration of many household
objects, in his candlesticks and jewel chests and figurines he
showed himself a master, and stimulated a school of follow-
ers known by such pseudonyms as Antico, Moderno, Ulocrino,
etc. When he attempted monumental works, he showed him-
self still the miniature artist. The influence of the Paduan
school, though widely extended, was chiefly felt in Mantua and
Ferrara.
204 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
SCHOOLS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY. Umbria, the
Marches, and the Abruzzi were poor in native sculptors.
Through many towns in the neighborhood of Arcevia, Fra
Mattia della Robbia exerted a strong influence with terracotta
sculpture, and at Aquila interesting monuments were executed
by the pupils of Donatello, Andrea and Silvestro da Aquila ;
but these works were essentially Florentine.
Rome seemed to lose her independence in sculpture with
the expiration of the Cosmati school. Her best monuments
of the fifteenth century were by sculptors of other schools,
Donatello and Antonio Pollajuolo, Mino da Fiesole and
Giovanni of Dalmatia, Isaia of Pisa, Andrea Bregno, and
Luigi Capponi of Milan. Eclecticism prevailed to such an
extent that sculptors representing different styles each impressed
his own methods upon the same monument. Native sculptors
were few. One of these, Paolo Taccone, called Romano,
exhibited a Roman preference for figures in the round, but his
general style was dependent on that of Isaia of Pisa. Still
less can Gian-Cristoforo Romano, the son of Isaia of Pisa,
be reckoned as representing the Roman school. He drifted
to Lombardy, and there worked in the Milanese style.
Naples exhibited the same lack of independence. Tuscan
and Lombard sculptors produced the finest sculptural monu-
ments of which Naples could boast during this century. The
only native artists of fame were Andrea Ciccione and Antonio
di Domenico da Bamboccio (1351-1422). Their work, faulty
in design and extravagant in color, was far behind that of the
northern sculptors.
In Southern Italy, Renaissance sculpture was conditioned by
preexisting Byzantine influence, and thus approximated the
Venetian type. In Sicily an influence of similar character
was represented in the work of Francesco da Laurana, a Dal-
matian, while the types and methods of Domenico Gagini and
his son, Antonio Gagini (1478-1536), were predominantly
Lombard.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2O5
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Early Renaissance sculpture in Italy may be
best studied in the churches and public buildings, especially in Florence,
Milan, Venice, Padua, Rome. The most important museums for this
purpose are the Museo Nazionale, Florence ; the Royal Museum, Berlin ;
the Louvre, Paris; and the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. A
rapresentative collection of Renaissance casts is to be found in the
Metropolitan Museum, New York.
NOTE. Since these chapters on Italian Renaissance Sculpture were
published Bode's Denkmaler der Sculptur der Renaissance in Toskana has
greatly facilitated study in this field; Marcel Reymond's La Sculpture
Florentine has infused into it a new interest, and Venturi's Storia dell'arte
italiana, Vol. VI, has brought many obscure monuments into view. Indi-
vidual sculptors have been made the subjects for special monographs, of
which may be mentioned Schubring's Donatella, Cruttwell's Luca and
Andrea Delia Robbia, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Verrocchio; and Cornelius' Jacopo
della Quercia. Bode's Die italienischen Bronze-statuetten der Renaissance
and Supino's II Medalgiere Mediceo extend the field so as to include bronze
statuettes and medals. The sources of Venetian sculpture have been placed
at our disposal in the publication of Paoletti's L'architettura e la scultura del
rinascimento in Venezia.
CHAPTER XXI.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
THE DEVELOPED RENAISSANCE (1500-1600) AND THE DECADENCE
(1600-1800).
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. The books on Renaissance sculpture
before mentioned; also: Cellini, Autobiography. Desjardins,
La Vie et I'CEuvre de Jean Bologne. Grimm, Life of Michel-
angelo. Guizzardi e Tomba, Le Opere di Guido Mazzoni e di
Antonio Begarelli. Plon, Benvenuto Cellini, sa Vie et son
(Euvre. Schonfeld, Sansovino und seine Schule. Springer,
" Raffael und Michelangelo," in Dohme's Kunst und Kunstler
Italiens. Symonds, Life of Michelangelo.
CHANGE IN STYLE AND MOTIVE. The sixteenth century in
Italy witnessed the emancipation of sculpture from both
architecture and painting. Architecture now became more
sculpturesque. Columns were substituted for pilasters ; cor-
nices and mouldings received greater projection, allowing a
new play of light and shade. Painting also became more
plastic, modelling and perspective replacing in a measure the
interest in outline and composition. Sometimes sculpture
went beyond her sphere and reduced her sister arts to subjec-
tion. In the great wall tombs, sculptured figures became over-
prominent, the architectural construction being treated as a
mere accessory. Even buildings were sometimes mere back-
grounds for sculptured figures. This plastic advance was
accompanied by many changes. The beautiful decorative low-
relief of the Early Renaissance disappeared, high-relief and
sculpture in the round taking its place. Dignity of concep-
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 2O/
tion and design received less attention than modulations of
modelling, posing of arms and legs, movement in drapery,
i the carving of colossal statues, and the determined effort to
/ produce an effect. The influence of classic sculpture was sus-
tafned_and_in some directions increased, but only occasionally
did it lead to the imitation and reproduction of ancient forms.
THE FLORENTINE SCULPTORS. Foremost among the Floren-
tine sculptors of this period was Andrea (Contucci da Monte)
Sansavino (1460-1529). His early terracotta altar-pieces in
S. Chiara at Monte Sansavino followed in the line of Ver-
rocchio and Antonio Rossellino, and exhibited a studied grace-
fulness. His subsequent residence in Portugal added little
to his power as a sculptor, if we may judge him by the life-
less font at Volterra. His group representing the Baptism
of Christ, over the door of the baptistery at Florence, was
on a level with the work of Lorenzo di Credi in painting,
and marked a similar decline from the more spirited concep-
tions of Verrocchio. In Rome his tombs of the Cardinals
Ascanio Sforza and Girolamo Basso della Rovere, though
charming in decorative detail, illustrated a stage in which
sculptural and architectural motives were in conflict, neither
contributing to the effectiveness of the other. In his heads
and draperies there is a recognition of Roman classic art,
but the proportions of his figures were somewhat heavy. His
later work at Loreto was restless and mannered, aiming at
effect by artificial means. His pupil Francesco di San Gallo
(1493-1570) exhibited something of his master's manner and
added to it an exaggerated realism. His sculptural slab of
Bishop Leonardo Bonafede, at the Certosa near Florence, was
developed from the low-relief figured slabs of the late Gothic
and Early Renaissance periods.
Benedetto da Rovezzano (1476-1556) resembled Andrea
Sansavino in technical quality, but surpassed him in origi-
nality. His fancy flowed easily in delicate floral design, and
revelled in weird combinations of skulls and cross-bones.
208 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
His tombs of Piero Soderini in the Carmine and of Oddo
Altoviti in SS. Apostoli in Florence interest, if they do not
charm us. His relief in the Museo Nazionale illustrating the
Life of S. Giovanni Gualberto exhibited the independence of
his fancy. His tomb for Louis XII., King of France, and the
tomb which he began for Cardinal Wolsey in England were
influential means of communicating to Northern Europe the
traditions of the Italian Renaissance. Piero Torrigiano
(1472-1522), an irascible man but a clever sculptor, also went
to England, and there made the tomb of Henry VII. and Queen
Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey, probably also the tomb of the
Countess of Richmond in the adjoining chapel. Later he
went to Spain, where he sculptured several monuments.
THE NORTH ITALIAN SCULPTORS. In Milan and Pavia the
line of distinguished sculptors appears to have ceased with
Agostino Busti. His successors were inferior artists. Leo-
nardo da Vinci (1452-1519) did little for the art of sculpture,
and established no school in that art as he did in painting.
The influence of Michelangelo and other extraneous influences
prevailed.
In Modena, however, a forward step was taken by Antonio
Begarelli (1479-1565). He worked in terracotta, making
not only groups for niched recesses, but also altar-pieces and
statues. His earlier works, as, for example, the Bewailing of
Christ in S. Maria Pomposa, strongly betrayed the influence
of Mazzoni. But Begarelli, with less depth of sentiment,
had more varied means of expression and exhibited more
movement in his compositions and figures. His later work,
as in the altar-piece at S. Pietro representing Four Saints with
the Madonna surrounded by Angels in the Clouds, was imbued
with the manner and spirit of Correggio. In fact, Bega-
relli 's sculpture became thoroughly picturesque in treatment.
In Bologna a similar course of development may be seen in
the work of Alfonso Lombardi, of Lucca (1497-1537). His
early sculptures at Ferrara and in the crypt of S. Pietro,
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY. 209
Bologna, bore a close relationship to the works of Mazzoni.
Later the influence of the school of Andrea Sansavino made
itself felt, and his work for the left portal of S. Petronio assumed
a more classic style. A Bolognese sculptress, Properzia de'
Rossi (1490-1530), under the influence of Alfonso Lombardi
and of Tribolo, produced at S. Petronio and elsewhere a number
of works of merit. Niccolo Pericoli, known as II Tribolo
(1485-1550), was a sculptor of high order, as shown by the
thoroughly plastic and beautiful prophets, sibyls, angels, and
other reliefs about the doorways of S. Petronio. His subse-
quent work was of a temporary, decorative character, and a
series of misfortunes prevented him reaching the position to
which his genius entitled him.
In Venice the most distinguished sculptor was the Florentine
Jacopo Tatti, better know from his master as Jacopo Sansavino
(1487-1570). In 1510 he followed Andrea Sansavine to Rome,
and there through copying and repairing ancient statues became
infused with the classic spirit. His Bacchus holding above
his head a Bowl of Wine, in the Museo Nazionale, Florence, is
a fine example of his work at this period. After 1527 he
went to Venice, and there undertook important works both in
architecture and sculpture. He tried to secure the rich deco-
rative effects demanded by the Venetians. In his treatment
of ornamental detail, and in the statues of Apollo, Mercury,
Minerva, and Peace for the Loggietta near the Campanile of
S. Marco, he showed himself a worthy successor of Pietro
Lombardo and Leopardi. These works were like an echo of
Praxiteles. Very different, however, were his reliefs. His
celebrated bronze door in the choir of S. Marco and his
marble relief for the Chapel of S. Antonio at Padua were
forerunners of the period of the decline. Sansavino's pupils
were many. Tommaso Lombardo, Girolamo Lombardo, Danese
Cattaneo, and Alessandro Vittoria (1525-1608) assisted him in
the plastic decorations of the Biblioteca. Girolamo Campagna,
a pupil of Cattaneo, continued to work in good taste; but
14
210 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Alessandro Vittoria represented the exaggerated style of the
coming Rococo period.
THE ROMAN SCULPTORS. In the Early Renaissance, Florence
supplied Rome with artists, and there was no distinctive Roman
school. In the Developed Renaissance, Rome, chiefly through
Michelangelo, influenced the development of sculpture
throughout all Italy. Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564),
equally famous as architect, sculptor, and painter, was essen-
tially a sculptor in all his work. Though a Tuscan by birth,
and in his early work not uninfluenced by Donatello and
Jacopo della Quercia, his spirit gave to sculpture a more inde-
pendent position than it had enjoyed since the days of the
Greeks and Romans. From Ghirlandaio, in whose studio he
is said to have worked, he received no deep educational
impress. From the very start, architectural and landscape
backgrounds, perspective effects and elaborated compositions,
did not enter into his conceptions. His interest centred in
the human form.
His first manner (1488-1496) may be compared to that of
Donatello, but it was larger, freer, and more classic. He
characterized to perfection the face of a Faun, and portrayed
the Madonna and Child, with little boys at the head of some
steps, with all the dignity and humanity that are found in
Greek reliefs. He revelled in the study of the nude human
form in his relief known as the Battle of the Centaurs. His
admiration of Donatello may be seen in the S. Giovannino of
the Berlin Museum, with its slender form, large hands, and
expressive head. Even in these early works he appeared as a
master rather than a pupil. As he himself remarked, he
imbibed the use of the chisel with his mother's milk.
His second manner (1496-1500) exhibited still further
independence and study of the human form. In spite of the
heavy treatment of the drapery, how pathetic and full ot
significance is the Madonna and how wonderful the modelling
of the Christ in the Pieta at St. Peter's ! His Madonna and
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
211
Child in the church of Notre Dame at Bruges and his Medal-
lions in the Museo Nazionale, Florence, and the Royal Acad-
FIG. 77. HEAD OF STATUE OF DAVID (BY MICHELANGELO). MUSEO NAZIONALE,
FLORENCE.
emy, London, showed a majestic treatment of a universal
subject. His delight in arriving at new poses, as in his paint-
ings in the Sistine Chapel, was exhibited in sculpture in the
212 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Cupid, now at the South Kensington Museum. His attention
was not always occupied with the body only ; the impression
produced by his David comes chiefly from the powerful head,
which seems to say to us that intellect is superior to the force
His final manner (1500-1564), as illustrated by the Moses and
by.ihe figures upon the Medici tombs, revealed greater harmony
ofjreatment. Modelling, pose, drapery, expressiveness, are
more equally balanced, and contribute to the effectiveness of
the whole. The Moses is the chief surviving member of a
magnificent tomb which was to have been placed in St. Peter's
in honor of Pope Julius II. The original design was a free-
standing structure embracing as many as forty statues. Below
were to be figures of Victories and Slaves ; above them, four
seated statues, one of which was to have been the Moses ; in
the centre was the sarcophagus of the Pope, represented as
kneeling between angels ; above all, a figure of the Madonna.
Through forty years (1505-1545) this tomb occupied Michel-
angelo's thoughts, but circumstances prevented its completion.
The monument as it stands in S. Pietro in Vincoli is a mere
fragment of the original design, only the Moses being attrib-
utable to his hand. Two fine figures of Slaves in the Louvre
were probably executed for the Julius monument ; possibly,
also, a Victory in the Museum at Florence.
Jhe^tombs for the Medici family in S. Lorenzo in Florence
(1524-1534) are also only a partial realization of the original
design. Those of Cosimo and Lorenzo il Magnifico were
never executed ; even those of Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and
Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, were not entirely finished. The
Lorenzo, known as " II Penseroso," from his pensive attitude,
is a majestic, superb figure, and the Giuliano hardly less
expressive. Day and Night, Twilight and Dawn, reclining on
the curved tops of the sarcophagi, magnificent figures, might
appear out of place, were it not that they form a portion of
the composition with the statues seated above. The walls
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
2I 3
were provided with niches, as a framework for the statues.
Among the latest works of Michelangelo were his Madonna
and Child in this chapel, the unfinished Pepositjon in the
FIG. 78. TOMB OF LORENZO DE' MEDICI. MEDICI CHAPEL, S. LORENZO, FLORENCE.
Cathedral of^ Florence, and the bust of Brutus in the Museo
Nazionale.
Baccio Bandinelli (1487-1559) aimed to be more Michelan-
gelesque than Michelangelo himself. His first statue, a St.
214 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Jerome, is said to have been commended by Leonardo da
Vinci, and his second, a Mercury, sold to Francis I. How
inferior he was to the great master may be seen by his Hercu-
les and Cacus in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, statues much
ridiculed by his contemporaries. Bartolommeo Ammanati
(1511-1592) studied under Bandinelli and worked under
Jacopo Sansavino. He was engaged upon important works at
Urbino, Padua, Rome, and Florence. His best work, the
Neptune of the fountain in the Piazza della Signoria, is a life-
less production. Benvenuto Cellini called it " an example of
the fate which attends him who, trying to escape from one
evil, falls into another ten times worse, since in trying to
escape from Bandinelli it fell into the hands of Ammanati."
Raffaello da Montelupo (1505-1566) learned the art of sculp-
ture in his father's studio, assisted Andrea Sansavino at Loreto,
and Michelangelo in the Medici Chapel. His work is said
to have disappointed Michelangelo ; but two altar-pieces at
Orvieto designed by II Moscha and executed by Raffaello and
II Moschino bear witness to his skill in handling the chisel.
Fra Giovan' Angelo Montorsoli (1507-1563) was more thor-
oughly a follower of Michelangelo, and carried his style to
Genoa, Bologna, and to Sicily. Other sculptors of the same
school, who by exaggerating the manner of Michelangelo
contributed to the downfall of sculpture, were Guglielmo and
Giacomo della Porta (d. 1577) and Prospero Clement! (d.
1584).
THE SCULPTORS IN BRONZE. As Michelangelo developed
freedom and modelling in marble, a similar advance was made
in bronze and the art of the goldsmith by Benvenuto Cellini
and Giovanni da Bologna. Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1572)
infused into his sculpture something of his own emotional,
irascible temper. In his minor works, such as cope buttons
and bells and candelabra, pitchers and salvers, he pushed the
decorative work of the goldsmith and miniature sculptor to
its furthest limits. He was an important medium of transfer-
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
215
ring the influence of Italian sculpture to France, being one of
the founders of the school at Fontainebleau, where he contin-
ued the production of
smaller objects, h i s
chef-d'oeuvre being a
salt-cellar, now in
Vienna, made for
Francois I. The only
large work made by
him in France, a re-
clining nymph, placed
over the principal door
of the palace of Fon-
tainebleau, had a
marked influence upon
the style of French
sculptors, especially
upon Jean Goujon. On
his return to Florence
in 1545 he made the
Perseus for the Loggia
dei Lanzi. Though a
marvel of technical ex-
cellence, it was con-
ceived too much in the
spirit of the miniatu-
rist to be above criti-
cism as monumental
sculpture. In the
bronze bust of Bindo
AltOVlti he was more FIG. 79. BASE OF STATUE OF PERSEUS (BY BEN-
successful, though even VENUTO CELL1NI >- LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLOR-
/ ENCE.
here he shows as much
of the virtuoso as of the true artistic spirit. Cellini left valu-
able records of his time in his treatise on the goldsmith art
2l6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and in his autobiography. Bronze-workers and medallists of
inferior quality now appeared in every quarter of Italy, of
whom the most noteworthy were the Paduans Leone Leoni
(1509-1590) and his son Pompeo Leoni (d. 1610). Giovanni
da Bologna (1524-1608), born at Douai in Flanders, studied
in Rome, and became a sculptor of considerable influence.
