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A TEXT-BOOK

PLAIN LETTERING

HENRY S. JACOBY,

, i
PROFESSOR OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND GRAPHICS IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY.

OF T

UNIVERSITY
or

SECOND THOUSAND.

NEW YORK:

THE ENGINEEH1NU Ntws ITULISHING COMPANY.

220 BROADWAY.

1901.

T57|

Engineering
Library

BY
HENRY S. JACOBY.

Braunwoith, Munn & Barber

Printers and Binders

Brooklyn, N. Y,

PREFACE

This volume hns been prepared to meet the need <>f the
technical schools lor a text-book which should j;ive a de-
tailed treatment of the Rom;in, Gothic, and some other
Mvk-s of plain letters which are suitable for engineering and
architectural drawings.

The Roman letters are used in the discussion of the prin-
ciples of proportioning and of spacing, since their main ele-
ments form the basis of the ther styles shown, and the
methods which are developed for the former ;ilso apply to
the latter with but little, if any, modification. The system
of measurements which has been adapted is such that the
proportions are expressed in terms of a convenient unit, and
permit letters of the normal as well as of other relations be-
tween width and height to be constructed with equal facility.
The measurements are the result of a careful study of the
form of each letter in comparison with the others in the
alphabet, and of a critical examination of the best available
models.

This is believed to be the first attempt to reduce spacing
to a definite system which enables any draftsman at once to
make the final location of the letters. In spacing, the same
scale is employed as in proportioning, and all the spacing
guides for the most useful styles of letters are indicated in a
table covering a single page of the text.

The detailed description of the methods of proportion MIL:
and spacing and of the various changes in form and details
by which given results are obtained, are so completely illus-
trated that the full significance of each statement may be
comprehended without an undue expenditure of time. In
writing the description, the wants of students who are in
schools where the instruction in lettering is limited to that
on the drawings required in other courses of study, have
also been kept in mind. In some of the leading technical
schools the importance of lettering is recognized by a sepa-
rate course of instruction.

Ornamental letters are excluded, because they are but

105954

PREFACE.

seldom required by engineers and architects and constitute
the principal part of the contents of most of the books on
alphabets heretofore published.

Plates I-XXIII were reproduced by photo-engraving from
drawings made by the author. While the engraving and
press-work give evidence of unusual skill and care, it may
be well to state for the benefit of those who will examine
these plates critically, that the extremities of some of the
serifs were drawn a little too light on several of the plates
on which no dimensions are given, and hence were slightly
shortened in the mechanical process of reduction.

The kind co-operation of a number of architects and en-
gineers is gratefully appreciated, and is duly acknowledged
in the text. Special mention, however, is due to Professor

C. FRANCIS OSBORNE, of Cornell University, for valuable sug-
gestions relating to lettering for architectural drawings; to
EDWARD MOLITOR for his excellent drawing, illustrating map
lettering; to the Superintendent of the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey for permission to use the standards of
lettering adopted by the Survey; to HENRY GANNETT, the
Chief Topographer of the United States Geological Survey,
for similar permission; to the Secretary of the Mississippi
River Commission and to Colonel O. M. POE, Corps of En-
gineers, U. S. Army, for permission to use portions of charts
prepared under their respective directions.

HENRY S. JACOBY.
Ithaca, N. Y., August 19, 1895.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

AKT. I. The Elements of Letters,

2. General Proportion,

). Relative Proportion,

4. Roman Capitals, ......

;. General Details of Construction,

o. Roman Small

7. Italics

8. Stump Writing,

9. Gothic Capitals,

10. Gothic Small

1 1 . Roman Old Style

12. French Old Style

i). Modified Proportions,

14. Modified Styles,

15. Large and Small Capitals, ....

16. Construction of Arabic Numerals,

PACE.

16
16
18

20
21
21

CHAPTER II.
THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

AKT. 1 7. Theory of Spacing,

1 8. Standard of Reference,

19. Principles of Spacing,

20. Methods of Spacing, .

2 1 . Rules for Spacing, .
Spacing Roman Small,
Spacing Stump Writing,
Spacing Gothic Letters,

3$. Word Spacing,
26. Table for Spacing,

22.
23-
24-

PAGE.

. II

'7
37

4<>

CHAPTER III.

TITLES.
27

28 AKT. 27. Main Titles, ....
28 28. Contents of the Main Title,

42
42

CONTENTS.

ART. 29. One-line Titles or Sub-titles,

30. Position of Main Title,

31. Proportioning a Title, ..

32. Determining the Lettering Scales,

PAGE.

44
45

45
. 48

33. The Construction Completed, . . . . . .50

34. Examples of Titles, 51

35. Explanatory Notes, ....... 54

36. Auxiliaries to Titles, . . . . . . .55

37. Scales 56

38. Meridians, . . . . . '. . . . .57

39. Borders, 58

CHAPTER IV.
THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

ART. 40. The Roman Style, 50

4 1 . Stump Writing, . . . . . . . .60

42. The Gothic Style, ''..'. 60

43. Standards of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, . . 61

44. Standards of the U. S. Geological Survey, ... 62

45. Lettering on Patent Office Drawings, 63

46. Lettering on Architectural Drawings, .... 63

47. Lettering on Engineering Drawings, ..... 65

48. Map Lettering, '66

40. Lettering Tracings for Blue Printing, . .... 08

ART. 50. Lettering for Photo-mechanical Reproduction,

5 1 . Freehand Lettering,

52. Printing Type,

PAGE.
69

T>
74

CHAPTER V.
MECHANICAL AIDS.

ART. 53. Lettering Triangles, 77

54. Stencil Plates, 79

55. Lettering with Metallic Type, 79

56. Mechanical Map Lettering, . . . . . . .81

PLATES.

I. Construction of Roman Capitals, .....

II. Construction of Roman Small and Stump Writing,

III. Construction of Gothic Letters, .....

IV. Roman, Italic, and Stump Writing

V. Hairline Gothic and Antique

VI. Construction of Roman Old Style

VII. Roman and French Old Styles

VIII. Construction of Numerals,

IX. Studies in Spacing,

X. Examples of Spacing, ........

XI. One-line Titles or Sub-titles,

XII. Plan of a Title,

CONTHNTS.

VII

XIII.
XIV.

XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI

XXVII

XXVIII

XXIX.

XXX.

Diagram for Proportioning,

Specimen Title District ul'Columl'i.i

Example of Title Ithaca Sewerage, ....
Example of Title Connecting Rod of I'umping Engine, .
Examples of Four Title*,

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIII.

XXXIV.

Lrltering and Titles on ArchitiYtm.il Dr.iwings, .... XXXV.

Explanatory Notes XXXVI.

XXXVII.

Meridians XXXVIII.

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Borders XXXIX.

Alphabets for Architectural Drawings, XL.

Lettering on a Topographical Map, ...... Ml

Freehand Map of Boston XIII

U. S. Coast Survey Classification and Rules for Lettering, . . Xl.lll.

U. S. Coast Survey Classification and Rules for Lettering, . . XI.IV.

U. S. Coast Survey Classification and Rules for Lettering. . . XI.V.

U. S. Coast Survey Classification and Rules for Lettering, . . XI.VI.

U. S. Coast Survey Relative Appearance in Different . . XI.VII.

Character XLVIII.

U. S. Coast Survry Title Alaska

U. S. Coast Survey Map of Entrance to New York

Harbor

U. S. Geological Survey Standards of Lettering,

U. S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous

U. S. Geological Survey Map Elk Mountains, Col., .
Mississippi River Commission Title, . . . ,

Mississippi River Commission Topographical Map,

of Engineers U. S. A. Title Lake Superior, .
Trinity Church I'l.m, .......

Memorial Tablet,

Specimens of Type

Specimens of Type,

Specimens of Type, ........

Specimen* of Type,

Title in Roman Old Style Type

Titles in Gothic Type,

Explanatory N

PLAIN LETTERING.

CHAP. I. THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

ART. i. THE ELEMENTS OF LETTERS.

All letters are composed either of straight lines or curves,
or of a combination of both. Since letters ought to be
pleasing to the eye, the curves should be lines of beauty.
In nature, curves are of continuously varying curvature,
the different forms of spirals constituting a prominent class.
Many of the curves of letters must, however, be symmet-
rical with reference to an axis, and must either close or be
tangent to parallel lines, and the simplest curve of varying
curvature which will meet this requirement is the ellipse.
The letter S, which in its elementary forms has been called
the line of beauty, may be considered as a combination
(I" .1 sinusoid with ellipses, or even of two or more ellipses
tangent to each other.

Theoretically, then, the forms of letters which are perfect

from an artistic point of view are composed of right lines in
combination with plane curves of the second or higher
orders, but practically it is desirable to substitute, within
reasonable limits, one or more arcs of circles for an ellipse
to facilitate the construction by means of dividers. When
the letters are small a single circle may well replaci- an
ellipse in case its axes are nearly of the same length. While
drawing the freehand curves, however, it is well to bear in
mind the artistic value of variable curvature.

Every student .and draftsman is supposed to have had
some practice in freehand drawing before he takes up the
subject of lettering, so that his eye has been trained to de-
tect irregularities in curvature, and his hand to have such
steadiness in drawing a line that he can readily secure the
desired result.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

ART. 2. GENERAL PROPORTION.

in order to show the relative influence of the elements
which determine the proportion of a letter, let the modern
Roman capital H be taken, which consists of two vertical
body strokes or'stems, united by a horizontal light line, the
stems being surmounted by caps and resting upon bases.
Both caps and bases are technically called serifs.

The middle letters of the four lines in Fig. i are exactly
the same in every respect. In the first line the letters are of
the same width, the stems are one-fifth as wide as the let-
ters, and the heights are respectively 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 times
the width of the stems. In the second line the centers of
the stems are the same distance apart as before, and the
height is the same throughout, while the stems vary in
width as i^, \%, \, J/% and ^. If the exterior width of
these letters remained the same, the difference in effect
would be comparatively slight for the two left-hand letters,
and would not be noticed at all in the right-hand ones.
Unless otherwise stated, the width of a letter is to be exclu-
sive of its serifs. In the third line the width and height are
uniform, and the widths of the stems are respectively YI,
%, y s , l /6 and y 7 of the width of the letters. The width of
the inclosed space here varies as i, 2, 3, 4 and 5. In the

fourth line the letters have exactly the same proportions as
in the first, but are reduced to a uniform height.
The differences between the corresponding stems in the

HHHH
HHHHH

HHHHH

Fig. I.

second, third and fourth lines are not perceptible except in
the case of the left-hand letter of the third line, which is
about ten per cent heavier than either the one above or

ART.

GENKRAL PROPORTION.

bel<>w it. which difference becomes apparent, however.
Drily when the letters .in- drawn to .1 larger scale.

A CDinp.irisoti of the second, third :md fourth lines shows
that the relative width of the inclosed spate li.is .1 consider-
able inlluence on the appearance of the letter, and that only
comparatively slight changes can he made in the width of
stem without requiring a corresponding modification of the
exterior width of the letter. This is true in a greater degree
when increasing than when decreasing the width of stem.
In general it may be said, that in letters of the same height
the width of stem varies direct! v as the width of letter. It
is seen, therelore. that the width of stem depends chiefly
on the width of the letter, although it has been customary
to Mate the width of stem in terms of the height only.

From the above illustration it is concluded that the letters
may be most conveniently proportioned and constructed by
means of a scale whose unit is the width of stem. The
width of any given letter may thus be expressed by a num-
ber which shall be constant for the same style, irrespective
of its actual si/e. In determining the exterior width, due
regard is to be paid to the width of the inclosed space.
The height may aKo be conveniently expressed in terms of
the same unit of measure, although this is not absolutely
In case it is desired to construct lighter or

heavier letters than what may be termed the standard, the
scale may remain unchanged, while the stems are made less
or more than one unit wide.

The general proportion, accordingly, depends upon four
elements: first, the height; second, the width, including its
extreme width as well as that of its main bodv: third, the
weight or width of its parts; fourth, the inclosed space.
The best effect is produced when these elements are so har-
monized that no one shall appear to predominate. In Fig. I
those on the left of the middle series may be called he. ivy
while those on the right are light. In the fourth line the
two letters at the left are known as extended, and the two
on the right as condensed letters, the middle letter having
what might be called the normal proportion.

The height may range from 3 to 10 or 12 units, and the
width of stem from \ l /t to ',2 unit or less. These limits
should rarely, if ever, be exceeded on drawings, although
type forms extending far beyond them are in general use.
Methods of varying the general proportions, and their appli-
cation, will be illustrated in subsequent articles.

ART. j. RELATIVK PROPORTION.
In order that a given number of words may have the
maximum legibility, it is necessary that all the letters have

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

simple forms, but shall be readily distinguished from one
another, and that the general appearance of the combined
form and arrangement of the letters and words shall be as
uniform as possible. This general uniformity implies uni-
formity of the same degree in every word, or, no letter
should appear more prominent than another, and thus at-
tract undue attention to itself when the word is observed in
the process of reading. Legibility depends upon the spacing
as well as the forms of letters, but only the latter will be
considered in this chapter.

The characteristic features of the principal styles of letters
like those of the Roman and Gothic alphabets have been es-
tablished by usage. The proportions of the letters, how-
ever, are not absolutely fixed, but are varied within certain
limits, according to the taste of the designer. It is desirable,
therefore, that within these limits such proportions should
be adopted as still further to promote legibility, and at the
same time, if possible, to secure convenience of construction.

The different letters of the alphabet must be given such
relative dimensions that their actual heights, widths, areas
of inclosed spaces, and weights of parts shall be combined
to produce the uniform effect above mentioned. The im-
portance of this statement may, perhaps, be emphasized by .
a reference to Fig. 2. The horizontal hair-lines on H and E

are placed at mid-height, and yet they appear to be a trifle
below the middle. The upper arid lower spurs on the right
side of E are of exactly the same size, but the upper one

RED ON

Fig. 2.

looks to be slightly larger than the lower. The width of E
is the same at the top as at the bottom, but appears to be
just a little wider at the top. The height of O is the same
as that of the other letters, but it seems to be less. The
widths of H, D and O at the middle are equal, but their
apparent widths decrease in the same order. N has the
same width as H, but it seems to be spread out too much
in comparison. The middle of the curved stem of the O
and the widest part of each spur of E appears to be nar-
rower than the stem of H, although the measured width is
the same.

It is seen from these illustrations that optical reasons ma-
terially affect the design of letters. Let the student cultivate
the habit of noticing the relative proportion of letters dis-
played on signs and posters as well as on drawings.

ART. 4.

ROMAN CAPITALS.

ART. 4. ROMAN CAPITALS.

The modern form of the Rom.m capitals will be used to
illustrate the analysis of those relative proportions which,
with but slight modification, may be applied to nearly all of
the simpler and more useful styles of letters. This form is
more frequently employed by draftsmen, and hence more
familiar than the old stvle, from which it dillers chiefly in
having a greater disparity in the weight of its heavy and
light lines, and to some extent, also, in the details of the
serifs. The modern form is the result of modifications
mainly introduced in the eighteenth century by some En-
gli>h type-founders.

In the following analysis the alphabet will be divided into
three groups : the rectangular, diagonal and curved letters.
There are comparatively few parts requiring vertical meas-
urements, and these can readily be drawn by means of
three horizontal guide lines in addition to the two which
limit the height of the letters. One of these intermediate
lines is placed at mid-height, and the other two at one-
third and at two-thirds of the height, respectively.

RECTANGULAR LETTERS.

The letter H (Fig. )) is taken as the standard of compari-
son for the whole alphabet. Using the width of the stem

as the unit of measure, the width will be taken at five and
the height at six units, the same proportion as that given
for the middle letter of each line in Fig. i. The two verti-

cal stems are joined by a horizontal light line, which for
optical reasons must be placed just a little above the mid-
height. The hair-lines of the serifs project three-quarters oi
a unit beyond the edges of the stems at the bottom, and
about one-eighth unit less at the top. If both were made
exactly the same length, the caps would appear longer than
the bases. Of course if the letters are small, no difference
in the serifs need be attempted. The serifs are completed
by connecting the hair-lines to the stems by means of small
curves which correspond to the apophyge of a column.
The curves are sometimes omitted in very small letters, but
not without detracting from their appearance.

The letter I corresponds to one stem of H in every re-
spect.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

E consists of a vertical stem, three horizontal light lines
and three hooks or spurs. As the right side of the letter is
not as heavy in appearance, it would be made somewhat
narrower than H if the central spur were omitted; but as
the latter reduces the interior space, the width of the lower
part will be made the same as for H or =,. For optical
reasons the upper width is reduced to 4^. The inter-
mediate line occupies the same position as in H, and the
right side of the central spur is half-way between the right
side of the stem and the lower spur, or two units from the
stem. The ends of the spurs are located just a little above
the guide lines, thus making the upper one smaller than the
lower, as it should be. The inner edges of the spurs are
smooth curves, usually drawn freehand. The upper spur is
made one unit wide, the lower one i>6 units, and the
central spur ^ unit. The serifs have curves only on the
left of the stem.

F is exactly the same as the corresponding part of E.

L has the same form as the corresponding part of E. but
having no central spur it is made a half unit narrower,
making the width 4/2.

T has a central stem with a horizontal light line resting
upon it and a spur attached to each end of the latter. The

spurs are of the same size as the upper one on E. The
width is ^/2, or as much wider than H as L was narrower.

DIAGONAL LETTERS.

N has two vertical light lines united by a diagonal stem
of unit width. As the sides are lighter than in H, its width
is reduced to 4^2. The upper extremity of the stem ex-
tends a little to the left of the light line, so as to be tangent

5 8

Fig. 4-

to the curve of the serif, while its lower extremity is pointed
and must extend a little below the guide line in order that
the right side of the letter may appear to have the same
depth as the left. All other letters having such points must
be similarly treated. The serifs attached to the hair-lines
are larger than when connected with stems, in order to
balance the letter. The projection on each side of the limb
is J/& for the upper and one unit for the lower serif.
In A an inclined hair-line is joined to an inclined stem,

ART. 4.

ROMAN CAPITALS.

forming .1 pointed top, which extends .1 little beyond the
upper guide liiu 1 . The width is *%. being me.isured from
ttu- points wlu-ri- the inclined outer edges of the letter inter-
sect the lo\\i r guide line when produced. In order that the
:des m.iy .ippear to have the s. line inclination, the apex
must be moved just a little to the left of the center line, so
.is in increase the slope of the line. It might be sufficient,
in letters of the normal proportion, to move the a|
unit, but. in order to use the same value fur all heights and
nvenieiice, the horixoiital component of the light line
is made J 1 .-. while that of the outer edge of the stem is ;.
The two xid.-s are united by a hori/ontal line placed just a
little above the >i guide line. Where the hair-line of the
serif makes an acute angle with a stem or light line, its pro-
jection is increased ,'s. and on the obtuse angle it is dimin-
ished the same amount.

V may be regarded as an A without the horizontal line,
alter rotation through an angle of is< degrees. As the
width is now measured at the top instead of at the bottom,
as betore rotation, it will be diminished a quarter unit, and
also .in additional quarter unit because V contains no hori-
zontal hair-line. The width is thus reduced to =,. The
horizontal component of the inclined light line is 2#.

M is formed lio::i V by adding u vertical light line at tin-

left and a vertical stem at the right. The width is therefore
increased to <>. It should be observed that the vertex of the
V is not midway between the vertical sides, but one-quar-
ter unit to the right of this position.

W consists of two V's, but in order to avoid an excessive
width, each V is contracted a half unit. The upper part of
the second stem, which lies on the left of the light line, is
preferably omitted. The width at the top is 8 and at the
bottom 1%. The horizontal component of each hair-line
is 2.

In X the light line and stem cross each other near the
middle. The left extremities of the stem and light line lie
in the same vertical. The width at the top is s and at the
bottom 5J4. Where the sides are inclined instead of verti-
cal, as in H, the difference between the upper and lower

5 5* 5

Fig. s-

widths must be about twice as great, in order to produce
the same apparent effect. It will be observed that the hori-

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

zontal component of the light line is a half unit less than
that of the stem, which meets the condition imposed by the
optical effect as noted in the case of A.

The upper part of Y is similar to that of X, but has
slightly different dimensions to facilitate construction. Its
lower part is the same as that of I. The width of the top is
about 5X- The light line meets the stems just a little
above the middle guide line, and its horizontal component
is 2.

In K the diagonal light line meets the vertical stem near
the YT, guide line. The width of the letter is 5 at the top
and 5^ at the bottom. The outer edge of the inclined
stem bisects the light line, and hence meets it near the "*/>,
guide line. This letter may also be regarded as derived
from X.

Z is an exceptional letter in some respects, but may be
considered as a reversed S (see Fig. 7), with angles substi-
tuted for the curves. The width is 4> at the top and 5 at
the bottom. The spurs are the same size as in E. The
right extremity of the stem is in the same vertical as the
edge of the lower spur. The stem is similar to that of the
X, but is reversed in direction. It is the only diagonal
stem which slopes downward toward the left. This fact
should be thoroughly fixed in the mind of every student.

CURVED LETTERS.

The letter Q_ differs from an O by the attachment of a
short limb of reversed curvature. The outer curve of the O
should be strictly an ellipse, but for a height not much over
an inch two arcs of circles joined by short tangent curves
will answer the purpose. In order that this letter may ap-
pear as large as H it must be made somewhat wider. A
width of 6 will be adopted. The centers of the arcs are

shown on the middle vertical. On Plate I the centers are
placed on the middle guide line and the arcs joined at the
top and bottom. For optical reasons the letter must pro-
ject a little beyond the upper and lower guide lines. As
the sides vary in thickness they should be a little wider at
the center than a stem of uniform width say about iya
units. The interior curve is elliptical, but by practice can
readily be drawn freehand. The vertical tangents to the

ART. 4.

ROMAN CAPITALS.

curve i.idlitate its construction. The light part :it the top
;ind bottom should be about 2 units long. If the size is
small say less than fi or # inch the letter may be m.ule
a full circle. Tin- appendage of the Q, extends ^/t units
from left to right and extends % unit above and \Yt units
below the lower guide line. Its width or thickness is fa.
The one on Plate I has a thickness of one unit and projects
one unit below the guide line. It would be improved if its
thickness were reduced to y\. The form in Fig. 6 is to be
preferred. Sometimes the appendage is lowered until its
upper edge is tangent to the body of the letter.

The left half of the C is the same as that of the O. The
spur is the same sixe as that on E, but has a curve on its
upper side. The upper width of the letter is # unit less
than the lower. It will be noticed that the right-hand part
of the lower curve has a smaller radius than the left.

G h.is the same widths as C. and differs from it only in
the substitution of a short stem for the corresponding hair
line. This stem extends upward to midway between the
ft and % guide lines, and is united to the lower light line
by suitable curves, as shown in the figure. On Plate I it is
shown .is extending only a little above the ft guide line.

I) MI. iv be regarded as the combination of E without its
spurs and the right half of O. The width is *,%.

U consists of a vertical stem and a light line, united below
by means of a semi-circular curve tangent to the center line
of the stem, and into which the stem tapers by tangent
curves drawn freehand. The right hand serif has the same
sixe and form as the corresponding one on N. The width is
4%, or the same as N and L

J is like a part of U reversed, the lower line being con-
structed in a similar way. Its left end is tangent to a cir-
cular bulb, whose diameter is a little larger than unity, and
which extends just a little above the ft guide line. The
width of the letter is 4.

B may be derived from E by substituting for its three
spurs two curved tapering stems tangent to its horizontal
light lines. The inner edges are circles and the outer edges
elliptical curves. If the center lines are circular the letters
will appear too full at the middle, where the two curved
stems are tangent to each other.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

The widths of B are 4^ nnd 5, or the same as those of E.

R differs from B in replacing the lower curved stem by a
stem of reversed curvature. The center of gravity of the
two curved stems should be in the same vertical, and there-
fore the lower one should be tangent to the middle hair line
a little farther to the left than the upper one, and it should
taper into a light line at the bottom approximately in a ver-
tical tangent to the upper curved stem. The width at the
bottom is 6. On Plate I the form is given when the width
is reduced to *>%.

