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THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
GIFT OF
J. v;. Sears
TEXTBOOK
OF
NAVAL AERONAUTICS
JiL,
Part of the Liiited States Atlantic Fleet "somewhere in tlie United States," photographed from the sea])lane of which part is
shown in tlie photo.
Allied ships i.hoi..- r.n.i i i
iich const patrol dirigililc, the pilot of which
he photograph.
TEXTBOOK
OF
NAVAL AERONAUTICS
BY
IIEXK\ WOODllOUSK
.M> Mill II or Tin: IIOAIII) Of (lOVr.llNOIIH OK AKHO c I I'll OK AMKHIIA. MIMHKH
Ol NATIONAL AKKIAI. lOAm" PATROI, C'OMMIIIHICIN, IIIAIHIIA.S Ol lOIIMimK
oi 11. VINO t:virii'Mi:\T cooi-kiiatisii with (ommaniiant o» tiiiiii>
NAtAI. IIISTHIlT IS OIIOAMXINO NAVAI. liritKIIX »: FOIK i:fl, THI^TKIl
AND (TIAIIIMAN OF (OilMITTKi: OS AKIIOSAL'TICA NATIONAL
INHTITl'TB OP KPflllENCV, MKMIIKn Of TIIL
80( irrrv or aitomotive engineeus,
I: re, ETt.
WITH l\l UODIC TION UY
KEAU ADAUliAL liRADLKY A. IT>K1-:
I'llESIDENT OK THE U. S. NAVAL INSTITLIE
Sw'VVVWti
XF.W YOUK
Tm. c i.Niri^v CO.
litlT
Copyright. 1917, by
The Centurt Co.
Published, Jxme, ISJ7
Ubtuj
INTKODI CTION
The upptarance of this hook is opporturir;
hfranse it is essential that tlic iicopli In tuM
wlial naval acriin.-iiitics can do to help tin na-
tion, and that the nun who arc to li/^ht for ns
ill the air shall he ^iveii every uppnrtiniit y to
learn to do it.
'I'he i^rcatcst (Ian;;tr ciinlrontin^i the Allies
is the (Jernian snhinaiinc. h'or coirihatliriLr the
suhniarinc, which was the most inndi ru weapon
wlieii the war hcnan, no weapon yet used has
heen thomniihly ell'eetive; with the resnit that
the dan^^er has increased and is still increasing.
The most effective weapon has heen one more
modern than the sul)inarine the aii crart. IT
it had heen possihie to use aircraft in larye num-
hers. the damaLTc done hv the sulunarinc would
have heen materially decreased, and possilily
eliminated alto<^ether. For eomhattin^ the
sulimarine, therefore, lar^e numhers of aircraft
must he em])loyed. For this work, the smaller
type of diri^ililc, usually called "hlimp," has
been the most effective for coast ])atrol. It is
unfortunate that hujj^e diri<>ihles have not heen
availahle; hecause their lon^ radius of action
would have enahled them to patrol the slii])-
lines of all the seas where the eonuneree of the
Allies goes, and reduce the .submarine menace
to a minimum.
'I'he Allies can ji^et assistaiiee. however, from
aeronautics in other ways than in submarine
himtin<4'. They can tjet a.ssistanee in si.\ ways
mainly:
First: By takini; advantaije of the fjreat
speed of aircraft and the heiuhts to which they
can rise, to get information as to the enemy, his
distance, direction, and composition.
Second: By usinii- aireiaft to "spot"' from
great heights; that is, to note how far the pro-
jectiles tired by guns missed the target, and
thus determine how to correct the range at
which tlie guns were set.
Third: By using aircraft to carry machine
guns and rapid-tire gims, and attack the lighter
vessels of an enemy's fleet, ;uid make raids on
bases.
I""ourth: J{y using aireralt to rise ab<jve the
water, and see mines and submarines, and make
photographs f)f enemy works and bases.
I'iftli: By using aircraft to carry bombs
litt((l with "delayed action fuses," and drop
them near mines, submarines, and shore works.
Sixth: By using aircraft to carry torperloes,
and laiiiii li till III at the various vessels of an
enemy s tieet; using light torjjedoes with small
charges of high explosive against the lighter
vessels, and heavy torj)ed'>es, with charges of
Iriiin two tn I'miii' liiindri-d |)i)unds of high ex-
plosive, against the heavily armored ships.
Other uses will doubtless develop with the
progress of the art.
Ilfiw great will be the weights which aircraft
can eventually carry, and what amount of of-
fensive power they can bring to bear in war. it
W(tuld be foolish to attemjjt to prophesy. liut
aircraft are mechanisms that obey the laws of
engineering; they have increased in size thus
far exactly as mechanisms in all other branches
of engineering have increased, thovigh much
more rapidly; and they have carried weights in-
creasingly great, as time lias passed: so, the con-
clusion is unavoidable that the prediction of
Marcel De])re/. made in 1K83, which came true
of electric motors, is applicable to aircraft now:
"I/avenir est aux grandes machines' ^'The fu-
ture is to great niaehines").
Inasmuch as the maximum of military effec-
tiveness is secured when a given power is con-
centrated in as few and as powerful units as
possible; inasmuch as the torpedoplane is the
most powerful and mobile weapon now exist-
ing; and inasmuch as our enemies are the ablest
strategists in the world, comprehend these prin-
ciples, and will doubtless act in accordance with
them, it is of the highest order of urgency that
we develop immediately an aeroplane armed
with gims atlequate for defense against fighting
^^^'1^7^
INTRODUCTION
aeroplanes, and capable of carrying a torpedo of
the longest range and greatest power. It may
be that the side which brings 100 armed torpedo-
planes into action the first, will thereby gain the
unrestricted conmiand of the sea, and become
the victor in the war.
The extended use of chemicals in the present
■war has started the re-development of a special
branch of warfare. For many years before
this war, the effective work done by navies and
armies against their enemies was almost wholly
the mechanical work performed by weapons in
striking blows, and thus inflicting mechanical
injuries on men and on defenses placed around
them. But in the present war, injuries which
were chemical and physiological have been in-
flicted, by the ancient means of flames and
gases. To transport swiftly the comparatively
light apparatus needed for this class of work,
aircraft, even of the sizes of the present day, are
admirably adapted.
On many occasions during the past six years,
I have called attention to the naval and military
possibilities of aeronautics: and on March 2i
1916, I pointed out oflicially to the House
Naval Committee that we could improve the
national defense more in a short time by aero-
nautics than by any other means. At the pres-
ent date of writing, the public has awakened to
this fact, and now demands that every effort be
made to develop huge air fleets with wliich to
strike Germany over land and sea.
Our people have at least realized the possibili-
ties of aeronautics, and see that aeronautics can
be made the most effective agency available, not
only to serve the Allies, but even to save the
United States. They now see that, while it is
well to train a young man to use a musket in an
infantry company, more military usefulness can
be gotten out of men like mechanics, chauffeurs,
and technicians, by putting them in swiftly
moving aeroplanes and dirigibles.
It is not sufficient, however, that our people
realize the possibiliites of aeronautics in a gen-
eral way: it is essential that tliey form an inti-
mate acquaintance with aeronautics in all its
branches. It is essential also that a great num-
ber of capable young men be instructed as soon
as possible in caring for and operating all kinds
of aircraft and aeronautical machinery.
To start this urgent work, the most immedi-
ate agency is a book like this — clear, correct,
and stimulating.
r
'i'lii'. Uii.iir lliiN. Aiiriii i( .1. Hai.mii n . "'I'Ih' Iiiih' ih lim' uliiii c'liiniiiiiiiil
llf III)' ^I'll will III' of till Vllllli III (il'illl Hnt.'llll Ulllllllll I'lll'l I ^)>lll|lllll'^ I'ltllllllllllll
of thf iiir."
l.iiKii Cm Md.KH Hkiikskoiih: "TIic f iiiii- in lien- wlu-n tin- air wrvict- of (irfiit
llriliiin will 111' 1111)11 \iliil for licr safely lliiiii In-r Army luid N'livy roiiiliiiuii."
Winston Cmiti imi.i., foriiHrly FiiNt l.nnl of llic Adiiiirulty : "I'lli-
iimtclv, anil llic mioiiit tin- iMllcr, tin- air sirvirc nlioiild Im' oih- iinifii-d, |K-rMia-
iiciil lirancli of iiii|irrial ilrfi-iiM', coiiiiio-xii i-xcliiHivciy of iiirii hIio hjII not think
(if tliciiisclvcs as soldiers, sailors, and individuals, Init as airiiii'ii and Ht-rvunls of
an anil uliiili jiossiliiv at no distant dale may Ix- Ilic dominating arm of uar "
I.oKii MoxTAOf OF Hkaim.iki' ( 15)10) : "Kvcry nation will Infon- ion^ 1m-
forced to cre/ite an Air Ministry !iy the slieer necessity wliicli knows no law,
wliicli re/^ards no |>re<-edeiit, and wliicli fears no /government. The linmenNc
development of aircraft in all direcfifins alone will coiii|mI the creafirin of an
air departiiuiit."
(iKNi'.ii.M. I'l-.r.MN, (lie Veteran defender of \'erdnn, commandi-r-in-cliief of
the French forces: "I see France in the near fntnre with '>().()()() aeroplanes.**
I,oii[> .MoNTAcr oi Hi.Ari.iKr, in the Houm of Lords (I'.tUi): ".\t the
pri-.senl time the air .service is merely auxiliary to the fiKlitin/r forces of tl»c
.Saw and Ariiiv. I can see a time coming; when the air servicj- will l>e more
important than the .\rmy and Navy. \Vi- must pt into the hahit of lookinp
at the air service, not as an auxiliary to the Army and Navy, hut as a great
.service which is an estahlishment of itself, and to which we shall have fo look
in future years for the defense of this country."
Loiii) HKiiKSFOun: "'l"he new air warfare is froin<; to Im- of so tremendous
a character that it may supersede the .\rmy and Navy. We should Ix- ahead
in the air, the same as we are on the w.itcr.**
UiMt .\iiMiK\i. Uraolkv \. FisKF. testified to ("onjjress on March '2i.
litUi: ".\eron;iulics is the thiiiir on which we can j^et to work quicker, and hy
wliiih We cull acfoni|ilish more than hy anything; else.**
.\i.As U. ll.'.wi.H^. President of the Aero Cliihof .\merica: "Command of
the air leads to victory on land and .sea.'*
Rfaii .VnMinAi. ItoiiKRT F.. I'karv. riiairman. National Aerial Coa-sf
r.'ilrol Commission: "\'ictory in the present war; the efficiency of our Army
■iiid Navy; the protection of our coasts and coastal cities, the safety of
I'aiiama Canid : the existence of the nation — all de|H'nd mainly on our Air
Service. Therefore a Department of Aeronautics is a vital ne«l."
IIknmiv .v. Wisk Woon state<l as early a- I'.tl.'S: "Flipht, the final aliridgvr
of time and space, incomparahly swift and ma'chlessly <lirecf. sucldenly, wholly
unexpected, almost unhoped for. it spreads its Wishing Car|>et Ix-neath the fi*t
of mankind, so fo In-ar it hither or yon in the twinkling of an eye, all a.s we
drcanietl over our cliiKlhood*s fairv lM»oks."
THE SECRETARY OF THE NAVY.
W/AS H I N OTO N .
June 19, 1917.
My dear Sir:
l.Iany people thought that Tennyson was employ-
ing poetic license when he spoke of the "Airy navies
grappling in the central blue". We have lived to see
tliat he was a prophet of modern pov;er in warfare.
No nation can confidently look for victory because it
is mistress of the sea or master of the land. Both
may be made impotent by the Nation which commands the
air.
Sincerely yours.
Mr. Henry Woodhouse,
407 Union Trust Building,
Washington, D. C.
CoNGiiKSSMAX .Mriiiiw Hr I, iiK.iiT, co-aulhor, with Skxatou Miiiuus
Smkim'aiii), of the Sluppuid-nulbcit Hill, which provides for the creaHon of a
Departiiicnt of Aeronautics, and who |)ro])osed the anien(hnenf inc'-easintr the
aei-oiiaulic approiirial ion hv tenfold, in June, 1!)U5:
•'('oininand of tlie air is the balance of ])ower which decides victories on
land and sea. The side wliich holds command of tlie air can blind the other
side bv dejirivinfr it of its air scouts and air "s])otters," and at tlie same time,
strikin>r its forces on land and sea witli bomI)s, aircraft i;iins, and (oi-pedoes."
I'KI'.I' ACl'.
To Train Airmen to F'ighl the Enemy Over, On, and Under the Water
This t('xt-l)(K)k on .\;i\iil Ai ronuiilics is in-
teiidcil to assist in llic fraiiiiii;,'- of llic lliiiiisatnis
of aifim II to ti;^lil tlic iiiciny omt, on, ami un-
der the water.
Owiii;^' to the traditional iicaccl'iil (hsposition
of the I'liiled States lliis coimtrv has intend
the war with a small army and ji very Hmitcd
personnel for the (iisl and sccdnd lines ol" de-
fense, the Navy and the \aval lieserves, and
Naval Militia. 'I'he most diflienit task is now
to "fet and train as soon as jjossihle one hundred
thousand ollieers and men for the first and sec-
ond lines of defense.
The British Xavy has a |)ersonncl of
4.()0,()()(); the I'niled States has ahout lOO.OOO.
.At present (ireat liritain. I-'ranei-. Unssia.
Germany and .\nsti'ia eonnt their ;iei()|)ianes l)y
the tens of thousands and diiiiiihUs liy the hun-
dred. Their present plans of increase of |)ro-
duelion provide for inereasin;^- the numl)er of
aeroj)lanes to hundreds of thousands. For in-
stance, the Hrifish (roxcinnieiil is s|ieii(iniL;
$.)7.>,(H)(),()()() this year for aeronaut ies .uid the
other countries ari' siJcndini^' more or less the
same amount. The re|)ort of the liritish Con-
troller of Aeronautical Supplies shows that
there are 0.)8 firms enufa^ed in aeron.uitit' work
for the British (Government. Of these ."{01 are
direct contractors and (!.)~ arc sul>contractors.
The total numher of hands employed hy the
fifty firms of most importance is 60,700.
The British Naval .\ir Service has over
l.")().()()0 oflicers and men connected with it: our
air service has not a twentieth of that numher.
There are two hundred and twenty naval ofli-
cers in charge of the administration of the
Royal Naval .>Vir Service in London alone.
We have not that many ofHccrs in the entire air
service. Tlie task that we have undertaken may
grow as hii;- as the task which Great Britain.
France antl Italy have performed and are per-
formiuLT, and we must prepare to do our duty
in a whole-hearted, substantial wav. AN'e must
expect Ir) have to keep our first line f)f rlcfcnse
eri;ra;red in |)re\entin^ successful operations on
the pjirt of the enemy's ships, and our second
line of fl< tense liiisy ill pnjteetin^ the merchant
ships, tiaiispurts. the coasts, h;irl)ors, ami na\al
stations.
\Vi- must expect that as soon as we get ready
to ship Mi|)|)lies in l,ir;,'e (|uantities, or troops,
I lie common enemy, the I'-ltoats, and the raid-
ers and mine-layers, will he^rin their openilions
in American waters. Then aircraft will he
r)eeded in large numher in conneetif>n with
li'illi. Ill, first and second lines of defen.se. We
get an idea of how extensively we may need
them from the report which .Sir Kdward Car-
son made, on I'ehruary "Jl. 1!»17. to the British
Ciovernment. in which he .stated: that since the
eiiiiiiiM IK I iiM III of the war the British Navv
( with till- cooperation f)f its most eflicient aerial
coast jjatrol) had examined •2.>.874 ships.
During the first eiirhteen days of February.
tioTt; ships aiii\((| in jiorts of the I'nited Kinj;-
(lom. and .j!S7;} shijis had cleared frf»m I'nited
Kingdom ports. Practically every ship that
arrived and every ship that cleared was
inspected as it neared the ports. an<l convoyed
by (lirigil)les or seaplanes. Sir Edward Car-
son pointed out that from the beginning of the
war up to October .'JO. V.nv>. the British Navy
transported across the seas 8,0(»().()0() tnnjps,
it.tJojMKt tons of explosives and material. 47,-
.")()4-.()0(t gallons of gasolene, over a million of
sick and wounded, and over a million mules and
horses, etc.
.Aircraft played an important part in pro-
tecting this gigantic aec<implishment. but to do
it the Allies' naval air services had to be ex-
tended to enormous proportions. The British
naval air service, for instance, employs scores
of seaplane and kite-balloon carriers in connec-
tion with the first line of defense, and scores
of seaplane stations on the British coasts for
the air service of the second line of defense.
PREFACE
There are not less than five thousand British
naval aviators, and pilots of naval ilirigible lial-
loons and kite-balloon operators — and as many
connected with the British land forces.
Naval aircraft in the present war have ac-
tually been employed for the following pur-
poses :
1. Attacked ships and submarines at sea with
bombs, torpedoes, and guns. (Seaplanes and
dirigibles used. )
2. Bombed the enemy's bases and stations.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used. )
3. Attacked the enemy's aircraft in the air.
(Aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)
4. Served as the eyes and scouts of fleets at
sea. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used. )
5. Protected ships at sea and in ports against
attacks from hostile submarines and battleships.
( Seaplanes and dirigibles used. )
6. Defended and protected naval bases and
stations from naval and aerial attacks. (Land
aeroplanes, seaplanes, and dirigibles used.)
7. Convoyed trooj) ships and merchant ships
on coastwise trips. (Dirigibles and seaplanes
used.)
8. Patrolled the coasts, holding up and in-
si^ecting doubtful ships, and convoying them to
examining stations and searching coasts for sub-
marine bases. (Dirigil)les used.)
9. Prevented hostile aircraft from locating
the position and finding the composition and dis-
position of the fleet, getting the range of ships,
naval bases, station, magazines, etc. (Land
aeroplanes and seajilanes used.)
10. Located, and assisted trawlers, destroy-
ers and gunners in ca])tin-ing or destroying hos-
tile submarines. ( Seaplanes, dirigibles and kite
balloons used.)
11. Cooperated with submarines, giiiding
them in attacks on ship. (Dirigibles and sea-
planes used.)
12. Located mine fields and assisted trawlers
in destroying mines. (Dirigibles, seaplanes
and kite balloons used.)
13. Served as the "eyes" in planting mines,
minimizing the time required for mine planting.
(Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons used.)
1-t. Served as "spotters" in locating the posi-
tion of the hostile ships and directing gunfire.
(Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons used.)
15. Served as carriers of important messages
between ships which could not be entrusted to
wireless owing to the possibility of the enemy
wireless picking up the messages, such as com-
municating to incoming ships information re-
garding the location of mines, submarines, and
courses, to avoid mistakes and confusion. ( Sea-
planes and dirigibles used.)
16. Carried out oi^erations over land and sea
intended to divert the attention of and mislead
the enemy while strategical operations were be-
ing carried out by the fleet of squadrons.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used.)
17. Have made it possible for commanders
to get films of theaters of operation, photo-
graphs of the location, composition and disposi-
tion of hostile naval forces, and photographic
records of condition and of the movements and
operations of their own as well as of the hostile
naval forces.
As American airmen have not had occasion
to do any of these things, they still have every-
thing to learn and the new men who come in to
fill the ranks will even have to learn the rudi-
ments of aeronautics.
Realizing tliis, the author has endeavored to
make this a book of reference for the authori-
ties and f(n' every person's library, and a book
of instruction for the naval aeronautic student.
CONTENTS
fAUC
(ii.M'iiii I Ai iii.M. Stuatkcjv .\ni) Tactics :J
Hrviiliilliiiian ( l|ii'riiliiiir'. iif Naviil AkIatiir.H Ovrr l.iiiiil
- SliipH 'Mini \ii\i):iit(- Ovrr MniiMtiiiii--! - l'<Ki|irraliiiii
Hcturcii Army /iml Nnvy Air Srrvhrs I'liiirllciiiH of tlir
Naviil Air S<T\lrr Kluikiuliii); nf Air I'Irrls liii|iiii^ililr
— Arrlal ()|ii'ralliiiis ln(lr|ii'iiilriil nf llie I'lrrl Tlir Air
SrrviiT III l'iHi|ii'raliii|i witli llir KIrrI, anil as all Aiixll-
liiry i>f tlir Niivj Niiiiicniiis Si-rvitm Krmlerril liy Alr-
frafl as Aiixiliarii's of Nitvii-!>
C'lIAITIH II At^KIAL AtTA<K.S ON Slll|-M AT SkA 10
All Arrial Altai'k on a Srajilaiir {'(irrirr — Wraliolis iiiiil
MrlliiiiK of Mlark oil Sliijis How the Iti-voliilioiiary-
I.ra\ilt 'ri>r|ii'ilii Was l>rvi-|o|iril
rilArriK III TlIK 'roltl'KIKII'I.ANK AND ItS
I'OSSIIIII.ITIKS 16
C'UAJ'iliU 1\
Gins .
A ITACKINi; Suit's Wtril AtllCUAFT
(jtilrkcst Way to I'n-jiarc IVfcnsc of t'liilcd Statrs
A|{Hliist Invasion Is to Dcvrlop I.arjce anil routrfiil Ilat-
llc|ilalirs
(llAfTKIl \ AlKCHAKT MoTIIKU SlllfS .
AiiuTlcan Aviators First to Kly from aiul Aliftht on
Drck of Sliij) Seaplane Carriers vs. Having Seaplanes
on Uoard of Criiivrrs Kecoverin); Seaplanes at Sea —
Solution Ursis with \ireraft Capalile of Hisinjt Ver-
tieally frnm Deek of Ship -Siilmiarines as Seaplane Car-
riers — Kili-Halloon (.'arriers
Cll Al'l lit \'l
(11 \l r
Slll.MAHINK HrNTING HY AlR-
Historie — Metliixls of and Weapons for Aerial Atfaek on
Siiliinnrines I'alntinp Siihiiiarlnes to Make Tlieiii Loss
Visible- To Distinf^iiisli Hostile Siiliniarini's fnaii Oiir
Own— Kite Halhums as l.iNikoiits for Siilunarines — The
Klrsf Aerial Siiliinarinr Hunt in Anierieaii History —
Freneh System of Patrol Against I'-Hoats
C'HAITI K \ II I.(l( ATING
WITH AlKCRAKT
Slb.merged Mixes
C'llAPTKH \III
KKNSKS
Nnvnl Anti-Aireraft
Navai, A\ri-AiKciiAKr I)k-
Ciiiiis .Iiirisilirtion Over Naval
Anti-Aireraft Defenses — Hritisli Anti-Aireraft Defenses
— Ain-raft lUoii);lit Down in IJlIU -Klfioient Anti-Air-
rraft Defense in ISlti Bring Hediiced Aircraft Insuranrr
Rates
Chai'tkh IX TnK Akrial Dkkknsk.s Needed
FOR THE Thirteen \aval Districts of
THE I'nited States and T«(i Ivsi-i.ar Na-
vai, Distru'Ts
How Far Should Naval Airmen Carrv Their Operations
Over I. and'
iH)
2t
as
51
.5S
(i4
Chapter X Administration ok a Navm.
Aeronattic Station GS)
Repiilnflons for the I'nited States Navy Arronautir
Station, Tcnsacola, Florida
fjtttt
{'iiAiiMi XI SAEK'rr Obdkiih and KKcfLA-
TioNh I'krtaimng to the Fi.vinc; Sc hooi.
AT I'XITED SlATKh NaVaI. AeHOSAI TK STA-
TION
(HAl'TIJl Xll Ui I.KH KOK Kl-VINi; Ism KD IIV
Bhitihii Hoyal Flvixc C'obi> ....
(llAlriR Xlll 1 llAlMNCi OK AVIATOBS
(llAl-TIR XIV OjIR.SK.S ok iNSTBfCTIOX AND
Heui IHKD (^1 AI.IKK'ATIONH OK I'ebSOX.VKL
FOB THE Air Skbvice ok THE United
States Navv
Course of Inslnietion for L'nitc<l State* Student Nara]
.\iriiien
('iiAiriii X\' Coi'BJiE OK Instbtctiox kob
Till; Tr.\inin(; ok Aviatobs
( iiAiiiu .\\ I Akkiai, Navigation Oveb Wa-
H.',
K6
87
TKR
104
Limitations of .Ma^rnetic C«mpa>s — Drtrrmination of
Drift — The Synehroni/.ed Drift Set — Precautions in
l'li)fht Over Water .Movements of the Wave Crest* —
Corrections for .Movement
Chai'ter X\ II .\eroplane Gins and Aebial
Ginnerv 112
Chai'ter X\III Spotting the Fall ok
Shots 113
How the .Aeroplanes Made It Po^sible to Wreck the
A'fjiiiijtfcfri;— "Spottinff" from a Dirigible — "Spotting"
fmm a Kite Balloon
Chapter XIX Hu.mii Dkopi-ing krom Aib-
CRAKT 118
Chapter XX Aerial Photogbaphv
Chai-tkr XXI K \i>io TEiEGRArnv
121
12 +
Chapter XXII Night Flying .... 126
First Nipht Flipfif Ovrr Water in the I'niled States
Chapter XXIII Instruments fob Aebial
Navigation
General Keqiiirements — Bammefer or .Mtimeter — Com-
pass — .\lr-Sperd Meter— Inclinometer— Drift Meter —
"Tarhometrr— Oil Ciage — Oil-I*rrs*ure Gape — Gasoline
Gage — Gasoline-flow Indicator — Distance Indicator —
Barograph— .\ngle of .\ttnck Indicator— Radiator Tem-
perature Indicator — Gasoline Fred ."system Pressure Indi-
cator — Sextant— .\eroplane Director — Warns the .\riator
.\ gainst Stalling — Signals .\ viator to Keep the .\eropUne
Level
129
CONTEXTS
Chapter XXIV United States Navy Aero-
nautics 1!35
United States Xavy Aviation Seetion Holds Distinction
of Being First to Operate Under Conditions Approxi-
mating Warfare — Na\y Department Decides Against
Government Construction of Aircraft — The First United
States Xavy Dirigil)le — Specifications for Hydroaero-
planes, 1915 — United States Xavy Experimental Wind
Tunnel — Specifications for Seaplanes, 1916 — United States
X'a^y Experimental Seaplane — Act Increasing Pay of
X'avid Aviators — Appropriations and Expenditures for
Xaval Aeronautics — X'a\T Orders Sixteen Coast Patrol
Dirigibles — Officers in Charge of Xaval Aeronautics —
U. S. Xaval Experimental Wind Tunnel — The Aeronautic
Xeeds of the United States X^a\-y
Chapter XXA' Regulations Relating to
Enrollments in the United States Na-
val Reserve Flying Corps .... 151
Chapter XXVI Naval Militia Aeronautics 155
Development of Aeronautics in the Xaval Jlilitia — Cali-
fornia Xaval .Militia — Connecticut Xaval ililitia — Dis-
trict of Columbia Xaval .Militia — Illinois Xaval Militia —
Maine Xaval Militia — Massachusetts Xaval Militia —
Michigan Xaval Militia — Xew Jersey Xaval Militia —
X^ew York Xaval Militia — Oregon Xaval Militia — Penn-
sylvania Xaval Militia — Rhode Island X^aval Militia —
Wisconsin Xaval Jlilitia
Chapter XXVII Aerial Coast Patrol . . 170
Duties of Coast Patrol Aviators— The United States
Aerial Coast Patrol — History of the United States Aerial
Coast Patrol — .Aerial Coast Patrol Unit X'o. 1 — Aerial
Coast Patrol Unit Xo. -2— Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No.
3 — Aerial Coast Patrol Unit Xo. 4
Chapter XXVIII The Evolution
Seapl.ane and the Flying Boat
OF the
The Wright Experiment— The First Flight from the
Water — Glenn H. Curtiss's Success — The Paris-Deauville
Race — Development Between 191+-17 — Table of the
Leading .-Vmerican Hydroaeroplanes, Seaplanes and Fly-
ing Boats
Chapter XXIX Naval Dirigibles . . . 196
Germany's X'aval .\irships — The "Blimps," "Coast Patrol
Airships," "Submarine Spotters"
Chapter XXX Specifications for United
States Navy Scouting Type Dirigibles . 206
Chapter XXXI Construction and Opeu.\-
tion of Kite Balloons 217
Location of Kite-Balloon .\erodrome — Laying Out — In-
flation (jjy Bottles) — .\scension — Pulling Down — Ob-
servation — Use as Free Balloon — Inspection and Repair
— Packing Up and Carrjing
Chapter XXXII
Motor
Evolution of the Aero
227
The Development of .-Vero Motors in the Great War —
American .Vero Motors — Specifications for Aeroplane
Jlotors Issued liy the Xavy Department — ^Table of Char-
acteristics of the Leading American Aeroplane Motors
Chapter XXXIII Aeronautics in Relation
to Naval Architecture 2-12
Chapter XXXIV Aerodynamics — Experi-
mental Researches on the Resistance of
Air 249
Classification of Exjierimental Methods — Diagrams Rep-
resenting the Results of Experiments — The .\pparatus
of Aviation
Chapter XXXV Government and Civilian
Organiz.\tions Developing Nav.\l Aero-
nautics IN the United States .... 26-t
United States X'avy Department — Division of X'^aval
Militia Affairs — X'ational Xaval Militia Board — The Air-
craft Production Board and Council of Xational Defense
— The X'ational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics^
Xaval Consulting Board of the United States — The
United States Coast Guard — The Aero Club of .Vmerica
and Constituent Aero Clubs — The Xational .\erial Coast
Patrol Commission — Board coo]ierating with tlie Com-
mandant of the Third X'aval District in the Organiza-
tion of the Xaval Reserve Forces — Tlie -Vircraft Manu-
facturers' Association — Tlie Society of Automotive En-
gineers — The Xational S]iecial Aid Society — Conference
Committee on Xational Prejiaredness — The Pan American
Aeronautic Federation
Chapter XXXVI Rules Governing Tests
FOR the Federation Aeronautique Inter-
nationale Pilot Certificates . . . 272
Spherical Balloon Pilot's Certificate — Dirigible Balloon
Pilot's Certificate — Aviator's Certificate — Hydroaero-
plane Pilot's Certificate — Licenses — .\ii)ilication for Li-
cense — Validity and Withdrawal of a License — Expert
Aviator — Tests for Calendar 'i'ear 1917
Chapter XXXVII
FOR Aircraft
Identification
Marks
276
IXDEX COMPILED BY HOWARD L. GOODHART
The photographs are from the private collection of Henry
Woodhouse and by courtesy of I'LYIXG, AEKI.M^
AG1% and the ILLUSTRATED LONUt)X XEWS.
TEXTBOOK OF NA\'AL AKKoNAITICS
n
TEXTliC )( )K ( )F NAVAL Ai:iU )XAl lies
{ II \l' I
AERIAI. STRATEGY AND TACTICS
Naval airoiiaiif ics as an ajiplicd sfiencc is in
its inlaiicy, l»iil tlicrc aic (Icliiiitc iiidicatidiis of
tlu- course of (Ifvrlopmciils. In a ^tiii ral way,
the (l(V(l()|)iiH'nt of air liccls will he on tin- sanii-
lines as llie tl(\cl<i[)nuiit of sea fleets : the
maiKruverin^ will he ;j[overn<il hy the saiiu liasie
jirineiples of strate^ry and taeties as aic I'lillowed
liir the opt-ralion of sea Meets, e\ee|)tin^' tli.al
the air fleets h.ive a hoinidless ocean of air.
Iioundless vertically .-is well as hori/.ontally. An
ail" lleet can ll\' over or uiidi i- llu- cni iiivs air
licet, and can make its hase in a lake in the midst
of mounl;iins or in a shallow hay, where no ship
of till' sea can ^o. It c;in operate on land and
across promontorii-s, and ll\ ii\ir nioiint.tnis.
In otlii'r words, the h.ise ol' an .■nr fleet can he
estiihlislu'd almost anywhere, whereas h;isi's for
ships of the sea cm only he estahlished in a few
faxorahk' jilaces where the water and coastal
conditions permit. 'I'lie air fleets can always
travel in strai^^ht lines, whereas all vessels of the
si';i most follow flu' eh.irted ehamiels.
Revolutionary Operations of Naval Aviators
Over Land
Rearing- in mind the sharj) lines of demarca-
tion where, nsnally. the Navy ceases to operate
and the Army he^ins to operate, aiul vice versa,
we must admit that the operations of naval air
fleets in the present war are ])ositiveIy rcvolu-
tion.iry. heeause we find hundreds of cases where
naval aviators, flyiuij land aeroplanes, as well
as seaplanes, made raids which took them for
.several hundreds of miles over the enemy's
country. In many cases the jiurpose has heen
to destroy the enemy's soiu'ces of supplies of
munitions, as iu the ease of the raid on the
M.iuser works, at Ohcndorf. carried out on Oe-
toiii r ].■{. I'.Hi;, in which a s(|ua<lron of liritish
Woyal .\a\al aviators participated. How the
raids .are carried out will he tohl hereafter under
the he.idin^r: "U.aidintf ( )peration.s."
Ships that Navigate Over Mountains!
Tlirre li.ive heen hundreds »)f raids hy ..Vllied
na\al aeroplanes overland in the interior of
(uririany, in the IJ.alk.ans. .Mesopotamia, Asia
and Africa. Likewise, there have heen numer-
ous raids hy the naval aeroplanes of the Central
I'liNM is inland on Russian, I'reneh .and Hritish
soil. Instances will he (|uoted hereafter, under
the heading of: "I low Far Should Naval
Aviators Go Inland.'"
There are si|rniticant records of flights hy
n.ival .aviators over mountains. Dirig^ihles have
heen flyin<r (wer mountains for years. For in-
stance, on Septend)er l.j, lltltt. naval aviators
flyiii'i: l.nid machines lMnnhe<l hases in the inte-
rioi- in ISnlLiari.i. and on .Se])teml)er 17. I'.'IO, a
seaplane of the Royal Naval Flyinp Corps
liomhed a town in Palestine forty-five miles
from the coast, crossin;f mountains several thou-
sand feet hiLfh on its outward journey. This
was, in cfTcct. a ship l>einp navipate<l over moun-
tains! As a matter of fact the Italian naval
aviator, -\nirelo Guen/i. on January 10, 11»17.
flew a hydroaeroplane from the naval base at
Gesto Calendre to a heiijht of 18,000 feet, which
is hipfher than some of the hiijhest mountains.
Zeppelins are also capable of reaching heiglits
close to -20,000 feet.
It is also interesting to note that oftentimes.
in the course of a tlifrht. naval aeroplanes, like
diritrihles. pass over parts of England, France,
Bcludum and G( rmatiy.
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AKKOXAUTICS
One of the huge three-motored American seaplanes
which are doing such effective work in submarine hunt-
ing for Great Britain.
Cooperation Between Army and Navy Air
Services
GREAT BUITAIX AND iKAXCE HA^^E INIIXISTERS
OF THE AIR
The official rej^orts give many instances of
army and na^y aero squadfons having coopera-
ted in bombing expeditions. Likewise, there
are numerous instances of attacks on shijjs at
sea by army aeroplanes.
Perhaps most revolutionary of all \\as the ap-
jiointing of Admiral Sir Percy Scott, a naval
man, to take charge of the anti-aircraft de-
fenses of London.
All demarcations have been "wiijed out, and
as a matter of fact, both Great liritain and
France have now ])ut tlicir air services iindci' a
Minister of the Air, wlio sujjcrvises, in a general
Avay, both the army and naval branches of the
air service. The su])ervision deals essentially
M illi getting the equipment and the personnel,
and carrying out the broad policy of the Defense
Councils. The details of operation are. of
course, left to the army and navy authorities.
The German air services have always coojjerated
very closely. A step towards very close co-
operation between the U. S. ^\rmv and Xavy
was taken in the early j)art of March, lit! 7,
when tlie Joint Board of Aeronautics decided
to establish joint training aeronautic stations.
A further step towards placing tlie air services
of the United States under a INIinister of the
Air was taken in ^Liy, 1917. when the Aircraft
Production Board was appointed.
Functions of the Naval Air Service
IT HAS ALRE.U)Y EXTENDED THE FUNCTIONS OF
NAVIES
The functions of vessels of war were defined
by Admiral Sir Percy Scott some time ago as
follows :
DEFENSIVELY
1. To attack ships that come to bombard our
jjorts.
2. To attack shijjs that come to blockade us.
3. To attack shi])s carrying a landing party.
4. To attack the enemy's fleet.
5. To attack ships interfering with our com-
merce.
On-KXSIVEI,V
1. To boml)ar(l an enemy's ports.
2. To blockade the enemy.
ti. 'I'o convoy a landing j)arty.
4. To attack the enemy's fleet.
5. To att.'ick the encmv's commerce.
.\i:ki.\i, s'n(.\ii:(.\ ,\ \i) r.\( ik s
Tlif otliciiil r'i|)()rts of llic rrii|)|(i\ tmiil nl' sca-
|)laiics 111 llic ^^ic.'il war show that air lire K liaM-
Itc'cii used lit |iti riiriii ivi TV line nf llic arorcsuiil
riiiiclioiis anil iimif. Ilimdnds of aerial al-
liu-Us (III .sliips anil siihiiiariiii-s liaM' taken plaee.
Mesides allaekin^' sliips, convoyinj^ sliips and
I imlin;^ parties, |)i(itectitij^ eniniiieree, iiniiiliard-
ing- the enemy's ports, and allaelvin;^r llic
enemy's eniiimeree, the naval air lleits of the
w.irrinjr natinns have dune many thinffs, includ-
ing, as lias heeii poinli <l mil. altaekin;^ munition
t'aetories far inlaml. and strategical places,
which re<|iiirc liyiny; over moimlains. In ollnr
words, the naval air services ha\e extended the
I'unctions of navies.
Na\al !iero si|ua(hons e(iuip|)ed with /^uiis
have also llown inland and attacked iuxlies of
troops with their Lfuns and hnmhed railroads
far t'idni the coast.
Blockading of Air Fleets Impossible
lilockadin;^" of air tU'ets is, of eourst-, impos-
silile, hecause they ojierate on the vertical plane
and have roads in every compass direction at
every lif'ty feet skyward up to any height — the
altitude record iicing l!(i,2<>() feet.
Scouting may he taken as the eiiuivalcnt of
tlu' work of the cruisers; tor])edo humehing and
homi) dropping, as the equivalent of the work of
the destroyers: and the comhined damage done
li\ the dropping of several tons of explosives
carried hy aero siiuadrons may he taken as the
C(|uivalent of the work done by a hatlleshii).
ton iiArii.i;-i'i.ANf>i kuliim-uj wjiii '.i-iscn
(.INS Ai loKi) i)i;rKX»ivK I'owi.u ui <i(>,(iOO
Ulll.lS nt i'ltl.U;XT LANDING OF AX
INVAJJINO l-OUCK
l{<ar Admiral Hradley A. Fiske, I'nitcd
.Slates \avy, has jiointed cnil that 100 haltlc-
jilanes carrying .■J-iiieh guns would have a defen-
si\c jxiuir e(|uivalent to (JO, 000 rilhs. 'I'heV
would have this additional advantage that,
whireas (JO.OOO infant rymen would he h.ud to
transport to any one place, the hatlle-planes
could easily cover u line (jf .'JOO miles; in other
v\oi(ls, could lie mohilized (|uickly at uiiy one
point hit ween New ^'ork and the Chesapeake
to prevent the landing of an invading force.
Admiral l''iske very aptly points out that this
extreme iimliility of power is unknown in any
other arm of our defenses. It is alstj pointed
out th;it it would take a tremendous length of
time to e(|uip and train 00,000 infantrymen,
vvhereas it would take a comparatively short
time to get too hat I h -planes with the traine<l
av iators and e(|uipment necessary.
The size and jiower of aeroplanes is .steadily
increasing and ;ieronautic engineers now con-
sider it <|uite jiraeticahle to huild aeroplanes
that will carry between IV) and .50 tons. This
may sound extreme at the date of writing, but
it does not sound half as extreme as when in
1908 it was stated that some day an aeroplane
would go up to a height of 7000 feet with
twenty-one i)assengers. which is exactly what
was done in Kiii^Iand in .Tulv. I'.tl'l. Not later
Pl«>tiiifr(i|i|i tiikrn "Somrwlirn-"
in till- War Zoni', simwin); ii IViil-
iiili si'iiplnnc ii<c>iiiitf<1 witli ;i l>.i-
vis Ndii-Hrniil (inn, wliicli is now
p.iiiilr in tlirtM'-inrli siw, ttri)rliiiiir
loss timu .VMl pminils. A sln>;lr
shot will sink a -^iiliniiirinr. A
"fli)rlif" of livi- nvu-hini'S nionnt-
inir Mioh II (fiin — h "tliiilit" Ix-iii;;
the snuillrst tiu'tioni unit — ciin
disable the In-st ik-strovcr.
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AEROXAUTICS
k-
LICMT CaUlOtn AND
DttTwoycw roMct
Courtesy of London Illustrated News
The first Naval Air Raid of the Great War. Cuxhaven, Germany's famous naval base, chief airshiii liase, and mine base
was attacked by seven boinb-dropplngr British naval seaplanes on Christmas day, 1911. (The imiirefrnable ]iosition of Cuxhaven,
and Heligoland and the Schillifr Roads are shown herewith.) The seaplanes were carried to German waters on steamers converted
into seajjlane carriers which were convoyed by British cruisers.
than 1911 it was considered impossible to fly an
aeroplane with two motors. ]Mr. Edwin Gould
offered a jjrize of $1.5,000 for a contest governed
by very modest conditions, but the jjrize was not
won. We can look forward to amazing and
speedy progress in the construction and appli-
cation of aircraft. Half a dozen nations have
between 2000 and 12,000 a\iators each, Avliich
have been enlisted and trained since the begin-
ning of the Great War. Canada alone, wliicli
did not have anv aviators at the liemnninti' of
the war, sent 600 aviators to England in twenty
months.
Aerial Operations Independent of the Fleet
Every raid of ;!ie iia\al Zejipelins has Ijceii
independent of the German fleet; likewise all
the .seaplanes raids over l.iiid.
Tn indej)endent aerial operations a number of
seaplane carriers are often used. Tn the Salon-
ika campaign, where tliere was no danger of at-
tack on .seaplane canicis from hostile warships,
seaplane carriers were pressed into use in luiin-
bcr. The Turkish bases were bryf)nd reach of
naval gims and (nving to the lack of trans])or-
tation facilities, the Allied land forces could
only advance slowly. There the seaplanes be-
came the most effective Aveapons for attacking
the bases, destroying railroads, trains, supply
stations, etc. In July, 1916, a British aviator
torjiedoed four Turkish vessels.
On ISIay 1st, 1917, a German seaplane tor-
pedoed the British steamer Gena. The details
of this startling event — whicli introduces a new
metliod of naval attack — were given in the affi-
davit signed at Newcastle by the American sea-
man, Oscar C. Findley to the American Consul.
The affidavit reads:
"While I was aboard tlic Britisli steamer Gena in the
Channel on ]\Iay 1, two (leriiian seaplanes, 300 feet
aloft, ])assed near by. Without any warnintj what-
ever, one dropped a torpedo to the water and the mis-
sile sj)e(l aloii^ the surface and struck the Gena. We
sank in thirty-five minutes.
A Norwegian steamer which ajiproached us was
similarly attacked. A\'e lired while sinking and
hrouojif down one seaplane. The otlicr fled. Two
(Jirmans on the destroyed jilaiie were picked up by
the same trawler that rescued survivors from our
slii]).
Tlic number and extent of indc])('ndcnt aerial
o])erations m ill increase with the eiiiployinent of
the larger seaplanes being l)iiilt, whicli will be
\i:i; i.\i, ■^1 li \i i.(, ^ \ \ d
\(
ICS
A /.rii|irliri ii\cr llu Uiiiii.m 1 lirt. (. ,i)).ililr iil ;,t,i) iii^ in the a.r ni!;, li'Uj., aii'i "I U i ■ Ln^- il i .j.i.il .il
an hour, tlic /.c|i|a'liri is the uiriiil vyv unit the ui-riiil ^uidc of the G<-riiitili I'lt-i-l.
Iv lallci
able to cany tctrpt'docs and jrinis ol' larifc
ciKUiuli cMliluT to sink uiiMriiini'cd ships.
The Air Service in Cooperation with the
Fleet, and as an Auxiliary of the Navy
TIr' (Irt'at War was only a few niontlis oM
wlicn tilt' first aerial squadron in the cooi)cration
of" the fleet was carried out. It wius the expedi-
tion ajj^ainst Cuxhaveii, Germany's famous
naval hase, chiel' airship and mine base, which
hap|)ined on Christmas Day. ^'Mi. Three
steamers converted into seai)lane carriers were
used to trans|)ort tiie seaplanes and were es-
corted by cruisers and destroyers. The ])ur-
])()se was to bomb the airship sheds. Seven
Hrltisli seaplanes participated, six ol" which re-
turned to the seaplane carriers. The pilot of
the seventh landed away from the seaplane car-
riers and was ])i(kr(l up later by a trawler.
(Sec cli.-iiitcr (111 "l>iiiiili 1 )rnppin_iT From Air-
cint't" fur details.)
Numerous Services Rendered by Aircraft as
Auxiliaries of Navies
A seaplane from the mother ship EugmVme
was used by the l>rilish. and Zei)pelins were
used by the Germans for reconnoiterin^ in the
batlleof Jutland on May . 'JO, HHC But in this
case the aircraft were the auxiliaries of the
tleet.
This I)rin^s us to the numerous services which
aircraft can render as auxiliaries of the iia\T.
lMuiti)):r!i|ih tuki'ii iluring llic .lutlaiul Srji Hattlr, M«y 31, 19lt), which w.is the first actual naval Kittle i>.irtici|Mtcd in hj- aircraft.
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
ft<-<i).l,.iK.-. I1..UI one of the many aerial loa.^l |iatinl ,,laU<iii-. oil Lin I iliilIi Loa.^L,. In liio report tu tlic L'luaiiljei- ui Dcjuitii ,3
Admiral Lacaze, the French Jlinister of Marine, on May ii6, 1917, said: "We have organized seaplane stations all around the
coasts, so that the zone of action of each station joins that of its neighbor on either side."
Diri]gfibles, aeroplanes and kite balloons as
auxiliaries of navies, have rendered the follow-
inof services:
1. Attacked ships and submarines at sea with
bombs, torpedoes, and sjuns. (Seaplanes and
dirifribles used.)
2. Bombed the enemy's bases and stations.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used.)
3. Attacked the enemy's aircraft in the air.
(Aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)
4. Served as the eyes and scouts of fleets at
sea. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used.)
5. Protected ships at sea and in ports against
attacks from hostile submarines and battleships.
(Seaplanes and dirigibles used.)
G. Defended and jjrotected naval bases and
stations from naval and aerial attacks. (T>and
aeroplanes, seaplanes, and dirigibles used.)
7. Convoyed troop shi])s and merchant ships
on coastwise trips. (Dirigibles and seajjlanes
used.)
8. Patrolled the coasts, holding up and in-
siiecting doubtful ships, and convoying them to
examining stations and searching coasts for sub-
marine bases. (Dirigibles used.)
9. Prevented hostile aircraft from locating
the position and finding the composition and
disposition of the fleet, getting the range of
shij)s, naval bases, stations, magazines, etc.
(Land aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)
10. Located, and assisted trawlers, de-
stroyers, and gunners in capturing or destroy-
ing hostile submarines. (Seaplanes, dirigibles
and kite balloons used.)
11. Cooperated with submarines, guiding
them in attacks on ships. (Dirigibles and sea-
l^lanes used.)
12. Located mine fields and assisted trawlers
in destroying mines. (Dirigibles, seaplanes
and kite balloons used. )
13. Served as the "ej'^es in planting mines,"
minimizing the time recpiircd for mine plant-
ing. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used.)
14. Served as "spotters" in locating the po-
sition (){' the hostile ships and directing gun-
AKKiAi- s ri{.\ ri;(.\ wd i \( i k s
»
lire. (Diri^ihlcs, si-aplaiics aii<l kitt- hallnoiis
iisrd.)
1"). S(i\((l ,is caiTicrs of iiii|)<iitaiil iiicssa^es
Itclwcin .slii|)s wliicli ('{iiild iml l»i- trilnisliil Id
wirtlcss (iwiiii! Ill llic nossihiliU' iil" llic ciii'iii\'
uirrlcss |)ickiii;; ii|i llir incssa^cs, siicli as cftin-
iiiiiiii<';il iii;^' In iiiciiriiiii;^ ships iiirMi-|ii;il n mi rc-
/^anliii^ the localinn of mines, siiliiii.iriiies, ami
eoiirses, to avoid iiiisl;ikes anil ciinriisiDii.
(Seaplanes .-ind diri;;il»les used.)
Hi. Carried nut Dperations over land and se;i
intended to dixcrt Die iillentinn of .-uid mislead
the eiu'Wiy while sirateyieal operations were
iieiny carried out l»y the lleet of sipiadroiis.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and diri;ril,lis
used.)
17. Have made it jxissihle for commanders to
m-\ lilms of theaters of operation, pholooiaphs
of till' location, composition and disposition ol
hostile naval forces, and photo^rapiiic records
of condition and of the movements and opera-
lions of their own. as well as of the hostile na\ al
forces.
In the I'nitcd States we ari' .just heginnin^^
to realize the importance of aeronautics, and wc
are jnsl taking stejis to develojj our air service.
The entire country may he sui<l to he c(»o|>erat-
ing with the ,\ireraft Production lioard and
the .\rmy .ind .\a\y in devejopinj^ the air serv-
ice. .\l)(ail .■{(),(>()() :i|)pliiatir)ns have In-en re-
ceived from young men wishing to join the air
.service, mostly college men, several hundred of
whom are now learning to fly at their own ex-
pense, to he ready to meet an emergency. .Six
units of tlie a<ri;il eo.ast jiatrol are under or-
gam'/ation, and the memhers of these units are
training at their own expense and have pur-
chased seaplanes, the use of which they have
olfered to the (Government. The same is tnie
in the naval militia. I'.itriotic people who be-
came interested in aerial preparedness through
the ctroi-ts of the Aero Cluh of America have
contriliuted aero|)l;uies and funds witli which to
start aviation sections in the naval militia of a
number of .states.
\\'ith this great popular interest, we may ex-
pect this country — the eomitry of Langley, the
Wrights, Curtiss, and other pioneers — will take
giant steps in the development of our much
needed air service.
lioiM-j)o\vor twiii-iHotonil tu
turiwdurs, starting tor a tligiit.
of
A Russian cruiser photographed from a Curtiss liydr oaL-rojiIane, the tail of which is seen in the photograph.
CHAPTER II
AERIAL ATTACKS ON SHIPS AT SEA
Hifitoric: Aerial attacks on ships, cruisers,
destroyers, submarines, and mereliantmen at
sea began in the early part of the war, as soon
as aircraft became numerous enough to per-
mit employing them for offensive operations.
A few of the earliest cases of aerial attacks on
ships are given herewith:
In 1014-1.5, a small squadron of Russian
seaplanes bombed the German cruisers Breslau
and Goehen which were bombarding the port
of Sevastopol. On INIay .5, 191.5, a German
naval aero s([uadron bomlied the Russian crui-
ser Slava and a submarine on the Baltic Sea.
The French steamer Harmonic, on December
11, was attacked by an Austi'ian submarine.
The submersible fired two toi'])e(loes, which
were without effect, and then withdrew. The
next day the Ilarmonie was attacked by an
aeroplane that flew overhead for a quarter of
an hour and dropj)ed six bombs, all of which
fell into the sea.
German seaplanes have been active particu-
larly in enforcing the "war zone" decree issued
against the British Isles. A seaplane cruising
over the North Sea attacked with bombs the
British steamer Cordoba as she was entering
Yarmouth Harbor. Xo damage was done.
Seaplanes also dropped boml)s on a Dutch and
a British vessel, early in 1915. but without hit-
ting them. Zeppelins have been used by Ger-
many for the defense of commerce against at-
tacks by British and Russian submarines. The
steamer Scotia of Stettin, Prussia, bound from
Sweden to Stettin with a cargo of ore, was pur-
sued by a British submarine off Bornholm. In
rc|)ly to wireless calls for assistance, a Zep-
pelin suddenly a])])eared. wherciqxni the sub-
marine submerged and disappeared. The
Turkish army headquarters announced that a
hostile monitor, which was firing shells in the
direction of Akabah. was silenced by a Turkish
a(>ro])hinc, wbicli (lro])})ed two bombs on the
nioniloi'.
An English aeroplane dropped three bombs
10
AI'.IM \l. A T'l' \( l\S ON SlNI's AT Sl'.A
11
A ItMinlt (Irnppnl trmii an iiirt-r.-ifl r\plniliii^ in tin- u.itrr.
IVdin .-I luiiilit of .500 feet on enemy lorries on
N(iveiiil)er 21. Tlie I)()ml)s liavinLf missed, tlic
miu'liiiu- turned and llcw over the lorries aLiaiii
and dropped tliree Ixmihs in the midst ol" thcin.
Turning a«^;iin. Ihi' oliserNtr dirreled hi^ iiia-
ehine uiiii on the eiiciiiy from a heif^ht of I.")()
feet. In tile eonrse of the first of the raids
made hy Allied airmen on l^ru^es, the railway
line ontside the town was destroyed and a ves-
sel at St. Michel, ()i'eii|>ied hy (Germans, was
damaged. In the eonrse of the seeond attack
made n|)on the port, serions d.imane was done
to three toi-pedo hoats an<l the steamer Cul-
chcstir. In the third raid a wharf for suli-
marines hetwei-n Lissewe<;he and Zeel)rn<jrt;e
was hit. Flight Snh-T-ieutcnant I'errand al-
tai'ked a hostile seaplane Novemher '2H, 1!)1."j.
which was aeeompanied hy three more sea-
planes and a destroyer, off the Ikdyian coast,
and hronyht it down l)y ountlre when it uu-
mediately sank. He then attacked tlu' de-
stroyer, and only ahandoned the attack after
comin<> under heavy shell fire hoth from the
de.strover and the shore hatterics of Westen<l.
This is onlv one o\' a numhcr of cases of
aii.d attacks on d< slroyers <ifr the lieij^ian
coast hy Uritish aviators. In Hcverul cases the
(lestrf)ycrs were reported sunk. There alv)
have been many rep<»rts of torpedo hc.ats de-
stroyed in (ierman parts hy homhs dropjied hy
Allies' aviators.
The American steamer CuMhhif/. which ar-
rived af Hollerdam on April 'JJi. IKIH. from
rhila<lel|)hia with a car^o of petroleum, re-
ported th.it on the aftertioon of April '2H, when
in latitude ."» 1 decrees, !."< minutes N., and lun^i-
ludc •_' di/,nees .'JO minutes. K.. she was attacked
h\ a (ierm.an .'leroplaiie which threw three
homhs ;it the ship. The first two f« || wide, hut
I hi lliiiij passed execedin/fly close t(» the .stem
lail and ii II into the si a. At the time the ship
was llyin;.r the Amerie.in lla;.f and had her name
p.iinti-d on the sifle in letters six feet lon^.
It will he rememliered that after his early
o|)erations in I'laiiders. Com. Samson tfK»k a
win;r of the H. \. A. S. to (iallipoli. where he
and many of his win;; were mentioned in des-
patches hy .\dmiral de l{oheck and (ieneral
Sir Charles Monroe. Later, he was invalided
A bomb cln>i>|Ktl frmn .i Cm nn.in .lirrr.iit rxjil.Kiini: il.>><-
to a nriti<>h ship. I'hotopraph t.-ikrn from a HritiUi cniLsfr
diirinp thr notion off fuxh.ivcn. Deccmticr .?o, 19M, which was
tlic ftrst naval aerial operation in hUtor>'.
12
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AEROXAT TICS
The Handley Page battlei)lane. The span of the machine is alinit f-S ieei, length 65 feet, height 30 feet, with seating facilities
for five people. It is equipped with two 13-cylinder Rolls-Royce motors of 380 liorse-power. It has mountings for 3 Lewis guns.
This machine holds all the world's records for large aerojilanes up to a pilot and 30 passengers, which were carried to a height of
7,180 feet, the pilot on this occasion being JMr. Clifford B. Prodger, an American.
home, and. on Iiis recovery, returned to the
eastern INIediterranean, where he took com-
mand of tlie Bcn-Ma-Cliree. Dcspatclies from
the Eg^'ptian command had ])reviously men-
tioned this .ship as a seaplane carrier, com-
manded by Squadron Commander (Acting
Wing Commander) L'Estrange ]M alone, now
wing commander.
In 1912 the British seaplane carrier Ben-
Ma-Chree (Wing-Commander C. R. Samson,
D. S. O.) was sunk by gunfire in Kastelorizo
Harbor (Asia ]\Iinor) on January 11. The
only casualties were one officer and fom* men
wounded.
An Aerial Attack on a Seaplane Carrier
A vivid ])icture of a bom])ing attack upon a
ship at sea has been given by Lieutenant Fran-
((•ois-Bernou, who was aboard the seaplane car-
rier Ben-Ma-Chree in the Salonika camjjaign.
The exact position of tlie shij) has been deleted
by the censor for obvious reas()n.s, and a nun)bcr
of photogi'aphs taken aboard were skilfully
mangled in fear of many valuable details reach-
ing the enemy. Life aboard tlie inotlier ship
would .seem a very novel and tliriUiiig experi-
ence to the layman, but familiarity soon breeds
not conteni})t l)ut indifference to the extraor-
dinary activities wlilcli form its daily routine.
The fascinating spectacle of the aeroplanes ris-
ing from the inother ship for their perilous
flights of reconnaissance or attack, or their ar-
ri^'al from long aero cruises and the work of
swinging them inboard or overboard by power-
ful cranes, soon became a commonjilace. As
Lieutenant Fran^ois-Bernou remarks, these
sights, which have never before been Avitnessed
in any war on land or sea, seemed no more un-
usual than the cranking of an automobile.
The French officer, being a newcomer, was
alive to the extraordinary dramatic interest of
these stirring days. ]Many of the flights were
made for long distances above the Holy Land,
and Lieutenant Fran^ois-Bernou was im-
pressed by the curious coincidence that the land
of miracles should witness this twentieth-
century miracle of flight. Day after day the
seaplanes ventured forth from the shelter of the
mother ship on many daring flights to spy the
enemy's positions or direct the deadly fire from
the sky upon tro()])s or fortifications far inland,
and after raids A\'()uld return like homing
pigeons, bringing- in valuable reports.
One of Hie most dramatic incidents of the
life aboard the seaplane carrier Boi-^lti-CJiree
came one day most unex])ectedly. An aero-
])lane wliicli had l)een out on a scouting trip
was suchk'iily sigbled, ap])roaching at toj)
speed, pursued by a (Jennaii Fokker. The
Ai:i{i \i. .\i r.\( K^ ()\ siiii'> vi .m:.\
i.'i
.icntplaiii's vvcri' flyiti|^ at a lii^^li allilmli . 'I In-
lii'ilisli ait'cral'l had iiiaiia^td hi i liidc IIk
( iicriiy. and hy a daiiii^r volplane landed .safely
(in llie water hesidc the mother ship. ICvery-
tliini^' was in itadimss to retrieve the aeropl.tne,
which was (|inCivly hoisted on ho.ird. 'I'lie (ii r-
inaii l'"oi<l\er was not eontenl to jj;\\r up the
chase and conlinued to lly alio\c the Jtiii-Mn-
Clira a! a cuniparalively low altitude, dmp-
pin;.;' diadly honilis. Such an attack from the
sky is extremely daunt in;;". Any one ol' the
homhs, nliicli dcscriiicd hlack vertical lines
a^^ainst tin- sky. mi^hl hrin;; instant disaster.