His works had usually a predominantly decorative aim, being
designed for open piazzas, gardens, and palaces. Classic sub-
jects, such as Neptune, The Flying Mercury, The Rape of the
Sabines, Hercules and Nessus, were his themes. These he
treated with considerable freedom and grace, and without
exaggeration. His reliefs were inferior to his works in the
round. The influence he exerted retarded the decline of
sculpture in Italy.
THE DECADENCE. After Michelangelo, sculpture as an art
reigned supreme in Italy. Throughout the seventeenth and
greater part of the eighteenth centuries architecture followed
plastic rather than structural ideals. Spiral columns, broken
cornices, curved walls, were some of the evidences that
architecture gave of its submission. Painting also ceased to
occupy its former position. Wall-painting was relegated to
the decoration of apses and domes, and frequently furnished
backgrounds for sculptured groups. Sculpture ran riot, exult-
ing in its technical accomplishment and pushing plastic modes
of representation to the furthest possible extreme. The
churches were filled with restless baldachinos, violent altar-
pieces, and emotional wall tombs. The open piazzas in the
cities were provided with effective fountains, porticoes were
lined with statues, even the rocks of the gardens were cut into
living forms.
The keynote of the sculpture of this period was its emotional,
almost hysterical character. Naturalness and beauty were not
its ideals. Movement, activity, and dramatic energy were
emphasized at all hazards. This characterized the details as
well as the general spirit. Drapery was no longer a help to
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN ITALY.
form ; it was a field for the sculptor's display of skill in dis-
tinguishing stuffs or in increasing dramatic effect. In the
selection of materials, richly colored marbles were employed
in preference to white marble or bronze, and different materials
were often combined
in the same work.
The dramatic
period of sculpture is
always posterior to
the classic. It is not
necessarily unplastic,
or antagonistic to the
principles of monu-
mental art. There
are subjects in which
passionate action is
called for, and ma-
terials and technical
methods which can be
appropriately utilized
for such purposes.
It was the radical
application of the
dramatic spirit to all
themes and in all
materials which
brought this period
of sculpture into
contempt.
Seldom has a sculp-
tor enjoyed a more complete sway over his contemporaries
than did Bernini in the seventeenth century. Lorenzo Bernini
(1598-1680), the son of a Tuscan sculptor, was born in Na-
ples, but came when a child to Rome. In his early works,
the Apollo and Daphne, the David, and the Rape of Pros-
FIG. 80. THE PROPHET DANIEL (BY BERNINl).
S. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME.
2l8 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
erpine, he showed the influence of late Roman sculpture.
Even in his S. Bibiana the classic spirit was still evident.
"But," he remarked, as he looked back upon it in his old
age, " had I always worked in this style, I should have been
a beggar." By ministering to the depraved taste of his
time, he received large sums of money for less worthy works.
His baldachino with spiral columns in St. Peter's was the
model for similar structures all over Europe. His sculptured
angels upon marble clouds over the cathedral throne were
repeated for more than a century, and his dramatic tombs of
Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. set the fashion for many a
monument of similar style and inferior quality.
Bernini had many followers : in Naples, Sammarti.no, Cor-
radini, and Queirolo ; in Rome, Alessandro Algardi and
Stefano Maderna; in Florence, Giovanni Battista Foggini;
and in Venice, Pietro Baratta, These men were extremely
skilful technicians; but they were inferior artists, since they
had lost the capacity for great ideas and failed to recognize
the natural limitations of their art. It is not strange that a
classical reaction followed this period of mad extravagance.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Italian monuments of the Developed Renais-
sance are to be sought for chiefly in the churches and museums of Italy.
Not a few are in Spain, and some have found their way to the museums
of Northern Europe. There is hardly a church in Italy that does not con-
tain some monument of the Decadence.
NOTE. Michelangelo studies have progressed in recent years. Marcel
Reymond has shown (Gaz. B. A., 1908, 17-34) that the Medici Tombs are
in their present state a mere torso of the original design, and Steinmann in
his Geheimniss der M edicigracbcr Michdangelos has given an entirely new
interpretation of their significance. Bernini is the subject of an important
volume by Fraschetti.
CHAPTER XXII.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Baudot, La Sculpture Fran$aise au
Moyen-dge et a la Renaissance. Brownell, French Art. Clare-
tie, Peintres et Sculpteurs Contemporains. Dierks, Houston's
Leben und Werke. Emeric-David, Histoire de la Sculpture
Fran$aise. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. Gonse, La Sculpture
Fran$aise depuis le XIV e Sihle. Jouin, Antoine Coysevox.
Le Monnier, LArt Fran$ais au Temps de Richelieu. Mon-
taiglon, La Fami.lle des Juste en France ; " Jean Goujon," in
Gaz. d. Beaux- Arts, 1884-1885. Montaiglon et Duplessis,
" Houdon," in Rev. Univ. des Arts, Vols. I.-II. Palustre, La
Renaissance en France. Pattison, The Renaissance of Art in
France. Thirion, Clodion.
THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Outside of Italy the Renais-
/ance has an external and a rather superficial significance. In
no northern country was it so much a rebirth of the national
spirit as a union of the Italian with the national style. The
magnificent development of Romanesque and Gothic archi-
tecture, the glory of mediaeval France, was attended by a
sculptural development of hardly inferior quality. By the
fifteenth century, however, the Gothic impulse had expended
itself in over-elaboration, and a fallow period ensued, which
could be quickened only by a return to simplicity or by the
introduction of a new style. The latter was almost a neces-
sary consequence of the growth of French power, over Italy.
The French feudal castle became now transformed into the
chateau de plaisir, and Italian ideals in sculpture replaced the
Gothic. This was accomplished by the actual importation
of sculptors, chiefly from the north of Italy, who settled at
220
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Tours, at Paris, and at Fontainebleau. It is hardly necessary
to note the presence in France of Guido Mazzoni, Girolamo
da Fiesole, the Juste family, Girolamo della Robbia, Bene-
detto da Rovezzano, and of Benvenuto Cellini so many were
the Italian artists settled in France and so thoroughly did the
French cultivate Italian methods.
THE SCHOOL OF TOURS. Though Italian monuments were
made for France early in the fifteenth century, the first school
of sculpture to exhibit the new influence strongly was that of
FIG. 8l. ST. GEORGE AND THE DRAGON (BY MICHEL COLOMBE). LOUVRE, PARIS.
Tours. The chief representative of this school, Michel Co-
lombe (1432-1515?), maybe compared with the best Italian
sculptors of the Early Renaissance. His relief of St. George
and the Dragon, made in 1508 for the high altar of the Chateau
de Gaillon, does not suffer when brought into comparison with
Donatello's treatment of the same subject at Or San Michele ;
and his tomb statue of Roberte Legendre, wife of Louis
Poncher, which has found a place in the Louvre, may be classed
with the beautiful statue of Ilaria in the cathedral at Lucca.
But we may observe that the decorative framework that sur-
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 221
rounds the St. George relief is Italian workmanship and that
Italian artists were seldom absent when any monumental work
in sculpture was in process of construction.
Perr6al, who with Michel Colombe was a director of art
under Charles VIII. and Louis XII., was also strongly influenced
by Italian methods. The tomb of Franois II. of Brittany and
Margaret de Foix, which he and Michel Colombe designed
together, is a transitional monument, in which the principal
iigures are French, but the decorative base thoroughly Italian.
Antoine Juste (1479-1519) and his brother Jean Juste (1485-
1534) were by birth Italians, sons of a Florentine sculptor.
Antoine appears to have been the designer and Jean the prac-
tical sculptor. The tomb of the Bishop of Dol, executed when
Jean Juste was but twenty years of age, is altogether Italian.
But the influence and traditions of Michel Colombe are visible
in the tomb of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany at St. Denis,
and more strongly still in the tombs of Artus Gouffier and
Philippe de Montmorency in the chapel at Oiron.
The most elaborate monument in the style of this period is
the tomb of the Cardinals of Amboise in the cathedral at
Rouen. Though designed by Roland Leroux and executed with
the assistance of French and Flemish sculptors, the Italian
character of the work is so strong that we might naturally look
tc Milan orPavia for its inspiration. Only the kneeling statue
of George I. preserves the traditions of earlier French sculp-
ture.
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. During the first half of the
sixteenth century the Franco- 1 tali an style spread rapidly under
the vigorous patronage of Francois I. The great chateaux, such
as Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau, St. Germain, Madrid,
were transformed or erected in accordance with the new style.
These buildings called for sculptural decoration after the
Florentine manner of the Early Renaissance. Public buildings
and private houses followed at such centres as Tours, Angers,
Orleans, Rouen, Rheims, and Toulouse ; then the churches, with
222 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
their sculptured doorways, altar-pieces, choir screens, and
stalls. In the cloisters of St. Martin of Tours, Bastien Fran-
^ois continued the traditions of his uncle Michel Colombe; in
the choir screen at Chartres, Jean Texier rivalled in delicacy
of design and carving the most refined of Florentine decora-
tion. Hardly inferior to this were the wooden doors, finely
carved by Jean le Pot for Beauvais Cathedral, and the choir
stalls of the same period at the Cathedral of Auch. South of
Paris the Italian style prevailed over the French, as, for exam-
ple, in the sculptures of La Dal bade at Toulouse ; in the north,
Franco-Flemish influences remained stronger, as may be seen
in the pictorial historic reliefs of the Field of the Cloth of
Gold at the Hotel du Bourgtheroulde at Rouen.
During the second half of the sixteenth century the influence
of Catherine de' Medici over the last of the house of Valois
signified a strengthening of Italian influence over French art.
In architecture the Gothic style ceased to determine struc-
tural forms, and sculpture assumed greater independence.
The three great architects of this period, Bullant, Lescot,
and Delorme, constantly applied for assistance to the three
great sculptors, Bontemps, Jean Goujon, and Germain Pilon.
Pierre Bontemps (fl. 1552) retained more than the others
the Franco-Flemish spirit. Nothing could be more Italian
in style than the triumphal arch designed by Delorme as
the tomb of Fran?ois I. at St. Denis. But Bontemps, the
author of the sculptured reliefs at its base, represents, in
accordance with French traditions, the conquest of the French
in Italy. The funerary urn for the heart of Franois I. is also
more Flemish than Italian in decorative detail.
Jean Goujon (1520-1566?) maybe considered the typical
sculptor of the developed Renaissance in France. His style
represents the best of Flemish pictorial naturalism transformed
by Italian grace and beauty. If he is somewhat severe and
Flemish in his early work for the two principal doors of St.
Maclou at Rouen (1540-1541), he is already a great sculptor,
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
223
if we may attribute to him the sepulchral statue of Ixmis
de Breze. Already in 1541 his reliefs for Lescot's choir screen
in St. Germain 1'Auxerrois show the prevailing Italian spirit.
Harmony and elegance rapidly replaced his former austerity,
as we may see in the grand chimney-piece, now at Chantilly,
I--JG. 82. WATER NYMPHS (BY GOUJON). LOUVRE, PARIS.
which he made for the Chateau d'Ecouen. In 1547 he deco-
rated for Lescot the loggia which was ordered to grace the
entrance of Henri II. into Paris. In the eighteenth century
this was transformed into the Fountain of the Innocents.
Goujon's reliefs representing fountain nymphs were treated
with a grace peculiarly his own, and adapted most cleverly to
224 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
the narrow spaces they occupied. It may have been also an
Italian inspiration, perhaps from Benvenuto Cellini's relief
at Fontainebleau, that led Goujon to produce the celebrated
Diana of the Louvre, which he made to adorn a fountain at
the Chateau d'Anet. But we cannot fail to see in this also a
grace which is specifically French. In his work for the deco-
ration of the Louvre, from the Pavilion de 1'Horloge to the
Porte Goujon, and upon the staircase of Henri II., his fertile
fancy found free play. But he just missed perfection in the
Caryatids for the hall now called by that name in the Louvre.
His sympathy with the Huguenots seems to have been the
cause of his leaving France for Italy, where he died (at Mod-
ena) between 1564 and 1568.
The third member of this distinguished trio was Germain
Pilon (d. 1590?). In his earliest work for the tomb of Fran-
cois I. he adhered to the manner of Bontemps, and in his four
figures for the tomb of Henri II. at St. Denis he was com-
paratively free from the Italian manner. But the new style
appeared in full bloom in his Three Graces made to support
the urn for the heart of Henri II. and in a bust of an infant
in the IxMivre. Pilon's best pupil was Barth6lemy Prieur (d.
1611), who was associated with the distinguished architect Bul-
lant in several important works. Italian influence upon French
sculpture was strengthened by the sojourn in Italy of such
sculptors as Berthelot, Guillain, Sarrazin, Vouet, Mellan, and
the Anguiers.
OTHES SCHOOLS. The school of Troyes, represented by
Francois Gtentil, the school of Toulouse, represented by Nicho-
las Bachelier, and the sculptors of Lorraine show, with slight
variations 5 the general tendency. In Lorraine special mention
may be made of Ligier Bichier (1500-1567), whose Holy
Sepulchres at Hattonchatel aud at Saint-Mi hi el form an inter-
esting parallel to the works of Mazzoni and Begarelli. As a
sculptor of sorrow and of death, he represented the expiring
spirit of the Middle Ages.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
225
tfL
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. This was for France a century
of self-assertion and of superficial grandeur. It was epito-
mized in the character of Louis XIV. In architecture the
" ordre colossal " was introduced ; in painting, huge bombastic
canvases, and in sculpture, pompous monuments were popular.
The leading French sculptors were Girardon, Coysevox, and
Puget. Their works showed an increasing tendency toward the
display of emotion at
the expense of classic
form and repose.
Francois Girardon
(1628-1715) of the
three was the most
restful. His relief of
the Nymphs at the
Bath, at Versailles,
exhibited an interest-
ing combination of
classic and French
grace, but his Rape
of Proserpine already
followed in the line
of Bernini, and his
tomb of Cardinal
Richelieu at the Sor-
bonne inaugurated the
series of pompous
tombs of the age of
Louis XIV. and XV. He was the chief of a group of sculptors
whose works may be best studied at Versailles. Among
these was Robert le Lorrain (1666-1743), whose chef-d'oeuvre
is the relief upon the Ancien Hotel de Rohan, representing
the Horses of the Sun.
Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720) was an original, varied, and
productive sculptor, more thoroughly French than Girardon.
15
FIG. 83. MOURNING FIGURE FROM THE TOMB OF
CARDINAL MAZARIN (BY COYSEVOX). LOUVRE,
PARIS.
226
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
His ornamental sculptures at Versailles showed the magnifi-
cence of the decoration in demand at this period. As a por-
trait sculptor his statues and busts, such as those of Louis
XIV. and the Prince de Conde, of Bossuet, and Le Brun, were
distinguished, life-like, and carefully executed. Toward the
end df his career he made a dozen or more monumental tombs.
Of his many pupils the best were Nicholas and Guillaume
Coustou, whose graceful works mark the new spirit of the
eighteenth century.
FIG. 84. HORSES OF THE SUN. HOTEL DE ROHAN, PARIS.
Pierre Puget (1622-1694), born at Marseilles, brought into
French sculpture the heat of southern emotion. His Caryatids
at the Hotel de Ville at Toulon were exaggerations of the
spirit of Michelangelo. His inspiration was drawn more
from Bernini and Algardi in his Milon of Croton and his relief
of Alexander and Diogenes. His works were marvels of tech-
nical ability, and full of fire, but not free from exaggeration.
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. The pompous and grand art of
Louis XIV. was followed by an art of graceful form and deli-
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
rate sentiment. During the reigns of Louis XV. and XVI.,
sculpture of this character appealed strongly to a large class.
The eighteenth century presents, therefore, a long list of skilful
FIG. 85. THE MARECHAL UE SAXE (BY PIGALLE). LOUVRE. PARIS.
sculptors in France. The line began with Jean Baptiste
Lemoyne, who was a pupil of Robert le Lorrain, the pupil of
Girardon. His principal works were destroyed during the
Revolution, but his style may be measured by a number of
228
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
excellent busts which still survive. He counted among his
pupils Pigalle, Caffieri, Pajou, Falconet, and others of less
renown.