P is exactly the same as the corresponding parts of B
and R.

S is made 4^ wide at the upper part and 5 at the lower.
In constructing this letter, first draw the vertical sides of the
spurs, then draw the upper and lower light lines, the short
curves to complete the spurs, and finally the tapering curved
stem. The upper portion of the stem should appear to be
tangent to the vertical through the left side of the lower
spur, and for optical reasons the curve ought to extend a
little beyond this vertical. Such a position should be taken
by the draftsman that the general direction of each prin-
cipal portion of such curves may be drawn toward himself.

The symbol & has a width of 2^/2 at the top and 6 at the
bottom. The vertical tangents on the left of the upper and

lower parts of this symbol are one unit apart. The foot ex-
tends a little higher than the middle guide line. The aux-
iliary construction lines and centers of the circular arcs are
shown in the figure.

ART. V. GENERAL DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION.

The following is a summary of the general details given
in the preceding article and arranged in order for convenient
reference. They should be committed to memory by the
student.

1. (All letters having distinct upper and lower parts re-
quire the upper to be somewhat smaller in sixe than the
lower one) (The upper width of the letter is to be less than
the lower, the contraction being made only on the right
side, except in the cases of Z, where it is made on the left
side, and of &, where it is made on both sides.") The heighi
of the upper spurs is to be a little less and that of the lower
a little greater than one-third of the height of the letter.

2. Curved tops or bottoms of letters should extend
slightly beyond the upper and lower guide lines. Pointed
parts must likewise be extended.

j). Intermediate horizontal light lines are placed a little
above mid-height in all cases except in A, where it is simi-
larly placed with respect to the >i guide line.

ART. >.

.l NHRAI. DHTAILS OF CONSTRUCTION.

4 All di.iyotial steins slope downward toward the right,
evept th.it di /.

-. When tlu- end oi .1 diagonal light line joins th;it of a
i.il stein, tin the lii;ht line must be a little

steeper th;ill th;it of the stem.

'). Curved stems continuously varying in width must be
ider at tile middle than those of uniform width.

The thickness of the light lines should generally not
be less than one eighth of the Mem. While this is the cus-
tom, ii v thickness, it would be better to increase it to one-
sixth, and. in verv small letMs. to one-fourth of the stem.
The light lines should always be distinct and clear, as the
individuality of letters depends upon it to some extent.

The projection^, oi all the serifs beyond the lines to which
thev .ire attached are given in < n I'late I, the

* * I *

nil

fif. 8 Fig. 9.

curves are made smaller than in Figs. ; to 7. The effect of
small curves may be seen on plate IX, while that of larger

curves is shown on plates XIV and XV. Let the student

construct the letters of the same word in two lines, making
the serif curves in one line small and in the other large, and
carefully observe the difference between the general expres-
sion of the two words.

I he extreme forms of the serifs are given in Fig. q, those
on the left hand I projecting more than a unit, while those
on the other I are very short, the curves in both cases being
small. The former is known as the French and the latter as
the HIzevir, while the serifs in Fig. 8 are of the Scotch style.

In addition to avoiding small curves at the serifs, the stu-
dent is also cautioned against making the light lines loo thin
and against shortening the tapering portions of the curved
limbs.

The Roman capitals, whose construction was described
in the preceding article, should first be drawn in pencil with
such care and precision that the process of inking will con-
sist merely in following the pencil lines. Until a drafts-
man has, by patient practice, secured such a firm control of
his hand as to make smooth curves of uniform width of line
with precision, he should not attempt to correct and com-
plete outlines with the pen which were defectively sketched
with the pencil.

If the construction is made on plain paper the hori/ontal

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

guide lines should be drawn lightly with a finely-pointed
pencil and the widths may be conveniently laid off by the
aid of a small paper scale about 10 units long, with one unit
on the left of the zeropoint divided into quarters.

After constructing the letters to a large scale like that
shown on Plate I they may then be drawn to about one-half
of that scale. When the letters are quite small some
features must be proportionately exaggerated, such as ex-
tending the curves and pointed stems beyond the guide lines,
and enlarging the curves at the caps and bases.

By carefully comparing the widths of the letters which
are shown on Plate I in alphabetical order, and observing
the reasons given in the preceding article for the differences
in width, they will more easily be fixed in the memory.

In inking letters the following order of procedure should
be observed : First, draw the arcs of circles ; second, the
straight lines, including light lines and edges of stems ; and
third, the freehand curves. The arcs of circles should be
drawn before the right lines, to some of which they are
tangent, as it is a well-known rule in drawing that all curves
constructed by dividers should precede their tangents. After
the outlines are completed the letters may be filled in with a
pen, but this should not be done until all the pencil lines
have been erased and the drawing cleaned. In this way the

heavy black lines of the letters will remain unimpaired,
which if subjected to the eraser would assume a grayish ap-
pearance.

A set of the finished capitals is shown on Plate IV, the
scale being one-half of that used in Plate I, the height in-
creased to seven units and the stems reduced to J& unit.

ART. VI. ROMAN SMALL.

The small letters, which ;ire called lower-case letters by
printers, are divided into three groups: first, those whose
height is the same as those of the capitals and limited by the
same extreme guide lines, b, d, f, h, k and 1; second, those
whose height is the same as the preceding, but which pro-
ject below the lower guide line, g, j, p, q and y; and third,
those whose height corresponds to that of the main body of
the preceding groups, a, c, e, i, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, xandz
(see Plate II). These three classes are sometimes designate 1
as ascending, descending and short letters, respectively.
The first thing to determine, therefore, is the ratio of the
height of the short letters to that of the others, or of the
capitals. This ratio has sometimes been taken as one-half,
but more frequently as two-thirds. J. ENTHOFFF.R, in his
Manual of Topography, employs what is called the "golden
cut," taken from the theory of the proportions of the human

ART. 6.

ROMAN SMALL.

body, developed bv Professor Dr. A. Zeising, in a work
published in IN=..|. The golden cut ol am line is such a
division that the lessei segment is to the gi eater segment as
the greater segment is to the whole. If/ den. pies the length
of a line and x its larger segment, this relation is ex-
pressed bv

l-x : x = x : I,

the solution of which gives .v <>.<n8/. In the reduction nt
the equation .v+}/= v'l.as/* was obtained, and which in-
dicates a convenient graphic method lor finding x. In Fig.
n> lay off al> equal to /. and </< perpendicular
to ab and equal to }/. With c as a center,
describe the arc <;./. and with b as a center.
describe the arc tie, then be is equal to x, or
"i.S per cent of ab.

The thickness of the stems of all the small
letters for the normal or standard proportion is
k'i\en the same relation as that used f< r the
Capitals, and therefore it will be 61.8 per cent of that of the
capitals. Practically, it will be near enough to take 0.6 as
the ratio. This thickness of stem will be adopted as the
unit in proportioning the small letters.

In Fig. 1 1 the word Armor Plate is drawn with the height
of its short letters equal to one-half, six-tenths, and two-

Fig. 10.

thirds, respectively, of the height of the capitals, as an illus-
tration of the effect due to this relation alone.

It is evidently very desirable that as little difference should

rmor

Plate
Armor Plate
Armor Plate

Fig. ii.

be made between the proportions of the small letters and
the corresponding capitals as is allowable on account of
change in form.

Six guide lines are required for small letters. The lines a
and e in Fig. 12 are the top and bottom guide lines of the cap-
itals. The line b is drawn so that be equals six-tenths of ae,
and ef\& made equal to ab. Lines d and c are at one-fourth
and three-fourths of the height be respectively. The round
letters will need an additional guide line midway between
the lines c and </.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

As many of the small letters have the same form as the
corresponding capitals, only those details will be referred to
in the following description which are different.

d---
e

Fig. 11.

All curves tangent to vertical stems will meet them at or
near the guide lines c and d, marked % and 24 on P' ate "
The form of these curves should be elliptical. For the sizes
most frequently employed they are drawn freehand, hut for
larger ones a circular curve may conveniently be constructed
either to replace an elliptical hair line or an edge of a stem,
or to serve as a guide line for the freehand curves.

The letter h is taken as the basis of the series, similarly
to the capital, its width being 5. The edges of the curved
stem are to be tangent to the circular hair line, which in turn
is tangent to the edge of the long stem, and also when pro-
duced to the center line of the other stem. The position
of the center of this arc is shown on the plate by a small

circle. Tne serifs have the same relative size as in the
capital letters, but in small-size letters their projection is
often increased to one unit; unless the scale is large, how-
ever, the upper serifs are made of the same size as the lower.

The n is equal to a portion of h; m becomes a double n,
and, therefore, has a width of 9, while u is like a rotated n,
with slight modifications in its serifs. The 1 is like the long
stem of the h, and j is equal to the left stem of the n, with
the addition of a circular dot, whose center lies one-third of
the way between the guide lines \ 2 /$ and i. When the
scale is very small, however, the dot is sometimes placed on
the upper guide line. The j may be obtained from the i by
producing its stem downward and tapering it into a curved
hair line, which is tangent to a bulb whose center has the
same relation to the -*A guide line as the dot has to the
^guideline. The outer edge of the stem and the hair
line may be composed of two tangent quarter circles, whosL j
radii are 2>^ and I y* respectively. The f is the same as j
after rotation, with the addition of another lower foot and of
a cross line on the guide line i. The width of j, f and :
is 4.

The t has a cross line like the t, but its stem extends only
half way from this cross to the upper guide line, and is cut
off obliquely, while the lower end of the stem is tapered

ART. 6.

ROMAN SMALL.

off into ;i curved hair litu-, the latter being a semi-circle
!. indent In the outer edge "I the stein.

The y is .1 v. with its hair line extended downwaul and
curved so .is to be undent to a bulb in a vertical line one
unit beyond the lelt construction line for the upper part of
the letter, and whose center is about one-fourth of the way
between guide lines '-'.! and <>.

The spur ol c is changed to a bulb tangent to the curved
hair line. The e is derived from the o by introducing a liori-
xontal hair line abo-it one-third of the way fiom the % to
the ;'+ guide line and omitting a part of the right-hand stem.
The upper part is contracted a little so as not to be wider
than the lower part. The letters b, d, p and q have the
same width, and differ but slightly in composition. They
may be regarded as a Combination of a part of h with one-
hall of the o.

No small letter differs from its capital form more than g.
It consists of an o about live units wide, lying between the
guide lines ,'4 and i. united to a curved stem resembling the
larger portion oi an S whose sides extend YI unit beyond the
upper o. A small projection, consisting of a bulb and a
tangent connecting curve, is added on the upper right of
the letter. In very small letters this projection must be rel-
atively exaggerated in prominence.

The a has a bulb like the c, and its right-hand stem ter-
minates below like the t. The upper curves of the letter
are constructed like those ol the h or n. The remaining de-
tails are shown on the drawing. It may be well to add that
the upper serifs when attached to vertical stems extend only
toward the left, except in the case of q. where the curve
on that side prevents it. The horizontal cross lines off and
t on the upper guide line are not regarded as serifs. The
lower serifs attached to vertical stems project on both sides
unless prevented by adjacent curves, as in u and d. All
serifs on diagonal stems or hair lines extend in both direc-
tions. The curved boundaries of letters should pass very
slightly bevond the horizontal guide lines.

A complete set of the finished small letters in alphabetical
order is shown on Plate IV, the scale being one-hall of that
used lor the same letters on Plate II. The stems are reduced
to a width of fo unit, while the height of the short letters is
increased to 7 units, and of the others in the same ratio.

The letters a and t are the only ones which have short re-
turn curves at the base and if these curves were replaced by
serifs it would not only simplify the construction but also
the spacing. The appearance of the a when thus modified
may be seen in the word Meridians on Plate XXI, and t is
shown on the last line of Plate XIX, but in a lighter weight.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP, I.

Fig. 13.

ART. 7. ITALICS.

The heavy and light lines and the axes of the entire letter
and of its various parts, which
are vertical in the Roman let-
ters, are all inclined in the
Italic, and the inclination of
the sloping lines is corres-
pondingly modified, as shown
in Fig. 13. The intersection
of any line of the letter with
any horizontal guide line occupies the same position in the
parallelogram as it did in the rectangle.

Mr. Enthoffer in his Manual of Topography takes the hori-
zontal component af in Fig. 13, equal to ae, the smaller
segment of the "golden cut" of the lineal. This makes
the angle abf equal to 20 54'. This angle may, however,
be varied several degrees without producing a noticeable
effect. If ab is laid off equal to 8 units and ac equal to 3
units the angle will be 20 33'. On account of convenience
in construction this value will be adopted instead of the other.

The height of italic letters is obtained by measuring along
the slope /and making the length bg equal to be, while the
widths are laid off along the horizontal guide lines as before.

This arrangement causes italic letters to appear a little
more slender than the Roman.

A complete set of the italic capitals and small letters is
shown on Plate IV, the dimensions and the character of the
details being exactly the same as for the Roman.

The horizontal component of the slope may be reduced to
some extent without detracting from the general effect.
Nearly all of the italics on Plate XXX have a base of 2%
parts to a height of 8 parts, or an angle of 15 43' with the
vertical. Alphabets have been published in which this angle
was as high as 25 and in one instance even 30. Let the
student construct the same word four times in succession
and give to their letters the slopes of 15%, 20^, 23 and
30 respectively and carefully compare their relative appear-
ance.

ART. 8. STUMP WRITING.

Stump writing consists in such a modification of the italic
small letters as to materially facilitate their freehand construc-
tion. This is chiefly accomplished by tapering off into curves
the extremities of stems, transforming 8 serifs and spurs into
bulbs, and omitting 1 1 serifs altogether, The remaining
variations consist in more radical changes in the form of let-
ters, as in the case of a, g and z. Slight irregularities in the

ARI

STUMP WRITING.

construction of this suit- are less noticeable and the general
appearance of the letters i^ graceful.

Tlu- lower curve. 1 extiemities of vertical stems extend 2%
units beyond the outer edge ol the Mem. and the upper serifs
prject about i unit. The lower width ofk is increased I
unit on account of the curve attached to the diagonal limb of
'eversed curvature. The upper curve> of diagonal stems, as
in v. wand y. reach about i ' j units beyond the point where
the outer edge of the stem, il produced, meets their upper
guide line. The width of v, w and y when measured be-
tween the points where their diagonals meet this guide is
the vime aN lor the Italic small, but as the bulbs are tangent
to the diagonal hair lines at the three-quarter guide line the
widt'is of these letters are thereby contracted a little on the
light side when finished.

in x the stem is made vertical with curved extremities on
both sides. The extreme widths ate increased to h and 6ft.
In 7. the diagonal stem is changed into a hair line and the
horizontal hair lines combined with the spurs are altered into
stems of reversed curvature, the widths being increased one-
hall unit.

As the right upper portion ol e is rounded, its width as
well as that of the lower part is reduced oiie-quaiter unit.
The form ol a is made equal to d with the upper end of its

long stem removed, and g is derived from q by curving its
long stem toward the left and reducing it into a hair line
which is tangent to a bulb. The lower width is about one-
ha'f unit less than the upper.

When constructed freehand, unless the size is very small,
it is best not to attempt to make the heavy strokes with one
movement of the pen under pressure but to draw the edges
of the stems and fill them in afterwards. This method se-
cures greater uniformity in the thickness of the stems and
also better curvature, since the pen when held lightly for the
fine lines yields more readily to the movement of the hand.

As the right-hand limbs of h, m and n are curved at their
ends in opposite directions they appear to have a slightly
steeper slope than the adjacent straight stems, although their
central parts are truly parallel. When these letters are
drawn freehand many draftsmen find a tendency to give the
right-hand stems a slope which is actually steeper, and there-
fore need to guard themselves against it.

On Plate IV the letters are drawn to one-half the above
scale, filled in and arranged in regular order. The propor-
tion is slightly different, however, the height being 7 and
the width of stem ?* unit. The capitals to be used i<i stump
writing are the same as those used with the Italic small.

Alternate forms of the letters v, w and y are given in

Fig. 14-

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

Fig. 14.

These are easier to space than the ones given on
uie plate, as they avoid diagonal lines
and the curved extremities on the left.
Sometimes the curves on the left of
v, w and y, as drawn on Plate II, are
replaced by serifs.

ART. 9. GOTHIC CAPITALS.

Gothic is an American term applied to letters whose form
is similar to that of the Roman, but whose limbs are all of
uniform width and without serifs. They are known in
England as grotesque and sans-serif. Those called Gothic
letters in England and on the Continent are black-faced,
pointed letters, originated in the hitter part of the twelfth
century and improved in the succeeding century. In this
country they are usually designated as black letter, or church

text.

It will only be necessary to indicate in this article the par-
ticulars in which the construction of the Gothic differs from
the Roman letters. Being composed of lines of uniform
weight throughout, the width of the lines should be less
than that of the stems or heavy limbs of the Roman or else
an appearance of excessive weight will be produced. In
Fig. 15 the same word is shown in Roman and in Gothic

yi ED ^ II

** ' ^

letters, the latter being YZ and i unit thick respectively.

The upper word appears a little lighter and the tower one

decidedly heavier than the Roman.

A[""^ ^"N I I Gothic letters with a thickness of
l\ V-X I I about YS would have about the same
weight as the Roman whose stem?
are one unit wide.

Those shown on Plate III have lines
which are half a unit wide. In order
to preserve the same apparent pro-
portions the widths of all the Roman
capitals having an exterior light line on either side, including
A, M, N, U, V, W, X and Y, must be increased about one-
half unit for the Gothic style. For simplicity, however, the
width of Y will be made 5^, the same as V and X.

As the Gothic letters have no serifs and but comparatively
few horizontal lines, it will be more convenient to limit the
circular edges and the ends of vertical or inclined lines by
the outer guide lines, and place the edges of the horizontal
lines a trifle inside of them in order to make the apparent
depths uniform. Further, since the intermediate light lines
of the Roman capitals are here replaced by lines of the same
weight as those used for the stems, the interior space of the
O is relatively increased as compared with H, E, B, etc.

ART. o.

GOTHIC CAPITALS.

For these reasons the width of the O will be reduced \<> =,'.-.
and the arcs of circles will be united by short vertical curves
of longer radii on the sides. The same construction applies
to CL, ('.. (i and 1). The width of 1) is modified so as to
keep it intermediate between H and O. As the spur of C
disappears the upper and lower parts will become alike.

The curves of H. J. P. R and U may be made semi-circu-
lar. Two arcs of circles are also used in &. The curved
hair-line projections at the bottom of R and & having noth-
ing to take their place in the Gothic form, the widths are
therein' reduced by one-half unit. The right lower stem of
R will give the best appearance to the letter when it is
iit. The same relative appearance of the upper and
lower portion-, of S and / is secured by a difference of ' t
unit in width as in the Roman form by a difference of ,'_
unit. Special care should be exercised to have the middle
part of the S cross the vertical center line slightly above mid-
height.

In inking letters of the size shown on Plate III double lines
should be drawn with a narrow space between them, which
is tilled in afterwards. This enables the draftsman readily to
secure uniform thickness of all the parts, and to work more
rapidly, as the danger of blotting is thereby reduced to a
minimum.

Hair-line Gothic capitals, both vertical and inclined, aie
shown on Plate V. the latter having a height ol 7 units.
Special facility should be acquired by the student in the con-
struction of Gothic letters because ol their wide range of
application. MS stated more in detail in Ait. ji. using instru-
ments for the larger si/e and making the smaller si/es free-
hand. The inclined letters are especially useful for rapid
freehand construction, .is slight inequalities in inclination
and in other details are not as apparent as in the upright
form.

Sometimes the strokes of the heavv letters are made with
round ends, but the effect of this detail is not as good as
that of square ends.

Four forms old are shown side by side in Fig. \h for the
purpose of comparison, the lower width being 5'.- in all but

the last, where it is -,'.,. or the
same as the upper width. Hven
i n this case the letter appeals
Fig. is. slightly narrower at the top.

The third and fourth forms aie

more completely in harmony with the extreme simplicity ol
the Gothic stvlethan the first and second. The third pre-
sents the better appearance in larger letters constructed with

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

care, while the fourth is better adapted to small freehand
letters. See Plate XIX for an application of the latter.

ART. 10. GOTHIC SMALL.

The Gothic small letters (Plate III) are derived from the
Roman by the application of the same principles which were
used in the case of the corresponding capitals.

The widths of v, w, x and y are therefore made one-half
unit wider than the Rom;in, and it would perhaps be pref-
erable to make w an additional half unit wider, thus making
it the same as m. The resulting width of q is twice the
width of v alter it is reduced one unit. For the sake of
simplicity the o, c and e are constructed with a single circle.

The bulbs of the Roman v, f, j and y are omitted and
the curves terminated in very short horizontals, the width of
y being reduced one-half unit and of the others one unit.
The upper projection of g is treated in the same way.

No substitute is made for the curved hair lines of the Ro-
man a and t. Some draftsmen terminate the vertical stems
of the Gothic a and t similarly to the f and j, but this treat-
ment is not in harmony with the simplicity of this style of
letter, in which not only the feet but also the spurs of letters
are omitted. When the stems are thus extended they re-

place curves which haJ bulbs in the Roman style and not
simply curved hair lines.

The vertical limb of b is sometimes extended down to the
guide line, like d, but the form given is to be preferred.

The form of a may be simplified by eliminating the re-
versed curve in one of its lines, and either extending it on a
horizontal to the vertical limb or curving the end downward
so that the entire curve may form a part of a single ellipse.
The three forms are shown side by side in Fig. 17. A
fourth form is given next to these which in small scale iree-
hand work is frequently employed. The coi responding

Fig. 17.

form of g is placed on its right. The same letters when in-
clined are also shown in the figure. The form of g at the
end of the line is employed to a limited extent in practice,
but is not to be commended on account of its less conven-
ient construction. The forms of both a and g should pref-
erably correspond to their character in stump writing. The
lower line of g must be curved to the left in order to distin-
guish it from q.

ART. n.

ROMAN OLD STYLE.

All of the inclined letters m.iv be regarded ;is derived iVoni
stump wiiting r.ither than din.-i.tly from the Italic small.
The complete alphabets in both the upright and inclined let-
ters in hair line are given on Plate V, the latter having a
height of 7 units.

ART. 11. ROMAN OLD STYLE.

The proportions of this style of letter which are given
on Plate VI and are 16 millimeters high were obtained by
careful measurements of the best printed forms tliat could be
found by the author, those selected being u. =, millimeters
high. Verv slight modifications, however, were made in a
lew >..isex. as. lor instance, in moving the intermediate hori-
zontal lines of P and R from just below mid-height to then
present position, which is the same as that of B. and also in
widening the lower part i >f t he ( i to be equal to that of C, their
upper parts having been the same. It would, perhaps, be
advisable to increase the width of M both above and below
by # so as to reduce the measurements involving quarter-
units to a minimum.

On comparing the H with that on Plate I it will be ob-
served that the distance between the center lines of the
stems bears the same relation to the height in both cases.
It the exterior width of the old style H be made the same

as the modern or 5 units, the height of the former will be
6.4 units instead of the 6 units of the latter, or if the height
be 6 in both cases the widths will be 4.7 and 5 respectively.

The most noticeable difference between the two styles is
in the width of stem, the old style being one-seventh of the
width and the modern one-fifth, while the light lines of the
former are about double the thickness of the hair lines of
the latter. The hooks of C, E, F, G, L, S, T and Z have
their outer edges inclined instead of vertical. J extends
below the lower guide lines, the sides of M are given a
slight batter, and the stem of R with its double reversed
curvature is replaced by a straight one. The outer edges of
C, G, O and O_ are circular and the center lines of the
curved stems of B, P and R are arcs of circles. The larger
part of the interior edge of C is shown as a semi-circle.
while another form of the C is shown in the title of the
plate. In Q_ the double reversed curve of the appendage
is united to the body of the letter by an easy curve tangent
to both. ()n Plate VII a simple but not so elegant a form is
shown, the connecting line being straight and not tangent
to the body of the letter but meeting its lower curve at (he
middle.

