Full text of "The imperial Bible-dictionary : historical, biographical, geographical, and doctrinal; including the natural history, antiquities, manners, customs and religious rites and ceremonies mentioned in the Scriptures, and an account of the several books of the Old and New Testamen; illustrated by numerous engravings"

-OWIH4M%r4MMM^Vt*ft**Vt

TIIK IMPERIAL

IOXAIM,

THE IMPEEIAL

iir.LE -DICTION A RY,

HISTOIUCAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, (IKOGIiAPHICAL, AND DOCTlilXAL,

NAITUAL IIlST(>|;v, AXTIQCITIKS, MAXNKKS, CTSTOMS, AX!) KKI.K Hoi's 1MTKS

AND CI:I;I..M()\II:S MKNTIONKD IN TIM; sri;iiTn;i:s,

AND AN AlVor.NT OF Till; M.N'KKAl. I'.noKs <>F Til I! OLD AND MAN" TKSTA.AIKNTS.

KKV. PATIiICK FAIIIILVIUX. D.D.,

LONDON:

li L A ( ' K I K A XI) SO N. 1 ' A T K II N O S T

AND GLASGOW AXD EDI X I', I" RG H.
MDCCCLXVI.

II O W

GLASGOW :

\V. G. BLACK IE AX!) CO., P1UNTEKS,
VILLAFIELD.

LIST OF THK WRITERS.

\\' IT 1 1 T ill- i N 1 T 1 A L S A F F L X K I ) TO T 1 1 K 1 II A R T K' L 1-; S.

Ai:\i>I.I). UKV. J. Ml'KHLKISF.X, n.D.,J.M. \. 1>I!K\V. UKV. (',. S., M.A., . .. . <:. s. 1 ).

AUTIirK. Hi v. WILLIAM. M. \.. . W. A.

KA I'll!. K: \. .!< ll\. D.H., i.i..n ............ -I. !:.

t i tli il !'i. OiytiTiun

A H . ... 1 . 'ii .--t. I'anl'.-i

.1. A.

F\LI>IX<;. II; v. F. J., i.. i... M. A.. . I'.. I. !'.

MHNDKUSON, i;i:v. .IA.MKS. u.u J.JIu.

JKN N I .\( JS. Kl.V. ISAAC. ..I.J.

Au:li-r..f 1'rimiiivc Jlmiiaiiirii:. 1 \c.

KIN*;. I!i:v. DA\'I!>. I.T..D D. K.

Author ..f " I'rin.-iiili s ..f ( : t -.,ld-y in Udati'.iitu
Itulifiun," " A Tn-atlsr uii tin; Lord's Kuiipcr,"
J.,1,." \c.

DKLITZSCH. DK. FKAXZ F.I). LAT( ;1IT< ).\. l!r.\ . AVI LTJ A M. AV. I,.

l'1-..f.'S.-orofTli.-oli./y, |-:rlaiini'ii: autli.irofC.iiii- .Mini.-U-rof i-'n v St. Thomas' Clmrch, (ii\ i-nnck.

iiH-ntai-K-s on llalakkuk, tii.-iH-.-i>, I'.salins, IJili-

li.-clu- I'syc-hdldsif. io. I.IXDS.VV, lji-:v. WILLIAM, D.D.. A\'. ]- y.

]'roi\-.-.. r 01 Tli.-ol.i-y, I'niti-cl I'roliyt.-rian

DK'KSOX, ItKV. WILLIAM 1'.. U.l. W. I'. 1).

rrof.-ssor of Divinity ami JJiblical friticisni,
Uiiivi-rsity of Ula.-^nv.

LITTOX, Ui.v. I-1DW. AKTHT'I!, M.A.,... E. A. L.
J)Or(!LAS, Ki:v. (iKOlMIK C. M C.C. M.I). Uwtor of Xaunton, Cloucestershin-; latetVl-

1'rofi-ssnr of Hi-l.r.-u-, Krt-i- Cliun-li Collr^c. low of ( )rii-l ; exainininB (.'hajilain txi the Lonl

(ilussow. and Kxainim-r in M. ntal riiilosophy liisliop of Durlianr. author of "Th.- Clnirch of

for u'railuation in Arts in tin- University ,,f Christ," "A (!uide to the Stutly of IL.ly Scnp-

(ilasgow. tun-,"\c.

;I?.I VM, iii-v. I>:;TKR, D.V>

Professor of Theology ami Hebrew, Kiiglisli
Presbyterian College, London; author of "I'll
tri k Hamilton," "The Scottish Information. '

LIST OK
.. P. L.

MAYO, REV. CHAS. THEODORE, u. A., C.T.M.

In T.uiU-nt of liillin^den, near Uxbrulh" 1 '.

MILLS. KKV. .TOHX, F.K.G.S., M.II.A.H J. M.

Author of "Xnl.lonsiind the ^rodern Saniari-
tans," "Thn Urif-'ish .lc\vs,"&c.; Sccrrtavyof the
Syro-lv.'yptian Society, and of the An^lo-liibli-
itute.

Ml'KPIIV, EEV. JA-Ml'lS (i., I.L.I). Tiin.

College, Dulilin J. G.

Professor of Oriental Languages, rroKbytcvian
Cnllri;,'. I'.olfast ; author of "Critical iiii'l l-'.xe-
getical Commentary on Genesis,"on "Kxoihis,

OHHLKi!, (U'ST. FH., Du. Theol. ... OcU,

!Vofesr..or, Universiry of Tiil'in^en.

'I'HE WRITKiiS.

PATOX, EKV. JOHX BllOWX, M.A., .... J. B.P.

Principal of the (-'ongregational Institute fur
T!:cnlo'V,cal niiil "Missionary Training, Notting-
ham.

LIST 01- Till] ENGRAVINGS ON STKK1,

VOL. n.

.Mi NT SINAI (.Jrlnl Mu>a).

Tin: RUN- of L.vouiCEA,

Tin- WATI:I:> OF MLKO.M (Hard Hul,-l,i...

XA/AIM.III...

MAP I'AI.I^TIN;:. illu-tmti:i_c the New Testament,.

J'KUCAMus

I'I.-TKOI.I (I'o/xuolii, from the Northwest,...
Tin-: lln.i. OK SAMARIA, from tlir North...

SlIKCIIKM (.1 SvdlAIi (Xal)lousc), ..
Si DUN (Saidf), fnun thu ]-:a-t\vanl...
MAP Tin: NK<;KH on Sorm CMINTKY,..
TAKSU.S,..

'I'llKSSAl.o.NICA (Saluliiral.

THE TOWN AND LAKI: UK TIIJKIUAS \'ai-i(.us Viows,
MAI' LSKAKL'S AS'ANDEHINC.S IN* 'nu. "\\'!LDI:I;NI^^,

.Sain. j;..u-h A\'. NVallis :>:>

.Sam. Uoiigh. \\". Forn -t L'L' 1

II. ('. Scl.ms.....r. Sands :i:;7

. \\". I Fu irr,

.Aaron JVnli-y ...E. Itadrliifo HO-4

\V. I.. Lull h. \V. Uii-liiinlson 7^S

Sam. Iiiii:;][ .. . .\\'. l-'orivst ^'27

\V. 1.. Lcitch....W. Forrest.. !>OU

Sam. i;ni-h NV. I-'orivst '.L'S

.. .1. l';iltliolciiU'\v... '.>('*
W. I,, Li-itch. VT. Forrest. . . KllO
II. (i. lliiio S. I'.nuMiaw 1 (li'S

\\ . I.. Leitdi. ...\\'. ]',.nv>t . .. in:;.-)

. ...}. liartliolciiit-w. I US'. I

KR1IATA. VOL. II.

tli line from l>ottom,/or uOus, rend ^fe-.

10th line from top.////'hv. i.. 1, rtud [w. L y. ]

ilili lino from bottom, //>/ IV. ex. '.',, rmd Ps. ex. i.

JlKt line from bottom, /or IV. ex. ::, read IV. ex. 1.

JTth lino fi-oiii top, r'nr HI-:D SI:A (r\>~Ar;E m'). /'<:'"/ I'liiAHTimT;;.

13i.li line from bottom, for xiii. "(i, ivr/rZ xiii. :M.

2'Hli linn from top.//),' xlix., //' xli.

n.'it.h line from top, /,-/ Mat. xi., r"i<J Mat. ii.

4th line from top, for Mar., rend Lu.

14th line from l>ottom,/v Ju. i-ffc/ T S.a.

Tilth line from top, for liil-l,-<nl<>l, re;nl hi<'jri<:<l<il.

10th lino from l>ottom,/)r CusiiATir, ntnl CrsiiAX.

IfHh line f 1-1 .in lidttom. ,/'')/' <lep:ivle/l him, n /'// depurted from him.

ir.th line from top, for \\v. 1'S, ,v,/,/ xx v. is.

Irli line from top,/,,,- SIIAVSA, read SHAVSHA.

THE IMPERIAL

B I B L E -DIC 1 T I O X A R Y.

KAT'.XMKr,

KABZE'EL, a city of southern Judah. As it stand.- was the discovery, l.v Dr. KVI.inson. .it' a wadv. a little

lir-t in the catalogue \\lnrh enumerates " tlio utter- south of tlie Dead Sea, named tl-A'tnilfi, \\hich is the

m.^t cities of the tribe of the children of . I udah toward I I nf a torrent descending from the 'AraK'di to the

the coast ol Kdom southward." Jos. >-. -.'i, we are natu- lower region of the < i] . Tin- principal

rally I- d to look for it where the description of the letters of the two words are identical; the oidy ditt'emice

southern border ho-ins vi/.. at or near the an-lc l-in-- a slight transposition, ai..l the omission of the

' : - ' ' "' ' ' ' " * >' *i, ...vvions note

lis of

ERRATUM.

Page 515, 1st column, line -J!, for cleft, >v

' This form of tin' \v.n-,l i's inteivstiii','. as lirinu'iir,' it undfi- a
class of proper names (as well in the ancient Uelpreu as in the t -
inoilern Ar;U.ic>, <-haraetenze.l l.y the initial letter ; i,,,l an.l the

tine <.n the side of Moab and Edom, and could not fail,

in the Hebrew the, ame,,lace is calle,lKabzeel and Jekahzeel, i ( 3 .) Thus situated, it was (like " the camp of Dan

Jabneel and Jabneh, Tolad and Eltolad, &c. ; and in the Arabic ^ f f y i , i- i , , - - ,,

wo have Xcr'in for Jezreel, Jef-it an.l Kthphah-meh for Jipl,- bet% \ ecn Zorah : "i Eslltaol, m the case of Samson)

thah-el, Riha for Jericho, Rakhmah and Ramail for Jerahmeel, admirably adapted for the development of those quali-

Kaim6n for Jokneam, ic. ties which rendered the valiant Jehoiada and his heroic
VOL. II.

ars to have
iug its tril.u
into t\\o nn-
portion, like
ruined site
" referred to

. the Uest is

'-t part of a
... hits known
1'.. wards the

tar removed from the iuhabii.,1 parts of the country, south, however, near the mouth of the Kuseib, where
the reply is, that not only do the Scriptural notices of the route from Jerusalem n'n the Dead Sea formerly
this spot already adduced point to an out lying, thinly diverged (as it still does) eastwardly to Moab and
])opulated. and pa.-toral tract, but it is plainly inti- Ammon. and southwards to IVtra and 'Akabali, is the
mate< I that such was the case in the only other passage 'Ain el-'Arfis, the only fountain, amon- numerous
\\here the word occur-. No. xi .': Th. re. unfortun- others in this "valley of salt." where the \\andering
at.-ly. the Authorised Version has not done justice Arab or the passing traveller is tempted to halt (1Mb!
to the inspired original, \\hich. with its wonted pre- Res. ii. 4!K, 4!'fi : Atheniouin, No. 140:!, p. iniw). Its "line "lish-
cision, carefully discriminates between the great centres ini: stream of limpid water" creates a considerable oasis,
of population, such as Hebron "and its daughters," | wdiose pleasant verdure, shaded by the nubk, the tam-
i.c. its depend.-nt foinis; the rui'al and cultivated dis- arisk. and tin; palm, form.- a striking contrast to the
tricts, such as l,aehi.-h "and its .//< /</.-." No. xi. 3o ; and marshy sterility of the rest of the Ghor es-Sabkhah.
those which were only adapted for what we should call f Here, then, we have a site which fulfils all the coii-
sheep-farms, such as " Jckab/.c.-l ' and its hamlets" (or ditions necessary to determine the position of Kabx.eel.
pastoral settlements;. ,]., [ t ; s , lt t j 10 sl)(>t w i u . n . a] , )lu , t])c , ros j )ect i vc ]..

In exact agreement with these several indications ders of Palestine, Edom, and Moab could by any pos-
sibility have convergeil.

_'. It commands the different npjiroaches to Pales-

127

KRUATA. VOL. II.

THE IMPERIAL

BIBLE-DICTIOXAKY

KABZEKL

KABZE'EL, a city of southern .ludah. Asitstands was the discovery, by I >r. IJobins.m, of a wadv. a little

first in the catalogue \\hich (-numerates "the utter- i south of the Dead Sea. named il-Kiiwih, \\hich is the

most cities of the tribe of tlie children of .ludah toward l-d of a t'.rr-nt di-eendin-- from the '. Xrabah to the

the coast of Kd.,m southward." Ju> .-. -ji, u.- an- natu- l..\\er re-ion of the < Hior (Bib. HI*. \\. w . The principal

rally L-d to look for it where the description of the letters of the two w'ords are identical; the only difference

southern horder begins, vi/. at or near the an-le b.-iu^ a sli-lit transposition, and the omission of the

forme. 1 by its eastern extremity with the Clu'.ror low final syllable </, both of which (as the previous note

1'1-iin south of the I Nad S.-a. .!,, v, i-:,. li ua- the shows are ,.f continual occurrence in Arabic forms of

birth place of Jchoiada, "a \aliant man." and of hi- Hebrew ] .f. -per names.

still more famou- son IVnaiah. who, fur hi- heroic The south-western border of Moa.b appears to have

deeds, was made captain of David's body-guard, and. been the Wadv es-Safieh or el Ahsy (including its tribu

"'- l v .Mil. -"; uiii i LI i ii i null . * Ilivll ( 11 \ li ICS lilt.* v 1 11< >l llltiO tWO 1111-

mi. xi. a-J Tin- mention of Vioab in connection vuth cipial part-: the ea-tern or m. iv \\ led portion, like

one of i'.eiiaiah's achievements, as \\ell as of Kdom h, the \\-a.ly its. If. taking its name fnun the ruined sitr

thcspecificationof the boundary, still further strengthens i-s-Saii, h prohablv the " .Mi/peli of .Moal." referred to

the ]iresiini]ition ,,f a south-ea.-tern po>ition already in 1 Sa. xxii. 3). u hile the lar-vr portion to the west i>
atl'orded l>y the place which Kabzee] occupies in tho j called es-Sahkhali, and consists fur the mo>t j.art of a

list of frontier cities. ....,]( niarsh, impassahle i xccpt at certain points knov.n

If it should be objected that Mi.-h a locality is too only {,> the natives (Dc S:uilcy, i. L'7:;-.'?M. Towards the

far removed from the inhabit,.! parts of the country, south, however, near the month of the Kuseib, vJiere

mate<l that such was the case in the only other passage 'Ain el-'Arus, the only fountain, auK.iij; numerous

where the word occur-. No xi. -:,. Th, re. unfortun- others in this "valley ,',f salt." where the wandering

ately, the Authori/.ed N'cisioii has not done ju.-tico ! Arab ,.) the passing traveller is tcmjited to halt (Bih.

to tho insj.ired original, which, with its wonted ]nv- ' RCR. ii. 4!i:,, 4'.ifi: Athc-nicum, No. i4L',p. loon). Its 'Mine mish-

cisiun, can-fully discriminates between the -'rcat centres iiiLT stream of limpid \\ater" creates a considerable oasis,

of population, such as Hebron " and its dan-liters.'' whose pleasant verdure, shaded by the nubk, the tarn-'

i.e. its dependent fninig; the rural and cultivated dis- arisk. and the palm, forms a striking contrast to the

tricts, such as Lachish "and its /tW.t," No. xi. 3n ; and ; marshy sterility of the rest of the Ghor es-Sahkhah.

those which were only adaj.ted for what we should call j Here, then, we have a site which fulfils all the con-

sheep-farms, such as " Jekabzeel 1 and its //m/t^" (or ; ditions necessary to determine the position of Kabzeel.

pastoral settlements). (] .) It is at the spot where alone the respective bor-

Jn exact agreement with these several indications ders of Palestine, Edom. and Moab could by any pos-

sibility have converged.

' This form of th,- wonl is interesting, as bringing it under a ', ( o.) It commands tlir different approaches to Palcs-

class of projier names (as well in the ancient Hebrew as in the .- ,, , f ,, , , v , . . , , ..

iiKHK-rn Arabic*, characterize,! l,y the initial letter .,/ an,l the tlIK ' "." th S "' " f Moab an<1 K ' 1 " 1 "' anrl r " ul(1 ""t fail,

. . ,

therefore, to have been occupied as an important mili-

, .

Divine name /:/, u-ed inti'iisivi-ly; cither or both of which may ,

be omitted without impairing the integrity of the word. Tims ' tary outpost.

in the H,breu- the same place i, .callo-l Kabzcel ami Jekahzeeli ; (':;.) Thus situated, it was (like "the cann, of Dan

Jahneel ami Jabneh, IHLul and Eltolad, A.T. ; and in the \rabic rr i i T i , i

we Lave Zer'in fur Jezreel. Jefat an,l Ktl.phahaneh for Ji,,!,- bctNVCCn Z(ira1 ' all<1 l^litaol. ,n the case of Samson)

thah-el, Kilia for Jericho, H:ikhmah ami Ramail for Jerahmcel, admirably adapted for the development of those quali-

Kaimon for Jokneam. Arc. ties which rendered the valiant Jehoiada and his heroic
VOL. II.

KAJiZKET,

son Menaiah distinguished among the
of Israel.

(4.) Tlie ad venture of the lion, in which Monaiah gave
such si-jnal proof of ;i courage that nothing could daunt,
is in perfect harmony with the physical peculiarities <>f
this ren-ion. Nowhere coukl be found a more filing
habitat for the lion ami other feline carnivora. than the
broad dense jungle which skirts the Sabkhah 011 the
south and east. Accordingly, the evidence as to the
existence of these animals in immediate proximity to '
the Dead Na, is as manifold as it is abundant. Tin re
is not only the express testimony of Scripture, which !
connects them both with southern Palestine and with ]
Moab. Is. \v. :; xxx. (i, but there is also the less direct j
hut equally satisfactory proof afforded alike l.y the
lUblical and the modern nomenclature of the country; 1
while the traveller has detected the unmistakable
footprints nf the lion on tin.' seashore south of lUasada.-
and of the leopard in a cave on the peninsula (Lynch, i-..
niii], the latter animal a " magnificent panther") having
been actually encountered, in the very jungle which
probably represents the scene of lienaiah's exploit !>u
Saulcy, i. _>..- .

([>.) These; creatures, irrespectively of the sheep
and goats of that pastoral region, would not be
without their appropriate food in the ga/.elles and rock
goats which frequent the ravines of the Dead Sea
I Sa. xxiv. _'; l's. civ. iv The latter animals, according to
Piurckhardt, are very numerous, especially in \Vady
el-Ahsv. "They pasture in nocks of forty or fifty
together: great n umbers of them are killed by the people
of Kerak and Tufileh, who hold their flesh in high
estimation. The .Arabs told me (he adds) that it is
very difficult to get a shot at them, and that the hun-
ters hide themselves among the reeds on the banks of
streams, where the animals resort in the evening to
drink" ?,s_. ria, p. !<>.% inn). This mode of capture must
have been adopted from observing its successful em-
ployment by the felines of the neighbouring jungle;
a.nd doubtless many a "hart printing after the \\ater-
brooks," L's. xlii. i, has fallen a victim to the lion, as it
"lay in wait secretly in the covert. ' IN. x. <i, and to the
leopard, sleeplessly "watching"' for its prey. Jo. v. 0;
Ho. xiii. 7.

(i'j.) The mention of snow in the account of Benaiah's
adventure with the lion, may appear strange in connec-
tion with the almost tropical temperature which we are
accustomed to associate with the Cihor. But here,
as ever, the truthfulness of the sacred narrative is
vindicated, though unconsciously, by the incidental
remark of a traveller, while staying at 'Aimeh. between
the Ahsy and the Tufileh, the very spot which was

1 Compare, on the one hand, l.d.anth, or lU-lli l.elian;li, "the
house of lionesses," a city in the south east of Judah. Jo*. \\ . 32;
xix. !'>, now called el I icy eidh; and " the waters of Xirnrim " (le< >-
pards). in tlie south of Moab, evidently ne;ir /oar. Is. xv. ',. 0;
.K-. xlviii :; 1. another place of i he same name .'Ximrah. or IVih-
Xinivaii i, liei)i_' Hmre tn the nnnh. X:i. xxxii. '!. ,'ii'i; Jo*, xiii. L'7:
on the other hand, \Vady eii-Xiini i\ eli (female leopard), the lire-
sent name of a ravine near Masada (I.)e Sauley, i. 20">; Beaufort,
ii. lU.'i); and Xemeirah (diminutive of leo]iard), a ruin on ti e
shore of the Dead Sea, not far fmin its southern extremity (Do
Sauley, i. 302-304; Lynch, p. :;11>.

- I).- Saulcy, vol i. p. 248. Tlie a\rlmr ,,f K.tlr;,, p. "IS.
re -ords a similar dism\cry at almiit tlie i-ame latitude, but.
further \ve>t.

3 There were at least two others Hazar-Gaddah ("the inclo-
sure of the kid"), north of Kal./eel, at the mouth of "Wady
Mubughik, for the protection of the shore road rir! Engedi. and
Heshmon ('Ain Hasb) to the south (A r (f/ci>, p. 114-12(1), which

made memorable by Benaiah's pi'oucss. " 'I'he heat
(says ISurekhardt) is very great in summer, and is still
further increased by the reflection of tlie sun's rays

from tin- rocky >ides of the mountains Tin;

winter is vt ry cold; '/'</> X,HI- full*, and the frosts
sometimes continue till the middle of March" (Syria,
p. 102).

(7.* 'I'he importance of Kab/.cel. a.s the principal
key of Palestine in the direction of Moaband Ivlom. :
can alone explain its early re-occupation by the .lews
on their return from Babylon, Xo. xi. 2.">, when we con-
sider, on the one hand, its remote a.nd unattractive
situation, and, on the other, the many richer and more
centra.! districts which would have amply .-ptliced to
absorb their scanty numbers. Put every difficulty is
removed when we take into account the hostile attitude
assumed by the Moabite chieftain Sanballat (of Jloro-
naim), by the Ammonites under Tobiah. and by the
Arabians under (Je.-:hem, Ne ii. 1", l;i. iv. 1-15; vi. id. A
careful examination of the list of cities inhabited by tbe
restored Judahites and lienja.mites, Ne. xi. 2.v:;.'i, SO far
as they have been identified, discloses the interesting
fact that the places thus specified constitute important
strategical points by which the several approaches to
Jerusalem, east, west, north, and south, could most
effectually be guarded. Thus the enumeration of Ju-
diean cities includes ITehron. the capital of the "Hiil
country,'' and the chief bulwark of the metropolis on
the south (its military rather than its municipal im-
portance being appropriately recognized in its Anakite
designation l\ii\;1li - Arl a : [iiboii (now l-dideib or
ed-Deib), situated at a defensible angle of the valley of
that name, through which access was occasionally prac-
ticable for eastern invaders by the peninsular ford of
the Dead Sea; Kabzeel, v>hieh guarded the much-fre-
quented pass of ez-Zuweirah: ^loladah (3iilh), that of
es-Sufah; Beersheba, the well-known south-west a]i-
proach; the remaining cities, such as Zorah. Jarmuth,
and Xaneah. sei-\ ing the same jmrpose for tlie numerous
openings into the Hill country from the west. A similar
process applied to the Penjamite cities elicits a succession
of lines of defence against the Samariians and other
enemies to the north, as well as precautions against ag-
gression by way of the Jordan fords 011 the east and the
maritime plain 011 the west. The wisdom of thus distri-
buting a certain proportion of the population at the fron-
tier towns, was soon evinced in the frustration of a
contemplated attack by the neighbouring nations, in
consequence of i. arly intelligence communicated by
"tin Jeics irlticli limit near them. '^ Foremost among
these were, doubtless, the men of Kabzeel: for to them
was committed the guardianship of the road by which,

\\ciiihl Cdi-miiand the important route over the Xukb el Khurar
(leailhig to the "ascent nf Akrabbim"). To these should be
added, perhaps, "the city of salt" (Jos. XV. 02), vhich must
have been in the Ghnr-es Sabkhah (" valley of salt"), and near
the Sail Mountain called Khashm Usdum. It may have been
so situated as to defend tin- steep pass of el-Km'ax (/>H>. It'?, ii.
482, Is::. 4'.':!; Van de Vel.le, ii. 127). These were all doubtless
included among the Ac;< /?',/<, or dependencies of Kabxeel men-
tioned by Xehemi.di.

1 Xe. iv. 12. The latter part (if this verse is unintelligible as
it stands in the (.resent Hebrew text, and our translators have
vainly endeavouied to extract from it any meaning. The Sep-
tuagint and Syriac versions, however, enable us to approximate
to the purport of the communication brought by the Jews from
the frontiers, which was to this effect "From all the places
where they" (the enemy) [or ".we (the messengers)] dwell, they
are coming up against us." For other explanations, see Barrett's
Syn^i'Sis, v. 411 41:{.

K A DESK

KADKSH

as ill the days of .lehoshupli.it. the combined forces of
the -Moabitcs, Ammonites, ami Arabians would neces-
sarily advance.

(.s.) The etymology of Kabzeel affords an additional
argument in favour or the locality here claimed for it:
" the gathering of (J<id," i.e. "the great gathering." 1
Xow the root of the word denotes gatherings of things
as well as persons, and is expressly applied to accumu-
lations of water: " Ve gathered together the waters of
the lower ]>ool." Is. x\ii. !i. What, then, couM more
graphically describe the spot mi winch the citv of Be-
naiah stood than Kab.-eel. "the m'uhty contl
For, precisely at that point, the Wadys el-Jeib and
Kikreh (which drain th imni'-n-e plains ,.f rl-'Arabah
and Murreh respectively , as well as the Ku.-eib and
many other -Aater-courscs. unite their swollen torrents,
and, l>v tnnnniera , -. arc ever making their

way to tli. yi:t lower l.-vi i of the Dead Sea. "We are
at once reinindi i oi i'. expression, ''well-watered
e\ vryw here," \yliicliisapjilied by tin 1 .-aer> d \\riiirto
"the jilaiii of .Jordan, before the Lord destroyed Sodom

and (ioinorrali a- thoi; conic.-t ant" /oar." Uo

. 1 [K.W.]

KA'DESH, K. \ur.-n- 1'. \I:NI \, M niinui K AI>I.-H.
1-A-M i>iir.\ r. No place \\ithin tin- \\hole compass of
Seripture nei"_;raph\ ha-; occasioned a greater diver-itv
of opinion than thai which stands at the lead of this
ar'.ii-ie. Thi- lias arisen p:irtl\- from the di Hi-rent com-
binations under which th-- name is presented to u-. partly
from the apparently conflict ing character of some of tin
passages in which the word en-cur.-. hid' id. it. \\ould
n-'t be ditlicult to produee phiUMhli reasons for tin n
being two and even three [>laces bearing tin- name of
K:uie-h. It is doubtless owinu to the undue pn-pon-
di-rance -i\. u to certain .-taleiueiit-. and tin- lieglei t of
others eimaliy importan; . thai Biblie.-d -'. .-ra] ihi rs have
arrived at such oppo>i;e conclusions iv-pectiir.;- it. It
is proposed here to examine the several pa-sage- in the
i their respective contexts, with a view to ob-
taining, if possible, such an induetion a.- -hail .-
determining this mnch-vexi .1 o;n -ti.iii.

!. i-'i-om ( .o. ,\i\ . 7. it is t-vid.-nt that " Kn-.Mishpat.
\\hichis Kadesli," must have been in aline between

l.l-1'aran ( Wady Feiranl on th.- hand, and "the

country (ti.-Idi of th- Amalekites,' 1 or "land of the
south," Nu. xiii .'!), (!.<. bile level tract, chi.-tly south and
east of Bccrshebal, ;ilid I I a/.e/.on-'l'amar or Kll'jvdi.

-j cii. xx. i', on the other. This is certainly not in favour
of a position in or near the Wady el-'. \rabah: t'oi-evi-n

1 In tin's comiccii,, ii, wo are arrested le, :< .l..ul.ie cnincidence,
which caiuint I'Ut be regarded as peculiarly su;:u'''.-tive of veri-
similitude. The two M<>:ibiti-h warriors wlm were cnmpelled to
y iuM to the Miperior i>r,,we>s of tin; ln'n> of Kab/xvl, ar- i-\-|nvs
si \t-ly styled " linns nflind," a flnvse !,y whirl, ,-it thi-ilay ),ntli
Ar.-il).- ami IVr.-ians are went to lU-.-i'.'n.-it,- MIJ ..r].-iti\ ,-Iy l.ravc
men. [t is iliilic-ult to say \\hirli is ni".-t aiipriijiriate to tlie
actual eircunistances: the n fen -i ice to an animal which must
have been so familiar to every dweller in aii<l ammnl Kalizeel:
or the use "f the intensive <l in ren>rilin-_' the exjilnit "f a man
whose very city was a st Hiding L'Xfin)ilitie:iti"n of the .same
idiom.

- It is not imjii-'.lialile that, there is an etymological aflinity
In-tween Kabxeel (oniittini,' the <l) and S;i.bkli;ih. b..th words re
ferriii'j; to a plain iieculiarly exposed to the action of water.
Moreover, it. will be observed that Sabkhab contains the same
three consonants as Kuseib but instead of i einir traiis]josed,
they are .simply inverted, either on the well-l;iiowii jiiineijile of
theanagrniu. or in obedienco to an equally familiar law ct human
1 nifjuaRe, by which an obsolete or unintelligible word i., changed
into a significant one of similar souiul

those writers (such as Tuch, Kurtz. Kcd.and Delitzseh)
j who would identify El-1'aran with Ailah (near "Ak.-i-
[ bah), are compelled to admit that C'liedorlaom'-r's
inarch thence was not northward..- up the 'Arabah,
which would have brought him at once to "the Yale of
Siddim." but north-westwards across the ci ntral desert
et-Tih, the only route which is consistent with hissiih-
seoueiit operations. This road, which leads up to the
Tib either by the 'Akabah pass ,, r by the Wady el-
llevaiieh. is .-hort'-r. easier, and better watered than
that along the 'Arabah (Hun-kli. Syria, p. ui; : i;, i>ii,s..u, ri'n.
i: - i -.--. The lattt r traveller encountered an Aral'
elan ' mi^ra.tiii'j for the season to the southern borders
of Palestine" l>\ this route- iliib [Jos. i. CT, -JiiA, 2vJ7iii.

II. In (!e. xx. 1. Kaile-li and Shur are given as the
eastern and we.-tern limits within whiih lav that pan
oi the "south country " w Inch was calK d ( M rar. Shur
was probably a caravan station to\\aids the ea-tern
hord'-r of |-l_'\'pt. I Sa. xv. 7; xxvii. s, and ga\'e name to
that portion , f the desert which skirted the Tib on the
west, K\ v, u-' Taken by itself, then, lids passage'

corresponding distance to the east. This conclusion.
however, is modified hv another passage, Ge. xvi ll.
which again makes Kade-h an < astern limit, but inst. ad
of Shur gives I'M -red (evidently a neaivr p"iut i as the
( 'nfortunatelx . llei-ed has imt yef
been ideiitilied: but the iiatund inference from this

-tateinent is. that Kade-Oi st 1 iu a el, ,-er i-.dat ion

to I lau.'ii'- l-'oiintain (I'eer-lahairoi, now Muweilih or
.Moilalihii mi the east than shur did on the west; and
consequently it could not ha\e 1" i u either in or near
the 'Arabali.

III. In \u. xii. li>: xiii 15, ::<'.. tin- Israelites, on
ti eh lir-t \isit to Kade-h or Kadesli I ',:,|-ne:i. referred t<i
N'u. xxxii S; D. id; ii 1 1; ix -.'.:;. i..s xiv. fi, r, are said to have
encamped in the wilderness of I'aran; \\lioi-eas their
second vi-it t" Kadi .-h or Meribah Kadi-h is unifoniiK
IIM ntioiu-d in Cdiinection \\itli the \\ildi-rness of /in,
Nu. \x. l, I:!, 1 I. jl; \\'.:i I); x: I . \.i 51; .hi. \i 17

The obvious explanation of this double aspect of Kadesh
is, that, it \\a.- so situated as t,, (unch the wilderness
of I';, ran on die side, and that of /in on tin- otlu r; and
- the lir-t i neampment "f th'- 1-radites was on the
I'aran side, their second in the direction of Zin. \uw,
nniversally admitted that the wilderness of I'aran
j answers to the modern it Till, which. accordiiiL; to
Seetzi n, runs up to about the latitude of Wady el-'Ain,
accordinn; to 1,'obinson, to that of ^\'aoy i 1 Lussan.
The mean of these two estimates would make the wil-
derness of I'aran terminate in the neighbourhood of
Wady .laifeli. The wilderness of /in was on the south
border of Palestine, to the west or rather south-west of
Maaleh-Akrabbhn, Nu xiii i'i: xxxiv. :;. \, which is now
-enerally identified with the Xuk'u (pass) es-Sufah.
Assuming the mouth of the pass el-Haudeh, a little
westward of the Sufah, as a convenient representative
of /in, and draw ing a line between it and Wady .Jaifeh.
a spot mid-way on that line would mark, according to
these data, the probable site of Kadesh: a result which
is once more in favour of that central position to which
the previous indications have pointed.

I \ . \\ bile Kadesh must thus have been situated
between the wildernesses of I'aran and /in, a compari-
son of Xu. xxxiii. o(>' ("the wilderness of /in, which is
Kadesh") with I's. \xix. S (''the wilderness of Kadesh")

KADKS1I

KADESI!

would seem to imply tliat Kadesh was more clo>elv
connected with the wilt lerncss of /in than with that of
1'aran: for the same \\ iidrrn'^s appears to ha\ e been
designated both Kadoh and /in.

\ . Kadesh must have IKTII an important land there-
fore centra! jioint on the southern boundary of Pales-
tiiR 1 . This is evident from the fact, that in the four
descriptions of this border which we possess, Kadesh
and the "river of Egypt " Wady ul-'Arish.) are the
only names which are ahvavs specified. In each case,
the line is traced from east to west. in the lir-t.
Nu. \\\iv. :;-."., six names of jtlaces are given as landmarks,
of which Kadc-h- 1 iarnea is the third. In the second.
Jos. xv. l-l, it is the third out of eight; but the propor-
tion is not really altered, for the additions are towards
the (/'it/i-rii end of the border, including the consider-
able curve southwards to Karkaa, which the sacred
writer had naturally contented himself with indicating
but slightly in the earlier and more general statement.
P>ut any doubt as to its occupying a central situation
on the border is removed by the third and fourth pas-
sages, [Cze. xlvii. in; xlviii. >*, where only three names are
specified, the first iTamar. at the mouth of \Vadv
Mubughilo,' and third (\Vady el-'Arish), being the
eastern and wi sn rn termini, and the middle one. "the
waters of Meribah- Kadesh." I'nder this head may
also he included Jos. x. 41. which represents Joshua's
southern conquests as extending "from Kadesh- Parnea
even unto <!aza." Here, too. Kadesh is recognized as
a well-known point on the south border; and being the
only place >peeiiird, may fairly be presumed to have
been at or near the centre a conclusion which is
strengthened by observing the longitude of da/a, to
which, as the northern limit, it is opposed.

VI. In Xu. xx. 1C. Kadesh is described as "a city
in the uttermost (i.e. at the extremity) of the border
of Edoni." Tn exact agreement with this statement is
the enumeration of Kadesh among "the uttermost
cities .... of Judah toward the coast of Edoni," Jos.
xv. -21, '2:1 Here, of course, everything depends on what
we are to understand by Edoni. It is usual to restrict
the application of this term to the chain of mountains
which bound the 'Arabah on the east. There appears,
however, to be no Scriptural ground for such limitation.
On the contrary, there are numerous indications which
tend to show that both Seir and Edoni had a much
wider range than is generally supposed.

(1.) That the southernmost plateau of Palestine, al-
ready mentioned, which was successively known as
" the field or plain (xadi-lt) of the Amalekitos," Ge. xiv. r,
"the mountain of the Amoi-ites," DC. i. 7, i!),2ti, and "the
Xegel) of the Jerahmeelites," i s a . xxvii. in, was at a yet
earlier period included in the territory of the Horito
aborigines, and called Seir after their founder, may
fairly be inferred from DC. i. 44. The Israelites, pre-
sumptuously going nj) into "the mountain of the Amo-
rites," were shamefully defeated by the inhabitants.
who "destroyed them in ,S( ir, even unto Hormah.''
It is no slight corroboration of this view to find that
the name still lingers in the modern designation es-St rr.

1 DeSaulcy. i. 25)5-261; K'<i,b, p. Ol-d7. Hero ;m alteration
will be observed in the eastern portion of the border. It no
longer starts from the southern extremity of the Head Sen (for
the reason assiirm'd in E/,.. xlvii. n ), but follows the steep face
of the hi<_'h table-land which forms the natural rampart of Pales-
tine on the south, receding from the shore at Wady-Mubuehik
in a south-westerly direction, and broken at intervals by the
passes Zuweirah, Sufuh, Haudeli, &c.

given to a portion of this plateau (Williams, Holy City, p.
4?s). Nor is it improbable that we have another remi-
niscence of the word in (.---S' it H(: ,/,/,. the name of the
Arab tribe who now occupy this district ( i;ib. l; t -s. ii. m l).
S'aid ditters from Seir only in the hist letter, , and
llamran, l cii.i. n, 11 ,.!>., and in one of the Kdomite kin-s.
who appears in (ie. xxxvi. :>) : and a third tribe,
dwelling on the eastern shores of the Culf of 'Akabah,
are called M<*a1d ,'i;ii,. i; cs . i. L':;I).

(_'.) We meet with traces of the "f lorite chieftain and
his descendants still further north, in the " .Mount Seir"
of .(os. xv. in, the P>eth-/<oro;/ of Jos. xvi. :!. ~>. &<.:
not to mention the modern /'(? and ^'ii'iml, (i:n>. r.es. H.
IS5, :;<!4), together with the numerous excavations which
betray the presence of these- ancient Troglodytes in every
part of southern .Palestine.

(3.) E/.ion<_feber (Aiii el-Chudhyan ) and Eloth 'Ailah
near 'Akabah), which are both in tlie 'Arabah, are
said to be "in the land of Edom," l Ki. ix. L'I; ; thus prov-
ing that Edom was not contined to the mountains east
of the 'Arabah.

(4.) When Chedorlaomcr is described as "smiting
the ITorites in their Mount Seir [or "in the mountains
of Seir," Sam. Sept. Volg. &c.) unto El-Paran," (ie. xiv. 6,
we seem compelled to give 'Mount Seir a more westerly
extension, if, as is almost certain. El-Paran is the same
as \Vady Eeiran.-

((>.} The identity of the desert plateau et-Tih with
the " wilderness of Paran" may safely be assumed as
an undoubted fact. Xow, the most probable meaning
of Paran is "abounding in caverns" e-co c.'escnius, and

compare Joseph. Ii. J. iv. 0, 4). This, then, is the Very region
which would be likely to be occupied hv the Horites,
who were so called from their practice of dwelling in
caves.

(<!.) Accordingly, Esau is represented as living in
" Seir." or " the /((/((/ of Seir, the.//< Id of Edom," before
he finally settled in "Mount Seir" (compare (ie. xxxii. ;:;
xxxiii. l-i, If,, with xxxvi. fi-^. The term "field"' (?(/(/<),
whicli primarily ini])orts an uninclosed plain, more or
less adajited for pasturage or agriculture, is obviously
inapplicable to the ruggi'd and precipitous mountains
populai'ly regarded as constituting the whole of Edom,
and can onlv refer to the vast expanse of the wilder-
ness et-Tih, thus designated from its being the scene of
Israel's " wanderings." It is described by travellers as
an immense and almost boundless plain, consisting in
some parts of pebbles and flints, in others of indurated
earth : and relieved at intervals by low ridues of
limestone, and shallow wadys, where natural fountains
or accumulations of rain-water create occasional oases,
which serve as convenient halting- places (Buix-kh. p. 445,
447-4i:i; Bib. lies. i. i!,-,:>, 'jor. 3 "With this agree the notices

2 See the article on PARAN for the evidence in support of this;
and also that on Sr.nt for the numerous and diversified proofs
that Seir and Edom, in their widest acceptation, comprehended
not only the wilderness et-Tih, but even the whole Sinaitic pen-
insula.

' Thus the word siidiJi is used with strict propriety in connec-
tion with the wilderness of Sin. Ex. xvi. 1~>, now represented by
the "great plain" el-Ka'a, west of Sinai (Jiib. Jfes. i. 1CV). That
stones and flints may be predicated of it, see Job v. L'3, and the

KADESH

>f Esau as "a cunning hunter, a man of tin.- ,//(/(/,"

KAPESI1

son" with the references to "the o-azclk-s ami hinds of

the field." -' Sa. ii. 1\ (.'a. ii. 7; iii. LI; Jo. xiv. 6.

(7.1 It is utterly incredible that an important district
such as the 'Azazimat. constituting a natural t'astiK'ss
of the most impregnable character, .should ha.ve been
unoccupied I iy the warlike mountaineers of Edom i-vic-..
quoted i iy Kurtz, iii. j:;:!, L':H). It formed no jiart of ancient
C'anaan. nor did the Israelites ever claim it: i'or it can
be shown that their southern border skirted it mi the
north and west ,.- K.\i;k.\A. 'I'lil- can only be explained
by the fact of its bein^ 1 an integral portion ot' the in-
heritance of Esau, \\ith \\liich tln-v \\eix- t'oi-biddeii to
meddle. Do. ii. 5.

Tlie southern boundary ot' l'ale>tine. as it existed
amoii'.;- the L'anaanites, does not appear to lia\ebe,.]i
altered (at least in its eastern p(.rtioii, with which alone
we are now concerned I by their l-rac!iti>h successors.
Judeed, it is ti i clearly ileliiied by nature to admit of
material modification. Th- pn cipitons face of the
mountain of the Aniurites." separated fnuu th-
northern wall of tin; 'Azazimat, now called Jebil
Murivli (Williams), by the important but as vet little
known) valley of the same name, was evident! v intended
to be the i impel- frontier of the Holy Land. We read
accordingly, .in. i. ;>;, that "the coa>t of the Anmrites
i.tlie southernmost of the Canaanitish clans) \\as fi-om
.Maaleh . \krabbim. from the rock (the well-known
dill" of .Meribah Kad.v-.li. Nu.xx.--iH, and upward"
(i.e. northward the elevation of the country jivdnallv
increasing from south to north as far a> Ileni-N'aim
near I lehmn .

S.) The objection that, the ' Axaximat. if Kdoiuitish
territory, would be isolated from the eastern raiiue by
the broad valley of the 'Arabah, involves no real dilti-
eulty, when it is remeniliered that the possessions, of
Israel \\ei-e similarly divided, 7iot onlv north and south
by the valley or rather plain of Je/.r. .-1. but ai-o east
and west by the deep fissure of the Jordan bed. of
which indeed th'- 'Arabah is but a continuation.

(!'.; In perfect harmony with the foreuoini; inference-
are c, -rtai n passages in 'he jmeti.-al books, \\ Inch, in the
ordinary view, are confessedly obscure if not contradic-
tory : \\ heivas. evi ry dilliciiitv is etli tualiv removed,
and the passages in (|Ue^tin become, at one.- int< Hi
and consistent, if. as we now seem compelled tobelie\e.
J'aran, Seir, and Kdom were interchangeably used to
describe the entire w ildeniess of the wanderings. Thus,
what is spoken of in 1's. Ixviii. 7, S, as simply "the
wilderness." is. in Ju. v. 4, 5. more fully expressed as
"Seir" and " the field of Edom." Jn I >e. xxxiii. '_',
" Sinai " is parallel (and therefore equivalent) to ''Seir;"
while, with a very slight alteration of the fourth clause.

''Jehovah came from Sinai.
And arose 1rom Seir upon them;
lie shone forth from Mount I'aran,
And lie came to Mcribah-lvade.-h." '

It has been seen that the 'wilderness of .Paran"
corresponds to the modern et-Tih. It naturally follows.
then, that ' Munnt i'aran." thus mentioned in con-
nection \\ith Kadesh, which was on the southern bor-
der of Palestine, nui-t have been the uorth-ea^tern
corner of the " /';/,(, , ,--.> of I'aran," where it ri>es
abruptly to a considerable elevation, directly in IVoiit
of soiitliei-iimo.-t ('ale-tine, ami is now kno\\n as the
.Mountains of the 'A/.a/inich, or. more bricllv. the
'Azazimfit.

Thus have we been broiiuht step by -.(, p to the
conclusion, that the 'Ax/iximat was undoubtedly a ]>ro-
vinceof ancient Kdmn. I'.nt \\ e have the \et more direct
testimony of Hah. iii. :',. which connects .Mount I'aran
not only \\lth Kdom in oviii-ral. Imt \\itli that ]iartieu-
lar ]iail of it \\hich was adjacent to J'alotine:
Co.1 came from Tcman,
Ami the II. y I Ine fnuu Mount I'aran."

Ai conlin- to tlie la \\Mif Hebrew j.aralh li-m. " Mount,
I'aran." \\hicli we have seen reason to identify with
the Axa/.imat. is synonymous \\ith "Toman." The
latter was a well-known "dukedom" or pro\ince of
I'Mojn. (,,. xxxvi :il; Hli i. i:>: ,|..b ii 11, &c. l)ei-i\'iii- its
name from Teman. the elde-t son of Kliphax. himself
" the lir.~t-boru son of I'lsau," Ce. xxxvi. i:,, it was one of
the most important districts of Kdom, and. as such,
sometimes stands for the \\hole kingdom. Jc. xlix r, '-'. < ecu pied a
position at one of thi- extremities of Kdom. in an oppo-
-ite direction to I tedan. as is e\ ident from \'//.,-. x\v. I :!:

Septuagint rendering of 1 Sa. xiv. II, \\hich is approved by
Keimicott (I> i.-:-: i. I.M.', 4. r ,:!l, Ceddes. and 15. othroyd.

''I'd Kennicott C/'f'.-w. i. 4^-_'-|-_'7i, not Kwald, as sometimes
stated, are \ve indebted for tliis felicitous eineiidation. It is
better, perhaps, to render "to" than "from Mcribih Kadesli,"
as more, in harmony with the. s icred narrative, and as involving
less change in the present Hebrew text. The Divine <rlory niani
Tested at Sinai, tempered as it. was by "clouds and thick dark-
ness," De. iv. 1], is appropriately compared in the second clause
to the mild radiance of the rising sun, eomp. Mai. iv. -2; uhile
that same glory, which Hashed forth so often and so terribly at
Kadesh, Nil. xiv. 10, -Jl: xvi. 111. -Jl, :;i-.'!.1, 4'J, 4.">-l!e xx'. (1, is,
with C(|iial fitness, likened in the third clause to the excessive
brightness of the sun's meridian splendour.

Cieor^ra pliers are agreed in loeatino- I )edan. \\ Inch,
thouo'h of different race, appears to have become a de-
pendency of Kdom. Je.-xlix.s, on the ea-tern borders of
that country: and indeed, as descendants of Keturah,
\\e know that they must ha\e lived in " the east coun-

try," Gf. XXV. Ii." 'I'elnall Was, therefore. 1 he most West-

erly or north-westerly ]n-o\inee of Kdom; a po.-itimi
\\hieh answers exac-tlv to that of the 'Axa/.imat.

(1". Tliis. auain. harinoni/es with the notici s. inci-
dentally afforded, of the limits of the Avite territory.
By collatino; Jos. xiii. :!, 4 \\ith De. ii. -j:',, we find that
"the Avim dwelt in ]>astoral .-ettlunents from Teman
even unto ( la/a."

(11.) Equally consistent with this view of the western
extension of the Kdomitish frontier, are the several
specifications of the southern border of Palestine.
(" In Nu. xxxiv. :!, we read, " ^'oul south <|iiarter

- This Dedau, win. h thus PI-CM is to have attaehed its fortunes
to those of Kdom. should not be confounded with the mercantile,
(Ju-hites of the same name, <;,-. x. 7; Is. xxi. l.'i; ,Je. xxv. '_';!, of
\\hom unmi-takable traces are still found near the month of
the Persian (iulf. Both are mcntiomd in that, wonderful in-
ventory of the. sources of T\ rian wealth, Kxc. x.xvii.: the former,
as intimately connected with the Kdoinite tratlic betueen Kx.ion-
Kolicr and the ports of eastern Africa, appropriately contribute
ivory and ebony, ver. l.'i; eomp. 1 Ki. ix. -Jil; x. I'l'; Kxc. xxxviii.
l.'i; while the latter, inhabiting a region (the Xedjed) which to
this day has the name of producing the finest horses in the
world (Palgrave). are with dpial propriety represented as
bringing the rich housings obtained in their commerce with
the distant east, ver. lit).

KADES1L

KADESH

shall extend -.lit.. 'become 11 ) from tin 1 wilderness of Zin
along liy tin; coast of lidom;" ' language which is ut-
iri'Iy incompatible \\iih the ordinary notion, that there
was but a single jioiut "f contact between the south-
eastern angle of Palestine and the north-western angle
of Edom. (It) In Jos. xv. 1, wo are told that "the lot
of the tribe of the children of Judah, according to
their families, extended to the border of I'Mom. the
wilderness of Zin southward, from the extremity of
Teman." Accordingly. we have ill vcr. ^ 1 -15^ a list
of ' the uUermost cities of the tribe, of tile children of
. ludah toward the coast of Edom southward." One
of l!i- eiiics thus specified is Ileershcba, which is uni-
versally admitted to be represented by the modern Bir
es-Sei)'a, Now. on no principle of rational interpreta-
tion can Beersheba be said to lie ''toward the coast
of Edoni," if that coast took a southerly direction from
the Dead .Sea, as. is generally supposed, and not a
we-derlv one, as is here maintained, (<) In like man-
ner, the two passage?, in Ezekiel, cli. xlvii. in; xhiii. 28,
sneak of "the south <[iiarter towards Teman," and
" the quarter towards Teman southwards."

There is, indeed, no escaping from the conclusion,
that the boundaries of the two countries \u-re conter-
minous, from the Dead Sea westwards, along the whole
northern (and western) face of the 'Azazimat.

It has lieen necessary to go into these particulars,
because the advocates of an eastern position for Kadesh
have chiefly relied on the argument furnished by the
supposed direction of the Edomitish border. This
difiiculty having been found to be imaginary, the re-
maining criteria will require a less detailed considera-
tion.

VII. Kadesh must have been a day's journey distant
from Mount Hor, Xu. xx. 22; xxxiii. :;:. If that mountain
be truly represented by Jebel Xeby Harun, this alon<;
is fatal to the theory which locates Kadesh at Petra,
irrespectively of the many other objections to which
it is open. It is more than probable, however, that we
shall eventually be compelled to abandon the Jebel
Harun hypothesis, resting as it does on no better founda-
tion than that which identifies Kadesh with Petra, and.
beiii 1 .;', moreover, at variance with the plainest state-
ments of Scripture. Two other localities have recently
been suggested as representing the true Mount Hor.
viz. Jebel 'Araif on-Xakah, at the south-western angle
of the 'Az.izhnat (Jour. Sao. LH. AIT!!, l^iin, p. lv->), and .lebel
Moderah, south of the Snfah pass (Xenub, p. 127-1.'J4).
Xow. the result of the foregoing considerations has been
to deprive two out of the three principal eastern sites
(Petra and 'Ain el- Weibeh) of all pretensions to repre-
sent the ancient Kadesh. Both arc far removed from
that central position which is required by the first five
criteria, and both are directly opposed to the sixth, as
being in the very heart of Kdomitish territory. The
remaining site ('AinHasb) satisfies the sixth test, inas-
much as it is exactly on the frontier of Edoni; but
besides contravening the previous five, it only partially
meets the requirements of the present one. Assuming
.lebel 'Araif to be Mount Hor. instead of being a day's
march, 'Ain Hasb is three or four days distant from it.
If, on the other hand, we are to look for it in Jebel
Moderah, 'Ain Hasb is almost too near to be a separate
encampment, and becomes liable to the same objection

as IV-tra in respect of Jebel Harun." Win reas, among
the other advantages of a central situation for Kadesh,
it would be an average day's journey distant from both
Jehel Araif and .lebel Moderah, whichever of the two
shall prove to be the veritable Mount Hor.

\ 111. "Theie are' ele\ en days' journey from Horeh
by the way of (or, 'on the way to') Mount Heir, unto
Kadesh- Barnea,' !>e. i. -j. This has been thought to
prove indubitably that the Israelites journeyed from
.Mount Sinai to Kadesh (supposed to be situated to-
wards the northern extremity' of the 'Arabah) by way
either of 'Akabah or of Wady el-.lerafeh. But to this
view there are serious objections. The passage before
us, while it gives the general outline of the Israelites'
course, does not profess to be an itinerary of their
marches between Horeb and Kadesh; for, instead of
their accomplishing the distance in eleven days, they
consumed a whole month at the single station of K i broth -
hattaavah, Xu. xi. 1!>, 2<>. 'It simply apprizes us of the
time ordinarily occupied in a journey from Horeb to
Kade.Mi by the Mount Seir route. Ho far is this from
applying to the 'Arabah route, that it is evidently dis-
tinguished from it. The latter is expressly called
''the way of (or 'to') the plain" CAnt/mli). De. ii. \
Such, indeed, is the precision of the sacred writers in
their use of particular terms, that it may be confidently
assumed that these two expressions refer to two diffe-
rent routes. \Vo have seen that Heir applies equally
to both sides of the 'Arabah: it is also clear that the
road between 'Akabah and the Dead Sea was known
as "the wav of the 'Arabah." It follows, therefore.

