Full text of "Textiles for commercial, industrial, and domestic arts schools; also adapted to those engaged in wholesale and retail dry goods, wool, cotton, and dressmaker's trades"

GIFT OF
MRS. JOHN W. GILMORE

UNIVERSITY FARM

LIBRARY OF
JOHN W. GILMORE

COTTON PLANT

TEXTILES

FOR COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND DOMESTIC

ARTS SCHOOLS; ALSO ADAPTED TO THOSE

ENGAGED IN WHOLESALE AND RETAIL

DRY GOODS, WOOL, COTTON, AND

DRESSMAKER'S TRADES

WILLIAM H. DOOLEY

PRINCIPAL LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL
LOWELL, MASS.

REVISED EDITION
WITH EXPERIMENTS

D. C. HEATH & COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

LIBRARY

QDLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DAVIS

1B4

PREFACE

THE author established and since its inception has
been in charge of the first industrial school for boys
and girls in Massachusetts. At an early date he recog-
nized the need of special text-books to meet the demand
of young people who are attending vocational schools.
There are plenty of books written on textiles for techni-
cal school students and advanced workers. But the
author has failed to find a book explaining the manufac-
ture and testing of textiles for commercial, industrial,
domestic arts, and continuation schools, and for those
who have just entered the textile or allied trades. This
book is written to meet this educational need. Others
may find the book of interest, particularly the chapters
describing cotton, woolen, worsted, and silk fabrics.

The author is under obligations to Mr. Franklin W.
Hobbs, treasurer of the Arlington Mills, for permission to
use illustrations and information from literature pub-
lished by the Arlington Mills; to Mr. S. H. Ditchett,
editor of Dry Goods Economist, for permission to use
information from his publication, "Dry Goods Encyclo-

vi PREFACE

pedia"; to the editor of the Textile Mercury; to
Frank P. Bennett, of the American Wool and Cotton
Reporter, for permission to use information from "Cot-
ton Fabrics Glossary"; and to the instructors of the
Lawrence Industrial School for valuable information.
In addition, information has been obtained from the
great body of textile literature, which the author
desires to acknowledge.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
FIBERS

PAGE

Animal Fibers Wool, Silk, Mohair. Vegetable Cotton, Flax,
Jute, Hemp. Mineral Asbestos, Tinsel, Metallic. Remanu-
factured Material Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract, and
Flocks. Artificial Fibers Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, Slag
Wool. Structure of Wool. Characteristics of Wool. Classifi-
cation of Wool. Carpet and Knitting Wools. Sheep Shearing.
Variation in Weight of Fleeces. Shipping the Fleeces. Value
of Wool Business. Saxony and Silesian Wool, Australian Wool,
Port Philip Wool, Sydney Wool, Adelaide Wool, Van Wool
from Tasmania, New Zealand Wool, Cape Wools, Wools from
South America, Russian Wool, Great Britain Wools, Lincoln,
Leicester, Southdown, Shropshire; Cashmere Wools, Norfolk-
down and Suffolkdown Wools, Cheviot Wool, Welsh Wools,
Shetland Wools, Irish Wools, Mohair, Alpaca Wool. How Wool
is Marketed 1

CHAPTER II
WOOL SORTING

Sorting. Classing Grades of Wool. Merino Wool. Difference
between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool. Pulled Wool. Delaine Wool.
Wool Sorter. Wool Washing, Wool Drying, Oiling. Burring
and Carbonizing. Bur Picker, Blending 16

CHAPTER III
WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS

Wool Substitutes and Waste Remanufactured Noils, Shoddy, and
Mungo. Methods of Producing Shoddy and Mungo Dusting,
Sorting, Seaming, Oiling, Grinding. Extract Wool. Flocks . 32

viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV
WORSTED YARN

Carding, Combing. Worsted Tops Gill Boxes. Different methods
of Spinning Bradford or English System, French System.
Structure of Worsted Yarn. Uses of Worsted Yarn. Counts
of Worsted Yarn 39

CHAPTER V
WOOLEN YARN

Operations in Producing Woolen Yarn Washing, Carding, Spinning,
Mule Spinning. Counts of Woolen Yarn. Uses of Woolen
Yarn 50

CHAPTER VI
WEAVING

Preparatory to Weaving Warp. Weaving Weaving Processes,
Classes of Weave Plain or Homespun Weave, Twill, Satin
Weaves, Figure Weaving (Jacquard apparatus), Double Cloth,
Pile Weaving, Gauze Weaving, Lappet Weaving 53

CHAPTER VII
DYEING AND FINISHING

Dyeing. Wool Dyeing, Piece Dyed, Cross Dyed, Yarn Dyed. Style
-Designing, Finishing, Perching, Burling, Mending, Fulling,
Crabbing, Tentering, Napping, Pressing. Theories of Coloring
in Textile Design. Various Methods of Employing Fancy
Shades. Adulteration 65

CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER VIII
WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS

Albatross, Alpaca, Corded Alpaca, Angora, Astrakhan, Bandanna,
Beaver (Fur Beaver), Bedford Cord, Beige, Bindings, Bombazine,
Bottany, Boucle, Broadcloth, Bunting, Caniche, Cashmere,
Cashmere Double, Cassimere, Castor, Challis, Cheviot (Diag-
onal or Chevron), Chinchilla, Chudah, Corduroy, Cote Cheval,
Coupure, Covert, Delaine, Doeskin, Drap d'Ete, Empress Cloth,
Epingline, Etamine, Felt, Flannel, Dress Flannel, French Flan-
nel, Shaker Flannel, Indigo Blue, Mackinaw, Navy Twilled
Flannel, Silk Warp, Baby Flannel. Florentine, Foule, Frieze,
Gloria, Granada, Grenadine, Henrietta Cloth, Homespun, Hop
Sacking, Jeans, Kersey, Kerseymere, Linsey Woolsey, Mel-
rose, Melton, Meltonette, Merino, Mohair Brilliantine, Mon-
tagnac, Orleans, Panama Cloth, Prunella, Sacking, Sanglier,
Sebastopol, Serge, Shoddy, Sicilian, Sultane, Tamise, Tartans,
Thibet, Tricot, Tweed, Veiling, Venetian, Vigogne (Vicuna),
Vigoureux, Voiles, Whipcord, Worsted Diagonals, Zephyr,
Zibeline 83

CHAPTER IX

COTTON

Rough Peruvian, East Indian, Egyptian, Sea Island. American
Crop Planting, Picking, Ginning Roller Gins, Saw Gins.
Cotton Gin. Information on the Leading Growths of Cotton.
Grades Full Grades, Half Grades, Quarter Grades. Varieties

Sea Island (selected), Sea Island (ordinary), Florida Sea
Island, Georgia, Egyptian, Peeler, Orleans or Gulf Upland,
Texas 105

CHAPTER X
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN

Picker Room, Carding Machine, Combing, Drawing. Flyer Frames

Intermediate Frame, Roving Frame, Fine or Jack Frame
Spinning Mule Spinning, Ring Spinning 125

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER XI
THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING

Manufacturing Processes. Thread Numbers. Sizing. Cotton Fin-
ishing Bleaching, Starching, Calendering, Mercerizing. Char-
acteristics of fine Cotton Cloth 139

CHAPTER XII
KNITTING

Knitting Machines. Stripe Knitting, Knitting Cotton, Knitting

Silk, Hosiery Manufacture, Finishing Process 153

CHAPTER XIII

LACE
Needlepoint Lace. Pillow Lace. Lace Terms Defined . . . 164

CHAPTER XIV
COTTON FABRICS

Albatross, Awning, Batiste, Bourrette, Bedford Cord, Buckram, Calico,
Cambric, Canvas, Chambray, Cheesecloth, Chine, Chintz, Cotton
Flannel, Crash, Crepe, Crepon, Cretonne, Crinoline, Damask,
Denim, Diaper, Dimity, Domet, Duck, Drill, Eolienne, Etamine,
Flannelette, Fustian, Galatea Cloth, Gauze, Gingham, Italian
Cloth, Jaconet, Khaki, Lawn, Lingerie, Linon, Long Cloth, Ma-
dras, Moreen, Mull, Mummy, Muslin, Nainsook, Organdie, Osna-
burg, Percale, Percaline, Pique, Poplin, Plumetis, Rep, Sateen,
Scrim, Silesia, Souffle, Swiss, Tarletan, Tape, Terry Cloth, Zephyr
Gingham 173

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XV
FLAX

Physical Structure. Uses. Mechanical Processes Crushing or
Beating, Breaking, Scutching, Hackling, Bleaching. Charac-
teristics of Good Linen, Notes on Table Linen 193

CHAPTER XVI
HEMP

Bast Fibers, Sisal Hemp, Manila Hemp, Ramie, Jute . . . 199

CHAPTER XVII
SILK

Cocoons. Raw Silk. Silk-producing Countries China, Japan,
Italy, Southern France, Greece, Turkey, Western Asia. Throw-
ing. Thrown Silk Tram, Crepe Yarn. Embroidery Silk.
Sewing Silk. Silk Waste, Spun Silk, Floss Silk. Ribbons, Silk
Thread, Silk Cord. Dyeing Yarns. Silk Dyeing. Logwood
Black Silk Dyeing (1) Boiling Off, (2) Mordanting, (3) Blue
Bottoming, (4) " Weighting" Bath, (5) Mordanting, (6) Dyeing.
Colored Silks. Mixed Silk Fabrics. Ribbons, Velvets, Print-
ing, Finishing, Waterproofing 203

CHAPTER XVIII
PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS

Alma, Barege, Bengaline, Berber, Brocade, Brocatel, Bombazine,
Chenille, Chiffon, China Silk, Crepe, Crepe de Chine, Eolienne,
Foulard, Glace, India Silk, Japanese Silk, Jersey Cloth, Meteor,
Moire, Mozambique, Organzine, Panne, Peau de Soie, Plush,

xii CONTENTS

Pongee, Popeline, Poplin, Figured Poplin, Terry Poplin, Sarsenet,
Satin, Soleil, Taffeta, Tulle, Velour, Velvet, Velveteen, Tabby
Velvet, Voile 219

CHAPTER XIX

ARTIFICIAL SILK

Silk Cotton, Artificial Silk, Tests 230

CHAPTER XX
SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON

Wool Pulp, Ramie, Pineapple Fibers, Spun Glass, Metallic

Threads, Slag Wool, Asbestos 232

APPENDIX

Determining Style of Weave. Tests for Strength and Elasticity.
Determining Count of Warp and Filling, Shrinkage, Weight.
Tests for Constituents of Warp and Filling, for Vegetable and
Animal Fibers. Acid Test. Cotton Distinguished from Linen,
Silk from Wool, Artificial Silk from Silk. Test for Shoddy. De-
termination of Dressing. Test for Permanence of Dyes . . . 235

History of Textiles. History of the Organization of Textile Indus-
tries. History of Manufacturing. History of Lace .... 245

EXPERIMENTS
Experiments 1 to 62 267

Sources of Supply , 319

INDEX . 323

TEXTILES

CHAPTER I
FIBERS

ALL the materials used in the manufacture of clothing
are called textiles and are made of either long or short
fibers. These fibers can be made into a continuous
thread. When two different sets of threads are inter-
laced, the resulting product is called cloth.

The value of any fiber for textile purposes depends
entirely upon the possession of such qualities as firm-
ness, length, curl, softness, elasticity, etc., which adapt it
for spinning. The number of fibers that possess these
qualities is small, and may be classified as follows:

Animal Fibers: Wool, Silk, Mohair.

Vegetable Fibers: Cotton, Flax, Jute, Hemp, etc.

Mineral Fibers: Asbestos, Tinsel, and other metal-
lic fibers.

Remanufactured Material: Noils, Mungo, Shoddy,
Extract, and Flocks.

Artificial Fibers: Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, and
Slag Wool.

The Structure of Wool. A large part of the people
of the world have always used wool for their clothing.
Wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy

TEXTILES

coat of the sheep and similar animals, such as the
goat and alpaca. Wool fiber when viewed under
the microscope is seen to consist
roughly of three parts:

1st. Epidermis, or outer surface,
which is a series of scales lying one
upon the other.

2d. Cortex, or intermediate sub-
stance, consisting of angular, elongated
cells, which give strength to the wool.
3d. Medulla, or pith of the fiber.
Difference between Wool and Hair.
Not all animal fibers are alike. They
vary in fineness, softness, length, and
strength, from the finest Merino wool to
the rigid bristles of the wild boar. At
just what point it can be said that the animal fiber ceases
to be wool and becomes hair, is difficult to determine,
because there is a gradual and imperceptible gradation
from wool to hair. 1 The distinction between wool and
hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and wavy
delicacy of the woolen fiber, combined with its highly ser-
rated surf ace upon which the luster of the wool depends.
Characteristics of Wool. The chief characteristic
of wool is its felting or shrinking power. This felting
property from which wool derives much of its value, and
which is its special distinction from hair, depends in
part upon the kinks in the fiber, but mainly upon the

WOOL FIBER
Highly magnified

1 Hair is straight and glossy, stronger and smoother than wool, and
grows sometimes as long as twenty inches.

FIBERS 3

scales with which the fiber is covered. These scales
or points are exceedingly minute, ranging from about
1,100 to the inch to nearly 3,000. The stem of the fiber
itself is extremely slender, being less than one thou-
sandth of an inch in diameter. In good felting wools
the scales are more perfect and numerous, while infe-
rior wools generally possess fewer serrations, and are
less perfect in structure.

In the process of felting the fibers become entangled
with one another, and the little projecting scales hook
into one another and hold the fibers closely interlocked.
The deeper these scales fit into one another the closer
becomes the structure of the thread.

Classification of Wool. The various kinds of wool
used in commerce are named either from the breed of
the sheep or from the country or locality in which the
sheep are reared. Thus we get Merino wool from
Merino sheep, while English, American, and Australian
wools are named from the respective countries. As
the result of cross breeding of different sheep in different
parts of the world, under different climatic conditions,
physical surroundings, and soil, there exist a great many
varieties of wool. The wool of commerce is divided
into three great classes: (1) Short wool or clothing wool
(also called carding wool), seldom exceeding a length of
two to four inches ; (2) long wool or combing wool, vary-
ing from four to ten inches; (3) carpet and knitting
wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse.

The distinction between clothing or carding wools
on the one hand, and combing wools on the other, is an

4 TEXTILES

old one. Combing wools are so called because they
are prepared for spinning l into yarn by the process of
" combing " - that is, the fibers are made to lie parallel
with one another preparatory to being spun into thread.
Carding wools made to cross and interlace and inter-
lock with one another are shorter than combing wools,
and in addition they possess to a much greater degree
the power of felting that is, of matting together in a
close compact mass. Combing wools, on the other
hand, are not only longer than the carding wools, but
they are also harder, more wiry, and less inclined to be
spiral or kinky. It must be understood, however,
that under the present methods of manufacture, short'
wools may be combed and spun by the French method
of spinning just as the long wools are combed and spun
by the Bradford or English system.

Carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest, coarsest,
and harshest sorts of wools. They come principally
from Russia, Turkey, China, Greece, Peru, Chili,
etc., and from the mountain districts of England and
Scotland. Carpet wools approach more nearly to hair
than other wools. The only staple of this class pro-
duced in the United States is grown on the original
Mexican sheep of the great Southwest. Few of these
Mexican sheep are left, for they have been improved
by cross breeding, but they constitute the founda-
tion stock of most of our Western flocks, which now
produce superior clothing and combing wool.

1 Spinning is a process by which long or short fibers are twisted into
a continuous thread.

FIBERS 5

Sheep Shearing. In order to get an idea of the im-
portance of the sheep industry in the United States, one
must take a glance at its condition in the big states of
the West. Wyoming has more than 4,600,000 sheep

SHEEP SHEARING

within its borders. Montana, which held the record
until 1909, has 4,500,000 sheep. Then comes Idaho with
2,500,000, Oregon with 2,000,000, and so on down the list
until the nation's total reaches 40,000,000 sheep, four-
fifths of which are west of the Missouri river.

6 TEXTILES

To harvest the wool from such an enormous num-
ber of backs is a task that calls for expert shearers,
men who can handle the big shears of the machine
clippers with a skill that comes from long practise.
The shearing must be done at the right time of the
year. If the wool is clipped too early, the sheep suffer
from the cold; if the shearing comes too late, the sheep
suffer from intense heat, and in either case are bound
to lose weight and value.

To meet the exacting conditions a class of men has
risen expert in the sheep-shearing business. These
shearers begin work in southern and middle California,
Utah, etc. Another month finds them busy in the great
sheep states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon,
where they find steady employment until July, when
they go to the ranges of Canada. In this way the
shearers keep busy nearly all the year, and at high wages.

The Mexicans are particularly expert with the hand
shears, though this form of clipping is being done away
with, owing to the installation of power plants for
machine shearing. These plants are installed at various
points on the great sheep ranges. Long sheds are
erected and shafting extends down both sides of the
shearing place. Twenty or more shearers will be
lined up in one of these sheds, each man operating a
clipping machine connected with the shafting. The
sheep are brought in from the range in bands of 2,500
or more, and are put in the corrals adjoining the shear-
ing sheds. Then they are driven down chutes to the
shearers.

FIBERS 7

A shearer reaches into a small corral behind him
and pulls out a sheep. With a dextrous fling the animal
is put in a sitting posture between the shearer's knees,
and then the steel clippers begin clipping off the wool.
The machine-shearing saves much wool, as it gets
closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly.
In fact, some sheep owners say that the increased
weight of their fleeces at each shearing is enough to pay
the extra expense of running a power plant.

As fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers
they are run along a narrow chute and each one
is branded. The branding mark is usually a letter
painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly
seen when they are coming through a chute. The
mark remains on the fleece and is always easily distin-
guished.

Fleece. There is a great variation in the weight of
fleeces. Some sheep, such as those on the best ranges
in Oregon, Montana, and Wyoming, will average an
eight-pound fleece full of natural oil, while sheep from
the more sterile alkaline ranges of New Mexico will
not average much more than five pounds of wool.

The shearing season on the plains is much like the
threshing season in agricultural communities. With
a crew of first-class shearers working in a shearing
shed, it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool. Boys
are kept busy picking up the fleeces, tying them into
compact bundles, and throwing them to the men who
have been assigned to the task of filling the wool sacks.
These sacks, which hold about 400 pounds, are

8 TEXTILES

suspended from a wooden framework, and as fast as the
fleeces are thrown in, they are tramped down until the
sacks will not hold a pound more. Most of the sacks
are shipped to warehouses in such wool centers as
Casper, Wyoming, or Billings, Montana, the latter
place being the greatest wool shipping center in the
world. Here they are sold to Eastern buyers, who
examine the clips at their leisure and make their bids.

Value of Wool Business. Some idea of the fortunes
at stake in the wool business can be gathered from
the fact that the total wool product of the country
in 1909 was valued at $78,263,165. It is expected
that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good
year will pay all a sheepman's running expenses, such
as hire of herders, cost of shearing, etc. He then has the
sale of his lambs as clear profit. Enormous fortunes
are being made in the sheep business in the west, owing
to the high price of wool and mutton.

Saxony and Silesian Wool. Among wools of all
classes the Saxony and Silesian take the first place,
and for general good qualities, fineness, and regularity of
fiber, they are unequalled. The fiber is short in staple,
possesses good felting properties, and is strong and
elastic. This wool is used chiefly in the manufacture
of cloths where much milling 1 is required, such as
superfines and dress-faced fabrics.

Australian Wools. Australia furnishes wools of a
superior character, and some of the choicest clips rival

1 A process of finishing cloth by condensing the fibers so as to make
the cloth stronger and firmer.

FIBERS 9

the Saxony and Silesian wools. They are used both
for worsted 1 and woolen yarns. They are generally
strong and of an elastic character, possess numerous
serrations, and are of good color, with good felting
properties. The principal Australian wools are Port
Philip, Sydney, and Adelaide wools. These are the
best brands imported from that country.

Port Philip Wool. Port Philip wool is suitable
for either worsted or woolen yarns. The fiber is not
quite as fine as Saxony, but it makes a good thread, is
fairly sound in staple, and is of good length and color.
It is very wavy and serrated. The longest and best of
this wool is used for the very finest worsted yarns, and
will spin up to 130's counts. 2 The sheep are descend-
ants of the original Spanish Merino. Cross bred Port
Philip wool is from the same Merino sheep crossed with
Leicesters, which yield a medium quality fleece of sound
fiber and good quality for spinning counts from 40's to
56's. The yarn has a bright, clear appearance.

Sydney Wools. Sydney wools are moderately fine
in fiber and of medium length. They are rather defi-
cient in strength, uneven in color, and often contain
yellow locks which make them undesirable when re-
quired for dyeing light shades. They are used for
nearly the same purpose as Port Philip wools, but do
not spin quite as far in worsted yarns, nor are they
equal in milling qualities.

1 See footnote, page 39.

2 The size of yarn is technically called the "counts" and is based
on the number of 560 yard lengths required to weigh one pound. In
this case 130's count = 130 X 560, or 72,800 yards of yarn to a pound.

10 TEXTILES

Adelaide Wool. Adelaide wool has a reputation
for sound Merinos, the average quality being a little
lower than for the Port Philip and Sydney wools. Its
fiber is moderately fine, but not of uniform length; its
color is not so good, and it contains a large amount of
yolk. 1 Adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods,
weft (filling) 2 yarn up to 60's, and certain worsted
warps. 2 It is used for medium fancy woolens.

Van Wool from Tasmania. The climate of this
island is well suited to the growing of wool, and pro-
duces excellent qualities, fine in fiber, of good length,
and strong in the staple, which will spin as high counts
as 70's and 80's worsted. This wool is useful for mix-
ing with other good wools. Its color is very white,
which makes it a useful wool for dyeing light shades.
Its milling properties are good, and the shorter sorts
are suitable for woolens.

New Zealand Wools are very supple, which make
them valuable to the spinner. These wools are suitable
for almost all classes of Merino and crossbred yarns.
They are of good length, sound staple, have good felting
properties, and are of good color. They are useful for
blending with mungo and shoddy, to give to these
remanufactured materials that springy, bulky character
which they lack.

Cape Wools. Cape Colony and Natal produce
merino wool that is somewhat short in staple, rather
tender, and less wavy than some other wools. The

1 An encrusting compound of dirt and grease formed on the fleece.

2 See page 54.

FIBERS

sheep are not so well cared for, and are fed on the leaves
of a small shrub. The absence of grass leaves the
ground very sandy, and this makes the fleece heavy
and dirty. Its color is fair, but it lacks elasticity. It
is used chiefly to cheapen blends 1 of 60's top. 2 The
short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and

MERINO SHEEP

hosiery, and is also used for shawls and cloths where
felting is not an essential feature.

Wools from South America. These wools are of
the same standard of excellence as the Australian
wools, but they are generally deficient in strength and
elasticity. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo wools are
fairly fine in fiber, but lack strength and elasticity,
and are deficient in milling properties; they are also

1 Mixtures. 2 After wool fibers are combed they are called top.

12 TEXTILES

burry. The climate suits the sheep well, and the feed
is good, but the careless methods of classing and pack-
ing have earned for these wools a poor reputation
that is well deserved.

The best 60's wool is combed in oil, but a large por-
tion of the shorter is combed and used in thick counts,
- 20's to 36's worsted for the hosiery trade.

Russian Wool. The staple of this is generally strong,
and the fibers are of a medium thickness; the color is
milky white. It is useful to blend with Australian or
other good wools. It produces a good yarn, and is very
often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics
that require to be finished in the natural color.

Great Britain Wools. These may be divided into
three groups: (1) long wools, of which the Lincoln and
Leicester are typical examples; (2) short wools, which
include Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, and others;
and (3) wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep,
such as the Cheviot, Scotch Blackface, Shetland, Irish,
and Welsh.

Lincoln Wool is a typical wool obtained from the
long wool sheep, and noted for its long, lustrous fiber,
which is silky and strong. The staple varies from
ten to eighteen inches in length, and the average fleece
will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight.

Leicester Wool has a somewhat finer fiber than Lin-
coln. It is a valuable wool, of good color, uniform and
sound in staple, curly, with good, bright luster and
no dark hairs. While luster wools are grown exten-
sively in England, they also grow in Indiana and

FIBERS 13

Kentucky, and are commonly known in the trade as
braid wool.

Southdown is one of the most valuable of short
staple wools. It possesses a fine hair, is close and
wavy, and fairly sound in staple, but rather deficient in
milling qualities. The shorter varieties are carded

WOOL MARKET AT BUENOS AYRES

and made into flannels and other light fabrics, while
the longer qualities are used in the production of worsted
goods. The weight of a Southdown fleece averages
from four to five pounds.

Shropshiredown wool is of good quality, with strong,
fine, lustrous fiber, of good length. It resembles South-
down, but is not as lustrous as mohair, the natural
colors being either white, black, brown, or fawn. It is
used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.

Cashmere Wool is the fine, woolly, extremely soft,
white or gray fur of the Cashmere goat which is bred
in Thibet. There are two kinds of fiber obtained: one,

14 TEXTILES

which is really the outer covering, consists of long
tufts of hair; underneath this is the Cashmere wool of
commerce, a soft, downy wool of a brownish-gray tint,
with a fine, silky fiber. It is used for making the
costly oriental (Indian) shawls and the finest wraps.

The Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools are fairly
fine in fiber and soft, but slightly deficient in strength
and elasticity.

Cheviot Wool may be taken as representative of the
hilly breeds of sheep. It is an average wool, with
staple of medium length, soft, and with strong and
regular fiber; it is of a good, bright color, and
possesses desirable milling properties, being used for
both woolen and worsted, but chiefly in the fancy
woolen trade. The average weight of the fleece is
about 4| pounds. The black-faced or Highland breed
yields a medium wool, coarser and more shaggy than
the Cheviot, and varying much in quality. It is
almost all used in the production of rugs, carpets, and
blankets.

Welsh Wools lack waviness and fineness of fiber.
They are chiefly used for flannels.

Shetland Wools are similar in character to Welsh
wools, but slightly finer in fiber and softer. They are
used in the manufacture of knitted goods, such as
shawls and wraps. They lack felting properties.

Irish Wools possess a strong, thick hair of moderate
length and fine color. They are similar in many
respects to the Welsh wools, and are often classed with
them. They are used in the production of low and

FIBERS 15

medium tweeds fancy woolen cloths not requiring
small yarns or milling qualities.

Mohair is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora
goat, which derives its name from the district of Asia
Minor from which it comes. These animals have also
been successfully bred in Spain and France. The hair
is pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, and
possesses a high luster. It is used in making plushes,
velvets, astrakhans, and curled fabrics, also half silk
goods and fine wraps.

Alpaca Wool is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep,
which is a species of llama. The staple is of good
length and soft, but is not quite as lustrous as mohair,
the natural colors being either white, black, brown, or
fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress
goods.

How Wool is Marketed. The bulk of the wool of
commerce comes into the market in the form of fleece
wool, the product of a single year's growth, and cut
from the body of the animal usually in April or May.
The first and finest clip, called lamb's wool, may be
taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to
twelve months. All subsequently cut fleeces are known
as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less
value than the first clip.

CHAPTER II
WOOL SORTING

FLEECE wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in
bundles and must be sorted. This process consists in
sorting and classifying the fibers of the fleece. Not only
do the various species of sheep furnish widely different
qualities of wool, but different qualities are obtained
from the same animal, according to the part of the body
from which the wool is taken. This variation in some
instances is very marked, and sometimes is greater
than that which separates the wools of the different
breeds of sheep. Hence the sorting and classing of
wool become necessary for the production of good,
.sound yarn of even quality.

An attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result
in the spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory
yarns. As many as twelve or fourteen sorts may be
obtained from one fleece (by very fine sorting), but
generally not more than five or seven are made. The
following table shows the relative qualities of wools
from the various parts of a Merino sheep:

1 and 2. Head (top and sides): The wools grown on
these parts are remarkable for length of staple, softness,
and uniformity of character. They are usually the
choicest wools in the fleece.

WOOL SORTING

3. Upper part of the back: This also is a wool of good,
sound quality, resembling in staples Nos. 1 and 2, but
not as soft or as fine of fiber.

4. Loin and back: The staple here is comparatively
short, not as fine, but generally of unvarying character,
sometimes rather tender.

SORTING ROOM

5. Upper parts of legs: This wool is medium in length
but coarse of fiber, and has a tendency to hang in loose,
open locks. It is generally sound, but likely to con-
tain vegetable matter.

6. Upper portion of the neck: The staple clipped
from this part of the neck is of an inferior quality,
frequently faulty and irregular in growth, and contains
twigs, thorns, etc.

18 TEXTILES

7. Central part of the neck: This wool is similar to
No. 6 but rather tender in staple.

8. Belly: This wool is from under the sheep, between
the fore and hind legs. It is short and dirty, poor in
quality, and generally tender.

9. Root of tail: In this wool the fibers are coarse,
short, and glossy.

10. Lower parts of the legs: This wool is generally
dirty and greasy, the staple having no wave and lack-
ing fineness. It is generally burry and contains much
vegetable matter.

11. Front of Head; 12. Throat; 13. Chest: The wools
from these parts are sometimes classed together, all
having the same characteristics. The fiber is stiff,
straight, coarse, and covered with fodder.

14. Shins: This is another short, thick, straight
wool of glossy fiber, commonly known as shanks.

Classing. Classing is a grading of the fleeces, and
is usually, but not always, a process preliminary to
sorting. It is an important part of sorting, and when
well done greatly facilitates the making of good,
uniform matchings.

Grades of Wool. In the grading of wool no set
standard of quality exists. The same classification
may be applied in different years, or in different locali-
ties, to qualities of wool showing much variation, the
best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for
the lower grades. The highest quality of wool in the
United States is found on full-blooded Merino sheep.

Merino Wool. The Merino sheep was bred for wool

WOOL SORTING 19

and not mutton. The fleece of this breed is fine,
strong, elastic, and of good color; it also possesses a
high felting power. Though naturally short, it is now
grown to good length and the fleece is dense. The
Merino sheep is a native of Spain, and Spain was for a
long period the chief country of its production. It
was also in past centuries extensively bred in England
and English wool owes much to the Merino for the im-
provement it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds
of English sheep. It was also introduced into Saxony
and was highly bred there, and Saxony soon came to
surpass Spanish wool in fineness, softness, and felting
properties. The Merino was introduced into the United
States at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
By 1810, 5,000 Merino sheep had been imported and
these 5,000 sheep formed the basis of most of the fine
wool-producing flocks of our country to-day.

The terms half blood, three-eighths blood, and quarter
blood refer to the full-blooded Merino standard. As
the scale descends the wool becomes coarser, the wool
of a quarter blood usually being a comparatively coarse
fiber. The general classifications of fine, medium,
coarse, and low, refer to the relative fineness of Merino
combing wools. These distinctions naturally over-
lap according to the opinion of the parties in trans-
actions. Picklock XXX and XX represent the highest
grades of clothing wool, the grade next lower being X,
and then Nos. 1 and 2. These again are used in con-
nection with the locality from which the wool is grown,
as Ohio XX, Michigan X, New York No. 1, etc.

20 TEXTILES

Difference Between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool.

One of the first points to be understood in wool sorting
is the difference between the wool of lambs and one-
year-old sheep, and that of sheep two or more years old.
Lamb's wool is naturally pointed at the end, because it
has never been clipped. It is termed hog or hoggett
wool, and is more valuable when longer, of about four-
teen months' growth. It is finer in quality and pos-
sesses more waviness, which is a help in the process
of spinning.

The wool of sheep two or more years old is known
as wether. The ends of the fiber from such sheep are
thick and blunted, on account of having been previ-
ously cut. It is necessary to be able to tell at once a
hog fleece from a wether, and this can be done in two
ways: by examining the ends of the fiber to see if they
are pointed; or by pulling a staple out of the fleece. If
it is wether, the staple will come out clean, without
interfering to any extent with those around it; but if
hog, some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is
being pulled. Hog wool is generally more full of dirt,
moss, straw, and other vegetable matter.

Dead Wool is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep
that have died.

Pulled Wool. Pulled wool is wool from the pelts 1 as
they come from the slaughter-houses of large packing
plants. These pelts are thrown into vats of water and
left to soak for twenty-four hours to loosen the dirt
which has become matted into the wool. From these

i Skins.

WOOL SORTING 21

vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which
the wool issues perfectly clean and white. The pelts
are next freed from any particles of flesh or fat which
may have adhered to them, and are then taken to the
" painting " room. Here they are laid flesh side up and
carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the
roots of the wool. This preparation is allowed to remain
on the pelts for twenty-four hours, when it is cleaned
off and the pelts taken to the " pulling " room. Each
wool puller stands before a small wooden framework over
which the pelt is thrown, and the wool, being all thor-
oughly loosened by the " paint " preparation, is easily
and quickly pulled out by the handful. As it is pulled
it is thrown into barrels conveniently arranged accord-
ing to grade and length.

When a barrel is filled, it is transferred to a large
room across which are several rows of wire netting,
raised about three feet from the floor. Each sheet of
netting is about six feet wide. Here the wool is piled
on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is
forced underneath it by means of a blower. Meanwhile
it is worked over by men with rakes, and soon dries.
When thoroughly dry, it is raked up and taken to the
storeroom, where it is dumped into bins. Here it usually
remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold,
when it is bagged. The bags of wool ultimately find
their way to the woolen mill or sampling house. Some-
times the fleece will retain its fleece form, but usually
it breaks up. The wool contains lime and has to be
specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime

22 TEXTILES

from absorbing the cleansing substances used for
scouring the wool.

Delaine Wool is a variety of fine, long combing wool.

Cotty Wool, or cotts, is wool from sheep that have
been exposed to severe weather and lack of nourish-
ment, and for these reasons have failed to throw off
the yolk necessary to feed the wool. As a result it
becomes matted or felted together, and is hard and
brittle and almost worthless.

Wool Sorter. The sorter begins by placing the
fleece upon his board or table, always arranging it so
that he faces the north, as this gives the most constant
light and no glare of the sun. The fleece thus spread
out shows a definite dividing line through the center.
The sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to ana-
lyze their different qualities. The number of sorts is
determined by the requirements of the manufacturer
who, in purchasing his wool, buys those grades that
will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present
use, and that leave in stock the smallest number of
sorts and least weight for which he has no immediate
use. The sorter then removes all extraneous matter
adhering to the fleece, such as straw, twigs, and seeds,
and cuts off the hard lumps of earth, tar, or paint,
which, if not removed at this time, will dissolve in the
scouring process and stain the wool. With these pre-
liminaries finished, he proceeds to cast out the locks,
according to quality, into baskets or skeps provided
for that purpose. After skirting or taking off the out-
side edges of the fleece, usually known as brokes, and

WOOL SORTING

the legs and tail, known as breech, he separates the
other portions from the better qualities.

Picklock, prime, choice, super, head, downrights,
seconds, breech, etc., are some of the terms used. Pick-
lock comprises the choicest qualities; prime is similar
to picklock, but slightly inferior; choice is true staple,

SORTED WOOL IN PILES READY TO BE TRANSPORTED TO THE
DECREASING PLANT

but not as fine in fiber; super is similar to choice, but
as a rule not as valuable; head includes the inferior
sorts from this part of the sheep ; downrights come from
the lower parts of the sides; seconds consist of the best
wool clipped from the throat and breast; breech, the
short, coarse fibers obtained from the skirting and
edgings of the fleece.

In the worsted trade different names are used. The

24 TEXTILES

terms generally adopted are: blue, from the neck;
fine, from the shoulders; neat, from the middle of the
sides and back; brown-drawings, from the haunches;
breech, from the tail and hind legs; cowtail, when the
breech is very strong; brokes, from the lower part of
the front legs and belly, which are classed as super,
middle, and common.

Fine, short wools are sorted according to the num-
ber of counts of yarn they are expected to spin, as 48's,
60's, 70's, and so on. Thus we see there are different
methods of indicating qualities in different districts,
and also of indicating differences of qualities between
the woolen and worsted branches of the trade.

It may be noted that the quality of the wool varies
in the same way as the quality of the flesh. The
shoulder is finest in grain and most delicate, so the
wool is finer in fiber. There is more wear and tear for
the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders, hence
the wool is longer and stronger; about the neck the
wool is short, to prevent the sheep from being weighted
down while eating, etc.; the wool on the back becomes
rough and thin, being most exposed to the rain. From
the foregoing it will be readily seen that there is neces-
sity for careful sorting, in order to insure obtaining an
even running yarn, and subsequently a uniform quality
of fabrics.

Wool Washing. Fleece wool as it comes into the
market is either in the " grease," that is, unwashed and
with all the dirt which gathers on the surface of the
greasy wool; or it is received as washed wool, the

WOOL SORTING

washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep
shearing. Wool, unlike cotton, cannot be worked into
yarn without being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities.
These impurities consist of greasy and sweaty secre-
tions, of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber. Com-
bined with dirt, sand, etc., which adhere to the wool,

WASHING ROOM

these secretions form an encrusting compound, known
as yolk, which acts as a natural preservative to the
wool, keeping it soft and supple. This compound, with
other extraneous matter, must be removed before the
wool is in a workable condition. The amount of yolk
varies, the greatest amount being found in fine, short
wools from the warm climates. In long-staple wool
the amount of yolk is comparatively small.

26 TEXTILES

Various methods of removing these impurities have
been tried; one is the use of absorbent substances, such
as fossil meal, alumina, etc., to withdraw the greasy
matter, so that the remaining impurities can be easily
removed by washing. In other methods, naphtha or
similar solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool
fats. This is followed by washing in tepid water to
dissolve the potash salts, leaving the dirt to fall away
when the other substances are no longer present. To
work this method with safety requires a costly and
intricate plant with skilled supervision. The method
which is practically in universal use is washing the
wool in alkaline solutions, properties of which com-
bine with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emul-
sion which is easily washed off from the wool.

Great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the
washing process, as the luster may be destroyed and a
brownish-yellow tint given to the wool, the spinning
properties very seriously injured, the softness destroyed,
or the fiber dissolved. Some wools are easy to wash,
requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature;
other wools are cleansed with great difficulty. A note,
therefore, should be made of any particular brand or
class of wool requiring special attention, to serve as a
guide in the treatment of future lots. The danger lies
in using unsuitable agents, hard water, excessive
temperatures, strong reagents, etc.

Caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on
wool as they eat into it and destroy its vitality. Car-
bonate alkalies are less severe. Whatever cleansing

WOOL SORTING

substances are used, it is essential that they should be
free from anything that is likely to injure the wool -
that they remove the impurities and still preserve all
the qualities in the wool. If the washing is properly
performed the alkaline portion of the yolk is removed,
leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber. If

DECREASING PLANT REMOVING GREASE FROM WOOL

the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as
" unmerchantable washed." " Tub washed " is the
term applied to fleeces which are broken up and washed
more or less by hand. Scoured wool is tub washed with
warm water and soap, and then thoroughly rinsed in
cold water until nothing remains but the clean fiber.

An improved method of washing wool by hand is to
have a series of tanks with pressing rollers attached to

28 TEXTILES

each tank; the wool is agitated by means of forks, and
then passed to the pressing rollers and into each tank
in succession. The tanks are usually five in number,
and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the
upper to the lower tank. Upon leaving the pressing
rollers the excess of water is driven off in a hydro
extractor l and the wool is beaten into a light, fluffy
condition by means of a wooden fan or beater.

Wool Drying. The process of drying wool is not
intended to be carried to such an extent that the wool
will be in an absolutely dry state, for in such a con-
dition it would be lusterless, brittle, and discolored. It
is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of
moisture since it is hygroscopic, and to remove it en-
tirely would result in partial disintegration of the fibers.
Buyers and sellers have a recognized standard of mois-
ture, 16 per cent. If, on the other hand, it is left too
wet, the fibers will not stand the pulling strain in the
succeeding operations, and if not broken, they are so
unduly stretched that they have lost their elasticity.

The theory which underlies the drying process is
that dry air is capable of absorbing moisture, hence by
circulating currents of dry air in and around wet wool,
the absorbing power of the air draws off the moisture.
For continuous drying free circulation is a necessity,
as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and
incapable of taking up more moisture. Warming the
air increases its capacity to absorb moisture; thus a

1 A wire cage enclosed in a metallic shell which revolves at a high
speed causing sixty or seventy per cent of the moisture to be removed.

WOOL SORTING 29

higher temperature is capable of drying the wool much
quicker than the same volume of air would at a low
temperature. A free circulation of air at 75 to 100
degrees F., evenly distributed, and with ample provision
for the escape of the saturated air, is essential for good
work.

Oiling. After being scoured wool generally has to
be oiled before it is ready for the processes of spinning,
blending, etc. As delivered from the drying apparatus,
the wool is bright and clean, but somewhat harsh and
wiry to the touch, owing to the removal of the yolk
which is its natural lubricant. To render it soft and
elastic, and to improve its spinning qualities, the fiber
is sprinkled with lard oil or olive oil. As the oil is a
costly item, it is of consequence that it be equally dis-
tributed and used economically. To attain this end
various forms of oiling apparatus have been invented,
which sprinkle the oil in a fine spray over the wool,
which is carried under the sprinkler by an endless cloth.

Burring and Carbonizing. After wool has been
washed and scoured it frequently happens that it can-
not be advanced to the succeeding operations of manu-
facture because it is mixed with burs, seeds, leaves,
slivers, etc., which are picked up by the sheep in the
pasture. These vegetable impurities injure the spin-
ning qualities of the stock, for if a bur or other foreign
substance becomes fastened in the strand of yarn while
it is being spun, it either causes the thread to break or
renders it bunchy and uneven. For removing burs,
etc., from the wool two methods are pursued: the

30 TEXTILES

one purely mechanical, the other chemical, and known
respectively as burring and carbonizing.

Bur Picker. For the mechanical removing of burs a
machine called the bur picker is employed. In this
machine the wool is first spread out into a thin lap or
sheet; then light wooden blades, rotating rapidly, beat
upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into
pieces. The pieces fall down into the dust box or upon
a grating beneath the machine, and are ejected together
with a good deal of the wool adhering to them. Often
the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and these are
scattered through the stock.

Process of Carbonizing. For the complete removal
of all foreign vegetable substances from wool the most
effective process is carbonizing, in which the burs, etc.,
are burned out by means of acid and a high degree of
heat. The method of procedure is as follows: The
wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sul-
phuric or hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours, the
acid bath being placed in cement cisterns or in large
lead-lined tubs and not made strong enough to injure the
fiber of the wool. During the immersion the stock is
frequently stirred. Next, the wool is dried and then
placed in an enclosed chamber and subjected to a high
temperature (75 degrees C.). The result of this process
is that all the vegetable matter contained in the wool
is " carbonized " or burned to a crisp, and on being
slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust. This
dust is removed from the wool by various simple
processes. The carbonizing process was first introduced

WOOL SORTING 31

in 1875, though it made but slight headway against the
old burring method until after 1880.

Blending. Pure wool of but one quality is not often
used in the production of woven fabrics, so, before the
raw material is ready for spinning into yarn, or for
other processes by which it is worked into useful forms,
it is blended. Wools are blended for many reasons
(among 'which cheapness figures prominently), the
added materials consisting usually of shoddy, mungo,
or extract fibers. Ordinarily, however, blending has
for its object the securing of a desired quality or weight
of cloth. The question of color, as well as quality, also
determines blending operations, natural colored wools
being frequently intermixed to obtain particular shades
for dress goods, tweeds, knitting yarns, etc. Stock
dyed wools are also blended for the production of mixed
colors, as browns, grays, Oxfords, etc. There is prac-
tically no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtain-
able by mixing two or more colors of wool together.
The various quantities of wool to be blended are spread
out in due proportion in the form of thin layers, one on
top of the other, and then passed through a machine
called the teaser. The teaser consists of a combination
of large and small rollers, thickly studded with small
pins, which open the wool, pull it apart, and thoroughly
intermix it. A blast of air constantly plays upon the
wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and pins in open-
ing out the fibers. The material is subjected to this
operation several times and is finally delivered in a
soft, fleecy condition, ready to be spun into yarn.

CHAPTER III
WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS

Remanufactured wool substitutes are extensively used
in the manufacture of woolen and worsted goods.
There is no need for the prejudice that is sometimes
met regarding these reclaimed materials, for by their
use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed.
If the immense quantity of these materials were wasted,
countless persons would be unable to afford proper cloth-
ing, as it is difficult to estimate what the price of wool
would be ; and it is also doubtful if a sufficient quantity
could be produced to supply the need. In almost all
instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special
purpose of producing cloths at a much lower price.

The cloths made from waste products, such as noils,
are not much inferior in quality to those produced from
the wool from which the noils are obtained; but the
great majority of cloths made from other waste products
are much inferior. The following are the most impor-
tant substitutes: noils, shoddy, mungo, extract-wool,
and flocks.

Noils are the rejected fibers from the process of comb-
ing the different wools and hairs; thus, wool noils are
from the sheep, mohair noils from the Angora goat, and
alpaca noils from the Peruvian sheep.

WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS 33

Noils are divided into classes, namely, long-wool
noils, short or fine-wool noils, mohair noils, and alpaca
noils. They are all obtained in the process of combing,
that is, the process which separates the long from the
short fibers; the former are known as the " top," and
are used in worsted and in the production of mohair
and alpaca yarns; while the latter are used to advan-
tage in the production of many different kinds of woolen
fabrics. With the exception of length, noils are prac-
tically of the same quality as the tops from which they
are taken.

Long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools
as Leicester and similar wools. These noils, like the
wool from which they are obtained, are much coarser
in quality and fiber than the short-wool noils. Occa-
sionally, when strength is required in the fabric, these
noils are used, and they are also mixed with short-wool
noils. Many of the cheviot fabrics are made exclu-
sively of these noils. They are also mixed with shoddy
and cotton in the production of dark-colored fabrics,
and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a
fibrous appearance they are extremely useful.

Short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable, and
are obtained from combing Australian and other fine
wools. The number and variety of uses to which they
are put are innumerable. They are used to advantage
in the plain and fancy woolen trade, in the manufac-
ture of shawls and plain woolens of a soft nature, and
are also suitable for mixing with cotton in the produc-
tion of twist threads.

34 TEXTILES

Mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing
of these materials. They are lacking in felting proper-
ties, but are lustrous and possess strength, and are
most valuable in the manufacture of fabrics where
strength and luster are required. These noils are used
in the production of yarns for Kidderminster carpets,
as yarns for these carpets must possess strength, bright-
ness, and thickness of fiber. They are also used in com-
bination with shoddy and cotton to produce weft or
filling yarns for a lower quality of goods.

Shoddy and Mungo are in reality wool products, or
wool fiber which has previously passed through the
processes of manufacture whereby its physical structure
has been considerably mutilated. These were first
produced about sixty years ago. Shoddy is higher in
value than mungo. The value and quality of the waste
or rags from which it is made determine the quality or
value of the material. Shoddy is derived from waste
or rags of pure unmilled woolens, such as flannels, wraps,
stockings, and all kinds of soft goods.

Mungo is made from rags of hard or milled character
and is much shorter in fiber than shoddy. Its length,
varying from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch,
can be regulated by the treatment the rags receive, and
by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding
machine. Both shoddy and mungo may be divided
into classes. Mungo is divided into two classes, namely,
new and old mungo. New rnungo is made from rags
chiefly composed of tailor's clippings, unused pattern-
room clippings, etc. Old mungo is made from cast-off

WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS 35

garments, etc. By a careful selection of the rags previ-
ous to grinding, it is possible to make a large number
of qualities, and a great variety of colors and shades
without dyeing. Owing to their cheapness shoddy and
mungo are used in cloths of low and medium qualities.
Shoddies are utilized in fabrics of the cheviot class and in
the production of backing yarns. Mungoes of the best
quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade, in both
warp and weft, but chiefly in union and backed fabrics.
Method of Producing Shoddy and Mungo. Before
the fibrous mungo is obtained, the rags have to pass
through the following necessary preliminary operations:

A. Dusting. This is carried on in a shaking machine,
which consists of a cylinder possessing long and strong
spikes, which are enclosed, having underneath a grating
to allow the dust to pass through. The dust is then
driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that
purpose.