If the widths of the letters marked on Plate VI are reduced
to the same unit as that used on Plate I the principal differ-

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

ence will be ns follows: B, J, K, P, R and Y;ire respectively
3/a, i l / 2 , J/s, J/B and y& narrower; C, G, L, O, a, T, V, W
and Z are respectively %, ft, Ya, %, %, i#, Z A, H and %
wider, while the rest are either the same or differ less than
% from the widths of the modern style. The difference be-
tween the upper and lower widths of letters is about 50 per
cent, greater except in C and G.

The curves of the serifs are elliptical, and while tangent
to the edges of the stems or light lines, make a decided
angle with the horizontals. These curves occur on both
sides instead of only on the outer side as before, and while
being relatively larger in most cases they are smaller in the
serifs at the ends of the light lines of A, K, M, N, U, V, W,
X and Y.

The lower horizontals are shown on Plate VI to be slightly
heavier than the upper ones. While such a distinction in
weight produces a pleasing effect on letters drawn to a fairly
large scale, it is not practicable on small letters. All other
details are indicated on the plate so clearly as not to require
any further description.

The small letters differ in such a few particulars from the.
modern style that they have not been separately constructed.
They are shown on Plate XLI, which is printed from type.
Aside from the same difference in weight which exists

between the capitals, the main feature which characterizes
the style is that in all single caps inclined curves are substi-
tuted for the horizontal right lines, and so arranged as to
make the stem pointed. The serifs projecting on both sides
of the limb to which they are attached remain horizontal, as
in the modern style. All bulbs are elongated.

ART. 12. FRENCH OLD STYLE.

On Plate Vll are shown the French Old Style capitals in
comparison with the Roman Old Style, the former being a
variation of the latter, to illustrate more effectively their dif-
ferences of form. They are reduced to the same height and
the letter H was found to have the same width in the three
alphabets shown on the plate.

The lower series of French Old Style was copied from
Georg Heinrich Paritius, 1710, as published in Collection
D'alphabets Ornes, by A. LHVY of Paris, while the upper
series was constructed after in iking a careful comparison of
a large number of printed types ranging from 16 to 23^ mil-
limeters in height, as found in architectural works issued
by a number of the leading modern publishers of Paris.
The proportions given represent what might be called the
moderate style, as opposed to the extreme style in which
B, E, F, L, P, Rand S are materially reduced in width, while

ART. 12.

FRHNCH OLD STYLE.

the other letters remain about the same. The lower alpha-
bet on the plate belongs t this style in m<>st of its U-atuies.
and the contrast between such letter - s and O, for ex-
ainple. is very decided and serves to decrease the legibility.
The widths of the letters in the upper series are given in
the following table. For instance, the widths ol E follow in

WIDTHS OF FRENCH OLD STYI.K CAPITALS IN

Ul'I'hK ShRII-S OF Pi ATK VII.

A *

O w

V TH

B **

1 K

I 1 H.J<

W 7H-+7H

c *.

J .

Q^ w<s

X W*- 7 *

K *- 7

R W4.3H.7

Y T.

E .H,m-x

L .<+

S .

Z 754.7*+*

F S.4K.H

M w."M

T %.

G W' 8 *

N 6*

u -

iet,'ular order for the upper, middle and lower parts. The
scale used in constructing the Roman Old Style was also
employed for this series. The stems measure ft ; the ver-

tical and inclined light lines ^-16, and which are sometimes
increased to fo ; the intermediate horixoiitals ol I . | ; and H
are fa; the upper horixoiitals ol H and F, and both horizon-
tals of /., are 7-16; the lower horizontal of H and those of L
and T are ,'j, while all the remaining horizontals are s-l6
unit wide. Such elaborate distinctions as these are made
very seldom and then only in large letters.

The curved stems of B. 1). I* and K are made lo saj as il
constructed of plastic material which is yielding to the influ-
ence of gravity. The curves of the caps occur only on the
outside of the stems, while those at the bases are found on
both sides. Many of the letters have the same form as the
Roman Old Style, and the distinguishing features of the
others are clearly shown on Plate VII and should be carefully
observed by the student. The letter having the poons:
sign in this style is R, which is formed by adding a Hying
pendant to the P, which appears to put the letter in un-
stable equilibrium and is in marked contrast with the line
form of the Roman R just above it.

Sometimes the stems of the extreme style ate reduced
to#.

ART. ij. MODIFIhl) PROPORTIONS.

The modern Roman and the Gothic letters, whose con-
struction was given on Plates I, II and III. all had that rela-

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

tion between width and height which was designated as
the normal one in Art. 2 ; that is, the height was 6 units
for the exterior width of H of 5 units. The Roman and
French Old Styles, given on Plates VI and VII, also have the
normal proportion, the height being 9 units and the width
of the H 7 units. The same unit of measure was em-
ployed for the Gothic as for the modern Roman, as the
former is constructed with stems varying up to one unit in
width, and as the resulting measurements are easily derived
from those of the Roman they are readily remembered.

If the same unit of one-fifth of the width of H had been
employed for the Roman Old Style, the measurements ob-
tained would have differed from most of those of the modern
Roman by quantities that seem entirely arbitrary and could
not be remembered so easily as those given on Plate VI
(See Art. n).

Although it may seem at first that a large number of
measurements have already been recorded on the plate re-
ferred to, it will be found that their use in practice soon fixes
them in mind, so that only occasional reference to the plate
may be required.

In order to illustrate the effect of changes in the height
and in the width of stem, the following values have been
employed in constructing the letters on Plates IV, X and

XI : On Plate IV the height is 7 units and the stems ft unit
wide throughout; on Plates X and XI the values used are
given in the table below:

PLATE X.

Height.

Stem.

% Throttle Lever.

Height.

Stem.

i ,00 Palace Car.

J'z Elevation.

^ Sway Bracing.

PLATE XI.

i Precise Levels.

Yi Chamber of Com-

|ijf Suburban Divisions

merce.

y 2 Distributing Cham-

^ Ceiling of the Nortn

ber.

Hall, etc.

Y 2 Magnetic Declina-

1 1 A

% Elevation of West

tion.

Front, etc.

i Jetty Channel.

^ Screened Nook, etc.

'/^) Monument.

^ Golden Gate, etc.

% Switch Stand.

Yz Detail of Main Fire-

i Asphalt Pavement.

place.

^ Helical Springs.

%i Cornice and Para-

y 2 Three-throw

pet, etc.

Switch.

Y 2 End of Giand Hall,

Yz Direct-coupled

etc.

Generator.

i The University Li-

i Potsdam Sandstone

brary

The scales employed were, as a rule, not the same for the
different lines containing letters of the same style, but were

ART. i ;

MODIFIED PROPORTIONS.

selecied M. ax to make the lines consisting of one or more
K ni approximately given lengths.

It will be noticed th:it a:i incre.'si- of height from <> to 7
while the stem remains unchanged reduces the apparent
>Aeii:ht slightly, but when the stem is reduced to % at the
.same time, as, for example, in "Suburban Division" and

Helical Springs," on Plate X, the difference between them
and the letters jus! above them is considerably magnified.

In the title. "Detail of Main Fireplace," on plate XI, in
which the height is 6. it is observed that the reduction of
the stems to J4 has increased the relative widths of interior
spaces too much, and thereby marred the general appear-
ance. If, therefore, a very light and airy letter is desired,
the height should be increased to at least 7 to counteract the
effect of a decided diminution in the weight of the stem.
In the second line below it the height was increased to 8,
and the result is satisfactory. The spurs in both of these
lines were shortened a little to indicate the result, but this is
seen to be a departure which is not to be recommended.
As the inferior appearance in the former example was
mainly in the letters with vertical spurs, E, F, L and T, it
should be noticed that this condition is not produced by re-
ducing the stem of the Roman Old Style where the spurs
are inclined, as is shown in the first line of the plate.

Increasing the height of letters necessarily changes the
curvature of lines of contour and the positions of centers
from those shown on the plates giving the construction. In
B. for instance, the inner edge of each curved stem was
drawn on Plate I as an arc of a circle, but if the height is in-
creased the circle should gradually move outward until it
becomes the outer edge of the stem. When the circle be-
comes the center line of the stem its value on the drawing is

to serve only as a convenient guide to the curves of the
edges which are drawn freehand. Fig. 18 gives this letter
for heights of s, 6, 7, 8. 9 and 10.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

On the same figure the letter O is given for different
heights, the outlines being three centered ovals approxi-
mating very closely to the ellipse. The centers are located
by measurement and the letters may be rapidly constructed
in practice by laying off these measurements with the re-
quired scale. These centers are also useful in constructing
C, G and CL, and when several of them are to be made at
one time to the same scale, the most convenient plan is to
locate the centers on a piece of tracing paper, on which are
also marked the tangents at the sides, so that the tracing may
be quickly placed in position and the centers transferred
with a needle point. Of course such construction with the
aid of the dividers is only needed when the letters are large
and better results are required than can be readily secured
by a freehand sketch of the outlines. The interior edge is
always drawn freehand with its vertical tangents as guides.

The Gothic O should have a curvature about equal to
the center line of the Roman form. For a height of 8, if the
outer arcs are drawn at the top and bottom with a radius of
2j4, the sides can easily be sketched in tangent to these arcs
and to the vertical construction lines. For a height of icthe
radius should be 2|4. Sometimes the upper and lower parts
are made semi-circles, united by vertical straight sides, but
this form does not present as pleasing an appearance as if

the sides are slightly curved. The curved portions of B may
be semi circles for all heights usually employed in practice.

The other curved letters, both Roman and Gothic, are
treated in a similar manner to B and O, and the remaining
letters of the alphabet are constructed with the usual guide
lines and the scale in exactly the same way as was indicated
in Arts, 4-10, irrespective of their height

Extended letters are but seldom required, while condensed
letters are needed frequently in practice. The use of the
former is obviated by reducing the number of lines and using
condensed letters if necessary for the increased number of
words in any line. The round letters are not so easily con-
structed when extended as when condensed.

Broad face or full face letters should be sparingly employed
in the drafting rooms of engineers and architects. The requi-
site prominence can usually be secured by using letters of
larger dimensions and of the normal weight. Inexperienced
draftsmen have a tendency to make the lettering too promi-
nent rather than the opposite. When heavy letters are de-
sired, however, the only change necessary is to mark off the
width of stem of 1% or i% units, leaving the outer construc-
tion lines unchanged.

Other examples of proportions differing from the normal
will be referred to in subsequent articles.

ART. 1 1.

MODIFIED STYLES.

ART. 14. MODIFIED STYLES.

In tfi-ner.il it is better tor tin- draftsmen to employ but lew
styles and to acquire sp t vi;il facility in tlieir construction
rather than to attempt to use m.mv styles, must of which
luve not been thoroughly mastered. While ornamental let-
ters have been excluded from consideration in this volume,
.ind while a lew well-selected styles will satisfy nearly it not
quite all of the requirements of the drafting-office, it is inter-
esting to observe how the appearance of the Roman and
(iothic style alone may be modilied by slight changes in de-
tails and thus secure a sufficient variety for gene'al iue.

Several of these modifications are illustrated on Plates X
and XL One of these consists in making the le'ters open
instead of solid, either shaded or unshaded. The latter style,
by its very light weitfht, allows a larger size to be employed
than if the letters were filled in solid. Sometimes the sliad-
d 'lie on the lelt side for variety, but this is riot desir-
able, as it is contrary to the established conventions in shad-
ing drawings of all kinds.

The letters in "Palace Car" are known as the finished
Roman, which may also be used in its open form. Those
in "Monument" may be regarded as derived from the lin-
islu-d Roman by using the Elzevir serifs. This style is easily

constructed and looks so well that it deserves more frequent
use. If all the parts were made I the same weight this style
might be considered as a modification of the Gothic, such as
is shown in the second line of Plate XI and on Plate XV.

If the serife and spurs have straight lines substituted for
the curves at their sides, so as to give the appearance of a
slight enlargement of the stems at those points, the result is
shown in the third line of Plate XL and also in the lower
alphabet on Plate XXIII. Plate XXXIX illustrates the effect
when the lettering on it is exclusively of this style. This
pl.re is reproduced by the permission of B. H. TICKNOR from
the Monograph on Trinity Church, Boston, by < .. 1). GAM-
BKII.I. and H. H. RICHARDSON, published in 1888. By coin-
pa: ing the second and third with the seventh line of Plate
XI the difference between these modilied styles and the
Gothic may be observed.

The results produced by raising the intermediate horizontal
lines and of placing prominent serifs 0:1 light-line letters are
shown on Plate XVIII, which will be described more fully
in Art. 46. Some modifications in general form are intro-
duced on Plate XIX.

The inlluence of all the elements mentioned above on vari-
ous styles may be studied further by examining Plates XLI-
XLVIII, which were printed from type.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS.

CHAP. I.

ART. is. LARGE AND SMALL CAPITALS.

The combination of large and small capitals is used to
some extent in one-line titles or in sub-titles, and also occa-
sionally in principal titles. This arrangement aids in dis-
tinguishing the relative importance of words and also serves
to introduce an element of variety into the grouping of let-
ters. This is especially desirable where a title in a single
line contains a large number of words. On Plate XI the
second line would be improved in appearance by capitalizing
the words CEILING, NORTH HALL, and PARTHENON and thereby
emphasizing them.

In printing type the small capitals generally have nearly or
quite the same height as the short "lower-case " letters, cor-
responding in size to the large capitals, but on a drawing a
better appearance is secured by making them range from
three-fourths to four-fifths of the height of the capitals. In
the following line

U. S. STANDARD THREAD
U. S. Standard Thread

they have nearly the height of the lower-case letters, which
are two-thirds as high as the capitals, while on Plate X, in

the last line but one, in each column, their height is three-
fourths of that of the capitals. The difference in height
necessarily determines the difference in weight of the stems,
since the two classes have the same general proportion, and
this difference may become too decided to look well. On
Plate XIV is a- title containing large capitals and the effect of
this feature may be observed by comparing it with similar
titles without it.

ART. 16. THE CONSTRUCTION OF NUMERALS.

The guide lines and measurements of the Arabic Numerals
of the Modern Roman style are shown in the first line of
Plate VIII. The unit is the same as that employed for the
Roman capitals on Plate I, and the height is also the same,
or six units. The form of the numerals is such that the best
appearance is secured by making their average width some-
what less than that of the capital letters. Six of the
numerals have the same width of 4^. The width of 4 is
the same as 7, if the hair-line projection on its right is ex-
cluded, and the same as o (zero) if it is included. The
upper width of 6 is a little narrower than the lower width
of 9, in conformity to the principle stated in Art. 5. The in-
termediate hair lines of 6 and 9 are slightly above the J/i and
y>, guide lines for the same reason. One edge of the bulbs

ART.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF NUMERALS.

of 2, ) and =i is ;i little ;ibove the same guide- lines, but those
ot n .md M bear .1 corresponding relation to a % and # guide
line.

Altmi.iU- I. inns of 2 and 7 an- given at the ends of the
tirst line, and they are more easily constructed than the
others. A corresponding form of the Italic 3 is also shown
in the middle of the second line, as well as still another
modification of the upper parts of jj and 7 to correspond to
that of =.. and which relieves the appearance of excessive
weight in the preceding form. Both edges of the upper
st dke are curved. An alternate form of 4 is shown on
Plates XXII and XXXII.

The widths of the numerals in the Gothic stvle are tin-
same as in the Roman, with the exception of I and o. If
the body was made a unit thick, as is sometimes done, then
i remains the same. The o would be improved by slightly
decreasing the radii of the curves and substituting tangent
curves at the sides for the straight lines.

The lower extremities of 5 and <j do not extend up to the
ft guide line but to about the ,'4 line, the same as in 9. The
fractions % and ^ are drawn to such a scale as to make the
total height about so per cent, greater than that of the in-
\. Another form of the i, which is not quite so easily
drawn as the one given on this plate, is shown on Plate XVI.

In the Roman Old Style the 6 and 8 are limited by the same
extreme guide lines as the capitals. It will be noticed that
the height of I. 2 and o is two-thirds of this, and that the
scale employed is exactly the same as that used for the capi-
tals, thus making the .miide line marked i just a little higher
than the coi responding one ol the small or lower-case letters.
To make this height the same as the small letters would
necessitate using another scale and would also make the
ascending and descending numerals seem excessively long.

The smaller numerals on the plate are drawn to exactlv
one-half the scale as the others of the corresponding style
whose construction is given.

THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

CHAP. II.

CHAP. II. THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

ART. 17. THE THEORY OF SPACING.

In the formation of words the letters composing them
must not only h;ive the proper relative proportions, as de-
scribed in the preceding chapter, but must be so disposed
that the effect shall be as nearly uniform as practicable.
Stated negatively, the letters in one part of a word should
notappear crowded as compared with those in another part.

The spacing of letters which fulfils the preceding condi-
tion of general uniformity may, however, vary from a fixed
standard between the indefinite limits which may be char-
acterized as close or narrow spacing and open or wide
spacing. Lines i, 2 and 3, on Plate IX, show three different
spacings for the word Elevation. For most purposes the
spacing should not pass beyond these limits.

The proper spacing of letters is equally as important as
the good execution of letters having well designed forms.
If the process of spacing be improperly carried out, it will
destroy the pleasing effect of the most carefully constructed

letters. So far as the author has been able to learn, hardly
anything has been written on this subject, and the few par-
agraphs which he has found fail to outline any definite
methods for securing the desired results. The closer the letters
are placed the more difficult it becomes to adjust them, and
beyond a certain limit the legibility is impaired in the same
proportion. If it be necessary lo reduce the length of a
word without diminishing its prominence, it is better to con-
dense the letters and maintain a medium spacing, as deter-
mined by the new scale, rather than to use the normal pro-
portion with a very narrow spacing. On the other hand, if
the spacing is wider than that shown in line 3, both the con-
tinuity and individuality of the words is impaired, unless
there are no adjacent lines. Wide spacing of letters usually
implies also the correspondingly wide spacing of words and
lines. To lengthen a word without increasing its promi-
nence it is therefore desirable to employ extended letters with
a relatively medium spacing. In mapping and in some other

AKT. 1 8.

STANDARD OF REFHRENCE.

exceptional cases, where names are i ilten considerably length-
ciu-il. t> show thiit they apply to iven ;uv:is or distances,
thi- pioblem ni spacing is much simpler and will In- treated
in Art. 4*.

ART. 1 8. STANDARD < >F Kl II Rl NCE.

The space between each p.iir ol totters may bo reduced to
.in oi|iv;ilont space contained between two par.illol stems,
.uul it the relative psitio:i ol the letters is properly adjusted
the coiiespoiiding equivalent spaces should theoretic. illy all
be equal. Close and ope.i sp.uing may then be readily com-
pared by means oi the corresponding equivalent spaces. As
to what constitutes equivalence will bo considered later. A
vertical stem is taken as the side ol'tho equivalent space, be-
cause about one-halt ol' the letters have at least <>no side com-
posed ol such an element.

Since the letter H was used as a standard of reference in
determining the widths of other letters it may also be em-
plo\ed in finding a standard for spacing. In Art. 4 the clear
distance between the stems of the modern Roman H was
tixod at ; units, but as tlie stems are connected by a hori-
zontal hair line the apparent ellect of the interior space of H
is the same as that of the clear space between two uncon-
iu i ted stems somewhat less than 3 units apart. Let this

space be taken as >'_ units. This width will make the in-
terior and exterior spaces limited by (he top and bottom guidi
lines approximately uniform and gives a pleasiim appearance
to the letters as grouped in words. This spacing of 2%
units, which will be adopted as suitable lor general use, is
shown in line 2 ol Plate IX, while the spacing in line i is 2
units, and that in line 7 is ; units.
For the purpose of making a more extended comparison

between the equivalent spaces they will be given for the let-
teiing on Plates X and XI. which includes capitals and small
letters of various styles. On Plate X. taking the two col-
umns of subtitles in succession, the equivalent spaces au-

5. 2.4. 1. 2%, 2ft, }. (4), 2%, 2%. 2tf, 3. 2%, 2ft, ?

2Yi and }. and on Plate XI they are (4). ;. ;. . ;'... ? , ,
) and 3.

The proportions of the letters on these plates were given
in Art. i ?. As the scale used in the Roman Old Style is ^-7
of that of the others the space of 4 for that style equals about
3 in terms ol the other scales.

ART. IQ. PRINCIPLES Ol ; SPACING.

The apparent ellect ol Roman letters depends both on
their form and on the weight ol the parts composing them.
Because the serifs are constructed alter the mam parts arc

THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

CHAP. II.

placed in position, and since their influence on the general
appearance of the letter is subsidiary, it is preferable to make
the necessary measurements for spacing independent of them,
so far as possible.

It seems reasonable that the effect of the masses of white
(the color of the paper) between the black letters must be
approximately equalized in spacing, and therefore the area
of these spaces becomes one prominent element in the
theory of spacing. The word "Elevation," in line ^ of
Plate IX, is constructed by making the areas between the
letters the same throughout. The areas are equal to those
of rectangles as high as the letters and 3 units wide, since
this average width caused the word to have the same length
as that in line 2. The outline of the space between E and V
is regarded as extending along horizontal lines from the tips
of the upper and lower spurs of E to its central spur, and
similarly the spaces adjacent to L and T are considered as
limited by horizontal lines drawn from the tips of the spurs
to the stems.

As these areas have such different forms it is seen that the
adjacent parts of some letters in line 5 are thereby brought
so much closer together than others as to produce the ap-
pearance of unequal distribution. This indicates that the
clear distance between letters is another element which must

be taken into account. Line 6 shows the same word when
its letters are arranged for equal clear distances, before their
serifs are drawn. The clear distance is two units, and it is
found to give the same length to the word as that in line 5.

It is now observed that the spaces between L and E and
between E and V in line 6 are apparently too large. Both
of these, but especially the former one, seemed to be too
small in line > By combining the method of equal areas
with that of equal distances, giving the same weight to
each, a result is obtained which is shown in line 4. A uni-
form appearance is now approximately secured for the spaces
except that between O and the letters adjacent to it. Since
O is without projecting serifs, and does not have its greatest
width directly opposite to the serifs of the adjacent letters,
it needs to be brought a little nearer to them.

Since N has only hair lines on its sides, and appears to be
farther from O than I is on its other side, it indicates that the
weight of exterior lines is a third factor which enters into
spacing. Line 2 shows the effect of making these modifi-
cations. The equivalent space in line 4 is the average of
those in lines 5 and 6, or 2% units, and is therefore the same
as that in line 2, with which its spacing may be compared
directly.

In line 7 there is a group of letters showing the combina-

ART. IQ.

PRINCIPLES OF SPACING.

lion ol tin vowel A with consonants having their greatest

width either ;it the top or .it the middle. In this line thev

.ire arranged l>y equal areas on a basis ol an equivalent space

; units wide, in line 8 by equal clear distances (exclusive ol

he serifs) on a basis of 2 units, and in line 9 by averaging

!he .ire.is and distances. It will be obseived lhat thelen.nths

>l the three lines are very ne.irly equal, and this result will

MI general be obtained by those combinations of letters

\ Inch occur in practice. The h-tters in the right half of line

N appear to be somewhat crowded as compared with the

k'lt h ill, and, as the clear distances have here lobe measured

obliquely, it is gratifying to notice that the disposition of the

letters by equal areas in line 7 seems to be jbout as uniform

.is that in line q.

The combination of the vowel O with consonants whose
greatest width is either at the top or bottom is shown in line
1 1 and a part of line 10, the spacing being due to averaging
areas and clear distances. The distances between the verti-
cal construction lines limiting the widths of the letters (as
given on Plate I), when spaced by areas and by clear dis-
i.uices. differ by only 1-16 unit in two-thirds of the inter-
vals, while the maximum difference (between O and X) is
only s-i6, which is hardly appreciable. This group of let-
ters could therefore also be spaced by means of areas alone.