'I'hc l)omhin,y aeroplane succeeded in passing"
dirci'tly ahove llie ship several times. .Some of
I he homl)s struck the watir so near the vessel
that tlu' s|)lasli ol" the waves thrown up liy the
explosi(»n wet the steamer's hrifl^fc. Tlu iiilire
crew stood manfully at tlu ii' posts. The only
hop»' of escape lay in drivin;^' the ship full speed
ahead in a scries of mad /.i^-zays. a course, which
the ;icroplanc could not follow. The anti-air-
ciaft ^iins at last succcedi'd in (lrivin<i^ away the
enemy, vvith what damage could not he know n.
i\ftcr a thrilling c\|)eriei'ce of this kin<l. the
French ofliecr remarks, the men were almost
ovcrcouje with sleep, .so exhausting; hatl the ex-
perience hecn hotli on mind and hody. 'i'lie
jiilot wlio had heeii clui.sed in hy the Cierman
I'okkcr was. hy the way, a very intercstin<f
character. In less tronhlous times he luui hecn
a famous jockey, and his thrilling;- race afjainst
time for the mother ship was in a scriM; a
familiar experience. Three days after tliis ex-
perience whili- on a very daring s<-outin^ and
iinmhin;; trip, a shot from the enemy struck his
motor, forcing him to descend, when he wa.s
made a prisoner hy the Turks.
Weapons and Methods of Attacks on Ships
Al 1A( KIN(. \\ nil IIO.MJIS
'llie wcajHiirs employed for attacking ship.s
are homhs, torpedoes, and ^nis of fairly lar^c
caliher. l'|) to the suuuncr of 1!M(! all the at-
tacks on shi|)s were made with liomhs. In
.July, I '.•!(;, there was rcifistcred one ca.sc of a
Hritisli na\al avi.itor who. according' to reliable
reports, nunle four t!i>ihts «iver the land into tlie
Sea of Marmora in an aeroplane under which a
A\'hitehcad torpedo was secured, and sank four
Turkish vessels, usin^ li-inch torpedoes, wei^h-
in^f 731 ])ounds each. I'or this service he was
•.^iven the 1 )istin^'uislied .Service Order.
While this was the first case of actual
des!riiyiii<f of ships liy means of tr)rpedoes
dni])pcd hy aeroplanes, the idea was by no
means new. Kear-.Vdmiral liradley .\. Fiske,
U. S. X., patented a device for launching tor-
j)edoes from aeroplanes in July, 191:1. (aj)-
tain Alessandro (iuidoni of tlie Royal Italian
Navy made cx])eriments for a numher f)f years
in (lrojj[)in^ weights from aeroplanes with a
view of eventually developing a lar^- aero-
f:
drJr^iiS
\ ship umki's <» (H-rfn-l tarcrt for a seaplane or iliripihlc. This photo);rnph sIh«ws a British destroyer as it looked to tlic aviator
whi> iili.>tiii:rai>tnM it from the air.
14
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
plane for launching the standard-size torj^e-
does.
How the Revolutionary Leavitt Torpedo Was
Developed
Early in January, 1917, the civilian leaders
of the movement to develop our national de-
fenses, after taking stock of the military re-
sources of the United States, came to the con-
clusion that, owing to our small army and navy
and general unpreparedness, the only hope of
success on the part of the United States in case
of war woukl be in developing some powerful
new instrument which would give us predomin-
ance. A committee consisting of ^Messrs. Alan
R. Hawley, Henry A. Wise Wood, Rear Ad-
miral Robert E. Peary, and the writer made an
investigation with the purjjose of finding one
or more new instruments, the value of which
would be so great that they would give pre-
dominance to the side which employed them.
After looking over the field of inventions, the
committee came to the conclusion that the tor-
pedoplane patented by Rear-Admiral I^radley
A. Fiske in July, 1912, was a revolutionaiy in-
vention of tremendous possibilities.
The committee then asked Admiral Fiske to
deliver an address on the subject, which he did
at the Aeronautic Conference held in connec-
tion with the First Pan-American Aeronautic
Exposition, Grand Central Palace, New York
City. Admiral Fiske's address on that occa-
sion is printed elsewhere. It created great in-
terest, and, as a result, a fund was set aside for
the purpose of defraying the expenses of the
experiments of developing the torpedoplane.
Admiral Fiske was asked to be the chairman of
a committee to supervise the work of develop-
ing the torpedo])lane, and he appointed the fol-
lowing as members of his committee: Alan R.
Hawley, Henry A. Wise Wood, Rear Ad-
miral Peary, John Hays TTammond, Jr., F.
Trubee Davison, Schuylei- Skaats \Vheeler,
Frank M. l^eavitt, Lawrence B. Sperry, and
the writer.
The committee had the choice between con-
centrating its efforts in developing large sea-
planes and training aviators to drop Cull-si'/xd
Whitehead torpedoes which weigh 2000 pounds,
and measure 21 inches in diameter and 17%
feet in length, or to develop a torpedo small
enough to be carried by any of the two-passen-
ger flying boats or hydroaeroplanes now in gen-
eral use. The committee came to the conclu-
sion that, owing to the fact that there were very
few aviators in the United States who had any
experiences in piloting a large seaplane and,
owing to the time that would be required to
train men to drop such heavy weights from an
aeroplane, it would be best to concentrate ef-
forts in developing a small torpedo, weighing
less than 200 pounds, which could be dropped
from the average two-passenger seaplane by al-
most any aviator. This would make it possible
in time of war to press into service for launch-
ing of torpedoes, abnost every civilian naval
and military aviator who had had sufficient ex-
jjerience to pilot a machine.
At first it seemed impossible to develop an
automobile torpedo weighing less than 200
pounds, having a range of about 1000 yards at
a speed of about 2.5 knots, but the committee
was willing to have experiments carried out re-
gardless of the possibility of failure, and three
leading experts on torpedoes promptly took up
the work and soon advised the committee that
such a torpedo could and woidd be developed.
The committee was led to decide by the results
of the excellent work of Volunteer Aerial Coast
Patrol Unit No. 1, which led hundreds of other
college men to interest themselves in aeronau-
tics. It Avas realized that hundreds of men
would follow the example of the members of
Unit No. 1, and would make it possible, in case
of war, to quickly organize squadrons of avia-
tors equipped with torpedoplanes sufficiently
])owerful to sink destroyers, transports, and
otlier nonarmored ships. Larger torpedoes
will of course, sink armored ships.
John Hays Hammond, Jr., is meeting the
difficulty of launcliing large torpedoes from sea-
planes by his revolutionary invention which
makes it possible to direct the torj)edo to the tar-
get from an aeroplane, by wireless.
j\[ (Ik- (late of writing there are three differ-
ent t()i-pt(l()cs, one of which, being developed
by Mr. Frank H. Leavitt, the expert of the E.
AI.KIAI. .\l r.\( Ks (>.\ ^lUl'.s Al >J-,A 15
\V. IMiss C(ini[)jiiiy, vvlio is iLs|>(ni.sil)lc lor Uic ^ivcs an cxfL-llent idea of tlic rcvolutionury
eflicirricy of llic Wliittliciul torpedo, is ready value of lliis new develojmieiit. Since tlies*.- ex-
for test. 'I'lie details of tliis toipedo and the periincnts lie^an, (nenil«rs of tin- eonmiittee
(illiers lieiiiM dcvilnprd will pioli.iMy lie made have received many expressions from naval au-
piihlie while tliis hook is on IIk presses. tliorities sfatint,' that tin- torjjedoplane will
Kear Adinir.il Hr.idlt y A. I'iske's j)aper revolufioni/i- naval warfare,
Mcinurundu;
CHAPTER III
THE TORPEDOPLANE AND ITS POSSIBILITIES
By Rear- Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, U. S. N.
^Messrs. Alan R, Hawley, Heniy A. Wise
^Vood, and Hem-y Woodliouse, have kindly
exjiressed the thought that the "Torpedo-
jjlane" which I patented m July, 1912, is
destined to become a dominant instrument in
war, giving a marked advantage to the side
which employs it and a corresponchng disad-
vantage to the other side. They have also
thoughtfully pointed out that, having fallen so
much behind other countries in naval prepared-
ness, we can onlj- hope to catch uj) by including
in our naval program the most effective new in-
ventions, and that the "torpedoi^lane" might,
under favorable conditions, make a $20,000
aeroplane a worthy match of a $20,000,000 bat-
tle cruiser.
It is said that strateg^' directs the conduct
of war, and that it uses logistics to provide the
men, guns, and other details that the plans of
strategy demand. This analysis is correct so
far as it goes; but it omits the factor that in-
spires both strategj' and logistics, the factor
called "invention."
In the United States, and in most other
comitries, Ave have come to regard invention as
applicable to mechanism only. But to regard
invention in that way only is to regard it in a
very dim light and to fail to see to how many
other things invention is applied to.
With the use of invention in mechanism we
That "the tor])e(loi>lnnc will revohitioiii/.e naval warfare" i.s now being
admitted by naval autliiiritk-s. The simple torpedo launehinp device
dcveloi)ed for Admiral Fiske'.s torpedoplane is shown herewith. The details
of the tori)edo itself, which has Ixen developed for national defense under
the auspices of a Rroup of i)atriotic workers for aerial prei)aredness, will
not be made public for obvious reasons.
16
'riM": 'roiu'i'.Dori.A \ I', wd iis ro.s.su'.ii ri ii-:s
17
iirc vci'v r.Mniili.'ir; Iml il m.iv lie itninlcd out
tliat hft'orc (he iiitcli.-iiiisin ilscll' c-iii l»c in-
vented, llic idc.'i of in\(nlin;4 llic niccliiUiisin
must fii'sl ln' inxcnlcil. Ud'orc I'ii-icsson in-
vciilcd llic niicli.inisin wliicli \\r cill llie Moni-
hir, lie invented the idea ol' produein/^' siicli a
tliini^. Hel'ore Alexander started lo invade tlie
I'csl of the world, before C'a'sar started I'or
(ianl, before Frederiek started for Silesia, l)C-
i'ore .Moltke stalled for Austria and Franec,
before \\';isliin^ton started for ^'orktown, l»e-
foie any poliey, or any new line of strate<^y,
or any new enterj)rise whatever was benuii the
idea was first eoiieeived by llic iniiid; that is,
iinciiled. Shakespeare recognized this truth
wlien he exelainied, "Oh, for a muse that would
aseend the highest heaven of invention!"
The most startling interjection into warfare
of a new'ly invented thing was the Ericsson
Mouitor. Com])aratively 'icw of the people
living now remember the tumultuous joy that
ran through the Northern States, when the
news was flashed that the Monitor had defeated
the Mcrrimac near Hampton Roads, March 9,
18(>2; and even those of us who are old enough
to remember that fact fail to realize what a tre-
mendous menace the ironclad Mcrrimac was.
Leaving the Xorfolk na\ y yard on Saturday
morning, March 8, she soon rammed and sank
the U. S. S. Ciim})crlaii(], which carried more
men and guns than she: and, a very few hours
afterwards, destroyed the U. S. S. Cougrcxft,
also carrying more men and guns than she.
Had the Mcrriinnc continued her career as suc-
cessfully as she began it, she would have
destroyed the navy of the Xorthern States, and
brought about the success of the Confederacy.
In other words, the MOXITOK savkd thk
UXrrKD STATl-.S.
The reason why the Mcrrimac and Motiitar
were so successful was l)ecause each brought
mto battle a weapon which the other side did
not know how to defend itself against.
That the tori)ed()plane will hecome an im-
[xti'tant factor in lunal warfare in the near fu-
ture, many ])cople have no doubt. It is a
scheme whereby the regular Whitehead auto
torpedo may be launched from an aero})lane as
efTectivelv as it is launched from a destrover.
As Mill may know, a destroyer ^oes toward
her ciuiiiy at a speed vvbieli can rarely be u-s
high as thirty knots an hour, and luunehcs a
torpedo from her <!eck into the water; and by
that iict of l.iiiiu'hiug throws l)ack a lever on the
torpedo, called the starting lever, wliicli causes
the jtropelling mechanism of the torpedo to go
ahead full speed. 'I'he torpedo, therefore, after
reaching the water, goes along in the direc-
tion in which it is pointed; and, if it is pointed
correctly, it hits its target ship below the water
line, and usually sinks or disables her.
The scheme which I submit for your consid-
eration .iiid is herewith illustrated needs
little ex])lauation. The aviator apprf)aches his
Tor)K-(lo iiKiiinted on smnll scnuf M.-n|iliinc of triplanc tj-pe.
PuIIinp the Icvor rek-nscs the torpedo which is securely held
under the seaplane.
target from a great distance and high up in the
air; and when. say. six or seven miles away, he
volplanes toward the water, runs above the sur-
face of the water a short distance, heading tow-
ard his target, and when ready simply pulls a
lever. The action of jiulling the lever releases
the torpedo which is rigidly held under the aero-
plane, and at the same time throws back the
starting lever, with the result that the torpedo
falls in the water in exactly the same way as if
it had been dropped from a destroyer, instead
of an aeroj)lane.
I have seen it stated in print several times
that Captain Alessandro Guidoni, of the Italian
Xav\-, trie<l out the scheme two or tliree vears
18
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
1 I
Model D-1, '300 liorse power twin-motored Gallaiidet seaplane, built lor the I'nited States Xavv,
ton of explosives or a large gun.
which can carry nearly half a
ago, and hit tlie target nine times out of ten at
a distance of 3000 yards. Not having an aero-
plane large enough to carry a heavy, long-dis-
tance torpedo he used a light short-distance
torpedo suitable for the size of the aero-
plane.
I received private information from Europe
about a year ago that a lieutenant in tlie British
Navy made four flights over the land into the
Sea of INIarmora in an aeroi)lane under M-hicli a
Whitehead torjjedo was secured, and sank four
Turkish vessels, using 1-1-inch torjjedoes, weigh-
ing 731 pounds each. For this service, he was
given the Distingiiished Service Order. A
short time ago, T got a verification of this news
from a wholly different source, and I also re-
ceived further information, which is of absolute
reliability, that one of the belligerent countries
is taking means to use tliis plan on a large
scale.
I have talked about the scheme to many
naval officers and many aviators. The naval
officers agi'ee with me that it would be very dif-
ficult indeed for the guns of a shiji to hit a tor-
])C(If)planc, i'or the reason tliat accm-ate firing
of guns from a rolling ship at an aeroplane, es-
pecially if that aeroplane is neither ovei'licul or
on the surface of the water, is almost impos-
sible. Tt is a much more difricult matter than
firing at aeroplanes overhead from a stationary
platform on land.
The greatest difficulty in firing from a roll-
ing ship at anything near the surface of the
water, is to find the range at which to fire; and
a rapidly approaching, ill-defined aeroplane
makes finding and correcting the range almost
impossible. The sudden changes in the height
of a torpedoplane as she would swoop down
would increase the difficulty tremendously.
Besides, in a contest between a torpedoplane
and a ship, in which the torpedojilane seeks to
strike the ship below the water, the ship, if she
is struck there, is disabled, if not destroyed;
while the torpedoplane can be shot full of holes
without much damage, unless hit in a vital
place.
The aviators tell me that they see no prac-
tical difficulties Avhatever in doing their part of
the work.
For an attack on battleships such as might
approach our coast, the large size torpedo,
wcigliing over a ton, would be best; and this
can be fired successfully from a distance of six
sea miles or more. For carrying tor])edoes like
this, we now have in this country a number of
ncroplaiits large enough for tlu' task; and this,
I think, gives the most I'cady and practical
means of (IcCensc that we can ])rovi(lc at present.
'nil-: I niM'llx ti'i .\ \ I', WI) y\< I'nssii;ii I I I l-.s l'.»
l{iit li.illlisliips iiii Fiol llic (iiily ships lliiit .\a\y comliiiufl. \N'c an- fur litliind, liiit we carj
would \>v scut iipiiiisl us; llic li.ill Icsliips xviuiM <.il( h np if we try, uml our iiulional stfurity
l)c ;i(rurupiuiif(l l»y a vast anay ol' dllur \is- luulil Im- liroujilif up to (|uitc a li<i|)<'ful cnnditifHi
scis, wliicli air very iiiiporlaul, such as destroy- hy cstahhsliiii^ say tilty t(»rpcdophiucs at each
CIS. colhcis. auiuMuiition ships, sccmiI cruisers, of the ten iuiportatit naval districts, and on
•uiil transporls. These vessels arc lightly liuilt aeroplane mother ships, which would ^o with
ami have tliin sides, so that li;4ht torpeiloes the lli-ct. .Such an act would ^ive us a i|uickly
would lie Ihoinii^hly enVelivc 'lliis would lie inadc- and inexpensive weapon for defense,
especially ilic case for .itt.ick on dcslroycrs. he- I ha\c litlkcd ahout this to many naval of-
cause their ^Min fire is not accurate. 'I'or- fic< is anri aviators. 'I'liey all say that it is a
pcdoplancs coidd, flierel'orc, with cnnipanitivc j^'ood scheme, and point out that torpedo-
safety a|)proach them, and discharge Ihcir tor- planes on <ither si<le durinj,' the .Jutland sea hat-
pedoes from a distance of a fiw hundred yards, tie would h;ivc j^iven tremendous advanta^
In our present st.att' of imprt parcchuss, it over the other side. Many also say that our
would he a ^^rcal lliiii;^- if ut' could hrinj.i ""• navy sliouhl adopt this drviee arnl immediately
somcthiii",'' as revolutionary .iml etVective as the juit it into service. Hope that it may l)c de-
Moiiilor and th.it could !«■ ;;«it ready in the \<|opcd In America as well as ahroad is (riven
limited time- that may he <,M-anted us. Wc can- hy the action of the Aero C'luh of .\m<rica and
not ho|)e to catch up to any of the Icadinjr I><>«- the National Aerial Coast I'atrol Commission
ers in ship or sulimarinc-huildini;-. as their out- which an- making,' plans for develojiin^' the tor-
put is enormous comparc<l to ours and their ex- pedoplane in a jiractical way. As these patri-
|)crienee iT'i'iiter. They have outdistanced us otic or;j;ani/.ations always carry out everything
in naval pitparcdness. esjiecially in tlir air. toi- they undertake. I feel eonlident that we will
sonic of llicm have as maii\- as 10.(100 ,i\ iators. li.ixc toi |K(l(i])l;uies for the defense of our
while uc lia\c not vet 200 in the .\riiiv and loasts in the near future.
Since writinu the ahove article, the details of (;ciiiian jx.rtsr Heeause the German Ilifjli
the sinkinir of the British steamer (icim. hy a St a Fleet can issue and destroy any small shijis
torpcdopl.nie. have heen ofHcially announci d cnu;itrcd in i)|ockin<f the exits to their ports.
l)oth l)y till' I'-nylish and (German yovcrinncnts. They can do this, heeause our massed fleet can-
A dispatch from London datid May '2. states not cover oin- li^dit craft. ... If the massed
that the admiralty announces that the British ((iernian) fleet is destroyed, the action of the
steamer (iiiia. 'JTHJ- tons was sunk on May 1st suhmarine is weakened, since its exit is inipe<led
hy a torpedo diseharjred from a (ierman sea- hy the small surface craft and submarines of
plane olV Aldchurir ( Suffolk. KnukuKn. All the victor, which are then free to press in to fum
h.Huds were saved. Another seaplane con- ri\u<xc in the enemy's waters, with mines, nets
ecrned in the attack was hrou,<flit down hy the and every new device."
■lunfire from the iwi'int and its crew niade pris- This seems to mean that, if the Gennan Iliirh
oners. An oflicial :u\nou!icement from Berlin Sea Fleet couM he ke])t away or destroyed,
(via I.ondouK dated May •_*. says: "A few British small craft eoidd prevent German sulv
seaplanes attacked on Tuesday morninLr enemy marines from eominu out. To keep ofT or de-
merchant ships hcfori- the Thames anil sank a stroy the German Iliph Sea Fleet, near the
steamer of ahout :{0()0 tons. Oiie of our ma- Ckrman coast, some device that cannot Ik- sunk
chines failed to rt turn and is sn]i])oscd to have hy mine or torpedo, but that can deliver a de-
I'ccn lost. " structive lilow is aj)i)arently re<|uired. The
Iji a letter to the I>ondon •Times" of May torpedoplane. used in large numl»ers. is most
It. liUT. .Vdmiral Sir Bcuinald Custance says, respectfully suggested.
"Whv can wc not intereei)t thi' snlmiarines off
Twin-motor hydroaemplane cuii!,triRk-d by the Lnited States Navy, equipped witli two Cuitiss lUD liorse-power motors.
CHAPTER IV
ATTACKING SHIPS WITH AIRCRAFT GUNS
By Rear- Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, U. S. X.
[During the first eighteen montlis of the Great War tliere were several reports of ships being under fire
from guns mounted on dirigibles. Tlie details of these attacks, however, were never made public. In the early
summer of 1916, when aerojilanes equipped with machine guns were put in use generally to perform the
functions of infantry in flj'ing low and attacking troops, there came a more general employment of guns
for attacking ships. The guns were of small caliber. Since then several guns as high as three-inches in
caliber have been developed, and large aerojilanes capable of carrying from 1500 to .5000 pounds of useful
load liave been constructed and successfully tested. Therefore the development to be expected in the near
future is the equipping of large aeroplanes with large caliber guns.
A seaplane equipped with a three-inch gun is the most powerful and economic factor in sight for
submarine hunting. Flying at a speed of from seventy to eighty miles per hour, an air cruiser represents an
extraordinary combination of power and mobility. Rear-Admiral Bradley A. Fiske in a report made to the
Aero Club of America in JMarcli, 1917, brought out very strikingly the fact that one hundred battleplanes
carrying tjiree-inch guns would afford defensive })ower equivalent to 60,000 rifles. Admiral Fiske's report reads
in part as follows :]
A BciiDisI Iwiii-iriotored seaplane, equipped with J Hi)l)ri-|.s 100 liurse-])o\ver iiuitor.s.
20
.\ir.\( Ki.\(. siiii's wnn aiiu i? ait (.1 \.s 21
Quickest Way to Prepare Defense of United My life in llir- n.ivy lnoiij^lif me into ititiniutc
States Ayainst Invasion Is to Develop ciiiitact with all tin- advances in naval construe-
Large and Powerful Battleplanes lion froni flic lilfli- Sitrtilor/a in uliidi J made
my lirst cniisc as cadet niidsliipnian to the
III view (if I lie backward slafc ol' our f|i'- siipcidrcadiKHi^ht Floruln, which was my hint
I'ciiscs, especially nn IIm I.iimI, I wmild like In (!ay:slii|». The military value of concentration
sii^^cst the advisaiiililv ul' eoiisidcriiiij^ wlieljier was, uf coin'se. impressed unceasingly upon
il is not possible to devise some means that is me. and with it a rcali/ation of the fact that the
liiiwerl'iil and easily ^-otlcii, in order to supple- main aim of stratc|^y anri tactics is to hrin^ a
iiK III oiir |)rcscnt means: somelliiii;r that <'aii do i>ri;ponderatin^ force to bear on a jfiven point
Inr (iiir army and navy service in a measure what before the enemy can prevent it. To do this,
llie Moiiilor did in 1S(»'J. It was the Mniiilor we need concentration of power in as few
I hat cast the deeidiiin- vote in oiu' Civil War. units as possible, and ability to move those
As the submarine threatens to cast the dc- units as rapidly and certainly as possible.
cidiiiy vote in Hie prcseiil war, :iii(l as the Mniii- I'ow r.ii, .moiui rrv anu control awk THK I'KI.MK
/((/• h.is been expanded into the dreadnought, it A(;i:xcir.s ok tiik .mimtakv aht.
may be prolitabic to ask what is the inherent \ow, at the present time the unit in all
e.iiisc of till- clhcacy of those weapons, armies is the soldier and his musket. We .seem
Clearly it is llie same cause as makes any tied down to that slow and feeble little unit.
weapon ellicacious: that is, concentration of Hut are we really? The navy seemed tied
^rcat power in a small space, combIne<l with down to the little sailing; frigate; so much so
^rcat mobility and assured control. The com- that even after the Moiiitfir'x achievements in
bination permits of the ai»i)lication of yrcat our Civil \\'ar, we rcturne<l to the sailing
force on a j.;iven s|)ot at a given time. fri*fatc. The comjietition f)f nations, however.
In I'.tn. I published an article called "Xaval forced us to take up larger units. an<l now we
I'ower,"' in the I'liilid Stdfcs \<n'(il Institiifc, have the Poiu.siflifniia.
in which I pointed out this fact, and suyyestcd Is there no way in which this ^reat inventive
what a battleship on land could accomplish, if and constructive nation can ^et some more
sueli a Ihiny eould be constructed. The powerful and mobile unit than the soldier and
I'lipiihir Science Mmitlili/ republished this su^- his rifle' Can we not ^ct more defensive use-
gcstion in XovemlHr, I'.U.H, and a few months fulness out of the ifitclliirent cr)lle<rian. tech-
later the so-called Hritish tanks appeared, nician, or chauffeur than by marchintr hini in a
which are small land battliships. re;j:iment with a little nuisket in his hand? Is
Now the unevenness of the <ifround is a ^reat there no device by means of which lar^e units
obstacle in the way of makin<>- land battleshijis of ])ower can be carried which is not subject to
very larirc and fast, an<l seems to pnvent the limitations of speed and size that restrict a
armies from using- units as jxtwerful and swift land Ijattleship to small dimensions.'
as navies use. This is unfortunate for two rca- Yes, and th.-it device is now bcinjf used in
sons. ( )ne reason is that the length of our Kurope. after hr.ving been designed and manu-
boun<lariis on the ocean and on our Xorthern faetured in the T'nited States. It is called the
and S(»utlicrn frontiers is so great, and the battleplane. .Such a device recently carried
average distance to the boundary from places twenty-seven passengers, and another, an air
within the country is so great, that it would be cruiser, carried :j.jOO pounds of crew and equip-
highly advantageous for us to he able to move ment. Some of the largest battleplanes are
powerful units at great speed: another reason being cotistructcd in the T'nited .States, and one
is. the natural inventiveness of our peo|)le would of the aeroplane manufacturers states that he
enable them to produce very jiowerful land bat- can easily build a battleplane capable of carry-
tleships. if till' dillieultiis were not absolutely ing and launching a full-size torpedo weighing
insuperable as they seem to bo. 'i.jOO pounds.
oo
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
If battleplanes have a field of usefulness in
Europe, where the distances are very small and
where the organization, training, and strategical
employment of large armies has reached a high
state of development, do they not ha^e a much
wider field in the United States, where the dis-
tances are relatively enormous, and where the
organization, training, and strategical employ-
ment of large armies are arts almost unknown ?
Is it not possible that an immediate and
strenuous development of battleplanes might
save us from invasion, or might enable us to
help the Allies effectively, as the Monitor saved
us from the Merrimac?
In case our fleet is defeated in the Atlantic
during the next year, we shall not liave an army
tliat could stand up against any European
army that might land on our shores. But if
we had a division of, say one hundred battle-
planes near New York, costing about three
million dollars, we could certainly prevent the
disembarkation, transit in boats to the shore,
and landing, of any force of soldiers, especially
if tlie battleplanes were assisted by, say, two
hundred small aeroplanes, dropping bombs.
Similar divisions at other points, including one
at the Panama Canal, could perform similar
services, and the great speed of the air craft
would enable each division to guard a long ex-
tent of coast. A division of one hundred bat-
tleplanes could go from Xew York to the Capes
of the Chesapeake in three or four hours.
ATI .\( K l.\(. Sll ll'.s W 1 1 II .\il(( l(.\) I (,l .N.-,
29
Tw In-liiiitiirrd srii|ilani' ri)nslriifliil hy Niw ^ nrli \i rn I >Pll^l^ll^t|M|l i
Tlic size and |Hi\\ir of tlic ai ruplaiic lias al-
ready <xniw far licynnd tlic limits set I'or its
possihir drvflopiiKiit hy cirtaiii iii!4iiKt.rs only
Ihri'c \(.ars a^n). 'I'lu' practical dillicultics of
making il lar^ir still arc (jiiitc apparent; yit.
nevertheless, no thcorctiial limits to its si'/e and
po\\( r have yet heeii accepted hy aeronauts.
'I'hal the aeroplane is now the hest single
uiapon against the suhmarine, is conceded:
that it will ra|)idly advance in si/.i- and jxiwer,
is the mature helicf of many aeronauts.
Should wc not thererore immediately investi-
gate its capahilities, not oidy as a scout and ac-
cessory, hut as a major instnmient of warfare:
not only for carryinn' small yuns, hut l;uiis of
as ^reat ealihir as say .'J-inch.' I'hc enertry
Till- Curtiss .MimI. I 11-lJ Ilyinp Bont,
I'oiistrurtcilfiirtlu- l"niti-<l .Shitrs Niivy,
liiis a winif spim of ncnrly !i:l fcrf, nnci
II nipiirity for ciirryinji n
useful load of lojf! poiinils.
Thr Imat is c.xpcrfod t» at-
tain a s|MTd of
ciplity-fivr miles
all hour.
of KM) .'{-inch |)rojectiles is <(|ual to tliat of
• io.ood musket hullets. even near the niii/zic;
and is LCriater at lon;r ranges.
I do not sn^;;est the aholition of the soldier
and his musket: hut neither do I sii^^est the
aholition of the hoat pulled hy the oars of row-
( rs. I merely suj^^est that, as the hoat pulled
hy rowers was superseded for larj,'e operations
hy the sailin^r ship, anil as the sailing ship was
superseded hy the more niohile steamer with
liroadside <xuns. and as this type of warship was
suj)ersede(l hy the turret ships, and as the tur-
ret ship has hecn expandcrl into a supenlread-
noiijrht. so the soldier and his musket may he
sujierseded for important operations hy the im-
nuasiu'ahly more powerful and mobile battle-
plane.
If so. the more (juiekly we act. the K. Hi r.
"Ilindeidjurg never sleeps."
:.v.«*T»'*ifc;,
Tin; Ark liuyal, tlie British aeroplane ship which operated with the Allies' tleets in the Great War.
CHAPTER V
AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS
The naval air service is divided into tliree
distinct, separate branches, whose functions are
quite different, and which may be designated as:
(1) The Offensive Air Service, which consists
of the squadrons of seaplanes, stationed on sea-
plane carriers and aeronautic bases, which are
used for air raids, independent of the fleet ; also
of dirigibles, which operate from bases; (2)
The Aiuviliary Air Service of the fleet, includ-
ing seaplanes and kite balloons, which operate
with the fleet, using ships as bases; and (3)
The Aerial Coast Patrol, which operates from
naval stations and naval bases. Aircraft
mother ships are, therefore, important.
'V\\c report of the Jutland battle established
two facts : ( 1 ) That the German fleet planned
its move on information obtained fi'om Zep-
pelins as to the whereabouts and composition
and disposition of the British naval forces; (2)
that the British forces were greatly assisted in
their action by a seaplane sent up from the sea-
plane carrier, the T^nf/adine.
Admiral Sir David Bcatty's report, dated
June 19, 1916, to Admiral Sir Jolin Jellicoe,
G.C.B., G.C.V.O., Commander in Chief of llic
Grand Fleet, reporting the action in the North
Sea on May 31, lOlC, says:
"From a report from 'Galatea' at 2:25 i\ m.,
24
it Avas evident that the enemy force was con-
siderable, and not merely an isolated unit of
light cruisers, so at 2:45 p. m., I ordered Enga-
dine (Lieut-Commr. C. G. Robinson) to send
up a seaplane and scout to N.N.E. This order
was carried out very quickly, and by 3 :08 p. M.
a seaplane, with Flight Lieutenant F. J. Rut-
land, R. ]Sr., as pilot, and Assistant Paymaster
G. S. Trewin, N. N., as observer, was well under
Avay; her first reports of the enemy were re-
ceived by the Engadine about 3 :30 p. m.
Owing to clouds it was necessary to fly low, and
in order to identify four enemy light cruisers
the seaplane had to fly at a height of 900 feet
within 3000 yards of them, the light cruisers
opening fire on her with every gun that A^ould
bear. This in no way interfered with the clar-
ity of their re])orts, and both Flight Lieutenant
Rutland and ^Vssistant Paymaster TreA\in are
to be congratulated on their achievement, which
indicates that seaplanes luider such circum-
stances are of distinct value.
"The work of Engadine appears to have been
most praiseworthy tlu'oughout. and of great
value. Ijieut.-Cominr. ('. (J. ]^)hinson de-
serves great credit foi- the skilful and seaman-
like manner in wln'cli he handled his ship. He
actually towed If^urrior for seventy-li\e miles
Aii!( i: \ I r \n » i ii i
UN'S
25
A r.riti.li >lii)rt
l)ctwet'n H: K) \\ m. M.iv .'I I , .hhI 7 : 1"'
A. iM. .Iiiiic I. :iii(l \sas iiistriiiiDiiliil
in sjiviii^' till' li\ivs ol' her sliip's cuin-
|);iiiy. "
The si;i|i|,iiic iisid mi llii Hiilisli
side in I In- .liilhml li.-ittic \\;is a
"Slidrt" siaplnnc, t(iMi|)|)t(l willi a
■J'J.) Ii(irst-|)(>\\t'r SunlicMM motor.
Tlif niacliiiic was |inl ovcrMoartl
and lakin liacU on lioard tin- sli!|)
liy means ol' a erane. wliicli is the
mdy method so far employed in I*'ii-
iii|Maii navies.
In view of llie impoitaiiee of this
iia\al <nLra<4ement. and the part
|)layi'd in it hy thi- seai)lane. it is
well to point out the two main les-
sons learned through this en<;anement: (1)
lliat it is al)sohiteIy necessary to have seaplane
eaniers with the Hcet; (2) that the seajjlane
eanieis most i)e ea|)ahle of mana'uverin^' with
the lleet, keepin;^- n|) u ith it in speed.
The reports of Viee-Admiral Ke^finald H. S.
l^ieon. K.C.H.. (".\'.().. D.S.O., eommandin.L?
tlie Dover I'atrol, rcjiortinj^' operations off the
Helti'ian eoast hetween ^\n<^usi 22 and Xf)vem-
her lit. liU.>, .says: "Throuyhont these opera-
tions attacks have heen made on oin- ves.sels by
the enemy's airerai't. I)nt lattiily the vi;j,ilanee
of our Dunkirk Aerodrome, under ^VinL>■ Com-
mander A. M. lion^iniore, has considerably cur-
tailed their activity. "
Under the hea(hn<>' of "^Verial Attacks on
Sliips,"" there will lie found elsewhere in this
hook reports of aerial attacks on shi])s. which
o'ive further facts regard iny: the important work
done by aircraft carried on mother-ships.
The s(|ua(b"on which ojierated in tlic Kastern
Mediterranean, between the time of the landing
on the tiallipoli Peninsula in .Vpril. I'.U.j. and
the evacuation in December, ini5-.Tanuary,
T.>l(i. had several .seaplane mother-ships, and
many kite-balloon shij)s. General Sir Charles
Munro, in his report respectinn' the ojierations
of the Mediterranean Kx]ieditionary Forces,
includes amonij the eominendations for services
in action the oflicers and men of the Royal
Xaval .\ir Service.
Another amazing report of the activities of
soaplanL- carrier.
the seaplanes connected with the IJritish Ex-
peditionary Forces is ft»und in the Turkish re-
port of May I-. IMKi. in which it is stated in con-
nection with the surrender of the Hritish force
at Kut. as follows: "They (the British)
liist threw down sacks of Hour from aeroplanes,
Iiut Turkish forces j)ut an end to this. shcK)ting
down one after another of these old British
machines." This was contimied later in the
year by a report from the general officer com-
manding in Mesopotamia, and is worthy of note
that between April 11 and 20. lOlG, aeroj)lanes
an<l .seai)lanes dropped 18.800 pounds of for»d
into Kut. The amazing part of the feat is timt
the seaplanes, which are water craft, flew over
the desert carrying the food in large quanti-
ties.
The report of General .Sir John Maxwell,
commanding otlicer in Kgj-pt, recorde«l that the
seaplane carrier Anne was torpedoed off
Smyrna early in the year, during an amiistice.
])resumably by u German submarine officer
who was ignorant of the armistice with the
Turks.
C. C. Witmer. the American aviator who
trained Russian nav.d aviators in the beginning
of the war telK <>'' tll'- T?n>.vl;in si itil-m.- •■•irri. rs
as follows:
Wicn flic need of aerial protection far from the
coast l>ecnme evident, the Ru$^sian authoriHes took
the two fast steamers Iniilt for the trade between
Odessa and Egypt, f^** -! •' "•»<• '.'^e decks fore
26
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
and aft for launching and receiving aeroplanes, and
sent the two ships with seven aeroplanes each, to
afford the aerial protection needed. These steamers
were capable of a speed of twenty knots an hour and
seven aeroplanes could be snugly accommodated on
each. The machines were launched by lowering them
to the water with cranes, and taken aboard the same
way. After a little practice, this can be done ver}-
quicklv. I saw seven aeroplanes launched and in
flight fourteen minutes after the order was given.
On one occasion, when the Russian Feet bombarded
the Bosphorus, six aeroplanes, each equipped with
two forty-pound bombs, were launched within fifteen
minutes from one of the aeroplane ships. Forty min-
utes later they commenced to retui'n to the ship for
more bombs. They landed on the lee side of the ship,
took their loads — a bomb on each side of the machine,
connected to the releasing device, and soared aloft.
An official report dated January 11, 1917,
stated that tlie British seaplane carrier Bcn-Ma-
Chree was smik by gunfire in the Kastelorizo
Harbor (Asia INIinor). The Ben-Ma-Chree
was a 2550 ton ship, formerly used as a pleasure
steamer between Liverjjool and the Isle of ]Man.
She was built in 1908 by \"ickers, at Barrow,
vas a triple-scrcAv steamer, with a speed of
twenty-five knots, having accommodations for
about 2000 passengers and crew. Kastelorizo
is an island to the east of Rhodes, off the Asia
JNIinor coast. Early in 191G a French detach-
ment landed in the island in connection with
some Allied oiserations against Adalia, and it
has been used ca er since as a naval base for the
Allied squadrons.
Another seaplane carrier, the Hermes was
sunk by a U-boat in the early part of the war,
off the English coast.
Tlie accompanying illustration shows the Arh
Royal, M-hich operated with the Allied sea fleets
at the Dardanelles with two seaplanes on the
deck. The nature of its work was described in
the following report:
The bombardment of the Dardanelles has been
greatly assisted by the cooperation of seaplanes which
were sent thither on the British Navy's new hangar
shi]), the Ark lioiiah
Numerous reconnaissances were carried out over the
Turkish fortifications in order to locate concealed
batteries. This work proved to be rather dangerous
as the seaplanes had to fl_y very low so as to get the
exact location of the enemy's guns and the Ottomans
trained a murderous fire upon the British airmen.
One sea])lane, whose pilot was Lieut. Garnett and
whose observer was Lieutenant-Commander William-
L ..S..S, Si utile, an unii(;rcd cruisL-r, lui.s liccn liUrd u Hli a niiiway uii lirr (|U;n'U ril<-i'k tor laii(liri|: s( apian. 's, lliiri- ul u hull arc
shown in this picture. The Snritllii was fornit-rly the Wanhinytun, but her nunic wus chungi'd last December, as one of the new
battlcshi]>s is to l)e named for tlie State.
.\I1{( l{ All M< ) I II lU ->ll I i's
•27
r
1,1^
1 ..~..'-i. Itirminiiliiim, Nii\riiilnT II, l'J!l>, ill a I'urtUk biplane.
tn
son, iiccmni.- iiiistnlilc on Marcli t iiiiii liivi'd niiM- i
into Hif M'a. Holli "dicers wcri' injured.
I.ii'iit. Diint^jjis, rccoimoitcriiiLj iit clusi- (|iiiirtors ii)
...ii 1 1.1 1...1 _...i 1.. _.,
i.ii'iii. i/iMinijis, ri'iiimiiiiicrinij in iiiiM- i|ii»iil'i.s hi
allot licr M'.'i|ilaiH', was wotiiulcil, liiif iiianairi'd to re-
turn •.afclv. Sunplaiii' No. 1752, coniinaiidcd hv l''lij;lit
l.iciit. Hroinat, with Lieut. Hrowii us observer, was Ir'
I »eiit v-eii;lit limes. Seaplane No. 7, I'MifjIlt Lieu
hit
t.
Kei-shiiw and ritt\ Otiicir .Mcrcliant lieiii>j the crew,
«as hit eiffjit times in locating concealed positions.
'I'lie Ark' liitjidl coiivov to the aeroplanes and sea-
planes, is equipped with everv appliance for necessary
,■......:..., ...,.) r..,. ..,..:..t.,....r...» .^f n... .............no ..{.■..••..n
I *■■' — -'i"'i-i-> ^•^._, ..,., ^^ —
repairs and for niainteiiancc of the nuinerons aircr
she III riles.
aft
Tlu'iT ;ire also shown licrcwitli views of
till' I'. .S. annonnl cniisiT Xartli Ctirnliiin.
uliicli ii.is Ikcii a scaplanr carrit-r since .Tune.
I'.tl."). ulieii it took the jilaee of the I '. .S. S.
l//.v.v/.v,v//)y)/. whieli was the s(a|)]aiie earrier of
the I'niti'd States \;i\y until it w,is sold to
(ireeee in r.>L").
Dnrinii: the overhauhiiLT "' the Xaiili Ciirn-
liiKi. at the elosf of I'.tl r>. tlic I'. S. armored
eruiser Sintflt' heeanie a seaphiiie earrier. Tlie
S'orth Carolitiii 1 L")()() tons. 'ilLOOt) horsc-powir.
twin seri'ws. eiinipped with '_*() lixius is of the re-
serve force Atlantic I'leet : the Scnttlc U..")0(t
tons, tiM. ()()() horse-power, twin screws. t'(|nippeil
with 20 ornns, is also an armored cruiser.
American Aviators First to Fly from and
Alight on Deck of Ship
.\iiu ricau ;iviator.s were the first to alight on
and lly from the deck of a ship. On XovenilK-r
11, I'.tH). I'-uuciic Kly flew from the deck of the
I'. .S. .S. Uirmiiu/liam , and on January 18, 1911,
lieu and landed on the deck of the T'. S. S.
Pi'inisi/lvauia. at San Francisco, also making
the return Hi<rht from the ship. These flif^hts
were made with C'urtiss aeroplanes eipiipped
with wlieels.
On January -Ji:. I'.M 1. Mr. Glenn II. Cnrtiss
made the first successfid fli^dit ever made with a
liydroairoplane. starting from the water and
ali;fhtini,r on the water without accident. Henri
Fahre had succeeded in rising from the water
(•n M;ireh 'iS. I'.no. near Martipues. France.
and in eoverini; a distance of alniiit 1000 feet
at a heifjht of ahont six feet, hut met with a mis-
hap in landing;. On May 17. l'.»10, he made a
hetter fii^rht, alwnit one mile, at a hei^it of thirtj-
feet, hut on landiiiif, the machine was a/jain
wrecked. Mr. Curtiss on Fehruary 17. 1011,
at .Snn Dieo^o, flew alonir^ide of the I'. S. S.
Pi'tnttiihatiia. and his hydroaeroplane was
hoisted on hoard hy the ship's crane. After the
reception aec<irded to him. the hydroaeroplane
28
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
was again di'opped overboard by the crane, and
was flown from there back to the shore.
On November 24, 1911, Lieut. John Rodgers,
United States Na^y, flew a Burgess- Wright
hydi'oaeroplane at Newport, Rhode Island,
rising to a height of 400 feet, circled the U. S.
S. Missouri, then landed in the lee of the U. S.
S. Ohio, and was lifted on board by a crane.
The first exjseriment in starting from the
deck of the shij) outside of the United States
took place on January 10, 1912, when Lieut.
C. R. Lawson of the British Army Aviation
Section started from H. M. S. Africa, anchored
in Sheerness Harbor, in a "Short" biplane,
equijjped with wheels and skids. The machine
was hoisted on board by a crane, and the start
Avas made from a platform constructed on the
fore part of the ship. On ]May 8, 1912, when
British naval aviators took part in the naval
review at Weymouth, England, Commander
Charles Rumney Samson made a flight from
the platform built on the deck of the battleship
Hihernia with a Henri Farman biplane,
equipped with pontoons and wheels, as the
ship Avas steaming uj) to Portsmouth.
The French were first to set aside a ship to
be used as a seaplane carrier, in 1912. This
hangar ship. La Foiidre, was used for many
experiments, employing difi'erent types of ma-
chines, including a "Voisin Canard" operated
by Captain Cayla, a Nieuport, operated bj^ En-
sign Delage; and a Curtiss hydroaeroplane,
operated l)y Frank Barra. These experiments
took place at St. Rajjhael.
Since then all the first- and second-class
European nations have adopted seaplane car-
riers and kite-balloon carriers.
Seaplane Carriers vs. Having Seaplanes on
Board of Cruisers
At the time of the early experiments in
launching aeroplanes from shii)s in the United
States and Great Britain, the world's naval
authorities were divided into two camps, one
holding that it would be better to make the ship
self-sufficient by providing space for launching
and landing seaplanes on battleships, with avia-
tors on each ship: the other that it would be bet-
ter to have regular seaplane carriers, which would
supply the entire scjuadron with an air service.
The results to date would show that the
American authorities were more far-sighted.
The final decision will depend entirely on the
results of a test of the American system in ac-
tual naval operations.
It would be illogical to expect a cruiser in
action to slow down in order to hoist an aero-
plane overboard. It might prove very danger-
ous to it; but it seems quite possible that
the cruiser could launch a seaplane by means
of a device, without slowing down, such as the
one developed by Captain W. Irving Cham-
bers, United States Navy.
There is another advantage in having each
cruiser equipped with its own seaplanes, since
it makes each cruiser independent of the sea-
plane carrier, which may be sunk by the enemy,
depriving the entire squadron of the valuable
services of aircraft.
Cajitain Chambers developed a catapult
operated by compressed air, and on November
12, 1912, for the first time, launched an aero-
l^lane from a ship in what may be considered a
scientific way. The catapult v. as described by
Captain Chambers at the time as follows:
"The catapult is so small that it occupies
little space; it can even be mounted for use on
top of a turret, it can be transported to any
location on the ship, and it can be readily dis-
mounted and stowed away clear of the guns.
"Compressed air is used for the power, as all
ships carrying torpedoes are supplied with air
compressors. When preparing the apparatus
for use, the air is pumped, to a suitable pressure
into a receiver, which is connected with a small
cylinder conveniently located on deck. The
piston of the cylinder has a stroke of about 40
inches, and the piston rod is connected with a
small wooden car by means of a wire rope pur-
chase Avhich midtiplies the travel of the piston
to any desired extent or to any limit fixed by
the travel of the car on its tracks.
"The aeroplane, of course, rests upon the
car, and, when a flight takes place, both are
projected from the tracks together in about one
and one-half seconds, the ])ressure being auto-
matically and gradually accelerated throughout
.\i i{( i{,\i 'i' Mo'i II \.\{ >ii I r>
29
llic .stroke. 'I'lic cii' (lrii|)s inlu IIk- \\;iIi t wIhh
IVfc iriiiii till' Iriu'ks, .-iikI is li,nil< i| nti liM.iid liv
11 rope altaclicd ti> il."
'I'lic device, as used ;il IIk Wasliiii^rhm Navy
N ard. \u\ cinliti- 12, llMli, was iiiniiiili i| mi a
lliial so that the Imltdiii of tin- li\ ilroaei'o|)laiie
was not more lliaii t\\(i I'l ct alioM- the \\aler.
When (hsihar^fd, the hy(hoaero|ilaiie jirrad-
iially rose in a steady, heaiitil'nl (liifht, as soon
as it l( 11 the tracks, without any tendency to
.seek the water.
Dnriny: a previous trial, al Annapolis, llie
device was inonnled ri;.5idly on .a wharl'. 'l"hc
ear and machine were hotii free to lift I'rom the
tracks dnriiiL!,' any part of thi' stroke-, and after
the aeropl.aiie motor had Ifccn started fnll sj)eed.
the full pressure of '2'Mi pounds w;is turned on
at once. On this ()ccasif)n tlie machine reared
at aliout midstroke, and, as a cross wind was
hlowiufT, the ri;;ht wini;- was thrown up ami a
c-ork-.screw dive into the water resulted. Lieut.
I'JIyson, the aviut(jr who niniui){ed the luaehiiic
on hoth occasions, am. whose iron nerves were
relied on to stand th'- shock, whs fully sutisfieil
hy this extreme teKt, that the nhtfck (»u;fht not
to deter any ^<M»d aviator. 1 1 was al.v» jff'Jtify-
iu]j; to note that no part of the machinery or
fittings was iiiT.iMn.I i.r ^li,.n.,l uny t>i|{li» of
weakness.
When tried at Washin^on Navy Yard, No-
\eml)cr I'J, the Ihmt enahled the apparatus Ut
he pointerl tow.ard the wind, which, however,
was nearly calm al the time. The ear was held
down to the traeks hy the reverse flanges and
extra wheels, and the halanced valve of the
cylinder was arr.anged to he gradually opened
to full power hy a simple we<lge-shaped cam
attached to the traveling hloek on the piston
head. The aeroplane was also held down to the
car liy an iron strap, the ends of which were
CoiiimjiiuUr r. U. .■^.iin-.Mi. I(i>\;il Hriti~li N.»\_v, ir.n ing tlu- iln k in .1 Hriiri I .iniuin I'ij'linr
30
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
The French seaplane carrier La Foudre, in 191.', with a Voisin "canard" on board.
tripped automatically at the end of the stroke
by studs on the tracks.
Several ijreliniinary tests of the device, with
sandbags to rej^resent the Aveight of tlie aero-
plane, were made before the final test of No-
A'ember 12, and curves of speed and pressure
were obtained in each case. These curves were
reassuring and demonstrated the possibility of
getting, by this method, the curve of velocity to
follow any trajectory desirable within practi-
cable limits.
Another test was made at the Washington,
D. C, Navy Yard on December 17, 1912, when
a Curtiss flying boat with Lieut. Ellyson,
United States Navy, at the wheel, was launched
from the catapult mounted on a track. This
test was even more satisfactory than the test of
November 12, 1912. and demonstrated the
thorough practicability of this launching device
for launching aeroplanes from ships. In this
case it was calculated that a speed of -iO to i'2
miles an hour was necessary to support the
machine, but after the
flight it was found that
the recording aj^pai-atus
showed that the machine
had left the track at a
speed of 3.5. G miles per
hour only. In appear-
ance the machine showed
a tendency to rise rather
than to fall. This dem-
onstrated that it Avill 1)6
possible to shoot off aero-
planes at a lower s]ieed,
or ])ossibly on a shorter
track. I)ccause the tend-
ency to remain in the
air would exist for some
time, without tlic ac-
Glenn II. Curtiss introducing the hydroaeroplane to tlie Navy, lilll.
celeratiim" influence of
All(( I{.\1 r MOI II IK villi's
81
the |)f(i[)(lli IS. owiii^ to the visavisa
ol' (lie mass wliicli Icaxcs tlic track at
ac'cc'Ici'at ii i;^' s | net I .
P. A. Siii-^-. (i. !•'. (utile, I ■. S. .\.,
ill llic aiiiiiial sanilary r(|iiirl (A'
I'.S.S. Xnilh CiiroliiKi, (lcscrilR(l llic
catapult used mi llic Xmili ('nrnliiin
as rollows:
This iip|mriilus is planned to liiirl into
space a lifavicr-than -air living inacliini'
willi tlic aviator seated at tlie wlieel, and
to hurl il from llie sliip\ deck at a speed
Mitlieieiit to allow the iiiacliine to fiv away
Ironi the ship without toiiehinij the water.
The ap})aratus is composed of a track, a coinprcsscd-
air cylinder, a car to run on the track, and a cable
connected with the piston of the air cylinder at one
end and with the car at the other end. The pilot
takes his seat, starts his motor, and when the |)ro-
peller is spinninfr at top s|)ee(l the air is allowed to
rush into its cylinder, the eahle is |nilli<l u]ion, and
the aeroplane with its pilot is pulled jdon^ the track
toward the stern of the ship in such a manner that in
till' distance of M)'.i.il!) feet it requires a velocity of
forty-five miles an hour. At the end of the track
the trip|)in^ device releases the aeroplane and hy
means of its nionientum plus the thrust of its rapidly
revolvinir jjropeller it leaves the car. the track, and
the ship, and tlies away.
I.iiiilrii.iiil {■■.Ih-.un sji.il into tin- air from tin- In.;... , ,•..;,
DccciiiImt I", 1012.
'l"he apparatii.s must liave many more trials before
it can he said to be reasonably safe for tlie pilof, and
then must be sul)jecte(l to tests at sea, with the roll-
iiiij and pitchin;^ of the ship as a factor before it can
become a reasonably useful and safe apj)Urtenance of
the flying game.
Recovering Seaplanes at Sea
Uccoverinpf .seaplanes at .sea is a iniidi iiK)re
(lilllcult j)r()I)lciii to .solve than launching the sea-
j)laiies and there is no solution at hand other
than lioistiniT the seaplane hy means of the
iiMial lioat crane.
TIic nii'-riot cjibU- •ruidinir iiiul cn^aifin); ii)>)>nriitus proiio.sj-d by Louis BIrriot in 1913. The latch automatically pr.isps the cable,
onco the latter !.•; iruidoil Into its jaws, ami releases it when the a>rel shown is ]nilU-<l. The supporting frame is held upripht by
springs, which enable it to Hy back in the event of a too forcible contact with tlic cable. Havinp caught the cable while in ttifrht,
Pegoud is shown as resting preparatory to another launch, a method proved unpractical.
Sailors assisting Ely on his Ely just about to land on the aeroplane platform of the U.S.S. Ely landinfr—showinp: plat-
departure. Pennsylvania, at San Francisco, January 18, 1911. The platform was form and sand bags on each
32x127 feet. side, with ropes to check
progress.
f^
Experiments at launcbing hydroaeroplanes conducted at Hamm()nds])ort, X. Y. by the naval aviators l.icutcnants EUysoii and
Tanners in ini2. See "I'nited States Navy Aeronautics."
32
AIK( l{,\l r Morill.K Mill's
88
. . . • J^-*'-
Curtiss llyinj; lioat hiiii
llir (Ink of the U.S. S. Xorll,
FJy's l;in(Iin<>' on tlic platroriii fri'ctid iipini
tlie (iiiarlcrdcfk of tlic V. S. S. Piiiiixi/hitiiiia
(lid not l)riii<^- a solution. Tliat could only lie
repeated in '•aim wcatiici' ami. as we kimw. war
takes place in all kinds of weather. To make
it possible for Kly to ali<i'lit on the (|uarterdeck.
^mde rails were placed alony' the plati'orni tloor,
between which the wheels should run, and across
the platform were stretched many ropes, a few
feet apart, weighted at their ends with ha^s of
sand. When Kly landed these weighted ropes
were gathered uj) in succession by hooks on his
machine which l)i'onght it to rest within a hun-
dred feet.
In 191.'} Louis l?leriot, the French inventor
and aeroplane manufacturer, conducted experi-
ments intended to show the practicability of re-
covering seaplanes at .sea. The device, consist-
ing f)f highly suspended cables to which the
aviator was to lly and hook onto by means of
an automatic clasp connected to tl)e body of the
ai loplane, was tried at I'lic I'rance. Pegoud,
the first man to lo(jp-the-loop. flew the light
IJleriot monoplane to the cable, engaged it with
the catching a])pai-atus. the latch automatically
gras])ed the cahk. and the machine came to a
standstill. Then the propeller was again
stai-ted, the latch-cord ])ulled to release the
machine, which Hew off" without nn'shap. This
nnght be rej)eated under very favfirable condi-
tions on hoard ol' ;i ship. In it it ennld not be done
under normal conditions, and it does not repre-
sent a solution to the problem of recovering .sea-
I^Ianes at sea.
Using Large steamers with high freeboard,
and turning; them broadside to the wind, afford
'Ilic flyinp boat U-aviiipr
tbo dcik of the Xoith
Carolina. The c.Tta])iilt
makes it jiossible to se-
cure a lamuhinj; s|)eccl
of close to fifty miles iin
hour in a short run of
not more tli.in fifty feet.
Thanks to the iiu'thod of
controllintf the air throt-
tle, there is no jar or
shock from the catapult-
Intr.
34
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
An early 19U' British method of taking an aeroplane to a ship which is still practical.
a veiy large area of calm Avater for landing
seaplanes, which can be made calmer by the
use of oil, which prevents breaking waves or
combers.
Solution Rests with Aircraft Capable of Ris-
ing Vertically from Deck of Ship
The solution rests with the aircraft capable of
rising vertically from the deck of the ship.
This suggests the helicopter — and brings forth
the problems of making the helicopter effi-
cient.
Recently, the writer had the pleasure of meet-
ing in Xew York the Danish inventor, Ella-
hammer, wlio made one of the earliest flights
ever made, in 1906, and to see the photogi-aph
of a remarkable aircraft invented by him which
promises to do everything that an helicopter
should do, but without the objectionable heli-
copter features. This would make it possible
for the seaplane to rise vertically from the deck
and alight in the same way on its return. Ex-
periments sliould be conducted as soon as pos-
sible along this line.
Submarines as Seaplane Carriers
The use of submarines as seaplane carriers is
a possibility. According to reports, Germany
is building submarines esjiecially for this pur-
pose. The progress in submarine construction
has been amazing, and further progress must be
anticijiated. Tlie relative dimensions of the
U-7 and the U-53, both built in 1916, show ex-
traordinary developments. The U-1 was 139
feet long, disijlacement, 240 tons; speed (sur-
face), 11 knots; speed (submerged), 9 knots;
Oni- of \\\r Uili-liallocin iii(ithcr-shi|is of the Allies.
AIUC'HAl r MO'IIIKIJ SI Ill's
35
The kite li.illodii .'ind luilloiin sliip ciriiiloyrd liy tlic Italians
in till' 'rriiiulit.iiii.i (•aiiiiiai^rn.
cniisiii<^' radius, 700 mill's; torpedo tubes, 1 for-
ward; t<)rj)ed{)C's, .'} 18-inch; only one periscojje,
and no <>uns on deck. The U-53 was 21.'} feet
3 inches long; displacement, 800 tons; speed
(surface), 18 knots; speed (submerged), 10
knots; cruising radius, 10.000 miles; torjjcdo
tubes, 2 forward and two aft; tor})edoes, 10;
three periscopes, and two guns on deck.
Some of the latest United States submarines,
now under construction, are 'i.jO feet long, of
1200 tons displacement, with a radius of 8000
miles, and a s])eed of 20 knots on the surface.
The seajilane carrier Engadine, whicli sup-
plied the seai)lane that gave such gi-eat assist-
ance to the British scjuadron during the .Tutland
battle, is of less than 1000 tons displacement.
A submarine of 1000 tons displacement has, of
course, much less room for seaplanes than a ship
of the same size. But even the U-53 could
carry several small, fast seaplanes, such as are
used for bombing raids. Larger submarines
may be built that can carry a number of sea-
planes easily. A fleet of submarine seaplane
carriers would operate vci-y mucli like tlic fleets
'I'lie aft-dcck of a Hritisli biilloon-sliip, sliowinfr the cylinders
of gas for indatin).' the balloon ranged in rows.
of seaplane carriers operated at Salonika, men-
tion of wliicli Is made in anotliei- chapter.
Kite-Balloon Carriers
The emjiloyment of kite ball'ions for nl)sciva-
tion and spotting tlie fall of shots has become
general. The old-time kites, wliich were flown
from ships — when weather permitted — have
been entirely replaced by the kite balloon,
which is steadier and easier to operate.
Kite-l)a]loon ships liave formed part of the
Allies' scjuadrons throughout the war, and hun-
dreds of kites have been used by both sides, off
the coasts as observation posts, and for guard-
ing the approaches of sliip lanes, harbors, and
naval stations.
The Allies had but few kite balloons at the
beginning of the war. Their value was recog-
nized liy the Germans for many years previous
All (ilisci-valioM lialliion ji.irtly iiiHiitfd iin lidard of a
British l);dliicin shi|). Tlu- fiire^rroiind sliows tlu- winc-li used
for windinir in the balloon after its work is finished.