; that " the way of Mount Seir" must have been one of

i the three principal routes from Sinai across the Tib
desert; apparently the mo-t easterly one, by Wady '/A\-
lakah, el-'Ain, Bir eth-Tliemed, and thence northwards
along the western side of the 'Azazimat, which has

j been identified with Mount Paran or Teman. the
westerly extension of the Mountains of Heir. "Whore
tins road crosses the chain of the T'di mountains by a
pass, a lofty spur is thrown out, called Jebel or Has esh-
Hhukeirah. probably (as is shown under HKIIO a corrup-

I tioii for Shughcirah, the Arabic equivalent for Heir.
" The road from the convent to 'Ain (writes Dr. Robin-
son, passes near this mountain"' (P.ib. lies, i. 21 M. Thus
it is likely enough that this pass may have been desig-
nated "the way to Mount Heir" (of which We seem to
have a trace in the modern Pass of , lebel esh-Shukeirah),
in order to distinguish it from the shore mute to 'Akabah
on the east, and from the two other roads by the Mu-

' reikhy and I'akinoli Passes on the west (i;ih. lies. i. -><w.

' Kadesh, therefore, must have been situated on or near
the great central line of approach to Palestine from the
south.

IX. In the only remaining passage we have to con-
sider, Mor.es thus describes the course of the Israelites
on quitting Sinai: " "When we departed from Horeb,
we went through all that great and terrible wilderness,
which ye saw by the way of (i.e. 'on the way to') the
mountain of the Amorites, as the Lord our God com-
manded us; and we came to Kadesh-Barnea. And 1
said unto you. Ye are come unto the mountain of the
Amorites, which the Lord our (!t>d doth give unto
us," De. i. i!, 20; comp. Xu. xiii. 17. Here we have the same
2'eneral direction of the Israelitish march northwards

KADESII 7 K A DESK

as in the previous case: the only difference being, that, ( where the caravan-route from H el iron to Koypt, by

whereas in the former. Kadesh is />fi/i;,nl (i.e. north of) . Shur. crossed the south border of Israel:" and he con-

the locality which gives name to the route 'Mount ] structs the route thus: 1, Bceivhelia: '2. Kadesh (i.e.

Seir>, here the ultimate destination is specified, viz. the Khvdasahi; 3, 1 "cerhdiairoi: 4, Ix-red; f>. Shur. This,

Amoritish table-land or southernmost Palestine, Kadesh au'ain, is "pure assumption. I'ecau.-e Beerlahairoi was

being very near, out on the south side of it. That ihis between Kadesh and liered, it does not necessarily t'ol-

passage, like the preceding one, refers to the desert lo\v that Kadesh and .IVred wen.' respectively north

et-Tih, and not to the 'Arabah. is evident (1.) from the :md south of liecrlahairoi. They may have been ea-t

language employed: " all that great and terrible wilder- and west: ami that they really wTe so, would appear

ness " applying with far more propriety to the boundless to be a iva-onahle inference from a comparison of Cc.

exjianse of the central plateau than to the compara- xx. 1 ("between Kade-h and Shur") with tie. xxv.

lively circumscribed valley of the 'Arabah. _J Alojv- l >; | Sa. xv. 7 r % from Ilavilah unto Shur"K Havi-

over, had the latter r.uite been intended, the word lali was due east of Shur: Kadesh, therefore, beini;-

'irriViiilt would have been used, as in i >e. ii. v in it /;'(/'.<>/. similarly opposed to Shur, must have stood in the same

which is tin; term here employed. ''.) Then there is relation to it as llavilah. that is. to the east: for Slut r,

the decisive consideration that the 'Arabah. throughout being near the front i. r of Kgvpt. could only lie opposed

its entire extent, was r>-allv ]>art of the territory of gc.. graphically (so far as the desert was concerned) bv

I'M 'in. Kveii if we had been withiiut direct testimony an rn.ttern point. Kade-h. moreover, i- never spoki n

lo this effect, lKi.ix.2i;, we should have been driven to of as being (like IVei-sheba and I'.ccHahairoi) actually

thi.s conclusion by the general tenor of die f. uvu-oin.^ on the central caravan-route; although it is uniformly

argument. Nor can it, be .-hown that the I.-radites ever implied that it wa- not far from it, to the east.
set foot in the 'Arabah it<elf. exc< pt on the single occa- <:').) His next proof is derived from the circumstance,

sioii of their orossin'_r its southern extremity on their that '' Kadesh was ju-t beyond the extreme limits of

final departure to the trans-. fordanic country. ]>..-. ; i. \' th,- kinudom of l-Mnm." A '-dance at the re-pi -cii\ e

The same com-] ii.-ion. then, i- reaeheil as in each of positions of el- Khnlasah and.) ebel Murreh the northern

the previous eases; viz. that Kade-h wa- so situated a.- boundary of tin.: 'Axaximat. about the latitude of '.\ : u

to be in close proximity alike i" the great central road el-Weihch>, is.-utiieieiit to. -how the unteiiableness of this

from Sinai to I 'ale tine, and to the south"]-!! tioj-der of argument, which carries with it its own refutation,
the latter country. (l.\ His fourth test is based ,-m the lelative situation

The result of a careful analysis of every passage in of Kade.-h to the do-erls ,,f I'aran and '/An, between

\\hieh Kade-h is meuu,,ned bein-- thus decisively in which, as he correct K states, ii \\assituated. To suit

tavciur of a central site, we have imw to examine tho Ins t:;. ory, he conveniently brin.-; up the \\ ililerness of

respective preten-imi- of the two [ilaees which alone I'aran to the west, and thai of /in to (lie cast, of

fullil tlii- essential reijuin inent. , el-Khula-ah. w'tliont the slightest authority whatever

One of tin .- i- el-Khula-ah the Klusa of the Creeks for so doing. ( >n the contrary, we have seen that, at

and Romans', a considerable ruin aboul t\\il\o miles the utmost, the \\ildei-m-.--s of 1'ai-an \i.i . the Tih) did

south west of r.e-i-sh"ba, which has been advocated by noi extend beyond the- well-watered dMrict beginning

a writer in th> ./..//,,// ,,y'X,/. -,-,,//.//, ,;,>urr (Ai.ril, i-iiu, ,,. at \Vady el-'Ain; and tliat '/An was en the southern

i fin).- 'I'll is identification is supported by tive arguments, border, south-west of the Sufah pa". IV.-idt s. we are

which, liowever. when duly considered, scarcely ju-tify expressly told that the pasiure u'l-ouiid- near el-Khu-

the eontidence \\itli which they are iii-jvd. l,i-, di belonged to the wilderness of heersheba, which

1.) ll;-iii--t criterion rests on an assumption as gra- i- carefully di-tin^uidied from that of I'ai-aii, Oo. xxi. 14,

tuitous as it is improbable. He argues tliat as Kade-h Ji; cmnp xxv. iv

was on the south boi'der of l.-rael. which was drawn (;'.) His \;\.<i proof 1'e-ts on a jiassa^v in dei-omi-'s

' as nearly as possible in a straight line." el Khulasah l.ij'< *>/ /fi/>n-/', >,!." from which lie infers that "the

must be Kadesli, because an imaginary line carried desert around Klu.-.'i still retaiii'd tin- name- of the

from the southern end of the Dead Sea to the mouth desert of Kadesh:" whereas the lanu'iiauc only seem- to

of the \Vady el-'Ari-h would ni-.-u-ly pa.-s through it. imply that Klusa was a town OH f/>< nutil. fnun I'al.s-

Withuiit dwelling on the unlikelihood of an ancienl tine to the desert of Kade-h. Hilarinn's tinal destina-

lioundary line having- been dra\\n after the modern tr m being 1'lgypt. Hut even assuming his interpreta-

fa-hioii of some of the American States, it i- sufiicienf lion to be correct, it no mure follows that Klusa was

to refer to the language of the sacred narrative itself, Kadesh. because it was in the in'/i/i I-IKKA of Kadesh,

Ku. xxxiv. t, :.; Jos. \v. :;, i, in order to prove conclusively than that the "well of water," to which Hagar was

that the border, so far from heini;- drawn with mathe- ' directed, Ou. x.\i. i:', was IU hel a. 1 ei-ause it was

matical precision, was regulated by the jihysieal conti- situated in the " wilderness of IVcrshcba, Cc. xxi. 1 1.'' 4
guration of the country, the general direction being ] The other central site which claims to represent

provided by nature herself ill the important \Yadys , Kadesh is 'Ain el Kadeis. Its situation was first

.Murreh and el-'Ar'.sh. pointed out in 1M'_' to Messrs. Williams and 1,'owlands

CJ.) He argues from the fact that Hagar's Fountain by the sheikh who had conducted them to the verge of

was ' in the way to Shur," (iu. xvi. 7, and from a stibse- ' the smith border of f'alestine (Williams, Holy City, p. 4R7,&c.)

(|iient statement that it \\as "between Kadesh and But the honour of its actual discovery a few months

P.ered." vor. i !, that Kadesh was "on the exact spot afterwards, is due to .Mr. Rowlands; while to Seet/.en,

in lM7, belongs the credit of being the first to recover

1 Th.-it the um-.-iiiipiiiciit. at K/iimgelier, ineiitinnrd in \u.

xxxiii. '^j, ;}("', is no exception to this reiuark, see WII.DKRNKSS 3 " Vailens in clesertnin ( 'a<les. acl iiiiuni de ilisci'imlis suis vis-

AVAXDERIXCIS. fiidinii, . . . prrvonit Klus.-un."

"Sinni, Krnhtl, <,! M, ,,,,'! II.,,;- of Cfitu'dl f.ifjv.iry into < See S&jfb, ?. ISl-lfLS, fur detailt-il proofs tlint ol Khn].is;ih

the Jtoute of the

represents tlie ancient C'liesii, ;is suggested by Mr. Rowlands.

KADKSII

KATJKAA

tin- inline of Kadesh. 1 J >r, Kobinson tells us how, soon

after crossing Wady Aim I'etcmat, lie ascended a
pass which ''opened out upon a large gravelly plainer
basin, thickly covered in many parts with shrubs and

coarse herbage Here, the line or the eastern

('A/:'i.y,imeh) mountains abruptly retires: the plain ex-
tends up far to the right (i.e. oast), and is shut in on
the east, south, and west by limestone hills" (Bib. lies.
i. L'H>). At the north-eastern corner of this plain, the
iiume of which JJohinson failed to ascertain, but which
we have the authority of Seetx.en for calling Wady cl-
Kadeis, and the extent of which, according to Row-
lands, is nine or ten miles long by live or six broad
rises a bare mass of rock, at the, foot of which a
copiously Hotting sprini;- bursts forth, which falls in
beautiful cascades into the bed of a torrent, and. after
a course of from three to four hundred yards, loses
itself westward in the sand (Williams, Holy City, p. \'.n>).

It now onlv remains to test the claims of "Ain el-
Kadeis by the nine criteria derived from the foregoing
analysis.

J. Situated, according to Rowlands, over against the
most northerly extremity of Jebel tidal, to the east,
it is in a line with Wady Feiran (or even Allah), as
representing d-Paran, on the one hand, and the
S'aidtych plateau field of the Amalekites) and "Ain-
Jidy (Kngedi) on the other.

J. [. It is north-c'.-V of Wady el-.lcri'ir. arid south-
C((*t of Khirbet el-.Jerar (modern sites, which preserve,
the names, and probably the limits, of ancient (lerurt:
while it is twelve miles cast-south-east from llagar's
Fountain, which (with evident reference to the close,
connection of the two places) is called by the neigh-
bouring Arabs Moilahhi-Kadesah (Rowlands).

J.LI. The Israelites during their first visit to Kndesh.
answering to the station Puthmah ( still called Wady
Abu Ili-tiiiutn. would be in immediate contact with the
wilderness of Paran, which terminates, as we have seen,
near Wady .Jaifch. This would not be the case, how-
ever, on their second visit; because they then encamped
on the other side of Kadesh. in the wilderness of Zin.
corresponding to Wadv Murreh. The proximate posi-
tion previously obtained for Kadesh, half way between
the Pass el-JIaudeh and Wady -laifch. remarkably co-
incides with Rowlands' further and more exact state-
ment of the position, of 'Aiii el-Kadeis: \\/.. as almost
due south of cl-Khulasah, near the point at which the
longitude of cl-Khulasah intersects the latitude of 'Ain
el- Weiheh.

1 From Sect/en's ivrently published Journal (vol. iii. p. 40 4s,
Berlin. 1855), we learn that, on his way from the valley of Bee r-
shel.a southwards, and just before (alining the Hel.ron and
Sue/ caravan mad. he came to a small level dry plain, which lie
calls Wady el-Kadeis. lie saw many tamarisks, and mentions
quicksand*, but no water. Here he passed the niirlit, and on
the following murning, \ meeeiling south westwards, in half-an
hour (while still in the wady) he fell in with an encampment of
Arabs, who assured him that there was a fountain in the neigh
bourhood called 'Ain eUJannfis. This is doubtless the 'Ain el-
Kadeis, or Kaddess, of Messrs. Williams and Rowlands, the mis-
take being due either to a misapprehension on the part of
Seetzen, or to some dialectic variation in the mode of pronounc-
ing the word. That the latter is the more piobable cause of the
dilfeivnre would seem likely from the circumstance that the
names of two neighbouring localities are similarly varied. The
Kudeirat and Kusaimeh of Dr. Robinson were pronounced by
Mr. Rowlands' guide Adeirat and As.-imeh. It is evident from
Seetxen's missing the fountain, and from other indications,
that (like Dr. Robinson) he struck the plain towards its western
extremity.

1 V. The peculiar configuration of Wady .Murreh --
shut in more or less on every side, with its inner inclo-
sure or "sanctuary." as it were (Wady d-Kadds>
towards the west, slightly separated 'perhaps by the
watershed; from th-- eastern and larger portion ex-
plains that connection between Kadesh and /in (far
more; intimate than that between Kadesh and i'arani
which caused the two names to appear in such fmment
juxtaposition.

V. Thus situated, at the very verge of the southern-
j most steppe of the Holy Land, the " cliff'," NU. xx. R-n,
' and fountain el-Kadeis form at once a central and con-
spicuous landmark, which could not fail to lie mentioned
in an enumeration of the principal features of the
southern border. And it is not a little remarkable as
illustrating the latest scriptural form of the name, that
this .p,,t is also known among the Arabs as Mai Kadeis.
"the \Vtitirx of Kadesh" (Williams*.

VI. The 'Aza/imat having been proved to be an
integral portion of Edom, el-Kadeis may with the
strictest propriety be described as being- " in the utter-
most of the border'' of that country.

VII. It is an average day's journey tVom .lebd 'Araif
en-KaUah on the south ( liobins.m), and from .lebel Mo-
derah on the east (Williams); while it is distant from two
to three days' march from the traditional Mount Hor.

VI [I. Jt is in the immediate neighbourhood of tin-
spot when? the piincipal roads from the south, south-
east, and south- wc'st converge: being distant, moreover,
according to the Arabs, from ten to eleven da\s' jour-
ney from Sinai (How-lands.'.

IX. It, is situated to the south of the S'aidiyeh table-
land or "Mountain of the Amorites/' which it adjoins
so closely, that the sheikh who accompanied Messrs.
Williams and Rowlands to a point on the \ cry edge of
the plateau, was able to indicate its site, " at the dis-
tance of some hours on the west, and in the mountain
barrier'' (Williams'.

It is to be regretted that this site, which has thus so
successfully sustained the searching and impartial ordeal
to which it has been subjected, has received so little
attention from recent travellers. The examination, how-
ever, which has here been attempted, leave s little PM .m
for doubt that the result of that thorough investigation
of the locality which is so much desiderated, will hut
make more apparent the rightful claims of 'Ain el-Ka-
deis to be regarded as the long sought for Kadesh of
Scripture. [i;. w.J

KAD MONITES [o/ the cast, orientals], a race of
the ancient inhabitants of Canaan, but mentioned only
once. Ge. xv. Hi; so that nothing certain is known re-
specting them. P>ochart. with whom Gesenius seems
inclined to concur, supposed them to be the same with
the [fivites, and called Kadmonites from their posses-
sions lying on the east side of Palestine.

K ARE' AH. father of Johanan; but otherwise en-
tirely unknown. ,Te. xl. s.

K ARK A' A. a place on the southern frontier of the
Holy Land, towards its western extremity, where it
dips considerably to the south, Jos. xv. :j. As a similar
curve (rendered 'turn'' in the Authorized Version^
takes place at the eastern end, according to the earlier
description of the south border, Xu. xxxiv. 3-.", it will be
convenient to consider both accounts, beginning with
the one last mentioned. "Your south quarter (says
Jehovah to Moses) shall extend from the wilderness of
Zin (now "Wady Murreh) along the coast (literally, ' on

KAKKAA

K ARK A A

tlic h:mds.' /.(. alongside; of F.dom (i.e. the 'Azazimat:
Ki-t KAI>!>H . and Your suutli border shall bcuin at the
extremity of the salt si -a eastward ^'.<.at the south-
eastern angle of tin.- I >ead Sea. at or near tin- nioutli of
Wady cs-Sah'eh. so as to include the western or marshv
section of tin- (dmri; and your border shall make a cir-
cuit (past the mouth of Wady el-Kuseih. I.e. Kabzed.
and uj) Wady Ha-'., i.e. Jb.-hmon liotb U-in-- c-itiis
of southern .Indali -thence ali'iiu' Wadv cbKhurari on
tbe soutb of the ascent of "A kraliliim (Nukb es-Sufali),
and sball pass over ithc Nukb <!- Khuran to /in iWa.lv
Munvhi: and the outgoings tbereof prohal.Iv 1'V a ]>ass
in the watershed dividin.; Wadvs Miinvhand Ka.l.i-
shall take place on th>- s< .iitb of Kadc-h- I'.arnca ("Aiu
d-Kadei-i. and it -ball LT" "lit (from Wady . 1 Kadcisl
to Ha/ar-. \ddar 'Ain !- K nd.-irat. also called Adeirat .
and pass over to 'Aznion; and the border -hail make a
'iivnit fV..iu 'A/.nioii tn til. \\inti-r-tiinvnt of K^vpt
\\ ady el-' Ari.-b'. and its outgoings shall exti nd to the
sea. A/iniPii ha- been satisfactorily idciititird with
the \\ a ly '! Kus'iim.-h of 1 )r. If.. bin-, .n. and tin- Wadv
Aseinidi of Mr. |;.>\\la.in!-. the n-uttural nin ivgularlv
int'TohaiiLring with tbe palatal Icnph, of \\bicb. indeed,
we liave an apposite example in tin fact that tbe Tar
u'liiii of .li.na! ban actually has K.-am for 'Azinon. I;
is interesting to note tin- exact agn . uielil of the Scrip-
tural .-tat. 'in. -lit that the south I >ordcr " passed over "
lleli. I from liaxar Addar oil the ea.-t to'A/nioli on
tbc west, \\ilb Dr. IfiihinsMii's language when close tu
Wady el-Kusaiineh : '' I>i i/mul tin ../.-'.,-,/ iiiii,i/<i/n, ;i(
some distance, is a laru'e fountain with s\\eet rnnninu'
water, nani.-d 'Ain t-1- Knd.

Let us now turn to tin- second d.-.-eripti'.n of the
-'nth border. J..s. xv. l-i, which, as reft rriiu' exclusively
to the tribe ..f.ludab whereas the foniier applied to
the Holy Land gelieralh I, ma\ lie expected to he niniv
precise in it> details. It is tn this effect: "And the lot
"f tin- tribe, of the cliil.lreii of Judah extended t.. the
border of Kdoin the 'Azazimat , the wilderness of /in
(Wady .Murivh southward, from the extivmitv of
'I'eman abe northern face nf the 'Azazimat. called
.lebcl Murivh . An<l their south bonier exteiuled from
tin- extremity of the .-alt sea, tV-m the hav that l",,k> tb
southward (i.i: tbe shallow exteiisiuu < if tin- Dead Sea,
south of the pcnin-iiLi : and it went mit fn in tin- ( di.'.r.
ii[> Wady el-.leil, as far as Wady Hash, and so west-
wards) to the south side of the ascent of 'Akrabbim
Xukhes-Sufahi. and passed <i\er (the .\ukbeM\bui-ari
to /in ( Wady Murivln. and ascended (that \\adv. \vbieb
gradually rises fn.m east to west until it readies the
watershed before-mentioned) on the south side of Ka-
desb-I'.ariiea i'Ain el-Kadeisl, and passed over He/ro]i
(apparently the name of the high ground \vbieb >buts
in Wady el-Kadcis mi the west, and so called from the
Ha/or or pastoral settlement next specified', and as-
cended to Addar (or Ha^ar-Addar, n<>\v 'Ain d-Kudei-
r.U or Adeirat . and made a circuit to the Karkaa: and
it passed over ithe intervening: billsi to ' A/nion. and
went out to the winter-torrent of Kgvpt \\'adv el-
'Arish); and the outgoings of the border extended to
tbe sea: this shall become your south border."

This comparison of the two principal accounts which
we possess of the southern frontier of Palestine, while
not without its interest of a , more general character,
will tbe better enable us to adjust what seems at first
sight a discrepancy. The curve described by tbe border
line appears, from the earlier statement, to have occurred

; between 'A/.mon and the 'Ari>h: while tbe later one
places it between Addar and 'Azmon. P.ut the diffi-
culty is capable of easy solution. The border, after
pa.-sing over from 'Ain el Kudeirat 1 1 lazar- Addar\
instead of proceeding directly to the Wady el-'Arish
(torrent of L'uypt>. along the Wady d-Kusainieh ('A/-
nion i. merely teiiclu d the eastern extivmitv of the last-
mentioned wa.iy the unexpected interruption of \\liat
might seem the natural course beiiiu- H-niticantlv indi-
cated by the ,/,//,/( reference t.i 'Azmon and turned
southwards to Karkaa. |-'rom tb:- place, \\hi.-hdonbt-
1. .-- marked the extreme ]ioint of tile curve thus de-
scribed, tbe bordt r >wept round north- westwards, a-ain
striking the Ku>aim. h. probalily at a sj.ot still called
d-Kutsaby iwbidi, like tl,,. name of the \\adv itself,
ha- an obvious atfinity to '/v/moin. \\beiicc it was
merged in the 'Ari>h to its oiit-oinu- at the sea.

lla\ in-- seen the extent of tin easti rn circuit, we are
In a better po-itioii to determine that i f whieb Karkaa
was the limit. That it was at lea-t e.pial to the former,
is a iva-on;tl,]e infer, nee fiom the fact that tbe same
word i- used to describe both: that it was more con-
fid, rable, is rendered extremely probable by the phvsi-
'al |icculiaritv of the country hereabouts. A little

bey I 'Ain d Kudeirat, the frontier-line of the 'AzTi-

/.:mat ceases to pui>ue a westerly course, and bends
abruptly to the .-..nth. maintainin-- this direction as far
as .Idie] 'Araif eii-Nakah. wliere it turns as -ud.leidv
due east. lletween it> west, rn lace and the Wadv d-
Ari-h ithe ]a-t landmaikof the bnrder i- a >tripof
country, \\bidi. from it- pa tm-.d and agricultural eapa-
liilities, has much more in common with the habitable
di-triets to the north than with the descit immediatdv
adjacent im tin- south. It forms, in fact, a pm t i..n ,,f the
ancient ( ierar. as the exi>ting name of one of its \\advs
(d-.Terfir) sultiei. ntly proves, ami can be dearlv con-
in ctcd \\ itli tin im i\ em.-nt- b, ,th of Abraham and Isaac,
while there are reasons for believing that it contains at
lea-t .me of the uttermost cities of .hidab toward the
coast of Kdoni southward." Jos. xv. 21, 30 (net T"I.AHK
'I'be site in question i- in Wady el- Lussan, \\hich is
bounded on the south by a "line of bil!>." on arriving
at which Dr. L'obin-on writes: " We bad now left the
country of the llaiu.it. and enteivd that of the southern
Tiyahah. I/rre. tun, (mix tin rcijinn nnkfirt of thi Till"

( liili. lies, i L'7!i '

\\ e ha\e nnw only to consider the probable situation
it Karkaa: and in this \\ , are a--i>ted not onlv bv tin-
fa, t alnady ascertained, that tin- bills south of Wady
el-Lus.-an form a natural boiindars'. but bv the etymo-
logy of the word itsdf: for Karkaa, is preceded in tbe
Hebrew by the article, which shows that it was origi-
nally an appellative. It has but two meanings in Scrip-
ture, being applied to tin- floor of a building, Nu. v. 17;
l Ki. vi. r,,ii:,:;n : \\\ 7, and to the bottom of tbe sea, Am. ix.ri.
Ori-inallv. doubtless, a compound word, its constituent

1 St-ct/cn. mi ill,- nth.-r 1,,-iml, inakr- tlm Till t'Xtrnil to about
tin- lalituilr of Waily i-l 'Ain. liotli accounts art- ]irol,al.ly trur,
ins,, far as, s-irli indicates a marked territorial div ision Sec-txen's,
l-rliaiis. r.'i'ivs.'iitiii'.; tin- original li.nindary of Canaan, which
s.vms to have followed a direct ooui-s,- from 'Aij, el Kudeirat
ailing the Ku.-aimeh to the 'A nsh, while Hol.in.-.m's a|']ieai-s to
reco-ni/e the circuit of the I-raelitish }),, r .ler now under con-
sideration. It is not unlikely that this ivinai-kal.lt! deviation
from tin; original 1 oiindary line was for the expnss purpose of
including somt! of the most interestinf,' scenes of patriarchal his-
tory. There is certainly something significant in the closing
words of the sacred writer, " This shall /(;,,< your south bor-
der," Jos. XV. I.

128

KAKKAA KKPAR

parts app< ar to. be represented b\ the two Arabic terms S, ir itself. A more probable r< present at ive of Mount
. "an o\cn tl>or." and '. : '.'." a plain." The lath r Halak would seem to be th.o me.di rn Jehel Yelek.
word remarkably illustrates the full siguitieanee of ^l A The words are identical, except that ' lias been
Karkaa a le\ el expan-c. forming I he bed or rooept aelo changed into ..': a circumstance of no nno"inmc.n
of a laru'-' body of w at. r beine spcoitieallv applied to occurrence in Arabic forms of IK brew proper names.
the immense basin-like plains which drain th.o waters Tims. Ha/>r is now called Yasur. and Ihikkok ro-
of the Siuaitic peninsula westwards, eastwards, and appears as ^i akuk. (-. Tho meaning of Halak
northwards, by moans of the ercat Wad\s Keir;in. ,le- ."smooth" is exactly dcscri}>tivc of th.e ma.-s of chalk
r.ifoh. and 'Arish.- It i^ with the last of those that of whiehJcKl Yelek eoiis-Nts and which explains tho
we aro more immediately concerned. Tho \Vady t '- designation by which it is now known; i/ ( /,/, signifying
' Vrish does nol i mine of Karkaa i ; k< "white." ^v 1 JcKl Yelek may be literally said to
the Jcr.ifoh. at its confluence with th.e 'Adhhoh. wlu-n "go up to Seir." inasmuch as its l,.n u - and lofty ridge
it becomes "a land of torrents of waters:" .><< JoTB.vnO i- the most conspicuous object to the traveller wh.o pro-
nntil it approaches the latitr.de of Jchel 'Ar.iif en- coeds southwards from the low level of the Shephelah
N.ikah. which Pr 1 ,' liinson describes as " terminating to the central do-i n i formerly known as Seir or I'aran*.
u desert on this part, and forming the outwork which, as recent nuasurimoiits have demonstrated,
or bastion of a more mountainous tract beyond" t r> b gradually increases in ele\ation until it or.lminates in
Uos i :: . There th.e 'Arish root ives. on the east, tl ins of Sinai ['-"]
waters of Wady el- Kuiviyeh. with its numerous tribn KARKOR. a place on the ia~: of the Jordan.
s. one of which, the Khurai/.eh. is notice! as "the whither the Midianitish kings. Xebah and Xalmunna.
.loop bid of :i tonvnt." and another, tho Maycin ( , r tied with the shattiivd n mains of their forces, afur
two waters"! is thus albuu d to : " 1 ts bed bears evi- their signal diseomntun In Gideon; and where, in the
dout traces of a ." r : ' ' :il I tl niiiKt of their fancied seor.rity. they were a^ain at-
lieyond is much cut up by its torrents. Thi Ivd taeked. defeated, and taken pris. m r-. ,'.. . ... b .

of the wadv and the adjacent part of th.e plain are th.o probable direction of the (light and pursr.it. and th.e

covered with stones, some iiuite lar^e. apparently proximate position of Karkor. ,<<i Joe,iiKH.\H. Tow-hat

brought down by tho waters from the mountaii s" : - there sai i i; may be added, that as th<

Uos i ;:-:--:riV On the west, the stream of the 'Ar to no less than throe places

swollen by that of tho Hasana. "a _. ' . with living; in different parts of tho plain of tlu llauran. ur.rikl ; i ',

u\itir" \v .'..- "'. It is of the lattorwadyor it .--. i\ . signifies an "oven floor." and as

immediate neighbourhood that Pr. Wilson thus writes: the cognate -\vord Karkor. in its Aral

"The par; of the desert where wo were, they .the "soft and level ..-. ind " i nil . I infer-

Tiyahah Arabs* denominated the A.;"it (I- Inirtik. or emv WiniUl seem to bo. that by Karkor we are to under-

/'' r .'/(i /' ',<.' It consisted of an <.</ - - stand not so much any giv< f tho

slightly depressed, with the sands torn up in some plaees rich plain which i< iu \\ call. ; i n-Nukrah. and w

t,i the depth of six or seven feet by the i 1 - ' uuls is ; he most valuable district of the Hauran ^-b. Res.

\- - - i There is an evident atliuity Ivtween

It i- probable, thru, that Karkaa was situated al tlu - an i A ' '' ' " : ~

point whore tho northern Kaa or " Plain of t'ue Pools " nit'yii\g "to dig." and thus expressing that dipth of

tirst comes in contact with this outlying district of the j soil and eonsequi nt fertility which . nstitute the latur

llolv Land: and whether we take Kuroivih in its ordi- | the cranary of Syria.

nary meaning as the Arabic for "a ruin." or as ropro- KEDAR . / = son ot

senting the Hebrew Kirjah. "a fortitied city" the Ishmael: placed second in order among the sons of

wadv of that name may well be regarded as a romin- Ishmael. prob.-.l ,\ Iveause h.e was ti'.e sec< nd - .u age.

isceiici r.ier stronghold. .. sx> \s A powerful Aral : ; from him.

Its exact position may. then fore, be looked for in to which reference is fri qv.i ut'y made in Seriptnre. Is

some part of the Wady ei Kuivivoh. perhaps at its eon x \i . . \: . . : : A -. r.o \x^-:-.. -:I.AO It would seem from

tluence with the May. in. some of the passages as if Kedar was taken in a kind

This view of the extension of Israohtish territory so of representative ser.se : the ro.. st p. .werfnl of th.e

far beyond tlu general lino of tho south border, is eor- Arabian tribes known to the covenant-people being

roborated by two passages. Jos xi ir-.xii :. which specify, put for tho-c tribes generally, mueli a- Kphraim was

as the southern extivme of Talestine. "the Mount Halak employed in relation to the tin tribes ot Israil: so

that goeth up to Soir." Keil ar.d otlu -rs have idontitii d that by th.e princes or the people of Kedar may be

mountain" with the low lino of dirt's separating understood the sons of the desert, who inhabiud the

the Ghor from the 'Arabah; but besid.es King otherwise north-eastern di-tricts of Arabia. In IV. c\x. o.

ineligible, those aro far too insieniticant to Iv entitlevi "Woe is me that 1 -- ; urn in Mesech. that 1 dwell in

to such a designation. Tho suggestion . ; Kurt/, that the tents of Kedar." two tl ish and barbarous

it is the northern face of the ' A.-aVinu; ^shown. under people those of Mesech to the north-west, and of

KuM'sit. to bo a part of Mount Seir'. is open to the Kedar to the north-east, appear to be named as the

serious objection that a mountain, said to Iv o;i the n presenuti\ os -enerally of savage populations and

way which ascends to Seir. is thus confounded with desert wilds. The reference made in some of the pas-

^nofwlvdoem^ *^ ^ K^r* multitudes of flocks, their pastoral

- wo.ll knoun tV, ; u tho v'-osout habits and rooky haunts, leave it beyond a doubt that

rive. .-..,. tho their manners wore of the true Ishmaelite type: and it

' a< is hence impossible to fix definitely their local bonn-

p.^^^^-.lu'^ufr^u^l 4^ArS.Sw; llrtrios - for thoso WOuUl 11; > t rall >- vary from time to

:6<>. -J-.M: t'ov tl-.othiiM. K.' . K .< i LVS. iVt. time. Some lati r w ritei-s speak ot them as being not

KKDKMOTI1 KKI1.AH

far from Babylon (so Suidas, andTheodoret on Ts. cxx.^; l>ut liars." ver. 7; ;nnl in the large force employed lioth bv

such was certainly not their original ten-it' >ry. aii'l the Philistines, ver. 3, and by Saul, ver. s, in its attempted

ci'tilil only have become theirs after the province of reduction.

P>ahyloii had sunk int.* a state of comparative neglect -. ^e have seen that it is ennmcrated ainoni;- the
Mid desulation. Th.: blackness of their tents is re- : cities of the low-lying plain or Shephelah. This is

ferred to by way of similitude in (.'a. i. f>, not probably further intimated in its U-inu' so acce.-sihle to the

because their tents \\ere usually darker than tli'-se of Hhili-tine-. \\b.o inhabited the same plain, i s\ \xiii i.

other inhabitants of the dt.-x.-rt ifor they are much of in the in>-;dental mention of " the threshing tl.iors."

that a-pect generally, but with allusion to the import \\ hich t xcited the cupiditv of these formidable nei-Ji-

of the name: as much as, the flits of th">e \vho-e Very bours. ver. 1 so suggestive of the Jud.eau lowland, still

name is associated with wliat is dii characteri/.ed by travellers a-- one vast corntield: and

KEDEMOTH a town in Ha-han. in the fivefold application, in this single chapter, of

which after the coniiiiest "f I the expression " ' ." to the iiuivenients of David.

of Keubt-n. and became one f :''. I. < vitical eitie- in Abiathar. and Saul. ver. 4, ti, s n.

Reuben. J. s. .::.!-: \\ .its pr> ci-e situation is nn- 3. That it was situated near the border which >cpa-

known: but we learn ' : from MOX -. He ::.:, rates the inuuntains from the plain, may be inferred from

that tlu-re was a desi-i ith it: and also its collocation in the lists of Joshua with Nezib IVit-

that from ili, nee .M x-nt messci : to Sihon, \u>ib>, Achzib ('Ain Kussabeh'. 1 and Mareshah inear

of lie-hbon. carryiiiLT p ni posals tif peace. Hut IM I'.eit-.l il>rin> : from it> bein-- scarcely reckoned a eit\

further m.-ntion is made of it in -acred history, of dudah in the time of Saul, i Sa xxiii "; and from the

KEl>ESii |. 1. A town in the tribe of mixed character of its ptijnilation. partlv Hebrew.

Tudah. J - v. Jo, which is not mentioned after the jieriod partly heathen, the- latter element bein-- appaivntlv

"f the coii'iui st. indicated by the term " Htni/itc*," \\hi.-h i- applied to

2. Kn>!-n. A town in the tribe of Xaphtali. .T.--. tho-e v,ho were ready to deliver up I>avid to Said.

inetimes called Kedesh- Xaphtali, to ver n, 1J, iieb , and by whieh they are distinguished from

distinguish it from other- 1 same name. Ju " the inhabitants of Keilah." ver. :., in general. -

It was a l.e\ itical cin . also :i city of refu-e: and I. li i- reas.niahle to sujipose that, as a strontrliold of

was celebrated as the birth- place of l!arak. llobinsoii the plain. Keilah must liave been situated on one of

found it under the name of 1\. des, -tandin_- on a hill\ the hill- whieh. >->i'eciallv towards the ea.-t of the slu-

riil-v about tt-ikty I Ionian iniK - from 'l'\ r.-. and not tar phelah. break the uniformitv of it- otherwise le\el ex-

from 1'aneas, -, t/,,,,i i pause. This serves to explain the terms of the narrative,

i-ittxj 'ii,'! /</ '.-/ i lie* It i- more fulh de- ~ , s, from which it \\ould app< ar that, bv its

. llobinson in liis sujipleiiit-ntal volume. M.- isolated iiositi.ai, Keilah was capable of beinu' ea>ilv

thi re -av.-: "The \ illau r e -land- upon the hijie-t part of blu-kadi-d.

the rid-e. a sort of Tell. l-!a-t of thi- there i- an "tt-.-t in .".. ]',ut \\hat was before little more than a pivsump-

the ri.L'e. and then another 1 I'ell. . . . .Tin site timi, k'conies a moral certainty \\li.-n we take into

"f Kid.-- i- a splendid one. well \\at-nd and sur- consideration tin- only ivmainin- passage in whieh

ri'Ulnkd by fertile plains. Hut th. re si cmed to be a Keilah is mentioned. Amoiiu' those \\lio re-ponded to

general impression aiiii.n^ the people of the re-ion Nehciuiali's ajipeal, l>y iindertakiiiLT to rebuild a portion

that the water of tli.- fountains i- unwhoh-soiiif. In of the wall of .b-rii-alem. were !la>habiah and Ha\ai.

tho village we saw i-ne c.r two prostrate columns: hut each of whom is doiu'nated " the ruler of the half i>arl

it seems to contain no other traces of antiquity . 'I'll.- ,,f Keilah." Ne. iii ir.is Tl,.- radical meaiiiu- of the

remain- of antiquity lie mainly on the ; lain b.-lo\v th-- \v..rd / /. /-. her.- erroiu-ou-lv rendered "part," i> "to bo

village, in the vicinity of the northern fountain" ;, round." \\uh esjucial refeix-nce to the Female biva>t:
:',<',: . Am-iiL,' tin -e i-i main- were several -arcopi.
and the wall- of t\\o "Tt-atlv laru.-r >tnicturcs.

7-, apparently the -am.- with what is written Ki.-hioll same as th. < . the adilitiou or on

or Ki.-hon in Jo-, xix. l2o; \xi. "JS. The -he ha.- not " f '''." '" iti;l1 " '"'"'- " f " 1 --'- 11 " occurrence in Il.-l.iew and

been idelltitiei'l ill modern times. "'' '

- I-..-htenio;i Vchshaph (l\.-..t'. Ihe ( ho/,-1 a ..t 1 ( h.

KEUKOX. ."'., KlDRiiN. j v . L-J may, with e u u-il certainty. U- i.U-ntitie.l with A. -hzil., IV. mi

KEILAH [f,,rf,;.<*l a city in the Shephelah <>r their common connection with Shelah, the son of .Tudah; and

maritime plain of Judah. J.'s. xv. it Although the tllis - 'ts latest Seriptural form, A]. proximates very closely to the

^ i - , . , ]ii".l,Tn Kii>-al.fh or Ke-al.a a foiiinain ith ruins, south-east.

Scriptural notices of tins place are not numerous, they of T ell el Ila-y (/J /, /;,, ii. ::,l : i:., > V.l.l.l. !*>,).

are sufficient, not only t" prove it.- importance as a = Thi* inter\.retati..n of /?...'?; (which the writer has I..iig1x-en

border stronghold, but also to illustrate that minute disix.se.1 to adopt) is abh argued l.y Mr. Grove in Smith's /<W.

yet unforced harmony between the several statements, /; '''- ' ' "'' A " "''S-'ei.i.ms conjecture of the same writen II.. ii.'..)

*]],,], *i,T>'l ' 11 n i that the thirty-first Tsilm, judging from its general tenor, and

which places the l.ible so immeasurably above all other esl>ecially ,-,, ver ,, 21 , r ,. f( ,, , this ( . ns ; s in , )av - r ; \^

'"'^ > - receives in. slight eoutirmation from thealxive liypothesis, taken

1. Its natural adaptation to purposes of defence. i" connection nh ver. .'. " 1 have hat. -d them that ,:<i;;i l,,ii, : i

alreaily indicated by its etyniolo-y. is also implied '""'' '''". This expression^ is strictly npplicable to the various

in its juxtaposition with Ashan. Jiphtah. Xe/ib. and xxviTi'l v'x'n 11 ^.' 1 '/!' xh^" '"'xv! ^r^IoirV H 's- n")' ^^ '>'.

Mareshah. J..^. xv. 42-41, which have a similar meaning Ac. xiv i:, : I!,, i. 2:., i-c.), among which is specified the service

(.tee JlPHTAin: in its bi-iinr Coveted bv the Philistines of B-uil (2 Ki. xvii. 15, Irt). It is very pivl.al.le. tlierefore. that

as one ..f the keys by which access was obtained to the " avili excitol the hostility of the IJaal-worshippers of Keilah

" hill-country" of Jndali. i Sa. xxiii i- 6; in the descrip- pfJ^tTo^Kh'A J,,!t

tion given of it as "a city pT) that hath gates and | their benefactor dcis not attach to the population at large^"

K HI I .Alt

KEMT'

whence is obtained tin- signification, "a, rounded sum-
mit," " a mound." "a knoll." The same usage is seen
in the Greek ,ua<rros, and the French iiiumclon. r l his
word is applied to four other places besides Keilah, viz.
Jerusalem. Ne. lii. :>, i-j, liethxiii 1 , ver. 1C,, Beth-haccen m.
iv r. H, and Mi/pah, vor. l'i; with this difference, that in
tile ease of the two former (as in that of Keilah:. the
word half" is prefixed. Kach //</</. or half-/" /( /-' i-
repivsented as having its .*<() or military governor.
According to this view, Jerusalem, 'Bethzur, and Keilah
must have consisted of a double, and IJeth-haccerem and
Mizpahof a single, rounded hill, capable of being strongly
fortified, each hill being under a separate military com-
mand. It is scarcely necessary to say how exactly tlii.s
describes the topography of .Jerusalem, with its two
swelling hills, divided by the valley of Tyropieoii: that
to the west constituting the ancient city of -Jebus, and
that to tin/ east being equally familial- as the .Moriahof
Abraham and Solomon; while each had its stronghold on
the sites represented at a later period by the forts Hip-
picus and Antonia. The minute accuracy of the sacred
writer is similarly evinced by the local peculiarities of
Bethzur, which, as Dr. Robinson shows, included not
only the' hill and ruined tower still called licit-Si'ir.
but also the neighbouring fountain edh-Dhirweh, " with
ruins around as of a former fortress'' (nib. lies. i. :ii:i, :i20 ;

r.ib. C.ib. xliii. Son, ami note; Later Bib Ues. p. 270, 277). The

identification of Beth-haccerem with the city and fort-
ress Herodium (now known as "the Frank .Mountain,"'
south-east of Bethlehem >, hitherto only a probable con-
jecture, from its being connected with Tekoa both by
Jeremiah and Jerome, would seem to be satisfactorily
determined by Neliemiah's application to it of the word
}>(.'!fk. Twice does Josephus s|ieak of the site of Hero-
diuni as a "mound,, shaped like a woman's breast
(Ant. xv. (i, i; is. J. i. 21, in). See also the article ^.Ii/i'AH
for additional evidence of the strict propriety with which
the word is employed. We may confidently infer, there-
fore, that the same accuracy marks its use- in connection
with Keilah, which must have been situated on two
mounds or knolls, constituting a double fortress oi great
military importance.

The several criteria thus furnished by Scripture,
when applied to the modern map of the Holy Land,
seem to point conclusively to el-KhuweilifeJi as occupy-
ing the site of ancient Keilah :

(I.) The name itself, though considerably disguised,
has assumed its present form in accordance with the
recognized laws of eastern speech. 1

(2.) Its discoverer. Dr. Robinson, approaching it
from the north-east by the Wady el-Keis," which he
"followed dmcn, descending //radically,'" describes it as
being situated '' /// t/ic /:/< nf th< <irtt plain," and as
having always been "a watering-place of importance"
an the nxnl bctn-n ,i (jaza and Jfil/roit, the well being
similar to the smaller one at P>ir es-Seb'a. "There
was said to have been formerly a tower or castle, . . .

but the fortress is now level with the ground, and only
a few loose stones and foundations mark its former
existence" (H. II. i. '.',"<; iii. .">, M. On his first visit to the
neighbourhood 'April l:'o, he refers with admiration to

the "maiiv fields of wheat looking beautifully

in their vesture of bright given" (i>. 11. i. ."I'm. In a
subsequent journey (June (i). he again notices "the
hr>ad valleys covered with a rich crop of wheat:" but
this time "the fields were full of reapers and gleaners
in the midst of the harvest, witli asses and camels re-
eei vinu" their loads of sheaves, and feeding unmuzzled and
undisturbed upon the ripe grain." A little distance off',
" were many threat! iir/-r!oon thickly covered with grain,
and a lar_'e party were threshing out the wheat which
they had reaped in the valleys around" (15. R. in. 0, !i).
A mile or two further north were "several threshing-
floors," which \\ere carefully guarded during the night
is. i;. ii. loo, 10:;).

(3.) Dr. Robinson obtained only a distant view of
el-Khmveilifeh from el-Burj. " situated very near the
border of the hilly region towards the \\esteru plain:
which latter the says, we could here overlook to a great
distance" (M. II. iii. s). Fortunately we have the addi-
tional testimoiiv of Ij'-ut. Van de Yelde. who visited
it on his way from Bir es-Scb'a to Beit-Jibrin; and to
his closer inspection we are, indebted for the crowning
proof of its identity with Keilah. He thus writes:-
Fully an hour and a quarter beyond the Tell of el-
Lechieh (Lukiyeh) we; passed another not less consider-
able ancient stronghold on a hill, standing like Lechii-h
mi the west side of the way, and called llhora. while,
hardly twenty minutes further, tiro //inn xm-li 7\ //x ittonil
i'/n.~-i in mi-It nl/ttr, a valley runniny between il-'n\ towards
the west, Tin two !<i.<t Tells seem t<> Ian but ont name,
that of Chewelfeh, in wh'ch 1 recognized the Khuwei-
lifeh of liobinson. Between llhora and Chewelfeh
there is to be seen a lai'u'e ancient well, half fallen in.
but the huge building stones of which appeared to be-
long to a very earlv period of Israelitish history. . . .
Wo struck into the valley of Chewelfeh, and found
there, a few hundred yards from the entrance, a water-
tank, quadrangular in form, and of an ancient styh of

construction I am still in the dark as to the

places represented by llhora and Chewelfeh." After
indulging in some speculations concerning the former
of these sites, he asks, " But what dvtdi/e ffrn/i;///(i/i/
was it. whose ruin - covered knoll* are now called
( 'hewMfeh '' (ii. 111-11:0.

The very terms in which this traveller thus expresses
his perplexitv furnish the best answer to his inquiry:
for they supply the most exact definition it is pos.-ible to
give both of the name Keilah itself, and of the signifi-
cant word pi-lcJc (with its two halves) by which it is
designated/ 1 [K. w.]

KEM'UEL [roi>nrff/<(t;<< of (,'</]. 1. The third
son of Xahor, Abraham's brother, lie. xxii. L'i. Nothing
further is recorded of him than that he was the father

1 The initial l-o t ,l, has naturally passed into tin: . \nibie equi- Jerome; the valley itself is (according to I>r. Robinson) "the
valent fur the guttural chetJi ; the >n]iedlunus / illustrates tlie ; least steep and rugged, and therefore the most feasible, of all the
tencleiiev t lengthen ]ii-(i])cr names, net infre<inent in the : pas-es" he had travelled between the plain and the mountains
nomenclature o!' inodi-rii 1','tlestine (*>. .IOKTIIKKI.^: and tlie n't,i i (/lih. !( x. iii. ,">); and the name is very similar, the chief differ-
ence lieiu;^ tlie not unusual niCTfihis of the first syllable, when
it contains tlie letter /. in tlie Arabic article, as Klealeh (now
el 'AD, T.ebaoth (el Beyndh), A-C.

:! Keilah is referred to by Kusebius and Jerome, the former
statinu' it to be 17, the latter 8 Roman miles from Kleutheropolis
(Beit-Jibrin), in the direction of Hebron. As one of these
specifications must be wrong. Mr. Grove adopts the shorter

jmetinies the case when it is a mcdi-il letter
and repl iced by the Arabic ;/(/, as in .b.kneam mow Kaimon).
Maarath (Morakl, Zoar (Zmveirali), Seir (Suweirah), Arc.

'-' In this valley, or near its mouth (perhaps at el 15urj), it is
more than probable that the true site of Lachish \\ ill eventually
be found. Tlie position agrees with all the r- f|uirements of
Scripture, as well as with the specifications of Lusebius and

KKNAZ

KKXJTI->

of six sons: among whom, and the last-named, is , that as the Eniim and their Moahitish successors are

Bethucl. the father of Lahaii. Kemuel. therefore, designated on the Egyptian monuments Sh'tin or

was the nephew of Abraham, and the grandfather of Shetta (Usbnrn and Corbaux), and by Balaam, Nu.

Kebekah. 2. A prince of the tribe of Ephraim, chosen xxiv. 17, 'children (i.e. worshippers) of Sheth " ithe

t> represent the tribe in respect to the division of the Snth or Typhoii of the Kgyptian pantheoiO. and as the

inheritance of Canaan, N<i. \\.\iv. ;M. 3. -V Kevitc in transjordanic Kephaim signali/.ed their devotion to
the time of David, i (h. xxvii. 17. ; the worship of "two-horned Astarte," by giving her

KENAZ [lti>iif'ni>i\. 1. A son of Kliphax. and name to one of their principal cities ( Ashtaroth- Kar-

duscendant of Ksan, \\lio became the h"ad of a distinct naim. Ue. xiv. .'.), others of the aborigines would derive at

Kdomite family, and himself bore the title of duke, least one of their appellations from the goddess .Kain.

Ge. xxxvi. 11, i;., . 2. A younger brother of Caleb, and whose votaries the\ were.

father of the Othniel who married CaK b's daughter. The idolatrous character thus impressed oil the Ken-

.los. xv. 17; .in. i. i:;. '1 he family bore the name of Keiie- ites explains their juxtaposition (Ge xv. i-- "\'\ with other

/.ite; but this \\-as probably deri\ ed from some remote hostile nations destined to u'ive |,lace to the ('he-en

ancestor, as it is applied also to Caleb, Nu. xx.xii r_ ; .1. - 1'eople, as well as the terms in which they an denounced

xiv. o. 3. A grandson of Caleb. [ C'h i\ !.">. by I'.alaam. Nu xxiv. L'!, -JL'. Scanning with prophetic eve

KEN ITES. an aboriginal tribe, mentioned first in tin ir .-eeinin^lv impregnable fastness, he foresees its

an enumeration of races inhabiting the country between utter insufficiency to ward ell' from their tntelar\

the Nile and the Euphrates, the whole of \\iiieh \\a- divinity ignominious destruction, and from themselves

promised to the seed ot Abraham by a solemn covenant, eventual captivity. " And he looked on the Keiiites.