The combinations LT, LV and LY are spaced by the aver-
age of areas and clear distances, and it is seen that the ad-
jacent vertical construction lines on the sides of L and T and
of L and Y pass each other, the spaces being ->4unit. This
relation gives the appearance of crowding in a spacing of
2)4 units and may be obviated by limiting the minimum
space to zero. It is liable to occur in but few combinations.
The effect of applying such a rule is shown in the word
Altar, in the last line of the plate.

When two such letters as L and A come together, as in
"Claims," in the same line, the application of the preceding
principles may not allow sufficient room lor the addition of the
adjacent serif on A. If not, the letters must be moved apart
so as to admit the serif which may, if desired, be slightly ie-
duced in size. When F or T comes next to V, W or Y there
will be sufficient room for equivalent spaces of 2)4 units, but
not for those 2 units wide.

ART. 20. METHODS OF SPACING.

To facilitate spacing by equal areas alone, it is necessary
to determine the position, on each side of every letter, of a
veitical line which shall enclose an area within the extreme
horizontal guide lines equal to that of the contour of that side.
These lines, which may be called spacing guides, should be

THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

CHAP. II.

Fig. 19.

located with reference to the vertical construction lines defin-
ing the width of the letters before the serifs are added.
Thus for the letter A, the outer construction
lines a and d in Fig. 19 are 5^ units apart, and
as the sloping hair line on the left has a horizon-
tal component of 2}^ units, the vertical guide b
enclosing the same area as the hair line is i%
units from the left-hand construction fine a, while
the guides on the right side is \Y^ units from
the corresponding construction line d. In the
cases of C and G it is assumed that an interior square
whose side is the clear opening of the letter belongs to
the adjacent exterior space. In E, F, J, L, R, S, T and Z
horizontals are drawn from the points of the projecting spurs
or curves of the letters to the stems, except in the cases of E
and F, where they meet the middle spurs before reaching
the stems, and these horizontals are regarded as a part of the
contour line.

The relative position of the guides is given in the second
and third columns of the following table. In the fourth and
fifth columns are given the adjusted values for those letters
whose adjacent spaces are sometimes determined without
considering the clear distance, the modification being due to
the weight of the side of the letter, and, in some cases, to

the absence of serifs projecting beyond the construction
lines. For instance, the guides are moved inward on O, as
that letter has no projections. This is also shown to be
necessary, as it is seen that the spaces in line 1 1 of Plate IX
are all somewhat larger than those in line 7, with the ex-
ception of those next to C, which letter has nearly the same
form as the O.

The guides crossing the hair lines of A, U, V and W arc-
changed yb, as the hair lines are fighter in weight than the
stems, the change being small, since the difference in in-
clination between the hair lines and stems of A, V and W
partly compensates for the difference in weight. As L has
no projections on its right side, its guides should be moved
about J4 toward the left, but since the side of its spur lies so
far beyond the guide, the latter ought, on that account alone,
to be moved about % toward the right. In the cases of F
and T, which do not project so far, these double changes
may be regarded as neutralizing each other. The width of
6 units for R is to be decidedly preferred, but if that of ~-, l />
is used, the corresponding distance of the spacing guide is
Y, as entered in the table on opposite page in parentheses.

In columns 6 and 7 of the table are given distances which
are obtained by taking one-half of those in columns 2 and 3
(which implies taking the mean of areas and clear distances),

ART. 20.

METHODS OF SPACING.

!. . -

Ctrrr.u.

(Joldn for Kqud

AdjOiM Ooldo for
EqwU Arau.

\-l . r

i: .v
' iriru.

l.rt

I.I'

1
u

i-:

1
u

1
o

t
It

Ij)

(rjl II

U
V

C
7

i U

li li

J
z

provided the- neatest points are directly opposite. ;ind modi-
fying the result by taking into account the etleit <>l differ-
ence in weight and of the addition of the projecting parts.
Fi example, the guides on the left of M and on both sides
of N are moved inward \i unit on account of weight. The
effei t of this change is shown in the spacing of the second
N in " Longitudinal " in line 12 of Plate IX, .nui in the space
between I and M in "Claims" in the bottom line. The
spacing in "Code" and " Longitudinal " shows that the

guides obtained by averaging area and clear distance must

be modified by about '4 for the <) and for the rounded sides
of C. G and I). On comparing the fust space in "(lode"
with that in "Gold," it is apparent that the guides in C
should be changed on account of weight. The line in I. is
shifted ^ in order to avoid reducing the clear space too
much, as indicated by a study of the space between I. and
t in " hlevation " (line 4). 1. and 1) in " Gold." and 1. and O
in " Longitudinal." The examples referred to in the modi-
fications made for the columns 4 to 7 inclusive indicate
sufficiently the principles which have been applied in detei-
mining all of the quantities in these columns.

A variation of one-eighth unit is not readily observed, and
in practice the width of the equivalent spaces would not
need to be determined closer than to quarter units. All

THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

CHAP. II.

variations are less noticeable in wide than in narrow spacing.
To distinguish the two sets of spacing guides from each
other they are referred to in the headings in the table as
guides for equal areas and guides for the average of areas
and distances. The values of the adjustments were tested
by a considerable number of examples, but it is quite possi-
ble that the final values may in some cases be slightly mod-
ified as the result of more extended use.

ART. 21. RULES FOR SPACING.

As a result of these observations the following rules for
the spacing of modern Roman capitals may be given :

First. All spaces between the adjacent parts of letters
whose greatest projections are at the same height, are de-
termined by subtracting from 2>^ units the sum of the cor-
responding distances in columns 6 and 7 of the table (Art. 20).

Second. Where the right side of C, E, G, K, S or X,
or the left side of Z whose upper width is but a little less
than the lower is placed opposite to a letter whose widest
projection is at the top, the preceding rule is applied, and
the resulting space is reduced by one-half the difference
between the upper and lower width.

Third. All spaces between the adjacent parts of letters
whose greatest projections are at different heights are de-

termined by subtracting from 3 units the corresponding dis-
tances in columns 4 and 5.

Fourth. If in any case the difference thus obtained is less
than zero it shall be increased to zero.

Fifth. The minimum allowable space must admit the
serifs, if any, without quite touching. The serifs may be
slightly shortened, if necessary.

Sixth. If the spacing is to be on a basis differing by not
more than l / 2 unit from an equivalent space of 2)2 units, the
above rules will still apply after making the corresponding
changes in the quantities "2^" and "9" in the first and
third rules, respectively. In narrower spacing the influence
of clear distances would predominate, while in wider
spacing that of areas would be the greater.

The application of these rules to the word "Elevation"
gives the following result: The first space is 2^-^2=2; the
second, 2^-74= i?s; the third, 2^-^-^-^=!^; the
fourth, )-I^-I/S = J/B; the fifth, 3-i}^-iX'=o: the sixth,
2K~^='M; the seventh, 2^-^ = 2, and the eighth,
2 l /2-^- J /i = i^. It is seen that this spacing differs but little
from that given in line 2 of the plate, and which was done
before the above rules were deduced. The value of the
rules may be tested by inspecting those plates which were
drawn by the author, as indicated in the preface.

ART. 22.

SPACING ROMAN SMALL.

ART. 22. SPACING ROMAN SMALL.

As k, o, s, v, w, x and z have the same forms as the cor-
responding capitals they will be spaced in the same manner.
The y will be tre.ited like v, unless it should come after j or
g, which occurs so seldom that no general provision for it
needs to be made; e is so nearly like the o that it may be
.-paced like it, and the rounded sides of c, b, d, p and q are
also treated like the o. When f precedes i its bulb displaces
the dot, and when it precedes I its bulb is omitted and the
curved hair line is joined to the cap of the I.

The measurements corresponding to those of columns 6
and 7 in the table in Art. 20 are # for the left of a, i for the right
of a, % for the right of c, i for the right of r, i for the right of t.
-Yt for the left of t, but which is used only when it follows
r. If the construction lines limiting the lower width of g
are used, the measurements are y^ on the left and Vi on the
right, the latter being reduced in case the cap of an ad-
jacent letter should come nearer to the bulb than a half unit.

The spacing guides on the right of h, n and m, and on
the left of u, are so close to the sides of the letters that the
distance may usually be regarded as zero. On large letters
the distance may be taken at #.

The only instances in which the method of adjusted areas
would need to be employed is in combinations of e or o with

ihf'n

k, v, w, x, y and /. and that can be avoided bylfcjnjz the
measurements in columns 6 and 7 of the table ivter..
subtracting an additional half u^tff/v

For examples in spacing this si late X, If'

lent space being 3 for " Precise Levels" and " Potsdai
stone," and 2 l /t for "Suburban Divisions."

When a capital precedes a small leh^r the spa^e between
them is generally made the same as if borKwe/Csmall letters.
l'i the case of overhanging letters the spacing" guides for areas
will naturally be employed.

ART. 23. SPACING STUMP WRITING.

This style is easily spaced, since nearly one-half of the let-
ters have curved hair lines projecting beyond their bodies
on the right. Whenever these hair lines are adjacent to the
stem of a letter whose edge coincides with the outer con-
struction line at the # guide line, as in h, I, i, t, f, k, b, n.
m, u or v, a space of one-half unit may be left between them,
and when they are adjacent to curved stems, as in q, g, d, o,
c, e and a, the hair lines should end on the left construction
line of those letters and thus be approximately distant a hall
unit from the stem itself. In other words, the spaces be-
tween the adjacent construction lines in these two cast
one-half and zero respectively. When other elements of the

THE SPACING OF LETTERS.

CHAP. II.

letters are adjacent to each olher they should be spaced like
the Roman small on the basis of an equivalent space of 2 l /z.
Where a letter like a is derived from d, instead of the corre-
sponding a in Roman small, it must be treated like d in spacing.
Examples are shown on Plates X and XVII. The equiva-
lent space in "Helical Springs," however, is 3, which is seen
to be too wide for the spaces not determined by the project-
ing hair lines. It is better to make it always 2^/2, as is done
in Title 2 on Plate XVII. In very small letters the hair lines
are frequently made to touch the succeeding letters instead
of leaving a small space as indicated above. See Plates
XXVII and XXIX.

ART. 24. SPACING GOTHIC LETTERS.

The spacing of the Gothic letters is simplified by the ab-
sence of serifs and spurs. The measurements should not
differ materially from those of the Roman style, and in
the interest of convenience may be fixed so as to be appli-
cable to all weights of limbs, ranging from a hair line to one
unit in width.

The final test of the measurements given in the following
table lies in a careful inspection of the results secured by
their use in practice. It is quite likely that some improve-
ments may be made after a more extended application than

the author has been able to make. Several examples are
given on Plate X, the equivalent space being 3 for " Eleva-
tion " and 2^2 for "Sway Bracing," "Switch Stand " and
"Throttle Lever/' Plate XVI is also a good illustration, the
equivalent space being 2^2 units throughout.

TABLE FOR SPACING GOTHIC CAPITALS.

Adjusted Guides
of Equal Areas.

Adjusted Guides
ot the Average
of Areas and
Distances.

Adjusted Guides
of Kqtial A ) ;i -.

Adjusted Guides
of thi- Average
of Areas and

1 M-tanccs.

Left.

Right.

Left.

Right.

Left.

Right.

Lett.

Right.

B
C

f
\

The Gothic small are to be treated in a similar manner to
the Roman small, as described in Art. 22, by comparing
them with their own capitals. The left spacing guide of a

ART. i

WORD SPACING.

and the right guide of r ;iiv placed in the same positions as
for the Rom. m small. The right guide of g is, however,
moved # farther to the left, as the upper appendage does
not project over so far as the corresponding bulb in the
Roman style. Those in s may be changed to *6 instead of
#, as in the corresponding capital, while c is treated like
the capital to which it is similar.

In spacing f and t it is more convenient to measure from
the stem than to draw construction lines through ihe ends
of the cross Kir. The guide lines on both sides are \' 2 unit
from the stem. When f precedes i the dot is not omitted
as in the Roman.

Four sub-titles are shown on Plate X, two vertical and
two inclined, the equivalent spaces being z}4, 3, 2% and
2# respectively. Other examples of spacing Gothic small
are given on Plates XVI and XVII.

ART. as. WORD SPACING.

The equivalent spaces between the words in lines 2 to 6
"ii the left of Plate X ate ~] 1 /,, 9, 9, 9 and 8*4, and those in
the lines on the right are 7, 8, 7^, 10, 9, 8J4, -j l /t and 8 re-
-pectively. The corresponding spaces on Plate XIV and in
the left half of Plate XVII are 8, while those on Plate XVI
are 7 units. A comparison of these spaces leads to the con-

clusion that all of them are of ample width, and several
might be reduced somewhat to advantage. For capitals a
space of 7 or 7^ units is sufficient, and for small letters it
need not be more than a unit wider. For an equivalent
space of 2*/t between letters an approximate rule might be
given to make the space between words about three times
that between the letters. Any increase in the latter would
mak.- an -qual or slightly larger increase in the former.

Ii. me.isuring these spaces the method of equal areas
would doubtless be the more accurate, but .is so laige.i per-
centage of the spacing is done by averaging areas and clear
distances it is more convenient to apply the same method
here, and it will be sufficiently close for all practical pur-
poses.

The space between words separated by a comma may In-
increased about one or one and one-half units, while the
space following the end of a sentence should be about
double the usual space between words.

In general, words should only be separated far cnmrgh to
cause them to stand out distinctly for easy recognition in
reading. Legibility also requires the distance between the
lines to be greater than that between the words in the same
line.

THE SPACING OF LETTERS. CHAP. il.

ART 26 TABLE FOR SPACING. Roman or French Old Style. In preparing one for the Hair-

A table for spacing Roman and Gothic letters, arranged line Antique on Plate V the clear distance must be measured

like tne following, on!, single sheet of paper, has been found not between the adjacent vertical construction lines, but

tc The so convenient that it is inserted here. A similar one between the ends of the serifs, since the serifs are as prom-
should be prepared by the student who wishes to use the

HUMAN CAPITALS.

GOTHIC

CAPITALS.

II v the modi-
fied average of

A B C D E F

H I

E F

area* and dis-

. . K MM M H K

H i

tances.

J K L M N

Q H J

M K H M MM HH

MM 1 1H

S T U V W X

z S

W X

MM KK M KK KK MK

MM MK

1 '

',',

KM HK

By modified
areas only on a

A B C D F G

F G

basis of a space

1K1M H MI K 1M K

2 K*

I'l' 1

IK HH

mil larger

than the above.

I' T U V W

Y Z p

V W

< MK 1M1H MM 1K1M 1M1H

IMIM

IKIH ii

, '4'4

''"' ' '

''4 m,

I'l 1'.

ROMAN SMALL.

GOTHIC SMALL.

a b c e Tg* r

C f

r s

MI MM MK MM i

HH H)

Norm: The remaining letter* have the same spacing guides as capitals of the same form.
When a round side is adjacent to the right i<le <if * or either idc "f r, w, x,far t, subtract

NOTE

: The n

maining letters have the Mime spacing guide* i
the same form.

ift capitals of

an additional half unit from the ipace instead ( using the method of

area*.

See text, \

TITLES.

CHAP, III,

CHAP. III. TITLES.

ART. 27. MAIN TITLES.

Every separate drawing which is worth making and pre-
serving should have a title as a means of convenient iden-
tification while in use and of reference when filed away.
Even a rough sketch which may be used only for a few days
should have a brief title marked on it if it be but in ordinary
script. The draftsman who made a given map or plan may
remember it for some time without such an aid, but other
persons must often handle it, and in an office where there
are many other drawings in constant use it is necessary to
have all of them marked so that any one may know what
tney are.

The amount of labor which is expended in making a title
should be proportioned to the cost of the drawing and to
the use to which it is to be put. Drawings of an important
project which are to be shown to men who are expected to
furnish financial means for its execution, il they can be favor-
ably impressed, are usually given more elaborate titles than

those which are made either before or during 'the progress
of construction for the use of the office arid the shops, or of
the contractor.

Some drawings, like the standard office maps of a large
working mine or of a city, are assumed to be in continued
use for many years and, therefore, merit more care in their
construction, including the titles, than others of a similar type
which are provided for merely temporary purposes.

ART. 28. CONTENTS OF THE MAIN TITLE.

The main title of a drawing or sketch of any object snouid
contain all the facts which it is essential for any one to know
who will have occasion to study or refer to the same, not
only at the time it is made but at any subsequent period.

The first item usually refers to the kind of drawing, speci-
fying whether it is a sketch map, plan, elevation, section or
profile; modifying terms being frequently employed in con-
nection with all of these expressions. For instance, a man

ART. 28.

CONTENTS OF THE MAIN TITLE.

in. iv In- designated :is an index map, a contour map, a
topographical map, a hvdrographic map or u railroad map;
tin- plan may be a general plan or a detail plan, or of the
first, filth or twenty-third floor of a building; the elevation
in. iv Iv a liont. rear <>r side elevation, an l:ast, West, North
ith elevation, or a sectional elevation, while the sec-
tion or piolil mav be longitudinal or transverse. If the
plan, elevatioi., section, etc. or any combination of them,
are all on the same sheet then these terms are omitted from
the general title and placed as sub-titles under the corre-
sponding parts of the drawing.

The second item consists of the name or designation of
the object represent -d, and may include its more prominent
part, occupying a single line, together with subordinate
teiim, which are placed in uiie or more subsequent lines.
This portion of the title should be as specific as possible,
but expiessed as biielly as mav be consistent with this char-
acter.

The third item relates to the party for whom the work
was done, and may be a private person or firm, a corpora-
tion or a government. Sometimes this part of the title pre-
cedes the item which was stated above as generally being
the first one, examples of this arrangement being shown in
the titles on Plates XIV and XI.VI.

The fourth item gives the name of the person, firm or de-
partment that made the design or executed the work, or
h.id responsible charge of the same. If the work is exe-
cuted by contract the name of the contractors usually d.K s
not appear, unless the drawing refers to a report relating to
the progress of the work, and is used in determining the
p.ivments of the same. The draftsman's name should ap-
pear somewhere on the sheet, but usually not in the title.
Whenever the name of a place is not implied in the state-
ment of the data in any of the three preceding items, and is
essential as a matter of information, it must be inserted
separately.

The fifth item gives the date. The date may refer to
time when the survey was made for the map or when '
design was completed or approved, or the period dun.*
which the construction was carried on, whose progress aiui
results are shown. The date when the drawing is finished
or published is but seldom inserted in the title, but is gen-
erally marked elsewhere on the sheet, as will be indicated in
Art. 36.

The sixth item states what scale was employed in making
thediawing This should never be omitted in the case of
any drawing made by means of a scale or copied from an-
other drawing so constructed.

TITLES.

CHAP. III.

In many cases another item forms a part of the title, and
consists of one or more notes of explanation or reference.
If the data in the fifth item would otherwise require too
much space, it is transferred to this place where only small
letters are used. If subsequent additions or changes are
made, references to them with proper dates would naturally
be added to these notes.

Titles relating to a variety of subjects are given on Plates
XIV-XVIII, XXXI, XXXVI, XLVI and XLVII. The student
might profitably make a compilation of the subject matter
of a number of titles, test them by the statements made in
this article, and determine whether any essential fact was
omitted when the purpose is considered for which each of the
corresponding drawings was made. The first item may, in
the case of a map, for example, be regarded as not essen-
tial, since the character of the drawing is supposed to be
evident to any one who may consult it.

The historical and legal value of many a map, chart or
other drawing has been materially reduced by the lack of
sufficient information in its title, and the loss of money
thereby involved in single instances would have paid for a
large number of good titles. The importance of this subject
demands careful attention in deciding what facts are really
essential in any case, and therefore to be stated in the title.

ART. 29. ONE- LINE TITLES OR SUB-TITLES.

Frequently a series of plates may have the same general
title, while each one in the set has its own special title,
which may be arranged in a single line. Sometimes the
main title occupies either the whole or a part of the first
plate, while the special titles for each sheet occupy a line
inside of the lower border. At other times a general head-
ing, consisting of a condensed statement of the subject in
the main title, is also placed on each sheet, in which case it
occupies a place just outside of the upper border.

The height of the letters in the general heading may range
from about i^ to 2^ per cent, of the smaller dimension of
the border and those in the special title may be from two-
thirds to seven-eighths of this height. The corresponding
average values may be taken at 2 per cent, for the former
and three-fourths for the latter ratio. The height of sub-
titles located on various parts of thr> sheet must be less yet,
if also in capitals, or they may be put in small letters. These
values are given only as a general guide to the student,
whose tendency is often to make the titles too large.

On Plate XI are given a few examples of such titles. The
equivalent space between the letters should generally be 3
units, but sometimes may be increased to 3^, and, in ex-
ceptional cases, to 4 units. The wide spacing aids in re-

ART. 30

POSITION OF MAIN TITLE.

ducincr the weight. The spacing used on Plate XI was
given in Art. 18.

ART. *.. 1-oSITION OF MAIN TITLE.

When consulting a drawing which lies upon the table the
must patur.il place to look lor th- principal title is at the tup
of the sheet, preferably at the right or in the middle. If it is
infend-.'d to hang on the wall every part of its title ought to
be legible from the most favorable position at which the ob-
server could conveniently stand on the floor. If the title is
necessarily small it should be nearly at the height of the eye
when the chart is properly hung. In large maps this tes;
would bring the title into its lower part. For conveniently
finding a sheet in a drawer by means of its title it must be
placed at the bottom. The filing of drawings will be re-
ferred to again in Art. jfc.

It is important, however, that the relation of the title to
the drawing as a whole should be such as to make a good
appearance. Sometimes the form of the drawing is such
that the open spaces practically fix its position independent
of any other consideration. The principal title should always
l-e inside of the border but if it may be reduced to a single
line and there is no convenient place for it inside, u may

then be placed at the top of the sheet just outside of the
borde..

Long profiles usually have no border, and when kept in
the form of rolls ought to have a title at each end so as to be
readily accessible without regard to the direction in which
it is rolled up. Where the roll is narrow the titles are placed
beyond the ends of the drawing. If, however, the profiles
are kept folded in book form one title will answer lor each
book.

When the drawing consists of several parts whose relation
O.T the sheet is not determined by other considerations, they
may be so arranged as to allow the place of the title to satisfy
one or more of the preceding conditions.

ART. 11. PROPORTIONING A TITLb.

The form of the available space for the title frequently de-
termines the approximate relation between its height and
width. If not, then the contents of the title, when divided
into lines, will indicate whether a wide or narrow form (as
compared with its height) is preferable.

On Plate XII is given an outline plan of a title which con-
tains seventeen lines besides the group of eighteen lines of
references, at the bottom, to the ;>uthoritjes used in preparing

TITLES.

CHAP. Dl.

the map. its subject-matter, divided and numbered to cor-
respond with the lines on the plate, is as follows :

The object represented is specified in lines 2 to 10 in-
clusive, the last two containing statements showing the limi-
tations of the map as well as its prominent features. The
well-known name of the Commission given in line 12 im-
plies that the map was made for the United States Govern-
ment, and the names of those under whose direction and by
whom the various surveys, which furnish the necessary data,
were made, as well as the names of those connected with
the office reduction and mapping, together with the corre-
sponding dates, are all given in the list of authorities at the
bottom of the title. Every essenti.il item of information
specified in Art. 28 is given in this title.

The area of the rectangles shows approximately the rela-
tive importance of the different lines as determined by the
draftsman, EDWARD MOLITOK. It is said "approximately,"
because the weight and spacing of the letters (which are not

shown) are other factors affecting the prominence of the
lines. All the letters in the title are open and shaded except
those in lines 9, 10 and from 14 to the end, which are soiid.
It will be noticed that no two successive lines have the same
length, and that if a curve were freely drawn through the ex-
tremities of the lines, excepting a few of the short ones lying
between much longer lines, its form would be a pleasing
one.

The measurements marked on the plate are those of the
original expressed in millimeters. The border of the map
is 9' 11" high and / 9- wide, or 5.023 by 1.143 meters.
The height of the largest letters (in line 4) is 2/^ per cent,
of the smaller dimension of the map border. It will be no-
ticed that the distances between the lines are not all equal.
The influence of a very short line like 7 is made to separate
6 and 8, not quite 45 per cent, more than ihe distance be-
tween 8 and 9, which are both long lines, while the more
prominent lines 2 and 4 are separated less than 25 per cent.
more than i and 2.