B. Sorting. All rags, both old and new, must be
sorted, and considerable care must be exercised in this
operation, as on this work alone depends the obtaining
of different qualities and shades, as well as the securing
of the production of a regular and uniform product.

C. Seaming. This is only necessary with the rags
procured from garments. It is simply removing the
cotton threads from the seams, and any metallic or
hard substances from the rags.

D. Oiling. The rags are oiled to soften them and
make them more pliable, and thus to facilitate the
grinding.

36 TEXTILES

E. Grinding. This is the principal operation, and the
rags are made fibrous in this process. The machine by
which this is effected is made up of the following parts :
feed apron, fluted rollers, swift, and a funnel for con-
veying the material out of the machine. The principal
features of the machine are the swift and its speed.
The swift is enclosed in a framework, and is about
forty-two inches in diameter and eighteen inches wide,
thus possessing a surface area of 2,376 square inches,
containing from 12,000 to 14,000 fine strong iron spikes.
The speed of the swift may be from 600 to 800 revolu-
tions per minute. The rags are fed by placing them on
the traveling feed apron, and are thus conveyed to the
fluted rollers. As they emerge from the rollers they
are presented to the swift, and by strong iron teeth,
moving with exceedingly high surface velocity, they
are torn thread from thread and fiber from fiber. The
fluted rollers run very slowly, and the rags are held
while the swift carries out this operation. By means of
the strong current of air created by the high speed of the
swift, the mungo is expelled from the machine through
the funnel into a specially arranged receptacle. If by
any chance. the machine should be overcharged, that is,
if too many rags are passing through the rollers, the top
fluted roller is raised up, and the rags are simply car-
ried, or thrown by the swift, over into a box on the
opposite side of the machine without being subjected
to the tearing process. The top roller is weighted by
levers with weights attached to keep it in position, thus
bringing downward pressure to bear upon it, as it is

WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS 37

driven simply by friction. By the adjustment of the
feed rollers in relation to the swift, the length of the
fiber may be varied to a small degree.

Extract Wool. This is obtained from union cloths,
that is, from cloths having a wool weft and -warp of
cotton, etc., also from cloths having the same material
for warp, but possessing a woolen or mungo warp or
filling, etc. It is the wool fiber that is required. There-
fore the vegetable matter (cotton) must be extracted
from it by the process of carbonizing. To effect this,
the tissue or rags are steeped in a solution of sulphuric
acid and water and then subjected to heat in an
enclosed room. The water is evaporated, leaving the
acid in a concentrated form, which acts upon the cotton,
converting it into powder. The powder readily
becomes separated, and thus the cotton is eliminated.
The material that is left is well washed to remove all
acid, dried, and then passed through a miniature carder,
to impart to it the appearance of. a woolly and a
softer fabric.

Flocks. These are of three kinds, and are waste
products of the milling, cropping, and raising opera-
tions. The most valuable are those derived from the
fulling mill, being clean and of a bright color. They
are chiefly used by sail spinners, and in the manufacture
of low grade cloths of a cheviot class. White flocks
are suitable for blending with wool, and as a rule com-
mand a fair price. Raising flocks are those obtained
from the dressing or raising gigs, and are applied to
purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are

TEXTILES

used. Cutting or cropping flocks are the short fibers
which are removed from the cloths in this operation.
They are practically of no value to the textile manu-
facturer, being unfit for yarn production, but are used
chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing " flock-
papers," which are papers with raised figures resembling
cloth, made of poor wool, and attached with a gluey
varnish.

CARD ROOM

1. Automatic Feed. 5. 2d Top Divider. 9. Main Cylinders.

2. Bur Guards. 6. Workers.

3. Bur Tray. 7. Strippers.

10. Main Card Drive on 2d
Main Cylinder Shaft.

4. 1st Top Divider. 8. Doffer Cylinder. 11. 1st Lickerin.

12. 2d Lickerin.

13. 3d Lickerin.

14. 4th Lickerin.

15. Fancy Hood.

CHAPTER IV
WORSTED YARNS

Carding. After the wool is washed it undergoes a
number of operations before it is finished into worsted
or woolen yarn. 1 The first step in the manufacturing
of worsted yarn is to pass the washed wool through a
worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders
covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame. The
effect of these cylinders on the wool is to disengage the
wool fibers, make them straight, and form a " sliver "
or strand. It is now ready for the combing machine.

Combing. The process of combing consists of sub-
jecting the card sliver to the operations of the auto-
matic wool comber, which straightens the fibers and
removes all short and tufted pieces of wool. Combing
is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies per-
fectly straight, and that all fibers follow one after the
other in regular order.

Comb. A comb is a complicated machine. The
principal feature is a large metal ring with rows of fine
steel pins (pin circles), which is made to revolve hori-
zontally within the machine. By various devices the

1 The distinct difference between worsted and woolen yarns is that
worsted yarn is made of fibers that are parallel, while the fibers of
woolen yarn run in all directions. The worsted yam is stronger.

40 TEXTILES

wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of
tufts. The fibers of the tufts by an intricate process
are separated into long and short lengths, and a set of
rollers draws each out separately and winds it into
a continuous strand called " tops." On leaving the
comber, the wool is free from short fibers, specks, and
foreign substances, and presents a fine, flowing, and lus-
trous appearance. The short combed-out wool is called
noils, and is used in making carpet yarns, ground up
into shoddy stock, or utilized in spinning fancy yarns.

Worsted Tops. American textile manufacturers are
finding it advantageous to have their combing done by
those who make the work a specialty rather than to do
it themselves. In the manufacture of tops all varieties of
combing wools are used : Australian, Merino, and Cross-
bred wools, South American Merino and Crossbred
wools, Cape Merino wools, Merino and Crossbred wools
grown in the United States, the lustrous wools of pure
English blood, Mohair from Asiatic Turkey, and Alpaca
from the Andes. Tops are sold to worsted spinneries. 1
Many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools,
either sorted or unsorted as they may desire, to a comb-
ing mill, where the wool is put into top at a lower price
than that at which most spinneries can do their own
combing. By means of the naphtha process a larger
amount of top from a given, amount of wool can be
secured than by any other process, and in addition, a
top in better condition for drawing and spinning.

In a strand of combed wool, called top, no single
1 Mills that manufacture worsted yarn.

COMB ROOM

1. Driving pulley on horizontal shaft (2).

3. Boxes containing bevel gears.

4. Pillars.

5. Driving pulley for dabbing motion.

6. Boxes containing dabbing-brush mech-

anism.

7. Dabbing brushes.

8. Star or stroker wheels.

9. Large circle containing rows of pins.

10. Dra wing-off apron and rollers for large

circle.

11. Brass boxes or conductors.

12. Guides for comb ball ends.

13. Comb balls (4 ends each).

14. Fluted wooden rollers on which comb

balls rest.

15. Comb leg (4 in number).

16. Foundation plate .

42 TEXTILES

fiber lies across the strand; all lie in the direction
of the length. This order is preserved until the
fibers have been converted into yarn, which is accom-
plished by passing through " gill boxes." These gill
boxes are machines with bars of iron having upon their
surface two rows of minute steel pins, by this means
kept perfectly straight. The bars on which they are
placed are worked on screws between two sets of rollers.
The wool enters between the first set of rollers, and,
as it passes through, is caught by one of these gills
that is raised up for the purpose, being succeeded by
others as the rollers revolve. These gills are moved
forward on screws in the direction of the other set of
rollers, and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber
perfectly straight. The second set of rollers is termed
the draught rollers, since by them the wool, after pass-
ing through the front rollers, is drawn out and reduced
in thickness. This is accomplished because the second
rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first
rollers, the speed being regulated according to the
length of the wool, and the thickness of the yarn to be
produced. These gills are used in the production of
worsted yarn until the size of the rope of wool has been
so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any
fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness.
A worsted yarn is, consequently, a straight yarn, or a
yarn produced from perfectly straight fibers.

The combing of wool may be dispensed with in some
cases, although such a yarn is not in common use.
When combing is dispensed with, the gills, in connection

MM"

44 TEXTILES

with the draught of the rollers, make the fibers straight,
and produce a worsted yarn, although such a yarn has
a tendency to be uneven and knotty.

Before the wool can be spun it must be made into
roving of a suitable thickness. This is done by
passing it, after being combed, through a series of
operations termed drawing, whose functions are to
produce a gradual reduction in thickness at each
stage. Although the number of machines varies
according to the kind of wool to be treated, still
the same principle applies to all.

Spinning. The process of spinning is the last in the
formation of yarn or thread, the subsequent operations
having for their object the strengthening of the yarn
by combining two or more strands and afterward
arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for
which the yarn is required. It is also the last time that
the fibers are mechanically drawn over each other or
drafted, and this is invariably done from a single roving.
The humidity and temperature of the spinning room
must be adjusted to conditions. Each spinner is
provided with a wet and dry thermometer so that the
best temperature can be ascertained. The most suit-
able heat and humidity can only be obtained by com-
parison and observation. A dry and warm atmosphere
causes the wool to become charged with electricity and
then the fibers repel each other.

Worsted yarn is spun by two different methods
known respectively as the Bradford or English system
and the French system. The difference in these systems

46 TEXTILES

of spinning worsteds lies principally in the draw-
ing and spinning processes, a radically different class
of machinery being used for each. The combing proc-
ess is practically the same in both cases, but the wool
is combed dry for the French system, and by the Eng-
lish method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being
combed. The result of the English method is the pro-
duction of a smooth level yarn in which the fibers lie
nearly parallel to each other. The yarn made accord-
ing to the French system is somewhat fuzzier and more
woolly. On account of the absence of oil, the shrink-
age of French spun worsted is considerably less than
that made by the Bradford system.

Characteristics of Worsted Yarn. The unique
structure of worsted yarn makes it invaluable in
the production of textile fabrics in which luster and
uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics.
The methods by which worsted is formed render it
capable of sustaining more tension in proportion to
its size than the pure woolen yarn. This feature,
combined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-
eminent position in the manufacture of fine coat-
ings, dress goods, etc. The method of arranging the
fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is such as to
produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and
fibrous surface, which destroys to a large degree the
clearness of the pattern effect in the woven piece. In
the construction of worsted yarn the fibers are arranged
in a parallel relationship to each other, resulting in the
production of a smooth, hard yarn having a well-defined

TEXTILES

surface; hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or
marked type is possible by its use. There is, in a word,
more scope for pattern effects, since the level and regu-
lar structure of the yarn imparts a distinction to every

FRENCH SPINNING

1. Balling heads. 4. Gearing for driving rub motion.

2. Bobbins upon which stock is wound. 5. Shipper rod and handles.

3. Rub or condenser aprons. 6. Bobbins held in place in creel by skewers.

7. Weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers.

part of a woven design. From this peculiarity arises
the great variety of effects seen in the worsted dress
fabrics, coatings, trouserings, etc., both in colored
patterns and in fabrics of one shade throughout.

Worsted yarn can be made of pure wool; and as a
rule, the wool used in the English system is of fairly
good length and uniform staple, for if otherwise it is
only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun straight.

WORSTED YARNS 49

Shorter wool can be combed and spun under the French
system, and this is the reason why the French system
of spinning is being introduced. On the other hand, in
the spinning of woolen yarns great length of staple is
not essential, for the machinery employed will work
the small fibers.

Uses of Worsted Yarn. Worsted yarn may be used
in any of the following fabrics:

1. Combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework
and knitting, as Berlin, Zephyr, and Saxony wools.

2. Cloth made from combed wool not classified
according to material.

a. Fabrics of all wool serge, bunting, rep, dress
goods, with weave effects.

b. Wool and Cotton union goods, serge linings,
lathing.

c. Wool and Silk rich poplin, pongee, henrietta,
bombazine.

d. Alpaca and Mohair alpaca, mohair dress goods,
lusters, braids, laces.

Counts. Yarn is measured by a system of " counts"
- the number of yards of yarn to the pound. The
counts of worsted yarn are based on the number of
hanks in one pound, each hank containing 560 yards.
Thus No. 30 worsted yarn consists of 30 hanks of 560
yards each, or 16,800 yards to the pound.

CHAPTER V
WOOLEN YARN

IN manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary opera-
tion is performed to arrange the wool fibers so that they
will lie smoothly and parallel to each other. In the
case of woolen yarn every operation is performed so as
to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and
overlap each other.

To produce yarn of the woolen type a set of
machinery entirely different from that used in worsted
manufacture is necessary. The wool is carded, but no
attempt is made to get the fibers parallel. The reduc-
tion in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon
the so-called drawing frame, but by a mule frame
where the drawing and twisting are done at the same
operation. As neither combs nor gills are employed,
there is not the same smooth, level yarn, but one which
possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance
that makes the woolen yarn so valuable.

The operation is as follows:

Carding. After washing the material for woolen yarn,
it is passed through three carding processes, and from the
last of them is taken direct to the spinning frame to be
made into yarn. The object of woolen carding is differ-
ent from carding in any other textile manufacture.

WOOLEN YARN 51

In most processes of carding the fibers are subjected
to a " combing " principle, and the aim is to lay the
fibers parallel. Woolen carding aims to open the
raw wool fiber, and put it in a perfectly loose con-
dition, without leaning toward any definite arrange-
ment.

The carding machines are called, respectively, first,
second, and third breaker. Each machine consists of a
complicated series of card-covered cylinders of different
sizes, running at different rates of speed some-
times in the same and sometimes in an opposite direc-
tion. These rollers take the wool from one another in
regular order until it is finally delivered from the third
breaker in a soft, fluffy rope or roll called a sliver.
This sliver is wound on a bobbin, and taken from the
card to the mule spinning frame.

The sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to
the mule spinning frame where it is passed through
rolls, and the sliver attenuated by means of a traveling
carriage.

Count. In the case of woolen yarn there are numerous
systems for denoting the count, varying with the locality
in which it is spun and the character of the product.
In the United States there are two systems employed,
but the one in most general use is known as " Ameri-
can run counts." This is based on the number of
" runs," each containing 1,600 yards to the pound.
Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards to the pound is called
a 5 " run " yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the pound
is equal to a 3J " run."

52 TEXTILES

In the vicinity of Philadelphia woolen yarn is based
on the " cut," each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the
count is the number of cuts in a pound. Thus, No. 30
cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the pound. No. 15
contains 4,500 yards to the pound.

Woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the color-
ings are blended and the fibers napped, as exemplified
in tweed, cheviot, doeskin, broadcloth, beaver, frieze,
chinchilla, blanket, and flannel.

CHAPTER VI
WEAVING

Preparatory to Weaving. Yarn is wound on bobbins
on the ring or mule spinning frame. These bobbins are
transferred to a machine called a spooler where the yarn
is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making the warp.

A warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of
threads (called ends), usually in a precisely designed
order of given length, and allowing the ends to wind
over a cylinder called a beam. In order to do this it is
necessary to have spools placed in a definite position
in a frame called a creel.

Before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to
weave or interlace it with filling it must be sized.
This is necessary for all single twist warp yarns. Its
primary object is to increase the strength and smooth-
ness of the thread, thus enabling it to withstand the
strain and friction due to the weaving operation.
Other objects of sizing are the increase of weight and
bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel
of the cloth. The warp is usually sized by passing it
over a roller and through a bath of a starch mixture.
The machine for sizing is called a slasher. The warp
is now ready to have the ends drawn in and placed in
the loom.

54 TEXTILES

Weaving. Every woven piece of cloth is made up
of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp
and filling (weft), which are interlaced with each other
to form a fabric. The warp threads run lengthways
of the piece of cloth, and the filling runs across from
side to side. The manner in which the warp and fill-
ing threads interlace with each other is known as the
weave. When the word " end " is used in connection
with weaving it always signifies the warp thread, while
each filling thread is called a pick. The fineness of the
cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to
the inch. The fabrics produced by weaving are named
by the manufacturers or merchants who introduce
them. Old fabrics are constantly appearing under new
names, usually with some slight modification to suit
the public taste.

Weaving Processes. In order to understand the
different kinds of weaves it is necessary to know, or
at least to understand, the process of forming cloth,
called weaving. This is done in a machine called a
loom. The principal parts of a loom are the frame,
the warp-beam, the cloth-roll, the heddles, and their
mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden
cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound.
The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from
the warp-beam to the front of the loom, and are
attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of
threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye)
of a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the
heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and

WEAVING

automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the
heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement
of the heddles is controlled by " cams " which move up
the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in

A SIMPLE HAND-LOOM

Showing frame, warp beam, cloth-roll, heddles, and reed

larger patterns the heddles are controlled by harness
cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time
the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an open-
ing (shed) is made between the threads of warp,
through which the shuttle is thrown.

The filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is
fastened in the shuttle and which permits the yarn to

56 TEXTILES

unwind as it passes to and fro. As fast as each filling
thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed close to the
previous one by means of a reed which advances toward
and recedes from the cloth after each passage of the
shuttle. This is done to make the cloth firm. There
are various movements on the loom for controlling the
tension of the warp, for drawing forward or taking up
the cloth as it is produced, and for stopping the loom in
the case of breakage of the warp thread or the running
out of the filling thread.

Weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms
or by steam-power in power-looms, but the arrange-
ments for both are to a certain extent the same. A
great number of different kinds of power-looms are
manufactured for producing the various classes of tex-
tiles in use at the present time. These looms are dis-
tinguished by the name of the material which they are
designed to weave, as the ribbon-loom, blanket-loom,
burlaps- and sacking-loom, plush-loom, double-cloth
loom, rug-loom, fancy cotton-loom, silk-loom, worsted-
loom, etc.

Weaving is distinct from knitting, netting, looping,
and braiding, which are operations depending on the
interlacing of a single thread, or single set of threads,
while weaving is done with two distinct and separate
sets of threads.

Classes of Weave. The character of the weave offers
the best basis for classification of woven goods. Nearly
all the varieties of cloth may be classified from the
following weaves:

58 TEXTILES

(1) Plain-weaving, (5) Double-cloth- weaving,

(2) Twill-weaving, (6) Pile-weaving,

(3) Satin-weaving, (7) Gauze-weaving,

(4) Figure-weaving, (8) Lappet-weaving.

Plain or Homespun Weave. Plain cloth is the sim-
plest cloth that can be woven. In this weave one series
of threads (filling) crosses another series (warp) at
right angles, passing over one and under one in regular
order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the
threads. This combination makes a strong and firm
cloth, but does not give a close or a heavy fabric, as
the threads do not lie as close and compact as they do
in other weaves. In plain cloth, if not fulled or shrunk
in the finish, the result is a fabric perforated with large
or small openings according to the size or twist of yarn
used. If heavy or coarse threads are used the perfo-
rations will be large; if finer threads, the perforations
will be smaller.

This weave is used in the production of sheeting,
muslin, lawn, gingham, broadcloth, taffeta, etc. In
plain weaving it is possible to produce stripes by the
use of bands of colored warp, and checks where both
warp and weft are parti-colored. This weave is com-
monly used when the cloth is intended to be ornamented
with printed patterns. In weaving cloth of only one
color but one shuttle is used, while for the production of
checks, plaids, etc., two or more shuttles are required.

Twill Weave. A twill weave has diagonal lines across
the cloth. In this class of weaves the filling yarn
or threads pass over 1 and under 2, or over 1 and

WEAVING 59

under 3, 4, 5, or 6, or over 2 or 3 and under 1, 2, 3,
or 4, or over 4 and under 4, 3, 6, etc. Each filling
thread does not pass under and over the same set of
warp threads, as this would not give the desired inter-
lacings. Instead the order of interlacing moves one

GIRL DRAWING EACH THREAD OF WARP THROUGH THE REED

AND HARNESS READY TO BE PLACED ON LOOM

A, warp beam. B, warp. C, harness frame

thread to the right or left with each filling thread that
is woven. If there are the same number of threads to
an inch in warp and filling, twill lines will form an
angle of 45 degrees; if the warps are closer together
than the filling, the angle will be steeper; if the filling
threads are closer together the lines will approach

60 TEXTILES

more nearly the horizontal. Different effects are ob-
tained in patterns by variation in the sizes of the yarn
and twist, by the use of heavy threads to form cords,
ribs, etc., and by the mixture of vari-colored materials in
the yarn. Often one form of twill-weave is combined with
another to produce a fancy twill- weave. The object of
the twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a
fabric, or to ornament it. The disposition of the threads
permits the introduction of more material into the cloth,
and hence renders it heavier, and of closer construction
than in the case of plain-weaving.

Satin Weaves. The object of a satin weave is to
distribute the interlacings of the warp and filling in
such a manner that no trace of the diagonal (twill)
line will be seen on the face of the cloth. In weaving
a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under
1 and over 4, 7, 9, 11, or more if a larger plush satin
is required. The raising of the warp end to allow
the filling to pass under is done in such a way as to
prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth. The
result is that practically all of the filling is on the face
of the cloth. This is called a filling-face satin weave.
A warp-face satin weave may be produced by reversing
the order; . in this case practically all of the warp is
brought to the face of the cloth. In this way a worsted
warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that prac-
tically all of the warp would show on the cloth, and
give it the appearance of a worsted fabric. A number
of classes of silk goods are made in this way, with a silk
filling covering a cotton warp.

WEAVING 61

This weave produces an even, close, smooth surface,
capable of reflecting the light to the best advantage,
and having a lustrous appearance which makes it
resemble satin cloth. Satin cloth is made of silk using a
satin weave.

Satin weaves are used very largely in producing dif-
ferent styles of cotton and silk fabrics, and are also
frequently found in woolen goods. They are more
extensively used in the manufacture of damask and
table-covers than for any other class of goods. Satin
stripes are frequent in madras, shirtings, and fancy dress
goods in connection with plain and figured weaves.

Figure Weaving. To produce complicated and
irregular patterns in the loom a large number of different
openings (sheds) must be made in the warp, and to
secure such a large number an attachment is placed on
top of the loom called a Jacquard apparatus. The
Jacquard is merely an apparatus for automatically select-
ing warp threads, by which each separate one can be
made to move independently of any of the others. It
is provided with weighted strings attached to each of
the warp threads. The weighted strings are controlled
by wire needles which are in turn controlled by perfo-
rated cards. Each motion of the loom changes their
position and allows some needles to go through the holes
in the cards, thus drawing up the warp, while others
strike the card and leave the warp down. In this way
the perforations of the cards determine the figure of
the patterns. The Jacquard is chiefly used to produce
patterns of great width in which all or most of the

62 TEXTILES

threads in the pattern move independently. For the
weaving of elaborate effects and flowing lines it is
practically indispensable. All elaborate designs are
classed under the name of Jacquards.

Double Cloth. Double cloth is a descriptive term
applied in weaving to fabrics produced by combining
two single cloths into one. Each one of these single
cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and
filling, the combination being effected in the loom by
interlacing some of the warp or filling threads of one
cloth into the other cloth at certain intervals, thus fasten-
ing them securely together. The reasons for making
double-cloths are many. Sometimes it is done to reduce
the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper ma-
terials for the cloth forming the back; again it may be
to produce double-face fabric; it allows great freedom
for the formation of colored patterns which may or
may not correspond in pattern on both sides; it is the
basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for mak-
ing pillow cases, pockets, seamless grain bags, etc.;
more frequently, the object is to increase the bulk or
strength of certain kinds of fabrics, such as heavy
overcoatings, cloakings, pile-fabrics, golf-cloth, rich
silk, etc.

Pile Weave. A pile weave is a general term under
which are classed numerous varieties of cloth woven
with a pile surface, as plush, velvet, velveteen, and car-
peting of various kinds. Turkish towels are an excel-
lent illustration of pile weaving. A pile surface is a
closely set, elastic face covering various kinds of

WEAVING 63

woolen, silk, and cotton fabrics, and consists of threads
standing close together, either in the form of loops
or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to
form a uniform and even surface. In the production of
a pile fabric a third thread is introduced into the weav-
ing and formed into loops usually by carrying it over
the wires laid across the breadth of the cloth. The
wires are afterward drawn out, leaving the loops
standing; the loops may then be cut so as to form a
cut pile, as in velvet and plush, or they may be left in
their original form as in Brussels carpet and Turkish
towels.

Gauze Weaving. In gauze weaving all the warp
threads are not parallel to each other, but are made to
intertwist more or less among themselves, thereby
favoring the production of light, open fabrics, in which
many ornamental lace-like combinations can be ob-
tained. Two sets of warp threads are used, one being
the ground warp and the other the " douping," the
latter performing the entwining process. Gauze is
especially characterized by its openness and yields the
lightest and strongest fabric with the least material.
When gauze is combined with plain weaving it is styled
" leno." Gauze fabrics are designed for women's sum-
mer gowns, flounces, window-curtains, etc.

Lappet Weaving. Lappet weaving, really a form
of embroidery, is used for producing small designs on
cloth by means of needles placed in a sliding-frame, the
figures being stitched into the warp. Elaborate figures
are beyond the range of lappet weaving, but there

64 TEXTILES

are many small effects that can be economically pro-
duced in this manner, such as the detached spots in
dotted swiss, and narrow and continuous figures run-
ning more or less into stripes. This form of weaving
imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and
gauze fabrics.

CHAPTER VII
DYEING AND FINISHING

Dyeing. When a fabric or fiber is impregnated
with a uniform color over its whole surface, it is said
to be " simply dyed.' 7 On the other hand, if distinct
patterns or designs in one or more colors have been
impressed upon a fabric, it is called printing.

Vegetable dyes were formerly used, but since the
coal tar dyes have been discovered the latter are used
entirely. Over fourteen thousand colors have been
produced from coal tar. Different fibers and fabrics
attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force. Wool
and silk attract better than cotton and linen.

Wool Dyeing. The methods of dyeing wool differ
considerably from those employed for cotton and other
vegetable fibers. They may be divided into three
parts: piece dyed, cross dyed, and yarn dyed.

Piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray
or natural state, and then cleansed and dyed in the
piece to such colors as are required. They are woven
in plain weaves and in a great variety of twills in fact,
in all styles of weaves and are also made on the Jac-
quard loom. The principal fabrics in this classification
are all wool serges, cheviots, hopsackings, suitings,
satines, prunellas, whipcords, melroses, Venetian broad-

66 TEXTILES

cloths, zibelines, rainproof cloths; nun's veiling, can-
vases, grenadines, albatrosses, crepes, and French
flannels; silk warp Henriettas, voiles, and sublimes.
Whenever it is possible, it is better to dye textile
fabrics in the form of woven pieces than in the yarn.
During the process of weaving it is impossible to avoid
getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color
used in weaving. Piece dyeing is the cheapest method
of applying color to textiles. The chief fault of piece
dyeing is the danger of cloud spots, stains, etc., which
do not appear in the other two methods. Then again
in the case of thick, closely woven goods the dyestuff
does not penetrate into the fabric, and the interior
remains nearly white.

The cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller
into a dye vat. Small pieces or " swatches " are taken
from the ends of the fabric, and compared with the
pattern. For it must be remembered that no two lots
of crude dyes are of equal strength, and the wools and
cottons of different growths and seasons vary greatly,
so that the use of a fixed quantity of dye to a given
amount of goods will not always give the exact shade.
In comparing a sample with the pattern the two are
placed side by side below the eyes (reflected light),
and then held up to the light and the eye directed
along the surface. A judgment must be formed quickly,
as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it
unable to perceive fine shades of difference.

Cross Dyed. Cross-dyed goods may be described

DYEING AND FINISHING

as fabrics woven with black or colored cotton warps
and wool or worsted filling and afterwards dyed in the
piece. Since cotton has not the same attraction for
dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric
woven with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be

DYE ROOM

1. Dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs.

2. Rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound.

3. Cloth leaving dye tub being wound upon No. 2 cylinder.

identical in depth of color, tone, and brightness. In
some cases it is possible to dye a mixed fabric at a single
operation, but the usual process is to dye the wool in
yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the
color of the wool as possible. In the weaving operation
the wool is thrown to the surface. In another method
the warp is dyed and woven with a white wool or

68 TEXTILES

worsted filling, and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff
that will not affect the cotton. In this way the cotton
does not take the wool dye, but retains its original
color. This class of work is generally used in mohair,
alpaca, and luster fabrics, because the natural brilliancy
of the luster wool, alpaca, or mohair in the filling is not
impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the goods
Were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven.
The principal cloths in this classification are cotton,
warp figured melroses, Florentines, glaces, brilliantines,
lusters, alpacas, and mohairs; rainproof cloths, and
fancy waistings, and in these may be found the same
great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be found
in the piece-dyed goods already described.

Yarn Dyed. Yarn-dyed goods differ from those pre-
viously described in that they are made of yarns that
are dyed before being woven, or yarns spun from dyed
wool. Wool may be dyed in the raw state (fleece) ,
slubbing, or yarn. Fleece dying is preferable for goods
intended to stand friction, and that in spite of wear and
tear must preserve their color. It is preferred for dark
colored goods where much friction is to be encountered,
but is seldom used for light colors, since these would
be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture.
In this case every fiber is colored uniformly all over.
The yarn from this wool and the cloth woven from it
are dyed through and through and do not become
grayish or whitish by wear and tear.

Slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing, for the
dyestuff penetrates the loosely twisted roving, and if

DYEING AND FINISHING 69

unevenly dyed, the subsequent operations equalize
most thoroughly the irregularities in color.

Yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks, plaids,
and suitings, and in their manufacture the drop box
loom (a loom with two or more shuttles) is used. Goods
manufactured under this classification include cotton
warp checks and mixtures; all wool homespuns, mix-
ture coatings and suitings, storm skirtings, rainproof
cloths. These goods are made in a great variety of
weaves, the effect in each being secured by the color
and the weave.

Piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-
dyed fabrics by unraveling threads of each kind. In
the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has pene-
trated through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed
fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as
completely as the yarn-dyed fabric.

Textile Printing. Printed fabrics such as print cloths
can generally be distinguished by observing the back
side of the cloth. If the figure or pattern on the face of
the cloth does not penetrate through to the back but only
shows the outline, the fabric has been printed. Fabrics
are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers
on which the pattern is engraved.

The attraction of cotton for coloring is generally
feebler than that of wool or silk. Few of the natural
dyestuffs attach themselves permanently without use
of a mordant. A mordant is a substance which has an
affinity for, or which can penetrate, the fiber to be
colored, and which possesses the power of combining

70 TEXTILES

with the dyestuff and thus forming an insoluble com-
pound upon the fiber. Cotton is dyed in an unspun
state, and also as yarn or spun thread, either in the hank
or skein. Silk is dyed in unspun skeins, although to a
considerable extent it is also dyed in the piece.

Styles. Since styles and designs are constantly
changing it is necessary for the mills to meet this de-
mand by producing new styles. Some of the patterns
which are at this time considered to be in the best
style would have appeared much out of date two or
three years ago, while perhaps a few years hence, the
patterns which are now almost obsolete will, with some
changes, become the most popular sellers of the season.
As the mill officials or designers are not out among the
trade, they are not in a position to judge what lines or
patterns would most likely appeal to the market. This
information is obtained by the " styler " of the selling
house. The styler receives all the latest foreign samples
and fashion papers from abroad, and often goes or
sends his representative to Europe to ascertain what
goods, designs, and colors are taking well over there.
The selling agent or styler then supplies the designing
department of the mill with all the samples, information,
and suggestions necessary in getting out the samples.

Construction of Cloth. In reproducing a sample of
cloth in the mill it is necessary that the construction
of the cloth be first known, that is, there must be
ascertained the width, warp ends, and picks per inch,
the number or size of the yarn used for the warp, the
number that is used for the filling, and the number of

DYEING AND FINISHING 71

ounces per yard or yards per pound. Then the inter-
lacings of the threads in the sample must be picked out
in order to get the design or weave on the design paper,
from which the data are obtained for regulating the
movement of the harness or heddles. Design paper is
paper ruled by lines into a number of squares. An
imitation of the cloth can be produced on this paper by
showing the interlacings of the warp and filling. This
is done by filling in certain squares with paint, or pencil
marks, while the others are left empty. In practical
work it is the general custom to make a cross with a
pencil to indicate the squares that are to be filled in,
thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling
thread at this point. When a square is left blank it
shows that the warp thread is under the filling at this
point. When a warp thread is up on a certain pick,
the harness which controls this thread must be raised
on this pick.

Finishing. The fabric as it comes from the loom
is in an imperfect condition for use. When worsted
fabrics leave the loom they require but few and simple
finishing operations, and in this respect differ much
from woolen cloths, which require elaborate finishing
operations. The finishing processes of woolen and
worsted cloths are similar. The following description
of processes and machines gives a clear idea of the
necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or
worsted cloth ; for particular styles of finish the processes
must be varied in accordance with the particular
requirements of the style of fabric in hand.

72 TEXTILES

Perching. The fabric as it comes from the loom
receives a perching and measuring inspection at the
weave room before leaving for the finishing room.
This examination is to detect quickly such imperfec-
tions as require prompt attention at the loom.

Burling. Every knot that has been tied in the
threads during winding, dressing, beaming, and weaving,
must be looked for and felt for during burling, carefully
drawn to the surface of the cloth, and then clipped off
with the scissors, leaving the ends long enough so that
no space without a thread will occur. Threads which
are found loose on the face or back of cloth, caused by
the weaver having tied in a broken end, should be cut
off and not pulled off. All places where threads are
not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl
(mender) can adjust such places. The cloth is sub-
jected to perching again. It is examined for imper-
fections, and when these are found, they are marked
with chalk to call the attention of the menders to such
places.

Mending. The object of darning or mending is to
make all repairs in the structure of the cloth before the
process of fulling. The mender must have a good eye for
colors necessary to produce various effects and for the
interlacing of the threads. More exact work is required
for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing
afterward, than in dealing with a face finish fabric,
where the nap is to be raised and will cover many im-
perfections so that they will never be noticed in the
finished cloth.

DYEING AND FINISHING 73

Fulling. The object of fulling is to render woolen
and worsted goods stronger and firmer in body. Full-
ing is similar to felting, the principal object of each
being to condense the fibers, thereby increasing the
firmness. Certain varieties of woolens are fulled nearly
one-half their original width and length. The process
of fulling includes three steps: cleansing, scouring, and
condensing the fibers of the cloth. The object of scour-
ing is to get rid of oil used preparatory to spinning, and
to remove from the cloth stains and the sizing used in
dressing the warp. The cloth is first saturated with hot
water and soap, and is then scoured and rubbed between
the slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to
eighteen hours, according to the character of goods and
the amount of shrinkage desired. The more prolonged
the operation, the more the material shrinks. When
sufficiently fulled, the length of cloth is scoured to free
it from soap. This is done with water, warmed at first,
but gradually cooled, until at the end the cloth is worked
in cold water. Next the cloth is stretched uniformly
in all directions, so that it may dry evenly without
wrinkles or curls. Sometimes the cloth is placed in a
hot-air chamber to hasten the drying. The fulling or
shrinking is effected by the application of moisture,
heat, and pressure. Every one is familiar with the
fact that woolen blankets, flannels, and hosiery tend to
contract with frequent washings, gaining in thickness
and solidity what they lose in elasticity. Such shrink-
age is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigor-
ously in hot water and then allowed to cool suddenly.

74 TEXTILES

This change is due to the physical properties of the
wool fiber.

Such goods as beavers, kerseys, meltons, and fancy
cassimeres are seldom fulled more than one-sixth of
their woven width, while worsted goods are shrunk but
a small fraction of their woven width. The amount
of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many
varieties of cloth. In the treatment of broadcloth,
doeskin, and all nap finished woolens, the fulling is
carried to a point where the fibers become densely
matted, obliterating all traces of the weave and giving
the cloth the appearance of felt.

Crabbing. After the cloth has been dried in the
hydro extractor, where it throws off superfluous mois-
ture, it must be stretched full width for the future
finishing processes, and " set " at this width.

Crabbing consists of two operations, first the loosen-
ing process, then the setting process. Goods are run on
a cylinder, then passed over several rolls, and are kept
tight so as to avoid wrinkles. The cylinders are im-
mersed in hot water and the goods are allowed to rotate
in this water for about twenty minutes, after which
they are taken out for one or two hours. They are then
returned to the machine for about twenty-five minutes
and are subjected to boiling and also to additional
pressure. The boiling water sets the fabric and the
additional pressure gives the desired finish.

Tentering. The object of tentering 1 is to straighten
and level the fabric. After the cloth leaves the ten-
1 Tentering is carried on in the English mills.

DYEING AND FINISHING 75

taring machine it has lost its natural moisture, and is
not at all fitted, as far as fiber condition is concerned,
for the napping. To bring it into a fit state for this
operation it is passed through a trough containing a
brush which gives it the desired moisture. It is then
ready for napping.

Napping. Most cloths at this stage of finishing are
more or less unsightly on account of long and irregular
fibers on the surface. A nap may be raised on the sur-
face of a fabric for various reasons: in order to render
the material warmer, softer, or more pleasant to the
touch, as in the case of blankets and flannels intended
to be worn next to the body; or for the purposes of
increasing the durability of the fabric, as in the case of
melton, kersey, broadcloth, and similar goods; or a nap
may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber
from the underlying structure in order to leave the pat-
tern of the cloth well defined and free from hairiness.
The covering of nap over the surface of the fabric
tends to conceal many defects caused by imperfect
yarns and faulty weaving. Coarse, inferior yarns at
best produce an unsightly fabric, but when the cloth
constructed of such threads is finished with a fine, deli-
cate nap the surface takes on a softer and richer ap-
pearance. Not only are the defects in the structure
concealed, but the material is rendered more sightly
and desirable and appears to be more expensive than
it really is.

The operation of napping is performed by passing the
cloth in a tightly stretched condition over a revolving

76 TEXTILES

cylinder covered with teasels or steel hooks. These
thousands of little hooks scratch the entire surface of the
cloth, opening up the short fibers and covering the whole
with a nap. Since the fibers are of different lengths it
is necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then
pass it through the shearing machine in order to make
an even and uniform length. The shearing machine
acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either cuts
the nap completely or leaves a pile surface. The cloth
is cleaned by passing through a brushing machine.

Pressing Machine. The fabric now requires con-
solidating and lustering, or " smarting up " in appear-
ance practically pressing before it is forwarded
to the warehouse. This is done by passing the cloth
over a pressing roll heated to a high temperature.
Having obtained a satisfactory luster, it is necessary
to fix this by winding the cloth on rollers and allowing
dry steam to pass through the piece. This fixes a per-
manent luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as
to prevent shrinkage. The cloth is now packed and
sent to the jobbers or tailors to be cut up into suits.

Theories of Coloring in Textile Design. The three
primary elements of textile design are weave, combina-
tion of form, and blend of colors. They enter either
separately or in connection with each other into every
species of loom effect. Weave relates specifically to
the build or structure of the cloth and is an indispen-
sable factor in any type of cloth. Schemes of weaves
will produce in one operation an even and firm cloth,
decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists

DYEING AND FINISHING 77

of minute parts but which is pronounced and decided
in combination. Combination of forms is a surface
decoration obtained by uniting straight and curved
lines. Color brightens and improves the qualities of
the design. In fact, the discarding of color shades
would diminish the elegance of the design and im-
poverish its appearance and would practically destroy
the woolen industry. Whether the pattern be stripe,
check, figure, or intermingled effect, it obtains its out-
line and detail from methods of coloring adopted. In
worsted there is a larger diversity of weave design than
in woolen; but still colors are very extensively employed
to develop effects due to weave and form, and also to
impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth.

Patterns in dress fabrics, shirtings, and other articles
made entirely of cotton are frequently mere combina-
tions of fancy shades, while fabrics composed of silk
and jute materials, including silk ties, handkerchiefs,
etc. in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are
used show that coloring and its combinations in all
woven product embellished with design, are elements
which give tone and character to the styles. Though
the cloth may be soft to the touch, substantially made,
of uniform structure, and skilfully finished, yet a lack
of brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully
detracts from the appearance of the pattern that these
qualities alone are not sufficient.

On subjecting cotton, silk, wool, and worsted goods
to inspection, color is found to have a different tone
or cast in each fabric. Fancy colors in cotton, while

78 TEXTILES

decidedly firm and clear in effect, are non-lustrous, raw,
and dull in toning. Silk colorings, on the contrary,
possess both compactness and brilliancy; woolen color-
ings have a unique depth and saturation of hue charac-
teristic of the material employed in the manufacture
of woolen goods; while worsted colorings are bright,
definite, and smart in appearance.

These differences are due to the physical properties
of the several fibers. Thus a filament of silk is trans-
parent and shines like smooth glass when light falls
upon it; that of wool is solid and opaque in the center,
but its exterior consists of a multitude of semi-trans-
parent scales which, when of large dimensions and uni-
formly arranged as in the best qualities of wool -
reflect light with a small amount of dispersion and im-
part to the woven material a lustrous aspect. Cotton
has no such partially transparent sheath. What light is
reflected is so broken up that the color is poor. Com-
pare three plain woven crimson textures made of silk,
wool, and cotton respectively. The first literally shines;
luster, brilliance, and richness are the elements of its
coloring. Though bright, it lacks that fulness and
depth of color which belongs to the wool product,
whose millions of filaments, closely compounded, all
tinted alike, possess a peculiar bloom and weight of
color not to be found either in the silk or cotton article.
Lastly, take the crimson calico. How deficient in
warmth and richness it seems to be, after examining
the woolen and silk texture! It is dull and has a raw
and deficient character.

DYEING AND FINISHING 79

The various methods of employing fancy shades in
patterns obtained in the loom may be briefly sum-
marized :

I. In mixture cloths, for suitings, coatings, etc.

a. By combining or blending various colors of

materials.

b. By combining several classes of twist threads.

II. In plain, twilled, mat, and fancy weave designs
for trouserings, coatings, suitings, jackets, dresses, cos-
tumes, flannels, shirtings, etc.

a. By introducing colors into the warp, forming

stripes.
6. By introducing colors into the filling, producing

spotted patterns.

c. By introducing colors into both warp and filling,

giving checks, broken styles, etc.

III. In figured designs for dresses, vestings, etc.

a. By using one or several series of extra warp yarn.

6. By using one or several series of extra filling.

Dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes
when regarded from the standpoint of fashion staples
and fancies. Staples are those fabrics which are made
of the same construction year in and year out. They
vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion.

The Staples are:

Brillian tines, Cheviots, Voile,

Sicilians, Panamas, Nun's Veiling,

Mohairs, Batistes, Cashmere,

Imperial Serges, Taffetas, Shepherd Checks,

Storm Serge,

80 TEXTILES

The Fancies are:

Produced through Hopsacking, etc.

Variation of weave, Coloring includes:

Variation of color, Stripes,

Variation of color and Checks,

weave : Plaids,

Brocades, Malenges,

Cuspettes, Mixtures.

Meliores,

Prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers
made homespun clothes and wore them till they had
passed their period of usefulness. The average con-
sumption of wool at that time averaged not more than
three pounds per capita. As wealth increased the
home loom and spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted
by the mill and factory. The different textile manu-
facturers at length found that competition was so keen
that it was necessary to adulterate, particularly any
fabric that was popular. The classes of goods that are
most adulterated are the expensive fabrics, those of
wool and silk. There are such changes of fashion in
dress at the present day that garments composed of
materials formerly considered good enough are often
thrown aside as old-fashioned when only half worn.
Manufacturers cater to the whims and fancies of people
and import to this country foreign styles. The rapidly
changing styles cause people to throw upon the market
a great amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn.
The result is that there is not wool enough to pro-
vide the public with clothing made of new wool. The

82 TEXTILES

requirement per capita has risen to six pounds. The
immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does not
find its way into the paper mills, but rather into the
shoddy mill, where it is remanufactured into cloth again,
or where part of the fiber is mixed with good wool to
make "pure wool" cloth. In other words, the rapidly
changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of
wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration
which is being practised in modern cloth manufacture.
This adulteration furthermore is becoming more and
more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid improve-
ments made in the finishing processes of cloth manufac-
ture. Hence the necessity for people to know how and
why adulteration occurs, how it affects prices, and what
are the means of detecting it. Shoddy is considered a
legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted goods.
The following adulterations are not legitimate unless
sold as such:

1. Cotton combed with wool.

2. Thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted dur-
ing the process of drawing.

3. Cotton threads of the same color as the wool or
worsted used as filling or warp.

4. Cotton veneered with wool.

5. Cotton threads of the same color as wool used in
weaving.

CHAPTER VIII
WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 1

Albatross. A dress fabric of worsted warp and
worsted filling; of open texture and fancy weaves.

Alpaca. A thin fabric of close texture made from
the fibers of an animal of the llama species; mixed with
silk or with cotton. It is usually woven with cotton
warp and mohair filling. Imitations of all cotton are
manufactured and sold under this name.

Corded Alpaca. Corded weave, lengthwise of the
piece, cotton warp alpaca filling; one of the first
products of the American loom.

Angora. The fiber of this goat is commercially
known as mohair. The skins are largely used in the
making of children's muffs, for the scalps of dolls, and
for trimming coats and capes. Carriage robes also
claim a good share of the skins; the hair, being nearly
one foot in length, makes them beautiful and service-
able. The fiber enters largely into that class of goods
known as Astrakhan, Crepons, Plushes, Brilliantines,
Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and many other fabrics
usually sold as all wool or worsted, according to the

1 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In connection with the study of
fabrics the author has found it advisable to have the pupils insert in
a blank book a sample of the fabric they are studying. In this way
the pupil can examine both the filling (weft) and warp threads.

84 TEXTILES

mode of preparing the stock before spinning into yarn.
It is found in the finest of silk and worsted fabrics for
ladies' wear, also in linings, mittens, and fine cloaking
and overcoating. It is noted especially for its water
repelling qualities, its beauty, and high luster; and not
so much for its warmth-retaining properties, for which
wool stands unequalled.

Astrakhan. A fabric manufactured from Astrakhan
fiber; of a curly, wavy surface applied to a curly faced
cloth resembling Astrakhan fleece.

Bandanna. From the Indian bandanna, to bind or
tie. In dyeing, the cloth is tied in knots when dipped,
and thus has a clouded effect.

Beavers. A heavy cloth manufactured of fine
wool, with a finish on the surface to resemble the fur of
the animal by that name.

Fur Beaver. Similar in many respects to Beaver,
but having on its surface a long, dense nap, in imita-
tion of the fur of the Beaver. Used for overcoats,
cloaks, and capes.

Bedford Cord. A fine woolen fabric, with fine re-
cesses running with the piece, and extensively used for
ladies' dress goods. An all wool cloth of close tex-
ture for gentlemen's clothing. The recesses may also be
made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling.

Beige. Cloth of undyed or natural wool. The name
is the French word for " natural."

Bindings. A species of narrow fabric of silk,
worsted or cotton, for binding the edges of garments,
the bottom of dress skirts, etc.

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 85

Bombazine. A twilled fabric of which the warp
is silk and the filling is worsted.

Bottany. A term applied to worsted yarns made from
bottany wool. It is considered the finest of all worsted
yarns, and is used for fine fabrics of close texture.

Boucle. Curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in
such a way as to show the curl makes boucle. The word
is French for curl.

Broadcloth. Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven
material with a satin finish. The best qualities are
called satin broadcloth.

The origin of broadcloth dates back to early times,
the first historical mention of it being made in 1641.
In America, among the first products manufactured
by the colonial woolen mills were black and colored
broadcloths, and these (with satinets) formed the dis-
tinctive character of American woolen fabrics at that
time. They were honestly made of pure, fine-fibered
Saxony wool, and sold as high as $6.50 per yard.