Michel Slodtz (1705-1764), the author of the S. Bruno at
St. Peter's, Rome.
is linked with the
preceding century
through his father,
Sebastian Slodtz, who
was a pupil of Girar-
don. Michel Slodtz
was one of the masters
of Houdon. Eclme
Bouchardon ( 1 698 -
1762) was called by
Voltaire the French
Pheidias; but his
graceful Cupid bend-
ing the Bow, in the
Louvre, and the
charming reliefs of
the fountain in the
Rue de Grenelle-
Saint-Germain show a
spirit more closely re-
lated to that of Prax-
iteles. Jean Baptiste
Pigalle (1714-1785),
a more brilliant sculp-
tor, infused a living
quality into graceful forms. His Mercury attaching wings to
his feet is full of life as well as beauty. His monumental
tombs were finer in detail than in general composition. Ga-
briel Christophe Allegrain (1710-1795) was much admired by
Diderot for his classic form, as was also Maurice Etienne Fal-
FIG. 86. HEAD OK VOLTAIKK (l!Y HOUDON).
I.OUVRR, PARIS.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 229
conet (1716-1781), who manifested a philosophic fondness for
abstract subjects, such as Melancholy, Friendship, Music. Jean
Jacques Caffi6ri, the best of a family of artists, whose ancestors
came from Italy, was noted for his refined and graceful busts,
seven of which are in the Museum of the Comedie Francaise.
Augustin Pajou (1730-1809) was a sculptor of exquisite grace
and delicate sentiment. His aristocratic bust of Madame Du
Barry and his statue of Psyche remind one of his contemporary,
the painter Boucher. Louis Michel Claude (i 738-1814), called
" Clodion," spread the taste for the lighter phases of sculpture
by an extensive production, chiefly in terracotta, of minor works
of household art.
The sum of all that is best in French sculpture of the
eighteenth century is to be found in the work of Houdon. Jean
Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the pupil of Lemoyne, Michel
Slodtz, and Pigalle, applied his energy in the direction of
naturalism. " It should be our aim," he declared, " to pre-
serve and render imperishable the true form and image of the
men who have brought honor and glory to their country." He
urged his pupils: " Copiez, copiez toujours, et surtout copies
Juste.' 1 He was not lacking on the ideal side, as his light-
stepping Diana of the Louvre testifies, but his strength as a
sculptor lay in portraiture. His seated statues of Voltaire
and of Rousseau, and his busts, such as those of Moliere and
Diderot and Buffon, of Franklin and Washington, are the
works by which his genius is to be measured. In these also
he showed himself not only thoroughly French, but essentially
modern.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. Outside of the museums of the Louvre, Troca-
dero, Cluny, Ecole des Beaux Arts, and the private collections of Paris,
French Renaissance sculpture may be best studied in Tours, Rouen,
Caen, Dijon, Toulouse, and in the more important of the French chateaux.
NOTE. Individual French sculptors are beginning to receive special
attention. Paul Vitry's Michel Colombe is the most important of such
treatises.
CHAPTER XXIII.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE
IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, SPAIN, AND ENGLAND.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Amil, Espana Artistica y Monu-
mental. Becker, Leben und Werke des Bildhauer T. Riemen-
schneider. Bergau, Der Bildschnitzer Veit Stoss und seine
Werke. Bode, Geschichte der deutschen Plastik. Carderera y
Solano, Iconografia Espanola. Fdrster, Geschichte der deutscher
Kunst ; Die deutsche Kunst in Wort und Bild ; Denkmdler
deutscher Kunst in Baukunst, Bildnerei und Malerei. Liibke,
Geschichte der deutschen Kunst; Peter Vise her 's Werke. Mid-
dleton, article "Sculpture," in fat Encyclopedia Britannica.
Scott, British School of Sculpture. Waagen, Kunstwerke und
Kiinstler in Deutschland. Ysendyck, Documents classe'es de
I'Art dans les Pays Bas.
GERMANY : THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. The Renaissance,
as a classic or Italian movement, made itself felt slowly in
Germany. The Germans were sluggish in their appreciation
of formal beauty. They emphasized inward significance, sen-
timent, and reality, and at first regarded beauty of form as
superficial. As a naturalistic movement, however, the
fifteenth century signified for Germany, as it did for Italy, a
return to nature and a revival of sculpture. The South Ger-
man schools at Nuremberg, Wiirzburg, in Swabia, Bavaria, and
the Tyrol, received something of an impulse from Italy, while
the schools of the Middle and Lower Rhine, Saxony, Prussia,
and the northern provinces were more closely connected with
the art of the Netherlands. In South Germany the most
influential school was that of Nuremberg, best represented by
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 231
Michael Wohlgemuth, Veit Stoss, Adam Kraft, and Peter
Vischer.
Michael Wohlgemuth (1434-1519) was equally distin-
guished as painter, engraver, and sculptor. Such men were
as rare in Germany as they were common in Italy. His Depo-
sition in the Kreuzkapelle at Nuremberg is simple in compo-
sition and contains figures of marked individuality. Veit
Stoss (1440-1533) was the most renowned of German wood-
carvers. His early work at Krakau, though Gothic in treat-
ment, was nevertheless characterized by formal symmetry.
His later work at Nuremberg exhibited a more developed,
though superficial beauty. The work by which he is best
known is in the Lorenzkirche, and represents an Annunication
set in a carved wreath of roses, with medallions of scenes
from the life of the Virgin.
Adam Kraft (1450 7-1507) reached distinction as a stone-
carver. His earliest dated works, the Seven Stages of the
Journey to Calvary (1490), placed at intervals along the road
to the Johannis cemetery, were pathetic and realistic, though
crowded in composition and unequal in execution. His reliefs
of Christ bearing the Cross, the Entombment, and the Resur-
rection in the Schreyer sepulchral monument on the exterior
of the Sebalduskirche were richer and more picturesque.
Greater symmetry and beauty characterized his relief of the
City Scales over the gateway of the Civic Weighing House.
His most remarkable work is the magnificent free standing
tabernacle which reaches to the ceiling of the Lorenzkirche,
and is enriched with figured sculpture.
Peter Vischer (1460-1529) was the foremost of the German
bronze-casters. Early works of his are to be found in Mag-
deburg and in Breslau. His most important monument is the
shrine of St. Sebaldus at Nuremberg, begun in 1507 and fin-
ished in 1519. In the sculptural portions of this shrine we
see, for the first time, strong Italian influence in the pose and
proportions of the figures, in the drapery, in the emphasis put
232
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
upon the human form, and in the use of nude figures. The
relief sculptures upon the shrine also evinced Italian methods
of composition. This
may have been due to
the visit of Albrecht
Diirer to Venice, al-
though of his own sons
who became his assist-
ants, it is certain that
Hermann, and prob-
ably Peter Vischer the
Younger, visited Italy.
In 1513 he made for
the remarkable monu-
ment of Kaiser Maxi-
milian at Innsbruck the
noteworthy statues of
King Arthur and King
Theodoric.
THE WTTEZBURG
SCHOOL held an inter-
mediate position be-
tween the Nuremberg
and the Swabian
school. It produced
two important sculp-
tors, the anonymous
Master of the Altar of
the Herrgottskirche at
Creglingen and Til-
man Riemenschneider.
The altar at Creglingen
(1487) was thoroughly
Gothic, not only in its architecture but in sentiment and in
treatment; but a head of Adam in the South Kensington
FIG. 87. KING ARTHUR (BY
INNSBRUCK.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 233
Museum, attributed to the same master, shows a formal beauty
suggestive of Italian influence. Tilman Biemenschneider
(1460-1531) represented a somewhat more advanced style.
His Adam and Eve in the portal of the Marienkirche remind
us of Venetian and Lombard work, and his draped figures show
a broader treatment than was customary in purely German
sculpture. His masterpiece, the tomb of Heinrich II. and
his wife Kunigunde (1513) in the cathedral at Bamberg, shows,
however, that Italian methods had by no means overcome his
local style.
THE SWABIAN SCHOOL represented grace and charm rather
than dramatic power. This is evident in the work of Friedrich
Herlin for the high altar of the Jakobskirche at Rothenburg
(1466), in the almost Italian crucifix in the Hauptkirche at
Nordlingen, in the beautiful choir stalls by JOrg Syrlin in
Ulm Cathedral, and in the famous high altar at Blaubeuren.
BAVARIA AND THE AUSTRIAN TYROL showed even more
strongly the infusion of influences from Venice and the north
of Italy. The richly decorative and charming altar in the
church at St. Wolfgang by the most distinguished sculptor of
this district, Michael Pacher of Bruneck, is like a carved picture
by an early Venetian painter. The same is true, in lesser
degree, of many other altars of the Tyrol.
MIDDLE AND NORTH GERMANY. The art of the Netherlands
was the determining influence here. In this may be detected
a pictorial rather than a sculptural sense, greater attention to
detail than to mass, and a fondness for many figures in com-
position. In the Middle Rhine region, in the cathedrals of
Speyer, Worms, and Mainz, stone was preferred to wooden
sculpture. But there were here no sculptors of importance.
In the Lower Rhine region, Prussia and North Germany,
wood-carving was preferred to stone, and the influence of the
Netherlands was still more apparent. In fact, Flemish and
Dutch sculptors are known to have produced many important
works in this part of Germany. The records show that the
234
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
high altar at the parish church at Calcar was the work of a
sculptor from the Netherlands. If we turn from this to the
magnificent altar in the cathedral at Schleswig (1515-1521),
with its twenty panels of carved groups, we will recognize the
source from which Hans Briiggeman drew his inspiration.
FIG. 88. DEATH OF THE VIRGIN (BY RIEMENSCHNEIDER). WpRZBURG CATHEDRAL.
In Saxony, northern and southern influences were sometimes
united in the production of works which are not without
charm, such as the " beautiful portal " of the church at Anna-
berg, and the pulpit in the form of a flower in the cathedral
at Freiberg.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 235
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Toward the middle of the six-
teenth century the development of German sculpture was
arrested by the influence of foreign styles. In Southern
Germany and Austria, Italian architecture brought with it
Italian sculptural decoration. Renaissance pilasters decorated
with floral or candelabra designs, cabinet columns, portrait
medallions, dolphins, sirens, and other North Italian motives
were freely employed. At the same time, the peculiar forms
of Flemish Renaissance decoration, arabesques, curling band
ornament, and grotesque figures, found their way into Southern
as well as Northern Germany. It was not a period for great
monuments. The resultant style was a hybrid form of the
Italian Renaissance.
THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. During
the early seventeenth century the Thirty Years' War had
absorbed the energies of Germany. This resulted in equal
rights to Catholics and Protestants. Accordingly, in the second
half of this century and throughout the eighteenth century
we find alongside of each other the Rococo or Jesuit style of
architecture, with its elaborate figured ornamentation, and the
barren style of the Protestants. The Catholic affiliations were
with Italy, those of the Protestants with the Netherlands. A
new influence, that of France, now made itself felt, especially
in aristocratic circles.
The German sculptor who stands out prominently in the
seventeenth century is Andreas Schliiter (1664-1714). That
he was not altogether free from Berninesque methods is evi-
dent from his marble pulpit in the Marienkirche in Berlin, the
canopy of which, with its carved pediment, is covered with a
mass of angels clambering upon marble clouds. The same in-
fluence is perceptible in his harmonious equestrian statue of
the Great Elector Friedrich III. and in the decorations of the
Schloss at Berlin. His most vigorous original work, the tragic
masks of Dying Warriors, is in the court of the Berlin
Arsenal. Georg Raphael Dormer (1692-1741), in the succeed-
236
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
ing century, represented for South Germany and Austria a
classic reaction against the Rococo methods, and thus prepared
the way for the new era of modern sculpture. His chef-d' axtvre
is the Fountain in the New Market at Vienna.
THE NETHERLANDS. In the Netherlands, sculpture in the
fifteenth century remained thoroughly Gothic. Though sub-
sidiary to architecture,
it was held in higher
esteem than painting.
High altars, for the
most part, consisted of
biblical scenes carved in
wood in the most elabo-
rate manner. The minor
^^^^^ portions of these altars,
'^^f~~*-sRSiiMjCJf 'iJJiiilL such as the enclosing
doors or wings, were
frequently decorated by
paintings.
The destruction of
many of these altars by
the Protestants and the
scattering of Nether-
land sculptors into
France, Germany, Spain,
England, and Italy make
it difficult to obtain a
proper estimate of the
sculpture of the Nether-
lands. Still, its general course of development is clear. In
the archives at Amsterdam there is preserved a series of statu-
ettes of counts and countesses of Holland, which, in stiffness
of attitude, in costume, and in quaintness of style, remind us
of the figures in the pictures of Van Eyck. The rising im-
portance of the school of Brussels may be illustrated by a
FIG. 89. MASK OF A DYING WARRIOR CBV
SCHLOTER). ARSENAL, BERLIN.
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 237
magnificent altar-piece with scenes from the type of the Vir-
gin, belonging to the church at Lombeek Notre Dame. In
freedom of composition and naturalism this altar-piece is not
behind the contemporary works of Flemish painting.
In the sixteenth century the style of the Renaissance was
introduced. Much that was peculiarly Flemish still remained,
but, at the same time, Italian influences were strongly felt.
The stalls of the church at Dordrecht, by Jan Terwen (1538-
1542), might almost be taken as the prototype for Lescot and
Goujon's jube at St. Germain 1'Auxerrois. More thoroughly
under the influence of the developed Renaissance of Italy was
the marble altar made by Jacques Dubroeucq in 1549 for a
chapel in the cathedral at Mons.
In the seventeenth century the school of Antwerp came to
the front, and the Rubens of Flemish sculpture, Francois
Duquesnoy (1594-1644), exerted a wide influence. In spite of
the Italian character of his style, Duquesnoy preserved a dig-
nity and distinction of manner which remind us of the great
sculptors of France. He is best known by the monuments he
left in Italy, but a fine example of his work may be seen in the
carved panels and choir stalls of the church of Notre Dame at
Dendermonde. His pupil, Artus Quellinus (1609-1668), was
a highly gifted sculptor, whose influence extended from Am-
sterdam into the north of Germany.
The eighteenth century witnessed a decline in the sculptural
art of the Netherlands, although now and then excellent wood-
carving continued to be done, as in the vigorous statues over
the stalls of the church at Wouw.
SPAIN. In Spain, upon the basis laid in the Gothic period
by architects and sculptors from France, there arose in the
fifteenth century a transitional style, stimulated by Flemish
influence, which was in turn succeeded in the sixteenth cen-
tury by a more monumental sculpture under the guidance of
Italian artists.
Immense tombs by Florentine, and especially by Lombard
238 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
artists, were erected in many important churches, Italian
artists took up their residence in Spain, and Italian methods
of decoration were generally substituted for the Gothic. The
tomb of Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada is a fine example
of Italian work in Spain. In the seventeenth century, Mon-
K1G. 90. CARVED-WOOD ALTAR-PIECE AT LOMBEEK NOTRE DAME.
tafies (d. 1614) and Alonso Cano (1600-1667) represented the
later phases of the Spanish Renaissance.
ENGLAND. In England there were few native sculptors
during the Renaissance period. The engraved sculptural slabs
in bronze of the fifteenth century, and many decorative sculp-
tures, were executed or inspired by sculptors from the Nether-
lands. In the sixteenth century more monumental works,
and Italian methods, were introduced by Pietro Torrigiano
RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 239
(1472-1522) and by Benedetto da Rovezzano. The former
designed the first tomb of Henry VII., also the bronze effigy
of Margaret of Richmond in the chapel of Henry VII. in
Westminster Abbey ; the latter designed a tomb for Cardinal
Wolsey, the sarcophagus of which now holds the body of
Admiral Nelson in St. Paul's Cathedral.
In the seventeenth century the leading native sculptor was
Nicholas Stone (1586-1647), to whom the De Vere and Villiers
monuments at Westminster are commonly attributed. He was
associated in many works with the architect Inigo Jones.
Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721), an extraordinarily skilful sculp-
tor, who worked also for Sir Christopher Wren, seems to have
been a native of Holland. During the eighteenth century,
Flemish and French sculptors received all commissions of
importance. Toward the end of the century the classical
revival began in England under the inspiration of John Flax-
man (1755-1826). His masterly outline illustrations of the
poems of Homer, Hesiod, ^Eschylus, and Dante, and his
classic designs and exquisitely delicate reliefs for Wedgwood
pottery, did more than his attempts at monumental sculpture
to start a new current in English sculpture.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. German Renaissance sculpture may be studied
in the museums of Berlin (Royal), Munich (Germanisches), Nuremberg
(National), and in the churches and public squares of Nuremberg, Bam-
berg, Wtirzburg, Rothenburg, Creglingen, Ulm, Blaubeuren, Augsburg,
Annaberg, Freiberg, Fulda, Mainz, Calcar, Xanten, Schleswig, and Berlin.
In the Netherlands, besides the museums of Brussels (Musee d'Art Monu-
mental) and Amsterdam (Ryks Museum), of special interest are the
churches at Bruges, Gheel, Mons, Ypres, Bois-le-Duc, and Breda ; in
Spain, the Escorial, and the cathedrals and churches of Burgos, Toledo,
Seville, Valencia, Barcelona, and Madrid ; in England, Westminster
Abbey, Windsor Castle, Chats worth and Warwick Castles.
CHAPTER XXIV.
MODERN SCULPTURE
IN ITALY, DENMARK, SWEDEN, GERMANY, AND RUSSIA.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Besides the General Bibliography,
consult : Cook, " Russian Bronzes " (Harper's Magazine, Jan.,
1889). Description des CEuvres de Thorwaldsen au Muse'e Thor-
waldsen. Dohme, Kunst und Kunstler des XIX Jahrhunderts.
Eggers, Christian Daniel Rauch. Gruneisen u. Wagner,
Dannecker's Werke. Liibke, Geschichte der deutschen Kunst.