A kite lialliidii 1. in_- ini; it. d on the balloon-ship, 11. M.
Ciinninij. The white "lence" protects the balloon from the
wind.
36
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
w ^ -
An observation balloon ascending from tlie "liangar" in the
balloon-ship's main deck, where the balloon is stowed, off the
coast of Flanders.
to the war, and they had many kite l^alloons in
service when the war opened. The Alhes had
but few kite balloons, and had at first to press
into service si^herical l)alloons, which were,
however, soon replaced by kite balloons.
British and French private ships were likewise
pressed into use as balloon shij^s, and stationed
outside of harbors, where the observers kept
watch for enemy ships and aircraft and helped
to locate mines and submarines.
In the accompanying illustrations views are
shown of two of the British kite-balloon ships.
One illustrates a ship with a balloon on board,
with a "fence" to protect it from side winds;
another, the balloon being inflated and the
winch used to take the balloon down; a third,
the hydrogen tubes which sup])ly the hj'drogen
to inflate the balloon. As shown herewith,
there arc two tyy)cs of l)alloon shi])s: (1 ) One
on which the kite l)alloon is inflated on the aft
deck; (2) another where the balloon is kept
and inflated in a hold in the aft deck. The lat-
ter is the better ])ecause the ])all()on can be in-
flated in the hold, wliere it is covered with can-
vas and kept in readiness, to be sent up at the
r
The observation balloon in
action. It is tethered to tlie
ship by cable. The two of-
ficers in the basket report their
observations by telephone and
other ways.
Directing the tiring of Al-
lies' shi])s that shell the
enemy's coast fortifications at
Zeebrugge.
ojijiortune moment; whereas, in the former, the
inflating can only be done under normal condi-
tions. On shijis which carry both seaplanes
and a balloon, the latter is kept in the hold of
the aft deck. Kite balloons were first placed
on board of United States ships the Nevada
and the Oklahoma in 1916. Both these
ships are of 27,500 tons displacement, twin
screw, 26,500 horse-power, equipped with 31
guns. Thej' took on board Goodyear type kite
balloons, 80 feet long, 25,000 cubic feet ca-
Observation balloon ascending from a shij) oi)erating with
the Italian fleet.
AIKCRAFT MOTHER SllirS
37
lliixv British iiml 1' ri-luli l>rnatL- i.inats ui-rc used as halludti sj)i]i-. ami ^talKirjid i)ijl-.iclc' nl harbors, ulii-rc Iln- <jt,^irviT~ K'jii
wattli for enemy slii))s and aircraft and helped hi loeatinfr mines and submarines. This shows one of the small spherical balloons
used in tlie beffinninf: of the war.
pacity. These ai'c inflated with hydrogen slow down to send up the halloon. Since Euro-
carried in cylinders containing 200 cubic feet ])ean navies do not have balloons on battleshi])S
each, hundreds of which are carried on board of it has not yet been determined whether this dis-
the ships. advantage is compensated by the promptness
There is a disadvantage in cariying balloons of service made possible by having the balloon
on board a battleship, because the ship must on board.
\
Kail and trm k ul tile L'ala]>ault on the I'.S.S. .YoiV/i (_ (1/../111.1 i.-r laiinohin!; seaplanes.
The white arrow shows exactly what the periscope of a submarine looks like to an aviator about 3500 feet up. This photopiapli
also shows the submarine mothership, the U. S. S. Columbia, second class cruiser, 73o0 tons displacement, 18,509 horse-j^ower.
CHAPTER VI
SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT
The submarine menace can be checked by
13resent-day aircraft.
In any discussion of what can be done afjainst
the submarine, it mtist first be stated whether
we mean the protection of ships at sea or on
coastwise trips. Nothing could protect the sea
lanes so well as large dirigibles, capable, as the
Zeppelins are, of cruising for 3000 miles with-
out stoj)ping.
Unfortunately, no country outside of Ger-
many has large dirigil)les for use for this pur-
pose. If we had such airships, they could be
used to patrol the ship lanes daily. Xo sub-
marine would be safe, no matter where at sea,
if large dirigil)]es were thus patrol ing, because
lai'ge dirigil)les carry gims of sufficient caliber
to sink a submarine with a single shot. T^ike-
wise, the observers from a dirigible, as in the
case of an obsei"ver fioiii an aero])lane, can see
a submarine miles away, when a man from a
ship cannot detect it, and as the airship travels
many times faster than the submarine and the
submarine cotild not easily detect the ai)])roach
of the airship, the submarine would stand no
chance.
Unfortunately, the Allies are not now in a
position to patrol these sea lanes with a large
number of airships, although there is a possi-
bility that Great Britain will put some into serv-
ice within a few months.
The submarine menace can be checked by
])rescnt-day aircraft — seaplanes, small diri-
gibles, and kite balloons. We are now building
large seaplanes which are ca]Kd)le of carrying
fuel for continuous flights of over fifteen hours
and ca])ab]e of gaining a speed of over seventy-
five miles an hour. American manufacturers
have supplied quite a number of large seaplanes
38
SlJJ{iMA]{I\K IIUXTIXC; in' AIIUIJAIT
39
oi' tliis ty2)C to J^ii^huid, and, as Mr. C". G.
Gray, the editor of the "London Aeroplane,"
has pointed ont, "If America is serionsK' pei'-
turhed about the facts of iVnierieaii .sliij)|)iii<>-
and .Aiiieriean citizens tra\-elin^" hy sea, it
should not be a dillieult matter Tor iVineriea to
rig up in a very short space of time (juite a
fleet of aerophme cairicrs suitable for handling
these big seaj)lanes."
According to the figaires of the French
Minister of ^larine the submarines sank shi])s
aggregating 2,085,380 tons in 191G, and
3,000,000 tons in the first four months of 1917.
This is far more tonnage than the I^^nited States
has, and as tonnage can l)e ])rodueed Init
slowly, every means which affords protection to
our ships must be em])loycd.
Historic
Some montlis before the beginning of tlie
Great War, the British submarine A-7 was
lost near Plymoutli, and an aeroplane Avas em-
ployed, among other means, to find it. The
aeroplane proved to l)e the most efficient means
for finding the submarine; it found it with such
promptness as to give an idea of the possibili-
ties of employing aeroplanes for submarine
hunting. But, at the time, the efficiency of the
submarine itself as a naval weapon was doubted
by many naval men, who could not believe that
a submarine could be constructed that would
Tlic snlmi;irini'"s perisi'diie and its wake, wliicli is easily
visible from an aircraft.
On sij.'litin{r the sul)inarine under water the aviator summons
the eruisers and trawlers by wireless. If the submarine comes
to the surface, and there is danper of its escaping before it
e.in l)e netted, the aviator bombs it.
have a cruising range of over a thousand miles.
Even the most far-.seeing naval experts could
hardly ap])reciate the advent of a submarine
like the U-oS, which would have a ci'uising
radius of 10,000 miles. It will be remem-
l)ered that Sir Percy Scott, the British naval
authority, created a sensation a few months
2)rior to the war when he stated that submarines
and aircraft would revolutionize naval war-
fare, and urged that (ireat Britain concentrate
its efforts on building fleets of submarines and
aircraft. lie also pointed out tliat the air-
craft would be the most jjowerful weaj)on to
be used against submarines. Admiral Sir
Percy Scott's prophecy was very generally
laughed at in naval circles the world over.
The Great War was only a fc\v months old
when the revolutionary value of both sul)-
marines and aircraft became evident. But the
submarines and aircraft available were not suf-
ficient in number to permit an\- of tlie nations
to emi)lov them for ofl'ensive purjjoses. They
were all used for defensive purj)oses within a
small radius of their respective bases. As the
iuiml)er of l)oth submarines and aircraft in-
creased, their operations extended more and
more, and as the submarine menace grew, the
nations had to meet it, and found that the air-
craft was the best weapon for hunting sub-
marines. To best understand the tremendous
task which the British Xavy had to jjerform
and how important the protection afforded by
aircraft became, one must read the report which
Sir Edward Carson, the Fii'st Lord of the Ad-
Ill rcprodiicinjr this photojira])!! tla- "Illiistniti'd London Nt-\vs" says: "This ]iliotop;r,-i]ili, from a I"'rcncli source, gives an excel-
lent view of tlie ear of one of the small naval dirigibles used for scoutinjj and observation, as it appears in flifrht. The head of the
pilot can be seen near the front of the ma<liine, with the observer sitting: behind him to the left. The whirrinfr blades of the pro-
pellor can be faintly discerned just al)ove the rij.dit wheel. The car is a slifrht modification of that of an aero|>Iane. The little
scouting air.ships were first introduced l)y our own Navy, and have been found very useful in traekintr submarines, which can be seen
when under water in clear, calm weather. A dirijrible can itself attack a submarine by dro|i|)inp bombs u)ion it. Provided as it is
■with wireless apparatus, a seoutinj; airshi]), on sifjliting a sul)iM.n-ine, .it once communicates with the palrol-l)oats." The Allies have
hundreds of such dirigibles in use.
40
SUBMARINE IIUXTIXC; BY AIBCRAl T
41
niiralty, niiulc to the lirilisli (Invomnicnt on
February 21, 1917. He reported that siiiee
the commencement of the war the Britisli Navy
(with the cooperation of its most efficient aerial
coast ])atr()l) Iiad cxainiiied 2.■3,87^ sliips. Dui"-
infif the first ci^liteen chiys of Fehi'iiary, (;07*>
sliijjs arrived in ports of tlie United Kini^dom,
and 5873 ships had cleared from United King-
dom ports. Practically every ship that arrived
and every ship that cleared Avas inspected as it
neared the ports, and convoyed by dirigibles or
seaplanes. Sir Edward Carson pointed out
that from the beginning of the war up to
October .30, 1010, the British Navy transported
across the seas 8,000,000 troops; O.-l'JO.OOO tons
of explosives and material, 47,504, 000 gallons
of gasoline, over a million of sick and wounded,
and over a million mules and horses, etc.
Little had been done by the navies of the
world to develop naval aeronautics prior to tiie
war. The German Navy had concentrated on
developing its naval Zeppelins, and both the
German and the British navies only really be-
gan to give serious consideration to naval
aeronautics in 1913. When the war started,
the British NaAy had less than 100 seaplanes,
and but very few dirigibles available for serv-
ice. France had been concentrating her efforts
in developing the army branch of the air serv-
ice, but had done very little in naval aero-
nautics, outside of the few experiments made
at San Raj^hael. That was also true of Italy.
In fact, when the war started, naval aero-
nautics was in a period of experimentation.
Until then most nav^^ people, trained to face
the crushing force of the elements, looked at
the frail aeroplane askance and asked for the
supreme test, seaworthiness, before admitting
it as a naval auxiliary. Without seaworthiness
they could not see any use for the aeroplane,
and accordingly postponed the organization of
naval aeronautics.
When it became necessary to build up a sys-
tem of protection against submarines, the war-
ring nations pressed into service thousands of
small vessels, destroyers, trawlers, and sub-
marine chasers, and as fast as they could ob-
tain them they put into service seaplanes and
dirigibles, to cooperate with the ships in locat-
ing and captui'ing ami desti-oying liostile sul)-
iiiai-jnes; and convoying shi]>s, j)i-otecting them
f II nil sultmarine attacks.
The faiiic of tlie aii'd-al'l uliicli convoyed
evei-y troop- and sui)|)ly-ship which crossed the
Channel from the l)eginning of the (ireat "War
and of those that convoyed ships on coast-wise
trips, is world-wide.
The first attack on a submarine base was re-
ported on ]March 24, 191.5. British naval avia-
tors bombed Cockeriel's Ship Vard and
wharves at Iloboken near ^Vntwerp, destroy-
ing two submarines. The British Admiralty
on that occasion issued the f(4lowing state-
ment:
Tlic following has been received trom Wing Com-
mander Longniore: "1 have to report tliat a suc-
cessful air attack was carried out thii; morning bv five
machines of the Dunkirk Squadron on the German
submarines being constructed at Hoooken, near Ant-
werp.
"Two of the pilots had to return, owing to thick
weather, but Squadron Coininanck'r l\er T. Courtney,
and Flight Lieut. H. Kosliur, reachud their objective
Photograph of a bomb (iropped by an Allies' dirigible on a
submerging German submarine.
42
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
Watching for submarines: A kite balloon anchored to a ship watching for submarines on tlie Xortli Sea. The observer in tlie
basket can spot his quarry many miles away and summon seaplanes, destroyers, and trawlers by wireless to deal with the
U-Boats.
and after planing down to 1,000 feet, di'opped four
bombs each on the submarines.
"It is believed that considerable damage has been
done to both the works and two submarines. The
works were observed to be on fire. In all, five sub-
marines were observed on the slip.
"Flight Lieut. B. Crossley-^NIeates was obliged by
engine trouble to descend in Holland. Owing to the
mist, the two pilots experienced considerable diffi-
cult}' in finding their way, and they were subjected to
a heavy gun fire while delivering their attacks."
The fir.st report of an attack on submarines
by an aircraft was issued hy tlie German At\-
miralty on ]May 4, 101.1. It stated tliat on
IMay .'} a German naval <]iri<4ihle fought several
liritisli submarines in the North Sea and
dropped bombs on them, sinkin<>' one. The
submarines, the report stated, fired on the
dirigible without success.
On ]May til, 191.), tlie German Admiialty
announced the sinking of a Russian submarine
by bombs dropped by German naval aviators
near Gotland.
On July 1, 1915, the following despatch from
Rome told of the sinking of the Austrian sub-
marine U-11 in the Adriatic by a French avia-
tor:
The Minister of jNIarine states the action took place
on Thursday. The U-11 was lying lazily on the sur-
face and apparently failed to notice the aviator as
he circled overhead. With a sudden swoop the aero-
]ilanc shot downward to within forty-five feet of tlie
submarine's deck. By ibis time it was too late for the
uiidi rscas craft to submerge. Three bombs were
(bopped, all of which struck the submarine near the
turret and cx])loded.
The submarine sank almost instantly and did not
rcapjiear, although wreckage was afterwards found
about the scene. The U-11 was one of the newest
of tlic Austrian subnii rsibles and displaced about 860
tons. She is su])posed to have had aboard a crew
of twenty-five men.
suiiMAJiixj': jiiM'Jxc, jn .\ik( k.\i "i'
43
A later report stated tliat lli!s siibiriarine was
(lestrf)ye(l by French Naval Siil)-]>ieiiteiiaiit
Koiiillct of the French scai)laiK' sfjiiaih-on,
()|)(r'alin^' in the Adriatic with tin- llahaii naval
forces.
On July 27, 1!)1"), it was reported lliat a Ger-
man suhniarine licaded for a Uritish transport
laden witli troo])s and ammunition was put to
flight by an i\Hied acrophuie in tlic l)ai'-
(huielles. The a\iators saw tlie suhniarine pre-
])arin,!4' to launch a tor])edo and i>'avc the alarm.
I'ending the ai'rival of the desli-oyer, the aei'o-
plane drop])ed hombs at the submarine. ^Vl-
t]iou<>h none of the bombs took effect, they
forced the submarine to submern('. Soon after
the })erisco|)e reappeared on the sui'lace, and
the aviator droj)[)ed two more bombs. Tlie
submarine submerged and did not reap])ear.
On August 19, 191.5, the Turkish war office
stated that an Allied submarine had been sunk
in the Dardanelles by a Turkisli aeroplane.
In an official note issued on August 2G by
the British press bureau, the following report
of the destruction of a German submarine by a
British aviator was given:
TIk' Si'crotMrv of the Admiralty announces that
Squach'oii Coinniander Artluir W. higswortli, 11. N.,
destroyed siiigle-liaiidcd, a Ciennan siil)inarine tills
morning by bonihs droj)))ed from an aeroplane. The
submarine was observed to he comj)letely wrecked and
sank ofr Osteiid.
"It is not tlie iil'actice of tlie Admiralty to j>ublisli
statements regarding the losses of German submarines,
important as tliey have licen, in cases where the enemy
had not other soui-ccs of information as to the time
and place at which these losses have occurred.
"In the case referred to above, however, the bril-
liant feat of Sf|uadron Conniiander JJigsworth was
jierfornuil in tiie iiinindiate neigliljorhood of the coast
in occu]iuti(jn of the enemy, and the position of the
sunken submarine has been located by a German de-
stroyer."
On Xoveml)er 28, 191.3, a brief oflicial re-
port stated that a French aviator had de-
stroyed a German submarine off the Belgian
coast by dropping bombs on it. This report
was confirmed througli tlie awai'ding of tlie
Victoria Cross to IJeutenant ^'iney and the
recommendation for the Legion of Honor of
Lieutenant de Sincay. The official mention of
tlie conferring of the lionors reads as follows:
For liis services on N'ovember 28, 1915, when ac-
com])anied by ie lieutenant en second de Sincaj' as ob-
server, he destroyed a German submarine off the Bel-
gian coast by bombs drojiped from an aeroplane. Le
A subTUiniiic ciiuiirinLT off the Belgian coast, detected by the observers from one of the kite baUoons anchored off the coasU to
watcli for them.
44
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Lieutenant en second Colley Saint-Paul Comte de Sin-
ca}', attached to No. 1 Wing, R. N. A. S., to be an
Honorary Companion of the Distinguished Service
Order — for his services in connection with the destruc-
tion of a German submarine by bombs dropped from
an aeroplane on November 28, 1915.
Tlie story of the sinking of the German sub-
marine is told by Lieutenants Yinej' and de
Sincay on their return to Paris from Dunkirk
a few days later as follows:
It was noon on Sunday. We had left half an hour
before on a French biplane, to look for submarines,
■which were reported near by. We rose 10,000 feet,
and had been cruising about for some time, when we
saw two submarines five miles off shore, west of Nieu-
port.
It was an ideal spot for our purpose. The sea was
shallow, giving the submarines little chance of escape.
By plunging in wide spirals, we descended on one of
the boats which, being above a sand bank, could not
dive. She made desperate efforts to get away, steer-
ing in wild zigzags.
We realized we could not get her, and so turned
our attention to the other boat. Apparently it was
more difficult to handle her, for despite all endeavors,
she failed to get out of the circle we traced as we
pounded down on her.
We came down to about 300 feet above the sea.
When we were certain of not missing, we let go the
first bomb, and had the satisfaction of seeing we liad
made a hit. Even with the naked eye we could ob-
serve that serious damage had been inflicted on the
deck of the boat.
We circled around twice more over the doomed sub-
marine. A second bomb did the rest of the work.
She broke in half and sank.
We did not wait to see more. Moments were pre-
cious. We had to get back to Dunkirk as quickly as
possible, for the submarines were sure to have given
warning and we were liable to find our retreat cut off
by the enemy's aeroplanes if we lingered.
Numerous other reports of attacks on sub-
marines and sinking of submarines were made
public in 1916, mostly successes of the Allied
aviators. A detailed report of how an Aus-
trian seaplane sank the French submarine
Foucault and two Austrian aeroplanes rescued
the twenty-nine officers and men of the sub-
marine was told in the "Tageblatt." The
Austrian Achniralty's statement read as fol-
lows :
An Austro-Hungarian naval aeroplane in the South-
ern Adriatic sank, by means of bombs, the French
submarine Foucault. The aeroplane's pilot was Lieu-
tenant Celezeny and the observer was Lieutenant von
Klimburg. The entire crew of the submarine, com-
prising two officers and twenty-seven men, many of
whom were in a drowning condition, were rescued and
made prisoners by the naval aeroplane mentioned and
by another piloted by Lieutenant Komjovee, with
Cadet Severa as observer.
Half an hour later the imprisoned crew was taken
over by a torpedo boat, while the two officers were
transported to land on the naval aeroplanes.
The craft sunk was the submarine Foucault, built
in 1912 at Cherbourg. She was 167 feet long, 16.3
beam, with a speed of 12.5 knots above water and 8
knots submerged. She was equipped with 6 torpedo
tubes.
In the story of the rescue of the twenty-nine
men, the officers and crew of the Foucault, the
"Taseblatt" stated that the sea was rough at
'•■- i
-1
i
A French seaplane starting on a Mibniarim jialnjl at Dunkirl
SUBMAKIXK HI XTIXG BY AIKCKAiT
45
the tiiiic and there was tlie (]aii<>er that the
Austrian aeronauts would he eaptui'ed hy hos-
tile warships, as well as that the aero])]anes,
OA'erloaded hy taking' on hoard so many nun,
mi<^ht eollapse. Nevertheless, the Austrian
aviators told the men from the ]''reneh snh-
niarines to swim to the seaplanes and take hold
of them. The eommander and second ofHeer
of the suhmarines were allowed to eiimh into
the pilots' seats. The aviators signaled for
help, and half an hour later a torpedo hoat ar-
rived and took on hoard the men from the sub-
marine.
]\Iany other suhmarines were also captured
or destroyed throu^'h the cooperation of air-
craft. The policy has heen to eajjture the sub-
marines whenever possible. The report of one
of the latest cases where two submarines were
enmeshed as the residt of the cooperation be-
tween aircraft and trawlers was re])orte(l by
Captain E. L. Smith of the American steamer
Alaskan, which arrived at Newport on INlarch
19, 1917, from La Pallice, France. The
U-boats were detected beneath the sui'face by
a patrol seaplane. The aviator signaled for
trawlers and circled about directing the ])lacing
of nets. Soon these were drawn completely
about the unsuspecting submersibles, which
were brought to the surface. They were lying
side by side in the harbor of I^a Pallice when
the Alaskan sailed.
There are also many instances where sub-
marines about to attack ships were chased by
aircraft.
How a French aeroplane drove off a U-boat
shelling a British freighter that was in flames
on ]March 19, 1917, is told by Captain D. S.
Kamsdale, commander of the Enstgatc, which
arrived from La Pallice, as follows:
We left \cw York on Ueceiiiber '■2.0 bound for La
Pallice, France, with a general cargo, principally of
twine and gasolene in barrels, consigned to the Frencli
Governiiicnt. On December Jifi, wlien well of!" the Nou-
foundland IJanks, a tire was discovered in the coal in
the 'thartship coal bunker. It quickly spread and
fed on the twine stored in hold No. J2, located for-
ward.
Things began to look rather bad, as the seas were
rolling high. We tried turning the hose on the flames,
but without success. 1 then ordered the hatches bat-
tened down and ran a steam ])ipe forward, hoping to
smother tiie flames.
We were in a tiglit place, a.s our ga.solcne was stored
ill hold Xo. 1, and if tlie flames ever succx-eded in
i-cuching the barrels — well, it was n't a thought to
ini])rove any one's sleep.
.\ftcr three days and nights of fighting the tire with
steam, our coal sup|)ly ran low, since it was impossible
to reach the coid without getting in the 'thartship hold
and shoveling the coal down.
It was impossible to remain in the 'tharthold more
than thice oi' fi)ur inimites at a time, but we had to
have that coal. Accordingly, every member of the
crew took turns entering our "little furnace" and
shoveling as long as we could before the smoke be-
came overjjowering. Oh yes ; I shoveled too.
On January 3 we were advised by naval authorities
by signals to put into a certain ba}', as there was
danger ahead, but I signaled back that mj' vessel
was afire and that I intended to continue on to La-
Pallice.
We were well in sight of land the following day
when a shot whistled across our bows. I had no gun
or wireless to call for assistance, and as the submar-
ine was not in sight, decided to make a run for it.
A few minutes later the submarine appeared about
two miles off our starboard quarter and bore down
on us at great speed. Ten shots struck the East-
gate.
One shot tore through the skylight above the en-
gine room and burst just above the boilers. The
shrapnel caught our third engineer and rendered him
unconscious. Another shell found our starboard life-
boat and blew it to atoms.
IMeanwhilc I had ordered the crew to take to the
])ort lifeboat. Just as we were rowing away I heard
the roar of an aeroplane, and looking up saw a fast
French battleplane ap])roaching.
The acrojjlane dropjied down to within .500 feet
above the undersea craft. At the same time two de-
stroyers summonded by the aviator came up from op-
posite directions at top speed. The submarine had
oidy one avenue of escape from the two destroj'ers
and the aeroplane. She submerged with all possible
speed.
A few minutes later we rowed back to the Eastgate
and headed for La Pallice. We arived that night and
quenched the flames by flooding the holds.
Methods of and Weapons for Aerial Attack
on Submarines
Attack by Seapl.\xes axd Dirigibles
In a recent report, Sir Edward Carson, the
First Lord of the Admiralty, gave instances of
the sinking of submarines with bombs dropped
46
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
by the small coast patrol dii-igibles and sea-
planes. The method emiiloyed by both the
dirigibles and the seajilanes is similar. Hmi-
dreds of these aircraft are employed to co-
operate with destroyers, trawlers, and sub-
marine chasers in capturing or destroying hos-
tile submarines and searching coasts for sub-
marine bases. The usual evidence of the sub-
marine's presence is the wake of the periscope.
This wake cannot easily be seen from ships, but
can always be clearly seen from aeroplanes.
For one thing, the aviator is not troubled by the
refraction of the rays of light, which interfere
with the vision of the person on a shijJ. For
another thing, the aviator, flying at a height of
from 1000 to 5000 feet, has a range of vision of
many miles, and the whitish wake of the peri-
scope is clearly visible against the dark surface
of the waters, even in cases where the sea is
fairly rough and white caps are showing.
In clear weather an aviator from a height of
between 1000 and 3000 feet can also see a sub-
marine under water. In clear weather and
clear water, he can see the submarine even
when it is down to a depth of 100 feet. In less
clear water, the submarine can be seen at
a depth of 20 to 30 feet.
The j)resent-day submarines are so large that
SURFACE TRIM
RUNNING SUeMCRCtD
FUUUY SUBMEWcrD
TWO OF FOUR FIXED TUBES
FOR DISCHARGING TORPtOOru
FROM THF SUBMEHCrO
SIJBMARIMC'.T HOW. IN THIS
IN^rANCL.. ''WOVtSION l-S MAOCFOR
CtTUNTC RBALANCIWC TMC SUDDEN L033
OF*ven^wTDue rv tme oiscmahce
ejcMAUsr But9ai.tf5 on
:>tjRFACe . ^ncv/^•^r. rt r/v
TO OeSERVCRS. rf- r< ■>
OF THE TORI :
luKftUCi ^rcrOiNt^ ALONG AT NEARLY
SO KNOra. iTii'af T ;>uoMrKrjiOM
, RCOUI ArOR GIVING IT A DCITM OF.
^AV lO Fit T C3l LOVJ THl: 3UKtACF.
lilt: irOMHIMAriON Ol^ MYDHO^TAFIG
VAIVI AND BA1_AM< I Wl IgMT, AC : IN G
ON rm: noki^onfal ruui.cns, ;>F".coRro
AVCRVEVI. N OtI-rM LINF. ACVRObCORt
CONTROLS TMC VERTICAL STKCRINC RUOOLRS.
diac;rams iij-ustrating the submarine's method of diving, returning to the surface, and
attacking by torpl'.do
When a .submarine comrnandcr observe.s an enemy vessel he submerges his boat whilst still at a distance from his target, and tlien
approaeiies to a position witliin firing-range of, say 2000 yards (Fig. 5). If the sea be rough, and it is consequently dirticult to
observe small ol).jects on its surface, he lieeps th(? enemy imder continual observation by means of his periscope, a vertical tube
projecting al)ove the surface of the water fitted with an arrangement of lenses whose design enables them to pro.jcct the |)icture
within the fi<ld of their object-glass on to a suitable lens under observation inside the vessel. If, liowever, it is inadvisable to sliow
even a periscope, the object is ai)i)roachcd in a series of "i)orpoise dives," observations being taken when the periscojje is above the
surface (Fig. 5). — [Drawn by W. B. Robinson, for the "Illustrated London News."]
aiCHTS
i
TURNS
RQUMD
1
PROCCEOS
AWASH"
I
PROCEEDS
SUBMERGED,
S rcc RIMC OV
PEIT13COPE
SHIP
xORPeoo •
RANCC
1
...,*'.-.
--
Jk^-
s
"*
.poRPoise
eives
(the APPROACH.l
siiiJMAKixK in\'n\(; nv aiijckaft
47
they not only cjin l)c (Itlcclrd tliioui^li llic con-
trast which they make a^'ain.st their sun-oiirid-
in^'S in I he water, hut also throu<^h the I'oaniy
wake at the stern, wliieh is cleai'ly \ isihie hy
contrast.
The U-.53 is 213 feet, 8 inches long, and later
ones are even larg'cr. Such suhniai-ines pre-
sent a very large target, and whereas their
sjjeed suhnierged is l)etwcen 10 and 15 knots
at most, the seaplanes, which go at a speed ol"
up to 90 miles an hour, and even the small
dirigihlcs. with a speed ol' only ahout '.i5 miles
an hour, have an advantage over the suh-
marincs — and the latter steer clear of ])laces
where it is known that aircraft are emjjloyed
for suhmarine hunting. Seaplanes and coast
patrol dirigihles are em])love(l in daily ])atroIs
to search for suhmarine hases and for suh-
marines that may he lying in wait for shi])s.
If a suhmarine is seen under water, the aircraft,
whether seaplane or dirigihle, heing equijjped
with wireless and bonihs, first send a wireless
summoning destroyers, trawlers, and suhmarine
chasers. AVhenever possible an oi)p()rtini-
ity is given to the trawlers or the ships which
operate the nets to come up to the submarine
and enmesh it in the huge net. That saves the
submarine, and the crew is made prisoners.
If, however, the submarine comes to the siu'-
face and there is a possibility of its esca])ing,
the aircraft makes its attack by dropping the
bombs. While it is difficult for the submarine
to see the aircraft, and it takes several minutes
to submerge, it has also been difficult in the
past for untrained aviators who had to be
pressed into this service to hit the submarines.
While the above reports show that many sub-
marines were destroyed, it is also known that
many more escaped, because the pilots droj^ped
several bombs without hitting them.
But now aircraft guns of up to 3-inch cali-
ber are being tiu'ned out, which will make it
possible for the pilots to shoot at the sul)-
marines, cutting down the difficulty of hit-
ting to about one quarter, because it is easier
to sight the target with a gim, and the average
man finds it natural to shoot a gun. and
more difficult to drop a bomb with preci-
sion.
'I'lie best success is nhtained, ol' course,
through lioiniiing a suhmariru- from a height of
liwiiii .'{00 to .300 feet. Then the target is not
missed so easily. The submarine, unless it
happens to be on the surface, with its guns
ready to fire, stands very little chance (jf fight-
ing back, because to do so it must come en-
tirely on the surface, and the hatches where
the anli-aireral't guns are must be opened, the
gun must be aimed, etc. That re(juires time,
and gives an opportunity to the aviator to drop
bombs and anything else he may have available
on the submarine and gunner. If a submarine
finds itself in danger and submerges, it leaves
an oily patch, which is clearly visible from the
air, although far less visible frnm a ship. As
the submarine can only make a speed of be-
tween 10 and 1.5 knots, and usually comes up
to the surface at intervals of between .50 to 100
miles, it is comparatively easy to keep a watch
on that ])articular submai-ine -although. f)f
course, not so easy to capture it or destroy it.
But as the aircraft and the trawlers and sub-
marine chasers are watching for it, warning is
given and the submarine cannot make a sur-
prise attack upon ships.
The "deep-sea vision" afforded by the sea-
plane is an even more valuable asset for fight-
ing a submarine than is its superior speed.
Deep sea vision enables the seaplane to detect
a submerged submarine to a depth of about 100
feet in very transparent waters such as are
found in the ^Mediterranean or in the Caribbean
Sea; in the northern Atlantic the visible depth
is more limited. It generally varies according
to the color of the sea bottom and of the
sky.
The possibility of detecting submarines by
means of a seaplane reconnaissance has obvi-
ously an immense importance for tlie safety of
a fleet, for it eliminates to a great extent the
deadliest danger ships of the line have to cope
with in time of war. AVhereas the submarine
cannot launch a torpedo without getting its
bearings, i.e., without showing its periscope
above the water, it is an easy matter for a sea-
plane to follow the course of a submerged sub-
marine and attack it with bombs at the very
moment the periscope pops out of the sea.
48
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
Painting Submarines to Make Them Less
Visible
Exhaustive experiments have been made in
painting submarines so as to make them less
visible when they are under water. But while
they can be made less visible through painting
them in colors that blend well with the water
and sea bottom, it is hardly possible to so paint
the large fleet submarines and the ocean-going
super-submarines, which are used for long
cruises, in such a way that they will blend with
the water and conditions existing in different
places in which they are cruising. The smaller
coastal type submarine, which is used entirely
for coast defense, and does not have to go on
long distance cruises, can be painted more ef-
fectively to blend with the color of the water in
which it operates. But nothing can be done to
eliminate the foamy wake of the periscope, and
if the periscope were eliminated entirely, then
the submarine would have to come close to the
surface and it would make a better target for
the aeroplane.
To Distinguish Hostile Submarines from
Our Own
There are many submarines still operating,
because the aviators could not distinguish the
hostile submarines from their own, and could
not afford to take any chances in destroying
them. ]Marking submarines does not afford a
solution, because the enemy can adopt the
markings and carry on its work of destiiiction
under disguise.
Considering that when a periscope shows the
pilot has to decide how to act, and that unless
the aircraft is flying low, it is hard to distinguish
the features of the submarine from a height, one
can well understand why even naval men in
different countries have found it hard to tell
whether a given submarine was one of their own
or the enemy's. In this respect, it was found
that naval men who acted as observers were no
better in detecting submarines than the aviators
who had had practically no experience in naval
work. The aviator was used to judging things
from the air, wbereas the naval man, with little
experience in flying, found it hard to define the
things he saw. Of course, this does not last
long; and after a score or so of flights, the naval
observer becomes accustomed to flying, just as
the aviator becomes accustomed to distinguish-
ing naval craft.
The only way to prevent mistakes and not to
let hostile submarines get away is for the com-
manders to give the aerial submarine hunters in-
formation regarding the movements of friendly
submarines operating in the locality.
Kite Balloons as Lookouts for Submarines
Hundreds of kite balloons have been used as
lookouts for submarines in the Great AVar.
These balloons are sent up from barges or kite-
balloon ships, and are sent up to a height of
from 1000 to 2000 feet, where they stay
throughout the day, the observers scanning the
surface of the water, looking out for subma-
rines. When they see a submarine or a doubt-
ful ship, they summon the seaplanes, destroyers,
and submarine chasers by wireless. The em-
l^loyment of kite balloons as lookouts releases
dirigibles and ships from continuous patrol of
different localities wdiich are equally well pro-
tected through the work of the observers in the
kite balloons.
The First Aerial Submarine Hunt in
American History
The first aerial submarine hunt in American
history took place during INIarch, 1917. On
^Monday, jNIarch 20, the keej^er of the light-
house at Quogue, Long Island, New York, re-
ported to Commissioner Putnam, of the Bu-
reau of Lighthouses, Department of Com-
merce, Washington, D. C, that there was evi-
dence tliat two Ll-boats were "lying in toward
the Sound."
The supposed U-boats had been sighted at
the JSIontauk Point entrance of the Sound at
about six o'clock that afternoon, headed into
Long Island Sound.
Remembering the exploits of the U-53,
which had done everything that had theretofore
been pronounced as im])ossible for a submarine
to do, including crossing tlie Atlantic and sink-
ing half dozen ships in succession, off the
SUJLMAHIXK mx'i'i.xc; in' aih( haft
49
American coasts, then disappearing- I'loiii si-^lit,
the autliorities, naval and aeronautic, Iiad to
take stc]).s to ascertain tlic ti'iitli of the report.
While the tendency of some j)eople in such a
case was to lau^h incredulously, the authorities
realized that iiidess sonietliiiin- was done iniine-
diately there nu'i^ht he a rej)etition of the work
of the U-5.J. Jiut, unfortunately, the navy
had not yet estahlished an aeronautic hase in
the East, and the score of seaplanes owned by
members of the Aerial Coast Patrol and iiuin-
bers of the Aero Club of America were in
Florida, where the members of the i\erial Coast
Patrol were training. The Naval ^I ilitia iVvia-
tion Section was not in a position to assist be-
cause the two seaplanes presented to it by
patriotic peojjle were worn out by tlie training
of last summer and the Navy De])artnieiit hud
not yet supplied the Militia with machines.
The nearest seaplanes available were at Pensa-
cola, Florida.
So the distinction of doing the first aerial
coast patrolling o\er our coast line, to hunt for
submarines, went to the civilian aviators Avho
later became part of the Aerial Reserve
Squadron at Governor's Island, and to the
civilian instructors and aerial reservists con-
nected with the ]Mineola (L. I.) Army Avia-
tion School.
The following morning four fliers rose from
the Mineola field in a forty-mile an hour
gale and rain and a bad fog. They were de-
tailed to patrol the I^ong Island coast from
Oyster Bay to jMontauk Point, while Gov-
ernor's Island aviators watched over the shore
from the island to Oyster Bay. The Gov-
ernor's Island aviators were. First-Lieut. II.
H. Salmon (Aerial Reserve Corps), with Ed-
win M. Post, Ji-., as observer, and First-Lieut.
Wm. P. Willetts (A. R. C), with observer.
The ^Mineola aviators were Capt. A. W. ]?riggs
(British Royal Flying Corps), pilot; Lieut.
H, F. Wehrle, formerly of the West Virginia
National Guard, now of the Aerial Reserve
Corps, as observer; Leonard W. Bonney, in-
structor; Alan S. Adams, observer; BertraTid
B. Aeosta, instructor; Douglas E. ^Manning.
observer; A. Livingston Allen, instructor;
Harmon C. Norton, observer. Two of the
men, Aeosta and liriggs, were out for three
days. They did nut return to their headquar-
ters, merely himling wlicn tliey were forced to.
Considei'ing tiiat thei-e was a gale blowing
and the weather was foggy, and it was their
first experience, it was finite a difficult task.
But it was well done hy both groups. The
MiiKoIa aviators had the hardest task. Aeosta
and ^Vllen got to Port .Jefferson in the first
evening, Bonney to Southold, and Captain
Briggs and Lieutenant Wehrle to Springs, on
Gardiner's Bay, after having searched the bays
and inlets around Big (iull Island. Little Gull
Island, (iardinei-'s Island, and (Gardiner's Bay.
The total distance covered by Captain liriggs
and liieutenant Wehrle in a driving rain-storm,
was 124 miles.
The machines went out between five and
eleven miles at sea, the inlets and bays were
searched, vessels jjlotted, compass directions
and time when located were given. But the
sul)marines were not found.
The machines were not efpiipped with wire-
less, and there was not a wireless receiving sta-
tion in operation to receive their message if one
had been sent. But thei-e was a cruisei- and
other vessels which could have been summoned
if the submarines had been found.
The submarine hunt lasted three days, after
Avhich the Navy Department issued the follow-
ing statement:
"The Navy Department has chased down the
rumor that two strange submarines were
sighted off jMontauk Point at o'clock on the
evening of ^March 2G, headed into Long Island
Sound.
"These supposed submarines were two patrol
motor boats returning from a trial trip. The
builder has stated that these boats passed Mon-
tauk Point at the time stated and that one was
trailing the other. ^\hich was in accordance with
the report of submarines sighted.
"The builder also stated that he has been told
that his boats looked so much like submarines
that there was danger of their being mistaken
for such.
"The Navy Department has expressed its
gratification at the prompt, efficient and timelv
assistance of the army in detailing its aero-
50
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AEROXAUTICS
planes for search duty, on which they were con-
stantly engaged for three days.
"This incident enij^hasizes the need of hy-
droaeroplanes for naval scouting purposes."
French System of Patrol Against U-Boats
The French system of patrol against U-boats,
including the employment of seaplanes from
possibly hundreds of seaplane stations, were de-
scribed briefly on INIay 26, 1917, in the public
session of the Chamber of Dejjuties, by Admiral
Lacaze, the JNIinister of ^Marine, who gave an
interesting outline of the means of defense
France had adopted against the undersea boats.
"I see no reason why I should not speak of
these methods in public," said Admiral Lacaze.
"It would be childish to think they are unknown
to the enemy. They consist of a system of
patrol boats, of arming merchantmen w^ith guns,
and fitting them with wireless; of sea])lanes,
nets, mines, smoke-raising devices, and dj-ag-
nets.
"I sought to get patrol boats built here and
buy them abroad. I scovu'ed the world over
with missions, covering the ground from Amer-
ica to Xorth Cape, from the Cape of Good
Hope to Japan, but England had been before-
hand. When I entered the ^Ministry I found
243 patrols. Xow we have 552." (A Sociahst
voice: "It is formidable.")
"I do not say it is formidable," continued the
Minister, "nor even sufficient, and I have drawn
up a scheme which will increase tlie figure to
900. I continue to buy in London, the world's
center for shipijing. I am obliged to do so
because our shipyards had been ahnost com-
pletely abandoned; because, as a result of that
short-war theory which weighed so regi-ettably
upon all decisions taken at the outset of the
war, the yards had been transformed into war
material factories to meet the pressing need of
the national defense. We have now got back
most of the arsenals and a number of private
yards, together Avith skilled workmen.
"The guns we mount on the patrol boats have
been referred to disdainfully, but you cannot
put ten-centimeter guns on a small vessel. A
patrol boat on guard, armed with 95-centimeter
guns, met two submarines armed with 105-milli-
meter guns, sank one and put the other to flight.
"We have 1,200 dragnets as well as 170,500
curtain nets and 5,000 twenty-foot float nets,
which indicate the presence of submarines. We
have special bombs for submarines and appa-
ratus to throw them.
"We have organized seaplane posts all
around the coasts, so that the zone of action of
each post joins that of its neighbor on either
side. By October all merchantmen and pa-
trollers will be fitted with wireless and all mer-
chantmen supplied with guns of as heavy cali-
ber as i^ossible, for which measin-es programs
have been drawn up even beyond what was
thought possible."
Mcmurundu:
L
l'li(itii};rii|ili of a coast patrol diriirible taken from a flying boat of Harold 1). Kantner at the Italian Xavai Station of 'I'aranto.
In the forey;rouncl may be seen the submerged beds of shell fish, the Cocehi.
CHAPTER VIT
LOCATING SUBMERGED MINES WITH AIRCRAFT
One of the most important uses to which air-
craft have heen put since the beginning of the
Cireat War has been the locating of submerged
mines. Hostile submarines and steamers mas-
querading under false colors lay mines -when-
ever the opportunity presents itself, and no ship
lane is immune from them; ships are in danger
of being sunk unless lanes are properly patroled
by aircraft, and subsecjuently, if necessary,
swept by mine sweepers. Aircraft are em-
ployed extensively to direct the ])lanting of
mines and locating mine fields, and mines set
adrift by storms or other causes.
The size of mines is different in different
countries; and they are spherical or cyliiulriial
in sha])e. In the United States the average
contact mine is about forty inches in diameter,
and contains about 100 pounds of TXT, gun
cotton, or other explosives. They run from
that size up to seven feet in diameter.
Klines are usually submerged to a depth of
ten feet, and are usually arranged in clusters of
four, the total number of mines in a mine field
being unlimited. Whetlicr in clusters or in
fields, the electric contact mines protecting har-
bors and stations are controlled from a shore
station, each mine being connected to a sub-
merged connecting I)ox. wliicli is connected to
this station by cable, through which the electric
cm-rent is Hashed to explode the mines. The
otiicers in charge of the mine tield and operat-
ing from the stations on shore have detailed
maps of the mined areas, showing the exact loca-
tion of the mines. The maps are plotted in
squares, and when a hostile ship approaches a
mine field, the observers at this station, who
51
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
get information either through seeing the ship
through telescopes or from a kite balloon or a
dirigible or a seajjlane, follow the ship's move-
ments and notify the officer in charge of the
electric switchboard to fire the mines of a given
square, through which the ship or
ships
are
passmg.
All mines controlled from the shore can be
made contact mines, that is, mines that will ex-
plode when touching a ship or resistant body.
The officers in charge are warned of the pres-
ence of the ship by signal or bell worked elec-
trically by the contact, and if the vessel is hos-
tile, a fact which is determined by the officer,
the mine is fired.
Other contact mines used extensively are only
anchored but not connected to the shore. These
are exploded by electric contact caused by com-
ing in contact with the sbii^ or a resistant body,
or by the extreme tipping of the mine, which
completes an electrical circuit, which explodes
the mine.
The latter mines are the most dangerous, be-
cause they exj^lode on contact, and are a danger
to one's own vessels as well as to the enemy's
vessels. All harbors and channels and im-
portant approaches are protected by mine fields,
the number of fields and location of mines being
known, of course, only to the authorities.
This information cannot be divulged, for ob-
vious reasons, to the commanders of steamers,
transports, and other sliips coming into or clear-
ing from ports. These shijjs must, therefore,
be guided in and out of ports, and through the
clear channels between mine fields, Avhich is
often done ])y dirigibles.
The anchored mines are apt to be set adrift
by storms, and aircraft are used extensively in
locating them. Nothing else can enable mine
planters to plant or locate mine fields so quickly
as the aerial observei-, who from a height of .jOO
feet or more in a dirigible or observation bal-
loon, can plot the location of the mines in a few
minutes, whereas it would take days by employ-
ing any other method.
The observer from the basket of tlie kite ])al-
loon cooperating with the mine ])lanter or mine
sweeper advises the officer in charge of the loca-
tions of mines, which are clearly visible to him.
Planting a submarine mini-.
but owing to the refraction, cannot be seen
from the ship.
Dirigibles are esjjecially valuable for locating
submerged mines. The fu'st emijloyment of
dirigibles for this work was the result of the
Italian dirigil)le P-4 finding by accident, in
October, 1914, while on a cruise over the Adri-
atic, a number of Austrian floating mines.
Thereafter, it was found that the small coast
patrol dirigible, which is capable of flying very
low and of almost standing still over a spot, is
the best means of locating submerged mines.
Upon locating them, the observer summons the
mine sweepers, or if it is important that the mine
be destroyed immediately, he destroys it by
firing at it or liy trolling a weight, attached to a
wire, against it under the water. Seaplanes are
also used for locating submerged mines, but less
satisfactorily, owing to the fact that they can-
not travel slowly or stand over a given spot.
The same ])in'pose, but less efficiently, is ac-
complished by the seaplane circling over a given
spot until it has detected the mines that may be
submerged in that spot.
Aircraft can also be used for experiments in
])ainting mines in dift'ei'ent colors, which makes
them less visible from the air. The color must,
of course, change with the color of the back-
gi'ound where the mine is located. In clear
water and when the sun strikes in a way to
create a shadow of the mine, this ruse is of little
avail, but in other conditions the locating of
mines is made very dilbcult by painting them.
CHAPTER VTTT
NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES
War with Germany briii<^'.s the {)().ssil)ility of
aerial raids on iVmerican cities by (iernian air-
craft, which may rise from ships at sea or fiom
temporary bases. Such a possibihty was dis-
cussed and a(hiiittcd in Conyrcss in l^'ebruary,
1917, and as a result, the number of anti-air-
craft guns for the defense of naval stations was
doubled. Since then re])orts have appeared
that Germany is buildin<>- ten la rye su1)marines
for the s])ecial purpose of carryin<>' seaplanes
for raidinf^- purj)oses. As ^Ir. Alan R. Ilaw-
ley, the president of the Aero Club of America,
has ])()inted out, under the present conditions,
until our anti-aircraft defenses are developed
and anti-aircraft oimners have experience, the
worst that could ha])pen to enemy aviators who
found it necessary to land after dropping bombs
on American cities is that they would be made
prisoners.
INluch of the work of operating the anti-air-
craft defenses will have to be carried on by the
Naval Reserve Flying Forces, how much will
be shown by the following definition of what
the naval aircraft defenses comprise.
Naval anti-aircraft defenses are divided into
three classes, as follows:
(1) The Filling Defenses, consisting of
fighting aircraft, including fast-armed, fight-
ing seaplanes and armed dirigibles, which on
receipt of wireless messages from ships at sea,
or through other means, that aircraft are on
their way to attack, Hy out to sea and endeavor
to shoot down the hostile aircraft or force them
to retreat.
The purpose of anti-aircraft defenses is to
prevent the enemy's aircraft from reaching oiu'
shores and inflicting damage. The real victory
does not consist in repulsing the enemy or even
in destroying them after they have reached our
shores, because if they succeed in reaching our
shores we are forced to fire in the sky and bear
the responsibility of the damage done by the
fall of oiii- own slmts, and tlie fall of tlie enemy's
bomb-laden aircraft, wliich, if hit, may do ex-
tensive damage.
(2) The Floaiing Defenses, consisting of
anti-aircraft guns mounted on different types
of ships, stationed out at sea as far as possible
from the shore, so that in case the aircraft is
not hit, wireless messages can be sent to other
anti-aircraft ships to be on the watch-out, and
to summon aircraft to fight them. Closer to
the shore fast motor boats with anti-aircraft
guns of sni.'illei- caliber can be of gi'cat value.
(3) Shore Anti-Aircraft Gun Defenses,
consisting of anti-aircraft gims, searchlights,
"listening towers," equipped with huge micro-
phones to magnify the sound of the motors of
the approaching aircraft, and lange-finders and
other instruments for gaging distances.
Tlie 3-inch anti-aiicr.ilt lhii niountecl on the U. S. S. Penn-
sylvania.
53
54
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns
The Sixty-fourth Congress at its second ses-
sion, wliicli ended ]March 4, 1917, allowed
$3,800,000 for anti-aircraft guns for the de-
fense of naval stations, to be available until
1920. The year before, provision was made
for 134 anti-aircraft guns to mount on ships.
These
which are illustrated herewith,
are 3-inch, oO-caliber guns, firing a 13-pound
shell or shrapnel. The movement is so ar-
ranged that the gun can fire from 10-inch de-
jiression to 90-inch elevation, and at any angle
of train. The gun is semi-automatic, allowing
a rate of fire of more than 20 shots a minute
under favorable circumstances.
These guns have been mounted in many
United States ships, including the U. S. S.
The anti-aircraft pun on Ixiard of a liritisli sliij) and tlic lilucjackct wlio oi)crate<l it when it l)r(ni)rlit down
the Zfpi)clin "I, i>0" near Salonica. 'I'liis ollicial |)liuto)rra|)li sliows tin- tclcscoi)ic sit;litiiijz--ai)iiaratiis of tlie
gun and part of its ranfrf-fiiidint; incclianisni, tlic jayinf: wlici-l and tlic (irinjr licy and i)istol-)rri|), wliicli are
held Ijy tlic gun-layer's riglit hand. See ojipositr page for plioto of the gun and the control ollieer.
NAN'AJ. AM'1-AiJitKAl T DEFENSES
55
Pennfiylvama, the fl!i^slil|) n\' tlic AtJuntic fleet,
a ])lu)t()<iTai)li of wliicli is shown licicwith, and
■ships of tlie Tiwa.s chiss, as well as destroycr.s of
the Davis elass.
At the hc^innin<i,- of the wai', the German
Navy was usin<^- -t.l-ineh ,i>iiiis manufactured ])y
the Krupps, each of ^.j-eaHher, tiring- projec-
tiles Aveii^hing 34 pounds, with a niuz/le velocity
of 2G30 feet to a liei^ht of 12,000 feet. The
rate of fire was 15 shots per minute. Since the
bcfiinm'n<>' f)f tlie war rehable reports state that
other f^uns have been put in use whicli are ea-
])able of firing as high as 28,000 feet, altliough
the practical h'mit of vision may be phiced at
between 10,000 and 12.000 feet.
F. W. Eancastcr, tlie British aeronautic au-
thority, states that;
"Anti-aircraft firing is very inaccurate, hence
numbers are employed to compensate.
"The German guns are: 71 mm., firing 20 to
25 shots per minute, sliell weigliing 11 ])ounds,
vertical range 19,000 feet; speed of motor car
60 km. per hour, climbs grade of 1 on 5. witli
12nmi. armor; submarine anti-aircraft gun, 3.5-
inch caliber, 20 to 25 shots per minute, muzzle
velocity 2500 feet per second, weight of pro-
jectiles, 20 pounds; Krujip, 6-inch, firing 35-
pound projectile discharging smoke trail, is
mainly used by coast defenses and by the navy.
"The Ehrhardt factory at Dusseldorf makes
various anti-aircraft guns, of 2-inch to 6-ineh
caliber.
"The most remarkable of these is of 2.6-inch
caliber, weight of projectile 9 pounds, elevation
75 inches, muzzle velocity 2000 feet per second,
vertical range 17,500 feet. Three classes of
projectiles — shrapnel, smoke shrapnel, and
'balloon grenade' are used. This gun is
mounted in an armored car, weighing complete
about seven tons.
"The Skoda works, Pilzen, Austria, makes
a 1.5-inch gun with a muzzle velocity of 3000
feet per second, weighing complete about 1350
pounds. It can be carried on any high-
powered motor car."
The French naval aircraft gun, illustrated
herewith, shows that the French guns are very
similar to the 3-inch anti-aircraft guns.
Some British and German submarines have
been etjuipjicd with disaj)])earing guns, wliich
fit into special hatches. As soon as tlie suIj-
marine has leached the surface, the gun hatch
opens and autoinatically places the gun in th-
ing position. \\'hile it is true the submarine
faces danger in fighting a seaplane than is the
ease vice versa, thei'c have occurred in the Cireat
War several encounters of this kind, and on
April 30, 1916, a German submarine .shot down
a British seaplane.
The anti-aircraft guns mounted on liritish
and Frcncli war ships have been respf)i)sible for
bringing down a numbei- of Zeppelins, and a
large number of aeroplanes. On ]May 5, 1916,
two Zeppelins were brought down, one by a
One of the 3-inch anti-aircraft
guns of the U. S. Xavj'.
(ifmian iiiotorboats t(|ui])|)cti with anti-aircraft guns on tlio N'istiila piirsuinf; a liussian hiaiilanc. I'rcini a
drawinj; by C. Barber, Copyright Ulustrlrtc /citnng.
Hundreds of such motorboats equijjpcd with anti-aircraft guns arc needed to organize the anti-aircraft de-
fenses of the United States.
56
NAVAL ANTI-AIKCKAFT DKFKXSJvS
57
Photo of a German acn>|il.irn- wliicli attrniptcd to drop bombs on the resi-
dence in La I'aniie occupied by King- All)ert I and the Queen of the Belgians,
and was brought down by a 13elgian aviator and fell into the sea.
British light cruiser off the coast of Schleswig,
and another at Salonika, shot down by the anti-
aircraft o'uns mounted on the French battle-
ship Patiie.
There is also shown herewith an illustration
taken from the "Illustrirte Zeitung," showing
motor boats on the A'istula ])in'suing a Russian
seaplane, shooting at it with small caliber anti-
aircraft guns.
Jurisdiction Over Naval Anti-Aircraft
Defenses
While the introduction of aircraft in military
operations has practically removed the lines of
demarcation, and we find an overlapping co-
operation between the air services of armies
and navies, it is best, for' our purpose, to adopt
the old rule that a navy's duties begin outside
of the three-mile limit, but it must protect and
defend the navy yards, naval stations, and
magazines.
As Senator Swanson stated on the floor of
the United States Senate on INIarch 1, 1917,
'"J'hc defense of New York, the
defense of other cities, and all in-
side of the three-mile limit, is left
to the army, except the navy
yai'ils and magazines."
When the appropriation for
22-i 3-inch anti-aircraft guns for
the defense of naval stations came
l)efore the House of Representa-
tives on February G, 1017, and a
point of order was made by Con-
gressman J. J. Fitzgerald, that
"it is a part of the coast defense
to provide anti-aircraft guns for
tliese naval stations and not
within the jurisdiction of the
Committee on Xaval Affairs,"
the Chair ruled that "the defense
of naval stations within those sta-
tions" are "within the jurisdic-
tion of the Committee on Xaval
Affairs.
X'^ecessity often changes laws.
The necessity of defending Lon-
don from Zeppelin attacks made
the authorities set aside prece-
I.iiutenant of the Royal Xavy who, as control officer, regu-
lated the tiring and A. B., who laid and fired the anti-aircraft
gun whieli brought down the "I, JO." The officer is holding one
of the shells, the A. B. holding the cartridge-case of the gun.
58
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
One of Uncle Sam's new anti-aircratt jriiiis ninimtrd cm torpcilo ilcstniyer Davis
dents and appointed Sir Percy Scott, the
naval authority, in charge of the anti-aircraft
defenses of London, a position which he held
until Fehruary, 1910. Then, on Fehruary 16,
the entire anti-aircraft defenses were put in
chai'ge of Field JMarshal Viscount French.
British Anti-Aircraft Defenses
Following is part of Viscount French's illu-
minating official report on Home Defense to
the Secretary of State for War, dated Decem-
ber 31, 1010:
"At the date of my assum])ti()n of conunand,
the question of the anti-aircraft defenses of the
country was under consideration.
"On February 19 it was decided that the
London defenses should be handed over to me,
and on February 26 it was further decided that
I should be res]>onsi])le for the whole of the
anti-aircraft land defenses of the United King-
dom. Previous to this I had given consider-
able attention to the subject of anti-aircraft de-
fense, and I submitted a scheme for considera-
tion, Avhich was ai)provc(l and has been carried
out.
"During the winter there wns little hostile
activity in this direction, but since I assumed
diarge of these defenses enemy airships and
aei'o])lanes have invaded the country whenever
conditions have admitted. The numbers of
aii-ships taking part in a raid have varied con-
NAVAL A\'I'I-AIH(1{.\1"I' I )i:ii:.\SF,S
59
sidemhly. On A|)iil ."5 (Hily (inc was eii^'uycd,
while in the raid oT Sf|)lfiiil)er 2-3 not less than
twflvf ships ail' hchcvrd to have taken pari.
Ill all, nineteen i-aids have been made l»y aei-o-
])hines. The damage done has heen eonipaia-
tively small, and nothing- ol' any military ini-
portanee has heen eft'eeted.
"Taken as a whole, the del'ensivc measnres
have heen successl'nl. In very few cases have
the enemy I'caehed their ohjective. They have
heen tnrned, drixcn oil', sei'ionsly damaged by
gunfire, and attacked with j^reat success by
aeroplanes. Seven have been brought down,
either as the result of gunfire or aeroplane at-
tack, or of both coini)ine<l.
"The work of the Royal Flying Corps and
the Gun and Light Detachments, including the
Royal Naval Anti-aircrai't Corps, has been ar-
duous, and has shown consistent inii)rovenient;
the guns and hghts have been effectively han-
dled, and the pilots of the Royal Flying Corps
have shown both skill and daring. i\ll are de-
serving of high praise.
"Close cooperation with the Navy has been
maintained and the R. N. A. S., by their con-
stant and arduous ])atrol work on the coast and
overseas, have shared in successful attacks on
the enemy."
It is seen by this report that there is the
closest of cooperation between the British
Army and naval air services in maintaining
the anti-aircraft defenses. The following part
of the official report of the conmiittee which in-
vestigated the Royal Flying Corps in 1916,
gives further information regarding the respec-
tive share of the two services in the anti-aircraft
defenses of Great Britain:
"A good deal of confusion has arisen upon
the subject as to whether the air services of the
Army or the Navy are responsible for home de-
fense, or whether the responsibility is divided.
The truth is that the Na\y was entirely respon-
sible till the middle of February last. Since
that date the responsibility has been divided.
The Navy is responsible initil hostile aircraft
reach our shores. From that time the Army is
responsible. It is hardly necessary to state
that if a naval machine was attacking hostile
aircraft it would not cease to do so l)eeause the
aircraft cidssrd tin boiiinl.i ly line (higliwater
mark), noi' would an army iiiaclilne cease to
])ursue hostile aii' eral'l wliiii it passed over the
line seawards.
"The Royal Flying Corps is not responsible
for anti-aircraft guns, it has no control f)vcr
them. Nor has it any responsibility for or con-
trol over the searchlights which work in connec-
tion with those guns, 'i'he Royal Flying Corps
now has, however, its own searchlights where-
ever home defense machines ai'c niainlaiiK rj.