The warp and filling are made of carded wool so that
the web (cloth) will shrink or full evenly. The stock is
generally dyed in the raw state when used for men's
wear. When taken from the loom it does not have the
smooth, lustrous appearance which is its distinctive
feature. It is rough and dull colored, with the threads
showing plainly. To improve its appearance it is first
subjected to the action of the fulling mill, with the result
that the fibers of the warp and weft become entangled
to such an extent that the cloth never unravels. Then
the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close,

86 TEXTILES

in order to produce a smooth, even surface. Next it
is successively wetted, steamed, calendered, and hot
pressed for the purpose of bringing out the luster. It is
commonly twill woven, but is sometimes plain, finished
with a slightly napped and lustrous face. It must
have a bright, beaver finish, and be close and felty in
the weave.

The broadcloth used for women's clothing is of a
lighter weight and is generally piece dyed. It is used
for ladies' suits, coats, and gentlemen's evening dress
suits, frock coats, and tuxedos. It is expensive; prices
range from $1.75 to $3.50 per yard in ladies' broadcloth,
and higher for men. The price depends on the quality
of wool used, and uniformity of the nap and perfection
of the finish.

Bunting. A plain even thread weave of mohair,
wool, or worsted, used mostly for making flags. The
name is from German, bunt, meaning variegated or gay
colored.

Caniche. A name given to curled wool fabric show-
ing the effect of the coat of the caniche, a French dog.

Cashmere. A cloth made from the hair of the Cash-
mere goat. The face of the fabric is twilled, the twills
being uneven and irregular because of the unevenness
of the yarn. Cashmere yarn was first hand spun. The
goats are grown for their wool in the vale of Cashmere
in the Himalaya Mountains.

All Wool Cashmere. As no material by this name
exists there can be no definition. When the term is
used in defining a fabric, it is a delusion and a snare.

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 87

Cashmere Double. A cloth having Cashmere twill
on one side or face and poplin cord on the reverse.

Cassimere. The name is a variation of Cashmere.
Cassimere, when properly made, is of Cashmere wool.
Usually a twill weave.

Castor. Same as beaver, of a light weight.

Challis. (Also spelled challie.) A name given to a
superior dress fabric of silk and wool first manufactured
at Norwich, England, in 1832. In texture the original
material was soft, thin, fine, and finished without gloss.
When first introduced it ranked among the best and most
elegant silk and wool textures manufactured. It was
composed of fine materials, and instead of giving it a
glossy surface, such as is usually produced from silk
and fine wool, the object was to make it without luster.
The name is now applied to an extremely light weight
summer dress fabric, composed of either cotton or wool,
or a mixture of these fabrics. In structure it is both
plain woven and figured, the ornamental patterns being
produced either in the loom or yarn, dyed or printed.
It is not sized. All wool challis does not differ essen-
tially from the old-fashioned muslin delaine. Most
challis patterns are copied from the French silks, and
this accounts in part for their tasteful designs and artis-
tic effects. French challis is a material similar to the
above, though usually characterized by a more glossy
finish.

Cheviot. A descriptive term of somewhat loose
application, being used indiscriminately of late years
to denote almost any sort of stout woolen cloth finished

88 TEXTILES

with a rough and shaggy surface. Originally the fabric
known as cheviot was woven in England, from the strong,
coarse wool of the Cheviot sheep, whence the name.

It is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of
cheviot or " pulled wool," slightly felted, with a short
even nap on the surface and a supple feel. Worsted
cheviots, in plain colorings or of fancy effects, are manu-
factured from combed yarn. Woolen cheviots are made
from carded yarn. The greater portion of this class of
goods in carded yarns contains little or no new wool
in its make-up. Shoddy, mungo, and a liberal mixture
of cotton to hold it together, blended in the many color-
ings, help to cover the deception. Prices range from
50 cents to $3.00. The material is plain or twill woven,
and has many of the qualities of serge.

The distinguishing feature of cheviot, whatever the
grade of cloth, is the finish, of which there are two
kinds. One is known as the " rough " finish, and the
other as the " close " finish. Real cheviot is a rough-
finished fabric, composed of a strong, coarse wool and
fulled to a considerable degree. The process of finishing
cheviot is simple, and practically the same methods are
followed for both the " rough " and the " close " styles.
On leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap and
water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it
may contain. It is then fulled, which consists in shrink-
ing the cloth both in length and breadth, thus rendering
the texture heavier and denser. Next it is " gigged "
or napped. This is accomplished by passing the face of
the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 89

pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the
yarn. This operation is continued until a nap more or
less dense is raised over the entire surface.

From the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing ma-
chine, the revolving blades of which cut the long, irregu-
lar nap down to a uniform level. Sometimes the style
of finish called for is that approaching a threadbare
cassimere, and in this case great care is necessary to
prevent the blades from cutting the yarn. In the
rough finish the nap, although sparingly raised, is com-
paratively long. Having been napped and sheared,
the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects,
then brushed, pressed, and highly steamed. When
measured, rolled, and steamed, it is ready for market,
and is used mostly for ladies' and gentlemen's suitings.
The pattern and design are light stripes and checks of
small dimensions. Cheviot is a name given to many
materials used for suiting.

Chinchilla. Heavy coating with rough wavy face.
The name is Spanish for a fur-bearing animal of the
mink species.

Chudah. Applied to billiard cloth; relates to color.
Chudah is the Hindoo name of a bright green cloth.

Corduroy. Heavy corded cotton material used for
servants' livery. The name is from the French Corde
du Roi king's cords.

Cote Cheval. In France corded cloth for riding
costumes, such as Bedford cord, is called cote cheval,
the application being through cheval, horse; cote,
ribbed or lined.

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Coupure. Coupure is French for cut through.
Coupure or cut cashmere is a cashmere weave show-
ing lines cut through the twills lengthwise of the
piece.

Covert. Heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed
shades, used in England for men's overcoats worn
while riding to covert in fox hunting.

Delaine. From the French "of wool"; applies to
the most primitive weave of plain wool yarn. Thirty
years ago delaine was the staple dress goods stock.
It was made in solid colors.

Diagonal Cheviot. Same as cheviot, only in the
weaving the pattern is marked by zigzag lines or
stripes.

Doeskin. Of the broadcloth range, made with shiny
napped face, soft finish, as the pelt of a doe.

Drap d'Ete. A heavy cashmere or double warp
merino, with the back teasled or scratched, used mostly
for clergymen's clothing and in lighter weights for
women's dresses. The name is French for " cloth of

summer."

Empress Cloth. Similar to poplin; made of hard
twisted worsted filling and cotton warp. Was made
a success in the early seventies of the last century by
the Empress Eugenie of France. Empress cloth was
a staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines.

Epingline. A fine corded fabric of wool or silk,
showing the cords woven close together and appearing
as if lined with a pin point. This application is from
epingle, French for pin.

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 91

Etamine. French name for bolting or sifting cloth,
made of silk for sifting flour; applied to mesh or net
weaves in America.

Felt. Fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass
or mixture of wool into a flat mat. The name is from
the process. To felt is to mix and press into shape.

Flannel. Wales appears to have been the original
home of flannel, and history informs us that this was
the only textile produced in that country for hundreds
of years. It is constructed either of cotton or wool,
or of an intermixture of these fibers, and is a coarse-
threaded, loosely woven, light-weight fabric, more or
less spongy and elastic, with an unfinished, lusterless
surface. Generally speaking all grades of plain colored
flannel are piece dyed, the soft open texture of the goods
permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the
web as in the yarn. Flannels are subjected to several
finishing operations, such as fulling, teaseling, pressing,
and stretching. Flannels do not require a great deal
of fulling. All that is necessary is enough to give a
degree of stability and body to the goods.

Dress Flannel. All wool fabric used chiefly for
women's winter dresses; also called flannel suiting.
It has a diversity of qualities, colors, and styles of
finish. It is commonly put up in double fold, width
from twenty-six to fifty inches.

French Flannel. A fine, soft twill, woven variety
dyed in solid shades, and also printed with patterns
after the manner of calico; used for morning gowns,
dressing sacques, waists, etc.

92 TEXTILES

Shaker Flannel. A variety of white flannel finished
with considerable nap, composed of cotton warp and
woolen weft.

Indigo Blue. A superior all wool grade used in the
manufacture of men's suits and particularly for the
uniform of members of the G. A. R.

Mackinaw. The name applied to an extra heavy
blanket-like material used in cold climates by miners
and lumbermen for shirts and underwear.

Navy Twilled Flannel. A heavy all wool variety com-
monly dyed indigo blue, commonly used in the manufac-
ture of overshirts for out-door laborers, firemen, sailors,
and miners.

Silk Warp Flannel. A high grade, pure variety of
flannel woven with a silk warp and a fine woolen weft.
It is a very soft, light-weight, loosely woven flannel and
runs only in narrow widths, twenty-seven inches. If
the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the
texture is rendered hard and firm, the cloth thus losing
its softness and elasticity. In the teaseling process it
is necessary for the nap to be raised only slightly, and
this is commonly done in the direction of the grain or
twist of the warp. The perfection of a flannel finish
lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth, but in
its full, rich softness. Sometimes the nap is sheared,
but more often it is pressed down flat upon the face of
the cloth. After a thorough drying, and careful ex-
amination for defects, the goods are rolled on boards,
and are ready for market. It is used for infants' wear
and shawls, for undergarments, bed coverings, and also

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 93

to some extent for outer garments in weights and
styles adapted for that purpose.

Baby Flannel. A very light-weight variety woven
of fine, soft wool, smooth finish, bleached pure white.

Florentine. A heavy twilled mohair fabric for men's
wear which is sold largely to Italy and Spain. The
name is from Florence, Italy.

Foule. A twilled, unsheared cloth; that is, the face
appears to be unsinged, and shows the woolly roughness
in a slight degree. The cloth when woven in the gray
is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in soapsuds
and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes
in a steel plate. The name is from fouler, French, to
full or shrink.

Frieze. Frieze is a coarse, heavy cloth with a curly
surface and made at first of lamb's wool. It is now made
from coarse grades of wool. It is thick and heavily
napped, and is used in the manufacture of warm outer
garments, particularly for men's wear. It was named
after the people of Friesland in Holland in the 13th
century, and is famous to-day as an Irish fabric. Irish
frieze has extraordinary durability, and the fibers are
the longest and strongest made. The weave is plain,
small twill, or herring bone. When not of a solid color
it is usually a mixture, the colors being mixed in the
raw state. The wool is dyed in, the raw state in mass,
then doubled after spinning.

Gloria. Plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and
cotton ; first made for umbrella covering. Name means
bright.

94 TEXTILES

Granada. Popular weave of mohair, made in coat-
ing weight for Spanish trade. Granada is a city in
Spain.

Grenadine. Originally a plain, openwork, net-like
fabric of silk, mohair, cotton, or wool. We have grena-
dines in Jacquards and in set patterns. The name is an
adaptation of Granada.

Henrietta Cloth. A twilled cashmere of light weight
and high finish, originally made with silk warp and wool
filling in Yorkshire, England. The name was given in
honor of Henrietta Maria of England, Queen of Charles
I. The silk warp, hand-woven fabric was first produced
about the year 1660.

Homespun. A rough, loosely woven material made
from coarse yarn. It is soft but rather clumsy. A
general term used to designate cloth spun or wrought
at home. The homespun of the present day is a woolen
fabric in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before
the introduction of textile machinery. It is made of
a coarse, rough, and uneven thread; usually of plain
weave and no felting. It was woven by the early settlers
of the Eastern and Southern States. It is now used as
woolen suiting for men's wear and in various kinds of
coarse, spongy, shaggy cloth for women's gowns.

Hop Sacking. A coarse bagging made commonly
of a combination of hemp and jute, used for holding
hops during transportation. The name hop sacking is
also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made
from different classes of yarn. It is made of carded
woolen fabric of the plainest kind. The cloth is charac-

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 95

terized by an open weave, and a square check-like
mesh, the structure being designed to imitate that of
the coarse jute bagging. It has very little finish, is
usually dyed in solid colors, and is used for women's
and children's dresses.

Jeans. Cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric. In
cotton used for linings, in wool for men's cheap cloth-
ing. The name is from a Genoese coin, relating to the
price of the cloth; so much for one jean.

Kersey. A very heavy, felted, satin finish woolen
cloth made with the cotton weave or cross twill for
face, and cotton weave or four harness satin for back.
It was originally made with fine Merino lamb's wool for
face, and somewhat coarser grade for back. The cheaper
grades are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and
shoddy, with low grades of shoddy and mungo for
back. It is named from an English town, Kersey, where
from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large woolen
trade was carried on. The Kersey of early history was a
coarse cloth, known under different names, and before
knitting was used for stockings. In the construction of
Kersey the cloth is woven a few inches wider in the loom
(and correspondingly longer) than it is to appear in the
finished state. This is done in order that the meshes
may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering
of threads. Previous to fulling, however, the face of the
cloth is gigged to produce a good covering for the threads
by forming a light nap, which is fitted in. In the fulling
operation, which comes next, the cloth is shrunk to its
proper width and density, usually to a degree rendering

96 TEXTILES

it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads,
so closely are they matted together. Fulling is followed
by gigging, and in this process a nap more or less heavy
is raised on the face of the goods by means of teasels.
The cloth is run through the gig several times and then
sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap
short, even, and of uniform length. Great care is exer-
cised in the shearing, as the nap must be cropped quite
close and yet not expose the threads or cut the face.
The next operation is scouring or steaming, in which
live steam is forced through every part of the goods for
the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool.
In case the goods are to be piece dyed, the dyeing fol-
lows scouring. After steaming, the cloth is thoroughly
matted and gigged again, care being taken to avoid
stirring up the ground nap. It is then dried and the nap
briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in
one direction. Again the cloth is slightly steamed and
primed, face up. The result of this treatment is the
production of a texture firm, yet pliable, with a highly
lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough or thread-
bare. Kersey is used for overcoats.

Kerseymere. Light weight twilled worsted; same
derivative of name as Kersey.

Linsey Woolsey. Coarse cloth of linen and wool
used as skirtings by the British peasantry. The name
is from the components of the cloth.

Melrose. Double twilled silk and wool fabric; named
for Melrose, a town on the Tweed, in Scotland.

Melton. A thick, heavy woolen fabric with short

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 97

nap, feeling somewhat rough. Meltons are made firm
in the loom. The weaves for single cloth meltons are
usually plain, and three or four harness twill. For
double cloths the plain weave is used, or a weave with
a plain face and a one-third weave on the back. All
trace of the weave is destroyed in the finishing. The
colors usually black or dark blue.

Meltonette. A cloth of the same general appearance
as melton, of light weight, for women's wear.

Merino. A fabric woven of the wool of the Merino
sheep, twilled on both sides, the twill being uneven.
Merino resembles cashmere.

Mohair Brilliantine. A dress fabric resembling alpaca,
of superior quality, and sometimes finished on both
sides. The name is from the Arabic mukayyan, cloth
of goat's hair. It is made from the long, silky hair of
the Angora goat of Asia Minor, a species which is being
introduced into the United States. The fabric has a
hard, wiry feel, and if made from the pure material has
a high luster. It has cotton warp and luster worsted
filling. The weave is plain" ground, or with a small
Jacquard figure, and when a very lustrous fabric is
wanted, the warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling
yarn. The warp and filling yarns are dyed previous to
weaving. They may be of the same color or different
colors. The contrast of colors in connection with the
weave gives the fabric a pretty effect. Fabrics made
with dyed yarns are usually given a dry finish, that is,
simply run through the press and cylinder heated, after
which they are rolled and then packed. Those made

98 TEXTILES

with undyed filling are first scoured, then dyed, after
which they are run through a rotary press with fifty
or sixty pounds of steam heat. Mohair brilliantine is
used for dress goods.

Montagnac is heavy overcoating. The French
montagne, for mountain, is the origin of the name, being
for mountain wear.

Orleans. Cloth of cotton warp and bright wool
fulling, made in Orleans, France. Many of the so-
called alpacas and mohairs of to-day are Orleans. These
fabrics are mostly cross-dyed, that is, fabrics with warp
and filling of different shades. After weaving they are
cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glace
effects.

Panama Cloth is a plain weave worsted fabric of no
uniform construction or finish. Fabrics sold under
this name vary considerably. They are of solid colors,
usually piece dyed, and are used for suitings.

Prunella. From the French prunelle, which means
plum, a stout worsted material named from its color,
which is a purplish shade similar to that of a ripe plum.
The name was originally applied to a kind of lasting of
which clergymen's gowns were made. It is now used
to denote a variety of rich, satin-faced worsted cloth
employed for women's dresses. The fibers are worsted.
Prunella is dyed either in piece or yarn state and is
hand finished.

Sacking. Plain solid color flannel in special shades
for women's dressing sacks, also applied to a fabric
made of hemp for grain sacks.

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 99

Sanglier. A plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair
yarn, closely woven, with a rough finished surface.
Sanglier is French for wild boar, the hairy, wiry cloth
resembling the coat of the animal.

Sebastopol. A twill-faced cloth named from
Sebastopol, the Russian fortified town captured by the
English and French in 1855.

Serge. Under this name are classed a large number
of fabrics of twill construction. In weight and texture
a modern serge resembles flannel, except that it is twill
woven and composed of fine yarn finished with a smoother
surface. Serge comes from the Italian word sergea,
meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk. Serges are
woven of worsted, of silk, or of cotton yarn, and
variously dyed, finished, and ornamented, as silk serge,
serge suiting, storm serge, mohair serge, etc. Worsted
serges of various kinds and degrees have been known
since the twelfth century. Worsted serge appears to
have come into general use as a material for men's wear
in the sixteenth century. Modern serges vary but little
from those made two centuries ago. They are dyed in
a great variety of colors. On leaving the loom the
cloth is washed and scoured with soap and water to
remove the dirt and oil (if these remain the cloth
will not take the dye properly). After dyeing, it is
passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure,
which renders the surface more regular and even and of
a better luster. This process accomplishes more than
is required, for it produces a bloom on the surface
which will show rain specks when in the garment, if it

100 TEXTILES

is allowed to remain. This is ordinary serge. In order
to make storm serge it is necessary to remove part of the
bloom, and to accomplish this the cloth is steamed
sufficiently to neutralize the effect of pressing. Steam-
ing deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain
showing on the cloth. The wearing qualities of serge
are good, but it gets a shine easily. It is used for dress
goods and suitings. Serge suiting used for men's clothing
is a variety of light, wiry, worsted yarn woven with a
flat twill, and dyed black or in shades of blue, fifty-four
inches in width. Mohair serge is woven with a cotton
warp and a mohair filling, thirty-two inches in width.
This is dyed in a variety of colors and largely used as
lining material for women's clothes, men's coats, and
overcoats. Storm serge, designed to withstand exposure
to stormy weather, is a coarse variety of worsted dress
goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities.
The twill is wider, the texture stouter, and the surface
rougher and cleaner than that of ordinary serge.
Iridescent serge is a variety of worsted dress goods
woven with warp and filling of different colors, causing
a shimmering or iridescent effect. Cravenette serge is a
fine twilled variety having a firm, closely woven texture,
dyed black and in colors, and is used for women's
gowns, men's summer suits, etc. Serge de Barry is a
high-grade dress goods of fine texture, with fine twill,
and wiry feel.

Shoddy is made from old woolen stockings or rags,
shredded or picked by hand or machine, to render the
yarn suitable for spinning a second time, or to give a

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 101

fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or cotton
warp. The name has come to mean cheap, make-
believe.

Sicilian. Heavy weight cotton warp, mohair filled
cloth. Sicilienne, the proper name, was made in the
Island of Sicily as a heavy ribbed, all silk fabric.

Sultane. Twilled cloth of silk and wool; finished in
the rough, not singed or sheared. The name is from
Sultana, the first wife of the Sultan.

Tamise. Similar to etamine, with a very close mesh,
made first of silk and wool. Tamis is French for sieve.

Tartans. Plaids of the Scottish clans worn by men
in the Highlands of Scotland as a diagonal scarf, fastened
on one shoulder and crossing the body. Each clan had
a distinctive tartan or plaid. The name was adapted
from the French tiretaine, a thin woolen checked cloth.

Thibet. Heavy, coarse weave of goat's hair, made
by the Thibetans in Asia for men's wear.

Tricot. A heavy, compound fabric characterized by
a line effect running warp way or filling way of the
piece, usually produced with either woolen or worsted
yarn. Tricot was originally a name given to fabrics
made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting, and is
the French word meaning knitting. The term was later
applied to materials made on a knitting frame and now
known as jersey cloth. Since 1840 the name tricot has
been applied to finely woven woolen cloth, the weave of
which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted
fabric. The fabric is composed of woolen and worsted
fibers, sometimes with cotton warp woven so as to hide

102 TEXTILES

the cotton in finishing. The tricot line is similar to the
rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is not so pro-
nounced. All tricots are constructed with two sets of
warp thread and are characterized by a texture which,
while dense, is singularly elastic, in this respect being
somewhat similar to heavy jersey cloth. Tricots are
commonly dyed in plain colors, and are finished clear so
as to show the filling. When intended for trousers they
are ornamented with small, neat patterns.

Tweed. A rough unfinished fabric of soft, open, and
flexible texture, of wool or cotton and wool, usually of
yarn of two or more shades; originally the product of
the weavers on the bank of the river Tweed in Scotland.
The face of the cloth presents an unfinished appear-
ance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.

Veiling includes light weight, usually plain weave
fabrics of various constructions; generally made with
singed or polished yarns. They are in solid colors.
The use is designated by the name.

Venetian. Venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton
warp and worsted filling; named from Venetia, a coun-
try around Venice. The warp yarns are firmly twisted,
the twist being in the opposite direction to the twist in
the filling yarn. Venetian is a trade term of wide appli-
cation, in use since early times as a descriptive title for
various fabrics, textures, and garments. One of the many
varieties is a species of twill weaving in which the lines
or twills are of a rounded form and arranged in a more
or less upright position, hence a closely woven worsted
cloth. The name is also applied to other fabrics, as a

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS 103

twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a
worsted filling known as Italian cloth. It is dyed in
plain colors and is piece or yarn dyed for men. For
women's wear it has light weight and plain colors with
mixed effects and closely sheared nap. It is finished
smooth so as to show the yarns prominently. Vene-
tian cloth has not so much felting as broadcloth; it
shows the weave more, but has the same lustrous finish.

Vigogne or Vicuna. A soft wool cloth of the cheviot
order, with teasled face, made from the wool of the
vicuna, a South American animal. Vigogne is the
French name for the animal.

Vigour eux. A name applied to a plain or twill mix-
ture, woven of undyed natural wool yarns. The French
spinners found that the strongest yarns were those of
the undyed wool. Sometimes two or more shades or
tones are spun into one thread. The name is French
for strong.

Voiles. Voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made
with hard twisted yarns. As clear a face as possible
is secured in finishing, the cloth being singed or sheared
closely if the yarns are not made comparatively free
from loose fibers before being woven. Voiles are dyed
in solid colors, and are used principally for dress goods.

Whipcord. Hard twisted worsted twills, either solid
or mixed colors. The name is from the hard twisted
lash of a whip.

Worsted Diagonals are characterized by prominent
weave effects running diagonally across the cloth. The
goods are usually of a solid color, and are given a finish

104 TEXTILES

which brings the weave into prominence. Diagonals
are used for suitings.

Unfinished worsted is a fabric woven with yarn with
very little twist in it, and finished so as to make it
appear covered with loose fibers, concealing the twill
effect. After leaving the loom the cloth is placed in a
fulling machine which condenses the fibers, thus in-
creasing the density. It is then passed over hot presses
after a slight shearing.

Finished Worsted is woven with yarn with a con-
siderable twist, and finished in such a way as to show
the construction of the cloth clearly. The finishing
consists simply of scouring the cloth and not fulling it
and then passing it through hot water baths between
heavy rolls to remove all the soap. It is then sheared
and pressed.

Zephyr. Light worsted yarn, also light weight cot-
ton gingham. Zephyr is Greek for the light west wind.

Zibeline. A cloth manufactured with Merino lamb's
wool for warp, and a light wool mixed with camel's
hair for filling; or, worsted warp and camel's hair for
filling; or either of the foregoing warps and a mixture
of wool, camel's hair, and fine cashmere for filling.
The long cashmere hair spreads over the surface. Used
for ladies' tailor-made coats or suits, according to
weight. The name is derived from the Latin word
sabellum, meaning sable, and was applied originally to a
variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the
same as sable. Zibeline has long hairs on its right side,
some grades being almost like fur.

CHAPTER IX
COTTON

Cotton. Cotton is the most important vegetable
fiber used in spinning. The cotton fiber is a soft,
downy substance which grows around the cotton seed.
When examined under the microscope it appears as a
long twisted cell. Owing to the fact that the cotton-
plant yields so readily to the varying conditions of soil
and climate, there is a large variety of cottons, each
having some peculiarity which is considered enough
to place it in a distinct class. An idea of the number
of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the
fact that the United States Department of Agriculture
has recorded about one hundred and thirty varieties.
The most important varieties are : Gossypium herbaceum,
G. arboreum, G. hirsutum, G. barbadense, and G. peruvia-
num. The botanical name of a plant is divided into
two parts: first the family name, followed by the
species name.

The Gossypium herbaceum grows from four to six
feet in height and bears a yellow flower. The seeds are
covered with a short gray down. The fiber it bears is
classed as short. It is found in Egypt, Asia Minor,
Arabia, India, and China. The short-stapled variety
of Egyptian cotton is from this species.

105

106 TEXTILES

The G. arboreum when full grown attains a height
from fifteen to twenty feet. The seed is covered with
a greenish fur and is enveloped in a fine, silky down,
yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt, Arabia,
and China.

The G. hirsutum is a shrubby plant, its maximum
height being about six feet. The young pods are
hairy, and the seeds are numerous and covered with a
firmly adhering green down. It is probable that this
is the original of the green-seeded cotton which is
now cultivated so extensively in the Southern States
of America, and which forms the bulk of the supply
from that source.

The G. peruvianum is similar to the G. barbadense.
The Brazilian and Peru cottons are from this species.

The G. barbadense grows from six to fifteen feet high;
its flowers are yellow and its seeds black and smooth,
being quite destitute of the hair that distinguishes
other members of the species. It is a native of Bar-
badoes or has been cultivated there for a long time.
Cottons of the finest texture belong to this species -
Sea Island and Florida cottons from which our finest
yarns are spun, and it is used chiefly in the manufac-
ture of fine lace. The long-stapled Egyptian and
several other varieties are said to be from this stock.

Cotton Growing Countries. The most suitable situa-
tion for growing cotton is between 35 degrees north and
40 degrees south of the equator. The chief cotton
growing countries of the world in order of importance
are: United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. Cotton

COTTON 107

is also grown in the following countries, but in no
quantity or quality comparable with the four named
above West Indies, west coast of Africa, Asia Minor,
China, and Queensland.

The best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or
sandy soil, which receives and retains the heat, and at
the same time preserves a good supply of moisture.
Cold, damp days are not suitable for its growth, while
deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk. The
best climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost
and snow are of short duration, dews are heavy, and the
sun bright, warm, and regular. New soils generally
produce the best cotton. The character of the cotton
fiber is dependent upon three things, the species of the
plant, the nature of the soil, and the locality in which
it is grown.

Rough Peruvian. The nature of this cotton is harsh
and wiry and resembles wool so nearly that it is almost
exclusively used to mix with woolen fabrics. The
staple is rough and generally strong, and is of a springy
tendency, i.e., it does not lie close like American.

East Indian. India depends upon the monsoon for
its moisture, and the success or failure of the crop is
decided by that phenomenon of nature. Indian cottons
as a rule are coarser and shorter than American cottons.
The land is prepared before the breaking of the mon-
soon, and the planting begins after it. There is not the
same care bestowed upon the cultivation of the Indian
cotton, nor are such improved methods practised as in
America. The ancient routine of past generations

108 TEXTILES

still persists, and as a consequence the yield per acre
is less than one-half that of America. Moreover the
acreage planted is only about two-thirds that of
America. The better growths of East Indian cotton
were once largely used in this country for filling, owing
to their good color and cleanliness; but of late years
the consumption has steadily decreased, owing chiefly
to the increased takings by the Indian mills, also to
the exports to China and Japan, and to the preference
shown by English spinners for American cotton.

Egyptian Cotton. Egyptian cotton, on account of
its long staple and silky gloss, is imported in consider-
able quantities. Egyptian is largely used in the manu-
facture of hosiery, and also for mixing with worsted
yarn. Owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with
silk, and on account of its strength it is made into the
finer sewing threads. Egyptian cotton is sometimes
so charged with grease that it has a greasy smell; and
to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it with
whitening. It has been observed that velvets woven
(or piled) with Egyptian filling do not finish as well
as when picked with yarns made from American cotton,
the reason for this being that the greasy nature of the
Egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength, causing
different shades in the finished goods. This greasy
nature is said to be due to two things: (1) the fertility
of the soil; (2) the extent to which the cell walls of the
fibers are developed.

In addition to cotton, other crops are grown in Egypt
rice, sugar, beans, barley, onions, etc. and the

COTTON 109

acreage devoted to cotton is regulated to some extent
by the prospects as to which crops are likely to pay
best. It is calculated that not more than one-third of
the area is usually devoted to cotton.

Sea Island Cotton. This is the finest growth of cot-
ton, and it commands the highest price. The staple,
which is long and silky, varies in length from one and a
half to two and a half inches. It is used for making fine
muslins, laces, spool cotton, and other fabrics, and is
also largely mixed with silk. It is said that this cotton
was first introduced into America in 1786 from the
Bahama Islands, whither it had been brought from the
West Indies. It was first cultivated in Georgia, where
it was found that the small islands running along the
coast were best adapted for its growth, hence the name
" Sea Island. " It was also grown on the uplands of
Georgia, but although remaining good, the quality
deteriorated. Counts as high as four hundred are occa-
sionally spun in Sea Island cotton.

Other Varieties. Cotton grown in the Southern States
under widely varying conditions of the soil, climate,
and care in cultivation, naturally varies in length,
strength, and other qualities of staple. Cotton known
as " Uplands " or " Boweds " varies in length from
three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is
used for filling; this is grown in North and South
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Tennessee.
Cotton used for twist is grown in Texas, Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the length of the staple
varies from one to one and three-sixteenths inches. In

110 TEXTILES

the swampy and bottom lands in some of the states
(notably Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkan-
sas), cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and
one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches. In addition
to these, there are especially long stapled growths,
known as " Extras," " Allen Seed," and " Peelers,"
which measure one and three-eighths to one and five-
eighths inches. Of late there has been an extensive
demand for long-stapled American cotton (one and
three-sixteenths to one and one-half inches), owing
to the development of fine spinning.

Cotton Raising. Cotton is planted with a machine,
which puts it under the ground about one and one-half
to two inches. It is not planted as corn is, that is,
dropped so far apart, but is planted in a continuous
stream. After the cotton comes up out of the ground,
when it is about three inches high, it is hoed by ordinary
labor with a hoe, and is cut out or, rather, thinned.
This is called " chopping out " and is for the purpose
of removing the inferior or weak plants until only one
strong plant is left. The distance between the plants
depends on the nature of the plant, frequently about
twelve inches being left between them.

The American Crop. The first step taken is the
preparation of the ground for planting. This begins
in the southern part of Texas as early as the middle of
January, in Florida about the third week; in Alabama,
Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana, about the begin-
ning of February; in Arkansas, Tennessee, and South
Carolina from about the middle of February to the

COTTON 111

beginning of March. Actual planting begins according
to latitude, principally from the middle of March to
the middle of April, and ends in the first half of May.
These dates, however, are dependent upon the state of
the weather. When the weather is unusually wet the
start is late. The plant suffers from the rank growth of
grass and weeds, and extra labor is required to keep the
fields clean. In abnormally hot weather, especially after
rains, the plant sheds its leaves, thus exposing the bolls,
which fall off, whereupon replanting becomes necessary.
In addition to injuries by the weather the cotton-plant
is subject to depredations by insects. Of late years the
greatest pest has been the Mexican boll weevil.

The cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after
planting. An early bloom is taken as a sign of good
crops. When the crop is an early one, picking may
commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the
latter half of July; but the usual date is the beginning
of August, following on in the various districts in suc-
cession until the early part of September. The plant
goes on fruiting as long as the weather is mild and open.
It finishes in the early regions about the beginning of
December, the others following through December and
closing in the later regions about the middle of January.
Frosts play an important part in the ultimate yield.
An early killing frost over the entire belt would curtail
the size of the crop by 500,000 bales in a season, as was
the case in 1909 when about 32,000,000 acres were
planted. Light frosts and late frosts do little harm to
the cotton-plant; in fact it is contended that the late

112 TEXTILES

frosts do much good under certain conditions of the
crop, by opening the bolls that otherwise would not
open, and thus adding to the quantity of the late pick-
ings. The effect of frost upon the lint so picked is to
produce tinged and stained cotton. Early killing frosts
occur in some seasons in the early part of November,
when much of the yield may be curtailed. When
killing frosts occur late in the season, when the fruiting
is practically over, it has little or no effect upon the
yield except as regards the color.

The ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages,
the bolls nearest the ground maturing first, then those
around the middle of the plant, and lastly the top crop.
Pods half ripe are often forced open and the fiber sent
on with good cotton. East Indian is more highly
charged with unripe cotton than American. The work
of picking is not heavy, but becomes tedious from its
sameness. Each hand as he goes to the field is sup-
plied with a large basket and a bag. The basket is
left at the head of the cotton row, the bag being sus-
pended from the picker's shoulder by a strap, and
used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from the boll.
When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and
this routine continued throughout the day. Each
hand picks from 140 to 180 pounds of cotton per day.
The average yield in the South varies from 500 to 600
pounds per acre. Every boll of cotton contains seeds
resembling unground coffee; when these have been re-
moved by the gin, there remains about one-third the
weight of the boll in clean cotton.

114 TEXTILES

Ginning. The next operation to which cotton is
subjected is that of ginning, or separating the seeds
from the fiber. This work was formerly accomplished
by hand, and so great was the quantity of seeds that
frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman
in separating them from one pound of cotton. At the
present day the devices for separating the lint from
the seed are of two classes: roller gins and saw gins.
The former device is the more ancient, having been
used from the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its
simplest form it consists of two rollers made of metal
or hard wood, fixed in rude frames, through which the
cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process.
An improved form of the roller gin is at present used
for cleaning the long-staple Sea Island cotton. The
saw gin, which works on an entirely different principle,
is the machine which, with its improvements and
modifications, has separated the seed from fiber almost
exclusively for one hundred years of American cotton
growing. In this machine the seed cotton is fed into a
box, one side of which is formed of a grating of metal
strips set close together, leaving a narrow opening from
one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. Into these
openings a row or " gang " of thin circular saws project
mounted upon a revolving mandrel. The long, pro-
truding teeth of the saws, whirling rapidly, catch the
fibers, and pull them away from the seeds. The latter,
being too large to pass through the openings of the
grating, roll downward and out of the machine. The
lint, removed from the row of saws by a revolving

COTTON

115

brush, passes between rollers and is delivered from the
machine in the form of a lap or bat.

This machine is responsible for much of the " nep "
(or knots) found in American cotton, which is caused
when the machine is overcharged. The Whitney gin
will turn through more cotton than any other type of
machine, and will clean from 200 to 300 pounds per
hour. When the machine is
running at high speed the
tendency is to string and knot
the cotton.

The working of the ordinary
gin is as follows : The wagon
loaded with cotton is driven
under a galvanized spout
called the sucker, through
which there is a suction of
air which draws the cotton
into the gins. In each of
the gins there are seventy
circular saws revolving on COTTON GIN

rmo cVaft TVioco caxirc nr^ The upper figure shows Whitney's in-

one snait. lese saws are vention . The lower figure shows a later
about one inch apart, and form *

the teeth go through the gin breast, much as if one
were to put the teeth of one comb into the teeth of
another comb. This process takes the lint cotton off the
seed, and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the
lint flute, into the condenser, and into the box, where
it is revolved and made into a bale. While the lint is
going through this process, the seeds, being heavier and

116 TEXTILES

smaller, draw to the bottom of the gins, fall into
an augur which is operated by a belt, and then are
dropped into a conveyor and carried to the seed pile
or houses. The lint goes in one direction and the
seed in another.

When the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin,
it is covered with a lint of cotton. In order to remove
this the seeds are put through a delinter, which takes
off the small, short fiber from the seeds, leaving them
clean. This seed is then put through a huller which
takes off the outside hull or thick skin. The kernel
is then put through a hydraulic press, which squeezes
the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves the " meal."
Cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes, such as
making olive oil, butter or oleomargarine, lard, etc.
Of late an experiment has been made with the meal
for use in the place of flour, and has been pro-
nounced a success. Seed crushing has now become
an important industry, with the cotton crop each year
amounting to between 12,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales
of 450 pounds each.

The Cotton Gin. The cotton gin was invented in
1792 by Eli Whitney, a citizen of Georgia, but a native
of Massachusetts. The importance of this invention
to the cotton industry of the world cannot be over-
estimated. It was the one thing needed to insure a
sufficient supply of raw material to meet the require-
ments of newly invented machinery for spinning and
weaving. The result of Whitney's invention was the
rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the United

COTTON 117

States, and its permanent establishment as one of the
leading staples of the country.

Cotton Bales. After the cotton is ginned and baled
it is shipped to the mill. The standard size of a cotton
bale in the United States is 54 X 27 X 27 inches, and
contains nearly 500 pounds. To produce this bale
over 1,600 pounds of seed cotton are required. The
bales are wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with
sheet-iron bands, this covering adding about twenty-five
pounds to the weight of the bale.

The Bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a
self-feeding press, which receives the lap of lint from
the gin between two heavy rollers. The fiber is rolled
upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press out
nearly all the air, and forms a package of uniform
shape and size throughout, having a diameter of four-
teen to sixteen inches. The bales are covered with
cotton cloth, held in place by small wire hoops. It is
claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this
process that the bales are practically fireproof and
waterproof.

Egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar
to the American bale, but the average weight is over
700 pounds.

The Indian bales, which are more closely compressed
than the American, usually weigh 400 pounds.

Cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the
shape of a bale. The method is to purchase from
cotton brokers, samples being furnished to the buyer
from which to make selection.

COTTON 119

The commercial value of cotton is determined by
its length, fineness, strength, pliability, smoothness,
regularity, color, and cleanliness. As a rule, the cotton
that is the longest is also the finest, but by no means
the strongest. Thus, Sea Island cotton has the longest
staple with the least diameter, and Hinganghat (an
Indian cotton) is much inferior to it in both respects.
The strength of the latter, however, is 50 per cent
greater than the strength of Sea Island cotton. In
every other respect Sea Island cotton is in advance
over Hinganghat cotton. It is the most valuable,
especially for the production of fine yarns.

The most regular cotton is Orleans, in which the
length of the staple varies only a small fraction of an
inch. In consequence of this there is less loss in work-
ing Orleans than is the case with the other cottons,
owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length.

The Leading Growths of Cotton. In order to pur-
chase the raw material of the cotton manufacture, to
arrange the " mixing " or have much to do with the raw
material in any other capacity, one should know as
much as possible of its characteristics; for ignorance
may cause much trouble and no little loss to those
who have to spin the cotton. Each crop differs from the
previous one to a greater or less degree, as it depends
entirely upon the weather. Thus, in a very dry season
there is a " droughty crop " which, while it may be
(and generally is) clean and well up in class, will be weak,
short, and of irregular fiber. In order to obtain the
desired length and strength of staple the buyer will

120

TEXTILES

have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may
be termed a normal season.

Again, in a crop that is poor in class, a defect that
may have been caused by too much rain in the early

FANCY COTTON LOOM

or middle stages of its growth, or by unfavorable weather
for the production of cotton of good grade, the staple
will probably be all that could be desired, leafy and
small, but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain
his usual grade, especially if he requires it for good

COTTON 121

filling. Then there are seasons when the crop turns
out fairly well in class and staple, but the cotton
is wasty, dirty, or abnormally leafy; and in this case
the buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in
calculating the extra loss that will ensue.

The terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance
of 4 per cent for tares. That is, a bale of cotton
weighing 400 pounds would be paid for as 384 pounds,
or should the buyer have reason to believe that the tares
are unusually heavy, he has the option of claiming the
actual tare. This is ascertained by stripping ten bales
and weighing the covering and the hoops, which means
considerable work, and although it is at the option of
the buyer, it is an exception rather than the rule.

As a result of these causes we find cotton divided
into the following grades:

Full Grades of Cotton. Egyptian cotton is graded
as follows: extra fine, fine, good, fully good fair, good
fair, fair, middling fair, middling.

Indian cotton is graded as follows: superfine, fine,
fully good, good, fully good fair, good fair, fully fair.

Brazilian cotton may be classed: fine, good, good
fair, fair, middling fair, middling.

American cotton has seven grades : fair, middling fair,
good middling, middling, low middling, good ordinary,
and ordinary.

In addition to the full grades there are half and
quarter grades. The American cottons are graded as
follows :

122 TEXTILES

Full Grades. Half Grades. Quarter Grades.

Fair, Strict middling fair, Barely fair,

Middling fair, Strict good middling, Fully middling fair,

Good middling, Strict middling, Barely middling fair,

Middling, Strict low middling, Fully good middling,

Low middling, Strict good ordinary, Barely good middling,

Good ordinary, Strict ordinary. Fully middling,

Ordinary. Barely middling,

Fully low middling,
Barely low middling,
Fully good ordinary,
Barely good ordinary.

The folk wing are a few of the leading varieties of
cotton, with the numbers of yarn they will make:

Cotton. Length. Warp. Filling.

Sea Island (selected) .
Sea Island (ordinary)
Florida Sea Island . . .
Georgia

....If
....If
....If

to2J

to 2
to 2
to If

up to 200
150
150
120

250 to 300
220
220
180

Egyptian

..11

to H

120

Peeler

to If

Orleans or Gulf
Upland

....ly 1 *
1

to U
to 1|

40
30

60
45

Texas .

. J

to IrSr

During the last few years considerable discussion
has taken place among mill men, both in this country
and abroad, bearing upon the subject of moisture con-
tained in baled cotton. Of course the natural moisture
in the cotton fiber varies, as might be expected, from
year to year, according to the character of the season
during the picking. The standard of moisture is based
upon what is known as regain, that is, if 100 parts of
absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air, they will

COTTON 123

absorb about 8| per cent of moisture, although a much
higher per cent is sometimes found.

In some of the small Southern mills located in the
cotton raising section, the cotton is delivered by team
direct from the gin, without going through the com-
press. In this way they save the greater part of trans-
portation expense. They also save in the strength of
the cotton fiber itself, since the process of compression
injures the fiber. They get better cotton, being nearer
the source of supply and having better opportunities
for selection.

When the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale, it is
necessary to cut ties and loosen up the cotton before
use. This may be done in two ways. One method
being to pull the bale apart by hand, and the other to
pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine,
which loosens up the cotton by means of beaters. It
now starts on a continuous journey through successive
machines until it is made into yarn. The yarn is made
into a warp, and the warp interlaced with the filling
yarn to make cloth, and the cloth finished for the market.

Not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn,
for certain conditions are necessary to manufacture
good yarn. If the atmosphere is too warm or too dry,
the fibers will become brittle and will not twist well;
if too wet they collapse and stick. Lancashire County,
England, seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton
spinning. It has just the right climate, a moist tem-
perature, and copious water supply. There are hills
on the east of the valley, forming a water shed, and the

124 TEXTILES

town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay, that
holds the water, allowing it to evaporate just fast enough
to keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the

PICKER ROOM

1. Hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into Picker.

2. "Lap" showing how the cotton is prepared for the card.

3. Picker Machine (complete).

fibers for weaving. Countries that have not these con-
ditions are obliged to produce them by artificial means
- humidifying, etc.

CHAPTER X
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN

Picker Room. The first step in the conversion of
the bale of cotton into yarn consists in giving the cot-

PICKER ROOM SHOWING END VIEW OF PICKER
1. Lap of Cotton.

ton fibers a thorough cleaning. This is accomplished
by feeding the cotton to a series of picker machines
called in order, bale breaker, cotton opener and auto-
matic feeder, breaker picker, intermediate picker, and

125

126 TEXTILES

finisher picker. These machines pull to shreds the
matted locks and wads of cotton (as we find them
in the bale), beat out the dirt, stones, and seeds, and
finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon

CARD ROOM

1. Roving Can receptacle to hold the sliver. After it is filled it is transferred to either

ribbon lap machine or drawing frame.

2. Cylinder of the card. The cotton is on this cylinder in the form of a web.

the cylinders; this batting passes from one machine to
another until it issues from the finisher picker as a
downy roll or lap.

(Sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill.)

Carding Machine. When the lap of cotton leaves

the picker it goes to the carding machine, where it is

combed into parallel fibers by means of a revolving

cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing.

MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN 127

As the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or
lap from the picker, it is supposed to have been freed
from a considerable quantity of sand, seed, etc., but
there still remain nep, fine leaf, and short fibers, which
are removed during carding.

On leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a
gossamer-like web thirty-nine inches broad. This web
next passes through small " eyes," which condense it
into a narrow band about an inch in width, known
as card sliver.

When a lap is delivered from the finisher picker, it
should weigh a given number of ounces per yard. The
method of ascertaining the weight is to make each lap
a standard number of yards in length and weigh each
lap. The machine can be regulated so as to give the
desired weight per yard.

Combing. When an extremely fine and strong yarn
is required, in addition to carding, the fibers are also
subjected to the process of " combing. 7 ' This may be
said to be merely a continuation of the carding process
to a more perfect degree. The chief object is to extract
all fibers below a certain required length, and cast them
aside as " waste." This is done in order to secure the
very best fibers calculated to give the strongest and best
results in the spun yarn.

The process of combing follows carding. The card
delivers the cotton in the form of a sliver or strand,
while the combing machine requires the fibers to be
delivered to it in the form of sheets, nine to twelve
inches wide. This is done by taking a number of card

128 TEXTILES

slivers and forming a lap of them by passing the sliver
through a sliver lap machine. The laps are passed
through the comber. This machine consists essentially
of a series of rollers, nippers, and rows of metal teeth.
By the action of these, the short fibers are separated
and combed out, and the long ones arranged in parallel
order in the form of a thin, silky strand, in which con-
dition it is sent to the drawing frames to be drawn
out. Of course it must be understood that a combing
machine is used by only a small percentage of cotton
spinners. For ordinary purposes a sufficiently good
quality can be made without a comber. As there is
from 15 to 35 per cent waste to this operation it may be
readily seen that it is costly, and limited entirely to the
production of the very best and finest yarns, such as
those intended for sewing or machine thread, fine
hosiery, lace curtains, underwear, imitation silks, and
fine grades of white goods. There are combing machines
that comb short staple cotton.

Drawing. The cans containing the slivers are taken
from the card or combing machine (as the case may
be) to the drawing frame. The object of this machine
is mainly to equalize the slivers, combining a number
of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly.
The condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb
is such that a slight pull will lay them perfectly straight
or parallel, and this pull is given by the drawing frame
rollers. Of course the fibers coming from the comb are
parallel, but it is necessary to alternate them by the
drawing. The drawing frame is a machine consisting

130 TEXTILES

of a number of sets of rollers, the front roller having a
greater speed than the rear ones.

The slivers, which are as nearly as possible the same
weight per yard, are combined together in the drawing
and emerge from the pair of front rollers as one sliver
weighing the same number of grains per yard as a single
sliver fed up at the back. This process is repeated two
or three times, according to requirements, the material
then being referred to as having passed through so
many " heads " of drawing. It is not unusual to pass
Indian and American cotton through three deliveries.