S ime writers have endeavoured to elude an and took up his parab!,-. and said.

imaginary difficulty by reLTarding this early re feivnci ' Strop" is thv dwell in"-i.l-ice

such wide limits not supposed to be reali/.ed until the And th. .11 puttest lli.v nest iii a rock (Sola 1 ;

day- of David and Solomon) as merely rhetorical. ll Nevcrthelc l,o wasted,

appears, however, to have been forgotten that the patri- ^-hur sha learn thee awa> captiv, "

arcli was childless when thi- promise was made, and 'Hie strildng resemblance of the imagery here employed

that under the e\pre--i..n "thy seed," Were eompiv to that \\hidi is distinctively aj)]ilied by J.-remiah. cli.

bended (in thi- instance at least! the several liin ir,, and Obadiah, ver. 3, 1, to the Kdoinites and their

descent through l.-hmael. Keturah, K.-au. and Jacob, rock-hewn capital, I 'etra, coupled with the circumstance

which diverged from him as their common ancestor, that the Keni/./.ites, or Keliezites (for the Hebrew letters

The absein f the Keiiites, a- u. !1 a- some others in are the saillcb \\ith \\li..m they are associated, (ie. xv. I.',

this li-t. from tli" ethnographical tables of (Jen. x.. ha\e many Jmint.- in common with the lloritis and
would seem to imply that the\ were not strictly tribal f'.domit. -.-.' make it highly probable that the word
names. Imt -implv appellatives; and thi- inference i- Keiiite was the religious designation, as Horite de-
corroborated by the fact that the Keiiites never appear scribed the troo-lodv. b- habits of the d. -so ndants of Seir
in Scripture as occupying an independent position, but the 1 1 i\ ite;- and thus the absence of the Ilivites for
are alway.- mentioned in connection \\ith some, other Uorites) from the first enumeration of the doomed races
nation, th" M idianit"-. the Amalehites, the Israelites, of Palestine, Gc xv. ls-il, is satisfactorily explained, if
\c. This r. ady tendency to fuse with other nation- we regard them as being represented by the Keiiites
alities is at onci- accounted for, ii ia- has been in^vni- and Keni/zitcs of that list, the latter probably occupying
ously conjectured) tin- \\ord K.-uit" is a religious rather southern Idumaa, iV.c.. while the Kenite- h. M I'etra.
than a u'entilie term, and denote- a worshipper of the extending northwards to the mountains of J nda-a. ;: and
goddess Kain or Ken, one of the many forms under westwards throujrhout the Sinaitic peninsula, which
which th" A-hton th "t' sacred, and th" Astarte of la-t tliev snb-ei|Uentlv shared with their kinsmen of
secular hi-tory was formerly adored ("The lepliaim. Amalek (who was half Kdomite. half Horite, Ge. xxxvi.
and their connection with Egyptian history," Jour. Sac u. __). and. still Liter, with an oil'- hoot of Midian. 1 That
I. it. Oct. i-.M In Jan. iv,:, . Nor is it univa-onai ,]. to infer this is no arbitrary assignment of lerrit..r\- is e\ideiit.

estimate of Jerome, purth liecause the whole distance between urged, that it is supported by the Samaiitan text, and by all

Hebron and Heit Jibrin is little more than l.i Roman miles, and the versions; that lli\itcainl Horite an- nut nece.-.-arily cuie

partly because a ruined site, named Kila, occurs about half wa\ tradi.-tury (the latter being only an a]. p. -Hal i\ei ; that the

between tin-si: two places (Smith's /','/. />,/. ii. '.ij. One seri.ni.- Ilivites were not conlined to Lebanon (Ce. z-xxiv. -J; Jus. ix. 7;

and hid. -e 1 fatal objei-.tion to this hypothesis is, that it ioeat--s xi. I'.i); and that, to this day a tribe of liedaw in called II, 'unit

acit.N oftheSliephelah in tin.- mountains of Judah (.- .1 1 1'llT \ ll ); (the exact Arabic equivalent, for II', i-il,) are t'ouii. I in | o-srssion

whereas, if we. accept the statement of Eusebius, and understand of the des.-it we.si of the 'Arabah, betwi-eii 'Akabah and the

him to allude, not to the r..ad fr-m Kk-ut hero] ol : s t.. Hebron. 'Azaziniat Miuivkh. Syr. p. -1 I''.. I-". .MlT-aKi, .Oi'.u, .V.i-1; Hi',. Jt'.<.
but t.. the on.- which runs in a southerly direction from the i. -U-. -''', -T-l; iii. a pp. -11). A Hivite alliance on the part of

former city, el Khuweilif.-h will be found to be at the rei,uiivd Ksaii was t'liu- as nat ural as an l.-hmaelite one (for both tribes

distance of 17 It. .man mil.-, being, inoreow-r, on " the principal ! would cries his path in his hunting expeditions), or a Hittite

road from IJeit-Jibrin to the places in the south " ( CI'/M/C I'l/-/-, one (coin].. Go. xxiii.; xxvii. I''.; xxviii. 10, lor j, roofs that the

. . I es e ao eo eee.

1 See this connect!. .n ably traced by Lord Arthur Ilervey, in j 3 Not. to mention Hivite and Herite ve.-tifft.-s as far nortli as

Smith's /)(./. Hil>. i. iM-J; ii. lo. r ||ie Kdomite "dukedom" of ; Cibc.ni and I!eth-horon, n. trace of Kenite occupation or worship

Kenaz. which is expressly stated to be a l,rnln,-inl rather than in this direction is seeininuly discoverable in Cuin, or rather

a personal designation (Ce. xxxvi. 4u-42). received its name, /(f(A--A'f(i')i (Yulff. Accain), a city in the " Hill country" (Jos. xv.

doubtless, from the fact, that it comprised the district of the f,7), apparently the same as the modern Yi'k-'m, near Hebron

Kenexite aborigines. Uiib. /! -. ii. I 1 ." 1 : iii. a pp. ;"i). On this apsuuiption, the niicienl

'-' That the llorite

inference from the present text of (',
ver. -Jii, -J-l, _'."., nor is there any '.'round for the opinion

times expressed, that "Hivite'' in ver. 'J is an error of transcrip
lion for " llorite." In favour of the actual reading, it may bi

, ,

a Mohammedan saint, which is t.he chief characteristic uf Vukin.

ace, the Kadmonites or "children of the
Kast," were doubtless the C.'ushite and Joktanite dweller.- in the

KKMTES

1 I

KKXLTKK

1,1.) From the limits actually implied by the uncivil
writers. It is natural to suppose that as the Keuites
are mentioned first in an enumeration of tribes inhabit-
ing tlie region which stretches ''from the river of Egypt
to the great river, the river Kuphrates," the}' must have
occupied tlie district nearest to Egypt. The latter
country, then, hounded them on the west, and their
astern limit, as we have .seen, is as clearly defined to
be the mountains of Seir or Edoin. ('2.) These infer-
ences from the Scriptural narrative are confirmed by
existing traces of the name in the modern map of tlie
peninsula. The well-known Valley of the Inscriptions
(Wady Mukatteh) is approached from the north-west
by a narrow defile called Wady Kcnna or K'malt, where
there is a " very deep cavern in the rock" (itnrckh. p. oi'i;
Wilson, Lands of the liible, i. ISiK About fifteen miles east

of this is a "wide plain" named Wady /\in< ! , well
watered, ami "furnishing abundant pasturage" (Bib.

Res. i. 121, 12:'; compare Burekh. p. I'-S). Oil the opposite side
of the peninsula, a little south-west of Dahab, is Wady
/\\it>i/i/ or Kiiini/, at a short distance from a pool of
excellent water, "which is never known to dry up, and
which acquires still greater value from being in the
vicinity of a spacious cavern" (Burckh. p. 525, 520). It is
scarcely necessary to say how suggestive are these
excavations near water and pasturage of the presence
of the Horites, with whom we have seen reason to
identify the Kenites of Genesis and Numbers.

The.-e are all the notices we possess of the great body
of the Kenites. The doom pronounced by Balaam was
doubtless accomplished, 1 and they passed away from the
page of History. But the name survived in a single
family, which, by virtue of its connection with the for-
tunes of Israel, escaped the general wreck. In this it
bears a striking analogy to that of Caleb. Both were
sprung from aboriginal tribes of Arabia IVtnea, Jethro
being a Kenite, and Caleb a Kenezite; both gave evi-
dence of having become sincere worshippers of the true
God; both identified themselves more particularly with
the house of Judah; both had an inheritance assigned
to them in the same region, the Xegeb; and both left
permanent traces of themselves in the subsequent his-
tory of the nation into which they had been adopted.

Bearing in mind the religious significance of the de-
signation Kenite, we need not be surprised to find
Jethro (or Reucl) also spoken of as a Midianite, Nu. x. 21);
it the rather confirms this view, that he is not simply
a Midianite, but a " jir!c*t of Midian," K.\ ii. i; iii. i;
xviii. i. Now the Midianites had no less than six terms
by which to denote their civil rulers; 2 it was from no
poverty of expression, therefore, that Jethro is here
described by a word (coheri) essentially referring to
sacred functions. The absence of secular authority is
further seen in the violent conduct habitually (and
apparently with impunity) practised towards Ins daugh-
ters by the neighbouring shepherds, Ex. ii. 17-19.

desert east of Pales: inc, in the occupation of which they were
gradually supplanted by the Abrahamic tribes of Ishmaul,
Keturah. ami F.sau: and thus the Divine promise, to the "father
of tlie faithful," that the whole region bounded by the Nile and
the Euphrates should be p. Assessed by his descendants, received
its literal fulfilment.

1 The presence of so significant a name as Kain (above men
tioned) close to Hebron, suggests the inquiry whether the
Anakite mountaineers of Hebron, Debir, etc., may not have
been worshippers of that goddess, and thus, as "Kenites." have
been (in part at least) tlie objects of Balaam's denunciation.
If so, we have a distinct i-ecord of its fulfilment; and it would
be not a little remarkable that the instruments of the Divine

There is nothing in the sacred narrative to counten-
ance the generally-received opinion that "the land of
Midian,"' spoken of in Exodus (ch. ii. 15; iv. 19; xviii. 27),
and elsewhere (Nu. .\. :,o ; i Ki. xi. IS; Hub. hi. r), lay on the
cant side of the Gulf of 'Akabali; on the contrary, every
particular is in favour of a locality in the peninsula f
Sinai. The flight and return of Moses; the visit of
Jethro to the Israelitish camp: Hobub's subsequent
presence there; Hadad's route through Midian on his
way from Edom to Egypt; I labakkuk's allusion to it in
connection with the wonders of the exodus all imply
that the Midian here referred to is to be looked for at
no great distance from Egypt, and on the -icmlirit shore
of the gulf.

These several indications point to the territory of the
Mn:.< ini/ Arabs, which includes the southern half of the
coast-line from 'Ain eii-Nmvcibi'a to Shurm. and ex-
tends westwards to the mountains of Sinai (Huivkh. p.
490, Sir, 521-528,.f>3r, 558; Bib. Res. i. 199). 1. The name dif-
fers from the Hebrew for Midianite (when freed from
its Ma.soretic disguise) only in one letter, z for d ; a
change which regularly occurs in the languages of the
East, and of which, curiously enough, we have an ex-
ample in this very district Dahab, one of the principal
places belonging to the Muzeiny, having the same
meaning as the Hebrew word zalxili (gold). '1. The
position meets all the topographical requirements of
Scripture: (I.) Moses, travelling slowly with his wife
and children from Midian towards Egypt, and Aaron,
proceeding alone (and therefore more rapidly) from
Egypt towards Midian, met at " the mount of God,"
Ex. iv. 20-27. If we assume Moses' starting-point to have
been Dahab (about the centre of the Muzeiny coast).
the meeting-place must have been at some point of the
Sinaitic group of mountains. (2.) The Israelites, march-
ing from Kephidim (a day's journey), after their en-
counter with the Amalekites, and Jethro, coming from
Midian with Zipporah and her two sons, met "at the
mount of God" (Kx. xviii. .-,), implying that Egypt.
Amalek, Sinai, and Midian. were more or less in a line
from north-west to south-east. ('}.) lladad. wh' n
fleeing from Edom to Egypt, came first to Midian and
then to Taran; just as any one. at the present day,
taking the route from 'Akabali to Egypt, rid Wady
Feiran, would necessarily pass through the territory of
the Muzeiny. 3. The homogeneousness of the Kenites
and Midianites is illustrated by the fact (already men-
tioned), that to this day there is a wady called Keiiney
(spelt exactly like the Hebrew for Kenite) in the very
centre of the Muzeiny country. 4. The intimate con-
nection between the Midianites and Amalekites has its
striking counterpart in that which now subsists between
the two tribes of the Muzeiny and 'Aleikat. 3 Be-idt s
the proofs already adduced, we find Moses conducting
the flock of his Kenite- Midianite father-in-law from
Midian proper to the ''backside (i.e. west) of the desert,"'

vengeance should be Caleb and Othniel, proselytes from the
neighbouring tribe of the Kenezites.

- Ziii.-cn, elder or sheikh (Nu. xxii. 4); KM, head or chief
(Nu. xxv. l.">); JW/.-i, prince (Nu. xxv. IS; Jos. xiii. 21); MI/-<;
king (Nu. xxxi. S; Ju. viii.5, I'.', '20); Ndtic, anointed (Jos. xiii.
21); >'"/, leader or commander (Ju. vii. 25).

3 That the 'Alrlkdt Arabs represent tlie ancient Amalekites,
there can be no reasonable doubt. The two words have a close
affinity in their principal letters, the chief difference being the
loss of the unimportant letter in, in accordance with a well-
known law of verbal contraction. Their proper territory (now
greatly diminished) lies between Wadys Glnmmdel and Mukatteb
(Bib. Rts. i. 198), thus agreeing with the Biblical narrative of the

KKXITES

KEXITKS

I-:\. Hi. 1, \vhich would bring him into the country of the
Amalekites: and, accordingly, we have seen that two
wadvs in tliu 'Aleikat district still retain the name of
their Kenite occupants of old. ,'". Moses, after leading
the flock from Midiaii on the east, to Anuilck on tin:
west, of the peninsula, eventually ''came to the moun- :
tain of ( rod. even to Hon-b." K\. iii. i. Burckhardt, in
reference to Wadv Klieisy, between Dahab and Tur.
says. "This wady. as well as the Kid, is inhabited by
Mn/einv: but they all return in summer to the highest
mountains of the peninsula, where the pasture is mure
abundant than in these lower valleys" (Syr. p. ;,:ri
>'>. 'I'lie same writer nnc ilisciously illu-trates the Midian-
itish usajv (exemplified in .Jethro's daughters! of com-
mitting the charge of their flocks to the women, by
repented allu-ious to tlii-- \er\- custom as practised hv
the Mn/eiliy. " Anioii^ these Aralis die writes' the
men consider it } n.-ath them to take the flecks to pas-
ture, and leave it to the women" (Syr. p. :'):;o, ;,;il; eornp. p.
; vji, -, .'

\S i have seen liow stroiio; are tlie claims uf the
.Mu/.'-inv, east ,,f Sinai, to In- regarded a.- the represen-
tatives of the Kenite branch of the .Midianitcs. The
correctness of this identification becomes .-till nioiv
apparent when we take into consideration other pa-
sa'_;es of Script lire, Co. xxv. l-i,; xxxvii. :::,-:;' ); Xu. .\\ii.xxv. xxxi.;
.In. vi. vii. v.ii.; I.-,. 1\. i;, \\liich represent the Midianit' - as
a wc.-dthv and pou, -rful tribe. inhabit'ini;' tli>- ea-t'-rn
des'Tt, tradhiL! between (lilead and l''^\pt, and inti-
mately allied , not only w itli the- Amalekites (as we liave
seen), but also with the .M..abit,-s. l-hiiia.'lites. and
children..) tin- Ka-4." En exact accordance with these
indications are the traditions of the Mu/einy themselves.
They declare that they are descended from a few I'amilii -
i wh" landed at Slmrmi. beloii-'in^ to ''a very p'.u nt
ti'ilie" of the .-a me name " in the lledja/, cast of Me
dinah. where tliev are still found in laru'e numbers"
IHmvkh [>. .V,H; comp liilj 1;,- . i.l'.-l. I'.urcklia I'd t cl>e\\ here
speaks of the .Mu/einv as occupying the line of countrv
lietweeii Medinah and I >erayeh i I : r, Hist. Gong. Arab.
ii. L'l'.O. It anvthiim more \\ ere wanting to demonstrate
the identity of tlie Mu/einv with the Midianites, we
should have it ill the word .l/< <///(/(, thus twice coupled
with the head .((uarters of the tribe. 'I'lie name ap-
proximates still more- closely to Midiaii than Mu/einv.
I icing in fact identical with the Hebrew \\heii pi-e
liounced without the points.

A clear lie-lit i-: now cast on the peculiar circum-

Amalekites' first collision with the Israelites, a.s well as with the
Arabian historians, \vli<> connect them \\itli the ruins in the
neighbouring Waily I'cirun; bat they are also found inter-pe,- ,.!
among tiieir Ma/.einy allies mi tlie eastern .-ide uf tlie peninsula
(#,v//,. p. ."no, .VJt. :,-2^ l :,:;-2 t .-,.-,7, f,:,;),; and, jointly with them,
have the ex elusive right of convey ing passe liters and inci-rliaiidisi:
from Slnina tn Tur and Smv. (/j'c./r/.-A. p. "'_s). Their traditions
represent them as one of the ol. lest tril.os..f the ]ieninsnla, second
only to the Sawalihah (ulio omsider themselves the aliori^ines,
and who are prolial.Iy deseeiicU-d from SlioLal the llorite; .".
K.Mirsii and SKIH), and they attrilnito tln-ir present weakness !
to the alm.ist exterminating ell'i-ets of sanguinary wars (/!>', -Hit.
p. o.VI, >:,- of.n; liVi. lit*, i. I'.iS, l'j;i).

1 It may he mentioned, in passing, that near Shimn, the chief
port Lelonging to the Muzeiny, is a mountain called ez Z"fi-<ih,
tlie principal letters of which answer precisely to those of the
Hebrew /.i^iornj!. tlie daughter of Jethro and uife of Mose.s
(see further traces of Jethro ami his family in Stanley's Sinai
a ml /'<</>/;/,., p. :;;>,). Sliurm has two bays, in both of which
ships may lie with perfect safety. One is called Slnina el licit,
or "of the house," in allusion to "the tomb of a sheikh held in
veneration by the liedaw'm and mariners [query Jethro's?]; the
other, bhurni el Bir. or ' of the Weil,' thus accurately describing

stances of the Midianites, and on the manner in which
their geographical position determined their subsequent
development. Their eastern frontier Derayeh brought
them into contact with the trading Dedanites near the
mouth of the Persian (ddf. while their friendly relations
with tlie desert tribes enabled them to extend their com-
merce as far as Svriaon the north and Kgypt on the west.
We can understand how their commercial instincts
-raduallv impelled them north-westwards: first, to
the eastern shore of the Klanitic i !ulf (of which we have
evidence in the Modiana of Ptolemy and the Madyan
of Abulfedai, and then to its western coast, the seat of
the Kenite section of the tribe, with which we are now
chiefly concerned. It was probably to facilitate their
tratlic with Ivjvpt and the west that they crossed into
the peninsula; for not only did they acquire in Shiinn
and l>ahab its two best ports, but they were theivbv
spared the na\ Ration ,,f both Cult's, a task which is
even now. with all the appliances of modern naval
science, considered alike tedious and dangerous.

A difficulty ha- be. n f. It from tin- circumstance that
both Jethro tor 1,'euelland his son Hobab arc called
the " father-in-law" of .Moses ci.mp F.\. iii ;\-. xviii. with
.In. iv. ill. The word so rendered i-7,o//c',/ 1 literallv im-
jiorts -'one who u'ives away a bi-ide." P.nt this dutv
appears to have been shared e^uallv between the
parents and brothers of the bride, if we may jud'jv from
the prominent part taken hv Laban in contracting his
sister Kebekali to Isaac, tie. xxiv. .-.n-iiii, and by the sons
of Jacob in negotiating \vith llamorand Sliechem i-e-
specting their sister Dinah, (;u xxxi\ n 11 'I'hat f/n't/n'ii
does not in f, ,<g(i,-il i/ mean "jalln /'-in law" is also evi
dent from the additional words required when it is
intended to spccifv that relationship. Thus in .In. xix.
I. '.>. the Levite's chutlifn is further described as "the
damsiTs father," which would be mere tautology if
<-lii',tln'n itself meant " fat lier-in-law." The word is
expi-esscil in the Scptuagint by )?'//. ^,o?. \\hieh. like the
Latin lujiii!*, sie-nities "a connection by mai-riage."
whether father in law, brother-in law, or son-in-law. 2

A similar difficulty, arising from the name '( 'iishitc"
( Ethiopian. A . \ .1, Driven to Xipporah, Nu. xii. l, is ec jiiallv
capable of solution, when it is considered tliat Arabia
formed an essential portion of the "land of < 'ush "
(answering to the ( 'ush -an of Hab. iii. 7 , " having,'' bet n
originally colonized bv that branch of Hams descend-
ants. Their settlements gradually extended from
Mesopotamia to the head of the Persian (iulf, and

both; for n. -ar the she. re of the noithern bay are se\eral copious
well-, . . . a]iparentl\ all ancient work of considerable labour"
(n,-iM. p. .VJ7. .-.-Js; eomp. "the well" [Heb.] of Ex. ii. I;',).

- Tlie same remarks apply to the correspond! i g word cluil/nin,
.soinetiiacs rendered "son-in-law," at other times " bridegroom."
Its essential meaning is, "one w ho takes a w ife from the rln'itlicn'f
family;" hence, in general, "a relation by marriage" on the
husband':; side), _' Ki viii - J7. It is clear that it does not in
itself mean " son in law," for. in Ge. .xix. 14. Lot is represented
as addressing "his cli'it/uiitim, who married his daugliters."
which description would have been superfluous if cluUlidn already
exjircssed the relationship of "son in-law."

s The conjecture of r t recent writer (Smith's D!<:t. J>i'>. i. :i7-l\
that this reteis to ( 'ushan-rishathaiia, king of Aram naharaim
(Ju. iii. S), is surely untenable. The single fact of the parallel-
istic structure requiring the name of a c<mnti;n, not pcivon, \*
alone fatal to it. This writer's opinion (p. i!T:!) that there \>i
only one allusion in Scripture to (.'ush a.s an Afintic territory is
sufficiently disproved by a fellow contributor (\>. LSI',) to the same
valuable work. And with regard to the direction of Cushite
colonization, from the Euphrates to the Nile would seem to be
more natural, as well as more Scriptural, than from the Nile to
the Knphrates.

KENITKS

KERCHIEFS

thence along the roasts of Ar;il>!;i. ;unl across the Straits
ol' P,ab-el-.Mandeb to the banks of the Upper Nil.-.
Thus Zipporah, though descended (as a, Midianite or
Keturitei from a later body of Arabian colonists (of
whom there were altogether live successive streams --
Cushites. Joktanites. Jshmaelites. Keturites, and Kdom-
ites), was properly called a Cushitc, being a native of
Arabia, of which the ( 'usliites were the aboriginal]
-.tilers; on th' same principle' that a modern inhabitant
of this i-land. though lineally sjinni'^ from Saxon or
Xorman ancestors, is as much entitled to the epithet
i'.riton as anv Welshman who can trace his descent
from the ('eltic aborigines.

The reader is referred to the article on KlHKnTH-
H ATTAAVAII for the circumstances which seem to explain
I lobab's presence in the camp of Israel. Nu. \. 2;i. Sutiic<'
it to say here, that the invitation of Moses that he
should cast in his lot with the Chosen People appears to
have been eventually accepted ; for we find his children,
soon after the passage of the Jordan, Ju. i. Iti, '' goinn' np
out of the city of palm-trees i Jericho. Do. xxxiv. :;t \\ith
the children of Judah into the wilderness of Jmlah.
which lietli in the south (Xegeb) of Arad (I.e. that part
of the Xe-jcb or "South Country"' which adjoined
Arad); and they went and dwelt among the people." 1

There can be little doubt that the Kenites were
attracted, in the first instance, by the palm-trees of
Jericho, which would forcibly remind them of their
native land; for even now the date plantations which
occur at intervals, chiefly along the sea-shore, constitute
one of the principal features of the ]\Iuzeiny district
(Burckh. p. }!>*, f.l 7, f>23, .">24, r>:il ,;,:!.->, 5:>V P>llt they wotdd
soon find the semi-tropical climate of " the plain of the
valley of .Jericho" far too enervating to constitutions
inured to the cold of the Sinaitic region, while the
luxurious effeminacy of its inhabitants would be very
uncongenial to their simple habits; so that it would be
with a feeling of relief both physical and moral that
they ascended the heights which shut in the Jordan
valley on the south-west, and breathed once more the
pure and bracing air of the uplands.

We seem to have a trace of their settlement near
Arad in A'iniiJi, Jos. xv. 21, -22, or rather Hazar-Kinali;
for a comparison of the Hebrew with the Septuagint
makes it probable that for " Eder, and Jagur, and
Kinah," we should read "Arad, and Hazar-Kinah," the
Keiiite inclosure or pastoral settlement. This appears to
lie HOW represented by the ruined site el-IfiidhairaJt
( Bib lies. iii. App. in"), the Arabic equivalent for Ha/or, at
or near which is still a favourite resort of the Arabs

(Noncl), p. 72-7IIK

Here, then, more than three centuries later, we find
them still dwelling, but in such increased numbers as
to occupy several cities, i Sa. xxx. -2!i, and give their name
to an entire district of southern Judah, "the Xegeb of
the Kenites," l Sa. xxvii. in, corresponding for the most
part to the tract of country now held by the Dhullam
Arabs. This would necessarily bring them into contact
with the Amalekites. who, until dispossessed by Saul,
still clung to the hiidi plateau (now occupied by the
S'aidiyeh Arabs), which is proleptically connected with
them in (Jo. xiv. 7, and where the spies reported them
to be dwelling in the second year of the Wanderings,

1 i.e. Israel, ami ii"T. as has lieen asserted, with allusion to the
Araalekites, among whom they were settled in the time of Saul;
for lid- din, " the people," has a special reference to the Hebrew
race, in contradistinction to the other nations (yoi/ini) or Gentiles.

Nu. xiii. in. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
Kenites were living on amicable terms with their old
allies of the peninsula, when the threatened vengeance
at length overtook the latter. ]>ut while the aggra-
vated hostilitv of the Amalekites towards Israel was
thus remembered against them, the caiiv and long-
tried friendship of the Kenites was not forgotten, and
they were carefully exempted from the ruin which fell
so heavily on their neighbours, i Sa. xv. <\.

The nomadic tendencies of the Kenites were mani-
fested, even after their settlement in Palestine, by the
separation of Heber from the main body and his migra-
tion northwards. Ju. iv. 11, us was also their remarkable
power of ingratiating themselves with all the communi-
ties amonu' whom thev lived, bv the friendly relations
which soon sprang up between Heher and his new
neighbours. ''There was peace (we are told) between
Jabin the king of llazor and the house of Heber the
Keiiite," Ju. iv 17.

In this remote encampment of a single familv of the
tribe, we see the same national traits which marked
them in their Midianitish home, and which still charac-
terize the -Muzeiny Arabs of the peninsula. There is
the same love of tent life (romp. Ju. iv. u, 17-2'-'; v. 21; vi. 4,f>;
i lab. iii. 7, with Burckh. p. . '.IT, :>2i,:>:;n, :.:;:., :>:;* , the same addiction

to pastoral pursuits (c.'inp. Kx. ii. Ki-lli; iii. 1; Nil. xxxi. 32, with

Burckh. i>. 'j-21, .>-'::, ;.:n, o:;7), the same hospitality fcomp. Kx.
ii. 20, _'!;. J u. iv. is, 10; v. >:,, with Hurckh. p. -in!), f,21, f,:;<i, :>>), the
same use of goat's milk and whey as a beverage (comp.
Ju. iv. Hi; v. i.'.'., with liurckh. p. :>2J, 530, 533), the same employ-
ment of women in masculine occupations, necessarily
resulting in an unwonted freedom of intercourse between
the sexes, and in a fearlessness, on the part of the
women, approaching at times to audacity (eomp. I'.x. ii.
til 3i; iv. 2."., -2ii; Nu. xxv. C; ,iu. iv. 1^-22, with I.uivkh. p. .V-'l, '>:;<>, f.:;t,
.v;.".), and yet the same, inviolable sanctity of the female
compartment of the tent (comp Ju. iv. is, 20, with liurckh.
p. 539).

Further remarks on the locality of Heber's encamp-
ment will be found in the article on XAAXAIM, while
the interesting connection between the Kenites and
the Kechabites of a later date will be considered in that
on the KKCITABITKS. [K. w.]

KEN'IZZITES p-1". pi. of "?, Kciui~\, a people
mentioned only once, in connection with the original
occupants of Canaan, GO. xv in. They were probably
a still smaller tribe than the Kenites; and commentators
are divided upon the question, whether they should be
viewed as sprung from the Kenaz who was a descendant
of Esau, Go. xxxvi. II, or from the Kenaz to whom the
family of Caleb owed the name of Kenezite, Nu. xxxii. 12-.
1 .Tos. xlv. i;. It is quite possible, however, that these
diverse sources were originally one; for the name in
Oe. xv. may have been given by anticipation, and
there' is some reason to believe that Caleb was of a
family which by adoption, not by birth, became an
integral part of Israel (gee CALEB). And considering
the clear revelations which had been given concerning
the relative positions and destinies of the two sons of
Isaac, it is not to be wondered at that one or more
families should have passed from the Edomite into the
Tsraelitish section, which by circumcision and submis-
sion to the law it was indeed competent for the whole
to have done.

KERCHIEFS occurs twice in the English Bible,
but in one passage, Eze. xiii. is, 21, as the rendering of a
word (nirrEC'D, mispahoth) which is derived from a root

KERIOTH

KKUIOTH

signifying to cover : ami the more exact rendering
would be r>"'i '/".'/.:, or in((i>tUt. Mich as are still com-
monly used liv females in the Kast as an envelope for
their heads. The prophet apparently reproves the
women of artful and seductive habits, for the ornamental
articles of this description they used for the purpose of
decoying weak souls.

KER'IOTH [c/Y/(4 1. The name (or rather, part
of the name) of one of the cities of the "South" 01'
-ludah. .los. xv. -.:,; for \\e need not hesitate to adopt
(with lo.-land. -Maiiivr, and othersi the rendering of the
Septuagint, the Syriac. and probably the ( 'h;d<lee, which
joins Kerioth to th-- next place in the list, llr/nni. -\ "
violence is thereby done to the Hebrew text, for the
word "and " is a conjectural addition o[' our translators.
Jiiit the same remark is equally applicable to the comma
inserted \< -tsve !! t'h" following words, " Ha /or. Amain."
\\hich clearly o-ijlil not to I"- - par.tted anv mo]-.- tlian
tli.- two p:-eiv.lin-_' on, s ; 1 l.r/or (or, in comp
: i ' In-ill^ connected as an appellative with Amam.

'i'li'- t 'Words, thereto: te tlie name of hut

one city, \\hich .-hoiild be tins rendered, '' Kc-riotli
HC/I..II \\ h>h is ! la/, ir A mam."

Then- c.-in I,,; littl" doubt that \\hile Ha/.or. ;l s part
of a compound proper name, indicates the //.</<)/<( '
character ,,i' the >pot so designated, the prefixes Kir.

Kirjali or l-athel 1 . \\lh-U in composition, Kirjath'. ,.;i.|
Kei-ioth or Kirioth,- be-peak mi/!f<tr;/ 0,-eiipatioii. and,
like tin- Wei>h Cm/; impl\ a ''fortress' 1 or .strong-
hold." Many examples oi' both words are found in
this single chapter of Joshua: the lla/o-,-. as \\ < -hould
exjiect, all occurring in t'ne pastor.-,! plains of the Ni geh
or "South ( 'ountry," Jos. xv. _.:.-:,. _:.:>, \\hile. \\ ith .-ijiial
a}ipro])riateness, the Kirjahs (\\ith one exception) are
coiilined to the "iiill Coimti-y," so naturally adapted
for works of defence, i-c r. n, i ... i:., :.i, 1:1, 11, no.

As Ibbi-on v\as named AV;;/'-//r--Arha from Alba, "a
s-Teat man aniou- the Anakim.' Jus. \iv. i.\ we mav Hot
unreasonably infer that Kirjah (including, of course.
its plural Kiriothor Kirioth. and it- connate Kir. i-
of Anakite origin, and. wlaiies'er i mploved. indicates
the presence and jisi-t iiclency of that <_i'-antie p.-ople.

The sin-le exception above mentioned is the place
now under consideration, \\here. it will be observed,
Kerioth and Hazor appear in combination. \Ve are,
therefore, to understand the sacre I writer as iris in-- us
not only the ,-e-tual name of thi> city at the time this
topographical account was drawn up. but n\-i> that
which it bore previously to it- coni|ue-.t liy the Anakim:
just as. in the loth verse of this chapter, he speaks of
" Kirjath-Ari.a. . . . which is Hebron," /.c. previously
known hv the name of Hebron. ;

\Ve are fully warranted, then, in inferrin-; that tliis j
jilace. which was originally a pastoral settlement of the
earliest inhabitants i Ha/.ar Amam), had been taken and
fortified by the Anakim. who desi-mited it Kerioth

1 It i.s ii,,t ini|irnl,;il,ie tl.ar a fti-r tli,--,- won Is l,ou;ih to In-
r<%iriluMl l>y i-in.i-ant o.|i.vi.-<ts as rei.ivsoiitin.u- se]>arat.- l.lacvs.
tlie letter ,--','. was iiitr.lii<-e,l (-|vjn)> as better suited to an in-
di-lK-n.leiit word than tlie mn-trm-t Conn I^TT. Actual traee>
of this ].n,,-ess aiipear in ver. -J7, where, for" " Jlazar-gad.lah,"
one MS. has " Ilaxor, daddnh." A yrt firuater e(irru|itiiiii :-eeins
tt. have taken (.iaoe in ver. '_':;. wa.-re -if we may judue fmni the
Septuajiint rendering ('A<ro/wva/v), which faltliou-li it al>.. lias
suffered froni 1ranseri|.li(in ) is evidently intended to ex|nv>s
tlie comi.ound uunl ' Ilaxai--lthnan" not only has Maxarbe-
conie Ilaxor, but Ithnan has been divorced from it by the in-
sertion of the conjunction.

- Lexicographers are perplexed as to the origin of Kir (T^j.

VOL. II.

(the svalled or fortified cities': and that w hen it svas
con.ji.vrcd by the .) udahites. the name JK/.ron was
stiperadded. ill honour of the grandson of .ludah so
called, from whom svere descended d>V birth and adop-
tion) the three mo.-t distinguished families of the tribe.
Jerahnicel. Jlani (or Arann. and Caleb. It will at
once be .-cell how exactly these specifications auree
svith the position of < /-A'","// ( /i ///, so hesitatingly si;-'-
gested by J )r. llohinson as possibly identica.l svith
Kerioth. though he tailed to see the essential connection
of the latter svith Ib/ron (i;ib. lies. ii. 47i', n.'tc), supported
i> by the most ancient versions, as well as by the
"*"* fo'iimnli. 'I his connection has. to a certain extent,
been admitted by later svritei's; but the very natural
and obvious combination of Amam with Ha/.or as the
orijnal name, here advocated, apj ears to have been
hith- rto unnoticed. And yet many considerations
i- to establish the .soundness of this arrangement.
1.) They./";.'/ form employed (Kerioth) implies a
number of clox-ly contiguous cities, for 'mini;' one con-
fed, rate whole; an idea riot altogether losf in the
modern el - K urvcteiii i Ib-b. Kiriathaim . which
means " the two citi. s." ,, r the double cin ." ' This
viesv i.s strikingly corroho rated by ,M . 1 e Saulcy's map,
which, af this particular point, is more minutely laid
down than eitli. r Ki.-pert's, /immermunn's. or Van
de Vclde's. It exhibits a ivmarkalile -roiijp of he!- -his.
eighf in number, covered with ruins, esidentls.
from the author's description, of no ordinary churac-
ter, an. I extending tioi-thwards from el- Kurvt t< in for
nearly two miles. They form an oval inelosuiv. net
exceeding :;<IU yards at its greatest breadth, and coir-
tr.-ietini;' at each exf remits' to a mere defile. This valley,
or rath, r basin, i> " iri'igated by a rivulet which seems
to f!,,w at all seasons" ( lie Sauk-y, i. :,ii;, ;,:,:,). \Ye can
nosv -ee with what perfect propriety such a -roup
mijit be regarded, in one sense, as ,,nini/ i'i/i, x (Ke-
rioth), while', in another point of v iesv, tluy (-.instituted
but fine litrli/sim (Ha/or .

-'_'.< Tin- Anakite origin of the name suLi'ivsts. as we
h:ise seen, proximity to the Hill ('ountrv; in precise
accordance with sshich i 'r. l,'obiii>on describes el-
Kurvet. in and .leiibeh. the two ]irinei|ial "sites of
ruins. ' as ''at the foot of tlu; mountain" dub I Us. ii. ITL').

('j. We have a riuht to expect marked strategical
advantages, as well as traces of fortifications: both of
which are indicated by the military appellative Kerioth.
No traveller appears to have actually visited el Kursv-
tein. \shich lies two or three miles to the west of the
ordinal's route. I )e Saiilcy. however, says, "Judging
by tin- account of our Arabs, the ruins . . . are very
considerable, and denote . . . the former existence of
an important town." 1'assing onward, this traveller
soon reached .letibeh, w here he found "avenues of stones
fixed on end. similar- die adds) to those we have ob-
served in Moab. 1 ' coming down from the neighbouring

which .signifies ''a wall ;" but surely there i- nothing to prevent
our regarding it as simply the man-uline form of Kirjah or
Kiriah (Tr-p). which conies from the I'iel of Karuh, ''to build."
- ! It would aiipear from Ce. .xiii. IS. Nil. xiii. -JJ, that Hebron
was tin- primitive name, w hich, after having been supplanted
by Kirjath-Ar'na, was restored by tin; Israelites.- See Hcngsten-

1 In. iced, the termination fin, in modern Arabic words, would
almost seem to have a plural as udl as dual signification; for,
at el I ii rein, there are.''"";-, not two, wells (/>,/,. Itis. i. -Jss), and
here, too, we tind el Kuryetein answering to the Hebrew Kerioth,
which is plural.

* This incidental comparison is very intcrestini.', and greatly

129

TCKItTOTH

KEUIOTH

hills, upon which are descried also numerous vestiges
of buildings <>f ii very remote antiquity, judging by
tin: rudeness of their construction. On the summit of
tlie hillock of .lenheh i~ a kind of inclostnv. formed by
a wall of rucks, from one to l\\ yards and upwards
in height. Some of these rocks, detached from the
mass, are disposed almost after the fashion of a Celtic
or Druidical Tnlmi-n, a fact which excited our intense.
surprise. 1 "IVvoiid Jenbeh tlie valley, now narrowed
to ; , "pass," is "intercepted at right angles by six
oi' seven ancient walls of the roughest construction.
On the left flank of this defile, the ascent of which
is rather dillicnlt, appear some scattered ruins. To-
wards the summit, a long and ancient wall borders
the right of our path." A little further north, he finds
himself "in front of huge ruins." which "consist of
long rows of primitive, walls, crossing each other at
ri-ht angles, and more than SOU yards in length, J Jest-
ing upon, and adjoining one of these walls, is a vast
quadrangular inclosure. Beyond, a small plain. :1uo
yards in extent, is strewed with ruins, and approached
'by several wide avenues of stones, placed upright." As
he proceeds, "these ruins (he writes) are still lyinu'
along the line of our march, and we pass by a double
avenue of stones, in excellent preservation, for above
thirty yards. Then a single avenue .... leads v.p
to a circular inclosure, constructed with very large
stones, and crowning the summit of a high cliff'" (Do
Saulcy, i. 540-555).

(4.) We cannot but observe how appropriately these
'cities of He/.ruii" are placed in relation to tlie por-
tions of the >.cgeb assigned to his sons Jerahmeel
and Caleb respectively; the former corresponding to
the district of the S'aidiyeh Arabs, the hitter to the
K'afibineh and northern .Jehalin country.

(">.) There is every reason to believe that Uazar-
Amam was a llorite settlement. Wo lind a chieftain
of that race called llcmam or Homam, Ge. xxxvi. 2:>;
lCh.i.3!); a word which diilers but slightly from Amain. -
J)r. Uobinson twice testilies to the presence here of
these ancient Troglodytes by observing that the dwell-
ings consist chiefly of caverns (Bib. Res. ii. 47^,020; and M.
J)e Saulcy describes the grottoes excavated in the sides
of the cliff' at Jenheh and elsewhere, adding the remark
that " the cav.;s are used at the present day as stables
by the wandering tribes who visit this district"' (vol. i.
516-553).

2. KF.IUOTH or KIRIOTH. a city of Moab, mentioned
only in the prophecies of Amos (ch.ii. 2) and Jeremiah
(ch. xlviii. 24, n). From the silence of the earlier sacred
writers we may infer that (like Ho/rah) it was not a

place of importance until the Moabites lin conjunction
with their inseparable allies the Ammonites), availing
themselves of the decline of Israeli tish power in the
j countries east of the .Jordan, -2 Ki. x. ::L', :;::; coiiiii.xiii.2o,
' extended their dominion to its ancient limits, \\hich
included the modern districts el- P.elka and .iebel 'Ajlun,
and at least the southern portion, if not the \\hole, of
i the Haur.in." During this period of prosperity, Kerioth
: appears to have been the capital of Moab. probably as
bcino- more- centrally situated than Ar (l!abb,-i or Kir
(Kenkt, and. as :-ueh. its destruction was predicted b\
Amos. That our tra,nslators have rightly understood
; this prophet to refer to a dchnite place, and not to
i "the cities" of Moab in general (as some writers have
surmised from the use of the article), is evident from
the analogy of the similar passages between v.hioh it
occurs. 4 This enables us to interpret .)e. xlviii. 41
(where the article is in like manner prefixed) according
to the text, rather than the margin, of the Authorized
Version.

We are not without adequate data for determining
! the position of Kerioth. 0> It was situated in the
j Mlx/iSii- (-'plain country," Je. xlviii. 21, A. V.) or elevated
j plateau, which sweeps round, in the form of a vast
crescent, from the neighbourhood of the Arnoii to that
' of the Lake of Tiberias, inclosing the heights of Cilead
on the south, the east, and the north, and stretching
| eastwards as far as J'ozrah (*ec PLAINS)- (-) The fact
of its being the metropolis of Moab at its greatest exten-
sion, implies a portion considerably no! th of its more
contracted boundary, the Arnon. (:>> Its enumeration
by Jeremiah between lieth-Meon (M'ain) and Jiozrah
(Busrah), points to a spot north-east of 'Amman, not far
from the Kiil'at Zurka: a location which is strengthened
by the reference in the previous verse to Kiriathaim
i and r>eth-uYimul, both of which have been identified in
this very neighbourhood.

These criteria are unfavourable to the claims of
Ixuiviyeii, north-east of Busrah, advocated by Mr.
1'orter (Five Vears in Damascus, ii. I'.u-li'M, inasmuch as it is
beyond the precincts of the Mishor. and too far from
the central position required. Nor are they compatible
with the situation of Kureiyat, south of Jebel 'Attarus.
suggested by Mr. drove (Smith's Diet. Bib. ii. 11^, which,
though in the Mi-hor, is equally remote from the centre.
and answers better to Kirjatll-huzoth, Nu. xxii. 39. On
the other hand, they are amply satisfied by a recent
discovery, for which we are indebted to Mr. Cyril
Graham, whose allusion to the Emim. it will lie ob-
served, strikingly confirms the remarks made in the
earlier part of this article as to the origin, of the word

strengthens the opinion already expressed, that the us., of Kir.
in its various forms, essentially implies Anakite supremacy.
For (i.) the Kirs are imprecedentedly nunierous in MonMiio. xiv.
;,; Xu. xxii. ".!'; xxxii. :)7; - Ki. iii. :!.">; Is. xv. 1; xvi. 7, II: Je.
xlviii. I, -':'., -24, :U, ;id, 41; K/e. xxv. <i; Am. ii. -'); and (ii.) they
are directly associated with that giant race who. under the
names of Ilephaim, Anakim, Xu/.im, and Kmim. formerly held
powerful sway on lioth sides of the Jordan valley.

1 With this may lie compared the description by Irby and
Man.irl.-s. \vlien travelling in Moab. of "the ruins of a large
square eyclnpean Imildin.i;, perhaps a fortress," and of -'s.mie
singular, and certainly very ancient" remains, "composed of
<;reat rough stones, resembling what is called ' Kitt's (.'otty
lf..use.' in Kent. They were built of two long stones, for sides,
witli one at each end, and a small door in front, mostly facing
to the north. This door was cut in the stone: . . . over the
whole was laid an immense flat piece projecting both at, the
sides and ends. . . . There were about twenty-seven of these, . . .
very irregularly situated" (Tnic-l<, eh. vi. p. U7, 'J',. Loud. 1844).

- The slender initial /<>. might easily be replaced by (<l> r li, as
is indeed frequently the case at the end of words: e./j. lloglali
(now Hn.jlaX Kanali (Kana). Rabhali (Tiabba), Shittah (Shutta).
,]abneh (Vebna). Juttah (Yutta). There is a similar tendency
both in >/od and wu to change into i'l' r li; c.fi. Ophni (JufnA',
Kglon ('Ajian), Diboii (IHiiban). Xidon (Saida), .lapho (Vafa).
&c.

Compare Xu. xxi. 21 --2f<; Ju. xi. 1., which prove that the
country between the rivers Arnon (Wady el-Mojeb) and Jabhok
(tlie Varinuk or Mandhur . and the wilderness and Jordan, for
nu-rly belonged jointly to Moab and Ainmon with the modern
name Jebel 'Ajlun (above mentioned), which is applied to the
district between tlie Xurka and the Varmfik, and is precisely
equivalent to the name of a powerful king of Moab, Ju. iii. l'J-:)i).
See also the reference to liozrah in Jeremiah.

4 Compare Am. ii. -2 with i. 1:2; ii. ?>; and contrast the different
usage in ch. i. 4, 7, 10. In the former group, the mention of the
country is followed by that of its metropolis; in the latter, the
metropolis is followed by its palaces.

KETUJUAU

KEZ1Z

Kerioth. lie tells us that oil his return westwards very often in Scripture Used as the svmbol of power
from a distant and previously unvisited portion of the ' and authority, whether in the church or state. Thus.
country beyond Jordan, he "arrived at a series of in regard to the niaiiagement of the earthly kingdom of
ancient cities to the north of 'Amman and spilth-West ! Judah. Isaiah speaks of the key of the house of David
of IJozrah. including Kerioth and Kiriath i:m. Je. xhiii. j going to be laid on Eliakim, as the most intluential
L';, -I, still bearing the names of Kiriath and Kiriatain. j adviser of the king. eh. xxii. .':'. With reference to the
where the edifices are of such gigantic proportions and ! administration of that house in the higher sense, our
such primitive forms, as to induce a strong conviction Lord is represented as having the kev of David,
that they are the work of the early Emim or Ciants : eeiving and excluding whom lie pleases' as partakers
strong euoiiuh to defy the destruction of man. or tin of its glorious privileges and blessings. He. iii. r. T.ut
operation of common earthquakes ; their roofs are having constituted the apostles his representatives for
formed of beams of stones in juxtaposition, twenty -five the > >ta!ilishin-- ai.d ordering of this spiritual house
feet long, supported by square stone pillars, and the I as an organized institution among men, he committed
hui;-e doors are slabs ,,f a Mimic stone each. The to them to 1'eter first as the more prominent member

a- its namesake on the \\vst of thai river bears, to this said, had taken awu\ the kev of knowledge, l.u. xi. 2:,;
day, traces of a branch uf the same mighty p< meaning, that by their manifold traditions and false

planted the llorite y of central Judah. interpretations they had deprived people of the means

KETU'RAH [//KY//.SV I. the person taken to wife l.v

KEZIZ. a city of IK n jam in. \\ith its adjoining \allev

lierself Ijelonged. apparently to the modern '.\in .Jchair (nil,. Ucs.ii. 3;.4),

KEY, in its natural sense, a- an in.-trnmei:t for between 'Ain llajla and \\'a.lv Debr), or adopt the
turning the lock of a gate or door, has b. en treated of more probable rendering of the Scptuagint, Detliabarah, 1

ll t!

inliiigly, while hi- himself took cliaru'e of the n|,],ei- (or li.-tli-
f-hani foul, he desired tin: lOjiliraimites to seen re the mitral
(Succotli), and lower (.Jeri. ho or lietlialiaraln onep. "Tli.-n all

raters unto Bethbarah, even the, .Jordan." Here " the .Jordan

this view that \ve tind a spot, deseriljed as a "low |

Bethbarah," and imports that the river was watched throiigliout I of the name liy wliidi the scene of Orcl.'s death was ever after-

KKXIX

KIBROTH-HAT1>AAVAH

2. The term fntck (" valley," A. V.1, svliich, it' not !
:i part of UK- name, of this city, ut least describes the j
I utility in or near which it was .-ituated, enables u- :
yet more elearly to determine its position. A eaivful
analysis of the several passages in which r,,,,/' is cm-
ployed topographically so far as the places have hoell
identified with any decree of certainty;. leads to the
conclusion, that it import- a broad valley, or rather |
plain: or, more exactly, tin- head of a valley as it ex- ;
pands into a plain or bas'ii. '1'his is preci-ely the
character of the tract of country west of the Jordan,
where that river forms an an-le with the northern end
of the Dead Sea. " I'.eyond the promontory of lias ;
el-Feshkhah (writes Dr. Robinson) the shore continues. ]
to run north-east !>y cast <|uite to the corn. T of the sea.
Hut the promontory itself on that side, and the moun- |
tains further on, retire gradually frojn the sea in a di-
rection nearly north, leaving lietween their base and
the shore a triangular plain, at lirst narrow, but after- !
wards quite wide. . . . 'The ])lain continued to widen
as the mountains and. sea diverged. . . . The surface
was almost a dead level. . . . The tract continued of
this character, with a few gentle swells, until we reached
the banks of the Jordan" (Mib. lies, ii. u.jo, >:<",, ir,!). 1

3. The word Ke/iz is, in itself, very signilicart. lt-
root (Katsats) belongs to a very numerous class ot
verbs,- the u'eneral import of which is, "'to cut," "'to
cut off',"' ''to cut down/' with especial reference to
the lopping or felling of trees. One of these verbs is
embodied in the original name of the neighbouring town
of Kngcdi. //":' -.'//j-tamar, "the pruning or felling of
the palm.'' It is not to be wondered at, therefore,
that a kindred word should be connected with the plain
of Jericho, "the city of palm-trees." Nor was this the
only tree that nourished in the rich soil and almo.-t
tropical climate which marked the level tract between
Jericho and the Jordan. Jt appears to have been a
place of usual resort for those who required timber for
building purposes (comp. 2Ki. ii. 5 \rith vi. 1-r); and doubt-
less the Baptist, as he stood near the hank of the
Jordan, employed a metaphor suggested by the scene
lief ore him, when he said. "And now also the axe is
laid at the root of the trees." Mat. iii. 10. The oleanders.
tamarisks, and willows which even now conceal the
river from view, are but feeble representatives of the
luxuriant groves described by Strabo and Josephus
as characterizing not only the vicinity of Jericho and.
the Jordan but the entire plain. It is not unlikely
that we have a trace of "the emek of Kex.i//' in the

wards known, "the Rock Orel)?" Ju. vii. >:>; Is x. -jr.. It
IJethany (and not IJethabarah) beyond Jordan " lie the correct
reading of .In. i. 'Js. w'e may ) crimps itro^ni/.f its site in the
modem linl Hi-It, a ruin south-west of es, Salt, near the eastern
bank of the .Ionian < H:I,. Jim. iii. App. p. ir.'.o. Dr. Robinson
is disposed to identify ISatneh with the Uetonini of Jus xiii. _'(!;
but the latter (as a northern terminus of Cad) would rather
seem to be represented by il-Bt'lcln (liurekh. ]i. -JOS; J1H'. A''--',
iii. App )). llM).

El .Bcitfmy, a district (east of Xabnlusl, so railed in most of
the maps, appear- to be a typographical error for el licitawy
(/lib. It,*, iii. App. p. V_'S).

1 It may be mentioned, in illustration of the consistency as
well as precision which so uniformly characterize the Scripture.--,

that the scene of Achan's punishment, which must have 1 n a

portion of the plain in question for it was in a line between
Keth-hoglah 'Ain ITajla) and Debir (Wady Debr) is likewise
described as aii c,,>rl.- in every passage where it is mentioned,
Jos. vii. -J4, '2o; xv. 7; Is. Ixv. 10; Ho. ii. l. r >. See al.-o 1 t'h. xii. 1">.

- Gadad, gad'a, azaz, chatav. chatsav, chatsats, katav, kut-
aph, kilsas, katsah, kiltsav, kats'a, kfitsats, kutsar, &u.

present \V;uly el-A'<</"/. south of 'Ain I fajla (Ximm. pt. v) ;
a name \\hieh strikingly resembles several of the cog-
nate words alreadv enumerated, and. among the rest,
the one (Katsav) emj)loye<l to describe the act of Klisha
in the miracle of the floating- axe, 2 Ki. vi. <i. ( )f the city
it-ell', which probably. ff>r greater security, was situated
at a more westerly point, where the plain contracted
into a valley, the name, if not the site, lias been re-
covered liv 31. J>e Saiilcy. who. "found at a di-tati-e
of two thousand vards eastward of "Ain el- Hand the
so-called ' 1'euntain (jf the Apostles') the head of a
valley still called KAnziz" (Travels, ii. 2:i, 35, su). [K. w.J

KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH [the yrcms of lust].
A station of the .Israelites (hiring their forty years'
wanderings, Xn. xi. :;-!.:;:.; xxxiii. in, K; De. ix. .'. The Scrip-
tural data for determining it- locality are neither few
nor vague:

1. It must have been in a northerly direction from
Sinai, for the J-raeiites were now on th-ir way to
Kadesh, Xu. xi. .';."); xii. KU xiii. L'i>.

2. It was situated in the wilderness of J'aran, Xu.
\. 12,3 i.

3. The character of the country between it and Sinai
was such as to admit of their inarching in due mili-

- 'I'der. \u. x. 13-28; e^mp. cli. ii.

4. llolia-1.) is described as present in the Israelitish
camp at this juncture, and his local knowledge uul
influence are recognized by ?\iose-. Nu. x. 29-32.

5. Kibroth-hattaavah was distant three days' jour-
ney from Sinai, Nu. x. ;;.;.

(!. The extremity <!' tiie encampment recei\'ed the
name Talierah. Nu. xi. i, -i.

7. It must have possessed peculiar advantages of
water and pasturage, \\hich rendered it suitable for a
lonu'thened sojourn, NH. x. :;:;, and distinguished it fi'om
the two previous stations, which seem to have been
merely temporary resting-places, and. as such, are not
deemed worthy of mention. The people remained at
Kibroth-hattaavah at least a month, Nu.xi. 20,21, and
probably much longer: for the discontent and rebellion
vouch there broke out (after Taberah had lo.-t its ter-
rors) would require time for development; and. niore-
over, they did not arrive at Kadesh until "the time
of the iir.-t ripe grapes." Jsii.xiii.2H (August), and it is
unlikely that they would stay more than a few days
at each of the intervening stations, which, like the first
two from Sinai, are not even named.

8. The. miracle of the quails, Xu. xi. 31, 32, while it
implies no great distance fioni a low-lying sea-coast
as in the previous in-tance, Kx. xvi., which., however, it
exceeds in magnitude may reasonably lie expected,
with oilier incidents of that eventful encampment, to
have left some traces in the modern nomenclature of
the locality.

!>. The narrative supposes that the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the camp was comparatively open and
level. Nu. xi. :.;i, :;.'.

10. It is by no means improbable that some remains
of the "graves," which were so numerous as to give
name to the spot, may yet be discovered, Nu. xi. :;:;, 3-t.