After these preliminary observations of a published title
let it now be required to design one for a plate in this book
as an illustration, and containing the following statement,
which is used by permission of the Engineer Department
named:

ART.

PROPORTIONING A TITLE.

M;ip of tin- T.itv of Washington, showing the
Vaiieties oi .ven ents laid and under con-

tr.ict on J:m. i, iSgs. To accompany the Annual
Report of the I ngineer Department, District of
Columbia.

First, let I he contents be sep.ir:ited into lines and their rela-
tive prominence determined. As the plate is wider than its
height the lines must be made lunger than otherwise.
"Otv nf Washington " is easily selected as the most prom-
inent line, and will be made longer and higher than any
other. " Varieties of Street Pavement " comes next in order,
.md although it contains 60 per cent, more letters, the line
should be a little shorter and not so high as "City of Wash-
H." " Laid and under contract on Jan. i, 1895," will
I- k best if all in one line and having still more letters than
the preceding one. as well as tor the sake of variety, is
pteterably put in small or lower-case letters. "I- ngineer
Department " and "District of Columbia " should both be
prominent, although less so than " Varieties of Street Pave-
ment." and if placed in one line will make it too long to give
a good form to the title as a whole. Again, the most prom-
inent line should not be too near the top. and both of these
conditions may be avoided by placing "District of Colum-
bia " at the top of the title and "Engineer Department " in

a line by itself. "To accompany the Annual Report " ought
to be a little shorter than " l-.ngineer Department," if it can
be done without making the letters too diminutive. Small
letters are the best for this line also, and should be consider-
ably less in size than those in the line preceding it. As the
number of lines must be kept down, "Map of the " will In-
put in one line, and having but tew letters, will be consider-
ably shorter than "District of Columbia." To secure more
prominent e. it may be given slightly higher letters. Since
"Showing the" lies between the most important lines and
forms a subordinate part of the principal subject, it will be
better to put it in capitals than small letters. The arrange-
ment of lines and of capitals and small letters is shown mi
Plate XIV.

As an aid in considering these points the title was written
in script and disposed in lines which were later moJitied as
indicated above. At the same time a sketch wasmadeona
sheet of common flat paper like the plan on Plate XII by be-
ginning at the top and estimating the si/e and spacing of the
rectangles by eye. It was found that the height was a little
too large and that either the height of letters in the spacing
of lines or both must be somewhat reduced.

If the form of the area for the title were square the same
division into lines would answer, provided the letters were

4 8

TITLES.

CHAP. III.

relatively more condensed and the lines spaced a little farther
apart. If on the other hand the area were high and narrow,
like that of the title on Plate XII, it would necessitate a new
division of lines, perhaps as follows:

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

MAP OF

THF. CITY OF

WASHINGTON

showing

THE VARIETIES OF

STRF.ET PAVEMENTS

Laid and under contract on

Jan. i, 1895.

To accompany

the Annual Report of the

ENGINEER DEPARTMENT.

Scale of feet.

In this form most of the letters would have the normal
proportion, while a few of them would probably be extended.
The comparative lengths of lines will not be discussed for
this form of title and no attempt was made to show any
relative difference in the above copy by spacing the type.

A small title with sturdy letters usually looks better than

a larger one with letters approaching the hair-line type.
While on one hand a title should not by its prominence
overshadow the drawing itself, it is necessary to avoid the
other extreme of making the title so small as to require
searching for it. The latter condition is liable to occur in a
large drawing of details where the plate is rather crowded
with lines, letters and figures, and the open space left for the
title is rather small.

ART. 32. DETERMINING THE LETTERING SCALES.

In order to complete the proportioning of the title which
was begun in the preceding article and to lay out the plan
to scale, it is necessary to determine the scale to be used in
locating the letters in every one of the lines. Let the scale
be obtained for line } of the title (Plate XIV). The letters
are written on a slip of paper as shown in Fig. 20. Their
widths are marked beneath the letters

CITY OF

WASHINGTON

10X 5X 5 5 1 I* b% i>X 6 4>

X l\ I* 3 2X 2tf 1 1* 2
Fig. 20.

and below the spaces between these numbers are placed the
distances between the adjacent construction lines of the
letters obtained by means of the table in Art. 26. As the

ART. u

DETERMINING THE l.K ITHRING SCAI 1 S.

capitals ('. aiul W are one-third higher than the other letters
their measurement* aie increased in the same ratio, thus re-
ducing all the letters to the same scale. The equivalent
spaces are } lor the letters .uul s for the words. The former
is adopted instead of 2% to aid in extending the length of
the line. The space between W and A was modified ft
unit, since W extends smne distance above the upper guide
line <>l A. Adding these quantities their sum is found to be
I2?#. It ' s Ilow required to find the length of 10 units, as
this is a good length for a scale. This can be done con-
veniently with the aid of the diagram on Plate XIII. A strip
of paper is taken and the length of the line as given by the
sketch (not shown), referred to in the last article, marked on
it. As the diagram on the left of the plate extends only to
60 units, the above quantity may be divided by three and
when the strip is in position with the left end on the zero
line and the right at 41 # the length of 3 units is marked off.
This length represents 3x^=9 units of the required scale, and
by using the diagram on the right of the plate all the divisions
of the scale may be marked with a well-pointed pencil.

A draftsman can make his own diagram of much larger
M/e and number of divisions on a sheet of cardboard to be
kept in a convenient position for reference. The form oi an
isosceles triangle would be better than the one given on

the plate, which was accommodated to the available space.

With this scale the height of the letter can be marked as a
full number of units. It was found that (i units gave a height
which was nearly equal to that on the sketch, and was
adopted.

In the same manner the scales are found and the heights.
expressed in units, marked on the sketch. It it is found that
the heights show more variation than is desirable, they are
modified and after this is done the plan can be drawn to
scale on the plate with each line in its final position. The
heights of the letters in the various lines (Plate XIV) aie 7.
7- b. 6, 7, 7, 7, 6. 7 and 6, respectively. At first a few were
maiked 8, but were changed afterward.

Sometimes slight changes in length may be secured In
changing the equivalent space, remembering, howexer, th.M
a wide space does not look well when used with letters that
are considerably condensed. As a rule the only equivalent
spaces to be employed in principal titles are either 2 l /j or 3
units, or both. The spaces used in this tille are 3 except in
the lirst and fifth lines, where they were reduced to 2J4 units.

The stems are one unit wide except in "City of Wash-
ington," where the width is # of a unit.

The length of a line expressed in the units of its scale ma v
be very closely approximated in the following manner for

TITLES.

CHAP. III.

capital letters: Count all the letters, and to the number add
y* for each W and subtract Y-Z for each I ; add ys for every
large capital (when used in connection with small capitals)
and % for each space between words, and multiply the sum
by the equivalent space when increased by 4. Applying
this rule to the same line as before (Fig. 20) its length is
found to be

This rule has been applied to a large number of examples,
and the difference is very rarely as large as five or six units.
If the number of letters in a line is small and the scale large,
it is best to use the method first given when the length is
also fixed, but in most cases the approximate method is suffi-
ciently close.

For small letters, either Roman or Gothic, the same
method may be applied, counting m and w as i/4, and i
and 1 as %, adding )4 for each capital and i for spaces be-
tween words. If the same multiplier is used as for capitals,
the result varies a little more from the actual measurement
in some cases, and usually falls below. The difference,
however, rarely exceeds five per cent, in lines of reasonable
length.

Let the student compute the lengths of the other lines on

Plate XIV, as well as some on other plates, and satisfy him-
self as to its utility.

When small letters are employed, reduce the width of the
capital at the beginning of any word to the scale of the
small letters by multiplying it by ion-6, and remember the
statement in Art. 22 to make the space between the capital
and small letter the same as if both letters were small.

ART. 33. THE CONSTRUCTION COMPLETED.

The next step is to take each line of the title in regular
order, and, by means of its scale, to lay off the measure-
ments, like those in Fig. 20, on the upper edge of a strip of
paper, which is then placed with this edge adjacent to the
lower side of the rectangle that the line is to occupy, and
properly centered. The straight edge being placed upon
the lower part of the paper strip to hold it in position, the
construction lines of the letters are readily drawn in the
rectangle by means of a small triangle. Line 4 of Plate
XII shows the construction lines for the letters in " Missis-
sippi River" in position, and the scale is shown on the left
directly below the edge. As a guard against mistakes in
laying off the measurements, it is well to write the letters
under the corresponding positions as each word is com-
pleted.

ART.

THE CONSTRUCTION COMPI.I 1 1 I).

The center of a line consisting of one or more w >rds is not
generally midway between the outer coiistiuction lines ol
tin- extreme letters. Init midway between their outer spacing
guides.

The iuvess.it v intermedi.ite guide lines are then drawn
and the letters completed in pencil in the usu.il wav.

The middle diagram t>n Plate XIII is convenient in locating
any two of the lour principal guide lines for the small letters
when the other two are given. When the scale is quite
small oiilv these lour lines need to be used.

It may appear as it the method of construction which has
been outlined in this chapter would require more time than
the customary plan ol sketching the letteis in pencil and
erasing and shifting them until a satisfactory result is secured.
I his. however, is not the case, but after the draftsman
has thoioughly fixed the method in mind by several applica-
tions in practice he can save considerable time over that
which would be needed by the usual plan to secuie even
approximately as good a result. It is possible by this method
to construct the entire title in pencil without the erasure <r
change in position of a single letter, as indeed was the case
in nearly all of the titles prepared for this text-book.

ART. ; 4 . HXAMI'U-S OF TITLES.

From the preceding description of the design of a title, it
is observed that a number of conditions have to be met and
harmonized in order to secure an excellent elfect. Not only
must the individual letters be well proportioned and spaced,
but the lines ol the title must be carefully dimensioned, and
spaced both with reference to their own contents as well as
their relation to the adjacent lines and to the form of the title
as a whole. If the tnle contains a small amount ol matter
and the available space for ii is comparatively large, the lines
and letters may be given a wider or more open spacing than
when the conditions .lie reversed. Another important ele-
ment affecting the appearance is the style ol letter employed.
As the influence ol these several elements can best 1 esiudied
from illustrations, a number of examples besides the one
alieady given are inserted in the work and shown on Plates
XV-XVIII, XXXI, XXXVI, Xl.VI and XLVII.

Plate XV contains a title taken by permission from a map
whose border measures =,' s high by 4' =," wide, which,
together with another map of the same si/e on " Drainage"
and a portfolio of plates exhibiting preliminary cons'; uction
plans and details, was prepared to accompany a report on the

TITLES.

CHAP. III.

Sewerapre of Ithaca, N. Y. These drawings were executed
in commendable style and the lettering throughout was in
harmony with the character of the other work. In redraw-
ing the general form and style of the title, the dimensions
and spacing of the lines were practically unchanged, but the
letters were proportioned and spaced in accordance with the
principles given in Chapters I and II. The height of the letters
in the upper part of the title are 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 6 and 6; in
the middle 6, 7, 7, 6, 6 and 7 ; and the word " Explanations "
also 7 units. The equivalent spaces are 2^/z units except in
the line " City of Ithaca," where they are 3 units wide. No
large capitals are used in the upper part, but in three of the
lines the letters in the connecting words are two-thirds as
high as those in the remaining more prominent terms. The
title as here published is one-third of the scale of the original.
Other features are apparent without further explanation.

The title on Plate XVI is taken from the detail drawing of
the design of a connecting rod whose border is about 25 by
39 inches, and which was kindly furnished by Mr. Leavitt
for this purpose. The title was treated in about the same
manner as the preceding one, that is, the general style and
arrangements are substantially the same as on the original, but
the letters were constructed and spaced in accordance with
the methods given in Arts. 9 and 24. It thus serves the

double purpose of indicating the style of title which is con-
sidered as especially appropriate for drawings of a similar
character to that from which this is taken and as a more ex-
tensive illustration of the effect of constructing, spacing and
grouping Gothic letters than was furnished in preceding
plates. The title is the same size as the original. The fol-
.lowing lines have a height of 6 units: "Cambridge Water
Works," "Cylinders, etc.," Scale and Date, E. D. LEAVITT,
Mechanical Engineer, and 3294. The rest have a height of
7 units. The stems are mainly y-z, but a few are 24, as in
"Connecting Rod," while the equivalent spaces are 2%
units throughout.

The attention of the student is called to the fact that only
a single style of letter is used in each of the titles on Plates
XIV and XVI, and by comparing them with each other the
individuality of each style may be observed. By comparing
them with titles, which may be found in any considerable
collection of drawings or of some books on lettering, in
which a number of styles (sometimes equal to the number
of lines) are combined in a single title, it may be apparent
how much of the general effect is due to the elements of
simplicity and unity.

Title No. i on Plate XVII is designed to show the ap-
pearance when Roman small letters are used exclusively,

ART. 34.

I \ AMl'l is OF TITLES.

and No. 2 of one in which stump writing is employed
throughout. In the former the heights of letters are
7, 6, 6, 6, 7 and 7 and in the Litter 7, 6, 6, 6 and 7. In the

lornu-r tlu- equivalent spaces an- .ill 2'j units wide and in
the latter the spacing conforms to that recommended in
Art. 2}. Both i>l these titles of diagrams accompanied re-
poit> and thetvt<>re do not contain all the items usually found-
in a principal title.

Titles Nos. ) and 4 on the same plate were constiucted
to illustrate the use of the inclined and upright Gothic letters
drawn tree-hand, alter the outer construction lines for the
letters of ;he principal lines were located as explained in
Art. ;2. " Allegheny Vallev Railroad " is q units, "Illinois
Central K. K. Depot, etc.." isSJi units and "Diagram" is s
units high, the remaining lines being <> and 7 units in height.
The originals of these titles were used on regular working
drawings. These plates serve also to indicate the differ-
ence between the general effect of upright and inclined let-
I'he slope of the letters in No. 2 is a base of 3, while
that in No. 3 is a base of 2 '4 to a height of 8 units.

On Plate XVIII are shown several titles and parts of titles
for architectural drawings. The styles of letters employed
will be described more fully in Art. 46. It will be noticed,
however, that most of the letters are of the " high-waistcd "

type and all of them were drawn free-hand after the hori-
zontal guide lines and the vertical spacing guides in pencil
were located. In the second title, on the left of the plate,
the heights of the letters are i , 9, 8, 8, 9, 6 and 7, respect-
ively, a variety of heights that would not be allowable in
some styles of letters.

If, on account of lack of space, or for any other reason, it
is decided to use small letters in the principal line of a title,
then they should be employed throughout.

Plate XXVIII contains an admirable title, taken from a
chart prepared at one of the offices of the United States 1 n-
gineer Corps. Although the title is a little too large to look
well within the narrow limits of the plates adopted for this
book, it was decided to reproduce it the same sixe as in Un-
published chart. It affords an excellent study in propor-
tioning a title, and was made bv the same draftsman who
designed Plate XXIV and whose plan of a title was given
on Plate XII. The letters are formed with great care and
the small letters are round and open in shape, thus giving
them a high degree of legibility. The letters in " Lake Su-
perior" have a height of 6% units and stems <>..x unit in
width.

It would seem as if it were desirable to adopt some
standard lettering for all the published charts of the Corps

TITLES.

CHAP. HI.

of Engineers, as in the other departments mentioned in Arts.
43 and 44. At present the annual report of the Chief of
Engineers shows, perhaps, a greater variety of styles on its
plates than any other similar publication.

ART. 35. EXPLANATORY NOTES.

Notes of explanation, of reference to authorities, or relat-
ing to conventional signs, are needed on many drawings and
especially on maps. Frequently such memoranda form the
lower part of the title, but sometimes additional notes,
which relate only to certain parts of the drawing, are placed
adjacent to them. The addition of minor explanations in
connection with the drawing of some details not only puts
them in the most serviceable position, but obviates the ne-
cessity for incorporating the same in the specifications.

The title on Plate XV has some notes of explanation, and
that on Plate XXXVI gives a list of the authorities used in
preparing the map. On Plate XIX are given a number of
notes, most of which relate to details. The first two in the
second column are taken from the same drawing of a design
as the title on Plate XVI.

Plate XIX gives a variety of styles of letters which are
suitable for this purpose, but it is important to remember
that the style selected should always harmonize with that of

the letters employed in the title and sub-titles, and, at the
same time, be appropriate to the subject represented and
the general character of the drawing.

Stump writing is most generally employed for notes in
titles containing Roman letters. Roman small would be
preferable, but their construction requires so much more
labor as rarely to justify their use. The style employed in
the fifth note of the second column is similar to the Roman
small, but as its strokes are of uniform thickness it is more
easily and quickly constructed. The inclined Gothic small
letters permit a more rapid execution than any other style
and are especially appropriate for engineers' working draw-
ings. Slight differences of inclination are not apparent.
With some practice the corresponding upright letters, which
have a more dignified appearance, can be made with nearly
the same facility. As the scale is so small, all the lettering
in notes must be done free-hand. The legibility of such
memoranda is of the utmost importance, and, therefore,
only slight modifications of form are allowable for the sake
of artistic display.

By inspecting this plate some minor modifications in the
styles of several letters will be noticed, which are introduced
either for the sake of variety or for facilitating construction.
Special attention is called to the last line on the plate.

ART. 36.

AUXILIARIES TO Till Is

Additional notes printed from type are given on Plate
XI. VIII to show their comparative appearance when differ-
ent Stvles of type are employed.

ART. #. AUXILIARII S TO Hills.

Drawings should usually contain the following informa-
tion in addition to the regular titles: the name of the drafts-
man, the date of completion, th number I" the plate, if
there are more than one belonging to the same project, and
a releii tu i- or index number.

It is frequently of considerable imp. nance to know who
executed the drawing, but in addition to the information
conveyed to others bv the name of the draftsman, it is to
him an incentive to the exercise of increased care and skill,
and intensities his recognition of responsibility. In well
mixed ollices. where many detail drawings of designs
are made, it is customary to record on each sheet the name,
or its initials, of the one who checked the dimensions and
other details shown on the drawing, as well as that of tl.e
draftsman A convenient place for the name is on the in-
side of the lower right-hand corner of the border, and it
should always be drawn to a very small scale, say about
the size of the explanatory notes in the title.

The date of the completion of the drawing may be placed

in the corresponding position at the lower lelt-l-.;,nd corner.

Long established usage has put the number of the plate
or chart on the outside of the upper right-hand corner of
the border. Sometimes the number of a sheet is made a
part of the title, but it is questionable whether this is as con-
venient, since titles cannot generally be placed in the same
relative position. If, as frequently occurs with student
drawings, the plates rel.iting to any given course have their
own separate titles, which are not necessarily related to
each other as the special and general titles referred to in Ait.
2Q. the subject of the course may be appropriately placed
near the upper left-hand corner of the border and adjacent
to it on the upper side. The si/e of the letters employed
depends on the size of the plate and the relative width of
the margin outside of the bolder.

When the drawings in an office are indexed by means of
cards or some other form of index, each drawing is given a
number denoting its location in the filing cases, and this is
placed as a reference number on the card containing its title,
together with any other description which may be consid-
ered necessary. This index number may be placed inside
of the border at its lower left-hand corner, near the date
which is already located there. The date is naturally in
very small letters and numerals, while the index number is

TITLES.

CHAP. 111.

much more prominent. The number 3294 on PUite XVI
was that of the drawing whose title is there given. The
letters H. M. G. within the C directly above this number,
give the initials of the draftsman who checked the tracing,
and a similar record occurs also on the original drawing.

Different standards relating to these minor and yet impor-
tant details of a drawing are adopted in different offices, but
their treatment as given above is that which in the main
accords with the best practice.

On Plate XXXIV are shown the data placed at the corners
of the charts of the U. S. Geological Survey, since these
have no place for a title, and it is necessary that the name
of the Survey and of the authorities and the date should be
given briefly and grouped in convenient form. The sheets
are named instead of numbered, as sheets are issued simul-
taneously for different sections of the country, while those
for adjoining territory are often published some years apart.

ART. )-]. SCALES.

As stated in Art. 28, the scale which is used in construc-
tion should always be mentioned on the drawing. A por-
tion of the scale is preferably drawn on the sheet in addi-
tion to the usual statement of the relation which its graph-
ical representation bears to the object. This is usually done

in all carefully finished drawings. It is a convenience to
be able to use the dividers in connection with it in finding
distances or lengths when the draftsman's scale may not be
available.

When a drawing is to be used also for reproduction by
any of the usual photo-mechanical processes, only the
drawing of the scale should be placed on it if, as is usually
the case, the reproduction is to be of a different size from
the original; or, the desired ratio of the scale of the repro-
duction may be marked on a separate piece of paper and
temporarily attached to the sheet while it is being photo-
graphed.

A number of scales of different sizes and styles are shown
on Plate XX. Sometimes as many as three scales are drawn
on a single chart, as, for example, the scales of feet, of
meters and of statute miles. Three scales are shown on
Plate XXXI. Scales of feet and meters, or of miles and kilo-
meters, should be more frequently associated than is now
customary. Another of the examples given is for a sheet
containing both the general plan and details, each having its
own scale. Sometimes a plan and sections of different
scales may be on the same sheet. In the case of a profile
constructed without the use of profile paper, it is necessary
to state both the vertical and horizontal scales. There may

ART. 38.

MERIDIANS

ilcs of moments, of shears. and of lengths, all on the
same sheet. The unit employed in each case should always
be cle.irly slated. The large scale near the middle of the
plate is of a kind which is placed on the sheet in order that
ii may expand and contract with the paper under the in-
llueiue of atmospheric changes while the map is being
plotted.

XV.'tkinu drawings generally contain only the statement
<.f the scale, as all the essential measurements are plainly
in. nked on them, and as the necess.irv scales are supposed
to be at hand if others of minor consequence are desired by
the workmen.

The style of lettering used for these purposes should nat-
urally be in harmony with that on the remainder of the
drawing. Practice is, however, not uniform in regard to
:der in which the terms should be given, that is.
whether it is better to use "8 feet to an inch," or "ft inch
to the foot. " It would seem to be a good rule always to
Mate first the number which appears on the draftsman's
scale. When the engineer's scale is employed, which con-
tains those marked 10 to 60 or 20 to 80, it would be more
convenient to say " 400 feet to an inch " than " One inch to
400 feet"; while with the scales graduated in units of >4,
i. i- #. ft, &, * .' 4 inches, the statement would be

" ; inches to the foot." rather than "One foot to ? inches."
Other scales and their lettering may be seen by referring to
thi- plates which contain titles.

The lowest scale on Plate XX was prepared for use in
measuring the height of letters when expressed in decimil-
limeters.

ART. ?8. MHRIDIANS.

As meridians, or north points, are usually treated in con-
nection with lettering, several examples suitable for maps of
different grades of finish are given on Plate XXI. The one
in the center is the latest form adopted by the U. S.
and Geodetic Survey, and gives both the variation of the
magnetic meridian and ils annual change. Surveyors might
readily supplement the record of the declination of the needle,
as obtained by observation, with that of the annual change.
by consulting the Isogonic Chart of the United States, pub-
lished by the Coast Survey, if they do not possess the infor-
mation from regular observations made for this purpose in
the immediate vicinity.

The larger meridian at the right is slightly modified from
a form which is more than a century old. The full arrow
or ornamental head is always placed on the true north and
south line, while the half arrow or head is placed on the
magnetic meridian. Ornamentation on meridians mav easily

TITLES.

CHAP. III.

become excessive. Their character should conform to the
general style of the lettering.

ART. 39. BORDERS.

The border on engineering and architectural drawings
should usually be plain and simple. A single line, not too
heavy, may answer the purpose. A better appearance is se-
cured by placing a light line on either side of a heavy one,
or in a large map by putting a light line on both sides of it.
Topographic charts, on which the latitude and longitude are
marked on the border, have one or more light lines placed
some distance inside of the others. The borders on Plate XX1J
were copied from the standards of the U. S. Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, the scales of the maps to which they are re-
spectively applied being indicated. On Patent Office draw-
ings the border is required to consist of a single line precisely
one inch from the edge of the sheet, which is to measure ex-

actly 10 by 15 inches. As a border adds so much to the
finish of a drawing it is surprising why it is so often omitted.
The time required to place a single line border on a sheet is
very small and improves the appearance of even the poorest
quality of a working drawing.