"The defense of the Ivondon area is under
the immediate conti'ol of the Commander-in-
Chief for Home Defense. In other areas,
subject to liis general control, it is under that
.\ French naval anti-aircraft gun used during the 1914-1915
campaign.
60
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
An anti-aircraft gun mounted on a German submarine, wliieh
disappears in a special liatdi wlien tlie submarine submerges.
of the army officers in command of tlie particu-
lar anti-aircraft defense areas. Those areas
are not co-terminous witli the districts com-
manded by the officers in charge of home de-
fense from attacks otlier than ])y aircraft.
"It seems desirable to mention that, while
the Na\y was still solely resj^onsible for home
defense. Lord Kitchener issued an order that
army aeroplanes were to render all possilile as-
sistance, an order whicli was very willingly
obeyed.
"The Navy have aerodromes for their own
purposes along the coast, and we think it rea-
sonable to assume, altlioiigh we have no knowl-
edge on the subject, tliat, now that the Army is
responsible for home defense, from the coast in-
ward, a similar order has been issued to the
Navy.
"Having regard to the limitations imposed
by the nmriber f)f aeroplanes, pilots, and night
landing places as yet available, we do not know
tliat, so far as the Royal Flying Corps is con-
cerned, anything more can ])e done.
"It ought, we think, to be generally known
that home-defense niacliines and pilots are not
now stationed at every aerodrome. It must be
supposed that, because aeroplanes are seen fly-
ing freely day by day from a given aerodrome,
there are necessarily any aeroplanes kej)t at
that aerodrome fit for night flying or any night
flying pilots there to fly them. Home-defense
machines, with their pilots, are now grouped
at various v^enters, a plan which, after careful
consideration, we approve."
In this report, which covers a dozen large
pages in small print, is found the following re-
port of the investigation of the complaint that
no machines went up on the occasion of the raid
at Dover by a German seaplane over Dover on
or about January 31. 191G:
"It appears that Dover is a naval war sta-
tion, and that the Royal Flying Corps merely
has a training and mobilizing ground there.
On the date in question it happened that Gen-
eral Henderson was insjjecting there. He had
just gone into the messroom when he heard the
anti-aircraft guns firing. Tlie only portion of
the Royal Flying Corps at Dover at the time
was a half-completed squadron ready to go
abroad. Directly the guns were heard, the
jiilot on duty ascended in pursuit of the Ger-
man seaplane, and was immediately followed
by two naval machines, and these again by an-
other army machine. It appears that tlie ma-
chines went up in the opposite direction to
Dover, so were not seen by the inhabitants of
that town. The day was rather misty and the
A Lewis aeroplane pun mounted to lire throuph geared
down hollow ])ropeller shaft of French 180 horsepower Hispano-
Sui/.u motor on lighting aeroplanes.
NAVAL ANTI-AIUC1{AFT DEFENSES
(;i
An finti-aircr.ift friiii iiioimti-d on iiii ,-iiiiiminiti()n harjrc on the
Tigris, part of the lirilisli I'orct-s oprratin); in ,M('Soj)otainia.
CtTiiiaii sc;i|)l:ine 8000 feet u]), so tliat the
British Diacliiiics were imahle to eatcli it. xVii-
other allegation was that the anti-aireraft ^ms
fired at the British aeroplanes, and there is evi-
dence which ])oiiits to some rounds having been
fired at one of the naval machines."
This brings up both the fact that there is
close cooperation between the two British air
services, and that there is danger of shooting at
one's aeroplanes under certain conditions.
Aircraft Brought Down in 1916
According to official reports, during 1916 the
British destroyed ^-iT and brought down in a
damaged condition 142 Cierman aeroplanes,
and destroyed eight Zeppelins, four of which
were brought down by aviators and four by
anti-aircraft gims. The French destroyed 417
and drove down in a damaged condition 19.3
machines. Twenty Zeppelin raids on Eng-
land, and six on France, were reported in 1916.
Hundreds of raids by German aero-
planes were reported, but only
eleven cases where the (ierman
aviators succeeded in passing the
three lines on anti-aircraft defenses,
and drop))ed bombs on English soil.
The official number of aircraft
brought down by the anti-aircraft
defenses of the Central Powers
are not available at date of writ-
ing.
Following is the list of the Zep-
pelins brought down by the British
and French anti-aircraft defenses
in 1916:
February "J I — LZ77 brought down by
b'rriich arlilliry at Kevigny.
March '.i\ — 1,1.") Iiit by gunfire and fell into
the sea at the moutli of Ihc Thames.
May 4 — 1>7 dcsli-oycd hy Ihc fiix- of Jij-itisli
light cruisers off the coast of Schleswig-Hol-
stein.
May .5 — EZ8.") destroyed by the fire of the
Allied Fleets at Saloniki.
September 2 — A Schutte-Ean/ destroyed by
Lieutenant W. Leefe Robin.son. ]{. I'. C, at
C'uffley.
Sei)teml)er 23 — L.32 brought down in flames
in Essex bv Second Lieutenant F. Sowrey, R.
F. C. '
September 23 — 1>,33 landed in a com])ara-
tively undamaged condition in Essex.
October 1 — L31 brought down in flames at
Potter's Bar by Second Lieutenant W. J.
Tempest, R. F. C.
No\'enil)('i' 27 — A Zeppelin brought down
off the northeast coast by Second Lieutenant I.
V. Pyott, R. F. C.
November 28 — A Zeppelin brought down off
the east coast by Flight Sub-Lieutenant E. L.
Pidling. Flight Lieutenant G. W. R. Fane, of
theR.N. A. S.
Efficient Anti-Aircraft Defense in 1916 Bring
Reduced Aircraft Insurance Rates
Efficient anti-aireraft defenses in 191G re-
sulted in the British Government cutting down
the insiu'ance against enemy aircraft. This
The armored cars of the British Roval Naval .\ir Service.
62
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
ii
The Austi'iaii s<-api;iiR' siiowii in this ])h()li», aUafkfti lla- !• rnu'li (.Tuisrr Ln 6itvi)'ic, whicli was (.-niliarUiiig Serb-
ian truops, at Valona, in the Adriatic, and was brought down by the fire of Freneli gunners.
fh'st change in the British Government rate for
insurance against enemy aircraft and bombard-
ment risks since the scheme was inaugurated on
July 19, 101.5, was announced on February 13.
It takes the form of a discount of 50 per cent,
in respect of all rates, sul)ject to the minimum
premium payable in respect of any one insur-
ance not being reduced below 2s. Two shil-
lings is the present rate for insiu'ing private
houses and their contents and buildings in which
no trade is carried on, for £lOO, so that the rate
for insui-ing all private property of the value
of £200 or more is halved to Is. per cent. The
existing rates under the scheme are as fol-
lows:
All otlicr buildings and tliuir rents 3
Farming stocks (live and dead) 3
Contents of all buildings, other than in
private houses and in premises speci-
fied below 5
Jlerchandise at docks and public wharves,
in carriers' and canal warehouses and
yards, in public mercantile storage
warehouses, and in transit by rail; tim-
ber in the open ; mineral oil tanks and
stores (wholesale) 7
(7.
i^X.
The Zeppelin «L 15"
plxitographed off the
Kentisli Coast just be-
fore it disappeared be-
neath tlie waves, having
l>ieii hit by the an*^! air-
irafl guns, during the
iiifjht of ^larch 31-
April 1st, 1911).
NAVAL AX'1'I-AI1U']{A1 -T DEFENSES
63
ISrilisli ii.iv.il .■iiili-.iircr.ifl friin crew jrcttinfr rc.-uly to lire .il (■
aiM'Dplancs at Salonika.
rill III iiiil I uilu~li
The new terms, which represent half of the
above rates, went into effect until March 1.
All the government rates are for twelve calen-
dar months, except as regards the property
named in the last paragraph above. For these
I'isks policies are issued for six months at three
foui'ths of the annual premium, for three
mouths at one half the annual rate, and for
one month at one fourth of the annual pre-
mium.
'I'
The damages on which insurance was paid liy
the British Government went up to tens of mil-
lions in 191.5; they are reported to have been
less in proportion in 1916.
Our anti-aircraft defenses are far from being
sufficient to meet an emergencv. and it will be
necessary to make uj) for this deficiency by or-
ganizing numerous s(juadrons of fighting sea-
planes and mounting anti-aircraft guns on the
new submarine chasers and fast motor boats.
The task of the Reserves will be to prevent air-
craft from reaching the shores after the air-
craft have passed the anti-aircraft guns of the
battleships, which will be the first line of de-
fense. There should be large fleets of yachts,
submarine chasers, and motor boats ready to
meet any emergency.
Above all, practice in shooting at flying kites
should take place as soon as possible, so that the
anti-aircraft gunners may have experience, and
may be ready to protect our coasts from air-
craft attacks.
Memoranda:
CHAPTER IX
THE AERIAL DEFENSES NEEDED FOR THE THIRTEEN NAVAL DISTRICTS
OF THE UNITED STATES AND TWO INSULAR NAVAL DISTRICTS
If it requires hundreds of aeroplanes, dirigi-
bles, and observation balloons to patrol the
coasts of Great Britain, which aggregate about
1500 miles of coast line, Ave will need thousands
to patrol our 2500 miles of coast hue in the
United States and ahnost as much in our pos-
sessions — and to protect the millions of dollars
worth of supplies which are to be sent to Eu-
rope and the ships which carry them.
The thirteen naval districts in the United
States and their headquarters are as follows:
(1) Eastport, ]Maine, to mclude Chatham,
Massachusetts; headquarters, Boston. (2)
Chatham, to include Xew London, Connecticut;
headquarters, Xarragansett Bay Xaval Station.
(3) Xew London, to include Barnegat, Xew
Jersey: hea(l<iuarters, Xew York. (4) Barne-
gat, to include Assateague, Virginia; headquar-
ters, Philadelphia. (5) Assateague, to include
Xew River Inlet, Xorth Carolina; headquar-
ters, Xorfolk. (G) Xew River Inlet, to include
St. John's River, Florida: headtjuarters,
Charleston. (7) St. John's River, Florida, to
include Tampa, Florida; headquarters. Key
"West. (8) Tampa, Florida, to include Rio
Grande; headquarters, Xew Orleans. (9)
Lake ^lichigaii, headciuarters, Xaval Training
Station, Great Lakes. (10) Lakes Erie and
Ontario; headquarters, Xaval Training Station,
Great Lakes. (11) I^akes Huron and Su-
perior; head(|uarters, Xaval Training Station,
Great I^akes. (12) Southern Boundary to
I^atitude 42°X.; headquarters, San Francisco.
(13) Latitude 42''X., to Xorthern Boundary;
headquarters, l'f)rt Townsend, Washington.
A very com])rehensive plan of aerial coast
patrol suital)le for the fifteen naval districts was
submitted to Rear-Admiral Xathaniel R.
lusher, the commandant of the third naval dis-
trict by the Aero Chili of America's Board
cooj)er:iting with the commandant in the or-
64
ganization of the Xaval Reserve Forces, of
which the writer is secretary.
This rejiort, which was made a congressional
document, is reproduced herewith in part:
Xezc York, April M, 1917.
To: Hear Admiral Xathaniel R. Usher, Command-
aiit. Third Xaval District.
From: Alan li. Haxalcy, Chairman, Advisory Com-
mittee on Aeronautics, cooperating Kith the
Commandant in the organization of the Xaval
Reserve Forces.
Subject: Aerial Defenses Xeeded for the Third
Xoval District.
Aerial Defenses Needed for the Third Naval
District
{Extending from Xexti London to Barnegat)
Duties. — The air service of the Tliird Naval Dis-
trict has the following duties to perform. All of these
have been done in the Great War :
(a) To locate, and assist destroyers, trawlers and
submarine chasers in capturing or destroying
hostile submarines (both seaplanes and dirigi-
bles are needed).
(b) To locate submerged mines and assist trawlers
in destroying mines. (Scajjlanes, dirigibles
and observation balloons needed.)
(c) Searching the coasts for submarine bases.
(Seaplanes and dirigibles needed.)
(d) To convo}' troop and merchant ships on coast-
wise trips. (Dirigibles best adapted for this
work.)
(e) To patrol the coasts, holding up and inspecting
doubtful ships and convoying them to examin-
ing stations. (Dirigibles best adapted for this
work.)
(f) Attacking hostile ships and submarines that
may show u]i near the coasts, with torpedoes,
bombs and guns. (Large torpedoplanes and
large sea])lHiies mounting guns best adapted.)
(g) I'rotecting shijjs at sea and in ports against
attack from hostile submarines and battleships.
(Seaplanes and diiMgiblis needed.)
(h) C'onnnunicating to incoming ships information
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66
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
regarding the location of mines, submarines
and the courses to follow to avoid disasters and
confusion. (Seaplanes and dirigibles needed.)
(i) Serving as the "eyes" of mine planters, minim-
izing the time required for mine planting.
(Dirigibles and obsei'vation balloons best
adapted for this work.)
(j ) Defending and protecting naval bases and sta-
tions from naval and aerial attacks. (Armed
air cruisers and combat planes needed.)
Besides the above, the Naval Air Service in other
countries has been used for man_v other purposes, but
the Air Service of the Third Naval District need not
concern itself with the otlier ])ur])oses, which are to be
performed by the aviators connected with the fleet.
Dh'isions. — The territory comprised in the Third
Naval District should be divided into divisions to be
served by aeronautic stations established in each di-
vision, so as not to weaken the efficiency of the service
by sending aircraft on too extended cruises. The lack
of large dirigibles capable of long cruises necessitates
costly and inefficient makeshifts, and it is necessary
to follow as closely as possible the example of Great
Britain and establish the aeronautic stations close
enough to get utmost efficiency out of each type of
aircraft available. Great Britain has an aeronautic
station at about every twenty miles along her coasts,
numbering 107 in all. The aircraft available for the
Air Service of the Third Naval District within sixty
days will be seaplanes equipped with two or three
motors, which may be entrusted witli flights of about
eighty miles out to sea and return, at a speed of eighty
miles an hour ; and seaplanes equipped with a single
motor which may, if supported by water-craft, be en-
trusted with flights extending twenty miles out to sea
and return at a speed of 60 miles an hour ; and obser-
vation balloons which can be put on board ships or
barges and can be used from whatever positions these
shij)s occu])y.
The limit on continuous flight out to sea is placed
here because wliile many aviators have made flights of
several hundred miles along the coasts, very few of our
aviators have iiad experience in actual aerial naviga-
tion over water. Until they have gained this experi-
ence their flights seaward should be limited in distance
and with every seaplane sent out on patrol duty there
should be sent out one or two boats with observers,
whose duty is to keep track of the flight with power-
ful glasses, and be ready to rnsii to the assistance of
the aviators.
After ninety daj's it will be possible to get larger
air cruisers, some of which are under construction ;
and small dirigibles of the coast patrol type, sixteen
of which were ordered by the Navy Department on
March 12th.
Location of Divisions. — In considering the location
of divisions, there must also be considered the neces-
sity of establishing one of the divisions as far as pos-
sible out at sea where the aircraft may have the oppor-
tunity of detecting hostile submarines while they are
on the surface. On ajjproaching the land, hostile
submarines logically submerge so as not to be seen.
Therefore, a division should be established at Montauk
Point. On the other hand, the divisions having
charge of keeping channels clear of mines and subma-
rines must be located as near as jjossible to the chan-
nels. For instance, the New York Division, having
as one of its duties to keep the channel clear up to the
50th fathom curve, which is al)out 85 miles from
Sandy Hook, must include in its equipment lai-ge mul-
tiple motored seaplanes, capable of long distance
cruises.
For efficiency, ten aeronautic stations should be
established in the Third Naval District, to be located
approximately as follows :
(1) Sandy Hook (Aeronautic Base).
(2) Montauk Point (Aeronautic Base).
(3) Bay Shore (Station being established by the
New York Naval Militia).
(■1) Port Washington (Already established by the
America-TransOceanic Co., Offices, 280 ^Nladi-
son Avenue, N. Y. ).
(5) Amityville (One hangar and workshop already
established by the Sperry Gyroscope Co., ]\Ian-
hattan Bridge Plaza, Brooklyn, N. Y.).
(6) Ocean Beach (New Jersey).
(7) Seaside Park (Bamegat Bay).
(8) Rockaway or ManJiattan Beach or Massa-
pequa. Great South Bay, L. I.
(9) New Haven (Connecticut).
(10) Southampton.
Equipment for Stations. — The flying equipment of
each station varies according to the duties of that sta-
tion. In a general way, until dirigibles and observa-
tion balloons are obtained, the territory to be covered
by each station will be covered by units consisting of
one aviator and one obsei-A'er, having at their disposal
three aeroplanes, one of which must always be in
flying order. Each of these units is expected to fly
about 200 miles each day when the weatiier permits.
Whenever tlie distance to be covered is so great that
a imit only covers it once in the course of its 200-mile
flight, as in the case of the unit which will have to pro-
tect the channel down to the 50th fathom curve and
liack, starting from the Sandy Hook base, there will
be required a sufficient number of units to make it pos-
sible for a unit to start every half liour beginning
with daylight and ending at sundown.
.\s at present the daylight lasts about twelve hours,
tliere would be required 24 units to patrol the channel
NAVAL AM'i-AlKCKAl T DKFE.N SKS
67
cDiir.sc, a unit starting every lialf hour. Tiiat would
iR-CL'ssitatc liaviiig il-i units with three iiiaeiiiiies t(j
cacii unit or 7J2 machines in alh Tiic same is true at
I he M<)ntaui\ I'oint station, which would have to pa-
trol part of Ulock Island Sound and go as far out at
si'a as possihie lo look out for hostile submarines.
The smaller stations, the duties of whicii arc essen-
tially to search the hays for submarines and convoy
coastwise shipping, would need a smaller luniihc r of
units, unless the call for aerial pati-ol and convoying
was iieavy.
'I'he e(iuipni(iil rc(|iiired for each station depends
on the im])ortance of the station from a strategic
standpoint. In some cases, the station can consist of
only a sufficient number of hangars to house the aero-
jilancs, with a workshop, storage for gasoline, oil, etc.,
and the necessary housing for the officers and men.
In other cases, the stations must have hangars for
aeroplanes, dirigibles and observation balloons; motor
anfl machine shoj)s ; hydrogen plant, magazines, erect-
ing shops, stores, an aerologic station, wireless station,
listening towers, searchlights and anti-aircraft guns
for the ])rotection of the station. Also provision for
aero])lane mother shijjs, kite balloon ships, and mine
laying shijis, to cooperate with the aeronautic station;
and the necessary watercraft.
Until dirigibles and obser\ation balloons can be ob-
tained, the entire work must be done by aeroplanes.
A single dirigible of the Zeppelin type coidd do the
work of ])atrolling the channel from Sandy Hook to
the .")()Hi fathom curve, which is 8.5 miles out at sea,
better than the 72 sea))lanes hereinbefore mentioned.
But no number of small scouting dirigibles could do
that same work, excepting in the best of weather con-
ditions because the small diiigibles would be carried
away by or could not travel against the average wind
to be met along the channel.
lender fair weather conditions there could be placed
four or six observation balloons along the channel,
anchored on barges or suitable ships. Slow moving
ships with the observation balloons could, under nor-
mal conditions, do the work of the 72 aeroplanes. On
sighting a hostile submarine, or mines, the observers
would wireless the information to the shore station
and summon cruisers, air cruisers, submarine chasers
or the trawlers in charge of mine sweeping.
There should be in addition to the stations at least
one aeronautic base in the naval district. It ma}' be
stated that all the personnel required for the air serv-
ice of the district has to be trained, there being prac-
tically no trained personnel available. The personnel
should be trained at the aeronautic base.
The Sandy Hook and IMontauk Point stations
should be most complete, tlicir equipment including
the seventy-two aeroplanes required to maintain a
steady patrol for twelve hours daily and at least two
dirisibles and two observation balloons.
The aviators, dirigible [jilots, observation balloon
ojxralors and observers for the three kinds of aircraft
would be trained partly at these stations and partly
at two other stations which, while not so extensive in
general equijinicnt, would have extensive facilities for
instruct iof]. 'i'he equipment needed for the last men-
tioned two stations would consist of about 24 sea-
|)lanes to be used for coa-it jjatrol, and about 18 aero-
planes and one dirigible and one observation balloon,
resi)ectively, f<jr training.
'I'he number of torpedoplanes and of large seaplanes
iiKiuiiting three-inch guns needed for the aerial de-
fenses of the Third Naval District is not estimated
herewith, because the number required will depend en-
tirely on how extensively shipping in the Third Naval
District is subject to attack {vi>\\\ hostile ships and
submarines.
Large seaplanes equipped with three-inch guns
would be powerful factors of offense and defense also
as they can sink destroyers, submarines, transports,
etc. The large sea|)lanes re(juii-ed for this purpose
are obtainable, one ha\ ing been delivered to the Navy
recently. Both the torj)edt)])lane and the seaplane
equij)])ed with a three-inch gun represent an extraordi-
nary combination of mobility and power, which combi-
nation ])roniiscs to re\olutioni/e naval warfare. Their
great s]>eed and theii- ability to fly in a straight line
over all natural obstructions, make it possible to
mobilize their ])ower at any point from Barnegat to
]Montauk I'oint, within two hours.
The other six stations would require about twelve
seaplanes each. The above is, to some extent, based
on. the British and French experience. At the begin-
ning of the War, Great Britain had only 18 aero-
nautic stations. To-day she has 107, one fifth of
which are large .aeronautic bases. France has about
150 aeronautic stations.
There is pi-actically no trained personnel available,
but it will be possible to get, to start, at least twenty
civilian aviators, professional and amateurs, who have
had some experience in marine flying, although no ex-
perience in actual naval operations or in the operation
of twin motored aeroplanes. There can also be had
about twenty students who are about to com})lete their
preliminary course in the operation of single motored
seaplanes. About two hundred more students, mostly
college men who have joined the Aerial Coast Patrol
units, will be under training in the Third Naval
District within two months, several large avi-
ation training camps being established at private ex-
pense. These are part of the hundreds of college
men who wanted to join the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps, but could not, because the Navy Department
has not the aeronautic training scliools at which to
train them.
The entire personnel of the Air Service will com-
prise for the Third Naval District about 150 aviators
68
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
and aviation instructors ; tliirty dirigible balloon pilots For each dirigible in operation tliere must be a crew
and thirty observation balloon ojJerators. Also as of mechanics and a conijjany of enlisted men to act in
many observers as there are jjilots and operators. docking the dirigible. To each observation balloon
There will be required an average of one chief me- there is required a crew of mechanics and a company
chanic and three assistant mechanics to each aviator. of men.
How Far Should Naval Airmen Carry Their Operations Over Land?
How far sIkjuIcI naAal airmen carry their
operations o\er land is a question that began to
be asked in the early days when the tii-.st Zep-
pelins, which were built for naval work and
housed in a floating hangar, were first put in
operation. Xo definite answer has been given
so far, although the matter has been brought up
in a nimiber of instances in Europe in connec-
tion with questions of defining the responsibili-
ties of the land and the naval air services. The
committee which investigated the administra-
tion of the British Royal Flying Corps in its
ofiScial report to the British Government es-
tablished a line of demarkation to divide the
respective duties of the land and naval aviators
as follows:
"A good deal of confusion has arisen upon
the subject as to whether the air services of the
Ai'my or the Xaw are responsible for home
defense, or whether the responsibility is divided.
The truth is that the Xavy was entirely re-
sponsible till the middle of February last.
Since that date the responsibility has been di-
vided. The Xavy is responsible until hostile
air-craft reach our shores. From that time the
Army is responsible. It is hardly necessary to
state that if a naval machine was attacking hos-
tile aircraft it would not cease to do so because
the aircraft crossed the boimdary line (high-
water mark) , nor would an army machine cease
to pursue hostile air craft when it passed over
the line seawards."
But any line of demarkation is subject to be
taken exception to, as often as necessary, as was
shown by the fact that throughout the present
war naval aviators have been used for raids over
land, flying land aeroplanes. It will be re-
membered like^^■ise tliat the Ignited States Xavy
aviators flew over land dining oiu" occupation
of Vera Cruz, in 1914. They actually flew in
hydroaeroplanes and flying boats over the JNIex-
ican hills and mountains. (See chapters on
"Aerial Strategy and Tactics." "United States
Xavy Aeronautics.")
CHAPTER X
ADMINISTRATION OF A NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION
A naA^ul iieronaulic station may \>v an aero-
nautic base or mcri'ly a station I'foiii which sca-
phmes, (hri^ihk's, and ohservation balloons are
operated. The e(]iiij)nRtit required for each
station depends on the importance of the station
from a strate<>ic standpoint. In some cases, the
station can consist of oidy a sufficient number
of hangars to house the aeroplanes, with a
workshop, storage i'or gasoline, oil, etc., and the
necessary housing for the officers and men. In
other cases, the stations nuist have hangars for
aeroplanes, dirigil)les, and observation balloons;
motor and machine shops; hydrogen plant,
magazines, erecting shops, stores, an aei'ologic
station, wireless station, listening towers,
searchlights, and anti-aircraft guns for the })ro-
tection of the station as well as provision for
seaplane carriers, kite-balloon shi])s, and
mine laying ships, to cooperate with the aero-
nautic station; and the necessary watercraft.
The accompanying drawing shows the plan for
a com])lete naval base, with all the important
buildings and departments of a naval aero-
nautic base. On the following page will be
found the photograph of a smaller seaplane sta-
tion.
An excellent illustration of the completeness
of the organizations of naval aero stations may
be gained from the telephone directory of the
United States Government Station at Pen-
sacola, Florida, which includes extensions to the
conunandant; captain of yard; inside superin-
tendent; I'adio station; planning division, aero-
nautic secretary; yard section; sentry, office
building; labor board; flying school: watch
tower; pay officer; hangars; sui)i)ly depart-
ment; accounting department; supply store-
house; supply purchasing section; aeroplane
erecting shop; motor erecting shop, storeroom;
truck house; joiner shop; machine shop; store-
house, yard division; jxnver house: ([uarters of
captain of watch; pumping station; dispensary
09
and sick (|ii,iit(is: di-al'tiiig I'oom : commanditig
(ifficei-, marines; post (juailermastei-: ship's
'phone, crib wharf; wet basin; seamen's bar-
racks, and bachelor officers' mess.
Regulations for the United States Navy Aero-
nautic Station, Pensacola, Florida
While the regulations for the administra-
tions of a naval aeronautic base or station
necessai-ily vaiy in detail, the fundamental
regulations are essentially the same. The fol-
lowing regulations foi- tlie I'nited States .sta-
tion at I'ensaeola ma>- be ai)plicd:
Siups AT Anchok on Berthed at the Yard
Berths at tlie jjiers will he assigned hy the Captain
of till' Yard. Shiji's hoats will be secured at places
designated by the Captain of the Yard.
The crew of tlie shij)s will not be permitted to wan-
der around the yard or sho])s. In case of work being
done in the shojis Iw the enlisted force of a ship, only
those (lircctiy conneetid with the work will enter the
sho]), and some res])onsible person will account for all
tools used.
Yard regulations will be supplied to ships on ar-
rival at the yartl and should l)e returned to the Cap-
tain of the Yard befoi-e departure. Attention is in-
vited to the fire bill. In case of fire, ships will send
(ire details in accordance with their shij) organization
bills.
Liberty parties will be formed on the dock and
marched to the main gate. Liberty men will return
through this gate.
Ships will keep the pier clean where the ship is
bei-thed. (larbage cans will be provided in which all
garbage will be placed. These cans will be collected
by yard force at regular hours.
Shijjs at anciior will furnish the Captain of the
Yai-d with a copy of their boat schedule, and will have
tluir mail orderly- call at office of Inside Superintend-
ent on regular trips.
Long wharf and the basin will be used by ship's
boats. The center wharf is reserved for boats used
by the Flying School.
Shi])s at piers will dump ashes in places designated
by the Captain of the Yard. Boxes will not be thrown
ri AincnArr gum. SC&R04I-1CMTS
AND i.<»rCMlMO TOWCR
MAc#«iMC row AAWoei
Plan of a well apijointcd naval acnmautic center, l^stahlisliinp <(jiM|il(t(ly ecuiiiijicd aeronautic stations will iirechiilc the neees-
sity of continuous addinfr, which is so inefficient and wasteful.
No provision is made here for extra larfjc cruisers because there has not yet heen decided how such air cruisers can liest be
housed, being somewhat too large to be taken to a hangar on shore. The solution will jirobably rest with building large hangars
on the water edge.
It will be noted that i)rovision has been made for four anti-aircraft guns, placed so as to almost form a square, for the protec-
tion of the station from aircraft attacks. There are also four Listening Towers and four se.irchlights provided. The dirigible sheds
are of the revolving type, so that the airships can go out no matter which way the wind blows.
70
. At&RCHUOHTS AMD WmCLCM TOWtflft
LlftTIHING lOWIH
FOR 4 COAST PftTROU
.^: ~ lV " DIRIGIBLES C- ^K'TE BALLOONS
-5r *■
rireiCMT aTkTioH
Provision is made for a h.mgar for a squadron of land aeroplanes, to provide against the times wnen the sea is t"° >;''"?.'' *''
permit launching seaplanes, hut the atmospheric conditions are suital,le for land machmes. Also for the defense of the station from
aircraft attaclvs Land aeroiilanes are used to a great extent by naval aviators in all countries. , , . ^ „
ProvisL is made for a mine layer to cooperat'e with tl,e station, so that the aviators and tl,c dirigible and k.te baUoon operators
can nraetice in locatinff mines and assist in planting mines. , - iu
The plane carrief and the kite balloonihip are' absolutely necessary to have ready for the fleet to tram personnel for the
mother shi^s. A seaplane carrier and a balloon slup should be allowed for every eight battleships. The aerolog.c station is a most
essential thing and it should be completely equipped with the latest instruments.
71
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
One of the 107 British seaplane stations whicli supply the daily atrial cuast patidl for the protection of British shipping. This
aerial photograph, taken from one of the seaplanes, shows one of the sinaller stations. One of the seaplanes is shown in the water,
"taxying" to the runway.
The seaplanes from these numerous stations keep a constant wateh for U-boats and ]irotect ships from I'-boat attacks.
overboard as they are liable to damage tlie pontoons
of the hydroaeroplanes.
Ships in passing the yard will slow down to such
speed that their bow or stern wave will not damage
the hangar runways and boats at the docks.
ArTO.MOHII.ES
Officers and enlisted men attached to tlie station or
to slii])s at the station, and others residing on the
naval reservation, owners of automobiles or motor-
cycles, may obtain Aero Station I.,icense by applica-
tion to the C'a])tain of the Yai'd.
An annual fee prescribed by the Captain of the
Yard will be charged for such license, payable on
purchase of machine and renewed January 1st of each
year. A record of all licenses issued will be kept by
the Captain of the Yard and no automobile or motor-
cycle will be allowed to o])erate on the reservation
without a license. The proceeds of such licenses will
be used for the upkeej) of the roads leading to the
navy yard.
The owner of an automobile or iiiolorcycle license
will be held responsible at all times, irrespective of who
may be driving, for the pro])cr observation of traffic
and station regulations under the penalty of having
such license i-evoked.
No enlisted man or yard workman shall do any work
necessitating the use of government tools, machines,
etc., on private automobiles, motor boats, etc., nor
shall automobiles be taken inside the Machine Shops
without jjcrmission of the Captain of the Yard. En-
listed men may work on automobiles, motor boats, etc.,
owned by individuals attached to the station on holi-
days and after working hours, but in no case shall
such work entail the use of government material.
Parking space for automobiles will be designated by
the Captain of the Yard.
All motor vehicles entering the yard will be notified
at the gate that the speed limit is 12 miles per hour;
also that running on brick pavements and sidewalks
and the use of nmlller cut-outs is ])rohibited.
Fiue-Regulations
The signal for fire will be the rapid ringing of the
fire bell at the North West Gate and near flagstaff, also
blowing of the whistle followed by a ])ause then a
iVD.MIXlSTKATIOX OK A XAV^AL A KI{()\A[ TIC STA'llOX
7:1
iiiinilicr of sli-okcs or lools dcMnnal jnn- ||j,. (|i,li-iet.
The ICMT\ ;i( ion and varil i^ divided inli) districts as
t'ollou s :
No. 1— Navy Yard— North Avenue to Nortli Wall
— 1 toot on wliistlo and 1 stroke on beli.
No. 2 — Navy Yard — South Amiiuc to North Ave-
nue — 2 toots 0:1 uhi-.llc and y strokes on
bell.
No. 3. — Navy \ai(l — Water I'l-onl to Soulli Ave-
nue — 3 toots on uliistle and ii strokes on
bcO.
No. 4 — Naval reservation — Warrinf^ton — -4 toots
on whistle and 4 strokes on hell.
No. 5 — Naval reservation- — Woolsey — 5 toots on
whistle and 5 strokes on hell.
The fire main and Jihi^s are situated as follows:
From pum|)ing station near old liosjjital down (anal
Street, Warrin<;ton to N'av^- Yard. In navy yard
along West jVvenue, North .\venue, Ivist Avenue,
South Avenue and Center Aveiuie. A line also cuts oil'
from West Avenue near G. S. Storehouse to Center
Avenue near Power House. A line branches oft' from
North Avenue near alley I'^ast of Commandant's house
to the Maii'azine along Magazine Sti'eet in Woolse}'.
The fire hose and reels are situated as follows:
No. 1 — Near flagstaff', North Avenue.
No. 2 — Opposite Building No. 9, East Avenue.
N^o. 3 — Near hydrogen ])lant, South Avenue.
No. 4 — Near West Gate, South Avenue.
No. 5 — Warrington on Canal Street, near corner
of Newton Avenue.
No. 6 — Woolsey on corner [Magazine Street and
Howard Stret.
Gexeual Fire Qi'arteks
1. When a fire signal is sounded, the telephone oper-
ator will notify the pumping station and tell man in
charge to start pumps, will ascertain place of fire,
notify Commantlant, Captain of the Yard, Officer of
the Day, Flying School Office, Erecting Shop. Com-
manding Officer of Marines, ScameTi's Barracks. .Ml
messages in regard to the fire will take the jirecedencc
to other messages.
2. In case of fire in the yard all gates will be closed
and no one not connected with the station will be al-
lowed to enter until secure is sounded.
3. In case of fire in or near the hangars or build-
ings where hydracroplanes are stowed, the hydroaero-
planes Avill be run out info water and canvas hangars
knocked down to smother the fire or kee]) it from
spreading.
4. All boats will be manned and gotten ready for
use as directed.
5. All men not detailed on a host' reel "ill equip
themselves with buckets and axes and iirocied to scene
of fire, oflicers in charge of sucli details v.ill juovidc
for such details.
(j. The Captain of the Yard will be in general
charge at scene of fire. The officer of the l-)ay will be
his assistant. In the aljsence of tiic Captain of the
^'ard, Hie Office)- of thi' Day will take charge until the
dillerent details have arrived, wjien the senior lim-
officer jircsent will take charge.
7. Naval ships in the harbor will send details in ac-
coi'dance with their ship organization bills, and the
oflicer in charge of details will report to officer in
charge at scene of fire.
S. The recall will be three blasts on the steam
whistle.
Fire in Yard — Dav
The enlisted mi 11 (jf the Flying School under the
officer in charge will man hose reels Nos. 1 and 4 and
])roceed to scene of fii-e reporting to Captain of the
Yard. The enlisted men of the Erecting Shop and
Machine Shop under the senior officer of the two shops
will man hose reel No. 3 and proceed to scene of fire
rei)orting to Captain of Yard. The marines will man
hose reel No. 2, proceed to scene of fire and report to
Captain of Yard.
Fire in Yard — Night
The seaman watch will man hose reel No. 4 and
proceed to fire. Other enlisted men in the barracks
will be divided into details bj' the Captain of the
Watch, one detail to hose reel No. 1, one detail to hose
reel No. 3, and other details equipped with buckets
and axes. The marines will man hose reel No. 2.
FiRK Outside Navv Yard — Day
A detail from Flying School will man hose reel No.
4, a detail will be equipped with buckets and axes and
sent to scene of fire. The [Marines will man hose reel
No. 2 and proceed to scene of fire. The citizens of
Warrington and Woolsey will man hose reel Nos. 5
and ().
L
Towing a seaplaiu- liack to its station after a fliglit.
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
1 ^x;ngi!jK..^t^f»^^^]it|^
A United States Xaval Aeronautic Station "Somewliere in America."
Night
The watch will man hose reel No. 4, a detail of en-
listed men in the barracks will be equipped with buck-
ets and axes. Otherwise fire bell same as day.
Washwomen
Washwomen will be permitted to receive clothes on
Mondays only and deliver them on Thursdays and
Saturdays only. They will remain outside buildings
18 and 25, and on no account will enter the buildings
or loiter around the entrances.
Lunches may be sold in the yard by applying for
jjermission to Captain of Yard. The time of such
traffic will be limited to the noon hour, mid-day to 1
P.M., and only authorized articles will be sold. The
dealers of such articles may sell their goods in front
of the shops but are not to enter any building and
must clean up any paper or food stuff left over. Un-
cooked food will not be sold.
Visitors
Visitors will not be permitted to enter any ship
or hangar except when accompanied by an officer at
any other than noon hours. No visitors will be per-
mitted under any circumstances to enter any shop at
any time without a written permission. Officers in
charge of shops will make necessary arrangements to
enforce this regulation, and in all cases the permission
must be shown and initialed in each shop visited.
Shops will not be opened to visitors on Sundays and
Holidays except by special permission from the Com-
mandant. Visitors will not be allowed to question
any of the workmen. All officers and enlisted men
should assist in preventing unauthorized persons from
entering or wandering around the yard. Visitors will
not be allowed to bring kodaks in the yard or to take
any pictures. All officers and enlisted men will keep a
careful watch for visitors taking unauthorized pic-
tures.
FiSHIXG
In the future no written passes with permission to
fish will be accepted by the marines on duty at the
gates. Twenty-five brass checks will be furnished the
sentry at the !Main Gate, and each colored person
desiring to fish will be given a check which will serve as
his pass. This check must be turned in at the ^lain
Gate upon leaving the yard. Twenty-five checks per
day will be issued for the use of whites. All colored
fishermen will be required to fish from the East wharf.
The wharf to the Westward of the wet basin will be
reserved for the use of whites. All persons are warned
that the docks must be left clean and neat and free
from all scraps of unused bait, paper, etc. Persons
guilty of neglect of this order will be denied fishing
])rivileges for a period commensurate with the extent
of their untidiness. Fishing hours are from 8 a.m. to
sunset.
Shop Regulations
1. Shi]is will be kept clean and in good order at all
times.
ADMIXISTRATIOX OF A \A\AL AEUOXAL iJC S'i'ATJOX
75
2. Sinokiiiff, I'xccpl in ollicfs, is proiiiljilcd.
3. No ()j)iii lif^lil, siic'li iis blow torch, acL-t viciic li;;lil ,
etc., shall be Iclh iiiiiil Iciidrd, .■irid no open li^hl of anv
sort will be brought mar in/^ine asscniblinf^ or testing
.stands. Fire cxtinfruisiui's uill ])v k(])t rtady for use
ill ;dl linics.
■i. Ill case of di'i' notify I he Captain c)f "^'ard inmie-
diately.
5. All tools shall be kept in the tool room and draun
only by check. Tools shall be returned after usinf>-.
In case a tool is broken in use, it shall be turned into
the tool room and attention called to its condition.
The tool room kee|)er shall kcej) a list of all tools
broken or lost, and by whom broken or lost, which list
will be submitted to the office on ]''riday morning.
6. No shop machines will be used by outside men
without authority from the I'lanninf;- Division.
7. No work will ])v done in the shops that is not
covered by a written work order, or, in an emergency,
by a verbal work order.
8. Shops will be closed by the janitors after work-
ing hours and the keys turned in to Captain of the
Watch. The janitors will get the keys and open u])
the shops by 8 a.m. No unauthorized person will be
allowed to have keys to any sho]), and doors and win-
dows will be kept locked except when authorized work
is being done in a shop.
Regulations for Enlisted Personnel Uniforms
Enlisted men will wear regulation uniforms. Dur-
ing working hours regulation dungarees may be worn
and full piece bathing suits may be worn by those
handling aeroplanes in the water. Liberty parties
will wear the prescribed uniform in entering and leav-
ing the yard. Civilian clotlies will not be permitted
to be kept in the yard.
Officers assigned to office duty will wear the jjre-
sci-ihed service uniform or civilian clothes. Officers
in the I'lying School and in the Shops may wear fly-
ing uriifoi-m when engaged in these duties. All officers
will kecf) a coni|)lete service uniform in the yard; lock-
ers «ill he pi()\idi(l for those officers not living in the
yard.
T-inERTY
N(j liheity list will be made. After working iiours
all enlisted men not on watch or otherwise restricted
may go on liberty. Liberty is up at 7 :50 a.m. of the
following morning unless extended fjy special permis-
sion from the Captain of the Yard. No lifjerty
granted during working hours except by special per-
mission. A list of those restricted from liberty will be
published in the seamen's quarters and at Main Gate.
Barracks
The chief master at arm- will have full and absolute
charge of Building Ho and the surroundings and will
be held responsible for both the sanitation and dis-
ci])line. All subordinates will carry out his orders
jjromjjtl}', absolutely and rigidly.
Routine
week days
6:30 A.M. Reveille.
7:00 A.M. Breakfast.
7 : 50 A.M. Muster in and go to work,
8:00 A.M. Turn to.
n : -15 A.M. Knock off.
lii : 15 P.M. Dinnei'.
12: .55 P.M. Muster.
1 : 00 P.M. Turn to.
4:15 P.M. Ivnock off.
(Ino lit the I'urtiss selioni uiaehiii.-s, wliich is tlu- iiiust iie|iiil.ir i\ ]'•. \u
76
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
5: 00 I'.M. Supper.
9:00 I'.M. All uniiecessan' lights out, except stand-
ing lights.
10:00 P.M. All lights out, except standing lights.
SUNDAYS AXD. HOLIDAYS
7 : 00 A.M. Reveille.
7 : 30 A.M. Breakfast,
8:30 A.M. Muster.
Otherwise same as week days.
Bedding will be aired on Friday by turning the bed-
ding over the foot of the bed and rolling the mattress
back at the head of the bed.
Reading Room. — The i-eading room will be used as
a place to keep magazines and to write letters. No
loud conversations will be permitted.
Returning at Xight. — Men who have been on lib-
erty and return at night will be quiet and not disturb
others who have turned in.
Visitors. — Visitors will not be permitted in Building
25 except by permission of the Captain of the Yard,
or, in his absence, by the Officer of the Day.
Teleplione. — The telephone will not be used for
personal conversation.
Turning Out. — All hands will turn out promptly
at 6:30 a.m., except on Sunday.
Inspection. — The quarters will be inspected daily
bj' the Officer of the Day.
Late Meals. — Whenever a man or party of men
will be delayed for a meal, they will endeavor to notify
the C. M. A. A. or Commissary Steward at least half
an hour before meal time of the delay and how long
tliey will be delayed.
The Commissary Steward will have charge of the
mess gear and mess cooks will sign receipts for same
and be responsible.
Field Day. — Field day for general cleaning will be
held every Friday.
Mess Tables. — ]\less tables and mess benches will
be scrubbed and dried in tlie sun every Thursday'.
The Watch
The watch shall consist of two cliief petty officers,
one of whom shall be a line petty officer, and a desig-
nated number of lower ratings. The watch list will be
made out in the Captain of the Yard's Office and shall
contain a sufficient number of men for sentry duty
and to handle the yard fire equipment. The watch
list w^ill be published at the 7 :50 a.m. muster and the
details to sentry post made. No changes shall be
made in the watch list without ])ermission from the
Ca))tain of the Yard. The tour of duty shall be for
24 hours ; during the day the watch may proceed with
their regular duties but are subject to a call.
The mnnber of posts and duties of the sentries shall
be as prescribed by the Captain of the Yai-d.
The Captain of the Watch sliall notify the watch
what sentry duties they have, see that the sentries are
])osted at 4:30 p.ji., siiall personally inspect the elec-
tric flasli light in the watchtower, shall make a thor-
ough inspection of the water front after working hours
and shall make at least two inspections of the yard and
sentry posts after eight o'clock at night. He shall
keep himself informed as to the whereabouts of the
Officer of the Day. He shall be familiar with the
fire regulations and shall divide the watch in accord-
ance with fire bill.
The janitors of each building and shop will lock
up their respective shop after working hours and turn
in the keys to the Captain of the Watch. In case of
work being done in a shop after working hours the
key will be turned in and the Captain of the Watch
will lock up when work is completed. The Captain of
the Watch will make inspection of all buildings after
receiving the kej's to see that they are properly se-
cured. The janitors will get the keys before 8 a.m.
and open up the shops. The keys of the offices in
Building 45 will be kept by the sentry on duty in that
building. The watchman on duty will have a set of
keys to all buildings. All other keys will be turned
in to the Captain of the Yard.
Sentry watches other than marine posts will be
stood as follows :
WEEK DAYS
4: 30 P.M. to 8 P.M.
8 P.M. to midnight,
midnight to 2 a.m.
2. A.M. to 4 A.M.
4 A.M. to 6 A.M.
6 A.M. to 8 A.M.
SUNDAYS
Regular four hour watch
from midnight Saturday'
to 8 A.M. jNIonday.
Saturdays : During months
of half holidays watch
starts at noon.
The men on watch will be relieved by their reliefs for
meals.
The Log
The log book and necessary instruments will be kept
in the Radio office. The radio man on watch will fill
in the columns. The Officer of the Day will see that
the columns are properly kept and after conferring
with the Captain of the Yard will write in the remarks.
The smooth log will be wa-itten up by the yeoman in
the Captain of tiie Yard's office.
Duties of Boat Officer
1. All student naval aviators not assigned to per-
manent detail in the shops will do duty as boat officer.
2. The tour of duty will start at 8 a.m. on flying
days and finish witli the completion of flying on tiiat
da}'.
3. The tour of duty will be taken in order of rank.
In case a tour of duty as Officer of the Day and as
Boat Officer should occur on the same day for same
officer, the duty as Officer of the Day takes precedence
and duty as boat officer falls on next officer in rank.
4. The Boat Officer is not to leave the dock during
A1)MJ\JST]{ATI().\ OF A XAVAL AKKOXAl^TIC STATION
77
flvin^' lioiirs iukKt ;in_v circuiiislaiiccs uiIIkjuI u relief.
5. Ill ciisi' lio is due I'di' fiviri^- lie will fret the next
availuhle officer on (iciaii lo relieve liiiii I'oi' the neces-
sary time.
6. He will see that speed boat is kept ready and
e()iiij)j)ed during 'Iviii^' hours. He will keep in touch
with tile watch tower and fro out in the s|)eed boat
when called in case of accident.
7. He will re])ort to Officer in Charge of Flying
School at 8 A.M., number of boats available for duty.
Duties of Navai, Officer of the Day
1. All commissioned line officers of the station other
than those doiii<;- duty as heads of departments or fly-
iiifr school instructors will do duty as Offict'r of the
Day, takiniT turns in ordir of rank.
2. Tour of duf^' will be for H-i hours beginning at
8 A.M.
3. The new officer of the day will see that the boats
are read}' for duty, the speed boats tested out, and
other boats started to their stations.
4. He will see that his name ])late is ])osti(l at Sen-
try Box, Quarters A, Captain of the Yard's Office and
Flying School.
5. He will re])ort to the Ca])tain of the Yard at
about 8 :!3() a..m. for new orders or instructions.
6. He will see that the proper watch detail is made
and will let the Captain of the Watch, Command-
ant's Orderly and Radio Station know where he can
be found during the day by telephone.
7. He will be present when mast is held at 11 a.m.
8. He will be present at the 12:50 p.m. and 7:50
A.M. musters, will receive reports and publish orders.
All absentees will be rcyiorted to the Captain of the
Yard.
9. He shall be responsible for the keejiing of the
flying school log and making the jiroper entries therein.
10. At 4:30 P.M. he shall make an inspection of the
different sentry posts and see that sentries are posted
and understand their orders. At 4 p.m. he will re-
port to the Captain of the Yard for orders.
11. He shall see that boats are secured after flying
orders.
12. He shall make frequent inspections of the shops
during the day and see that no unauthorized persons
enter the shops.
13. He shall make arrangements with the C. .M. A.
A. about inspection of provisions.
14. He will inspect the crew's mess hall before at
least one meal a day.
15. He may proceed with his regular duties at the
station but must not leave the yard tvithout permission
of Ca[)tain of the Yard or without a relief.
Ifi. He will make two or more inspections of the
yard and sentries during the night, one of which shall
be between midnight and 4 a. m.
17. He may get relieved \)\ any other commis-
sioned officer of the station.
18. He must be familiar with the yard regulations,
particular!}' as to fire.
19. Night quarters will be provided for those offi-
cers of the day not living in the yard.
20. A desk will be provided for the convenience of
the officer of the da\' in the Captain of the Yard's
office.
21. He will not alter or change in any way the or-
ders of instructions of the Marine Sentries.
1. The officer in charge of the Flying School will
submit a list of aeroplanes available for use of naval
aviators daily to the commandant. These aeroplanes
may be used at ain* time b}' naval aviators during fly-
ing hours, 8 P.M. to 11 :45 p.m. and 1 to 4 p.m. Na-
val aviators will apply to the senior instructor present
at the Flying School, who will inform him what aero-
planes are available and ready for use.
2. The course of instruction and required qualifica-
tions of personnel for the air service of the navy will
be such as is sjiecified in the circular letter issued
semi-annually by the Navy Department.
3. In the future the speed boats will be used only
for the purpose for which they were bought, i.e.,
for necessary rescue work. At the direction of the
boat officer they may be used in cases of emergencies
to prevent aeroplanes drifting ashore or to prevent a
collision. Flying at the station will be suspended
whenever it happens that there is not at least one
speed boat in first class condition equipped for rescue
work. During flying hours a hospital apprentice with
first aid kit will be continuously on duty at speed
boat wharf for an immediate call to go out in the speed
boat on dut}' for the da}' or to go to any hangar or
sliop.
CHAPTER XI
SAFETY ORDERS AND REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO THE FLYING
SCHOOL AT UNITED STATES NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION
4. The following revised safety orders for pilots
and assistant pilots will be complied with: all flight
officers will report in writing to the commandant that
they have read and understand these orders.
Procedure Before Flight
(1) Obtain a flight order card signed by the proper
authority, and be certain of the exact meaning of the
orders thereon.
(2) Xote direction of wind and character of gusts ;
if any previous flights have been made during the day,
ascertain if there are any unusual atmospheric condi-
tions. The course to be used will be indicated by flag
signals displayed on the observation tower (or near
the Flying School beach) a blue flag indicates "North-
erly Course," a red flag "Southerly Course." In us-
ing the northerly course the circuit of Pensacola Bay
is made, making right hand turns; southerly course,
vice versa.
(3) Note the number of aeroplanes out with spe-
cial reference to the Rules of Road, Air, and Beach.
Ascertain the course being used.
(■1) See that radiator is filled, that oil level is cor-
rect, and that ample amounts of oil and gasoline are
on board ; test oil feed and see that gasoline pump is
working.
(5) Inspect thoroughly and test all controls and
their leads, and see tiiat they are '"hooked up" prop-
erly. This is most important.
(6) Receive report from chief mechanician that
aeroplane has been inspected in accordance with the
prescribed inspection routine and that it is in good
condition and is in all respects ready for flight.
(7) See that no loose tools or other articles have
been left in or on any part of the aeroplane.
(8) See that motor is warmed up, running prop-
erly, and that carburetor adjustments are correct.
(9) See that throttle connections are in good order
and that the adjustment is correct for the released
position.
(10) Put on and secur.e the prescribed safety jacket
and helmet.
(11) See that the assistant pilot, student or passen-
ger has his safety jacket and helmet on properly.
(12) Examine safety straps, see that they are in
good condition and that the releasing device is in good
order; adjust straps and put them on.
(13) See that the assistant pilot, student or pas-
senger is properly secured in his seat.
(1-1) If carrying a passenger, caution him as to in-
terfering with the controls and the foot throttle, and
as to remaining secure in his seat.
(15) Do not start from runway until chief mechan-
ician has signalled "All Clear."
'lilt' ( M N ■ i|,l;uic ill which Cajitain Friincis T. Kvans, U. S. Marine Corps, loopc(l-thc-lo()|) on February U, 1017, and in which
Lieut. Kduard (). McDonald, I'. S. X., dujilicatcd the feat the followinn day. In the jihotojrraiih arc seen various members of the
State Militia detailed for instruction at Pensacola.
78
SAFET^■ ()I{I)KKS AM) ItlXiULATIOXS
7'J
(Ki) The |)ilot shall inlOnii Ihi' assistunt, julol of
the purpose of the Hif^ht.
(17) .Make sure thai ponloons contain no water
and tliat phi^s and hand Iioic plates are secured.
(18) On aerophmes etiuij)])ed with Christenson self
starters :
(a) See that vahc from air llaNJi to di^trilnitor
is open,
(o) See thai air ^aUfre refristers the |-ii|uired
amount,
(c) See tliat starting- lever is at the neutral point
before startin^j on flif^hl.
(19) See that air pressure on the (ire cxtinguislier
line is up to the re(]uired amount.
(20) Sec that the valve to fire extinf^uisher air
char^inf^ line is closed, that the main stoj) valve is
open, and that the .sup]ily valve is working freely.
(21) See that gasoline cut-off valve is working
freely.
(22) See that shorting button functions properly.
(23) Hefore starting a scouting flight obtain a com-
pass error card for your conijiass ; see all instrununts
in pro])er working order, ])i'operly calibrated and set.
15arogra])h reading "zei'o"; insjject signalling ajipar-
atus and see that it is in perfect working order. See
armaments in pro])er shape and ainmunifion secured;
bomb-dropping device ]iroperly ad justed and equij)])ed.
Procedure During Flight
(1) All pilots shall familiarize tlicmselvcs witli the
])rescribcd Rules of the Road, Air and Beach.
(2) I'jion taking the air, if iM(jtor does not develop
its proper reserve power, or if there is anything un-
usual in the action of tiie aero])i«tne, land at once. In-
vestigate and correct it, returning to the runway if
necessary.
(.'5) III hori/ontal flight use only enough power and
no ji'ss than is re<|uii'((l for the normal angle of inci-
dence, excejjt when uridci- (jrders t(j make a high (jr low
speed test.
(i) If motor develoj)s any unusual sound while on
the water, return ff) the rimway at once and investi-
gate; if sound heroines more jironounced while pro-
ceeding to the riiinvay, cut ofr motor and signal for a
tow.
(5) If motor (le\(lo])s aiiv iinii-.iial ■.oiiiid while in
the air, throttle down and come into a glide; if sound
becomes more pronounced, cut off; after landing pro-
ceed as prescribed in preceding paragraph.
(6) In flight, when motor misses oi- dies, come into a
glide instantly.
(7) In all glides use approximately the safe angle
of incidence prescribed for the type of aeroplane con-
cei-ned ; always hold this angle until time to flatten out
for landing.
(8) At all times, either on the water or in the air,
note as much and as continuously as possible the be-
havior of the structure of the aeroplane; in event of
dectecting any break, looseness, or defect of any part,
or any irregularity of action, return to ruiiwav' at
once and correct.
(9) In the event of fire, turn off ])et cocks in gaso-
ROUTINE FLIGHT REPORT.
Began: hrs., min..
Ended: hrs min..
Elapsed time: hrs., min.
Motor stopped: hrs., min.
1 Operating Time: hrs., min.
6 Weather:
5 Wind Direction: Av. velocity:
5 Gusts:
7Sea:
8 Altitude: Max.: ft.; Av.: .
M. Pilot's weight: lbs
M. Ass't Pilot's weight; .lbs.
Av. weight, fuel: lbs.
Av. weight, oil: lbs.
Ex tras: 1 bs.
2 Load: lbs.
M. P. H.
(Began: gals.
(Ended: gals.
3 FUEL
(Expended: gals.
( Av. carried: gals.
(Began: qts.
(Ended: qts.
4 OIL
(Expended: qts.
(Av. carried: qts.
ft
Remarks:
(Sig.).
U. S.
PUot
In the office, a continuous record of each student's flying is fil ed. Tlic facsimile of the flight report card is sliown herewith.
80
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
A French seaplane in the luirhor
at Dunkirk just about to be
launched.
line line as soon as jaossible and open cock on extin-
guisher line — land.
(10) Except when orders on the flight card direct
otherwise, all flights will be restricted to the limits pre-
sci'ibed in Beach and Air Rules.
(11) Courses over land or over shallow water must
not be made unless an altitude has been attained that
will give an ample margin for gliding to deep water
in event of failure of the motor.
(12) Except in an emergency, glides will not be
started in a direction towards land, or from an alti-
tude less than .500 feet.
(13) In event of landing, the following signals shall
be made by either occupant of the aeroplane facing the
lookout station and standing in a position unmasked
by the motor:
(a) Signal: Waving one arm from vertical to
horizontal position — meaning: "Cannot
return under power; require tow."
(b) Signal: Waving both arms from vertical to
horizontal position — meaning : "Emer-
gency : send boat as quickly as possible."
The above signals will be repeated at intervals until
a boat is seen approaching.
(14) The general recall is a large rectangular can-
vas flag, checkerboard red and white, rolled down on
south end of machine shop roof ; when this is shown,
all aeroplanes out, whether on the water or in the air,
will at once return to their runways.
(15) After turning over the controls to the assist-
ant pilot or to a student, direct him as to course and
altitudes and be prepared to resume control instantly.
WJien carrying a student, conform at all times to the
prescribed system of flying instruction.
(16) When making a glide from high altitudes, cut
in the power momentarily at intervals in the approved
manner for the type motor used, to prevent its chok-
ing up witli oil and to provide tiiat power will continue
available; in event of feeling indisposed by the change
in barometric pressure, cut in power and hold the
altitude for a few minutes then resume the glide.
(17) Side slip spirals are prohibited.
(18) In gusty weather or in doubtful air condi-
tions, when possible, land under power.
(19) Execute no turning manoeuver before reach-
A Fn^nch seajilane of tlie flyin|r
boat type preparatory to its flifrht.
.Sec chapter on "Submarine
Hnntinp from Aircraft" for report
of Admiral T-acaze, the French
Minister of Marine, refrardinpr the
extensive employment of seaplanes
/or coast patrol work.
1
^
^:J
4
* >«'
•"'Sftu^'rV
SAFE I ^' OHDKKS AM) 1{K(; T I^AllOXS
81
ili^ ill) iiltifudc of ;il lLii.->l 'MO I'llI, lxicJ)! wlieie locfil
conditions nuikv turning safer tlian continuing ii
strniglit ciinihing palli. TIm' s|)ii-it of this ordii' is
that the j)ilot siuili endiavor l(j make ii straiglit fliglil
into tlic wind to an altitude of at least .'iOO feet before
comniencing a I urn.
(HO) Do not alknij)t any unusual ])erforniancc un-
less proper-authority has been obtained.
(21) Under all ciremnstancH s in I he air avoid atti-
tudes that either in elinibiMg, liori/ontal fliglil, ai'c oii
the verge of .stalling.
(22) Returning from Higlit api)i-oa(li the runway
at slow speed; be ready to cut out the spark, lleniein-
ber that the lives of the men waiting to handle your
inaehine inav dr|ictid on your presence ol mind.
PuOCKDI-UE i\KTi;il l''i.u;HT
(1) Fill out the back of flight order card and xiid
it to the olliee it was issued from ; if flight order re(]uii\s
a flight report make it out at once and send it to the
commandant's office.
(2) If anv ])art of the aeroplane or its equipment
has developed defects or irregularities of operation fill
out data reipiired on a trouble ri'port blank, giving
the details of the trouble, and turn in to the oflieer
in charge of your aeroplane division.