The object of all the processes thus far described has
been that of cleaning (in the picker), arranging the fibers
in a parallel position to each other, making uniform, and
drawing out the stock. In every case the stock delivered
from a machine is lighter than when fed into it, and con-
tains just twist enough to hold it together and prevent
its being stretched or strained when unwound from the
bobbin, and fed into the next machine. The minimum
amount of twist in roving is desirable for the reason
that it permits the stock to be drawn out more
easily and uniformly, the little twist that is put in the
roving by the slubber being practically eliminated
when it is passed through the rolls of the intermediate.
The same applies in the case of the roving passing from
the roving to the spinning frame.

Fly Frames. The process in the manufacture of
yarn after the cotton has passed through the drawing
frame consists of further attenuation of the sliver, but
as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as is

MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN

131

possible without breakage, a small amount of " twist "
is introduced to allow of the continued drawing out of
the sliver.

From the drawing frame, the drawing passes through
two, three, or four fly frames, according to the number
of yarn to be made. All these machines are identical

ROVING DEPARTMENT

1. Slubber machine, showing sliver of cotton passing through the rolls and then given a

twist while it is wound on the bobbin.

principle and construction, and differ only in the
dze of some of the working parts. They are the slub-
ber, intermediate, roving, and fine or jack frame-fine,
and the function of each is to draw and twist.

Intermediate Frame. The function of the inter-
lediate frame is to receive the slightly twisted rove
from the slubber and add thereto a little more twist

132 TEXTILES

and draft. The rove is taken from two bobbins to one
spindle in the machine, an arrangement which tends
to insure strength and uniformity. The principle of
the machine is in other respects the same as that of
the slubbing frame.

Roving Frame. The function of the roving frame
is to receive the twisted rove from the intermediate
and add more twist and draft, thereby further attenuat-
ing the rove. As in the intermediate frame the rove is
generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle.

Fine or Jack Frame. This machine is used when
fine yarns have to be made. It is built on the same
principle as the preceding frames, the only difference
being that a finer rove is made from which finer numbers
of yarn can be spun. As in the slubber, intermediate,
and roving frames, the rove is taken from two bobbins
for one spindle.

Spinning. In the manufacture of single ply yarn
the final process is that of spinning, which consists in
drawing out the cotton roving to the required size, and
giving it the proper amount of twist necessary to make
the yarn of the required strength. While the spinning
frame is built on entirely different principles from the
roving, intermediate, or slubber frame, the object of each
machine is the same as that of the spinning frame. The
principal point of difference is the amount of twist
imparted to the cotton roving.

The objects of the spinning process are:

1. Completion of the drawing out of the cotton rov-
ing to the required size.

134 TEXTILES

2. Insertion of the proper amount of twist to give
the thread produced strength.

Excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue
wear and tear on the machine.

There are two methods of spinning: ring spinning
and mule spinning. The mule spinning is the older
form. There are but few mule frames in operation in
this country.

Mule Spinning. The function of mule spinning is to
spin on the bare spindle, or upon the short paper tubes,
when such are required to form a base for the cop bottom.
The mule will spin any counts of yarn required, and is
especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and
" cover" are essentials. Hosiery yarns are produced
on the ordinary cotton mule and are very soft spun.

The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the
back of the machine, the stands of roving being passed
through the rolls and drawn out in the same manner as
at the roving frame. The spindles are mounted on a
carriage which moves backward and forward in its
relation to the rolls, the distance roved being about five
feet. When the spindles are moving away from the
frame the stock is being delivered by the rolls, the
speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls
being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension.
The twist is put in the yarn at the same time.

When the spindles reach their greatest distance
from the rolls, the latter are automatically stopped and
the direction of the motion of the spindle carriage
reversed. The yarn is wound on the spindle while the

136 TEXTILES

carriage is being moved back toward the rolls, the
motion of the rolls being stopped in the meanwhile,
the spindles revolving only fast enough to wind up
the thread that has been spun during the outward
move of the carriage.

The mule is a much more complicated machine than
the ring frame, its floor space is much greater, and more
skilled help is required for its operation. Under or-
dinary conditions it is not practical to spin finer yarn
than No. 60s on a ring, while as high as No. 500s is said
to have been spun on a mule. The same number of
yarn can be spun on a mule with less twist than on the
ring. This is important in hosiery yarn.

Ring spinning is used for coarse numbers, and has
greater production and requires less labor than mule
spinning. Ring-spinning yarn is used for warp purposes.

Ring Spinning. The function of ring spinning is to
draw out the rove and spin it into yarn on a con-
tinuous system. The yarn made is spun upon bobbins.

The ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having
the carriage replaced by a ring, from which the machine
takes its name. The ring is from one and one-half to
three inches in diameter, grooved inside and out, and
is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter
D, called the " traveller." Its office is to constitute a
drag upon the yarn, by means of which the latter is
wound upon a bobbin. Its size and weight depend on
the counts of yarns to be spun; coarse yarns demand
the largest ring and heaviest traveller.

CHAPTER XI
THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING

Thread. In general a twisted strand of cotton,
flax, wool, silk, etc., spun out to considerable length,
is called thread. In a specific sense, thread is a com-
pound cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly
united by twisting. Thread is used in some kinds
of weaving, but its principal use is for sewing, for
which purpose it is composed of either silk, cotton,
or flax. Thread made of silk is technically known as
seeing silk; that made of flax is known as linen thread;
while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly
called spool cotton. These distinctions, while gener-
ally observed by trade, are not always maintained by
the public.

The spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade
from that made before the sewing machine came into
general use. The early thread was but three cord, and
contained such a large number of knots, thin places,
etc., that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the
machines, so manufacturers were called upon to pro-
duce a thread that would be of the same thickness in
every twist. This was effected by making the thread
of six cords instead of three, thereby producing a
smoother and more uniform strand.

138

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING 139

Manufacturing Processes. The raw cotton for the
manufacture of thread must be of long staple. If the
fiber is short the thread made of it will be weak, and
hence unsuited for the purposes required of it. Ordi-
nary cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the
better grades of spool cotton on account of the short-
ness of its fiber. Egyptian and Sea Island cotton are
used because they have a much longer fiber and are
softer in texture. The raw cotton comes to the factory
packed in great bales, and is usually stored away for
some months before it is used. The first step in the
conversion of the bale of cotton into thread consists
in giving the fiber a thorough cleaning. This is accom-
plished by feeding it to a series of pickers which pull the
matted locks and wads to shreds, beat out the dirt
and seeds, and roll the cotton in the form of batting
upon cylinders until it issues from the finisher lap
machines as a downy roll or lap.

The lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms,
where it is combed into parallel fibers by means of a
revolving cylinder covered with fine wire teeth, some-
times 90,000 of them to the square foot. On leaving
the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like
web thirty-nine inches broad. This web is next passed
through a small " eye " which condenses it into a narrow
band about an inch in width, known as the sliver.
By this time the fiber has been so drawn out that one
yard of the original lap has become 360 yards of the
sliver. The sliver now looks almost perfect, but if it
were spun it would not make good thread. It is neces-

140

TEXTILES

sary to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as possible,
so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the
strand per inch. Besides this, the remaining dirt and
short fibers must be removed and the knots and kinks
in the fibers straightened out. To accomplish these
objects the cotton must be " combed." First, the

WARP ROOM

1. Beam on which the warp is wound.

2. Warp.

3. Creel.

4. Spools in the creel.

slivers are passed through several sets of rollers, each
set moving faster than the preceding, so that the strands
are drawn out fine and thin. In this condition the
cotton passes to a doubling frame, and from thence to
the lapping frame, a device combining six laps into one
and drawing the whole out into one fine, delicate, ropy
lap.

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING 141

The comber now takes the lap and combs out all the
impurities and short fibers, at a sacrifice of about one-
fifth of the material; next, it combines six of these
fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one. A number of
these rolls are then drawn out by another machine
twelve times as long as they were before and twisted
together on a slubbing frame. This last drawing re-
duces the roll to about the thickness of zephyr yarn.
After being further doubled and twisted, the yarn, or
roll, is ready for the mule spinner, which accomplishes
by means of hundreds of spindles and wheels what the
housewife once did with her spinning wheel. The
mule, however, does the work of more than 1,000 hand
spinners and takes up much less space. On this
machine 900 spindles take the yarn from 1,800 bobbins,
and by means of accelerating rollers and a carriage
draw out and twist it to the proper fineness for the size
of thread wanted. Having passed through the com-
plex processes of cleansing, combing, drawing, and
spinning, the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various
sizes, and the real work of thread making, which is a
distinct art from yarn making, begins.

The thread-making process is briefly as follows:
The yarn is doubled and twisted; then three of such
yarns are twisted together, which give the six-fold
combination for six-cord thread. For a three-cord
thread three yarns are twisted together. After the
twisting is completed the thread is reeled into skeins
having a continuous length of 4,000 to 12,000 yards,

cording to the size, and is then sent to the examining

142 TEXTILES

department where it is rigidly inspected. Every strand
is looked over, and any found to be defective are laid
aside, so that when the thread is put on the market it
shall be as perfect as care and skill can make it.

At this stage of the work the skeins of thread are
of the pale cream color common to all unbleached
cotton goods, and are technically known as " in the
gray." They therefore have to be bleached pure
white or dyed in fast colors. The skeins, whether
intended for white or colored thread, are first placed in
large, steam-tight iron tanks and boiled. Here the
thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six
or seven hours; when removed it is perfectly clean, but
still retains the brownish gray color of unbleached
cotton. It then goes into a bath of chloride of lime
and is bleached as white as snow. The skeins are next
drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chlo-
ride. Another boiling, another bleaching, a bath of
soap-suds, and the final rinsing, complete the cleansing
and whitening process. Those skeins intended for
colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and
placed in tanks filled with suitably prepared dyeing
solutions.

From the bleaching and dyeing departments the
skeins of thread go back to the mill to be wound on the
bobbins, and from the bobbins finally on the small
wooden spools. The automatic winding machines can
be regulated to wind any given number of yards. The
small spools are fastened on pivots, the thread from
the bobbins fastened on the spools, and the machines

144 TEXTILES

set in motion. At the required number of yards
the spools stop revolving. The ordinary spool of
cotton thread contains 200 yards, and when this has
been wound on, the thread is cut with a knife by an
attendant, who also cuts the little nick in the rim of
the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread.
Thread mills commonly print their own labels, and
these are affixed to the spools by special machinery
with remarkable rapidity. From the labeling machine
the spools go to an inspector, who examines each one
for imperfections, and any that are found faulty are
discarded. When packed in pasteboard boxes or in
cabinets the thread is ready for market.

Thread Numbers. Spool cotton for ordinary use is
made in sizes ranging from No. 8 coarse to No. 200
fine. In cotton yarn numbering, the fineness of the
spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks, each
containing 840 yards, which are required to weigh
one pound, as illustrated in the following table:

n 1 hank

of cotton yarn ( 840

yds.) we

' 10

( 8,400

yds.)

' 16

(13,440

yds.) '

1 30

(25,200

yds.) '

' 50

(42,000

yds.)

' 100

(84,000

yds.) '

gh 1 Ib. it is No. 1
" " " 10
" " " 16
" " " 30
" " " 50
" " " 100

The early manufactured thread was three cord, and
took its number from the size of the yarn from which
it was made. No. 60 yarn made No. 60 thread, though
in point of fact the actual caliber of No. 60 thread
would equal No. 20 yarn, being three No. 60 strands

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING 145

combined together. When the sewing machine came
into the market as the great consumer of thread, spool
cotton had to be made a smoother and more even
product than had previously been necessary for hand
needles. This was accomplished by using six strands
instead of three, the yarns being twice as fine. As thread
numbers were already established, they were not altered
for the new article, and consequently at the present time
No. 60 six-cord, for example, and No. 60 three-cord
are identical in size, though in reality No. 60 six-cord
is formed of No. 120 yarns. It is relatively smoother,
more even, and stronger than the three-cord grade.
All sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands, each
of the latter being twice as fine as the number of the
thread as designated by the label. Three-cord spool
cotton is made of three strands of yarn, each of the
same number as the thread.

Sizing. In textile manufacturing, sizing is the
process of strengthening warp yarns by coating them
with a preparation of starch, flour, etc., in order that
they may withstand the weaving process without
chafing or breaking. The operation of sizing is also
often resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton
and linen fabrics, which are sized or dressed with vari-
ous mixtures in order to create an appearance of weight
and strength where these qualities do not exist, or, if
present, only in a small degree. The object in sizing
warp yarn before weaving is to enable that process to
be performed with the minimum of threads breaking.
Judicious sizing adds to the strength of the yarn by

146 TEXTILES

filling up the spaces between the fibers, and by binding
the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main
part. In order to accomplish this a number of ingre-
dients are used in the size preparation, as no single
material used alone gives satisfactory results. The
filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the
adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with
sufficient hardness to resist the continual chafing of the
shuttles, reeds, and harnesses during the process of weav-
ing. Flour and starch in a liquid state are used for this
purpose, but owing to the liability to mildew, flour is
not so much used as starch. Both of these materials,
however, make the yarn brittle, and other ingredients
are combined with them to overcome the brittleness.
For a softener on heavy weight goods nothing has been
found superior to good beef tallow. On light-weight
goods the softener giving the most general satisfaction
is paraffin.

When properly made the size preparation is a smooth
mass of uniform consistence, free from lumps of any
kind, and from all sediment and odor. Starch the
principal material which gives body to any size re-
quires the most careful treatment. It is first mixed
with cold water into a smooth, creamy milk, which is
slowly poured into the necessary quantity of boiling
water until a clear, uniform paste is formed. Then the
softeners are added, such as soaps, oils, and animal
fats; next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred
in and some form of preservative, usually chloride of
zinc or salicylic acid. The mass is then thoroughly

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING

147

stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with mechanical stirrers.
The size may be applied to the yarn either hot or cold.
When applied hot it penetrates into the interior, filling
up every space between the fibers, binding all together,
and forming a hard coating on the surface of the thread.
A thorough washing or steaming serves to remove all
the size from the woven fabric.

FINISHING ROOM

Cotton Finishing. Cotton fabrics, like other textiles,
after leaving the loom must be subjected to various
finishing processes so as to bring them into commercial
condition. On piece-dyed goods part of the finishing
is done before and part after the dyeing process. Each
class of fabrics has definite finishing processes. In
some cases weighting materials are added to the fabric

148 TEXTILES

so as to hide more or less its actual construction. Cotton
fabrics just from the loom present a soft and open
structure, more so than other textiles. Therefore it
is necessary to use proper finishing materials and proc-
esses which will fill up the openings or interstices
as produced in the fabric by the interlacing of warp
and filling, and at the same time give to the fabric a
certain amount of stiffness. Of course this finish will
disappear during wear or washing, it having been im-
parted to the fabric to bring the latter into a salable
condition.

Cotton fabrics after weaving may be subjected to
the following sub-processes of finishing:

Inspecting, Burling and Trimming, Bleaching, Wash-
ing, Scutching, Drying.

After the cloth leaves the loom it is brushed; then it
passes over to the inspection table in an upward reced-
ing direction, so that the eye of the operator can read-
ily detect imperfections. The ends of two or more
pieces as coming from the loom are sewed into a string
for convenient handling in the bleaching.

Bleaching. The object of bleaching is to free the
cotton from its natural color. The ancient method of
bleaching by exposure to the action of the sun's rays
and frequent wetting has been superseded by a more
complicated process involving the use of various chemi-
cals. Pieces of cloth are tacked together (sewed) to
form one continuous piece of from three to one thousand
yards in length. The cloth is next passed over hot
cylinders or a row of small gas jets to remove all the

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING 149

fine, loose down from the surface. The goods are then
washed and allowed to remain in a wet condition for a
few hours, after which they are passed through milk of
lime under heavy pressure, followed by rinsing in clear
water. The goods are next "scoured" in water acidu-
lated with hydrochloric acid, and boiled in a solution
of soda, then washed as before in clear water. Next
they are chlorined by being laid in a stone cistern con-
taining a solution of chloride of lime and allowed to re-
main a few hours. This operation requires great care in
the preparation of the chloride of lime, for if the small-
est particle of undissolved bleaching powder is allowed
to come in contact with and remain upon the cloth it
is liable to produce holes. The goods are then boiled
for four or five hours in a solution of carbonate of soda,
after which they are washed. They are again chlorined
as before and washed. The long strips are finally
scoured in hydrochloric acid, washed, and well squeezed
between metal rollers covered with cloth. After squeez-
ing and drying, the cloth, if required for printing, needs
no further operation, but if intended to be marketed
in. a white state, it must be finished, that is, starched or
calendered.

Starching. The starch is applied to the cloth by
means of rollers which dip into a vat containing the
solution, while other rollers remove the excess. Some-
times the cloth is artificially weighted with fine clay or
gypsum, the object being to render the cloth solid in
appearance.

Calendering. The cloth is now put through the

150 TEXTILES

calendering machine, the object of which is to give a
perfectly smooth and even surface, and sometimes a
superficial glaze; the common domestic smoothing iron
may be regarded as a form of a calendering utensil.
The cloth is first passed between the cylinders of a
machine two, three, or four times, according to the finish
desired. The calender finishes may be classed as dull,
luster, glazed, watered or moire, and embossed. The
calender always flattens and imparts a luster to the
cloth passed through it. With considerable pressure
between smooth rollers a soft, silky luster is given by
equal flattening of all the threads. By passing two folds
of the cloth at the same time between the rollers the
threads of one make an impression upon the other, and
give a wiry appearance. The iron rollers are some-
times made hollow for the purpose of admitting steam
or gas in order to give a glaze finish. Embossing is
produced by passing the cloth under heated metal rollers
upon which are engraved suitable patterns, the effect
of which is the reproduction of the pattern upon the
surface of the cloth.

Mercerizing. This is a process of treating cotton
yarn or fabrics with caustic soda and sulphuric acid
whereby they are made stronger and heavier, and
given a silky luster and feel. The luster produced upon
cotton is due to two causes, the change in the structure
of the fiber, and the removing of the outer skin of the
fiber. The swelling of the fiber makes it rounder, so that
the rays of light as they fall upon the surface are reflected
instead of being absorbed. The quality and degree of

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING 151

luster of mercerized cotton fabrics depends largely
upon the grade of cotton used. The long-staple Egyp-
tian and Sea Island cotton, so twisted as to leave the
fibers as nearly loose and parallel as possible, show the
best results. If the yarn is singed the result is a further
improvement. Yarns and fabrics constructed of the
ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized to
advantage. The cost of producing high-grade mer-
cerized yarn is about three times that of an unmercer-
ized yarn of the same count, spun from the commoner
qualities of cotton.

Mercerized yarn is employed in almost every con-
ceivable manner, not only in the manufacture of half-
silk and half-wool fabrics, and in lustrous all-cotton
tissues, but also in the production of figures and
stripes of cotton goods having non-lustrous grounds.
Mercerized yarn used in connection with silk is diffi-
cult to detect except by an expert eye.

Characteristics of a good piece of Cotton Cloth.
A perfect cotton fiber has little convolutions in it
which give the strong twist and spring to a good
thread. In this respect the Sea Island cotton is the
best. There are five things requisite for cotton cloth
to be good, viz.:

1. The cloth must be made of good fiber, that is
ripe and long.

2. The fiber must be carefully prepared. All the
processes must be well performed for the very fine
thread fiber must be combed to remove poor fiber.
The combing, however, is not always done.

152 TEXTILES

3. The warp and woof threads must be in good pro-
portion.

4. The cloth must be soft, so that it will not crease
easily.

5. It must be carefully bleached the chemicals
used must not be strong.

CHAPTER XII
KNITTING

THE art and process of forming fabrics by loop-
ing a single thread, either by hand with slender wires
or by means of a machine provided with hooked
needles, is called knitting. Crocheting is an analogous
art, but differs from knitting in the fact that the sepa-
rate loops are thrown off and finished by hand succes-
sively, whereas in knitting the whole series of loops
which go to form one length or round are retained on
one or more needles, while a new series is being formed
on a separate needle. Netting is performed by knot-
ting threads into meshes that cannot be unraveled,
while knitting can be unraveled and the same thread
applied to any other use. Knitting is really carried on
without making knots; thus, the destruction of one
loop threatens the destruction of the whole web, unless
the meshes are reunited.

The principle of knitting is quite distinct from that of
weaving. In the weaving of cloth the yarns of one
system cross those of another system at right angles,
thus producing a solid, firm texture. The great elasticity
of any kind of texture produced by knitting is the chief
feature that distinguishes hosiery from woven stuffs.
The nature of the loop formed by the knitting needle

153

154 TEXTILES

favors elongation and contraction without marring in
the least the general structure of the goods. Builders
of weavers' looms have at times endeavored to secure
this elastic effect by certain manipulations of the mechan-
ism of the loom, but as yet nothing approaching the prod-
uct of the knitter has been made. The elastic feature
of a knitted texture renders it peculiarly adapted for all
classes and kinds of undergarments, for it not only fits
the body snugly, but expands more readily than any
other fabric of similar weight.

Knitting Machines. There are various machines
for knitting. The circular knitting machine produces
a circular web of various degrees of fineness, and in
sizes ranging from a child's stocking to a man's No. 50
undershirt. The circular fabric made in this manner
has to be cut up and joined together by some method
to make a complete garment. The knitting frame for
producing fashioned goods makes a flat strip, narrowing
and widening it at certain places so as to conform to the
shape of the foot, leg, or body. These strips then have
to be joined by sewing or knitting to form a garment.
Fashioning machines are indispensable for knitting the
Niantic and French foot, and also for the production
of stripes, fancy openwork, and lace hosiery.

All plain machines of any class produce only plain
knitted fabrics, while ribbed machines make only ribbed
fabrics. Still, many garments in their make-up include
both kinds of knitting; therefore, many machines produce
only certain parts of particular garments. In the case
of half-hose there is frequently a ribbed top, or in

KNITTING

155

KNITTING MACHINE FOR HOSIERY

156 TEXTILES

underwear a ribbed cuff, and these may be made either
of circular web or full fashioned. In each case the
ribbed portion is first knit and then transferred to a
plain machine, and being placed upon the needles is
worked on to the rest of the garment. In some in-
stances the heel is made by the machine working the
leg, though there are numerous knitters specially
designed for turning out only this particular part.

Among other knitting machines in modern use are the
drawers machine; machines for hose and half hose with
apparatus for making the instep, finishing off the toe,
splicing or thickening the heels, etc.; machines for pro-
ducing the bottoms or soles of hose separately, and also
the instep separately; circular stocking machines for
producing a tubular web afterwards cut into suitable
lengths for all varieties of hose; circular sleeve ma-
chines, circular body machines, as well as circular web
machines for making both body and sleeves of under-
shirts, jerseys, sweaters, etc. Special machines are
also made for knitting both plain and ribbed plaited
goods, that is, with both sides wool while the center is
of cotton, or with a silk or worsted face on one side and
the back of an inferior yarn. In the form of auxiliary
appliances are produced many kinds of stitching ma-
chines; circular latch-needle machines for plain ribbed,
mock seam, and striped goods; steam presses; hose
rolling machines; hose cutting and welting machines,
and many other accessories to hosiery manufacture.

At present fully one-third of the knit underwear
used in this country is of the ribbed description. It

KNITTING

157

KNITTING MACHINE FOR UNDERWEAR

is made in all the materials that the older flat goods are
composed of, including silk, silk mixtures, linen, wool,
lisle, and cotton. Rib work is ordinarily stronger and

158 TEXTILES

more lasting than plain. It is also invaluable for
many purposes on account of its tendency to contract
and expand in the direction of the circumference with-
out altering its length. This feature makes it indis-
pensable for tops to socks and wrist work for shirts,
mittens, gloves, etc., and for the production of heavy
garments such as cardigans and sweaters. The expense
of knitting rib work is higher than plain knitting, owing
to the fact that the machines cannot turn out so great
a quantity within a given time.

The formation of the rib in knitted goods is unique
in its principle. The effect is produced by reversing
the stitch. In place of making the stitch work appear
entirely upon one side of the fabric, as in plain work,
the needles are so arranged that every alternate row,
or two rows alternately, are reversed, thus making
both sides alike. Plain work is done with a single
bank of needles, while rib work requires two banks,
the function of the second one being to pull and loop
the yarn in an opposite direction, thus producing a
thicker and more elastic web.

Double work in knitting consists merely in running
two threads where one is commonly used. The work
is done readily and with but little extra cost for labor.
Coarser and heavier needles are required, also a wider
gauge for the needle cylinder. Fancy effects in double
work are produced by running two colors instead of
one. The tendency is for one thread to twine about
the other, thus making attractive double-and-twist
work. Lumbermen's socks and like goods are often

KNITTING 159

knitted on this plan, though for the most part double
work is for the heels, toes, and soles of ordinary hose.

Stripe Knitting. The process of striping knitted
fabrics is accomplished automatically by a system of
changing the yarns when delivered by the feeds. Cir-
cular machines knitting a tubular web cannot be util-
ized for this purpose, hence the work is done on
fashioning or stocking frames. It has only been within
recent years that makers of knitting machinery have
been able to offer machines on which more than one
kind of yarn could be knit at one time. There are now
in use, however, machines that will readily knit several
colors of yarn at the same time.

Knitting Cotton. A variety of loosely twisted, four-
ply cotton yarn, dyed in various plain and mixed colors,
employed for knitting hosiery, tidies, mats, etc., by
hand. It is numbered from 8, coarse, to 20, fine, and
commonly put up sixteen balls in a box, each box
containing two pounds, manufacturer's weight.

Knitting Silk. A loosely twisted silk thread of
domestic manufacture employed for knitting mittens,
stockings, and other articles by hand. It is also much
used for crochet work. Knitting silk is put up in the
form of balls, each containing one-half ounce of thread.
It is made in but two sizes, No. 300, coarse, and No.
500, fine; each ball of the former number contains 150
yards of silk; of the latter 250 yards. No. 500 is manu-
factured only in white, cream, and black; the No. 300 is
fast dyed in a great variety of colors.

Hosiery Manufacture. According to the particular

160 TEXTILES

method by which socks and stockings are made, of
whatever kind, quality, or material, they are classed
as cut goods, seamless, or full fashioned. Of the three
methods of manufacturing the first named is the least
expensive. Cut goods are made of round webbing
knitted on what is called a circular knitting machine.
The web has the appearance of a long roll of cloth
about the width of a sock or stocking when pressed
flat. The first operation consists in cutting off pieces
the length of the stocking desired, these lengths,
of course, being the same (unshaped) from end to
end. The shaping of the leg is effected either by cut-
ting out enough of the stocking from the calf to the
heel to allow part to be sewn up and shaped to fit the
ankle, or by shrinking. In the heeling room where
the pieces next go, the cutters are furnished with
gauges or patterns that indicate just where to make a
slit for the insertion of the heel, generally of a different
color. When the heel is sewn in, the stocking begins
to assume its rightful shape. The toe is now put on
and the stocking is practically finished. In the case
of socks the final operation consists in attaching the
ribbed top, which tends to draw the upper- part of the
leg together, thus causing it to assume a better shape.
The final work includes scouring, dyeing, and shaping.
The cost of making cut goods is less by a few cents per
dozen than when knit seamless. While some very
creditable hose are produced in this way, yet the ex-
istence of the heavy seam is an objection which con-
fines them to the poorest class of trade. Cut goods are

KNITTING 161

made in all sizes and kinds for men, women, and
children.

Seamless hose are made on a specially constructed
machine which produces the entire stocking, but leaves
the toe piece to be joined together by a looping attach-
ment. On half-hose the leg is made the same size
down to the ankle, but on ladies' hose the stocking is
shaped somewhat in the machine. Seamless hose are
not, strictly speaking, entirely seamless, inasmuch as
all stockings made on a circular knitting machine must
have a seam somewhere. There must be a beginning
and an ending. In the case of the stocking the ending
is at the toe, and the opening left can only be closed with
a seam. In some mills this opening is automatically
stitched together on special machines; in others, girls
do it by hand with needle and thread. Neither by
machine nor handwork can the opening be closed with
exactly the same stitch as that made by the needles of
the power knitter. However, the seam is of small pro-
portions, and when the goods are scoured, pressed, and
finished the presence of the seam is a minor item, as it
neither incommodes the wearer nor mars the appearance
of the stocking. Seamless goods are made in a great
variety of qualities, ranging from cotton half-hose at
fifty cents per dozen to the fine worsted stockings at
$6.00 per dozen. A notable and very commendable
feature of seamless hose is the socket-like shape of the
heel, which fits that portion of the foot as though really
fitted to it. As far as comfort and fit are concerned,
the manufacture of seamless hosiery has now reached

162 TEXTILES

such a degree of perfection as to bring it second only to
the full-fashioned variety.

Full-fashioned hose are produced by means of compli-
cated and expensive knitting frames, which automatically
drop the requisite number of stitches at the ankle so as
gradually to narrow the web down and give the stocking
the natural shape of the leg. The toe is produced in the
same way, and the shaping of heel and gusset is brought
about in like manner. Hence, the goods are called full-
fashioned, because so fashioned as to conform to the pro-
portions of the leg and foot. Hose and underwear made
by this method are knit in flat strips and then seamed
either by hand or machine. Generally special machines
are used, which take up and complete the selvedges,
thus avoiding objectionable seams with raw edges.

The knitting frames used for making full-fashioned
goods are large, intricate, expensive, and slow in opera-
tion; they are difficult to keep in order and require
skilful operators. The largest ones knit from fourteen
to eighteen stockings at once, using as many as four
threads of different colors in the production of patterns.
The first operation consists in knitting the leg down to
the foot; then the legs are transferred by expert work-
men to another frame which knits the foot. Next they
go to another department where, with the aid of a
special looping machine, the heels and toes are stitched
together. Then the stockings or socks are handed over
to expert women operators, who seam up the legs on a
machine especially adapted for the purpose. After
being sorted they are taken to be dyed, boarded, stitched,

KNITTING 163

dried, and finally subjected to heat and pressure to
give them a finished appearance. It usually requires
two weeks from the time the manufacturing operations
begin, for a stocking to emerge from the factory in
a finished form. Full-fashioned hose are made in all
shades and grades of silk and cotton, in lisle thread,
and in all kinds of cashmere, merino, and woolen goods.
They are likewise knitted plain, ribbed, and with fancy
stripes and embroidery effects. In the United States
there are numerous important plants engaged in the
production of full-fashioned goods, while large quantities
are annually imported from Germany and France.

Finishing Process. When socks and stockings are
taken off of the knitting machines they present an un-
finished appearance, being loose, puckered, dirty, and
generally shapeless. Scouring, dyeing, shaping, and
pressing serve to improve their looks, and these finish-
ing operations constitute a distinct branch of the in-
dustry. While still in a moist state the hose are shaped.
This is effected by the use of forming-boards made of
wood and about one-half of an inch in thickness. The
sock or stocking is carefully stretched over the "form"
while damp, and then placed in a heated chamber and
allowed to dry. The goods assume the shape of the
r ooden "form," and will always hold it if the work
ias been carefully and thoroughly done. After they
have been taken from the drying chamber and the
>oards removed the hose are pressed between heavy
letal plates or rollers, looked over for defects, and
when boxed or bundled are ready for market.

CHAPTER XIII
LACE

Lace. Lace is the name applied to an ornamental
open work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or
silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fiber. The
latter are used by the peasants of Italy and Spain.

Lace consists of two parts, the ground and the
flower. The threads may be looped, plaited, or twisted
in one of three ways. First, with a needle, when the
work is known as "needlepoint lace." Second, when
bobbins, pins, and a pillow or cushion are used; this
is called "pillow lace." Third, by machinery, when
imitations of both point and pillow lace patterns are
produced.

Special patterns for these laces date from the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century. The early produc-
tions of the art had some analogy to weaving; the
patterns were stiff and geometrical, sometimes cut out
of linen or separately sewed and applied to the meshed
surface, but more frequently they were darned in, the
stitches being counted in, as in tapestry. This kind
was known as darned netting. With the development
of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and
figure subjects were introduced and worked in.

Whether of needlepoint or pillow make, both the

164

LACE 165

ornament and the ground are produced by the lace
maker. Needlepoint is made by first stitching the net
with thread along the outline of a pattern drawn on
paper or parchment, thus producing a skeleton thread
pattern. This threadwork serves as a foundation for the
different figures which are formed in the lace.

Bobbin or pillow lace more nearly resembles weaving.
The threads are fixed upon a circular or square pillow,
placed variously to suit the methods of manufacture
in vogue in different countries. The object of using the
pillow is to prevent too much handling of the lace.
One end of each thread is fastened to the cushion with
a pin, the main supply of thread being twined around
a small bobbin of wood, bone, or ivory. The threads
are twisted and plaited together by the lace maker, who
throws the bobbins over and under each other. The
operation is fairly simple, since children of eight or nine
years of age can be trained to it successfully. It de-
mands, however, considerable dexterity with the fingers.

The design for pillow lace must of course be adapted
to the technical requirements of the process, and cannot
therefore be the same as one for needlepoint, which
has a better appearance and greater strength than
pillow lace. For this reason it was in former times
generally preferred for wear on occasions of state. On
the other hand, pillow lace has the quality of charming
suppleness, and for use in mantillas, veils, and fichus
it is better than needlepoint, lending itself with delicate
softness and graceful flexibility as a covering to the
head and shoulders of women.

166 TEXTILES

LACE TERMS DEFINED

Alengon (Point d'). Fine needlepoint lace with the ground of double-
twist thread in. a semi-net effect. Is usually worked with horse-
hair on the edges to give firmness to the cordonnet. Called
after the city in France where it is made.

Allover. Name for all wide laces used for flouncing, yokes, and entire
waists. Usually the lace is over eighteen inches in width.

American Laces. A general term formerly used to distinguish lace
made in this country, the development of the industry having
now rendered the term nearly obsolete.

Angleterre (Point d'). Fine Brussels pillow lace, distinguished by a
rib of raised and plaited threads worked in the lace. Shown in
floral, ornithological, and geometrical designs.

Antique. Hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread in a large, open,
rectangular knotted mesh. Used for curtains, bed sets, draperies.

Antwerp. Bobbin lace, resembling early Alengon. Shows a "pot"
that is, a vase or basket effect in the design.

Applique. Any lace in which the body and the design are mad sepa-
rately. The body is usually silk and the design cotton or linen.

Applique Brussels. Name sometimes given to Brussels applique" laces.

Arabe (Point d'). Coarse bobbin lace made in Belgium and France
as well as Arabia. Shows a large, bold pattern, cable edged, and
is almost invariably in a deep e*cru tone. Used for curtains and
draperies.

Arabian. Same as above.

Argentine. Similar to Alengon, the mesh being a trifle larger.

Arras. Very strong, inexpensive, white bobbin lace, of simple
pattern, somewhat resembling Mechlin. Distinguished by its
light, single thread ground. Named after the city in France
where it is made.

Aurillac. Somewhat resembles Angleterre. Bobbin lace made in
Aurillac, France.

Auvergne. Any kind of bobbin lace made in Auvergne, France.
Different makes and patterns.

Ave Maria. A narrow edging lace.

Baby Lace. Light and simple edging lace made in England.

LACE 167

Battenberg. Same as Renaissance. Designs confined to flower
patterns.

Bayeux. Bobbin lace, usually an imitation of Spanish point.
Also a black, rich lace made in large pieces for shawls, head
scarfs, etc.

Binche. Fine pillow lace, without cordonnet. Ground resembles
a spider-web with small dots. Made in Binche, Belgium.

Bisette. - Coarse, narrow French peasant lace in simple designs.
Name often applied to cheap bordering laces.

Blonde. So called, being originally a bobbin lace made of unbleached
silk, though now shown in black, white, and colors. Made with
two different sizes of thread; fine thread for the ground, coarse
for the design. Usually takes some floral form. Very lustrous.

Bobbin Lace. Imitation of pillow lace. Made in England and
France.

Bobbinet. The same.

Bone Lace. An obsolete term once given to Honiton bobbin lace.

Bone Point Lace. Applied to laces having no regular ground or
mesh, such as Renaissance.

Border Lace. Practically synonymous with edging.

Bourdon. A machine lace made of both silk and cotton. Show
scroll-like patterns cable-edged on a regular mesh. Usually
dyed black, but sometimes bleached. The outline is of a heavy
lustrous thread. Used chiefly for dress trimming and millinery.

Brettone. Cheap narrow edging.

Bride Lace. Lace with the pattern connected with brides. Same
as bone point lace.

Brides. Slender threads connecting different parts of a pattern.

Brussels Net. Plain net made originally in Brussels, but now pro-
duced in all lace manufacturing countries.

Brussels Pillow. Fine pillow lace with the patterns joined together
by little loops on their edges.

Brussels Point. Shows an open pattern, made partly in open, partly
in closed, stitch, giving the appearance of shading.

Carrickmacross. Tiny Irish cambric drawn work, applique on net.

Cartisane. Guipure or passementerie made with thin silk or gilt-
covered strips of parchment.

168 TEXTILES

Chantilly. Pillow lace very similar to blonde. Comes from Chan-
tilly, France. Made in both silk and cotton and usually seen in
black. Non-lustrous, and looks as if made from black linen thread.

Chiffon Lace. Chiffon embroidered in twist silk.

Cluny. Coarse-thread bobbin lace, made in both linen and cotton.
Shows a close-stitch pattern darned on an open ground. Used
for dress trimmings and the manufacture of curtains.

Cork Lace. A sweeping term used to designate all laces of Irish make.

Cotton Lace. All lace made of cotton.

Craponne. Cheap, stout thread furniture guipure.

Crochet Lace. Any point lace made with the crochet hook.

Darned Lace. A comprehensive term taking in all net effects with
the pattern applied in needlework.

Devonshire Lace. Lace made in this part of England, and especially
Honiton imitation.

Dieppe. Fine needlepoint lace made in Dieppe, France. Resembles
Valenciennes. Made with a regular ground of squares of small
meshes alternating with open squares upon which the pattern
is applied in close stitch.

Duchesse. Pillow lace with fine net ground with the patterns in
raised work, volants, and the like.

Dutch Lace. Practically a coarse Valenciennes.

English Point. See Angleterre.

Escurial. Heavy silk lace made in imitation of Rose point. Pat-
terns outlined with cable edge.

Esprit (Point d'). Dotted bobbinet with the dots either singly or
in clusters.

Filet Lace. Any lace made with a square mesh net.

Flemish Point. Needlepoint lace made in Flanders.

Footing. Simple insertion of Brussels net from one to three inches
in width.

Galloon. Irregular band with a fancy edge. Entire piece often in
zig-zag or scallop form.

Gaze (Point de). Flemish point lace resembling point d'Alencon,
though much softer, being without horsehair.

Gene (Point de). Openwork embroidery made on a wool ground
which is afterwards eaten away by acid.

LACE 169

Genoa. Heavy lace made of aloe fiber. Another name for macrame.

Gimp. See Guipure.

Gold Lace. Gimp or braid covered with gold or imitation gold thread.

Grammont. White pillow lace used for shawls and the like. Black
silk lace nearly resembling blonde.

Guipure. Fancy trimming of wire cord whipped round with silk
or cotton threads, and the small patterns stitched together.

Guipure d'Art. Linen net upon which raised intersecting patterns
are worked.

Guipure de Flanders. A pillow lace made separately, having flowers
connected by bars and brides.

Hand Embroidered. Heavy point lace, usually of Plauen manufac-
ture, with fancy floral or other figures embroidered on the design.

Honiton. English bobbin lace, famed for the beauty of its designs.
Named for the city where it was first manufactured. Now made
in Belgium, Holland, and France. Sprays sometimes made
separately, and then worked on a net Honiton applique*.

Honiton Braid. Narrow machine-made braid of ornamental oval
figures connected by narrow bars. Used for collars, handker-
chiefs, and tidies.

Honiton Guipure. Large flower-pattern lace on very open ground,
the sprays held together with brides or bars.

Imitation Lace. A term used to designate any machine-made lace
in contrast with hand-made.

Insertion. Any narrow lace with a plain edge on either side that
admits of its being inserted in a fabric.

Irish Crochet. Heavy hand-made lace, remarkable for the beauty
and distinctness of its patterns, and the startling whiteness of
the linen thread used in its manufacture.

Irish Lace. A general term used to designate all lace made by the
Irish peasantry.

Irish Point. Hybrid combination of applique*, cut work, and em-
broidery on net with elaborate needle stitching in the higher grades.

Irish Trimming. -^ Simple, woven lace, used on white wear.

Knotted Lace. Frequently referred to as knotting. A fancy weave
of twisted and knotted threads in close imitation of some old
hand laces.

170 TEXTILES

Lille (Also Lile). French lace named after the town where it is
made. Somewhat resembles Mechlin. Shows a very clear,
light ground and is the most beautiful of all simple thread laces.

Limerick Lace. A form of embroidery on net or muslin.

LuxeuiL A general term for hand-made laces of Luxeuil, France.
More specifically those of a stout, heavy nature. Used for
tidies, curtains, draperies.

Macrame. Knotted hand-made lace, made of a very heavy
cord.

Shown principally in geometrical designs. Very popular in deep
e"cru.

Maline. Fine silk net. Sometimes also applied to Mechlin lace
with a diamond mesh.

Maltese. Coarse machine-made cotton lace, resembling torchon.
Has no regular ground, the patterns being usually connected with
heavy stitch work.

Mechlin. Light pillow lace with the pattern outlined by a fine but
very distinct thread or cord. Real Mechlin generally has the
ground pattern woven together, the latter running largely to
flowers, buds, etc.

Medallion. Single, detached pattern.

Medici. Special kind of torchon edging, with one edge scalloped.

Melange. Hand-made silk pillow lace, showing a combination of
conventional Chantilly with Spanish designs.

Mignonette. Light bobbin lace, made in narrow strips. Resembles
tulle.

Miracourt. Sprig effects of bobbin-lace applied on net ground.

Mexican Drawnwork. Little round medallions either single or in
strips, the threads drawn to form a cartwheel. Mexican and
Teneriffe drawnwork are practically the same. Machine imi-
tations made in Nottingham, Calais, and St. Gall.

Motif. See Medallion.

Nanduly. South American fiber-lace, made by needle in small
squares, which are afterward joined together. Design very
beautiful and of remarkable durability.

Needlepoint Lace. See Point Lace.

Normandy Lace. See Valenciennes,

LACE 171

Nottingham. A general term including all the machine-made laces
turned out in that great lace-producing center of England.

Oriental Lace, Really an embroidery, being produced on the Schiffli
machine, the pattern being then either cut or eaten out. Also
applied to point d'Arabe and certain filet effects.

Oyah Lace. A crocheted guipure shown in ornate patterns.

Passementerie. A decorative edging or trimming, especially gimp
or braid.

Picots. Infinitesimal loops on brides and other strands.

Pillow Lace (Bobbin Lace}. Made on a pillow with bobbins and
pins. Machine-made imitations retain the name.

Plauen. Applied to all laces emanating from that section of Sax-
ony and including imitations of nearly all point laces, which are
embroidered on a wool ground, this being afterward dissolved in
acid and the cotton or silk design left intact.

Point de Gaze. Fine gauze-like needle-lace.

Point d'Irelande. Coarse machine lace, made in imitation of real
Venetian point.

Point de Milan. A variety of guipure, having a ground of small
meshes, and a pattern consisting of bold, flowing scroll devices.

Point de Paris. A variety of cheap machine lace, cotton, of simple
design.

Point Kant. Flemish pillow lace, with a net ground and the design
running largely to "pot" effects pot lace.

Point Lace. Lace made by hand with needle and single thread.
Needlepoint the same. Point d'Alenc,on, point de Venise, etc.,
are all variations of point lace and will be found classified under
their initials.

Point Plat. Point lace without raised design.

Renaissance. Modern lace, made of narrow tape or braid formed
into patterns, held together by brides, the brides forming sub-
sidiary designs. Battenberg is the same thing.

Repousse. Applied to the design, being a pattern that has the effect
of being stamped in.

Rococo. Italian lace, bearing the rococo design.

Rose Point. See Venetian point.

Seaming Lace. Narrow, openwork insertion.

172 TEXTILES

Seville. Variety of torchon.

Spanish Lace. A comprehensive term. Convent-made, needlepoint
lace. Cut drawnwork effects, also convent-made. Needle-
point lace in large squares. Black silk lace in floral designs.

Spanish Point. Ancient embroidery of gold, silver, and silk passe-
menterie.

Swiss Lace. Swiss embroidered net in imitation of Brussels.

Tambour. Variety of Limerick.

Tape Lace. Hand-made needle lace, similar to Renaissance.

Thread Lace. Made of linen thread, as distinguished from cotton
and silk laces.

Torchon. Coarse, open bobbin lace of stout but loosely twisted
thread in very simple patterns. Much seen in imitations, usually
in narrow widths.

Van Dyke Points. Applied to laces with a border made in large
points.

Valenciennes. Commonly called Val. Bobbin lace, seen mostly in
cheap insertions and in the form of narrow edgings.

Venetian Point. Point de Venise. Needlepoint lace in floral pat-
tern with the designs very close together and connected by brides
ornamented with picots.

Wood Fiber. Applied to all laces made of wood silk.

Yak. Machine-made worsted lace. Used for trimming for shawls,
petticoats, and undergarments.

Youghal. Needlepoint lace of coarse thread, made exclusively in
Ireland.

Ypres. Bobbin lace, somewhat coarser than Val.

CHAPTER XIV
COTTON FABRICS 1

Albatross. Cotton albatross cloth is a fabric made
in imitation of a worsted fabric of the same name.
It has a fleecy surface. The name is taken from the
bird whose downy breast the finish of the fabric re-
sembles. The warp is usually 28s cotton, the filling 36
cotton. It is a plain weave. Filling and warp count
48 picks per inch. The goods are finished by being
burled, sheared, washed, singed, dyed, rinsed, dried, and
pressed, care being taken not to press too hard. Some-
times singeing is omitted. Albatross cloth is generally
in white, black, or solid colors. It is not often printed.
It is light in weight, and is used for dress goods.

Awning. A cotton cloth used as a cover to shelter
from sun rays.

Batiste. Batiste is of French origin, and is a light,
transparent cloth, made from a fine quality of combed
cotton yarn. There is a gradual variation in quality
ranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine
fabric. The variety of qualities will suggest some
idea of the utility of the fabric. Its uses are even more
varied than are the qualities. The finer grades are

1 This information is from the leading authority, "The Cotton Fabrics
Glossary," published by the American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Boston,
Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.

173

174 TEXTILES

used for dress goods and all kinds of lingerie for summer
wear, etc., while the cheaper grades are used for linings
in washable and unwashable shirt waists. Batiste is
woven in the gray, that is, with yarn direct from the
spinning frame, with the exception that the warp yarn
is well sized, in order to stand better the strain to
which it is subjected during the weaving process.

Bourrette. A light weight, single cloth fabric, with
two-ply cotton warp and wool or a combination of cotton
and shoddy filling, made with the plain weave and in
appearance a semi-rough-faced woolen fabric with fancy
effects in twist scattered about it. It is used principally
for ladies' fall suitings.

Bedford Cord. This is one of the most popular types
of fabrics, the distinguishing effect being a line or cord
running lengthwise of the cloth, the cord being more
or less prominent. The cloth is made of cotton, or
sometimes of worsted. The face effect of the Bedford
cord is generally plain. Occasionally twill-faced cords
are used. The cords vary in width from about one
twentieth to one quarter of an inch. To get extra
weight without altering the appearance of the face,
extra warp yarns, termed wadding ends, are inserted
between the face weave and the filling, floating at the
back of the rib. When these wadding ends are coarse,
they give a pronounced rounded appearance to the cord.
They run from 88 to 156 picks to an inch.