The margin outside of the border should be proportioned
to the size of the sheet, the finer classes of drawings having
the more liberal margins. The increasing tendency to re-
duce all the drawings made in an office to a limited number
of standard sizes is to be highly commended for various
reasons.

Occasionally a drawing on a sheet of limited size may
have such a form that in order to preserve an adequate mar-
gin it is necessary to break the border. Several plates in
this book show such an arrangement. This plan, when
adopted, is regarded as less objectionable than to reduce
the scale.

ART. 40.

THb ROMAN.

CHAP. IV. THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

ART. 40. THE ROMAN.

This style is certainly the handsomest .nul most dignified
which c:in be used on any engineering drawings, but as the
stvle of the letters should be in harmony with the character
..I the drawing it is limited in its application to those which
belong to a higher grade in execution th.m what are called
working drawings. In general the cost of constructing
the letters is expected to be less th.m that of the graphic.il
representation to which they apply, but sometimes the let-
tering is necessarily the larger part of the drawing.

While no specific rules can be given lor selecting the
styles (.("lettering, it may aid the student, or young drafts-
man who is without much experience in this respect, to in-
dicate some of the leading classes of drawings to which
they are appropriate. Those in which the Roman form is
properly used are the following: First, the class which in-
cludes the various topographic, hydrographic and other
maps made by the engineering departments of the National

or State governments; second, the principal maps only of
cities and towns, since most of the small maps prepared in
a city engineer's office are rather classed with working
drawings in this respect; third, fine topographical maps
of any description or si/e. whether made for public <>r private
corporations; fourth, parts of the plans of important projects,
like river and harbor improvements, water supply, sewei
age, fortifications, etc.

All that is stated above in reference to the Roman applies
both to the modern and old styles. The latter is more ar-
tistic and is therefore regarded as especially appropriate ti.
architectural drawings where the artistic element prevails.
Roman Old Style deserves also more frequent use on line
engineering drawings than is now the practice.

These letters are a portion of the heritage received from
the Romans, and the extensive use of the capitals in inscrip-
tions not merely influenced the design but served to perpet-
uate their form with but very little modification to the present

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

time. Not only are they especially appropriate for inscrip-
tions on a large scale on monumental structures, but also for
the smaller ones on tablets of metal as well as stone. An
illustration of the use of " French Old Style " Roman capitals.
on a metal tablet, is given on Plate XL, which is inserted
through the kindness of the Yale and Towne Manufacturing
Company, from whose descriptive pamphlet on Yale Stylo-
Chiselry it is taken. The attention of the student is called
to the fact that all punctuation is omitted in the design.
Some of the titles given on preceding plates were likewise
designed without any punctuation. The arrangement of
the title answers, in a large measure, the sume purpose as
the punctuation, and there will usually be no danger of mis-
.ipprehension due to its entire omission.

On modern architectural drawings V is often substituted
for U, and I forj, in imitation of lettering made before that
period of the middle ages when U and J were developed as
additional letters by modifying V and I respectively. Such
a practice, at present, diminishes the legibility and may be
regarded as an affectation.

ART. 41. STUMP WRITING.

This style is frequently employed in place of the Roman
small for the lettering of the details of plans, profiles and

sections, and on which titles and sub-titles are in Roman,
because it is more easily constructed in free-hand when the
scale is small. On city maps the names of streets are
sometimes put in this style instead of Roman capitals. Its
use for notes of reference or explanation has already been
alluded to in Art. 35 and is illustrated on Plates XV, XIX,
XXVII-XXXI and XLVIII. A title containing this style ex-
clusively is shown on Plate XVII.

ART. 42. THE GOTHIC.

This is the most useful style for any engineer, whatever
may be his specialty. It can be used, together with the
Roman, on many of the finest drawings of finished struct-
ures or of new projects or designs. It is especially appro-
priate to the great mass of working drawings in various de-
grees of finish, from the roughest sketch to the careful de-
sign completely dimensioned, including plans, elevations,
sections and profiles; to preliminary and progress maps and
reports in the form of diagrams; to shop drawings of
structural work of all kinds, whether of buildings, machin-
ery or any other structures. No lettering is so well adapted
for the streets of cities and towns as the Gothic capitals,
using the upright form in all cases except for the cheapest
outline maps, where the streets are a subordinate feature.

ART. 42.

THE GOTHIC

Where the lettering must In- very small and the letters are
contjned between the street lines greater legibility is secured
by using the small letters instead of the capitals, the height
o| the short letters Iviiiu' increased to 70 or 7^ per cent, of
that ot the capitals.

The great number of plates issued annually to accompany
the reports of various municipal officers, the bureaus or de-
partments of the State and National governments, the trans-
actions of engineering societies, as well as the advertising
hand-books and catalogues of manufacturing establishments,
might be materially improved if this style of letters were
more uniformly employed, to the exclusion of various types
< if ' fancy letters. " The <> 5 plates in the Washington Bridge,
by W. R. MUTTON, are a good illustration of the use of the
upright and inclined Gothic capitals throughout. The gen-
eral appearance of neatness in these plates is largely due to
the style of the letters, which are open in shape and legible.
These letters are called block letters on the sheet of standard
lettering of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (see Plate
XXIX), where they are used in words and names connected
with navigation. The style more generally known as block
letters may be seen in the first line of Fig. 21 in Art. 47.

Its legibility and rapid free-hand construction render it
also appropriate to sheets containing tables of various kiiuK

which are to be reproduced by blue printing for office use.

ART. 41. STANDARDS <>l : TIIH U. S. COAST AND
GEODETIC SURVEY.

The standard lettering of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey is given on Plates XXVI to XXIX inclusive,
and the student should carefully study the rules and ex-
planations which accompany the letters. It will be noticed
that but few styles are adopted, the Roman and Italic being
the principal ones, while the Gothic (designated "block"
on Plate XXIX) is more limited in its use. The stump writ-
ing is substituted for the Italic small.

The distinction which is made in using upright letters in
names and words connected with land, and inclined letters
in those connected with water, should be more generally
observed by city engineers and by those in private practice
than is now the custom.

On comparing the Roman capitals with those on Plate I
it is found that the widths of most of the letters are the
same, and that the corresponding height is 6% units, while
the stem is just a little over a unit wide.

Plate XXX affords an interesting study of the comparative
appearance of different characters when reduced to the saint
height. The italics have a steeper slope than those on the

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

other plates ;ind their relative appearance should be observed.
At the right of the plate are shown the words "channel"
and "light house," of the heights of \^, 12 and 10 decimil-
limeters, when engraved in three thicknesses of limbs of %,
fe, and u, of the height respectively. The differences in
weight are of course not so apparent on lithographs as on
sheets printed directly from the engraved copper plates.

Plate XXXI gives a specimen title, and Plate XXXII is a
map of the vicinity of Coney Island, or of the entrance to
New York harbor, taken from chart No. 120, whose scale is
i : 80,000. This map shows the application of all the styles
of lettering employed by the Survey, and gives them for
islands, towns, points, beaches, villages, soundings, quar-
antine, bays, inlets, creeks, bars, shoals, character of ocean
bottom, lights, channels, buoys, and life saving stations.

Plates XXV1-XXXII are inserted in this work by the kind
permission of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey and were printed from stone by means of
lithographic transfers taken from the engraved plates.

ART. 44. STANDARDS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.

Plate XXXIII contains the classification of the lettering
adopted by the United States Geological Survey for its maps.

The heights of the letters given vary from 60 to 5 decimilli-
meters, but when applied are varied according to the relative
importance of the features and the size of the chart.

The thickness of the stems is one-seventh of the height
and the inclination of the Italics has a base of 3 to a height
of 8. The relative exterior widths and height of the Roman
capitals are the same as those of the U. S. Coast Survey with
but very few slight variations. The greatest difference in
form is perhaps seen on comparing the O in the two stand-
ards. When referred to the unit adopted in Art. 4, the
height of the capitals is 6 l /2 units and the width of stem a
little less than a unit. These letters are therefore somewhat
lighter than those of the Coast Survey.

On Plate XXXIV the lettering on boundary lines and on
the margins of plates are illustrated, and a series of guide
lines are drawn to serve as a gauge, the heights being ex-
pressed in decimillimeters.

A part of the Anthracite sheet of Colorado is shown on
Plate XXXV and contains a good selection of the standard
styles of lettering as applied to the maps issued by the sur-
vey. The scale is i :62,5OO. This is one of the specimens
published in 1893 in the Manual of Topographic Methods by
HENRY GANNETT, the Chief Topographer of the Survey,
and is here republished, together with the standard of letter-

ART.

LETTERING ON PATENT OFFICE DRAWINGS.

ing. In permission. Plates XXXIII-XXXV were printed from
stone by means of transfers taken from the engraved plates.

ART. 4V LETT! KINV, ON PATENT OFH< I
DRAWINGS

The Patent Office requires the plainest lettering on ;ill
drawings submitted ;is .1 part of the application of patent-.
The following paragraph relating to letters of reference is
taken liom " Rules of Practice in the United Slates Patent
i Ml ice. Revised April i, i<Xq2. " a pamphlet which should
be in the hands of every one who has occasion to prepare
such drawings.

The different views should be consecutively numbered. Letters and figures
of reference must be carefully formed. They should, if possible, measure at
least one-eighth of an inch in height, so that they may beat reduction t<> one-
twenty-fourth of an inch and they may be much larger when there is sni-
IK lent room. They must be so placed in the close and complex parts of
diawings as not to interfere with a thorough comprehension of the same,
.md therefore should rarely cross or mingle with the lines. When necessarily
. ed aiound a certain part, they should be placed at a little distant r,
where there is available space, and connected by short broken lines with the
p.nts to which they refer. They must never appear upon shaded surface-,
and when it is difficult to avoid this, a blank space must be left in the shading
where the letter occurs, so that it shall appear perfectly distinct and separate
from the work. If the same part of an invention appear in more than one
view of the drawing it must alway. he represented by the same character,
and the same character mu-t never be used to designate different parts

The specimen drawing which accompanies the rules is
lettered in stump writing, and this is the style recommended
by the Patent office and used by its draftsmen when they
prepare diawings for inventors.

ART. 46. LETTERING ON ARCHITECTURAL
DRAWINGS.

As a rule, the lettering on architectural drawings is some-
what lighter in weight than that on engineering drawings,
and is not so severely simple in form. Where the artistic
element enters prominently into a drawing the letters are
modified in form as well as weight so as to harmonize with
their surroundings. Most of them are drawn free-hand.

When the modern Roman is used it is either left open or
the stem is reduced to about one-half, while the height is
increased. The finished Roman is always left open. The
Roman old style is more appropriate than the modern, and
the regular width of the stem is often maintained. Either
this style, with the stem reduced to one-half, or the hair-
line Antique (see Plate XI, line 4). is well adapted for the
titles of mounted photographs of buildings.

The Roman old style is more frequently employed in a
modified than in the normal pioportion. The principal
change consists in raising the intermediate horizontal 'ines.

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

thereby producing what are termed " high-waisted " letters.
Those that in the normal proportion are just above the y*
guide line may be moved up to the 2 /z guide line, but if they
go beyond that the legibility is reduced. The height usually
ranges from 8 to 10 units, and some of the letters, like M
and W, are changed by shortening the middle limbs, as
shown on Plate XVIII, which contains a number of styles
that are suitable for architectural drawings. Modifications
in the size and form of the serifs also serve to give variety
when desired. The first title on that plate has letters of the
same general form as the normal Roman old style, but with
the limbs of a uniform width, those in the last line being YT.
and the others Y&. The Roman old style small letters make
an effective title if it is desired to confine it to a very lim-
ited area.

For working drawings the Gothic letters are used exten-
sively when modified in a similar manner, as shown in the
lower left-hand title on the same plate. This form is easily
constructed and presents a good appearance when properly
spaced. The lettering on floor plans may be in Gothic cap-
itals of the normal or modified forms, or in the correspond-
ing small letters, which are either plain or like those in the
second group of notes on Plate XIX.

The line " Design of Water Tower," shows the effect of

adding prominent serifs to letters composed of light lines
throughout. This style may be used on a composition
sketch. Another style which is especially appropriate for
such sketches is the upper one given on Plate XXIII. It
was designed by BENJAMIN S. HUBBF.LL, and is not only
unique in the general form of the letters, but also in the details
of the serifs. This letter has a considerable range of appli-
cation to other drawings than the kind specified. It will be
observed that the short letters are only one-third as high as
the ascending ones. The lower alphabet on the same plate
is similar to the printing type known as "Outing," and dif-
fers from it mainly in securing a higher degree of legibility
by lowering the intermediate horizontal lines. The serifs
consist simply in an enlargement of the ends of the limbs.

Water color sketches require very light letters approach-
ing the hair-line if in black, or they may be made heavier
and executed in some lighter color which harmonizes with
those on the sketch. Letters in neutral tint, or some other
subdued color, may also be occasionally used on one-line
titles for photographs or very light line drawings.

The letters on Plate XI are all appropriate to architectural
drawings, as is indicated by the subject matter of the titles
or sub-titles. The proportions and characteristics of these
forms were described in Arts, i ? and :/t.

ART. 47.

LETTERING ON ENGINEERING DRAWINGS.

Many of the style-; employed in practice approach very
nearly to illegibility, including even those on working draw-
Some of thi-iii are of such odd and irregular foinis,
and so utterly devoid of beauty as to raise the question why
they were ever introduced. The most desirable letters are
those composed of a tew simple parts, and whose merit
lies in the shape of their characteristic elements and not in
extra attachments or adornments.

The extension ot the limbs of letters beyond the outer

guide lines should be made sparingly, and the lonn and di-

n of seiils varied but slightly Irom the standard lorms.

ART. 47. LETTERING ON ENGINEERING DRAWINGS.

The most appropriate lettering for engineering drawings
is simple in form, comparatively tree from any attempt at
artistic display, and moderate in weight. The plain Roman
and Gothic styles are used more than any other and then
application to different kinds of drawing is described in Arts.
,ji> and 42. The merits of the Roman < )ld St\le are so de-
cided that it seems strange why it has been almost entirely
excluded from use by engineering draftsmen.

The style used in the first title on Plate XVIII may also be
commended as a useful one for fine drawings, the thickness
of the limbs being uniform. Their width may be varied

from % to Y\. It has not been customary to employ " high-
waisted " letters for this purpose, although a slight elevation
of the intermediate horizontal limbs might not be objection-
able. Where instruments are employed in the construction
it is usually an economy of time to adhere to the standard
forms and thus more quickly acquire perfect facility in the
execution.

The modifications in serifs and in the weight of stems
which have been described in the previous chapters may be
used to advantage, provided all the lettering on any sheet is
confined to a single style. The good effect of using only one
style in a title has already been noticed, but the commenda-
tion of that practice should not be construed as being en-
tirely opposed to the use of minor modifications of the same
general style.

The practice of filling up the open forms of the Roman
and Gothic letters with all sorts of incongruous designs is to
be heartily discouraged. It not only consumes a peat deal
of valuable time, but the results do more than anything ds t -
to spoil the appearance of any respectable drawing, and to
discredit the draftsman. If these supposed ornaments are
added for the sake of hiding the crude drawing of the out-
lines of the letters the expedient may be regarded as of doubt-
ful value.

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

There are ;i number of styles which have been used quite
extensively, concerning whose lack of merit an entire chap-
ter might be written, but attention will be called to only two
of them. The first is the block letter shown in the first line
of Fig. 21. This style is probably used in most cases be-
cause the outline consists of nothing but right lines. The
number of lines in the letter S, for instance, when com-
pared with the Gothic S is so great that the difference
in time required lo draw freehand curves instead of right
lines is far overbalanced. If the diagonal lines are not

BOSTON-8

~ ' 1 A D O W !

O. J-

Fig. 21.

located with special care, or if the inked line does not follow
the exact location in pencil, the fact is quite apparent. If the
diagonal lines are omitted the form becomes what is known
as the geometric letter, which is still more objectionable, be-
cause it is one of the most illegible styles, to say nothing of

the violation of the most elementary artistic principle by the
substitution of right angles for all curves.

The second style is also indicated in Fig. 21 as a shadow
cast by an imaginary object. It merely suggests letters, and
in a specimen book of one of the type foundries this style
is perhaps not inappropriately named " Hades."

ART. 48. MAP LETTERING.

An important distinction, which is extensively, but bv no
means universally, adopted is that which puts names and
words connected with land in vertical letters and those con-
nected with water in inclined letters.

The position for the various names should be so chosen
as not to leave any doubt as to what each one belongs.
Names of places are preferably put immediately to the right
of the convention which designates its location, or as near
to this as the preceding rule and the position of other
names and conventions will permit without the appearance
of crowding. They are all arranged in lines parallel to the
lower border of the drawing, with equivalent spaces of
either 2J^ or 3 units, depending upon the relative amount
of lettering. The latter is in general to be preferred.

The names of divisions, like districts, townships, coun-
ties and States, should have the letters spaced to make the

ART. 48.

MAP LETTERING.

n.imes cover the larger portion of the division, the lines
being graceful sweeping curves extending in the direction
of the greatest length and placed approximately along tin-
middle of the width. The character of the curve ought to
have the controlling influence, while "approximately" in
the above statement is given a broad interpretation. The
names of communications, like roads or canals, and those of
rivers or creeks are placed by their sides, the spaces between
letters and words being considerably increased, the latter
proportionately more than the former. If space is equally
available on both sides, the letters are placed with their
bases toward the convention. On maps of large scale the
letters are placed within the lines defining the width. A
very long stream or line of communication may have its
name repeated, if desirable, at different portions of its
length. In all cases the lettering should be arranged so as
to be read by the least possible change in the position of the
"hserver when the map lies squarely before him.

The spacing of letters when separated more than four or
five units will be sufficiently precise if their distances, cen-
ter to center, are made the same, except in the cases of I
and W, the distance next to I being reduced about 2 units,
and those next to W increased about \ l /t units.

The relative size of the letters depends upon the relative

importance of the objects themselves, while the actual size
also depends upon the scale of the map, and, to some de-
gree, upon the size of the sheet. A study of the standards
adopted by the Coast Survev relating to size, given on
Plates XXVI-XXIX, will enable the student to extend the
application of the principle involved to larger scales than
those used on the charts of the Survey.

On a pen topographical drawing, where the entire sur-
face of the map is covered by conventions, the lettering
should be done (at least in pencil) before the topographical
conventions are drawn, the lines of the latter, if as heavy as
the hair-lines of the leiurs, being stopped before reaching
them, thus leaving a narrow white margin around them to
maintain or increase their legibility. In all other cases the
lettering is constructed in pencil, either during the progress
of the rest of the drawing, or when that is completed, the
inking of the letters being the last operation except inking
the border.

As the course in tinting usually precedes the course in
lettering, students will have learned by experience, if not by
precept, that it is usually not advisable to attempt to tint
over heavy inked lines, and hence that the lettering on all
surfaces to be tinted should be inked in after the tintinc is
completed.

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

The sizes, spacing, location and character of lettering on
maps is illustrated on Plates XXIV, XXXII, XXXV, and
XXXVII, which ought to be critically examined. Plate XXIV
was designed and drawn by EDWARD MOLITOR especially for
this work and gives letters of considerable variety, both in
character and in their relation to numerous conventions of
topographic features and aids to navigation. The drawing
explains itself and requires no extended description. The
student's attention is however directed to the toning down
of the topographic signs near the letters, in order to make
the latter stand out more clearly.

The Roman is the most appropriate style of letter for fine
maps executed with the pen, as the plates just mentioned
may indicate when compared with maps in which only
other letters are used. A map of the Croton Aqueduct and
Watersheds on which upright and inclined Gothic letters are
exclusive employed was published in the Commissioners'
report of 1887. This map, although not as handsome as one
lettered in Roman, presents a good appearance and requires
less labor. In the same report and also in that of 1895 are
shown profiles and plans of various kinds lettered in the
same style. The effect of using free-hand Gothic letters on an
outline map may be seen on Plate XXV, which is reprinted,
by permission, from Sewage Disposal in the United States by

RAFTER and BAKER. The characteristic style of the lettering
will be recognized at once by all readers of the Engineering
News. From a number of maps executed in the same style
those may be selected which were published in Engineering
News, Sept. 30, 1893 (inset), and May 30, 1893.

In a city map where the names and numbers of districts
must occupy a space which is entirely covered by other de-
tails, an open letter of somewhat larger size, whose surface
is cross-sectioned with light lines, mav be used in preference
to a smaller solid letter which would obscure some of the
details.

Colored topographical maps need light letters such as the
hair line antique or Gothic, or the Roman with the stems re-
duced to YZ or a little less. Open letters without shading
may also be employed, but it is well to use them sparingly.

Where for any reason the names of some features cannot
be placed on the map in the usual way, reference numbers
or letters may be used to designate the features, the names
being given in a key or index on some other part of the sheet.

ART. 49. LETTERING TRACINGS FOR BLUE PRINTING.

The extensive use of blue prints as working drawings re-
quires certain precautions in the preparation of the tracings.
As mistakes in reading the dimensions on a blue print may

ART. 49.

LETTERING TRACINGS FOR BLUE PRINTING.

be \eiv expensive, their occurrence slioukl be reduced to a
iniiiiiiHini by insuring -is perfect legibility as possible on the
drawing.

! In- letters aiul especially the numerals should be of the
utmost simplicity in form and of uniform thickness through-
out. The (ii'lluc st\k- is therefore the most suitable. l.egi-
bihtv is improved bv making them round and open rather
than narrow and high. The instructions quoted in Art. 4=,.
with reference to mixing up letters with ilu- lines of the
drawing are also applicable here. All hair lines should In-
avoided, as they sometimes l.iil to print or at least print in-
distinctly. While the lines should be somewhat thicker
than are required on other drawings it is equally as im-
portant that only thoroughly black ink should be used. The
dimensions should be marked in characters of sufficient size
so as to be easily read when placed at a distance of several
feet Irom the workman, and this implies that the interior
spaces must not be reduced for the sake of increasing the
weight of the lines.

The construction of titles in free-hand lettering on trac-
ings may be simplified from the usual method in the follow-
ing manner: Find by the diagram the width of the average
letter in order to produce a line of the desired length; with

this width in mind, sketch the title by eye in pencil, find

the center and trace the line in its proper position.

ART. so. LETTERING FOR PHOTO-MECHANICAL
REPRODUCTION.

The photo-mechanical processes for reproducing line draw-
ings in most common use are photo-engraving and photo-
lithography.

The best paper on which to make drawings for reproduc-
tion has a smooth surface, on which the lines will remain
sharp and clear. It is also a desirable quality if the surface
of the paper will admit of erasures with a sharp knife with-
out cutting into the fibre and thus allow inking over the
erasure without producing lines with ragged edges. Some
qualities of cardboard possess these qualifications, but the
highest priced quality is not always as good as a lower
grade, owing to the method of finishing. Marked dilFer-
ences are found in this respect between the cream-tinted
and the blue-white paper of the same grade. Of the regu-
lar drawing papers, the "hot pressed" is better than the
" not hot pressed."

In employing tracing cloth, CHAS. W. RKINHARDT recom-
mends removing the gloss from the smooth side by means
of powdered pumice, to facilitate making sharp and un-

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

broken lines, and to apply the same powder to the tip of
the finger in making erasures, as the surface thereby re-
mains intact and the ink will not spread when the line is re-
drawn.

The ink should be perfectly black and not flow too easily.
By frequently cleaning the pen the lines may be drawn
more rapidly and yet be clear. The waterproof inks are
found to answer the purpose well and to stand cleaning bet-
ter than the other kinds. The pencils used should be suited
to the paper, be as soft as possible and pressed lightly on
the paper in drawing so as not to require much effort in
erasing the parts of lines which are not covered by the ink.
By keeping the pencil well pointed the lines may be sharp
without being heavy. An expedient for keeping the draw-
ing clean and thereby avoiding additional erasing is described
in Art. 53.