Moses, The Works of Antonio Canova. PI on, Thorwaldsen* s
Life and Works. Quatremere de Quincy, Canova et ses Ou-
vrages. Reber, Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst Scha-
dow, Kunstwerke und Kunstansichten. Schultz, Umrisse von
Werken Canovas. Thiele, Thorwaldsen^ 's Leben.
INTRODUCTION, The emotional phase of Renaissance sculp-
ture having expended itself in extravagant productions, it
was natural that the nineteenth century should begin by a
return to classic simplicity and severity. This movement was
felt throughout Europe. Sculptors from all nations emigrated
to Rome. Antique subjects now prevailed, and were exe-
cuted in a more thoroughly classical spirit than during the
period of the Renaissance. Religious themes were compara-
tively neglected. Sculpture was devoted mainly to secular
purposes, for the private enjoyment of wealthy patrons.
But as the democratic character of modern institutions
increased, a reaction against aristocratic and classic sculpture
became prevalent. A desire was felt for subjects more national
in character, and especially for the representation of men dis-
tinguished in literature, science, art, and history. In this
MODERN SCULPTURE.
2 4 I
stage sculpture assumed a post-classical, Christian, or roman-
tic character. Much of the spirit of classicism was retained,
though its form and substance had changed.
FIG. 91. CYBELE. LATE SPANISH RENAISSANCE.
Finally, during the latter half of this century, the objective
spirit so manifest in science and literature had also per-
16
242 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
meated plastic art. Mythological and romantic subjects largely
gave way to the myriad actualities of modern life. The
centre of inspiration for sculptors was shifted from Rome to
Paris.
On the technical side, the old implements used in carving
and modelling have remained the same as in earlier days, but
mechanical devices have multiplied, by means of which the
sculptor's model may be reproduced in any material and on
any scale. Hence the modern sculptor is usually content
with fashioning his images in clay, leaving much of the exe-
cution of his work to mechanical reproduction by his work-
men. He need not be a carver ; he is often only a modeller.
These mechanical methods have, on the one hand, brought the
products of sculpture to the homes of the poor, but, on the
other hand, they have frequently reacted disadvantageously
upon the work of the artist himself.
ITALY: CLASSIC SCHOOL. The modern revival of classical
sculpture in Italy began with Antonio Canova (1757-1822).
He received his first stimulus in sculpture from the patronage
of Senator Giovanni Falieri in Venice. The success which
followed his Orpheus and Eurydice, his ^Esculapius, and his
Daedalus and Icarus, secured for him a pension which enabled
him, in 1779, to go to Rome. Here the influence of Raphael
Mengs and of Winckelmann had already set the current in favor
of classic simplicity and repose. His friendship for the English
painter Gavin Hamilton and the French critic and art histo-
rian Quatremere de Quincy were of value in securing him rec-
ognition. His first important work in Rome, Theseus and the
Minotaur, was hailed as the revival of the classic style. This
brought him many commissions in Rome, among which were
the tombs for the Popes Clement XIII. and XIV. In these
monuments, and in his Amor embracing Psyche, now in the
Louvre, he was open to the charge of being a softened Ber-
nini. To refute this charge, he aimed at stronger and more
masculine effects in his Hercules and Lichas, and in the stat-
MODERN SCULPTURE.
243
ues of the boxers Kreugas and Damoxenes. But these works
only showed that the criticism was well founded. His best
vein lay in the direction of grace and beauty rather than of
strength. The Perseus which he made to replace the Apollo
of the Belvidere, and the Venus made to replace the Venus de'
Medici, which had been removed to Paris, are masterpieces of
graceful beauty. We
find something lack-
ing in his busts and
in the colossal statue
of Napoleon, but are
charmed by the statue
of Napoleon's sister
Paul i ne Borghese . In
relief sculpture he
was less successful.
Following closely
in his wake, although
later a pupil of
Thorwaldsen's, was
Pietro Tenerani
(1798-1869). He was
a prolific workman,
highly honored and
prized alike for his
classical and Chris-
tian sculptures. Of
the former class his
Psyche with Pandora's box, in the Palazzo Lenzoni, in Florence,
has been much admired ; of the latter, the most important are
his large relief of the Deposition in the Capella Torlonia of
the Lateran and the tomb of Duchess Lante in S. Maria sopra
Minerva.
ROMANTIC SCHOOL. The influence of Canova even in Italy
was met by the counter-influences of the romantic and natu-
FIG. Q2. PERSEUS (BY CANOVA). VATICAN, ROME.
244 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
ralistic school. Among the romanticists, who aimed at infus-
ing the classic style with naturalism, may be counted Stefano
Ricci, Bartolini, Pampaloni, and Pio Fedi. Stefano Ricci,
praised by Canova, was the author of many monuments, espe-
cially in Arezzo, and in S. Maria Novella and S. Croce in
Florence. Somewhat further removed from Canova was
Lorenzo Bartolini (1777-1850). His early studies in Paris
gave him a bias toward naturalism. His principles were the
imitation of nature and a return to simplicity; but he could
not free himself altogether from the classic style, as we may
see from his group representing Charity, in the Pitti, or from
his Pyrrhus throwing Astyanax from the Walls of Troy. Luigi
Pampaloni (1791-1847), best known from his statues of chil-
dren, produced also many larger works, among which may be
mentioned the tomb of Lazzaro Papi in S. Frediano' at Lucca
and the colossal statue of Pietro Leopoldo in the Piazza di S.
Caterina at Pisa. Pio Fedi, born in 1815, more characteris-
tically Italian in his work, is known by his graceful but emo-
tional group of the Rape of Polyxena in the Loggia dei
Lanzi .
REALISTIC SCHOOL, The naturalistic tendency, weaker in
Italy than in the north of Europe, has been exemplified in
the works of Dupre, Vela, and Monteverde. Giovanni Dupr6
(1817-1882), a follower of Bartolini, emphasized the leaning
toward naturalism found in the work of his master. He
attracted attention first by his statues of Cain and Abel in the
Pitti and later by a Michelangelesque Pieta at Siena. In his
Beatrice Portinari, in the statue of Giotto at the Uffizi, and in
the Cavour monument at Turin his realism is still more em-
phatic. Vincenzo Vela (1822-1891), even more modern in
sentiment and of great technical ability, shows himself to
have been a dramatic sculptor in such works as his Spartacus
and his Dying Napoleon, but he was equally successful in
ideal works, as, for example, his Primavera. A rising sculptor
of considerable ability and dramatic power at the present time
MODERN SCULPTURE.
245
is Ettore Ximenes, from whom we may expect works of
monumental importance. But the average Italian sculpture of
to-day is devoted to
domestic subjects of
trivial though grace-
ful character. It
evinces the spirit of
a Canova no longer
occupied with gods
and heroes, but roam-
ing about in search of
grace and charm in
modern life.
DENMARK AND
SWEDEN. Among the
earliest of the nations
of Northern Europe to
parti ci pate in the
modern classic revival
were Denmark and
Sweden. Danish sculp-
ture received an im-
pulse in this direction
from a Frenchman, T.
F. J. Saly, who be-
came director of the
Academy at C o p e n -
hagen. His succes-
sors, Johannes Wiede-
welt and Weidenhaupt,
drew their inspiration FIG - QS.-GIOTTO (BY
from Paris and from
Rome ; but a stronger representation of the classic spirit was
found in Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844). He was a more
thorough classicist than Canova, for in Canova there still sur-
PORTICO OF THE
UFFIZI, FLORENCE.
246 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
vived something of the spirit of Bernini, whereas Thorwaldsen
was not embarrassed by such traditions. His arrival in Rome
was to him the opening of a new life. " I was born on the
8th of March, 1797," he used to say; " before then I did not
exist." In Rome he copied ancient statues and absorbed the
spirit of classic sculpture. His first statue of importance,
the Jason, received ready recognition from the neo-classicists.
Canova said of it: " This work of the Danish youth exhibits
a new and grand style." An English banker, Sir Thomas
Hope, ordered it executed in marble. German artists, like
Carstens, and scholars, like Zoega, were helpful friends ; and
pupils from all nations flocked to his studio. In the work of
these early years he treated by preference graceful Praxitelean
subjects, such as Adonis, Psyche, Venus, Hebe.
In 1812 Napoleon was expected in Rome, and Thorwaldsen
was employed to make the frieze for one of the most spacious
halls of the Quirinal Palace. Taking the work of Pheidias as
his model, he produced a magnificent frieze representing the
entrance of Alexander into Babylon. His eminent success in
this made him known among the Romans as the " patriarca del
basso-rilievo." During the decade which followed, Thorwald-
sen was at the height of his powers. To this period belong
his Achilles and Priam, Night and Morning (1815), The
Shepherd Boy (1817), and the Mercury (1818). He now
restored for Prince Louis of Bavaria the archaic sculptures
from ^Egina, and occasionally, as in his statue of Hope,
adopted the conventions of archaic sculpture.
His success in Rome led the King of Denmark to urge
his return to Copenhagen. Here he went several times,
and here he died in 1844. The demand made upon him in
Copenhagen was chiefly for religious sculptures. In the Frue
Kirche is his Christ and the Twelve Apostles, the Angel of
Baptism, and several reliefs, while in the pediment over the
entrance is his terracotta group of the Preaching of John the
Baptist.
MODERN SCULPTURE.
247
The influence of Thorwaldsen was perpetuated in his own
country by H, W. Bissen (1798-1868), who early manifested
the romantic tendency for subjects from Norse instead of
Greek mythology. In his later years he caught the naturalistic
spirit of modern days, and was strong in portraiture. Of the
living sculptors of Norway, J. A. Jerichau is a close follower
of Thorwaldsen.
SWEDEN. In Sweden, also, classic influences were introduced
FIG. 94. MONUMENT TO PROF. VACCA BERLINGHIERI (BY THORWALDSEN).
CAMPOSANTO, PISA.
by French sculptors. Here the younger Bouchardon (d. 1762)
and Larcheveque (d. 1778) gave the direction to Swedish sculp-
ture in the last century. The most distinguished Swedish
classicist was J. T. Sergell (1736-1813). He spent twelve
years in Rome, and then returned to Stockholm. The German
sculptor Schadow says of him : " He is less widely known than
Thorwaldsen, but stands equally high in the estimation of con-
248 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
noisseurs." His successor Fogelberg was a romanticist, and
made famous statues of Odin, Thor, and Balder.
GERMANY. In Germany the Rococo style had become so
thoroughly established that pictorial methods prevailed over
the sculptural, and the eighteenth century left German sculp-
ture at a low ebb. In the revival of the early nineteenth cen-
tury, Germany looked to Italy for instruction, and her most
distinguished sculptors went to Rome. But the Protestant
German nature was too independent to submit to Catholic Italy.
As the centre of power shifted to Berlin, the patriotic soon
replaced the classic style. At the end of the last century a
school of sculptors at Stuttgart, headed by Dannecker and
Scheffauer, manifested a strong classic spirit. Johann Hein-
rich Dannecker (1758-1841) studied first in Paris under Pajou,
then went to Rome, and came under the influence of Canova.
His works are characterized by grace and a certain measure of
refinement. He is best known by his Ariadne and the Panther,
at Frankfort. As a sculptor of Christian subjects he was less
successful. His associate P, J, Scheffauer (1756-1808) helped
him to establish the classic style in Stuttgart.
Stronger and more representative were the schools at Berlin
under the leadership of Schadow and Rauch, at Dresden under
Hahnel and Schilling, and at Munich under Schwanthaler.
The school of Berlin has been chiefly historical and realistic
in tendency, while Munich has stood for romanticism.
BERLIN SCHOOL. Johann Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850)
received his first artistic impulses from Tassaert, a Flemish
sculptor established in Berlin. In 1785 he went to Rome,
where he was especially attracted by ancient historical sculp-
ture. On the death of Frederick the Great he proposed
making of him an equestrian statue in Roman costume,
having in mind doubtless the figure of Marcus Aurelius of the
Capitol ; but when he made the statue later, for Stettin, it
was in the costume of the period. His statue of Leopold of
Dessau marks the transition from the classic to the patriotic
MODERN SCULPTURE. 249
style. The figure of Leopold is clad in the regimentals of the
period, but the reliefs on the pedestal are costumed in classic
style. When asked by Queen Louise why he had done this^ he
replied: " The poets and artists would all make an outcry
against the Prussian costume." But she voiced a deeper Ger-
FIG. 95. ARIADNE (BY DANNECKER). FRANKFORT.
man feeling when she answered : " I do not understand why any-
one should object. If my husband wanted Greek and Roman
generals, well and good ; but he wants Prussians. How, then,
are they to be distinguished ? " Although the sculptor of many
portraits, Schadow was at his best when an ideal element was
250 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
involved, as in his Quadriga of Victory over the Brandenburger
Thor at Berlin, and in his Nymph awaking out of Sleep. Of
the pupils of Schadow, Christian Friedrich Tieck (1776-1851)
spent fourteen years in Rome, and on his return adorned the
Royal Theatre of Berlin with dramatic sculptures of mytho-
logical character. Rudolph Schadow (1786-1822), the eldest
son of Johann Gottfried Schadow, turned his attention to the
ideal genre and produced works of lyric character.
The realistic tendency which seemed forced in the works of
Schadow became strong and natural in the works of Christian
Daniel Ranch (1777-1857). He holds the highest rank
among the historical sculptors of Germany. The inspiration
he received from the ancient sculptures of Rome corrected and
improved his sense of form, without subjecting his spirit.
Even German romanticism did not divert him from strictly his-
torical treatment. His monumental works were thoroughly
national, but conceived with an attentive regard for plastic
beauty. His monument of Queen Louise at the Mausoleum
at Charlottenburg is a living portrait, and at the same time
an ideal of womanhood. Rauch's ideals of manhood were
expressed in his statues of Generals Scharnhorst and Billow
near the guard-house in Berlin, and in the heroic Albrecht
Diirer at Nuremberg. His monumental works were restful and
dignified, with the exception of the Bliicher monument at
Breslau, which was made after a design by Schadow. His
seated statue of Maximilian I. at Munich is a fine example of
his power. More important still is the statue of Frederick
the Great at Berlin, which occupied his attention during the
years from 1839 to 1851. In dignity, harmony, and beauty of
composition this monument marks the highest point reached
by German sculpture.
Of his pupils and followers in Berlin may be mentioned
Drake, Blaser, Schievelbein, and Kiss. Friedrich Drake
(b. 1805) has been a close follower of the spirit of Rauch,
as, for example, in his equestrian statue of Kaiser Wilhelm I.
MODERN SCULPTURE.
251
at Cologne, and in his statues of Rauch and Schinkel at
Berlin. Gustav Blaser (1813-1874) of Cologne represented
the same tendency. His Francke monument at Magdeburg is
to be classed with the
best of modern Ger-
man portrait statues.
Friedrich Hermann
Schlevelbein (1817-
1867) sculptured the
group on the palace
bridge at Berlin rep-
resenting Pallas in-
structing a youth in
the use of the spear.
His frieze of the De-
struction of Pompeii
in the Greek court of
the New Museum is
dramatic in character
and seems to have
been inspired by the
frieze of the Apollo
Temple at Phigaleia.
August Kiss (1804-
1865), especially cel-
ebrated for his ani-
mals in bronze, rep-
resented the active
and emotional side of
the school. His best
work is the Mounted Amazon fighting a Tiger, on the steps
of the Old Museum at Berlin.
DRESDEN SCHOOL. The Dresden school, intermediate between
that of Berlin and of Munich, represents a tendency partially
historic and partially romantic. Ernst Friedrich August
FIG. 96. THE TWO PRINCESSES (BY SCHADOW).
CASTLE, BERLIN.
252
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Rietschel (1804-1861) was a pupil of Rauch, then a student at
Rome. His monument of King Friedrich August in the Zwinger
FIG. 97. MONUMENT OK FREDERICK THE GREAT (uY RAUCH). BERLIN.
at Dresden is based upon Rauch's statue of Maximilian I. ;
and his statue of Lessing at Brunswick is an excellent example
MODERN SCULPTURE.
of the refined portraiture of the same school. The spirit of
romanticism appears in his Luther monument at Worms. He
excelled in works where religious feeling was involved, as in
the Pi eta in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam. Ernst Hahnel (b.
1811) studied in Italy, then at Munich. His works represent
the transition from the classical to the romantic style. To the
former class belongs his Bacchus frieze on the upper portion of
the Dresden Theatre ; to the latter his monument to Beethoven
at Bonn, with its reliefs in the style of Cornelius and Overbeck.
Johannes Schilling (b. 1828) followed in the line of Hahnel.
His group of the Night, on the Brtihl Terrace at Dresden, shows
the influence of his Roman training, but his colossal figure of
Germania at Niederwald is a thoroughly national, " pracht-
volles " monument, not altogether free from the Rococo spirit
of the earlier Dresden school.
THE MUNICH SCHOOL of the early nineteenth century repre-
sented romanticism tempered by the classic style. Konrad
Eberhard (1768-1859) studied in Rome, and on his return
gave up the production of Muses, Fauns, and Dianas for the
decoration of portals and making of statues in the mediaeval
style. He became a religious fanatic. Ludwig Schwanthaler
(1802-1848), in spite of repeated visits to Rome and the
responses he frequently made to the demand for classic
themes, was at his best in the treatment of national subjects,
such as the twelve gilded bronze figures of Bavarian kings for
the throne-room of the Konigsbau, the colossal figure of
Bavaria in front of the Ruhmeshalle, and the Hermann Battle
in one of the pediments of the Walhalla near Regensburg.