(3) If the aeroj)lane is ordered out with a different
pilot, inform him of any peculiarities of its handling,
and of anv irregularities that he may meet in the local
atmospheric conditions.
(4) If the aero])lane is ordered into its hangar, the
officer to whom it is assigned, unless absent with ])roper
authority, will see that the crew cleans and secures
properly.
(6) \Vlien any overliauling, rejiairs, alterations,
renewals, or adjustments are to be made in any part of
an aeroplane or its flying equipment, the officer to
whom it is assigned shall personally inspect the pro-
gress of the work : at its completion he shall fill out the
work report (N. O. A. No. -i).
PnocEDURE IX Gexek.\l
(1) Tlie pilot's responsibility and authority, irre-
spective of his rank relative to the assistant ])ilot, stu-
dent, or passenger, begins when the aeroplane is being
inspected in preparation for the flight, and does not
end until the aeroplane is in its hangar, or is formally
turned over on its runway to another pilot or to the
officer to whom it is assigned.
(2) Any pilot that has any reason to believe that his
physical or mental condition, on account of fatigue or
any other reason, is not entirely up to its usual stand-
ard, before undertaking a flight must report the fact
to the officer signing the flight card.
(3) Student naval aviators flying alone will not in
any given week fly at .'SOO feet higher than the highest
attained by them in the previous week.
( 1) Student naval axiator.s who have already at-
tained to altitude of 3000 feet may fly at this altitude
if they so desire, but will not increase it from wick to
week by stej)s greater than 500 feet.
(.')) Student naval aviators are strictly enjoined
from attempting to make rapid climb until tlicy arc so
authorized — this to ])revent danger of stalling.
(fj) No student naval aviators, except those who
lia\e (pialificd uniler the su|)ervisi(jn of the officer in
cli.irgc of the I'lving School, will attempt to make
u holi- or partial spiral-- unless forced to do so.
(7) III addition to contents of previous orders, stu-
dent naval axiators will in the future, until further or-
ders, be restricted in their flying as follows:
(a) Flights shall be limited as prescribed by officer
in charge of Flying School.
(b) A ratio of climb of ^00 ivi\ jjer minute shall not
lie exceeded foi- the first 1000 feet; in other words that
altitude, 1000 feet, shall not be attained in less than
.5 minutes. A noticeably steej) angle of climb shall
never be used.
('oinj)etition and the spirit of rivalry among stu-
dents is discouraged. Careful and conservative flying
is (Icsinil. Accidents are either caused from care-
lessness, recklessness, lack of information, jiride on the
])art of the aviator, and, to a far less degree, by me-
chanical defects in the construction of the aero-
j)lane.
Safety Ordeiis for Mkch.vxici.axs — Procedure
Before P'i.igiit
(1) The chief mechanician will make a careful in-
spection, in thr ,ippro\e(l manner, of all accessible
])arts of the aeroplane's jjower jjlant, controls with
their leads, and instiuments and eciuijiment; also note
quantities of oil, fuel, and circulating water on board,
and shall see that jiontoons are free from water and
that drain plugs and hand hole plates are proj)erly
secured.
(2) The second mechanician shall make a careful in-
spection, in the approved manner, of all accessible
parts of the acro{)lane's structure.
(3) Anv unusual condition noted in the above in-
spection shall be referred to the pilot about to make
the flight, no matter how unimportant that condition
may seem.
(4) Special care shall be taken that all loose tools
or other loose articles are removed from all parts of
the aeroiilane before motor is started.
(.5) When ins])ections arc completed and all is found
satisfactory, the chief mechanician shall report
"Readv" to the ])ilot about to make the flight, notify-
ing him as to quantities of fuel, oil. and water on board,
condition of starter, fire extinguisher and other equip-
ment.
(fi) After the motor has been started and all men
of the crew are stationed as directed bv the chief mech-
82
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AEKOXAUTICS
anician, he shall hold up his right hand as a signal to
the pilot "All Clear."
(7) No person shall be permitted under any cir-
cumstances to pass under the lower plane or to stand in
line of the propeller blades after the motor has been
started or while there is a possibility of its being
started.
(8) Before aeroplane leaves runway note if pilot
and passenger have adjusted their safety straps, and
if either one has not done so invite his attention to
the fact.
Procedure Dukixg Flight
(1) The chief mechanician shall detail one of his
crew to the watch tower to keep his aeroplane in sight
until it is on the water returning to the runway, in
case there is no regular tower watch.
(2) The other members of the crew shall remain in
the vicinity of the hangar ready to receive their aero-
plane upon its return to the runway.
(3) In aeroplanes that are capable of carrying a
passenger, the chief mechanician shall be taken on the
first flight each day for observation of its behavior in
the air, with special reference to the power plant oper-
ation. The other members of the crew shall be given
flights as often as convenient.
Procedure After Flight
(1) Upon return of the aeroplane to the runway,
the inspections specified in paragraphs 1 and 2 of
procedure before flight shall be repeated. In addi-
tion, the pontoon shall be carefully examined for in-
dications of leaks or damages that ma^' result in leaks.
(2) Fuel, oil, and water shall be replenished as re-
quired.
(3) Minor repairs and readjustments as directed
by the officer assigned to the aeroplane shall be made
and recorded.
(4) See that the valve stems, push rods and con-
trols are well lubricated, especially after a long flight.
(•5) Upon completion of the aeroplane's last flight
Seaplanes being used by Belgians in the caini)aif;n in East Africa on tlie slin
Lake Tanganyika.
for the day, in addition to the above, the aeroplane
shall be carefully cleaned and dried down ; oil, grease,
and finger marks removed from fabric and varnished
woodwork with soap and fresh water or with the ap-
proved cleaning compound — care being taken to wash
off' all soap ; treat bare metal parts with oil or vaseline
as specified, being careful not to get any of it on the
fabric or other parts where not required. Put on
motor cover and see that vents in oil and fuel system
are closed ; open hand hole plates and allow interior of
pontoon to dry.
(6) After each 5 hours' flight drain the oil out of
the crank case and give the motor the kerosene treat-
ment as specified for its tyjie ; put in fresh supply of
oil.
Morning Routine
( 1 ) Dust off all parts of aeroplane thoroughly be-
fore removing motor cover and vent covers.
(2) Check up valve timing and interrupter gap, re-
adjusting to specified clearance if necessary.
(3) Check up propeller lock nut adjustment and
readjust if necessary.
(4) Make a careful examination for indications of
leaks over night in fuel, oil, and water service.
(5) IMake careful examination for development of
rust on wires and fittings ; where this is found the rust
shall be scraped off to bare metal and a coating of
vaseline applied.
(6) SupjDly aeroplane with fuel, oil, and water as
required.
( 7) Carry out the provisions of paragraphs 1, 2, 3,
and -i of procedure before flight. In addition,
the chief mechanician shall repeat the inspection of
the second mechanician.
(8) Oil valve stems, push rods, and controls.
(9) See all clear for turning over motor; start mo-
tor and allow it to idle for at least five minutes and
until cylinders are warmed up, then ver^' gradually
increase to full speed; note operation of motor, read-
justing carburetor to specified adjustment if neces-
sary ; when motor runs properly at all speeds, report
to the ofliccr to whom the aeroplane
is assigned that it is ready for serv-
ice.
General Rules
(1) Attention of all mechanicians
is called to the fact tliat their duties
in connection with aeroplanes and
jjower ]ilaiits is fully as ini])ortant as
regards efficiency and safety in flight
as tlic duties of the pilot. Inspec-
tions before and after flight shall
always be made in accordance with
the jirescribed Inspection Uontine for
the types of power plant and aero-
plane concerned.
SAFK'l^' OKDKKS AM) RKCiUl.A'I 1().\ S
83
(2) C'liicf mc'cliaiiiciuii.s sluill .-ill- lluil tlic rule is
strictly enforced tluit no nienil)ers of the crew .slmll
enfrjifre in any occujiation or coiiversiitioii not directly
connected with the work on the nerophine diiriiifr the
inspections before and after flight and durin^r niorn-
inf^ routine.
(.'J) No mechanician shall smoke while enfia^^cd in
work on an aero])lane.
(4) Gasoline shall be stowed only in the authorized
receptacles and in specified localities; these receptacles
shall he kept closed tight when not in use.
(.5) Smoking inside hangars is ])rohibited.
((>) No blow torch shall be used during the filling of
the gasoline tanks or when gasoline receptacles or vents
are open or where there is any j)ossibility of flame
from the torch causing a gasoline or oil fire.
(7) None other than the specified adjustments of
any part of the aeroplane or the power ])lant shall be
made unless authorized by proper authority; all
changes of adjustments will be recorded in the work
report (N. O. A. No. 4).
(8) Mechanicians shall not make any private col-
lection of tools or spare ])arts for use in effecting re-
})airs. Only such wire, bolts, nuts, cotter pins and
other material that is issued from stock shall be used
for I'eplacements in any ])art of the aei'oplane or ])ower
plant. Cotter ])ins or safety wires shall never be used
more than once.
(9) Mechanicians will not touch any ])art of an
aeroplane or its equipment to which they are not as-
signed without the consent of the chief mechanician in
charge of it.
(10) Visitors to hangars will not be permitted to
handle any ])art of an aeroj)lane or any of the apj)ar-
atus in the hangar.
(11) All mechanicians shall aid in enforcing the
Station Regulations relative to admission of visitors in
hangars and shops, and shall require all strangers or
unauthorized persons to show the standard pass signed
by the connnandant or the Captain of the Yard before
allowing admission to hangars, shops. Flying School
beach and offices.
Regulations for Flitxg School and Reports to
Be Maui;
Xame
Hangar
.Motor
Name
Record of flifilits
of Individuals.
Flifrlit Card.
Harifrar .Vcro-
plane Lop.
Itiforwtttion
Containi'd
Date, No. of fliplit,
aeroplane, length,
heiglit, glide, wind,
tenii)eratin'e, gusts,
nature.
Same as above, also
orders, water, fuel,
weiglits carried.
Record of eaeli
flight and total
hours ; reeord of
work on aero))lane.
Hangar Motor Log.
Dhpo.iiliuii.
1 — Officers ])ersonal
record.
1— Station files, Fly-
ing Seliool.
1— Central Office.
1 — Flving .Seliool.
.\c rojilane Log.
.Motor Log.
.\(ro])lane Work
Re])()rt.
Motor Work
Report.
Trouble Report.
Semi-Monthly
Rejiort of I'ly-
ing.
Weekly Report
of I'lying School
Operations.
Daily Report of
-Veroplanes.
Gas and Oil
Rejiort.
Weekly
Requisitions.
^lonthly Inven-
torv of Tools.
hifiiriiialii/n
t'imtnined
Record of cueh mo-
tor run, oil, gas,
total time and over-
h/iul work.
Record of Cfu-h
flight, aeroplane No.,
motor No., flight
No., <latc, duration
of flight, weather
and air conditions,
initial of pilot, na-
ture of flight.
.Same as Aeroplane
Log.
I'age, nature of
work, weekly, aero-
Jilane No., item .No.
dates, name of j)art,
descrii)tion <if work,
reason, authority, in-
s))ector"s initials.
.Same as ,\croplane
Work Re])ort, except
.Motor .Nuriiher.
File No., flight No.,
aeroplane or motor
.Vo., liart, name and
hx-ation, record of
trouble, Trou b I e
Board and Kecom-
mendations.
Names of officers
and men, number of
aero])laMes, time in
air since last re])ort,
total time to date.
Letter, telling aero-
planes availalile,
flights made, hours
of flight, remarks.
.\eroplaMes available
for use; aerojilanes
available for use
n.ival aviators.
Gas and oil served
out by gas house
each day — Installed
by officer in charge
gas and oil.
Supplies required by
aeroplanes for up-
kee|i and rejiair.
Tools on hand and
tools lost or worn
out during month
for each aeroplane.
iJitpotilion
Kej>t in hangar in
rough.
1— Central Office.
1 — .\iroiilane Log,
llyiiig .School.
I — .Motor Log, Fly-
ing .School.
1 — Ojje rations.
1 — -Motor Log, Fly-
ing .School, as above.
1 — .\iroplane Work
Rejiort Rook, Fly-
ing .School.
1— Central Office.
1— Motor Wf)rk Re-
port Book, Flying
School.
J— Central Office.
1 — Aeroplane Trou-
ble Report Hook,
or Motor Trouble
Report Book, Fly-
ing School.
1 — B u r e a u con-
cerned.
1— Central Office.
1 — Ol)erations.
1— C. O. North Car-
olina.
1 — Bureau of Nav.
1— Central Office.
1 — Flying .S c b o o 1
fdes.
1 — Connnandant.
1 — Flving .School
files. "
1 — Commandant.
1 — Flying .School
files.
1 — Planning Divi-
sion.
1 — Flying School
files. '
1 — Planning Divi-
sion.
1 — Planning Divi-
sion.
1 — Flving School
files. ■
K"pt in
rough.
banu
Reports are to be made as follows:
Aeroplane Work Rejiorts, by officer in charge of
aeroplane, and turned in on Monday a. ji. They will
he ty])ewritten and ]nit on file in Flying School for
signature.
Aeroplane Log Sheets, by oflicer in charge of acro-
]ilanc, and turned in as soon as page is finished — 9
tllohts.
84
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Individual Flight Reports will be filled in after each
flight. When page is full — 17 flights — turn page over
to Flying School yeoman who will typewrite copies for
signature and filing.
Trouble Reports, by officer in charge of aerojjlane,
as soon as aeroplane reaches beach and brought to
senior officer of Trouble Board on beach for filling in
"Cause and recommendations."
Student naval aviators on reporting to Flying
School will read over all Station Orders, which are to
be found on file in office, paying special attention to
orders regarding flying. Rules of Air and Beach, safety
orders and inspections. Also students will obtain from
office an individual fliglit record book and start same.
When assigned to duty in charge of an aeroplane,
an officer will assure himself that the aeroplane's rec-
ords arc up to date, and that tool inventory is correct
and show a full allowance. He will familiarize him-
self with the type of aeroplane, its routine o]5oration
and maintenance, all orders relative to daily inspec-
tions and inspections before and after flight. He will
see that hangar records of work on aeroplane and mo-
tor, of flights and of gasoline and oil used are care-
fully kept by the chief mechanician.
Memorcmda:
CHAPTKR XII
RULES FOR FLYING ISSUED BY BRITISH ROYAL FLYING CORPS
1. Aircraft Meeting Each OlJier.-
cnift iiu't'tin<4- each other etui on, and tliere])y
running' the risk of a coHision. must always
steer to the ri^ht. They must, in addition to
this, pass at a (hstance of at least 100 yards.
2. ^lircraft Overtakiiu/ Kacli Other. — Any
aireraCt overtaking; another aircraft is responsi-
ble for keepin<>- clear and must not a])pi-oach
within 100 yards on the ri<^ht or 8.)0 yards on
the left of the overtaken aircraft, and must not
pass directly underneath or over, save when the
vertical distance is in excess of 800 feet. Xo
aircraft shall remain ])ersistentlv below or above
another. In no case must the overtaking air-
craft turn in across the bows of the other air-
craft after passing it or move so as to foul it
in any way.
3. Aircraft Approaching Each Other in a
Cross Direction. — When any aii'craft are ap-
proaching one another in cross directions, then
the aircraft that sees another aircraft on its
right-hand forward quadrant — from degrees
(i.e., straight ahead) to 90 degrees on the right-
hand constitutes the right-hand forward quad-
rant — must give way, and the other aircraft
must keep on its course at the same level till
both are well clear.
4. Distance to he Maintained from Airships.
■ — When one of the aircraft is an airship, the dis-
tance of 100 yards prescribed above shall be in-
creased to (iOO yards.
5. Long Glides and Quick Rises. — Except
M-hen pi-earranged for instructional purposes or
in cases of emergency, long glides and quick
rises will be practised only to and from the usual
lanchng area.
6. Position of Other .iircraft to he Noted
Before Starting. — xVeroplane pilots will, when
starting, carefully note the position of other air-
craft and will be responsible for keeping clear
of them.
7. Danger Flag to he Hoisted Before Aero-
plane Fli/ing Commences. — Xo aeroplane fly-
ing will take place without a red flag being
hoisted at the aj>pointed jdace as a warning to
all concerned. In cases where the flag is likely
to be nn'staken for (jther danger flags, the flag
of the Royal Flying Corps will be hoisted im-
mediately below the vn] flag.
•When the flag is flying, no unauthorized per-
sons are to be allowed in the pioliibited area.
8. Officer liesponsihlc for h'cf/ulation of
Aeroplane Flying. — The seninr dUicci' Ijciong-
ing to an aeroplane s(iuadron of the Royal Fly-
ing Corps (^lilitary ^Ving) ])irsent on duty in
the landing area will be responsible for the con-
trol of the flying of all aero2)lanes using an
aeroch-ome or landing area reserved for War
Dejjartment use (except aeroplanes flying at
Farnborough under the control of the Super-
intendent of the Royal ^Vircraft Factory), and
persons on (hity in connection with such flying.
9. "Stop" Signal— The "stop" flag (Inter-
national Code flag "S," i.e., a square white flag
with a l)lue s(]uare in the center) will be the sig-
nal for all aeroplanes in the air to return to
the landing area ; it will be hoisted when neces-
sary by tlie order of the officer referred to in
paragraph 8. This officer may also suspend
any one from flying pending enquiry.
10. Boiling Practice. — Rolling practice will
not take place on the landing area whilst aero-
planes are flying.
11. Beginners Practice ulrea. — Beginners
will be restricted to such area as may be pre-
scribed by the officer referred to in paragraph 8.
12. Landing Marks. — Permanent marks will
be made on the ground at the usual landing
place to indicate the nearest points at which it
is safe for aeroplanes to land in directions fac-
ing the sheds, etc. An aei'oplane landing in
such a direction nnist be on the ground before
it reaches the point in (juestion.
13. Flying over toxcns. — Flying unneces-
sarily over towns and villages is to be avoided.
1-t. Dogs. — Xo dog not on a leash is allowed
in the starting and landing area while flying is
in progress.
CHAPTER XIII
TRAINING OF AVIATORS
The training of aviators is fast becoming an
exact science. When early in the war aviators
were needed in large numbers and were em-
ployed mainly for scouting, aerial coast patrol
and spotting of shots even the European navies
were willing to forego practically all the quali-
iications apart from flying. Later, as the du-
ties of aviators increased rapidly, and the short-
age of trained men made it necessarv to "break
in" civilians, tlieir training had to be carried
out on scientific lines.
Whenever tlie personnel available is un-
trained in naval matters, it is necessary to teach
the students the rudiments of naval discipline
and naval regulations as well as aeronautics.
Great Britain has been obliged to do so to ob-
tain military aviators, and the British system,
which has been adopted by her Allies and Can-
ada, is undoubtedly the best system to follow
to-day.
General W. S. Brancker, R.A., Director of
British Air Organization, has given a clear
idea of the extent to which civilians are con-
sidered suitable for service at the front. He
says in part:
"The civihan who wishes to join the Army or
!Xavy Air Service in Great Britain or Canada
at present has first to join the Service as a ca-
det and go through a course in the cadets'
school, at which military subjects as well as
aeronautic subjects are taught. He gets a
grounding in drill and discipline, care of arms,
interior economy, military law, and the use of
the machine gun ; this course lasts about two
iiioiitlis. From this the cadet is sent to a Fly-
ing Corps Training School, School of INIilitary
Aeronautics, where he begins his technical
training on the gi'ound. In Canada, and in
some cases in England, he gets the first men-
tioned military training at the same time as he
gets tlie rudimentary training in flying or
operation of <hrigil)les and observation l)al-
loons. He goes through a coiu'se in the care
of engines and rigging, is given some ideas of
the theory of flight, and is taught wireless sig-
naling and receiving.
"He gets instruction in the care of machine
guns, in the use of the camera, in map reading,
in the observation of artillery wire with models,
and in his spare moments he gets a certain
amount of drill. This course lasts another two
months, and if he gets through this success-
fully, he is given a commission on the General
List. He then joins a preliminary training
squadron as a pupil and starts his instruction
usually on the slow ^lam-ice Farman aero-
plane, his training both in military and technical
subjects going on concurrently. After reach-
ing a certain standard of efficiency and having
completed a certain number of hoiu's in the air,
he is sent on to an advanced training squadron
or service squadron, where he learns to fly
Service types of machines for military pur-
poses, and eventually qualifies for his wings.
He is then gazetted as a flying officer of the
Royal Flying Corps and posted to a service
squadron. If he shows exceptional promise as
a pilot after his qualification, he is sent to the
Central Flying School, where he is given extra
higher instruction on flying scouts. During
the i^eriod of advanced training, he goes
through a course of aerial gunnery away from
his squadron. The total time in the air usually
required to reach the qualification stage is about
thirty hours' solo in present circumstances, but,
of course, the length of time that it takes to
reach this standard depends entirely on the
weather and tlie number of aerojilanes avail-
able. Diu'ing the winter it works out to about
four months, but in the summer it is consider-
ably shorter."
All this may seem a long ])rocess, but it is
doubtless the best and will prove the sliortest in
the end in producing well-trained aviators.
CIIArTKli XIV
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION AND REQUIRED QUALIFICATIONS OF PERSON-
NEL FOR THE AIR SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY
1. In accordance with tlic department's order of
A|)i'il 10, 191'}, the following instructions for tlie train-
ing of ofHcers and enlisted men for the Air Service are
issued :
(a) Classes of officers and men U) l)c trained for
the Air Service will be detailed excrv three nionlhs he-
ginning Januai-y 1, 191 fi.
(b) The course of instruction will no! exceed ii
years for offict'rs and IS months foi- enlisted men.
{(•) Only officers and men wlio hold certificates of
<lualification as herein prescril)ed or have hei'etot'ore
(|ualified will be eligible to detail for duty in aircraft
in actual service.
(d) The classes of officers will be composed of
eight line oflicers. The ofllcers must have servid at
least two years in seagoing ships.
(e) An officer desiring instruction in aeronautics
must make official a|)plication and ])ass tlie |)hysical
examination prescribed b\- the Kureau of ^Medicine and
Surgery. The senior officer present will at once have
applicants examined physically and forward the re-
port of such examination with application.
(/) The classes of enlisted men will be composed of:
Eight chief petty officers, seaman branch.
Two chief petty officers, preferably machinist's
mates.
Two petty officers, first class, preferably car-
penter's mates.
Two petty officers, second class, preferably elec-
trician's or gunner's mates.
Two seamen.
(g) Enlisted men, to be eligible for this duty, must
have had at least two years' service in a seagoing shi]),
must be under forty years of age, and must be recom-
mended by their commanding officers on account of
their very good record.
(/t) The eight chief petty officers of the seaman
branch will be trained to steer aircraft and will be re-
quired to pass the same physical examination required
of officers detailed to aeronautic duty. The remain-
der of each class will be trained in handling aircraft
machinery.
(i) The commander in chief, .Vtlantic Elect, will
select these classes of enlisted men, and all requests for
this detail should be made to him.
(j) A senior officer present may act immediately
ujjon requests foi- instruction in aeronautics if away
from an Atlantic h(jme jiort and facilities exist for car-
rying on the instructions under his connnand.
(/r) Iv'u-h o(lic( T or man regularly ordered to dutv
involving actual flying in aiici-aft will be gi\en orders
by the commanding officer of his shi]) or station when
he takes u|) that duty, a))pointing him as a student or
(jualified aviator or as a student or qualified airman
involving actual flying in aircraft in accordance with
act of Congress pas.sed .M.ircli S, 1915. These orders
will be forwarded to the department for approval be-
fore exti-a compensation is ])aid.
(1) Oflicers detailed for aeronautic duty will be
classed as, viz.:
Student naval aviators.
Naval aviators.
Na^■y air ])ilots, aeroplane.
Navy air jiilots, dirigible.
^Military aviator.
(m) Enlisted men detailed for aeronautic duty will
be classed as, viz:
Student airmen.
Airmen.
Quartermasters, aeroplane.
Quartermasters, dirigible.
^Machinists, aeronautic.
These classifications designate the dutv that en-
listed men are qualified to perform in aircraft and do
not affect their regular ratings in the service.
(n) This circular will be revised each six months.
For this purpose the commandant of the United States
Navy Aeronautic Station, Pensacola, will convene a
board of naval aviators on the 1st of June and 1st of
December to rcconmniid the necessary corrections and
revision for ])ul)lication of this circular on the 1st of
July and 1st of January, respectively. Thus the re-
([uirements should be established every six months to
keep U]) with ])rogress, and also anticipate the most
probable ])rogress of the near future, so that the re-
(piirements will be possible of accomplishment by those
officers and men detailed for training on the date of is-
sue of the circular.
2. -Course of Ixstriition of STrnEXT Naval
Aviators
(1) Upon reporting at the aeronautic station stu-
dent naval aviators will supply themselves with such
88
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
textbooks as are prescribed by the commandant of the
station.
(2) The course of instruction begins in aeroplanes
and will be grouped under tiie following heads :
(«) Shopwork.
(fe) Lectures.
(c) Fh'ing lessons.
(d) Elementary flying.
(e) Advanced flying.
(/) Aircraft station administration.
(g) Examinations.
(3) Aeroplane shopwork will be divided into three
parts: (a) ^Machinery, (b) Structural, (c) Instru-
ment. They will be required to do the actual work as
far as possible with necessary advice from the instruct-
ors.
(«) Machinery work: Disassembly, reassembly, in-
stallation, and adjustment of all parts of each type of
machinery plant at the station.
(b) Structural work: Disassembly, reassembly, in-
stallation, and adjustment of each type of aerody-
namic instrument at the station.
(4) Lectures. — The officer in charge of Flying
School will lecture or arrange for lectures once each
week. These lectures will be prepared so as to assist
in the progress of the course of instruction, also to
stimulate original thought and development. Copies
of lectures will be furnished the students.
(.5) Flijiiig Lessons. — During their first w-eek at the
station students will be given occasional flights as
passengers for the purpose of giving them an idea of
the "air feel" and for general observation of the han-
dling of an aeroplane. The actual flying lessons will
then begin and progress through the following:
(a) Adjustment of safety jacket and straps.
(fe) Inspection of machine required in safety or-
ders.
((•) Handling controls while machine is on the
ground.
((7) Handling controls in straight horizontal flights.
(e) Handling controls and throttle in straight hor-
izontal flights.
(f) Turning, right and left.
(g) Figure eights.
(/() Straight glides.
(i) Get-aways.
(j) Landings, with and without power.
(A-) Spirals.
(/) Rough-weather flying.
(m) Taking care of all casualties or unusual con-
ditions that will be encountered in flight that can be
safely demonstrated by the instructor.
At least once each week during the first month the
student is flying, and thereafter once each month, he
shall be examined physically immediately after a flight
by the medical officer of the station, who will keep a
1 Six Cylinder Vcrti':!! \' i !. .1 \l„i(,i' ii
(Hall .Scott).
2 Motor Exhaust Pipes to protect tlie pilot 12
from gases. 1 :i
3 Tractor Propeller directly connected to 11
motor
4 Vertical Radiators, one on either side of 1 5
fuselage, for cooling the water, circulat
ine around the cylinders. IG
5 Passengers Cock-Pit {located at the center
of gravity). 17
6 Pilots Cock-Pit (hehind the passengers is
sent). 10
7 Vertical Finn or Stabilizer which keeps the 20
aircraft on a straight course.
8 Rudder Hinged to the Vertical Finn (for 21
steering to right or left). 22
9 Tail Float (keeps the tail of the fuselage out 2:!
of the water). 2-1
10 Main Float or Pontoon, Martin type (sup-
ports the aeroplane on the water).
I'nnt'uni .Supports (keep the flo;it in i>n<\- 'J.">
iiiii. ).
Step (to assist in getting out of the water).
Left Wing Float. 26
Kight Wing Float (keeps the wings from
striking the water on landing). 27
Wing Float Wire Bracing (to keep floats 28
in position).
Small Central Wing Panel or " Engine 29
Panel."
Upper Right Wing Panel. ^0
Upper Left Wing Panel. :il
Lower Left V\'ing Panel.
Uj>per Left Wing Flap (to restore
ecpiilihrium). 32
Upper RiL-lit Wing Flap. 33
Ixiwer Risht Wing Flaii.
Lower Riirht Wing Flap Tiever. 34
Upper Right Wing Flap Lover (for operat-
ing the ailerons).
Wire ( 'nnnpi'tions lietwoen Ul'lKM' :inil Lnwrr
AileiolLS (to cuu^e theui to wuik in uni-
son).
Horizontal Stabilizer or Tail Plane (to keep
aeroplane on straiirht course).
Right Outer Forward Tnterplane Strut.
Left Outer Rear Interplane Strut (for
spacing planes).
Interi)lane Hracing Cables (lift wires) (for
carrying lift).
Tnterplane Bracing Cables.
Interplane Bracing Cables (incident wires)
(for bracing between forward and rear
struts).
Pontoon Guys or Bracing Wires.
Metal Cowling of the Fuselage (to guard
against lire).
Fuselage or Body (covered with fabric sim-
iliar to wings).
COURSES OF IXSTRUCTIOX
89
1 Cciilor Wine Piinel (between uKitor-car-
ryiiiK struts).
2 heft I'lJner Wins Section (between motor-
ciirrjini; struts and outer struts).
3 Left OverliJineine I'pper Wing Section
(extentlin;; beyond Ihe outer struts).
4 lifft Wint; Kbi]) or Ailciun (for hiteral or
rolling roiitrnl).
5 Ivit;lil rp|)er Wine Section.
6 Ui^bt Overbitneine Wine Section (tbe
above mentioned surfut-es comprise the
liftine urea of tbe upper plane).
7 Wing-Flap Control Arms (for operating
wing flaps).
8 Wing-Flap Control Cables (connectinc:
ailerons with i)il(tt's control).
9 Overhang liracing Wires.
10 "Non-Skid" or "Side-Slip" Pianos (to
cluH'k skidding or side-slii)pine).
11 Masts to Support Side Slip Planes and Car-
rying Overhang liracing Wires.
12 Lower " Sidewalk " Section, extending
front the hull of the motor-carrying
struts.
13 Lower Left Wing Section.
14 Right Lower Wing Section (the surfaces
I'J, i:j and M. rmtiprisi' tlit- liltini; an*u
of tbe lower plane).
15 Central Interplane Struts.
IG Motor-Currying Interplane Struts.
17 Front Intermediate Strut.
18 Hear Interrjiediate Strut.
19 Front F.nd or Outer .Strut.
20 Rear End or Outer Strut (the struts men-
lioiu'd above arc; part of tbe system of
bracing between the planes).
21 Foreand Aft Wing Bracing Cables ("In-
cidence Wires ").
22 *' Lift Wires" (to transmit the lifting ef-
fect of the wings to the hull).
23 Landing Wires (to brace the wings in land-
ing).
24 Wine Pontoon or Float (to keep the wing
tips dear of the water).
25 Left Propeller — revolves in clockwise di-
rection when viewed from the rear.
Propellers being forward of the planes
are in " tractor " position.
26 Riglit Propeller — rotates in anti-clock di-
rection.
27 Curtiss Motor 100 h. p. ("V" Type. 8
cylinders).
'Jf* ( oi)per Tips on Propfdler to prev<-iit hphtting.
'JU Propeller Hub connecting propeller directly
lo the crankshaft of the motor.
30 Radiator for cooling wuttr which circu-
lates around the cylinders of the motor.
31 Oasolinc " Gravity Tank." (Supplied from
the main fuel tank by mcauH of a wind-
mill pump).
32 Outrigger. This supports the tail group.
33 Tail Plane or Horizontal Stabili/.er to keep
a machine on a direct courwe.
34 Tail Flap or Elevator for pitching control
or ascending and descending.
35 Vertical Fin to assist in maiDtaiDtng a
straight course.
36 Rudder for steering to the right and left.
37 Tail Brates which run from the bull to the
tail plane to support the tail group.
38 Boat Hull. Frame and keel of ash. plank-
ing of mahogany and cedar, covered with
canvas.
39 Planing Fins to assist the machine in ris-
ing from tbf water.
40 Metal Tube Bracing from the hull to sup-
port the motor-carrying struts.
41 Supports for the Planing Fins.
careful record of his ])liysical condition, and report to |)rogress in clenieiitarv Hviii;^ and as to his practical
the conimandant if there is any change that is detri-
mental to fivino".
When an instructor is satisfied tliaf oiic of his stu-
dents is fa,r cnouf>h advanct'd in the ahove items of
training to i\y alone, he will notify the officer in charge
of Flying School, who will take one or more flights
Avith the student; if he is then satisfied with the stu-
dent's ability and the medical officer reports him
physically fit, he will he permitted to fiy alone and go
ahead with elementary flying.
(6) Elementary Flying. — During this jjeriod the
student will make only such nianceuvers and stay in the
air for such periods as are directed hy liis "flight or-
ders." The following will be covered in order:
and theoretical knowledge as shown by the examina-
tions he will be f)ermittcd to go ahead with the ad-
vanced flying under the sui)ervision of the officer in
charge of the Flying School.
(T) Advanced Fli/inr/. —
(a) Stai'ts from catajjult.
(b) Landings in deep-sea waves.
(c) Bomb-dro])ping jn-actice.
(f/) Flying in formation.
(e) Sending and receiving radio messages in the air.
(8) Station Administration. — During the period
the student is carrying on advanced flying work he
will be relieved from charge of an aeroplane and will
(rt) Get-aways, straight courses, turns and land- go through the following details:
ings into the wind ; good weather.
(ft) Figure eights and landings with the wind;
good weather.
(c) Spirals; good weather.
{d) Higher altitude fiying; good weather.
(e) Rough weather flying.
(f ) Course by compass.
{g^ Endurance flights.
During this period, when suflnciently advanced in
the shop course, the student will have an aeroplane as-
signed to him for care, preservation, and keeping its
logs and records. When his instructor and the officer
in charge of the Flying School are satisfied as to his
(fl) Subinspector of machinery work.
(b) Subinspector of aeroplane work.
(c) Assistant ])lanning sujierintcndcnt.
While on these details he will familiarize himself
with the following subjects:
(«) Ins])ection of repairs, alterations, assembly,
and test of machinery.
{h') Insjiection of repairs, alterations, assembly,
and test of aeroj)lanes.
(r) Routing and filing correspondence.
(J) Planning division's methods of originating
woi'k.
90
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
(e) Preparations of specifications for requisitions.
(f) Preparation of requisitions and purchase of ma-
terial.
(g) Accounting methods.
(9) Examinations. — Written examinations in the-
oretical and practical aviation will be given once each
month, the questions being prepared by the officer in
charge of the Flying School and approved by the com-
mandant. In theory the questions will be limited to
subjects discussed in the jDrescribed textbooks and
lectures. The practical questions will be limited to
subjects involving shopwork and practical flying.
Students will be marked monthly as follows :
Subject.
(1) Adaptability for Air
Service
(2) Bearing and conduct.
(3) Flying
(4) Practical knowledge.
(5) Written examination.
Weif/ht. Marked by —
3 Officer in charge of Flying
School and instructor as-
signed to.
2 Commandant.
2 Officer in charge of Flying
School and instructor as-
signed to.
2 Instructor assigned to.
1 Commandant and officer in
charge of Flying School.
Marks will be given on a scale of 4, anything below
2.5 being unsatisfactory. Any student whose average
is unsatisfactory in any subject at the end of any
month will be reported to the department and may be
recommended for detachment. [Monthly marks will
be averaged, and the result will be the official mark for
the student naval aviator's course. After jjassing the
final written and practical examinations, and after
having had at least 50 hours' flying, students, upon
recommendation of the officer in charge of Flying
School and apjjroval of commandant will take the fly-
ing tests prescribed for qualification as naval avia-
tors.
(10) Flying Tests for Qualification as Xaral Avia-
tor. — The tests will be conducted by a board of not
less than two naval aviators, designated by the com-
mandant, and the following will be done, in the order
named :
(fl) Climb to an altitude of 6,000 feet, as shown by
a recording barograph, and glide with motor idling to
a normal landing within 200 feet of a mark previously
designated by the board ; horizontal flights to be re-
FRONT
SIDE
DIAGR/^M OF THE
DEPERDU5S1N CONTROL
A -AllERONfi. RUDDER CONTROL WHEEL
b- pivot for elevtttor control coluhh
c-connectinc rod to lever
d- elevator comtrou lever
e- elevator control wire*
r- aileron control wire.s
0-rudde.r. control wirk&
h-ruookh foot-bar
Diagram sliowing the Dei)erdnssin method for controlling the acroidane, adojjtcd Ijy the I'nited .States .Vrmy and Navy.
COl'liSKS OF iXSTl{['CTl()X
'.n
sunu'd twice (lining the descent, Iiiit not witliln tlie last
1, ()()() feet.
(/;) Make a spii-al f^lide ujlli iiiotDr ciil (jII'
(st()|)|)ed) Ironi an altitude of !$,()()() fict, as slioun hy
a recording bai'ogi'apii, and niai\e normal landing
within 200 feet of a given mark jtreviously designated.
(c) Make a landing in a seaway where height of
wave is at least !3 feet, without damage to any ])arl of
aeroplane.
(d) Make a straight course and return Ifetween two
objects not less than 5 niiU's apart in a wind of not less
than 20 miles per iiour and not moi-e tlwui four points
forward or ahaft the heani, in older to demonstrate
ability to maintain a given course.
{e) Demonstrate to the satisfaction of the houi-d
ability to fly in wry had weather.
(f) Start a fiiglit from the catajmlt after jjer.son-
ally making all adjustments.
Upon the completion of these tests the officer will be
designated a naval aviator, and be eligible lor further
training in aeronautics to qualify as a Navy air pilot
or as a military aviator by taking a course at the
United States Army Aviation School.
ii. C'OIKSK OK I.VSTKIf TIOX OF N.WAL AvLVTOBS FOR
N.wv AiK I'li.oTS (Akkoi'lane)
(1) Only coijimi>sioned line officers who have quali-
fied as aviators will In- detailed to this course.
(^) The comnjandant of the aeronautic station
will I'ecommend for this course of instruction aviators
who have qualified, the recommendation to be based
u])on his o|)inion of their a])tness for this course in the
j)ro])ort ion of three-fourths of each class qualified as
aviators.
(.'5) 'J"he course of instruction sliall consist of:
(a) 'J'aking sights in aerojjlanes.
(b) Working out sights while Hying.
(c) Compensating aeroplane comj)asses.
(cZ) Installing aeroplane ccjmpasses.
(e) Open-sea scouting flights.
(/") Solution of scouting jirtjblems.
(g) Controlling the fire of the guns of an aero-
plane.
( l) U])on the completion of this course the naval
aviator foi- N'avy air jiilot (aei-ojjianes) shall be given
FR ONT
SI DE
DIAGRAM OF THE ^^
CURT 1 55 CONTROL <
A -ELEVATOR &■ RUDDER CONTROL WHEEL
B-PIV0T rOtK ELEVATOR COHTROL
C -ELEVATQR CONTROL WIRES
D - RWODKR CONTROL WIRES
C - SHOULDER YOLK-AILERON CONTROL
F - SHOULDER YOLK RADIUS RODS
Q -AILERON CONTROL VlflRES
Diafrrani showirifr the Curtiss imtlioil for iDntnillinfr tlie aeroplane. .Mso used liy tlie Inited States Army and Navv.
92
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
an examination, tlieoretical and practical, covering all
points of his instruction. This mark added to 4 times
his final mark for naval aviator's course, divided bj' 5,
will ffive his grand final mark for determination of air
pilot certificate number.
Upon successful completion of the examination the
naval aviator will be designated Navy air pilot (aero-
plane) and issued a certificate, numbered according to
his standing in tlie class with which he qualified as
Navy air ]3iIot. Only those line officers who liave
qualified as Navy air pilots (aerojilane) are eligible to
command Navy aerojjlanes.
The course of instruction for Navy air pilots is at
present simple, because the aeroplanes now available
have not greater capacity. These requirements will
be more comprehensive in the next issue of this circular
as a result of better air-craft equipment and more ex-
perience in the art of aerial navigation.
■i. CorsE OF IxsTRUCTiox OF Naval Aviatoes foe
Navy Aie Pilots (Dirigible)
(1) Only commissioned line officers who have quali-
fied as naval aviators are eligible for detail to this
course.
(2) The commandant of the aeronautic station will
recommend for this course of instruction aviators who
have qualified, based upon his opinion of their aptness
for the course in the proportion of one-fourtli of each
class qualified as aviators.
(3) This course will include instruction in the oper-
ation of free balloons, kite balloons, and dirigibles. A
more detailed course of instruction will be drawn up
when the capabilities of free balloons, kite balloons,
and dirigibles have been more fully investigated and
these air craft are available for use at the station.
(4) Officers must qualify as Navy air pilots (dir-
igible) in order to be eligibl^> for duty in these air
craft in actual service.
5. Course of Ixstructiox for Student Aiemen
(1) Upon reporting at the aeronautic station en-
listed men will be assigned for instruction in the crews
of aeroplanes in commission, and will become familiar
with the general characteristics of the aeroplanes,
their care, preservation, and repair. After one month
of duty as members of crews of aeroplanes, the men will
be assigned as members of crews of free balloons or
kite balloons. Upon the completion of one month in
such crews the men will be reassigned among the crews
of dirigibles. Upon the com|)letion of one month's
service as members of dirigible crews the men will be
given sho|) work, as follows:
AEROXAUTXC M AT U IN Kit V-ERECTING SHOP COURSE
(fi) Work in disinomil iiig niofors.
(h) Cleaning u|( various pai'ts of motors.
(c) UebabbittJng bearings.
((/) Grinding in valves.
(c) Assembling motors.
(/') Setting valves and timing motors.
(g) Instruction in principle and operation of mag-
netos.
(7i) Dismounting and assembling of carburetors.
(i) Testing motor on stand.
In all the above student airmen will act as assist-
ants to airmen, air machinists, or yard machinists in
their regular work.
Upon the completion of the machinery-erecting shop
course (one month), student airmen will be assigned
to the aeroplane-erecting shop for instruction. Their
instruction will be grouped under the following general
heads :
(a) Assembly and disassembly of the various types
of aeroplanes.
(fo) Renewing control, brace, and plane wires.
(c) Lining up planes.
{(!) Lining ujd tail.
(e) Setting balancing flaps.
(f) Ajiplication of dope to fabric.
(g) Patching planes.
(/() Installing ])ower plant.
In all the above student airmen will act as assist-
ants to airmen, air quartermasters, or yard shopmen
in their regular work. After one month in the erect-
ing shop, student airmen will be given an examination
covering all points in the course of instruction. Upon
passing this examination, student airmen will be des-
ignated airmen and assigned as regular members of
crews of aeroplanes, free and kite balloons, and diri-
gibles, and selected for special course of instruction as
machinists ( aeronautic ) .
Throughout the course of instruction for student
airmen they will be given as many flights as practicable
in aeroplanes, free and kite balloons, and dirigibles to
accustom them to actual air work.
6- Course of Ixstructiox for Quartermasters
(Aekoplaxes)
( 1 ) From among those airmen having had at least
three months' service as such, and whose Navy ratings
are C. P. 0. and P. O., first class, of the seaman
branch, shall be selected the requisite number to take
the course of instruction for training as quartermas-
ters (aero))lane).
The flying instruction shall be the same as that
given student naval aviators. During the period of
this instruction airmen for cpiartermasters (aero-
plane) sliall ])e given lectures and shall be required to
study such books, ])a])ers, etc., as are designated by
the officer in charge of l'''lying School. \Mu ii the air-
iii.Hii has coniiilrlcd this instnietion lu' shall be given
an examination enibracing all jjoints covered by the
course of instruction.
COURSES OF IXSTJ{('CT10\
98
U])oii tliu coniplftioii of llie cmir.sc and ])a.s^iiiy tliu
I'equircd mental examination, and wlien the airman has
luul 50 l)oiirs fljiiifj', if rucoiiimLiuled by tlic ofliccr in
ciiarfTc of r'ljiny Scliool and approved Ijy tiie com-
mandant, lie shall take the flying test prc.scril)cd for
student naval aviatoi-s. If successful the airman is
now given a quartermaster's (aero^jlanes) certificate.
T. Coriisi: OK IxsTitrcTiox for Quauteumasters
( DllUGIUI.Es)
(1) J"'r()iii among tliose airmen having liud al least
three months' service as sucli, and whose Navy ratings
are C. P. (). or P. O., first class, of the seaman hrancli,
sliall be selected the recjuired number to take the course
of instruction for training as quartermasters (diri-
gibles).
The course of instruction in operation of free bal-
loons, kite balloons, and dirigibles shall be the same as
that required of naval aviators undergoing instruction
for designation as Navy air ])ilots (dirigibles), excci)t
that they shall not be required to navigate a dirigible.
The training will be in handling these aircraft and in
steering dirigibles. Upon the completion of this
course the airman shall be given an examination em-
bracing all points of his instruction.
Upon passing the examination, and if recommended
by the officer in charge of the Flying School and aj)-
proved by the commandant, the airman shall take the
prescribed test for qualification as quartermaster (dir-
igibles).
This test will be decided upon later when the capa-
bilities of free balloons, kite balloons, and dirigibles
have been fully investigated.
Upon successful completion of test the airman shall
be given a certificate of qualification as quai'termaster
(dirigibles).
8. Course of Instruction for Machinists
(Aeronautic)
(1) From among those airmen of the engineering
and artificer branches who have had at least three
months* service as airmen shall be chosen as many men
as are required to take the course of instruction for
machinists (aeronautic). These men shall be assigned
to the machinery' erecting shop for a period of one
month. The instruction in this shop shall be under
the following general heads :
(a) Explanation of theory of valve and magneto
settings.
(b) Practice in the above.
(c) Overhauling all types magnetos in use at sta-
tion.
(d) Explanation of theory of all tyjus carburetors
in use at station.
(e) Adjustment of all types carburetors on motors
on testing stands.
(/) Take charge of grouj> in the disassembly, over-
haul, reassembly, and adjustment of motors (routine
shojnvork).
(ii) The airman under instruction for machinist is
now assigned to the machine shoj), wlicre he is first in-
structed in the use of, then re<|iiired to operate for
routine wcjrk, the following tools:
(«) Scn-w-cut ting lathe.
(b) Lathe foi' gelicl'al work.
(c) Radial drill.
(d) Sensitive diill.
(r) Sha])er.
(/) (irindiiig maciiine.
{[/) Boring machine.
(!3) After the maehiiu-shop course the airman is
next assigned to the copiM-r shoj) foi- a jjeriod of two
weeks, where he is first instructed, then required to
assist in the making of gasoline tanks, repair of gas
tanks and radial iir>, put ting copj)er sheathing on pro-
peller blades, balancing ])roj)ellers, co])per sheathing
aero|)lane s))ar and rib joints, engine bed joints, etc.
(4) I'ollowiiig tlu' copper-shop course the airman
is gi\en two weeks in the blacksmith shoji, where he is
first instructed, then recjuired to turn out for actual
use aeroplane fittings, steel-tube braces, engine-bed
joint fittings, steel-tube braces, engine-bed joint fit-
tings, etc.
(5) The airman is then yiassed on to the gas plant
for balloons and dirigibles, where he is first instructed,
then required to take charge of operation of the plant
for the inflation and deflation of balloons and dirigi-
bles.
(6) The airman is next given an examination cover-
ing all points embodied in the course of instruction,
and if he passes is given a machinist's (aeronautic)
certificate.
Note. — If the equi])ment of the station jirccludes
the ])ossibility of any part of the foregoing instruc-
tion, such part as is impossible to give shall be omitted
from the course and the airman advanced to machin-
ist regardless of the omission.
Victor Blue,
Chief of Bureau.
Course of Instruction for United States Stu-
dent Naval Airmen
Herewith is given an outline of the course of in-
struction for student airman at the Pensacola, Flor-
ida, station.
Upon reporting to tlie flying school students are di-
vided into sections, each section spending about twelve
weeks on shop instruction and about a month on the
beach with aeroplanes. When the marks in all shops
94 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
and on the beach are satisfactory, the student is quali- (d) The general design of various fittings used,
fied as an airman. such as wing fittings, strut fittings, pontoon fittings,
The terms of the coui-se are as follows: fuselage fittings, control surface fittings, etc.
The time spent in the various departments is as fol- (e) Which aeroplane used turnbuckles in their wir-
lows : ing and which do not. How may an aeroplane be as-
.„.^, _ i-nTii-io sembled if no turnbuckles are used?
Erecting Shop 3 weeks Multiple J /rx to. i i. i i t i i.- ..
-^ . -,, ,-, ^c ii r, (i) At what angle are pontoons set relative to
Motor Erecting Shop 3 " " 2 .^ ' , , ^ ^
^ , . ,*,, ^ , -, t a 1 Wings, and reason for same.
Carburetors & :\Iagnetos 1 week " 1 * '
Joiners, Cooper & Fabric Shops . 9, weeks " 1 IV
Ba"o°"s 1 ^'^^^ ][ 1 (a) How are propellers balanced.?
Hangars -i weeks 2 ^j^^ j^^^^^. ^^.^ propellers secured to the various
2. Ujjon becoming qualified airmen the required "'° °'''"
1 4-ci. J i.(\ 4- 4. n u 1 „^ A +K„ (c) How are propellers marked and what record IS
number of Student Quartermasters will be selected, the ^ ' \ f
rest of the qualified airmen will undergo a course of ^P " ^^™'
instruction for the rating of machinist (aeronautic). (^) ^ow are aeroplanes marked.?
3. Student Quartermaster will receive instructions V
in flying and will undergo a theoretical course of in- / \ rr, .i iir xii. ..•
- . *' . . " (a) 1 race the gas loads from tank to motor in
struction in aeronautics. ,, ..^f , i
^, , . , . » 1 ■ • X, the different aeroplanes,
■i. Ihe course of instruction tor machinists ^, , .,., . ,i i ■ i ji i_ n ^ l n • xt
. ,,-,,, (b) What method IS employed to nght hre in Navy
(aeronautic) will be published later. j. ^ d
. tractors .
.5. ^larks on all shops will be on a scale of 5. A /• \ xt i i j • i- /• ii j-a:
,„, . ,, ... (c) Names and general description of the ditrer-
niark of three m each and every subject is necessary . ., i r . n- ^ • a- \ >.
•> •' •' ent methods of controlling an aeroplane in flight.
' ■ (d) What arrangement is made to control cer-
A .^ ^ ,.^ f^^^.^,^,, c,,^„ tain aeroplanes on the water.?
Aeroplane Erection Shop ^
Shop Instructor (Lieut., j.g.). Asst. Shop In- 'I
structor (Lieut., j.g.). Assistant Instructors : (petty In addition to the above general question on con-
oflicers or civilians). struction and assembly of aircraft, the knowledge of
J the following with reference to experiments and tests
is required: —
(a) Names of all parts of aeroplanes. . . . , . . ,
/UN T.-- 1 f I • 1 1 ■ • 4^ .,o (a) Method of testing material with Tims Olsen
(b) Kinds of material used in wings, pontoons, ^ / . »
_ 1] 1. 4. J? 1 4. Testing Machine and general description of same.
propellers, struts, fuselage, etc. » s i
/ -. T 4. 4. • 1 • 4-1 r«' 4- 1 (b) ]\Iethod of testing material for compression,
(c) Instruments carried in the dmerent aeroplanes ^ ' . . .» ' '
1.1 4! 1 and description of machine for same,
and the purpose of each. ^ ......
//i\ \ -4. u J- • 4-4.1 „•„.,„ (c) iMethod of stretching wire, including descrip-
(d) Ap])roximate overall dimension of the various . ^ ' . s ' » f
. ( , tion of machine and reason for stretching.
types of aeroplanes. . . . . „ .
(d) Method of bending wire; description of wire
II bending machine.
(a ) Method of assembling. ( e) ^lethod of finding center of gravity of an aero-
(b) Method of wiring and location of struts. plane.
(c) Method of securing wings to fuselage in differ- Motor Erecting Shop
ent types of aeroplanes. „i t i. l rr ■ l ■ \ \ 4. ci t i
,,■;,,,,,' . , , , . ... Shop Instructor (Lieut, i.g.). Asst. Shop Instruc-
(d) Method of securing pontoons to planes in dii- , ,t- i • \ » • i. i t i. l / 44 41:
. , . 1 tor (Lieut. ]-g.). Assistant Instructors: (petty ofh-
ferent types of aeroplanes. . .,.' ,
/ s ,, ., 1 4. • 1 • , , ,1 ,• 1 cers or civilians).
(e) jNIethod of securing horizontal rudder, vertical
rudder, ailerons or wing flaj)s, vertical fin, and stabil-
izer of various aeroplanes. (a) Lecture on the principles of the internal com-
bustion engine or gasoline motor.
in
1. Definition of a motor.
(a) Factor of safety usually re<|uired in aeroplane ^ Explanation of the term cycle,
construction for the use of the Navy. 3 ^^^.^ ^,^j f^^^. ^^.^j^ ^^otors.
(b) Kind and approximate size and strength of
control wires and other wires. ('') Practical explanation of motor.
(c) Describe three ways of making a wire terminal 1. Function of different ])arts.
and tell which way is most efficient. 2. General nomenclature.
COURSES or IXSTRUCTION
95
II
(a) Disassembling of a motor.
1. Steps in disassembling.
2. Detailed nomenclature.
3. Material used in different yiarts and wliy?
4. Forms and size of holts, parts, etc., and reason for
same; locking dcx ices and reasons for same.
5. Notes on any worn, cracked, bent, twisted or found
weakiiud part and tlie reason for this condition
and how to correct.
Ill
(a) Overhaul of motors.
1. Cleaning of parts.
2. Tests for alignment, as far as cam-shaft, main
shaft, face j)lates, and gear balance.
3. Trace oiling and water systems.
4>. Thorough examinations of all ])arts for flaws or
worn places as scorings in cylinders, etc.
IV
(a) Assembling of motor.
Spotting in main-shaft.
Fitting Cam-shaft.
Reaming out wrist-pin bearings.
Test main-shaft for balance.
Grinding in of valves and testing same.
Testing valve springs, exhaust and intake.
Fitting thrust block.
General assemblage.
(b) Timing of motor and valve setting.
1. Method of adjusting valve clearance and reason
for clearances.
2. ^Method of timing magneto and reasons for advance.
(c) Final adjustments and connections before go-
ing to test stand.
V
(a) Test stand.
1. Connecting up motor.
2. Securing propeller.
3. Data required for motor tests and the requirements
for an aeronautic motor.
(b) Motor troubles.
1. Causes.
2. Results.
3. Connections.
(c) Care and upkeep.
Carbuhetors and IVIagxetgs
Shop Instructor (Lieut, j-g-). Assist. Shop In-
structor (Lieut, j.g.). Assistant Instructors (petty
officers or civilians).
(aj Carlnii'ctors.
1. Theory of tin- carliurettjr.
2. Theory of tin- /enitli carburetor.
3. Jets, chokes and thiir uses.
4. Carburetion troubles and tlieir remedies.
II
(a) Magnetos.
1. Fleet rical j)rincij)les of the magneto.
2. High and low tension magnetos.
3. Dixie principle.
4. Rosch princij)le.
5. The construction of both magnetos, and the dif-
ference between them.
6. Distributor, its construction and use.
7. Magneto circuit.
8. Spark plugs.
9. Coils.
10. Timing and filing oi-der.
11. Magneto troubles and remedies.
JOINKK, CoiM'EU ANT) F.MIRIC SlIOPS
Shop Instructor (Lieut, j.g.). Assistant Instruc-
tor.
Joiner Shop.
(a) Nomenclature of ])arts.
(b) Wings, fins, struts and stabilizers.
1. Construction of ribs.
2. Longitudinals.
3. Spars.
(c) Floats.
1. Outside: keel, steps.
2. Inside: bulkjicads, frames, supports.
3. Drains.
4. [Methods of fastening to aeroplane.
5. Various types.
IL
Copper shop.
(a) Gasoline tanks.
(b) Fittings.
(c) Leads, overflow pipes, exhaust pipes, and
drains.
(d) Patterns and shapes.
(e) Rrazing.
IIL
Fabric Shop.
(a) Material used in covering.
(b) [Method of securing to surfaces.
(c) Doping and varnishing.
96 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Ballooxs 1. Lay out to inflate.
/r- X • ^ t 4. ci T i 4. ~- Inflate when possible.
Shop Insti-uctor i Captain), Asst. hhop Instructor „ -- „. , i, , ■
,,. ^ ....,', i; , , , ,, n,. ^ "■ Handling balloon dunng ascension.
(Lieut, i.ff.). Assistant Instructors (petty officers and , ,, , e^ ^i- i f
^. \^ '^ ^^ "^ i. Make up as after flight.
ClVlhans). e- n i J 1 ■
' 5. Kepairs to labric.
Balloon' /■ r> t- • i
o. Cementing on rip panel.
(a) Lecture on free and kite balloons. 7. Nomenclature of all parts, lines and gear.
(b) Prepare balloon for flight. 8. Two hours or more in hydrogen plant.
31emoranda:
Lawrence B. Sperry and Caiit.iin L. A. Dewey, Aetinfr .ludpc Advocate, Eastern Department, U. S. Army during their flight
from Amityville, Long Island, to Boston, Mass., on Sc])teml)er :!(), lOKJ, made a flight of over one hour and one quarter in pitch
darl<ness before they landed at Block Island. The above ))hotograph shows the ruggedness of the place where they landed at
night. The flight was arranged as a military ex|)erinient and Major Carl F. Hartmann, Signal Corps, was to be the passenger
and to have charge of the experiment, but circumstances prevented his carrying out the plan.
CHAPTER XV
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE TRAINING OF AVIATORS
By Laavrexce B. Spekhy
INIuch has been said and written in the last
two years on the training of aviators, and we
of the United States are vitally interested in
the subject, since the recent appropriations
have assured . the forniation of a sizeable air
service. An investigation into the present
civilian aviation schools reveals the fact that
the men are turned out knowing only the rudi-
ments of flying and without being instructed
in tlie finer ])oints that are essential in the mak-
The General Aeroplane Company
flying boat equipped with 100
horse-power Curtiss motor.
.
irgj
^
--
.-....- . ._
98
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
To clear small Iniats tin- sraplaiir ]>ilijt must have a trained sense of distances.
ing of a capal)le aviator. Unnecessary risks
are taken by pupils in many of the schools,
which could easily be avoided if the proper in-
structions were given.
The following outline of instruction is one
that the writer, who has made a study of the
matter in the principal aerodromes of Europe
since the beginning of the war, considers would
render training in flying not only safe to the
pupil, but calculated to make him an experi-
enced pilot ready for military work.
First Stage. — The preliminary part of the
course may be divided into three parts:
1. The student pilot should take a few trips
as a passenger to accustom himself to air travel
and height, as well as to the ordinary ma-
noeuvers of the machine.
Cornell men Iwive been liarnintr to fly at the Thunias Aviation
School at Ithaca. This photojjriiiih shows a delij^litfiil spot on
I^ake Ithaca where students learn to fly. The machine is a Thomas
seaplane.
2. He should fly a dual controlled machine
under the guidance of the instructor, in order
to learn the control movements. This machine
should be equipped with some means of inter-
communication so that the pilot may instantly
direct the pupil. He should be taught how to
get off the ground, by running along the
ground until full speed is attained before ele-
vating. This point is imjiortant for two rea-
sons :
(a) The aeroplane will get off' the gi'ound at
a lower speed than that at which it will retain
buoj'ancy, because of the "ground bank."
This "ground bank" consists of a blanket of
air, close to the surface of the earth, of greater
density when the machine is passing over it
than that encountered at a hundred feet eleva-
tion. A machine traveling at a speed capable
of sustaining flight a few feet from the ground
will go into a "stall" when it rises out of this
"bank."
(b) If the machine is elevated from the
ground before it obtains full flying speed, the
energy of the motor is expended in lifting the
machine, instead of going into speed as it does
when the machine is allowed to run on the
ground a sufficient length of time. It must be
remembered tliat the quickest climb for getting
over trees and the like is olitained by allowing
the machine full acceleration on the ground.