11. Hazeroth was the next station, in the direction
of Kadesh. Xu. xi. :>.->. It may. therefore, lie looked for
at the distance of a day's march from Kibroth-hat-
taavah, and in a line between the latter and Kadesh.

Let us now apply these criteria to the assignment
of a definite site for Kibroth-hattaavah.

(1.) The only northern route from Jebel Musa (here

KIBROTH-HATTAAVAH

KIBROTH-HATTAAYAH

which never fails. 1 Local tradition is in accordance
with this direction of the L-raelitish route. Not fur from

who restrict the designation ' wilderness of Purun" t" ; "the well uf Moses" (K^i -en ami Zamu. 'I he second
the desert et-Tih. that we must either give Kihroth- \ day's journey, wliich would not much exceed ten miles
hattuavah a position in the Tih, or rt-g-ard the reference for the people were not yet in full nuuvhin^ order* ,
t'> 1'ariUi in Nu. x. i '1 a< an anticipation of eh. xii. would lirinu' them to a point where Wady Sheikh c<>n-
]i!. \Ve have onlv to remember that the <-iiii of I tracts into "a narrow defile al unit forty feet in breadth,
Paran. which may fairly be supposed to have e,i\..n with perpendicular granite rocks on both sides" (mirekh.
its name to the adjacent wilderness, and whose ruin- p. l-n . These elites, wliich " inclose the holy mountain
still remain in the modern \Yady i'. t-*, constitute the lioiindary of
south of .lel.el et-Tih. and that \\"ady Sheikh, aloiiu the " wilderness of Sinai." Here, then, before encoun-
which, as we have seen, the Israelites must have com- tering the ditfieulius of the pass, the people would
meneed their march t" K.tdesii. i- in fact a coiitinu- naturally come to a halt, as 1'nivkhardt did when tra-
ation of \\'adv F iraii. in order to lie convinced that \ellin_- in an opposite direction (\>. is;, I- ; and again
tlie expression " wilderm -s of I'aran" is strictly ap- Aral, tradition comes to our aid. and contributes its
plicahle to any spot in or near Wady Sheikh. ipiota to tiie probabilities ot the case. " In a broader

:!. The latter wady. \\hich varies from a ([iiartcr par: of the pass, an insulated rock, about live feet
to half a mile in width, was admirably adapted to that hiji. with a kind of naturally formed seat, is shown as
order! v march and encampment ace, .rdiii''' to their tribes | a place upon \\hich .Moses once reposed, \\lience it has

were required to observe !..: lies : Ji:, ; Luuds >f the ISible, Mosesi: the JVdawin keep it covered with green or dry
i ., h herbs, and some of them kiss it. or touch it \\ith their

1.) 'J'he mention of I lobab's presence, without any liands in posing by " li. p hii ; comp. Zimm. pt. xiv.) Tlie
p ; -,-\ ii.us intimation of his arrival at the camp as in the third day's march .-till fol!,,\\ ing the course of \\ ady
case of his father Jethro), and the de-ire expressed by Sheikhi. brought tlfin out of the wilderness of Sinai.
.'d iscs that he \\ould act as their ^uide, are at once but \\.>uld be impeded not only by their passage of the
explained \\heii it is con-id, red that the territory ,.f defile, but also by their entanglement in '' a thick W'ood
the Keiiite section of the' M idia nit es. no\v represented of tamarisk,"- until they emerged upon an open part
liv tlie Mu/.'iny Arabs, extended from the Cult' of of the valley, which increases in breadth and f. rtility
"Akab.di to the mountain- of Sinai the valley of the as it radnally loses it.-elf in the luxuriance of Wady
( 'cm vent l>earinu r to this day the Arabic name of .lelhro l-V-iran. At thi.- point, then, it would seem, the ark of
(Sh'uei s i i:;D \\hil-- their pa-lure grounds the covenant surmounted l,y the mystic cloud, which

extended northwards to the I'asses ez-Znlakah and el- < "went before them in the three days 1 journey, to search
.\hn-.-ikliv ' I. c a- xiv.K and out a resting-place f-r them." at length stood still, in

thence westwards to \Vadv Kim h. north-east of Wady token that their t"il- had . nded for a season.
I'Yirdn, and to another Wady Kineh, north of Wady : (C>. While the Wady esh-Sheikh, together with " the
Mukatteb (MI KKMTKS). Thus the friendly offices of ' broad wady or sloping plain es-Seheb 1 ' d;,i, lien i i , ,
the Kenite chieftain would (humanly speaking) secure to \\hich open- ,.ut upon it southwards, would all'ord
the Israelites a right of pasturage throughout the re-ion hunple scope for the uTeater part of the multitude, it
thev were now approaching, as wi il as an undi.-tnrl.ed I would be necessary for the remainder .probably one ,.f
passage of the Tdi deliles into the ci ntral d. -, rt. while ' the four " camp.-" or divisions) to proceed northwards
the intimate alliance which subsisted between the Ken- over some hi-h ground the ascent and descent ot
ites ami Amalehit. s w. iild ob\ iate all danger of annoy- \\hich. especially by tin- more easterly of t!u two mads,
ance tVoni th" latter dui'inu the pn .I"ii jed . ncampineiit are not a lit'le Wearisome lUnrkh. j.. '^7; liili. lie's i. ijii;
at Kibroth-hattaavah. The same cause doubtless con- Ziniiu. i>t. xiii.] in order to oe ( ai]>v the "broad open

tribnted to the freedom from inole-tation \\hich mar!-., d space surrounded by lo\v hills." at the junction

the yet longer sojourn at Mount Sinai. of Wadys I'.erah and Akhd.ir, and the "extensive

(.',.) It is well known that Orientals travel but a plain" forming the head of the lirst-named \\ady (liil..
short distance on the first day of a Ion-- journey, and lies, i 1.'.', l'j;>). This additional exertion, following closely
there is no reason for supposing that the Israelites on the upon the pivsious fatigues of the day, accounts for
present occasion departed from this usage. Much time although it does not justify* those complainings wliich
would necessarily be occupied in breaking up their brought down the Divine judgment upon 'them that
cncainpment after so LUIL; a sojourn, and in marshalling' were in the uttermost parts (lit. 'in tin u-lri miti/ ) ot the
the several tribes for the lirst time under their respec- cam])," and caused the spot to be known henceforth as
live standards. We may, therefore, assume with con- Tnl,< ,-<ih. It is difficult to believe that there is no
fidence that their first halting place, which was only \ connection between this occurrence and the name
a temporary one, would be that where travellers usually (lUnili) now borne by the plain to which we have
pass the first night after leaving the convent, viz. the : traced the advanced guard of the Israclitish host.' 1

lerablv U-ss than lialf ihe .iistancu of Abu Smvoirali

the first <l:iv's niiirdi tliat we ini.^ht ovoii, without impropriety,
a.-sign to it a yet sliertcr term. I'r. \Vil.-on says, "Our lirst

going ivlmost directly north east, we pitched . . . attliemout

K 1 1 ', 1 JOT I ! -H ATTA AY All

K1BROTU- 1 LYTTA AVA1I

(7.^ The locality to which tliu Israelites wen- thus
ltd by their l.livine Conductor was admirably adapted
lor a prolonged encampment. Wady Sheikh is de-
scribed as "much frequented by the J'cdavun for its
pasturage;" the lierah is " covered \\ith herbs;" and of
its " nianv shrubs" sonic are specified which the Hocks
and camels eat \\ ith aviditv; while immediately !>evond,
is tin; "great sloping plain, several miles in breadth.''
formed by the merging of Wadys Lebweh and Kineh,
''furnishing abundant pasturage' and ''very good
water."' Of the latu-r important requisite the Israelites
\\ould have a further supply in the two branch \ alleys
llctameli and 'Osh. the water of which is characterized
as " good" and "sweet." Jt is not surprising, there-
fore, to find that these combined advantages render
this u-act of country a favourite camping-ground of the
modern Arabs (iinrckh. p. w:;, K;-^:, :.:;:; nib. lies. i. i-.^-ur).
Of this third and more permanent encampment, as of
the two previous ones, the traditions of the spot, seem
to have preserved a reminiscence in ""Wadv fsruclu,' 1
an open space somewhat to the north of \Vady Kineh
(/hum. ii r . \iii)

(8. ' The I lebre\v for " quail " is .<<.'/<? i 1 or ac/iitr. Xow
it i-- certainly remarkable that in this locality, which we
have seen so many reasons for regarding as the theatre
of the miraculous supply of these creatures, there are-
several names of places which closely resemble it. "V\ e
have already had occasion to mention the hin'h ground
between Wadys Sheikh and lierah. with the two
roads that cross it. This eminence is variously called.
Szalcib and >V< /Y. According to Ximnu rmann, the
more easterly road is named W&dy es-Selif, and that
to the west, which is less steep, \Vady Snleif : he also
has 'Wadv />/'< //(''. a little to the south, in addition to
which there is the well-known "Wady tiil'if, a branch
of the great \Vady Feiran. still further south. All
these names have evidently a common origin, and
what BO probable as the Hebrew word .s<7<?r, with which
it has no small affinity, 1 and which would naturally
linger about the scene of so wonderful an interposition
of Providence. 2 Assuming Wady Soleif, which connects

construction of an intelligible word (Berakh, "an open desert'')
in the place of one which h id lost iis significance, are processes
familiar enough io those who have studied the modifications
vhidi oriental words undergo in the lapse of time, or in their
transition ('mm one language to another.

1 The difference lies simply in the interchange of two sibilants
(.-;,! for t.fi'li) ami two labials (<<< for t >e), bot'n of which are of
constant occurrence.

'-' The inir.iciiloii.- element ill the supply of quails (both in the
desert of Sin anil at Kibroth hat taavaii ) did not consist in The
mere fact of their appearance in either of those localities. For,
as au Arab sheikh of tlie peninsula informed an English traveller.
[here are plenty of them obnut Ih- timi <>f irtitat harvest |vix.
the end of April and beginning of -May, which was precise!)
wiieii the two miracles occurred |: they c ' from II,' tea in Mocks
of a hundred or two together." ( lieldam's Recollections "f I/"///
a.i'l I/if Ktisl, i. ;;n-l, :',().">''. liartlett, when at the sea-shore, near
el Murkhah (desert of Sini, writes, "We saw here numerous
desert partridges or 'quails,' of which a miraculous supply was
ailorded to the Israelites on this very spot '' (1'nrhi /><</ in. 1li-
]>. -i-t, p !() . And T.epsius. while travelling from Tur up
\Vadys llihran ami Sulrif to the, convent, and thence alon;_'
Wady Sheikh (in the very track of the Israelites), remarks,
"All sorts of animals are very rare, except swarir.s of desert
fowls, the quails of Scripture, which are as numerous as they
are tame, and continually attract the attention of the tra\cller
by their shrill cries and the Happing of their wings, when they
rise suddenly from the ground" (TfiVi- ./>";. < Tlli*? to Sinfi,
p. '_'3>. The miracle consisted in their arrival exactly at the
time and in the manner previously indicated, as well as in
vastly greater numbers than usual. It is probable that the
peninsula of Sinai is merely visited, in ordinary seasons, by

Wadys J'Jerah and Sheikh, to be the centre of the en-
campment, the distance thence to \Yadv Solaf (about
eight miles) towards the south, and to Wadv Israela
i about ten miles) norlh\\ards. curiously illustrates the
sacred history, which represents the quails as arriving
in such numbers as to extend " (Iti it <'</< a tin if x jor-
iii !/ on this side, and as it were a day's jouiney on the
other side, round about the camp. :

(It.) The level, not mountainous, character of the
country adjacent to the encampment, implied in the
circumstance just mentioned, and in that of the quails
being " spread abroad," for their Letter piv.-ervatioii,
"round about the camp," is precisely that which we
have found to characteri/.e the plains e.-h->he;kh, es-
Seheb, el-Herah, e\:c.

(Id.) It must be .something more than a coincidence
that the Arab cemeteries in the tract of countrv now
tinder consideration exceed in number those of every
other part of the peninsula. It is as though the inha-
bitants were attracted by some mysterious sympathy
towards that scene of fearful mortality, the remembrance
of which would long survive in the traditions of their
forefathers. Three of these memorials of the dead
deserve mention. About fifteen miles north-west of
Wady I5erah "is a lone Aral) burial-ground, called el-
Mukberah [from the same root as Kihroth], where all
the liedawin who die in the vicinity are buried. A
few stones rudely piled together, or set up singly, serve
to mark the graves: and there \\a> one new '_rave. All
around was silence and solitude, with nothing to disturb
this w ild abode of the dead" (i;ii>. ties. i. n:> ; couip. liurckh.
p. 4 i -L'). The distance of el-.Mukborah. and the fact of
its Vicing still in use, forbid our reo-arding it as repre-
senting "the graves of lust;" but. strange to sav. there
are two more places of sepulture as the traveller pro-
ceeds a few miles southward, and yet more strange.
both of them are in "Wady 1-erah. At its northern
extremity, where it is separated by '"a broad water-
shed" from the plain el- Kineh. " is a small Arab ceme-
tery ' (Bib. lies. i. JL'L.'); and not far from its junction with
Wady Soleif (opposite the mouth of \Vadv "O.-ln. i- to

strau-lers from the main body, as they move northwards in their
annual migration; but, on this occasion, by the instrumentality
first of an " cast." and t hen of a " soul h " wind. Ps. Ixxviii. lit', the
main body itself was diverted from its course, and thrown upon
and around the Hebrew camp. 15y an "east wind" (/<.'</<,,/)
was (and is still) meant by Orientals, a wind from any point
east of a line drawn from north to south; and by a "south \\ ind"
(/(', mill), one south of a line drawn from east to west. Thus, in
the ease before us, an easterly (i.e. south-east) wind would impel
the 1 1 nails up the ( lull' of Sue/;, and then a southerly (i.e. south-
west ) \\ ind would at Mice direct and assist their flight " from
the sea" ii]> the gentle acclivity Inch intervened between it
and the camp of l.-rael. l! will be seen that the-e succc.--i \ e
winds, while admirably adapted to accomplish the Divine pur-
puseon the iciftirn side of the peninsula. Mould be altogether
inapplicable to the eastern: not to mention the "mountains
from S110 to 2i'OOfeethi;jh''(Kiepert), which would prove formid-
able obstacles to so low flying a bird as the quail, already ex-
hausted by ii- migratory journey. This is a further corrobora-
tion of the locality here assigned to Kibroth-hattaavah. As the
quail has been observed instinctively to avail itself of the
Khamsin or hot southerly -umus (\\hich blow in the latter part
of April and during the whole of May), in its annual flight
northwards (Maillet, quoted by llarmer, iv. ,'KU), it is probable
that 1 his is the south-fast wind first referred to by the Psalmist.
So that the wind next mentioned, viz. the south-west, would be
the one which was, strictly speaking, the miraculous or extra-
ordinary agent; and this seems to be recognized in the emphatic
expression of the inspired poet, that it was " brought in li,n the
i~>over'' of God, and by the precision of the original narrative,
which describes the particular wind that "brought quails from
i the sea" as ''a irind fi-or,i Ji.hova.lt."

KIP.UOTH-HATTAAYA1I

KIBZAIM

be seen "an <>/<! I'vinchnj, aj>]><!>-ti,f/>/ no lo'ixjtr u?fd /<// I which will most naturally accord with the sacred nar-

iln Ai-ul)*. The heaps of stones which mark the graves ; rative" (Lands of the Bible, i. SoG-iiM.

are larger than usual, and our guides referred them When the .Israelites commenced their march from
back to the times of the Frank-: ex tin- /Inf'.nr'n (/< Kibroth-hattaavah (the main body by Wady Slu-ikh.
cnriftliiiKj of u-hi'-l tin >i L-nnir luiiltiny thcimselcet," (tt>, the northern division by Wady Akhdar). across the
P. IL'.'I; c-omp. I'.urckh. p. KI). We shall not greatly err in plain el- Hadherah, it was pussihlv with the intention
the belief that this ancient and unused grave-yard, of reaching the Xulakah Pass- the same day. ]'.ut.
whose history is unknown to the modern Arabs, even from a peculiarity in the Hebrew text, it would
as its appearance bespeaks a hi-jher civilization than appear that the a''air of Miriam brought the day's
theirs, contains the veritable dust of those who ' pro- journey to an abrupt close. The original imports that
Voked the Lord to wrath" at Kibroth-hattaavah: while from K ibroth-hattaavah the people removed to
it is possible that the smaller cemetery at the opposite Ila/.emth: and when they were in Ha/eroth, ^Miriam
termination of Wady P.erah is a memorial of the tin- and Aaron -pake ai:'ain>t Muse- because of the Cushite
happy men w - ho fell in the judgment of Taberah. This woman whom he had married." 1 Perhaps this out-
latter event, although occurring, it would set-in, at the break of j.-aloii.-y airain-t Xipporah occasioned, we
same encampment as tin- former, i- Vet represented a,s may well suppose, bv tin- acee.-sioii of diunitv which
a distinct transaction, \> :\ jj. -h, received (in this her native district from the pre-

dl.i It now only remains to consider whether the sence. in so honourable a capacity, of her brother Hoi iah

localitv her,- a-.-Ln, d to Kibroth-hattaavah is coin t' ok place while the people were resting during the

patible with the situation <if Ha/.eroth. the next station h.-at of mid-dav: and it is not impossible that a trace

to it, and apparently only a few miles distant, in the of this incident survives in the name of the particular

direction of Ixadesh The com--,- ,,f thi> argument is part of the plain of Ha/.,-roth aloni;' which their course

utterly irn eouejlal.le with the eoinnionlv received would lie. P.v ivf, reiice to Ximniermaiin. it will be

opinion that lla/.cr, >th is identical with the modern seen that the valley which connects Wady Sheikh with

'Ain el-Hudherah. And. indeed, under any hypo- the Zulakah J 'ass is called Wady >'(//>;(' (the valley of

thesis respecting; either Kibroth-iiattaa\ah or Kad.-h. XIji/Mini/i .' \ [i-:. w.|

a line of rout,- which would take the Israelites over a KIEXA'IM \tl,, /,>;, ijathu-hii/x]. One of the four

most rugged country to so .-astcii\ a point as 'Ain el cities of Kphraim which, with their suburbs, were

lludherah, and. after they had subsisted, as best they assigned to the Levites of the family of Kohath. Jos.

could, in that de-olat. region, for at i, a.-t a week, would xxi. -j-.'. ft is mentioned no more under this name, but

compel them subsequently to advance bv the narrow appear- in the parallel enumeration of I ..-vitieal cities

and v.-ry difficult path along the sea -hoiv to 'Akahah. contain, d in 1 ( 'h. vi. "> 1-M . as ,1 ok mean i. vev. i;-, whicli

is so inhereiitlv improbable, that f,w geographers are isnot to be confounded with "Jokneam of (.'armel'' now

now dispose<l to press it: and even those who advocate Till KaimonV Mr. (Jrove has suggested Smith's Diet.

an easterly position for Kade-h. sup],,,-.- the Israelites Kib. i. 1117; ii. i:a, that .lokmeam icr^p niav be a mistake

to have ero--ed the Til, by one of tin- central passes. ,,f the copyist for Kib/aim iz"_';r t' 1 '' ^" w'ords

and to have entered the "Arabah by the Wady el- being bv no means dissimilar in appearance. p.ut as

lerafeli. there is nothing in the present state of the Hebrew

llajipily. our ehoi.-,- is i,ot limited to a site which text, or in tin- ancient versions, to support this conjee-
has nothing but its name to recommend it. \>r. tmv. it is safer to conclude that .lokmeam is another
Wil-oii a-certain.-d 1,\ careful inquiries from the Arabs and prohalily later name Ijy which Kil /aim was known,
that " fl-fladli'intli \< the ,_,-, n.-ral name ,,f the sandv more especially as the meaniir.s ,,f the two words are
plateau between .lelie! et-'! ill and the Sinaitic range.'' 1 identical. .lokmeam appears to be compounded of two
II,- adds very justly that this open plain, "extending verbs, /",//"// iuu\ \iiiiditi, both of which (like l.-i'il.nla,
for upwards of thirty miles, affords us space sufficient the root alike ,,f Kab/.eel and Kil./aimi si-nify to
to allow us t-. choose the site for the encampment' '' gather" or '' collect." It is not improbable that this

1 This is confirmed l>y the testimony of liun-khardt. who de- ' position does not necessarily follow from the mention, along

si-nates a more easterly lirt ion of this ],lain "//".//.//" (.s 1 //,-. ; with it, of certain pl.i.-es known t,. I,,- near the Jordan; for

p. l-.'ll. andl.y the maps of l;u-seer and Ximmerm inn. whieh Taanaeh and Me-iddo are al>o ment ion. d, w hi.-h are indul.i

ap],Iy to the smoi.'h expanse l.etwe.-n Wady Sol, -if and the ' t.al.ly we-t. ,-J.") Tl l.j.-ct of the j.a.-saue is to d.line the extent,

/ulakah Pass, the titlu " I'lateau Al<il,<nl,i,;-' the Aral.ie article ! of liaaiia's di.striet as a royal purveyor; and as l!,-t h-hean and

l.ein- erroneously incori.. .ra te.il with the name. The Wady i Al.el-Meh,,lah are l.oth eastern bonier town-, it is e.xtremelv

.' In,; already mentioned ('which directly connects the Herah | improhahle that, .lokmeam can l,e any oilier than a >nslrr ter-

ell. -i

(i:n^)in Ilaxeroth;" l.ut. the eommon text, as the inorft diHicult

reading, is to l>e preferred; moreover, the Sejitua^'iiit has x.v.,
i-/-^rt>, not the usual xxi Ta^i\\f,y.~/.'^.

4 To this northern .lokneam must surely he referred the .Tok-
meam or. lokneam of 1 Ki. iv. !_', and not, as Mr. drove thinks

Ctii-iiiil, and hy it the I'reneh army

i.m of Jokineani for .lokneam is of no moment. At the
\voivt it is merely the ordinary interchange of two liquids; hut,
it i- quite pos.MMe that it is due to erroneous transcription, for

arrant its being assigned to the Jokineani (or Kibzaim) of

K1BZATM

KID R

reduplicative construction is intended to e\pn ss the
tico-fold !/nt/n )!,/:/ denoted by the use of the dual form
Kibzaim. Jt has been shown under K AH/KKI. that tlie
verli /cil'x.i/- is employed with especial reference to col-
lections or accumulations of water. As, therefore,
uilh tin- intrusive aliix '/ Kaiw el . it was found to
import a f/i'dtl uatherini;', such as that which con-ti-
tutcs the extensive laironii south of the Dead Sea: so,
with the dual termination (Kihzaim*. it must signify,
according to the laws of analogy, a (f<>ii///c accumula-
tion, ;i marshy condition of the soil occasioned ly tlie
cu/(i//n)i/'(' nf iii-it strut in*, whose waters, for some
reason or other, are prevented from pursuing their
natural course.

Precisely such a locality presents itself within the
precincts of the trihe of Kphrahu, and at that particular
part of it where totally independent omsidi rations lead
us to look for l\ili/aim. The? other Levitical cities of
Ephraim were Sheehem (Xabulust, ( Jozer (Y'azfir. near
JalhY). and Beth-boron ( licit- nr). Of these, Shechemand
lieth-horoii occupied central positions at the northern
and southern limits of the triln: respectively; Cezer is
at the extreme south of the maritime portion of Ephraim:
and the fourth (Kibzaim) would naturally he towards
the opposite extremity of the same rich and populous
plain, rather than in the ru."gvd ami thinly inhabited
country near the Jordan. Moreover, the very Condi-
tions of the ea<e, which, of course, exclude the high
central region- for we have to do here with the out-
fall, not the rise, of streams are equally unfavourable
to the eastern district, where the torrents are far too
rapid in their descent to the deep bed of the Jordan to
admit of the possibility of any accumulation of waters.

Glancing northwards, then, from ( I-e/er, in accord-
ance with these indications, we find a spot which com-
pletely satisfies them. Half-way between .lail'a and
Ca'sarea, on the shore of the Mediterranean, is a marshy
tract called K/utssith, from a site of that name, south
of tlie confluence of two streams, which are variously
designated in the maps, but which are best known as the
Arsuf and the A'l'x'c'/. Une or other of these streams
would seem, from the accounts of travellers, to have
strong claims to be regarded as identical with the "river
Kanah" (Kanah = a reed), which formed the north-
western boundary of Ephraim, 1 Jos. xvi. S; xvii. n, in, and
near to which we have seen reason to locate Kibzaim.
" \\"e arrived (says Lamartine) on the steep banks of
a river, which K/un-fi/ rolls its gloomy waters in a deep
hollow l/i/i// i<-it !* tall real*; the waters are not percep-
tible until they are reached. Troops of wild butl'aloes
are lying among the reeds [eomp. 'the wild beasts of
the reeds,' PS. l\viii. :?*>], and in the river" (Travels, p. 72,
E<linb. iS.'i'.O. Monro speaks of the actual confluence as
not undeserving the name of a "lake" or 'mere," and
describes it as "overgrown with reeds" (Summer Ramble,
i Sl). Dr. Thomson, who also refers to tlie "dense
jungle of mop-headed canes" on the banks of the river,
resembl'mo- those "which cover the great marshes of
the Huleh." satisfactorily accounts for the stagnant
condition of the water. South of Oiesarea, for a con-
siderable distance along the coast, the sands which arc
blown from the seashore have encroached on the rich

1 It is not impossible that cn< nf these streams may yet 1'u
found to be connected with the \Vady Kanah. discovered by
Dr. Robinson a little to the west of Xabulus (l.lfr Bib. R,s. p.
\'.',i>, 139*. But this is not of essential importance, for Khassab
itself signifies "a reed. '

soil of the plain of Sharon to such a degree, that at
this particular point " they are three miles broad and
several hundred feet high. These shifting banks greatly
perplex the brooks which cross the plain. They are not
sufficiently powerful to keep their channels open durini;
summer, and hence they are often dammed up at the
mouth and form large marshes along the very margin
of the sand'' (The Land and the Itook, p. :>l<i, ;,!_'). It is onlv
necessary to add, that as el-K useib appears to repre-
sent Kabzeel, Kasab is a similar corruption of Kib-
zaim.- [E. w.J

KID. &< COAT.

KID'ROjST [Ueb. pip: i!r. KcSpuv, probable meaning
noticed below]. At the distance of about a mile and a
half to the north west of the Damascus gate of Jerusa-
lem, a slight depression in the face of the broad plateau
which stretches out in that direction from the citv wall.
marks the commencement of the Kidron valley. Its
course for three-fourths of a mile is straight towards the
city. Erom this point it inclines rather more to the
east; and a little farther on it runs more easterly still.
Here it is crossed by the Xablous road, and thus far
the hollow continues so inconsiderable as hardlv to
attract the traveller's notice. It has now reached the
base 'of Scopus: sinking as it advances deeper and more
rapidly in proportion as the overhangino- ascent of that
well-known hill becomes steeper and higher. Half a
mile farther on. where it comes opposite to. and sweep>
close under, the north-eastern extremity of the city
wall, it has already attained the well-defined character
of a rocky and picturesque ravine. It is immediately
over against this angle of the city that Scopus joins on
to the shoulder of Olivet. Deflected by this confront-
ing mount the Kidron valley turns suddenly round
from east to south, and forms a deep and narrow ^oi-.e
between the base of Olivet and the eastern side of the
city. This part of the valley is better known amon-
both Jews and .Moslems as the Valley of Jehoshaphat.
or rather of God's judgment, Joel iii. >. It is their
favourite burying-place. Its sides are studded with
their tombs those of the Mahommedaiis on the right
beneath the city wall: those of the seed of Abraham on
the left along the lower parts of the Mount of Olives.
The two races, though so bitterly opposed to each
other in most things, have a common tradition as to
the privilege and benefit of being buried in this .-acred
soil. It is to be, as they believe, the scene of the last
judgment; and to have their graves in this valley they
fondly persuade themselves is to make sure of a happy
resurrection.

It is with this part of the valley those memorable
incidents are connected, which have chiefly tended to
invest it with so sacred an interest in the eyes of every
reader of holy Scripture.

Two of these incidents stand out prominently from
all the others with which the Kidron is associated.
When David, the greatest of the kings of Israel, be-
trayed by his own friends and abandoned by his own
people, was driven from his city and his throne, he
"passed over the brook Kidron,'' and "went up by
the ascent of Mount Olivet, and wept as he went
up." 2 f*x. xv. 2ii, :;o. When David's Son and David's

KIDROX

Lord, the great Messiah, was about to be delivered into
the hands of his enemies by one of his own apostles,
and to be deserted by all the rest, he too " went over
the brook Oedron," and somewhere on the Mount of
Olives beyond it, endured that agony in which his soul
was exceeding' sorrowful even unto death, .in. xviii. i.
From the nature of the ground, " the ascent of Olivet,"
for any one leaving the city, must always have been
approached at, or near, the spot where the bed of the
valley of the Kidroii is crossed, at the present day, by
the road that leads down to it from the gate of Stephen.
That gate is near the centre of the eastern wall of the
city. The bottom of the valley at tins point is llllj feet
lower than the base of the city wall, and oi.H) feet lower
than the summit of the Mount of Olives, which rises
from its other and opposite side. The traditional
Gethsemane, with its ^rove of venerable olive-trees,
lies just beyond the Kidroii, and immediately at the
point where the aseeiit of the hill begins.

IJelow Gethsemane the Kidroii \alley narrows more
and nioiv: and at the distance of a few hundred yards
farther on. becumes a mere cleft bet ween the precipices
of the Hill of Offence on its eastern side, and the steep
and rocky ridge of Moriah and ( Iphel on the west. Its
bed is here l")ii feet lower than the base of the western
extremity of the eitv wall. In the \vrv throat of this

dee], defile, ami close ill at tile foot I if dplle!, is til'

Fountain of the Virgin, uhich is, on ^ood grounds.
supposed to be fed from the Wells or cisterns \\hich
still exist beneath the site of the ancient temple on the
height of Moriah. From this fountain there is an
artificial conduit cut through the entire thickness of
the ridge of Ophel to the I'oo] of Siloani. which lies on
the farther or south -western side of that ridge, and
by this conduit that sacred pool also is conm.-c-ted with
the waters of the ancient sanctuary above.

Immediately lieyond Opln-l the Kidroii valley widen-
out into a little plain, formed by the convergence of tin-
valleys of the Tvropieon and of Ilinnom, which, almi^'
with that of the Kidn/n itself, all upen into it. Thi- sin
gnlar and picture-. pie inelosuiv shut in by the preci-
pitous sides ,,f the Hill of Offence on the east, by thos,
of the Hill of l-lvil Counsel on the west, and by the
heights of '/.'urn, which rise :!no i', , t above it. on the
north was occupied in ancient scripture times witii the
king's gardens. Its soil, accumulated in the course of
ages, by the action of tin- winter torrents that enter it
through the different valleys already named, is deep
and fertile, and furnishes the vegetable market of Jeru-
salem with its chief supplies at the present day.

Hitherto we have spoken of the valley of the Kidroii
only, and not of the brook or stream which bears that
name. It is now, indeed, sufficiently well known that
its waters usually How during only a few days in tin-
year; though in exceptional seasons, when the winter
and spring rains are excessive, the How may continue
for two or three week's (Miss Rogers' Domestic Life in Tales-
tine). It is not improbable that in former times, when
the thick woods which then clothed the adjacent hills,
must have prevented to some extent the rapid evapora-
tion which after every rain-fall now takes place, the
Kidroii may have been a running stream for weeks
instead of days, or for months instead of weeks. That
it ever flowed all round the year, however, there is no
reason to believe. The Hebrew frnp bn; seems to

apply rather to the cleft or ravine which the stream has
VOL. H.

made than to the stream itself: while the Greek epithet
Xfiftdppos, which both Josephus (Ant. viii. n and the
Septimgint, L> sa. xv. -s.i, as well as the apostle John,
cli. xviii. i, employ as descriptive of the Kidroii con-
sidered as a stream, plainly indicates that its waters
flowed in winter onlv.

As regards the import of the term Kidroii itself,
various conjectures have been formed. That it had
anything to do with </<(;., as some have supposed, is
an obvious mistake, founded on the Greek mode of
spelling the Hebrew word. What Keland savs on this
subject is sufficiently conclusive: "Ad nomeii Kedron
i|Uod attinet a cedris, illud baud duxerim. Olea- hie
fuere pluriniie, 11011 cedri: et Josephus quidem memorat
(Ant. viii. ^), cedros plurimas in .luda-a a Salomons plan-
tatas : sed iv TTfoiois, lion in istins modi vallibus, qualis
erat Kedron. Prcetenruam quod nomeii Kedron vetns-
tius \ ideatur, teinporibus Salomnnis; et ilia opinio, de
cedris, nata videatur ex Gneco ruiv KtS/iuv. (|unm He-
brajum nomeii nil minus <|uam cedros imtet " (i'ahesthm,
1>. '-'17). Looking to the root of the Jlebrew name
Kedron, the probability seems to be that it was designed
to characterize the turbid character and violent flow of
its waters as a mere winter torrent, soiled and swollen
by tlie heavy rains, as its waters, surcharged with mud
and gravel, riisln d down from the steep overhanging
hills.

l'>e\"iid (I,,, point to which we have now traced the
Kidroii \allev, it, proceeds iii a southerly direction for
three or four miles, and then bending eastwards, it
pursues its tortuous course through the arid and sterile
wilderness of .ludah. and finally terminates at the
north-western shore of the Dead Sea. It has been
already stated that the waters of the Pool of Siloani,
which ilow into the Kidroii -alley from the base of
Ophel, are on good grounds believed to have their
chief source in the wells or cisterns beneath the site of
the ancient temple of Jerusalem. Keeping this fact
in mind, it will at once be seen that there is a singular
appropriateness, and a beautiful significance, in the lan-
.uaue of K/ek ill's vision, cli. xlvii The waters \\hich
he saw issuing from beneath tin altar of the house of
( oid appeared to descend into the Kidroii valley, and
to v.0 out towanl the east country, and to go down into
the desert, and to v.o into the sea,: and everywhere,
as they flowed on, barrenness and drought wen.- suc-
ceeded by life and fruitfulness, and the very waters of
the Dead Sea itself Were healed. The scene still sup-
plies all the imagery which this glorious vision employs.
Tlie waters still flow down into the valley, and so far
as their influence extends, the vision in its literal
import is reali/.ed. For several miles onward from
Siloani the Kidroii valley is one continuous garden,
where the olive, the vine, and the fig-tree, and all
pleasant plants, abound. l>ut where the waters fail
the desert begins. And so it is with the gospel, whose
celestial origin and blessed effects the vision figuratively
describes. Where it comes, there is moral and spiritual
life. Where it is absent and unknown, this fallen world
is a moral and spiritual waste.

Far down the valley at the distance of eleven or
twelve miles from Jerusalem there is one of the oldest
conventual establishments in the world. Jt is that of
Mar-Saba, or Saint Saba, who founded it in the fifth
century. Some idea may be fa-mod of its massive
architecture and of the loneliness and rugged grandeur
of the scenery which surrounds it. from the graphic

130

KTXAIT

sketch which this pave exhibits. The ei >nvcnt i~ built on
the soutlicrn side of the Kidron valley the Wady-or-
.I'ahib or INIonks' Valley, as at this part of its course it
is commonly called. In its neighbourhood tin. 1 valley i-
shut in liy precipitous rocks i,f nearly 400 feet in height.

At the point where the convent stands, a spur from
the mountain above projects itself into the ravine.
This projecting ridge lias the deep gulf or chasm of the
Kidron valley on its left and front, while, on the riu'ht.
it is defended by a narrow cleft that cuts dee]) into the
face of the hill. On three sides therefore the convent
is all but unapproachable; only at the upper end, where
the rock on which it stands joins on to the hill above,
could any enemy, unprovided with artillery, as.-ail it.
The edifice is of vast size, occupying as it does, with its
courts and buildings, the successive shelves of rock by
which the ridge sinks gradually down to almost the
bottom of the valley. The whole is surrounded with
walls of immense thickness, and of fifty or sixty feet in
height a more than sufficient protection against any
weapons which the Bedouin, the wild wandering sons
of the desert, can bring to bear against it. It contains
about thirty monks, and belongs to the Greek church.
It has existed for fourteen hundred years, but has done
nothing to irrigate the moral \vastes, the desolations of
many generations, which lie all around it.

In the view which the accompanying sketch exhibits,
the spectator is looking down the valley eastwards,
and away across the wilderness of Judah to the
mountains of Moab. [R. H. ]

KI'NArl [Kcnitc xfttJmifnl], a city in the " South " of
Judah, Jus. xv. . There is an obvious affinity between
this nani" (n:7> and Kenite ('rp 1 ) : and as the words in
this list greatly exceed the total number of cities speci-
fied, ver. ::-.', thus proving that many of the names were
compound; and as. moreover, the Septuagint reading
for the previous \\ords ' Kdur and .Tagur." ver. 21, is
' A pa KO.L 'Acrp, implying that the Hebrew text of that
date answered to " Arad and TTaxor:" we have no slight
grounds for believing that the three first names in the
catalogue originally stood thus: " Kab/eel, and Arad,
and Hazar-Kinah." Nothing can be more natural
than this mention of the ''Kenite settlement" after
that of Arad, when taken in connection with the state-

ment in .In. i. 1C. that ''the children of the Kenite.
Moses' father-in-law, went up out of the city of palm-
trees with the children of .ludah into the wilderness,
which lieth in the s >uth of Arad." That Ha/ar-Kinah
derived its name from this circumstance, is not incom-
patible with the earl'est date that
can be assigned to the book of
Joshua; for the settlement of the
Kenites near Arad must, from
the terms of the narrative, have
tak'-n ]>Ia<e almost immediately
after the fall of Jericho, and the
allotment of Judah's inht ritance.
and consequently within the life-
time of Josh.ua himself. --For the
probable site of Hnzar-Kinah.nnd
other particulars, see the arfiele
on the KKXITF.S. [F,. w.]

KING. This term is used in
the ! )ld Testament scripture with
.-nine latitude, and is often ap-
plied where some inferior epithet
would correspond better with
modern ideas. It occurs first in
connection with the leaders of
the expedition which called the
prowess, of Abraham into play,
and those who suffered by it,

(;o. xiv. Several of the kings in question may have had
dominions of some extent: but when one hears of the
king of Sodom, the king of Gomorrah, the king of
Ad mail, the king of Zeboim all towns Ivinn' within a
very limited district, and necessarily of moderate si/"
it is. manifest that L'UKJ must be understood much in
the sense of local superior or chief ruler. The remark-
able thing, however, which comes out in these and
many similar notices, is the prevailing tendency in early
times toward monarchical government. Whenever
the people of a district settled down and formed them-
selves into a regular community, it was under the
presidency of a regal head. 7\ot in Egypt alone, but
in Salem, in Cerar. in all the little towns with which
the patriarchs came into contact, a king invariably
appears on the scene; and at the conquest of Canaan
so many as thirty-one kings are said to have fallen
before Joshua, Jos. xii. o, 2t; while Adonibezek speaks of
having subdued even seventy, .In. i. ~. It was much
the same in the ancient states of Greece and Italy:
the primitive form of government in each appears to
have been kindly: and only when some advance had
been made in order, oiviii/ation. and intelligence, did
the republican take the place of monarchian rule.
This no doubt arose in good measure from the rude
and lawless forces which in those early times were ever
ready to come into operation; and which nmh-rid it
necessary, for safety and protection, to have one in-
vested with command who could watch for the interests
of his particular community, and M.ive a prompt and
authoritative direction to its affairs. When the public
and private relations of men became more clearly
defined, and the principles of government were better
understood, other and more popular forms of constitu-
tion were often adopted; though, again, the further
progress of kingdoms, the lust of empire, and the
corresponding growth of luxury and ambition, almost
invariably wrought toward the establishment of a
sin<rle head and arm at the centre of affairs. This alone

KING :

was found adequate to the repression of disorders, to
give consistency to the line of policy pursued, and
impart regularity and vigour to the administration.

The polity set up among the covenant-people on
their deliverance from Egypt, and with a view to their
settlement in Canaan, did not f'irmall/i differ from
that of the other states and peoples around them. Its
theory, like that of the rest, was monarcliian, but
monarchian on a very different principle. For the
grand peculiarity in Israel's case was, that an invisible,
imt a visible, head was chosen to hold the place of king
the Lord of heaven and earth. Moses, indeed, has
once applied to him the name of king in Jeshiirun. DC.
xxxiu.;".; but only in the more general sense of having
for a time exercised kinglike authority, by establishin-;
the laws to be observed in the community, and taking
the practical lead in its management. He himself
never professed to have more than delegated authority,
and in the whole tenor of his legislation he as-urncd
God to be their only proper kin--;. \ iewed in respect
to its visible form of administration, th'- government
he set up was a commonwealth, partaking largely ot
the popular and republican element; but in its funda-
mental character it was a theocracy, of which Jehovah
was at once lawgiver and king. In respect, however,
t" the outward organization of thin-;-, room was still
left for the institution of a visible head. The election
of a king was contemplated as a tiling perfectly con-
sistent, if rightly -one about, with the hi-Ji'-r interests
of the theocracy, Do. xvii. The promise even of king--
one day to arise out of their loins was from the iii
distinctly held out to the patriarchs,
misc. no doubt, ivali/.cd in part by
Israil into a kingdom of priests, K\. \
al.-o pointing to some more distinct and formal de\,-li.p.
nient. It was the x 7 , ;,-'/ in which, when tl
came, the people set about the appointment, of ., king,
not the appointment itself, which brought it into col-
lision with the -r at design of the theocracy, and called
forth the earnest prote.-t "f Samuel, I Su viii And the
manner in which the kings afterwards too coiumonlv
bore- themselves on the throne, m ire than justified tin-
concern and jealousy manifested at its institution by
the prophet. Yet the noble rise which matters took
in the hands of David, and the establishment "fa per-
petual covenant with him for ruling in the house of
God - a covenant within the Abrahamie covenant of
blessing, and necessary to secure its proper accomplish-
ment was the clearest proof how compatible the
existence of a visible was with that of an invisible
head; or rather, how the perfection aimed at by the
theocracy could only be carried into effect by the com
binatioii of the human with the divine God still indeed
the kin-', but God manifest in the flesh, and through
flesh wielding the destinies of his everlasting kingdom
among men.

In regard, however, to the fir.st distinct indication
of a kingly government in Israel- that namely in DC.
xvii. 1-1-20, as what might possibly happen: and, if it
should happen, perfectly compatible with the ends of
the theocracy, there was a point of affinity with the
constitution of things in Fgypt, which it is well to
mark; because, though the spirit of all was different
in Israel, yet the form sketched by the hand of the
lawgiver bore a certain resemblance to what existed in
Egypt. There also a theocratic element entered into
the monarchical regimen; for the king was to a huvc

KINGDOM

! extent subject to the declared will and ministers of
the heavenly powers. The kings did not govern as in
other monarchical states, arbitrarily and despotically:
they were responsible for their whole conduct, and had
to conform themselves to legal prescriptions. Thus, in
the morning, when the king bathed and clothed him-
self, he had first to bring an offering to the gods; then,
in his presence and before the assembled people, a
solemn prayer was presented by the high-priest, in
which his kingly obligations were set before him. The
greatest part of the day was spent in the society of the
priests. Hence they were even called priests; for ex-
ample by Llutareh (Creuzcr, Symbolik, ii. p. ii;). It was
therefore but applying to Israel, with a fitting accom-
modation to the demands of the theocracy, the polity
with which they had been familiar in F--\ pt, when
Moses, contemplating the probable institution of an
earthly kingdom, appointed the king who might be
chosen to regard him-' !:' as in a peculiar sense the
servant of he.-, yen. and to take coun.-el daily at the
word of God. Fv.-n apart from the divine direction
which Mos-s here also doubt! -- received, the instruc-
tion could not be viewed as unnatural: the people of
Israel had already been familiar with some'.hin-; akin
to it.

The close connection between the kin-; and the

pri-stl 1 in l~ra"l. and of the kin,-; with the higher

' nds of the covenant, may of it-elf serve to explain the
custom, which was adopted at the very institution of
the kingdom, of setting apart or consecrating the per-
son appointed by anointing him with oil, is.-i. x.l;
whence the kin- for the time being came to be called
Lord's anointed." l'.ut for this also there was
f'.und. even from very n mote times, a prototype in
F.gypt, where kin-- received this modi- of coi,-eeration
trom tin- hands of the pri. Ms. and were familiarly
called "the anointed of the gods." The spiritual
nil anin- of the ceremony, howe\er, ditl'ered materially
in the two cases, takin- its distinctive character from
tin- spirit of tin- reli-ions belonging to the ivsp.ctive
countries. I'.ut see under ANOINTING, and IIY'/-///.--'/,,',.,-

A .;,! L' ;/! /f,t. (ell. xv.)

KINGDOM OF GOD on < )F II LA V KN \;1aai\da
<)<o?, TUV ovpai'i2i'\. The-'- are the two mod. s of
' \pivssion Used in the < lospels to denote tin- \ew Tes-
tament form of the theocracy the divine kingdom as
s't up in the hands, and found, d on the mediatorial
W( rk. of the Lord Jesus Christ. Of tin- two expressions
one is peculiar to St. Matthew: he alone has /,-/'//;;(/<.//<
nf/tiai-iii (lit. of tlir hnii-ui*}, and has it so frequently,
that out of thirty-seven times in all that either expres-
sion occurs, in thirty-three it takes the form of l.-iinnlonl
'f In a a ii. It is not (mite easy to account for so marked
a peculiarity in the use of a particular phrase, though
it probably arose out of the more Hebraistic cast of the
gospel of Matthew. For. there is reason to believe,
not only that the expression kliii/dain of hear en was
employed as synonymous with knujdnnl of <iJ, but
that the former expression had become common among
the Jews of our Lord's time for denoting the state of
things expected to be brought in by the Messiah. The
mere- use of the expression in St. Matthew, uttered
apparently by John Uaptist, and our Lord himself,
without a note of explanation, as if all perfectly under-
stood what was meant by it, seems alone conclusive
evidence of this. The Old Testament constitution, and
the writings belonging to it, had familiarized the Jews

KINGDOM -

to the employment of the terms /-/V/ and /diij/'limi to !
God. not merely with reference to his universal sove-
reignty, but also to his special connection with the j

j pie he had chosen for himself, I S:i. \ii. r.': I's. ii. (i; v. 'J;

xx. !i;lL'h. xxix. II:.' t'h. xiii. >,Ae. Ill Daniel, however, where-
pointed expression required to be uiven to the difference
in this respect between what is of eartli and what is of
heaven, we find matters ordered on a certain occasion
with a view to bring out the specific lesson that "the
heavens do rule," di. iv. iiii; and in the interpretation
given to the vision, which had been granted to Nebu-
chadne/.zar, it was said, with more special reference t<>
New Testament times, that "in the days of those
(earthly) kings the God of heaven (lit. of the heavens)
should set up a kingdom that should never be destroyed,"
di. ii. 41. In still another vision granted to Daniel him-
self, this divine kingdom was represented under the
image of "one like a Son of man coming with the clouds
of heaven, and there was given him dominion and
glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations, and lan-
guages should serve him," di. ui. in, 11. It appears to
have been in consequence of the phraseology thus in-
troduced and sanctioned by Daniel, that the expression
"kingdom of heaven" crocTT P'ro, iitu/kutk hashamdim)
passed into common usage among the Jews, and was
but another name with them for a state of fellowship
with God and devotedness to his service. Many ex-
amples of this are given by Wetstein on Mat. iii. 2
from Jewish writings: thus. " He who confesses God to
lie one, and repeats De. vi. -i, takes up the kingdom of
heaven." "Jacob called his sons and commanded
them concerning the ways of God. and they took upon
them the kingdom of heaven." " The sons of Achasius
did not take upon them the yoke of the kingdom of
heaven; they did not acknowledge the Lord, for they
said, There is not a kingdom in heaven," <\c. The
expression, indeed, does not seem to have been used
specifically with reference to the Messiah's coming, or
the state to be introduced by him ((or the examples
produced by Schottgen, De Messia, di. ii., are scarcely ill
point); but when the Lord himself was declared to be
at hand to remodel everything, and visibly take the
government, as it were, on his shoulder, it would be
understood of itself, that here the kingdom of heaven
should be found concentrating itself, and that to join
one's self to Messiah would be in the truest sense to
take up the yoke of that kingdom.

Some have thought it advisable to substitute ni'jn
for kiiujdoni in the expressions under consideration, on
the ground (as Campbell remarks in one of his Pn/hiii-
iiar// J)iwrt<iti<>it!i to t/ie d'ox/iclti) that they refer to that
sort of dominion which is understood by the dispensa-
tion of grace brought in by the gospel, having to do
merely with the state of the soul here; while the phrase,
especially of the "kingdom of heaven," he conceives
properly indicates the state of perfect felicity to be
enjoyed in the world to come. This, however, is to
divide what Scripture would rather have us to connect
in one idea. Christ's kingdom is not a divided one,
either as to men's relation to it, or the region to which
its operations belong. While it has here pre-eminently
and primarily to do with the inner man, yet it is by no
means confined to this; it comprehends the external as
well as the internal, and embraces alike time and eter-
nity. From the moment of their believing upon Christ
sinners are translated into the kingdom of God's dear

Son; they become related to a heavenly citizenship; and
both as individuals and as members of particular
churches, they are'bonnd by their calling to strive after
the realization of a state or kingdom, which stands in
such affinity with the higher world. " He has made
us a kingdom, priests to God and our Father," P.e. i. fl
so it stands in the correct text is the motto that every
Christian church should take to itself, and which it
should seek even now to have made good in the condi-
tion and character of all belonging to it.

At the same time it will be understood that in the
descriptions and exhortations of New Testament Scrip-
ture, reference is had, under the expressions "kingdom
of heaven," and "kingdom of Cod," sometimes more
to the present, sometimes more to the future world.
It is so especially in our Lord's parabolical repre-
sentations respecting the kingdom. These delineate'
all the varied states and aspects of the kingdom, from
its first apparently small and feeble beginnings, to its
final issues in glory and condemnation; some embrace
the whole compass of the history, while others are con-
fined to a limited portion of it. But in none of them
is the view presented that simply of an int< rnal expe-
rience; there is always comprehended a state of things
which the term kingdom, in its natural complex mean-
ing, can quite fitly be applied to.

KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF.
The two books of Kings, which, in the English Bible,
follow the two books of Samuel, and precede the two
books of Chronicles, were originally one book. .In
Hebrew 7 MSS. they are undivided, and form a continu-
ous narrative of the Hebrew people from the latter days
of king David to the captivity of Judah in Babylon.

The division into two books was first made in the
Scptuagint version and then in the Vulgate. In the
LXX. these books are called j3a<Ti\eiuiv Tpir-rj, /3am-
\fiLov rerdpTT], the third and the fourth book of King-
doms, because they contain the history of the two king-
doms of Israel and Judah, the two books of Samuel
beimi Tr/iii'Tri and Stvrepij. I lithe Vulgate they are named
Tertius, Quartus Regum Liber, the third and fourth
book of Kings, because they contain a list of the suc-
cessive kings of Israel and Judah. This division was
first introduced into the Hebrew Scriptures by Daniel
Bomber^, in his printed editions issued between the
years lf)lS and 1;>4D. The former Hebrew title was
TH Tpsrri (now king David i, but in printed Bibles we
find respectively N CW3 and 1 C^T),

I. Tin' fin-ill <>f flic lionl'it. The question has been
raised and carefully discussed, whether the books of
Kings (1 and 2) constitute an entire work of themselves,
or whether they originally formed part of a larger work.
It has been thought by some writers that there was a
laruv historical work embracing the principal parts of
the Pentateuch. Joshua. Judges, Samuel, and Kings, out
of which these several books, as we now have them,
have been formed. Ewald regards the books of Judges
(with Ruth), 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings, as form-
ing parts of one whole work, which he calls '' The great
book of the Kings.''

The grounds on which the supposition has been built,
that the books of Kings form part of a larger work,
beginning with Judges and ending with the account of
the captivity, are partly the following:

(1.) These books together contain one unbroken narra-
tive, both in form and matter, each portion being con-
nected with the preceding by the conjunctive i, or the

KINGS

continuative TTH, The hook of Judges shows itself to
bo a separate work from Joshua, by opening with a
narration of events with which that book closes; the
work then proceeds through the times of the Judges,
and u'oes on to give, in Kuth, the family history and
genealoLCV of l)avid, and in Samuel and Kings the i
events which transpired down to the captivity.

('2.) The recurrence in Judges of the phrases, "and in
those days there was no kini;' in Israel, " cli. x\ii. ii; xviii. l ;
xxi. 2.1; "It came to puss in those days when there was
no kino-," ch. xix. u and in Kuth. ch. i i, " Now it came
to pass in the days when tin- judges ruled," shows that
this portion of the work v, as written in the times v. hen
there inrc kings in Israel. The writer therefore was
in a position to pass under review the whole period of
the times of the judge s, and we find that he e-timat. .-
tin- conduct of the p t opK- according to the decree of
their conformity to the law of the Lord, after the man-
ner of the writer of Kiiu's. Ju. ii. n-r.i; -Ki. xui. ?--::.

A'.'ain. in Ju. i. -1. it is said that the Jcl>u.-itc- dwell
\\iththe children of IVnjamin in Jerusalem n,/ti> tltit
</iii/ : and in - Sa. xxiv. 1 '>. mention is made of Araunah
the Ji.liH.-iih' as an inhabitant of Jerusalem, from which
it i.- inferred that the writer intended the-e facts t"
explain each other. (I'.nt see Jos. xv. c,:; ) There is thought
to be a reference in Ju. xviii. :>U to the captivity of

I.-rael in the day- of Moshe.i. in which case the 1 k

must have been written subsequently to tlial t'lue, a.-
wcre the books of Kind's.