Buckram. Buckram is derived from Bokhara. It
may be described as a coarse, glue-sized fabric, and is
made of cotton, hemp, linen, or cotton and hair (coarse)

COTTON FABRICS 175

yarns, usually from 10s to 25s. Made of a double cloth
warp, 22s cotton, 34 picks to the inch, for the face or
top fabric V^'s 1 ; weight from loom 2.22 ozs. per yard.
Bottom fabric Vi 2 's cotton; filling / 16 's cotton; 12 picks
to the inch. Weight per yard, 1.8 ounces. These fabrics
depend a great deal on the finishing. The men's wear
requires less sizing on account of the hair it contains.
The goods are piece dyed. Buckram is used principally
for stiffening garments, and to give them shape or form.
It is placed between the lining and the surface cloth
of the garment in particular parts, such as the lapels,
etc. It is used in the millinery trade, and is made
into hats. Millinery buckram is sized two or three times.
Calico takes its name from Calicut, a city in India,
where cloth was first printed. The majority of inex-
pensive cotton fabrics are constructed on the one up,
one down system, or plain weave. Calico is no excep-
tion to this rule. The printed designs on calicoes may
be somewhat elaborate or they may be simple geomet-
rical figures. In order, however, to comply with the
true principles of art, such fabrics as calicoes should
have but simple geometrical figures for their orna-
mental features. New styles and combinations of colors
are produced every month and faster and lighter color
printed each season. Most of the designs for calicoes
and cotton cloth printing are made in Paris. At present
the steam styles are most prominent ; they are the fastest
and lightest to be obtained. Calico is a printed cloth,

1 1 /i2's cotton signifies single cotton yarn of 12's. 2 /i2 J s cotton
signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12's twisted together.

176 TEXTILES

the printing being done by a printing machine which
has a rotating impression cylinder on which the design
has been stamped or cut out. The cloth in passing
through the machine comes in contact with the impres-
sion cylinder. The cylinder revolving in a color trough
takes up the color and leaves the impression of the
design on the cloth. Calicoes may be seen in almost
any color. The printing machine is capable of printing
several colors in one design. Calicoes, however, are
usually in two colors, that is, one color for ground and
the other for figure. The ground color in most cases is
effected by dyeing the cloth in some solid color. After
the cloth is dyed the design is printed on it. The cloth,
after it comes from the loom, is singed and bleached,
then sheared and brushed to take away all the lint, and
then sent to the dye house. The first process there
is to boil it, after which it is immersed in the dye tub.
Calicoes are usually given what may be termed a "cheap
cotton dye." By "cheap cotton dye" is meant that
the colors are not fast, but will run or fade when sub-
jected to water. After the fabric is dyed, it is given to
the printer, who ornaments the face of the cloth with
some geometrical design; then it is practically ready
for the merchant. After printing, the cloth is dried and
steamed to fix the color, afterwards soaped, washed,
finished, and folded. The printing machine turns out
about 400 to 800 fifty-yard pieces a day. Calico is
used for inexpensive dresses, shirtwaists, wrappers, etc.
Cambric. Cambric is a heavy, glazed cotton fabric
with a smooth finish. It was first made in Cambrai,

COTTON FABRICS 177

France. It has a plain weave and a width of thirty-
six inches. Cambrics are dyed in a jig machine. After
dyeing they are run through a mangle containing
the sizing substance, then dried, dampened, and run
through a calender machine. The glossy effect is ob-
tained in this last finishing process. Cambric is used
for shirtwaists, dress goods, etc. The finer grades are
made from hard twisted cotton of good quality.

Canvas. This is a term applied to heavy, plain
weave cloths made with ply cotton yarn. They are
used for mail bags, covering for boats, etc.

Chambray. Chambray is a staple fabric of many
years standing, being next in rank among cotton goods
after the better grade of gingham. Chambray is a
light-weight single cloth fabric that is always woven
with a plain weave, and always has a white selvedge.
In effect it is a cloth having but one color in the warp,
and woven with a white filling, this combination pro-
ducing a solid color effect, the white filling reducing
any harshness of warp color in the cloth. It is com-
posed of one warp and one filling, either all cotton,
cotton and silk, or all silk. It is twenty-seven to thirty
inches in width and single 30s cotton warp to single
60s silk, the count of yarn being governed by the
weight per yard desired. The weight per finished yard
is two to three and one-half ounces. Good colors for
the warp are navy blue, dark brown, lavender, black,
nile green, etc. When made of cotton warp and filling
the fabric receives a regular gingham finish. The loom
width can be restored by tentering or running the

178 TEXTILES

goods over a machine fitted underneath with a series
of coils of steam pipe. The top of this machine is
fitted with an endless chain with a row of steel nee-
dles standing erect upon its face. Chains are adjusted
to the width desired, and as the machine runs, both
selvedges are caught by the needles and the cloth
stretched to the required width.

Cheese Cloth. This is a thin cotton fabric of light
weight and low counts of yarn, which ranks among the
cheapest in cotton goods. It is used for innumerable
purposes. The bleached fabric is used for wrapping
cheese and butter after they are pressed. It is also
much in demand for bunting for festival occasions,
light curtains, masquerade dresses, etc. When used
for bunting, draperies, and the like it is usually in colors,
red, blue, cream, and yellow seeming to have the greatest
demand. The weave is one and one or plain weave.

Chine. Sometimes applied to glace silk, or cotton
two-toned effects. The name is French, meaning woven
so as to have a mottled effect.

Chintz. Printed cotton cloth, with large, many-
colored designs, used for furniture covering. The
Hindoo wears it as a body covering. Chintz is the
Hindoo word meaning variegated.

Cotton Flannel. Napped cotton flannel. Made first
for trade in Canton, China.

Crash. A plain fabric for outing suits, towels, etc.

Crepe. A fine, thin fabric of open texture made of
cotton.

Crepon. Large designs in figured crepe. The name

COTTON FABRICS 179

applies to the crispiness of the finish and is from the
French word creper, to make crisp.

Cretonne. Heavy cotton cloth printed in large
designs, for drapery and furniture use. Cretonne was a
Frenchman who first made the cloth.

Crinoline. Crinoline is a fabric composed of cotton
warp, horsehair filling, or all cotton yarns. It is sold
in varying widths, and is used by tailors and dress-
makers in stiffening clothing. It is a cheap cloth of
low texture and simple construction, the distinguishing
feature being the stiff finish with either a dull or highly
glazed face on the cloth.

Damask. A cloth of silk and cotton, silk and linen,
silk and wool, or all linen in flowered or geometrical
designs for drapery or table covering. The weaves
used are mostly twills and sateens. It takes its name
from Damascus, where it was first made.

Denim. This is a strong fabric usually made with a
two up and one down twill. It is used for overalls, furni-
ture covering, and floor covering.

Diaper. A figured cotton or linen fabric, which gets
its name from the Greek diapron, meaning figured. It
is generally of good quality as it is subject to excessive
washing.

Dimity. A light-weight cotton fabric, the distin-
guishing feature of which is the cords or ribs running
warpwise through the cloth, and produced by doubling
the warp threads in either heddle or reed in sufficient
quantity to form the rib desired. The name is from a
Greek word meaning two-threaded. Dimity is a ladies'

180 TEXTILES

summer dress fabric, and is made of regular cotton
yarn, from Veo's to the finest counts in both warp and
filling. It is made in both white and colors, solid
white being used in the most expensive grades. Colors
are often printed upon the face of the fabric after it
has been woven in the white.

Domet. This cloth is napped similar to a cotton
flannel. It is used for shirts, pajamas, etc., and made
with bright colored stripes and check patterns. The
name is from domestic, home made.

Duck. Duck is a heavy single cloth fabric made of
coarse two-ply yarn and of a plain weave. It derives
its name from its resemblance to a duck's skin. It is of
a lighter weight than canvas. In finishing duck is taken
from the loom and washed and sized, then dried and
pressed. If a fancy solid color is desired the goods are
dyed in the piece after the first washing. Duck is used
in the manufacture of sails, tents, car curtains, and for
any purpose requiring a good water-tight fabric, which
will withstand rough usage. Duck has a stiff hard feel,
and excellent wearing qualities. The lighter weights
are used for ladies' shirtwaist suits, men's white trousers,
etc.

Drill. A cotton fabric of medium weight generally
made with the two up and one down twill. It is exten-
sively used for shoe linings.

Eolienne is the name applied to a fine dress fabric
characterized by having the filling of a much coarser
count than the warp, thus producing a corded effect
across the breadth of the goods. This class of goods

COTTON FABRICS 181

is made up of a raw silk warp and either cotton or
worsted filling, with the warp ends per inch greatly
in excess of picks per inch. The goods are made
up in gray, then dyed in the piece in any color the
trade desires. The darker shades find most favor
for fall and winter use, while the lighter shades are
preferred for summer wear. The width is from twenty-
seven to fifty inches, and the price per yard varies
from 85 cents to $1.25.

Etamine. An etamine is a thin, glossy fabric used
principally for women's dress goods. Being a com-
mon and popular material for summer wear, it is usually
made as a piece-dyed fabric. A good reason for making
it piece-dyed is that this method is much cheaper than
if the yarn is dyed previous to the weaving. Etamines
were originally made with worsted yarns, which of course
are more expensive; however, if a good quality of cotton
is used, there is little difference in appearance between
worsted and cotton etamine. The difference is chiefly
in the wearing quality, worsted being more durable.
The principal characteristic of an etamine is a crisp,
glossy, and open structure.

Flannelette is a narrow, light-weight fabric composed
of all cotton yarn, the filling being soft spun to permit
of the raising of a very slight nap on the back of the
goods. The cloth is woven with bleached yarn (warp
and filling), the color effects being afterwards printed
upon the face of the goods by the printing machine.
Flannelette is made with simple one or two colored stripe
patterns, either black and white or indigo blue and

182 TEXTILES

white, and in imitation of a Jacquard pattern. The
finished fabrics are sold by the retailer at from eight
cents to twelve and one-half cents per yard, are
twenty-seven inches wide, and are used very extensively
in the manufacture of ladies' wrappers, kimonos, etc.,
for house wear.

Fustian. A corded fabric made on the order of cor-
duroy and used in England for trouserings, etc. First
made at Fustat, a town on the Nile, near Cairo. Velvet-
een and cordings in the lower, coarser grades were some-
times called Fustian.

Galatea Cloth. Galatea cloth has been somewhat
in demand in recent years by women requiring service-
able and neat-appearing cotton fabrics at a medium
price. It is usually finished twenty-seven inches wide
and retails at fourteen cents to twenty cents per yard.
It is shown in plain colors as well as in figures, and in
dotted and striped designs on white and colored grounds.
The patterns are obtained by printing. Some manufac-
turers have found that they can take a standard type
of fabric and extend its use by varying the process of
finishing. The base of the cloth that is, the fabric
previous to dyeing or printing or bleaching is nothing
more than an ordinary 5-end warp sateen of fair quality.

Gauze. A veiling net, made in Gaza in Palestine.

Gingham. Gingham is a single cloth composed en-
tirely of cotton, and always woven with a plain weave.
It is yarn-dyed in stripes or checks and was originally of
Indian make. It is the most widely known fabric on the
market and is made in various grades, having from fifty

COTTON FABRICS 183

to seventy-six ends per inch in the reed, and of 1 / 2 &s to
Ws cotton yarns in both warp and filling. It is a wash
fabric, made in both check and plaid patterns into which
an almost unlimited variety of color combinations are
introduced. Ginghams are made with from two colors,
warp and filling, to eight colors in warp and six in filling.
Ginghams are used most commonly in the manufacture
of ladies' and children's summer dresses and aprons.

Italian Cloth is a light, glossy fabric made from
cotton and worsted, cotton and wool, cotton and mo-
hair, and all cotton. It is used for linings for the heavier
styles of ladies' dresses, also for underskirts, fancy
pillow backs, etc. The cloth is woven in the gray
undyed yarns. In the finer grades the warp is sized
so as to facilitate the weaving process.

Jaconet. A thin cotton fabric, heavier than cambric.
If properly made one side is glazed. Derived from the
French word jaconas.

Khaki. Twilled cotton cloth of a brown dust color,
first used for men's clothing in India. The word khaki
is Indian for earth, or dust-colored.

Lawn. Lawn is a light-weight single cloth wash
fabric, weighing from one and one fourth to two and one
fourth ounces per yard, and in widths from thirty-six
to forty inches finished. It is composed of all cotton
yarns (bleached) from Ws to ViooX an d is always woven
with a plain weave, one up, one down. The name is
from Laon, a place near Rheims, France, where lawn
was extensively made. Plain lawn is made of solid white
or bleached yarn in both warp and filling. The fancier

184 TEXTILES

grades, or those having color effects, are produced by
printing vines, floral stripes, small flowers, etc., in bright
colors in scattered effects on the face of the goods. The
patterns are always printed, never woven. Lawn,
when finished, should have a soft, smooth feel. There-
fore the finishing process includes brushing, very light
starching or sizing, then calendering or pressing. Lawns
have to be handled carefully in the bleaching process,
starched with an ordinary starch mangle (the sizing con-
taining a little blueing) , finished on the Stenter machine,
and dried with hot air. Lawns are often tinted light
shades of blue, pink, cream, pearl, green, and other
light tints, with the direct colors added to the starch.
It is used principally in the manufacture of ladies' and
children's summer dresses, sash curtains, etc.

Lingerie. This relates to all sorts of ladies' and
children's undergarments, such as skirts, underskirts,
infants' short dresses, chemises, night robes, drawers,
corset covers, etc.

Linon is a fine, closely woven plain fabric, well
known for its excellent wearing and washing qualities.
It is made from combed cotton yarns of long-stapled
stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine linen fab-
rics. The cloth structure is firmly made in the loom.

Long Cloth is a fine cotton fabric of superior quality,
made with a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist.
Originally the fabric was manufactured in England,
and subsequently imitated in the United States. The
fabric is used for infants' long dresses, from which it
derives its name, and for lingerie. Long cloth to some

COTTON FABRICS 185

extent resembles batiste, fine muslins, India linen, and
cambric. It is distinguished from these fabrics by the
closeness of its weave, and when finished the fabric
possesses a whiter appearance, due to the closeness of
the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. It is not used
as a dress fabric, chiefly because of its finished appear-
ance, which is similar in all respects to fabrics which we
have been accustomed to see used solely for lingerie,
nightgowns, etc.

Madras is a light-weight single cloth fabric, composed
of all cotton or cotton and silk, and has excellent wearing
qualities. It was at first a light-colored checked or
striped plain-faced cotton-silk fabric, made in Madras,
India, for sailors' head-dress. It is twenty-seven inches
wide, and is made of varying grades, weighing from
two to three ounces per yard, and is used at all seasons
of the year. It is used by ladies for summer skirts,
shirtwaists, suits, etc., and by men in shirts. It is
known by the white and colored narrow-stripe warp
effects, and is made of cotton yarns ranging from 1 / 26 to
1 / 80 warp and filling, and from 50 to 100 or more ends
per inch. The utility of madras for nearly all classes of
people permits the greatest scope in creating both har-
monious and contrasting color and weave combinations.

The colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and
delicate shades of blue, rose, green, linen, tan, lavender,
and bright red; for prominent hair-line effects black,
navy blue, dark green, royal blue, and cherry red.
Good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric. If
inferior colors are used, they will surely spread during

186 TEXTILES

the finishing processes, and will cause a clouded stripe
where a distinct one was intended.

Moreen. Heavy mohair, cotton, or silk and cotton
cloth, with worsted or moire face. The making of
moreen is interesting. The undyed cloth is placed in
a trough in as many layers as will take the finish. This
finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the
layers sheets of manila paper; the contents of the trough
are then saturated with water; a heavy weighted roller is
then passed over the wetted paper and cloth, the move-
ment of the roller giving the cloth a watered face. It
can then be dyed and refinished. The design or marking
of moreen is different on every piece. Moreen was at
first made for upholstery and drapery use. It was
found to give a rustling sound similar to silk, so was
taken up for underskirts. The name is from the
French moire, meaning watering.

Mull. A soft cotton muslin of fine quality, made
first in India, later in Switzerland. The name in Hindoo
is mal, meaning soft, pliable.

Mummy. A plain weave of flax or linen yarn. Origi-
nally the winding cloth of the Egyptian mummified
dead.

Muslin. A fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally
made in Mosul, a city on the banks of the Tigris, in Asia.

Nainsook. Nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized
for various purposes, such as infants' clothes, women's
dress goods, lingerie, half curtains, etc. The striped
and plaid nainsook are used for the same purposes.
When the fabric is required for lingerie and infants'

COTTON FABRICS 187

clothes the English fabric is selected because of its
softness. When intended for dress or curtain fabric,
the French-finished fabric is chosen. The latter finish
consists of slightly stiffening and calendering the cloth.
The fabric may be distinguished from fine lawns, fine
batiste, and fine cambric by the fact that it has not
as firm construction or as much body, and the finish
is not as smooth or as stiff, but inclines to softness,
as the fabric has not the body to retain the finishing
material.

Organdie. An organdie may be defined as a fine,
translucent muslin used exclusively for dress goods.
The fabric is made in a variety of qualities as regards the
counts of yarn used, and in a variety of widths rang-
ing from eighteen to sixty inches. The plain organdie is
popular in pure white, although considerable quantities
are dyed in the solid colors, pale blue, pink, etc., while
the figured organdies are usually bleached pure white,
then printed with small floral designs. The printed
design is in from two to four colors, and in delicate shades
in conformity with the material. Organdie considered
in relation to cost as wearing material is rather
expensive. The reason for this is that it has a finish
peculiar to itself, so that when washed it does not
have the same appearance as before. It loses its crisp
feeling altogether.

Osnaburg. A coarse cloth of flax and tow, made in
America of cotton, in checks or plaids, and used for
furniture covering and mattress making. The town
of Osnaburg, in Germany, made the fabric first.

188 TEXTILES

Percale. Percale is a closely woven fabric made
with a good quality of cotton yarn. The finer qualities
are used for handkerchiefs, aprons, etc., and when
used for these purposes are not printed, but bleached
after the fabric comes from the loom. Percale is chiefly
used for dress fabrics, and when used for this purpose is
generally printed on one side with geometrical figures,
generally black, although other colors may be seen.
The fabric is bleached before it is subjected to the
printing operations.

Percaline. Percaline is a highly finished and dressed
percale. The first process to which the cloth is subjected
is to boil it off, that is, to soak it in boiling water so as
to relieve it from foreign matter that it may have gathered
during the weaving, and at the same time to prepare it
for dyeing. After dyeing it is sized to stiffen it, and
also to increase the gloss on the cloth. After sizing it
is ready for the calender. In order to give it the highest
gloss the cloth is doubled lengthwise or the pieces are
put together back to back, and as it passes through the
rolls it is wet by steam, the rolls being well heated and
tightly set together. Percaline is used chiefly for
feminine wearing apparel, principally for linings, petti-
coats, etc. These purposes require that the cloth shall
be solid color, the darker colors being preferred, as blue,
green, and black. Sometimes it is seen in lighter shades
of brown and tan. The most attention is given to the
finishing process.

Pique. Pique is a heavy cotton material woven in
corded or figured effects. The goods are used for such

COTTON FABRICS 189

purposes as ladies' tailor-made suits, vestings, shirt
fronts, cravats, bedspreads, and the like. It was
originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate
quilting. The name is French for quilting. The
plainest and most common fabrics of pique are those in
which the pattern consists of straight cords extending
across the cloth in the direction of the weft. In the
construction of these fabrics, both a face and back warp
are required, and the cords are produced by all the back
warp threads being raised at intervals of six, eight, or
more picks over two or more picks of the face cloth,
which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of the
fabric. The goods are always woven white and no colors
are ever used. The face warp threads are generally
finer than the back warp threads, and are in the propor-
tion of two threads for the face and one thread for the
back. On the heavier and better grades of pique coarse
picks called wadding are used to increase the weight,
and also to give more prominence to the cord effect.
They are introduced between the face and back cloths.
In the lightest and cheapest grades neither any wadding
nor back picks are used. In this case the back warp
threads float on the back of the fabric except when raising
over the face picks to form the cord. In the figured
pique the binding of the back warp threads into the
face cloth is not done in straight lines as in plain pique,
but the binding points are introduced so as to form
figures. These fabrics are woven in the white, and
the figures are purely the result of binding the face
and back cloths together.

190 TEXTILES

Poplin. Poplin or popeline is a name given to a
class of goods distinguished by a rib or cord effect running
width way of the piece. It referred originally to a fabric
having a silk warp and a figure of wool filling heavier
than the warp. At the present time it refers more to a
ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular
combination of materials. Cotton poplin is usually
made with a plain weave, the rep effect being obtained
either by using a fine warp as compared with the filling,
or a large number of ends as compared with picks per
inch on both. Irish poplin is a light-weight variety of
poplin, sometimes called single poplin, and is celebrated
for its uniformly fine and excellent wearing qualities.
It is principally made in Dublin.

Plumetis. Sheer cotton or woolen cloth having
raised dots or figures in relief on plain ground. The
design shows a feathery effect, as in embroidery tam-
bour. The name is French for this kind of embroidery,
and is derived from plume, French for feather.

Rep. A fabric having a surface of a cord-like
appearance. The name is probably corrupted from
rib. It is used in making shirtwaists and skirts.

Sateen. Twilled cotton cloth of light weight, finished
to imitate silk satin. There are two kinds, viz., warp
sateen and filling sateen.

Scrim. Open mesh weave of cotton or linen for cur-
tains and linings. The name is from scrimp, referring
to economy in weaving.

Silesia is a light-weight single cloth fabric, having
a rather high texture, and weighing about three ounces

COTTON FABRICS 191

per yard. It is composed of all cotton yarn, and is
used principally as a lining for ladies' and men's cloth-
ing. Silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state, and is
dyed in the piece in such colors as black, dark blue,
brown, drab, slate, steel, etc. An important feature is
the highly glazed or polished face of the goods, which
is due to the action of the heated roller in the calender-
ing machine upon the sizing.

Souffle. The largest designs of crepon show a raised
or puffed appearance. Souffle is from the French and
means puffed.

Swiss. From Switzerland, where the plain Swiss net
and figured cambric is a specialty in the St. Gall dis-
trict.

Tape. Tape is a narrow fabric composed either of
cotton or linen yarns in warp and filling, and usually
made with a point or broken twill weave, the break in
the weave occurring in the center of the tape, and the
twill lines running in a right- and left-hand direction.
It is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing,
also as a binding in innumerable cases, and is sold by
the roll, each roll containing a certain number of yards.
It is made of all bleached and of regular yarns about
AG'S to Vso's and Vic's cotton.

Tarletan. An open mesh of coarse cotton, used
mostly in fruit packing, sometimes for dress and drapery.
The name is from tarlantanna, Milanese for coarse
weave of linen and wool.

Terry Cloth or Turkish Toweling is a cotton pile
fabric. It is woven in such a way as to permit the

192 TEXTILES

forming of a series of loops on each side of the cloth
in regular order. After leaving the loom each piece
is laid separately in the bleaching kier. Then the goods
are dried on a tenter frame, given a light starching to
add weight, run through a rubber rolled mangle and
again dried on a tenter frame. This cloth is used in the
manufacture of towels, Turkish bath robes, etc. Turk-
ish toweling is the original terry. The name is from the
French tirer, to draw or pull.

Zephyr Gingham is the finest grade of gingham made
and is a light-weight cotton fabric, composed of VWs to
/GO'S cotton warp and filling yarns. It is woven with
either the plain weave or a small all-over dobby effect.
It is made in attractive patterns by using good fast
colors in warp and filling, and as a cloth has excellent
wearing qualities.

CHAPTER XV
FLAX

Flax. Flax or linen occupies the first position in
the group of stem fibers, 1 being not only the oldest, but
next to cotton the most important vegetable spinning
material known. Its value is increased by the fact
that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various con-
ditions of soil and climate, and in consequence has
gained access to northerly districts and cool highlands.
Although flax has lost some of its importance from the
successful competition of cotton, nevertheless it still
forms one of the chief articles of an industry which
merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and
proves highly profitable.

The Physical Structure of Flax. Flax, when seen
under the microscope, looks like a long, cylindrical tube
of uniform thickness, with lumina so small as to be
visible only as straight black lines lengthwise of the
fiber, and frequently exhibits small transverse cracks.
It is never twisted like cotton fiber. Its color varies
from pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints. The

stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers,
and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to
be taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these
plants are severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with
the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.

193

194 TEXTILES

difference in color is due chiefly to the process of
" retting." Its average length is about twenty inches,
and its tensile strength is superior to that of cotton.
It will absorb moisture, 12 per cent being the
standard allowance made.

Flax is used for making linen thread and cloth, yarn,
twist, string fabric, and lace. In its composition it is
almost purely an unlignified cellulose, and its specific
gravity is 1.5.

Flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton, hence
linen goods always feel colder than cotton goods.

Russia produces more than one-half the world's
supply of flax, but that from Belgium and Ireland is of
the best quality. Italy, France, Holland, and Egypt
are other important producers. The plant is an annual,
of delicate structure, and is gathered just before it is
ripe, the proper time being indicated by the changing
of the color from green to brown. At the time of
gathering the whole plant is uprooted, dried on the
ground, and finally rippled with iron combs, to separate
the stalks from the leaves, lateral shoots, and seeds.

The best fiber amounts to about 75 per cent of the
stalk. To separate this valuable commercial product
from the woody matter the stalks are first subjected to
a process termed retting, which is steeping them in
water until they are quite soft. Then follow the
mechanical processes to further the production of the
fiber and free it from all useless matter.

These are as follows:

1. Crushing or Beating. This consists of breaking

FLAX

195

the woody matter with the aid of mallets or in stamp-
ing mills.

2. Breaking. This is passing the stalks through a
series of horizontal rollers to break further the woody
matter and at the same time separate the greater part
of it from the fiber.

3. Scutching. The object of this process is to re-
move completely the woody matter, and it is done by

PULLING FLAX IN MINNESOTA

means of rapidly revolving wooden arms or blades,
which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently
cleaned and separated.

4. Hackling. The scutched flax is drawn through
iron combs which still further open the fiber. Fineness
of fiber depends upon the number of times it is hackled,
each time with a finer and finer instrument, which
secures the different degrees of subdivision. Then the
fibers are sorted and classified as to length and quality
and laid in parallel forms ready for spinning and manu-
facture into linen.

196 TEXTILES

Bleaching. Linen is bleached in the form of yarn,
thread, and cloth. This is a difficult and long process
owing to the large amount of natural impurities present
in flax fiber, and the difficulty of removing or dissolving
them. Bleaching is now done as a rule by chemical
processes, and when chemicals are used great care
must be taken about their strength and about the time
the cloth is allowed to remain in them. In olden times
sour buttermilk was applied to linen and rubbed in, and
then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and rain.
" Unbleached " linen is treated in the same way as
bleached, only the process is not carried to such an
extent. In Ireland, famous for its bleaching, chemicals
are used in the earlier stages of this process, and then
fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve their
color, and to purge them completely of any chemicals
used. After bleaching, linen is washed, dried, starched,
and put through heavy machines to give it a glossy
finish, and it is then made up in pieces for sale.

Characteristics of Good Linen. Linen is noted for
its smoothness of texture, its brilliancy which launder-
ing increases its wearing qualities, and its exquisite
freshness. The celebrated Irish linen is the most valu-
able staple in the market, and on account of its fineness
and strength, and particularly its bright color, it attains
an unapproachable excellence because the best processes
are used throughout the entire manufacture. Linen
is less elastic and pliable than cotton and bleaches and
dyes readily.

Flax from all countries is woven into table linen,

FLAX 197

though very fine linen must have carefully prepared
fiber. Linen should be soft, yielding, and elastic, with
almost a leathery feel. Fineness of linen does not always
determine good wearing qualities.

Good linen ranges in price from 75 cents to $3.00.
Irish linen has a good bleach. French and Belgian

linens, while fine in thread, are not as serviceable as
Irish linen. Germany makes a good wearing linen, but
not a large variety of patterns. Scotch linens are now
used more than other kinds.

Sources of Flax

Russia, Ireland,

Holland, Canada,

Belgium, U. S. (for seed only),

Germany,

198

TEXTILES

Sources of Manufactured Linens

Scotland, Belgium,

Ireland, , France,

Germany, Russia,

Austria, United States.

MANUFACTURED LINENS

Damasks and Napkins
Scotland,
Ireland,
Germany,
Belgium.

Towelings

Scotland,

Ireland,

Germany,

United States,

Russia.

Glass Checks
Ireland.

Canvas
Scotland,
Ireland.

Handkerchief Lawns,

Cambrics, and Laces

Ireland,

Germany,

France.

Towels
Germany,
Scotland,
Ireland,
Austria,
U. S. (union).

Linen Sheetings
Ireland,
Belgium,
France,
Scotland.

Blouse or Dress Linens
Ireland,
Scotland.

Bleached Waist Linens
Ireland,
France,
Belgium.

Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc.
Germany,
France,
Japan,

Madeira Islands,
Island of Teneriffe.

CHAPTER XVI
HEMP

Hemp is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant.
It grows principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy,

LOADING HEMP IN MANILA

Asia, India, the Philippines, Japan, and some parts of
the United States Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee,
Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country
of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably that

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200 TEXTILES

part near the Caspian Sea. The preparatory treat-
ment is similar to that for the flax plant, except that
most of the work is done by machinery. Considered
chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber con-
tains a considerable amount of woody matter, differ-
ing in this respect from cotton. Its properties are
color (pearl gray, with green or yellow tints), fine-
ness (which depends upon the quality of the hemp;
it is usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile
strength (which is considerable and greater than that
of flax). Its best qualities are its slight luster and
its ability to resist to a great extent the tendency
to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is
difficult to bleach, it is used chiefly in making string,
cord, ropes, etc.

Sisal Hemp. Sisal hemp is a variety that grows
extensively in Central America and the West Indies.
The plant, the agava rigida, is similar to what is known
in this country as the century plant. The fiber is
found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks.
The common hemp on the other hand is found closely
surrounding the woody part of the stem. The fiber
of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away the fleshy
part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by
machines.

Manila Hemp. Manila hemp is obtained in the
Philippines. The plant belongs to the banana family
and grows as large as a small tree. The hemp is ob-
tained from the leaf stalks which appear to form the
trunk of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, but

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201

stronger than Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp
is the strongest; that of Italian hemp the finest.

Jute. Jute is the name given to the fibers found in
certain plants which grow principally in India, and the
East Indian Islands. The common jute comes prin-
cipally from the province of Bengal, India, where it was
first known to science in 1725. The term jute was

FIELD OF SISAL HEMP

first applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The
plant is cut just about the time when it appears
in full flower. The stalks are then bundled and retted
by steeping in pools of stagnant water.

Jute occupies third position in importance of vege-
table fibers in the manufacturing scale, being inferior
to cotton and flax. Hemp is stronger than jute. Jute
becomes weak when exposed to dampness.

It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton,
flax, hemp, and woolen fabrics. The coarse varieties

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are made into coarse fabrics sacks, packing cloth,
etc., while the finer varieties, in which the undesirable
quality of growing darker with age is less apparent, are
used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes,
for which they are very suitable.

CHAPTER XVII
SILK

Silk. The silk of commerce is obtained from the
cocoons of several species of insects. These insects
resemble strongly the ordinary caterpillars. At a cer-

MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS

tain period of its existence the silkworm gives off a
secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on
exposure to the air as the worm forces it out and winds
it about its body.

It takes about three days for the worm to form the
cocoon. After the cocoon has been formed the silk-
worm passes from the form of a caterpillar into a
moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and
flies away. It is very important that the moth should
not be allowed to escape from the cocoon; the mere

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breaking of the cocoon greatly decreases the value of
the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing the
chrysalis by heat.

There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but
few of them secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render
them of commercial value. The principal species is the
mulberry silkworm which produces most of the silk
in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry
leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are
not capable of being cultivated and are called wild silk-
worms. The silk produced by the wild worms of China
and India is called " tussah " (or " tussur "). The
silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms
and is used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet,
plush, etc.

The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of
the European cocoons are bright yellow, though some are
white. The Eastern cocoons, on the other hand, are
mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks
are for the most part ecru color, though some are pale
green. The color, except in the wild silks, is derived
from the gum which is secreted by the worm, and with
which the fibers are stuck together. This gum com-
prises from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is
removed by boiling in soap and water before the silk
is dyed. All silks except the wild silks, after the gum
is removed, are from white to cream in color. The
tussah, or wild silks, remain an ecru color.

The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in
the care of the moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons this

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205

being the succession of changes. That is, the moth
lays eggs which are collected and kept cool till the
proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm
during the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about
the person of the raiser. After a time these eggs hatch

REELING RAW SILK

out worms, tiny things hardly larger than the head of
a pin. After, the worms are hatched they require con-
stant care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves
till they reach maturity. They are then about three
inches in length, and spin their cocoons from a fiber
and gum which they secrete. When the cocoons are
spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them.
The cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises

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killed, generally by heat, before they can again become
moths.

Raw Silk. The cocoons are next sent to the reelers
or filatures. A number of cocoons, greater or less,
according to the size of thread desired, are placed in a
basin of hot water, which softens the gum. After the
outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free,
the ends are collected through a guide and are wound
upon a reel. As the silk cools and dries, the gum
hardens, sticking the fibers from the different cocoons
together in one smooth thread varying in size accord-
ing to the number of cocoons used. After the silk
has been reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks
and sent to America and other countries as raw silk.

Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in
China, Japan, and Italy. It is also produced to a large
extent in Italy, Turkey, and Greece, also France and
Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only carried
on by private firms, but is encouraged by the govern-
ment to the extent of granting money to the manu-
facturers.

Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms
in the United States. All have failed on account of the
high price of labor necessary to feed the worms.

Throwing. The manufacture in the United States
begins with raw silk. We import our raw silk chiefly
from Italy, China, and Japan. It is handled here first
by the " throwster," who winds it fron the skein and
makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.

Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, and

SILK 207

called singles is often used to make warps (that is, the
threads running lengthwise of a piece of cloth) for
piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the
gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed.
Singles are also sometimes used for filling (that is, cross
threads) in very thin fabrics.

Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two
kinds, " tram " and " organzine." Tram silk is made
by twisting two or more loosely twisted threads. It is
heavier than organzine arid is used for filling. Organ-
zine silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly
twisted threads. It is used for warp. Crepe yarn is
used in making crepe, chiffon, and for other purposes.
It is very hard twisted thread, generally tram, from
forty to eighty turns per inch.

Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk,
putting a large number of ends together, giving them
a slack twist, then doubling and twisting in the reverse
direction with a slack twist.

Sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the
raw product, then twisting into tram, giving it a slack
twist, doubling and twisting in the reverse direction
under tension. Machine twist is similar, but three ply.

The principal fabrics made of silk are: silk, satin,
plush, chenille, crepe, crepon, gauze, damask, brocade,
pongee, and ribbons. Silk thread and cord are also
extensively used. The United States is among the
leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics.

Silk Waste. When the cocoons are softened for reel-
ing a certain portion of the silk is found to consist of

293 TEXTILES .

waste and broken threads. The tangled silk on the
outside of the cocoon is called floss. The residue after
reeling, and other wastes in reeling, are known as frison-
nets. Floss silk is not used for weaving. It is a slack
twisted tram, generally composed of a large number of
threads of singles.

Spun Silk. There is another class of threads made
from waste silk by spinning and known as spun silk.
Waste silks include the pierced cocoons, that is, those
from which the moth has come out by making the hole
and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon; the
waste made in the filatures in producing raw or reeled
silk, chiefly the outside fiber of the cocoon and the inside
next the chrysalis; and also the waste made in manu-
facture. The waste silk is ungummed; that is, the gum
is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap, by
macerating or retting, or by chemical reagents.

After the gum is removed from the cocoons, they are
opened and combed, most of the chrysalis shell being
removed. The remainder, with other foreign matter, is
picked out by hand from the combed silk. The silk is
put through a number of drawing frames to get the
fibers even on the roving frames, where it first takes
the form of thread, then on the spinning frames,
where it is twisted. If it is to be used as singles,
the manufacture ends here. In two- or three-ply
yarns, the singles are doubled, twisted again, singed
by running through a gas flame, cleaned by friction,
controlled, that is, the knots and lumps taken out, and
then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools.

SILK 209

Spun Numbers. There are two methods in general
use for numbering spun silk. In the French system,
the number is based on the singles, by the meters per
kilogram; two and three cord yarns have one-half,
one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate.
Thus-

No. 100 singles has 100,000 meters per kilogram.

No. 2-100 has 50,000 meters per kilogram.

No. 3-100 has 33,333 meters per kilogram.

The other system which is more generally used in this
country, is the English system. The hank is 840 yards,
and the number of hanks in one pound avoirdupois is
the count of the yarn. It is based on the finished yarn,
and singles, two or three cord yarns of the same number
all have the same yards per pound. Thus -

No. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound.

No. 50-2 has 42,000 yards per pound.

No. 50-3 has 42,000 yards per pound.

Dyeing Yarns. Generally speaking there are two
large classes into which silk goods may be divided,
those in which the threads are colored before weaving
and called yarn-dyed goods, and those dyed or printed
after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods.
In dyeing yarns, the silk is first ungummed and cleaned
by boiling in soap and water, then washed in cold
water. If the thread is to be weighted, as is frequently
done, tin salts, iron, or other heavy material is deposited
on the fiber. If carried far, this is injurious, making
the silk tender and weak. Sometimes there is more
weighting than silk. Yarns are usually dyed in hot

210 TEXTILES

liquors, aniline colors being the ones in most common
use to-day, though other dyes are used for special pur-
poses. Some yarns are dyed in the gum, and some
with a part of the gum left in. After dyeing, they are
washed in cold water, dried, and wound on spools.

Silk Dyeing. Silk occupies in several respects an
intermediate position between the animal and vege-
table fibers. Like wool, it is a highly nitrogenous
body, but contains no sulphur. It readily takes up
many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable
fiber by the aid of the mordants. This is particularly
the case with reference to a large number of aniline
colors, which require merely to be dissolved and mixed
with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel. The great
attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing
exceedingly. The sad colors, on the other hand, and
especially black, are in many cases exceedingly com-
plex, the main object of the dyer being not so much to
color the silk as to increase its weight.

Dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most
important branch of silk dyeing, and it has probably
received more attention than any other branch, in con-
sequence of which it has been brought to a high degree
of perfection. Blacks on silks are produced both from
natural and artificial coloring matters, the former hav-
ing, so far, retained their pre-eminence despite the
recent discoveries of chemists. For various reasons
coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing
black on silk. Since the discovery of America, logwood
blacks have formed the staple of the black-silk dyer,

SILK

211

who has carried their production to a high degree of
excellence. But unfortunately, besides aiming at a high
state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation, the
black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight
of the dyed silk, so that nowadays it is possible for him

WINDING SILK ON SWIFTS

to receive ten pounds of raw silk and to send out
fifty pounds of black silk, the extra forty pounds
being additions made in the process of dyeing.

Logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of
alternate dippings in separate baths with the mordant
and dyestuffs suitable for producing the required color
and weight. The number of dippings and the length

212 TEXTILES

of time taken in each operation depend on the intensity
of the black wanted and the amount of weighting
which is desired. The chief substances used for weight-
ing are lead salts, catechu, iron, and nut-galls, with soap
and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of the
fabric which these minerals cause. As the details of
the operations are practically the same for all kinds of
logwood blacks (raven, jet, crape, dead black, etc.),
the method for producing one will suffice for all. The
process involves several distinct operations, as follows:

1. The Boiling Off. This is the removal of the gum
and natural coloring matter in the silk. It is accom-
plished by boiling the skeins of silk in water and good
olive oil soap for about one hour. This dissolves the
gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy.

2. Mordanting. This is done in a bath of nitrate
of iron, in which the skeins of silk are allowed to remain
one hour. The silk gains some in weight in this opera-
tion by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the bath.
After having been dipped in the first bath three or four
times, it is ready for the soap and iron bath, in which
it is repeatedly immersed, the operation causing a
deposit of iron-soap on the fiber which adds to its
weight, but at the same time does not lessen its flexi-
bility and softness. Eight dippings in the iron and soap
bath increase the weight of the silk about 100 per cent.

3. Blue Bottoming. The next operation is to dye
the silk blue, which is done by immersing it in a solu-
tion of potash. In this it is worked for half an hour,
when it acquires a deep blue color. It is then taken

SILK 213

out, and after rinsing is ready for the " weighting "
operations.

4. " Weighting " Bath. A catechu bath is now pre-
pared, in which the silk is entered and worked for an
hour, and then allowed to steep over night. The
result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed, and
the goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu in-
crease in weight from 35 to 40 per cent. This bath is
the most important one in the dyeing of " weighted "
black silks, as the dyer can regulate the strength of the
bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase
the weight of the silk to an astonishing degree. The
proportion of tin crystals used is regulated by the num-
ber, of iron baths that have previously been given the
silk; if two baths of iron have been given, 5 per cent
of tin crystals are used; if four baths, 10 per cent, and
so on. The action of these chemicals is somewhat com-
plex. All that is known is that by reason of some pecu-
liar quality possessed by silk it is enabled to combine
with iron and tin, and that exposure to the air after the
baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers,
thus increasing their weight to almost any desired ex-
tent. Silk, according to its quality and weight, will
take up of these substances from 50 to 200 per cent
without creating much suspicion. Instances have been
known in which silk has been increased nine times its
own weight. All the operations thus far have had for
their object the weighting of the silk, although the
blueing and the catechu baths have some influence
on the finished result. After these come the dyeing

214 TEXTILES

operations proper, two in number, mordanting and
dyeing.

5. Mordanting. A bath of iron liquor heated to
130 degrees F. is provided. The silk is entered, worked
well for one hour, then wrung out and hung up to " age "
for two hours, after which it is ready for the logwood
dye.

6. Dyeing. A bath of logwood liquor is prepared to
which is added 10 per cent of fustic, and the solution is
brought to a temperature of 150 degrees F. In this the
silk is entered and worked for an hour, then taken out
and wrung dry. Sometimes the black does not come
up full enough, and' in such cases the bath is repeated.

7. The final operation has for its object the restora-
tion of the luster and suppleness of the silk, which has
to some extent deteriorated from the many operations
through which it has passed. The brightening and
softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the silk
in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion. In
this the silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated
with the oil, when it is taken out and wrung dry, after
which it is ready for the loom. Practically the same
process is followed in piece dyeing, though only inferior
grades of silk are dyed in the web.

Colored Silks. This class of silks is generally purer
than black and sad-colored silks. It is not nearly so
easy to weight the former as the latter, for the reason
that there are but few substances capable of giving
weight which do not interfere with the effect of light
colored dyes. The weighting agents most generally

SILK 215

used are sugar and acetate of lead. The weighting by
sugar is done after the silk is dyed. A solution is made
of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large copper pan
with water and heating until dissolved. In this bath
the silk is thoroughly saturated, and then dried and
finished; or, the dipping process may be repeated
several times if desired. One dipping will weight the
silk about 12 per cent, two about 20 per cent, and three
about 30 per cent. In a solution of acetate of lead, each
dipping will weight the silk about 8 per cent, and these
may be repeated as often as it is wished. In this case
the weighting is generally done on the undyed, boiled-off
silk, although it may be done on the dyed silk if the
color is such as will stand the acid.

Mixed Silk Fabrics. Until lately silk was invariably
dyed in the state of yarn. When the silk was to be
woven into mixed fabrics, such as satin, gloria, etc.,
it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly the same
shade. Formerly such fabrics were woven with the
cotton and silk yarns dyed separately, care being taken
to match them as closely as possible. The weaving of
dyed yarns of different fibers is open to the objection
that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a
wide difference in the color, no matter how closely they
may have matched in the beginning.

Ribbons. Ribbons are woven several pieces in one
loom, with a separate shuttle for each piece. The
shuttle is carried through the shed or warp by a rack
and pinion, instead of being thrown through as in broad
goods; otherwise the weaving is the same.

216 TEXTILES

Velvets. Velvets and other pile fabrics are woven
in two pieces, one over the other, with the pile threads
woven back and forth between them. A knife travels
between the two pieces cutting the pile threads so as to
leave the ends standing up straight. Velvets used to
be woven over wires and cut by hand, but this method
is practically obsolete.

Piece Dyeing. If the goods are woven with the
gum still in the silk, it must be taken out afterward,
and the goods either dyed in the piece or prepared for
printing.

Printing. The most primitive method of printing
is by the use of stencils. It is the method employed
by the Japanese and Chinese. Next came block print-
ing, which is still extensively used in Europe. The
pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks, the color
taken up from pads, one block for each color. The
results are good, but the work is very slow. Most silk
goods are to-day machine printed. The design is en-
graved or etched on copper cylinders, one cylinder for
each color; the color thickened with gum is supplied
by rolls running against the cylinders, and the surplus
is scraped off by a knife blade, leaving only that in the
engraving which is taken up by the cloth. After print-
ing, the cloth is steamed to set the colors, and then
washed in order to remove the gum used to thicken the
colors for printing.

Finishing. All silk goods, whether yarn dyed or
piece dyed or printed, are given some kind of finish;
sometimes it is no more than is necessary to smooth out

JACQUARD SILK LOOM

218 TEXTILES

the wrinkles. There are many finishing processes by
which goods may be treated. They are run through gas
flames to singe off loose fiber, and over steam cylinders to
dry and straighten them, over a great variety of sizing
machines to stiffen them with starch or glue. There
are calenders or heavy rolls to smooth and iron them,
steam presses of great power to press them out, break-
ing and rubbing machines to soften them, and tenter-
ing machines to stretch them to uniform width. There
are also moireing or watering, embossing, and various
other machines for special purposes.

Waterproofing. One of the worst difficulties with
which the manufacturer of piece-dyed and printed silk
goods has to contend is the ease with which they be-
come spotted with water, and for a number of years
many people have tried to prevent this by various
processes. There are no less than two hundred such
processes patented. None of them have met with much
success, as they injured the feel or strength of the goods.
After goods are finished they are carefully inspected
for imperfections, measured, and wrapped in paper and
packed in cases for shipment. The complexity and
number of processes for treating silk goods may be
realized when we know that a piece-dyed or printed
fabric is handled its entire length between fifty and one
hundred times after it comes from the loom, sometimes
even more.

CHAPTER XVIII
PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS

Alma. Cloth, double twilled from, left to right
diagonally, first made in black only as a mourning
fabric. The name is from the Egyptian, as applied to
a mourner or a singer at a funeral.

Barege. Sheer stuff of silk and wool for veiling,
named from the town of Bareges, in France.

Bengaline. An imitation of an old silk fabric made
for many centuries in Bengal, India, whence the
name. The weave is similar to that of ordinary rep
or poplin, being a simple round-corded effect. The
cord is produced by using a heavy soft-spun woolen
weft which is so closely covered by the silk warp threads
that it is not exposed when examined from the wrong
side. The same weave is also found in all-silk goods,
under the designation of all-silk bengaline. When
cheapened by the use of a cotton weft in place of wool
the fabric is known as cotton bengaline, although the
cotton is in the filling only.

' Berber. Satin-faced fabric of light-weight cloth. It
came into favor about the time of the defeat of the
Berbers by General Gordon in his campaign against the
Mahdi in North Africa.

Brocade. Raised figures on a plain ground.

219

220 TEXTILES

Brocatel. A kind of brocade used for draperies and
upholstery; usually raised wool figures on a silk ground.

Bombazine. Silk warp, wool weft, fine twilled cloth;
originally made in black only for mourning. It is used
largely for mourning hat bands. The root of the name
is bombyx, the Latin for silkworm.

Chenille. Cloth of a fuzzy or fluffy face; woven of
cotton, silk, or wool; used sometimes for dress goods;
more generally for curtains and table covers. Chenille
is the French word for caterpillar, which the single
thread of the cloth resembles.