3. The pupil should then be taught to main-
tain a sti-aight coui-se, to make proj)er turns,
and to land properly. This instruction in
landing is most important, and the following
points should be brought out:
(a) The wheels of the landing chassis and
the tail skid should strike the ground simul-
taneously.
COURSE OF INSTltlJCTIOX VOU IHK TKAIMXG OF AVIATORS <J9
A Martin seaplane
cquip|)i'(l with 12.1 liiirsc-
powcr Hall-Scott iiiutor.
(b) There is a speed at which the maximum
lift ang'le is al)le only to sustain the plane; this
is the critical speed at which the controls should
he hmu^'lit quickly in toward the chest of the
pupil in order to increase the angle beyond the
maximum lift angle, thereby increasing the re-
sistance of the wings and throwing the greater
part of this resistance into drift, which slows
the machine down to a mininiuni.
(e) Such landing is desirable not only be-
cause of the reduced speed, which is advan-
tageous when one is landing on rough ground,
but also because the tail, on account of being
low, throws the center of gravity far back in
relation to the wheels, thereby reducing the
possibility of the machine nosing over. This
is also very advantageous as a means of ])ro-
tecting the propeller, especially on tractors
with small propeller clearance,
(d) The pupil should have at least six
hours' training in a dual controlled machine;
this time being divided into lessons of not more
than fifteen minutes' duration.
Second Stage. — The pupil should fly alone
at a large field in a "Penguin," i.e., a machine
the wing spread of which is so reduced that it
is capable of flying not more than five feet
from the ground. This teaches the pupil not
only the art of getting the most results from
small horse-power, which is of great advantage
in case of motor disability in a large machine,
but it also teaches him principally what it
means to get into a "stall" near the ground.
Third Stage. — The pupil should be allowed
to fly alone mider ideal air conditions, in a
higher powered machine in a large Held at least
one-half mile wide bv one mile long, hav-
ing been pi'cviously instructed simply to make
"straightaways" up and down the field, turn-
The Burgess-Dunne seaplane equipped with 14i) horse-power
Sturtevant motor.
100
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
The 1-5 horse-power Aeromarine hydroaeroplane, twin pontoons, two passengers.
ing the machine around at each end on the
gi'ound.
Fourth Stage. — Tlie pupil should be in-
structed to climb to an altitude of at least 600
feet, and then to make a very slow turn and
land in the opposite direction. This is watched
by an instructor through a pair of binoculars
to enable him to observe the pupil carefully and
to advise him of his mistakes after his return.
At the same time that the air instructor is
directing the student's field work, the pupil
is learning practical theory, with the aid of a
blackboard, about subjects such as tail spins
and their recovery, sjiirals, the prevention of
stalling, the making of a landing in a small field
against the wind, without the necessity of
spiraling, by zigzagging back and forth against
the wind, etc. This instruction is incorporated
The Sperry instructograpb to facilitate the instruction of pupiK
in a complete course of aerodynamics, aero-
plane design, and construction.
The pupil is now ready for spirals, which
should be made at an altitude of not less than
3000 feet and finished at an altitude of not less
than 1000 feet. The pupil should not make
continuous spirals, but should turn first 90 de-
grees to the right and 90 degrees to the left
with the motor shut off; then 180 degrees to the
right and 180 degrees to the left; after that 360
degrees each way, gradually working up to
three spirals to the right and three to the
left, always finishing with an altitude of 1000
feet.
Fifth Stage.— Fart of the field, if the field is
large, is marked off one-quarter mile by one-
quarter mile. The pupil is instructed to fly off
the field with the wind in difTerent directions,
and on the sounding of a gun to shut his motor
instantly and to make the field safely without
turning more than 90 degrees. In case he
finds that he is not within gliding distance of
the field, he should be instructed to plug in his
motor again and to continue his fiight, rather
than to take any chances in landing.
Sixth Stage. — Landing on a mark is prac-
tised.
Seventh Stage. — Each of the requirements
of the Junior ^Military Licenses is practised,
except the cross-country flights, which are with-
held until the course of training is completed.
Eighth Stage.— The pupil flies at 5000 feet
and deliberately "stalls" in tlic air four times,
each time at a steeper angle tliaii tlie one before
until a tail slide is made. These stalls are to
COURSE OF INSTKIJCTIOX FOlt IIIK TKAIXINC; OF AVIATORS 101
be made with llic use ol' an ari/^lc ol' iiicidfiice
indicator, the pupil carcrully watching' the in-
dicator and slowly placing the machine at the
stalling angle.
Niiilh Slac/c. — The pupil is instructed to
"loop" at an altitude ol' not less than .'AHH) I'ccI,
after which he should stall the niacliine, at the
same time throwing his rudder hard over one
way, thus putting his machine into a tail spin,
if the machine is capable of executing this
niano-'uver.
To recover from the tail spin is the salient
point that the pupil is now to learn. This is
effected by throwing his rudder over in the op-
posite direction, which re(|uires a tremendous
pressure on the rudder bar. The writer has
found it necessary to exert the force ol" both
feet. The pupil is now ready to take his mili-
tary license.
It might be well to remember at this point
that "looping," tail sliding, and such alleged
"stunting" is only carried on with definite ob-
jects in view, namely:
1. To give the pilot confidence.
2. To teach him cpiick recoveries from un-
safe positions, especially near the gi'ound,
should he find himself in sucli positions in the
course of carrying out his work as a military
aviatoi'.
Tenth Stage. — After the pniiil has secured
his military license, instruction in night fiying
should be given. This is Ijoth one of the most
(bllicult feats of military aviation and one of
the most important; a great deal of time and
attention being given to its development by all
of the warring Kuropean nations. Xight fly-
ing should be taught in four stages, as follows:
1. Tlie j)U]>il should fly as a passenger with
a competent pilot, thoroughly familiar with
m'gbt flying.
2. The j)upil should fly alone on a moonlight
night, or one in which the stars are bright
enough to give considerable light.
3. The j)upil sliniild lugiii llyiny- before sun-
down on a cloudy day, and should continue
flying until the sun sets, not landing until total
darkness has fallen. Xo night Hying should be
undertaken in a niacliine not equipped with a
night Hying outfit.
4. The pupil should practise night flying,
using his night flying equipment to signal an
aerodrome when he intends landing. In case
of war, the aerodromes are unlighted, except for
a single beam of light, which is thrown verti-
The Stiirti'vant seaplane equipiH-d with MO liorM--iHi\'.<r .StiirUvaiit motor.
102
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Burgess training hydroaeroplane.
cally; machines also are not illuminated, but, on
desiring to land, their pilots flash on their night
flying equipments, signaling by prearranged
code to the aerodrome, whereupon the grounds
are illuminated for landing. The pupil should
be cautioned against inadvertently getting into
fog. There are foggy days when, although it
is not possible to see more than six hundred feet
straight ahead, it is frequently practicable to
fly. These days can be gaged by looking
straight upward at the sky. If the azure blue
can be seen, the fog is limited to a blanket that
does not extend over five or six hundred feet
above the gi-ound. While the pupil is climb-
ing in this fog, he can see nothing but fog sur-
rounding him. When he has climbed just
above the fog, he begins to be able to see around
him. This is due to the fact that it is only pos-
sible for him to see through the blanket of fog
at an obtuse angle, when a large area of the
gi'ound becomes visible from an elevation of
some 2000 feet.
Flying in fog is very similar to night flying,
as it requires a finely developed sense of equili-
brium. In both night flying and flying in fog
it is extremely advantageous to use a machine
equipped with an automatic ])ilot.
During the latter ])art of the tenth stage, the
pupil should be allowed to carry an observer as
passenger, so as to familiarize himself with the
various manoeuvers that are necessary in order
that he may obtain such information as he re-
quired. This needs a system of cooperation
and some means of communication between
the pilot and observer.
Coming into a small field against the wind
the jiilot pui)il should either zigzag or reduce his
altitude to two or three hundred feet, by going
abeam or at right angles to the wind. This
prevents him from getting into the predicament
of going short of his mark.
It should be remembered that in learning to
turn, if the pupil attempts to make his turns
sharp or short at first, no matter how much he
practises he will never learn how to accomplish
a perfect turn. The only way he can expect to
learn to turn satisfactorily is first to make the
turns very big, watching all the time his revo-
lutions, and his air drift indicator, and also his
angle of incidence indicator, if he has one, be-
ing sure all the time to keep his relations at all
'I'lir I.MM rciuT-l.c« is flyliif; lioat ./-/ in llifrlit.
COUJISK OF INSTKI ( IIOX J'OK 'nil'. IIJAIMX^; <»1 -WIAIOKS l(i:5
parts of the turn exactly rinhl. Olhcnvisc if tlnoiiMli M'lasscs aii.l made to ni\><:d anv faulty
if he tries to do short turns he will think he is inanoiivfr until he does it perfectly,
doing correctly wlien he is really on tin l-iink Any t. nd.-ncy tr)\vard over-confidence and
of danoerous ])(.sitlons. carelessness in Im-llng should he followed hy a
The i)ui)il should he watched at all times susjjension of th ree days to one u<(k.
Memoranda:
Photo of a schooner sunk by a Cunard boat off Governor's Ishiiul, taken by Charles Reed at a height of 500 feet
CHAPTER XVI
AERIAL NAVIGATION OVER WATER
By Elmer A. Spekry
instruments used in obtaining' its ground work
or in giving it its base lines.
It has long been known that the magnetic
compass is unreliable; as ships represent greater
and greater masses of steel, this inaccuracy has
become more and more aggravated. INIethods
of checking its accuracy have been diligently
sought for and made as nearly perfect as pos-
sible. These, however, depend upon observa-
tions and fail usually just at the time they are
most needed; namely, when observations of the
heavenly bodies are impossible. All this em-
jjhasizes strongly the desirability of an instru-
ment of precision that will function as a com-
pass. The adaptation of the gyroscope is
found to fulfil this satisfactorily.
Limitations of Magnetic Compass
Among the difficulties met in using the mag-
netic compass in the air is that known as the
heeling error. When a magnetic compass is
exactitude, limited only l)y the accuracy of the used on aeroplanes, and the machine is even
104
Abstract
The author calls attention to the unreliability of the
magnetic compass when used for aerial navigation and
to the possible development of the gyroscopic compass
for this pui-pose. He then explains how the drift of
an aeroplane in flight makes it difficult to follow with
accuracy a given course devoid of landmarks, unless
an accurate drift indicator using the principle of the
stroboscope is available.
The development of such an instrument is then de-
scribed, as are also means for synchronizing it with the
compass. The use of the automatic synclironized in-
strument in flight over land is outlined, and its appli-
cation to flight over water is described in considerable
detail. Rules for aerial navigation over water, ob-
servation as to moveiiient of wave crest and determin-
ation of wind velocity and direction are considered in
their relation to the use of the instrument.
The author, because of tlie development and
practical application of his gyro-compass, has
been brought to consider, more or less broadly,
the whole science of navigation. For many
decades past, this science has been one of high
AERIAL NAVIGATION ()\'i;i{ \VA TKR
10.5
mildly "banked," and jjcrsists in sucli a posi-
tion for an ajipreciable period, the heeling error
is found to be of sueli magnitude as to render
the eonipass useless. In some instanees it will
amount to .'J(iO degrees, or around the entire
circle, giving no clue whatever to the aviator
as to the true azimuth, or where to stop on the
turn and straighten out into the tangent.
Thus the eom])ass fails him utterly at just the
critical time when it is most needed. After the
tangent is persisted in for a suflieiently long
time for the compass to settle, then and then
only does it again become useftd.
Moreover, the lag or tardiness of action of
the magnetic compass is a serious drawback.
The magnetic compass, to be reliable, we find,
must be of the so-called h(]uid type; upon
s])iralling and making two or three turns the
liquid is found to take up the swivelling mo-
tion, carrying the card with it round and round,
and becoming a serious disturbing factor for
some time after the aei'oplane straightens out on
the tangent. This is not meant to imply that
the magnetic compass is not an extremely use-
ful instrument upon aircraft, but for best re-
sults it shoidd be understood by the aviator and
not relied upon when conditions are such that it
is impossible for it to function.
This condition has become so aggravating that
the United States Navy is ordering a gyro-
scopic compass to be employed on aerojdanes.
JNIuch interest centers in the results that it ^vill
be possible to achieve by substituting this in-
strument for the magnetic compass under prac-
tical service conditions in the air. By extreme
refinement in execution and design it is ex-
pected by the Navy Department that the
weight of this instrument will be reduced to 20
or 30 pounds.
When one is navigating the air and holding
an absolutely true course, that is, with the lub-
ber line of the compass precisely upon th.e de-
sired heading in azimuth, the direction of flight
coincides with this heading, under the condi-
tion of absence of movement of the medium,
namely the atmosphere, through which the
flight takes place. At first thought, one would
think that at the moment the medium itself was
moving, and especially when this movement was
normal or at a small arii^'le to the direction
of lli/^hl, the conipiiss uMiilil instantly indicate
the resulting de\ialion Irom the true course.
'I'iiis conception, lio\\i\er, is not correct.
^\n a\iatoi- can bold his course true to the
compass and still Ik- lollowing a course having
a wide angle of deviation Irom the course in
\vliieli III- fliinks lie is living. I'oi' instance,
C'arlstrom, in lils noteworthy fli;^lit IVom Chi-
cago to New ^'oI•k (((luipped with instruments
desei-ibed later), t'oinid lie was drifting 17'/^
degrees, when flying over Cleveland; his appar-
ent course had to be changed to this extent to
neuti-alize drift and to maintain the true direc-
tion along the south shore of Lake Krie. This
angle was given liim by bis diif't set, which, al-
though not indispensable, he used throughout
his ilight. Cai'lstrom, however, had the shore
line and general landinai'ks to aid in his guid-
ance. The case would lia\c been different had
he been flying at sea out of sight of land, where
no landmarks could possibly be seen. Then
certain aids to navigation are indispensable,
and it is the province of this pa])er to discuss
briefly some general aspects of these instru-
ments and their uses, no effort being made to
])resent a mathematieal or an exhaustive treatise
on the subject.
Determination of Drift
Let us assume an aeroplane maintaining a
compass course due north with the lul)ber line of
the compass maintained at zero on the card, and
for the moment the compass properly functions
without variation or deviation. In still air the
course of this machine over the surface of the
earth will be north. But suppose, wholly with-
out the knowledge of the aviator, the medium in
which he is flying is itself in motion toward the
east with a velocity equal to that of the aircraft.
It is quite evident that, although he holds his
course with exactitude, the craft itself is passing
over the sm-face of the earth on a diagonal, that
is, his actual course is northeast: the easterly
component of his course depends upon the east-
ward velocity of tlie medium. Again, if this
velocity be half of that of the aircraft, then his
real course is 221/2 degrees, or "north-north-
106
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
east." The question arises: how is the pilot to
obtain this knowledge, or knowledge that he is
drifting at all, so as to make the necessary cor-
rection of course in the absence of landmarks or
other indications to goiide him^
A device, worked out by the author some
time ago to give pilots this knowledge, has now
come into general use, and is found to perform
its function satisfactorily. Fig. 1 shows an
earlier form of this device, in which a series of
moving observing tubes acted as a stroboscope.
By the backward movement of these tubes a
point upon the earth's siu-face could be made to
appear as though it stood still; the backwardly
moving point of persistence of vision being ex-
actly equal to the forward advance of the ma-
chine. Knowing the angular velocity of these
vision tubes, or simple telescopes, and the alti-
tude, the actual speed over the earth's surface
was at once obtained. When comj^ared with
the anemometer speed, that is, the real speed of
flight through the atmosphere, a clew was at
once available as to the actual movements of the
atmosphere itself.
This instrument was then carried a step fur-
ther. The telescopes were furnished with
cross-hairs and mounted i.q)on a swivcling base
with a pointer B moving over an azimuth scale
C. When the slow motion of the telescopes
was arrested and one telescope furnished with
one or more fore-and-aft cross-hairs jjointed di-
rectlv downward, it was foimd easy to make a
New Type of Drift Indicator.
Synciironized Drift Set.
peculiar reading known as the "stream-line ob-
servation."
When one is looking downward at the sur-
face of the earth, through a tube or telescope,
if, instead of looking for specific objects, he
simply observes the passage of all olijects across
the field of the tube or telescope, he at once be-
comes conscious of tiie passage of all of these
objects taking place in certain clearly-defined
parallel lines, which I have denominated
"stream-lines." When one gets somewhat
familiar with this kind of observation, he can
see almost nothing but these stream-lines, and
the nearer the surface or greater the sjieed, the
more tense and clearly-defined these lines be-
come. Xow, if a good, heavy cross-hair be
stretched across the tube or telescope, and the
tube be made so that it can be rotated upon its
major axis, then it is found easily possible so to
rotate the tiil)e as to bring the cross-hair exactly
coincident or parallel with the stream-lines.
The rotating tube or telescope is furnished
with a stationary scale, the zero of which is
coincident with the longitudinal axis of the air-
craft. By taking readings on this scale with
a pointer on the tube opposite the cross-hair, it
becomes easy to determine the angle between
the stream-lines and the major axis of the air-
craft, since the latter always lies in the appar-
ent direction of flight, the angle l)eing between
the stream-lines, or actual direction of flight,
and the aircraft. The determination of such
AKKIAI. XAVKiATlON ()\'KK W A 1 Kit
107
Drift Ciiiiipass with Ad Jiisliibli' l,iil)l)cr.
an angle as this is cxtienR'ly useful, as it at once
gives the aviator a clew as to what change to
make in his course so that his direction of lliglit
is such as to neutralize the drift of the medium
through which he is flying, his actual course be-
ing thus brought into exact harmony witli the
direction required to reach his destination.
In securing this parallelism the pointer li is
swung upon the scale C and the angle of drift
in degrees can be immediately read on the scale
from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Many surprises are in store for the ])ilot or ob-
server when he first makes this observation, as
he often is certain that it cannot be correct. lie
cannot believe it possible from his compass
heading, to which he is holding with great ac-
curacy, that he is actually making headway at
so large an angle from its readings. i\.nd if he
has had experience at sea with the compass,
this impression is all the more startling, because
it is always true that a shij) is traveling prac-
tically on the exact course indicated by its com-
pass. IJut here the pilot is holding his course
absolutely true to the compass, and yet the
drift indicator shows a quite different
condition of affairs; namely, that he is
actually traveling at a considerable an-
gle to his supposed course.
Fig. 2 shows the instrument de-
scribed mounted upon an aero])lane
and being used by the observer. The
observer in this instance is Captain
Creagh-Osborne. R. X., head of the
Hydrographic Office of the British
i\diiiiiaity. The pilot is lieutenant John H.
Tf)wers, U. S. .\.
^^ illi Mic I .11 lier instruments tlic pilot would
change iiis course and by tri;il in < iror (inally
i-cacli a fhglit heading on the compass card, re-
snjling in actual headway (jf the aircraft ahjug
the true course; that is, along the line that he
was originaII\- instructed to pursue to reach the
desired destination.
Thus it will be sc<n that the accurate deter-
mination of drift is an important factor in aerial
iia\ igation. It is I rue that r^bservations are
somewhat moi-e (liliiciijl at great heights and
over rough water, but one soon becomes accus-
tomed to obtaining a mean I'cading, which is
found to be very accui'ate. It has also been
definitely ascertained that when flying with the
automatic pilot, with which side disturbances
ai-e practically eliminated, the stream-line ob-
servation becomes very much simplified and ac-
curate at practically all altitudes.
The Synchronized Drift Set
A latei' roini of the appai'atus is shown in
Fig. 3, in which a single stationary telescope,
j)rovi(led with the cross-hairs, is enii)loyed for
the moving series of telescopes, inasmuch as the
drift factor is found to be of far more impor-
tance than the actual speed of advance with
reference to the earth's .surface.
In Fig. 4 is shown a drift-compass with an
adjustable lubber line and with a little tiller
wheel extending from the side of the case, by
means of \\hicli the lubber line is set from the
indications upon the scale C of the drift indi-
cator. The scale upon the bezel of the compass
is used for reading the deflection of the lubber
line. Care must be taken in moving the lubber
m
1
KTrjiH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
[. ^S2J^ .
1
^^^^^^^_^SA
^a
u
Synchronized Drift Set witli Two Compasses.
108
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AEROXAUTICS
Wave crests viewed from aero])lnne.
line to be sure that its setting is correct as to
direction, and that it is not set on the right side
of the zero -when it should be on tlie left,
A pilot, esi^ecially when without the auto-
matic pilot and working alone, has enough cares
without the added one of worrying whether the
compass has been accurately synchronized with
the drift indicator, and whether the direction of
the adjustment is also correct. So my son
Lawrence conceived the idea of coui^ling them
mechanically, in order that they might be at all
times automatically synchronized. The com-
bined instrument, namely, the synchronized
drift-set has now become the most useful form
of the apparatus and the one most widely
adopted. In this instrument the most minute
azimuth movement introduced by the observer
at once causes a corresponding alteration of the
position of the lubber line of the compass, thus
eliminating the possibility of error either in the
direction of this movement or in its exact
amount. This is found very practical, inas-
much as it vastly simplifies the pilot's operation,
he needing only to continue without change to
hold the lubber line upon the oi-iginally selected
point on the compass card. Tiie fact that the
lubber line is displaced, especially if under the
control of the observer, is something
with which the pilot has nothing to do
and is not concerned — he simply con-
iiimes on his original compass course.
This arrangement automatically intro-
duces all of the deviations in course to
correct fully for drift, and is found to
save much valuable time and fuel, and
to allow the pilot to reach his destina-
tion by a true meridional course.
With the actual di'ift known and cor-
rected for, the correction that should be
given the anemometer speed, which is
always known to the operator, can be
determined easily. Thus he has all the
knowledge of the actual forward ad-
vance that is roughly necessary in short
flights.
Fig. 5 shows the synchronized di-ift
set with the observing telescope to the
left, the compass to the right, and the
compass lubber line thrown around 30
degrees from the longitudinal axis of the air-
craft indicated by the zero on the scale shown
on the bezel. When the observer and the pilot
sit in tandem relation in the aircraft, then it be-
comes desirable that each have a compass. We
have made a number of sets. Fig. 6, in which
two compasses are synchronized by means of a
single drift indicator.
Precautions in Flight Over Water
We will now turn our attention to some re-
finements of the use of this apparatus when one
is flying under actual service conditions over
water. It is always wise to note the direction
of the wind before starting, and also something
as to the length of the wave, that is, the distance
from wave crest to wave crest. A pilot of sea-
planes or an observer, or both, should become
accustomed to estimating this wave length or
distance from crest to crest, say for this coun-
try, in feet, and should also invariably note the
direction of the wind in terms of compass azi-
muth.
In leaving the surface of the water, it should
also be the duty of the personnel to see that the
aneroid is adjusted exactly on zero. This ob-
AERIAL XAVICATIOX ()\ i:i{ W A 1 i:i{
KCJ
scrvatinn sliould also he inafle wlicii(\cr tlic
])laiic is br()ii<^lit (•lose to the sui race, tliiis chiiii-
natiiig effects of changes in hai'onieter in de-
terniing actual heights. The uses of these oli-
servations Avill be ])i"escntly a|)])arent. T^et us
now divide the })rohleni of sj)eed control into
two classes.
In the first class stroboscoiie methods are
used. One form of the stroboscope is showii
above in Fig. 1. Another instrument working
upon this 2)rinciple is illustrated in Fig. 7.
Still another simpler form is in course of l)eing
developed for the United States service. The
speed with reference to the surface of the earth
can be ascertained with a good degree of accur-
acy over water. It is, of course, necessary to
Iviiow the movement of the sea, or, rather, its
apparent movement, as for instance, the nio\e-
ment of the wave crest. In every instance the
actual angular velocity of the stroboscope, or
of the ajjparent passage of the earth's surCace,
and the careful reading of the aneroid are used
as prime factors.
The second class is where a close approxima-
tion of the actual speed can be ascertained
quickly. Using the anemometer speed as a
base, we determine whether the actual speed is
the same as, or greater or less than the
anemometer speed, and also obtain a close ap-
proximation of how much the variation is. It
is assumed that the anemometer speed is always
available to the navigator. A good anemo-
meter is knoAvn to possess a high degree of ac-
cm'acy.
When the wave crests are small and cannot
be seen directly, the same telescope that is used
to ascertain the stream-line directions can be
employed to observe the direction of the wave
crest. I have had some discussion as to the visi-
bility of the wave crests ^\ith some who are
unfamiliar with it, but, as a matter of fact, the
Avave crests are clearly visible. Fig. 8 is a re-
production of a ^Jbotograph taken from a con-
siderable altitude, and shoAvs how clearly visible
these wave crests are. They are an excellent
indicator of two valuable factors: First, from
their length from crest to crest we can ascertain
their speed; and second, their direction always
lies directly normal to that of the wind. In all
proba!)ilily thcie also exists a reasonable rela-
tion beluecn the vel(jcity of the wind and the
velocity of the waves, but we will not concern
oin-selves with lliis .il tin present time. The
waves shown in I"ig. H aie about 10 feet from
crest to crest, giving us a velocity of 7.2 feet
])cr second. At first glance it might be dilli-
cult Id know i?i wliidi dircclion these waves are
nio\inu-, liiif \\llli IIk- conditions such as in Fig.
H, tiui-c is the simplest possible di-w consisting
of llie vapors flowing from liie liinnels of the
two small craft shown. The line of vapors is
seen to be ndi-iiml Id llii- line of Ihf wave cfcsts.
Bearing these points in niimi, the loilfiwing
rules can })e a])plicd to aeiial na\igatioii:
1. Xote on which side of the keel line or
longitudinal axis of the aircraft lies the actual
or true course, or on \\lii(li side of the zero on
the be/el of the drift comj)ass lies the adjustable
lul)ber line. This is the "drift side," and can,
of course, be to the right or to the left. (The
zero on tlic bezel indicates the keel line.)
2. Xote closely ibe apparent ali<iTiment of
the wave crests while the aircraft is l)eing main-
tained on its course.
3. Xote the I'elative angle between the wave
crests and the keel line, and also between the
wave crests and the "drift line," or the align-
ment of the adjustable lubber liiu'.
Speed Indicator Using Stroboscope Method.
110
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Fig. 9 / Fig. 10
Outline of Front Part of Flying Boat.
With these observations well in hand, the fol-
lowing deductions can be made:
(a) If the crests lie within the angle lietween
the keel line and the drift line, then the real
speed is approximately identical with the ane-
mometer speed. If these crests exactly bisect
this angle, then the real speed on the actual
course is exactly the anemometer speed.
(b) If the aft ends of the crests be toward the
drift side, then the actual speed over the earth's
surface is always greater than the anemometer
speed, because of an abaft wind.
(c) If the aft ends of the crests are away
from the drift side to a greater extent than is
the true course angle or drift line, then the ac-
tual speed is always smaller or less than the
anemometer speed, because of head wind.
(d) If the crests lie exactly at right angles to
the keel line, of course no drift angle exists, and
the stream-lines lie parallel to the keel. How-
ever, it is always known which way the wind is
blowing, from observations made before start-
ing (which have been referred to), and in this
manner we at once know whether we are pass-
ing over the surface of the earth at a faster or
a slower speed than tliat indicated by the ane-
mometer. Suppose, however, the navigator
should have mislaid his data or forgotten the
direction of the wind or its true azimuth. A
clew to the direction can be obtained as follows:
Change tlie course sufficiently to make the
stream-lines veer awav from the keel line. If
the leading ends of the stream-lines are
seen to move to the left for a right turn,
the wind is a follmciiig wind, and if they
mov^e to the right for a rignt turn it is a
head wind. Of course, for a left turn just
the reverse is true. As to Avhetlier the
velocity is great or little can easily be
judged from the sea conditions.
In Figs. 9 and 10, b is the forward part
of the flying boat in outline ; k is the keel
line; I is the lubber line; c is the compass
card. The zero on the compass bezel is
on the keel line; si indicates the stream
lines and their direction; JJ is the jjoint on
the compass card indicating the desired
direction of flight. In Fig. 10, I and l'
indicate the "drift line."
Movements of the Wave Crests
As a still further refinement in ascertaining
speed and direction, account should be taken of
the movement of the wave crests themselves.
This can ordinarily be found by determining
the length between the crests, inasmuch as the
velocity varies about as the square root of the
wave length or distance between crests; the
velocity in feet per second equals the wave
length in feet at a point where each is expressed
by the figure S^/g — to be accurate, 5.123 — that
is, in measuring the distance from crest to crest,
their velocity is also 5.123 feet per second. The
10-feet wave shown in Fig. 8 would therefore
have a velocity of about 7.2 feet per second.
We know the approximate length of this
wave, having ol)served it before leaving the
water; but if this has not been done, we can as-
certain the length by dropping down near
enough to the surface of the water to get a fairly
accurate determination of the mean lengths be-
tween wave crests, taking this opportunity also
to note that the aneroid is at zero. Having
thus determined the velocity of the wave crests,
we 2)roceed to determine the corrections.
Corrections for Movement
With refei-ence to the speed, a correction
should be made in ])roportion to the sine of the
an<>le between the wave crest and the stream-
AERIAL XAVI(;ATI0\ ()\ KK W AlKK
111
line. To obtain the ac-tual .s|)ec(l over tlie
earth's surface, we should a(hl tlie speed of the
wave crests to the s])eeds ol)tained by strobo-
sco|)ic methods in ail eases ol' following- wind,
and subtract in case of licad wind. The
amounts tiiat are sulitracted are e(|ual to the
velocity of tlie wave crests only when the wave
crests arc at ri<>ht angles to the stream-lines.
At other angles the velocities subtracted or
added are as the sine of the anole between the
wave crests and the stream-line.
As to the influence of the moving Avave crests
on the apparent direction of the stream-lines,
it should be noted that (a) the angle l)etwcen
the stream-lines and the wave crests shoidd be
determined; and (b) starting with the position
where the stream-lines and wave crests lie paral-
lel to each other, as being the condition of maxi-
mum correction, we derive this correction from
the known velocity of the wave crests. The
correction, it shoidd be remembered, is an angu-
lar correction to l)e applied to the apparent <li-
rection of the stream-line, resulting in a refine-
ment of heading, which gi\es the true meridi-
onal course to the point of destination.
This correction is always projjortional to the
ratio of the velocities of wave crests and air-
craft determined, say by stroboscopic methods
or by the anemometer, after the ])ropei' correc-
tions have been applied. When the wave crests
and stream-lines are parallel, this ratio is ap-
plied directly. When other angles ol)tain, the
correction sh(nild be multiplied by the cosine of
the angle between the wave crests and the
stream-lines,
( )nc factor now remains, that is, as to whether
tijc eorreetioi) is to be a|)|)lii(| clockwise or anti-
eloekwise. Assuming fin- observer is facing
the direction of tlic st rcani-liiic or actual flight,
tliiii if the wind is I'ldni tin ii<_;lil the cori'i-cti'm
should be eouiiter-clock\\ ise, and if fi'om his left
the correction should be clockwise. The navi-
gator knows the direction of the wind from his
original ol)ser\ati(in of its true compass azimuth
before rising from the sea. If, however, this
informatif)!! is lacking, the direction of the wind
can be found as follows:
Xotice the diieclion of the stream-lines with
i-espect to the keel line. If this is to the left,
the wind is from the right; and if to the right,
the wind is from the left. If the stream-lines
happen to be parallel to the keel, then the aero-
])lane should bi- veered to the i-iyht or to the left
imtil the keel line and sti'eani-liiie lie at an
angle to each other, whereupnn the above ob-
servation can be made.
There are a Tiumber of other interesting aids
to navigation of aii'craft. such as clinometers,
gj'roscopic base lines, and artificial horizons,
banking indicators, angle of incidence indi-
cators, and the like, but their uses are apparent
and need little explanation.
Memuranda:
CHAPTER XVII
AEROPLANE GUNS AND AERIAL GUNNERY
jS^ow that aeroijlanes are increasing in size
and number to tremendous proportions, the
aeroplane gun becomes a most important fac-
tor. As has been aptly pointed out by Rear-
Admiral Bradley A. Fiske and other authori-
ties, the equipi^ing of the large present-day sea-
planes with a three-inch gun introduces a new
revolutionary factor in naval warfare. This
is esijecially true because the aircraft is the most
effective weapon against the submarine, and
armed air cruisers equipped with guns ranging
from the one-pounder size to the three-inch size
can protect ships against submarine attacks as
far as the air cruisers can go — which is a few
hundred miles at present but will soon extend
bevond one thousand miles.
A British Sfa|iIniK- of the lilll- type equippL-d with Xii'k's niariiu-
aerojilane gun.
Two classes of guns are needed, those which
will represent the artillery of the air and those
which will rej^resent the machine-gun service of
the air. At present we have only the latter, but
exijeriments are being conducted in the develop-
ing of guns of from one-inch to three-inch cali-
ber, and the prospects are that there will soon
be such guns available,
A British authority stated recently that there
are 40,000 Lewis aeroplane guns in use in Eu-
rope. We know, from the size of the orders
placed by the United States Army and Na^y
that there soon will be 10,000 Lewis guns in
use in the United States Army and Xavy, part
of which will be for the Air Service. This gives
an idea of the swift development of the light
machine gun.
Besides the Lewis gun, there are being used
in the present war as aeroplane guns, the Vick-
ers-]Maxim, the Colt, the Benet IMercier and the
Davis. Owing to the necessity of going to
press with the "Textbook of Naval Aeronau-
tics," the discussion of the different types of
aeroplane guns, available and prospective, and
aerial gunnery in general will be included in the
"Textbook of ]\Iilitaiy Aeronautics" which is
to follow, also being published by the Century
Company, New York, price $6.00.
Memoranda:
112
CHAPTER XVIII
SPOTTING THE FALL OF SHOTS
Spottinp^ the fall of shots was one of the first
reco<^nize(l uses for naval aerojjlanes. The em-
ployment of aeroplanes for this purpose greatly
extended the ran^e of vision of ships and hecame
invaluahle in long- range, indirect, high-angle
firing.
At first this work was hampered hy the lack
of efficient wireless sets to he carried on sea-
planes, to make it possihle to the aviators to com-
municate with the man behind the gun. The
weight of wireless sets up to 1914 M-as between
tlu-ee and five pounds i)er mile of transmission,
which w\is almost prohibitive, as the seaplanes at
the time had a small margin of carrying cap-
acity. By 1916 the weight of sets was cut down
to one pound per mile of transmission, and the
margin of carrying capacity was increased
through general improvements in the construc-
tion of seaplanes.
The first actual tests of seaplanes to spot the
fall of shots took place in July, 191.5, when
British seaplanes were used to direct the guns of
monitors to attack the German cruiser Konigs-
berg which was hidden up the Rufigi River, in
East Africa. The writer is fortunate in being
able to present herewith the first complete report
and illustrations of this historic event.
How the Aeroplanes Made It Possible to
Wreck the Konigsberg
The wrecking of the German cruiser by two
British monitors, one of the most remarkable
events of the war, was made possible by sea-
planes. Following is a letter written home by
an English naval officer, which describes the aid
rendered by the two aeroplanes, and shows how
closely the gunners of the sea, as well as the
gunners of the land, have been working as a team
with the air scouts. The action described was Reuiarkabu. MM,,.i,„t „t ti,c A-,;«,>w,.r., hiciti..n up the tor-
the attack bv monitors upon the German cruiser '"""« ^^"♦^p' '*'^'<"'" t""^^" f""" ""e of the British seaplanes.
_,...,'_ , , 11,1 rhe KiinUisberg is shown hv the arrow, on the right; nearer is a
Is^onigsberg. It may be remembered she took suppiv siiip.
113
refuge nj) tlic ii\( r on the east coast of Central
iVfriea and was a menace to Jiritish interests.
It was found after many montlis up the river
where she was hidden from tlie monitors !)y palm
trees. Aeroj)lanes were procini d alh r main-
weeks and action started. The otlieei- of the
monitor Savcrn wi-ites:
"AW' went on higiier up the river, and finally
anchored. Two she IK !< II within eight feet of
the side and drenched tlie (luai'terdeek. It was
a very critical time. If she hit us we were prob-
ably finished.
"We had no sooner anchored than the aero-
plane signaled she was ready to spot. Our first
four salvos, at about one minute intervals, were
all signaled as, 'Did nr)t f)I)serve fall of shot.'
"We came down 400, then another -100 and more
to tlie left. The next was spotted as 200 yards
over and about 200 to the right. The next 1.50
short and 100 to the left. At the seventh salvo
we hit with one and were just over with the
other. We hit eight times in the next twelve
shots. It was frightfully exciting. The
Konigsberg was now firing salvos of three only.
Tlie aero])lanes signaled all hits w-ere forward,
114
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
so we came a little left to get her amidships.
The aeroplane suddenly signaled, 'Am hit; com-
ing down ; send a boat.' As they fell they con-
tinued to signal our shots, we, of course, kept on
fii'ing. The aeroplane fell in the water about
150 yards from the Mersey; one man was
thrown clear, but the other had a struggle to get
free. Finally both got away and were swim-
ming for ten minutes before the Mersey's motor-
boat reached them — beating ours by a short
head. They were uninjured and as merry as
crickets."
Following is the official report of the British
Admiralty describing the work of the two aero-
planes :
"The position of the Konigshcrg was ac-
curately located by aircraft, and as soon as the
monitors were ready the operations were begun.
On July 4. as the Konigsherg was surrounded
by jungle the aeroplanes experienced very great
difficulty in sjjotting the fall of the shot. She
was hit five times early in the action, but after
the monitors had fired for six hours the aero-
planes reported that the Konigshcrg's masts
were still standing.
"In order to complete the destruction of the
Konigsherg the commander-in-chief ordered a
further attack on July 11, and a telegram has
now been received from him stating that the
ship is a total wreck."
The following are the extracts relating to the
work of aerial scouting on the occasion of the
destruction of the Konigsherg from Vice-
Admiral King-IIall's official despatch pub-
lished on December 9 :
"At 5 :25 A.M. (on July 6) an aeroplane, with
Flight Commander Harold E. INI. Watkins as
pilot, and carrying six bombs, left tlie aerodrome
on jMafia Island. The bombs were dropped at
the Konigsherg with the intention of hamper-
ing any interference she might attempt with
the monitors while they were getting into posi-
tion.
"At 5:40 A.M. another aeroplane, with
Flight-Commander John T. Cull as pilot and
Flight Sub-Lieutenant Harwood J. Arnold as
observer, left the aerodrome for the purpose of
spotting for the monitors.
"Returning to the operations of the moni-
tors, fire was opened as before stated at 6:30
A.M., but as the Konigsherg was out of sight it
was very difficult to obtain satisfactory results,
and the difficulties of the observers in the aero-
planes in marking the fall of the shots which fell
amongst the trees were very great, and made
systematic shooting most difficult.
"There being only two aeroplanes available,
considerable intervals elapsed between the de-
parture of one and the arrival of its relief from
the aerodrome, thirty miles distant, and this re-
sulted in a loss of shooting efficiency.
"At 12:35 one of the aeroplanes broke down,
and at 3 :50 the second one also. I signaled to
Captain Fullerton to move further up the river,
Two Sopwith seaplanes, which "spotted" for the trunners on the British nionitors Snvern and Mcmc;/ and made it possible to destroy
the German cruiser KOiiiysOery which was hiddeu up the Kuligi Kivcr in German Kast Africa.
SPOTTING THE FALL OF SHOTS
115
■*««
'I'lic h'/inigiberg after the bom-
burdiiieiit of the liritisli iiionitorE
ilermt) and Savern, which was
made possible by the aeroplanes.
As a sliip the Koniijuherij ceased
to exist when she was riddled and
set on fire by the monitors' guns.
which he did, until about 12:.'50 the top.s of the
Konigsbtrg's masts were visible.
"As it was necessary to make a fresh attack
on the Knuigsberg to complete her destruction,
further operations were carried out on July 11,
by which date the aeroplanes were again ready
for service, and the monitors had made good
certain defects and completed with coal.
"The observers in the aeroplanes, by their ex-
cellent spotting, soon got the guns on the target,
and hit after hit was rapidly signaled. At
12:.)0 it was reported that the Konigsbcrg was
on fire.
"I have much pleasure in bringing to the no-
tice of their lordships the names of the follow-
ing officers and men: Squadrrm Commander
Robert Gordon, in command of the air s(]iiad-
ron; Flight Commander John T. Cull, Flight
Lieutenant Vivian G. Blackburn, Flight Sub-
Lieutenant Harwood J. Arnold, Flight Lieu-
tenant Harold E. M. Watkins,
"Assistant Paymaster Harold G. Badger,
H. M. S. Hyacinth. This officer volunteered
to observe dm'ing the first attack on the Konigs-
})crg though he had had nf) previous experience
of flying.
"Acting Lieutenant j\lan CJ. Bisliop. ]{. M.
L. I. of H. M. S. JI /jacinth. This oflicer vol-
unteered to observe during the second attack on
the Konigsbcrg though he had had no previous
experience of flying.
"Air Mechanic Kbenezer Henry Alexander
Boggis, Chatham 148-H, who went up on April
25 with Flight Commander Cull, and photo-
graphed the Konigsbcrg at a height of 700
feet. They were heavily fired on. and the en-
gine of the machine was badly damaged.
"INIost serious risks have been run by the of-
ficers and men who have flown in this climate,
where the effect of the atmosjihei-e and the ex-
treme heat of the sun are quite unknown to those
whose flying experience is limited to moderate
climates. "Bumps" of '2.')0 feet have been ex-
perienced several times and the temperature
varies from extreme cold wlien flying at a height
to a great heat, witli burning, tropical sun when
on land.
"In the oi^erations against the Konigsbcrg
One of the ikslroycil /voHir/.</<ni/'.< (.'iiiis iiiountiil in a position inland. It is a t.l inch, ami wa.-. transported to one of the Gennan
ports in the Kilimaii.jaro district in East Africa, used for the campaign and later captured l)y the British under General Smuts.
116
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
The Anti-Aircraft gunner ready to snipe tlie enemy's aircraft.
He is warned of the effect of hostile aircraft by wireless from
stations on land or sea.
on July 6 both the personnel and material of the
Royal Naval Air Service were worked to the
extreme limit of endurance. The total distance
covered by the two availal)le aeroplanes on that
date was no less than 9.50 miles, and the time in
the air, working watch and watch, was thirteen
hours. I will sum up by saying that the flying
officers, one and all, have earned my highest
commendation."
barges stationed out at sea and kite-balloon
ships, from place to place, as explained in the
Chapter on Kite-Balloon Ships.
The kite balloon is sent up to whatever height
is necessary, 2000 feet or more, and from there
the observer officer in the basket telephones to
the officer in charge of the kite-balloon ship
what he sees, and the officer in charge signals
usually by Avireless to the battleship's fire con-
trol.
Owing to the extreme altitude to which a kite
balloon can go, it can see much more extensively
than can be seen from a battleship's fire-control
station. A kite balloon on any point on Long
Island could, for instance, see practically every
movement of vessels on both Long Island
Sound and the Atlantic, whereas the fire-control
station of a ship could only see a few miles.
Again, the kite balloon placed on Block Island
could detect the movement of ships within a
radius of fifty miles, thus warning the battle-
ships and coast defenses of the approach of
hostile shijis. In the Dardanelles and at Sa-
lonika the observations were especially valuable
in watching the ports and many bays to prevent
Turkish ships
troops from Asia.
from landing munitions and
"Spotting" from a Dirigible
Dirigibles are also very extensively employed
in spotting and observing (see Chaiiter on
Naval Dirigibles).
"Spotting" from a Kite Balloon
The kite l)alloon is used extensively for spot-
ting the fall of shots in naval operations, al-
though there has hardly been any opportunity
for the employment of kite balloons to spot in
an actual naval engagement. The spotting has
been done mainly in connection with the protect-
ing of na\n\ bases and ships from submarine
attacks, with an occasional case of warning bat-
tleships and directing their fire on some hostile
raider which was stealing toward some naval
base unseen by the patroling sliips. This was
particularly true in the Dardanelles and Salon-
ika campaign, where a good number of kite bal-
loons were used, most of them sent up from
,*»
A naval kite balloon tethered
a French harbor and di
to a ship g
rccting the
uarding
guns of
the entrance of
the ships.
spotting; the fall of shots
117
When a hostile ship is (lelcclcd or llie lar^-et
is on land, Ihc observer in the basket ol" the kite
balloon notifies the fire eontrol ol' the sliij) ol' the
loeation of the target and then ol' the I'esiill of
the fire, telling' (|uiekly whether the tarj^et has
been hit or whether the shot was sliort or over
and whether the line is right. 'I'his is repeated
at every shot and the location ol" the tai-get and
its movements, in the case of a ship moving
away, are given very ra])idly, so that the gun-
ners of the ship can adjust their range accord-
ingly.
While the inlorination regarding the method
of locating batteries and dii'eeting gunfire i'njm
kite balloons rjver land are given in the text
book (III ".Military Aeronautics," there may be
mentioned here the i-ecord of a kite balloon ob-
sei'ver, Sub-Lieutenant Maurice iVrondel, who
is mentioned in the des})atches for his long
sen'ice recoi-d and exce])tioii;il meiil. He
carried out his duties from March, 191. '5, to the
end of ion;, when he was mentif)nefl in the
despatches.
CHAPTER XIX
BOMB DROPPING FROM AIRCRAFT
It will be remembered that the German of-
ficial excuse for declaring war on France was an
unsubstantiated claim that French aviators had
dropped bombs on German soil. The war was
only a few days old when the dropj^ing of bombs
begun. The first case of bomb dropping re-
ported was on August 13, when a German avi-
ator threw a bomb upon the railroad station at
Vesoul, the capital of the Department of Haute-
Saone and two bombs in the town of Lure,
fifteen miles northeast of Vesoul. This was fol-
lowed by the droj^ijing of bombs by German
aviators on Xamur on August 15, 1914. On
that day two French aviators flew from Verdun
to INIetz and dropped two bombs on the Zeppe-
lin sheds there.
On AugTist 25, 1914, took place the first Zep-
pelin raid, a Zeppelin dropping bombs on Ant-
werp. On August 30 a German aviator
dropped bombs on Paris — which was followed
for a time by an almost daily succession of
dropping of bombs on the French capitol. On
November 21, 1914, three British naval aviators
— Squadron-Commander E. F. Briggs, Flight-
Commander J. T. Babbington, and Fliglit-
Lieutenant V. S. Si^ijie — flew from French ter-
ritory to Friedrichshafen and dropped bombs
on that chief German Zejipelin center. In this
flight the naval aviators penetrated 120 miles
into Cxerman territory, crossing mountains un-
A Frcncli acn)i)lanc l)i)iiib lioUlcr.
der diflicult weather conditions. Commander
Briggs was shot down and made a prisoner.
On Christmas da}^ 1914, took place the raid
on Cuxhaven, reported in the chapter on
"Aerial Operations Indej^endent of the Fleet."
On January 11, 1915, fourteen German bi-
planes raided Dunkirk, being the largest num-
ber of aeroplanes employed in one raid up to
that date.
On February 12, 1915, thirty-four British
aeroplanes and seaplanes, under the command
of Wing-Commander Samson, assisted by
Wing-Commander Longmore and Squadron-
Conmianders Porte, Courtney, and Rathborne,
raided Bruges, Zeebrugge, Blankenberghe, and
Ostend districts. On the same day the French
aviators dropped 240 bombs on the German
aerodrome at Ghistelle. On jNIarch 21-22 took
place the first Zejipelin attacks on Paris.
The first air raid on British shores took place
on Christmas eve, 1914, when a German aero-
plane dropped bombs on Dover, which did no
damage. This was followed by a dropping of
bombs by a German aeroplane on the Thames
Estuary district on Deceml)er 25. The first
Zej^pelin raid on British soil took place on Jan-
uary 19, 1915, when Zeppelins visited Xorfolk
towns, attacking the seaport of Yarmouth, then
the Royal Summer Palace at Sandringham and
Kings Lynn and Sheringham. In all, nine
towns received bombs, Yarmouth being the
gi'eatest suff'erer. Tlie next attack was made
on the night of February 21 and 22, when a
Zeppelin dropped bombs on Braintree, Col-
chester, and INIarks Tey.
The air raids on all fronts since 1915 have
been so numerous that it would take a large
book to report them. The following account
of a day's raiding on Zeebrugge, gives an idea
of how easily aeroplanes can attack an enemy
when no ship can approach the enemy's strong-
hold. It is the report of the raids of February
118
BOMIi DKOl'l'INC; TROM AIKCKAIT
11 ;>
An uncxplodcd French iieropljini' lioinli.
11 and 13, 1915, given in the "London Daily
Mail":
On Thursday morning (February lltli) at about
8 :!}() ten aeroplanes passed lii^^li over Dunkirk, c()inin<r
from tlie west, and proceeded to l{el<riinn via tiie coast.
These were British machines whicli had flown direct
from England, and they were soon h)st in the clouds.
An hour later, however, all the aero])lanes were back
again, as they had met heavy snow-clouds and only
llirii- or four hud been able to curry out their nii.^.sian.
One ol the muchincs fell into the sea off Dunkirk.
I'lie ainiiun was picked u|i und the waferplane was
lo«cd ill. The ruid was therefore postponed until
nii,'lil, and al ]() i-. m. a second start was made. A
liielliodieul boiiibanlmeiit of Zeebriif^fje was then be-
f{un. Kach of tlic uatcr/tltnuii in turn ro»e from the
sea, dashed into Zcebritf/f/c, dropped its bombs, and
returned to the base at sea. As soon as one machine
returned another left, and thus seventeen consecutive
visits were paid to Zeebriigf^e. While this was going
on from the sea Uritisb and l''rench aeroplanes left the
aerodrome on land and completed the work of their
u uterjilane comrades.
On I-'riday a further raid was carried out. The en-
tire fleet of waterjilaiies and the full fleet of British
biplanes and French monoplanes took the air together
and started all over the German positions in Flanders.
Some went as far as Zeebrugge again, while others
visited Ostend and Blankeiibcrg. (hie hundred and
forty bombs, of which thirty were very large, were
dropped on various ammunition and food depots.
'I'lie extent of the damage done is not known, but there
were German submarines at Zeebrugge, while the Os-
tend railway station, which was set on fire, was still
burning this afternoon, when some French airmen
made a reconnaissance as far as Ostend.
The naval operators who participated in raid-
ing expedition.s during 1914—15 used, like all
aviators, steel arrows. These arrows were
al)()ut six inches in length, rounded at one end
and brought to a needle j)()int. The other end
for ahout four inches was deeply grooved.
'W^mr^"
Three uncxiUdciccl bombs fouiul after the liringinc di>wn of /eppclin "L 83" at Salonika, in 1916.
A native is using one of the l>omhs as a pillow.
120
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Effects of Zeppelin bombs on Antwerp, August io, 191-1.
They weighed about six ounces each and were
carried in boxes large enough to hold between
500 and 1000. They were dropped on the
enemy, by a simple device which opened the
bottom of the box.
The sizes and shape and nature of bombs
dropped from aeroplanes and dirigibles have
undergone a continuous change. At first the
bombs weighed mostly from 20 to 25 pounds;
later the weight was increased to 250 pounds.
The Zeppelins also dropped incendiaiy bombs
mtended to set places on fire.
An extended discussion of this subject and a
chapter discussing the instruments used in bomb
dropping will be given in the forthcoming
"Textbook of ^Slilitaiy Aeronautics," also
published by the Century Company, New
York.
( HAl'TKH XX
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Aircraft have made photography ol' tremen-
dous value in warfare. Wliereas at Hk iRgin-
ning of the j)rc'.si'nt war commaiuK is thouLiht
that it was wonderful to Ije al)le to gel clear
written or sketched reports of conditions from
air scouts avIio had flown over the enemy lines,
to-day they expect photographic evidence.
It is not suflicient i'or an aviator to return
from a raid and report that he dropped bonil)s
on a given place and did certain tlamage. He
must bring back photographic proofs, and he
usually does. I^ikewisc, the observer sent out
on an aerial reconnaissance brings l)ack a series
of photographs, which are 2)romi)tly put to-
gether and enlarged by experts, and photo-
graphic maps are constructed therefrom, show-
ing the exact to])()gra])hv of the couuti-y.
existing conditions, location, composition, and
disposition of fleets or steamers and transpfjrts,
and ol' land (I(fVnscs protecting tlie approaches
U) haibois oT phices of strategic importance.
The accuracy obtained Ity aerial photography is
so revolutionary from a military standpcjint that
it would have been inconceivable before the pres-
ent war to be able to rcali/e it. As a matter
of fact, the commander can have a moving pic-
ture taUiii ill a Irw hours which will shrjw the
exact conditions between any two given points,
and enable him to ])lan his operations accord-
ingly.
Of course, the commander of the opposing
forces lias the same privilege — unless one side
has the mastery of the air and is in a position to
])rcvciit the aviators of the other side from Hy-
This mosL iiinark.ililc pIiMlofrraiili of a .,ijii.aai,.ii ..f Uussisan battleships on the Baltic Sea taken at a height of over +000 feet, is
most significant. It shows liow clearly the camera reports the composition and the disposition of the encinys fleet
121
122
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AEROXAUTICS
ik.
A railiMMil liiiili:r (lr>tiii\ rd hy an Alliicl iia\al aviator in the Balkan tlioator of war. Aviators uiu!>t now l)ring back photographic
evidence of their accomplishments whenever possible.
ing over their own lines and taking photographs, graphs show the photograjjhic proofs of the
To prevent this is of as much importance as pre- aviator's accomplishments.
venting the enemy aviators from dropping In a report of a bomhing raid on the Turkish
bombs. Therefore, every effort is made to lines by a seaplane squadron, which started from
command the air. The accompanying photo- a seaplane carrier at Salonika, Lieut. Fran9ois
'k:
■^■■
..f^'
' '\ 1 1 \ \ \ •* >\' V
■lV,MA:>v^iA;.^
«rti»
Photograj)!! of (iaIMpoii taken by one of tlic AMied uviutors from a lu-ight of ,'OUU feet. Every inlet is clearly shown, also the
shii)s in the bay.
AKKIAL l'II()T()(;i{Al'in
123
A British naval aviator startiiijr out to film a
iiiilitMry observation.
Bernou, who was on the seaphme carrier Bcn-
Ma-Chree, relates how, after the aviators had
nliiiiiKl liniii llic r.ii.l they were ordered hack
to get |)liiit<i;4i:ii)lii<; evidence of the damage
done. llclmMing to the spot to get photo-
grapliic evidence, instead of waiting to talvC it
after liic siiioi^c of the h<)iiit)s has cleared away,
is often wise, as the aireiuft guns and the
enemy's fighting :i< ini)hines are usually in ac-
tion soon after the aviators hcgin to drop their
homhs. Tliis is to he decided after consider-
ing llic coiiditii)iis ()l)taining in each case.
The spird ;iiid aceiiiacy in locating things
permitted hy aerial pliotogiapliy is positively
revolntionary. 'Within a few minutes after the
photograph is received, the experts, with a
knowledge of the height at which the photo-
graph was taken, and hy means of special de-
vices, promptly find the compass direction, lo-
cation, si/e of ohjects, and distance hetween
ohjects shown on the photograph.
Memoranda:
CHAPTER XXI
RADIO TELEGRAPHY
To the United States belongs the distinction
of having made tlie first exjierinients to enable
a seajjlane to communicate with a ship by I'adio.
The first Avireless message ever sent from a
hydroaeroplane was received at Annajiolis on
July 26, 1912, on the United States torpedo
boat Stringham. The message sent by Ensign
Charles Hamilton 3Iaddox from a height of
300 feet was as follows : "We are off the water,
going ahead full speed on course for Xaval
Academy." The pilot of the hydroaeroplane
was Lieutenant John Rodgers, LT. S. X., an of-
ficer of the Xavy Aviation School. The appar-
atus was designed by Ensign INIaddox and had
several new features, including type of aerial
and a receiving device to overcome the noise of
the engine. That achievement was especially
remarkable because the hydroaeroplanes of that
time had a limited lifting capacity and the
weight required for dry batteries or storage cells
to furnish the current since there were no small
generators available to be driven by the engine
of the aeroplane, was prohibitive.
Of course Zepj^elins and large dirigibles had
been carrying radio sets for a number of years,
ca2)al)le of receiving as well as transmitting. It
will be remembered that the passenger-carry-
ing Zeppelins often carried such sets, and it was
one of the marvels of the passengers of the air-
shijis to learn from the crew that the airship was
in constant wireless communication with differ-
ent stations. But the dirigible sets weighed
complete between two and three hundred
pounds, which would have been prohi])itive to
the small seaplanes used before 1914.
Until the beginning of the war we marveled
Bir"*
lirst test of wireless made from a liydroairoplaiie in the United States Xavy, .July, WVi. Ensign Maddox is shown sitlinj? in
the navy's first Wrifrlit niaehine, ready for a flight to test its wireless ontfit. The eoni]ilete reeeiving ajiparatns is susjiendcil in
front of the o])erator l)y a strap passing over his shoulders, which i>roteets the delicate device from harmful vihration. The douhle
head telephone receivers are worn under a siiecially constructed cap, which assists in keeping out external noises. The sending key
is mounted on a T-shaped baseboard, the vertical part of which is grijjped by the ojierator's knees. A hot-w^ire ammeter is
mounted beside the key. A switch within reach of the o])erator throws from sending to receiving. The aerial in this case is
permanently fixed to the planes. The insert shows an aerial permanently attached to a navy aeroplane, which required no trail-
ing wire. This type of aerial proved successful for moderate distances of connnunication.
124
RADIO TKLKCiUAPIIV
12.5
The rock-pit witli iiri-.iM(;iiiii'iil
of the lH)-iiiilc sciuliiin set iiiid thi
exi)eriiiiciital receivuif; wireless ap-
paratus, invention of Captain C. C.
Culver, United States Army.
at a small aeroplane radio set transinittinfif one
mile per poinul weight, but the progress made
in the past two years has been extensive and at
present we get three miles per jjoiind weight.
In different chapters are given further details
regarding the use of seaplanes and dirigil)les
ecjuipped with radio for different purposes. In
the Chajiter on "Spotting the Fall of Shots"
are given details about the application of radio
from aircraft for spotting the fall of shots.
Lack of time prevents the author from givhig
in the "Textbook of Naval Aeronautics" a
more extensive chapter on Radio Telegraphy.
This Chapter wdll be given in the forthcoming
"Textbook of Military Aeronautics," which is
being published by the Century Company, Xew^
York, price $G.OO.
A Rritisii authority recently defined briefly
four general rules to be adopted by the wireless
ojK'rators from aircraft as follows:
(1) See before starting that the wireless in-
strument is properly adjusted to send strong
signals.
(2) Don't send when turning; always send
when the nose of the machine is towards the re-
ceiving station.
(3) Don't send too near the receiving sta-
tion; a minimum distance of from 2,000 to .3,000
yards gives better results.
(i) l)<in"t send jerkily; send evenly and re-
member that slow, bad sending is quite as un-
desiral)le as quick l)ad sending. In sending
slowly, don't stop in the middle of a word, a set
of code letters, figures or coordinates.
A seaplane of the Allies returning to the seaplane carrier at night, in the Mediterranean.
CHAPTER XXII
NIGHT FLYING
The night affords the best opportunities for
effective work, and night flying is, therefore,
common on the war fronts. Before the war
only dirigibles navigated the air at night, but
now all types of aircraft go up in tlie dark.
Even kite balloons are sent up at night to scan
the face of the waters for ships.
In leaving a seaplane station or seaplane
carrier at night, successfully navigating the air,
and returning to the base, three distinct things
are accomplished. On leaving the base all
lights must be subdued as much as possible, to
avoid attracting the attention of enemy air-
craft, but, otherwise, the task is fairly easy.
To navigate the air in the dark successfully
witli a seaplane requires experience and knowl-
edge of compass and navigating instruments.