Due allowance must be made for the amount of the re-
duction, in deciding upon the thickness of lines, the clear
width between the lines, and the size of the lettering. Fig.
22 shows the parallel full lines at near the limit of reduction,
and the character of the dotted lines in the figure indicate
that the dots or short dashes on the originals were too small.
On the proofs, which were taken on heavy glazed paper, the
impression was excellent, but the electrotype made from the

zinc etching gives the result shown above. Photo-litho-
graphy will reproduce finer lines satisfactorily than photo-
engraving, but the lines obtained by the former method are

450

not as sharply defined as by the latter. In the rules issued by
the American Society of Civil Engineers in a bulletin of May
1 1, 1894, it is recommended that " the width of lines must

ART. so.

LETTERING FOR PHOTO-MECHANICAl. RHPRODUCTION.

be such as not to become less than inch when reduced.
Spaces lvtwi.-i.-n liiu-s must not be less than i inch after re-
duction. Lettering niul dimension figuring must not be
less than i inch after reduction. Omit ornamental titles;
* * * display titles are sources of needless expense, .is
well as obstacles to suitable reduction." The rest of the
rules relate to various other details and should be consulted
by draftsmen.

The minimum size of the reduced lettering, here specified,
IN abnut that of the numbers designating the guide lines on
Plate VIII. The linear dimensions of the reductions should
be at lea.st } less than the original. A very convenient ratio
is to make the reduction YI. When the reduced drawing
measures only one-fourth of the original it is technically
called a Ya, reduction.

With the higher reduction ratios special care must be ex-
ercised to give the hair lines of Roman letters and numerals
sufficient thickness. The Gothic numerals whose limbs are
,4 unit thick permit a larger reduction than letters with hair
lines, and aie more legible than if the limbs were made I
unit wide. The letters should be left perfectly plain and
without any shading.

Where a large number of individual letters of reference or
measurements are to be placed on a drawing and it is de-

sired, for any reason, to use a style of letter like the Roman,
considerable time may be saved and good results produced
by using metal type to stamp the letters in their proper
positions. This process is described in Art. ss. The origi-
nals from which Figs. 22 and 23 were obtained were lettered

in this manner. The lettering of titles and maps on a more
extensive scale will be described in Art. s6.

If a table or explanatory notes are to be inserted on a
plate, a still more economical arrangement may be to have
it set up in type by a printer, have an impression taken on
good paper with a smooth surface and paste it on the sheet
to be reduced. The fine lines between the columns may
require to be strengthened by inking over them with the
right line pen.

Titles might also be treated in the same manner, and
Plates XLVI and XLVII show what effects may be produced
by a proper selection of sizes of a single style of letter

THE SELECTION OF STYLES

CHAP. IV

Anchorage Connections

when set up in type. Plate XLVIII gives ;m interesting comparison of various
styles of type suitable for explanatory notes and will facilitate the selection of
an appropriate style for almost any drawing.

The above methods will, of course, not be necessary when free-hand
letters may be used, which admit of such rapid construction as the Gothic.

Figs. 24 and 25 show illustrations from
engravings made by the " wax process."
When these are used the lettering is done
by the engraver and need only be indi-
cated in pencil on the original drawing.
The cost of the engravings is not in-
fluenced by the style of lettering em-
ployed. Fig. 26 is from a zinc-etching,
and a portion of it represents the same
detail as Fig. 24. Fig. 25 is taken by
permission from a paper on The Water
Works of Syracuse, N. Y., by WILLIAM
R. HILL in the Transactions of the Am.
Soc. C. E., July, 1895. Fig. 24 is from a
paper on An Encased Standpipe with
Special Provisions for Wind Pressure, by EDWARD FLAD in the Journal of the
Association of Engineering Societies, June, 1895, and Fig. 26 is from an abstract
of the same paper published in the Engineering News, Aug. 8, 1895.

nchor Bolts IJ^e 6 6 long

8 Required
Cast Plate 18'square

Fig

Ja <

* i

' s

if <

X ^

| X

;

16-0

ELEVATION

2 Z

f S-'O-

PLAN

Fig. 25.

ART. 51.

FREE-HAND LETTERING.

Fig. 16.

ART. <>i. FREE-HAND LHTTHRING.

A number of references to this subject li.ive been made in
previous articles, especially in Art. }$, ;ind need to be sup-
plemented here only by some general hints that have been
tested by experience.

For the finest lines Gillott's lithographic pen, and for the
medium lines No. joj of the same m.ike, are lound to give
excellent service. When new the pens will make finer lines
than after being used awhile, and it is convenient to have
on hand both new and old pens and to employ them as
occasion demands. In making letters of uniform weight the
pen, paper and ink should be so co-ordinated that no decided
pressure is required. The hand will experience less weari-
ness and the lines will be more uniform. If heavier lines are
to be made with a single stroke, coarser round-pointed pens
may be selected. A well-worn 303 pen will be found ad-
mirably adapted for filling in the larger letters, and a new
one for the smaller ones. The surface of the paper largely
determines the quality of the line made by any pen. To
clean the pen frequently on a piece of chamois skin will in-
crease the ease and possible speed of its movi-im-nts.

Special care should be used that vertical lines shall appear
truly vertical and it will materially aid the draftsman to
make them so, if the drawing is kept squarely in front of
him.

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

The Gothic Style is especially adapted to rapid free-hand
lettering, and, if well made, is appropriate to many draw-
ings besides purely "working drawings." Condensed
free-hand letters are not quite as legible as the rounder
forms, but ellipses are more easily drawn than true circles.
As a rule the pen should do its principal work on downward
strokes, but portions of limbs may be drawn on a side
stroke or a very slight upward movement. When inking
free-hand letters outlined in pencil, time may be saved and
the execution improved by omitting the horizontal lines
until the others are finished and then shifting the drawing
or his own position, so as to draw the horizontal strokes
directly toward the draftsman.

The main difficulty experienced by the beginner is in
avoiding the rounded ink spots where two lines meet at
an acute angle. To keep these joints clean enhances the
beauty of any lettering. Three guide lines for the capitals
and four for the small letters are sufficient for the sizes usu-
ally required in free-hand lettering. After the student has
constructed the alphabet several times to scale he will be-
come familiar with the relative widths of the letters and
should be able to secure them approximately by eye. In
case a tendency is discovered to make any letter either too
wide or too narrow, a decided effort should be promptly

made to correct it. Failure to do this frequently leads to
the definite formation of a wrong habit.

In exercises for practice the principal attention should at
first be given to form and proportion, and afterwards to se-
curing speed in construction. Every draftsman should be
able to do free-hand lettering neatly and rapidly. Explan;:
tory notes and bills of material, to be placed on one of the
sheets containing the plans of some standard structure, may
serve as exercises. An article on Free-hand Slanting Let-
tering for Working Drawings, by CHAS. W. REINHARDT,
Chief Draftsman of the Engineering News, was published in
that periodical, volume XXX1I1, page 381, June i ?, 189^.
An analysis is made of each letter of the Gothic style and
the finished letters compared with others improperly con-
structed.

ART. 52. PRINTING TYPE.

A careful selection of specimens of printers' type is shown
on Plates XLI-XLV, and was made for the put pose of fur-
nishing additional illustrations of the effect of modifying the
proportions and details of the most important styles; to en-
able a comparison to be made in a few cases between the
type faces and the manuscript forms of the same style,
and to supply further suggestions to draftsmen who are in-
terested in designing new styles for their own use.

ART. 52.

PRINTING TYPE.

Considerable improvement has been made in this country
in recent years in the cutting of new (aces, and the tendency
has been to avoid a preponderance of ornament and to design
simpler shapes of considerable merit. The revival of the
old-style laces which preceded this movement led to the imi-
tation of their excellent constructive features in the new de-
pposed t<> the combination of extremely line hair
lines with heavv steins, which characterized many of the
modern faces

The Roman Old Style may be regarded as the standard
book type and .it present the French Old Style is rapidly in-
creasing in favor for a variety of purposes. The revived old
faces and the newer designs bid fair to gradually displace
those which were distinguished by fantastic forms and com-
plicated shadings.

There has also been a corresponding improvement in the
spacing of type by the c.uel'ul adjustment of the face to the
bodv of the type and by placing offsets on the type bodies
of letters like A, T, V, W, Y, etc., which allow them to in-
terlock whenever two come together whose greater widths
are at the top and bottom respectively.

The Gushing on Plate XUI is one of the new styles which
has the uniform lines of the Gothic combined with the form
and general proportion of the Roman Old Style.

The Elandkay on Plate XLIII is an exceedingly neat and
attractive style. The only letters which may be criticised
are the alternate forms of P and R. in which the inclined lines
meet the vertical limbs too far below the line of the inter-
mediate horizontals of the other letters.

The Capitals of the Art Gothic are not intended to be used
alone. The entire alphabet might serve as a guide fora light
tree-hand letter without serifs.

Hie Dynamo may be imitated in its general features by a
free-hand construction with a coarse round-pointed pen, its
weight being somewhat reduced. All of the styles on this
plate are appropriate for architectural drawings.

The l)e Vinne on Plate XLIV is a bold faced alphabet of
pleasing shape with distinctive substitutes for the spurs or
hooks of C, G and S. The alternate form of M, however,
is out of harmony with the rest of the letters and R is even
weaker constructively than the same letter in French Old
Style.

Quaint Open is inserted here, as it is not so heavy as the
Quaint. In general its shape does not differ much from
Outing.

The Old Style Antique No. 2 is a strong, simple letter.
The curves at the serils are round and full and the ends of
the serifs pointed like those in the ! : :v ch Old Style. M

THE SELECTION OF STYLES.

CHAP. IV.

might be improved by widening it a half unit and reducing
the upper width of the joint between the vertical and in-
clined limbs. The inclined limb of R should have its outer
edge straight.

The Antique on Plate XLV has been extensively employed
for one-line titles of plates in Architectural publications.

The angular serifs of the Cloister and Light Face Celtic in
lines 7 and q are not more easily constructed than those of
the Old Style Antique or the Celtic, and they certainly do
not look as well. The shading applied to two of the styles

is similar to that sometimes used on Gothic letters. The
Roman Old Style is not improved by shade lines. The
seventh line in the second column shows that if a letter is
well proportioned it requires very rough execution before
its good appearance is materially impaired. The next line
contains a modern Roman capital with prominent curved
fillers at the serifs, and the curves on the hooks of E ex-
tending back farther than usual. The last line shows a light
face Roman with serifs of the French form, an extreme style
which should not be imitated in manuscript letters.

ART. 53.

LETTERING TRIANGLES.

CHAP. V. MECHANICAL AIDS.

ART. si. LETTERING TRIANGLES.

Most of the manufacturers of mathematical instruments
advertise "lettering triangles." which it is supposed are
made to facilitate the construction of letters having inclined
rectilinear members and to economize the time of the drafts-
man.

In order to test the value of these appliances, the Gothic
capitals in Fig. 27 were drawn by means of the triangles,
designed for condensed and extended letters, the third of
the series being used for letters intermediate between these
in proportion. Taking the N as a standard by which to de-
termine the scale for measuring the widths of the letters for
the purpose of comparison, the top of X is found to be 5
when the bottom is made <jj4, the stem being Y*. If the
bottom were increased to 6, the top would be reduced to
4>4. The top of Y is also 5 when the vertical stem extends
to the middle. The width ol A. V and M is ^*/2, and of W
is 6#. By giving to K the widths of 3 and 5^, the stems

assume the relative positions shown in the figure. The
heights are 7^ and 5^ respectively.
If the stems were made unity, the widths of N, A, V, M

KNXYAMVW
K N X YA M

VWKXAMW

Fig.

and W would be 5>, 6, 6, 6 and 7, respectively and the
top of X would be f>'/2 for a width of 6 at the bottom. It
is seen, therefore, that the triangles give good proportions

MECHANICAL AIDS.

CHAP. V.

for these letters of the Gothic style, with the exception of
W, only when the stems have a given width. For hair-
line letters the corresponding widths would be 4^, 5, 5, 5
and 6.

Several ol the Roman capitals are also given, as construct-
ed with the triangle for condensed letters, the resulting
widths of A, M and W being 5^, 6 and sX. while the top
of X is 4 s /8 when the bottom is 5^. These measurements
of X, M and W would also be modified on changing the
width of the stems.

As the angles of inclination vary not only for different
heights of letters, but also for changes in width of stem, it
seems evident that no lettering triangles can be made which
will meet the necessary conditions as conveniently as a tri-
angle of the usual form, in combination with the paper
scales, whose use has already been fully explained. In
their present form their range is too limited, even if the ex-
pected economy of time, resulting from their use, could be
realized.

The attention of students is, however, called to one of
the forms of triangles (Fig. 28) which has been proved by
the author's experience to possess certain advantages in
manipulation, which, in the aggregate, save considerable
time. It is known as Kelsey's combination triangle. The size

which is most convenient for lettering is about four inches
high and combines angles of 90, 45, i --,, 30 and 60 degrees in
one triangle in such a way that one angle will not be con-
fused with another. This form was obtained by cutting out of
a 45-degree right triangle an isosceles triangle, whose base is
on the hypotenuse of the former one, and whose angles ad-
jacent to the base are fifteen degrees. When lines of 45 or
1 5 degrees are to be drawn, the
triangle is placed with its hypote-
nuse against the straight edge, while
in its usual position the sides of the
isosceles notch give the angles of
60 and 30 degrees on both sides of
a vertical, the other side giving the
perpendiculars. The most conven-
ient feature of the triangle, how-
ever, is a small handle, with a
milled head attached to its center

of gravity, while a slight curvature in the body of the
transparent material, of which it is composed, prevents
it from rubbing dust particles over the surface of the paper.
If the draftsman will also paste a strip of thin blotting paper
not quite as wide as the blade on the under side of his T
square, he may easily keep his drawing clean without the

Fig. 18.

ART.

SlENCIL PLATES.

use of an eiaser. even il it be drawn on the (most white
cardboard aiul requires .1 number <>! >l.us i.> complete it.

:iall triangle is made by TUMI. AI.TIMIHK \ Si>ss i.f
Philadelphia which contains the .mules of 69^ and 74^ de-
grees adj.iceiit to the same edge. Tlie use of this triangle
facilitates the construction of italic letters lor the two m<'st
J. -suable inclinations (Ait. 7). and not only saves time but
avoids the netessitv ol consti iicting the inclinations by means
ol then co-ordinat'-s and transferring them in the usual way,
during which operation the T-square is not in its normal
ion on the drawing board.

ART. 54. STENCIL PLATES.

Stencil plates may be used to advantage in lettering maps
or diagrams drawn to a lame si.de such as are frequently
used lor class-room illustrations. When the lettering is to
be neatly executed in India ink instead of adopting the cheap-
er and coarser method of applying a colored paste with a
stilT brush, the partial outlines are drawn in pencil, com-
pleted on removing the stencil, and afterwards filled in with
a pen or brush. Stencil frames may be obtained allowing
the plates to be adjusted on account of the spacing before
any part of a word is marked on the regular sheet.

Where names have to be extended along curves of con-

siderable length the use . ."splines will facilitate the location
of curves of good lonn, which frequently h.r. . .-. berreg;.i.i!.
compound or reversed curves in order to distribute the letters
to the best advantage over the required area.

ART. =,=,. LETTERING Wl I H METALLIC TYPE.

In the preparation of drawings to be reproduced bv photo-

lithography or photo-engraving for use in books or reports

either as illustrations in the text or as plates, it is often re-
quired to repeat the same letters or numerals a > onsiderable
number of times, as, lor instance, in placing individual let-
ters at various points of geometrical or other diagrams and
in marking the soundings on the map of a lake or harbor.
In such cases excellent results can be secured and with a
material saving of time by using metal type.

The draw ing is plac.'d on a horizontal plane surface with
a sheet of blotting paper beneath it. At its side the type is
arranged in regular alphabetical and numerical order, and a
roller having a light coating ol the best black printers' ink,
placed in convenient position. A type is clamped in a small
holder like that illustrated in Fig. 29 and after touching the
ink roller the type is firmly pressed on the drawing in its
proper position. The ink should be medium thin, well
worked, and distributed evenly over the roller. At first the

MECHANICAL AIDS.

CHAP. V.

type needs to he touched to the roller several times until it is
thoroughly covered with ink and on testing it prints a solid
black. Afterwards only one or two contacts are usually
required. A convenient size of type-holder is just large
enough to hold about two ems and with a clamp screw of
such length that no quad is needed when the narrowest

single type is inserted. If it is de-
sired to use more than two types
at once it is preferable to have an-
other larger holder in which, how-
ever, they must be approximately
centered so that the pressure may
be applied uniformly. In manipu-
lating the holder let the fore finger
be placed on top of the handle and
the body of the holder grasped
firmly between the thumb and re-
maining fingers. To make sure
that all the edges of the type are in
contact with the paper, a slight
rocking motion may be given to the holder just before re-
leasing the pressure.

"f nc ,ines of the drawing are parallel to the direction ot
the bases of the letters, it is desirable to draw a few pencil

Fig. 29.

lines as a guide in orienting the holder before the type
touches the paper. Should some impression not be quite
perfect it is usually a fruitless attempt to try to make a sec-
ond impression, as the least shifting of position will make
matters worse. Such occasional deficiencies may be cor-
rected with the pen. The impression should be fairly strong
or else the hair-lines will not come out full if reduced con-
siderably in photo-engraving.

To draw a large number of small Roman numerals is both a
tedious and a difficult task, while with type the forms will
not only be absolutely uniform, but will bear a greater

Fig. 30.

amount ol reduction and still remain legible than when
drawn by hand. Numerous soundings in a harbor, such as

ART. >6.

MECHANICAL MAI 1 LETTERING.

are shown on Pl.ite XXXII. may be inserted very nipidly
since the s.nne numbers are so frequently repealed.

FII;N. *'> aiul ;i. .is well as 2.2 and 23, were produced from
.ms tthuh were lettered in the manner described

above. As the text-books for which they were prepared
(Roofs and Rtidges. Parts II and 111, by MKKRIMAS and
JACOBV) are printed in Roman Old Style, the corresponding
Italic type was used for nearly all the illustrations in the
text.

ART. s6. MHCHANICAL MAP LETTERING.

Plates XXXVI and XXXVII are photo-lithographs of the
title and a portion of Chart No. 141, published by the Mis-
sissippi River Commission, on the original of which all the
letters, figures and conventional signs were made by de-
vices developed by J. A. OcK-
I-.RSOS, Principal Assistant En-
gineer of the Commission, who
has had charge of the field and
office operations pertaining to
the detailed survey of the Miss-
issippi River, the devices being
used on all the detail map
work in that office. The
plates will give a better indi-
cation of the value of these
special devices than any writ-
ten description.

The lettering device is illus-
trated in Fig. 32 and consists of a stamp having a movable
tvpe holder, open on one side, carried by a standard, which
is attached to an open rectangular base. The edges and
guide marks of the base enable the letters to be properly
aligned and centered. For numbering, three revolving disks,

Fif .

MECHANICAL AIDS.

CHAP. V.

each of which contains the ten integers on projecting type,
are so arranged that any number of not more than three figures
may be stamped upon the sheet, or the numbers may be
printed with the lettering device by clamping the type in
the holder.

At first the titles and notes were printed with the lettering
device by hand, and afterwards a special press was made

which admitted of printing the whole form at once. Now
the form is printed on a separate sheet and pasted on the
chart. The lettering may be arranged in curves, if re-
quired. In case a title is to be reproduced by lithography
to the same scale, it may be printed on transfer paper with
special ink and transferred directly to the stone. The device
is manufactured by A. S. Aloe & Co., of St. Louis.

PLATE II

Construction of Horn an Small

5i 5* 3 + 1 4j

.. Construction of Stump Writing ....^^. a

Sf Si St

lit

Jt at

st st

PLATE Mi

CONSTRUCTION OF GOTHIC CAPITALS

4:1 4* ., 5

Construction of Gothic Small

' ' \> \

iik

..T..\ I

I I I I I

5* J

-4-

4* I 84

rstu v w

..?*.....*..

84 5*

5 i 5

- - ^

...-I

PLATE v

HAIRLINE GOTHIC

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

INCLINED HAIRLINE: GOTHIC

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&

ab c de fghijklmn op qrs tu v wxyz

HAIRLINE ANTIQUE

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

ANTIQUE

ABC DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV WXYZ

CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN OLD STYLE

PLATC VI.

l+Sj

7-f I

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF
J-

VII

ROMAN OLD STYLE

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR

STUVWXYZ

FRENCH OLD STYLE

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR

STUVWXYZ

ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQR

STVWXYZ

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

CONSTRUCTION or NUMERALS

PLATt VIM

^^^^ o -44-

*i I 4J 4* 4+1 4* 4* ~~i 4J 4i

12:Uo(>78()0 23737 1234567890

- 1 I
? I

4t 4 + 1 41

4J 4i

i 3
: 4

1234567890 I23456789O

JJ+i 5 i+3 5

LJ I t I I i I

j,^^

Studies in Spacing. Key to Plate IX.

ELEVATION FA C AT AV AWAY A

i'4 / 7 o i i o 54 !4 % 54 % % M *i><'e.n,v

254 m 1J4 K 54 i i l-K 2 8 H 1 l y 4 H o H M o By dl.tunoe t

1 m M ^ ^ % ^ ^

PA-LTvLV-LY-KOA

U o W 1U 1M

AOYOWOXOYOZ

< 3 ' ^ "- ! ! 2^2H 2 3 9 1 m M ^ ^ % ^ ^ Av, rape of area

anil ilistance 12)^)

PA-LTv--

Spared by aver-

age of area and 2^ 1% \y >4 ft 1^ 2^ 2M 4 70 U o W 1U 1M Average of area

distance (2J^> and distance (2H>

By area (3) 2)4 % *s l^ 2^ 2H 5 .'7

f rn ee of a rea H

LONGITUDINAL

By Distance (2) 2 2 1J4 54 2 ? 2 6 72 1 2 2 2J6 1 I'M -'54 2>4 254 1% 1^

[1J6 2M 2M 2^ 194 rM 2J4 254 ~'H l^ :

CODE GOLD CLAIMS -ALTAR

IH 254 254 m 2 1% 256 i>i r> 4 -ji 4 - 2y i-> 4 o % i

IW 2 ^ 2 1 2H 1% 256 H li 2^ W X K m

NOTE.-The values enclosed in brackets are inserted for comparison with the spaces employed, and indicate what adjustments were made for the

sake of illustration.

Studies in Spacing

ELEVATION ' FACATAVAWAYA

iii > 1 1 \ 1 1 u _ f i^ i_i.i t i^j

ELEVATION FACATAVAWAYA

I J I 1 \ f J > ^il ll-J. J 111! l I I L I l_f I I 1 I

ELEVATION 3 FACATAVAWAYA

1 1 j i \A i j nil i I i i i i i i i j ( p j_i j ^ l^j^f

E LEyATlO N * - PA- LT -LV- LY KOA
ELEyATION 5 AOVOWOXOYOZ

1111 \_i_f ii j iii iii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^1

ELEVATION 8 ^LONGITUDINAL

i I J i i J i i i i q i L 1 I l_|J i,_\_t i i I i

CODE -GOLD CLAIMS -ALTAR

< . M

Examples of Spacing

ELEVATION SWITCH STAND
SWAY BRACING Asphalt Pavement

Precise Levels Helical Springs

Suburban Division Three-Throw Switch
Distributing Chamber Direct-Coupled Generator

Magnetic Declination Potsdam Sandstone

JETTY CHANNEL THROTTLE LEVER
MONUMENT PALACE CAR

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
.-FARTMENT OF CIVIL

PLATE XI

One -line Titles or Subtitles

Cl IAMBI- k OF COMMERCE. CINCINNATI.
CEILING OF THE NORTH HALL OF THE PARTHENON.