Chiffon. A thin, transparent silk muslin. Although
one of the thinnest and gauziest of modern silk fabrics,
it is relatively strong considering its lightness. To
convey an idea of the fineness of the thread used in
its manufacture, it is stated that one pound of it will
extend a distance of eight miles. In the process of
finishing the fabric receives a dressing of pure " size."
There are two styles of finish, called respectively the
demi- or half size and the full size. Chiffon finished by
full sizing is comparatively stiff; while the demi-finish
produces a softer and lighter texture. It is dyed in a
great variety of colors, and sometimes is printed in deli-
cate patterns. It is especially adapted for home and
evening wear, and is used for neck and sleeve trim-
ming, drapery over silk foundations, fancy work, and
millinery.

China Silk. A term applied to plain woven silks
manufactured in China. The term China silk has been
adopted in the United States in recent years for a class

PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS 221

of machine-woven silks made in imitation of the hand-
loom product. These imitations are narrow in width
and lack the soft, lustrous quality of Eastern fabrics,
and are also free from the uneven threads. China
silks are distinguished by their irregular threads, caused
by some of the threads being heavier than others, and
their extreme softness.

The warp and filling are identical in size and color,
and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural
luster. It is generally plain color, although the figured
goods are printed in much the same manner as calico.
It is used for gowns, waists, underclothing, etc. It
launders as well as white cotton.

Crepe. A thin, gauzy fabric, woven in loose even
threads of silk, heavily sized or gummed, crimped or
creped in the dyeing. Crepe was first used in black
only as a badge of mourning. It is now an accepted
dress fabric, made in colors and white and of many
materials. The name signifies to crimp or crepe with a
hot iron.

Crepe de Chine. A soft, lustrous silk crepe, the
surface of which is smoother than that of the ordi-
nary varieties. It is woven as a plain weave with
part of the warp threads right twisted and the rest
left twisted. It is dyed almost any color and figured or
printed.

Eolienne. Sheer cloth of silk, silk and wool, or silk
and cotton, woven in fine card effect. The name comes
from the Greek ^Eolus, god of the winds.

Foulard. Plain silk cloth, sold as dress goods; origi-

222 TEXTILES

nally made for handkerchiefs only. The name is French
for silk handkerchief.

Glace. Plain, lustrous silk, yarn dyed, with warp
of one color, and weft of another. The name is applied
to all fabrics having two tones. Glace is French for
icy, having an icy appearance.

India Silk. A name applied to the plain woven silks
manufactured in India on the primitive hand looms.
The warp and weft are woven evenly and produce a
beautiful natural luster. It is similar to China and
Japanese silk. In fact most of these fabrics come
from China and Japan, India silk being almost unknown
in this country as so little of it is exported. The dura-
bility of these silks is about the same, and there is little
difference in the prices.

Japanese Silk. A term applied to the plain woven
silk manufactured in Japan. The warp and filling of
this fabric are identical in size and color, and being
woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster. The
weave is smooth and soft in quality. It is dyed in plain
colors. The figured goods are printed in much the
same way as calico. It is used for waists, gowns, and
fancy underwear.

Jersey Cloth. Silk jersey cloth is popular at present.
It is a knitted silk fabric, not woven, and is generally
dyed in plain colors. It is expensive and is used for
women's dresses, wraps, and silk gloves.

Meteor. Crepe de meteor was originally a trade
name for crepe de chine, but now applied to a fabric
which is distinguishable from crepe de chine.

PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS 223

Moire. Moire is a waved or watered effect produced
upon the surface of various kinds of textile fabrics,
especially on grosgrain silk and woolen moreen. This
watered effect is produced by the use of engraved rollers
and high pressure on carded material. The object of
developing upon woven textiles the effect known as
moire is the production of a peculiar luster resulting
from the divergent reflection of the light rays on the
material, a divergence brought about by compressing
and flattening the warp and filling threads in places,
and so producing a surface the different parts of which
reflect the light differently. The moire effect may be
obtained on silk, worsted, or cotton fabrics, though it is
impossible to develop it on other than a grained or fine
corded weave. The pressure applied to the material
being uneven, the grained surface is flattened in the
parts desired. In the Middle Ages moire was held in
high esteem, and continues to enjoy that distinction
down to the present day. It is used for women's
dresses, capes, and for facings, trimmings, etc.

Mozambique. Grenadines, with large colored flower
designs in relief.

Organzine. Silk fabric, made with warp and filling
of the same size. Organzine is the name given the
twisted silk thread in Italy, where it is made.

Panne. This name is applied to a range of satin-
faced velvet or silk fabrics which show a high luster
produced by pressure. The word panne is the French
for plush.

Peau de Soie. Literally, skin of silk. A variety of

224 TEXTILES

heavy, soft-finished, plain-colored dress silk, woven
with a pattern of fine close ribs extending weftwise of
the fabric. An eight-shaft satin with one point added
to the original spots on the right or left, imparting to the
fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. The best grades
of peau de soie present the same appearance on both
sides, being reversible. The lower grades are finished
on one side only.

Plush. Long piled fabric of the velvet order.
Peluche, the origin of the name, is French for shaggy.

Pongee. Said to be a corruption of Chinese punchi,
signifying home- made or home woven. Another sug-
gestion is that the word is a corruption of pun-shih, a
native or wild silk. A soft, unbleached, washable silk,
woven from the cocoons of the wild silkworm, which
feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak. Immense quanti-
ties in a raw state are annually shipped from China to
this country and Europe, where they are bleached,
dyed, and ornamented with various styles of designs.
The name is also applied to a variety of dress goods
woven with a wild silk warp and a fine worsted weft.

Popeline. A French name. The French fabric is
said to have been first introduced during the early part
of the sixteenth century at Avignon, then a papal
diocese, and to have been so called in compliment to the
reigning pope. A fabric constructed with a silk warp
and a filling of wool heavier than the silk which gives it
a corded surface. Poplin manufacture was introduced
into Ireland in 1693 by a colony of fugitive French
Huguenots. The industry concentrated at Dublin,

PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS 225

where it has since remained. The Irish product has
been celebrated for its uniformly fine quality. It is
always woven on hand looms, which accounts for the
high price it commands in English and American mar-
kets. The wool used is a fine grade of Cape or Austra-
lian, which is the most suitable in texture and length
of fiber. The silk is unweighted Chinese organzine.
The result is a rich, handsome fabric resembling whole
silk goods in appearance, but inferior to them in dura-
bility and produced at a much less cost. It is used for
ladies' waists, wraps, and gowns.

Figured Poplin. A stout variety, ornamented in the
loom with figures. The ground is composed of clear,
sharp cords extending across the web. It is sometimes
woven entirely of silk, but oftener of silk and wool.
Used for high-class upholstery purposes, and for cur-
tains and hangings.

Terry Poplin. A silk and wool dress fabric in the
construction of which the alternate warps are thrown
upon the surface in the form of minute loops.

Sarsenet. A thin, soft-finished silk fabric of a
veiling kind, now used as millinery lining. The name
comes from the Arab Saracens, who wore it in their
head-dress.

Satin. When satin first appeared in trade in Southern
Europe it was called aceytuin. The term slipped
through early Italian lips into zetain, and coming west-
ward the i was dropped, and smoothed itself into satin.
There is evidence that the material was known as early
as the fourteenth century in England, and probably in

226 TEXTILES

France and Spain previous to that time, though under
other names.

In the weaving of most silk fabrics the warp and
filling intersect each other every alternate time (as in
plain weaving), or every third or fourth time (as in ordi-
nary twill weaving) in regular order; but in weaving,
satin the fine silk warp only appears upon the surface,
the filling being effectually covered up and hidden.
Instead of making the warp pass under and over the
filling every alternate time, or over two or three filling
threads in regular order, it is made to pass over eight,
ten, twelve or more filling threads; then under one and
over eight more, and so on. In passing over the filling,
however, the warps do not interweave at regular inter-
vals, which would produce a twill, but at irregular
intervals, thus producing an even, close, smooth sur-
face, and one capable of reflecting the light to the best
advantage. The filling of low grade satin is generally
cotton, while in the better goods it is silk. Common
satin is what is technically known as an eight-leaf twill,
the order in which the filling thread rises being once in
eight times. Rich satins may consist of sixteen-leaf to
twenty-leaf twills. The cheap qualities of cotton-back
satin, particularly those that sell at wholesale for fifty
cents and under, are not made to any extent in this
country, our manufacturers being unable to compete
with foreign mills in these lines.

Satins are woven with the face downward, because
in weaving, say a sixteen-leaf satin, it would be neces-
sary, were the surface upward, to keep fifteen heddles

PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS 227

raised and one down, whereas with the face of the cbth
under, only one heddle has to be raised at a time. When
first taken from the loom the face of satin is somewhat
flossy and rough, and hence requires to be dressed.
This operation consists of passing the pieces over heated
metal cylinders which remove the minute fibrous ends,
and also increase the natural brilliance of the silk.
Cotton-back satins are used by coffin manufacturers,
fancy box makers, fan makers, and by the cutting-up
trade. Rich satins are used in making ladies' gowns
and waists.

Soleil. Satin-faced cloth, woven with a fine line, a
stripe running lengthwise of the piece. It is usually
made in solid colors and piece dyed. Soleil is French
for sun, and applies to the brightness of the finished
cloth.

Taffeta. Derived from Persian taftah. Taffeta is one
of the oldest weaves known, silk under this name having
been in constant use since the fourteenth century.
During this long period the term has been applied at
different times to different materials. It is a thin,
glossy silk of plain texture or woven in lines so fine as
to appear plain woven. The weave is capable of many
effects in the way of shot and changeable arrangements,
which are produced by threads of different colors rather
than by any special disposition of warp and filling,
"affeta has the same appearance on both sides. It is
piece dyed in numberless plain colors, and also pro-
duced in a great variety of ornamental patterns, such as
fancy plaids, cords, and stripes (both printed and woven).

228 TEXTILES

The following considerations contribute chiefly to the
perfection of taffetas, viz.: the silk, the water, and the
fire. The silk must not only be of the finest kind, but
it must be worked a long time before it is used. The
watering, which is given lightly by any acidulous fluid,
is intended to produce the fine luster, and lastly, the
fire and pressure which have a particular manner of
application. Its wearing qualities are not of the best.
The cloth cracks or breaks, especially if plaited. It is
used for gowns, shirt-waists, linings, petticoats, etc.

Tulle. Openwork silk net; made on the pillow as
lace by young women of Tulle, France.

Velour. French for velvet. A trade term of some-
what loose application, being used indiscriminately to
describe a great variety of textures so constructed or
finished as to present a velvet-like surface. It is usu-
ally a velvety fabric made of coarse wool yarn and
silk. Velour is woven with a coarse stiff pile after
the manner of plush; while at present it is made of jute,
cotton, and worsted, it was originally constructed of
linen. It is produced in numberless forms, both plain
and in fancy effects.

Velvet. From the Italian velluto, feeling woolly to
the touch, as a woolly pelt or hide. Fine velvet is
made wholly of silk.

Velveteen. An imitation velvet, made of cotton,
usually with plain back, not twilled, as silk velvet.

Tabby Velvet. The lowest grade of cotton velvet,
used for covering cheap coffin lining cases, sold by the
inch in widths which range from sixteen to thirty-two

PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS

229

inches. Originally made in Bagdad for wall covering,
its name being derived from a section of that city.

Voile. From the French voile, meaning a veil, a
light fabric usually more or less transparent, intended to
conceal the features in whole or in part or to serve as a
screen against sunlight, dust, insects, etc., or to empha-
size or preserve the beauty. The custom of wearing veils
had its origin in the early ages in the desire of semi-
savage man to hide away the woman of his choice, and
is a survival of the ancient custom of hiding women
that is found even down to the present day in Eastern
countries. Voile is a transparent, wiry 'material with a
square mesh.

CHAPTER XIX
ARTIFICIAL SILK

Silk Cotton. On account of the high price of silk
various attempts have been made to find satisfactory
substitutes for it. There are certain seed coverings of
plants that contain very fine hair-like fibers with a
luster almost equal to silk, but the staples are short, and
the texture weak. The Kapok plant furnishes most
of the commercial silk cotton on the market. The
fibers of Kapok are thin and transparent. They are
extremely light, and the length is less than half an inch.
Silk cotton has a smooth surface and therefore cannot
be spun like true cotton which has corded edges.

Artificial Silk. Since seed hairs are composed, like all
vegetable fibers, of cellulose, attempts have been made
to prepare an artificial silk product from waste paper
- that is, by treating waste paper or wood or cotton
fibers with various chemicals in order to obtain pure
cellulose. This artificial silk is perhaps the most in-
teresting of artificial fibers, but its manufacture is
dangerous, owing to the ease with which it catches fire
and explodes. Cellulose, chemically treated, can be
transformed into a fluid solution known as collodion.
The collodion is placed in steel cylinders and expelled
by pressure through capillary tubes. After drying,

230

ARTIFICIAL SILK 231

denitration, and washing, it may be spun and dyed like
natural silk. Colored threads may be produced by the
addition of certain dyes.

Artificial silk bears a deceptive resemblance to the
natural article, and has nearly the same luster. It
lacks the tensile strength and elasticity, and is of higher
specific gravity than true silk.

Tests. A simple way of recognizing artificial silk is
by testing the threads under moisture, as follows: First,
unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric, place
them in the mouth and masticate them vigorously.
Artificial silk readily softens under this operation and
breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled
between the fingers shows no thread, but merely a
mass of cellulose or pulp. Natural silk, no matter how
thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength.
The artificial silk offers no resistance to the teeth,
which readily go through it; whereas natural silk
resists the action of the teeth.

CHAPTER XX
SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON

ON account of the high price of cotton various experi-
ments have been made, in an effort to replace it with
fiber from wood pulp, grasses, leaves, and other plants.

Wood Pulp. A Frenchman has discovered a process,
la soyeuse, of making spruce wood pulp into a sub-
stitute for cotton. Although it is called a substitute,
the samples show that it takes dye, bleaching, and
finishing more brilliantly than the cotton fiber. It
resists boiling in water or caustic potash solution for
some minutes, and does not burn more quickly than
cotton. The fiber can be made of any length, as is also
the case with artificial silk. The strength of the yarn
apparently exceeds cotton, and the cost of manufacture
is much lower. Arrangements are being made in Europe
for the extensive production of this fiber.

Ramie. Ramie or China grass is a soft, silky, and
extremely strong fiber. It grows in southwestern Asia,
is cultivated commercially in China, Formosa, and
Japan, and is a fiber of increasing importance. Ramie
is a member of the nettle family and attains a height of
from four to eight feet. After the stalks are cleaned
of a gummy substance, insoluble in water, it is known
as China grass, and is used in China for summer clothing.

232

SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON 233

In Europe and America by the use of modern machinery
and chemical processes the fiber is cleaned effectively
and cheaply. After it is bleached and combed it makes
a fine silky fiber, one-half the weight of linen, and three
times stronger than hemp. It is used in Europe to make
fabrics that resemble silk, and is also used in making
underwear and velvets. With other fabrics it is em-
ployed as a filling for woolen warps. It will probably
be used widely in the United States as soon as cheaper
methods of cleaning are devised.

Pineapple and Other Fibers. Other fibers, of which
that from the pineapple is the most important, are used
for textile purposes in China, South America, parts of
Africa, Mexico, and Central America. Their use has
not been extensive on account of high cost of produc-
tion. The silk from the pineapple is very light and of
excellent quality.

Spun Glass. When a glass rod is heated in a flame
until perfectly soft it can be drawn out in the form of
very fine threads which may be used in the production of
handsome silky fabrics. Spun glass can be produced
in colors; but on account of the low elasticity of these
products, their practical value is small, though the
threads are exceedingly uniform and have beautiful
luster. Spun glass is used by chemists for filtering
strong acid solutions.

A kind of glass wool is produced by drawing out to a
capillary thread two glass rods of different degrees of
hardness. On cooling they curl up, in consequence of
the different construction of the two constituent threads.

234 TEXTILES

Metallic Threads. Metallic threads have always
been used for decorating, particularly in rich fabrics.
Fine golden threads, as well as silver gilt threads, and
silver threads and copper wire, have been used in many
of the so-called Cyprian gold thread fabrics, so renowned
for their beauty and permanence in the Middle Ages.
These threads are now produced by covering flax or hemp
threads with a gilt of fine texture.

Slag Wool. Slag wool is obtained by allowing molten
slag (generally from iron) to run into a pan fitted with a
steam injector which blows the slag into fibers. The
fibers are cooled by. running them through water, and the
finished product is used as a packing material.

Asbestos. Asbestos is a silicate of magnesium and
lime, containing in addition iron and aluminum. It is
found in Savoy, the Pyrenees, Northern Italy, Canada,
and some parts of the United States. Asbestos usually
occurs in white or greenish glassy fibers, sometimes
combined in a compact mass, and sometimes easily
separable, elastic, and flexible. Canadian asbestos is
almost pure white, and has long fibers. Asbestos can
be spun into fine thread and woven into rope or yarn,
but as it is difficult to spin these fibers alone, they are
generally mixed with a little cotton, which is afterwards
disposed of by heating the finished fabric to incandes-
cence. Because of its incombustible nature asbestos
is used where high temperatures are necessary, as in
the packing of steam joints, steam cylinders, hot parts
of machines, and for fire curtains in theatres, hotels,
etc. It is difficult to dye.

APPENDIX

Testing Textile Fabrics. This is an age of adul-
teration, and next to food there is probably no com-
modity that is adulterated as much as the clothing we
wear. Large purchasers of textile fabrics and various
administrative bodies, such as army clothing depart-
ments, railway companies, etc., have adopted definite
specifications to ensure having good material and work-
manship. Before the fabrics are accepted they are
examined carefully by certain tests to see if they meet
the requirements. Wholesale and retail merchants in-
sist on various conditions when purchasing fabrics in
order to conform to the increasing needs of the public.
Hence every manufacturer, buyer, or dealer in fabrics
should be familiar with the tests used to determine the
quality of goods he is about to buy.

The tests used are as follows:

1. Identification of the style of weaving.

2. Testing the breaking strength and the elasticity by
the dynamometer.

3. Determining the "count" of warp and filling.

4. Determining the shrinkage.

5. Testing the constituents of warp and of filling.

6. Testing the finish and dressing materials.

7. Testing the fastness of the dye.

235

236 APPENDIX

Directions for Determining the Style of Weave.
In examining a fabric for the weave it is first necessary
to determine the direction of the warp and filling threads.
This is a very simple matter in a great many fabrics that
have a selvedge the warp must be parallel to the
selvedge.

In fabrics that have been fulled, raised, and cropped,
as buckskin, flannel, etc., the direction of the nap will
indicate the direction of the warp, since the nap runs in
this direction.

In the case of fabrics with doubled and single threads,
the doubled threads are always found in the warp.

In fabrics composed of cotton and woolen threads
running in different directions, the cotton yarn usually
forms the warp and the woolen yarn the filling. Then
again the warp threads of all fabrics are more tightly
twisted than the filling threads, and are separated at
more regular intervals.

Sometimes in stiffened or starched goods threads
running in only one direction can be seen. In this
case they are the warp threads.

If one set of threads appears stiffer and straighter
than the other, the former may be regarded as warp,
while the rough and crooked threads are the filling.
The yarn also gives one a hint, since the better, longer,
and higher number material constitutes the warp, while
the thicker yarn the filling.

The direction of the twist of the thread is conclu-
sive; if one set has a strong right twist and the other
a left twist the first is the warp.

APPENDIX 237

After determining the direction of the warp and
filling, the next point is to determine the interlacing of
the warp and filling threads the weave. This may
be done by inspection or by means of a pick-glass and
needle. The weave may be plotted on design paper
(plotting paper), the projecting warp threads being
indicated by filling up the corresponding square, and
leaving those referring to the filling threads blank.
In this way the weaving pattern of the sample is ob-
tained, and serves as a guide to the weaver in making
the fabric, as well as for the preparation of the pattern
cards for the Jacquard loom.

Testing the Strength and Elasticity of a Fabric.
The old-fashioned plan of testing cloth by tearing it
by the hand is unreliable, because tearing frequently
requires only a certain skilled knack whereby the
best material can be pulled in two. In this way an
experienced man may tell good from bad cloth, but
he cannot determine slight differences in quality, because
he has exerted his strength so often that his capacity to
distinguish the actual force has disappeared.

The best means of determining the strength of a
fabric is by means of a mechanical dynamometer, 1 which
expresses the tensile strength of the fabric in terms of
weight. The machine is very useful to the manufacturer
because it enables him to compare accurately his various
products with those of his competitors. The value of
these tests is sufficiently proved by the fact that all

1 The testing apparatus may be obtained from any textile manufac-
turing company, such as Alfred Suter, 487 Broadway, New York.

238 APPENDIX

army clothing departments, etc., require their supplies
of cloth, etc., to pass a definite test for strength.

Breaking tests also afford the most certain proof to
bleachers of cotton and linen goods as to whether the
bleaching has burned or weakened the goods. The
same test will quickly determine whether a fabric has
been improperly treated in the laundry.

Determining the Count of Warp and Filling Threads.
Every fabric must contain a certain count of warp and
filling threads a definite number within a certain
space for each strength of yarn employed. A fabric
is not up to the standard of density when less than the
requisite number of warp or filling threads per inch is
found. For example, if a buyer was told that a fabric
is 80 square, that is, eighty warp threads and eighty
filling threads to the inch, and on examination found
only 72 square, he would immediately reject the goods.

The count of warp and filling is determined by means
of a pick-glass a small mounted magnifying glass -
the base of which contains an opening of one-half inch
by one quarter inch, or one quarter inch by one quarter
inch. If the pick-glass is placed on the fabric the
number of warp and filling threads may be counted,
and the result multiplied by either two or four, so
as to give the number of threads to the inch. For
example, if I count twenty picks and twenty threads
on a one quarter-inch edge, there are eighty picks
and eighty threads to the inch. A more accurate
result can be obtained by using a pick-glass with a
one-inch opening.

APPENDIX 239

Determination of Shrinkage. A very important factor
in the value of a fabric is the shrinkage. The extent
of this may be determined by pouring hot water over a
sample of about twelve by twenty inches, and leaving
the fabric immersed over night, then drying it at a mod-
erate temperature without stretching. The difference
in length gives the shrinkage, which is usually expressed
in percentage.

Determination of Weight. Buyers and sellers of dry
goods, when traveling, are anxious to determine the
weight of fabrics they examine. This may be done by
means of small pocket balances so constructed as to
give the number of ounces to the yard of a fabric.

Testing the Constituents of the Warp and Filling.
Take a sample piece of the cloth to be examined the
piece must be large enough to contain specimens of all
the different kinds of yarn present in the material
and separate all the filling and warp threads. Be sure
that all double threads are untwisted.

Combustion Test; Test for Vegetable and Animal
Fibers. Burn separately a sample of the untwisted
warp and filling threads. If one or both burn quickly
without a greasy odor, they are vegetable fibers, cotton
or linen. If one or both burn slowly and give off a
greasy odor, they are animal fibers, wool or silk. This
test is not conclusive, and further chemical examina-
tion acid test must be made to ascertain whether
wool is pure or mixed with cotton.

Acid Test. The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen,
are distinguished from those of animal origin by their

240 APPENDIX

behavior in the presence of acids and alkalies. The
vegetable are insoluble when boiled with a 4 per cent
sodium hydrate solution, but readily clear or carbonize
when saturated with a 3 per cent sulphuric acid
solution and allowed to dry at a high temperature in a
hot closet. Wool on the other hand is not affected by
the action of weak sulphuric acid.

Cotton Distinguished from Linen. If the fibers are
vegetable, cotton may be distinguished from linen
by staining the fibers with fuchsine. If the fibers turn
red, and this coloration disappears on the addition of
ammonia, they are cotton, if the red color remains the
fibers are linen. Whenever cotton yarn is used to adul-
terate other fabrics, it wears shabby and loses its bright-
ness. When it is used to adulterate linen, it becomes
fuzzy through wear. One may detect it in linen by
rolling the goods between thumb and finger. Linen is
a heavier fabric, and wrinkles much more readily than
cotton. It wears better, and has an exquisite freshness
that is not noticed in cotton fabrics.

Silk Distinguished from Wool. Place the fabric or
threads containing animal fibers in cold, concentrated
hydrochloric acid. If silk is present it will dissolve, while
wool merely swells.

Artificial Silk from Silk. On account of the low value
of the artificial and the high value of genuine silk, there
is a tendency to offer the artificial instead of the pure
article. Test: When artificial silk is boiled in 4 per
cent potassium hydrate solution it produces a yellow
solution, while pure silk gives a colorless solution.

APPENDIX 241

A common test is to put the artificial silk in water,
where it will pull apart as though rotten; or to take out
one strand of the silk, hold it between the finger and
thumb of each hand and wet the middle of the strand
with the tongue, when it will pull apart as though rotten.

Artificial silk is inferior in strength and elasticity to
pure silk. Then again it is lacking in the crackling
feeling noticed in handling the genuine article.

Test for Shoddy. It is no easy matter to detect shoddy
in woolen fabrics; the color of the shoddy threads is the
best evidence. Many parcels of rags are of one single
color, but for the most part they are made of various
colored wools; therefore, if on examination of a fabric
with a magnifying glass a yarn of any particular color is
found to contain a number of individual fibers of glaring
colors, the presence of shoddy can be assumed with
certainty.

Woolen goods containing cotton are seldom made
from natural wool. Shoddy yarns, especially in winter
goods, are found in the under-filling at the reverse side
of the cloth, as thick, tightly twisted yarns, curlier than
those from the pure wool.

Determination of the Dressing. During the various
operations of washing, bleaching, etc., the goods lose in
weight, and to make up this deficit a moderate amount
of dressing or loading is employed. Dressing is not
regarded as an adulteration, but as an embellishment.

Various dressing materials are used, such as starch,
flour, mineral matters, to give the goods stiffness and
feel on one hand, and on the other to conceal defects

242 APPENDIX

in the cloth, and to give a solid appearance to goods of
open texture. The mineral substances used serve chiefly
for filling and weighting, and necessitate the employ-
ment of a certain quantity of starch, etc. In order that
the latter may not render the cloth too stiff and hard,
further additions of some emollient, such as glycerine,
oils, etc., are necessary.

When a fabric filled in this manner is placed in
water and rubbed between the hands, the dressing is
removed, and the quantity employed can be easily
determined.

By holding fabrics before the light dressing will be
recognized, and such goods, if rubbed between the fingers,
will lose their stiffness. Loading is revealed by the
production of dust on rubbing, and by the aid of the
magnifying glass it can be easily ascertained whether
the covering or dressing is merely superficial or pene-
trates into the substance of the fabric.

The tests of permanence of dyes on fabrics are as
follows :

Washing Fastness. Fabrics should stand mechanical
friction as well as the action of soap liquor and the
temperature of the washing operation. In order to test
the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a
soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary house-
hold, and heated to 131 degrees F. The treatment
should be repeated several times. If the color fails to
run it is fast to washing.

Fastness Under Friction. Stockings, hosiery yarns,
corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended to be worn next

APPENDIX 243

to the skin must be permanent under friction, and must
not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed materials must
not give off their color when worn next to the human
epidermis (skin), or in close contact with colored articles
of clothing, as in the case of underwear.

The simplest test is to rub the fabric or yarn on white
unstarched cotton fabric. In comparing the fastness
of two fabrics it is necessary to have the rubbing equal
in all cases.

Resistance to Perspiration. With fabrics coming in
contact with the human skin it is necessary in addition
to fastness under friction that they should withstand
the excretions of the body. The acids of perspiration
(acetic, formic, and butyric) often become so concen-
trated that they act on the fiber of the fabric.

In order to test the fabric for resistance, place the
sample in a bath of 30 per cent dilute acetic acid
(one teaspoonful to a quart of water) warmed to the
temperature of the body, 98.6 degrees F. The sample
should be dipped a number of times, and then dried
without rinsing between parchment paper.

Fastness against Rain. Silk and woolen materials
for umbrella making, raincoats, etc., are expected to
be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting
with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in cold
water.

Resistance to Street Mud and Dust. Ladies' dress
goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and
dust. In order to test a fabric for this resistance the
sample should be moistened with lime and water (10

244 APPENDIX

per cent solution), dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle
with a 10 per cent solution of soda, drying, brushing,
and noting any changes in color.

Fastness to Weather, Light, and Air. Various people
have attempted to set up standard degrees of fast-
ness for every shade of color is affected by the action
of sun, light, and air and as a result fabrics that re-
main without appreciable alteration for a month of ex-
posure to direct summer sunlight are classified as "fast,"
and those undergoing slight appreciable change under the
same conditions as "fairly fast." "Moderately fast"
colors are those altering considerably in fourteen days;
and those more or less completely faded in the same
time (fourteen days) are designated as "fleeting."

Directions for testing fastness of Color in Sunlight.
Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of
cardboard. Expose the fabric to the sunlight for a
number of days and examine the cloth each day in the
dark and notice whether the part exposed has changed
in color when compared with the part covered. Count
the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change
the color.

Brown in woolen materials is likely to fade. Brown holds its
color in all gingham materials.

Dark blue is an excellent color for woolens and ginghams. Light
blues on the other hand usually change.

Black, gray, and black with white. These colors are very satis-
factory for woolen materials.

Black is riot a color which wears very well with cotton fabrics, as
it shows the starch (sizing) and often fades.

Red is an excellent color for all woolen materials. It looks attrac-
tive and wears well.

APPENDIX 245

Red is a very poor color for cotton. It loses its brilliancy and
frequent washing spoils it.

A deep pink is an excellent color for all ginghams for it fades
evenly and leaves a pretty shade.

Green is a poor color for both cotton and woolen materials unless
it is high priced.

Lavender fades more than any other color in textiles.

HISTORY OF TEXTILES

The three fundamental industries that have developed
from necessity are the feeding, sheltering, and clothing
of the human race. These primary wants were first
gratified before such conveniences as transportation
and various lines of manufacture were even considered.
Next to furnishing our food supply, the industry of
supplying clothing is the oldest and the most widely
diffused. It is in the manufacture of textiles includ-
ing all materials used in the manufacturing of clothing
- that human ingenuity is best illustrated.

The magnitude of the textile industry in the United
States is evident when we consider that it gives employ-
ment to a round million of people, paying them nearly
five hundred million dollars annually in wages and
salaries, producing nearly one and three-quarters bil-
lion dollars in gross value each year, and giving a
livelihood to at least three millions of our population.

Wool, cotton, flax, and silk have been used since early
times. Even in the earlier days these fibers were woven
with great skill. It is not known which fiber was the
first to be used in weaving. It is probable, however,
that the possession of flocks and herds led to the spinning

246 APPENDIX

and weaving of wool before cotton, flax, or silk fibers were
thus used.

Wool. The date at which prehistoric man discarded
the pelt of skins for the woven fabric of wool marks the
origin of the textile industry. Primitive sheep were
covered with hair and the wool which now characterizes
them was then a downy under-coat. As time went on
and the art of spinning and weaving developed, the food
value of sheep decreased, while the wool value increased.
The hairy flocks were bred out, and the sheep with true
wool, like the merino, survived. Sheep were bred prin-
cipally for the wool and not for the mutton. Woolen
fabrics were worn by the early inhabitants of Persia
and Palestine. The Persians were noted for the excel-
lent fabrics they wove from wool. Even the Hebrews
of an early date were very skilful in weaving woolens.

The early Romans were a race of shepherds and the
women of the higher classes wove the cloth in their own
homes. When Caesar invaded England, he found in
the southern part of the island people acquainted with
the spinning and weaving of wool and linen. With the
downfall of Rome, the art of weaving cloth in Europe
was almost lost, and people again wore furs and skins.

By the end of the eleventh century English cloth
manufacturing had begun to revive. In the northern
part of Italy certain Italians had flocks of sheep and
obtained very fine wool, and the people of Flanders
continued to develop skill in weaving during the Dark
Ages.

In the twelfth century the woolen manufacturers of

APPENDIX 247

Flanders had grown to be of great importance, and
some of the finest goods were shipped from there to many
countries.

In England, up to the time of Edward III, in the
fourteenth century, the wool produced was exported to
the Netherlands, there to be woven into cloth. Edward
III invited many of the Flemish weavers to come to
England to teach the English people how to make their
own clothes. Edward was called the " Royal Wool
Merchant" and also the " Father of English Com-
merce." During Elizabeth's reign in the sixteenth
century the chief article of export was woolen cloth.
In 1685 the Huguenots, who were driven from France,
went to England to settle. These people were noted
for their skill in weaving.

Patient effort in care and breeding of sheep showed a
steady increase in the quantity and quality of wool
until 1810, and the proportion of sheep to the popula-
tion was then greater than at the present time.

Our own climate is highly favorable for sheep breed-
ing, and it is certain that the American sheep has no
superior in any wool growing country, in constitutional
vigor and strength of wool-fiber, and no wools make more
durable or more valuable clothing.

The obstacles to sheep husbandry in certain parts of
the United States, like New England, are mainly cli-
matic. The natural home of the only races of sheep
which can be herded in large flocks is an elevated table-
land, like the steppes of Russia and the great plains of
Asia, Argentina, Montana, Wyoming, and others of our

248 APPENDIX

western states where an open air range is possible for
nearly twelve months in the year. In these elevated lands
there are grasses which are more nutritious in winter
than in summer. The climate of New England does
not permit the growth of such grasses. Every grass
which will grow in New England becomes in the cold
months frozen wood fiber. Then again there is the
frigid and penetrating atmosphere which necessitates
housing the sheep in winter, and these animals cannot
be closely housed without engendering a variety of
parasitic diseases.

Cotton. Long before history was written, cotton was
used in making fabrics in India and China. Cotton
has been for thousands of years the leading fabric of
the East. The Hindoos have for centuries maintained
almost unapproachable perfection in their cotton fabrics.
It was the Arabian caravans that brought Indian calicoes
and muslins into Europe.

Cotton was first cultivated in Europe by the Moors
in Spain in the ninth century. In 1430 it was imported
into England in large quantities. The section of Eng-
land about Manchester became in time the seat of the
great cotton industry; this was due to the settlement
of spinners and weavers from Flanders.

During the reign of Elizabeth, the East Indies Trading
Company was established. Not only was cotton im-
ported, but also India muslins. This caused trouble
because of the decrease in the demand for woolen goods
manufactured in England. A law was passed prohibit-
ing the importing of cotton goods and later the manu-

APPENDIX 249

facturing of them, but this law was repealed on
account of the great demand for cotton materials.

Columbus found cotton garments worn by the natives
of the West Indies. Later Cortez found that cotton
was used in Mexico; hence, cotton is indigenous to
America. In 1519 Cortez made the first recorded
export of cotton from America to Europe.

In 1734 cotton was planted in Georgia. Bales of
cotton were sent to England, and the manufacturing
of cloth was soon under way. While the colonies were
trying to gain independence, England imposed a fine
on anyone sending cotton machinery to America, and
restrictions were put on manufacturing and imports
of any kind. After the War of Independence many
of the southern states began to raise cotton in larger
quantities.

The invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney was
one of the great inventions of the age. While only
two pounds of cotton could be seeded by hand by one
person in a day, the gin made it possible to do several
hundred pounds. At the time of the Civil War the
greater part of the cotton used by English manufacturers
was imported from the southern states. The closing
of the southern ports during the war affected the cotton
industry throughout the world. Large mills in England
were closed, and thousands of people were out of employ-
ment. Steps were then taken to encourage people of
India, Egypt, Central and South America to increase
their production of cotton, and from that time on,
cotton from these countries has been found in the

250 APPENDIX

general market. Cotton is now cultivated in nearly all
countries within the limits 45 north and 35 south of
the equator.

At the present time the United States ranks first in
the production and export of cotton. Of all the states,
Texas and Georgia produce the largest amount. About
one-third of the entire crop is used in our own mills;
$250,000,000 worth of cotton is annually exported,
principally through New Orleans, New York, Savannah,
and Galveston. Three-fifths of this quantity goes to
mills in England; Germany, France, and Switzerland
take a large part of the remainder.

The value of cotton is shown by the fact that about
one-half the people of the earth wear clothing made
entirely of cotton, and the other half (with the excep-
tion of some savage tribes) use it in part of the dress.

Linen. Linen has always been held in great esteem.
The garments of the Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, and
Roman priests were made of the finest linen.

During the Middle Ages, Italy, Spain, and France
were celebrated for their linen fabrics. Religious in-
tolerance in France drove 300,000 of her best textile
workers into England, Ireland, and Scotland. Irish
linen weaving began as early as the eleventh century.

Linen has never been largely woven in America except
in the coarser forms of crash and toweling, although
linen weaving was one of the Puritan domestic industries.
The reason America has not been able to equal Europe
in its production of fine linens is because the process for
separating the fiber from the stalk requires the cheapest

APPENDIX 251

form of labor to make it profitable, hence most of the
American-grown flax is raised only for seed.

Silk. Silk was used in the East as a fabric for the
nobility. It was first used in China and later in
India. It was brought into Europe about the sixth
century. Up to that time the Chinese had a monopoly
of the industry. By the tenth and eleventh centuries
silk fabrics were made in Spain and Italy. At the close
of the sixteenth century silk was being produced at
Lyons, France. It was afterwards introduced into Eng-
land, and the English silk for a long time replaced the
French in the European market.

HISTORY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF TEXTILE
INDUSTRIES

The development of the textile industry may be
divided into four stages or periods: first, the family
system; second, the guild system; third, the domestic
system; and fourth, the factory system.

The Family System. Under the family system the
work of spinning and weaving was carried on by members
of a household for the purpose of supplying the family
with clothing. There were no sales of the product.
Each class in society, from the peasant class to that of
the nobleman, had its own devices for making clothing.
This was the system that existed up to about the tenth
century.

The Guild System. As communities became larger
and cities sprang up, the textile industry became more
than a -family concern. There was a demand for better

252 APPENDIX

fabrics, and to meet this demand it became necessary to
have a large supply of different parts of looms. The
small weaver who owned and constructed his own loom
was not able to have all these parts, so he began to work
for a more prosperous weaver. The same conditions ap-
plied to spinning, and as early as 1740 spinning was car-
ried on by a class distinct from the weavers. As a result
the small weaver was driven out by the growth of
organized capital, and a more perfect organization,
called the guild system, arose. By this system the
textile industry was carried on by a small group
of men called masters, employing two, three or more
men (distinguished later as journeymen and appren-
tices). The masters organized associations called guilds
and dominated all the conditions of the manufacture
to a fa" greater extent than is possible under present
conditions.

It was the family system that existed in the American
colonies at the beginning of the settlement, and for many
years after. The guild system was not adopted in
America because it was going out of existence on the
Continent.

The Domestic Period. By the middle of the eight-
eenth century the textile industry began to break away
from the guilds and spread from cities to the rural dis-
tricts. The work was still carried on in the master's
house, although he had lost the economic independence
that he had under the old guild system where he acted
both as merchant and manufacturer. He now received
his raw material from the merchant and disposed of

APPENDIX 253

the finished goods to a middleman, who looked after the
demands of the market.

The Factory System. The domestic period was in
turn crowded out of existence by the factory system.
A factory is a place where goods are produced by power
for commercial use. The factory system first came into
prominence after the invention of the steam engine.
No record has been found showing its existence prior
to this invention.

English weavers and spinners became very skilful
and invented different mechanical aids for the produc-
tion of yarn and cloth. These mechanical aids not only
enabled one man to do twenty men's work, but further
utilization was made of water and steam power in place
of manual labor. Then began the organization of the
industry on a truly gigantic scale, combining capital
and machinery and resulting in what is known as the
factory system.

Previous to the development of the factory system
there was no reason why any industry should be centered
in one particular district. Upon the utilization of steam
power the textile industry became subdivided into a
number of industries, each one becoming to a great
extent localized in convenient and suitable portions of
the country. Thus in Bradford the wool of Yorkshire
(England) meets the coal of Yorkshire and makes
Bradford the great woolen and worsted center of the
world. The same thing took place in Manchester,
where the cotton of America meets the coal of Eng-
land under satisfactory climatic conditions, and around

254 APPENDIX

Manchester is the greatest cotton manufacturing of the
world.

The same is true in America. Lawrence became a
large worsted center on account of the great fall of
water and the use of the river to deposit wool washings.
Lowell, Fall River, and New Bedford became large cotton
centers for similar reasons.

HISTORY OF MANUFACTURING

Spinning. Spinning and weaving are two of the
earliest arts practised by man. Yarn for the making

of cloth was spun in the earliest
times by the use of the distaff
and spindle. The spindle was
a round stick of wood a foot
or less in length, tapering at

SPINNING WHORL Gach 6nd ' A rin g f stone r

one of the earliest devices used clay was placed on the spindle

for spinning .

to give it steadiness and mo-
mentum when it revolved. At the top of the spindle
was a slit or notch in which the yarn was caught.
The distaff was a larger, stouter stick, around one end
of which the material to be spun was wound in a loose
ball. The spinner fixed the end of the distaff under her
left arm so that the coil of material was in a conve-
nient position for drawing out to form the yarn. The
end of the yarn, after being prepared, was inserted
in the notch, and the spindle was set in motion by
rolling it with the right hand against the leg. Then
the spinner drew from the distaff an additional amount

APPENDIX

255

of fiber, which was formed by the right hand into uni-
form strands. After the yarn was twisted, it was re-
leased from the notch and wound around the lower
part of the spindle.

In order to spin yarn by the primitive spinner, it was
necessary for the fiber to have sufficient length to enable
it to be manipulated, drawn over, and twisted by the
fingers. It is noted that the yarns for the gossamer-like
Dacca muslins of India were so fine that one pound of
cotton was spun into a thread 253 miles long. This was
accomplished with the aid of a bamboo spindle not much
bigger than a darning needle, which was lightly weighted
with a pellet of clay. Since such a slender thread could
not support even the weight of so slight a spindle, the
apparatus was rotated
upon a piece of hollow
shell. It thus appears
that the primitive spin-
ners with distaff and
spindle had nothing to
learn in point of fine-
ness from even the most
advanced methods of
spinning by machinery.

Certain rude forms of the spinning wheel seem to
have been known from time immemorial. The use of
the wheel in Europe cannot, however, be dated back
earlier than the fifteenth century. In the primitive
wheel the spindle, having a groove worked in its whorl,
was mounted horizontally in a framework fixed to the

HAND SPINNING

From a Fourteenth Century MS. in the
British Museum

256

APPENDIX

end of a bench. A band passed around the whorl and
was carried around a large wheel fixed farther back on
the bench, and this wheel, being turned by the hand
of the spinner, gave a rapid rotation to the spindle.

The fibers to be spun were first combed out by means
of carding boards an implement of unknown an-
tiquity, consisting of two boards with wire teeth set in
them at a uniform angle. The fiber to be carded was
thinly spread upon one of the boards, and then the
other was pushed backward and forward across it, the
teeth of the two overlapping at opposite angles, until

the fibers were combed
out and laid straight in
parallel lines. The fi-
bers were then scraped
off the boards in rollers
or "cardings" about
twelve inches long and
three-quarters of an inch
AN ANCIENT LOOM j n diameter. An end of

From an Egyptian Monument .. ,.

the carding was then

attached to the spindle and the wheel set in motion.
The carding itself was held in the hand of the spinner
and gradually drawn out and twisted by the rotation
of the spindle. As soon as a sufficient length had
been attenuated and twisted to the required fineness,
the thread so produced was held at right angles to the
spindle and allowed to wind up on it. But for fine
spinning two operations of the wheel were generally
necessary. By the first spinning the fibers were drawn

APPENDIX

257

out and slightly attenuated into what was called a roving,
and by the second spinning the roving itself passed
through a similar cycle of operations to bring it to the
required degree of attenuation and twist.

Many improvements in the primitive wheel were
introduced from time to time. In its later develop-
ments two spindles were employed, the spinner being
thus enabled to manipulate two threads at once, one in
each hand. This
was the latest form
of the spinning-
wheel, and it sur-
vived until it was
superseded in the
eighteenth century
by the great series
of inventions which
inaugurated the in-
dustrial revolution
and led in the nine-
teenth century to
the introduction of EARLIER SPINNING AND WEAVING

^}\Q f actorV SVStem From a Fifteenth Century MS. in the British Museum

Weaving. When or where man first began to weave
cloth is not known, nor is it known whether this art
sprang from one common center or was invented by
many who dwelt in different parts of the world. There
is such a sameness in the early devices for spinning and
weaving that among some men of science it is thought
that the art must have come from a common center.

258 APPENDIX

Fabrics were made on the farms two or three hundred
years ago in the following manner: the men of the
household raised the flocks, while the women spun the
yarn and wove the fabrics. In this way the industry
prospered, giving occupation and income to thousands
of the agricultural class. You might say that in Eng-
land fabrics were a by-product of agriculture. As time
went on, farmers of certain sections of England became
more expert in the art, and the weaving became sepa-
rated from the spinning. The weavers became clus-
tered in certain towns on account of the higher skill
required for the finer fabrics. The rough work of farm-
ing made the hands of the weaver less skilful. This,
coupled with the fact that the looms became more
complicated with improvements, called for a more ex-
perienced man. Great inventions brought about a more
rapid development of the factory.

Richard Arkwright, who has been called the " father
of the factory system," built the first cotton mill in the
world in Nottingham in 1769. The wheels were turned
by horses. In 1771 Arkwright erected at Crawford a
new mill which was turned by water power and supplied
with machinery to accomplish the whole operation of
cotton spinning in one mill, the first machine receiving
the cotton as it came from the bale and the last wind-
ing the cotton yarn upon the bobbins. Children were
employed in this mill, as they were found to be more
dexterous in tying the broken ends. As the result of
this great invention, factories sprang up everywhere in
England, changing the country scene into a collection

APPENDIX 259

of factories, with tall chimneys, brick buildings, and
streets.

From 1730 to the middle of the nineteenth century
the development of inventions was rapid:

1730 First cotton yarn spun in England by machinery by

Wyatt.
1733 English patent granted John Kay for the invention of

the fly shuttle.
1738 Patent granted Lewis Paul for the spinning machinery

supposed to have been invented by Wyatt.
1742 First mill for spinning cotton built at Birmingham;

moved by asses; but not successful.
1748 Patent on a cylinder card as first used by hand, granted

Lewis Paul.

1750 Fly shuttle in general use in England.
1756 Cotton velvets and quiltings first made in England.
1760 Stock cards first used for cotton by J. Hargreave. Drop

box invented by Kay.

1762-67 Spinning-jenny invented by Hargreave.
1769 Arkwright obtains his first patent on spinning.

1774 Bill passed in England to prevent the export of cotton

machinery.

1775 Second patent of Arkwright on carding, drawing, and

spinning.

1779 Mule spinning invented by Crompton. Peele's patent
on carding, roving, and spinning.

1782 Date of Watt's patent for the steam-engine.

1783 Bounty granted in England for the export of certain

cotton goods.

1785 Power loom invented by Cartwright. Cylinder print-
ing invented by Bell. A warp stop-motion described
in Cartwright's patent.

1788 First cotton factory built in the United States, at
Beverly.

260 APPENDIX

1789 Sea Island cotton first planted in the United States.

Samuel Slater starts cotton machinery in New York.

1790 First cotton factory built in Rhode Island by Slater.
1792 First American loom patent granted to Kirk and Leslie.
1794 Cotton-gin patented by Eli Whitney.

1801 Date given for invention of the Jacquard machine in
France.

1803 Dressing machine and warper invented in England by

Radcliffe, Ross, and Johnson.

1804 First cotton mill built in New Hampshire, at New

Ipswich.

1805 Power loom successfully introduced in England after

many failures.

1806 First cotton mill built in Connecticut, at Pomfret.
1809 First cotton mill built in Maine, at Brunswick.
1812 First cotton mill built at Fall River.

1814 Cotton opener with lap attachment invented in England

by Creighton.