(:>.) The books of KiiiLi- take up the narrative where
l! Samuel breaks oil', and proceed in the ,-ame spirit
and manner to continue the hi-tory. with the earlier
parts of which the writer -fives proof of beinir well ae
i|liainted (compare 1 Ki. ii. 1 1 with _' Sa v. I, :.. 2 Ki. xvii. 11 with
Ju. ii. ii-r.), \c. ; and in order to perceive the general re-
semblance of spirit and manner. seeJu iv. vii. xi.; 1 Sa. iv.
.xvii.; 1 Ki. viii.: _' Ki. xvii. ic.

ll.) Similarity of diet ion has been observed through-
out, indicating identity of author-hip. The phra.-e.
"Spirit of Jehovah,'' occurs first in Judges, and fiv
(juently afterwards in Samuel and Killers. Ju iii. i"; \i
:it, ii- ; 1 S.i. \. t;.,':c.: 1 Ki . xx.i. Jl; - Ki ii. Ifi, ic. So. ".Man of
( loll, "to designate a prophet, and "(loddo so to me
ami more also," are common to them.

Hut these reason- are 1 not conclusive. Manv of the
re-emblances may be accounted for in other wavs.
whilst there are important and wider differences.

(1.) If the arguments were sufficient to join Judges,
Samuel, and Kind's together in one work, for the same
reasons Joshua must lie added. .IMS. i. i, xv. i;:! ; xxiii. and
xxiv ; Ju. i. 1.

(J.) The writer of Kings miuht be well acquainted with
the previous history of his people, and even with the
contents of Judges and Samuel, without being himself
the author of those books.

(o.) Such similarity of diction as exists may be ascribed

' KINGS

to the tise by the writer of Kings of earlier documents,
to which also the writer of Samuel had access.

(4.) There are good reasons for regarding the Kings
as together forming an entire and independent work,
such as - the similarity of style and language, both
vocabulary and grammar, which pervades the two
books, but distinguishes them from others - the uniform
system of ([notation observed in them, but not in the
books which precede them - the same careful attention
to chronology the recurrence of certain phrases and
forms of speech peculiar to them. A great number
of words occur in Kings, and are found in them only;
such are chiefly names of materials and utensils, and
architectural terms. Words, and unusual forms of
words, occur, which are only found here and in writers
of the same period, as Isaiah and Jeremiah, but not
in Samuel or Judges. (If these a long list miidit be
"iven, but the following may siiilice :

nr>! for i; - si :! Ki. v i. l:>. only.

!"!""N, meat. 1 Ki. xix. J\ only.

C"*2Ti<, almiiu trees. 1 Ki. x. 11, ]'2, three times.
r ; "l^- pillars, '2 Ki. xviii. Id. only.

;-- -\ s <. stalls, 1 Ki. iv. ~2>> (v. G;, only thus.

c-p;, fowls. 1 Ki. i\-. ~2'4 (v. :i'i.

in:, to stretch one-elf, 1 Ki. xviii. 4^; Ii Ki. iv.

34, 35, only.
1 Ki. xx. :JS. 41 , only.
'2 Ki. xxv. 1 '_', onlv.
'2 Ki. ii. >, only.
1 Ki. v. '.' ('2'>*. only.
1 Ki. v i. 1. !>7, only.
'2 Ki. xvii. !>. onlv.
1 Ki. vi. ij, (>, Id, only.
1 Ki. vii. 4(i, only.
'2 Ki. xvii. L'l , onlv.
'2 Ki. iv. 7. only.
1 Ki. xx. (:'>; xxi. 4, f>, only.
'2 Ki. xxiii. 1 1 , only.
'_' Ki. vi. -!.">, only,
J Ki. xv. Id, only.
'2 Ki. vi. S, only.

for 1-rt*, a>hes,

I-;, liii-bandinan.

C~:. wrap together.

P,-,,--,. floats,

n, month /if,

urn, to act secretlv.

l"l", chambers.

~rj"2, cluv.

N't:, to drive.

.--. debt,

c, heavv,

T~I~. suburbs.

;~. (iiiea.-uiv.t

-;-. before iprej).),

."cnn, camji,

-,.,,. cha|'iter,

Y^P^ snufl'ers,

occurs only in Ki. Ch. and Je
occtirs onl in Ki. Ch. and Je

ctirs only in Ki. Ch. .Je. and Ezr.

IT. Tin- <-<>nt< nix. The contents of these books are
comprised in the fi illowing tabular arrangement, in which
an attempt has been made to assign to the principal
events their exact date, and to place side by side the
contemporaneous events in the history of the two
kingdoms.

TABULAR AND CHRONOLOGICAL AUKA.\(,EMENT OF THE CONTENTS OF THE TWO BOOKS OF KINGS.

I. THK UNITED KINCDOM.

Saul (forty years).
<~> David (forty year.V.

Tin- first bonk of Kin^s narrates the last events in tin 1 life of David. How in his old age Abishag waits on him, ch. i. 1-4.
Adonijah usurps the kingdom, in which lie is aided by .loab and Abiathar, ver. 5 10. Nathan and Bathsheba inform the.
king thereof, and remind him of his promise that Solomon .should be his successor, ver. 10-IU. David commands Xadok,
Nathan, and Benaiah to make Solomon king, which is done, to the great joy of the people, ver. Ui'-lO. The guests of
Adonijah, informed of this act, immediately disperse, and lie flees to the altar for refuge. Solomon sends for him, and bids
him go to his own house, ver. 41-53. David's final charge to Solomon, in which he enjoins obedienee to the law of God,

KINGS

KINGS.

wards Joab, the sons of Barzillai, and Shimei, ch. ii. 1-10. David dies, having reigned

in Hebron, and thirty-three in Jerusalem, ver. in. 11.

Solomon (reigned forty years)

Shimei, ordered by the kin-- not to leave Jerusalem o

n pain of death, pursue

runaway servants to Oath, and mi hi.s

Solomon having married the dauuht

f Pharaoh, king of Egypt, places her in the

I. The people sacrifice on high places, no house being yet built unto the name of the Lord. Solomon

1012
P. Ex.

48 (?)

1005

city of Da\ id. ch

burns incense on high places, and especially at Gibeon, ver. -2 1. There "the Lord appears to Mm h'l a'drcam and'oilers
him his choice of gifts; and approving of his choice of wisdom, promises him also riches and honour, and on condition of his
walking as did his father David, length of life as well, ver. 5 11. Solomon otters burnt-offerings and peace offerings before
the ark of the covenant ac Jerusalem, and makes a feast for his servants, ver. 15. Two harlots come to the king for his
judgment, and all Israel admire the w isdom of his decision, ver. 10-2S. A list ,,f Solomon's chief ollicers of state, ch. iv. 1-lsi
The prosperity of the people, and the extent of the kingdom, and the daily provision of his household. His horses chariots
and horsemen, and their provender, ver. 20 28. Solomon's wisdom asserted to be pre eminent; his proverbs and songs' his
knowledge of plants and animals
informs Hiram of his purpose io i
in return for which Solomon gives
stone for the building, ver. 1:;-1S.

The temple is begun; its dimensions and form, and manner of erection, described, ch. vi. 110. The Lord's presence in
the house is promised, vur. 11-13. Further description of the temple and its internal decorations, together with makinf of
the cherubim, ver. i4-."0.

The temple finished in seven years, ver. 37, 38. Solomon builds his own house in thirteen years, ch. vii. 1. lie builds
also the house of the forest of Lebanon, ver. 2-0, and a house for Pharaoh's daughter, ver. S. "These described, ver. '.Ml'.
Hiram (lluram) of Tyre, a skilful worker in metals, is sent for, who wrought all Solomon's work- the pillars, the molten
sea, the ten bases, the lavers, .sirred utensil.-, and other furniture and ornaments of the temple, ver. 13 51. Solomon sum-
mons the elders of Israel to Jerusalem, to the dedication of the temple. The ark of the covenant and the holv vessels of
the tabernacle are brought np from the city of David to the temple. "Then the glory of the Lord filled the h'.use of th.:
Lord," ch. viii. 1-11. Solomon's speech and prayer, and further address, ver. 12-01. The offerings, and sacrifices, and
feasting made on the occasion, ver. 01-00. The Lord appears a second time to Solomon, and promises to establish his
throne on condition of faithful obedience, but otherwise, threatens to reject Israel and the house which he had hallowed
ch. ix. 1 ',<.

Solomon, on the completion of his buildings, cedes to Hiram twenty cities in Galilee. Hiram despises them, and sends
Solomon sixscore talents of gold, ver. 11-14. The reason of the levy which Solomon raised is assigned, vi;:. his building
houses and cities. The levy not made on the children of Israel, but on the tribes left in the land, ver. 15 2:5. Solomon's
practice of sacrificing three times in the year in the temple, ver. 20. He constructs a navy in E/i.ni geber, for w Inch Hiram
sends shipmen, and they fetch gold from Ophir, ver. 20-28. The queen of Sheba comes to Jerusalem to verify the reports
she had heard of Solomon's wisdom and greatness, and she gives large presents to the king, ch. x. 1-10. Solomon's wealth,
his golden shields and ivory throne, and other treasures described. The fame of his wisdom. The number of his forces.
His navy and imports, ver. I I 29. Solomon's love for strange women, who turn his heart after other gods, and he does evil
in the sight of the Lord, eh. xi. 1 S. God's anger against Solomon. The rending of the kingdom foretold, ver. 9-13. The
Lord stirs up adversaries against Solomon Hadad the Ed.miite, ver. 14 22; Rezon, who reigned in Syria, ver. 2.3-2,); Jero-
boam, the son of Xebat, to whom Ahijah the prophet had predicted the division of the kingdom, and his future reign over
the ten tribes, ver. 20-40.

Solomon's death and burial, ver. 41-43.

IT.- THE DIVIDED KINGDOM.

JUDAH. B.C.

Rehoboam (seventeen years). 117.5

Ilehoboam and the elders of Israel assemble at Sheehem,
ch. xii. 1. Jeroboam having returned from Egypt is pre-
sent with the people. They represent their grievances to
Uehoboam, who takes time to consider. Following evil
advice, he refuses redress, whereupon a revolt takes place.
Rehoboam flees to Jerusalem, and Jeroboam is made king
of Israel the tribe of Judah alone adhering to Rehoboam,
ver. 2 20. An army of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin
is gathered to subdue the rebellion, but Shemaiah, the
man of God, forbids the war, ver. 21 24.

In Hehoboara's reign Judah does evil in the sight of the
Lord by idolatrous and vicious practices, ch. xiv. 2! 2t.
In his fifth year Shishak, king of Egypt, comes to Jerusa- 070
1cm and takes away the treasury of the house of the Lord,
ver. 25. 20. Rehoboam makes shields of brass instead of
the lost shields of gold. Rehoboam dies and is buried in
the city of David. His son Abijam succeeds, ver. 27-31.

Abijam (succeeds in the eighteenth year of Jeroboam 058
reigns three years).

Abijam sins like his father, but for David's sake he is per-
mitted to have a son to succeed him in the kingdom, ch.
xv. 1-8.

Asa (reigns forty-one years succeeds in the twentieth 955
year of Jeroboam).

Asa does right like David; removes the idols which his
father had made, ch. xv. 9-13. He removes also his mother
Maachah from being queen, on account of idolatry, and
makes presents to the house of the Lord, ver. 13-10.

B.C. ISRAEL.

975 Jeroboam (reigned twenty two year.-).

Jeroboam made king of Israel, builds Sheehem and Penuel.
ch. xii. 25. To prevent the people returning to their alle-
giance to the house of David, he forbids their going to
worship at Jerusalem, and sets up idolatrous worship at
Bethel and at Dan, ver. 20-33.

Whilst Jeroboam is burning incense at Bethel, a man of
God predicts the birth of Josiah, of the house of David,
who shall offer idolatrous priests and burn men's hone-'
upon that same altar at Bethel, ch. xiii. 1, 2. The altar is
rent as a sign of the fulfilment of his prediction, ver. 3,
and the hand of Jeroboam is dried up, ver. 4, 5; and at the
prayer of the prophet restored again, ver. 0. Jeroboam
offers to reward the man of God, but he refuses to eat, or
drink, or tarry, and returns by another way, ver. 7-10.
An old prophet of Bethel, told of this occurrence by his
sons, follows the man of God, and prevails on him by false
pretences to return with him and eat. The old prophet
announces the punishment which shall be inflicted on the
deceived man, ver. 20-22, whom, having departed, a lion
slays, ver. 24. The old prophet fetches his body and buries
it in his own grave, ver. 25-32. Jeroboam makes priests of
the lowest of the people, ver. 33, 34. His son Abijah is sick,
Jeroboam sends his wife in disguise to Ahijah the prophet
in Sliiluh, ch. xiv. 1, 2. The blind Ahijah is forewarned
by the Lord of her coming, who addresses her by name on
her entrance, and gives her a message of rebuke and pun-
ishment for her husband; the child should die; the king-
dom should be taken from Jeroboam; Israel also should

953 be scattered beyond the river, ver. 4-10. Jeroboam dies,
and Xadab his son succeeds, ver. '_0.

KINGS

JUDAH.

There was war between Asa and Baasha all tlieir days
(twenty-four years, from Asa's third to twenty sixth year .
Asa. on Uaasha's invasion of Judali, takes the treasures of
the Lord's house, and sends to Benhadad, king of Syria, to
induce him to break with Baa-ha, and make a league with
.hulah, who complies, and sends his armies against the
cities of Israel. Baasha abandoning Hamah, Asa has Geba
and Mixj.eh built with its materials, eh. xv. It) -JJ. In
his old age is dis -ased in his feet, and dies, ver. '_' '. -4.

Jelio.-hap'nat begins t.
He does right in the .-Liu of th, Lord, ch xxii. 41 1

Jehoshaphat makes peace, with Israel, and goes with
Ahab against Kamoth-irilead, ch. xxii. 44 (1 3S).

Makes ships of Tharshish to goto! Iphir. but they are bro-
ken at Kzioli geber; refuses to ally himself in the lleet with
Ahixziuh. ver. 4S, 4'.>.

Jehoram 'according to 1 Ki. i. 17) hegins to reign in liis
father's lifetime, for which '2 Ki. viii. 10' assigns- another
date- Jehoram of Israel's fifth year.

Jehoram is made king in his father's lifetime he
reigned eight years, ch. viii. 10, 17.

Jehorain's evil life, ver. IS, 1(1. Kdom revolts from Judah.
Jehoram goes to /air and smites the F.domites, but does
not subdue the rebellion. Libnah also revolts, ver. '20- '!-.

B.C. IS.RAKL.

;i.3o Nadab (reigns two years succeeds in the second year

of Asa).

Xadab doe- evil in the sight of the Lord. Baasha. son of
Ahijah, conspires against him, and Xadab is -lain at Cib-
bethon whil.-t he was be-ie ring it. ch. xv. 2.V2S.

'.'.VJ Baasha 'twenty four years).

Baasha destroys all the house of Jeroboam, ver. _".'. He
reiiMis in Tirxah. and does ev ii in the sight of the Lord. ver.
;;ii-:-M. Invade.- Judah. Builds Kamah. ch. xv. 17, which
Asa dismantles. The word of the Lord comes to Jehu the
prophet against Baasha. whose dynast \ is to cease. Baasha
is buried ill Tirxah, ch. xvi 1 7.

- . Elah (reigns two years -in A.-a's twenU sixth vear).

/imri conspire- a-ain-t Klah. and -lay- him as he was drink-
ing in the house of his steward Arza in Tnzah, ver. ! Id.

.'> Zimri (seven davs - in Asa's 27th vear).

Slays all the house of Baasha, as pr. dieted by Jehu. ch.
xvi. 11 13. The people (still or again) encamped against
Cibbethon heard that /imri had cons| ired. and made
Omri, captain of the host, king of Israel in the camp. He
joes up from Cibbethon to liesiege Tirxah. and /imri burns
the pdace and himself, ver. If, 2'd.

;.2s Omri ,-itid Tibni.

A period of anarchy. The people divided between two

ruler-, but Oniri's party prevail-, ch. xvi. 21. 22.
'.'24 Omri (rciuiis twelve years M\ at Tirxah in civil war

with Tibni. In Asa's thirty first vear), ver. i!."..
Omri buv- the hill Samaria and builds the city Sannria.
1 ..--. .. : i d in Asa's thirty-eighth year, ver. 21 28.

IM7 Aliab (ri igns in Samaria twenty two years).

Ahab marries Jezebel, and worships Baal. ch. xvi. 20 :::.
In his days Hid the Bethdite rebuilds Jericho, ver ::1
(Jos. vi. if,).

'.'Id Klijah prophesies drought 1" Ahab; i- fed bv ravens at the
br,',.,k Cherith, then by the widow ,,f /arej hath, whose
meal and oil he multiplies, and who-,, -on i,,- rais.
again, ch. xvii. I 24.

'.i"G After the third year ,,f the famine. Ahab sends Obadiah to
for grass for the horse.-. Klijah meets him, and sends
a message to Ahab. 'The interview of the prophet and the
kinu, when the remarkable c..nte-i between Klijah and the
prie.-i, of Jiad and Ashtotvth is arranged. The contest
t ikes place in the presence of the children of Israel, and
end- in the discomfiture and death of the false prophcti
ch.xviii.l -PI. Elijah prays for rain, ver.41 ir, (Ja.v.10 is).
Kliial, flees to Beersheba to avoid Jezebel's anger; sue
coured by an angel, he reaches llord,; Cod appears to him
tin -re, di. xix. 1 14. Klijah is.-ent to Damascus to anoint
Haxael to b kin- of Svria, Jehu to be king of Israel, and
Lli.-ha lobe prophet in his stead, vur. 15, ir.. Klisha being
anoint, -d. follows Klijah. ver. P.' 21.

Benhadad, king of Syria, besieg. - Samaria. A prophet
instructs Ahab how to defeat the Syiians, eh. xx. 1 2l.
After a year Benhadad again marches against Israel. A
man of Cod again promises the victory to Ahab ver. 21 2S.
The Syrians defeated at Aphck, ver. -'.', 30. Benhadad
sues for mercy, and Ahab makes a covenant with him. \er.
:;l ;!1, for which Ahab is denounced by one of the prophets,
ver. :,', 4."..

'.'lid Ahab's seizure of Naboth's vineyard with Jexebd's assist
anee, ch xxi. i 1(1. Klijah goes to rebuke Ahab, and pre
diet, his punishment, ver. 17 2o. Ahab humbles himself.

S','7 M'7 Aha),, with Jehoshaphat. king of Judah. persuaded by

Ahaziah's short and evil reign (two years 1 , ch. xxii.
r,l :,:;. Moab rebels against Israel. Ahaxiah's accident;
his message of inquiry to Haal-zebub, god of Kkron. Klijah
meets the messengers, and warns Aha/.iah of his approach
ing death. A captain of fifty sent to fetch Klijah; but lie
and his fifty are burned with lire from heaven, as is also
another captain of fifty. The third captain of fifty prevails
on Klijah to goto the king, who then dies, 2 Ki. i. 1-18;
and having no son, is succeeded by

Jehoram, or Joram (Ahaxiah's brother), reigns twelve
years.

He succeeds Ahaziah in the eighteenth year of Jehosha-

KIXOS

KINOS-

JUDA1I.

Jehoram (Joram) dies in the eleventh or twelfth year
of Joram of Israel, cli. viii. 1'j; ix. 1'J, ami is succeeded t>\
his son Ahaziah.

Ahnziah (reigns OTIC year).

Alia/iali, son of Athaliah, grand-daughter of Oniri, and
daughter of Ahab. He does wickedly, and is wounded at
Gur, when he flees from Jezreel to escape Jeliu. He dies
at Mcgiddo, and is buried in Jerusalem, eh. viii. '25 -2!';

Athaliah destroys all the seed-royal except Joash, the
young son of Ahaziah, who was kept hidden with his nurse
for six years, during which Athaliah reigns, eh. xi. 1-:!.

Joash, or Jehoash, is anointed king by Jehoiada (reigns
forty years).

Athaliah is slain, and the images and priest of Baal
destroyed. Coven. ints made between the Lord and the
king and the people, ver. 4 '21.

Jehoash reigns well during the lifetime of Jehoiada, ch.
xii. 1-3. Collects money for repairing the house of the Lord,
but the work is delayed. In the twenty-third year Jehoiada
places a chest by the altar. The contributions given to the
workmen, and the work advanced .accordingly, ver. 4-1 tl.

Hazael of Syria attacks Gath. and threatens Jerusalem.
Jehoash sends the treasures of the Lord's house to him to
purchase peace, ver. 17, is.

Joash slain by conspirators at, Millo, ver. ly-21.

Amaziah (reigns twenty nine years).
Amaziah succeeds his father Joash in the second year of the
regency of Joash, king of Israel. Puts to death the mur-
derers of his father, but not their children, ch. xiv. l-il.
Slays the Edoniites, ver. 7. Sends a hostile message to the
king of Israel, who returns an insulting answer. "They
look one another in tho face" at Bethshemesh. Amaziah
is taken by Joash, who breaks down four hundred cubits
of the wall of Jerusalem, and spoils the house of the Lord,
ver. 8-14.

ISRAEL.

phat's reign, and in the second year of Jehoram, the son
of Jehoshaphat's regency, 2 Ki. i. 17; iii. 1.

Elijah and Elisha go from Gilgal to Bethel, and thence
to .Jericho and to Jordan, where Elijah was translated, and
his mantle fell on Elisha, '2 Ki. ii. 1 IS. Elisha heals the
waters of Jericho, ver. l'.i-22. Dears destroy the mockers,
ver. 2.'i 2-J.

The rebellion of Mesha, king of Moab. Jehoram obtains
the aid of Jeho.-hiiphat again.-t .Moab. In want of \\ater,
the kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom went to Elisha, who
promised a supply" of water wil limit rain, and a 'so \ icim \
o\er Moab. The victors destroyed the cities, wells, ite., ch.
iii. -1 '2~i. The king of Moab sai-ritices his son in his ex-
tremity, ver. 20, -_'7.

Elisha's miracles are recorded. lie multiplies the widow's
oil, eh. iv. 1-7. Raises to life the son of the Shunammite,
ver. t, :;7. Rectifies the deadly pottage, ver. 38-41. Multi-
plies the bread of the first-fruits from IJaal shali.-ha. Ver.
42 14. Cures Xaaman of bis leprosy, ch. v. 1-1(1. Smites
Gehazi with leprosy, ver. ~2-i -JT*. Causes iron to swim. ch.
vi. 1-7. Frees Israel from tlie Syrians by revealing to
the king their movements, and by smiling with biindne-s
and leading into Samaria tin: Syrians who came to seize
him, ver. S -2.T. Denhadad of Syria again invades Israel,
and there is a great famine in Samaria. The kin-r. excite 1
by a w(iiii:m's appeal, resolves to kill Elisha, ver. 24 -IM.
Elislia then predicts great plenty, ch. vii. 1, 2. Four lepers
visit the Syrian camp, and find it descried. The Syrians
having fled in terror, the predicted plenty occurs, ver. :;-lii.
A lord, who had doubted the prophet's word, is crushed in
the gate, and only saw the plenty of which he did not par-
take, ver. 17--''. Elislia warns the Shunammite of an ap-
proaching famine. She sojourns in the land of the Philis-
tines for seven years. As the king speaks with Gehazi about
the great tilings done by Elisha, the Shunammite conies to
ask for her house and land, and obtains them, ch. viii. 1 ii.
Klisha visits Damascus; and Beiihadad, who is sick, sends
Hazael with a present. Elisha weeps before llazacl, whose
future career he foresees, informing him that he will be king
of Syria, ver. 7-l:i. Hazael kills Denhadad, ver. 14, 1.1.

In this year, in which Jehoram of Judah dies, Jehoram
of Israel, warring along with Ahaziah, the new king of
Judah, against Hazael, is wounded at Rainah. He is \ isiu-d-
in his sicklies* by Ahaziah at Jezreel. Jehu anointed to lie
king of Israel at Ramoth-gilead, is proclaimed there whilst
Jo-am is at Jezreel.

Jehu (reigns twenty eight years).

He proceeds to Jezreel, and on his way is met by Joram
and Ahaziah in the field of Naboth, where Joram was
slain. Ahaziah also is slain, ch. \ iii. 16 ix. 20. Jezebel
is slain in Jczrecl, ver. :;u :;7. The seventy sons of Ahab
in Samaria are slain by the rulers of Jezreel in conse-
quence of Jehu's letters, and the predictions of Elijah
concerning the house of Ahal> are fulfilled in the destruc-
tion of all his race, ch. x. 1 11, 17. Jehu also slays the
brethren of Ahaziah, king of Judah, ver. 1-2-14. Jehu
takes Jehonadab the son of Kechab into his chariot, to see
his zeal for the Lord. ver. l"i, 10. Jehu entraps all the
priests and worshippers of Baal, and destroys them and
their idol, ver. Is 2S. Jehu, though he follows Jeioboam
in the worship of the golden calves, is yet rewarded for exe-
cuting punishments on the house of Ahab, by the promise
of the throne of Israel to his children to the fourth genera-
tion, ver. 2!>, :>!.

Israel is oppressed by Hazael of Syria, in Gilead and
liashan. Jehu dies, ver. :!2-:;0.
Jehonhaz (reigns seventeen years. S3S).
In his wicked reign Israel given up to Hazael and Ben-
liadad. Jehoahaz prays to God, who sends help, ch. xiii. 1-7.

Joash (appointed regent with his father, in thirty-seventh
year of Joash of Israel, ver. 10. Reigns sixteen years).
Fights against Amaziah, king of Judah, ver. 8-12; xiv.
8-10. Visits Elisha in his sickness, who promises him vic-
toiies over Syria, according to the number of times he smote
the ground with arrows, ver. 14-19.

Elisha dies. A man of the Moabites buried in the same

sepulchre is restored to life, ver. 20, 21. Joash regains

from Benhadad of Syria what Hazael had taken from Israel

5 in war, ver. '2'2-'2~>. Joash associates his sou Jeroboam in

the government.

-4 Jeroboam II. son of Joash, succeeds. (Forty one years).
In his \\icked reign he restores the coast of Israel from

KIXGS 33

JUDAH. i!.c. . B.C.

Amaziah lives fifteen years after the death of Joasli of S10
Israel. He dies by the hand of conspirators at Lachish, sc'J
and is buried at Jerusalem, ver. 17-20.

Azariah. [Uzziah] (reigns fifty two years). MV.I i

Is made king in Jeroboam's sixteenth year (twenty-seventh
ofhis rc'.'ency). Keignswell; builds Hath: is smitren w it h
leprosy. His son Jotham becomes recent, eh. xiv. 21. 22;
xv. 1 7.

KINGS

Joth;uil 'sixteen y.-avs).

In ill.- second year of IVkah, i ready ruled some

years in his father's lifetime, eh. xv. :;2. :::;. I i
II.' builds the hL-her gate of Hie house of Hie l...rd. ver.
34, :'.:,. In his days Hezin of Syria and IVkah uf I-rael in
vade Jlldea, vev. 30 MS.

Ahaz (sixte -n years).

An evil and idolatrous reign, rh. xvj. 1 1. Kczin and
IVkah besiege Jei usalem, but do not o\erconi : Aliaz, vei ..
I!, -/.In recovers Klatli, ver. I',. Ahaz summons TLUth pil-
t-si'i- to aid him against S\ ria, and sends him treasures from
the Lord's and from the kim/s house, lie conies up and
takes Damascus, and slays Ke/.in, ver. 7 :'. Aha/ meets
Tiglath pileser at Damascus, where i..- sees an altar, the
pattern of whiel, he Bends to ("tijali the [iriest. (in I. is
return to Jerusalem, Al.ax offers on the altar whicli L'rijah
had made. He also lias the bra/en altar removed "for him
to in<|uirc by.' 1 The bra/en sea is removed tV-ni the l.r.i/en
oxen to a pavement of stones, ire., ver. 1 IS. \>
I: 1 , -n.

Hezekiah.

In his fourth year Shalmane.-er invades Samaria, and in
his sixth Israel is taken captive.

Jeroboam dies (or if he reigned alone forty one years in 7 U 4).

Zechaiiah reigns for six months, and is then slain by
i-hallum. the son of Jahe>h, eh. xv. > 1-J.

ShalltUll reigns a full month, and i.s slain by .Menahem.
SOU ot Gadi, \er. 1:: IT..

Menahem (reigns lo \cars).

He smote Tilihsah, and the coast from Tir/ah. He -jives
one thousand talents of silver to 1'ul, kin;,' of Assyria, to
seeiire his allianee, ami exa-'ts the money from The men of
Israel, ver. ir, 20. I'ies, ver. 21, 22.

IVkahiah it WD years>.

I'ekah. the son of Kemaliah, ronspires against him, and
slays him in Samaria, ver. '2:', 2(i.

I'ekah (twenty years - ii)'t\ neooiul vear of l'//iahX
Ti'.'lath pileser, kin- of As.-yria, eomes and takes away
many captives to Assyria, \er. L'7 II 1 ,'.

Hosliea (si n of Hah. Nine years)

Sh ilmaneser, kiny of .\s~yria, invades hra-'l, and lloshe-i
I. comes his trilmt ivy. ll-.shea se-ks aid from So. kin- of
Iv.ypt, and ceases to p,-i\ tribute; so the king of Assyria
shuts lain up in prison, and besieges Samaria for three

h. xvii. 1 ,-,.

In llo-liea's ninth year Shalmaneser took Samaria, and
carried Israel auas into Assyria, "as the Lord had said l.y
all his servant- the prophets," ver. '1 -':;. The cities of Sa
maria are tilled with strangers, w holn lions infest, and they
then learn from a priest the manner of the God of the land.
They fearthe l.onl an-1 serve their .,wn gods," ver. _' I 41.

III. KlNCDuM OF .IlDAH Al.oNK Isi(.\i:i. IX ( '.\ I'TIV 1TV.

Hezekiah (twenty nine ye

72<> His good reign; lem-.ves hrj.li plaees and di-tr. .ys images;
]iros).ers great ly. Smites the 1'hilistines, ch. xviii. I s.

712 In his foia-teeiith year S.-nnaeh.'rib of .Wyria invades
Judah.and takes fenced cities. Hez.-kiah pays tribute' -
despoiling the house of the Lord to procure the means, ver.
1:: Iti. Thecaptainsof the Assyrian host besiege Jerusalem,
and Kabshakeh in-'ites the people to revolt, reviling the
king and blaspheming (ioil, ver. 17 :',(>. His words are im-
ported to Hezekiah, w iio sends a message to Isaiah the

punishment He dies, and is buried in the garden of his
own house, ch. xxi. I is.

Amon 'two years). i;i2

Follows his father's evil example, and is slain by conspir-
ators, win. are punished by the people.

Josiah (thirty one years). r. lo

In his eighteenth year he orders th- house of the Lord to 022
be repaired. Hilk'iah the high priest fin. Is the book of the
law. and Shaphan reads it before the kin-, who sends mes-
prophet. He receives a comforting reply, ver. :;7; xix. ; sengers to inquire of tlie Lord, ch. xxii. 1 II. Hiildahthc
I 7. Hakshakeh retires; and Sennacherib sen-Is a letter, ' ])ro]>hetess foretells the destruction of Jerusalem ; but it,
which Hezekiah spreads before the Lord in the temple, an-l should not take place in Josjalfs days, on account of his
prays to Cod, ver. s l:i. Isaiah semis a prophetic message ! piety, ver. I:, -2U. Josiah calls a solemn assembly, reads
to Hezekiah concerning the king of As-yria, ver. 20 31. the book of the law, and renews the covenant with the
The same night the Assyrians are smitten by the angel of : Lord. He then suppresses idolatry, ch. xxiii. I 14. He
the Lord. Sennacherib having returned to Nineveh, is [ destroys the altar at Hethel, having fulfilled the prediction
slain by two of his sons as he was worshipping Nisroch his uttered against it in the days of Jeroboam, ver. l.'i 20. The
god, ver. :;:, 37. Hezekiah is sick unto death; but by prayer passover is solemnly observed, ver. 21 2:i. Josiah goes to
he obtains an extension of fifteen years to his life, ill token ' attack I'haraoh-neehoh, and is slain at .Megi.ido, and
of which Isaiah gives him a sign, ch. xx. 1 11. ISerodaeh brought to Jerusalem for burial, ver. 2'.l, 30.
baladan, king of liabylon, sends a present to Hezekiah,

who shows the messengers all his treasures. Isaiah predicts i Jehoahaz (three months). 001,

that the treasures and Hezekiah's children shall be carried Pllariloh " ecllon "" lkl ' s him l>''isoner at Riblah. and puts
away to liabylon, ver. 12 1!>. Hezekiah in his reign makes the 1;u "' '" tribute . l '''- xx '- :;1 -' ;:! -
a pool and conduit to supply Jerusalem with water, ver. , Eliakim, or Jehoiakim (Josiah's son-eleven years)" On"

Jehoiakim (made king by Pharaoh nechoh in the room of

Manasseh (fifty-five years), , las demised brother) p ays tribute to Kgypt, but exacts it

who restores idolatrous worship, profanes the Lord's from the people of the land, ch. xxiii. 34-37.

house, seduces the people to greater evil than the Amorites, Nebuchadnezzar invades Judah, and Jehoiakim serves 002

ami sheds much innocent blood. Prophets sent to predict him three years, and then rebels ch xxiv 14 Dies

131

KJXCS

KINGH

him, a-- I took it from Saul, whom I put away before
1 thee. And thine house and thy kinudom shall be
established for ever before thee: thy throne shall be
I established for ever;" and repeated in David's charge
to Solomon, i Ki. ii. i, "That the Lord may continue
his word which he spake concernini;- me. saying. If
thy children take heed to their way, to walk before ire
Jerusalem is i educed by famine, anil broken up. The j in truth with all their heart, and with all their soul.
kin- attempts to escape, but is taken and carried to I5aby- (j 1L . rc s l la u llot f a ;i t ] K . e ( sai( j i,,.-, a ]nall ,, n t ; 1L . throne
Ion ill fetters. The eitv is burned, ami the walls broken f T i" : fit

of Israel is otten reterred to, iKi. xi. 11-13. 32:xv. 4;2K .

down, and the people carried nw.iy, eh. x\v. 1 i!l. Over '

the poor who remained in the land of Judah the kin"- of riii. 19j xix. 34, &c., as explaining the dealings of God with

the kings and the people. The history shows how < !od
fulfilled his promise: maintained the honour of his
law; solicit to train the people by the discipline of
national punishment and mercy, by the instructions,
denunciations, and miracles of the prophets, by ho.-tile
invasions and civil wars, to allegiance to his divine
L;O\ eminent: and when at length both kings and people
had sinned grievously against him, he brought upon
them calamities which were the just reward of their
obduracy; but even then he remembered his mercy to
David in showing favour to Jehoiaehin in the land of
captivity.

4. On account of this aim of the writer to exhibit

Babylon placed GediUiiih;lmt in the. seventh month l.-htnael,

of the seed-royal, slays Gcdalinli, and the ) pie IVoin tear

-o to Kuypt, ver. -I'l -Jii.

In the thirty-seventh year of .Mioiachin's e.-iptnity,
Kvil inerodae'n. kin- of Uabylon, speaks kindly To him, and
assigns him a position of honour, ver. L'7 M>.

the theocratic doctrine, the history of the Israelit

Ill, Miscellaneous observations on tin contents. FTOIQ.

this synopsis of their emiteiits it will be seen

1. That the books of Kings contain the history of
a period of 4i!7 years, from 10l."i B.C. b> 5^. with a
further mention of an event which occurred during the
captivity. '2n years later (5tJ'2), and an allusion to a
still more recent date. This period embraces the reign.-;
of all the kings of Israel and Judah. excepting Saul's,
and nearly the whole of David's. ten tribes is more fully detailed than that of .ludah

'2. The history naturally divides itself into three ! during their contemporaneous existence as two king-
periods. The jirxt, including 40 years, from lul/J to : doms. As Israel had separated from thu royal house
975; the latter days of David, whoso history is given ! of . ludah, to which the promise had been given, and
in so far as it introduces the reiun of Solomon, and d<>- j from the place where the ark of the covenant was pre-
served, and had abandoned the theocracy and adopted
semi-idolatrous worship, tin re was greater need for the
interposition of the prophets, and more frequent oppor-
tunity for their vindicating the authority of the divine
law. We find therefore greater prominence given in
thi ;e books to the acts and sayings of the prophets.
We see also how the prosperity and happiness of the

tails the incidents which led to his beii
in the lifetime of his father. The greatness of the
kingdom is described, and the religious condition of the
people, to the decline of the kingdom in the latter years
of Solomon, and its division under Iiehoboam. The
second, including '2~>3 years, from 117.5 to 722. contains
a full chronological account of the kings of Israel and

Judah, from which it appears that the throne of .1 udah kingdoms in the reigns of the pious kinus are contrasted
remained in the family of David, whilst that of Israel j with the disastrous reigns of the idolatrous and wicked
came into the possession of a series of dynasties vi/. kings. For the same reason also the permanence of
de-roboam and his son: Haasha and his son: Zimri: , the throne of Judah in the family of David, is coii-
Omri and three descendants; Jehu and four descend- | trasted with the frequent change of dynasty in the
ants; Shallum; Menahem and his son; Pekah; and ; kingdom of Israel. The earlier destruction of the
lloshea. The third period of 1 tin years. 7-- to ;")<>-. kingdom of Israel also, although it was more extensive
embraces the history of the kings of .ludah after the and powerful than that of Judah, is attributed to the
destruction of the kingdom of Israel until the captivity j inveterate idolatry of the former, as contrasted with
of Babylon, with supplementary records of events which the less perverse and depraved conduct of the latter.

occurred in the captivity.

On account of the theocratic element in this history,

?>. The books contain much more than an account of : and of the constant activity of the prophets, it will

the kiii"s who successively rei"iied over Israel and ; greatly assist the understanding of these books to study

Judah, and of their personal and political history.
They contain also a religious history of the people, and
unfold tlie progress of the theocratical government of
the descendants of Abraham in the lines of Isaac and
Jacob. There is, in fact, no attempt made to give a

the writings of the prophets in their chronological order,
and in relation to the times in which they lived. The
outlines of national history presented in Kings and
Chronicles may thus be well filled up from the fuller
details respecting the disposition and conduct of the

full and complete history of the political condition and people, and from the denunciations, warnings, and re-
acts of the kingdoms. Only or chiefly such facts are ' monstrances found in the books of the prophets.

recorded as exhibit the nature of the divine government
under which the people were placed, and the develop-
ment of their religious lift;. On these points also what
is related of the lives and character of the kind's, the

;"). The chronological arrangement which has been made
of the principal contents of Kings will not prove perfectly
satisfactory. It must be admitted that these books pre-
sent considerable difficulties of this nature. Perhaps

acts and influences of the prophet, and the conduct of , in the present state of the text in the Hebrew, as well
the people, has a direct bearing. The promise made : as in the Creek, and in the present state of our know-
to David, -2 Sa. vii. 12-17, ''I will set up thy seed after ledge of contemporaneous history, it maybe hopeless
thee. . . . If he commit iniquity. I will chasten him to attempt a complete adjustment of dates. When a
with the rod of men, and with the stripes of the chil- j corrected text shall be obtained, probably some of the
dren of men; but my mercy shall not depart away from ' difficulties of this kind will disappear, as they may

KIXOS

KINliS

have arisen from errors of transcription, which so easily
occur where numerals are concerned. Then the re-
maining difficulties may be more successfully coped with.
A further acquaintance with the contemporaneous his-
tory of Tyre, Egypt. Syria. JSahyloii, &c., which happily
is, now fast becoming possible, may considerably aid in
the work. These, together with a more careful con-
sideration and comparison of the books themselves, may
even yet remove all seemingly inaccurate or discrepant
dates. At present it is extremely difficult to tabulate
everv event according to its precise time of occurrence.
I 'art of the difficulty ari-.-s from fragments of years
being reckoned aswhol-- years. The record idve- us
no mean.- of calculating the fragments of years at the
beginning and cluse ot' each rei^n. Another r.ouiv.- of
difficulty is th" occurrence of political di.-ord'T and
dynastic change, in which it i- probable, but iii.t cer-
tain, that anarchy prevailed for a while, and th'
throne was vacant, (die or two interregna appiar to
have occurred, and it is po--ible that there may lie
others of le.-s diiratioii not ci-rtainly indicated.

(1.) A date given in the early part of the tir-t book
of King- mi'Jit at tir-t >i'jht appear of nTcat iinport-
ance, but a little consideration .-hows that it eannot

well be correct. So! on is .-aid. l Ki. vi. 1, {> have

begun to build tli.- house of the Lord in the fourth
year of his iviini. and in t\m foitr Imndnil tuiil /';//*//i .'//
// ( (/ after flu <-hiUn,i of Ixrail inn i;,,m out
liiml <>f l-: : : : i t if. Now. in Ac. xiii. -Jo". St. I'aul says,
that after the division of Canaan amongst the tribes by
Joshua, ( !od "gave unto them judges about the >pace
ot l/in years, until Samuel the prophet." With this
chronology of I'aul that of .lo-cphus agrees (Anl
lie r.-ekons .V.cJ years from the exodus to the buildini:'
of the temple, viz.:

With this nuinb.-r al-o the book ot' .1 ud^t> agrees when
the spaces ..f time meiiti >ne.| are add. d together. '1 he
passage, as read in 1 Ki. vi. 1. ha- very mueh the ap-
pearance of an interpolation .perhaps taken into the
text from the margin . In the LXX. a different num-
ber (-Miii is given. The clau-e .-. ems altogether supi r
tluous and out of place where it .-lands. If left out.
the sense of the context would be still perfect, and it
does not occur in the parallel passage, uch. iii. ],_'.

C2.) It will be observed in the table of contents that
th'-re are several synchronistic points in \\hich the his-
tory of .ludali and of Israel meet, which will enable us
the more accurately to estimate- and arrange the rest.
Of these are the accessions of Kelmboam and Jeroboam,
occurrin-' in the same year u;.c. 97.")), and the deaths
of Aha/.iah king of .ludali. and .lehoram of Israel, or
the acce-sion of Jehu and the usurpation of Athaliah
(in ,vs4).

if we take the period of ill years l>etween the acces-
sions of Rehoboain and of Jeroboam, and the deaths of
Ahaziah and Jehoram, and if we add up the years of
the reigns of the six kings of Judah in the interval, \\e
have a total of '.i~> years; and if in like m:iner we add
up the years of the nine kings of israel under the same

period, we have 1'8 years. This apparent discrepancy
! may be explained by the portions of years at the he^in-
j ning and end of each reign being reckoned as whole
i years, the more frequent changes in Israel account-
ing for the greater excess of !i in Israel o\\r that of ( .i,"
in Judah.

Then again, taking the period of GO years which oc-
curred between the accession of Jehu and the usurpa-
tion of Athaliah in SM. and the accession of Jero-
boam 11. in the fifteenth year of Ama/iah kini; 1 of Judah
in vj 1. and adding up the years of the reigns of the three
ruler- ,,f Judah (Athaliah 7. Jeh.>a>h -In. and Ama/.iah
11) \\e have a total of ill years, and of the three rulers
of Israel (Jehu 'J8, Jehoaha/. 1 7. and Joa-h HI we have
again a total of til. in which the trifling excess is ac-
counted for by the f.w.r changes: thus no difficulty
presents it-elf in thi> period.

But if we take the next period of lot years, from
the accession of Jeroboam II. in the fifteenth year of
Ama/.iah (8'JI to the captmty occurring in the sixth
year of Hezekiah and the ninth of Hoshea. 7- n . and
add the reigns of the live kings (Ama/.iah l."i. A/ariah
| r/./iah] :,-2. Jcthai!, Id. Aha/. It!. Ilex, kiah ti) we have
for Judah lo.'i years, and add also the rei-ns of the
.-. veil kiim- of l-ra. 1 i.l. roboam II. Xeehariah and Shal-
liim 7 month-. .Meiiahem in. IVkahiah '_', I'.kah 'jo,
and Ho-lica !'> we ha\e onl\ vj years, bein^ ;_' deti-
I eieiit. I'.ut we find that Jeroboam is said to have
reigned 11 years. L' Ki \\v. >?,, whilst in -2 Ki. xv. 1 A/.a-
riah is said to have begun to reign in the twt nty seventh
year of Jeroboam. In this case his son Xeehariah must
have succeeded him in tin fourteenth year of A/.ariah,
which would be Jeroboam's forty-first: ln:t in -J Ki. xv.
S, we are told that Xeehariah reigned in the thirty-eighth
year of A/ariah. Kit her tin n Xeehariah must at that
time have been reigning about lin \, a rs alone or eon
jointly with his father, or there must have been a
period of anarchy of \\hicli no mention is made. If
Jeroboam's (1 years include in or 11 in which he was
associated in the government with his father, then there
i is an intenal of :in instead of -jn years to account for.
I'.ut if Jeroboam ivi-n.d II years after the death of
his lather, then the remaining - n years may not un-
naturally be account, d fm- in the last four or five
rei-'ii- in Israel, when the ^ov< rnnieiit wa- so unsettled
and dynasties so frequently changed, that nothing is
more jii-obable than thai either anarchy prevailed, or the
ivernment was adn;ini-(ei ,d by an Ass\-riaii officer.
C. The hi.-torv presents the Israelites in their
greatest and in their weakest political conditions. The
boundaries of the kingdom of Israel under Saul, and
| afterwards under llavid, will be elsewhere described
S.\Mf!-:i., P.nnKs <>F>. The extent of the kingdom at
the accession of Solomon is thus defined. iKi. iv. ii :
"And Solomon reigned over all kingdoms from the
river unto the land of the Philistines, and unto the
border of Egypt." In his day> the position of Israel
was higher than it ever was before or since. With
dominions stretching from the Euphrates to the border
of Egypt, from the Mediterranean to the C.ulf of Akaba,
with empire over tributary kinys, Solomon was able
to associate on equal terms with the monarchs of Tyre,
Assyria, and Egypt. P.ut in the latter years of his
reign the greatness of the kingdom declined. Tributary
kings were prepared to throw off allegiance, without
any effectual resistance; as did Hadad in Edoni. i Ki.
xi. 1 !--'L'; and Re/on in Syria, l Ki. xi. -Ju- 2.1; whilst there

KINGS

KINGS-

were also signs of internal weakness and dissension, as i
in the revival of the jealousies of the tribes of Ephraim
ami Judah. i Ki. xi. L'II-IN; and in the impatience of the
]k'i,|,!r under the heavy lun'dens of lal.oiir and taxation
imposed upon them, which eame to a climax at the
accession of Ilehobi iam.

'When the division of the kingdom took place, ac-
cording to the prediction of the prophet Ahijah. 1 Ki. xi.
j;i-3i>, the ton tribes ---Joseph (including Manasseh and
Ephraim i. I^saehar. Zebuluu. Ashcr, Naphtali, .Dan.
Simeon, Gad, Reuben, and Benjamin at first went
over to Jeroboam, and only Judah adhered to Reho-
boam: but subsequently Benjamin for the most part,
Bethel and Jericho excepted, became connected with
Judah. One obvious reason for which lay in the po.-i-
tion of Jerusalem, and its relation to the two tribes
situate on the borders of both, but within those of
Benjamin, Jos. \\m. 2\ Conquered from the Jebusites
by Judah, it was occupied in common by both tribes,
Jos. xv. K 1 ,; Ju. i. 21. Parts, at least, of Dan and Simeon
also attached themselves to Judah, 1 Ki. xix. 3; 2 C'li. xi. ];
and in the reigns of Abijah and Asa .some portion of
Ephraim was conquered, 2 <:h. xiii. iti; xvii. 2.

Of the tributary kings, Moab, 2Ki. iii.4 ; Ammon, 2i:h.
x\. i;and the sea-coast on the north belonged to Israel;
and Edom to Judah. Of the 12,810 square miles
which were included iu Palestine (the portion occupied
by the Philistines being deducted), !:>75 belonged to
Israel, and 3-1:55 to Judah (Kicpcvfs Bibel Atlas, 1859 .
Weakened bv division and international wars, the
kingdoms could not long withstand the attacks of ex-
ternal foes. Tyre ceased to be an ally. Damascus
rose into the position of a powerful enemy. Moab and
Kdom first became independent, and then aggressive.
Hazael, king of Syria, greatly reduced both the king-
doms. That of Israel revived under the powerful hand
of Jeroboam II., who recovered the ancient borders of
the land from Hamath to the Dead Sea, as predicted
by Jonah, son of Amittai, 2Ki.xiv.2r>; but the prosperity
was of short duration, and Israel fell under the power
of Assyria. It would appear that after the removal of
Israel b\- Shalmaneser, the kings of Judah regained a
sort of power over the territory previously governed by
the kings of the ten tribes. .For Hezekiah, .ch.x.xx.
1-5, "sent to all Israel and Judah, to Ephraim and
Manasseh, to keep thepassover :" and "they established
a decree to make proclamation throughout all Israel
from Beersheba to Dan." Josiahalso, 2 C'li. xxxiv. -1-9, de-
stroyed idolatrous worship, not only in "Jerusalem and
Judah/' but in "the cities of Manasseh and Ephraim.
Simeon and Naphtali." From the remnant of Israel
money was gathered for the repair of the Lord's house.
Thus, surviving Israel for about 130 years, there was a
considerable revival of prosperity in the reigns of He-
zekiah and Josiah, but the crimes of Manasseh and the
feebleness of the successors of Josiah at length brought
the kingdom to ruins, and Jerusalem the holy city
fell a prey to Assyria.

This calamity which befell the two divisions of the
Hebrew nation, was owing primarily to their violation
of the covenant and transgression of the law of the
Lord their God, who, as he had spoken to Moses
and to David and to the prophets, gave them into the
hands of their enemies; but secondarily, it may be traced
to such natural causes as would work the ruin of any
nation, such as the division and weakening of the
kingdom in the time of Kehoboain; the internal dissen-

sions and wars by which both nations were greatly re-
duced; the effects of tile superstitions and vices whereby
they became assimilated to surrounding nations; their
calling in the aid of strangers to as>i.-t in their wars
against each other and against their invader:-: the
weakness and wickedness of some of their kinu's, who
wanted courage to withstand their enemies, but im-
poverished the nation and excited the cupidity of their
foes in giving large bribes to purchase peace; and the
growth of surrounding nations, especially of Syria and
Assyria.

IV. Jlchttion (if Kinf/A to < '/ii-ditn-Icx. The more
obvious differences between the books of Kings and
of Chronicles are

]. In respect of language, by which the former are
shown to be of earlier date than the latter.

'2. Of periods embraced in each work. The Chro-
nicles are much more comprehensive than Kings,
containing genealogical li-ts from Adam downwards,
and a full account of the reign of David. The portions
of the Chronicles synchronistic with Kings are 1 Ch.
xxviii.-2 Ch. xxxvi. 22.

j. In the Kinu's greater prominence is given to the
prophetical office; in Chronicles, to the priest! v or
Levitical. In the books of the Kings we have the
active influence of Nathan in regard to the succession
to the throne; and the remarkable lives of Elijah and
Elisha, of whom numerous and extraordinary miracles
are related, of which scarcely the slightest mention is
made in Chronicles, although in Kings about fourteen
chapters are taken up with them. Besides these, other
prophets are mentioned, and their acts and sayings are
recorded; as, 1 Ki. xiii., the prophet \\lio came to
Bethel from Judah in the reign of Jeroboam, and his
predictions; and in 2 Ki. xxiii., the fulfilment of them in
the days of Josiah; 1 Ki.xiii., the old prophet who lived
at Bethel with his sons. Ahijah the prophet, also, iu
the days of Jeroboam, iKi. xiv. ; Jehu, the sou of Hunani.
1 Ki. xvi.; Jonah, in the time of Jeroboam, 2Ki. xiv. 2.">; and
Isaiah in relation to the sickness of Hex.ekiah. 2 Ki. .\.\.
Of these there is either no mention, or much slighter
in Chronicles, where the priestly or Levitical ele-
ment is more observable; as, for example, the full ac-
count, in 2 Ch. xxix.-xxxi. of the purification of the
temple by Hezekiah; of the services and sacrifices then
made, and of the names of the Levites who took part
in it, and the restoration of the courses and orders of
the priesthood, and the supplies for the daily, weekly,
and yearly sacrifices: also, the circumstantial account
of thepassover observed by command of Josiah, 2Ch.
xxxv. i-r.i. In this way we may account, not only for
the omission of much that relates to the prophets, but
also for the less remarkable prominence given to the
history of Israel, and the greater to Judah and Jeru-
salem : and for the frequent omission of details re-
specting the idolatrous practices of some of the kings,
as of Solomon, liehoboam, and Ahaz: and the destruc-
tion of idolatry by Josiah; showing that the books of
Chronicles were written, in times in which the people
less needed to be warned against idolatry ; to which,
after the captivity, they had ceased to be so prone as be-
fore. Eor fui'ther information 011 the relation between
Kings and Chronicles, see CHRONICLES (Booxs OF).

V. The author, and tiuie ti'hcn written. Reasons
have already been given in favour of the completeness
and unity of the books of Kings, as forming one sepa-
rate and independent work. There can be little doubt

KIX(iS

KINGS

that thev are the production of one- author, who availed ' :j. The hul>it of referring to the Pentateuch, pointed
liiniself of such sources of information as were in his out as characteristic of the books of Kings, is equally
j lower. The- several characteristic marks of the writer : so of Jeremiah; and this haliit in both is thought to
arc-- ' be accounted for on the ground of the discovered copv

1. His habit of referring to authorities or sources of of the law in the days of Josiah. in which .Jeremiah
information, and giving dates. took great interest. Traces of which are discoverable

2. Tlie same formal manner of describing the charac- in Je. xi. 3-5 (l>e. xxvii. i!ii ; xxxii. 1 ;?-_!! i.Kx. x\. (i;
ter of khms at the commencement and close of their vi. (i): xxxiv. 14 \I)e. \v. VA The same general spirit
reigns; of mentioning their death and place of burial: of solemnity, and the same modes of thought and illus-
of miming the queen-mother. tration, and the same political principles, arc thought

.'!. A sustained habit of referring to the law of the to mark the two works.