In this last half of the nineteenth century German sculpture
has vibrated between the romantic and the naturalistic
schools. Adolph Hildebrand, of Jena, in his Shepherd Boy
aimed at more naturalistic effect than did Thorwaldsen in his
Shepherd and the Dog. Naturalism is flourishing in the Berlin
schpol, and is best exemplified in the works of Reinhold Begas,
whose genre studies are full of life and whose portraits are
254
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
excellent. In Munich, Caspar Zumbusch (b. 1830), the sculp-
tor of the Maximilian II. monument and the statue of Count
FIG. 98. RUSSIAN STANDARD-BEARER (BY LANCERE).
Rumford, represents the realistic tendency, while Conrad Knoll,
Anton Hess, and others continue to work in the romantic field.
KUSSIA. In Russia the absence of marble, the severity of
MODERN SCULPTURE. 255
the climate, the interdict of the church against sculpture in
the round, and of the state against the use of bronze except
for images of the sovereign and high officials, retarded the
progress of sculpture. Russian sculpture is, therefore, of very
recent growth, and almost exclusively confined to small
bronzes. These, however, furnish characteristic and interest-
ing pictures of contemporary life.
The best known sculptors of Russia are Lancere and Lie-
berich, though excellent work has been done by SamonorT,
Posene, Naps, Gratchoff, Kamensky, and Genzburg.
Lancere's bronzes are full of spirited action and modelled
with extreme attention to details. His subjects, whether for-
eign studies, such as An Arab Fantasia, An Arab with the
Lion's Cub, A Donkey Driver, "Ah Arab Horseman, or more
thoroughly Russian, as Cossack Soldiers watering their Horses,
The Standard Bearer, and The Opritchnike (Freebooter), are
sympathetic pictures of modern Oriental and Russian life with
which the horse is almost invariably associated.
Lieberich (b. 1828) is a skilful and varied sculptor of ani-
mals. His Wolf Chase, Hare Hunt, Falconer, Fight with a
Bear, Samoyed and Reindeer Team, are full of action and
life, and evince minute study of details.
Samonoff, Posene, and Naps have devoted themselves to genre
views of peasant life, such as a Cossack lighting his Pipe,
Emigrants to the Amoor, etc. Gratchoff is extremely clever
in portraying types of Russian character; Feodor Kamensky
has introduced into his works a touch of Italian grace ; and
Genzburg, in his original and expressive Boy Bathing, has
proved himself a sculptor of considerable merit.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The products of modern sculpture are dis-
tributed in the churches, cemeteries, public squares and parks, civic build-
ings, museums, libraries, historical societies, and private collections. Oc-
casionally specific collections are made, as in the Thorwaldsen Museum at
Copenhagen ; the Rauch Museum, Berlin ; the Rietschel and the Schil-
ling Museums, Dresden ; and the Schwanthaler Museum, Munich.
CHAPTER XXV.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Alexandra. A. L. Barye. Benedite,
Le Muse'e du Luxembourg. Bertrand, Francois Rude. Brown-
ell, French Art. Chesneau, Le Statuaire Carpeaux. Claretie,
Peintres et Sculpteurs Contempo rains. Dohme, Kunst und Kiinst-
ler des XIX Jahrhunderts. Fourcaud, Francois Rude. Gonse,
La Sculpture Fran$aise ; Chefs d' (Euvres de V Art au XIX e
Sihle. Jouin, David d' Angers. Charles de Kay, Life and
Works of Antoine Louis Barye.
REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES, In France the Revolution at the
close of the eighteenth century signified the substitution of
democratic for aristocratic ideas and methods. This resulted
in the destruction of many fine statues, but not of the sculp-
tor's art. At first classical methods, especially those of repub-
lican Rome, prevailed. But already in the first half of the
nineteenth century a romantic and naturalistic reaction made
itself felt. The classical movement expressed itself in the
works of Chaudet, Bosio, and Pradier ; the romantic, in those
of Preault and others of lesser note ; the naturalistic, in the
monuments of David d'Angers, Rude, and Barye.
THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. Antoine Denis Chaudet (i 763-1810)
studied in Rome and was a classicist of the severe type. He
made the colossal statue of Napoleon which occupied the
summit of the Colonne Vendome until 1814. His best works
were, however, of an ideal character, such as his Paul and
Virginia, his CEdipus called to Life by Phorbas, and his Amor
in the Museum in the Louvre. Francois Joseph Bosio (1769-
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
257
FIG. 99. THE DEPARTURE OF THE VOLUNTEERS OF 1792 (BY RUDE).
ARC DE TRIOMPHE, PARIS.
1845), a pupil of Pajou, was eminently a sculptor of grace-
ful subjects, such as the Reclining Hyacinth and the Nymph
Salmacis in the Louvre. As sculptor to the court of Napo-
17
258 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Icon, he was highly esteemed for his portraits. In the works
of James Pradier (1792-1862) we find, with the classic spirit
and great technical perfection, a grace of manner leaning
toward sensuous treatment. His Victories on the tomb of
Napoleon and on the Arc de Triomphe were graceful exam-
ples of monumental decoration, but his semi -sensuous Atalanta
in the Louvre, the Odalisque Accroupie at Lyons, and the
Three Graces at Versailles give some weight to the remark of
Preault, that Pradier departed every morning for Athens and
returned every evening to the Rue Breda.
Of the many pupils of Pradier the most distinguished were
Antoine Etex, who was successful as a rival of Rude in the
decoration of the Arc de Triomphe, and Jean Baptiste Eugene
Guillaume, author of the Tomb of the Gracchi at the Luxem-
bourg, and of many pleasing busts. This French classic
school sometimes manifested a realistic sense and an emo-
tionalism which promised soon to burst the bonds of classical
convention. Of such a character was Cartellier (1757-1833),
the master of Rude, and Lemot (1781-1827) of Lyons, the
sculptor of the life-like equestrian statue of Louis XIV. at
Lyons, and Francois Gre*goire Giraud (1783-1836), an indepen-
dent and original sculptor, and Francois Joseph Duret (1805-
1865), whose Neapolitan Dancer and Improvisatore are
inspired as much by the model as by the classic sense of form.
THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL. As the century advanced, classic
restraint gave way to the growth of national pride, which
expressed itself in romanticism on the one hand and natural-
ism on the other. The latter school was by far the stronger.
The romanticists reverted to mediaeval France for their inspi-
ration. To this class belonged Pre~ault, the sculptor of the
statue of Jacques Coeur at Bourges, of Marceau at Chartres,
and of the Gothic Knight on the Pont d'lena in Paris. Of a
similar character was the Francesca da Rimini by Mile.
F61icie de Fauveau, the Jeanne d'Arc of Princess Marie
d'0rle*ans, the works of Baron Triqueti, Du Seigneur, and
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE. 259
Antonin Moine, The statues of saints around the Madeleine,
by Desbceufs, Chalouette, Fouchere, and Danton, are not so far
removed from the style of the classicists.
THE EARLY NATURALISTS. The appeal to nature struck a
deeper chord in the heart of modern France. David d' Angers
(1789-1856) was the pupil of the painter David and of the
sculptor Rolland. He also frequented the ateliers of Canova
and Thorwaldsen. His works were not always free from the
classic style, as, for example, in his General Foy, clad in
FIG. 100. THE LION AND THE SNAKE (BRONZE BY BARYE). TUILERIES, PARIS.
Roman costume, and in his Philopoemen. Even in his gable
sculptures for the Pantheon, classic conventions struggled with
more modern modes of expression. But his General Gobert
was represented as a man of his time, and his many busts
and medallions were characteristic portraits.
Francois Rude (1784-1855) was a native of Dijon, where he
imbibed the Flemish realism which characterized the Burgun-
dian school. But in Paris his early prizes (1809 and 1812)
were won by treating classic themes such as Marius on the
26O HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Ruins of Carthage and Aristseus deploring the Loss of his
Bees. The relief which he made for the Chateau de Ter-
vueren at Brussels treated of the Hunt of Meleager and the
History of Achilles. As late as 1827 his Mercury was still
conventional sculpture. It was not until 1831 that in his
Young Fisher Boy playing with a Turtle he made what Charles
Lenormant called a " protest against the icy dreams of the
ideal." By 1836 he completed his masterpiece, the Depart-
ure of the Volunteers of 1792, which decorates one of the
piers of the Arc de Triomphe. This was still classic, in the
sense that the Giant Frieze of Pergamon was classic, but, at the
same time, national enough to be called the Marseillaise. It
was the extreme expression of patriotic enthusiasm.
From this time forward the naturalistic and historic spirit
became evident in Rude's works. In his statue of the Mare"chal
de Saxe he reverts to the eighteenth-century conventions; in
that of Louis XIII. to those of the seventeenth century. His
Jeanne d'Arc listening to the Voices (1845) was mediaeval
French. Thoroughly modern was his Gaspard Monge at
Beaune, his Marechal Ney in Paris, and his Napoleon waking
to Immortality at Fixin. In his Hebe and his Love domi-
nating the World, works of his old age, he went back to the
classic spirit of his youth.
Antoine Louis Barye (1795-1875) widened the range of
French sculpture by his devotion to the representation of ani-
mals, by his varied and skilful manipulation of bronze, and by
the emphasis he laid upon massive modelling as opposed to
precise outlines and delicately curved surfaces. These were
unexpected results from a pupil of Bosio and Gros, and of the
Ecole des Beaux Arts. His real inspiration came from the
writings of Buffon, Lamarck, Cuvier, and from the fine col-
lection of animals in the Jardin des Plantes. His subjects
were frequently contests; e>g., a Tiger devouring a Gavial, a
Lion crushing a Serpent or a Tiger, a Lapith fighting a Cen-
taur, a Jaguar devouring a Hare contests illustrative of the
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
261
force and strength of the nobler animals. His works as a
whole were a protest against the classic restriction to the nude
human form. As an
historical series, they
illustrated the develop-
ment from a minute and
detailed to a broad and
massive style.
CONTEMPORARY
SCULPTURE. During the
second half of the pres-
ent century the classical
school has been largely
replaced by a half-
classic, half-naturalistic
school, in which the
naturalists have been
gaining ground. Classic
influences were still
strong in the works of
Henri Chapu (1833-
1891), the pupil of
Pradier and Duret, as
maybe seen in his Mer-
cury inventing the
Caduceus, and in his
graceful figure of Youth
placing an Olive Branch
on the Tomb of Henri
Regnault, but they were
somewhat less strong in
his kneeling figure of
Jeanne d'Arc in the Louvre. Severely classic also are Augustin
Alexandra Dumont in his Genius of Liberty on the Colonne de
la Bastille, and in his portrait statues; Francois Jouffroy
FIG. 101. THE FLORENTINE SINGER (BY PAUL
DUBOIS). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS.
262 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
(1806-1882) in his Young Girl telling her Secret to Venus;
Perraud in his Les Adieux, which is inspired by Athenian
sepulchral reliefs.
THE ACADEMIC SCHOOL. The organized teaching of France,
as represented by the Institute and the Ecole des Beaux Arts,
no longer upholds the severely classic style. The romantic
and naturalistic reaction has gained ground so far that even in
conservative quarters the French Renaissance, or, if you please,
the Italian Renaissance, is now of more immediate influence
than Greece and Rome. The work of this school is emi-
nently characterized by elegance, technical perfection, and the
absence of inharmonious detail. The school contains a long
list of able sculptors.
Paul Dubois (1829-1 905) is a leader, as well as one of the
most inspired representatives of the school. In his youthful
St. John, his Florentine Singer, and his Narcissus he may be
compared to Donatello ; and in his figures of Faith, Charity,
Military Courage, and Meditation, on the tomb of General
Lamoriciere at Nantes, he has all the style, and more than the
charm, of Civitali.
Jean Alexandre Falguifcre (b. 1831), a pupil of Jouffroy,
broke away from his master's severe style, and infused life and
motion into sculpture in his Running Victor in the Cock
Fight. Original and charming is his conception in the Young
Martyr Tarcisius, in the Luxembourg. More monumental are
his Saint Vincent de Paul and his Progress overcoming Error,
at the Pantheon. Puech, another pupil of Jouffroy, has also
surpassed his master in his charming Muse of Andre Chenier
and his Siren, at the Luxembourg. Falguiere's pupil, Antonin
Merci6 (b. 1845), is an artist of great grace and refinement.
His David loses nothing when compared with Verrocchio's,
and his Gloria Victis is one of the masterpieces of modern
sculpture. Justly popular, too, is his Quand Meme, in the
garden of the Tuileries, and full of delicate sentiment his
Souvenir for the Tomb of M me Charles Ferry. For rhythm,
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
263
movement, and delicacy of sentiment, Mercie enjoys well-
earned distinction. Less elevated in his conceptions, but
FIG. 102. THE SECRET OK THE TOMB (BY SAINT MARCEAUX). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS.
equally perfect in style, is Ren6 de Saint Marceaux. He is
somewhat fantastic and Michelangelesque in his Genius
264
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Guarding the Secret of the Tomb, in the Luxembourg; but
more subtile and French in his Harlequin, in the museum at
Rheims. Nearly the equal of Paul Dubois is Louis Ernest
Barrias (b. 1841), best known by his statue of the Youthful
Mozart with the Violin, and his First Funeral, in which
Adarn and Eve are grieving over the dead Abel. Moreau
Vauthier (d. 1893) was almost a Florentine, if we may judge
by the exquisitely modelled bust of Mr. Lucas in the Metro-
politan Museum, New York. Chaplain and Roty have brought
the production of medals and plaques to a higher degree of
FIG. 103. PAN AND THE BEARS (BY FREMIET). LUXEMBOURG, PARIS.
technical perfection than was reached by the great medallists
of the Italian and French Renaissance or by David d' Angers.
THE LATER NATURALISTS. As followers in the line of Rude
and Barye we may mention, first, Jean Baptiste Carpeaux
(1827-1875), a pupil of Rude, and a sculptor of considerable
emotional and dramatic power. His portrait busts, such as
those of Gerome (1872) and Alexandre Dumas (1875),^ are
full of life. His relationship to Rude is more evident in the
stirring relief of the Dance, in the faxpade of the New Opera
House. Somewhat in the spirit of Clodion, but more sensu-
ous and Rubens-like, is his Triumph of Flora; and full of
MODERN SCULPTURE IN FRANCE.
265
abandon, his Four Quarters of the Earth supporting the World
in the Luxembourg Gardens.
Emmanuel Fr6miet (b. 1824), like his uncle, Rude, in his-
torical bent, and like
Barye in his devotion
to animals, excels in
monumental works such
as Louis d' Orleans and
Jeanne d'Arc, and also
in such genre subjects
as a Wounded Dog, and
a Gorilla carrying off a
Woman. AugusteCain,
more exclusively a fol-
lower of Barye, has de-
voted himself to animal
sculpture. His Rhi-
noceros attacked by
Lions and Tigers is in
the Garden of the Tui-
leries, and his Tigress
with her Cubs, in the
Central Park, New
York. Jules Dalou
(b. 1838), in his reliefs
of S i 1 e n u s and the
Nymphs, in the South
Kensington Museum,
and in his Sevres Vase,
in the Luxembourg,
shows himself a more
refined Carpeaux. His masterpiece is in the Chamber of Depu-
ties, and represents the Etats Generauxof 1789, with Mirabeau
delivering his famous address before the Marquis de Dreux
Bre"ze\ It is a dramatic composition full of historic realism.
FIG. 104. JOHN THE BAPTIST (BY RODIN).
LUXEMBOURG, PARIS.
266 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Auguste Rodin (b. 1840) is still further removed from the
academic school. He draws his inspiration from nature, aim-
ing at true expression without regard to elegance of form.
His John the Baptist, in the Luxembourg a replica of the
head is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York is a natu-
ralistic presentation of an ill-fed prophet. But Rodin's nat-
uralism does not yet observe historic conditions. His John
the Baptist is a Frenchman. This limitation of range makes
his Bourgeois de Calais, and his busts of Victor Hugo and of
Dalou, more satisfactory works of art. In his modelling, Rodin
continues the broad style of Barye.
Of the younger sculptors, great talent has been shown by
Bartholome, especially in funerary sculpture. His project for
the entrance of a tomb, exhibited in 1892, and again in greater
completeness in 1895, is remarkable not only for its original-
ity, but also for its significance and naturalistic character.
The democratic spirit of modern times has so widened the
area of sculpture that much that is frivolous and insignificant
and meretricious is produced in the name of art ; but signifi-
cant, beautiful, and truthful expression is to-day in France
carried further than in the sculpture of any country of the
world. In fact, the sculpture of France surpasses both her
architecture and her painting.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The museums of the Luxembourg and of the
Louvre, in Paris, contain collections of modern French sculpture. A
special collection for David d'Angers is in the museum at Angers, and of
Barye bronzes in the Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington. The most
important sculptures are usually first exhibited in model, or finished, at the
annual Salons, at special exhibitions, or at World's Fairs.
CHAPTER XXVI.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Dafforne, Gallery of Modern Sculp-
ture. Holland, Memorials of Sir Francis Chantrey. Lady
Eastlake, Life of John Gibson. Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists
of the English School. Stephen, Dictionary of National Biog-
raphy. The Art Journal. The Magazine of Art.
THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. In England the churches, public
squares, and private houses have continued a demand for
monumental and portrait sculpture. The classic revival has
made itself felt in English sculpture as well as in literature ;
and to offset this, the scientific reaction has produced a strong
school of naturalistic sculptors. The classical movement of
the nineteenth century was almost the beginning of sculpture
in England. Never before had she produced a succession of
able sculptors like Westmacott and Chantrey, Bailey and Gib-
son, and the minor lights who surrounded them.
Sir Richard Westmacott (1775-1856) showed himself the
artistic successor of Flaxman in a relief entitled the Blue Bell,
and in his statues of Psyche, Cupid, and Euphrosyne. He is
to be remembered, too, for the pedi mental sculptures of the
British Museum and the monuments of Pitt and Fox in West-
minster Abbey. He also represented the Duke of Wellington
as Achilles.
Sir Francis Legatt Chantrey (1781-1842), although the
friend of Canova, and influenced by Thorwaldsen, rarely
attempted ideal themes. His works have the charm of tender
sentiment, as in the Sleeping Children, at Lichfield Cathe-
268
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
dral, or the Resignation, at Worcester Cathedral. His busts
and statues were simple, refined, and technically excellent.
Of his monumental works may be mentioned the statue of
Canning in Liverpool, the equestrian George IV. in Trafalgar
FIG. IOS. PAULINE BONAPARTE (BY THOMAS CAMPBELL). CHATSWOKTH, ENGLAND.
Square, and the Duke of Wellington in front of the Royal
Exchange, London.
Edward Hodges Bailey (1788-1867), a pupil of Flaxman,
combined religious with classic sentiment in his statues of
Eve at the Fountain, and Eve listening to the Voice. He
designed the statue of Nelson for the Nelson monument in
Trafalgar Square.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 269
John Gibson (1790-1866) was the most thorough classicist
of the English school. He worked under Canova and Thor-
waldsen, and resided for a long time in Rome. His first
original work, The Sleeping Shepherd, was followed by Mars
and Cupid, Psyche borne by Zephyrs, Meeting of Hero and
Leander, Hylas surprised by Nymphs, Cupid tormenting the
Soul, and Narcissus. His Queen Victoria was robed in classic
drapery. During the forties he startled the English public
with his Tinted Venus, and justified the coloring of his statue
by the remark that " what the Greeks did was right." He
gave many years to the perfection of this statue, and said of
it : " This is the most carefully executed work I ever executed,
for I wrought the forms up to the highest elevation of char-
acter, which results from purity and sweetness combined with
an air of unaffected dignity and grace. I took the liberty to
decorate it in a fashion unprecedented in modern times. I
tinted the flesh warm ivory, scarcely red, the eyes blue, the
hair blond, and the net which contains the hair, golden."
Other classicists worthy of mention were William Theed
(1764-1817), William Pitts (1790-1840), Thomas Campbell
(1790-1858), Richard John Wyatt (1795-1858), Patrick
McDowell (1799-1870), and Joseph Durham (1814-1877).
More strictly portrait sculptors were their contemporaries^
William Behnes (1790-1864), Thomas Kirk (1784-1845), and
John E. Jones (1806-1862).
THE KEACTION AGAINST THE CLASSIC STYLE, The reaction
against the classic style had attained considerable strength by
the middle of this century. Sculptors like Stevens, Foley,
Boehm, Woolner, and Armstead looked to the past for inspira-
tion, but to the Italian Renaissance rather than to Greece and
Rome.
Alfred George Stevens (1817-1875) was a pupil of Thor-
waldsen, but received a greater bias from the works of Michel-
angelo than from his master. The freedom and breadth of
his decorative work exerted a considerable influence upon
2/0
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
English industrial art, and his Duke of Wellington monument
in St. Paul's Cathedral, though still unfinished, brought new
life into English sculpture. England may well point with
pride to the powerful groups of Valor triumphing over Cow-
ardice and of Truth pulling out the Tongue of Falsehood
which decorate the
canopy under which re-
poses the effigy of the
Duke.
John Henry Foley
( 1818-1874 ) in his
earlier works, such as
Juno and the Infant
Bacchus, and Venus re-
ceiving ^E n e a s from
Diomedes, showed his
indebtedness to the older
school of sculptors, but
his busts and portrait
statues of Goldsmith,
Burke, Selden, Hamp-
den, and others brought
out more strongly his
naturalistic bent. He
was the author of the
group of Asia, and of
the Prince Consort, on
the Albert Memorial in
Hyde Park, London, but
his chef-d* ceuvre was the
vigorous equestrian statue of General Sir James Outram, in
Calcutta. One of his latest works was the statue of General
" Stonewall " Jackson, in Richmond, Va. Sir Joseph Edgar
Boehm (1834-1891), though born in Vienna and trained in
Paris, became a representative English sculptor, especially in
FIG. 106. LORD BEACONSFIELD. WESTMINSTER
ABBEY, LONDON.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 2/1
portrait statues. Among the best of these are his Thomas
Carlyle, at Chelsea, his John Bunyan, at Bedford, his busts of
Lord Wolseley and Herbert Spencer, and the tomb statues of
Dean Stanley and the Earl of Shaftesbury in Westminster.
Thomas Woolner (1825-1893) exhibited the spirit of
romanticism in his early works, such as Eleanora sucking
Poison from the Wound of Prince Edward, the Death of Boa-
dicea, and Puck. After the foundation of the Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood in 1848, of which he was an original member,
he exhibited in some of his works, as in the Achilles shouting
from the Trenches, the early Italian Renaissance tendency of
that school. A refined sentiment characterized his busts, por-
trait statues, and medallions, such as those of Tennyson, Car-
lyle, Wordsworth, Macaulay, Dickens, and Darwin. His last
important work, The Housemaid, was a romantic treatment of
a theme more likely to have been chosen by a more natural-
istic sculptor.
Other sculptors representing tendencies similar to Wool-
ner's were James F. Redfern (1838-1876), whose work was in
demand for Gothic churches and for the restoration of
ancient Gothic sculptures; Lord Ronald Gower, who was influ-
enced by French sculpture of the thirteenth century; and
Henry Hugh Armstead (b. 1828), who exhibits a wide range of
subjects, styles, and methods. Matthew Noble (1818-1876)
and Charles B. Birch were inclined to romantic methods even
in portraiture, and George Tinworth in his terracotta reliefs
strove to be naturalistic in following the style of Giotto.
Thomas Brock (b. 1847), the pupil of Foley, in all his early
works followed in the line of his master. T. Nelson Maclean,
notwithstanding his training in Paris, and George A. Lawson
may be classed with this transitional school.
LATEST PHASE OF ENGLISH SCULPTURE. The latest school
of English sculpture exhibits greater originality and technical
ability than were attained by its predecessors. This school
is poetic in temperament, but selects frequently naturalistic
2/2
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and democratic themes. Its technical ideal is no longer the
beauty of linear form, but of expressive modelling. Its
teacher is neither Rome
nor Florence, but Paris.
The sculptural proto-
types of this school are
the Clytie produced in
1868 by George Fred-
erick Watts (b. 1818),
and the Athlete stran-
gling a Python exhibited
in 1877 by Sir Frederick
Leighton (1830-1896).
It is noteworthy that
these works came from
the hands of painters,
and were characterized
not merely by novelty of
conception but by the
expressive manner in
which the surfaces were
modelled. Sir Fred-
erick's subsequent statue
of the Sluggard, and his
statuette entitled Need-
less Alarms, won for him
a relatively more ad-
vanced position than
that which he enjoyed
as a painter.
Three sculptors stand
at the head of their pro-
fession in England at the present day : Thornycroft, Onslow
Ford, and Gilbert. Hamo Thornycroft (1850-) in his earliest
work, the Warrior carrying a Wounded Youth from Battle, re-
FIG. 107. DANCING (BY ONSLOW FORD).
MODERN SCULPTURE IN ENGLAND. 273
minds us somewhat of David d' Angers and of Rude. His skill
in surface-modelling was shown in his Artemis and in his remark-
able statue called Putting the Stone. His Teucer, admirable
for the same quality, has a style about it which makes us think
of Paul Dubois, while his subsequent statues of the Mower
and the Sower are suggestive of the peasant painters of the
Barbizon school. But the spirit which animates these works
is not French, but English.
E, Onslow Ford (1852-1901), though trained as a painter at
Antwerp and Munich, has worked as a sculptor since the exhi-
bition in 1883 of his statue of Henry Irving as Hamlet.
This was followed by poetical productions such as Linos,
Folly, Peace, the Singer, Music, and Dancing. These statues,
as well as his most important production, the Shelley Memo-
rial at Oxford, are characterized by beauty of form and senti-
ment even more strongly than by their expressive modelling.
Alfred Gilbert (1854-) in his Kiss of Victory, exhibited
in 1882, seems to have been inspired by the Gloria Victis of
Mercie\ The influence of Mercie" is perceptible also in his
Perseus applying his Winglets. His Icarus, made in 1884,
is said to have been the first bronze of importance cast by
the cire perdue process in England. His most elaborate work
is the memorial to Henry Fawcett in Westminster Abbey, in
which a frieze of variously colored bronze figures flanks the
bust of the statesman. Refined in its details, but not altogether
successful' in its general mass, is the Shaftesbury Memorial
Fountain in Piccadilly Circus.
Outside of this distinguished trio may be mentioned Harry
Bates, who has produced several excellent reliefs; Eoscoe
Mullins, who is perhaps too much inclined to story-telling in
statuary ; George J. Frampton, a versatile and especially clever
sculptor in the use of delicate relief ; Henry A. Pegram, who
has applied a pictorial method to high-reliefs ; W. Goscombe
John and T, Stirling Lee, realistic representatives of the new
school ; Robert Stark and John M. Swan, sculptors of animals ;
18
2/4 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
and Frederick Pomeroy, an excellent sculptor of statuettes.
Some talent is also shown in the works of Alfred Drury, F. E.
. Schenck, Adrien Jones, Allen Hutchinson, A. Toft, and H.
C. Fehr.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The exhibitions of the Royal Academy, and
of the Grosvenor and the New Gallery, afford annually an opportunity of
studying the most recent productions before they are scattered in the
churches, civic buildings, public squares, and private collections.
CHAPTER XXVII.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED. Benjamin, Contemporary Art in
America. Century Magazine. Clark, Great American Sculp-
tors. Clement and Hutton, Artists of the Nineteenth Century.
Dunlap, The Arts of Design in the United States. Lee, Familiar
Sketches of Sculpture and Sculptors. Tuckerman, Book of the
Artists.
EARLY ATTEMPTS. Sculpture in America, if we except the
works of native Indians and of the Aztecs, Mayas and Incas,
as not properly within the scope of this volume, is the pro-
duct of the present century. During the eighteenth century we
know only of a Mrs. Patience Wright (1725-1785), of Borden-
town, N. J., who was skilful enough in the execution of wax
figures to have her wax statue of Lord Chatham admitted to
Westminster Abbey, and John Dixey, an Irishman who came to
America from Italy in 1789, and made the figures of Justice for
the City Hall, New York, and the State House, Albany. An
ardent Italian Republican, Giuseppe Cerrachi, came to this
country in 1791 with the design for an elaborate monument to
Liberty. It is thus described : " The Goddess of Liberty is
represented descending in a car drawn by four horses, darting
through a volume of clouds which conceals the summit of a
rainbow. Her form is at once expressive of dignity and peace.
In her right hand she brandishes a flaming dart, which, by dis-
pelling the mists of error, illuminates the universe ; her left is
extended in the attitude of calling upon the people of America
to listen to her voice." Although Washington headed the
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
subscription for the monument, the money was not raised, and
thus we escaped a Berninesque foundation in the history of
American sculpture. Cerrachi left behind him excellent busts
of Washington, Hamilton, Clinton, Paul Jones, and John Jay.
The distinguished French sculptor, Houdon, visited the
United States in 1785,
but remained too short a
time to leave a perma-
nent impress. William
Rush (1757-1833), of
Philadelphia, carved in
wood and modelled in
clay, self-taught. His
bust of Washington is
in the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts,
and his wooden Water
Nymph, now transferred
to bronze, decorates
Fairmount Park in
Philadelphia. Another
pioneer, John Frazee
(1790-185 2), of Rahway,
N. J., who had never
seen a marble statue
until 1820, made a bust
of John Wells for Grace
Church, New York.
This is recorded by Dun-
lap as the first marble portrait made by a native American
sculptor. He also made busts of Daniel Webster, John Jay,
Judge Prescott, Hon. John Lowell, Chief Justice Marshall, and
others.
THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL. The foundations of American sculp-
ture are to be found in the classical school of Canova and
FIG. 108. WASHINGTON AS OLYMPIAN ZEUS (BY
GREENOUGH). WASHINGTON.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 277
Thorwaldsen. This was the school that shaped the energies
of Greenough, Powers, Crawford, Browne, Story, Ball, Ran-
dolph Rogers, Rinehart, and Harriet Hosmer.
Horatio Greenough (1*805-1852), an accomplished and
scholarly Bostonian, led American sculptors to Rome. In the
spirit of Thorwaldsen he remarked : " I began to study art in
Rome ; until then I had rather amused myself with clay and
marble." His Chanting Cherubs, the first marble group by an
American sculptor, was also a challenge to the American pre-
judice against the nude, and paved the way for his statues of
Venus Victrix and of Abel. His dignified statue of Washing-
ton, conceived as an Olympian Zeus, was greeted with some
intolerance by his countrymen. More thoroughly national in
spirit was his group The Rescue, representing a settler rescu-
ing a woman and child from a savage Indian. Refined and
excellent were his busts of Washington, Lafayette, John Quincy
Adams, and Fenimore Cooper. Hiram Powers (1805-1873),
of Vermont, after having made realistic wax figures in Cincin-
nati, took up his residence in Italy. He was ingenious and
independent rather than original, and won recognition by
faithfu^ honest work. There was a touch of tender melan-
choly in his Eve Disconsolate, the Last of the Tribe, and in his
Greek Slave. When the last-named statue was first exhibited
in Cincinnati, a delegation of clergymen was sent to judge
whether it were fit to be seen by Christian people. Its purity
of sentiment and harmonious form established its right to
exist, and he made six replicas of it. His bust of Edward
Everett, at Chatsworth, was admirable. Hardly inferior to
this were his busts and statues of Franklin, Adams, Jefferson,
Van Buren, Webster, and Calhoun.
Thomas Crawford (1813-1857), more gifted and original
than Powers, studied in Italy under Thorwaldsen. His earliest
work, the Orpheus in Search of Eurydice, seems to have been
inspired by his study of the Niobe group in Florence ; and his
latest, the bronze door of the Capitol at Washington, by Ghi-
2 7 8
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
berti's baptistery gates. His colossal Liberty for the dome of
the Capitol was conceived in the classical spirit, but the
romanticism peculiar to America shows itself in the pedi-
mental group at Washington
of the Indian mourning over
the Decay of his Race, and
in the Indian Chief, in the
New York Historical Society
Collection. His Beethoven
in the Music Hall, Boston,
and his equestrian statue of
Washington, at Richmond,
both in bronze, were cast in
Munich. Ball Hughes is
credited with having made
the fi r s t statue cast in
bronze in this country.
This is the monument of
Dr. Bowditch, in Mount
Auburn Cemetery. His
marble statue of Alex-
ander Hamilton, destroyed
by fire in 1835, i similarly
credited as one of the first
marble statues carved by an
American sculptor. Henry
Kirke Brown (1814-1886),
though he went early to
Italy, was not a classicist
in spirit. He felt strongly
that American art should
treat of American subjects.
His best energies were devoted to the equestrian statue of
Washington, in Union Square, New York, which was cast at
Chicopee, Massachusetts, and set up in 1856. Even more
FIG. IOQ. THE GREEK SLAVE (BY POWERS).
OWNED BY DUKE OF CLEVELAND, ENG-
LAND. REPLICA IN BOSTON MUSEUM.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 279
successful is his equestrian statue of General Scott, in Wash-
ington.
Erastus Dow Palmer (1817-) evinced the spirit of lyric
poetry in his idealistic sculpture. He treated such subjects
as the Infant Ceres, the Sleeping Peri, the Spirit's Flight,
Resignation, Spring, the Angel of the Sepulchre. His Indian
Girl, representative of the dawn of civilization, and his White
Captive, suggestive of the dangers encountered by pioneer life,
were universally popular. William Wetmore Story (1819-
1896), an accomplished writer as well as sculptor, has produced
a series of cold, correct, pedantic statues, such as the Cleo-
patra, Semiramis, Medea, and Polyxena of the Metropolitan
Museum, New York. In these works the classical spirit is
already waning, and the American not at all apparent.
Thomas Ball (b. 1819), less accomplished than Story, has long
lived in Florence, without losing his Americanism. He pro-
duced a few ideal works, such as a statue of Pandora and a bust
of Truth, but was more successful in historic and portrait
sculpture, as in his faithful equestrian statue of Washington, in
the Boston Public Garden, and in his Daniel Webster, in Cen-
tral Park, New York. Randolph Rogers (1825-1892), of Vir-
ginia, learned his art in Rome. His Nydia, the Blind Girl
of Pompeii, a figure of somewhat labored gracefulness, enjoyed
a wide popularity. His bronze doors for the Capitol at Wash-
1 ington illustrated the Life of Columbus. He made a colossal
America for Providence, R. I., and a figure representing the
State of Michigan for Detroit.