1815 Power loom introduced into the United States at

Waltham.

1816 First loom temple of Ira Draper patented in the United

States.

1818 Machinery for preparing sewing cotton invented in
England by Holt.

1822 First cotton factory erected at Lowell.

1823 Differential motion for roving frames patented by

Arnold. First export of raw cotton from Egypt to
England.

1824 Tube frame or speeder patented by Danforth.

1825 Self-acting mule patented in England by Roberts.

1828 Ring spinning patented by John Thorpe. Cap spin-

ning patented by Danforth.

1829 Revolving loom temple improvements patented by Ira

Draper.
1832 Stop-motion for drawing frames invented by Bachelder.

APPENDIX 261

1833 Ring spinning frames first built by William Mason.

1834 Weft fork patented in England by Ramsbottom and

Hope. Shuttle-changing loom by Reid and Johnson.

1840 Automatic loom led off. Important temple improve-
ment.

1849 First cotton mill erected in Lawrence.

Through this great change from hand to power work,
thousands were thrown out of employment in the great
textile centers, and much suffering occurred, which led
to the smashing of machinery.

Knitting Machinery. Like many other industries,
the hosiery trade owes its first and most important
impetus to the genius of one who was not connected
with the business in a practical way. This event took
place when the Rev. William Lee invented the hand
frame. He was married early in life, and his wife was
obliged, on account of the slender family finances, to
knit continuously at home. Struck with the monotony
and toil involved in knitting with the hand pins, Mr. Lee
evolved a means of knitting by machinery and brought
out the hand stocking-frame, which to-day preserves
its chief features very much as Lee invented them.
When knitting by hand, one must form each loop sepa-
rately, and loop follows loop laboriously until the width
of fabric has been worked. Lee contrived to make the
whole row of loops across the width simultaneously by
arranging a needle for each loop and placing in connec-
tion with each needle a sinker and other apparatus for
completing the formation of the loop. First of all,
the yarn is laid over the needles, which are arranged

262 APPENDIX

horizontally, and the sinkers come down on the yarn
and cause it to form partial loops between the needles.
The old loops of the previous course are now brought
forward and the new yarn is drawn through them in the
same way as is done on the hand pins. Thus the new
yarn of one course is drawn through the loops of the
preceding one, and so the whole fabric is built up. This
frame of Lee's held its own in the great centers until
some thirty years ago.

Lee's hand frame gave way to what is termed the
jack and sinker rotary frame, which was like the hand
frame in its chief features, but with the advantage
that all the motions were brought about by power.
The various operations were put under the control of a
set of cams * and made to perform their movements in
exactly the same way as in the case of the hand frame.
In the first power machine for knitting, the machine
builder used the cam mechanism, and in examining the
latest machines we find that he has persisted in this
course throughout. The cam movement is character-
ized by great smoothness of working and absence of
vibration, which is very necessary in a machine of the
delicate adjustment of the knitting frame. It is usual
to connect some of the parts with two of these cams,
one of which controls the up-and-down motion and the
other the out-and-in movement. When these two cams
work in conjunction, we obtain all the possible degrees
of harmonic motion.

1 A cam is a device consisting of a special shaped wheel attached to a
machine to give a special kind of motion or movement.

APPENDIX 263

From the jack and sinker frame the next really im-
portant step was taken when William Cotton brought
out his famous Cotton's patent frame. In his machine
the frame was in a sense turned on its back, for the
parts, such as the needles, which had been horizontal,
were made vertical and vice versa. He also reduced the
number of the moving parts and perfected the cam
arrangement. Another very important development of
the machine was when it was built in a number of divi-
sions so as to work a number of articles side by side at
one time. At present there are knitting frames which
can make twelve full-sized garments at one and the
same time.

Another important improvement was effected when
the fashioning apparatus was supplied to the machine,
by means of which the garments could be shaped accord-
ing to the human form by increasing or decreasing the
width as desired.

HISTORY OF LACE

Lace, like porcelain, stained glass, and other artistic
things, has always been an object of interest to all
classes. Special patterns of laces date from the six-
teenth century. The church and court have always
encouraged its production. While the early lace work
was similar to weaving, in that the patterns were stiff
and geometrical, sometimes the patterns were cut out
of linen, but with the development of the renaissance
of art, free flowing patterns and figures were introduced
and worked in.

264 APPENDIX

The lace industry first took root in Flanders and
Venice, where it became an important branch of indus-
try. Active intercourse was maintained between the
two countries, so that intense rivalry existed. France
and England were not behind Venice and Flanders in
making lace. The king of France, Henry III, en-
couraged lace work by appointing a Venetian to be
pattern maker for varieties of linen needlework and
lace for his court. Later, official aid and patronage were
given to this art by Louis V. Through the influence
of these two men the demand for lace was increased to
such an extent that it became very popular.

Under the impulse of fashion and luxury, lace has
received the stamp of the special style of each country.
Italy furnishes its Point of Venice; Belgium its Brussels
and Mechlin; France its Valenciennes, etc.

Very little is known of the early lace manufacturers
of Holland. The laces of Holland were overshadowed
by the richer products of their Flemish neighbors. The
Dutch, however, had one advantage over other nations
in their Haarlem thread, once considered the best thread
in the world for lace.

In Switzerland, the center of the lace trade, the work
was carried on to such a degree of perfection as to rival
the laces of Flanders, not alone in beauty, but also in
quality.

Attempts have been made at various times, both
during this century and the last, to assist the peasantry
of Ireland by instruction in lace-making. The finest
patterns of old lace were procured, and the Irish girls

APPENDIX 265

showed great skill in copying them. Later a better
style of work, needlepoint, was modeled after old
Venetian lace the exquisite productions for which
Americans pay fabulous prices at the present day.

The lace manufacturers of Europe experienced a
serious set-back in 1818 when bobinet was first made in
France. Fashion, always fleeting, adopted the new
material. Manufacturers were forced to lower prices,
but happily a new channel for export was opened in the
United States.

The machine-made productions of the Nottingham
looms, as triumphs of mechanical ingenuity, deserve
great praise.

The first idea of the lace-making machine is attributed
to a common factory hand, Hammond Lindy, who, when
examining the lace on his wife's cap, conceived a plan
by which he could copy it on his loom. Improvements
followed, and in 1810 a fairly good net was produced.

Perhaps the most delicate textile machine known, in
its sensitiveness to heat and cold, is a lace machine. A
machine can be made to run in any climate, provided it
is so installed as to be protected from either extreme of
temperature.

The various substitutes for hand-made lace are legion;
for what the inventor cannot achieve in one way he can
in another. There remains however the fact that the
productions of machinery can never possess the charm
of the real hand-made work. Machine-made lace is
stiffer than hand-made lace.

EXPERIMENTS'

Experiment 1 Construction of Cloth

Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin, foot-rule.

Materials: 4 square inches of burlap.

References: Textiles. See page 54, Weaving; page 1, Fibers.

Directions

1. Look at the cloth under the pick glass and describe the
appearance and structure of its interlacing threads, called weave.

2. With a pin separate the interlacing threads of the cloth which
are called warp and filling. Warp is composed of yarn running
in the direction of the length of the cloth. Filling is composed of
yarn running at right angles to the warp.

a. What are the interlacing threads of cloth called?
6. Of what is warp composed and in what direction do the warp
threads extend? filling?

3. Notice the appearance of the individual threads (called yarn)
of the warp and filling. Test the strength of the yarn by trying
to break it.

4. Untwist one of the warp threads and one of the filling threads.
Notice whether the yarn becomes stronger or weaker as it is
untwisted. What effect has twist on the yarn?

5. After untwisting one of the threads what remains? Measure
the length of several of these ends called fibers. Describe the
appearance of the fiber as to curl, feel, fineness, etc.

Questions

1. Of what does yarn consist?

2. What causes the fibers to cling together?

3. What is the process called by which two sets of threads
interlace?

1 Dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a
pen holder.

267

268 EXPERIMENTS

4. When two sets of threads interlace or are woven what is
produced?

Experiment 2 Plain or Homespun Weave

Apparatus: Hand loom, 1 two pencils, scissors.
Material: Yarn of two colors.
Reference: Textiles, page 58.

Directions

1. Make a warp on the hand loom with green yarn by having
parallel threads running the longest way of the loom to the
notches.

2. A harness is a framework on a loom used for raising certain
warp threads. Use a pencil as a harness and raise the 1st, 3d,
and 5th warp threads. A shed will in this way be formed
through which the shuttle carrying the filling thread will pass.
Use the red yarn for filling and attach it at one end before passing
it through the shed.

3. With a second pencil to act as a second harness raise the
2d, 4th, and 6th warp threads. Pass the filling through the shed
thus formed.

4. Repeat twice Directions 2 and 3.

5. Tie all ends, cut the woven sample away from the loom, and
mount in note-book.

Questions

1. What part of a loom is the harness?

2. What is meant by a shed?

3. What carries the filling thread through -the shed on a loom?

4. What is the principle of plain weaving?

5. Name some fabrics produced by plain weaving? See Textiles,
page 58.

Experiment 3 Twill Weave

Apparatus: Hand loom, four pencils, scissors.
Materials: White cotton warp, colored yarn filling.
Reference: Textiles, page 58.

1 A hand loom consisting of simply a square frame, may be obtained
from Hammett & Co., Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.

EXPERIMENTS 269

Directions

1. On the hand loom make a warp by threading four white warp
threads to a notch until there are six sets of warp threads.

2. Using a pencil as a harness (See Exp. 2) raise the first thread
of each set of warp threads and pass the filling thread through the
shed thus formed.

3. With another pencil as a second harness raise the second thread
of each set of warp threads and pass the filling.

4. With a third pencil raise the third thread of each set of warp
threads and pass the filling.

5. With still another pencil to act as a fourth harness raise the
fourth thread of each set and again pass the filling.

6. Repeat the above directions (2 to 5) several times. Notice
that the moving of the filling thread, one warp thread to the left,
each time it is woven is causing a diagonal line or rib to form,
called twill.

7. Cut the woven sample away from the loom and mount.

Questions

1. Why is this weave called a twill weave?

2. How is the diagonal line or twill formed?

3. Why would this kind of weaving be spoken of as 4-harness
weave?

4. What popular dress fabric is of twill weave?

Experiment 4 Comparison of Plain and Twill Weave

Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting pin, foot-rule.
Material: 4 sq. in. of burlap, 4 sq. in. of serge.
References: Textiles, pages 58, 59, 60.

Directions

1. Examine the burlap under the pick glass, noting the structure
and number of threads to the inch in the warp (called ends) and the
number of threads to the inch in the filling (called picks). Verify
with foot-rule.

2. Repeat the above, using serge.

270 EXPERIMENTS

Questions

1. What is meant by a number of "ends to the inch"? a num-
ber of " picks to the inch"?

2. How many ends to the inch in the burlap? How many picks
to the inch?

3. How many ends to the inch in the serge? How many picks?

4. Note several differences between cloth produced by plain
weaving and cloth produced by twill weaving.

Experiment 5 Pile Weave

Apparatus: Hand loom, two pencils, scissors.
Materials: White cotton warp, filling yarn of two colors.
Reference: Textiles, page 62.

Directions

1. Thread the loom two warp threads to a notch until there are
20 ends (warp threads).

2. Use a pencil as a harness. Raise the 1st, 3d, 5th, 7th, and
9th sets of warp threads.

3. Fasten securely the green filling yarn at one end and pass
it through the shed formed by carrying out Direction 2. Draw
the filling thread tight and wind once or twice around the outside
warp end.

4. Use a second pencil as a harness and raise the sets of warp
threads that are now down, forming a new shed.

5. Fasten the red filling yarn at one end and pass it through the
shed. Wind once or twice about the outside warp end.

6. Raise the red filling to form a loop in each place where it (the
red filling) has passed over a warp end.

7. Form a shed by raising the first harness and pass through
the green filling thread, drawing it tight to hold the red filling above
it in place. Wind about the outside warp end.

8. Repeat Directions 2~7 several times, each time raising the
red filling to form loops and each time drawing the green filling
tight to hold the red in place.

9. Cut with scissors the loops formed by raising the red filling.

EXPERIMENTS 271

10. As well as you can with scissors, shear the pile (the soft,
thick covering on the face) to make a fairly even surface.

11. Cut the sample away from the loom and mount.

Questions

1. What are some varieties of cloth that are woven with a pile
surface?

2. Sometimes the loops of the pile are cut and sometimes left
as loops. What fabrics are examples of cut pile? uncut pile?

3. What is meant by the pile of velvet or carpet?

Experiment 6 Other Classes of Weave

Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.
Materials: Samples of satin, voile, lace curtaining,

double cloth, carpeting.
Reference: Textiles, pages 58-64.

Satin Weave

1. Examine the sample of satin under the pick glass. Notice
that the warp and filling interlace in such a way that there is no
trace of the diagonal on the face of the cloth.

a. Is satin of a close or loose weave?

b. What can you say of the surface of satin?

c. What effect has this smooth surface on light?

d. This is called a satin weave. Why?

e. What is the most extensive use of the satin weave? (See

Textiles, page 1.)

NOTE. Sometimes fabrics of other weaves will have a satin
stripe.

Gauze Weave

2. Examine the sample of voile under the pick glass. This is
a type of what is known as gauze weave.

a. What is the chief characteristic of the gauze weave?

b. Name several gauze fabrics.

272 EXPERIMENTS

Lappet Weave

3. Examine a piece of lace curtaining under the pick glass.

a. If the fancy figures were not present, of what weave would

this sample be?

Simple figures are stitched into plainly woven or gauze fabrics
by machinery to imitate embroidery. This style of weave
is known as lappet weave.

b. On fabrics of what two weaves is lappet weaving used?

c. What is lappet weaving?

Jacquard Weave

4. Examine a piece of carpet. Notice the elaborate designs or
patterns and the number of colors used. When the figures are
elaborate they cannot be stitched in by simple lappet weaving.
A special attachment called the Jacquard apparatus is placed
on top of the loom. This apparatus controls the warp threads
so that a great many sheds may be formed and elaborate figures
woven into fabrics. This is called Jacquard weaving.

a. What must be added to a loom for Jacquard weaving?

b. What is the use of the Jacquard apparatus?

c. When is the Jacquard weave used instead of lappet weave?

5. Read Textiles, page 61.

Double Cloth Weave

6. Examine the sample of double cloth. Notice that there
are two single cloths. They are combined into one by here and
there lacing the warp and filling of one cloth into the warp and
filling of the other. In this way they are fastened together securely.

a. What color is the sample on one side? the other?
6. Of what is double cloth composed?

c. How are the single cloths combined into one?

d. Read Textiles, page 62. What are some of the uses of
double cloth?

Classes of Weave

7. How many classes of weave have been studied?

8. Name the classes of weave.

9. Name a fabric to illustrate each weave,

EXPERIMENTS 273

Experiment 7 Fibers

Apparatus: Pick glass, dissecting needle.
Materials: Samples of broadcloth, mohair, silk,

cotton cloth, linen.
References: Textiles, pages 1; 97, Mohair; 203, Silk;

105, Cotton; 193, Linen; 199, Hemp;

201, Jute; 232, Ramie; 233, Pineapple.

Directions

1. Read Textiles, page 1, paragraph 1. What are textiles?

2. Cloth is composed of yarn. Yarn in its turn is composed of
many small ends called fibers.

3. Look at the sample of broadcloth. If you did not know this
to be broadcloth you would speak of it as woolen goods. Detach
from the sample a filling thread and separate it into fibers. These
are woolen fibers.

4. Examine the sample of mohair and separate a filling thread
into fibers. This takes the name mohair from the fibers which
compose it. Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat.

5. Examine a sample of silk, also a detached filling thread. The
silk fiber consists of a thread spun by the silk worm.

6. Wool, mohair, and silk fibers are obtained from the animals,
the sheep, goat, and silk worm, hence they are called animal fibers.

7. Detach from the sample of cotton cloth a filling thread and
separate it into fibers. These are cotton fibers and are obtained
from the cotton plant.

8. Examine the sample of linen, a filling thread and its fibers.
Linen is composed of fibers obtained from the flax plant.

9. Cotton and linen fibers are obtained from plants, and are
called vegetable fibers. There are other vegetable fibers such as
jute, hemp, ramie, pineapple, etc., but cotton and linen are the
most important.

10. Name the most valuable fibers for textile use.

Questions

1. Of what is cloth composed?

2. Of what does yarn consist?

274 EXPERIMENTS

3. How are the fibers made to join in one long thread? (See
Experiment 1.)

4. Of what fibers are woolen and worsted goods composed?

5. Of what animal is wool the covering?

6. Of what fibers is mohair composed?

7. From what animal is mohair obtained?

8. Of what does the silk fiber consist?

9. What are the animal fibers?

10. Why are they called animal fibers?

11. Of what fibers is cotton cloth composed?

12. From what plant are cotton fibers obtained?

13. From what plant is the linen fiber obtained?

14. What are the most important vegetable fibers?

15. Name four other vegetable fibers.

16. Why are these fibers called vegetable fibers?

Experiment 8 Wool Fiber

Apparatus: Pick glass, microscope, 2 pine cones, foot-rule.
Materials: Raw wool, woolen yarn.
Reference: Textiles, chapter I.

Directions

L Separate a strand of woolen yarn into fibers. Examine both
these fibers and fibers pulled from the raw wool. Would you
describe these fibers as coarse or fine?

2. How do the fibers feel to touch?

3. Test the strength of the wool fibers by trying to break them.

4. Measure the length of several fibers.

5. Why was it difficult to straighten the fibers to measure them?

6. Extend the fiber to its full length, then release. How does
this prove the fiber to be elastic?

7. Examine the fibers under the -microscope. Describe. Notice
that the wool fiber is cylindrical in shape. Notice that it is
covered with scales which overlap much as do the tiles of a roof
or the spines of a pine cone.

8. Hold one pine cone with the spines pointing upward. With
the spines of the other pointing downward press the second cone

EXPERIMENTS 275

down on the first. What happens? Just so the scales or points
of the wool fibers hook into one another and interlock. These
scales or serrations give to the wool fiber its chief characteristic
which is the power of interlocking known as felting or shrinking.

9. See Textiles, page 2, the drawing of a magnified wool fiber.
Make a drawing of a wool fiber.

10. Examine under the microscope a hair from your head. Wool
is only a variety of hair. Notice that the scales on the hair lie
close to the stem and do not project as in the woolen fiber, hence
hair fibers cannot interlock as wool fibers do. The scales lying
close to the hair give a smooth surface to the fiber and make luster
a characteristic.

11. Compare the wool fiber with hair, noting two differences.

Questions

1. With what is the wool fiber covered?

2. Of what advantage are these scales or points?

3. What is the chief characteristic of wool?

4. What is meant by the shrinking or felting power?

5. Name five characteristics of the wool fiber.

Experiment 9 Mohair Fiber

Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.

Materials: Wool fibers, mohair fibers, sample of mohair

brilliantine.
References: Textiles, pages 1, 37, 97.

Directions

1. Pull a mohair fiber from the fleece. Hold it up to the light.
Describe the fiber as you see it.

2. Hold a mohair fiber and a wool fiber side by side to the light.
Note the differences.

3. Measure several mohair fibers.

4. Examine the mohair fiber under the microscope. The fiber
is covered with scales, but they lie close to the fiber and do not
project in points as do the scales on the wool fiber, hence mohair
will not felt to any degree.

276 EXPERIMENTS

5. The Angora goat of Asia Minor furnishes the mohair. This
goat is being raised in the western states of the United States
now.

6. Detach from the sample of mohair brilliantine a warp thread;
a filling thread. Which is mohair? Which is cotton?

7. What word would describe the feel of mohair brilliantine?
the appearance?

8. What are the characteristics of the mohair fiber?

9. What are the uses of mohair? Mohair is used in the manu-
facture of plushes, dress fabrics, and imitation furs.

Questions

1. Why will mohair not felt as wool does?

2. The scales lying close to the stem will have what effect on
the surface of the fiber?

3. What effect will a smooth surface have on light?

4. What characteristic is given to mohair from the fact that
the smooth surface reflects light?

5. From what animal is mohair obtained in greatest quantity?

6. Where is mohair being grown in the United States?

Experiment 10 Cotton Fiber

Apparatus: Microscope, foot-rule.

Materials: Tuft of cotton fibers, cotton ball, seeds.

Reference: Textiles, chapter ix, page 105.

Directions

1. Hold a tuft of cotton fibers tightly between the fingers and
thumb of each hand and pull apart with a jerk. What is your
judgment of the strength of the staple (fiber)?

2. Loosen gently the fibers of one of the tufts you have pulled
apart. What is the feel of cotton? the appearance as you hold
it to the light?

3. Detach several fibers one by one. How does the length com-
pare with that of the wool and mohair? Measure and record the
length of three fibers.

EXPERIMENTS 277

4. How do cotton fibers compare in fineness with wool fibers?

5. Compare the elasticity of cotton with that of wool.

6. Examine the cotton fibers under the microscope. Observe
that the enlarged fiber looks like a twisted ribbon. When the
fiber was growing it was cylindrical in shape. When ripe the plant
drew back its life-giving fluid from the fiber and it collapsed and
twisted like a corkscrew. The twist is peculiar to the cotton,
being present in no other fiber. The twist makes the cotton fiber
suitable for spinning, helping to hold the short fibers together.

7. Read of the cotton plant from Textiles, chapter ix.

8. The four chief cotton producing countries are the United
States, Egypt, India, Brazil.

9. There are several classifications of cotton. The most com-
mon are Sea Island (in the lead); Egyptian (a close second);
Uplands (that of the United States, southern part) ; and Peruvian.

10. Uplands is the most common cotton of our South.

Questions

1. What characteristic causes the cotton fiber to be easily recog-
nized under the microscope?

2. Why does the twist render the cotton fiber suitable for spin-
ning?

3. What are the characteristics of the cotton fiber?

4. Why is cotton known as a vegetable fiber?

5. Name the chief cotton producing countries.

6. What are the most common classifications of cotton?

7. What is the finest growth of cotton? (Sea Island commands
at the present time $1.00 a lb., while Middling Uplands brings
15 cents.)

8. Where is cotton known as Upland Cotton grown?

Experiment 11 Silk Fiber

Apparatus: Tripod, alcohol lamp, small pan of water,

lead pencil.
Material: Silk cocoon.
Reference: Textiles, chapter xiii, page 203.

278 EXPERIMENTS

Directions

1. Place the cocoon in a small pan of water. Apply heat to the
pan until the water boils. The cocoon is placed in hot water to
soften the glue which holds the fibers together.

2. Remove the outside loose fibers which cannot be reeled. This
tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called floss.

3. Brush the finger over the cocoon to find the loose ends. Un-
wind carefully until you find a continuous end. Wind or reel the
silk fiber over a lead pencil.

4. The silk fiber is the most beautiful and perfect of all fibers.

5. Hold the cocoon to the light as you reel. How does the silk
fiber compare in fineness with the wool and cotton fibers?

6. The silk fiber is from 1000 to 4000 feet long. Unlike the other
fibers the silk fiber is already a thread.

7. How does light effect the silk fiber? When the gum is thor-
oughly washed off the silk takes on its luster which is its chief
characteristic.

8. Break the fiber after you have reeled a small quantity.
Notice how the fiber springs back. Extend and release again.
What characteristic does this illustrate?

9. Examine the silk fiber under the microscope. Notice that
it is round and smooth and resembles a glass rod. It shows what
appear to be two fibers united by the gum secreted at the same
time that the fiber was formed. Describe the silk fiber as it
appears under the microscope.

10. Silk is taken from the reel and twisted into a skein of raw
silk and thus exported.

11. The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk.
It is handled here first by the throwster who winds it from the skein
and makes different varieties of thread.

Questions

1. Why is the silk cocoon first placed in hot water?

2. What is known as floss?

3. What is meant by silk reeling?

4. What can you say of the length of the silk fiber?

5. In what way does the silk fiber differ from the other fibers?

EXPERIMENTS 279

6. What is the chief characteristic of the silk fiber?

7. What are other characteristics of the silk fiber?

8. In what form is silk exported?

9. In what countries is most of the raw silk produced? (See
Textiles, page 206.)

10. With what does the silk manufacture in the United States
begin?

11. Who is the throwster and what is his work?

Experiment 12 Linen Fiber

Apparatus: Microscope.

Material: Flax fibers.

Reference: Textiles, chapter xv, page 193.

Directions

1. The linen fiber is obtained from the flax plant. Certain fibers,
such as flax, jute, and ramie, are obtained from the stem of the
plant, hence are known as bast fibers, and flax is the most impor-
tant bast fiber.

2. It is difficult to separate the flax or linen fiber from the woody
part of the stem. The process is called retting, which is really
rotting by soaking the stem in water.

3. Before the fibers are entirely free from the woody part of the
plant they undergo the processes of beating, breaking, scutching,
hackling, etc.

4. Read the account of each process. SeeTextiles, pages 194, 195.

5. Measure and record the length of two linen fibers.

6. Test the strength by trying to break the fiber.

7. Test for elasticity.

8. What is the appearance of the linen fiber when held to the
light?

9. What is the color of the fiber? What is the process called by
which linen is whitened? (Bleaching.)

10. Examine the flax fibers under the microscope. Observe that
the fibers look like long cylindrical tubes. Describe the appearance
of linen fibers under the microscope.

11. The best flax is grown in Belgium and Ireland.

280 EXPERIMENTS

Questions

1. From what part of the plant are bast fibers obtained?

2. Name some bast fibers.

3. What is the most important bast fiber?

4. What is retting?

5. For what purpose is linen subjected to retting?

6. Through what five processes does the flax fiber pass before
it is free?

7. Where is the best flax grown?

Experiment 13 Carding

Apparatus: A pair of hand cards.
Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
References: Textiles, pages 39 and 50.

Directions

1. Examine the hand cards. Notice that there is a foundation
of several layers of leather. Notice that this foundation is covered
with staples of steel wire. Notice that the staples are shaped like
the letter U with the points turned one way. The covering of
the hand cards is called card clothing.

2. Hold one hand card in the left hand, face up, wires pointing
to the left. Spread the wool over the pointed wires of this card.

3. Hold the other card in the right hand, face down, with the
wires pointing to the right. Bring the pointed wires of this card
down on the wool and drag it lightly through the wires of the
other card. Repeat several times.

4. You have been carding wool. The sharp points have been
tearing the wool apart or disentangling the fibers. Carding brushes
the fibers out smooth and makes them somewhat parallel. It
forms them into a thin sheet.

5. The wool must be carded many times before it is sufficiently
disentangled for drawing and spinning. In order to card again
the hand card must be stripped of the wool so that it may be
dragged again through the staples.

6. Hold the hand card, which is in your right hand, erect.
Notice that the wires point downward. Move the other hand

EXPERIMENTS 281

downward over the wires. Notice that the surface is smooth.
The points do not prick as they will if you try to brush the hand
upwards over the wires/

7. Hold the card in the left hand in a similar position. Raise
and bring the sharp wires of this card down on the smooth surface
of the other card and strip it of its wool.

8. Card again, then strip again. Repeat several times until
the fibers are thoroughly disentangled.

9. This carding and stripping, once done by hand, is now done in
the mill by a power machine called the card. (See picture, Textiles,
page 38.) Notice that instead of cards this machine consists of
rollers or cylinders. Some are carding cylinders and some are
stripping cylinders. The principle is the same as that of the hand
cards. The wool is carded and stripped again and again and is
finally delivered in a soft, fluffy rope called a sliver ready for draw-
ing and spinning.

Questions

1. What is the covering of the hand card called?

2. Describe card clothing.

3. What does carding do to the wool? .

4. When the sharp wires of one cylinder meet the sharp pointed
wires of another cylinder what is the action on the wool?

5. If the sharp points of one cylinder meet the smooth surface
of another cylinder what happens to the wool on that cylinder?

6. In what form does the wool finally leave the machine? What
name is given to this fluffy rope?

7. How was carding done in the early days? How is it done
now?

8. In what way is the principle of the hand cards the same as
that of the card of the mill?

Experiment 14 Drawing and Spinning

Apparatus: Foot-rule, elastic band.
Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.

References: Textiles, pages 4, 44, 134; Sections: Spinning: Mule
Spinning.

282 EXPERIMENTS

Directions

1. Observe the mass of wool fibers. The wool was clipped from
the sheep, washed, and oiled to make it smooth and pliable.

2. With the fingers gently open up or loosen the mass of wool
fibers. In the mill this is done by a machine called the card. (See
picture, Textiles, page 38.) And the process itself is called carding.

3. Gently draw out the mass of fibers until you have drawn it
into one long strand.

4. Draw it again and again until to draw it would cause it to
break.

5. This process in the mill is known as drawing. The wool
passes through machine after machine, which gradually reduces
the thickness of the strand.

6. You have now a strand called roving, but not a thread with
which you could weave. What is called the strand? Why could
you not weave with it as it is? If you pulled the roving apart it
would separate into a number of small ends. What name is given
to these ends?

7. It is necessary to hold these fibers together in a thread. Hold
the roving in the left hand and with the right hand draw the fibers
out several inches. As you draw, twist the roving between the
fingers and thumb. The twisting is called spinning.

8. When you have twisted sufficient yarn to attach to the end
of a foot-rule, do so. Give a whirl to the ruler, which is taking the
place of the old-time spindle, and let it drop. Continue to whirl
the ruler and notice that as it revolves the yarn is twisting. When
well twisted, wind the yarn on the ruler. There was a hook on the
old-time spindle. Instead of the hook, hold the wound yarn in
place by an elastic band. Draw out several inches again and
repeat.

9. With the spindle a distaff was used. It held the roving which
you now hold in your left hand. (See picture of distaff and spindle.)

10. Define spinning; see Textiles, page 4, footnote. The early
use of the spindle was the same as its use of to-day. In what two
ways is the spindle of use?

11. The improvement on the distaff and spindle was the spinning
wheel. Now the spinning frame in the mill has replaced both.

EXPERIMENTS 283

Questions

1. After shearing, through what two processes does wool pass?

2. Why is it necessary to oil wool?

3. What is the work of the card ?

4. Explain the process called drawing. Why is it necessary to
repeat the operation several times?

5. What followed the distaff and spindle in the development of
spinning?

6. On what is the spinning done now in the mill? See Textiles,
picture, pages 135, 137.

Experiment 15 Gilling and Combing

Apparatus: Coarse comb, fine comb.
Material: Small quantity of scoured wool.
Reference: Textiles, pages 39-44.

Directions

1. Open up the wool a little with the fingers. Do this in place
of carding, as you need but a small quantity.

2. You comb your hair to make the hairs lie parallel, side by side,
in place. Combs are used on wool for just the same purpose, but
the first process of combing is not known as such. It is called
gilling, and the combs themselves are called fallers. The machines
are known as gill boxes. See Textiles, page 43.

3. Hold the carded wool in the left hand in the middle of the
strand. With the coarse comb in the right hand, comb and thus
straighten the fibers first at one end then at the other. This is
gilling. The principle of gilling is to comb the fibers more and more
nearly parallel and to draw them out into more even strands.

4. The coarse comb causes the hairs to lie parallel. A fine comb
will further straighten the hairs, but it will also remove the snarled,
tangled, short hairs. Again wool is to be treated like hair. Hold
the strand in the middle as before. Comb each end with the fine
comb. Notice that the fine comb is removing the short fibers and
leaving the long fibers between the fingers. This is the second
process of combing, and is called combing.

5. The long fibers are called tops and the short fibers are known

284 EXPERIMENTS

as noils. 1 Combing is the process which separates the long fibers
known as tops from the short fibers known as noils.

6. The combing machine in the mill is a very complicated one.
See picture, Textiles, page 41.

7. Gill and comb several strands of wool.

8. Top is too delicate, as it comes from the comb, to be handled.
The next process is to combine several strands into one. Combine
the several strands you have gilled and combed. Comb this one
end with the coarse comb again to be sure that the fibers are per-
fectly parallel.

9. You gilled, combed, and gilled again. So it is in the mill.
After combing, the wool is gilled again by machines known as
finisher gill boxes, and wound into a ball called a top.

10. A top differs from top. Top is the strand of long fibers which
comes from the comb. A top is the ball of combed wool as it comes
from the finisher gill boxes. It weighs from 7 to 12 Ibs. and con-
tains 200 to 250 yds.

11. The wool is now ready for the next processes those of draw-
ing and spinning.

Questions

1. Why is the hair combed? Why is wool combed?

2. What is the first process of combing called? What name is
given to the combs used in gilling? What are the machines called?

3. What is the principle of gilling?

4. How does a fine comb act on the hair?

5. When you combed the wool with the fine comb what happened?

6. What are the long fibers called? the short ? Of which are there
more?

7. What is the second process of combing called?

8. Why is it necessary to combine several strands of top into one
end?

9. Why is it necessary to gill again after combing?

10. In what form does the wool finally leave the finisher gill
boxes?

11. What is a top?

1 In the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are called
tow, and the long fibers line.

EXPERIMENTS 285

12. What two processes follow carding?

13. For what two processes is wool now ready?

Experiment 16 Raw Wool to Yarn

Apparatus: Hand cards, coarse and fine combs, pencil.

Material: Scoured wool.

Reference: The preceding experiments.

Directions

1. This wool has already been subjected to the three operations
of shearing, scouring, and oiling.

2. Card the wool. What does carding do to the wool?

3. Strip the cards. Rub the sheet of fibers between the palms
of the hands into the form of a strand. It is in this form that it
leaves the card of the mill, and it is known as a sliver of wool.

4. Pull about three inches of wool from the sliver and perform
upon it the operation of gilling by combing it with the coarse
comb.

5. Follow the gilling by the operation of combing, which you will
do by combing again, this time with a fine comb.

6. Pull about three inches again from the sliver. Continue to
gill and comb by section until the entire sliver has been gilled and
combed.

7. Combine several strands into one and subject the one strand
to a second process of gilling to make sure that all fibers are side
by side.

8. Gently draw out this strand of combed long fibers known
as top. As you draw, spin. As you spin, wind on a lead pencil.
The fineness of the yarn depends on the amount of drawing and
twisting.

9. What is the source of wool? You began with wool, covering
of the sheep's body, and after subjecting it to a series of operations
you have converted it into yarn which is ready for weaving.

10. Name the operations in order, through which raw wool
passes before it finally becomes yarn.

286 EXPERIMENTS

Questions

1. What are the first three processes through which wool passes?
What is shearing? scouring?

2. Why is wool oiled?

3. What is meant by a sliver of wool?

4. What does gilling do to the wool?

5. What does combing do to the wool?

6. Why is there another operation of gilling after combing?

7. What is meant by drawing f spinning ?

8. What name is given to the wool wound on the pencil?

9. On what does the fineness of the yarn depend?

Experiment 17 Difference between Woolen
and Worsted Yarn

Apparatus: Pick glass.

Materials: Sample of woolen cloth and worsted cloth.

References: Textiles, pages 50 and 51.

Directions

Take a piece of worsted fabric and separate a piece of yarn
from either the warp or filling. Do the same with a piece of woolen
fabric. Notice the appearance of each piece of yarn. Which is
smoother? What effect would friction have on the worsted yarn ?
the woolen yarn? Which sample of yarn would shine and reflect
the light?

Experiment 18 Burling and Mending

Apparatus: Chalk, scissors, dissecting pin, needle,

pick glass.

Material : 4 square inches of cloth from the loom.
Reference: Textiles, page 71.

Directions

1. Cloth from the loom is far from being a finished product.
It must pass through several processes before it is finished. These
processes are known as finishing.

2. What is the feel of this cloth?

EXPERIMENTS 287

3. Hold the cloth to the light and look through it. Note the
imperfections and chalk them. What defects did you notice?

4. Place the cloth on the desk, face down. Rub the fingers over
the back of the cloth. When the fingers locate a knot, raise it with
the dissecting needle to be cut off later.

5. Reverse the cloth. Rub the fingers over the face. When
a knot is found, force it through to the back with the dissecting
needle. All the knots are on one side now. Clip them off with the
scissors. This is called burling and is the first process of finishing.

6. Hold the cloth to the light. Notice where an entire filling
thread is missing. This is known as a full miss pick. When part
of a filling thread is missing it is spoken of as a half miss pick. In
general what does a miss pick mean?

7. Unravel a filling thread from the lower edge of the cloth.
With it thread a needle and replace the missing pick. Follow the
weave closely, using a pick glass as an aid. You are performing
the second process of finishing, that of mending.

8. If a warp end is missing replace it.

1. What is meant by finishing?

2. What is the first process of finishing? What is burling?

3. What is a full miss pick? a half miss pick?

4. What is the second process of finishing? What is mending?
Of what must the mender be careful?

Experiment 19 Removal of Stains

Material: Stained fabrics.

Textiles are easily stained, therefore it is necessary to know some-
thing about the character of stains and the methods of removal.
Stains may be roughly divided into the following classes:

a. Stains from foods, such as grease and fruit acids.

6. Stains from machinery, as wheel grease and oils.

c. Blood stains.

d. Inks.

e. Chemicals, such as acids, alkalies.

Food stains are usually due either to grease contained in soup,

288 EXPERIMENTS

meat, milk, etc., or to sugar contained in candies or preserves, or
to fruit acids contained in fresh fruits or sauces.

Wheel grease and lubricant stains are obtained from various parts
of machines, like elevators, street cars, etc. After the cloth leaves
the loom it often contains spots of grease, oil, or dirt stains due to
drippings from the loom or overhead machinery. These are
removed by means of liquids called solvents that dissolve the stain.
Ether is the principal solvent used in the mill to remove small
stains.

Very few people realize that vapors of cooked food and fat,
unless carried out of a house, will condense and settle on fabrics
in the form of a film which collects a great deal of dust. (A bad
grease spot usually has a neglected grease spot for a foundation.)
In order to break up this film it is necessary to separate the
entangled dust. This is performed by some mechanical means,
such as shaking and brushing.

The most effective method of removing a stain is to place a circle
of absorbent material 1 around the spot to take up the excess of
liquid. A white cloth should be placed under the fabric to absorb
the solvent and show when the goods are clean. Then apply the
solvent with a cloth of the same color and texture (satin is excel-
lent as it does not grow linty) and rub from outside the spot to
the center to prevent spreading. It is necessary to rub very
carefully as excessive rubbing will remove the nap and change
the color. One of the great dangers in removing a stain is
that you may spoil the fabric. Therefore great care must be
exercised.

The principal solvents are ether, chloroform, alcohol, turpentine,
benzene, and naphtha. Each solvent may be used to best advan-
tage on certain fabrics.

The commercial grades of the solvents often contain impurities

1 Absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of liquids;
they include varieties of chalk, paste of chalk, or fullers' earth,
rough surface of a visiting card, buckwheat flour, crumbs of bread,
powdered soapstone, pumice, whiting. These substances are used
to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate fabrics.
They absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from spreading.

EXPERIMENTS 289

that leave a brown ring after evaporation. This brown ring is
very objectionable. Turpentine is used only in removing stains
from coarse fabrics. Chloroform, benzene, and naphtha are used
on ordinary silks and linens. Ether and chloroform are used to
best advantage in removing stains from delicate silk, as they sel-
dom effect colors and evaporate very quickly. Of course it must
be borne in mind that when a stain is removed from a fabric that
portion that contained the stain loses some coloring matter and feels
rougher than the other part.

Grease Spots on Heavy Goods that cannot be Laundered

It is usually desirable to use the following method in removing
grease from a heavy fabric, such as carpets or colored fabrics. In
case the grease is fresh, place over the stain a piece of clean blotting
paper or a piece of butcher's brown wrapping paper and underneath
absorbent paper or oil cloth, and then press the spot with a warm
iron. As heat often affects the shades of certain colors such as
blues, greens, and reds, it is best to hold a hot iron over the fabric
and see if the grease is melted.

Remove a stain from a piece of carpet.

Removal of Grease and Blood

Ordinary Fabrics (wash goods) . Wash the fabric containing grease
or blood stain with tepid water and soap.

Delicate Fabrics. As strong soap will spoil some colors and tex-
tures it is necessary to apply a solvent when a delicate fabric is
stained.

Remove stains from a washable fabric and a delicate fabric.

Removal of Wheel Grease and Lubricants on Fine Fabrics

Wheel grease is a mixture of oils and graphite. Apply benzene
to the wheel grease spot. This will dissolve the oil, leaving the
coloring matter (graphite) on the cloth, and this may be collected
on the white cloth on the other side.

Remove a wheel grease stain from a dress fabric.

290 EXPERIMENTS

Removal of Acids

Fruit acids and all others, except nitric acid may be removed
by putting ammonia on the spot. This will neutralize the acid,
forming a salt which may be either brushed or washed off. In
the case of nitric acid the fibers of the cloth are actually 'destroyed
and no amount of ammonia will restore the original condition of
the fabric.

Remove a stain of orange juice from a dress or shirt waist.

Removal of Blood

Blood stains may be removed from a fabric by washing with
cold or tepid water. Never use hot water, as hot water coagulates
the albumen of the blood. After removing the blood soap and
warm water may be used. In case the fabric is a thick cloth, the
blood may be removed by applications of moist starch.

Take different samples of fabrics and soil them with fruit acids,
soup, wheel grease, ink, and blood and remove them. Exercise
great care so as not to leave a mark or remove the coloring.

Remove blood from a fabric.

Questions

1. What is a solvent? an absorbent?

2. What is the best solvent to be used in removing stains from
silks, coarse goods, and linens? from delicate silks?

3. Why is a brown ring often left after removing a stain?

4. How may grease and blood stain be removed from wash goods?

5. What is wheel grease? How may it be removed?

6. How will ammonia remove acid stains?

7. Does it remove all? Why not?

8. Explain the method of removing blood stain from cloth.

Experiment 20 Dyeing Wool

Apparatus: Large porcelain dish or casserole, filter.
Materials: Undyed piece of woolen and worsted fabric,

undyed yarn, and undyed raw cloth.
Reference: Textiles, page 65.

EXPERIMENTS 291

Directions

1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half
ounce of diamond dye (green or red) in a quart of water. Filter
the solution. Place a piece of white woolen cloth in the liquid
and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed fabric and notice
whether the dyestuff washes off or not.

2. Repeat the experiment, using the same weight of undyed
woolen yarn. Repeat with worsted yarn.

3. Repeat the experiment using the same weight of wool sliver.

4. Notice which has the deeper color. The degree of color
depends on the amount of twist in yarn. Which sample has
absorbed the greatest amount of dyestuff from the liquid?

a. Why is a yarn-dyed fabric faster than a piece-dyed?
6. Why is a raw stock dyed fabric better than piece or yarn
dyed?

Experiment 21 Dyeing Cotton

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
Material: Piece of cotton cloth.
Reference: Textiles, page 67.

Directions

1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half
ounce of logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution.
Place a piece of cotton cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes.
Then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff
washes off or not.

2. Repeat the same experiment and use a piece of cotton cloth
that has been previously washed in common alum. 1 Note the
effect. Which has the greater attraction for dyestuffs, cotton or
wool? Why is alum used?

3. Repeat the same experiment, using first the same weight of

1 Alum in this case is called a mordant, which is a substance that
will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring
matter. Other mordants are oxides, hydroxides, and basic salts of
aluminum, iron, tin, and chromium.

292 EXPERIMENTS

cotton yarn and then the same weight of cotton sliver. Notice
the results.

Which piece of cotton holds the dye best, that which was dipped
in alum or the one that was simply boiled in the solution?

Experiment 22 Weighting Silk. Affinity of Metallic
Salts for Silk

Apparatus: Porcelain dishes.

Material: Silk yarn.

Reference: Textiles, pages 212-214.

Directions

1. Weigh separately two skeins of dry silk and distinguish skein
No. 1 by looping some cotton thread into it. Prepare a tepid
bath containing 10 gm. strong sumach extract in 400 cc. water.
Enter the skeins of silk and work for 15 to 20 minutes, meanwhile
slowly raising the temperature to about 150 F. Remove, squeeze,
rinse with water, squeeze, and dry skein No. 1 for weighing.

2. Meanwhile prepare another bath containing 4 gm. of copperas
(ferrous sulphate) in 400 cc. cold water. Work skein No. 2 in
bath for 10 minutes cold. Remove, and rinse well; save the iron
bath. Repeat the treatment in the sumach and iron baths several
times more, finally wash the sumach iron skein in 1 per cent hot
soap solution; rinse, squeeze, and dry. Weigh each dried and
cooled skein and note the increase in weight of each. Save
sample for Experiment 23 and note the effect of weighting on the
yarn.

Experiment 23 Dyeing Silk

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, filter stand, etc.
Material: Piece of silk yarn.
Reference: Textiles, page 210.

Directions

1. Prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half
ounce of logwood in a quart of water. Filter the solution.
Place a piece of silk skein, from Experiment 22, in the liquid

EXPERIMENTS 293

and boil ten minutes. Then wash the dyed silk and notice
whether the dyestuff washes off or not.

2. Repeat the same experiment using the same weight of silk
yarn without weighing it. Compare the results?

Experiment 24 Test to Distinguish Piece-Dyed from
Yarn-Dyed Fabric

Apparatus: Pen knife.

Materials: Woolen and cotton fabrics.

Reference: Textiles, pages 66-68.

Directions

Unravel threads of the suspected sample, and with a blade of
pen knife note whether the dyestuff has penetrated through the
yarn as noted by the depth of color in the interior of the yarn.
In case there is the same depth of color in the interior as on
the surface, the fabric is yarn-dyed. If on the other hand, the
interior of the yarn is not so highly colored as the exterior, it is
piece-dyed.

Questions

1. What is meant by yarn-dyed fabric?

2. What is meant by piece-dyed fabric?

3. How may the two be distinguished?

Experiment 25 Test to Distinguish Dyed from
Printed Fabrics

Apparatus : Knife-blade.
Materials: Cotton fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 65.

Printed fabrics may be distinguished from dyed by observing
the back side of the cloth, and noting whether or not the pattern
on the face of the cloth penetrates through to the back, or only the
outline shows. In case the figure or pattern is on both sides of the
fabric, it may be distinguished from the dyed by taking one thread
of the suspected sample, and by the means of a knife-blade attempt-
ing to scrape off the coloring on the surface of the thread. If the

294 EXPERIMENTS

dyes tuff has penetrated into the interior of the thread, it is not
printed.

Generally speaking, printed fabrics are known from dyed fabrics
by the fact that the former have the design printed on the face of
the cloth. This is called direct printing. The best dyed fabrics
are obtained by dyeing in what is called a jig, and the whole fabric
is saturated with color. Most, if not all the cloths which you see
in the retail dry goods stores which are in plain colors are dyed in
the jig. Some of the cheaper qualities of dyed fabrics are padded
in a mangle, but there has been a very small quantity of these goods
on the market for many years.

Printed fabrics may be made as fast as dyed fabrics; it all depends
upon the process by which the goods are converted. Within the
past few years great headway has been made in dyeing with what
are termed vat colors. Indanthrene is a vat color and a great many
mills have used this class of dye successfully in dyeing plain shades.
This is what would be termed &fast color in every sense of the word.
There are a number of dyestuff makers in Europe who put vat
colors on the market, but they all call them by different names.
Vat colors have been used with success in printing during the past
year or two, especially on shirting fabrics, and these colors are
fast to both light and washing. Most direct colors used for printing
or dyeing are equally fast to light and washing, but of course they
will not stand the test as well as the vat colors mentioned above.

The essential qualities of a good printed fabric are its ability to
withstand exposure to light and washing. In printing, of course,
a greater variety of desirable styles can be obtained than by dye-
ing, in fact there are certain popular lines of goods now on the
market the effect of the designs of which cannot be obtained in
any other way than by printing. At the same time, although the
field in designing for dyed fabrics is limited, some very handsome
effects can be obtained.