Lord and of Moses, and of estimating the character of -1. Some portions of Kings and of Jeiemiah are
tlie kind's by their conduct in relation to the law. almost identical, particularly '_' Ki. xxiv. 18-xxv. and

With regard to the time when tin; author I'md and -le. lii. The two passages are >o much alike, though
wrote "i"- in some respects, a- to apptar like i\vo narra-

1. Tlie stvle and diction indicate the lati r a r -e of tions of the same event by the same person, in each of
the Hcl ire w language, bul not the lal upts wliich some points are related with more fulness than

to prove a more modern date than the middle of the , in the other, for some particular purpose. I 'arts of
captiviiv have signally failed. N<arly all tlie worils ; this narrative are al-o contained in nearly the same
\\hieli I )e \\'ette and other.- llave selected are -hown w< .rd- in -I e. xxxix. 1-ld; xl. 7-xli. 1".
to have been ill use. either by tin- prophets who Hour- ~>. The impression produced on the reader is that

i-hed before the captivity and at its romnu-ncemt nt, or the w ritt r of Kin.:- wa- not. taken away into captivity
by still earlier writer-; but words and plira-es abound eitld r in the dav> of .1. lioiachin or of /edikiah. as the
which were in common use by the writers of the con- writer of Chronicles, appears to have been: and this
eluding I- ri"d of the kinud "in ,,f J u l,,h. \\ h , did not circumstance agrei s with the supposition that .Jeremiah
-o into captivity. e.--]ieciallv b\- l-.iiahand ,ler. miali. was the writer. \Ve know that at'u r being carried
In this respect there is a man if bet\veen away as far as Kamah \\ith the captives from Jcru-

Kiii'4's and Chronicles. Though neither work is fn e .-alein, he \\ a- set free, and permitted ton-turn to his
from < 'haldaic forms, tii.v are rare in (\iii_-. IMII own land with ( M daliah. lie was afterwards taken
numerous in Chronicles. Their occurrence at all in '. a\vav to Tahpanhcs in Kgypt. \\licre we obtain the last
Kin:,'- is ,-utlicieiitly accounh d for from the coiitiuuitv certain view of him. |'H sides this, many other points
of .1 . id all to Syria, and In-m tin- frequent intercourse "f agreenn nt. more or le-s strikiii'j'. ]'Ve-' nt themselves
with Assyria which commerce and warin\ol\id. I" the careful reader the ln.ok of Jen miah serving

1'. \\'ith the evidence which the language ail'ord-. th.- more than any '-th' r part of Scripture to ilhi-trate and
internal evidence of the contents agrees. The history explain the contemporaneous portions ,,f (],,, Kings,
i.- carried down t-> the captivity in detail: and. by wav and the- events recorded in Kin^s serving as a ke\ (,.
of supplement, to th-- rei ;'li of l-.\-il-niei-odach, kin- of many portion.- of the prophet. In this way a number
liahvlon. The closing verse imjilies that the writer of undesigned coincidi -nces appeal' between the r-np-
Mirvivcd .Jehoiachin. but gives no hint whatever of the po.-cd and the acknowledged writings of Jen niiah, as
termination of the captivity, which he surely would the following :
have done, had he written after the return from llahyloii.

\Vo may therefore safely conclude that the work wars
composed l>efore the end of the captivity, but after the
twenty-sixth year of it- continuance. If tin- is
time' when the book was composed, it becomes nei
sarv to state the grounds on which the 1 opinion ha-- <>. The ai'-eiice of all mention of Jeremiah in the
lieen formed that Ji-n-miah was the author. This hi-torv. although he was .-o j>rominently active in the
opinion has been maintained by (Jrotins. Carp/.ovius, four or five last reigns. Jmth in the court and amongst
Iliivernick, and others: bul opposed by Calmet. Keil, the people, is only explicable on the supposition that
l>avidsoii, \e. ' Jeremiah was himself the writer. Had it been the

1. The work is attributed t<> Jeremiah on the ground work of another, lie must, as in Chronicles, have had
of ancient tradition. There is a reference to Jeremiah very distinct mention.
as the author in AV/a /!n//i,-<i. fob }.',. 1. :r: nx^ It has been argued on the other side -
r'".'~^ Z':~o ^nr 1 ^r : and with tin- Talmudic notice 1. That the concluding jxirtion of the book of Kings

could hardly ha\'e been written by Jeremiah, unless
we suppose him to have written it when he was between
c i'.'hty and ninety years old.

2. That the resemblance of style and diction may be
accounted for on the supposition of Jeremiah s fami-
liarity with the ancient records to which the writer
of Kings had access; whilst the similarity of '1 Ki.
xxiv. l-b x , (.Y.C., and Je. xxxix. mi<dit arise from the

>.xv. 1-3 . . r"lii|i. \v illi Jr. -,\x\ ; ii. 1 '.<

xxv. 1 I, i'J. IS-HJ .. .. xxxix. 10-1 I; \l. I .',

xxiv. l.'i .. ,. xxvii. LS--0; xxviii. 3-6.

x x i v. 1 1 . , . . x x i v . I .

--. \ i . ,x x i i . x x i . i . , . v i i. 1 5; x v. ! ; x ix. 3.

_'. The resemblance of style and language of Kings
to the acknowledged writings of Jeremiah. In both
works there is an unusual number of ciira^ \tyo/j.ei>a.;
and also of words peculiar to each work, though used
more than once. And what is still more to the purpose,
there are words and forms of words used in both works,
but in them only: as, p"!, a cruse, i Ki. xiv. :;, ami Jo.

xix. i,in; nr^, a husbandman. -2 Ki. xxv. \-2, Je. lii. n; ; :u,-l write!- of Kiims u-in- that portion of Jeremiah's work.
i-'2"', Jo. xxxix. in, rcry. to hide, used iii niphal only in ( The identity of Je. Hi. with the same portion of Kings
Kings, i Ki. xxii. .':,; 2 Ki. vii. r_', and in Jeremiah, c1i.xlix.io; i is owing to its being an altered extract from Kings,
"TO, to blind, used in the sense of putting nt the eyes appended as a supplement to Jeremiah by some later
only in 2 Ki. xxv. 7, and Je. xxxix. 7 and lii. 11, &c.

KINGS

K1XG.S

3. That the allusions to tin- Pentateuch are common,
though not in the same degree, to all the writers of the
period, as Ezekiel and Xochariah.

4. Tliat it cannot lie taken as a proof that Jeremiah
was the writer, because we do not know any other
more likely pen-on than lit; is to lie the author.

V I . Siiin-fcx and ntah r'utlx. Wo are not left in
doiilit as to the sources \vhcnee the principal part of
the contents of these books was obtained. The opinion
that the matter was communicated by special revelation
to the writer, and that lie was instructed to refer the
reader to other sources for further information, i- one
which can hardly be maintained in the face of so many
allusions to documents which the writer had evidently
consulted. The expressions which he uses imply that
he had selected the facts which bore upon his own
immediate object, and had left the rest for further
consultation and reference. The following works are
mentioned as affording part of the materials employed.
SOUTH! <>f them have already been noticed (sec Cnuo-
NKI.KS, liooKs OF); but the h>t of works referred to
in Chronicles is more numerous than that of writer,-;,
quoted in Kings :

1. The first mentioned is, rnri' nri it?, The Book
of the Acts of Solomon, \ Ki. xi. it. This is only once
mentioned at the close of Solomon's reign.

2. The second mentioned is, rrnrp tr"p? crrrr 'Tn irr.
The Book of the Chronicles of "the Kings "of Judah,

1 Ki. \iv. 29; xxii. lo, &c.

3. The thhd mentioned is, ^Ti" ^~^h C"2'n 'Tn "ir~
The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel,

1 Ki. xiv. !!; xv. ol, ic.; '2 Ki. i. 18, c.

It is not easy to determine

1. "Whether these books were the actual state annals
of the reign of Solomon, and of the two kingdoms,
of the existence of which there can be little doubt
(1) from the fact that public officers C^Trip, ' re-
corders" were appointed under each reiu'u: as "Je-
hosliaphat, the son of Ahilud," in the reigns of David
and Solomon. i'Sa. viii. n; ; xx. u'i: i Ki. iv. 3; and Joah, the M>n
of Asaph. in the days of Hezekiah, L'Ki. \viii. is, 37; and
probably for the purpose of preserving the records of
the kingdoms; (-2) from the prevalence of the custom
of recording the affairs of government in other eastern
nations: (3) from the nature of the quotations: and (i)
from the names given to the books quoted.

'2. Whether the writer of Kings had access to the
original documents, and quoted directly from them, or
whether he used works which had been composed from
the state annals by some contemporary authors, perhaps
the prophets or seers, the existence of which is probable
(1) because several of the prophets did write more
comprehensive and detailed accounts of the reigns in
which they respectively lived; as mention is made of
'The Book of Samuel the Seer," and "The Hook of
Nathan the Prophet,'' and '"'The Book of Gad the
Seer," 1 ch. xxi\. 2:1 ; which might be three separate
works, i Su. x. -jj; or one work consisting of the successive
labours of the three prophets, and called "The ISook
of the Acts of iJavid the King,'' written in addition to
the state annals, which were kept by Jehoshaphat, "the
recorder." So, iu like manner, " The Book of the
Acts of Solomon" might be the production of the
joint labours of Xathan, Ahijah, and Lido; or there
may be three separate works referred to in 2 Ch. ix.
29 "The Book of Nathan the Prophet," "The Pro-

phecy c.f Ahijah the Shilonite," and " The Visions of
Iddo the Seer." Later on we have "The Words (or
Book) of Jehu, tlie son of Jlanani." iCh. xx. 34; and the
saying- or books of the seers ''or of Ilosait, L' ch xxxiii.
1:1. Those and others less distinctly mentioned must
have been in existence when the book of King> was
written; and though they are not referred to by name,
yet we cannot infer from this silence alone that they
were either unknown or unused. In one instance at
least it would seem a- if the exi -twice of state record- and,
that of the books of the prophets were both recognized,
2 Ch. xxxii. 32 : "The acts of Hezekiah," kc., "written
in the Vision of Isaiah the Prophet, and in the Book
of the Kings of Israel and Judah." (2) It is further
probable that the writer of Kings used the works of
the prophets, either alone or in addition to state annals,
his work contains matter which would hardly
be found in royal records; viz. passages derogatory to
the kings -their evil reigns, the opposition and denun-
ciations of the prophets, and like subjects. On the
whole, it seems most reasonable to conclude that the
| writer availed himself of several sources, and used
them, as they best answered the purposes he had in
view, under the guidance and control of the Holy
Spirit.

One circumstance in regard to the use of documents
by this writer is remarkable. In making extracts from
his authorities, he sometimes appears to be more care-
ful to quote the very words of his author, than to
adapt them to the precise conditions of his own time,
in cases in which such adaptation would be most
natural and proper. For instance. 1 Ki. viii. , s . lie-
asserts of the staves of the ark, as seen in the holy
place before the oracle, "and there thev are unto this
day;" although he survived the destruction of the
t'-mple, as he subsequently relates, 2 Ki. \\v. it

To the same cause must we ascribe several repeti-
tions which cannot otherwise be well explained, as 1
Ki. xiv. 21 and 31: 2 Ki. xiii. 12, 13; and xiv. 1~,. lit;
2 Ki. ix. 14, 1C, and viii. 2,S. 20. Also in 1 Ki. xiv.
30 and xv. G; unless the latter passage contains, as it
most likely does, an erroneous reading viz. Jeroboam
for Abijam, as many MSS.. Syriac and Arabic versions,
and the parallel passage. 2 Ch. xiii. 2. show. Occasion-
ally also, in quoting from the original documents, the
writer interposes remarks and reflections of his own,
as in 2 Ki. xiii. 23: xxi. 10-16. Of this nature is that
solemn review of the course of the kingdom of Israel in
2 Ki. xvii. 7-23; and that remarkable account of the
religious practices of the Samaritans in 2 Ki. xvii.
32-41.

VII. Canti'ii ira/ antiioritii ai/i/ cridi^'dil//. The
canonical authority of these books has never been dis-
puted by any one who admits a canon at all. Their
place in the Hebrew Scriptures is amongst the n^c:
(prophets) in the Jewish division of the sacred writings,
thus recognizing their prophetical origin and authority.

Frequent allusions to their contents are made in the
Xew Testament. Thus they are referred to by our
Lord in Mat. vi. 2i, ''Even Solomon in all his glory;"
and Mat. xii. 42, "The queen of Sheba came to hear the
wisdom of Solomon." Lu. iv. 25-27: The shutting up
of the heavens for three years and a half, and the famine
in the days of Elijah; the widow of Sarepta to whom
Elijah was sent, and the cleansing of Xaaman the
Syrian. By St. Paul in Ko. xi. 2-4: to what the
Scripture saith of Elias and his intercession with God

KIR

KIRIATHA1M

against Israel, and the answer of Cod about the seven : Edom. The Targnm. on Is. xv. 1, tianslates it Kar-
thousaiul who had not bowed to Baal. By St. James, | akka of Moal>: so that there has never been any hesi-
ch.v. 17, is, to the prayer of Eh'as respecting drought and tation in identifying it with Kerak. <.v Kenvk. the
rain, i modern capital of the land of ,Moab. which hears the

Testimonies to their canonical authority may he same name. \Ve have it in the form Chjiraca, 2 Mac.
found in Josephus, Eu-cbius. .Jerome, and other early xii. 17, and in the Creek later writing:-. Charac-iiioba.
writers, which need not be quoted here, j Whether this form of the name was adopted \\ith a

Further remarks on the credibility of the contents reference to the meaning of the Creek word x/ ict s-
of these books belong to the expositor. Admitting the " a palisade." "a place fortified with palisades." \\e
need of a critical revision of the text, and the possibility shall not presume to determine. Porter (Murray'- Hand-
therefore of verbal and numeral inaccuracies, which bouk.i^ .'id, not, describes it as a tow'ii twelve hours' distance
more-careful collation of MSS. and versions may rectify, northward from Tufdeh, \\ith a population at present
a patient study of this portion ,,f holy writ will be of 30l.)0, situated oil the top of a hill some :>IM.III feet
followeil liy a deeper conviction of !LS hist"rical cer- above the level of the I lead Sea. .-v.rroumled by deep
taintv. and of its moral and religious importance in the narrow ravines, and by mountains beyond these which
scheme of the divine revelation. . shut out the view, except toward the west. " The city

[EjKfj'.tleul hilfit. Theo.lorel t, was tit one time strongly fortified, and is .-till inclosed

'>'< (Lon.l.m, IGI'U ; Curpzovius, 1, N ., ] l;l ]f ruinous W all. Hanked by se\en heavy towers.

i i'.'. '<: -'. (i. ii.-. i7ii i. P..!.-, >'/, /...-;- i'.-i' <-n,->i. ,. v.,i. i ; ,;. . ,, ,,

k , (i| lfc ' tij : Originally there were but two entrances, one on the

Tlienius /'. lltithvr dec Kiiniiii ,,'L'iift ( l.ci|i/i^', l> 1:' : Iviv-r north, and the other on the south side: and both tun-

!inl 13rent;iiio, /><' Hi"-/" //- A'" .</. Frankfurt :uu : M:iin, L--J7 1; ! ndled through t!ie .-..lid rock for a di>tance of nearly

K''il ""! |: 1 00 feel >n the western side stands the citadel, a

''!": '> ';'!* i^-nT!, : ,l^ ; ,.il.ii ; , : an-.]v^:.],,,;ih, 1; ; , , w building, separate,] from the town
Kwnlcl s Gixcld'-lit' <'.. /.--. (//.; I Van Mihuaiis //

Km-z'i //,-/,., "... reign Theul. by a deep moat hewn in the rock, [t appears to be of

l.iiimry .| |i. .>. r.| the age of the crusades, ^^'itllin it is a clinrch fast

KIR \n <rll. <i ],/,!<< j\,i-t(i!l ii-',tl, K n;ill.\ 1. A falling to ruin. . . . There are several fragments of

region -nbjc.'t to the Assvrian kinu', I-. xxii. >;, \\ lit re i; n d and gray granite columns -.cattei-ed ovi r tlie citadel

is mentioned aloiii;- \\ith Elam as furnishing soMiers fur and town." The crusad'-rs held possession of this city,

bis army sent a-aiii>t .lerusalem. It sei-ms to be de- ' which tiiey mistook for 1'etra. and they established in

dared the original seat of the Svrians, Am. i\. 7, to wliich it a bishopric of that name. About a third of the in-

this prophet threatens that tliey.-hall be carried back habitants belong to the (J reek church. The inhabitants

in captivity, cli i. :.; of which propln cy we read the i'u! of the t"Wii and di.-trict are notorious for their 1awl<-<s-

fihnent. . Ki. xvi. '.i II it/iu. on Am. i\. 7. di.-tinuui.-he- ness and fanatic! MM, and tra\ . -llei-s generally avoid the

the Svrians here meant as the White Syrians of the , iiei^hhoiirhoud, the more so that those \\ ho have been

Creek \\riters, wlieiva- the Red Svrians were a dif to it have almost invariably liad to suffer for their bold-

fureiit race of Shemitie descent : \\ hat -round- he has - [c. C. M. n.]

for this assertion we do not Know. The region Kirha>| K11MATH. m; K IK'.! ATM (r^-|. "city of," found

been most coinmoiilv identified \\ith (ieoi'-ia. the in several compound proper names, and once, Jos. xviii. '.'s,

country of the river Cyrus (now the Kun, which, alon- standing alone (see below in KlK.IATH-JKAKlM). It is

witli the Araxes ^now tlie Aras . falls into the Caspian almo-t exclusively a poetical word in the Hebrew llible,

Sea on the west. Keil. on '_' Ki.. ho\\-ever. following a but it may ha\e In loii-v.l to the common la iiu'ua _;' of a

liintof I'.ochai-t. (.refers the re-ion K in -ena, 1\ iuu' al. .11- remoter age. A rarer form of the word, m^ KIKI.TH.

the river Manlus, \\hieh flows through the central j.ails or HI.HIITH, i.- frequent in I'henician ]>ro])er names, aii(
of Media into the Caspian: or else a t.o\\uof Media.
Karii

kindred f..rm i.- nr">r. KAK'TAII. a city of Xelndon, as

is tli" opinion of Yitrinja. Hi.- reasons for thi- signed to the I.evitical family of .Merarites. j(,s. xxi. :;i,
are not decisive: chiefly this, that the " land of Ararat." ] which is otherwise unknown tons; though Von Raumer
or nearer part of Armenia, was beyond the Assyrian conjectures that it is a place. ( 'arta or Certa. described
empire, -l Ki. xix. :::, and mucii more the remote part of ill the Itinerary given by R'eland (I'alcstin^. i>. 41(0, as
Armenia on the Araxes. There mav, however, be ! being t'iij'ht IJomaii miles on tlie road to Cesaiva from

coiilinnati f his view in the fact that in -J Ki. the Sykaminos, which is now Haifa, at the promontory of

SeptuauinL ( Alexandrian^, Vulgate, and Targnm, reii- .Mount Carmel; while \'an de N'elde thinks it is perhaps
der the word by Cyrene, as the two latter authorities , Tell Karthani. a place ''with an ancient mill and nume
do in Amos also: for it is scarcely conceivable that the rous old building stones," which he found near .ledru,
authors of this rendering thought of the well-known in his way from She fa 'Amar to Haifa, or again, el
Cyrene in Africa: and so the Chaldee translates in: Haiti, a village' with traces of antiquity, on the banks
2 Ki. :np (/\'ii-i/(iiin'i, as he observes. | of the Kishon. south-east from Haifa. 1'nder this

2. Km. with a second name to distinguish it. K [ K of word there fall to be noticed, besides compound names,
MOAH, is. xv. i; KIK-HA'HKSH, or KIK-HK'KKS, "brick two derivative forms. KIKIATHAI.M. C'P^, the dual of
fortification. " Is. xri. 11; Je. xlviii. 31,30, and in the feminine Kiriath, and Kr.umTH, the jilural: usage, or circum-
form, KIH-HAI;K'SK;I n. or KIII-HAHA'SKTH. !s. xvi. 7; '-'Hi. ; stances which it is no longer possible to discover, led
iii. >:,, was an important city of Moab, as the name ' to the distinction of different places by these slightly
suggests, and as these passages imply, particularly the ' modified names.

last, according to which it was the place where the KIRIATH'AIM, OK KIRJATH'AIM. 1. A town
king of Moab made his final stand when his country in the tribe of J!euben. Xu. xxxii. 'M: Jos. xiii. id, which
was overrun bv the allied kings of Israel, Judah. and , must have been one of the most ancient cities known

K1U10TI1

KIRJATii

in history, as it belonged to Hi
nation whom the Moabites dispossessed before the age
of the exodus, DC. ii. ni, 11. At a later time, when the
tribes beyond Jordan had boon carried captive, Kir-
jathaim full into the hands of the Moabites, .U\ xlviii.
1,1':!; Eze. xxv. !). Kusobius duscrilies it. "Now it is a
little village of < 'hristians, beside Medaba, the city
of Araliia, called Cariada," or

Koiviallia. " ten miles from Medalia to the west upon

Once, pei-haps, it is named simpiv
either on account of brevity, or
because the word "arim" has fallen out of the text by
a mistake of copyists, as it follows immediately in the
eommon meaniiiu of the word, 'cities;" at least the
full form Kirjath-jearim is presented in tlie Septuagint
and Syriae translations. Jf this be so, the pas>;i-v i-
renmrkable on account of assigning the city to J'enj.-i-

miii. instead of to . I ;idah, as elsewhere; though aiialog

the eminence."' Burckluirdt thought that it might be

where ruins exist, half an hour to the west of _Me<leba.

et-Teim. or et-Taim. which might be the final syllable

preMTVed of Kirjathaim.

Seetxeii suggested a district

liearing an Arabic name in

the plural form el Kurah.

between the little stream el

\\7dehand the Wadi Mojib.

which is the ancient Arnon.

I'orter tliinks it is evidently

a jilace which would suit the

description of Kusebius hot

of all. if his "west" may he

taken to include "south-

west," Kureiyat, on the

southern base of the peak

Jebel Attarus; it is now a

ruin.

2. KiuiATHAiM. A town
in the tribe of Naphtali.
assigned to the Levitical
family of tlie ( Jcrshonites,
ICh. vi. Tfi (llebvcwv. (il). In the
lists of the book of Joshua,
ch. xxi. :>-2, it is named KAKTAX; and this is an old form Caleb, the son of llur. is called the father of Kirjath-

of the dual, precisely the same in meaning as Kirjath-

jearim, and his descendants are arranged in families.

aim. Its situation has not yet been discovered.
KIR'IOTH. Sec KEBIOTH (2).
KIR'JATH, &c. fee KIKIATH,

KIR'JATH, as part of a compound name. 1. KIK- although, on account of the deceit in their proceed-
JATH-AK'BA, i-riN rn;?, '-'the city of Arhu," tlie Ana- ; ings, they were reduced to the condition of bond-serv-
kite. not ''the city of four,' 1 or ''the quadrangular ants for the tabernacle servic;-. Situated oil the very

city,'' as some have suggested; and still more con-
fidently we may say, not ''the city of four men,"
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Adam, who were buried
there, as Jerome expounds it (Epitaph. Paula;, Epist. eviii.n h
Ge. xxiii. >; Jos. xv. ', \; xx. 7, and pavtioulavly, ch. xxi. 11; Xo. xi. '^:>.
It is the same as rlKBKox (which see).

2. KnuATH-AK'nr. .SVc KIH.IATH-.IEARIM.

3. KIRJATH-BA'AL. .SV-r KIIUATII-JF.AIUM.

4. KiKJATH-nuV.OTH, n^ v n n^, "city of streets."
a town of the Moabites, to which Baalam was conducted
by Balak. Xu. xxii. :i(t; which Porter (Murray's Handbook,

p. i'!i:i, :i'm) is disposed to identify with Kureiyat. meaning
"cities," and so with KIRIATIIAIM (1). This, however,
is verv uncertain.

border, and at a turning point of the boundary of tin-
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, Jos. xv. n, io ; \viii. u, i:,,
and near the tribe of Dan also (the expedition of Dan-
ites, JIT. xviii. 12, pitching close behind it in a place called
Mahaneh-Dan. "the cam]i of Dan"), it was a place
pro babl v of political importance a.- it certainly is very
important to the sacred geographer. When the Philis-
tine-- sent hack the ark. and the men of Bethshemesh
wished to be rid of it after the terrible chastisement of
their irreverence, they sent to the people of Kirjath-
jearim to take it to themselves, and it remained with

them a long time, much longer than the twenty years
of mourning mentioned, i su. vii. i', though some writers
have thought otherwise. It has been suggested that
the men of the priestlv citv of Bethshemesh wished the
FEABIM, cnr rnp, "city of forests," poor tem ple- servants at Kirjath-jearim to run the risks
once poetically -r, i/<i'(U\ in the singular "a forest." connected witli keeping the ark, which had proved so

Ps. cxxxii. o, "in the city of the wood" in the author-
ized version. Probably it was once an important seat
of idolatrous Canaanite worship, as it also bears the
name of KIH.IATH-BAAL, " the city of Baal," Jos. xv. <;o ;
xviii. lh and the kindred name of I'aalah. Jos. xv. !i; 1 Ch.
xiii. (i; and Baale of Judah, 2 Sa. vi. 2. By a slio-ht corrup-
tion of pronunciation, probably, it is called Kirjath-
arim, V.y.v. ii. >:,, but the regular form occurs in the par-

deadly to those with whom it resided: hut this is very
questionable. From this place David brought it up to
Mount Zion. 2 Sa. \i.; i Ch. xiii. After this we do not read
of Kirjath-jearim, except in the two passages above-
noticed, from which we learn that after the exile many
of its inhabitants returned to their own land. A pro-
phet, Uriah, a contemporary of Jeremiah, is named as
belonging to this citv. Je. xxvi. 20. Eusebius. and his

f the other name Debir, i'rr (or rrvrr. ddihlrah.

KIRJATH -11 KISHON

translator Jerome, vary slightly in their description of
it* site; under the name P>aal they place it at the teaf/i
milestone, and under Kirjath-jearim at the ninth, on

the road fi'om Jerusalem t I>ic>sp'>Hs or Lydda. 'I'his ... .. .

agrees pretty well with the site of the present Kuryet j in a Canaanitish name of so remote an age. and as
el 'Knab. "the citv of grapes," as I )r. I!obin>on oli- | the alternative names of places have often totally
served, both on his first journey and in his later re- ' different meanings, it has generally been thought
searches, and as authorities no\v agree in believing: j .-atVr to interpret IVbir. from Hebrew usage, '';ui
in Van d.> Vclde's map it also bears the name of Aim ' inner place," "a place further hack," pn>l>alily with
(iliosh, from a daring marauding chief, whose name , ivfcrenee to its position among the mountains. In
was long a terror in the district, and some of whose I the history subsequent to Joshua this city is never
i'amilv still occupy the village. Porter (Murray's Ham!- i named. It was described by the monk Procard. luif
t><i"k, i>. _'-( speaks of it as situated on the right hank of ha< not yet lieen identified, unless Dr. L'oseii. .Prussian
a long ifarf//. in which the road runs from Jerusalem to con-id at Jerusalem, was coirect in lately fixing the
Vafa. "It has a picturesque l,.,,k with its fine old site of it at a heap of ruins called 1 >e\\ irh.-'tn, on ;i
church and cattle-like houses, and large olive-groves, liill-top aliont an hour's distance from 1 1 el iron west-
and terraced slopes: but there is an air of neglect and wards, between that city and Dura, beside the fountain

'A in Nunkur.

KIR-MO AB. Sec KM: -JK

out the whole thai tells of rect.-nt indolence or
misfortune. The village consists of a numl'cr of sub
stantial st'ine houses, grouped round two or three, ! KISH [60 if]. 1. The onlv person of any note \\lio
which from their size and strength might almost he liore this name was the father of Saul, but of his per-
called c-astles. Th'-->- are the hereditary mansions of sonal history also we know extremely little. lie was

the familv of the once celebrated chief Aim (diau-h." the -on of Al>icl, of the tril f IVniamin. and accord-

I
The above-mentioned church is "deserted and dese- ing to Said of one of the smallest families of the tril ie

cnted. hut not ruined." lie says it is in the (lothie though this might be taken rather as an indication of
stvlc, vi rv plain and massive; while Kohinson pro- the internal sense of the t-peaker at the time, than of
iioinices the architecture to !,. very mixed indeed, the actual state of tilings, i S;i. ix. i.-l; xiv. .".i; hut that is
though he coincides in this that it is more perfectly all we know of him, except the trifling circumstance of
preserved than any other ancient church in Palestine the loss of his asses, which incidentally led to Saul's
relies, iii. ).. i.v;, i:.:V "The building might have '. first interview with Samuel. In the geiiealogv of
served at an v time the double purpose of church and ' C'hronicle.s, not Abiel, but NYr, is repi-e-. nteil as the

fortress a- valuable peculiaritv in the storm v dav< father of Kish, iCh. viii.3.!. But there seems to be some

when it wa> built." At time this was suppled to error in the text there. Ner was th>- fatlu-r of Abncr,

lie the lurth-pia'-e of .1, re.niah, to \\hom it has be, n I Si \r .M, which Ner is exjiressly said to havt been Saul's

>aid th;,t thi- ehiiri'h and u lU'igliliouring l''ranciscan uncle: so that Abie! was the grandfather alike of Saul

convent, now no longer to be traced, even in ruin-- 1 and oi Abiur. but Kissh was the father of Saul, as Ner

were dedicated, though this opinion was doubted I >y of Aimer. 2. A descendant of I'ciijamin, of the family

6. KIIUATH - SAN NAIL n:c n*i~. .is. \v. in, the same] i Ch. viii.::n. 3. A Levite, son of JMahli, of the family of
as Merari, 1 Ch. xxiii. '.'I. 4. A Levite, of the familv of

7. KIRJATH-SK'PHKK. ^D r--, "city of a book," Merari, in the days of Uexekiah, one of those who gave
or "city of writing," iran-late 1 in the Septtiagint TTU,\;> , t hem-elves to the work of piirifvihg and pn paring the
-,/>au/y.dru;', "citv of letters," which is said to be th- house of the Lord, 'J Ch. xxix. r_>.

name "before." or in ancient times; though already in KI'SHON \>>>/ ///< " bou; tortuous, (Jesenius], is
the time of Joshua it was c;tll>-d also Dehir. .'<>. xv. ir>,ir, : the name of a river, or rather a torrent. "P: (ini/i/in/\.
Ju. i. 11, u. These parall'-l passages tell how iv. was i for there appear to be not more than eight miles of its
taken by Othniel. the n> phe\\ of ( 'aleb, to whose share ooiir.-e in \\hich it is a ]ieremiial stream, or onlv fixe
it had fallen. At an earlier time, however, Joshua had ; according to Stanley. It draws its supplies of water
taken it and put its king and its inhabitants to death, i from a considerable area, over the whole of the plain of
Jos. x. 38, 39, compare ch. xii. i:t. It lay hi the mountain i Jezreel. as it has sources as far to the south-east as
region around Hebron iiii the heart of the territory of ' Jenin. the ancient Kn-Cannim. and as far north-east
Judah. and therefore different from Debir in Jos. \v. 7. ; as Jehel Tnr. or Tabur, in \\hich h.-calitv alone it was
on the north-eastern frontier of the tribe), as is pretty i common for older writers to say that it rose: and the
obvious from these passages and Jos. xi. '_'!. which also | perennial part of it, said to depend upon springs in
speaks of it as a seat of the Anakim. whom Joshua j Mount Carmel, is reinforced by a tributary, the \Yady
cut oft'. It was one of the cities assigned to the prices. I el- Malek, which runs through the plain el-liuttauf, still

i.">. The other name, Kirjath-sannah, is trans-
lated by (iesenius and others ''city of palms;" by

Bochart, whom Keil follt

citv of doctrine;" com-

pare the Arabic so, "canonical law." which gives a
name to the principal portion of the Mahometan?

farther to the north. The southerly streams are those,
however, to which the name of Kishon belongs; and
"the waters of Megiddo," beside Taanach. which are
celebrated in the song of Deborah and llarak. .In. v. l'.>,
must be either the Kishon itself or some of its small

Many speculations have been thrown out in connection tributaries. Jt seems also to be '"the river,'' more

with these two names, as to this place having been tin 1 literally the torrent, "that is before Jokneam." now

seat of a kind of university, or centre of religious teach- , el-Kaimun. which formed part of the boundarv of tho

ing, among the Canaanites: but of course it is vain to j tribe of Zebulon towards the south or west, .los xix. n :

speak with confidence on the subject. It is an opinion, from that city it is only about a mile distant at the

however, which has been also supported by a derivation i nearest point. The principal stream, towards flic end

Vol.. II. 132

KISS

of its course, runs along the foot of the ridu'o of Carmel
in a north- westerly direction (though speaking with
more minuteness of accurate description, Porti-rsavs
it ''winds in a deep tortuous bed"), and falls into the
l!ay of Acre about two miles to th>- east of Haifa. It
is now known by the name of Nahr-el-Mukatta' or
Mukutta'. It is chieilv famous in sacn d histrv for
its part in the ovt;rthrow of Sisera and the host of
.labin, Ju.lv. 7, i:;: v. 21; I's. lxx\iii. !i. In the- verse of the
sung of Deborah it is named that (indent river, and
various attempts have been made to alter the meaning
of the adjective; but these arc not verv >atisfactorv.
and perhaps it is best to understand this epithet as assert-
ing that the river had already in more remote times been
the witness or actor in similar scenes, since the plain of
.le/.reel has ever been the groat battle-field of Palestine.

- KISS-

The river is said to have x<>-< />t the enemy away. This
corresponds with the accounts of travellers, and is ex-
plained by them. Thus Porter 'Murray's Handbook, p. :>:;)
says of the ford, which is somewhere about seven miles
in a straight line from the sea: ' 'i'his river, at the place
where we cross it. runs between banks of loamv .--oil.
some If) feet high, and only 1~> or i>n yards apart. The
bottom is soft mud. which makes the ford difficult at
all seasons. In attempting to cross it la.-t Mav, 1
almost met the fate of some of the fleeing soldiers of
Sisera. though there was then very little water flowing.
OIK; can easily see how a sudden and heavy fall of
rain, such as fell on the day of the battle of Megiddo,
would not only render the passage of the Kislmn
dangerous, but would leave the banks and bed in
such a state as absolutely to swallow up horses and

[334. i The Mouth of the Kishon and Mount C'armtl.- Hurdy'.s Notices of the Holy Land.

chariots." And Van de Velde says the river is "con-
sidered, on account of its quicksands, one of the most
dangerous rivers in the laud." The Kishon was also
famous on account of its vicinity to the scene of Elijah's
sacrifice on Mount Carmel, probably somewhere near
Jokneam: Stanley, Porter, and Van de Volde think
at el-Muhraku, which means ''the sacrifice."' After
the sacrifice, at the prophet's command, the prophets
of Baal were taken down to the Kishon and put to
death. 1 Ki. xviii. 40. [<;. c. M. J>. ]

KISS. As a mode of salutation between near rela-
tives and friends the kiss has been common to all ages
and countries, and in that respect there is nothing that
can be called peculiar to the Bible. In token of afl'ec-
tion and mutual endearment, such persons on meeting
or parting with each other naturally exchange a kiss,
Go. xxvii. -Jii; xxix. l.'i; Ca. i, 2; Ru. i. 14; Lu. vii. 45. From being
the natural expression of a true affection and regard, it
readily becomes the artful token of the hypocrite and
seducer, professing a love which they do not feel.
I'r. vii. in-, 2 Sa. xv. 5; Mat. xxvi. 48. In the early church, and
in consequence probably of the extraordinary outburst
of affection called forth by the circumstances of the
time, coupled with the fervid temperament of the Ka.st.
the kiss came into use among the Christian brotherhood
as a token of relationship and mutual endearment in a
spiritual sense: hence, the exhortations in some of the
epistles to salute one another with a holy kiss, or with
a kiss of charity, Ko. xvi. i<; ; i Co. \vi. I'D; i Th.v. i; 1 Pe. v. 14.
It might, perhaps, be understood among the members
of the church, that the kiss was to be exchanged be-

tween persons of the same sex only though no direc-
tion to this efl'ect is found in the apostolic epistles; and
it is known, that in process of time the heathen took
occasion from the practice to reproach the Christians
for looseness of manners. On this account care was
taken (as appears from the Apostolical Constitutions') to
maintain in respect to it the distinction of sexes; but
the practice itself was kept up for centuries, especially
in connection with the celebration of the supper. It
was regarded as the special token of perfect reconcilia-
tion and concord among the members of the church,
and was called simply the peace (elp-fjvyj) or the /,'/.>.-' <>j
/,-t/i-i (osoulum pacis). It was exchanged in the eastern
church before, but in the western after, the consecration
prayer. Ultimately, however, it was discontinued as a
badge of Christian fellowship, or a part of any Chris-
tian solemnity.

In Scripture, however, the kiss sometimes appears as
the mark of homage and veneration, not less than of
love and endearment. Thus, it was given to earthly
rulers, in respectful and loyal acknowledgment of their
digi lit}* whence Samuel kissed Saul immediately after
having anointed him. 1 Sa. x. i, and the exhortation to
kiss the Son as anointed King of Zion follows directly
on the proclamation of his divine appointment to the
office, Ps. ii. 12. The modern practice of kissing the hand
of the monarch survives doubtless as a witness of that
ancient custom. And from a mark of devotion to
earthly monarchs it passed into a similar mark toward
the heavenly powers. To kiss the hand toward the
sun or moon, was to do them divine homage (an act

KIT1

KITHLISH

solemnly abjured by Job, di. xxxi. 27 K and where idols were
worshipped, a kiss was often actually applied to them.
More commonly, however, even with respect to images,
the kiss was only done toward them, the images them-
selves being enshrined in a temple. Hence, in 1 Ki.
xix. ]$, Ho. xiii. _', the expression used is literally kiss
to Baal. "I 1 to the calves. A servile imitation of this
heathenish custom sprung up in Kngland about the
middle of the thirteenth century, and began to spread
elsewhere: a table with a crucifix on it, or an image of
Christ, was placed for the purpose of allowing the people
to get round and kiss it. But the practice was discon-
tiiuied on account of the strife and wrestling that at-
tended it (Ilerzog, Encyclup. art. [ricdcnskiiss).

KITE [rrsi. injijuh}. Our translators have rendered
this Ilehiv.v \v..rd twice by "kite," I.e. xi. r
xiv. i.'J; and once bv "vulture." J-ib xxviii. T. In the
second of these passages they u ive "the u'lede and the
kite" as tlie equivalents of two \\onls. J'.ut glede and
kite are but different name- for the same bird: and
as we have considered this to be represented by the
Hehrett n^n. /''<'/< (.<(< ( ; l.]-:i)!v, We must seek some other

species to -land for the m/i/n/i. The LXX. will not
help us much: for whereas in l.< \itictts they render
<l iiilt and tiiii/uli bv -ry and i\rir. and in Deuteronomy
i'iinli and a i/ i/i i /i bv the same equivalents, in ,loli tliev
give -, i'v as the rendering of ct'/i/K/i. 1'i'w is the Greek
for vulture, and IKT'LII for kite. The Knulish liible, as
we have already seen, adopt-; the uncertain rendering
of the LXX.

As in only one of these pa^a-vs is any peculiarity of
the bird noticed except that of being uiic]ca:p. viz,
that of proverbially acute sight, .Tub xxviii : "There is
a path which the vulture'-; eye hath nol seen' 1 ue
ni;iv accept this p udering of the \\opl. that some one
of the Yiilfii,-i<lii is meant, without affecting a delusive
precision as to the species. S. vc nil members of this
family inhabit Palestine and the surrounding countries,
either as occasional visitants or as constant residents:
as XciijiIti'Hii 1*1 i-<-m>iil< i'n.<, already noticed (.<(/ (in:i:-
EAGLE); \'nlt,n- falm*, the -rilll.n: (.iypiiiiton larliatnn,
the lammergeyer; I". A'//,,V. Kolhe's \ulturc: and I'.
itnrii'iifitrln, the sociable vulture.

The whole order of rapacious birds is remarkable for
the power and acuteiiess of their vi-ion. Home] l,,n-
ago observed this :

Knd.iuv,! with sharpest eye,
The sa.'ivd eagle fV.nn his walks al.ove
I.c.i.ks clu\vii, and SIM'S the distant thicket move.
Then stoops and sousing on the quivering liarr.
Suau-hi-s liis life. //;./. xvii.

Ill all birds the bony orbits of the eyes are of great
magnitude in proportion to the skull, and tlie eyes
themselves are of proportional si/.e. In none are these
peculiarities more conspicuous than in the I!<t/it<ri-ci*, in
which the sclerotic plates of bone that inclose tlie eye
as in a hoop, take the form of a goblet with a trumpet-
rim. This peculiar shape arises from the curvature
and length of tlie individual plates, which, as in all
birds, occupy the front of the sclerotic tunic, placed
side by side, witli their lateral edges slightly overlap-
ping each other. In general the hoop formed by the
association of these bones is either flat or slightly con-
vex externally; but in the raptorial order each plate
is concave externally, whence the hoop takes the shape
above mentioned. By means of this bony hoop the
eye becomes a self-adjusting telescope, suited at the

will of the bird to examine very near or vcrv remote
objects.

It is well known that, in tropical countries where
the \'i/!tnri(l<i abound, the death of an animal causes
the unclean fowls to flock to the spot from every quarter
of the heavens, though perhaps none were visible be-
fore. This has generally been attributed to keenness
of scent, but abundant evidence exists that the con-
course frequently takes place so speedily after death
that no effluvium could be diffused. \\e have seen
this repeatedly in the case of the vultures of tropical
America, and I>arwin confirms the fact bv his observa-
tions on the condor of the Andes. Professor Lieheii-
.-u ill observed, when travelling in South Africa, that if
an animal chanced to die, in the very midst of the
most desert wildcrnes^, in less than half an hour there
was seen, hi;jh in the /eiiith, a number of minute
objects descending in spiral circles, and increasing in
visible magnitude at every revolution. These were
soon discovered to be a flight of vultures, \\hich must
have observed, from a height viewless to the human
eye, the dropping of the animal immediat' lv marked

out for plW l'1'i-av. iii AlViia>.

I >r. James .lolinsoii mentions a fact illustrative of
the same view. I luring the north-east monsoon, v\hcn
the- \\ind blew steadily in one point for months in sue
ci <sion, he observed a concourse of birds of prev from
e\ery point of the hori/oii, hastening to a corpse
that \\as floating do\\n the river (hinges: and lie
accounts for their thus cou^ relating, and appearing
suddenly from immense distances, by their soaring
high in the air for the purpose of looking out for food
Mod and Chiv Itcv Ike l-.'M

l>ar\\in ha^ an inti -iv-t inn' remark on this pheno-
menon. "Often," he observes, "when Iving down to
rest < 11 the open plains, nu looking upwards, I have
seen carrion-hawks sailing through tlie air at a threat
hei Jit. Where the country is level. 1 do Hot believe
a space of the heavens, of more than fifteen decrees
above the hori/.on, is commonly viewed with any
attention bv a person either walking or oil horseback.
If such be the case, and the vulture is on the wing at
a height of between three and four thousand feet, before
it could come \\ithin ran^e of vision, its dUtanco in a
straight line from the beholder's eye \\ould be rather
more than two British miles. Might it not thus readily
be overlooked.' When an animal is killed by (he
sportsman in a lonely valley, may he not all the while
be watched from above bv the sharp-sighted bird '. And
>\;1I not the manner of its descent proclaim throughout
the district t<> the whole family of carrion- feeders that
their prey is at hand '." (.lour, nf lies, ix.) [ :. H. (;.]

KITH'LISH [crnslt'inu or diulung down f tl /lo,,],
a city in the Shephelah or lowland of .hidah. Tt is
mentioned along with Mi/peh (Tell es-Safieh), Eglon
('Ajlan). Makkedah(Kudna), &c., its more immediate po-
sition being between Lahmam (el-Hamam, south of 'Ain
Kussabeh) and (Jederoth (el-Judeideh, west of Tell el-
Hasy); whence we should infer that it was situated not
far from the last-mentioned place, towards the south,
.lust at this spot occurs a ruined site called i/-Jils
(nib. Res iii. A]>p. i'. mo, which we can have little hesita-
tion in identifying with Kithlish. After allowing for
the omission of the tan, which is not a tenacious
letter. 1 there is no essential difference between the two

1 We have examples of the liability of this and tlie other lin-
guals to be softened or fall away, in the neighbouring towns

KJTTI.M

K Oil ATI!

words. 1 The reference to the lion in the etvniology- is
\ery appropriate, surrounded as Kitlilish is on nil sides
liy traces of that ;uiiiii;d- in tin: plains of i lull on the
north, Uu. xxxiii. iL'; Ju. xiv. 5j on the uplands of .ludah
eastward, Gc. xli\. \>; 1 Sa. xvii :;l; and in the "dry and
thirsty hind " of the South, _' Sa. xxiii. L'O; Is. xxx. (i. Nor
are there wanting even now evidences of its not having
forsaken its old haunts; for ''it is said that lions have
lieun seen in the plain of ,Snaron " in the present cen-
tury (Jewish Intelligence, xvi. 402), as in the eighth (K;u-ly
Tnncls in Palestine, p. i'i), and ''the fresh print of its foot"
has been recently recognized in the desert south of

(.ia/.a (K"t'aen, p.3-1,"), j K. \V.J

KITTIM. SeeCmntx.

KNIFE. Various terms in the Hebrew Scriptures
are rendered by knife in the English Bible. The most
common one is a derivative of the root to eat P",^O
(ma'akeletli), eating instrument, or food-cutter, as in J'r.
X.N.X. 14, where the greedy and avaricious are described
as having kni\es for jaw-teeth, to devour the poor from off
tlie earth, lint it is applied also to sharp-edged instru-
ments for other purposes, such as for slaving or cutting
asunder, as at (TO. xxii. (!, 1(); Ju. xix. 21'. 'J'he usual
term for suord ',;in, i'//i rc ! i}. when nsed with respect to
an instrument for cutting smaller objects, is also ren-
dered knife as at Jos. v. '1, '} (articles of a smaller kind
for circumcising), 1 Ki. xviii. 23: Eze. v. 1, 2 (where
incisions and cuttings are spoken of, such as are wont
to be performed by knives). The knives mentioned in
E/r. i. i, among the articles of the temple-furniture
brought back from Babylon, and which were doubtless
employed chiefly in killing and dissecting the sacred
victims, have their name in the original from a word
(ffrrtp, wulittldfih} which points to the passing through,
piercing the objects it was applied to slitting or cleav-
ing instruments. Not materially different in its appa-
rent radical meaning' is the xakkti> i"-\T, from rcir, an
unused root, but supposed to have primarily meant to
cut, d'/r'n/i; IK I n'ci a ), which is nsed, though only once,
and in a figurative sense, with reference to eating, "Put
a knife to thy throat, if thou be a man given to appe-
tite," Pr xxiii. L'.

'Adulluni (now 'Allar), llu<l;us]iah (Tell el Ilasy), and Moladah
(afterwards Malatha, now Milli); also in Xaivphath (Surat'einl;,
Neballat (Xebala), Gethsemane (Jesmanryeh), &c.

1 '1'lie interchange of th" palatals cj>ft and jruiid is as common
as it is unimportant. Thus we have; Kubarah as the modern
representative of Gubara, a city of Galilee; see !.<< r JS<f>. Jim. p.
87, note; and compare the numerous instances adduced by Ge-
seiiius.

- f 7H2' from fi'ittinth (nrC\ "to crush, beat down, break in
pieces," and taixl, (-^"'7), "a lion." Tlii.s seems a more probable
derivation than that. suggested by Gesenius, viz. '', //,,/ <W/ ( < /
C^-pS), "a wall'' nsed only once, poetically and in!/ (_">^), "a
man." Compare other animal references in the proper names
of this neighbomliond, such as Zoreah (hornet), Hazar gaddah
and Kngedi 'kid), 1 1 azar-shnal (jackal), llazar-susim (horse), Arab
(locust). The lion was a favourite compound throughout the
country; <-.<i. ISeth-lebaoth, Chephirah, Arieh, Laish or Leshem,
Ariel. 'J'his is not the only name of a city of the Shephelah into
the composition of which the verb cutliath appears to enter; /<
.loKi 111:1.1., and the reference to its employment by Mirah. a
native of this district. What word could more graphically de-
scribe the manner in wliich the lion exliihits its tremendous
power (.J u. xiv is; 1'r. xxx. :;u), by springing upon its victim,
dashing it to the ground with one stroke of its paw, and tearing
it in pieces with its formidable teeth '; (Joel i. i'>). Compare 1 ^a.
xvii. 37; Ts. vii. L', 5; Is. xxxviii. 13; Da. vi. 24, '27. It is a
curious coincidence that this particular trait of the lion is selected
as symbolic of the tribe of Dan, who inhabited the Shephelah,
De. xxxiii. 22.

In none ot the passages referred to is any indication
given, either in the particular term employed, or in the
manner of its application, as to the precise form, or the
materials of which the instruments in question \\ere
co:ir4nicted. Nor in the remains of ;mcicnt K- vpt and
Assyria have we much to help us in forming our ideas of
what may have been found in this respect ainon^ the
Israelites. There art-, how-
ever, among the .Assyrian
antiquities in the British
Museum some knives of
bronze, which are hei'e re-
presented. No. :j>;j %. ]
has a blade similar to what
is still used in modern
times; fig. 2 is sharp and
pointed like a dagger, and
on the bas-relief from
which it is taken it appears
in the hands of a person
cutting a rope, to wliich a
bucket is attached. Fi-s. :)

and i are formed like a sickle, the former having a
sort of hook on the handle-end, probably for the
purpose of attaching it to the girdle. The Egyptian
specimens, No. :.!Mi ; are partly of stone; fig. 2. from
the British Museum, being of steatite or soapstone;
\\hile iigs. '.'> and 4. from the Berlin Museum, are of
Hint. It is supposed that
knives of such form and
material were used for
certain religious purposes,
specially for the work of
embalming, and that from
a reverential regard to
antiquity these continued
to be so employed long
after instruments of a
more perfect kind were
manufactured. (See Wilkin-
son. Anc. Kgypt. c!<>se ofcli. i\.)
The woodcut No. :>M>, fig.
1. taken from a wall in
Thebes, shows a knife of a
more modern shape, in the
act of being sharpened
mo.-t probably, therefore.

made' of bronze or steel. These are but incidental and
very imperfect illustrations of the articles which must
have been in use among the ancients; for they are known
to have' carried on many trades and occupations which
required cutting instruments of the knife description in
verv considerable varieties both of form and quality.
There is little doubt, however, that some of these at
least were very similar to knives nsed in the present
day. The peculiar crescent-shaped knife commonly
used by leather-cutters has its exact counterpart in the
hands of workmen following that occupation as depicted
on Kgvptian monuments.

KO'HATH or KE'HATH [asscmUi/'], the second son
of Levi, most probably born in Canaan, Ge. xlvi n. Of
his personal history we know nothing, except that he
died at the advanced age of 133 years, Ex. vi. is. Of
his line were Moses and Aaron, i Ch. vi. 2. At the time
of the exodus the posterity of Kohath numbered 2750
men between thirty and fifty years old, Xu. iv. 35, the
total number of males 8(JOO, divided into the distinct

KORAJI

LAI; AX

families of Auiramites, Izeharites. Hebroiiites, and ['/.-
/ielites, NH. Hi. -i~. To them, with the exception of Aaron
and Ills suns, was given the charge of bearing the ark
ami its furniture (luring the inarch tlirough the wildcr-
fiess, NIL iii. :J1.

KO'RAH [/<-,]. 1. A son of Kvui. of whom nothing
furtlier is known, Go. xx.\\i. .'., n.