Two of the most thorough classicists among American sculp-
tors have been Rinehart and Harriet Hosmer. William Henry
Rinehart (1825-1874) may be best studied in the Rinehart
Museum of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, though the Metro-
politan Museum, New York, and the Corcoran Gallery, Wash-
ington, contain a number of his works. His Clytie, in Balti-
more, may well be classed with Power's Greek Slave, and his
seated statue of Chief Justice Taney, at Annapolis (and its
280
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
replica in Mount Vernon Square, Baltimore), is one of the most
successful public monuments in the country. He left a fund
which has recently become available and is to be devoted
to the education of sculptors in Rome.
Miss Harriet Hosmer
(b. 1831) became the
favorite pupil of the
English sculptor Gib-
son in Rome. With
masculine vigor, she
produced a series of
statues such as Hesper,
CEnone, Puck, the
Sleeping Faun, Ze-
nobia, and Beatrice
Cenci, and busts of
Daphne and Medusa.
She was the last repre-
sentative of the classic
school.
Other American
sculptors, who flour-
ished before the Cen-
tennial Exhibition in
1876, were Henry
Dexter (b. 1806), Joel
T. Hart (1810-1877),
Shobal Vail Clevinger
(1812-1843), Joseph
Mozier (1812-1870),
Edward Sheffield Bar-
tholomew (1822- 1858), Benjamin Paul Akers (1825-1861), J.
A. Jackson (1825-1879), Thomas R. Gould (1825-1881), John
Rogers, C. B, Ives, Henry J, Haseltine, Edward Augustus
Brackett, Launt Thompson, Mrs. Dubois, Margaret Foley,
FIG. IIO. BRONZE RELIEF OF PRESIDENT McCOSH
(BY AUGUSTUS ST. GAUDENS). PRINCETON UNI-
VERSITY CHAPEL.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 28 1
Emma Stebbins, Edmonia Lewis, Vinnie Reams, and Blanche
Nevin. These sculptors by no means confined themselves to
classical themes. Biblical subjects frequently occupied their
attention, and also contemporary portraiture. John Rogers
devoted himself to genre subjects, and produced an immense
number of statuettes, many of which, inspired by the late Civil
War, enjoyed a wide but short-lived popularity.
CONTEMPOBABY AMEBICAN SCULPTOBS, During the last
quarter of a century the influence of Italy has been slight
upon American sculpture, and the classic tradition of Rome
has been declining. Preston and Longworth Powers, sons of
Hiram Powers, and Waldo Story, son of W. W. Story, carry on
the conceptions of their fathers. William Couper, of Florence,
has done some charming work, especially in relief, but has not
yet attained the position of his father-in-law, Thomas Ball.
Louis T. Eebisso (1837-), of Genoa, though a professor of
sculpture for more than thirty years, has not been influential
in directing American art.
Nor has Germany, in spite of the number of her colonists in
this country and the fame of her schools of art, made any
lasting impress upon American sculpture. Moses Jacob Ezekiel
(1844-), of Richmond, Va., received his early training in
Berlin, and his marble group of Religious Liberty, in Fair-
mount Park, Philadelphia, is thoroughly German in character.
But since 1874 he has resided in Rome, and his Eve, Pan
and Amor, Mercury, and other statues are more Italian than
either American or German. Ephraim Keyser (1850-), of
Baltimore, was educated in Munich and Berlin. His statu-
ette, the Toying Page, shows his German training, as does also
his statue of Psyche. But full of character and refinement are
his portrait busts made since his return to America.
An American of the sturdy type, little moved by foreign
influence, is the President of the National Sculpture Society,
John Quincy Adams Ward (1830-). Trained by H. K.
Brown, Ward treated with success such subjects as the Indian
282
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Hunter, The Freedman, The Pilgrim, The Private of the
Seventh Regiment. His masterpiece is the noble statue of
Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn.
It is to Paris that the younger contemporary sculptors have
looked for technical training and for inspiration. Paris has
vitalized and transformed American sculpture as thoroughly as
did Italy in the first half of the century. Like a fresh breeze
FIG. III. DEATH ANI
JLPTOR (BY D. c. FRENCH).
ART INSTITUTE.
upon calm waters was the statue called La Premiere Pose,
exhibited by Howard Roberts (1845-), in the Centennial
Exhibition of 1876. Sentiment and expressive modelling here
replaced the beauty of mere external form. But, unfortunately,
the sentiment of Roberts was not strong enough to carry him
beyond the romantic stage in which he produced statues and
Statuettes of Lucille, Hypatia, Hester Prynne, and Lot's Wife.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 283
Olin Levi Warner (1844-1896), an American refined by Pari-
sian training, has shown himself capable of producing strong,
characteristic busts, as those, for example, of Daniel Cottier
and of J. Alden Weir, and significant portrait statues, such as
those of Governor Buckingham of Connecticut, and of William
Lloyd Garrison, in Commonwealth Avenue, Boston. He has
also made charming female heads, like that of Miss Maud
Morgan, and graceful figures, such as his statue of Twilight.
His fountain at Portland, Oregon, should be reckoned as a
classic production of modern American sculpture. Excellent,
also, is his work in high-relief, such as the head of Arnold
Guyot in the chapel of Princeton University, and the medal-
lions of Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, and Rem-
brandt on the entablature of the Columbian Museum, Chicago.
Augustus St. Gaudens (1848-1907), of New York, trained like
Warner in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, has been a powerful
factor in bringing American sculpture to its present state of
excellence. In both of these sculptors there is something of
the Greek, as distinguished from the Grseco-Roman spirit,
Warner possessing the more Doric and St. Gaudens the more
Ionic temperament. The low-reliefs of the sons of Prescott
Hall Butler, by St. Gaudens, are especially charming. The
caryatids for the mantelpiece in the house of Cornelius Van-
derbilt in New York, and the angels for the tomb of Governor
E. D. Morgan, the models of which were unfortunately de-
stroyed by fire, partake also of Ionic grace. The same charm
penetrates the wall-relief of Dr. Bellows in All Souls' Church,
New York, and the more vigorous relief of President McCosh
in the Princeton University Chapel. But the power of St.
Gaudens is not the capacity of throwing an external charm about
his productions, he is strong also in the expression of indi-
vidual character, as we may see in his. excellent statue of
Admiral Farragut in Madison Square, New York ; in the Lin-
coln statue in Lincoln Park, Chicago ; in the statue of Deacon
Chapin, called the Puritan, in Springfield, Mass. ; and in the
284
HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
high-relief of Colonel Shaw which has just been completed for
Boston. Since its erection in 1897 the Shaw Memorial has
steadily gained in popular estimation. Two works, however,
show St. Gaudens
at his best. The
majestic figure of
Grief, a memorial
to a Mrs. Adams
in the Rock Creek
Cemetery at Wash-
ington, ranks with
the greatest of sym-
bolic statues. His
maturest work, the
Sherman statue at
the entrance to
Central Park, New
York, will stand
comparison with
the finest eques-
trian statues in the
whole history of
sculpture.
Daniel Chester
French (1850 ), of
New Hampshire,
early attracted at-
tention by his
bronze statue of
The Minute Man
at Concord, Mass.,
unveiled in 1875. After having passed through a period of
bread- winning production, French has risen to a high rank
among American sculptors in his colossal statue of The
FIG. 112. NATHAN HALE (BY MACMONNIES). CITY
,HAIX PARK, NEW YORK.
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA.
28S
Republic for the Columbian Exhibition, in his remarkable
relief of Death and the Sculptor, and his group of Gallaudet
teaching a Deaf Mute. His statue of General Cass, his reliefs
of angels for the Clark Memorial, and his John Boyle O'Reilley
Memorial group are
works of decided merit.
In recent years, besides
many portrait statues,
French has erected
several allegorical
works, such as the
groups in front of the
Custom House and the
Alma Mater at Colum-
bia University, New
York, and the Com-
merce and Jurispru-
dence on the Federal
Building at Cleveland,
Ohio. These works are
architectural and mon-
umental and exhibit
the refined grace which
characterizes all of
French's work, but they
lack the vitality and
human charm which
make the O'Reilley
Memorial his master-
FIG. 113. IDEAL HEAD (BY HERBERT ADAMS).
POSSESSION OF THE ARTIST.
piece.
More thoroughly
Parisian in sentiment is Frederick MacMonnies (1863).
Although the pupil of St. Gaudens, his manner is nervous
and at times strained, as, for example, in his statuette of
286 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
Diana. His statuettes of the Boy and Heron, Pan of Rohaillon,
and the Bacchante and Child are fascinating examples of
expressive, living sculpture. His statue of Nathan Hale, in
the City Hall Park, New York, is one of the best of our
civic statues; and his great fountain in the Court of Honor at
the Chicago Exhibition, though somewhat lacking in simplicity,
was nevertheless a splendid product of the Franco-American
imagination. French inspiration may also be felt in the fine
groups of The Army and The Navy which adorn the Brooklyn
Memorial Arch, as in the very energetic Horse Tamers above
another entrance to Prospect Park. After a brief period
devoted to painting MacMonnies has again become a sculptor,
having modelled a group for the Peace Building at The Hague,
an elaborate fountain for Denver, and is now designing a Battle
Monument for Princeton.
Herbert Adams (1858 ), of Brooklyn, shows his indebted-
ness to St. Gaudens in his bronze Angel for Emanuel Baptist
Church, Brooklyn, and in his marble bas-relief for the Judson
Memorial Church, New York. But almost alone among our
sculptors, Adams has turned to Florence of the fifteenth cen-
tury for his inspiration. His delicately colored female busts,
and his relief entitled An Orchid, have an exquisitely refined
Florentine charm. In the lunette above the entrance of St.
Bartholomew's Church, New York, representing a framed
Madonna between two angels, Adams has drawn his inspira-
tion from Luca della Robbia. His work lacks the vigor of
the Florentine master, but is full of modern grace and charm.
The list of contemporary American sculptors is by no means
exhausted with the names we have mentioned. Frank
Duveneck (1848 ), although a painter by profession, has
produced in the sepulchral monument to Mrs. Duveneck one
of the most notable works in American sculpture. In its quiet,
refined dignity it perpetuates the spirit of the best Florentine
work of the Renaissance. Edward Kemys (1843-1907), on
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 287
the other hand, in his portrayal of North American Indians and
wild animals broke away from European influences and created
a new field for American sculpture. His works, though crude,
are full of spirit and expressive truth.
Of the sculptors born in the fifties may be mentioned Boyle,
Ruckstuhl, Niehaus, Bringhurst, Rhind and Martiny. John
J. Boyle (1851 ) exhibits a rugged and sincere appre-
ciation of primitive conditions of life in his groups, The Alarm,
in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and The Stone Age, in Fairmount
Park, Philadelphia. Frederick Wellington Ruckstuhl (1853),
though born in Alsace, was the organizing spirit of our
National Sculpture Society and has erected many monu-
ments of a national character, such as the bronze Victory at
Jamaica, the Gloria Victis at Baltimore and the spirited eques-
trian statue of General Hartranft at Harrisburg. Charles
Henry Niehaus (1855 ) received his artistic training in Cin-
cinnati and in Munich and by faithful effort has won his way
to the front rank. His Garfield statue in Cincinnati, a dignified
and expressive portrait, his Hahnemann statue in Washington
and his McKinley monument at Canton, Ohio, are the most
important of a long series of works. Robert P. Bringhurst
(1855 ), trained in St. Louis and in Paris, is the author of
many clever fancies and attractive compositions, of which The
Kiss of Eternity may be cited as a typical example. J. Massey
Rhind (1858 ), a Scotchman with Parisian training, has lived
in this country since 1889. He has been most successful in
architectural decoration. Learning enthroned amid the Arts
and Sciences, which decorates the fac/ade of Alexander Hall at
Princeton, is his masterpiece. Philip Martiny (1858),
trained in France and an assistant to St. Gaudens, has intro-
duced into American sculpture a light, cheerful, decorative
quality. He has been successful not merely in designing foun-
tains, but in the sculptural adornment of public buildings.
The sculptors born in the sixties, though trained in great
288 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
measure in Paris, show a marked tendency to emphasize
American subjects and to work out for themselves new fields
for sculpture. We select for brief notice Clarke and Taft,
Dallin and Partridge, Proctor, Barnard, Bartlett, MacNeil,
Pratt and Bitter. Thomas Shields Clarke (1860), in his
Caryatids for the Appellate Court building in New York and
in the Alma Mater designed for the Princeton campus, shows
the classic influences which he may have derived from his
Parisian master Chapu, but in his Cider Press he betrays a
desire for a subject distinctively American. Lorado Taft
(1860 ), a teacher of modelling at the Art Institute in Chicago
and author of a valuable book on The History of American
Sculpture, did some strikingly original and beautifully deco-
rative work on the Horticultural Building at the Columbian
Exposition. Although the author of several portrait statues
and military monuments, he will be remembered chiefly for
his ideal and decorative compositions, as The Solitude of the
Soul. Charles E. Dallin (1861 ), instructor in sculpture
in the Massachusetts State Normal Art School, Boston, shows
in some of his sculptures a reflection of his training in the
French schools, but his most notable works, The Signal of
Peace, in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and The Medicine Man, in
Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, are works based on careful obser-
vation of the American Indian. William Ordway Partridge
(1861 ), writer and lecturer, has boldly applied impression-
istic methods to sculpture, as in his bust of Tennyson.
Alexander Phimister Proctor (1862 ) received his technical
training in Paris, his inspiration from the mountains and
forests of the West. He furnished a striking group of The
Goddess of Liberty on the Chariot of Progress for the Paris
Exposition of 1900, and his vigorous panthers and lions deco-
rate the public parks of various cities. George Grey Barnard
(1863 ) is one of the most original and vigorous of American
sculptors. The Two Natures, in the Metropolitan Museum, is
MODERN SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. 289
a subtle psychological subject expressed without regard to
conventional standards. His Great God Pan and his statue of
The Hewer are independent productions, which, however, re-
flect his sympathetic admiration for the works of Michelangelo.
His Two Friends betrays the influence of Rodin. In 1902 he
received an important commission to decorate with sculpture the
new Capitol at Harrisburg a commission which unhappily,
through no fault on his part, has not yet been carried into effect.
Paul WaylandBartlett (1865) has exhibited great versatility,
having shown equal skill in character studies like the Michel-
angelo and the Columbus in the Congressional Library at
Washington, and in portrait statues and equestrian monuments
like the General McClellan in Philadelphia, General Warren in
Boston and General Lafayette in Paris. He has made inter-
esting experiments in bronze casting and produced various
colored patinas which suggest the skill of the Japanese.
Hermon A. MacNeil (1866 ) is known chiefly as an inspired
sculptor of Indian life. His foreign training has enabled him
to treat with skill and distinction such themes as The Moqui
Runner, A Primitive Chant and The Sun Vow. He also did
important decorative work at the Chicago, Paris and Buffalo
Expositions. Bela L. Pratt (1867 ) is a sculptor whose
broad training and refinement of feeling are manifest in all his
works. Subtle and delicate in treatment is the relief group of
Peace and War for the Butler Memorial at Lowell, Mass.,
sympathetic and refined the recumbent figure of Dr. Coit in
the Chapel of St. Paul's School, Concord, N. H., and impressive
in its simplicity The Prisoner Boy at Anderson ville, Georgia.
Karl Theodore Francis Bitter (1867 ), though born and
educated in Vienna, in 1889 came to the United States and
rapidly identified himself with the life of the country. He
decorated the Administration and the Liberal Arts buildings
at the Chicago Exposition and was the official Director of
Sculpture at the Buffalo and St. Louis Expositions. At Buffalo
290 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE.
his Standard Bearers with their prancing steeds were vigorous
and spirited and at St. Louis his relief representing the Signing
of the Louisiana Purchase was treated with full appreciation
of its historic import. On the other hand, his Villard and his
Hubbard Memorials are lacking in poetic sentiment.
Thus it will be seen that our contemporary American sculp-
tors have received their technical training in foreign schools,
but have developed not a colonial but an independent art,
honest, healthy, cosmopolitan, progressive and refined.
EXTANT MONUMENTS. The sculptural monuments of America adorn
our parks, public squares, churches, civic buildings, private collections,
cemeteries, and battlefields. Some are found also in the Museum of Fine
Arts and the Athenaeum, Boston; the Metropolitan Museum, Lenox
Library, and Historical Society, New York; the Pennsylvania Academy
of Fine Arts, Philadelphia; the Peabody Museum, Baltimore; the Na-
tional Capitol and the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington; and the Art
Museums of Chicago, Cincinnati, Detroit, and St. Louis.
INDEX.
ADAMS, Herbert, 286.
Ageladas, 92.
Agesandros, in.
Agnolo di Ventura, 149.
Agorakritos, 102.
Agostino di Duccio, 188.
Agostino Busti, 200.
Agostino di Giovanni, 149.
Akers, Benjamin Paul, 280.
Algardi, Alessandro, 218.
Alkamenes, 102.
Alessandro Leopardi, 203.
Alessandro Vittoria, 209.
Allegrain, Gabriel Christophe, 228.
Alonzo Cano, 238.
Ambrogio della Robbia, Fra, 190.
Ainbrogino da Milano, 201.
Ammanati, Bartolommeo, 214.
Andrea Bregno, 201.
Andrea Briosco, 203.
Andrea Ciccione, 204.
Andrea da Aquila, 204.
Andrea del Verrocchio, 196.
Andrea della Robbia, 190.
Andrea Fusina, 201.
Andrea Orcagna, 149.