It will not be many years before a large proportion of the printed
and dyed fabrics put on the market, both foreign and domestic,
will be in the vat colors which, as stated above, are very fast.
Even at the present time there are many mills that are using
this class of colors entirely, especially the mills which manufacture
woven fabrics,

EXPERIMENTS 295

Questions

1. In printed fabrics is the pattern clearly discernible on the
back of the cloth?

2. If the fabric is printed on both sides, how may this fact be
proved?

3. What is the difference between printed and dyed fabrics?

Experiment 26 Bleaching by Sulphur Dioxide

Apparatus: A quart bottle.

Material: Sulphur, worsted or silk fabric.

Bleaching powder cannot be used in bleaching animal fibers
such as woolen and silk fabrics. It injures the fibers and at the
same time leaves them yellow.

Animal fibers are best bleached by immersing in an aqueous
solution of sulphurous acid or exposing them to fumes of burning
sulphur.

Wet a piece of dyed worsted or silk fabric and hang it in a
quart bottle containing fumes of burning sulphur. 1 The fumes
of burning sulphur have an affinity for coloring matter dyestuff.
The fumes (called sulphur dioxide) do not in most cases destroy
the coloring matter as chlorine does, but simply combine with
it to form colorless compounds which can be destroyed. The
color can be restored by exposing the bleached fabric to dilute
sulphuric acid.

Questions

1. Why is it necessary that the fabric be moist in order to be
bleached by sulphur dioxide fumes?

2. What becomes of the coloring matter?

Experiment 27 Bleaching by Bleaching Powder

Apparatus: Porcelain dish.
Material: Piece of calico.
Reference: Textiles, page 148.

1 Place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by
placing it in the flame and allow it to burn. Cover the bottle by
means of a glass plate.

296 EXPERIMENTS

Directions

Place a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder in a quart
bottle containing a pint of water. 1 Then place a piece of calico in
the water containing the bleaching powder. What is the effect
on the calico? Then remove cloth to another bottle filled with
dilute hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid. What is the effect
on the color? Then wash the whitened cloth thoroughly in
water.

Why is it necessary in practice to pass cotton fabrics through
two baths in bleaching? What is contained in the first bath?
in the second bath?

Experiment 30 Determining Style of Weave

Apparatus: Pick glass.
Materials: Different fabrics.
References: Textiles, pages 56-58, etc.

Examine different samples of cloth and classify them according
to the seven standards given on pages 56-58, etc.

Experiment 31 Determining the Size of Yarn

Apparatus: Yard stick.

Materials: Sample of cotton, woolen, and worsted yarns.

References: Textiles, pages 49, 51, 52.

As yarns used in the manufacture of fabrics are of all degrees of
thickness, it became necessary to adopt some method of measuring
this thickness. For this purpose yarns are numbered, so that
when the number is known an idea of the size of the yarn may
be gained. It would seem advisable to number yarns of all kinds

Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers
of slaked lime (lime to which a slight amount of water has been added).
Bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set free,
which in turn gives up oxygen, being converted into hydrochloric acid.
The French use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of soda.
They are called Labarraque's disinfecting fluid. A similar solution of a
mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called Eau de Javelle.

EXPERIMENTS 297

according to one fixed standard, yet unfortunately this is not done.
The methods of counting yarns are many and varied. The usual
method is to estimate the yarn number by taking the number of
hands of a definite length which make up some given weight.
Thus in the worsted yarn, No. 1 is a yarn that has 560 yards to
a pound. No. 2 worsted yarn has two times 560 yards to a
pound. How many yards in No. 12 worsted yarn? How many
yards in No. 20 cotton yarn?

Experiment 32 Test for Twist in Yarn

Apparatus: Test dial.
Material: Piece of yarn.
References: Textiles, pages 131-132.

As the amount of twist in yarn determines its strength, it is
necessary to know the amount of twist per inch in given yarn.
The strength increases up to a certain limit. When this limit is
reached, increased twist does not make the thread any stronger.
We may also have twist and strength at the expense of bulk.
The test consists in finding out the number of turns per inch, and
this is done by an arrangement where a certain length of yarn is
stretched between two points on a twisting machine and the twist
taken out. The number of turns required to take the twist com-
pletely out are registered on a dial at the side of the apparatus.

Poor cotton that goes into coarse goods cannot be spun as fine
as the finer cotton. The shorter the cotton the more twist is
required to spin it, and the more twist that is put into the. yarn,
the less will be the yardage. Whereas on the finer and longer
cotton there will be less twist put into it, and the yarn will be
much stronger. Find the twist in different kinds of yarn.

Experiment 33 Determining the Direction of
Warp and Filling

Apparatus: Microscope.
Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 238.

When one examines a fabric the first thing to do is to determine
the direction of the warp and direction of the filling.

298 EXPERIMENTS

Fabrics with Selvedge. Examine any fabric with a selvedge
and notice that the warp threads run in the same direction as
the length (longest side) of the selvedge. What direction will
the filling threads bear to the selvedge?

Fabrics with a Nap. Examine a piece of flannel and notice
the direction of the nap. Why will the direction of the nap be
the same as the direction of the warp? Remember the way in
which the fabric enters the napping machine.

Fabrics Containing Double Threads. Examine a fabric contain-
ing double and single threads and notice that the warp contains
the double threads. Why?

Fabrics Containing Cotton and Woolen Yarn. Examine a
fabric containing cotton and woolen threads running in different
directions and notice that the cotton threads form the warp.
Why?

Another way to tell the warp threads in a fabric is to examine
warp and filling threads very closely and notice which set contains
the greater twist? Why? See if they are separated at more
regular intervals. Why?

Stiffened or Starched Fabrics. Examine stiffened or starched
goods very closely and notice the threads. If only one set can be
seen they are the warp threads. The stiffer and straighter
threads are found in the warp. Why? The rough and crooked
threads are seen in the filling.

Experiment 34 Determining the Density of a Fabric

Apparatus: Pick glass.
Materials: Samples of cloth.
Reference: Textiles, page 238.

Directions

1. Examine different samples of cloth and determine the number
of filling threads and warp threads by means of a pick glass.

2. Then examine different priced fabrics of the same kind and
see whether the low or high priced fabric has the greater density.

EXPERIMENTS 299

Experiment 35 Determining Weight

Apparatus: Balances, die.
Materials: 4 square inches of cloth.
Reference: Textiles, page 239.

Directions

1. Fabrics are bought and sold by the yard. In order to express
the amount of wool or cotton in a fabric the weight in ounces per
yard is usually given.

2. In order to find the number of ounces per yard a piece of cloth
of definite size, usually about 4 sq. in., is stamped out by means of
a die, or cut by means of a tin plate exactly 4 sq. in. (2 in. on the
side). This is then weighed on very accurate balances and ex-
pressed in grains. Find the weight per yard. Remember 7000
grains equal 1 lb.; 16 oz. equal 1 Ib.

Experiment 36 Determining Shrinkage
Apparatus: Hot water.
Material: Sample of woolen fabric.
Reference: Textiles, page 239.

Directions

1. Take a sample of a woolen fabric 12 in. by 20 in. and pour
hot water over it and leave it immersed over night. Then dry it
in the morning at a moderate temperature without stretching.
Then measure its length and divide the difference in lengths by
the original length. The quotient multiplied by 100 will give the
per cent of shrinkage.

2. Repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric, and with
a cotton fabric.

3. Why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted?

Experiment 37 Test of Fastness 1 of Color under Washing

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, soap solution.
Materials: Cotton and woolen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 242.

1 A description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from
Shoemaking published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston.

300 EXPERIMENTS

Directions

1. Colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action
of washing. They require more care than white goods and should
be soaked in cold water containing very little soap and no soda.
They should be dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them.
If it is necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are
dried wrong side out, as direct sunlight fades them about five
times as much as reflected light.

2. All colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well
as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing
operation. In order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should
be placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordi-
nary household, and heated to 131 F. The treatment should be
repeated several times.

3. If the color fails to run it is fast to washing.

Questions

1. Why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods
than white?

2. How may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand
the action of soap solution?

3. Does a moderately warm temperature (131 F) affect the
fastness of colored fabric?

Experiment 38 Test of Fastness of Color under Friction

Apparatus : Yarn, white unstarched cotton fabric.
Materials: Fabrics worn near the skin.
Reference: Textiles, page 242.

Directions

Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended
to be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand
friction and must not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed
materials must not give off their color when worn next to the human
epidermis (skin), or in close contact with other articles of clothing,
as in the case of underwear.

In order to test two fabrics to see which is the better, it is nee-

EXPERIMENTS 301

essary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton
fabric.

In comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary
to have the rubbing equal in all cases.

Questions

1. What is meant by friction?

2. What is meant by the expression "fastness of color of two
fabrics"?

3. How may the fastness of a colored material be tested to
withstand friction?

Experiment 39 - - Test of Fastness of Color against Rain

Apparatus: Water, undyed yarn.
Materials: Silk and woolen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 243.

Directions

Silk and woolen materials for umbrella making, raincoats, etc.,
are expected to be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plait-
ing with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water. Notice
whether the color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns.

Take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on
it. Notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried.
Spotting may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong
side of the material; roll the two together, and when evenly damp,
unroll and press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron.

Place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain
may come in contact with it. Notice whether it loses its color
and becomes gray and dull.

Experiment 40 Test of Fastness of Color in Sunlight

Apparatus: Cardboard.

Materials: Silk, woolen, and cotton fabrics.

Reference: Textiles, page 244.

302 EXPERIMENTS

Directions

Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard.
Expose the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine
the cloth each day and notice whether the part exposed has
changed in color when compared with the part covered. Count
the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change the color.
Does direct sunlight have any effect upon colored fabrics? Which
is the most affected by the sun, silk, woolen, or cotton fabrics,
dyed with same dyestuff, in the same length of time? Are fabrics
changed any sooner by the sun than by the weather?

Experiment 41 Test of Fastness of Color to Weather,
Light, and Air

Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 244.

Directions

Examine various fabrics for fastness to weather, light, and air
by placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed
to the weather, light, and air. Have duplicate samples of the above
away from the weather and light. Compare the samples exposed
to the weather with those in the house and note the number of
days it takes to change. Classify the fabrics. Which of the
fabrics are most easily affected by the weather, light, and air?

Experiment 42 Test of Fastness of Color against
Street Mud and Dust

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, lime, and water.
Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 243.

Ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud
and dust. In order to test a fabric for the resistance, the sample
should be moistened with lime and water (10 per cent solution),
dried, and brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per cent solution of
soda, drying, brushing, and noting any change in the color.

EXPERIMENTS 303

a. Is there any change in color after the lime water has been
removed from the cloth?

b. With what may the action of the lime water or soda be
compared?

Experiment 43 Testing Rubberized Fabrics

Materials: Rubberized fabrics.

A great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals, domestic
purposes and for clothing. On account of the high price of excel-
lent rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the
market that are satisfactory to the eye, but have not the wearing
qualities for the service they are intended to render.

Strength and Resistance to Scratching. In order to test a rub-
berized fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand
everyday use, see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail.
Then crease it and crumple it between the hands. Then spread
it out very carefully and notice whether there are any broken
places. If there are it should be rejected.

Waterproof Qualities. A rubberized fabric should be water-
proof. A sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and
filling it with water. Crumple the bag while it is filled with
water. Notice whether it cracks or leaks.

Examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they
are substantial.

Experiment 44 Test for Vegetable and Animal Fiber

Apparatus: Acid, fire.

Materials : Warp and filling threads of cotton

and woolen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 239.

Directions

One of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made
of wool, cotton, or silk, and if a composition of two or more mate-
rials, to estimate the percentage of each. Practical experience
can teach one much in this respect, and in many cases inspection
is quite insufficient. A more reliable test is to burn a piece of
material and notice how it burns.

304 EXPERIMENTS

Take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric; separate the
warp and filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of
filling yarn. Burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether
it burns slowly and curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a dis-
agreeable smell, or burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind.

Questions

1. Describe the burning process.

2. What is the burning test for vegetable fiber?

3. What is the burning test for animal fiber?

Repeat the same experiment, placing the untwisted yarn in sul-
phuric acid. Apply heat and note the effect.

What is the acid test for vegetable fiber?

What is the acid test for animal fiber?

Examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable
or animal fibers.

Experiment 45 Difference between Cotton and Linen Fabrics

Examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel. Wet your hands
and use both towels to dry them. Notice which of the fabrics
absorbs the moisture quicker, or which towel dries the hands better.

Compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth. Notice
that the linen fabric has a natural gloss, a cool, smooth feel, and
launders much better than cotton. The cotton fabric on the other
hand gives off a fuzz, and irons dull and shapeless. 1

Linen is tough and strong, cool feeling, and has a long fiber.
Linen cannot be given a cotton fabric finish. 2

*In Ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth 4
sq. yd. is 16d. or 32 cts.; cost of hackling a pound of flax is }d. or 1 ct.
per lb.; cost of preparing and spinning a pound of flax is Qd. or 12 cts.
per lb.; cost of winding and weaving a pound of flax is 2\d. or 5 cts. per
lb.; cost of bleaching and finishing a pound of flax is Id. or 14 cts. per
lb.; $75 is spent in turning $100 worth of flax into yarn; $75 is spent in
turning $100 worth of yarn into brown linen; $50 is spent in turning
$100 worth of brown linen into linen for market.

2 A linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to the
light and examining the evenness of the threads. Cotton can be more

EXPERIMENTS 305

Cotton on the other hand has a weak, short fiber, dull, warm,
and non-absorbent. After washing, cotton resembles a limp rag
while linen retains firmness and stiffness.

Which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily?

What is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics?
Between the fibers of the fabrics?

Experiment 46 Test to Distinguish Artificial Silk from Silk

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, potassium hydrate.
Material: Piece of silk fabric.
Reference: Textiles, page 240.

Since silk fabrics, particularly hosiery, are becoming popular,
various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real
silk. To test a silk fabric, boil the sample in 4 per cent potas-
sium hydrate solution and note the effect. If it produces a yellow
solution it is artificial silk, if colorless it is pure silk.

Another simple way used by some workmen, although un-
hygienic, is to unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric,
place them in the mouth, and masticate them vigorously.
Artificial silk will soften under the operation and break up
into a mass of pulp. Natural silk will retain its fibrous strength.

Test various samples of cheap "silk" hosiery.

Experiment 47 Test to Distinguish Silk from Wool

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, hydrochloric acid.
Material: Silk or woolen fabric.
Reference: Textiles, page 240.

easily spun level than flax, therefore threads that present considerable
irregularities may be taken to be flax. In a union fabric the nap is
usually cotton and the threads more regular than the filling (flax). The
best linen is made from fine and fairly regular threads; common linen
from coarse and irregular tow yarns. Linen is no more subject to weak
places in weaving than cotton, although it is harder to bleach and may
be weakened in this process. If each operation is not perfect the linen
will become yellow in storage.

306 EXPERIMENTS

Silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected
thread or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk
is present it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.

Test various samples of silk and wool.

Experiment 48 Test to Distinguish Cotton from Linen

Apparatus: Fuchsine, ammonia.
Materials: Cotton and linen fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 240.

Directions

1. On account of the high price of linen various attempts are
made to pass cotton off for linen. While it is possible sometimes
to detect cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb
and finger, the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine. If
the fibers of the fabric turn red, and this coloration disappears
upon the addition of ammonia, they are cotton; if the red color
remains, the fibers are linen. The most reliable test is to examine
the fiber under the microscope and note the difference in structure.

2. Test a cheap linen fabric for cotton.

3. When cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy
through wear, and when used to adulterate other fabrics, it wears
shabby and loses its brightness. Linen is a heavier fabric, and
wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and
has an exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics.

4. Describe a chemical test for linen.

5. What is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities
of cotton and linen?

Experiment 49 Test of Fabric to Withstand
Ironing and Pressing

Apparatus: Hot iron.

Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.

Directions

Place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot
iron (about 200 F). Compare the sample immediately with one

EXPERIMENTS 307

not ironed. Remember that many colors, particularly colored silks,
change while they are hot. If the original shade returns when the
fabric has cooled, then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing.

1. What is the object of ironing and pressing clothes?

2. Is it a good plan to press clothes often?

3. Is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the
three kinds of fabrics?

Experiment 50 Test of Fabric to Withstand Perspiration

Apparatus: Porcelain dish.

Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.

Reference: Textiles, page 243.

Directions

1. In addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact
with the human skin, fabrics like hosiery, etc., should withstand
the excretions of the body.

2. To test a fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath of
dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a
quart of water warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6 F.
The fabric should be dipped a number of times, and then dried,
without rinsing, between parchment paper.

Questions

1. What is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics?

2. Would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration,
even if they did withstand the acetic acid solution? Why?

Experiment 51 Test for Determining Dressing
Apparatus: Magnifying glass, porcelain dish.
Materials: Various fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, page 242.

Directions

1. A great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain
considerable sizing or dressing. In order to examine a fabric

308 EXPERIMENTS

and determine whether too much dressing has been used, take a
small sample of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it
together, so that the dressing is removed and the quantity em-
ployed may be determined. If much dressing has been used, dust
will be produced in rubbing. Prick the surface with your ringer
nail. Notice whether the starch comes off. Then wet your ringer
and rub it on the cloth and allow it to dry. Does the gloss disappear ?

2. Another method is to hold the sample before the light and
notice whether you can recognize the dressing. Examine the
sample with a magnifying glass (or pick glass) and notice whether
the dressing is superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric.

3. Would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss
and pasty look?

4. Notice the effect (lusterless) of fabrics containing much
dressing after washing.

5. A very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weight-
ing in a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample, then "boil the
fabric out in hot water," - boiling for several hours and then dry-
ing it. The difference in weight after drying and before boiling
gives the weight of sizing material per sample piece.

6. If mineral loading has been used to a great extent, a large
residue is left after burning.

Experiment 52 Testing the Strength of Cloth

Apparatus: Dynamometer.
Materials: Various fabrics.
Reference: Textiles,. page 237.

Directions

1. An excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place
the two thumbs together and press them down on the sample, hold-
ing it tight underneath. Then try to break the threads, first in
one direction and then in the other. Do they break easily? Notice
whether one set is very much stronger than the other.

2. Manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an
instrument called a dynamometer. In this way one can find out
whether a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength, and

EXPERIMENTS 309

whether it has the required yield or stretch. Both these points are
of importance in practical work, for it is essential that the yarn
as shown should at least be strong enough to bear the strain of
manufacture. The test is made by stretching a hank of yarn
between the two hooks of a cloth testing machine. The handle at
the side is now turned, so that the lower hook descends and puts
a strain on the hank. This strain is increased, and at the same
time the pointer moves around the dial, which indicates in pounds
the amount of strain. When the threads of the hank begin to
break, the strain is released, and the catch at the side keeps the
pointer in position until the amount of strain is read on the dial.
The distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs is
shown in inches and fractions of an inch, in the small indicator
arranged near the upper hook.
Test different fabrics and yarns.

Experiment 53 Characteristics of a Knitted Fabric

Apparatus: Pick glass.

Materials: Knitted fabric, woven fabric.

Reference: Textiles, page 153.

Directions

1. Examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and
notice the construction. How does it differ from weaving? The
single thread is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each
other, thus giving the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness.
Why is hosiery suitable for underwear? Try to obtain the thread
of the knitted fabric and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by
cutting it. Is the yarn intact?

2. A knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by study-
ing the following sketch. (See page 310.)

Note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking
in the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in
the threads themselves. On the other hand, referring to the
printed diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen
that its very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual
loops that if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to
return to the normal.

310

EXPERIMENTS

The essential characteristics of good hose are:

1. That they should be without seams.

2. That they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of
the wearer.

3. That they should be thickened or reinforced where the great-
est wear comes.

b b b b b b b b b

LJ 1

1 n

1 n n

Z=* 3L

L- i

-=3 a

(

. \

ORDINARY WEAVING
a. Weft, b. Warp.

PLAIN STOCKING FABRIC

The essential characteristics of good underwear are:

1. It should be made from elastic cloth, which implies a knitted
cloth.

2. It should be porous in a high degree whether in winter
weight or summer weight.

3. The seams should be made upon the most modern sewing
machines, with as little bulk as possible.

Experiment 54 Experiment to Illustrate Imperfections
in Hosiery

Apparatus: Magnifying glass.
Materials: Hosiery (seconds).
Reference: Textiles, page 159.

EXPERIMENTS 311

Examine a piece of hosiery called a second, obtained from a
hosiery mill, and notice whether any of the following defects are
present:

a. Yarn contains thick bits and buns.

6. Knots are badly tied.

c. Discolored yarn.

d. Lacks solidity and firmness, due to the gauge being too

coarse for the yarn.

e. Full work-yarn too thick for gauge.

Experiment 55 Characteristics of a Crochet Fabric

Apparatus: Crochet needle.
Material: Thread.

Directions

1. Crocheting is another method, like knitting, of making a
fabric. Examine the operation of crocheting. Notice that only
one thread is made use of, and is formed into loops by means of a
large needle with a hook at the end. The chief point is that the
loops are not formed in uniform rows, but one loop at a time, and
with the greatest liberty to choose any part of the article already
made to form a new loop. For this reason, crocheting adapts
itself to the production of fancy patterns useful for ornamenting.

2. A knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting
that a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a
single yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks
of loops, while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of
which is a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached
at intervals to itself.

Experiment 56 Characteristics of a Good Piece of
Cotton Cloth

Materials: Different samples of cotton fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, pages 151-152.

Directions

1. Examine different kinds of cotton fabrics. Compare the
lowest, medium, and highest priced varieties of the same fabric.

312 EXPERIMENTS

Notice how quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a
thick gloss loses its luster after washing.

2. Examine the different grades of the following fabrics: white
lawn, Indian Head cotton suiting, muslin, lawn, and cambric.
Wash the samples several times.

Does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear, etc.?

What are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth?

Experiment 57 Characteristics of a Good Piece of
Woolen Cloth

Materials: Different samples of woolens.
Reference: Textiles, pages 71-82.

Directions

1. Woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less
covered face, with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable,
and the general color effects are much smoother and softer than
those of worsteds.

2. Examine different grades of woolen fabrics, such as serges.
Defects. If a piece of woolen is not constructed right from

the start or if the work is not properly finished, that is, enough
fulled in width or length, it is liable to be raggy or slazy. As a
great many fabrics are more or less teaseled, there is a possibility
of such pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy.

Experiment 58 Characteristics of a Good Piece of
Worsted Cloth

Materials: Different kinds of worsted fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, pages 71-82.

Directions

1. A good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of
the pattern, perfection of weave lines, and when the fabric is
exposed to light should show a luster without polish.

2. Examine different types of worsted fabrics, and notice how
many conform to the above requirements.

3. The most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean

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314 EXPERIMENTS

General weight of fabric for men's wear, 12 to 14 oz. per yd., 56 in. ;
general weight of fabric for ladies' wear, 8 to 12 oz. per yd., 54 in.

4. As a rule, when one speaks of a suiting, you expect to see
a fancy effect, in the form of a fancy stripe, check, or a colored
mixture, in loud or quiet tones of decoration. Long naps in
fancy effects are sometimes fashionable, and at other times the
cloth finish is popular.

This class may be subdivided into

1. Light weight for spring or fall.

2, Heavy weight for winter.

The light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in
lighter colors for spring, and cloths usually of the undressed finish
from worsted or woolen stock for fall.

The heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods,
such as meltons, beavers, naps, etc., which give a heavier and
warmer coat for winter use only, and where an exceptionally heavy
coat is required, double and treble cloths are occasionally employed.

Examine different kinds of suitings and classify them.

TROUSERINGS. Trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings
and a're heavier. They invariably have a stripe. The ground
shade of the better grade of men's wear fabrics is generally com-
posed of twist warp yarns, ranging from dark slate gray to light
lavender gray. An endless variety of broad and narrow fine line
effects is produced by expert manipulation and combination of
weave and silk decorations, producing the pleasing effect required
for this class of goods. The filling is nearly always black; but
sometimes a dark slate is used.

The cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mix-
tures and twists, down to all cotton, in imitation of the better
grades.

OVERCOATINGS. Overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted
fabrics and heavily teaseled or gigged, giving a rough, hairy appear-
ance. Whether thick or thin, coarse or fine, they should always be
elastic fabrics, that is, as much so as well fulled woolen goods
can be. When hard or stiff they never make a graceful garment.
The special goods made for overcoats are nearly all soft goods.

Examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings,
overcoatings, trouserings, etc.

EXPERIMENTS 315

Experiment 59 Characteristics of a Good Silk Fabric

Materials: Samples of different cheap silk fabrics.
Reference: Textiles, pages 203-218.

There are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market. The
consumer is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders
why there is such a difference in price. The difference in price is
due to the cost of 'raw material and additional cost is due to the
care in manufacturing. For example, raw silk costs from $1.35
to $5 a pound according to its nature, quality, and the country
from which it comes. The cost of throwing silks preparatory to
dyeing also varies, the average being 55 cents a pound for organ-
zine or warp, and 33 cents a pound for tram and filling. The
prices here also vary according to the nature of the twist im-
parted to the silk, which is regulated by the kind of cloth it is
to enter into. The cost of dyeing varies from 55 cents a pound
upwards to perhaps $1.50 a pound, according to the dye and the
treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of dyeing.
The cost of winding, quilling, and sundry labor items necessary
with soft silk prior to its being woven, will perhaps average about
a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths and range
upwards according to the grade of the fabric. The cost of weav-
ing also varies with the cloth, and may be 9 cents for one fabric
and 25 cents or more per yard for the more expensive.

Weavers are paid from 2 cents to 60 cents per yard for
weaving the different fabrics, and other operations vary greatly
in cost; for instance, the cost of printing is entirely dependent
upon the work and the number of colors used, whether it is blotch
printing, discharge work, or block printing. Different processes
in finishing have widely varied costs. At the present time moire
work is done which costs as high as 25 cents per yard. There are
also other materials which can be finished for as little as ^ cent per
yard. Some goods have to be finished over and over again in the
dyeing and finishing while others are very simply done. Many
printed goods are handled 150 times after they come from the
loom.

When it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by
different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which

316 EXPERIMENTS

good construction can easily be determined. Most pure dye
fabrics when burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn, while
those which are weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply
char and turn white without losing the structure of the fabric.

A fabric in which the quantity of warp and rilling are of equal
weight gives the maximum str.ength for the amount of material
used. For the same weight and material, that having the most
bindings of warp and filling will give the greater service. Fabrics
with an insufficient number of warp or filling threads slide easily
and do not give good service, though sometimes fashionable. A
fabric having a twist in the warp and filling will last longer than
one using the same amount of silk and the same binding with
less twist.

All of these things may be taught to women many times over,
but if the fashion demands an article which breaks all of the
above laws and is everything that it should not be, they will
buy it in preference to a serviceable fabric. As a general rule, the
consumer will be safest in buying goods produced by houses
of good reputation and whose products are well known.

A large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion
demand and is quite independent of their cost of production.
For instance, at the present time crepe fabrics, brocades, and prints
are commanding a premium while such goods as plain taffetas
could not be sold for the cost of production.

The advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones
are pure dye, long wear, and more expensive manufacturing.

Experiment 60 How to Determine the Count of
Yarn in Cloth

Material: Samples of fabrics.
Apparatus: Scales, ruler.
Reference: Textiles, pages 144-146.

The United States .Government imposes a tax on certain im-
ported fabrics and yarn. In the case of cotton, the rates of duty
are to be ascertained according to the average number of the yarns
in the condition in which it is imported.

The length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance

EXPERIMENTS 317

covered by it in the cloth, all clipped threads to be measured as if
continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the
count taken of the total singles; any excessive sizing is to be
removed by boiling or other suitable processes. The number of
the yarn is the English number of 840 yd. to a Ib. for a No. 1 yarn.

The average number of yarn may be found without unraveling
the fabric, and is the quotient of the total thread length, by the
weight in the proportion of 840 yd. of yarn equaling 8^ grains,
which is equivalent to a No. 1 yarn.

The following simple formula may be used:

Multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number
of square inches in the sample used, this product to be multiplied
by 100; then divide the product thus obtained by the weight of
the sample in grains multiplied by 432. The quotient will give
the number of the yarn.

For example, take a sample of cotton cloth 4 in. square, which
equals 16 sq. in., having 28 warp and 28 woof threads, a total of
56 threads to the square inch, and weighing 8.6 grains. The
formula applied would be as follows:

56 x 16 x 100 -T- 8.6 x 432 = 24, the number of the yarn.

The formula may be further simplified by weighing a square
yard of the cloth and dividing the number of threads per square
inch by 3^ of the weight per square yard in grains.

Find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics?

Experiment 61 Study of Fabrics

A great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard
fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection
and know how to test them for adulterants.

This may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one
by one, placing a sample of each in a note-book. Underneath
the sample should be written the use of the fabric, the width,
the different grades, with prices, wearing qualities, and how the
fabric is made. In connection with this work special effort
should be made to develop a textile vocabulary so as to be
able to discriminate between the different fabrics, to know the
types of weaves, and the different kinds of finish, etc. In this

318 EXPERIMENTS

way develop the ability to know what materials and colors weave
best, the prices which should be paid for strong materials, the
amount of material necessary, and the trade names of fabrics
which can be depended upon for substantial goods.

Occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the
teacher by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that
they have previously studied and have them give the name,
approximate price or grade, weave, qualities, etc.

Remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained
from the leading dry goods stores of the country. Teachers should
have on exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics
with a card attached giving the name and use of each.

Experiment 62 How to Examine a Fabric

The first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics
is the finish. The finish is tested by feeling and seeing. To
illustrate: broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap
evenly laid. If the finish is in keeping with the character of the
cloth, he next examines the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is
composed of pure wool or two or more fibers in combination.

Then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the
requirements.

A test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well
dyed. There is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascer-
tain this, neither is it possible to judge by the eye. The best way
is to take a small sample of the goods and submit it to the wash-
ing and light test.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY

The author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are
willing to supply schools with samples of their products. But the
demand for samples has been so great that it is necessary in most
cases to pay a small sum to cover the cost.

The following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are
named here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies.

The names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers
may obtain them. They contain a large number of names of dealers
in textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies.

Catalogues of Cotton Machinery

Kitson Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. Cotton pickers.

Howard and Bullough, Pawtucket, R. I. Cotton machinery.

Saco-Pettee Machine Shop, Saco, Me. Cotton machinery.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. Cotton machinery.

Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass. Cotton machinery.

Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass. Cotton machinery.

Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass. Cotton machinery.

Woonsocket Machine Works, Woonsocket, R. I. Cotton
machinery.

Faler & Jencks, Pawtucket, R. I. Cotton machinery.

Potter & Johnson, Pawtucket, R. I. Cotton machinery.

C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass. Cotton machinery.

Cohoes Iron Foundry Co., Cohoes, N. Y. Cotton machinery.

American Moistening Co., 120 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.
Humidifiers and textile machinery.

Standard Textile Papers

American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Atlantic Ave., Boston,
Mass.

American Silk Journal, East 28th St., New York City, N. Y.

319

320 EXPERIMENTS

Textile World Record, Congress St., Boston, Mass.

Technical Education Bulletin on Illustrative and Laboratory
Supplies, published by Teachers College, Columbia University,
West 120th St., New York.

Fibre and Fabric, 127 Federal St., Boston, Mass.

Textile Manufacturers Journal, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

Wool, Cotton, and Silk Samples

American Woolen Co., Boston, Mass. Booklets on From Wool
to Cloth; samples of fabrics.

Arlington Mills, Chauncey St., Boston, Mass. Samples of
cotton and wool in different stages of manufacture; fabrics.

S. Blaisdell, Jr., Chicopee, Mass. Egyptian and Peruvian
cotton, etc.

Frank A. Tierney, 260 Broadway, New York Ramie.

Geo. Carter, 246 Broadway, New York Linen yarns and thread.

Boston Yarn Co., 50 State St., Boston, Mass. Cotton yarn.

Wonalancit Co., Nashua, N. H. Samples of cotton.

Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N. J. French spun worsted yarn.

C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass. Yarns and fabrics.

Adirondack Wool Co., Little Falls, N. Y. Wools and shoddies.

Sutcliffe, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass. Foreign wools.

Francis Willey & Co., 556 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass. -
Top, foreign wools.

John L. Farrell, 210 Summer St., Boston, Mass. Mohair,
noils, and carpet wools.

The J. R. Montgomery Co., Windsor Locks, Conn. Novelty
yarns.

Catlin & Co., 67 Chauncey St., Boston, Mass. Cotton yarns.

Norfolk Woolen Co., Franklin, Mass. Shoddies.

Parker & Wilder Co., Boston, Mass. Samples of fabrics.

Lawrence & Co., Franklin St., Boston, Mass. Samples of
fabrics.

Joy, Langdon, & Co., Boston, Mass. Samples of fabrics.

Clark Thread Co., Newark, N. J. Exhibit.

George A. Clark & Bro., 400 Broadway, New York Cabinet
and booklet.

EXPERIMENTS 321

Cheney Bro., So. Manchester, Conn. Silk samples, silk fabrics.

Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J. Wall chart of
cotton field.

Scordill, 902 Canal St., New Orleans, La. Cotton postal
cards.

Storey Cotton Co., The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa. Booklet,
All about Cotton.

White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C. Stereoscopic
views.

Willimantic Thread Co., Willimantic, Conn.

Flax Spinning Co., York St., Belfast, Ireland. Prints illus-
trating linen manufacture and samples.

Jas. McCutcheon & Co., 5th Ave. and 34th St., New York. -
Flax cabinet.

The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New York. Flax
cabinet.

Belding Bro. & Co., 526 Broadway, New York. School exhibits
of silk.

Brainerd & Armstrong, 100 Union St., New London, Conn.
Book and cabinet of silk.

Champlain Silk Mills, Whitehall, N. Y. Spun silk and exhibits.

M. Heminway & Sons, Silk Co., Watertown, Conn. Book-
lets on silk.

Nonatuck Silk Co., Florence, Mass. Sealed cabinets and books
on silk.

William Skinner & Sons., 47 East 17th St., New York City. -
Silks and satins.

S. Miller, 304 Second Ave., New York. Wool fiber.

Milton, Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass. Sheep chart.

A. H. Post, Quaker Hill, New York. Raw wool by the pound.

Schermerhorn & Co., 12 West 33d St., New York City, N. Y.
- Wall chart illustration of sheep.

L. S. Watson Mfg. Co., Worcester, Mass. Hand cards.

Howard Bros., Worcester, Mass. Hand cards.

Prin. Columbus Industrial School, Columbus, Ga. Samples of
cotton plant or bolls.

322 EXPERIMENTS

Woolen Yarns

Horstman Co., 5th and Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Lion Yarn Co., 408 Broadway, New York.

Catalogue of Woolen and Worsted Machinery

C. G. Sargent's Sons Graniteville, Mass. Wool machinery.

Davis & Ferber Co., No. Andover, Mass. Woolen and wor-
sted machinery.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. Worsted machinery.

Crompton & Knowles, Worcester, Mass. Worsted silk ma-
chinery.

Speed & Stephenson, 170 Summer St., Boston, Mass. Tex-
tile machinery.

George Gerry & Co., Athol, Mass. Shoddy machinery.

Tolhoust, Machine Works, Troy, N. Y. Hydro extractor.

Parks & Woolson Machine Co., Springfield, Vt. Machinery.

Curtis, Marble Co., Worcester, Mass. Finishing machinery.

General Electric Co., 84 State St., Boston, Mass. Pictures,
showing textile machinery in operation by motors.

Hopkins Machine Works, Budgeton, R. I. Finishing machinery.

Knitting Machinery

Scott & Williams, 88 Pearl St., Boston, Mass.
Nye & Tudick Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

Chemicals, Dyestuffs, and Sizing Materials

The Arabol Mfg. Co., 100 Williams St., New York. Sizing
materials.

Cassella Color Co., 182 Front St., New York. Coal tar prod-
ucts, dyestuffs, and literature.

Arnold Hoffman & Co., Providence, R. I. Sizing materials.

H. A. Metz & Co., 122 Hudson St., New York. Dyestuffs
and literature.

Badische Co., 128 Duane St., New York. Dyestuffs and
literature.

INDEX

Acid test, 239
Adelaide wool, 10
Adulterations of wool, 80, 82
Albatross, 83, 173
Alma, 219

Alpaca, 1, 15, 34, 83
American cotton, 110
American wool, 3
Angora, 32, 83
Animal fibers, 1
Artificial fibers, 1
Artificial silk, 1, 230
Asbestos, 1, 234
Astrakhans, 15, 84
Australian wool, 3, 8, 9
Awning, 173

Baling cotton, 117
Bandanna, 84
Barege, 219
Bast fibers, 193
Batiste, 173
Beam, 53

Beaver cloth, 52, 84
Bedford cord, 84, 174
Beiber, 219
Beige, 85
Bengaline, 219
Bindings, 84
Bleaching cotton, 148

flax, 196

thread, 141
Blending, 11, 31
Bombazine, 84, 220

Bottany, 84

Boucle, 85

Bourrette, 174

Bradford system of spinning, 44

Branding sheep, 7

Broadcloth, 52, 85

Brocade, 219

Brocatel, 220

Buckram, 174

Bunting, 85

Bur picker, 30

Burling, 72

Burring, 29, 30

Calendering, 149, 150
Calico, 175
Caniche, 86
Canvas, 177
Cape wools, 10
Carbonizing, 29, 30
Carding cotton, 126

wool, 3, 4
Carpet wools, 3, 4
Cashmere, 85, 86

goat, 13

wool, 13, 87
Castor, 87
Challis, 87
Chambray, 177
Characteristics of cotton cloth, 152

of linen cloth, 196

of woolen cloth, 50

of worsted cloth, 46
Cheese cloth, 178

323

324

INDEX

Chenille, 220
Cheviot, 33, 35, 52, 87

wool, 14
Chiffon, 220
China grass, 232
China silks, 220
Chinchilla, 52, 98
Chintz, 178
Chudah, 89
Cloth-rolls, 54
Clothing wool, 3
Cocoons, 203
Combing cotton, 127
Combing wool, 4, 39
Combustion test, 239
Construction of cloth, 70, 71
Corduroy, 89
Cote cheval, 89
Cotton, 1, 105

carding, 126

combing, 127

drawing, 128

finishing, 147

flannel, 178

growing countries, 106

picker, 125

substitutes, 232

varieties of, 105, 106, 111, 112

yarns, 125, 134
Cotton-gin, 114-116
Counts of yarn, 9, 49, 51
Coupure, 90
Covert cloth, 90
Crabbing, 74
Crash, 178
Creel, 52
Crepe, 179, 221
Crepe de Chine, 221
Crepon, 179
Cretonne, 90
Crinoline, 179
Crocheting, 56, 253

Cross-dyed, 65, 67, 68
Cyprian gold. 234

Damask, 179

Dark colored fibers, 33

Dead wool, 20

Delaine wool, 22, 90

Denim, 179

Diaper cloth, 179

Difference between lamb's wool

and sheep's wool, 20
Difference between wool and hair, 2
Difference between woolen and

worsted yarns, 39
Dimity, 179
Doeskin, 52, 90
Domet, 180
Double-cloth, 58, 62
Drap d'Ete", 90
Dress faced fabrics, 8
Drill, 180
Duck, 180

Dusting operation, 35
Dyeing, 66

black silks, 210

colored silks, 210

cotton, 67

wools, 65

yarns, 68, 209

East Indian cotton, 107

Egyptian cotton, 108

Elasticity of knitted textures, 253

Embroidery silk, 207

Empress cloth, 90

Ends, 53, 54

English system of spinning, 4, 40

English wools, 3

Eolienne, 181, 221

Epingline, 90

Etamine, 91, 181

Extract-wool, 1, 32, 37

INDEX

325

Fancy goods, 79

Felt, 91

Felting, 2, 4

Fibers, 1

Figure weaving, 58, 61, 62

Figured poplins, 225

Finishing, 71, 151

Finishing hosiery, 163

Flannel, 52, 91-93

Flannelette, 181

Flax, 1, 123

preparation, 193-195

sources, 194, 198
Fleece, 7
Flocks, 1, 32, 37
Florentine, 93
Fly frames, 130
Foulard, 221
Foule, 93
Frame, 54

French system of spinning, 4, 44
Frieze, 52, 93
Full blood, 19
Full grade cotton, 121
Fulling, 73
Fustian, 180

Galatea cloth, 182

Gauge weaving, 63

Gauze, 182

Gill boxes, 42

Gingham, 182

Ginning cotton, 114

Glace, 222

Gloria, 94

Goat, 1

Grades of wool, 18

Granada, 94

Great Britain wools, 12

Grenadine, 94

Grinding rags, 36

Ground lace, 164

Hackling, 195

Hair, 2

Half blood, 19

Half-grades of cotton, 121, 122

Hand-loom, 56

Harness, 55

Heddles, 54

Hemp, 1, 199

Henrietta cloth, 94

Hoggett wool, 20

Homespun, 58, 94

Hop sacking, 94

Hosiery manufacture, 159-163
Humidifying cotton, 124
Hydro extractor, 28

India silk, 204, 222
Indigo blue flannel, 92
Inspection of cloth, 123, 124
Intermediate frame, 130
Irish wools, 14
Italian cloth, 183

Jaconet, 183
Jacquard machine, 55
Japanese silk, 222
Jeans, 95
Jersey cloth, 222
Jute, 1

uses of, 201

Kapok, 230
Kersey, 95
Kerseymere, 96
Khaki, 183
Knitting, 253

cotton, 159

finishing, 163

frames, 154

rib, 158

silk, 159

326

INDEX

Knitting stripe, 159
wool, 3

Lace, 164, 165

terms, 166-172
Lamb's wool, 15, 20
Lappet-weaving, 63, 64
Lawn, 183
Leicester wool, 12
Leno weaving, 63
Lincoln wool, 12
Linen, 196
Lingerie, 184
Linon, 184
Linsey woolsey, 96
Long cloth, 184

manufacture of, 194, 195
Long or clothing wool, 3
Loom, 54
Luster of wool, 26

Mackinaw, 92

Madras, 185

Manila hemp, 200

Melrose, 97

Melton, 97

Meltonette, 97

Mending, 72

Mercerizing, 151

Merino, 2, 3, 18, 19, 97

Metallic threads, 1, 234

Meteor, 222

Mexican Sheep, 4

Milling, 8

Mineral fibers, 1

Mohair, 1, 18, 34, 97

Moire, 223

Moisture contained in cotton, 123

Montagnac, 98

Montevideo, 11

Mordant, 69

Moreen, 186

Mozambique, 223
Mule spinning, 134
Mull, 186
Mummery, 186
Mungo, 1, 10, 32, 34

method of making, 32
Muslin, 186

Nainsook, 186

Naphtha, 26

Napping, 75

Navy twill flannel, 92

Netting, 253

New Zealand wool, 10

Noils, 1, 32, 40

Norfolkdown wool, 14

Oiling rags, 35
Olive oil, 29
Organdie, 186
Organzine, 223
Orleans, 98
Osnaburg, 186

Panama cloth, 98
Panne velvet, 223
Peau de soie, 223
Pelts, 20
Percale, 188
Percaline, 188
Perching, 72
Peruvian sheep, 15, 32
Pick, 54

Piece-dyeing, 65
Pile-weave, 62, 63
Pillow-lace, 165
Pineapple fiber, 233
Pique, 188
Plain weave, 58
Planting cotton, 110
Plumetis, 190
Plushes, 15, 224

INDEX

327

Pongee, 224
Popeline, 224
Poplin, 190
Port Philip wool, 9
Pressing machine, 76
Printing textiles, 65
Prunella, 98
Pulled wool, 20

Quarter blood, 19

Ramie, 232

Raw silk, 206

Reeling silk, 205

Remanufactured material, 1, 32

Rep, 190

Rib work in knitting, 158

Ribbons, 215

Ring spinning, 134

Russian hemp, 199

Russian wool, 12

Sacking, 99
Sanglier, 99
Sarsenet, 225
Satin, 225

weaving, 58
Satine, 190
Saxony wool, 8
Scour, 27
Scrim, 190
Scutching, 195
Sea-island cotton, 109
Seaming rags, 35
Seamless hosiery, 161
Sebastopol, 99
Serges, 99
Sewing silk, 207
Shaker flannel, 93
Shawls, 33

Sheep shearing, 5, 6, 7
Shetland wool, 14

Shoddy, 1, 10, 32, 34, 101
Short wools, 3
Shrinking of wool, 2, 3
Shropshiredown wool, 13
Shuttle, 55
Sicilian, 101
Silesia, 190
Silesian wool, 8
Silk, 1,

cotton, 230

dyeing, 210

finishing, 217

varieties of, 207

warp flannel, 92

waste, 207
Sisal hemp, 200
Size of yarn, 9, 49, 51
Sizing, 53
Slag wool, 1, 234
Slasher, 53
Sliver, 39
Slubber, 130, 131
Soleil, 227
Souffle, 191

South American wool, 11
Southdown wools, 13
Spinning, 4, 40, 44, 50, 134
Spooler, 53
Spun glass, 233

fibers, 233
Spun numbers, 209
Spun silk, 208
Staple goods, 79
Starching cotton, 149
Stripe knitting, 159
Structure of wool, 1, 2
Styles, 70

Suffolkdown wool, 14
Sultane, 101
Superfines, 8
Swiss muslin, 191
Sydney wools, 9

328

INDEX

Tabby velvet, 228

Taffeta, 227

Tamise, 101

Tape, 191

Tarlatan, 191

Tartans, 101

Teaser, 31

Tentering, 74

Terry cloth, 191

Terry poplin, 225

Test for animal fiber, 239

artificial silk from silk, 231

cotton from linen, 240

density of a fabric, 239

dressing, 241

fastness against rain, 243

fastness under friction, 242

fastness to weather, light, and
air, 244

linen, 240

permanence of dyes, 242

resistance to perspiration, 243

resistance to street mud and
dust, 243

shoddy, 241

silk from wool, 240

wasting fastness, 242
Testing constituents of filling, 239

constituents of warp, 239

count of warp, 238

count of warp and filling
threads, 238

elasticity of fabric, 237

for shrinkage, 239

piece-dyed fabric, 69

strength of fabric, 237

style of weave, 236

yarn-dyed fabric, 69
Textile printing, 69, 70, 216
Theories of coloring in textile

designs, 76-79
Thibet, 101

Thread, 138

bleaching, 143

combing, 141

dyeing, 143

numbers, 144

sizing, 145
Throwing, 206
Thrown silk, 207
Tinsel, 1
Top, 11, 33, 40
Tricot, 101
Tulle, 228
Tussah silk, 204
Tweed, 15, 31, 35, 102
Twill weaving, 58, 9

Union cloth, 37

Van wool from Tasmania, 10

Vegetable fibers, 1

Veiling, 102

Velour, 228

Velvet, 15, 216, 228

Vc Iveteen, 228

Venetian cloth, 102

Vigogne (Vienna), 103

Vigoureux, 103

Voiles, 103, 229

Warp, 53, 54
Warp-beam, 54
Waterproofing, 218
Weaving, 53, 54, 56

processes, 54-56
Weft, 54
Welsh wool, 14
Wether-wool, 15, 20
Whip-cord, 104
Wood-pulp, 232
Wool, 1, 2

carding, 50

classing, 3, 16, 18

INDEX 329

Wool drying, 28 Worsted spinning, 44

dyeing, 76 tops, 40

fibers, 2 unfinished, 104

grease in, 24 yarn, 33, 46

marketing, 7, 8, 15

oiling, 29 Yarn, 33, 39, 46

sorting, 16-18, 22-24 dyed, 65, 68

varieties of, 3, 4 Yolk, 10, 25

washing, 24-28

Woolen yarn, 33, 50 Zephyr gingham, 192
Worsted carding, 39 wool,

combing, 39 Zibeline, 104

diagonal, 104