2. KoitAir. A son of Eliphaz, and of an Edomitish
tribe, of which lie was the head, c-i;. \\xvi. Iii.

3. K'liiAii. A son of Hebron, and descendant of
Judah. 1 CIi.

4. KoKAH. A grandson (as it, \\ould seem, at le.ist a
descendant) of Kc.liath, and sou of I /liar. consequently a
Levitt-. who became thechief ringleader of a rebellion that
was raised against Mo.-es and Aaron in llie \\iltkrn.-~-.
Ex. vi. 21, :M; Xu. xvi. l-jii; xxvi. li II !x<>rah apj ears t<> have
been the i.lllv J.ersoll "f note aliion-.; tl 4u Le\"ites who
took an active share in this rel.ellion, though tin re w\ re
evidently other Levites with liim; l.ntliis ehief coad-
jutors were J)athan, Ahiram. ami On, of the tribe of
lii-iib.'ii. It wa-> natural that some Uenbenites should
liave joined the conspiracy: for as the quarrel was raised
on the ground of right, to wrest from Moses and Aaron
a portion of the |ifei,Iiar privilt uvs and honours wliic-h.
it was allfgi-d. th- y had improj -rl v arro-'att d to tin iii

mbcrs. of tli - trilie of b'eubt n, the tir-t born
ol'.laeol.'s family, mi_dit i-eadily imagine that they had
not the pl.iee th'-v were entitled to expect, anil by a little
bold opposition mi-lit -jet iiioi-". The foi'inal plea, how-
ever, was that the Lonl had himself declared the whole
congregation to he a kingdom of pi-it .-4-.. Ex. .\i\. i!;Xn
while .Moses and Aaioii w. re acting as if they alone
had the riuht to draw mar to (><><) and miii;--t--r in
h"ly things. It \\asa plausible objection, and beside the
ringleaders themselves, there v ere i:."." mt-n of inli

iii the congregation drawn away with it. Moses rea-
soned the matter with them, reminded them, especially
the Levites, of the high honour that had actually been
conferred on them, and charged them with resisting
the express appointments of the Lord. Jiut the whole
party stood firmly to their ground, the sons of Reuben
even refused to hold any conference on the subject: and
the result was. that the rebels perished under the stroke
of (i od's judgment, the earth opening and swallowing
iij> the most notorious offenders, while fire from the
Lord came forth and consumed the L'50 men who offered
incense against the divine command. It is expressly
stated, that the sens of Korah did not share in his
doom, Nu. xxvi. n, doubtless because they did not pnrti-
cipate in his ^nilt. And it is not improbable, that the
fearful example of folly and perdition which was ^iven

in their head operated on the sur\ivors as a salutary
warniiiL;, and contributed to the distinction which the
family afterwards attained. Samuel belonged to this
family, l I'll. vi. :;_'-:>, and the sons of Korah. or the Ko-
rahites, had the chief place assigned them by l>avid in
ke.-pin-' the doors of the tabernacle, ami conducting the

; psalmody of the eon^n .at ion. l ch. \i. :;-j-:;r ; IN. i'.>. :-::. A
part also of the psalmody of the ancient worship was
indited by pel-sons of their family: ten psalms bear the
inscription of their name. Jv xlii. xliv. xlv. xhi. xlvii. xlviii.
Ixxxiv. INN xv. Ixxxvii Ixxxviii.; and of these some remark-
able for their depth of spiritual thought, and their fer-
vent '_;loW of saiictilied feeling. .It is proper, however,
to a. id. that as some of these psalms seem to be spoken,
a- it were, from the heart of I >a\ id. not a few commen-
tators regard them as actually composed by l>avid.and
in-eribed to or for the sons of Korah, that they mi-Jit
by these churNters be introduced into the temple ser\ ice.

I '.lit- see under I'.-- \I.MS.

LA'BAN [irhltt], a son of I'.etlniel, and -rands.m
of Nahor the; brother of Abraham. Ge. xxviil. r.; xxi\ :.,
also brother to Itebekah, who became Isaac's wife.
When Abraham's servant arrived at Charran where
the family at the time resided) with proposals of mar-
riage to Rebekah, Laban entreated tin.- stranger cour-
teously and gave his consent aloii'j' with the rest: he
even appears to have taken a more prominent part in
the negotiation than liethuel, tie. xxiv. ."><>- .".">. l>nt the
manner in wliichat a much later j.eriod he acted toward
Jacob, when he fled to Padan-aram. from the face of
his brother Ksau, shows him to have been a person of
selfish dispositions, and by no means scrupulous as to
the means he employed to effect his purposes. In him
Jacob met with one who was well able to mete to him
his own measure in an artful cunning, and one who in
some respects proved even more than a match for him.
His c induct in making Jacob, who stood to him in
the relation of nephew, serve seven years for his
'laughter Rachel, and then on the wedding-night sub-
stituting Leah for Rachel, was utterly base and heart-
less. (See JACOB.) And his future behaviour towards

.Jacob betrayed sin-h a keen regard to his own interest,
at the expense of Jacob's, that the latter at last formed
the resolution of stealing a\\ay from him by night,
with his family and possessions, lest some wholesale
robbery should have been practised on him. It is too
plain, indeed, that Laban pursued after his son-in-law
with some intention of that sort: but beinu' warned by
( lod in a dream to do no violence to Jacob, the two
relatives met on Mount < iilead. and after some alterca-
tion parted attain in peace, <;u. xx\i. From this time
nothing more- is heard in sacred history of the family
of Laban, or of his Syrian relatives. Wives were no
longer fetched from that region for the posterity of
Abraham; ami the removal a few years later of the
household of Jacob to Kgvpt. and their sojourn there for
hundreds of years, entirely separated them from the
kindred races in Mesopotamia. Indeed, the grasping
policy, domestic corruption, and incipient idolatry
which had already obtained a footing among even the
better portion of those races, rendered it manifest that
the chosen family could henceforth derive little from
them of a wholesome and elevating influence.

LA BAN

LAIf.MAAI

LA'BAISI appears also to have been the name of a
town on the Arabian or eastern side of the Jordan,
and in the direction of the Red Sea; but nothing cer-
tain is known of its position or character. lie. i. 1.

LA'CHISH, 'i"DT, a name of very uncertain etymo-
logy, (iesenius wavers between "struck," hence- "cap
tured, " and ''adhering tenaciously," hence "difficult to
take." In Alicah i. 13 a verse in a paragraph which
is full of allusions to the meaning of the proper names
it is coupled with rr*, nr//<>-/i, "a swift beast.''
Lachish was a roval Canaanitish city, conquered by
Joshua; see ch. xii. 11, and more particularly ch. x.;
in which we find, ver.3, its king engaged in the power-
ful southern confederacy against (iibeon. and over-
thrown in that miraculous day. The city itself was
besieged, taken the second day, and all its inhabitants
destroyed, ver. 31, 32. It was assigned to the tribe of
ludah, in whose ''valley,'' or "low country," it was
situated. Jos. xv. 33, 30. It was one of the cities which
Uehoboam strongly fortified, 2 Ch. xi. 9. AVben the
conspiracy was made against king Amaziah in Jeru-
salem, it was to Lachish that he fled, and there he
was put to death, 2 Ki. xiv. 1<>; 2 Cli. xxv. 27. In the wars
of llezekiah with Sennacherib, it is repeatedly men-
tioned. The king of Assyria was there when Hezekiah
sent submissively, and asked terms of peace: and from
the same place the king of Assyria sent his first blas-
phemous message to He/.ekiah. though he had departed
from Lachish to Libnah by the time he sent his second
message, 2 Ki. xviii. 11, 17; xix. s; Is. xxxvi. 2; xxxvii. S. Not
improbably he had to leave it untaken; and this is
rather the impression conveyed by 2 Ch. xxxii. !>. Cer-
tainly Lachish and Azekah were the two cities of
Judah which alone remained imcaptured by Nebu-
chadnezzar in the last days of the siege of Jeru>alem.
,ie. xxxiv. 7. Among other discoveries by .Mr. Layard in
the palace of Sennacherib are full representations of
this siege as carried on by that king to a successful ter-
mination. Whether his success, however, was really so
complete as his artist would have us believe, we cannot
tell. (SVt SKXXACIIEKIB, and, for illustrations, we
ASSYRIA. Again, it is mentioned along with Azekah
as a place inhabited by the returned exiles of the tribe
of Judah. Ne. xi. :;n. The only other text in which it is
noticed is the above-mentioned verse in Micah. where
it is threatened with punishment because it had been
the beginning of sin to the daughter of Zion; but of
the particulars of its guilt we know only what the pro-

1 This reading, whiub is adopted by tin- Aulhnri/ed Version,
and lias the sanction of thirty-two Hebrew JIS.S., most of tin-
editions of the Vulgate, <kc. (the Sept. being here too corrupt to
be relied upon as an authority), appears preferable to that of
certain MSS. and editions of the Hebrew Bible, which have
I.ahmas. It may also be urged against the latter, that (so far
as the writer is aware) no other name in Palestine, occurring in
the Old Test-uncut, ends in s; while the difference of reading i>
easily explained by a copyist's confounding two very similar
letters (^ and .).

- There can be little doubt of the truth of this identification'.
It is mentioned between Kglon and Lahmam. Now, it may be
clearly demonstrated that Kglon is represented by the ruined
site 'Ajlan; for, besides the proofs of identity ordinarily alleged,
its position is determined by a twofold test. Kglon is named
between Bozkath and Cabbon. Jos. xv. .",:>. -10. Tubukah (the
Tagaba of the ecclesiastical writers), situated on one of the
"swells" connected with Tell el Hasy (Kill. !{/#. ii. 300), is evi-
dently the modern representative of IWUath fthe root of which
signifies "to mell like dough"), as el-Kubeibeh is here shown to
be identical with Cabbon. A line from south west to north-east

phet adds, that in it were found the transgressions of
Israel. The site of Laehish was long unknown. Lately
there has been a pretty general consent in favour of Um
Lakis a low flat hill, with a heap of stones and some
fragments of marble, but overgrown with bushes: also,
with an old well nearly filled up with rubbish, around
which there lie watering-troughs and pieces of columns.
The arguments in its favour are the similaritv of the
names, although the modi rn name is spelt with the
strong k or //, instead of the softer letter represented
by fh in the Hebrew, as given in the English Bible;
its situation, too, which generally speaking is suitable;
and, finally, its proximity to 'Ajlan, almost certainly
Eglon, with which it is associated in Scripture, from
whose ruins it is distant about three-quarters of an hour
to the west, on the road to ( Jaza from Beit-Jibrin, the
ancient Betogabra or Eleutheropolis. JJobinson, who
first described these ruins, did indeed refuse to identify
them with Lachish; and he has had one or two fol-
lowers in this. But the only difficulty of the slightest
importance is, that Kusebius places it at the seventh
milestone southward on the way to Daroma: on svhicli
Porter remarks (Murray's Handbook, p. i'ii) that Jerome
omits the expression "southward;" that Daroma is
applied by both these writers to a district in the south-
west of Palestine; and that during the crusades there
was a fortress erected on the ruins of a very old (Ireek
convent called Darum, on the coast a few miles south
of Uaza: and that while this suits the direction per-
fectly, it only remains to lie said of the dixtanw that the
numbers in the Onomasticon of Kusebius and Jerome
are often inaccurate. In this case the real distance
would be twice as great as they report it to be. Cer-
tainly they speak of it as still being a village in their
day, and therefore ought to have had no difficulty in
describing its position accurately. [G. c. jr. u. |

LAHAI'-ROI. >Sc BEEKSHEBA.

LAH'MAM, 1 a city of the Shephclah or maritime
plain of Judah, Jos. xv. 4n. Ik-sides this general fact, we
have the following criteria for ascertaining its position.
(1.) It was at no great distance from Kglon fAjlant.
for only a single place (Cabbon, now Tell el-Kubeibeh), 2
intervenes in the list of Joshua. (2.) As el-Kubeibeh
is almost due east from 'Ajlan. Lahmam. which imme-
diately follows Cabbon. probably had also an ea^erly
direction from Eglon. (3.) But Kithlish (el-Jilas), and
Gederolh (el-Judeideh?), which come after it in the
catalogue, are near Tell el- Hasy (Bib. Res. iii. App. p. no,
which is south of 'Ajlan; Lahmam, therefore, must

between these two places would pass very near 'Ajlan. Again,
Kglon occurs between Lachish and Gezcr, Jos. xii. 11, 12. There
is reason to believe that we should look for the site of Lachish
at or near the mouth of Wady el-Keis (an KKIL.MI). Gezcr (a
different place from the Cezerof Kphraim, f KlBZATM), is obvi-
ously identical with the present Yfisfir near Ashdod. A line
connecting these, which would run from south-east to north-
west, wouhl once more almost intersect 'Ajlan. Assuming, then,
that Kglon and Lahmam have been satisfactorily identified, and
that the most probable derivation of Cabbon is from cdbab, cog-
nate with words in the Arabic, Syriac, and Ethiopia, signifying
" to be round as a ball or globe" (Gtucn.), it follows that Cabbon
mu.-t have been situated on around hill, not far from 'Ajlan, on
the Lahmam (i.e. the eastern) side of it. This corresponds
exactly both to the situation of Tell el-Kubeibeh, described as
"a ruin-covered hill, which must once have formed a strong key-
fortress at the base of the Jmhoan mountains" (fan de Velde,
ii. 147; comp. B'<b. It'.?, ii. 394), and to its tt;in<olfi(i>i, for it is the
diminutive of an Arabic word signifying a "dome" or "rounded
summit." The conjecture of Gesenius (founded solely on the
evident affinitv of the two words\ that Cabbon is the same as

LAH.MI

LAIS] I

have been south-east <>f it. (L> Its name, which is
from the same runt as l\ut]i-/< h< HI ("the house of
bread"), 1 imports lh:it it was situated in a region
abounding in the means of subsistence, especially wheat.
All these conditions are fulfilled in a, site called < /-
llaiiiuni, which occurs in J)r. Robinson's Arabic list of
places in the district of (Jaza (ibid.) It is found in
close connection with "Ajlan, which shows that it is
not far from the latter. Looking in the required direc-
tion, we come upon a spot near \\';idy el-Hasy, a little
distance from 'Ain Kussabeh. named Tell Iman (Zimin.
pt. vii.), which, although incorrectly expressed, is suffi-
ciently accurate to be reco-ni/.ed us tlie place . if which
we are in quest. It is about -i\ niiles to the soutli-ea-t
of "Ajlan, is well watered tliib. lies. ii. 3'JO,:M; Valid \
ii 11.',), abounds in olives (Ziimn.), and is surrounded by
''line meadow lands," and " beautiful tracts of uTain,"
chiefly wheat (Bib. lies. ii. >:i). The prefix, "Tell," more-
over, is an intimation that it occupies an ancient site.
Finally, the Word it-'-If illamami is identically the
>ame as Lahnrun. with the exception of the initial /,
whicli is notorioii-Iy liable, in modern forms of Hebrew
proper nam.-s to 1- Io-t in tlie Araliie article, cl ; a-
Klealeli (now ,-b'AI', Lebaoth (el MeyudhS l.a.-hi-h
i<TKei~., Lazarus el-'Azer), l.ii-hah (el-'lsawiyeh),
&c. [K. w.j

LAH'MI [meaning unknown], a brother of (Inliath
of (lath, who. according to the received text in 1 < h.
xx. f), was slain by Klhanan the son of .Fair. lint as
what appears to be the parallel passage in '_! Sa. xxi. ll'.
reads ' Klhanan. the son of Jaare-oregim, a Methle-
h'-nute. slew (,'oliath the (littite," tin-re stems to be a
corruption in one of tin- passages, and erities .-till dill'er

\\llieh ,,f the two i> (o lie preferred.

LA ISH [Hun]. 1. One of the forms of the ancienl

name of a city at the northern extremity of th" Ib.h
L and i.--. LAMIA and LI>II!-:M>. vvliicli was captured and
destroyed by a liody of Danite emi-rants, v\ho rebuilt
it, and called it Dan. after tin founder of their tribe,
.in. xviii 7, 11, 27, 211. .It is now represented by Ti-11 el- Kad\
(" the mound of the judge." or "of Dan" l\,1<l : i being
simply the Arabic equivalent for the Hebrew I hi.,,, which
signifies "judge." Go. xxx.fi; xlix Id), a site with ruins at
the principal source of the Jordan, four miles west of
Manias, or Ciesarea 1'hilippi. As it- lii.-tory and to-
pography com.' more appropriately under the later and
more familiar designation .<< DAN I, it is only neees-arv
here to touch upon one or two points connected with its
earlier fortunes.

(1.) The exuberant beauty and fertility of the country
around the springs of the .Ionian, on which the Danite

the Machbeuah of 1 ( h. ii. 4'.\ mentioned between Madmannah
(Minyay, soutli of Ga/a) and (iihea (.Icb'a, south west of .leru
silk-in), is prububly correct; fir a line <lrav.ii between Mimfiy
an<l Jcb' a \v ( ,ul.l pass through Tell el Kubcilieh. In the change
from the Hebrew Cabboii to the Arabic Kul eibch, one palatal
(c;i]ih) has merely "ivi-n way to another (koph). The seeoinl I,
in Kubeibeh iloes but In-inbuilt, more fully the luut common to
both wonls. We may compare el-A",'///<, south-east of Hamleh,
and v:\-K n.li('il.nlt, noi-tli-we.st of .Icrusalein both of which are on
high ground (Jii'i. R.?. iii. :,o, r,:,; as well ;\* K<>l,l,-t el Haul, the
name of a ''swell or low rid-e," south of el-Milh flbi<l. ii. 017).
Knid-ud, or Kimkv.la, is perhajis only anotlier form of the same
word all the four places so called being situated on eminences
(Utter Kih. Jtea. p. Iii4, 310, :?s:,, 4i).

1 The final syllable < in I.ahmam may be regarded as equi-
valent to the prefix J!<>l, in Bethlehem, on the same principle
that the n,i in Cushan, llab. iii. 7, answers to the?,,ci of Cush.
Lahm.-xm may thus be rendered ''the place of bread;" a verv
appropriate designation for a city of the corn growing Shephclah

spies expatiate, Ju. xviii. y, in, and which are still the ad-
miration of every traveller, were not then made known
for the first time: for the original spies sent out by
.Moses are expressly said to have "searched the land
from the wilderness of Zin unto Jii/m/i," Nu. xiii.ui,
doubtk-ss the same as l',eth-rehob. which gave its name
to the plain (<" ,-;<<:/,) in whicli Laish was situated.- It is
probable that Amniie], the representative of the tribe
of I tan, Nu. xiii. 1-2, was especially attracted by the phy-
sical advantages of Laish - as we know that Caleb was
by those of Hebron, Jus. xiv.fi- it- and that his favourable
report was not forgotten by his compatriots of a later
.generation, when the occasion arose for enlarging their
borders.

('-.) The Danite scouts described this region as "a

; farm land." literally. " broad- sided "- one of the words
beni-' from the same root as Rehoh. This feature would
at once strike observers who had just traversed the
whole extent of Palestine, which has very few plains.
or even valleys, in our sense of the term (i)ict. iub in. ii;in,
and is noticed by modern travellers. " The wide valli-v
(writes .Miss Meaufort) \\hich \\ e bad to cross the next

I iiiornin-.' the Merj 'Ayun. or meadow land at the south
ern end of the \\'ady et-'I'eim \\a-~ delightful ground

i for cantering on: inde. d. nearly all the roads in this

; part of the country are - 1. as they pass usually along-
wide valleys" (Keypt. Sop. and Syr. Shr. ii. 2(i). Wehave
here also an incidental illustration of the suitableness of
this region for tlie "hordes and chariots very many,"
which \\i-re mustered against Israel near "the waters
of Merom" Mahr el liidehi at the summons of the
kin-' "f Ha/or, Jos. xi I-:.. This is further indicated bv
"the horse and his rider, which symbolized the tribe
of Dan witli <-ipial [iropriety iii its northern and soutliern

portions, (ie. xliv 17.

10. The meaning of the word Laish implies that this
trae* of eiiuntry was a favourite habitat of the lion; ;c
eircnni.-taiiee which cannot surprise us, \\hen we lake
into eoiisid' ration the facilities afforded alike to the
caniivora and their pn-v by the wooded slopes of Ma-
shaii. 1 1 ern ion, Leliaiioii, and " .Mount, Naph tali," whieh
bounded it on every side accounting for the sense al.

oiiee ot security and seclusion l'ef< ri'ei 1 to ill .In. xviii. 7.

I 11 . '11. -- together \\ithtln- marshes anil jungles of
Lake Mei'om on the south. It is in exact keepin--
with these physical conditions that the blessing of
MO-I-S ]ii-i-'inifi<-s Dan by a young lion making its fatal
-prin- from the neighbouring heights of Jlashan, He.
xxxiii. j-j; that the prophet Zechariah seems to connect
the "oaks of Mashan " with the ''roaring of young
lions" on the banks of the adjacent Jordan, <.h. xi. -j, :;-,
and that Solomon (whose knowledge of natural history
is particularly rec-orded, i Ki iv. :::)) characterizes Lelia-
non ami Hermon as "the lions' d<-ns"an<l "themoun
tains of the leopards." fa. iv. x coiiiji. > Ki. xiv. :i. .Mod<-rn
testimony is to the same effect. "The late Dr. Roth
discovered bones of the lion in gravel on the banks of
the Jordan, near the Sea of Galilee " (i^uar. Rev. ecxxvii..v.'),

'-'.In. xviii. -_'S. The e\]iression. "the valley that (lieth) by
Heth-rehob," should be "the plain which (belongeth) to lieth-
rchob;" in other words, "the plain of lielh-rehob." Dr. Thom-
son has discovered traces of the latter city in Itnluib, a "shallow
vale whicli comes down from the mouth of Wady el-'Asal," and
in lleir k<il,l>a, a ruin ''11)1011 the mountains above Hanias," and
from the fact that these names ''are found still clinging to sites
both above and below lianias," lie naturally infers that the latter
is to be regarded as the modern lcni f ,,<.< of Beth-rehob (Tht
/."</ and tin- HnfiH; p. 'J. r ,t, -J.-,.-,).

LAIS!!

LA K I'M

:ui<l the only recent instance of tin- living animal being
actually encountered in Palestine b\- Kuropeans oc-
curred (in 1833) near Safcd (Spcnco Hardy's Notices of the
noly Land, p. ai<>, an), of the presence of the leopard
(which is mentioned by the sacred writer along with
thu linn as characteristic of this locality) the evidences
are much more plentiful. T!ie "shrubs and reeds"
that skirt Lake Mennii '"aflord slieltcr for" tliem
(Sandys, book iii. p. 140 ; "the neighbouring mountains of
the Ileisli a.liouud in" them < limvkii. Syr p. 45); they are
reported to he common in .Mount Hern ion (Buckingham,
Travels an long Hie ArabTnhes, p. :>:>:>}; '' herds" of them ' ' come
to driuk at night" from a large pond near Kedesh-
Xaphtali (Scottish Mission of Inquiry, p. 2fir); and they are
" very ntimeroiis in the thickly wooded plain" where
Laish itself once stood (The Jordan and the Dead Sea, p. aiK

\Ve are not surprised, therefore, to lie informed that
L ' a deep rugu'e'l goru'e," immediately north of it. is
called \Vady Xehn'ir." or ' Leopard Valley" (Later
iJii). Res. p. H4); and. moreover, that the " rlfdeh-plain,
marsh, lake, and surrounding mountains, is the finest
hunting-ground in Syria, and mainly so because it is
very rarely \isited. 1 Panthers and leopards, bear* and
wolves, jackals, hyenas and foxes, and many other
animals, are found, great and small, while it is the
very paradise of the wild boar and the fleet gazelle"'
(The Land and the liook, p. L";a ; eomp. Later Bib. lies. p. 40.->).

2. Lusir. One of the towns on or near the route
by which Jerusalem has always been approached from
the north, mentioned only in Isaiah's prophetic de-
scription of the gradual advance of the Assyrian in-
vader upon the Jewish metropolis, is. \. a>. Mr. Grove
well observes (i)ict. i;ii>. ii. :,:>, :,), that our translators have
mistaken the final letter of the word for the particle of
motion; so that, instead of "Cause it to be heard unto
Laish," we should render, " Hearken, O Laishah."-
Fromits close juxtaposition with (Tallin) andAnathoth.
it must have been very nearthose two places, the latter
of which hn< been clearly identified witii 'Anata, an
ancient site about three- miles from Jerusalem, on the
road already referred bo n;ii> lies. ii. ma-m). There can
be little doubt, therefore, that both the name and
locality of Laishah are preserved in el-'/sdwiyek, a
village iKuiutifully situated" about half way between
Anata and Jerusalem, "and occupying nnquestionablv
an ancient site" (Tobler, in Diet nil), ii. ;,-; C omp. Bib. Res. ii.
io*,in9V In this case, the initial letter / has been, as
usual, confounded with the Arabic article (xcr. LAIIMAM):
but the other letters are all represented in the modern
name, notwithstanding its obvious assimilation (from
ignorance of its real import) to the Arabic form of
Jesus. :;

The Alasaof 1 Mae. ix. .";. which Mr. Grove proposes
to identify both with the Laishah of Isaiah and the
Adasa of Eusebius and Jerome, would appear rather to

1 Compare the reiterated expression, "they had no business
with any man," Jn. xviii. 7. 28.

- \Ve naturally expect a similar construction in what follows,
i.e. a verb, not. an adjective, in connection with Anathotli. So
the Sept'iau'int and Syriae versions evidently nndei-stood tlie
clause; and accordingly l.o\\th. lioothroyd, and otheix by a
slight change in tlur piinrtuation. translate. "Answer lier', O
Anathotli," with a play on the meaning of Anathoth ("responses"
or " echoes").

3 A traee of Oallim would also seem to have survived in the
two Wadys &W,,i and Sflri,,;, which unitedly fall into Wady
Farah (Bib. Hex. ii. Idd 1 1 -2). The hard ,i of the Hebrew becomes
Jin its passage into the Arabic, whence the further transition

be 7-oprescnted by a ruined site named 'Adasa which is
mentioned in Dr. L'<>l>ins<.i:'s Ar.ibie list of places north
of Jerusalem Uil>. Ros. iii. App. p. lai). [ i:. \v.|

LA'ISH. ThefatherofMichal'ssecondhusband Phalti

01- Phaltiel. "'who was of Gallim," 1 Sa. xxv. 44;'.' Sa. iii. I.'..
Tlie association of the town of Laishah with Gallim,
above' referred to, makes it more than probable that it
was founded by Michal's father-in-law, who, according
to the custom of those times, gave it his own name. Tin-
allusion to the lion which it involves is interesting, for
this neighbourhood was another of tlie favourite haunts
of that animal. It was by such ravines as \Vadvs
Karah and Selam that it was wont to " come up from
the swelling of . Ionian, '" Je. xlix. i<) ; in the opposite direc-
tion we have a further trace of it in the Chephirah
('young lion," now Kefir) of western Benjamin, Jos. i\.
17; xviii. i'i;; northward, we find it encountering tlie dis-
obedient prophet on his return from Bethel. 1 Ki. \iii.a-l:
while in the pastures of Bethlehem to the south we see
it vanquished by the superior prowe-ss of the youthful
David, l Sa. xvii. 1 !-!7. [(;. w. [

LA'KUM or LAK'KL'M O^yV"".'/ tl "'"//]. A
place which marked the frontier line of the tribe of
Xaphtali. iis it approached the Jordan from the east,
Jos. xix. :;:;. There would appear to lie a general mis-
apprehension as to the extent and direction of the ter-
ritory occupied by that tribe. This is invariably as-
sumed to have been the tract of country which stretched
southward along the western shore of the Jordan, from
its sources to about the middle of the "Sea of Tiberias."
It is difficult to understand how this opinion could
have gained such firm hold as to be now taken for
granted, when so many considerations tend to a con-
clusion the very reverse of this. (1.) There is the ex-
press testimony of Scripture itself, embodied in the
prophetic blessing of Moses, Oe. xxxiii. 23, " Possess thou
tin sea," ' not a portion of the western shore only, but
its complete circumft reiice. (2.) Josephus. too, dis-
t'mctlv asserts that "the Naphtalites received the
i*f< i'H //"/'/x. at! far a .< llif ci/i/ (if />(ii,i(i..'n'i/.<, and the
uppr-r Galilee, unto Mount Lebanon, and the fountains
of Jordan" (Ant. v. 1, i-'-A This, although doubtless an
exaggeration, shows at any rate what was the opinion
of Josephus and his contemporaries, whose means of
knowing such a matter as the several allotments of the
tribes were far superior to ours. (3.) A third argu-
ment is drawn from the present territorial arrangement
of the country; for it is well known that in this, as in
other respects, the Last is slow to change. The modern
district of Tubariyeh comprises the region to the caxf
as well as west of the lake of that name, and the same;
remark applies to the larger division into pashalics.
(4.) Some of the cities assigned to Naphtali can only
find their proper location beyond the Jordan and its
lakes; as, c. //. Adami-nekeb at the Birket er-Ram

to a sibilant is easy: thus. G..l..m, J..I..m, S..l..ni. Moreover,
the meaning of Gallim is "fountains" (fiesen.); and Wady Farah
is remarkable for the very copious springs and pools with which
it abound- i|>r. IJ;, relay, in Diet. Bill. i. -2f>).

1 80 the Septnagint, Vulgate, and most modern scholars, trans-
late iiiini, rendered "west" in the Authorized Version. To the
same effect the next word ddi-um, which occasionally means "thu
south," comes from a root which primarily signifies "to wheel
about," "to go in a circle," and would seem to import here ''tin-
circuit." We may understand, therefore, that Xaphtali was
literally to " possess the sea and the region all around it." /'.<.
the entire basin, shut in by mountains on every side, which con-
tained the upper Jordan and Lakes Merom and Tiberias.

(.-M. NKKKLI: Ilammath-rakkath at the hot wells near I versely of another word, nil" (.-(/- . which properly means

Cm Keis (we 1J.VKKATH); fhinnereth at Knneitirah: 1 <hoep\,r ^it. viewed individually, not eollcctivdy: hut

Ileth-anath at 'Ain licit Jennr and Ileth-.-hcmc.-li at ] w1 , u . h w]u . n .letermiiicd by tlu' connection to be the

voun-ofeach. admits of hein-- rendered /^', as in Fx.

It is in the description of this eastern portion ,.! ' ... ' . .. , . . .,

..... xiii. l-i; Le. v. , : xu. >, and a tew pas-a-vs besides.

-Naiihtali that tlie iilace now nnder consideration occurs. ..... . . . .

,...,, . , IT i i ,- .,., i ., ratted Iambs Mich as Were prepared tor feasting, or were

I heir coast wa.s tmni Heleph /\>it/,i/,, /,, m \\ady,

Asal, north-west of llanias..' from the oak in Xaauati- < l <^^ [ f ^m-piered nations in tribute, went by
nim 'the oak--Toves,,,-t of Manias in NVady /;';/, " I1!UIU ' ="^ ''"'"" '>- "xsii. II: Is. xxxiv.,i; -.'Ki.ili.4.
.-/, /AAXAIMI. and Adami nekd, Ilirket cr b'uu near t! "' xv " nl " M>l1 '" l>s ' lxv - 1:>> - tfiiiisbiU-tl in the

Tdl el -Aram, we-t of Kuiieit irah ,-M Nr.uoK and 1 K "-- !i ~ h |;illl< ' /''-'< < ' ' the pa-tnres are clothed with

Jabneel Jihin, oast of I : m: an.l t he out- l! '"' 1 "' ' also adheres to, with some other

"oin-s thereof \\-,-re "t .lordan ""' ' au thritios, niider-tatidn;-- it to mean fattening- or

It is evident from th - m ' ''' h I 1 '" 1 i;r ' ^ !'><'< others prefer there also the common

border followed the li, ',.( . I. l,e| II, i-h liiiiT, and render ' ' lambs ,vi/.. fat ones clothe the

to about the ht.it, - ; " l1 -' 1 i-S I"'"' Uocksappear covered with well-fed

Lake Tiberias ami then curved ' v snch, in a manner, are seen, lint the com-

it -truck th- river V.i inon term for lamb, after it has passed its iirst -ta-,-.

boundary thence !i the .Ionian. t! " 1-nnb in a w.-an.-d >tat.-. i> M-: , ,S />-,. or h\ a trans-

It follows, th. rcfore, th ' ' two of the letters, ;c; / -. --. ' i. w ith the u-ual

where to the ea-1 of t - the f,-niale termination when a ewe- lamb was meant: while

Varmnk \ t, Dr. 1'hoi tin lamb ,,f a moi-,- t, IP i, r a-,-, the -:iehlin-. w a - called.

- 'ii. wh, u ':.- of el 1 1 ; f, w passa- - only. ~T- taldi . l s-i vii (i; 1-

.lo-cphii- thai the I'.

whole distri The yotin _r nf _,,,r,-, a- Well as of sheep, bore (he

Si-mak an,! <} t , Varm - or Ar_n'ib. Thus -aine i | . , ---\ . r lamb mi- lit bo inditfennilv

th -v call the mountain on wh !- Ar. nb of the o'oats or of the sheep, i-:\. -,ii :;-:. In later time.-.

I'm Keis, and thi \r-ub 11 usi of shi'ep apjieaiv to have been

111'- wonl Lake . II i an A .i!ni,,-t uniformly taken, and in >acriliees -vii, rally.

I'oot sio-nifyii '-, - f thi -in "ti, ]in-- on the -i-ea! dav

aptly describe the ruou'ed ma--es of roi-k which impede of atonement. Th,- term /,i/i,/> i- applied to ( diri.-t as
direct eoinmuniea! ntit v]>e of all tin- .-acriiicial lamb- of the old eove-

the la' 1 - til, road t:

the nei'dih LA.M FCH 1. A descen

eastward by way of |-'ik: and. in 1 ( 'ain, in the fifth u r <'neration from that unha],]i\-

told thai " a IJom-in t a 1. or a' nitor. and the la-t of \\hoM- conduct and family

once ran al,,u- the shore ifroin the north' quite to any >p,c:al notice i- taken. His name is associated

Ker-a in \\adv , with certain dcvelo)nients of character in the < 'ainitc

have nsci-nded to tli- .laulan" Th I ,.. : .: i' : - i k, line, and has hence acquired a kind of n-presciita

I 1 : -r^. |l. W.j tiv,- value. T - Hi ' ol ' : - is the circum-tain f

LAMB There are no fewer than four or live words his b,-ii.-- marrii-d to two wives, Adah and Xillah

in Hebrew which in ,n:r Fn-li-h I lib].-- i. ivhich, from the attention drawn to it. appears to indi-

rendert'd Ao/(v.- in some, however, the nieanino; of lamb cate tin- commencement of a practice hitherto nn

is rather determined by th- eonne.-tion tliau properly known. I. am. eh !-. at all events, the lir-t recorded

inherent in the word. Thus - s >-j ( ', ",,n is prop.-rly a p,.l\ -anii.-t. and was mosl probably the man w 1m int n.

flock, and mi-ht ha\,- been so rend. r,-d in F.\. xii. -J 1 . dueed this improper chaii-,- into th,- niarria-,- n-latiou

where /,,!/, is used as an equivalent: for it i-- tli.- col- -hi]> a chan-,- which -h,,uld ha\c served, by the very

lective vii-tims re,|tiir,d f..r th,- pa-dial >acrilice that i|i'.arter wiii-nce it cam,-, as a beacon to warn, rather

arc there intend'-, I, not any -in-de individual. So in than as an example to imitate. A step in advance,

1 This i- an ancient and w,-!l watered ,-ite. -till inlial.iied altno-t to i:.- I,,-,-" (/.<//-,- //;/,. /,'.,- p. :,:M;I. In this wady are

1 11, ',;/,/,. p. :;[::), and eommandiim the prin.-ipal n.ad tr-m Ha- tl,.- ruin- "f Kat]iil,"h ( 11 , ;!./,. p. Co. a name whirl, l.eais no

ma-en- tii n-rthera Pah'-tiin-; it is then-tore a MTV Miitahle -lii,'ht re-eiiil,l.-ini-e to I l,-l"| h .

|K,-iti,,n f,i-a " fem-ed i-ity " M-ivo\,r, it ^-i\es its name to a ' for the direction of the we.-tern frontier of Naphtali, *. .

lar-_'e di-triet extending to the lake, a- was tli.- ea .. with Chin M I..I.M.-I I .

nereth 'I Ki xv. -Jil; coinp. lie. iii. 17; .los. xi. '.'. whirh are to : 7V,, /.,/,/ ,-,/ //,. /;,/,-. ],. ::v.l. The transition from the

! ilistiiu'ni-hed fi-in Nn. \\xiv. II; ,I,,s. xii. ::, xiii. -J7. The II,-l,r,-w I.. k,.m to the Aral.ie I.', k. ! is ],erf,-,-tly natural and

name. too. ha- seareely und,r.'-n,- any alteration. !v_'iilar. The liipuds are con-taut ly int.-ivhaiix'inu', and HI are

- li, ',;< h. p 4a. I, 1 , Thi- situation. 1,,-ides it.- continuity to ,). U-tters /> and /,., a.- in Timnah ime.v Tihm-h). Two other

M.-.jdel esli Sh, -m-, a, --id- mii"h Letter than either ' Ain at a or tr.-e-e.- of ti,,- word o,-, nr e],,:.,- to t -l llu-n. \v/.. Tell Kl<ti,;,n

Kefr 'Aiian. we>t ,,f the .lord in, with tie- fa.-t that the inhaMt- " ruined place near the shore" < II,, ,;/.-/,. ]i. UT'.'). and .V.-'iv <'/-, a

ants of IJetli ,-inatli were al'le to maintain a virtual ind'-p-nd " fort i tied rock." with remains of umloiiLtcd anti,|iiity (TI,,

/.,,,,,/ ,:,/ ti,- I], ,,,!:. p. :;ss). As an appropriate illustration of
As this place :ilsn proved too stmns f-f . .In. i. th" elian-es to whieh names com|,o.-ed ],nncipally of li,|iiids are

."".sothe modern \illa-e is inhahited Ly "a tierce, warlike ra, e. liaLIe, it may Le ,,1,-,-rved that in this very spot (up Wady es
-utlieiently numerous to keep the lied iw ,n Aral s at a respec-tfiil ] Sem.-ik) a ruined ,- istle of Haldw in the crusader is know n ainon^
dist nice" (/',',- l.r.,,,1 anil !/< li,,:,l.-,\>. _'! . '. , the A nil is as Kusr liardawil. It was from a misapprehension

1 Ileleph is from a r, ,,t which Minifies " a r ipid and violent ,,t the w,,rd ArkuL ,i]i]iliu<l to this locality, that it was supposed
pas.sa-0," as Ly an iron implement, .lu. v. iv,; J..L xx. -J4: Ly until lately to represent the Ar^'ol) of Scripture. The latter,
wind, Is. xxi. I; Ly water. Is. viii. S, &c. This i-xai-tly deseriLes h-\sever. ha- L.-en clearly identified Ly Mr. Porter and others
the v.ist gorge of Wady 'Asal, seem in,,' to cleave the mountain ; with the modern di.-triet of ihe I.ejah, far to the east.

VOL. II 133

LA.MKCH

LAAlKXTATlUXS

however, of another kind was made through Lameeh's
family; his sons proved to be men of inventive genius,
and the world was indebted to them for improvements,
both of an ornamental and a useful kind. One son,
Jabal. for the better prosecution of pastoral occupa-
tions, fell upon the constriction of tents; another,
Jiiiial. commenced the formation of wind and stringed
instruments the Ivre and Hate); a third, Tnl.aM ';iin.
became skilled in productions <>j' l.rass and iron. It is
not said of what sort these were; but there is no ne-
cessity for supposing them to have been exclusively, or
even principally, of a warlike description instruments
of violence; the analogy afforded by the pursuits of
the other members of the family mioht rather seem to
indicate that the instruments were mainly for agricul-
tural and social purposes. I'.ut still, if there is nothing
here Hint of necessity bespeaks lawlessness or outrage,
there is nothing that points above tin.' natural sphere of
things; the distinctions acquired by this C'ainite family
have to do simply with material comfort or personal
aggrandizement; they were all of the earth, earthy;
and, pushed thus into the foreground, they bespeak
something like an endeavour to make the most of life
by human skill and world! v resources, apart from what
belongs to those higher relations, which have the pro-
minent place in notices concerning the other branch of
Adam's family. This impression is confirmed, and
even deepened, by still another circumstance embodied
in tile notice of Lamecli- the speech or song which he-
addressed to his wives. This speech is remarkable as
being the earliest specimen in existence of poetical
rhythm, the only specimen extant from the antediluvian
world; and probably the thoughts of Lamech were thrown
into this form to servo as an accompaniment to the
musical instruments of his son an incipient lyrical
poetry not unnaturally springing up with the introduc-
tion of the lyre. Hut the occasion of the song, and the
sentiments expressed in it, are what chiefly render it
important as an index to the state of things in the
family of Lamech. Exactly rendered his words were:

Acini) ninl Zillah, hear my voice;

Yu wives of Lamech, iisien to my speech-.

For, I have slain a man for my \vcminl,

Ami a youth for my bruise:

For, sevenfold shall Cain le aveti-v;!.

And l.aiaech seventy and sevenfold.

The occasion of this effusion is left to be inferred
fmm the song itself; and though the words, when taken
in their natural sense, seem plainly enough to indicate
that, yet there has been no end to suppositions and
conjecture's on the subject. The most diverse and
opposite shades of opinion have been deduced from the
speeeh as to Lamech's procedure and character from
that of an atrocious and heaven-daring criminal, exult-
ing over deeds of violence accomplished, or ready to be
accomplished, by the instruments of brass and iron now
in his possession, to that of a contrite and humble
penitent making confession of his own and his fore-
father's sin. That he had slain a man, a i/om>r/ man
(for the youth of one clause is undoubtedly but a
more specific indication of the man in another), and
this not in cool blood, but in consequence of a wound
or bruise he had himself received, is, if not the only
possible, certainly the natural and obvious, meaning of
the words; and on the ground apparently of a difference
between his case and that of Cain's namely, that he had
done under provocation what Cain had done without it

he assures liimself of an interest in the divine guardianship
and protection immeasurably greater than that granted
to Cain. This seems as plainly the import of Lamech' s
speeeh as language could well make it. But if it seems
to imply, as it certainly does, that Lamech was not an
od'ender after the type and measure of Cain, it. at the
same time, shows how that branch of the human family
were becoming familiar with strife and bloodshed, and,
instead of mourning over it. were rather presuming on
tli" divine mercy and forbearance to brace themselves
for its encounters, that they might repel force with
force. The prelude already seems here of the terrible
scenes which, after the lapse of a few generations, dis-
closed themselves far and wide when the earth was filled
with violence, and deeds were every day done which
cried in the era- of heaven for vengeance. .Such was the
miserable result of the human art and the earthly re-
sources brought into play by the C'ainite race, and on
which they proudly leant for their ascendency; nor is
it too much to say. that here also, even in respect to
the poetic gift of nature, the beginning was prophetic
of the end. '' Its birth-place was not heaven, nor
paradise, but the house of Lamech; it was conceived
and born in sin" taking for its first theme, not the
glorification of Cod, but the vindication of human
valour or heroism the celebration of man's praise, not
of (bid's. And so it has ever remained, except in so
far as it has been ivne\\ed and sanctified by the Spirit
of Cod.

2. LAMECH, a son of Methuselah, in the posterity of
Adam by Seth, and the father of Xoah, Go. v. as. A
saying of his is recorded in connection with the birth of
Noah, which breathes a very different spirit from that,
of the other Lamech, and presents him as waiting and
lono-iii'.:' for the salvation of ( lod. (See XOAH.)

LAMENTATIONS. 1. Name and position in the
xdcml ^i-rq/titres. In the Hebrew Bible, this book
stands among the Hagiographa, between Ruth and
Kcelosiastes, with the name n3\si, erJt, J/oicf But it is
by no means probable that it was so placed or so
named in the original collection of sacred writings. In
the LXX. it stands, as in the English Bible, immedi-
ately after the book of Jeremiah, of which it was pro-
bably regarded as forming a continuation or appendix;
and at the close of the Syriac translation we lind the
words, "The end of the book of Jeremiah the Prophet."
as if the prophecies of Jeremiah and the Lamentations
formed but one book. 1 There is little doubt that both
the position of the Lamentations in the Hebrew Bible,
and its name, n^N, had a liturgical origin; the five i/u j >/i/-
Idfh, or sacred rolls, read in the synagogues on occasion
of the principal annual solemnities of the Jewish church,
beiiiL:' placed together, and the Lamentations, when
thus detached from the book of Jeremiah, being named
in the same way as the sections of the Pentateuch read
on the Sabbath, by the initial word Hou-f 1 The name
of the book in the LXX. is Opjjvot, which is equivalent
to the Hebrew nirj?, Kuwtli, and to our Lamentations.

II. Tie Kina or Lament. The nrf?, kina, elef/y, or
dinje, is not mentioned in the earliest Hebrew writings.

1 So they are reckoned in Joseplms' account of the sacred
books, in his first book aifainst Afi'iOii.

- Only the five books of Moses are designated in this way in
the Hebrew Bible; and, in the case of these books, the Hebrew
names probably belonged originally not to the whole books, but
to their first sections. So Van cler Hooglit in his Preface to the
Hebrew Bible.

LAMENTATIONS

LAMKNTATioNs

The first example of it which we meet with, and also
one of the most beautiful and pathetic, is the lament of
David over Saul and Jonathan, usa. i. 17--J7. Notwith-
standing, it is natural to suppose that, from an early
period, and not on rare oeca.-ions. the Hebrew poetic
spirit found utterance in this class of compositions. 1
The kliiu is mentioned as a frequent accompaniment
of mourning in Am. viii. In, ' 1 will turn your feasts
into niourninu'. and all \our songs into lamentation.
n:v, Jeremiah wrote a lament on the death of Josiuh:
which, as we are inforiiH d. was added to the collection
of I,- 1 until or <l i i-<i< * existing at tint time. -_'i'ii \\\v. LV.;
compare also Jo. vii. ill; ix. '.i, M, 1'J In '_' Sa. iii. 33, -"'I, is
preserved the brief but touching lament of Duvid over
Aimer.

Tlie ///I"// was of t\\ rt* historical and /,/

I'lit t'u-iil. The lament- of David and Ji -r. -miah already
mentioned are of the tonuer -ort. In tlie prophetic
writings, and especially in Lz< kiel. we meet \\ith the
prophetic lament, which had P ferelici to some calamity
yet future, but vividly anticipated and realized. 'I \\\\-
L/.e. xxvii. '1. "Son of man, take up a 1'inn iitntiuu f..r
Tyrus," \c. In thi - case tin- pn.plu t him-elf i- t-ld to
raise his lament, as if the city had already bei-n over-
thrown. In others he gives to his pro[ihecy the torm
of a lament, to be u- d \\!iin the predicted calamity
has actnallv taken plaee. The calamity is so iiie\ itable
that the preparation- for b< -\\ailing it may lie no\v be-
elin. ('ohii'are !'/-. xix 1, 11. x . - : 17: <
xxxii. -J, I' 1 . s. ,\

The oidv other pa-sage in v\hieh rirr. or it- cognati
verb -:^ (Ici'iin n i, is found, is Eze. ii. ]o, where \\ e read of
a " roll of a book," ^;r .;: (//;<///////< x/"///</-), b. ing
sjiread out before the prophet: "and tin re \\a- writtx n
therein lamentation-, z"T kuiuii .and mourning, and
woe." It is a remarkable coincidence, but prohublv
nothing more, that imniediutelv hifoiv the bunk of
E/.ekiel there stand- in most of the versions of the
Hebrew Script ire- a rr: % :. or rn 1 !. \\hieh answer- quite
to this description. Did we regard the book of Lamen-
tations us hcli'iining to the class of prop!,, tic laments,
we might probably find in this coincidence a continua-
tion of our \ie\\s.-

III. T/II hook nf Lamentations uli.itoriculrlf'Hi. The
opinion ju-t mentioned, that the book of Lamentation-
was written before the destruction of Jerusalem, and
belongs to the class of prophetic kinntli, though an
ancient opinion, and at one time held and defended bv
critics of no mean reputation, is now universally aban-
doned. The prophetic laments are usuallv very brief:
or if they include more than a few verses, ulwavs tend to
pass into prophecy, and rarely keep up to the close their
character as /ni,n,itx, K/e. \\vii. _'?,<. Perhaps the most
perfect example is the lament in Eze. xxviii. l'2-l!'; but
even there we meet with a "Thus saitli the Lord,'' ver.
1.'. It is therefore, or'unn f't'-ii. extremely improbable
that an elegiac composition so lengthened and elaborate
as the book of Lamentations, should bear a prophetic
character. Moreover, in tin: book itself there is not
the slightest indication that it does bear such a char-
acter; and the most ancient tradition that contained

1 Compare what, is stated l.v Herodotus of tlie antiquity of
hlVuTh' 1 -'. "" thC Kg - VI ' tia " s ' Phu - >niciilus - ""' Cyprians,

'^For a notice of .similar -n,iKitions in the Psalm* and J,,l,,
*ee Lowth, De Sacrd Poesi Hebraoruiii, -pru^l. xxiii.

in the LNX. gives to it a historical foundation. It
is indeed an old conjecture, that the book of Lamenta-
tions is identical with the lament which Jeremiah
composed on the death of Josiah. ^ rh. \x\v. L';, ; but this
is quite ineon.-istent with the fact, that throughout the
entire book there is not a single ullu.-ion to the death
of Josiah. Onlv once is mention made of the king,
"the anointed of the Lord." di. iv. 2i', and the reference
is evidently not to Josiah.

I V. >'<</// ;;</// of ciiiidiitf. <'h. i. opens with a

picture of /ion sitting in solitude and tears, widowed

: and childle-s. with none to comfort her: her lovers and

friends ha\ing all proved faithless in her hour of need.

The ways of /ion mourn: her gates are desolate,
none pa-sing through: her priests, her virgins groan,
and she is in bitterness. Jehovah hath ulilieted her
for the multitude of her transgressions, vev .">. s, 9. All
h'T glory i- departed: her little ones art gone into
capt:\itv: her enemies lai;gh at her calamity: they
have entered into the sanctuary, and spoiled it. All
her people are fami-hed.

Ill these Verses, 1-11, the poet speaks ill his own p r

son. <Mdv twice his description of /ions miserv is
i

interrupt* d by an echoing cry from /ion herself, \LV. :*,
n At ver. I - J the person is changed, /ion now pours
forth the ulteranc-- of her urief: confesses that her
atilietion- are of Cod; it i- the \\rath of Jehovah that
li> - hi aw upon In r: aekno\\]ed-_t s that he is dealing
rijiteotislv \\ith In r. for -he hath grievously rebelled;
i and appeal-. I'-hold. O Lord, for I am in distress.

\hroud the svsoid beivavcth. at home there is

as death. Do unto mine enemies as thou ha-t done to
me; for mv siuh- are munv. and mv heart is faint.

This ili\i-ion of the chapter, ver 12-1!'-', is of equal
length \\illi the first, and consists of t\\o p arts -each
ef li\e verses, ver. li-lti, ami i:--- 1 ; in the latter thecon-
fe- -ion of .-in is more full and distinct. These t\\<>
j'.nt- are .-eparati d from one another by a few n-pou-
d- nil the part of th" poet. \ r 17; which sei 111
to draw forth the abrupt coiife-.-ion of \ er, 1 s , p'TC
rrir n~n. " I'iuhteous j- Jehovah."

In eh. ii. 1-1'.', the poet i- the speaker. Ib U'_:ain
d- -eribe- the desolations of l-ra.-l in the day of Cod's
aiiu'er. Tip- hubitutions oi Jacob are swallowed up:
the strongholds of the dun-liter of Juda-h east to the
-round. Jehovah hath !n nt hi- bow like an en< my: he
hath I'oured out his fury like fire. He hath taken
uwav his tabernacle; caused the solemn feasts and
sabbaths to be forgotten: hath spurned in his angi r
king and priest. The gati s of /ion are -unk into the
ground; her king and princes are among the (leiitiles;
the law is no more: her prophets find no vision from
the Lord; her elders sit upon the ground, casting dust
upon their heads: her virgins hung down their heads
to the ground, \x-r. 1-1" Then the poet, deeply moved,
his eyes flooded with tears, ver. n, turns to /ion; seeking,
if it be possible, to comfort her. At the same time he
reminds her of the cause of her afflictions. Her prophets
had seen vain and foolish things for her, and had not
discovered her iniquity, ver. n. Jehovah is but. fulfilling
his word, which he had commanded in the days of old.
Therefore must /ion deeply repent weep dav ;md
night, giving herself no rest pour out her heart like
water before the face of Jehovah, ver. 11, r.i.

In ver. '20-'2'2. /ion, responding to this appeal, lifts
up before Jehovah the cry of her misery.

The third and central chapter is distinguished in a

A MENTATIONS

LAMENTATIONS

very marked manner both from those which precede
and from those which follow. Tin.; poet turns from the
afflictions of /ion to dwell upon his own ;' still, how-
ever, chiefly with a view to the instruction and comfort
of his people. Jn ver. 1-18 he uives a copious and
uio^t striking description of the bitter anv.uMi and de-
spair which had fall. >> upon him. In the close of the
18th verse he gives utterance for the fir>t time to the
name Jehovah: " 1 said mv strength and hope is
perished from Jehovah.'' The very mention of this
name seems to revive him. (iod is Jehovah. His
mercies, are for ever. This I recall to mind; therefore
I have hope. And now the poet gives free utterance
to those ever to be rememliered words of iaitluuid hope
which con>t:tiite the central portion of the book. The
Lord is my portion, therefore will I hope. The Lord
will not cast off for ever. The Lord doth not afflict
willingly, nor grieve the children of men. It is the
Lord who hath done it. Let ex therefore search and
try our ways, and turn again to the Lord. Let us lift
up our hearts with our hands to CJod in the heavens,
ver. M, 11. At ver. 40 the singular / of the first part of
the chapter gives place to the plural <<-e. The poet
identities himself \\ith his afflicted countrymen: and
unitedly they lift up their supplication to Jehovah.
At ver. 48 the singular form / is resinned: and the
poet, recalling his own past experience, weeping yet
hoping, pleads with Jehovah to interpose in his behalf,
to save his people, and destroy their proud and scornful
persecutors.

In the fourth chapter the prophet describes the
miseries of J erusalem beleaguered by the victorious hosts
of her enemies, and a prey to famine and pestilence.
The tongue of the slicking child cleaveth to the roof
of his mouth. They that did live delicately, are de.-o-
late in the streets ; they that were brought up in
scarlet, embrace dunghills. The hands of loving wo-
men have sodden their own children; they were their
meat in the destruction of the daughter of mv people.
The cause of this unheard-of misery, which is alluded
to in ver. (5, is more largely described in the second
part, ver. ll-iio. It is the anger of the righteous
Jehovah. Zioii is polluted. Her prophets and her
priest* have shed the blood of the righteous in the
midst of her. Therefore they themselves shall be pol-
luted with blood. The victorious enemy has entered
t!ie gate of the city, and the cry of despair has arisen
-" Our end is near; our days are fulfilled; our end is
come. Even the anointed of Jehovah lias fallen into
their hands.''

This dopairing cry is in striking contrast to the two
last verses of the chapter, in which the deliverance of
Zion and the destruction of her foes (Edom) are confi-
dently predicted, ver. -.'I, >!.

The last chapter is wholly occupied with an appeal
of the miserable and now penitent nation to Jehovah
a cry out of the depths. The crown is fallen from
our head ; woe unto us that we have sinned. Thou,
O Lord, art enthroned for ever. O cast us not off
utterly.