The most difficult task is to find the base and
return to it. Liglits on land or water can be
seen from a height of .5000 feet or more, but
they may be the lights of hostile ships or enemy
bases. To identify them the aviator may drop
a flai'e paracliute, whicli lights tlie oljjects be-
low but does not disclose tlie position of the
airman. It is seldom convenient for an
enemy's vessel to admit its presence, but when
it is, the sky is flooded with the beams of
searchlights, and the anti-aircraft guns fire at
the aircraft.
Tlie aviator reports his findings to the ship
or station by wireless, and when ready to land
flashes a Yeri light according to the predeter-
mined signals. Then the searchlights of the
ship or station are turned on the spot where
the aviator is to land, and the landing is made.
First Night Flight Over Water in the
United States
The first night flight over water in the United
States was made liy Lawrence B. Sperry on
the evening of September 1, 1916. He flew
from jNIoriches to Amityville, fifty miles away,
in pitch dark, lighting his way over the dark
waters of the bay with specially arranged lights
attached to his aeroplane, and guiding his
course by compass.
]Mr. Sperry, accompanied by his mechanic,
started from ]Moricbes at 8:22 on the evening
of September 1, to fly to his hangar at Amity-
ville. His flying boat was equipped with a
new night-flying outfit, constructed by ^Mr.
120
NIGHT rj.VI.\(i
V2:
iiijilic pilot, which cniitrols its course and main-
tains its even keel, and directed by compass,
ilew without ti(jul^le to and landed at Arnity-
ville.
'I'he Sperry ni^d't-flyin^ outfit consists of a
hank of three st nain-Iincd searchli^^hts of .10
candle-power each. 'Ihion^h the use of para-
holic nllcclois each l.inij) throws a h^ht heam
of approximately 40,000 candle-])ower. These
n.nhts arc mounted on a cleverly designed tit-
ling- whi<'h secures them to the leading- cd^e of
either the uppei- oi- lower jilane. This mount-
ing is .so constructed th.il the lights can he tilted
in a vertical plane, making it possi})le to u.se
I he 111 for si^iialinn' purposes a!id at the same
time rendering- them most eflicicnt for landing.
The tilting of the lights is secured hy turning a
small knol) fastened within ea.sy reach of the
])i]ot so that the lights can he operated with-
out interfering with the control of the ma-
chine.
The liyhts them.selves are controlled ])y a
specially designed ])ush switch, normally held
open hy a spring. Avhich is operated like a tele-
graph key for signaling and. hy giving the top
a quarter turn, locks in a closed position when
desired.
'I'hc current sup^ily is secured fi-f)ni a very
efficiently designed generator of 1.50-watt ca-
]iacity, mounted on a convenient part of the
Sperry. After the lights were switched on machine, where it w ill not he in the .slip stream,
and the aeroplane started, the machine sped and is driven hy means of a wind tur])ine at
through the black sky with weird effect. The 4000 revolutions per minute. By means of an
machine, entirely operated by the Sperry auto- automatic cutout, one of the three lamps remain
A p.irachute Hare dropped by an airman to lind the nature of
the ship below him.
Curtiss F Ijoat ci|uii)peil with SiuTry nifrlit tlyin^' eciiiipinent, eonsistinjr of the bank of thr. . h-ht^ h,- moved in ver-
tical plane, eurrcnt luintr siiiijilied by a wind turbine driven pener.itor. shown to left of radiator on top plane. Both the lights and
the generator can be seen mounted on tlie le;iding etlge of tlie ujiper plane.
128 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
lighted should anything happen to cut off the The subject of night-flying will be discussed
main current supply, A compact storage bat- thoroughly in all its phases in the "Textbook of
tery is automatically thrown into circuit which INIilitary Aeronautics" issued by the Century
is otherwise floating on the hne. Company
Memoranda:
Tlio instrument hoard of an aeroplane.
1, Wiiti'h ; 2. Altimeter (roRisterinK liciKlit); 3. Compasa ; 4, Pressure (iafcs or Two Gasoline Tanks: 5. Dial Registering Engine Revolutions; 6,
Inelinoincter KeKistcring Level Fore anil Aft; 7, Oil Pulsator; 8, Control Stiek with Thumb Switch; 9. Switches, Two Magnetos; 10, Air Speed In-
dicator; 11, Gasoline Supply Pipe.
CHAPTER XXIII
INSTRUMENTS FOR AERIAL NAVIGATION
In the official report of flie iiivestigation.s of
the British Royal Flying- Cor]).s, made at the
close of 101 (i, tliere occurs the followino; detailed
description of the aeronautical instrimients and
maps available to-day for naval air pilots :
"Maps. — The question of maps has been un-
favorably commented on and some witnesses
consider that, if maps had been clearer, pilots
would have found it easier to recognize ])laces,
and an accident, such as occurred on ]May 31
la.st, when Lieutenant I^ittlewood lost his way
and was captured with his machine in Lille.
Mould never have happened.
"The directorate have had great trouble in
getting suitable maps, owing to tlie fact tliat nir
operations extend over so many different coun-
tries, the maps of which differ in style and scale.
For instance, hi the course of a flight, macliines
129
frequently pass over parts of England, France,
and Belgium. On the whoh . thougli the con-
sti-uetion of mai)s was necessarily rather slow,
we do not consider that any fault can be found
with the Royal Flying Corps, nor can we attri-
bute the loss of the machine in Lille to the map,
which was the same which all pilots flying acrcss
to l-'rance use, and seems to us reasonably suf-
ficient.
"Some further adverse comment has been
made by witnesses because tlu maps for the
theater of war have not lieen constructed on the
process by which Lord Montagu has produced
maps for air pilots over this country. There
are several reasons given why these undouljfedlj'
excellent air pilot maps have not been con-
structed, and with these we are in sympathy.
" (a) The process was a private invention and
130
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
quite unknown to the military authorities until
December, 1915.
"(b) Even if the invention had been known,
it could not have been adopted for military
pilots, as it is essential, whilst learning to fly,
that the latter should use the same type of majj
as they will find in vogue in the theater of war.
"(c) To produce maps of the theater of war
on Lord JMontag-u's plan would take time,
though it could probably be done.
"(d) The maps, if produced, would be use-
less, owing to its being essential for the purpose
of orders, reports, descriptions, etc., that pilots
should use the same maps as the army to which
they belong unless Lord ^Montagu's maps
should prove to be suitable for the ordinary work
of any army. This we think possible although
they have not yet been adopted.
"Compasses. — The provision of a suitable
compass has presented very real difficulties, and
only quite lately has it been possible to invent a
really satisfactory one. It appears that the
twisting and turning of an aeroplane are so
sharp and sudden that no existing compass was
trustworthy in an aeroplane; and it has been
urged that an indiff'erent compass was useless,
and that the number of high-class compasses was
very limited. There are certainly instances in
the earlier daj's of the war of machines flying
without compasses owing to there being none to
give them; and, later on, isolated instances due
to the negligence or rashness of local officers who
were responsible for seeing that a machine was
properly equipped before leaving the ground.
"Altimeters. — The complaint that altimeters
were limited to registering a height of 10,000
feet, and that they burst if an aircraft rose above
that height, appears to be l)orne out by fact,
and, here again, was a surprise of the war.
When hostilities commenced 10,000 feet was
considered an ample maximum height, l)ut the
range and accuracy of anti-aircraft guns in-
creased, until machines were hit at over 20.000
feet, and tlie range of the altimeter had to be in-
creased. Consequently, there was a period
when there were no suitable altimeters for
fliglits above 10,000 feet, but the committee have
no reason to suppose that the period was unduly
protracted."
The foregoing official report demonstrates the
importance of aeronautical instruments and the
development that has taken place in the past few
years.
The number and variety of instruments avail-
able for navigating aircraft is extraordinary, as
is shown by the following specifications prepared
by the National Advisory Committee on Aero-
nautics :
For the information of those concerned with
the use or production of mstruments used in the
navigation and operation of aircraft, the follow-
ing general list and specifications have been pre-
pared with a view to indicating the lines on
which development is required, and the restric-
tions and difficulties to be overcome in the de-
sign and construction of aeronautical instru-
ments :
Barometer or altimeter.
Compass.
Air-speed meter.
Inclinometer.
Drift meter.
Tachometer.
Oil gage.
Oil pressure gage.
Gasoline gage.
Gasoline flow indicator.
Distance indicator.
Barograph.
Angle of attack indicator.
Radiator temperature indicator.
Gasoline feed system pressure indicator.
Sextant.
Aeroplane director.
Stallometer.
General Requirements
All indicating instruments required in the
navigation of aircraft should be as compact,
rugged, and light as is consistent with accuracy,
relial)ility, and durability, and with ease of read-
ing. Such instruments must be free from the
influence of the following disturbing effects, ex-
cepting, of course, those effects on which they
depend for their oi)eration, viz., vibiation,
change of altitude, and change of tempera-
ture.
IXSTIU'MKXTS I'OK AKKIAL .\ A \ l( .A IK )\
;ii
Barometer or Altimeter
l^ai'omc'krs or alt iiiiclcrs iiiiisl he sensitive
and ol' ()|)C'ii scale, and tiie la^' in tlicir opt-i'ation
should be the absolute niinimuni olilainable.
When operaliny- in a Ton' il is essential llial llic
distance abo\c llu- snilaer slioiiM Ik known
Air-Speed Meter
An air-speed inetei' should indicate reliably
the sjjced through the air, and should be free
(roiii the effects of accelerations, as when the
niaeliine is Ijankin;^ stion^^ly in a turn the effect
ol' /gravitation is augmented by the presence of
the centrit'u/^al force. An the sustaining' pf)\ver
of an aeroplane is dependent ujjon the density
of I Ik ,1 1 mm is pi II re, it is considered that air-speed
meters \\ liicli are dependent on the pressure due
to \i|ocity will be a safci' I'or'ni of Indicator than
a tiue anenionictc r l\'|)e.
It is essential that the indicators shall l)e jjar-
ti( iilarly sensitive and have an open scale read-
inf>' at \-elocities a|)|)idachin^ a stalling speed,
which is the lower limit of safe flyinfr speed. It
is also necessary that they should indicate hi<4h
speeds aeeui-ately. in or(l( r that excessive sjjeed
may be a\ oi(!( (I wlnn Ljlidiny. Kxcessive speed
in <>lidin<i- involves (lan<4er when a machine is
brought up too sharply, as the combination of
hi^'h speed and the niaxinuim lift factor may
readily stress the machine beyond safe limits.
Also, when flyint^ at hifjh speed the angles of at-
tack are small, and tliei-e is daiiucr of the aero-
plane enterin<>- a critical condition in which the
flow of air may develoj) radical changes of state,
Aviation hiirDimtci' (ir altitude iiicter.
within very close limits. Such instruments, of
course, are dej)endcnt on ])aronietric pressure
ami on variations of barometric pressure from
the time of the start of a flight until the comple-
tion of a flight, which cannot be pro\ide(l for,
hut aside from this error their indication should
be substantially accurate once they are adjusted
at the pohit of departure. It is, therefore,
necessary that the scale should be of equal di-
visions, as otherwise a change of zero to meet
change of l)arometric height will introduce an
error. Their location on the aeroplane nuist he
carefully chosen so that their indications will not
be influenced by the velocity pressures in flight.
Compass
Compasses should have as high a diirctive
force as is consistent with restricted dimensions.
Provision should also be made in the compass
mounting for compensation for the presence of
magnetic material in the construction of the
aeroplane, particularly compensation for heel-
hig and dipping errors. In order that the di-
rective force shall not be abnormally reduced by and consequently great changes in the lifting
such compensation, it is, of course, desirable that jxtwer available. Air-speed meters should be
the structure should avoid the use of magnetic capabli' of calibration innnediately prior to a
materials in moving ])arts near the compass loca- flight. ^Vir-speed meters of the Pilot type de-
tion, such as the control colunuis, shafts, and pendent on a fluid are subject to gravitational
leads. ' errors when banking. They are also subject to
New type of aeroplane compass.
132
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
error due to heeling or diving. Unless the leads
from the Pilot tube to the indicating instru-
ments are sufficiently large, there is also danger
of a serious lag in indications.
inclinometer
Inclinometers of the pendulum or spirit-level
type are inaccurate in the presence of accelera-
tions and are only useful as a general check as to
the attitude of the machine when flying in a fog.
Aeroplane Inclinometer.
It is very desirable that an indicator free from
these defects should be developed. A g\^ro-
scojjic base line is considered desirable not only
for purposes of indicating inclination but as af-
fording a base line for sighting and for the use
of instruments of navigation.
Drift Meter
Drift meters are of two types — one designed
for the purpose of indicating leeway over the
surface for use in connection with navigation,
and the other, more properly termed "side-slip
indicator," for the jjurpose of indicating
whether or not the macliine is flying square to
the wind. The latter designation is considered
preferable for indicating the attitude of the ma-
chine. For navigating over the ground the
course is readily determined by ascertaining the
apparent motion of objects on the surface, and
the same method is available for navigating over
the water, provided there is a definite object on
which to sight. One tyi)e of drift meter indi-
cates by the streaking of waves across the ob-
jective glass of the instrument as apparent drift,
but as the particles of waves themselves which
indicate this streaking have a velocity of their
own, such indications are subject to error. If
the surface wind direction or velocity were
known, correction might be made, but when Ax-
ing at an altitude of several thousand feet it is
very likely that the aeroplane itself may be in an
entirely different current of air than that ])res-
ent at the surface. In addition to this, tidal
currents may also afl^ect the velocity of the water
particles. Two forms of side-slip indicators
exist, the simplest form being that of the well-
known string or pennant, but the latter cannot
be used satisfactorily in the wake of a tractor
jjropeller. The other type consists of a very
sensitive pendulum which indicates whether or
not lateral accelerations are present, as will be
the case for a machine which is not properly bal-
anced laterally, but such an instrument is sub-
ject to the defect* that if the machine is side
slipping laterally at a constant speed, lateral
acceleration is no longer present. It can only
be depended on to indicate initial disturbances.
Tachometer
Tachometers should be absolute in their indi-
cations, and if electrical should not be subject to
distiu-bances in the conductivity of circviits from
any cause, or to deterioration of magnetism of a
jjermanent magnet.
Oil Gage
Oil gages must definitely indicate
amomit of oil present in the crank case.
the
Oil gage used on aeroplanes.
Oil-Pressure Gage
Oil-pressure gages must acurately indicate
the pressure in the oil system and should also in-
(hcate that the flow of oil is undisturbed.
Gasoline Gage
Gasoline gages should indicate the amount of
gasoline available in the main tanks, and should
IXSTUIMKXTS FOR AKJdAI, .\A\ 1C,AT1(J.\
l.'J3
not depend on the visihility of /gasoline in !i j^lass its indieations should he elearly legible to the
tiihc, as, due to tlie transparciiey of /^asoUiie, a i)ilot. It shouhl he designed for attaehiiieiit in
full taidv and an empty tank would ^ive the ad\aiice of the wiriys on a traetor hiplane and
same indieations. Meehanical indieators are eh ar of the inllin iici- of the propcjlei- or the fuse-
eonsidti-i'd prefeiahie. lage.
Gasoline-flow Indicator
CJasoline-fiow indicators should depend on
meeiiaiiieal means of indiealin^' that the gasoline
is hein^' supplied from the main tanks to the
serviee tanks.
Distance Indicator
For navigation at sea or over uid<no\vn eoun-
try, it is desirahle that a record of distanee liown
through the air should he availahle. If it were
not for the fact that the slip of the propeller de-
pends largely on the load of tlie machine, and
whether or not the machine is climhing or glid-
ing', an engine counter would serve this piu'j)ose,
hut it is considered preferahle to have a counter
or recorder actuated by an anemometer for this
purpose. In either case, actual distance over
the surface will require correction for the wind
velocity and direction.
Barograph
Barographs are subject to the same general
specifications as altimeters.
Angle of Attack Indicator
An angle of attack indicator should he dead
beat, free from the effects of gravitation, and
accurately respond to and indicate any change
of the directions and flow of air to the support-
ing surfaces. It should be light, rugged, and
Incidence indicator.
Radiator Temperature Indicator
A radiator t(iii])( rat iiic indicaloi' sliould he
itadily inserted in the tojj of the ra<iiator and
should elearly indicate the best operating
tempi I at me. The thermometer should con-
form to best practice, and the entire instrument
be sufheiently rugged to withstand reasonable
vibration and shock.
Gasoline Feed System Pressure Indicator
Where the gasoline feed is not gi-avitational,
the indications of the ])ressin'e available must be
accurate. The gasoline feed system pressiu'e
indicator must not Ik- affected by vibration or
change of temperature. It must have a good
scale and a deadbeat action.
Sextant
Sextants should l)e as light and small as pos-
sible commensurate with pro])er accuracy. A
sextant for measuring the altitude of a heavenly
body above a horizontal plane without the use of
the sea horizon or an artificial horizon would be
most desira])le.
Aeroplane Director
An aeroplane director for the mechanical
solution of the course and distance made good,
based on the course and speed of the aeroplane
and the force and direction of the wind, is a de-
sirable development.
Warns the Aviator Against
Stalling
The stallometer is an instrument that
warns the aviator when his machine is ap-
pi-oaching a stalling condition by indicat-
ing that the minimum air speed has
l)een reached. It is mounted in any con-
venient position where the air flow is unoli-
structed.
134
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AEROXAUTICS
The Sperry stallometer is adjustable for any
desired air speed, depending on the aeroplane on
which it is installed. When the predetermined
sjjeed is reached an electric contact is made in
the stallemometer, closing the circuit to an indi-
cating lamp which is mounted on the instrument
board.
Signals Aviator to Keep the Aeroplane Level
Aviators wishing to know at any time the cor-
rect fore-and-aft position of the machine, with
reference to the horizontal, can read it on the
scale of the Sperry deadbeat clinometer.
Cockpit of Gurtiss aerojilam- lluwii by Curlstroiii in Cliitiigo-Ncw Y
The Sperry Clinometer.
The operation of this instrument is simple.
Whenever the clinometer is tipped forward or
backward by the motion of the aeroplane this
movement is registered on a scale mounted
on a wheel which is damped by floating in a
liquid.
If the aeroplane tips forward, the scale moves
upward indicating in degrees below the zero line
the exact angle. If the machine tips backward,
the scale moves downward, the exact
amount which is likewise shown in de-
grees. The scale is painted in radiinii
so that it is visible at night by its own
light.
The ease, measuring four and three-
eighths inclies in over-all diameter, is
made of a bronze spinning and painted
black. The clinometer is usually
mounted on the instrument board in
the i)ilot's cockpit. But it may be
])]aced elsewhere in the fuselage, pro-
viding that location is such that the
instrument can 1)6 seen at all times.
Though comparatively new. the Sperry
clinometer has already rendered valu-
able and efficient service in its particular
orii iiigiit. field.
The United States Navy aero caiiip anil liungar tents at Guantanamo Bay.
CHAPTER XXTV
UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS
To the T"''nitc(l States XaA'v bclong's the (Hs-
tinction of having been the first to take steps to
organize an aviation section. This was early
in 1911, when Congress made the first appro])ri-
ation for naval aeronautics, the amount of whicli
was $2.),000.
Three officers — Lieutenants T. G. Ellyson,
John Rodgers, and John H. Towers, U. S. X. —
were ordered to aerojjlane factories for in-
struction, and three machines — two Curtiss and
one Wright — were ])urchased. A land aero-
drome was established on Greenbmy Point,
Annapolis, Maryland, with three hangars for
the machines, which did not yet ha\e jjon-
toons.
These officers made extensive experiments in
launching aeroplanes by means of a cable-
launching device at Hammonds])ort, Xew York,
which Avas the forerunner of the cata])iilt de-
veloped by Captain AY. I. Chambers, L". S. X.,
who was in charge of naval aviation at that
time.
Subsequently, in the spring of 1912, the pei'-
sonnel of the Aviation Section was increased by
the addition of Ensign Y. D. Ilerbster, U. S.
X.; Assistant Xaval Constructor H. C. Rich-
ardson, U. S. X.; Lieut. I. F. Dortsch, U. S.
X.; Lieut. T>. X. ^NFcXair, and First-Lieut. A.
A. Cunningham, U. S. ^Marine Corps.
Between April 12, 1911, and the latter part
of August, 1912, a total of .593 flights were
made by the instriictidii officers — Lieutenants
Ellyson and Towers in the Curtiss machines
and Lieutenants Rodgers and Ilerbster in the
Wright machine. In l)cccmt)cr, 1911, the
three machines and the aviators were trans-
ferred to San Diego, and a camp was estab-
lished there for the winter season. Then it was
transferred to AnnajJolis, near the Engineering
lOxperiment Station, on the north shore of the
Severn River.
During this period the L^nited States Xa^y
led the navies of the world in naval aviation.
Its experimentations, while not extensive, were
of fundamental importance, and its aviators
made history in many ways.
On :May 9, 1912, Rear- Admiral Bradley A.
Fiske. commander of Second Squadron. At-
lantic Fleet, made the first aerial reconnaissance
ever made by a naval officer of rank. W. Star-
ling Burgess and P. W. Page flew to and
landed alongside the U. S. S. Georgia, the flag-
ship, anchored at Salem Harbor, and subse-
(piently Rear-^Vdmiral Bradley A. Fiske made
a flight on the Burgess- Wright hydroaeroplane
piloted by P. W. Page.
On June 28, 1912. Lieut. John Rodgers flew
from the Aero Station near Annapolis to the
135
136
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
1
1
HpT!^^^^*^^'^
^^^^^*
U ■ ,
hS^^^M
^^^^B^__
|^WB=^
Till- X.n.il A\iatinn Caiii]i at AnnajKilis in I91i? — lower left hand corner; the old Aerodrome on Cirreiiliiiry Point marked by arrow.
battleship Louisiana. Ascending at 11 o'clock,
the aviator shot his plane directly ahead at an
altitude of about -iOO feet, and alighted on the
starboard side of the battleship about thirty-
five minutes later. The aviator subsequently
performed a numl)er of evolutions and returned
to the exjieriment station opposite Annapolis
at four o'clock.
On October 0, 1912, Lieut. John H. Towers
made a Avorld's duration record for hydroaero-
planes, and an American endurance record for
aeroplanes of any kind by flying a Curtiss hy-
di-oaeroplane six hours and ten minutes, flying
from Annapolis over the Chesapeake Bay. On
December 17 of that year, the anniversary of
the first aeroplane flight, there was tried at the
Washington Navy Yard Captain W. Irving
Chamber's catapult device for launcliing aero-
planes from battleships. The new Curtiss fly-
ing boat, carrying Lieutenant Ellyson, was
launched successfully. (See chapter on
Launcliing Aero])lanes From Ships.) There
were also conducted valuable experiments in
radio telegraphy communication between hy-
droaeroplanes and ships.
On October 9, 1913, the Navy Board convened
a Board of Aeronautics consisting of Capt. W.
Irving Chambers, U. S. N.. iVeronautic Ex-
pert; Commander C. B. Brittain, U. S. N.,
Asst. Chief of Bureau of Navigation; Com-
mander S. S. Kobison, U. S. N., Assistant
Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering;
IJeut. M. II. .Simons, U. S. N., of the Bureau
of Ordnance; Naval Constructor II. C. Rich-
ardson, LT. S. N., Bureau of C. and R. ; Lieut.
J. H. Towers, U. S. N., Aviator; First-Lieut.
A. A. Cunningham, LT. S. M. C. This board
rendered a report, making many important
recommendations, including the assigning of a
reserve ship to aeronautic duty, the establish-
ing of an aeronautic station at Pensacola Navy
Yard, and the acquisition of dirigibles, observa-
tion balloons, and other equipment for a sub-
stantial air service. There was also recom-
mended the establishing of an office of na^y
aeronautics, "to be under the charge of a direc-
tor of naval aeronautics with the rank of cap-
tain, if practicable, who shall coordinate the
work of the office for the Secretary of the Navy
in conformity with the dej^artmental organiza-
tion and in cooperation with the necessary as-
sistants representing the biu'eaus."
The LT. S. S. Mississippi was detached from
the reserve fleet and assigned as aeronautic sta-
tion ship at Pensacola, Florida. It remained
on aeronautic duty until the summer of 1914,
when it Avas sold to Greece, and the A^orth Cam-
Una was assigned to take its place.
United States Navy Aviation Section Holds
Distinction of Being First to Operate
Under Conditions Approximating War-
fare.
The Aviation Section of the United States
Navy distinguished itself in the summer of 191 -I
at \i.'Yii Cruz. What the naval aviators ac-
complished at Vera Cruz, as well as an interest-
UNITKl) STATKS X.W V AKUOXAl TICS
l.'J7
ing (liscussioii of tlie status of soaplaiics at that
time, and an cxpi-cssioii of the I'liitcd States
Navy's needs were ^iven in the f'()ll()\viri<^- letter
from Seeretary of the Navy Daniels to the
writer, under dale ol' May 10, 1!)1 I.;
NAVY DEPARTMENT
Wasliin^'loii
May 1!), 191 k
To Mr. lIcMi V \N'o(>(lli()U.se,
297 Mfulison Ave.,
New York City.
Dear Mr. Woodliouse:
(1) Your letter of the 8tli instjuit has Ihlh re-
ceived.
(2) The Navy had just about cstahlislied an aero-
nautic center at Pensacola, Fhjrida, wlieii the mobili-
zation of tlie Fleet in Mexican waters became neces-
sary. Aero])lane.s are now considered one of tlie arms
of the Fleet the same as battleships, destroyers, sub-
marines, and cruisers. That the Navy's aeronautical
service was well orfjanizcd was shown by the |)rom])t
way in which the Aeroplane Division got away from
Pensacola to take part in the mobilization in ]\Iexi-
can waters. At noon, Sunday, the I9th of April,
Patrol orders were received at Pensacola for the First
Aeroplane Section to embark on the Birmingham.
In six hours two aero])lanes, with all sjiarc parts for
active service, two hangar tents, and tents and camp
equipment for three officers and ten men of the Sec-
tion, were on dock ready to go on board the Birming-
ham. The Second Aero])lane Section was just as
quick when the orders were issued. The Aeronautical
training sliip }fi.s)iissippi under the command of I-ieut-
Commander H. C. Mustin was also ordered from Pen-
sacola to join Admiral Badger's Fleet ofT the east
coast of ]\Iexico. The Second Aeroplane Section was
embarked on board the Mississippi. The First Aero-
[tlane Section is under the conimand of Lieut. J. II.
']'()« ii-s, I'. S. .\., ai;d tlie Second Section under the
coniiiMfid of I.ieiit. P. \. L. Hellinger, and these two
sections forming a division arc under the command
of Lieut-Commander 1 1. ('. .Mustin.
(.'}) The First .\i rojilanc Section on br)ard the
Birmiiif/htim has been stationed off Tamjiico, and
there has been no necessity for any work by this sec-
t jun.
(i) The Mississippi with the Second Aeroplane
Section on l)ourd arrived off \'era Cruz on the il'Ah
of April .tnd uitliin five minutes after the anchor was
dropjjed one of the aeroplanes was in the air. Every
day since then and often more than once a day the
navy aeroplanes have scouted along the outposts and
far beyond our lines, mapping the country and ob-
serving the motions of the ^Mexican forces.
(.5) The latter part of last year, ]\Ir. A. B. Lam-
bert of St. Louis, with much ])ul)lic spirit, organized
a Cnitcd States Aviation Reserve Corps. Recently,
when it seemed likely that our armed forces might be
called out, Mr. Lambert volunteered to assist the
Navy Department to ascertain the aviators, mechani-
cians, and aero])lancs that would be available if the
Navy required them. Mr. Lambert at his own ex-
pense has traveled widely over the country, gather-
ing valuable information for the Navy. In addition,
there has been a large numl)er of aviators who have
personally offered their services to the Government.
All such applications are on file ready for reference
if the necessity arises to call foi' volunteers. It is
gratifying to find that the Navy could be most ably
reinforced in its Air Service. It does not seem prob-
able that volunteers will l)e called for, but this experi-
ence has been invaluable in collecting such useful in-
formation, and will also lead to better plans for a
reserve or volunteer force for future eventualities.
If volunteers ever are needed the greater tlie knowledge
they have of flying in the open sea the better they will
TIk- liaiij;.u-s of tlu- Ann.qHilis ;u-n>aroiiK- in iiUl. I'liu navy Wrijrlit machine bil'urc liydroplanes were placed on it
138
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
be able to acquit themselves in assisting the Navy.
(6) The greatest amount of flying for pleasure,
sport, or commercial purposes is over land or inland
waters. The aeronautic service for the Navy must
operate over the open sea. Therefore, the greatest
developments in aeroplanes have been along lines that
have not given the best aid to the Navy. Hydroaero-
planes and flying boats well fitted for use on inland
waters fail in rough water in the open sea. At Mo-
naco last April, the most experienced aviators like
Prevost, Jansor, Moinau, and Berlin did not start a
race because of a rough sea, and Garros only suc-
ceeded after a second trial, while Brindejonc des Mou-
linais gave it up after trying three times. Hirth, the
German aviator that made a world's record flight from
Gotha to Marseilles, capsized when landing on the
water in Samaris Bay. Moineau made a fine landing
in the same bay, but was capsized by a large wave
while trying to get away. Those aviators who made
the successful flights from ^Marseilles to ^Monaco in
the "Aerial Rally" were fortunate in not finding rough
water when they had to make the landing on the water
required by the rules.
(7) It is probable that many of the problems of
aeronautics in the Navy will have to be solved without
much aid from outside sources. Anyway, this will be
so until such time as cross-ocean flights become a com-
mercial success, or at least readily accomplished.
The Navy now feels that a flying radius of 800 miles
is required for its aerojalane service. It is not too
much to expect, but to accomplish this there must be
much improvement in motors and refinement of design
and of construction of the aeroplanes. I am sorry
we have no photographs of the operations in jNIexican
waters to send you.
Very truly yours,
(Signed) Josephus Daniels,
Secretary of the Navy.
Besides tlie officers mentioned in Secretary
Daniels's letter the following officers iJartici-
pated and distinguished themselves in the oper-
ations in jMexican waters: Lt. R. C. Saufley,
Ensigns INI. Iv. Stolz and W. D. Eamont.
Captain W. Irving Chambers having retired,
Captain ]Mark L. Bristol was appointed in
charge of the Office of Naval Aeronautics, as
director of Naval Aeronautics ; Lieut. John H.
Towers was sent to I^ondon, England as assist-
ant naval attache, and the number of aviators
Avas again increased, but on account of the
shortage of personnel in the Navy, it was impos-
sible to assign to aeronautic duty the number of
officers and men which the Department felt
should be assigned.
Owing to lack of appropriations, the aero-
nautic station at Pensacola was operated on a
very limited basis until 1916, the work being
further delayed by a succession of storms, which
wrecked the tent hangars, buildings, aeroplanes,
and equipment. Another storm on July 5,
1916, found the station better, but not entirely,
prepared for it. Buildings had taken the place
of tent hangars, but the storm demolished build-
ings, aeroplanes, and run-ways. Now the
hangar doors are east to west, therefore least ex-
posed to the storms.
Navy Department Decides Against Govern-
ernment Construction of Aircraft
At the close of 191-t, there was suggested in
the House of Representatives the establishment
The (ir.st liydnnicniplaiie of Llie IJiiilc-il Slates Navy Avialion SccUoii, i;)ll.
UNITED STATES .\A\ \ AEJ{0.\ A I J ICS
1.31t
Ensign \'. 1). Ucrbstcr, U. S. N., niakinj: a liindinff in a Wriplit machine, after ii trial fli(:lil in IlllJ. The Naval Aeacleniy and
station-ship Uarlfurd on the right haekground.
of a '••ovcrnnicnt factory for aircraft. Secre-
tary Daniels had the suhjeet considered and
transmitted to the House of Representatives
under date of December 14, 1914, the follow-
ing report, which advised against the establish-
ing of a Government aeroplane factoiy:
Dccfinl),r 1 K 101 t
From: Bureau of Construction and Rty)air
and Hui'i'au of Steam ]',ngini'i.'ring.
To: Navy Department (material).
SruJKCT: Aeroplanes.
Refekence: (a) Department's nuinorantluni, De-
cember VZ. 1914.
(1) While tlie initial successes in air-craft work
were attained in this country, the desin^n and construc-
tion here on a successful scale are still in the develop-
ment stage. Foreign countries are far in advance of
our builders. The marked progress of this class of
work abroad is due mainly, if not solely, to the encour-
agement given to private manufacturers by foreign
governments. While there arc only a few companies
in this country that can at present be considered as
competent designers and builders, tlieir number is
sufficient to stimulate competition and bring about
great improvement in design, })rovided there is a rea-
sonable amount of Government business in sight.
Furthermore, there are other companies that arc only
awaiting the existence of sufficient business to de-
velop their ideas along the same line.
(2) While the Government has resources, includ-
ing a few officers specially trained in aeronautical-
design work, this force can at present be considered
only a nucleus and is capable of carrying on only a
very limited volume of work. It would be a tre-
mendous loss to the advancement of aeronautical
work to lose the ideas and results of ))rivato invention
and experiment.
(3) In view of the above and in view of the ex-
tremely hazardous nature of aircraft work, involving
the , loss of life and propertj-, if not designed and
manufactured with extreme care and along what ex-
jierience has tanglit to be the safest lines, the bureaus
believe that it would be a great mistake for the De-
j)artment to undertake at the present time a manu-
facture of aircraft except on an experimental scale.
(4) Prejjarations have already been under way
for about two years looking to the design and con-
struction of an experimental machine, with a view to
developing ultimately the necessary plans, specifica-
tions and detail instructions for the manufacture of
aeroplanes, but hulls and power plants, by private
manufacturers, including shipyards, and by navy
yards in an emergency. This experimental work in-
cludes a continued series of laboratory experiments
on a large scale at the navy yard, Washington. The
preliminary work toward the experimental construc-
tion above mentioned is already in hand, and it has
been the bureau's intention to take up the manufac-
ture of such an experimental aeroplane at the Wash-
ington Navy Yard in the near future.
(•5) The establishment of a Government plant for
the general manufacture of aircraft would require a
complement of officers that can ill be spared at the
present time, and not only because the Navy has a
very limited number of specially trained designers in
this class of work, but because such a ])lant would
call for the diversion from actual flying work of many
of the most competent operators. As stated above,
the establishment of such a plant would tend greatly
to discourage the valuable initiative and resources of
private manufacturers, who should be encouraged and
stimulated as a most valua])le asset not onlv in the
development of aircraft but also for turning out such
craft in quantities in time of an emergency. Any
govermnent plant which could be established in the
near future would be entirely inadequate in war time,
as aircraft would be required in large quantities in
such an emergency.
(6) It is therefore recommended that the utiliza-
tion of existing plants for aeroplane work be confined
to the construction of an aeroj^lane engine at one of
the navy yards, with a view to the preparation of de-
140
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
The earliest experiments in iauneliina: a liydroaeroplane, made in 1911, wlieii t!ie Uniteil States Navy led the world's navies in
aeninautic'S. Lieut. T. G. Ellyson, U. S. \., who shared with Lieut. John H. Towers, now I.ieut.-Commander Towers, the distinction
of being the earliest naval aviators, is shown at the wheel. The machine is about to be launched on the cable. Lieutenant Towers is
shown on the left, holding one of the ropes. Augustus Post is shown below the machine, in the center. This device did not prove
practical but afforded valuable experience.
partmental plans, specifications, and manufacturing
instructions in sufficient detail for use in an emer-
gency.
(7) However, if the Department directs tlie es-
tablishment of a plant for the manufacture of air-
craft, it is recommended that the work be done either
at the navy yard, Philadelphia, or the navy yard,
Norfolk, these yards Iiaving a moderate amount of
space for testing work. A considerable portion of
tlie necessary plant is already available at these
yards, but certain special tools would be required, some
delay woidd be experienced in training a special force
of mechanics, who would have to be instilled with the
supreme importance of perfect workmanship. The
approximate estimated cost of putting the shops at
one of these yards in order and establishing an air-
craft factory with a capacity of two or three ma-
chines per month is placed at .$30,000. The esti-
mated cost of turning out such machines under the
present navy yard cost system is about $6000. This
does not include tlie cost of the commissioned person-
nel, classified eTiij)loyees, leave, holiday, and disability,
and certain oilier overhead charges not at present
included in Hie cost of work, and does not include the
question of ])atent rights; all of these would probably
run the actual cost much above the above figures.
(Signed) Sch.\i;fkr, Acting,
U. S. Griffin.
The project was again suggested in the early
part of 191.5. The writer asked Secretary
Daniels for a statement, and received the fol-
lowing:
The Secret.ary of the N-avy,
Washington,
April 27, 1915.
Dear IMr. Woodhouse:
I thank you for the newspaper clippings which you
enclosed and for your letter of the 17th instant. The
Advisory Committee on Aeronautics had not organ-
ized at the time this statement was made in the clip-
pings you were good enough to send. This Advisory
Committee, provided for as you will undoubtedly re-
call in the Naval Appropriations Bill u]ion my recom-
mendation, has its duties and powers defined in that
bill. It is the belief of the Department that its ad-
vice will be of very great value, within the limitations
of its functions.
The question of whether aircraft should be manu-
factured by the Navy Department is not a question
that would come before this Advisory Committee in
any way. The position of the Department was
clearly expressed in my a])])roval of the rejiorts of
the Bureau of Construction and Repair and the Bu-
reau of Steam Engineering, transmitted to Congress
last Decemlier. I have seen no reason to change the
position then taken. The sole desire of the Depart-
ment is to use the money appropriated by Congress
in a way that will, as ra])idly as ])ossible, make this
arm of the service as effective as possible.'' The Di-
rector of Naval Aeronautics and the experts at the
aeronautic station at Pensacola and our observers
abroad are giving everything regarding the improve-
ment of aircraft in the Navy their earnest attention
and consideration.
We are much gratified in the assurance we have re-
UNITED STATKS .\A\'\' AKKOXAITK S
1 il
cc'i\c(l from dcsin'iicrs uiid r(»iisl ruclorN tliat tli<_)' »ill
give us a suilalilc I \ pc of aii'cral'l f'oi- tlic Navy, uiid
tliat it will he |)ossil)le lo make a rajiid iiicrcusc ir] our
acTO])laiU' Heel willioiit iiuicli dtlay.
I thank yoii siiiccfclv (<ii' tin' dicp inlcn^l \oii
show in our acTounilfii' service, and uilj aluays a|)|<ri-
ciate your interest and suggestions.
With sentiments of esteem and liigh regard, Ixlicvi'
me, Cordially yours,
(Signed) .Josei'ul's Daniels.
The First United States Navy Dirigible
In 1914-1.') Jittention was ^iveii to <rettiiio- a
diri,oil)le. Specifications were issued l)y the of-
fiee of Naval ^Veronautics on INIarch 20, 191.).
Bids for one or two diri^ihles were asked and
opened at the Navy Department in Washin<»1^()ii
on April 20, 191.'). The general s[)ccifieatioiis
re(|iiircd that tlic diri<>i])lc should be of the non-
ri^id type, about 17.) feet lono- and 50 feet hi<i;'h,
3.5 feet in diameter, with a useful load of about
2000 pounds. It was s])ecified that the dirio-
ibles shoidd have a speed of 25 miles an hour or
Ameiican I)iri;;il)li' Uallooi. Svndicatc, Inc., New
York, N. V.
One i.iacliin. — $41 ,()()().()().
On.' liia.liinc (larger )— $l-;),0()0. 00.
Till' ( omiccl iciil .Xircraft Company, New Haven,
( iiiin.
One inaehine— .$4.5,fi;i().y.J.
Two iiiafliines— $Ha,ai.5.ia.
The (loodyear Tire .t Uuhher Company, Akron, Ohio.
(Jne maciiinc— .$^00,000.00.
(This hid was suhject to a reduction which will make
the total cost to the Government equal to the cost of
Ihe machine to the (ioodyear Tire & Ruhher Com])any
])Ius .^O j)er cent. The amount entered as the hid is
the iiia\iiiuim to he charged under anv condition.)
Contract Tor one dirioiblc was awarded to the
Connecticut Aircraft Company.
Specifications for Hydroaeroplanes, 1915
Specifications for hydroaeroplanes were also
issued and l)ids for suj)j)lyino- tlii'ee or six ma-
chines were opened on Februaiy 27, 1915. The
following- bids were received:
Firms
Aircraft Conijiany, Inc
Burgess Company
ItiMii 1 Items Items Item 4 Item la Item 2a
iJSG.OfiJ.OO !t;,5,U-'.00 .$71(i.00 .$.>,7{in.00 i}i7,9()3.00 .$5,000.00
6,780.00 4,837.00
6,: 00.00 4,33.5.00 280.00 5,3.50.00 4,335.00 380.00
Curtiss Aeroplane Co 10,500.00 7,000.00 435.00 3,000.00 10,500.00 7,000.00
Gallaudet Company, Inc 18,000.00
Cirinncll .\iro])lane Conii);iny G,.500.00 8,000.00 .500.00
William C. Hurst 7,50(1.00 3,,500.00
Peoli Aeroplane Corporation 3,100.00 3,700.00 ,500.00
Shaw Aeroplane Company. . 4,499.00 3,415.00 5S(i.OO
B. F. Sturtevant Co 4,335.00
Thomas Bros. Aeroplane Co. 4,f>00.00 3,550.00 750.00
5,850.00 (i,380.00 750.00
Item 3a Item 4n Remarks
$735.00 .$.3,000.00 .Should automatic stahiliz<T be
716.00 3,760.00 a<'ce])ted with each aeroplane
the cost of Item 3 power plant
in each ease will be reduced
$190.00.
.... Has inherent stability. Wire-
less outfit and lifrhlinfr outfit
not inchuled as no definite ap-
proved tvjie is specified.
435.00 3,000.00 Informal— No Guarantee.
Tor one machine.
The Tygard Engine 14,000.00 14,000.00
The Wright Company 9,740.00 5,300.00 60.00 7,500.00 4,940.00
B. Stephens & Son 3,000.00 3,400.00 300.00
G. H. Armitage 3,800.00 4,300.00 250.00
3,100.00 3,700.00 500.00
4,335.00
60.00
Informal — No Guarantee.
Informal — N'o Guarantee.
Price does not include wire-
less and lighting outfits, but
includes fitting of such out-
fits if furnished by Ciovern-
nient.
Type H. S.
Type .S. Prices do not in-
clude wireless or lighting out-
fits.
Price does not include wire-
less and lighting outfits.
Price does not include <-om-
pass, chart holder and sex-
tant.
Tf Sturtevant motor is fur-
nished Item 3 will be
$1,300.00.
Informal — Xo Guarantee.
more, and to be capable of rising 3000 feet with- On September 1. 1915, an order went into ef-
out disposing of ballast. The bids submitted feet providing that officers attached to the aero-
were as follows: nautic station at Pensacola should perform ad-
142
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
ministrative and executive duty in the upkeep
and i^roper maintenance of the Pensacola sta-
tion, these duties to be performed as secondary
to the aeronautical work at such time as flying
was not possible, due to unfavorable weather
conditions. This was done to give the officers
experience in navy yard administration as a
preparation for the officers wlio might in the
future be j^laced in command of shore stations.
The complete aeronautic commissioned per-
sonnel in September, 1915, was as follows:
Lieutenant Commander H. C. JNIustin, U. S.
N., Naval Aviator and Commandant of the L^.
S. Navy Aeronautic Station and U. S. Naval
Reservation; Lieutenant K. Whiting, U. S. N.,
Naval Aviator and Captain of the Yard; Lieu-
tenant J. H. Towers, LT. S. N., on duty, Ivon-
don, England, Assistant Naval Attache; Lieu-
tenant A. C. Read, Student Naval Aviator;
Lieutenant E. F. Johnson, Student Naval Avi-
ator; Lieutenant L. H. Maxfield, U. S. N., on
duty Akron, Ohio, Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Company; Lieutenant (j. g.) P. N. L. Bellin-
ger, Naval Aviator in Charge Erecting and
Test Division; Lieutenant (j. g.) R. C. Sauf-
Lkut. Alfnd A. ( iinMinfrli.iiii, I'.S. .\H. tiyiiifr uvcr the Ijiittle-
shij) Connecticut in a Burgess Hydroaeroplane in 1913.
ley, Naval Aviator, in Charge Flying School;
Lieutenant (j. g.) V. D. Herbster, Naval Avi-
ator, duty Berlin, Germany, Assistant Naval
Attache; Lieutenant (j. g.) P. R. Paunack,
Student Naval Aviator; Lieutenant (j. g.) F.
G. Haas, Student Naval Aviator; Lieutenant
(j. g.) C. K. Bronson, Naval Aviator, Assist-
ant to Officer in Charge Erecting and Test Di-
vision; Lieutenant (j. g.) W. Capehart, Naval
Aviator, Planning Superintendent; lieutenant
(j- g-) ^^^- J^I- Corry, Student Naval Aviator;
Lieutenant (j. g.) J. E. Norfleet, U. S. N.,
Student Naval Aviator; Lieutenant (j. g.)
Lieutenant (j. g.) G. de C. Chevalier, U. S. N.,
Naval Aviator; Inspection Duty, JNIarblehead,
Massachusetts; Lieutenant (j. g.) W. A. Ed-
wards, U. S. N., Student Naval Aviator and
Assistant to Cajitain of Yard; Lieutenant (j.
g.) E. W. Spencer, Jr., U. S. N., Student
Naval Aviator, and Assistant to Officer in
Charge Erecting and Test Division; Lieutenant
(j. g.) G. D. Murray, U. S. N., Student Naval
Aviator and Asst. to Officer in Charge, Erect-
ing and Test Division; Lieutenant ( j. g.) H. T.
Bartlett, U. S. N., Student Naval Aviator and
Assistant to Officer in Charge ]Motor Erecting
Shop; Lieut, (j. g.) E. O. jNIcDonnell, U.
S. N., Student Naval Aviator, and Asst. to
Planning Superintendent; Lieut, (j. g.) H.
W. Scofield, Student Naval Aviator; First-
Lieut. A. A. Cunningham, LT. S. JNI. C,
Student Naval Aviator and in Charge INIotor
Erecting Shop; First-Lieut. B. L. Smith, U.
S. M. C, duty, Paris, France, Asst. Naval At-
tache; First Lieut. F. T. Evans, U. S. INI. C,
in Charge Barracks, Building 45; Second-
Lieut. W. M. INIcIlvain, U. S. U. C, Naval
Aviator on Inspection Duty, Hammondsport,
New York.
United States Navy Experimental Wind
Tunnel
Early in 1916 there was established at the Ex-
perimental INIodel Basin, where warship models
are tested, a large experimental wind tunnel.
The tunnel has a section eight feet square at the
point where the models are placed for testing,
and is equijjped with a 500 horse-power motor
UNITED STATES XAVY^ AEK()\A[:T1CS
143
T
I
One of the U. S. N. Air Scouts at \ira Cruz iluiing the 1914 exiH'dition. I'. S. N'. sliips sliown in the distance. U. S. S. Utah'*
special corps underneatli in the Municipal IJuilding.
driven fan, giving wind speeils up to seventy-
five miles an hour.
Specifications for Seaplanes, 1916
In August, 191G, the Xavy Department is-
sued specifications and asked hids for sup})ly-
ing three, six, nine, and twelve aeroplanes and
power plants. The bids were opened on Sep-
tember 5, 1 91 (>. The performance required was
as follows:
Madhiuiiii Speed — Not loss tliiui .5^.1 knots (60
miles per hour, nor more than 60.7 knots (70 miles)
per hour.
Miiiiii/um Speed — Not more than Hi.'! knots (-iO
miles) per hour.
Climb — 2500 feet in first ten minutes from surface.
Lauding — Not over !J4.7 knots (40 miles) per hour.
Jiadiiis — 4 hours with full power.
I-'Jv in wind of .'}0. 4 knots (35 miles) per hour.
Drift in wind of 21.7 knots (25 miles) per hour.
Get-away and land in wind of 21.7 knots (25 miles)
per hour.
United States Navy Experimental Seaplane
During the summer of l'.)l.> naval construc-
tion, H. C. Richardson designed a large twin-
motored seaplane. On October 27. 191.5, .Sec-
ictary Daniels signed an order for the construc-
tion of this seaplane and it was built at the
Washington na\y yard.
Act Increasing Pay of Naval Aviators
The act granting special pay and allowances
to officers of the Xavy and Marine Corps de-
tailed to aviation duty which became a law in
191o is as follows:
lU TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Hereafter officers of the Xaw and .Marine Corps . ^'^■"'"' "^ Companies Kumber Tj-pe
: 1 -1 1 !• 11 Acromarine Plane and Mo-
appointed student and naval aviators, while lawtuUy i„j. q^ ;i lOO h.p. Tractors.
detailed for duty involving actual flying in aircraft, The Burg-ess Co (i li5 h.p. Tractors.
including; balloons, dirigibles, and aeroplanes, shall ^ f " ^"" ^'I'- l''"^'i<"'"s-
° 1 1, /■ xi • 1 1 Curtiss Aeroplane Co ^ 1 :;;-100 h.p. Twin Tractor.
receive the pay and allowances ot their rank and serv- I ;j„ ],„, j, Tractors.
ice plus 35 per centum increase thereof; and those Gallandet Aircraft Corpora-
officers who have heretofore qualified or may hereafter *'"" 1 ^"" ''I^- Twin Tractor.
,. , ii"j Goodyear Tire and Rubher
quality, as naval aviators, under such rules and regu- (-.„ .5 ^-^^^ Balloons.
lations as have been or may be prescribed by the Sec- standard .\eroplane Corpn. .j t ^^fJ'.f ^"'*°'''-^ .
retary of the Navy, shall, while lawfullv detailed for ^, c. . \ * , \- ^-l--?- h.p T„.,n Tractor.
^ ■ , ^ . . . • . , Ine Sturtevant Aeroplane/ d UO h.p. Tractors,
duty involving actual flying in air cratt, receive the cn 1 a U5 h.p. Tractors.
pay and allowances of their rank and service plus fifty ti„>,.,..c Tt.„c a„„„,.1o„= n f ^ '35 h.p. Tractors.
^ •' ■ • Ihonias Bros. Aeroplane Co...; , , .„^ i rr. ■ ,1, .
per centum increase thereof. Hereafter enlisted men I - -"'^^ "^P- ^wm Tractors.
of the Navy or Marine Corps, while detailed for duty On December 1, 1916, Captain J. S. JNIcKean,
involving actual flying in air craft, shall receive the in charge of aviation in the Navv, stated to the
pay, and the permanent additions thereto, including Committee on Naval Aeronautics of the House
allowances, of their rating and service, or rank and ^ -r^ ... .1. xiiij.i
' 1 1 er.. i. • ot Kepresentatives, that on that date the aero-
service as the case may he, ]ilus ntty per centum in- . . .. . ,
crease thereof: Provided, That n"ot more than a "^^^1^ equipment of the United States Navy
yearly average of 48 officers and 96 enlisted men of was as lOllows :
the Navy, and 12 officers and 24 enlisted men of the There are in use at the Pensacola Aeronautic Sta-
Marine Corps, detailed for duty involving actual fly- ^ion the following: Aeroplanes, 12; ligliter-than-air
ing in air craft, shall receive any increase in pay while c^aft, 2 ; on board the Xorth Carolina, 12 ; ready
on duty involving actual flying in air craft, nor shall f^j. service on board the Washington— she went to
any officer in the Navy senior in rank to lieutenant g^a without getting them and they are at Portsmouth,
commander, nor any officer in the Marine Corps senior ^-g,,, York, awaiting her return, 5 ; on board the
in rank to major, receive any increase in pay or allow- jsTevacla, 1 kite baUoon; on board the Oklahoma, 1
ances by reason of such detail or duty. j^j^-p balloon
In the event of the death of an officer or enlisted
man of the Navy or ^Marine Cor])s from wounds or dis- The report to Congress dated December 1,
ease, the result of an aviation accident, not the result 1916, of Secretary Daniels made the following
of his own misconduct, received while engaged in statement giving the number of naval officers,
actual flying in or in handling air craft, the gratuity officers of the :Marine Corps, officers of the
*.° ''' r'\Z!'" \'-'V';T'r°T f *'i' ^^'' "^'"'"'•"^ Coast Guard and officers of the Naval I^Iilitia
Aug. 22, 1912, entitled "An Act making appropria-
tions for the naval service for tlie fiscal year ending ""^^^r training, as follows:
June .30, 1913, and for other purposes" shall be an The first session of the Sixty-fourth Congress au-
amount equal to one year's pay at the rate received by thorized the admission of civilians into the Naval Fly-
such officer or enlisted man at the time of the accident ing Corps. Some of the most expert aviators in Eu-
resulting in his death. In all cases where an officer or rope are young men who have the requisite quality of
enlisted man of the Navy or Marine Cor]is dies, or skill and daring needed as scouts of the air. They
where an enlisted man of the Navy or Marine Corps were neither Navy or Army officers. This country is
is disabled by reason of an injury received or disease now to utilize men of this gift in its Naval Flying
contracted in line of duty, the result of an aviation Corps, in addition to the classes of educated and
accident, received while employed in actual flying in or trained oflicers who go into this branch of the service,
in handling air craft, the amount of ])ension allowed This training is now being extended to officers and men
shall be double that authorized to be paid should death of the Naval Militia and the Coast Guard. There
or the disability have occurred by reason of an injury are at present at the Pensacola Aviation Station
received or disease contracted in line of duty, not the nine officers qualified as naval aviators and sixteen
result of an aviation accident. officers under instruction. A new class consisting of
All Acts or parts of Acts in so far as they are in- twelve naval officers, eighty men, four marine officers
consistent with the provisions of this Act are hereby and sixteen men, f(mr Naval ]\Iilitia officers and
repealed. sixteen men and two Coast Guard officers and eight
. 1 -«.T -i-^ 11 "'''" i^ no^ about to be sent to the station. There
During 191(;. the ^avy Department ])laced ,^^.^^ ,^^^^ ^,^^ ^,^,^ ^^^..^^^ ^^^^^^^ receiving instruc-
coiitracts for the following seaplanes and kite tjo,, in land machine flying at the Army School
balloons: at San Diego, California. Qualified officers for aero-
UNITED STATES \A\ ^' A EllOXAl'TlCS
145
nautic work at svn trdiii .slii|is and I'di- iiispcci ion (liil\
on sliore arc continuall\ iciinircd, and this di'inand is
continually incrcasinfj. 'J'lie siijiplv <>f officers to be
trained must be maintained and tin- rale of" sii|)ply
milsl be increased to nieel I lie increasinj^- demand.
Appropriations and Expenditures for Naval
Aeronautics
The ex])cii(liturcs lor ii;i\;il iKfoiiautics dur-
ing- the fiscal year eiidiiio- June 30, 1012.
amounted to $24,532.7!): for 1013, $r>(;,032.9();
for 1914, $194,4!)2.4(5; for lOl.j, $219,420.20;
for 191 (J — out of the niillion dollar ajipropria-
tioii .allowed — there was expended $<)84,()79.28;
for 1917 there was appropriated $3,.500,000 for
aeronautics and $420,000 for the aeronautic sta-
tion at Pensaeola. The provision for aviation
in the Xaval Bill for the fiscal year endin<f li)17
was as follows:
"For aviation, to l)e expended under tlie di-
rection of the Secretary of the Navy for procur-
ing", producinfr, constructin"', operatiner, pre-
serving-, storino', and handling aircraft, iiicludiiu/
dirhjihlcN, and appurtenances, maintenance of
aiivraft stations and experimental work in de-
velopment of aviation for naval ])urposes. $3.-
,500.000: Provided, That the sum to be ])aid
out of this appropriation under the direction of
the Secretary of the Navy for drafting, clerical,
inspection, and messenger service for aircraft
.stations shall not exceed $2.5.000.
The part of the Naval Bill which became a
law in 1916 providing for the extension of the
Naval Flying Corps to include civilians reads as
follows :
Tlie Naval Flyinfj ('or])s sliall be composed of one
hundred and fifty officers and three liundred and fifty
enlisted men, detailed, ajipointed. commissioned, en-
listed, and distributed in the \arioiis yrades, ranks,
and ratin<Ts of the Navy and Marine C'or])s as here-
after provided. The said number of officers, student
flyers, and enlisted men shall be in addition to the
total number of officers and enlisted men which is now
or may liereafter be provided by law for the other
branches of the naval service.
The number of officers detailed to duty in aircraft
involvinty actual flying in any one year shall be in
accordance with the requirements of the Air Service
as determined by the Secretary of the Navy: Pro-
vided, That the officers so detailed from the line of the
Navy and from the IMarine Corps shall not exceed
I III- lolal nniiiber hei-ein ])rcscrihed for the Naval Fly-
ing Corps: Provided further. That the proportion
of line officers of the Navy and of the Marine Corps
thus detailed shall be the same as the proportion es-
tablished I'm- the ref^ilar service: And provided fur-
ther. That the studi'nt flyers hereinafter provided for
shall be in addition to llie officers and enlisted men
compri^inn (lie \a\al l''lying Cor])s.
The officers detailed and the enlisted men of the
Naval I'lying Corps shall receive the same pay and
allowances that are now provided by law for officers
and enlisted men of the same f^rade or rank and
ratinff in the Navy and Marine Corps detailed to duty
with aircraft insidving actual flying.
The Secretary of the Navy is herein' authorized to
a))|)oint aiuniallv in the line of the Navy and the
Marine Corjis for a jieriod of two years following the
passage of this Act, in order to merit as determined
b}' such com])etitive examinations as he may pre-
scribe, fifteen acting ensigns or acting second lieu-
tenants for the ])erformance of aeronautic duties only.
Persons so appointed must Ije citizens of the I'nited
States, and may be appointed from warrant officers
or enlisted men of the naval service or from civil life,
and must, at the time of a])pointment, be not less than
eighteen or more than twenty-four years of age:
Provided, That no person shall be so apjiointed until
he has been found physically qualified b}' a board of
medical officers of the Navy for the performance of
the duties required: Provided further. That the
number of such apjjointmcnts to the line of the Navy
and of the Marine Corps shall be in the proportion
decided for the regular services. Such appointments
shall be for a ])rol)ationary period of three years
and may be revoked at any time by the Secretary of
the Navy.
Such acting ensigns and acting second lieutenants
shall be detailed to duty in the Naval Flying Corps
in nireraft involving actual flying.
Such acting ensigns of the Navy and acting second
lieutenants of the .Marine Cor])s shall, upon comple-
tion of the ])robationary ]'erio(l of three years, be a])-
pointed acting lieutenants of the junior grade, or act-
ing first lieutenants, res])cctively. by the Secretary
of the Navy for the performance of aeronautic duties
only, after satisfactorily passing such examinations
as ho mav prescribe, and after having been recom-
mended for pi-oniotion by the examining board and
found ])liysically qualified by a board of medical of-
ficers of the Navy. Such appointments shall Ije for a
probationarv |)eriod of four years and may be re-
voked at anv time by the Secretary of the Navy.
Such acting lieutenants (junior grade) and acting
first lieutenants may elect to qualify for aeronautic
duty only or to qualify for all the duties of officers
of the same grade in the Navy and in the ^larine
Corps, respectively. Those officers who elect to qual-
146
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Officers in the U. S. Xavy Aeronautical Establishment, Fall of 19U. Standing, left to right: Lieutenant Commander H. C.
Mustin, in Charge, U. S. Xavy Aeronautic Station, Pensacola, Florida; Lieutenant \. P. L. Bellinger, Lieutenant R. C. Saufley,
Captain Mark L. Bristol, in Charge of Aeronautics, Navy Department, Washington; Lieutenant \V. JI. Mcllvain, U. S. M. C;
Lieutenant B. L. Smith, U. S. M. C. Sitting, left to right: Lieutenant V. D. Herbster, Ensign G. de Chevalier, Ensign M. L.