ELEVATION OF WEST FRONT TOWARD VANDERBILT AVENUE

SCREENED NOOK ON STAIRCASE

GOLDEN GATE, TRANSPORTATION BUILDING

DETAIL OF MAIN FIREPLACE

CORNICE AND PARAPET ON ABUTMENT AND PIER
END OF GRAND HALL. LOOKING WEST

fl 1RRAR

KS-l-

PLATI XII.

-1

DIAGRAM FOR PROPORTIONING

PLTI XIII.

10 ZO 30 40 SO

\ \ :

\\\\\\\\\\\\ \

60 -4 O 6 *

PLTt XIV.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

MAP OF THE

CITY OF WASHINGTON

SHOWING THE

VARIETIES OF STREET PAVEMENTS

Laid and under contract on Jan 1 1895

To accompany the Annual Report

of the

ENGINEER DEPARTMENT

10 Scale of Feet

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

PLTC XV

;

U|
III

< s J

S -9
S ^

c/5

^ 1| i

' t

1 "5 j

j CJ * 3

^ 5

r \ >

<- z
e- $

3^ ^

H :

z ^t;<

C^ 1 2 c

5 - y 1 ' t^

T u * - C C"

- I 5 1 ' * ^

U SJ

S i a i

Jjii

J s z

U- >

-J i ' I > /'""""

; ']

^V c^"

O S?

^ o ^ c

f-N

1' 1

1 - ?

.5
i|

1 ; ^

lul

- . -5 J
c ^3: 2;

PLATC XVI.

For Crank see Sheet No 3398
Beam " " " 3321

CLASS E

CAMBRIDGE WATER WORKS

PUMPING ENGINE N 9 7

CYLINDERS .[82x33x524. PLUNGERS

CONNECTING ROD

Scale: 3 Ins. to I Ft.

April 15. 1895. Bill of Material
N? 3742

E. D. LEAVITT, Mechanical Engineer

3294 CAMBRIDGEPORT. MASS.

PLATC XVII

Trigonometrical connection
of the

Rockville Latitude Station

with the

Transcontinental Triangulation

along or near the 39'- h parallel

General Plan **

CLARION BRIDGE

ALLEGHENY VALLEY RAILWAY

2 Spans. Single Track Through , 185 10 c. to c End Pins
Width I7'0"c. to c. Trusses. Depth 32'0"c to c Chords

Scale ft'to I fr

ORDER N A25

Pcncoyd Iron Worki.
Bridge & Const r Dept.
Pencoyd. Pa. Jon 4.1895

Maximum H din /all

CONTRACT N 714
Sheet N20

DIAGRAM

Several American Cities

fix recorded by

Automatic Rain -gages

ROTUNDA BUILDING

ILLINOIS CENTRAL R R STATION AT I2 T - ST. CHICAGO

Shiftier Bridge Co. Pittsburgh. Pa.

Scale ilnch per Foot

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

PLATI XVIII

COMPETITIVE DESIGN

FOR THE

PROPOSED STATE CAPITOL

WASHINGTON

NEW YORK 5TATE VETERINARY COLLEGE
CORNELL UNIVERSITY ITHACA N Y

C FRANCIS 05BORNE ) ASSOCIATED
CLARENCE A MARTIN J ARCHITECTS

DETAILS OE CUT-5TONE WORK

5CALE 3 INCHES TO I FOOT & FULL SIZE

JULY 1 1895

PERSPECTIVE VIEW

FROM CLIFTON AVENUE

PREMIATED DESIGN

FOR THE

MILWAUKEE LIBRARY AND MUSEUM

DESIGN FOR WATER TOWER
DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

A BOURSE

PLATI XIX

NOTES

THIS WINDOW IS DETAILED FOR A STONE WALL If THICK FURRED 4 - IN?iDE
FOR TME SHUTTER BOX THIS CAN ONLY BE DONE IN THE BEST WORK
THE SHUTTER BOX 15 SOMETIMES OMITTED AS INDICATED ON PLAN. BUT
THIS 15 OBJECTIONABLE AS IT LEAVES THE EDGES Of SHUTTERS EXPOSED
IN THE ROOM THE WIDTH OF BOX SHOULD BE ADJUSTED TO WIDTH OF
SHUTTERS. THE DEPTH OF BOX DEPENDING ON WHETHER SHUTTERS ARE
ONE. TWO. OR THREE FOLD A SERIOUS OBJECTION TO THREE FOLD SHUT-
TERS AS COMMONLY HUNG is THAT THE INNER FOLD is APT TO OPEN
AND CATCH IN THE BOX WHEN SHUTTERS ARE DRAWN OUT THIS CAN BE
AVOIDED ONLY BY MAKING THE INNER FOLD VERY NARROW OR DY USING A
SPECIAL HINGE AS SHOWN PANELS IN SHUTTERS MAY BE SOLID PANELS
OR ROLLING SLATS

NOTES

Th.e essential part^ of this wiQdow frarne are the yoke, weigbt
box and sill. These rernaiQ practically the sarne it) all double
bung window} wbetljer 19 rnasoQry or frarne wally The outside
casing V) ordinary work 15 usually rnade but %"tbick. but it 15 bet-
ter a) good work to njake botb 1 b'} C as '9 a?d tlje pulley stile IXs*

The pulley stile arid parting strip should always be bard wood
The widtb of reveal and jarnb caQ be varied by settigg ttje frarne
nearer face or back of wall.

NOTE

SHAFTS CONTAINING TWO HOISTING CAGES ARE TO BE
SEVENTEEN FEET SIX INCHES BY EIGHT FEET IN THE CLEAR
OF ALL ROCK AND OF ALL TIMBER CURBING USED FOR SUPPORT-
ING THE SIDES OF THE SHAFTS

NOTE - For I truss C moke the one bose os shown above, the
other os shown below All material steel All rivets ^ inch diam

Connecting Rod

One of this complete

Body, pins and adjusting screws oil tempered, steel forg wigs
Boxes composition. babbitted, Wedges and keepers wro't iron
All parts finished except at "x"x" Exposed pans finished
bright. OH grooves to be aU in all boxes

Forging* to be oil tempered nickel or crucible steel #ttf> an e-
laslic limit of not less than 50000 Ibs per sq m, and on elonga-
tion of not less than 18% in 10 inches in a test piece I inch in
diameter One test piece from connecting rod and one from
forging from which end pins are cut

Note: To obtain yrip G of pin add fa inch ej'tra for
each bar packed together with the proper additional it-
mount given above in the table.

NOTE ALL BOLTS ARC } W. DIAM WITH STANDARD C. WASHCRS
ALL SHEATHING TO BE SPIKED TO COLUMNS WITH 6 INCH IKON SPIKES
9 Of WHICH ME TO BE PUT IN EACH SQUARE FOOT.

NOTE

Soundings are expressed in feet and are referred to a stage
of water which corresponds to a reading of 2.3 feet on the
Memphis gage Work done since last report is indicated by
heavy full lines and previous work by heavy broken lines.

The surface of ihe lake is 400 feel above mean nde level

PLATE XX

Scale llsU

Contour Interval 100 feel

Dalmm it * 3ra lrv*l

Scale 1:50000

(TOO! U SO Mtttrt

- JO Hrim

J KlJ

Scale: 1 inch to 1 mile

SCALE OF FEET

10 i

SCALES
Of the General Plan isfco

JO to *0 4O

STATUTE MILKS

Of the Details Jo75

4547>tiOII >wt

' I J o

.1 Mllr.i

SCALE 1:1000

100 SO 60 40 20

100

200

300

-100 IT.KT

BOO

SCALE: FULL SIZE
The numbers give the lengths of the ordinotes

in decimillimeters.

PLATI XXI.

r s. ( .&.(;. s. ii ORDERS

PLATI X:

Scale 12ooo<K>

.10

'Scale 36o

7 ' 43

Scale 80000

Scale

01"

71' 10'

.-,1)

Scale 4 oo ooo

Scale 2 oo (xx>

PLATE XXIII

a be a e 1 c D i j k 1 n\ n o p Q r o Lvvv xj/

^Jl Ivpbell /vrcnilecl 1001 xrarlieid lA/ilaino =
: Vlevelana Unio :

ABBCDEFQHUKLMMNOPPQRRSTUVWXYZ
THE WOMAN'S TEMPLE, CHICAQO, 1892

PLATE. XXIV

Slat.

1 ^^

1 A Jnmii ly KJi>al Xfolildr. T K i.-Uxiit

XXV

U.S. COAST SURVEY PLATE XXVI.

Classification and Rules for the miscellaneous lettering of names kc. on the map.

not connected with title or notes.

GAUGE OF LETTERS

TO BE USED ON THE PUBLICATION SCALES OF
J_ J_ J_

80OOO 60000 50000

CLASS I. All names and words connected with LAND to be vertical, thickness r of height.

s li

i , w REGIONS,lst.Class,MAINE,CAPE COD, LONG I.

30 REGIONS, 2nd. Class, NANTUCKET, STATEN I., EDISTO I.

3 20 (b) Islands, CapeS, Points, 1st. ClaSS, Forming Harbors and known as Land Marks.
it \b Islands, Capes, Points, 2nd. Class, do. do. do.

5 10 Islands, Point*, Beaches, Necks, Hummocks. Rocks, Marshes, Of only local importance.

PLATE XXVil.

so CITIES, 1st. Class, NEW YORK, BOSTON, NEW ORLEANS,
a 25 CITIES, 2nd. Class, PORTLAND, CHARLESTON, MOBILE.

9 20 TOWNS, 1st. Class. NEWPORT, ST. AUGUSTINE, PEN8ACOLA.

10 15 TOWNS. 2nd. Class, STONINGTON, NEW CASTLE, BEAUFORT.

11 In YUJ.AOKS AMD RHAUED TTl.IMH*T.

12 1O Cross Roads, Landings, Finer* not thickly settled.

13 8 Bridgci. Rail Road. Dock*. Plantation* fee.

14 Note. The gauge of height refers to the Small Letters, where the name or word is not in fall capitals.

The proportion of Small Letters is J the height of the capital letter beginning the word.

15 (a) Regions requiring it may havu a letter larger than 40 metres, but always subordinate to the

main line of the title.

16 Ib) Where size or importance of the feature requires it. Capitals for Islands of the heights of

12, 15, 20 and 26 metres may be used. Small romnn 12 metres high may also be used for
Islands, Capes. Points Ice. where the sise will not admit of 15 metres high.

X*\grav*d *| John ITnufta . CS.Ceomt Survfr nm**.

U.S. COAST SURVEY PLATE XX VIM.

GAUGE OF LETTERS

TO BE USED ON THE PUBLICATION SCALES OF
J. 1. .L

80000 6000O 6OOOO

CLASS II. AU name* and words connected with WATER to be slanting C<if>itl
^^ and Italics, thickness i of 'height '., inclination ,'i parts of baft- to 8 of height .

n . REGIONS, 1st. Class, ATLANTIC O., CHESAPEAKE B.

* 30 REGIONS, 2nd. Class, VINEYARD SOUND, MATAGORDA BAY.

Forming and <-<>ntaininji harbors and anchotvigem.
19 20 . RIVERS, BAYS. COVES, ROADS, HARBORS, 1st. Claas.

2C 15 RIVEKS. BArS, COVES, HAILBORS. 2,id .Cl.i**.

21 1O lurmx*. MAT* earn, JUABOJU. 3rd. Clat.

8 Hirwm*. mr>r>. rant*. IUMOJU. tth . Clot*.

..... ... , PLATE XXIX.

i JVot- navifiablr ami nnt, wrniuu/ hjirhnrs. ;

jn . Rivers, Creeks, Poruis, Shacds, Bars, Spits, 1st. Class.

24 ir. Rivers, CrefJcs, Ponds. Shoals, Bars, Spits, 2nd. Class. Ledges, 1st. Class.

25 I" It 1 1 n. ( Yffkf, Pandf. Covr*. Shoal*. Barf. Spit*. 3rd,. Cltum. Lftlyrt. 2nd . ClaM*.

26 H Cmlu.flmiU.Ctnfm.S>u>aU. Barm. Spil*.M<.. Cta**. Lrdy,.3rH lla,,

CLASS HI. All names and, words connected, wM, NAVIGATION ( I,,- BLOCK LETTERS

Thickneat + of height.

l<) I VtTICALi LIOMT MOUtXt. (IACON1. TOO (ILL*. OIJICT1 OH LAND UICO TO* HANCIl

28 15 [SLANTING] CHANNELS, l.t flat*.

12 DO. CHANNELS. ?,,:/ I'/.,.. COMPASS fCAKINOS INW.i W.I. CUKHCNT STATIONS.

1O 00 CHAHHILt '<r,l I I,,., LIOHT tHIf*. ItU. *OA T*. lOOf*. VltW ITATIOHt AMD HO*

ttVMOllt. VtLOCtrlgt OF CV*t*Tt.

32 NHL- Ttir ffaiu/r oi' Itritflit rrt'rrs to the Small LeUm.whfrr thr nnmr ! won! u nor in fliU

Th<- pmpiirtifit af Small Lettct* in i thr hright ut'thr ,<i/nr,i/ l.-n.-i htginntraj thr .<n/

33 heriinn* nrnt Rivrr* rvqtur in;/ it tun ;i hu\-r Iriter* laryrr th.ut 4<> iinil ft) melm*. but O/H .

subortiimitf tit the main luu- ft' thr ntlr

fnifht. C.I.Omft Sum. OfUm

U.S.C.8, G.S.

: DICIMTLU
METRES

the rflttti\f aj'i>nir\tttct of word* rm
u&iu** aflHtrrtnfhmiht Slopr 21 part* ul'bajt

*nme hrtyht.hitt in ili

PLATE XXX.

42
43

35
30
2b
20
15
12
10

ENGRAVING

DIVISION

CAPITOL

HARBOR

ISLANDS

RIVERS

SOUNDINGS

DIRECTIONS

POINTS

CREEKS
rHAKKELB

POINTS

CREEKS

Points

Creeks

Channels

Shoals

Spm.ll..

ENGRAVING

DIVISION

CAPITOL

HARBOR
ISLANDS

RIVERS
SOUNDINGS

DIRECTIONS
Points POINTS
Creeka CREEKS

Channels
Shoal*

CHANNEL*
tHOAL*

POINTS
CREEKS

CHAMHtLt

Sl.pt 3*1

CHANNEL

LIGHT HOUSC
LIOHT HOUtI

CHANNEL

LIOHT MOOtt

LIOMT MOUmt

CHANNEL
LIOHT HOUE

LIOHT MOUIC

PLATE XXXI.

H
O

C/3

CD
CO

x
<

T) i

. S

! 1

3 l

US. COAST & GEODETIC SURVEY.

PLATE XXXII.

' -** : .'.i

> MB

" M * **-T

14 *

*. u *

*--:v-"-'

I 1^ T* r P T-^ R T "V C*

US. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ~*~_ ' PLATE XXXIII.

CIVIL DIVISIONS

.t t',mntit:i. 'K>H-n*hif>s. Cafiitals unrl I'ltn.-i/ml Cities.

A MC I) K F(J II I.I KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Towns atnl I '<ll<Lqes
abcd<-r^liijkliiiuopt|rstvivwxv7.

HYDROGRAPHY

t lin-i-rx and Bas

D KFGHIJKLMNOPQRS TITV WX\

Crerks. Itiimlfx. Xpriiu/s, smiiU L-ikes. Pantis, Marshes ajtil Glnt-uvx
abcde fghifklmfn>p(jrsln v

HYPSOGRAPHY

Mountains, Platfaus, Lines of Cliffs and Canyons.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ

Penks. small Valleys. Canyons. Islands and Points.
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

PUBLIC WORKS

Railroads, Tunnels, Bridges. Ferries, Wagon -roads, Trails, Fords and Dams.

MARGINAL LETTERING

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ CONTOUR NUMBKHS

/ftMMima

1234.567890

PLATE XXXIV.

7330'
41 is'r

MISCELLANEOI'S

U.B GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
J W POWELL, DIRECTOR.

75'

PENNSYLVANIA
HONESDALE SHEET

7315' .
4115'

Henry Gannett. Chief Topographer.
H.M. Wilson. Geographer in charge.
Triandulation by S.S.Gannett.
Topography by E.B. Clark and WT Kramer
Survyd in 1890. i

20'

ff /...//,-/-.

MM '"< '

\t,lt:-

a
f

N K W VilKK
VERMONT

HAM I l/n ) X CO.
r.N'ION CO

Hoi '. \D.\HV

LINK

_HJ > 1 X DARY

LINK

PLATE XXXV.

DC
O

O
O

g
fe

TITI.K (>K MISSISSIPPI IMVKM COMMISSION MAP

PLATE xxxvi

.MI-:CH.V.\IC,\1. I.KTTKHI.Nd.

111- MISSISSIPPI KIYKH COM M I S S I ( i\ MAP

MKCHAMt'AI. SH-NS \\J) l.KTTKHS.

STKVl-Y OK T1IK NORTHKRN AND NOKTIIWKSTKRN I.AKKS. PLATC XXXV '"

Modem obedience to Acts of Congress,
and orders from thi-

IIKAIKH'AKTKUS OK TIIK CORPS OK ENGINEERS. \VAli l>K.rAKTMK.NT.

CHART OF

LAKE SUPERIOR.

Compiled under the direction of

C'oloncl O.M. POE, Corps of Engineers, Bvl. Brig. Gen. U. S.A.

From U. S. Surveys made between the years

1855 and 1895,

The Canadian Shore from British Admiralty Charts and other Sources.

I\iblished in 1895.

PLATC XXXIX.

CLARENDON -STREET-

TRINITY- CHURCH

BOSTON -MASS-

MAI1NO ,M.V IIV IVJO

UNIVERSITY OT CALIFORNIA
,-PAFrTMENT OF CIVIL ENGii42E.C

. CALL w.v.>;

PLATK XL

IO I HE
PERPETUAL MEMORY OE

PHILIP END1COTT

N vi 10. FOUNDED THIS 1NST1TUTK

JULY 13 1R59

HE SOUGHT A CITY ^HICH HATH
FOUNDATION WHOSE -BUILDER
\ND MAKER IS GOD

OF THE
UNIVERSITY

TYPE SPECIMENS. PLATE XLi

ROMAN

A.BCD 1-: F< i 1 1 1 .1'KLMNOPQ RSTUV WXY/A
1 _!') ir><> 7 S!io abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
balanced Cantilever Derrick MODKRN CLASS

ROMAN OLD STYLE

.\Bri)EFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ&

J /~w

1234567890 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy/
CITY HALL Granite Capital COURT HOUSE

ITALIC ITALIC OLD STYLE

abcdefghijklmnopq ab cd cfg h ijk / /// // op q

r s t u v w x y z rstu V W X J Z

Serf/on <>J the Southeastern Corridor Second Floor I^lail Dome

TYPE SPECIMENS. PLATE XLll

GUSHING GUSHING ITALIC

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST

UVWXYZ& 1234567890 UVWXYZ& 1234567890

abcdefghij klmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

CHICAGO SANITARY DISTRICT STORM WATER OUTLET

AND DESPLAINES VALLEY SIXTEEN-WHEELED GUN TRUCK

Ratio of Sediment to Water by Weight Graphical Computation of Discharge

CELTIC

ABCDKFGHIJKLMNOPQ RSTUVWXYZ&
1234567890 STANDARD BOX CULVERT

CELTIC. NO 2

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 1234567890
NORTH WING OF MAIN BUILDING TOWN HALL

FULL-SIZE DETAILS OF MAIN CORNICE 1895

TYPE SPECIMENS. PLATE XLlli.

BLANDKAY

ABBCDEFGQHIJKLMMN/NOOFQR5STUVWXYZ5/
1234567890 LAKESIDE COTTAGE QATE LODGE
GOLDEM ARCH OVER 5TAIRS AT THE ENTRANCE

OUTING

OPQK^TUVWXYZ 12345676 SO

UNIQUE QKILLE rANCY DALCOHY

ART GOTHIC

1 ""

L_^l ^ i l\iv^ v

1234567890 pireplaee ^oo\( ir> parlor Ur?<;ouered piazza

DYNAMO

flBCDEPGHNKLMNOPQRSTUUWXYZ& abcdefghijkl
mnopqrsfiiuu;^yz HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING Terra Cofta Details

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

TYPE SPECIMENS. PLATE XL V

DB VINNE

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 123456789o

LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING Comparative Mortality

QUAINT OPEN

1234567890

OLD STYLE ANTIQUE. NO 2

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&
1234567890 MATTRESS WAYS SPUR DIKE

VICTORIA ITALIC

ABCDEFCH IJ K LM N OPQRSTU VW XYZ 1234567890
TYPICAL SECTIONS OF LEVEES LUNITIDAL INTERVALS

TYPE SPECIMENS.

PLTE XLV

HBLICOIDAL ARCH 12 345678 90 2500 HP

-'# CARKOIJ. Al'I^Xl'IL

ZHHEO-IEI IPO~W~:E:R, I'crmancnt licncli Murk

MACADAM PAVEMENT UNIVERSITY PARK

High Water Readings at Memphis STEAM SNAG BOAT

EXECUTIVE MANSION Permissible Unit Stresses

CONCRETE MIXER GRAVEL DUMP CAR

MINE HOISTING ENGINE

WEST AHUTMKV1

RAILROAD LOCATION < '( )M 1'OUN I) KN< J I N K

PLATE XLVI.

h H

h (

D
PQ

'V -a

S -

'S. 0.

u &

Q-

ai 5

2 <
D

o !

H <
2

S w.

% Q i

s <

SHOWING

H
S

d in accordance w

Ou
fl

K s

D PROPOSED
ch they are to be :

gi il

fc s | |
u. I a:

o 1

S 2 14

< *f u S

U 3
OT w g ?

35
^ D

l ]

Z '%
< *

i i

^ 1

ffi

H 1 ^

I-H

Zo
.H

c^
UJ
Qd

OFTHS

UNIVERSITY

;> IFOPH^

TYPE SPECIMENS.

PLATE XLVIII.

NOTES.

The maximum rainfall is taken an !." inches per hour,
or l.">12 rutiic feet per second prr :u-rr.

Of the blocks on this map (not counting street") 0.24
cubic feet per second per acre is supposed to reach the
v \\' i> Inmi the roofe and plumbing of houses, or about
<>nc-Mxth of the total area of the lots.

Of all outlying acreage one-third is supposed to be occu-
pied by streets, courts, and alleys, and one-sixth of each lot Is
supposed to be occupied by buildings ; or, that J x i x 1.51 2=
0. 1 68 cubic feet per second per acre reaches the sewers.

NOTES.

Contour lines and elevations are referred, in feet, to the
mean Gulf level and the contours are 3 feet apart.

Latitudes and longitudes on this map depend on those of the
Cairo astronomical station as determined by the U. S. Corps of
Engineers.

The shore line is given at a, stage of water
irhicli corresponds to a reading of 17 feet on the
U. S. Engineer's gage, Cairo, and is plotted from
surveys made in 1876-'77 by the U. S. Corps of
l-'.n -Jineers.

The boundary between Kentucky and Illinou in along the
northwestern shore of the Ohio River.

All possible varieties of expression being at the command
of the skillful architect, the dominant expression of every
building must be consistent u'ith and determined by its use
and environment.

NOTES.

THE SHADED AREA INDICATES THE SURFACE
BELOW TWENTY FEET ABOVE CHICAGO DATUM
(LOW WATER OF LAKE MICHIGAN, 1847).

The unshaded area, along the river, between Romeo and
Joliet, is below Chicago datum.

VERTICAL VELOCITY CURVES

Computed from mean observed velocities
expressed in revolutions of meter per second.
Depth regarded as unity. Velocity per second
equals 4.168 revolutions per second plus O.O84.

The finished floor is sometimes laid before the
interior finish is put in place, but in the best prac-
tice it is not laid until all other work is in place
and finished.

OF THE

( UNIVERSITY |

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY

Return to desk from which borrowed.

This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
ENGIN&ERINfi I IRRAHY

OCT

NOV 1 8 1949f
JAN 1? 1952

LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476

TU U/4U2

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY

- -X' ')K',i, v-' V 1 : i " VIMV**'L! j vV'V'VvJ'pjH

liiillillillliill