Andrea (Contucci da Monte) Sansa-
vino, 207.
Andrea Pisano, 148, 151.
Angers, David d', 259.
Anguier, 224.
Antelami, 145.
Antenor, 92.
Antico, 203.
Antiochos, in.
Antonio Begarelli, 208.
Antonio di Domenico da Bamboc-
cio, 204.
Antonio Gagini, 204.
Antonio Omodeo, 199.
Antonio Pollajuolo, 193.
Antonio Rossellino, 192.
Apollonios, 112.
Aquila, Silvestro da, 204.
Area, Niccold dell', 198.
Archermos, oo.
Arezzo, Niccold d', 186.
Aristokles, 93.
Arkesilaos, 127.
Armstead, Henry Hugh, 271.
Athenaios, in.
Athenis, 90.
Athenodoros, in.
BACHELIER, Nicholas, 224.
Bailey, Edward Hodges, 268.
Balduccio, Giovanni di, 149.
Ball, Thomas, 279.
Bamboccio, Antonio di Domenico
da, 204.
Banco, Nanni di, 186.
Bandinelli, Baccio, 213.
Baratta, Pietro, 218.
Ban, Niccol6 da, 198.
Barisanus, 145.
Barnard, George Grey, 288.
Barrias, Louis Ernest, 264.
Bartholome', 266.
INDEX.
Bartholomew, Edward Sheffield, 280.
Bartlett, Paul W., 289.
Bartolini, Lorenzo, 244.
Bartolo, Nanni di, 188.
Bartolommeo Ammanati, 214.
Barye, Antoine Louis, 260.
Bates, Harry, 273.
Beauvais, Vincent de, 161.
Begarelli, Antonio, 208.
Begas, Reinhold, 253.
Behnes, William, 269.
Bellano, Bartolommeo, 203.
Benedetto Antelami, 145.
Benedetto da Majano, 193.
Benedetto da Rovezzano, 207.
Benvenuto Cellini, 214.
Bernardo Cuiffagni, 188.
Bernardo Rossellino, 192.
Bernini, Lorenzo, 217.
Bernward, Bishop, 167.
Berthelot, 224.
Bertoldo di Giovanni, 188.
Biduinus, 145.
Birch, Charles B., 271.
Bissen, H. W., 247.
Bitter, Karl T. F., 289.
Blaser, Gustav, 251.
Boehm, Sir Joseph Edgar, 270.
Bologna, Giovanni da, 216.
Bonannus, 145, 151.
Bontemps, Pierre, 222.
Bonusamicus, 145.
Bosio, Francois Joseph, 256.
Bouchardon, Edme, 228.
Boupalos, 90.
Boyle, John J., 287.
Brackett, Edward Augustus, 280.
Bregno, Andrea, 201.
Bringhurst, Robert P., 287.
Briosco, Andrea, 203.
Brock, Thomas, 271.
Brown, Henry Kirke, 278.
Briiggeman, 234.
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 186.
Bryaxis, 106.
Buon, Bartolommeo, 201.
Buonaccorso, 186.
Buonarroti, Michelangelo, 210.
Busti, Agostino, 200.
CAFFI^RI, Jean Jacques, 229.
Cain, Auguste, 265.
Camaino, Tino di, 149.
Campagna, Girolamo, 209.
Campbell, Thomas, 269.
Campioni, 150.
Cano, Alonso, 238.
Canova, Antonio, 242.
Caradosso, 200.
Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, 264.
Cartellier, 258.
Cattaneo, Danese, 209.
Cellini, Benvenuto, 214.
Cerracchi, Giuseppe, 275.
Chalouette, 259.
Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 256.
Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 267.
Chapu, Henri, 261.
Chaplain, 264.
Ciccione, Andrea, 204.
Civitali, Matteo, 193.
Clarke, Thomas Shields, 288.
Claude, Louis Michel, 229.
Clementi, Prospero, 214.
Clevinger, Shobal Vail, 280.
Colombe, Michel, 220.
Como, Guido da, 147.
Coustou, Nicholas, 226.
Coustou, Guillaume, 226.
Contucci da Monte Sansavino, An-
drea, 207.
Corradini, 218.
INDEX.
293
Cosmati, Giovanni, 150.
Couper, William, 281.
Coysevox, Antoine, 225.
Cozzarelli, Giacomo, 197.
Crawford, Thomas, 277.
Cristoforo Solari, 200.
Cuiffagni, Bernardo, 188.
DALOU, Jules, 265.
Dallin, Charles E., 288.
Danese, Cattaneo, 209.
Dannecker, Johann Heinrich, 248.
Danton, 259.
Desboeufs, 259.
Desiderio da Settignano, 192.
Dexter, Henry, 280.
Dixey, John, 275.
Donatello, 186.
Donner, Georg Raphael, 235.
Dontas, 92.
Drake, Friedrich, 250.
Drury, Alfred, 274.
Dubois, Mrs., 280.
Dubois, Paul, 262.
Dubroeucq, Jacques, 237.
Duccio, Agostino di, 188.
Dumont, Augustin Alexandre, 261.
Dupre, Giovanni, 244.
Duquesnoy, Francois, 237.
Duret, Francois Joseph, 258.
Durham, Joseph, 269.
Du Seigneur, 258.
Duveneck, Frank, 286.
EBERHARD, Konrad, 253.
Enrichus, 145.
Epigonos, in.
Etex, Antoine, 258.
Euphranor, 108.
Ezekiel, Moses Jacob, 281.
FALCONET, Maurice fitienne, 228.
Falguiere, Jean Alexandre, 262.
Fauveau, Fe"licie de, 258.
Federighi, Antonio, 197.
Fedi, Pio, 244.
Fehr,H.C.,2 74 .
Fiesole, Mino da, 192.
Filippo Brunelleschi, 186.
Flaxman, John, 239.
Fogelberg, 248.
Foggini, Giovanni Battista, 218.
Foley, John Henry, 270.
Foley, Margaret, 280.
Ford, E. Onslow, 273.
Fouchere, 259.
Fra Giovan' Angelo Montorsoli, 214.
Fra Mattia della Robbia, 190, 204.
Francesco da Laurana, 204.
Francesco di Giorgio, 197.
Francesco di San Gallo, 207.
Francois, Bastien, 222.
Frampton, George J., 273.
Frazee, John, 276.
Fremiet, Emmanuel, 265.
French, Daniel Chester, 284
Fusina, Andrea, 201.
GAGESH, Antonio, 204.
Gagini, Domenico, 204.
Gaudens, Augustus St., 283.
Gentil, Francois, 224.
Genzburg, 255.
Ghiberti, Lorenzo di Cione, 183.
Ghiberti, Vittorio, 186.
Giacomo Cozzarelli, 197.
Giacomo della Porta, 214.
Gibbons, Grinling, 239.
Gibson, John, 269.
Gilbert, Alfred, 273.
Giorgio, Francesco di, 197.
294
INDEX.
Giovanni, Agostino di, 149.
Giovanni Antonio Omodeo, 199.
Giovanni, Bertoldo di, 188.
Giovanni da Bologna, 216.
Giovanni da Pisa, 203.
Giovanni della Robbia, 190.
Giovanni di Balduccio, 149.
Giovanni di Martino, 201.
Giovanni di Turino, 197.
Giovanni Pisano, 148.
Girardon, Francois, 225.
Giraud, Francois Gregoire, 258.
Girolamo Campagna, 209.
Girolamo della Robbia, 190.
Glaukias, 92.
Goujon, Jean, 222.
Gould, Thomas R., 280.
Gower, Lord Ronald, 271.
Gratchoff, 255.
Greenough, Horatio, 277.
Gruamons, 145.
Guglielmo della Porta, 214.
Guido da Como, 147.
Guido Mazzoni, 199.
Guillain, 224.
Guillaume, Jean Baptiste Eugene,
258.
HAHNEL, Ernst, 253.
Hart, Joel T., 280.
Haseltine, Henry F., 280.
Herlin, Friedrich, 233.
Hess, Anton, 254.
Hildebrand, Adolph, 253.
Hosmer, Miss Harriet, 280.
Houdon, Jean Antoine, 229.
Hughes, Ball, 278.
Hutchinson, Allen, 274.
IL TRIBOLO, 209.
Isigonos, in.
Ives, C. B., 280.
JACKSON, J. A., 280.
Jacopo della Quercia, 197.
Jacopo Sansavino, 209.
Jerichau, J. A., 247.
John, W. Goscombe, 273.
Jones, Adrien, 274.
Jones, John E., 269.
Jouffroy, Francois, 261.
Juste, Antoine, 221.
Juste, Jean, 221.
KALAMIS, 94.
Kamensky, 255.
Kanachos, 92.
Kemys, Edward, 286.
Kephisodotos, 107.
Keyser, Ephraim, 281.
Kirk, Thomas, 269.
Kiss, August, 251.
Klearchos, 92.
Knoll, Conrad, 254.
Kolotes, 102.
Kraft, Adam, 231.
Kresilas, 95.
LANCERE, 255.
Laurana, Francesco da, 204.
Lawson, George A., 271.
Lee, T.Stirling, 273.
Leighton, Sir Frederick, 272.
Lemot, 258.
Lemoyne, Jean Baptiste, 227.
Leochares, 106.
Leonardo da Vinci, 208.
Leoni, Leone, 216.
Leoni, Pompeo, 216.
Leopardi, Alessandro, 203.
Lewis, Edmonia, 281.
Lieberich, 255.
INDEX.
295
Lombardi, Alfonso, 208.
Lombardo, Antonio, 203.
Lombardo, Girolamo, 209.
Lombardo, Pietro, 202.
Lombardo, Tommaso, 209.
Lombardo, Tullio, 202.
Lorenzo di Clone Ghiberti, 183.
Lorenzo di Mariano, 198.
Lorrain, Robert le, 225.
Luca della Robbia, 189.
Luca di Andrea della Robbia, 190.
Luigi Pampaloni, 244.
Lysippos, 107.
MACLEAN, T. Nelson, 271.
MacMonnies, Frederick W., 285.
MacNeil, Hermon A., 289.
Maderna, Stefano, 218.
Majano, Benedetto da, 193.
Mantegazza, Antonio, 109.
Mantegazza, Cristoforo, 199.
Mariano, Lorenzo di, 198.
Martino, Giovanni di, 201.
Martiny, Philip, 287.
Massegne, Jacobello, 150.
Massegne, Pietro Polo, 150.
Matteo Civitali, 193.
Mattia, Fra, della Robbia, 190.
Mazzoni, Guido, 199.
McDowell, Patrick, 269.
Mellan, 224.
Mercie", Antonin, 262.
Michelangelo, Buonarroti, 210.
Michelozzi, Michelozzo, 188.
Milano, Ambrogino da, 201.
Mino da Fiesole, 192.
Moderno, 203.
Moine, Antonin, 259.
Montanes, 238.
Montelupo, Raffaello da, 214.
Montorsoli, Fra Giovan' Angelo, 214.
Mozier, Joseph, 280.
Mullins, Roscoe, 273.
Myron, 08.
NANNI DI BANCO, 186.
Nanni di Bartolo, 188.
Naps, 255.
Nevin, Blanche, 281.
Niccola Pisano, 146.
Niccold da Bari, 198.
Niccold d' Arezzo, 186.
Niccol6 dell' Area, 198.
Niccol6 Pericoli, 209.
Niccold, Piero di, 201.
Niehaus, Charles H., 287.
Noble, Matthew, 271.
OMODEO, Giovanni Antonio, 199.
Onatas, 92.
Orcagna, Andrea, 149.
Orl&ms, Marie d', 258.
PACKER, Michael, 233.
Paionios, 102.
Pajou, Augustin, 229.
Palmer, Erastus Dow, 279.
Pampaloni, Luigi, 244.
Partridge, William Ordway, 288.
Pasiteles, 127.
Patras, Lambert, 170.
Pegram, Henry A., 273.
Pericoli, Niccold, 209.
Perraud, 262.
Perr6al, 221.
Pheidias, 99.
Piero di Giovanni Tedesco, 183.
Piero di Niccolo, 201.
Pietro Baratta, 218.
Pietro Polo Massegne, 150.
Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, 228.
Pilon, Germain, 224.
296
INDEX.
Pio Fedi, 244.
Pisa, Giovanni da, 203.
Pisano, Andrea, 148, 151.
Pisano, Giovanni, 148.
Pisano, Niccola, 146.
Pitts, William, 269.
Pollajuolo, Antonio, 193.
Polydoros, in.
Polykleitos, 95.
Pomeroy, Frederick, 274.
Pompeo Leoni, 216.
Porta, Giacomo della, 214.
Porta, Guglielmo della, 214.
Pot, Jean le, 222.
Powers, Hiram, 277.
Powers, Longworth, 281.
Powers, Preston, 281.
Pradier, James, 258.
Pratt, Bela L., 289.
Praxiteles, 106, in.
Preault, 258.
Prieur, Barthelemy, 224.
Proctor, A. P., 288.
Properzia de' Rossi, 209.
Prospero Clementi, 214.
Puech, 262.
Puget, Pierre, 226.
Pyromachos, in.
Pythagoras, 95.
QUELIINUS, Artus, 237.
Queirolo, 218.
Quercia, Jacopo della, 197
RAFFAELLO DA MONTELUPO, 214.
Rauch, Christian Daniel, 250.
Reams, Vinnie, 281.
Rebisso, Louis, 281.
Redfern, James F., 271.
Rhind, J. Massey, 287.
Rhoikos, 90.
Ricci, Stefano, 244.
Riccio, 203.
Richier, Ligier, 224.
Ridolphinus, 145.
Riemenschneider, Tilman, 233.
Rietschel, Ernst Friedrich August,
251.
Rinehart, William Henry, 279
Robbia, Fra Ambrogio delk, 190.
Robbia, Andrea della, 190.
Robbia, Fra Mattia della, 190, 204.
Robbia, Giovanni della, 190.
Robbia, Girolamo della, 190.
Robbia, Luca della, 189.
Robbia, Luca di Andrea della, 190.
Robertus, 145.
Rodin, Auguste, 266.
Rogers, John, 280.
Rogers, Randolph, 279.
Romano, 204.
Romano, Gian Cristoforo, 204.
Roscoe Mullins, 273.
Rossellino, Antonio, 192.
Rossellino, Bernardo, 192.
Rossi, Properzia de', 209.
Roty, 264.
Rovezzano, Benedetto da, 207.
Ruckstuhl, F. Wellington, 287.
Rude, Francois, 259.
Rush, William, 276.
SAINT MARCEAUX, Ren6 de, 263.
Sammartino, 218.
Samonoff, 255.
San Gallo, Francesco di, 207.
Sano, Turino di, 197.
Sansavino, Andrea (Contucci da
Monte), 207.
Sansavino, Jacopo, 209
Sarrazin, 224.
Schadow, Johann Gottfried, 248.
INDEX.
297
Schadow, Rudolph, 250.
Scheffauer, P. J., 248.
Schenck, F. E. E., 274.
Schievelbein, Friedrich Hermann,
251.
Schilling, Johannes, 253.
Schliiter, Andreas, 235.
Schwanthaler, Ludwig, 253.
Sergell, J. T., 247.
Settignano, Desiderio da, 192.
Silanion, 107.
Silvestro da Aquila, 204.
Skopas, 104.
Slodtz, Michel, 228.
Solari, Cristoforo, 200.
Stark, Robert, 273.
Stebbins, Emma, 281.
Stevens, Alfred George, 269.
Stone, Nicholas, 239.
Story, Waldo, 281.
Story, William Wetmore, 279.
Stoss,Veit, 231.
Stratonikos, in.
Swan, John M., 273.
Syrlin, Jorg, 233.
TACCONE, Paolo, 204.
Taft, Lorado, 288.
Tatti, Jacopo, 209.
Tauriskos, 112.
Tedesco, Piero di Giovanni, 183.
Tenerani, Pietro, 243.
Terwen, Jan, 237.
Texier, Jean, 222.
Theed,WiUiam, 269.
Theodores, 90.
Thompson, Launt, 280.
Thornycroft, Hamo, 272.
Thorwaldsen, Bertel, 245.
Tieck, Christian Friedrich, 250.
Timotheos, 106.
Tino di Camaino, 149.
Tinworth, George, 271.
Toft, A., 274.
Torrigiano, Piero, 208.
Tribolo, II, 209.
Triqueti, 258.
Turino di Sano, 197.
Turino, Giovanni di, 197.
Tutilo, 164.
ULOCRINO, 203.
VASSALLETTO I., 150.
Vassalletto II., 150.
Vauthier, Moreau, 264.
Vecchietta, Lorenzo, 197.
Vela, Vincenzo, 244.
Ventura, Agnolo di, 149.
Verrocchio, Andrea del, 196.
Vincent de Beauvais, 161.
Vinci, Leonardo da, 208.
Vischer, Peter, 231.
Vittoria, Alessandro, 209.
Vittorio Ghiberti, 186.
Vouet, 224.
WARD, John Quincy Adams, 28.
Warner, Olin Levi, 283.
Watts, George Frederick, 272.
Weidenhaupt, 245.
Westmacott, Sir Richard, 267.
Wiedewelt, Johannes, 245.
Wohlgemuth, Michael, 231.
Woolner, Thomas, 271.
Wright, Mrs. Patience, 275.
Wyatt, Richard John, 269.
XENOKRATES, in.
Ximenes, Ettore, 245.
ZUMBUSCH, Caspar, 254.
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60 A text-book of the history
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