Stolz. Lieutenant John H. Towers was absent on duty when this photo was taken.
ifv foi- aeronautic duty only simll Ijc detailed to duty
in the Naval Flying- Corps involving actual flying in
aircraft. Those officers who elect to qualify for the
regular duties of their grade shall be detailed to duty
in the regular service for at least two years to allow
them to prepare for such qualification.
Such acting lieutenants (junior grade) and acting
first lieutenants who have elected to qualify for aero-
nautic duty only shall, uyion completion of the pro-
bationary period of four years, be commissioned in
the grade of lieutenant of the line of the Navy or
captain of the Marine C'or])s for aeronautic duties
only, after satisfactorily passing such competitive
examination as may be prescribed by the Secretary of
the Navy to determine their moral, physical, and pro-
fessional qualifications for such commissions and the
order of rank in which they shall be conmiissioned.
Such lieutenants for aeronautic duty only shall bo
borne on the list as extra numbers, taking rank with
and next after officers of the same date of commis-
sion.
Such acting lieutenants (junior grade) and acting
first lieutenants who have elected to qualify for the
regular duties of the line of the Navy and of the
Marine Corps, respectively, shall, upon completion of
the probationary period of four years, two years of
which shall have been on such regular duties, be com-
missioned in the grade of lieutenant of the line of the
Navy and captain of the Marine Corps, after passing
satisfactorily such comj^etitivo examinations as may
be prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy to deter-
mine their moral, physical, and professional qualifi-
cations for such commissions and to determine the
order of rank in which they shall be connnissioned.
Such lieutenants of the line of the Navy and captains
of the Marine Corps will be borne upon the lists of
their res])ective corps as extra numbers, taking rank
with and next after officers of the regular services of
the same date of commissions.
Acting lieutenants (junior grade) of the line of the
Navy for aeronautic duties only and acting first lieu-
tenants of the Marine Corps for aeronautic duty only
who have completed the probationary period of four
years may, upon examination for connnissions to the
next higher grade, if recommended by the board of
examination, be transferred to the Naval Reserve Fly-
ing Corps and commissioned in the same grade or the
next higher grade as may be recommended in accord-
ance with their qualifications as determined by the
examination : Provided, That at any time during
such probationary period any such officer can, upon
his own re()uest, if his record warrants it, be trans-
ferred to the Naval Reserve Flying Corps and com-
missioned in the acting grade he then holds. Any
I MTEI) STA'l'KS .\A\^ A I:H( ).\ A I 11 ( S
iV,
officer of the Naval Flviii/^ {'orj)s lioldiii^r iiii iipiioiiit-
liiclit of .stiidtnt flviT or uctiii;; clisif^M, second lieiileii-
fiiil, liciilinanl (jiiiinii' ^r;idc-), or (ir>t liciilriiant,
who, upon exainiualKJii for {irouiol ion, is found not
(jualKied shall, if not r( coiiiniiiidcd \i\ the examining
board for transfer lo Ihc Naval Reserve Flying
Corps, lie lionoi'al)lv discharged fioni lije naval serv-
ice.
Officers coniniissioni'd for an-nnaulic diil\ onl\'
shall he t'ligihle for r(1\ anci ineiit lo the hif^hci' gi'ades,
not uhove ca|ptain in the Navy or c()lonel in the Mu-
rine Corps, ui file same manner as otiier officers whose
em|)loymeiit is not so I'est rictcd, except that lliev shall
fje eli^fihle to promotion without ri'striction as to sea
duty, and their |irofcssional examinations shall he re-
stricted to the duty to which })ersonally assigned:
Vrovhlcd, Tliat any such officer must serve at least
three years in any grade before being eligible to pro-
motion to the next higher grade.
Nothing in this Act shall he so construed us to })re-
vent the detail of officers and enlisted men of other
branches of the Navy as student aviators or student
airmen in such numbers as the needs of the service
may require.
Such officers and enlisted men, while detailed as stu-
dent aviators, and student airmen involving actually
flying in aircraft, shall receive the same pay antl al-
lowances that are now provided by law for officers
and enlisted men of the same grade or rank and rating
in the Navy detailed for duty with aircraft.
The Secretarif of the Xavij is hereby authorized to
appoint annuallif for a period of four years, from tii-
lixtcd iiitii of the narul ncn-ice, or from citizcim of the
I'liilid Stiile.i ill eii'il life, not to exceed thirty glu-
di III lii/irn fur iimtruetioii und training in aeronautics
:»7io \hidl receive the same pay and uliowances as mid-
shipmen ;if the Cnited Slates .Naval .Vcadeiny: I'ro-
vidid, 'I'li.it persons so apj)ointed niu.st, at the time of
a|)poinlinenl, l)e not less than seventeen or more tliati
Iwenty-one years of age: I'roiided further. That
tio jjeison shall be appointed a student flyer until he
shall have (jualifii-d therefor by such exuriiination as
may be prescribed by the Secretary of the -Navy.
The appointment of student flyers shall continue in
foi-ce for two years, unless sr>oner revoked Ijy the Sec-
retary of the Navy, in his discretion, and at the end
of such period student flyers shall be examined for
(jualification as ()uali(ied aviators: I'rorided, That
if such student flyers are not (jualified, their appoint-
ment will be revoked, or, if reconnnended by the ex-
amining board, they shall he transferred to the Naval
Reserve Flying Corps and commissioned as ensigns
therein.
Student flyers shall, after receiving a certificate of
(jualification as an aviator for actual flying in air-
craft, rank with midshipmen and shall receive the
same pay and allowances as midshipmen, ])lus fifty
jier centum thereof: Provided, That student flyers
who have qualified as aviators under the provisions of
this Act shall be commissioned acting ensigns for
aeronautic duties only, after three years' service:
Provided further. That they shall have been examined
by a board of officers of the Naval Flying Corps to
tietcrmine by a competitive examination prescribed by
Pensacola, Florida, the Navy's only aeronautical station, pholngraiiheil from a naval aeroplane in 1915. The aeroplane tent
hangars are shown In the center.
148
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
the Secretary of the Navy their moral, physical, and
professional fitness and the order of rank in which
they shall be commissioned: And provided further.
That any student flyer qualified as an aviator may at
any time, in the discretion of the Secretary- of the
Navy, if his record warrants it, at his own request,
be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying Corps and
be commissioned as ensign therein: And provided
further. That student flyers not considered qualified
for commissions as acting ensigns for aeronautic du-
ties only may, upon recommendation of the examining
board, be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps and be commissioned as ensigns therein.
The Secretary' of the Navy is hereby authorized to
established aeronautic schools for the instruction and
training of student flyers and prescribe the course of
instruction and qualifications for certificate of gi-adu-
ation as a qualified aviator.
Nothing in this or any other Act shall be so con-
strued as to prevent the temporary detail of oflicers
and enlisted men of any branch of the Navy for dut^'
with aircraft.
In the event of the death of an ofiiccr or enlisted
man or student flyer of the Naval Flying Corps from
wounds or disease, the result of an aviation accident,
not the result of his own misconduct, received while
engaged in actual flying in or in handling aircraft, the
gratuity to be paid under the provisions of the Act
approved August twenty-second, nineteen hundred
and twelve, entitled "An Act making appropriations
for the naval service for the fiscal year ending June
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and thirteen, and for other
purposes," shall be an amount equal to one year's
pay at the rate received by such officer or enlisted
man or student flyer at the time of the accident re-
sulting in his death. In all cases where an officer or
enlisted man or student flyer of the Navy or Marine
Corps dies, or where a student flyer or an enlisted
man of the Navy or Marine Corps is disabled by rea-
son of any injury received or disease contracted in
line of duty, the result of an aviation accident, re-
ceived while employed in actual flying in or in han-
dling aircraft, the amount of pension allowed shall be
double that authorized to be paid should death or the
disability have occurred by reason of an injury re-
ceived or disease contracted in line of duty not the
result of an aviation accident.
Student flyers and the acting ensigns and acting
lieutenants (junior grade) and acting second and first
lieutenants for aeronautic duties only provided for
herein shall be subject to the laws and regulations and
orders for the government of the Navy, but shall not
be entitled to retirement or retired pay.
The enlisted personnel of the Naval Flying Corps
shall be distributed by the Secretary of the Navy in
the various ratings as now obtain in the Navy in so
far as such ratings are applicable to duties connected
with aircraft.
Within the first two years after the passage of this
Act enlisted men may be transferred from other
branches of the Naval Service to the Naval Flying
Cor])s, under regulations established by the Secretary
of the Navy governing such transfer and the qualifi-
cations for this corps : Provided. That the number
so transferred shall not exceed one-half the total num-
ber of enlisted men allowed by this Act.
The Secretary of the Navy shall establish regula-
tions governing the term of enlistment, the qualifica-
tions, and advancement of the enlisted men of the
Flying Corjis.
Any enlisted man who passes satisfactorily the pre-
scribed examination and is recommended by a board
of officers may be appointed a student flyer as herein
provided.
Navy Orders Sixteen C<»st Patrol Dirigibles
On February 24, 1917, the Department issued
specifications for dirigibles and asked for bids,
whicli were opened on jNIarch 6th. Sixteen
dirigibles were ordered under these bids as fol-
lows :
The Curtiss Aeroplane Company of Buffalo
I
a
Flying (illk-crs uiul stufV oflici-rs at I'cnsacola in 1915.
UNITKI) STATKS XAVV A KKON A IJTICS
149
Knlistcd pcrsoniicl Iriitcil States Navy Acru .Sl:ilinn ;it Pensacola iii i:il,j.
was awarded three for a total i)rice of $122,2.50;
the Coniieetieut Aireraft Company, New
Ifaven, two for a total ])rice of $8t,()00; the
Goodyear Tii'e and Kubher Com])any, Akron,
Ohio, nine for a total priee of $.*}(>(),()()(); and the
IJ. F. Goodrich C'()in|)any, of iVkron, two, at a
price for both of $8.'J.()()().
The specifications for the Coast Patrol dirif^-
ibles was given in the chapter on "Naval Dirig-
ibles."
In the early pai't of 1917, the AVar and Navy
Departments decided to combine efforts to get
large dirigibles, the woi'k to be started imme-
diately on the first airship of tliat type.
Officers in Charge of Naval Aeronautics
On January 13, li)l7, Lieutenant-Com-
mander Henry C. Mustin, who had been in
charge of the Pensacola Aeronautic Station for
over two years was succeeded by Captain Joseph
L. Jayne.
The administration of the Office of Aeronau-
tics in the Bureau of Operation on ]May I.j,
1917, was in charge of Captain J. S. ]McKean
and Lieutenant-Commander John II. Towers.
The advisory staff in aeronautics of Chief Naval
Constructor D. W. Taylor, the head of the
Bureau of Construction and Repair was as fol-
lows: Naval Constructor H. C. Richardson,
at the Pensacola station; Naval Constructor
George C. Westervelt, supervising the construc-
tion of the navy aeroplanes; assistant naval
Constructor J. C. Ilunsacker, in charge of de-
sigji specifications and contracts: and Dr. Al-
bert Piancis Zahm, in charge of wind tunnel and
reseai'ch woi'k.
'I'hc follnwing T"^nited States Navy officers
ha\c been awarded the Aei'o Club of America's
medal of merit:
1!)11 AWAIiDS
Ijieut. Commander IL C. Mustin, U. S. N.,
commanding ^Aeronautic shij) Mississippi in the
^Icxican Expedition.
I>ieut. R. C. Saufley, U. S. N., Air I'ilnt
and Observer, INIexiean Expedition.
Ensign .\I. L. Stolz, V. S. N., Air I'ilot and
OI)server, Alexican Expedition.
Ensign W. D. La ]\Iont. I^. S. N., Air Pilot
and Observer, ^lexican Expedition.
191,5 AWARDS
Lieut. P. N. L. Bellinger, U. S. N. For
breaking American Hytfi-oaeroplane Altitude
Record. Heiglit attained 10,000 feet.
Lieut. AVarren (t. Child, V. S. X. In recog-
nition of excellent work in develo])ing machinery
for aircraft.
Lieut. .lerome C. Ilunsaker. L^. S. X*. In
recognition of his excellent work in aeronautical
engineering.
Commander Henry C. Aluslin, U. .S. X*.
For being the first to make a flight from the
Xorih Carolina on the new launching device.
Ilolden C. Richardson, Naval Constructor,
I\ .S. X". In recognition of achievements in de-
signing aeroplanes and aeroplane floats.
150
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
Lieut. R. C. Saufley, U. S. N. For twice
breaking American Hyckoaeroplane Altitude
Record in one year, attaining height of 11,975
feet.
U. S. Naval Experimental Wind Tunnel
The ExiJerimental Wind Tunnel, which the
United States Navy Department established in
the Washington Navy Yard at the Experi-
mental ]Model Basin, where warship models are
tested, has a section eight feet square at the
point where the models are placed for testing.
In addition to the advantage gained by the size,
it is possible with the 500-horse-power, motor-
driven fan to get wind speeds up to 75 miles
an hour.
The tunnel consists of a closed circuit shaped
like the link of a chain, as sho\\ii in Figure 1.
The 500-horse-power top horizontal dis-
charge fan of the corrugated paddle type,
with an inlet diameter of 11 feet, 2 inches,
and a discharge duct 7 feet. 6 inches by
9 feet, is placed at one end of the link. At
the other end. where the air straightens out
before flowing through the experimental cham-
ber, are the baffles, which are necessary to
remove the eddies and to control the uniform-
ity of tlie speed. These baffles consist of
64 cells, each 1 foot square and 8 feet long.
Each cell is provided with its own damper, so
that the velocity of the air in any one section
may be controlled. At the experimental cham-
ber in the vicinity where aeroplane wings or
models are tested the maximum variation from
uniform flow is about 2 per cent. The tunnel
is built of wood, with frames spaced about three
feet on centers placed outside and sheathed on
the inside w^ith %-inch tongvied and grooved
sheathing laid in two thicknesses in the direc-
tion of the air current, and with building paper
placed between the two layers. The necessary
curvature is obtained by bending the sheathing,
the whole of which is l)lind nailed.
The fan is driven by a 250-v()lt, 500-horse-
j)ower, direct current motor, arranged for
operation on the Ward-Leonard system. The
motor also has auxiliary field control, so that
any desired speed up to about 200 revolutions
per minute, which corresponds to a wind speed
of 75 miles an hour, may be obtained. At the
discharge side of the fan are located 12 pitot
tubes w^hich lead to an integrating manometer
which gives the average velocity of discharge.
This velocity has been calibrated against the
velocity obtained at the section in the experi-
mental chamber where the aeroplane or other
model is placed, so that any desired velocity
may be obtained at that point with precision
without having any pitot tul)es or obstructions
other than the model being tested. In other
words, by calibration the velocity of discharge
may be found, and this bears a certain constant
ratio to the velocity at the experimental section.
Among recent investigations of interest
made at the Wind Tunnel was the determina-
tion of the coefficient of air friction for various
aerojilane and balloon fabrics. Tests have
been made on the new dirigible building for the
Navy Dei^artment and on models of naval
aeroplanes both building and projected. A
number of tests have also been made for private
concerns. In carrying out experiments for
private parties the same practice is followed as
in the case of tests of ship models; that is, the
actual cost of doing the work is charged in each
case. On account of the large size of the tun-
nel it is possible to test comparatively large
models.
The Aeronautic Needs of the United
States Navy
On February 21. 1916. Captain ^Nlark L.
Bristol, the Director of Naval Aeronautics, ap-
peared before the House Committtee on Naval
Affairs and stated that the Navy needed
$20,000,000 for aeronautics, $13,600,000 of
which was required immediately. The fleet
needed, he said, 82 aeroplanes, 5 dirigibles, and
41 kite balloons. In addition to the fleet equip-
ment there were needed 120 aeroplanes, 15
dirigibles, and 15 kite balloons to be operated
from the fifteen naval shore stations under the
patrol system. We know to-day that Captain
Bristol's estimate was most conservative and
the one general regret is that Congress allowed
only $3,500,000 that year, which was not suf-
ficient even to build up the skeleton of a sub-
stantial naval air service.
CHAPTER XXV
REGULATIONS RELATING TO ENROLLMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES NAVAL
RESERVE FLYING CORPS
CLASS 5.
Naval Kk.skrve Fi,viN(i C'oiU's
1. El.ICIIUI.ITY.
TIic following citizens of tlic United States sliall be
eligible for nienihersjiip in tlie Na\al Reserve Flying
('or))s.
(ii) Officers and student flyers wiio have been trans-
ferred from the Naval Flying ('or])s to tiie Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps.
(b) Enlisted men of the Naval Flying Corps trans-
ferred under the same condition as enlisted men of the
Navy are transferred to the Fleet Naval Reserve.
(c) Surplus graduates of the aeronautic school
may be commissioned as ensigns in the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps and promoted therein under such regula-
tions as may be prescribed by the President.
((/) Civilians skilled in the flying of aircraft, or in
their design, building, or operation, shall be eligible
for membership in the Naval Reserxe Flyitig Corps,
United States Naval Reserve Force.
(e) Other members of the Naval Reserve Force may
be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying Corps upon
qualification for aviation duties.
i'liixx 5 (a). — Officers; provisional.
(a) Must furnish satisfactory evidence as to char-
acter, al)ility, and citizenship.
(b) ]\Iust qualify professionally for a j)rovisional
rank before the commandant or an officer designated
by the commandant for that i)ur))ose and physically
before a medical officer of the Navy.
Class 5 (b). — Officers; confirmed.
(a) Former officers of the Naval Flying Corjis who
have left the service under honorable conditions or
officers who may be transferred to the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps from the Naval Flying Corps: provi-
sional a])pointmcnt not necessary.
(b) Sur])lus graduates of the aeronautic school
may be commissioned as ensigns in the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps ; j)rovisional a])pointment not neces-
sary.
(c) After three months' active service an officer may
be confirmed in his provisional rank by qualifying pro-
fessionally before a board of three officers not below
the rank of lieutenant commander and physically be-
fore a board of two medical officers of the Navy.
Class o ((•). — Men; provisional.
(a) Must furnish satisfactory evidence as to char-
acter, ability, and citizenshij).
(b) Must (jualify j)rofessionally for a provisional
rating before an officer designated by the connnand-
ant and physically before a medical officer of the Navy.
Class 5 (d). — ]\len ; confirmed.
(a) ]\Ien who have been honorably discharged from
the Naval Flying Corps after one or more four-year
terms of enlistment in the Navy or after a term of en-
listment during minority. No jirovisional rating re-
quired for this class.
(b) After three months' active service a member
may be confirmed in his y)rovisional rating by qualify-
ing before an officer designated by the commandant for
that ])urpose.
Class (c). — [Members of this class do not enroll
and are not discharged, but are transferred from the
regular Naval F'lying Corps to the Naval Reserve
Flying Corjis in the same manner as men transferred
to the F^leet Naval Reserve. Their status corre-
sponds more closely to those on the retired list. Any
enlisted man of the Naval Flying Corps with 16 years'
naval service may, on the authority of the Secretary
of the Navy, upon voluntary ajiplication on the ex-
piration of his enlistment, if entitled to an honorable
discharge, be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps in the rating in whii h then serving.
Class ') (f). — Any enlisted man in the Naval Flying
Corps with iiO or more years" naval service may be au-
thorized by the Secretary of the Navy, in his discre-
tion, to be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps in the same manner as in the previous case, ex-
cept that the transfer may be made at any time during
the man's current enlistment.
2. Pay of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps.
Class 5 (a). — OflScers ; provisional.
Annual retainer pay, $12.
( 6) . — Officers ; confirmed.
Annual retainer pay, two months'
base pay of the corresponding
rank or grade in the Navy.
1.51
152
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
Class 5 (c). — Men: provisional.
Annual retainer pay, $12.
Class 5 (d). — {a. and b.) Two months' base pay
of the corresponding rate in the Navy.
Class 5 (e). — One-third of the base pay they were
receiving at the date of transfer, plus all permanent
additions thereto.
Class 5 if). — One-half of the base pay they were
receiving at the date of transfer, plus all permanent
additions thereto.
Notes. — (a) Members of the Volunteer Naval Re-
serve enrolled for the Naval Reserve Flying Corps, or
for any other class of the Naval Reserve Force for
which qualified, receive no retainer pay or uniform
gratuitv in time of peace. When on active duty they
receive the active-service pay of their rank or rating.
The only distinction between a Naval Reserve Flying
Corps Reservist and a A'olunteer Naval Reservist en-
rolled for duty in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps is
the one of retainer pa^y and uniform gratuity in time
of peace.
(ft) jMembers of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps
who enroll for a term of four years within four months
from the date of termination of their last term of en-
rollment and who shall have performed the minimum
amount of active service required during preceding
term of enrollment shall, for each enrollment, receive
an increase of 25 per cent, of their base retainer pay.
(Base retainer pay is two months' base pay of the
corresponding rank or rating in which serving. )
(c) When actively employed, either under provi-
sional or confirmed rank or rating, the pay of officers
and men in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps shall be
the same as the pay of oflScers and men in the Naval
Flying Corps on active duty of corresi)onding rank or
rating and of the same length of naval service.
(d) The retainer pay is in addition to the active-
service pay.
(e) Officers and men of the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps will have their retainer pay accounts carried by
the Disbursing Officer, Bureau of Supplies and Ac-
counts, Navy Department, Washington, D. C, and
will be paid quarterly by check.
(f ) I j)on first reporting for active duty for train-
ing, officers receive a uniform gratuity of .$.50 ; men,
$30. Tills uniform gratuity is given for each enroll-
ment. Upon reporting for active sci-vice in time of
war or national emergency tiie unifoim gratuity is
$1,50 for officers and $()() for incii, less any previous
uniform gratuity credited during the current enroll-
ment. Should a member sever his connection with the
service without compulsion on the part of the Govern-
ment before the expiration of his term of enrollment
the amount so credited shall be deducted from any
money that may be or may become due him.
(g) Members who shall have completed 20 years
of service in the Naval Reserve Force, and who shall
have performed the minimum amount of active service
required in their class for maintaining efficiency during
each term of enrollment, shall, upon their own appli-
cation, be retired with the rank or rating held by them
at the time, and shall receive in lieu of any pay a cash
gratuity equal to the total amount of their retainer
pay during the last term of enrollment.
(/i) Pay penalties are given under paragraph 3.
3. Duties and REauiREiiEXTs of the Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps
(fl) Three months' active duty each enrollment.
This does not apply to class A (e) and class 5 (f).
The Secretary of the Navy is authorized to assign
officers and men to active duty on application. This
also applies to men of class 5 (e) and class 5 (f ).
This service may bo taken in one or more periods of
not less than three weeks.
Penaltij for Xoncompliance. — If a member fails to
perform three months' active service during an enroll-
ment, he shall on rcenrollment receive a retainer pay
at the rate of .$12 ]ier year until such time as he shall
have completed the three months' active service during
current enrollment.
(b) Enrolled members of the Naval Reserve Force
shall be subject to the laws and regulations for the gov-
ernment of the Navy only during such time as they
may by law be required to serve in the Navy, in ac-
cordance with their obligations, and when on active
service at their own request, as herein provided, and
when employed in authorized travel to and from such
active service in the Navy.
((•) ]\Iake such reports concerning movements and
occupations as may be required.
Penalty for Noncompliance. — Retainer pay must be
forfeited.
(d) An officer or man of the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps shall not be an officer or enlisted man in any
branch of the military service of the United States or
any State thereof, but may accept employment in any
other branch of the public service.
4. Enrollments, Transfers, Appointments, Pay
Accounts, Discipline, Orders to Active Ser-
vice, Uniform, Discharges, Records of the
Naval Reserve Flying Corps
enrollments
(a) Officers designated by the commandant of the
naval district shall enroll men who are eligible under
the rules given. I'.nrollments siiall be for a jjcriod of
four years.
{b) Every officer enrolling a man in the Naval Re-
serve Flying Cor])s shall —
(1) Explain to the man that the commandant
of the naval district is the man's com-
manding officer.
KXKOLLMKXTS I X THE NAVAL in:.Si;i{\ i, M.^ l\(; COKl^S
1 y.i
{il) l'".\|)luiii tli.it all i'c(nu'st.s sliiill he iiiiKle to
I he ((HiiiiiaiKldiit fitlier \>\ k-Hii- or in ])L'r-
soti.
(3) I'lxpliiiii that any clian^c in .Kldrcss iiiiist lie
|)roin|)tlv i'<'j)ort('<l to tin- coininaiKJant
and (llsl)ursinn- ollircr, Unri'aii of Sn|)|ilics
and Acconnis, .\a\_v l)(|iart nuiil , Wash-
ington, 1). ( '.
(4) Make out and I'orw ai'd accoinit cards in (lip-
licatc lo the (|]shiii->iiio oHicci'.
(c) To ]>v ^ivun a proxisional rating- a man must
lia\f tliu technical i^nowlcdyc of the corresponding"- rjit-
ing in the Naval Flying Corps; to be conlirmcd in a
provisional rating a man mnst, in addition, have a fair
knowledge of naval discipline and customs ; to l)e ad-
vanced in rating a man must have the technical knowl-
edge of the corresponding rating in the Naval l'"lying
Corps, and a good knowledge of naval customs and
methods.
(tl) After a man is confirmed in his rating he re-
ceives retainer pay of class 5 (d). In case he does
not perform the minimum active service required in an
enrollment, upon reenrollment he shall receive the ])ay
of class 5 (c) until such time as he shall have com-
pleted three months' active service.
TKAXSFEKS
(c) Officers and student flyers may, in tlie discre-
tion of the Secretary of the Navy, be transferi-ed from
the Naval Flying Corps to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps.
APPOINTMENTS
(/) Former officers of the Naval Flying Corps or
graduate of aeronautical schools may make applica-
tion for enrollment to the Bureau of Navigation, stat-
ing briefly his Naval and Naval Flying Corps service.
The procedure is as follows:
(1) Applicant ap])lies to tlie Bureau of Naviga-
tion for enrollment.
(2) If the aj)})lieati()n is ap])i-oved, the bureau
authorizes the appliiant to nporf for
medical examination.
(3) If j)liysieally cjualified, ap])()intnKiit is issued
to grade oi- rank last held in the Navy.
A])poinfment is for four years.
(4) Bureau of Navigation forwards appoint-
ment with letter of transmittal and blank
form "Acceptance of office and oath of
allegiance."
(5) Form is i-eturned to tlie Bvireau of Naviga-
tion ])ropcrly accom])lished. Pay and al-
lowance and eligibility for service begin
from date of acceptance.
(6) Orders issued to report by letter to com-
mandant of naval district.
(7) Odicirs are detailed for active service upon
their own reijuest, orders for such being
issued either by the Bureau of Navigation
or tlie crjinmandaiit of naval district.
( fj) An enrolled man iligible for ajjpointment to a
pi'ovisional rank or grade may be examined profes-
sionally hy the coniinandaMt oi' an ollicer designated
by the c(jniniandant for that i)ui[)ose and examined
liliysically before a medical officer of the Navy. The
])hysical requirements shall be the same as for officers
of the Naval Flying ('or])s.
( // ) A civilian eligible for ajjjjointment to a pro-
visional rank or grade may likewise be examined.
((') The commandant shall make recommendation to
the Bureau of Navigation for ajjpointment to provi-
sional rank or grade. Appointments are issued by the
Bui-eau of Navigation, and upon receipt of "Accept-
ance and oath of office" the Bureau of Navigation will
issue orders to officers to report by letter to command-
ant of the naval district.
(j) Officers must complete not less than three
months' active service in a provisional rank or grade
to become eligible for confirmation. The command-
ant is authorized to order such eligible officers as have
been satisfactory in their provisional a])])ointment to
appear before a board of two medical officers for
])hysical examination, and before a board of three
naval officers not below the rank of lieutenant com-
mander, for ])rofessional examination or confirmation
of j)rovisi<)nal ajjpointmcnt. The boards shall con-
duct examinations in accordance with the depart-
ment's precepts of October 16, 1916, and subsequent
modifications which have been furnished the command-
ants in blank. Cpon the receij)t of records of examin-
ation in the department the connnandant and candi-
dates will be notified of the department's action
thereon. The commandant is authorized to a]j])oint
su])er\is()i-y boards in special cases when it is deemed
impracticable for the candidate to appear before tlie
regular boards above named.
(/r) For ap])ointmeiit to a ])rovisional rank the
technical reipurements shall be the same as those for
an officer in the Naval Flying Corps.
(/) An officer to be confined nuist have, in addition
to the knowledge re(|uired for provisional ap])ointment,
a general knowedge of the customs and discipline of
the service and a good knowledge of the tactics of the
Naval Flying Cor])s.
PAY ACCOT'NTS
(m) Account cards are made out in triplicate by
the connnandants of naval districts, as follows:
(1) I'])on enrolling or recnrolling a man in the
Naval Reserve Flying Corps.
(2) T'pon the rccei])t of records of the men when
first enrolled.
154
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
(3) Upon appointment of an officer under his
command to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps.
(4) Upon receipt of records of man transferred
aftei" 16 or 20 years' service.
{71) Account cards are sent to the disbursing officer,
Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C. Account cards may be obtained
from the supply officer, navy yard, Washington, D. C.
(o) Account cards will be made out in accordance
with instructions on the back thereof.
(p) Any change in rank or rating or any change
that would in any way stop or affect pay shall be re-
ported at once to the disbursing officer.
DISCIPLINE
(q) Members of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps
when on active service shall be subject to the discip-
line of the Navy.
RETIREMENTS
(r) Enrolled members who have completed 20 years
of service in the Naval Reserve Force and who shall
have performed the minimum amount of active service
required in their class for maintaining efficiency for
each term enrolled shall, upon their application, be
retired with the rank or rating held b}' them at the
time, and shall receive in lieu of any pay a cash gratu-
ity equal to the total amount of their retainer pay
during the last term of their enrollment.
ACTIVE-SERVICE ASSIGNMENTS
(s) To order a man to active service upon his own
request the following procedure shall be followed:
(1) The commandant of a naval district issues
orders, provides transportation and sub-
sistence, and forwards enrollment and
health records, with copy of orders to the
commanding officer of the ship or station
to which the man is ordered.
(2) The commanding officer enters on his enroll-
ment record the date of reporting, the date
of detachment, and proficiency marks.
The record is handled in the same manner
as that of a regular enlisted man.
(3) The commanding officer shall, on completion
of the active service training period, as
indicated by orders, or as soon thereafter
as practicable, detach the man and pro-
cure for him transportation and subsist-
ence to his home (or other ])lace, provided
this can be done at no greater expense)
and forward the enrollment record and
iiealtii record to the commandant of the
naval district.
(i) The pay officer of ship or station will pay
members of the Reserve Force on active
duty as are paid officers and men of the
Navy. (Active service counts from date
of detachment.) ^Mileage of officers or-
dered to active service shall be paid in
same way as to officers of the Navy.
UNIFORM
(t) Men in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps shall
keep on hand such part of the clothing outfit as may
be prescribed.
DISCHARGES
(n) In time of peace men shall be discharged upon
their own request or by jjroper authority.
RECORDS
(f ) An enrollment record shall be kept in the same
manner as enlistment record and the health record used
shall be the same as the service health record, but shall
have written on the face "Naval Reserve Flying
Corps," and shall be kept in the same manner as the
service health record.
(w) During the period of active service an entry
shall be made in the health record to indicate the physi-
cal condition of the reservist. Upon completion of
active service, fitness reports shall be made out for
officers ; enrollment records of men shall be marked, and
all records shall be returned to the commandant of
the naval district.
TRANSFERS TO OTHER CLASSES OF THE NAVAL RESERVE
FORCE
(x) Members of the Naval Reserve Force may, upon
application, be transferred from one class to another
for which they are qualified, and may in time of war
volunteer for and be assigned to duties prescribed for
any class which they may be deemed by their com-
mandant comjjetent to perform.
(y) Although the men of class 5 (e) and class 5 (f)
are transferred in the same manner as men of the
Fleet Naval Reserve, the entire class 5, "Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps," will be handled by the command-
ants of the naval districts. The records, etc., of men
in class 5 (e) and .'i (/) will be sent to the command-
ant of the naval district instead of the connnanding
officer of the recruiting district.
I>. C. Palmer,
Chief of Bnrcou.
Navy Department, Bureau of Navigation,
Washington. D. C, November 27, WW.
'I'lic cliristcMiri;; cif llir lirsl sc.i|ilaiic presented to the New ^'iirk \;n.il .\Iilili:i. Miss
Olive Wliitiii.in, tlic ])relty diui^liter of Clovenior \\'liitin;iii, of New York, lioUling tlie
bottle of elmiiii)iigiie, saying, "I eliristen tliee N. V. N.-l."
CHAPTER XXVI
NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS
As the naval militia is practically the second
line of defense, particularly in connection with
the work of patroling tlie coasts — woi-k which
has become of extreme importance since the ad-
vent of submarine warfare — it is most ini])or-
tant that the naval militia of the twenty-two
States and insular possessions which have naval
militia organizations should have substantial
aeronautic divisions.
The regulations provide tliat an aeronautic division
shall consist of two aeronautic sections and shall be
coinnianded by an officer of not higher rank than lieu-
tenant commander (aeronautic duties only).
(b) An aeronautic section shall consist of 23 en-
listed men, and niaj' have 5 officers, as follows :
One lieutenant (aeronautic duties only).
Two lieutenants, junior grade (aeronautic duties
only).
Two ensigns (aeronautic duties only).
The enlisted strength may be divided as follows :
Enlisted in Xm-al )[tlll!a as Diitien performed in aero-
nautic branch
1 ehief maehinist's mate. Chief aeronautic niaehinist.
1 machinist's mate, first Aeronautic machinist, first
class. class.
1 machinist's mate, second .\eronautic machinist, second
class. class.
8 electricians, third class j. Aeronautic machinist, third
(gen.). class.
1 carpenter's mate, second Aeronautic mechanic, second
class. class.
8 carpenter's mates, third .Aeronautic mechanic, third
class. class.
1 yeoman, third class.
1 hospital apprentice.
(c) In a locality where there arc insufficient men to
form an aeronautic section and there already exists an
organized deck or engineer division, an officer and not
more tlian 4 enlisted men for aeronautic duty only may
be additionally enrolled in such divisions until such
time as there is a sufficient number of them to form a
separiite aeronautic section.
(d) In cases where 4 additional enlisted men of the
aeronautic branch are enrolled in a deck or engineer di-
\ ision there will he allowed an additional ensign (aero-
nautic duties only).
(e) The following additional chief ])etty officers,
]icttv officers, and other enlisted men of the seamen
branch, artificer branch (engineer force), and special
branch will !)e allowed each aeronautical division:
One chief boatswain's mate.
One boatswain's mate, first class.
One yeoman, second class.
One electrician, first class (radio).
One seaman (signalman).
Section 10. (a) The mininmm strength of a deck
or engineer division or a marine com])any shall be 40
enlisted men ; the minimum strength of an aeronautic
section shall be 1 officer and .5 enlisted men.
(b) A deck or engineer division consisting of more
than 80 enlisted men, or an aeronautic section of more
than fi officers and 28 enlisted men may be maintained
only by permission of the Commanding Officer, Naval
Militia.
A])plications from men who liave had expe-
rience in aeronautics as aviators or mechanics
are especially welcomed by the naval militia
commanders.
1,5.
156
TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS
HEADQUARTERS OF XAVAL MILITIA
ORGANIZATIONS:
State
California ....
Connecticut
District of Columbia
Mail address
Commanding Officer, California Naval
.Militia, Room 40i, Sharon Building,
.3.5 New Montgomery Street, San
Francisco, Cal.
Commanding Officer, Connecticut Na-
val Militia, Soutli Norwalk, Conn.
Commanding Officer, District of Colum-
l>ia Naval Militia, Water and O
Streets S.W., Washington, D. C.
Florida :
First Hattalicm Conunanding Officer, F'irst Battalion,
Florida Naval .Militia, Key West, Fla.
Second Battalion . . . Conunanding Officer, Second Battalion,
Florida Naval Militia, Jacksonville,
Fla.
Hawaii Conunanding Officer, Xaval Jlilitia of
Hawaii, care Executive Chamber,
Honolulu, Hawaii.
Illinois Commanding Officer, Illinois Xaval Mil-
itia, Steamship Commodore, Chicago,
111.
Louisiana Commanding Officer, Louisiana Naval
Militia, 3-26 Camp Street, New Or-
leans, La.
Maine Commanding Officer, Maine Xaval Mil-
itia, 375 Fore Street, Portland, Me.
Marvland Commanding Officer, Maryland Naval
Militia, 500 Continental Building,
Baltimore, Md.
Massachusetts Conunanding Officer, Massachusetts X^'a-
val Militia, State Armory, Fall River,
Mass.
Michigan:
First Battalion
Second Battalion
.Minnesota
Missouri
Commanding Officer, First Battalion,
Michigan Naval Militia, T18 Penob-
scot Building, Detroit, Mich.
Conunanding Officer, Second Battalion,
Mi<higan X^aval Militia, Hancock,
Mich.
Connnanding Officer, Minnesota Naval
Militia, liO X^orth Fifteenth Avenue
East. Duluth, Minn.
Commanding Officer, Missouri Naval
-Militia, 7(10 Laclede Gas Building, St.
Louis, Mo.
State Mail address
X'^ew Jersey:
First Battalion Commanding Officer, First Battalion,
New Jersey Naval Militia, U. S. S.
Adams, Hoboken, X. J.
Second Battalion . . . Commanding Officer, Second Battalion,
X'ew Jersey Xaval Militia, U. S. S.
Vixen, Camden, N. J.
New York Commanding Officer, Xew York Xaval
Militia, 3 Rector Street, New York,
N. Y.
Xorth Carolina Commanding Officer, X^'orth Carolina
X'^aval .Militia, Newbern, X^. C.
Ohio:
First Battalion Commanding Officer, First Battalion,
Ohio X'aval Jlilitia, Calvin Building,
Toledo, Ohio.
Second Battalion . . . Connnanding Officer, Second Battalion,
Ohio Xaval Militia, 408 Federal
Building, Cleveland, Ohio.
Oregon Commanding Officer, Oregon X^'aval
Militia, 640 Morgan Building, Port-
land, Oreg.
Pennsylvania Conunanding Officer, Pennsylvania Na-
val Militia, SS-S Walnut Street, Phil-
adelphia, Pa.
Rhode Island Commanding Officer, Rhode Island Na-
val Militia, State Armory, Provi-
dence, R. I.
South Carolina Commanding Officer, South Carolina
Naval Militia, Charleston, S. C.
Texas Commanding Officer, Texas, X'^aval Mi-
litia, care Blum Hardware Co., Gal-
veston, Tex.
Washington Commanding Officer, Washington Na-
val .Militia, 73-2 Central Building, Se-
attle, Wash.
Development of Aeronautics In the Naval
Militia
The development of aeronautics in the Naval
INIilitia of the United States wa.s .started by the
Aero Club of America in 1915-16, and until the
'I'bc A.i.ili.Pii liiM.^ion I alilonii.i .\;n;il .Milill.i. l.liiil. Ir.inlv hiui|'M)li. Jr., 11)
NAVAL MILITIA ALKOXAUTICS
1.57
end of I'.tKi tlic expenses were paid entirely l)y
publie eoiiti'ibiilions.
Appreciatin<>' tlie need of siij)j)lyin^ the
Naval Militia witii trained aviators and sea-
])lanes, to make np for tlie navy's inability to
or<>'ani/.e an ade<|nate air serviee, the jVei'o Clnh
of i\nieriea in 1!»1.> took steps to develoj) aero-
nautics in the Naval Militia, as part of its ex-
tensive campaign for national pre2}aredness.
The plan was a])proved by Secretary of the
Navy Daniels, in the l'()llowin<;- letter to Mr.
Ilawley, the president of the Aero Club of
America:
My fkar .Mr. llawluy :
Your Icttir of tlu' IHtli ultimo, in ri'f^ard to a pulilic
suliscriptioii for airoiiaut leal |)urp().sc,s, was duly rc-
ct'ivod.
I am greatly interested in anything tliat is tx'ing
done to assist in tlie develr)j)nient of aeronautics in
tills country. I congratulate tin- Governors of the
Aero Club of America on tlif pulilic sjjirit wliicii lias
jiroiiiptcd tliciii to start a jiuhlic suI)scri])tion to raise
funds h) further develoj) aeronautics in this eountrv.
A.S you undoul)tedly know, I am not allowed legally
to considi'r ])ul)lic suhscriptions for the (iovernment's
use. It would seem, though, that you could he of great
assistance to the Naval JMilitia at the present time l)y
oI)taining aeroj)ianes for them Ijy jiopvilar subscri])-
tions.
If you will af)ply to C'a]itain Hristol, he will l)e
very glad to r.ssist you in any way that is possihle so
far as he [iroperly can. By thus conferring with him,
you will he al)le to worti, as vou have suggestetl, in
liarniony with the United States Navy.
V(jiir idea of creating a valualjle and efficient aero-
nautical re.serve is an excellent one, and I am sure that
you will meet with that miasure of success that your
efforts deserve.
I desire to thank you and the Governors of the
Aero Cliih of America, so far as the Navy Depart-
iiiinl is i-oMcrrned, for the interest taken in this sub-
ject. Sincerely yours,
(Signed) .Ioski'hijs Danikls,
Secret (iri/ of the N(ir?/.
California Naval Militia
The ai ronantie section of the Calilornia
Naval Militia was started in February, lOHJ,
when a contribution of $1200 was made for the
purpose tbrou<^b the Acvo Club of iVmeriea.
Subse(iuently, Mr. (ilenn li. Martin presented
a Martin bi])lane. and a furthci- euntfibution nf
$750 toward defraying the ex])enses of ojjer-
ating the maehine was made to the militia
through the ..Aero Club of America by ]\Ir.
Emerson ]\IcMillin.
The aeronautic section was attached to the
ninth division of the California Naval Militia,
and Elision Frank Simpson, Jr., was jjut in
charge.
The aeronautic section was mustered in Feb-
ruary 3, and the four drill periods of that month
were devoted to outfitting the enlisted men and
to other details connected with the organizing
of this section.
On INIareh 2, the roll of the aeronautic sec-
tion was taken separately for the first time.
^Wf^^ji]
i <?
i f;
■,.<«!n-=*r??^ -
ter. On tlie right is sliinvn tlie aenipl.uie i>rescntiil liy .Mr. CUeiwi 1.. .M:irtin.
158
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
The five regular drill periods during the month
of March were devoted to instruction in ord-
nance, discipline, signaling, and instruction in
technical aeronautics.
The training continued through the year of
1916, including two weeks of camping witli the
Second Battalion, N. ]M. C, on North Island,
San Diego Bay, where the members had the op-
portunity of gaining experience by contact with
the United States Army aviators who gave
them valuable advice and guidance.
At the close of 1916 when the Navy Depart-
ment made arrangement for the training of
naval militia men at the United States Naval
Aeronautic Station at Pensacola, Florida, the
following were assigned to take the course of
training from the Aeronautic Section, N. M.
C: Lieut. Frank Sim])son; Samuel Kroner,
H. V. Reynolds, P. S. Ryan, J. G. Weyse.
Connecticut Naval Militia
An aviation section for the Naval ^Militia of
Connecticut formed at Bridgeport in February,
1916, with twenty-three men headed by Ensign
John D. Cooper.
Ensign John D. Cooper left Bridgeport,
February 28, in charge of the following men, to
report to Pensacola, Florida, for three months'
training: Warren S. Renolds, chief ma-
chinists' mate; Leon S. INIoran. machinist, sec-
ond class; LeRoy Sweeney, electrician, third
class ; James V. Porto, electrician, third class.
District of Columbia Naval Militia
The first step in organizing the aviation sec-
tion for the Naval ]\rilitia of the District of Co-
lumbia was taken when iVdjutant-General J. C.
Castner of the District of Columbia designated
Ensign Dean R. Van Kirk to take the free
course of training offered through the Aero
Club of America by the Curtiss Aeroplane
Company. The expenses of sending Ensign
Van Kirk to aviation school to the extent of .$'200
were defrayed by the National i\ero])lane Fund
of the iVero Clul) of ^Vmerica.
"When the Navy Dei)artment decided to give
courses of training to naval militiamen at Pen-
sacola, tlie following from the Naval IMilitia of
the District of Columbia were sent to take the
course: Ensign D, R, Van Kirk, W. H.
Boteler, ^V. R. Garland, A. J. Natho, PI. W.
Roughly.
Illinois Naval Militia
The Naval ^Militia of Illinois was presented
with the use of a 100-horse-power flying boat by
IMessrs. A, JVI, Andrews and Stuart JNIcDonald,
in ]May, 191.5. It was officially christened at
Chicago on ]May 22, ]Miss ]\Iona Dunne, daugh-
ter of Governor Dunne of Illinois, acting as
sponsor. The ceremony was held at the hangar
at the foot of Washington Street, Chicago, and
was attended by Governor Dunne. INIayor
Thompson, and by the state, militia, and city
authorities. During the succeeding summer,
training was given to six of the men in handling
and taking care of the machine. Training was
also given in observation work in connection
with the "Isle of Luzon," and the cruises of the
Naval JNIilitia.
Illinois Naval Militia
The first steps in organizing an aviation sec-
tion for the Illinois Naval JNIilitia were taken in
]\Iay, 191o
the details of how it started
The following resolution gives
Whereas, On Saturday, May 22, 1915, the Illi-
nois Naval iMilitia launched the first hydroaeroplane
to be commissioned by a naval reserve organization of
this country since the Department of Aeronautics,
United States Navy, issued a call for volunteer avia-
tion corps, and
Whereas, riiis machine was placed at the service
of the local Naval iMilitia through the patriotism of
:Mr. A. 'SI. Andrews, and Mr. Stuart .McDonald, cit-
izens of the city, at a considerably outlay on their
part, and
Whereas, This pr<)m})t response to the call of tlie
Navy Department has reflected great credit on the
city of Chicago and the State of Illionis and the en-
ter])i-ise of its Naval ^lilitia, he it therefore.
Resolved, 'I'hat this act of patriotism deserves
the hearty commendation of this body and that the
City Clerk l)c (Hncted to prepare a letter voicing the
sentiments of this liody to be signed by tiie ^fayor
and forwai'dcd to Messrs. A. M. Andrews and Stuart
]\IcDonald and otiicers of the Illinois Naval Reserve.
NAVAL MILITIA AKKO.X A I I I( S
l.jD
STATli Ol' Il.LlNCMS, I
County OF Cook. J
I, .lolin Siiiiaii, Citv (liik of llic City of (Jhiciigo,
do liuTc'bv CLTtif'v thai llir ahovr and I'dru^oiii^ is a
true mid correct cuiiy of tliu ccrtiiin rcsolul ion
adopted l)v IIk' City Council of tlie City of Chicago on
the twenly-fourtli (!ii-lli) <lav of M:i\. \.i>. 1!)!').
I do furtlier certify llial llif original (d' said reso-
lution is in my custody for safe-keejjing and that I
am the hiwfid custodian of sami'.
In witness wlicrcof, I have iiereuido set my iiand
and affixed (lie <()r|iorale seal of tiie city of Cliicago
this ninth (!)th) day of dune, a.d. l!)!.").
(Signed) John Siman-,
Citij Clerk.
This Hying boat was used in ('(iiiiKctinn willi
the niiliti.'i cruises and for scouting (ipciatioiis.
Lack of funds prevented the oroanizing of an
aviation division in the summer of 1910.
Maine Naval Militia
The first steps to establish an aviation sec-
tion in the militia of Maine were taken under
the aus])ices of Itcar-Admiral Robert E.
Peary in Octobei', 191.}. Details of the events
wliich led to starting the movement are given in
the chapter on "The .Aerial Coast Patrol."
The rhamher of Commerce of Portland,
INIaine. enthusiastically took up the proposition
to have an aeronautic station established near
that city. President George L. Crosman, of
the Chamber of Commerce, ajipointed a com-
mittee, representing the whole State, to take the
matter in charge, composed of: Hon. William
]\L Ingraham. Portland: Col. Fred. X. Dow,
Portland; Hon. E. \\. Winsknv, Charles F.
Flagg, Col. Frederick Hale, Richard Payson,
Frank L. Rawson, Lieutenant Reuben K.
Dyer, Rear-Admiral Robert E. Peary, Eagle
Island, South TIar])swell: Hon. Edward W.
Hyde, Bath; Hon. .Vrthur Chapin. liangor;
C(il. F. E. Roothby, Waterville; AYilliam D.
Pennell, Ijcwiston; Hon. Charles H. Prescott,
Saco; Prof. George T. Files. Rrunswick;
George L. Crosman, I'resident of Chamber of
Commerce, W. B. Moore, executive secretary.
Chamber of Conunerce, members ea' officio.
A meeting took place on Xovember o, at
Portland, the results of which are tokl in the
following letter:
'I'lie CJiuhiIkt of ('oniMii-r<e
Portland, Maine.
My Dear Mr. Hawley:
Vou will ju'ohahly he interested in knowing tliat the
(jiiestion of the estahlishinent of an aeronautical hasc
in Casco Bay, an Atlantic coast patrol, for the State
of .Maine, was received with great interest and en-
thusiasm hy ah(mt two hundred re|iresentative citizens
of this city and State at our meeting last night at the
I''a]moufh Ilcitel.
Our honored guests, Hear Admiral Peary, Henry
A. Wise Wood, Henry Woodhouse, and Elmer A.
Sperry, delivered interesting and instructive addresses
and thoroughly C()nvinced all tlnjse present that this
is an o|i|)ortune time for Portland and the State of
Maine to take tlie initiative in tliis hig movement for
piTparedness.
A loininittee of ahout tliirty-five representative cit-
izens of the State have heen selected to take charge of
the campaign for private capital necessary to install
this station.
We feel sure of the success of tlie ])roject, and to
you and our guests of last evening, and to the Aero
Ciuh of America, we owe a sincere debt of thanks.
We ajijjreciate more than we can express the prac-
tical proposition as submitted by you, and without
a doubt your plan will be carried through to comple-
tion.
The people of Portland and the State of Maine are
a unit in this movement and as usual in all progressive
])rojects in this country, Maine leads.
We extend to you now and the members of your
organization a hearty invitation to be with us in a
very few months at tlie o])cning exercises of the first
aeronautical base established in the United States.
\'ery truly yours,
W. B. Moore,
Executive Secretary.
The committee raised the sum of .$10,000 for
.starting the aeronautic station, 8910 of which
w^as contributed Iiy the National Aeroplane
Fund of the Aero Club of .^America.
As an order was about to be placed ff)r the
first seaplane in July, 191(!. Ex-Senator Charles
F. Johnson of Maine advised the committee that
a bill had been introduced in both Houses pro-
viding for the establishing of a system of Aerial
coast ])atrol stations. Therefore it was advis-
able for the committee to wait until the (iovern-
ment could establish the station. Unfortu-
nately that measure was not adopted at that
.session of Congress and is at date of writing be-
ing considered by the naval committees of both
Hou.ses of Congress.
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
BuijiL-ss sciiplanu jnc.->Liil<.cl tu llic .\ia-.saciiusL' tts Militia by tlic Alio CIuIj of New Jingland.
Massachusetts Naval Militia
Steps to organize an aviation section for the
Naval ^Militia of ]Mas.sachusetts were first taken
in December, 1915, as the result of the com-
bined efforts of the Aero Club of America and
the Aero Club of New England, under the per-
sonal supervision of INIessrs. Godfrey L. Cabot,
president of the Aer.o Club of New England;
Norman W. Cabot, G. Richmond Fearing,
Greely S. Curtis, Norman JNIerrilh and others.
Contributions of $2500 and $500 respectively
were made through the Aero Club of America
by Mr. T. Jefferson Coolidge for the training of
aviators for the Massachusetts Naval JMilitia
in 1915-16. The following letter from Gov-
ernor Walsh acknowledging receipt of the first
contribution shows the interest that was taken
in the newly launched movement:
Alan R. Hawley, Esq.,
President Aero Club of America,
297 Madison Avenue, New York City.
My dear President Hawley:
Your letter of December 16, with checks enclosed
amounting to $2,500, received. As commander-in-
chief of the organized military forces of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts, I accept this contribution
which an undisclosed patriotic citizen has made for
the ini|)ortaiit work of forming an aviation corps in
the militia.
Please convey to the donor and to your organiza-
tion as well, the thanks of the people of Massachu-
setts, for I am sure I voice their sentiments when I
say to you that our people are most grateful for this
evidence of your organization's interest in a great pa-
triotic work. I shall transmit the checks to the offi-
cial authorized to receive funds for the benefit of the
military organization of the State.
Yours very truly,
(Signed) David I. Walsh,
Governor.
In the early part of 1916, the Curtiss Aero-
plane Company offered through the Aero Club
of America to train an aviator from the militia
of eacb of tlie forty-eight States, and trustees
for the National Aeroplane Fund allowed $40
for the expenses of each man being sent to the
school. This sum was increased to $150 per
man when the ^Mexican situation grew critical,
to enable the States which did not have an ap-
propriation for this purpose to send officers to
take advantage of the free course of training.
Ensign Normal Merrill, third deck division,
naval battalion, was assigned to take the course
of training at Newport News.
Governor Walsh also authorized an aero-
nautic squad of one officer and four men to be
attached to each of the 9th and 10th deck divis-
ions, one of the divisions to operate a seaplane to
be given to the State by the Aero Club of New
England and the other to operate a private sea-
plane loaned for the piu'pose.
The seaplane presented by the Aero Club of
New England was officially turned ovei' to the
Commonwealth of ^lassachusetts on November
8, 1916. The ceremony took place at Boston.
The presentation speech was made by Godfrey
li. Cabot, president of the Aero Club of New
F.ngland. Governor IMcCall accepted the ma-
chine on behalf of the State, and congratulatory
speeches were delivered by Major-General
NAVAL MILITIA AEKOXAITK S
ici
Lc'oiiai'd A. Wood, U. S. .A., Scnaloi- Hi my
Cabot Ijodffc, former Go\(i'ii<ii' l)a\i(l I. Walsh,
and Augustus Post and (i. Douglas Wardrop
of tlic Aero Chil) of i\iiicrica. Tlic invilcd
guests iufludcd the mciiihci's of the (ioNernor's
council, the mayors and city eouneillois of Hos-
ton and Camhridge, memhtrs of the Massa-
chusetts Legislature, INIetropolitan I'ark Com-
missioners, United States Army and Naval in-
structors detailed to duty in New iMigland, and
other prominent national guard, aniiy, and
navy otlicers. The sea])lane was l)uilt hy the
liurgess Comi)any, and is of tlie single jjontoon
"l^" type tractor. It is e(|ui])pcd with a Curtiss
OXX2, 100 horse-power motor.
AVhen the navy offered to train naval militia
aviators at I'ensacola, the Massachusetts militia
sent the following to take the course of train-
ing: Knsigiis Ciodfrev Ij. Cahot and Norman
Merrill; Leon T. Blood, R. E. Self, C. J. Thur-
low, Harold Hudson.
At date of writing the aeronautic sections of
the INIassaehusetts Naval Militia are mobilized
at JMarbleliead under the command of Lieu-
tenant James O. Porter. The aviation officers
in order of seniority are: Ijieutenant Godfrey
L. Cabot, aviation aide First Naval District;
Lieutenant J. G. F. S. Lincoln, Ensign Nor-
man AV. Cabot, Ensign C. L. Flint, Ensign F.
S. Allen, Ensign F. S. Amory, Ensign G. Rich-
mond Fearing.
iVll of these officers have done more or less
living, ami all ( .\(( pt fjcutcnant Lincoln and
Ensigns I'linl ami l-'earing have liown as pilots.
The senior olliccr in liis seaplane, the Ijurk,
has been patroling lioslon Harbor since the
declaration of war and taking jMipils with him
in this work.
TIk most im|)ortant advance so far made has
been the establishment of the S(|uantum School
for students in which Knsign Cabot and Ensign
I'caring have been very active and which was
turned over by the State to Capl. W . \{. l{use,
(Dinniandant of the First Naval District as
repi-esentati\e of the Navy Dej)artment on
.May 18, 1!)17.
Michigan Naval Militia
Steps to oigani/c the a\ iation section for the
Naval Militia of .Michigan were taken in the fall
of 191.5 by the Aero Club of Michigan, Russell
A. Alger, president, with the cooperation of the
Aero Club of xVmerica. A ])ublic subscription
was started by the Aero Club of Michigan, and
through the generosity of Mr. Emerson McMil-
lin, the trustees of the Aero Club of America
contributed a bonus of 10 per cent, of the funds
raised by February 1. lOKi, which amounted to
.$11,800. An aeroplane of the L-\V-F type,
equipped with a Thomas motor, was ordered,
which was delivered at the camp of the Michi-
gan Xaval Militia at (irayling in .July. 1016.
Flying took ])lace between the dates of .July 20
Miss Mona Dunne
christening the Flying
Boat presented to the \\-
linois Naval Militia by
Messrs. .\ndrexvs and
McDonald.
162
TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS
The L. W. F. seaplane jiresentecl to the Michigan Militia by the Aero Club of Michigan, which was employed in the nianojuvers and
which was piloted by H. W. Blakely.
and August 18. On this last date a hurricane
came up suddenly and A\Tecked the machine.
In his report of the work of this machine, ]Mr.
Sidney D. Waldon, the treasurer of the Aero
Club of ]Michigan fund, gives the details of this
extraordinary storm and mentions how some of
the national guardsmen present who had waited
and hoped for an aeroplane for so long actually
cried over the wreck. The following are ex-
cerpts from the report:
The plane was consequently brought into shore and,
through the efforts of twenty-five or thirty men, cased
up the sand beach and roped to stakes, the machinery
and control mechanism being covered with canvas.
When it was seen that the two storms were going to
strike camp, additional stakes were driven and ropes
passed about the wing struts. A detail of signal
corps men was sent to stand by the plane through the
storm. The wind at first blew from tlie west in fitful
gusts. This was from off the lake and tended to
blow the plane farther on the shore. Suddenly, with-
out warning, tiie wind veered to the o])))osite point of
the compass and blew a perfect hurricane, accom-
panied by a terrific downjjour, for fifteen minutes.
The intensity of the wind, coupled uilli the force of
the water, leveled the wiiole camp, broke off large
trees, rolled all the heavily loaded transport wagons
down hill »ith their brakes set, and brought a stream
of water knee-deep down tiie slo])e where the plane was.
Some of the stakes pulled loose ; others held, but, by
holding, hurt the wings. In the intensity of the blow.
however, the men were lifted off their feet, everything
came loose, the plane was picked up, in the air, whirled
around, and landed, bottom side up, well out from
shore.
Some of the boys in the signal coi-ps detail were
so heartbroken, they blubbered over the wreck ; but
with the passing of the storm every one pitched in to
make the best of a bad. job. First of all, they took
off all the damaged wings and steering and elevating
attachments, then they turned the fuselage right side
up and brought it to shore. They then fitted the run-
ning gear for land flying, ran the motor to make sure
it was all right and then examined the fuselage inside
and out.
The state authorities did not have the funds
with which to pay for the repairing of the plane,
and as no assistance could be obtained from the
Federal Government the aeronautic activities
of the jNIichigan Naval ^Militia were susi)ended
for the time being.
New Jersey Naval Militia
New Jersey was one of the first naval state
organizations to make an effort to organize an
aeronautic section. In December, 191.3, Com-
mander Edward McPeters wrote to the Aero
Club of America the following letter:
Gentlemen :
It is desired to bring to the attention of the ,\ero
Club of America the fact that the First Battalion,
.\A\ AL .Mll,l 1 l.\ .\i:i{().\AI I ICS
\r,:i
NhviiI ItesiTvc of New .Jitmi'V, is uvfrniihlu^ im miii-
tioii section.
This liiis nc(iM{| the a|i|j|iniil ol llic Niivy Di-
partiiU'iil, and I liavc n|)|)<)intt(l Ijisiffn-flcct .J.
Homer Stovrr to tliu inunudiHlc cliiii'gc of oryuni/ing
the section.
Till' Division of Niival Mililia AH'airs of the Navy
Department has hien niiiie 