V. Form and arrangement. 'Each of the five chap-

ters of the hook contains an elegy, which may }>c re-
garded as complete in itself; and is divided into
twenty-two parts, according to the number of the
letters of the Hebrew alphabet. These parts or stanzas
are not of epial length in all the chapters. hi the
litth chapter they consist each of ;t single couplet; in
the fourth chapter of two couplets; and in the rir.-t,
second, and third chapters. ,,f three couplets. In the
first four chapters the stanzas commence with the suc-
cessive letters of the alphabet, - ill the third chapter
the three couplets of each stanza commencing with
the same letter. In the fifth chapter the alpha-
betical arrangement does not appear. The couplets
!<>r lines, if it is preferred so to regard them) are of
nearly equal length throughout.- The alphabetical
arrangement was probably adopted mainly as a help to
the memory; but why it appears only in the first four
chapters, and was n,,t extended to the fifth. ha> not
been satisfactorily explained.

Though each elegy may be regarded as forming by
itself a complete whole : there is nevertheless a unitv
| and orderly arrangement in the entire book which can-
not escape notice. As has been already remarked,
there is a central chapter and also a central stall/;! (ch.
; iii. 31-33, with the context , by which the several parts of
the book are bound together into one whole. There-
is also a discernible progress from the commencement
to the close. Ch. iv. and v.. amid all their darkness,
have gleams of light which do not appear in ch. i. and
j ii. (compare ch. iv. 21, 22; v. lu). Ch. i. is the utterance of
, deep grief and despondency. Its characteristic expres-
sion is rr crn:^ jv, x/ic Itulli none to comfort Inr (see
ver. 2,!>, ir, -ii). The second elegy is an advance on the
first, inasmuch as it contains the fullest recou-nition of
' the unrcnlt/nti/ of Je'ionth in inflicting suffering and
punishment on his people. Hence the recurienee of
the name Adviiai no fewer than seven times, and the
repeated rh ':'>> Adonui hat// destroyed . The still
more decided advance in the third chapter is apparent
at a glance. The mercies of J<ho/-a/t are not ct/ttmxtcf.

.... Ado/in! Kill not rani off for cnr lh dot/i

not aril iff front his liiurt, nor <jr!<re the chi/drm <f
mi i), ver. >>. 31,33. And, though in the concluding chap-
ters we still listen to the voice of anguish, yet the
anguish is at the same time deepened and relieved by
gleams of faith and hope.

The pathos and beauty of these elegies have been
universally felt and acknowledged. (Compare L.nvth,
l>r;iel.xxii.) The true test of the excellence of such com-
positions is their power to awaken in the breasts of
leaders of all classes the feelings and emotions of which
they are the expression. And who has ever read these
Lamentations unmoved .'

VI. An.t/tortfh/'fi ami d<.--[n the Hebrew Bible
the author is not named. There is no title. It is
difficult to account for this satisfactorily, except on
the hypothesis, that when the Hebrew Scriptures were
first collected and arranged, the Lamentations were
attached to the book of Jeremiah, and formed part of
it. This is the place assigned to them in the Septua-
u'iiit, which further differs from the Hebrew in prefixing
to them a historical notice to the following effect :

daughter of his people," cannot be identified with the afflictions
of tlit man of ver. 1.

LAMENTATIONS

Aii'l it came to pass after Israel hail been led captive
and Jerus dem desolated, Jeremiah sat wecpiii";, and
1'iiinvd forth (lamented i thi.s lanit-ntatii'ii over Jcrn- ''
salein." This preface is found also in the Vulgate and
Arabic ver.-i"iis, hut nut in the Svi-iac or ('haldco.
['rin th(- fiinn of it (compare especially eV/i'i 1 ''? " 6 " rQV
: irjvov roi'Toi' it appears certain that the LXX. trans- j
laturs found it in tin- llcbivw original from \vhieh they ;
translated, and did nut introduce it on thi-ir own j
authority; but \vlit-tlr-r it cxi-ted in the tirst collet.- '
timi of the sacred Scriptures, i>r\vas in.-erted at a later
period, cannot l>e ascertained. It is. however, ninnies- '
tinned that .li.-ri-iniah w;.s universally regarded as the
authur i >f the Lamentation-, from the earlie-t period
t<> which our information ^oes back down t-i a pei'iud
quite recent, ( 'arp/ov, in hi.- Intriiductiuii. pnhlished
17-1. writi-.- : " Antui-i-ni Thn-noniin .leremiani nemo,
ijuod sciam. in dnhinni voeavit. Kvcn at the present
day. in which a traditional lielief of two thousand \
is made little- account of, it is ainn>M nni\ i-rs.illv al
lu\\t-il that .Ici-i'iniali was tin- author. \Ve know, <>n
srri]ptural authuritv. that .Ii-r.-iniah did \\rit<- elegies,
ji'h xxxv. ii And in tin- clerics \\liii-h inaki- u|i the

1 k of Lamentation-, it i- scarcely p"--il!e n,,t to

rec p._Mii/e tin- hand and th - h 1 art of tin- ni"-t tend- r
hearted of all tin- pi-opln-i-. l',l..k think-
that In was tlr author: and Kudi'j. r cxpres>es tin
sail!'- opinion \vrv di-cidi-dlv iklar /.u Ta_'e :
iiii.l i, rah r, - v .K-ri- ui.is). KwaM and Hun-en, how-
ever. pr> -!er to a--i_:'n th' 1 author-hip, not to .1. r,
miah himself. 1 if his di.-cipi,-s. Tin- !

-pi-cities M.iruch. th" .-nil of N. riah. for whom In- ha- a
particular favour. A i">\

allow Jeremiah to Ii" thi- author of tu inure of thi- ,

elegies, think they havi- discuvi p-d in th" remaining
chapters char indications of a ditl. rent hand. It
would IM- alik.- tedious and nii]>rofital.l.- to t'..ll..w this
ini|iiiry out in minuti- d--tail. That .li-n-miah \\as tin-
author of Lani'-ntatimis is happilv not a:i artiel-- of
faith. I'.ut it is ciii'ious (' si-i- hu\v easilv. and on what
tlimsv grounds, a tradition, h'liidi-d down thrmi^h so
many ci-nturie-. an 1 still r. 1 ,- -ivi- I aim ist univ. i
is east asidi- hy -nin-- ,,f tin- recent < li-mian writer-.
Kor example, ( Uto Th-mus. \\],, fm-ni-hi-s us in tin
Introduction to his L\p ,-ni,,n with a ".-.pod .-pi-rimen
of hair splitting criti"ism. ho], Is it to In- ijuite inip-i-- !
sil.lc 'j;ir nicht inoidii-h that li-n-miah was the author
of th- whole I look ; M-einw that in tin- al]ihahetical
arran_'i-ment of the vcr-rs in ch. i. >tand.- li-fon- r.
while in i'h. ii.-iv. : stands liff,,]-,- -.-' The same critic. !
also, sliuws wonderful in'_'i-nuity in makin,' the most
diverse material- availaM* 1 in th" con-truction .,f his
frail critical edifice Does h.- iin--t in eh. i. iii. or v.
which in his opinion were imt written hv Jeremiah
with a sentiment to which Jeremiah elsewhere u'ives
expression, hut in dirt'en-nt lanu r uau r c, at one.- the
ilirt'i-rcinv in the lnn^ua^e is ap].ealed to as evidence of
a different writer. Should he. mi the other hand, meet '
with in these chapters ('as lie often must a sentiment

1 Lists of v,-rb;d ,-in,-i,l,.|i(-es U-twvcn the l.<.k nf .d-iviai.-ili '
aii'l tlio I.:i iitatii.ns will l.o f..ini(l in th.- Introchifti..!!.-.

- \V<- :i;.'reL- with Mr. M.ivid>nii tliat " littlo iiii|.()|-t,-uic-o <-:in l.t- !

attiu-hi-il" tn tlii> (litl'i'i-ei , tlmu'_'h HI' oaiuint .-i-st-nt t<> his j

ex|ilaii.-itiiui c>f it. " Wrarv nf the traiiinn-ls, nr for tho sak!- nf
variety, In- intrmliuvil iliversity." It Mould In- hard tn c-xjilain
how the iiiia'-'iia-d foi-lini; nf weariness made itsolf frit ju-t at
the sjitne (mint in three sm'cessive cha|iters, and wa rrlirved liy
tin- transjvisitiou of the same twn h-tters.

to which expression is ^iveii also in eh. ii. or iv. \which
he allows to he Jeremiah".-) in exactly the same lan-
u'tiau'e, in that case the samciKM in the lanuuau'e is
appealed to as j proof conclusive of a ditierent writer.
So. heeause in ch. iii. l-'Jn the ehai-u'e from one figure
to another i> ahrujpt and rapid, this writer at once
pronounces it <'/;f//</.<x//,/( that the.-e Verges proceeded

from .feivmiah, whose use of figures is so much more
measured and sjiarin^. It is consulatorv to know
that ch. ii. and iv. pa-s nnseathi-d tin-ou^h the ordeal
of this p. iK-tratiii". criticiMii. and arc pionoimced to he
iiinl: ifiit'Ji/ Jeremiah'.-: t'ion::'h unhappily mir i-onsola-
ti'pn i.- somewhat marn-d liv the d;seo\er\' that one
or twii of the critic's compatriots have nnhhishin^lv

denied what he pronounces to he lindelliahli 1 .

Those who think that Jeremiah, though the author
of the first f.iur chapt' r-. was not the author of tin-
can make out;; somewhat stroirjvr case/ 1 The
a!i-ence of the alpliahetical arrangement in eh. v. has
not hecii explaini d t|iiito satisfactorily; hut the explana-
is nut a unit more satisfactory on tin- hvpothe-i-
of a dilt'creiit author: ratln-r le-- so. An imitator
1 pi-i ihahl v adhc: . ' hi- model than

: filial \\ riti-r to 1 plan

As to th" date of coinpo-ition. it mu-t he fixed im-
iin-diatclv after th" takin. lem, v. hil-t tin-

heart- wounds of th nation \\. re -till ir<'sh.

\ II. A', liesides Jcre

miah and si \'i ral of th" I'salms, tln-rc are t \\ u of tin-

i i 1 ' I T"-ia . "h the Lamentations

!" ir a Vi-rv do Joli and Isaiah xl. l\\i.

The n'" z~>: - : .<. su often recurrim,' in ch. i , find.- a

ivsjionsi in th" -:::-': -;- 1 - ' i< mi/

p . of Is. xl. 1 : and p: ciall\ of eh. iii.

- an i dm of the hook of Juh. c,,nni:irc Joliviii. :;,

: 7; .I"li xii. I,

I); ill ! I.-SJM l.u iii.

i". u. I. 1 , :;-i

[Tin 1 r\]i..Mti.ni- nf .Irvrmi ill n.-ir : I.aim-Mta

timi-. The stinirii 1 i "ii- nf I '. II

Mi. ha. lis I,, //./. tionof Kual.l

in vol. i. ,,1 I. ' Hi,--/.. : and : i in nf I Ut.i

Thrnins, h >/' /Al"''

I,.'--/,: .:!-.. /.'..'" . IM:U-I. \\ii. -ind \\iii. | [l>. II w ]

LAMP. It was in.tic,-d und-r ( '.\\IPI.I: that tin-
t-rms I'ltinlli and run, I!, .,/, 'r/,- a!'. fri-.|iiently used in our
Hmdi-h I'.ihlc. wh.-n- !<',,> an d /.i,,,,,.*!,!,,,! would have
hoeii the in ire literal rendering; An I to these terms
we must now ivtVr tor all that pertains to the symholical
nn-aninu' coiivov. d hv them in Scripture, as also for tin-
structure and design of the sacred lamp in tin- sanc-
tuary. For ordinarv purpose- lamps were the common
instriinn-uts employed for lLditiir_r apartments hy ni^ht.
and as such are fre.nieiitlv mentioned in Scripture.
Mut no indication is anvwheiv ^i\< \\ of their form and
structure. Tin- natural supposition is. that they were
similar to tho-- employed in other ancient countries,
and especially in Iv_rypt, to which in matters of art and
comfort the l-raelites stood most nearly related. Sonic
specimens of the-e hav.- heen preserved anioiio; the re-
mains of ancient Iv_rvpt. at least what are supposed to
have Ix-eii such, though their identification as lamps,
in the proper sense, appears to he involved in some
doiiht. Wilkinson t^ives (Am-. K.^yin. v. IP. :;:ii>, what he
takes to In- tin- representation of a lamp made of ^lass.
with a hand holdiiiLT separately an erect wick, as if the

L ANTE UN

bearer were about tn place it ill the vase previous in its

King lighted No. 387). The lines, lie thinks, may

represent the twisted nature of the cotton wick, as

they do thi' watering of the

gla<s vase. In another

place ^iii. p. li:;), lie refers to

a pa->au'e in 1 lerodotu.-.

\vhere mention is made of

a fete of burning Limps at

Sais and other places at a

certain period of the year,

the lamps being described

as "small vases filled with salt and olive-oil, on which

the wick floated, and burned during the whole night"

(ii. CL>); and he adds, that it doers not appear of what

materials, those vases were constructed, though they

might justly be supposed to have been made of ula-o.

i t is known that idass was

applied to purposes which

could scarcely fail to suggest

this us one of a kindred and

suitable nature. It is not

improbable that the lamp

exhibited by Mr. Lane, iu

}iis Modern fy/1/jiliiin* (ch. v.

P. I5i), called the handed, or

common lamp, may form

some approach to what in

ancient times was often

found among the dwellings

of Israel (No. :j>M. This lamp is a small vessel of

glass, having a little tube in the bottom, in which is

stuck a wick formed of cotton twisted round a piece

Ancient Assyrian Lumps j n ISritish Museum

of straw. Some water is poured in first, then the oil.
Along with the lamp there is shown, on a somewhat
reduced scale, the usual receptacle of wood, which
serves to protect the flame from the wind. But
possibly the lamps most commonly in use approached
more nearly to the small hand-lamps of bronze and
terra cotta, recovered from Nimroud and Kouyunjik,
represented in woodcut No. :iM). Similar lamps were
discovered by Mr. Loftus at \Varka, of which illustra-
tions are also given. Those of terra cotta have a
deeper receptacle for the oil than the others.

If the lamp:-; said to have been used by Gideon's
three hundred, iu their conflict with the Midianites,
Ju. vii. Hi, were lamps in the ordinary sense of the term,
they mu>t certainly have been of a different construc-
tion from those above referred to; since they were such
as could be carried in the open air, and carried while
men were advancing to a fierce conflict. The proba-
bility, however, is that torches' rather than lamps were
the instruments employed on the occasion, since, besides
the necessity of carrying them in the open air, a very

considerable tlame required to be emitted by them, in
order to produce the effect intended. And such also
would naturally be the lamps or lights used on marriage
and other festive occasions, as they still are in eastern
countries. Thus Kobcrts, in hii Oriental Illustrations,
says in connection with wedding-parties, "The whole
house is illuminated with small lamps. Those used
out of doors are composed of many pieces of old linen,
and squeezed hard one against another in a round
figure, and thrust down into a mould of copper. The
persons that hold them in one hand have in the other
a bottle of the same metal with the copper mould,
which is full of oil, which they take care from time to
time to pour out upon the linen, which otherwise gives
no light." Sir John Chardin, in a note 011 Mat. xxv. 4,
speaks of having observed the same kind of lamps or
torches in the East on such occasions. ($ec LAXTEKX.)

LAND. ,S( EAKTII.

LANDMARK, or boundary-pillar, for such was,
and still to a large extent is, in eastern countries, the
sign that distinguishes and marks off the possession of
one man from that of another. A stone or post was
usually placed at convenient distances, instead of a wall
or hedge, to separate' between the two; and as, in
Favourable circumstances, a cunning and unscrupulous
man might take advantage of his neighbour by shifting
the place of such movable partitions, a strong injunc-
tion was given in the law to leave them intact. Do. six.
1 1; xxvii. 17.

LANGUAGE. See TONGUES.

LANTERN, only once used in our English Bible,
Ju. xviii. 3, and as the equivalent of the same word,
namely Aa/.t7rds, which in all other places has been
rendered la/up or caudle. But as a lantern is simply a
light with a covering of some sort to protect it from
wind and other external means of violence, the distinc-
tion between it and lamp cannot be sharply drawn:
and not unfrequently either term might be indifferentlv
employed. The lamps, for example, carried by Gideon's
select band, must have been lanterns rather than lamps
in the ordinary sense: and when the psalmist speaks of
"a lain]' to his path," 1's. i-.\i\. m:,, what we naturally think
of is the lantern required for dark and devious wavs.
Wilkinson tdvcs from the alabastron sculptures (Anc.
ixypt. ch. ix.) the representation of a guard of soldiers,
the first of whom holds in his hand what, at least,
looks like a lantern see woodcut Xo. 3'JO; and this
supposition is confirmed by
the resemblance which the
article bears to the lanterns
now used in Egypt, Persia,
and other countries of the
east. A lantern of a greatly
larger and more ornate de-
scription (Xo. 391) is exhi-
bited by Lane, as occasionally
used on wedding- occasions
(Modern Esjypt, p. 162). It is
often suspended from cords
drawn across from the bride-
groom's house to the houses
opposite; and to these cords
are usually attached several small silk flags. But there
is no reason to suppose that lanterns of this description
were in use excepting on such occasions; and whether
they found their way into Palestine we are entirely
ignorant. Certainly, the lamps or lanterns associated

[390.] Egyptian soldiers one
carrying a Lantern. Wilkinson.

LAODIC/EA

PAPWING

by our Lord with a marriaue in his parable of the ten
virgins. Mut xxv. 1-1-2, were of an entirely different kind.
These probably came nearer in appearance to the

called ftiiiovit, represent' d
in woodcut N~o. o'.'-j. a -ort of t'-'Minu lantern. \\hi.-li
is made of waxen c!"ih -trained over rinus uf wire,
and possessed of a !"p and bottom uf tinned copper.
This is whal is commonly MM d in Pg\ pt bv per-ons uho
-> out at niuht to pay visits to iln'ii 1 friends.

LAODIC/EA.. or ' PAoIUCPl'A. a city of ,
in Ada .Minor, eliielly interesting to tlie > -riptnra!
student as tlie site of one of th' 1 seven churches in Asia

to which epi-tlis were atldresse
Holy Spirit, by tli'- author of tip-

dip c; ion of the

alvp-c. Paodi-
niith of the river

That by which the <-',\\ lias been since known was
conferred up.ni it by Antiochu- The.is, in hoiiourof his
wife Paodice. The name- of cities wi n- often changed
to pay an idle compliment to -ome royal benefactor,
but the peculiar circumstance^ ot Paodiea^a make i;
probable that in each ease the city was a new one,
owiii'j; its origin to a new founder, and entitled there-
fore to a new appellation. It has been so many times
destroyed bv eartlnmakes that it seems more' than pro-
bable that Rhoas ro-e mi the ruins of Piospolis, a s
PaodieaM did on those of Rhoas. Pi the ivign of
Tiberius it was a^ain completely overthrown, but the
inhabitants restored it to more than its original splen-
dour, without having recourse, to the Roman treasury,
a circumstance which Tacitus relates to the credit of
tlie city (Ann xiv. :-;}. It became the chief city of a
Roman conventus, and was celebrated for its medical
school to which the proximity of the thermal springs
at Hierapolis greatly contributed- as well as for the
taste of its inhabitants in architecture and the fine arts.
Among the residents in this city in the time of the
apostles were many .lews -and it was probably owing
to this circumstance that a Christian church was planted
here at so early a period of the church's history. The
present state of Laodic;ea is most desolate, the site is sin-
gularly barren, and the area of the ancient city is covered
with the relics of a former civilization. Not a single
monument of antiquity remains standing - a stadium -

* Modern Knyptian Lantern, used on festive occasions.- Lane.
t Modern Egyptian L:intern (/"/ic" .'). Lane.

a few arches of an aqueduct three or four blocks
which once supported the arches of a bridge over the
brook which rlows down from the Pycus. and a portion
of an amphitheatre are all that remain to attest the
ancient magnificence of the town. The Turks call it
l-'.ski Missar. It appears from the epistle to the
Colossiaiis that St. Paul never visited Paodiea'a. but
hearinu', most probably, from Ppaphras of the false
doctrines spread in that city, he wrote to the Colossiaiis.
desiring that his epistle to the Colos-ialis should be
read in the church of the Colossiaiis, and that of the
Paodiea-ans in Colossie. I'ol. iv. i::-ii;. From this it has
been suppo-ed that St. Paul wrote an epistle to the
Paodica'aus. which is no longer extant. Jerome and
Theodoret mention such an epii-tle, and it was also re-
ferred to at the second council of Nica a the seventh
<j,eni ral council'. The epistle assuming to be that in
i[Uesl ion. and which P generally condemned as spurious.
is found in some copies of the New Testament printed
in ( oTinanv, and ( 'alim-t in his dictionary gives a trans-
lation of it in full. Some have imagined that the epistle
to the Fphe-ians is that to which the apostle makes
allusion, among whom may be reckoned llowsoii and
Coiivbeare. Another explanation of the passage is.
that Si. Paul intended the letter of the Paodiceans. f<>
him. conveyed bv Fpaphra-, to be read in the church of

Colossa', together with the apostolic epistle to the

1 <sians themselves, and that as the epi-tle to the
( 'olo-sians was in some sense an answer to the Paodi-
e;uans, it would be necessary that bolh .-hould be read
in the church of Paedica-a also.

The message of the Spirit, r.e. :ii. H-L-L', to the church
at Paodiea'a was an awful warning. It is perhaps
scarcely po-sibh- for us to say what cti'ect it produced
on the church in that eitv. Paodiea-a is indeed a
'! - rt. but the same may be said of Kplu.sus and Sar-
dis, as well as of Colossa' and Hierapolis.

The history of Paodica-a after the ( 'hri.-tian period
was very eventful. It was fortified by the emperor
Manuel, and Pv/.antine writers .-peak of it as a place of
much strength. II. <' s.

LAP'IDOTH [lump*, forcJte*], the husband of De-
'< borah the prophetess, .In. iv. I, but otht rwise unknown.

LAPPING. ,<?re GIDEON.

LAPWING [new, dukiphath}. The PXX., the
Vulgate, the Arabic version, and most modern critics,
a". ree in understanding the Hebrew word to signify the
hoopoe (f'/iii]>(t r/itiji*). The Hebrew name, which is of
doubtful etymology, has been conjectured to signify
double ere.-t," an appellation which might apply to
tli- lapwing, whose occipital crest consists of several
i elongated plumes, but much more correctly to the
hoopoe, whose head is crowned with two parallel rows
of elevated feathers, arranged with their faces laterally.
P.oth birds are inhabitants of Palestine, the latter,
however, the more abundant and conspicuous. Col.
Hamilton Smith points out a much more satisfactory
oriirin of the word. He observes that the modern
Syrian name of the hoopoe is kikupltah, and the
Egyptian kiikiijiltah, both apparently of the same
origin as ihikiphntli. Now there can be no doubt that
these words are imitations of the voice of the bird, like
tTro;/., and more especially repii^a, and our own Jwojjoc.
" It utters at times a sound closely resembling the
word IKIII/I, Jtiiofi, IIIKI/I. but breathed out so softly, but
rapidly, as to remind the hearer of the note of the

dove" (Van-ell, livit. Birds, :i. 17';''.

LASKA

LASHARUN

Tin.' name occurs in Scripture (;ii!v in eonm ction with
the list c[' unclean bird.-, in I.e. xi. :itiil IK'. \iv.

The hoopoe is .-i bird of the slender-billed tribe, allied
to the creepers (< '< rlltintlti !, aliout as large as a pigeon.
luit rat':< r mere slender. 'I'ln 1 u'eiicra! hue is a delicate

393.] JInopoe i /.>.,"' </<"/).

reddish butt', but the back. wing.-, and tail are beauti-
fully marked with broad alternate bands of black and
white: the feathers of the crest, which can be raised or
dropped at pleasure, are terminated by a white space
tippeil with black. Jt ordinarily feeds on insects and
worms, and its search fo-.- these is said to lead it into
associations ill accordant with its delicate beauty. It
seems to be becoming increasingly common as a sum-
mer migrant in our southern counties. [p. 11. <;.']

LASEA, or LAS.F/A, a town in Crete, near the
FAIU HAVKNS. when; Paul for a time was anchored.
Ac. xxvii. s. The place is nowhere else mentioned, but it
has been identified in comparative! v recent times, and
the name is still borne- by a few ruins. (See Smith's
Voy;u,'oaml Shipwreck of St. I'aul, I'd ed. appendix.")

LA'SHA or LK'SMA \<i chasm]. One of the land-
marks by which the proper limits of the Canaanites
were defined. Go. x in. Some have held with Jerome
(from its mention aloni;- with Sodom and Gomorrah,
as well as its etymology) that it was the same as the
modern Wady Zurka M'ain. a ravine east of the
Dead Sea, remarkable for its hot springs, the Callir-
rhoe of Joseph'is (R.J [. 33, :); while others ideiitify
it with Laish or Dan (now Tell el-Kady) at the prin-
cipal source of the Jordan. The latter appears to
be the more probable ,, pinion for the following reasons:
(1.) There is no evidence elsewhere of any Canaanitish
settlements on the east of the Dead Sea. On the con-
trary, the Jordan and its lakes are always represented
as constituting the easte.rn frontier of the "land of
Canaan," strictly so called. (2.) A passage which pro-
fesses to give the boundaries of the Canaanitish terri-
tory, and which clearly specifies Sidon as the north-
western. Gaza in the direction of Gerar) as the south-
western, and Sodom, &(>., as the south-eastern termini,
would scarcely omit the only remaining quarter, viz.
the north eastern; and this, from the analogy of the
two southern limits, would be somewhere about the
same latitude as Sidon. (3.) The twelve spies reported
that they found " the Canaanites dwelling by the sea
(i.e. the Mediterranean) and by the side of the Jordan,"

I Xu. xiii. :.<:>. Now we have already seen that they lived

i about the mouth of the Jordan; it follows, therefore,
from this second and unrestricted statement, that they
were also found along its whole extent, up to the sources
at Laish (Tell el-Kady) and Peth-rehob (Bauias). whi-
ther the spies are known to hn.vo penetrated (we. LAISH .
(4.) Put we are not lelt to mere conjecture or implica-

' tion. It is expressly asserted that the people of Laish
lived "after the manner of the Sidonians," and that
" tiiei- -. was no deliverer" from the sudden "spring" of
the Danite " lion," Du. xx.xiii. '>>. upon the devoted city.
" becami if mis far from S!don," Ju..x\iii. 7,2*. We can
the better understand the connection with the mother
city, thus repeatedly recognized, from the existence at
this moment of an <a~y and direct communication be-
tween Sidon and Tell el-Kady, which is commanded bv
the Kul'at esh-Shukif, a fortress of great strength, and
with evident traces of Phoenician architecture. " Mere-
was always (writes Dr. Kobinson) an important pass
from Sidon towards the east. The Sidonians early had
possession of the country around Banias and of the plain
of the Huleh. which Josephtis (Ant. v. ::, 1) speaks of as
' the rjrcat jila'ut of ft/doit, ' " (Later Bib. lies. p. .V_'). (5.) ( !e-
senius derives the word Lasha from an Arabic root
signifying ''to pierce, to bore;" hence ''a chink, a fissure,
perhaps used of chasms in the earth, and fountains."
If the former be alluded to, it is amply fulfilled in the
"vast f/ori/e of "Wady el-'Asal," which comes down
from Jebel esh- Sheikh (.Mount Ifermoui over a_ain-i
Tell el-Kady, "seeming to cleave the mountain almost
to its base, and issuing from it between two hinh bul-
warks" ubi.l. p.soc) If the latter, it is equally reali/ed
in the spring which wells up from the site of ancient

| Laish, ''one of the large-t fountains in thewerld" (Ibid.
p sun), and 'immediately forming a river twelve or
iifteen yards across, which rushes rapidly over a stony
bed into the lower plain" ii'.urtkh. p. -12). (0.) The word
itself still survives in the name of the " chasm" already
mentioned: 'Axal being simply the inversion of Lu*li'<i.
on the well-known principle of the Anagram.

For the subsequent modifications of this name. $<'
LKSHKM. ] K. w.]

LASHA'RON, an ancient city of Palestine, whose
king (with thirty olhers) was defeated and slain by Jo-
shua, Jos. xii. is. In the enumeration of these kings, it
occurs between Aphek and Aladon. As there were
four or five places named Aphek. but onlv one Madon,

j it is safer to make the hitter the basis of our endea-
vour to ascertain the site of Lasharon. .Madon appears
to be identical with the modern _M;iron. west of Lake
ITuleh (nee M.vuox). Bethel being the most northerly
of the cities mentioned before Lasharon, so far as they
are known, let us take it as our southern terminus, and
assume a point midway between it and Maron as the
position of Aphek. This brings us to the range of Gilboa,
where there is reason to believe one of the Apheks to
have been situated, l Sa. xxix. l, 11; xxxi. 1. There can be
little doubt that it is now represented by Fiil'tVa (Hib.
lies. iii. 157, 15s), and that this is the Aphek here intended.
We are brought to a similar conclusion if we take into
account the preceding name in the catalogue, Hepher.
It is evident from a comparison of this passage with
1 Ki. iv. 10 (which speaks of Hepher as a " land'" or
district in connection with Sochoh and Aruboth), that
it is the same as Ifufirch or Kufeireh, a village and
fountain south of Tell Dothan, in a " fine plain" or
" meadow-like tract." and in immediate proximity to

LATTTCK

LAYER

ArrdMt and Shutceikch. 1 Taking the mean between
Hufireli and Fuku'a as a fresh terminus, a point half-
way between it and Man'm gives a position for Lasha-
ron somewhat to the south-west of Tiberias. At this very
spot, according to I)r. Robinson's Arabic lists r,n>. MLS.
iii. App. p. i:;ij, is a place now called ^iiri'im/i. The sit-
uation is thus seen to fulfil the only indications which
are afforded bv the sacred narrative, and the name is
identical, with the single exception of the loss of the
first letter L, which is almo.-t invariably superseded by
the Arabic article, in modern form- of Hebrew proper
names. >' LAMM AM. [ i:. w.|

LATTICE occurs three times in the Authorized
Version. Ju. V.L">; J K: : -'; Ca i: '.'.and it i- coupled in tin-
first and last (.f these
texts with the \\,,rd
triii'/nf, and indeed both
imuns have the -aim-
preposition in the ,,ii_i
nal to 'j-overn them.
The meaning of the
term is plain i noiiu'li.
The lattice - window is
much used in warm
t a.-ti-rn countries. It
frequenth prop cts fn ,m
the wall of tin- building.
and is formed of r<-ti
culated work. often
highly ornamental, por .) 1.,-t,,, in ,i,, w . < an-" i.ane
lion- of which are
hinu'ed so that they may b,- op, ned or -hut at pleasure.

Tile object of (he CM) it 1'i \ a 11 Cl ' !- t" keep til'' apartllH llt-

cool by intercepting the direct ravs of tin- sun. while,
at tin- .-anif time, the air is permitted to circulate
freely through the trellis openings. Throu-h the
lattice the mother of Si sera ami the
mystical bridegroom are r,-pri-- _

sented as looking. Andthroii'di k>*O*4t*<>

this Aha/.iah fi-11 and injured him-
self ; for then- is no r, ason to
adopt an old id>-a that h.' fell
through a uTatin.; in the floor. ... .

The words in these three text-. Lattice w..rk. < '.
however, are ditli-n-nt i-adi time

in the original; thmrjli it i- now ini|K>ssible to deter-
mine whether they were entirely interchangeable, or
whether there were certain differences of construction
indicated by each of them. The etymology of tin- fir-t.
2:c (I.</IH,'! / >} (which occurs a-'ain in 1'r. vii. 'i. with the
needless variation in the Kngli-h I'.ihlf "casement",
is most probably descriptive of a place through which
the breex.es jilay. The s.'c.md. n?:f (*i l,,'il;'il^. is a
word which occurs prettv often in tin- sense of the
" net- work " or "wreath " on the chapiters of Solomon's
two great pillars at the entrance to the temple. 1 Ki.
vii. l^,fi.c.; so that there is the less reason to hesitate as

' /{Hi. /{.*: iii. App. p. I LM; /."'.' /.',',. /(,.,-. ,,. ]-_'|-l-_'|; \V,.],-,,tt
in /ii',. {>,. xliii. ::j:'.; ounp.the "Caj.liar A,;ib" of Mani.divll,
Mar. -I:',, K,i.l,i Tr;lg ', P,il(sli,if, p. .>:;!. Xinuii. pla.vs
Shn\vi'ikeli (tho Arabic equivalent in two i.th'T in-tain-t-s for
Soi-hoh) much nearer Arralit-Ji than Kirpert's later map (1>"''''):
lint even the. latter has it- sufficiently near to constitute, with
A rral it-hand llufir-li. a sin-le district such as that of lien hesed.
It, is proiH-r to oliserve. that hile e meet with modern sites
elsowlit-re wlii.-h conv.-]ionil niore or li'ss to Arulioth, Soclmh,
and Ilejiher rispei'tively, it is only here that \ve find nil tli,-
cnmlnnfil hi one dixli-iii.

Vol.. II.

to its meaning;' when applied to the window of a room.
The third noun, C'nrr (hlirnkkin)} occurs only in the
jiassage in the Soil',;': Init its etymology also points to
the meanino; of net-work." [c. c. M. n. ]

LAYER, The laver was one of the two articles of
furniture which stood in the court of the tabernacle.
We I'-arn from Kx. xxx. IS. l! that it consisted of two
part.-, the la\er strictly so called, and its foot or liase:
that the material of lioth was l>ra-s, which was also
the material of the adjacent altar of hurnt-ofl'erillg:
that its po.-ition was Between this altar and the talier-
nacle: and that its use was to eiiaMe the priests to
wash their hands and feet either on approaehinn' the
altar or on c nterinu the tain-made, a duty which they
miuht not IK o'lect upon pain of death. There is how-
ever nothing whatever said of its appearance, and not
a .-in^le detail i- recorded in the wav of instruction to
those- who made it. This statement would require to lie
(jualified on the sujipositioli that those are riuht \\lio
alter the accoiiiit of its actual construction, Kx. \x\\iii. \
' And he made thf laver of l.rass and the foot of it of
liras-. of tin- looking-glasses of the women assi milling,
which assembled at tin- door of the talK-rnacle of the
congregation," so as to import that he made it n-ilh the
mirror-, ln-i-an-e they understand that it was adorned
with tin--.-, \\hidi then retained their original tise. I'.ut
for what end' Surely the priests could better look
directly at their hand- and feet than look at them in a
mirror, if they were to look at them at all particularly
lief ore and after washing. It would !.,> pn -sumptuous
to -ay that this translation was impos-iMr or utterlv
mi-uitalilf. con-id'-riiiLT th'- authoriti.-- who su]i]iort it.
I'.ahr. Mw.-dd, Kiiobi-l, and Neumann in his recent
work on the tabi-rnadf ; Init it seems to us decidedK
le-s natural than the translation e-iven above, as in the
Authorix.ed \"i-rsion. both on -jraniinatical grounds and
on other- connected with the general character of th-
sacred furnit uiv. It is also to be observed that the
application of their l.ra/.en mirrors to this use by these
\\onieii \\a- a -imple yet very siuiiilieant i-mlili mat ie
a'-t. bv which they renounced or surrendered the means
ot pei-sotial adornment, and testified the importance
which they attached to. the beauties of holiness. And
it i- the more likely that tin se mirror- were the material
out of which the laver was formed, since there is no
mention of the la\'.-r in the detailed li-t of articles con
structt d out of the general offering of brass, i:\.\\\\iii.
:.M. It scarcely needs to be stated that these were
metallic reflectors, ami not. properly speaking, looking-
!lla**r*.

Another curious instance- of silence in respect to the
laver oii'dit to be noticed, namely, the 1 absence of all
reference to it in the- directions for moviui: and carrying
tin' sacred furniture \\lnn the people of Israel were
marching, Nn \\ 1-11 Tin- Septuagint indeed ajipends
to ver. 1 I this statement, "And tln-y shall take a purple
doth, and .-hall cover the laver and its foot, and shall
lay it into a eoyeT'ing of hyacinth-coloured skins [so
th.-y tran.-late what is in the Knglish I'.ihle 'badgers'
skins'], ami shall put it upon a bar, " or bars, as vcr. \'l:
and the Samaritan makes a similar addition. Yet
there can be little doubt that this is one of their un-
authori/.ed additions; and perhaps the simplest conjec-
ture, in the absence of all specific information, is that
nothing has Ix-en said of the covering of the laver
because it was carried uncovered.

Since we have no description of tin.- layer, we

134

LAVEH

LAW

are left to imagine \vluit would he its appearance,
with little guidance beyond a few general princi-
ples. That it was round, somewhat like a boiler
or cauldron, is probable from the shape of othei-
vessels used in tin; worship of God, and from the ana-
logy of Scilomou's bra/en sea; but it is questionable
whether this can be inferred etymologicaliy iVoni the
name -n>3 (ki///'\ whose origin is very uncertain, and
which is used no doubt of a common pot, 1 S:i. ii. u, but
almost undoubtedly of a x'/nan- pulpit or scaffold, 2 ch.
vi. i:i. The foot of the laver is by some translated its corcr,
and this may be etymologically defensible; but it lias
seldom been adopted, and it is against the authority of
all the ancient versions. It is remarkable that "the
laver and his foot," or base, are always mentioned
together, and the inference is natural, that the base was
as important as the other part. A ccordingly the opinion
has been often propounded, and seems now pretty
generally adopted, that the knjor, translated laver, was
properly the reservoir, and that the base was made to
hold water, and was the real place for the washing.
Perhaps this receives confirmation from the prescription,
" Thou shalt put water therein; for Aaron and his sons
shall wash their hands thereat,'" more literally "there
frir/ii." And it is easy to see how much more convenient
this would be for washing; as also, how it would preserve
the water in the upper part, the reservoir, pure till it was
drawn off' for use. This might easily be effected by cocks
in the reservoir; according to Jewish traditions this was
the case, and they add that it was arranged with skil-
ful mechanical contrivances in the second temple. There
were und< >ul >tedly modifications in Solomon's temple, i Ki.
\ii. 2:i-:;!i;2 ch. iv. 0, where there was the one great brazen
" sea" for the priests to wash in; and ten lavers (the
same word as in the description of the tabernacle) on
bases which could be wheeled about, constructed very
curiously, and these were for washing the sacrifices. It
has been observed that the description which Josephus
gives of Herod's temple (War, v. 5) , mentions the other
articles of sacred furniture, but says nothing of the sea
or laver. It would be very rash, however, to infer from
this that no such vessel existed in it.

In the account of the offering by the woman sus-
pected of adultery there is mention made of ''holy
water'' mixed with dust from the floor of the taber-
nacle, which the woman was to drink according to cer-
tain rites, Xu. v. 17. Most probably this was water taken
from the laver. Perhaps the same should be said of
the "water of purifying," _Su. viii. 7, which was sprinkled
on the Levites on occasion of their consecration to the
service of the Lord in the tabernacle.

The general meaning of the sprinklings and washings
is plain enough, as they were a symbol of inward puri-
fication, appointed by God himself, though of course
with no intrinsic efficacy, lie. ix. n, 10. It was very im-
portant that the priests themselves should feel all this
as often as they went to either of their special duties,
ministering at the altar and entering the very dwelling-
place of the Lord: and the penalty of neglect, dying, is
twice mentioned, Ex. xxx. 20,21, thus receiving the greater
emphasis. That it was the hands and feet which were
washed arose naturally from the circumstance that these
were the parts of the body most exposed to be soiled,
and that they were the instruments of walking and
working. In the New Testament we have our Lord
washing the feet of his apostles that they might be

clean, .fn. xiii. 10; and Paul commanding believers to lift
up holy /Hind* in prayer, 1 Ti. ii. s ; but these things need
not lie pressed to a very close analogy. [o. o. 31. I).]

LAW. This is the word which in our English Bible
! corresponds to the toruh (rnin) of the Hebrew Scriptures.
and to the nnmos (VO/JLOS) of the Greek. In each lan-
guage the equivalent word admits of a considerably
diversified application, according as the rule or order
contemplated by it maybe more general or more speci-
fic, formally enacted, or virtually implied and under-
stood. In a i/cneral way the term is sometimes applied
to any definite method of instruction or training, such,
for example, as that of parents toward their children,
Pr. i. S;iii. i; or even that, which often usurps, rather than
possesses the right to rule, the common usage and be-
haviour of men, 2 Sa. vii. ID. In a somewhat less general
way, though still apart from any distinct or formal
enactment, it is applied in Scripture, as well as other
writings, to the sense of right and wrong implanted in
men's bosoms by the hand of God the law written in
the heart as the apostle calls it, P.O. ii. ir>, or, as it is
otherwise designated, the law of the natural conscience.
But these are rather popular extensions, or rhetorical
uses, of the term late, than its direct and proper sense,
nor do they occur with any frequency in Scripture.
Usually, explicit and authoritative enactment is what is
indicated by the term, or what embodies something of
this description; though we may still mark some diver-
sity in the things more immediately referred to. ( 1 . ) Spe-
cific precepts respecting any work or ordinance of God
such as the law of the passover, the law of the
trespass- offering, the law of the burnt- offering, the law
of marriage, &.C., Ex. xii. lit; Lo. vii. 7; vi. 2; Ho. vii. 2. (2.) The
law of Moses generally, or God's revelation of law in its
totality, Ps. i. 2; xix. S; Jn. i. 17; Mat. v. 17, ic. (3.) The book
or document in which this law is contained, that which
contains being put, by way of metonymy, for that
which is contained in it, Wat. xii. ;.; Lu. ii. 23; Jn. x 34; i Co.
viii. 9. Very commonly in Old Testament scripture
when laic is taken in this comprehensive and concrete
sense, book is coupled with it, " the book of the law of
Moses," "the book of the law of God," or such like,

2 Ki. xiv. (i; xxii. 8, 11; Jos. viii. 31; xxiv. 20; 2 Ch. xvii. 0, &c. Such

diversities, however, are easily perceived; they give rise
to no dubiety of meaning, and occasion no difficulty
even to the commonest understanding, nor is it neces-
sary here to take them into account. Treating of law
in its distinctive character, or its place in the dispensa-
tions of God, it will be understood of itself, that neither
the handwriting containing the law, nor the specific
enactments into which, on particular subjects, it
branched itself out, are the things properly in view;
but the law itself in its completeness the distinct and
formal revelation of law as a phase in the dispensations
of God to men. In this respect there are several
points which call for consideration, and on the right
understanding of which not a little depends for the
judicious interpretation of the word of God, and a
proper insight into its contents.

] . The historical place of the law, or the period of its
introduction into the divine communications, is the
first point that claims our attention. " The law came
by Moses," not sooner; and amid all the transactions
recorded in the earlier portions of Scripture respecting
God's intercourse with men, no attentive reader can
fail to mark the general absence of what wears the

LAW

aspect of law. In th'.- primeval constitution of tilings | evil was in men's bosom, how prune they were mi cverv

there was just the one authoritative prescription ---the ] hand to prc-ume on Cud's goodness, a'ml break forth

prohibition against eating of the tree of the knowledge ' into acts ,,f waywardness and folly. it !>ec;uue inani-

uf good and evil, given as a te-t of oltediciice: and fcst. that if he was to have a people formed in am

lietween the memorable period of the fall and Moses, measure after his holiness, and capable of doing him

the appointment of Mood for Mood, Go ix n, and the faithful service in the world, they would need. beside

institution of the ordinance of circumcision. GC. xvii.are other methods of instruction, to In- hemmed in bv the

the only divine acts which take the form of law, and , restraints of an effective discipline, and trained to

as such wore afterwards embraced in the legal economy, habits of righteousness. And such was the primarv

Not but that there were the ilum-tit* ut law in much design of the law: " it was added because of transgre.s-

that was transacted and done in those earlier times, sions," <;,. Hi. n, nanielv. because of the invi Unite

lie-cause there \\.,s what contained the -rounds and prom-ness to these which had discovered itself in the

principles of moral obligation. These are inherent in past; and that now, at length, bv the more dinct and

the very constitution of man. and his relative place in stringent exercise of God's authority, commanding what

creation; they were also more or less embodied in . very is good, forbid ling what is e\ il. there miju i e secured

manifestation and act of ( Jodhead toward the Immaii a _ iieral conformity to the \\a\s of holiiuss. The

family from the commencement of time to the revela- oversight, it mav be noticed in passing, of \\hai has

lion from .Mount Sinai. For. everything by which just lieen stated respecting the comparativelv late in-

God makes himself known in his character as the troductioii of law, in the foi-mal sense, has with one

moral Governor of the world, of necessity brings with it school of dhine.- led to several .-trained interpretations

a corresponding obligation to liis rational olf-pring. In of the earlier parts , f Scripture, and with another has

this respect the whole history ,f Cod's prueedure in been employed to countenance certain errors in theology

connection with the prim.-\al and patriarchal world as if there could have been no obligation where there

his making of tj,,. world it- If in six days, resting or was no express law. and in the absence of this.

hallowing and Messing the seventh his formation of might eitlar. according to one's fanev. .-npplv what

""'i' i" hi.- own image, and of woman from the side of seemed a deficiency in the t> \t. or conclude from the

man his endowing them in paradise with th.' blessed deficiency the want of obligation' These opposite

provision and heritage of life, so long, but meivh so long, courses have been taken particularly in iv.ard to man's

as they stood in their int. jritv the transactions con- original rectitude, tin nature of the marriage-tie, the

llected with the >h;ime and the covering of o;ir fir-t Sabbath, and -acritiee.

parents, with the sacrifices of lain and Abel, with _'. '/'// nfutt'vii <>f tin lair f,, i,nrUit>j nrclat'ions ;

Fnoeh. with N'oah and the generation that perished in find, in fxirtii-ular tu tin r,,nnunt of )>ruiu!m ntadt n-iil,

tll(1 " '. together with the continuous and varied Alii-tiltnm ami It!* nul, CHIIIM next in order as a point

1 """'-< "'' dealings which from the days of Noah for consideration. It undoubtedly formed a marked
rea-hed to the close of patriaroh:d times: all. from era in th- history of the chosen seed, and was above
first to last, were inwroiuht with indications of Cod's all otln r things the means of uniting them into a coin-
character, conseiiuently with the essential principles <.f pact, and in spirit and character somcwliat homoge-
truth and duty: and on the measure of Hi; ht and sense neons, people; so that, if guided by mcreh patriotic
of obligation thus obtained w re founded the religion- feelings, it mijit not be unnatural for them "to look to
observances, th.- social in-titutions, and relative duti. -. the legislation ,,f Moses as the - round of their nation! 1
which prevailed among the letter portion of th. 'human greatness - the one and all in a n in n< r for l.-iael a- a

family. Doubtless, had they 1 n more earnest in- |>cop]e. And this might have been well, had the polity

jiiircrs into the way- of Cod, and more conscientious established by the law been only of n civil Kind, and

imitators of them, even the best would have both mi- had the calling of Israel under it reached no higher

derstood and done more in the divine service than than that of some earth! v commonwealth. Hut it

they actually did; while the practices of idolatry, poly- , was another matter, when contemplated, as the law

gamy, licentiousness and crime, which tilled the world should have b, en. with respect to their relation to

with their foul and hitter fruits, would have been uu- , Cod. and the position thn were appointed to occupy

k "" wn - : as his covenant-),, ople. In this point of viev the law

It is one thing, however, to say that in those works ! could not be isolated from former revelations without

and ways of God there were' the elements of law. and
another to say that Cod revealed him-elf bv law: the
one is true, but not the other except in the occasional
and partial manner already noticed. The law needed
its preparation as well as the gospel; and the prepara-
tion chiefly consisted in the trial that was made of
human nature during the lengthened period inc|Uestion,

thrusting it out of its proper place, and to some < .\1'-7it
debating the \vry end for which it was given. Such,

Israelites themselves, and never more than in the later
periods of their history. Vet looking at the matter
historically, the mistake might be said to be without any

under sufficiently clear revelations of God's mind and ! reasonable- excuse. iF,,r. the law in its very form anil
will, coupled with numberless acts of divine mercy and structure, as well as its professed design. \\ as based
judgment, yet with scarcely anything that could be j upon the covenant ,,f promise made with Abraham,
1 positive restraint or authoritative command, j and assumed an existing relationship aln ady f< rmed
God sought to deal with men as with children, by his by that covenant. Jt did not aim at making tho-e who

own gracious procedure pointing to them the wav.
and appealing to thoir better natures, whether they
would follow it or not. Hut the trial, though infinitely
varied, and perpetually renewed, failed of its grea\
design; it served only to show how deep the fountain of

wen- far off from God, and dead, as regards the inte-
rests of righteousness, living members of his kingdom;
but, recognizing the seed of Israel as by virtue of the
prior covenant already children (.f promise, children
whom lie had signally owned and ivdec med. it .sought to

LAW

wealth ami bles>ing lnul been fivcly conferred first on
Abraham, then on the chosen portion of bis seed) was
the law introduced lint to beget children to God, or
to endow those already begotten with tin.; peculiar gifts
of his goodness- not for any such purpose was the law
uiven, but as a handmaid to the covenant of promise,
that the heirs of promise might not by unworthy con-
duct forfeit their title to the blessing, but might act
so as to secure its fullest possible realization.

This is the line of thought which in the gospel age
was pursued by the apostle 1'aul in dealing with his
erring countrymen, more generally in the epistle to
the Itomans, more specially and particularly in the
epistle to the Galatians. In both of these he shows it
was quite a mistake to imagine that salvation and bless-
ing could come to fallen men by the law; that the very
[period of its introduction, and the [parties to whom it
was uivcn, alone sufficed, when duly considered, to
prove the reverse: and that, so far from being designed,
or in itself lilted, to constitute a title to life and blessing,
the law rather tended to destroy any hope of this, and to
shut men up to another ground of confidence than could i
by means of it be [possibly attained. The whole matter,
indeed, becomes plain as soon as it is distinctly ascer-
tained what is the relation of men, as partakers of life
and blessing, to God. \ They enter into this relation
simply as subjects of grace not that they have de-
served, or can deserve, anything at the hands of Cod;
but that he has chosen in his sovereign mercy to make
them partakers of his lovingkindness, and place them
on a friendly footing with himself. But then this very
relationship to God a Cod of untainted purity as well
as rich grace, and from whom grace itself must ever
work in subservience to the ends of righteousness, Ro. v.
21 inevitably carries with it the obligation and the
call to be like him in mind and character. So it
appears in the case of Abraham, who, while he had
nothing whereof to boast before ( lod, receiving as he did
all freely, yet had it in charge to walk before Cod, and
be perfect: nay, was by the Lord himself apprehended
as one who would command his children and his house-
hold after him to keep the way of the Lord, to do
judgment and justice, (ic. xvii. 1; xviii. ID. So again was
it with collective Israel, who were no sooner redeemed
from the house of bondage, than they were told how
needful it was for them to obey the Lord's voice, and
lie a holy nation, in order to make good the purpose of
their redemption, and attain to the proper enjoyment
of its blessings, Kv ix . r,, <;. In such things we have
already the germ and spirit of the law; and to give
distinct utterance to what had been thus previously
understood or briefly announced, to present it in full
detail before Israel, and formally bind it upon their
conscience- this, and nothing more, was the direct i nd
aimed at by the revelation of law at Mount Sinai.
' : J. We naturally look next to t/tc Internal strnftun
of the /(', <(ii</ tin i-ilatiri' ail j list uunt (if it* j><trtx, as
bearing on the end in question. In this respect, pre-
eminent regard must ever be had to the ten command-
ments the decalogue which formed the heart and
kernel of the whole legislation at Sinai. Here, how-
ever, it is unnecessary to enlarge upon the point itself,
or to dwell upon the nature of the decalogue; as this,
in consideration of its importance, has been treated

separately (*cc 1 >KCAi.o<;rH>. We simply notice that
thi> fundamental [portion of the law. being strictly
moral in its tone, necessarily diffused the same spirit
through other parts of the legislation. , Even such
provisions as in their formal aspect bore much of an
outward and ceremonial impress, could not but derive
from this central code a moral character and design.
There would otherwise have been a want of fitting
correspondence a kind of antagonism between the
centre and the extremities of the system. Anil why,
indeed, should those ten commandments have been
laid in the ark of the covenant, in immediate proximity
with the mercy-seat, as the very image and express
character of the Cod of the covenant, unless it were
that reference might bo constantly had to this as the
great standard of right and wrong the iiarnuil revela-
tion, in the spirit of which all else was to be read and
understood .' it is only thus. also, we can explain how
the more gifted and pious members of the old covenant
these who really souuht, and were in some measure
enabled, to [penetrate into the design of its legislation
could speak in such high terms of the law generally, of
the manifold depth of meaning thev found in it, and
the spiritual benefit the}' were conscious of deriving
from the earnest and thoughtful meditation of its con-
tents, l's. xix. cxix. &o. There could not be a greater
misapprehension, though it is one that has been fre-
quently fallen into, and still perpetuates itself in some
theological schools, than the idea that the law of
Moses was chiefly external and political in its bearing
that it had little or nothing to do with the individual
conscience; and that its aim was accomplished, if Is-
rael preserved the knowledge and worship of Jehovah
and remained separate from the nations. Assuredly,
the being and sole worship of Jehovah hold a place of
prime importance in the law. They form, however,
its substratum rather than its substance: and might
have been maintained in all their rigour (as the case of
the later Jews but too clearly evinces), while still the
urcat end of the law was frustrated, and the heart
abode in settled alienation from him whom it professed
to believe in and adore. It was the character of Cod
even more than his being, and the spirit of his worship
more than the worship itself, which it was the aim of
the law to reveal, and which it sought by manifold rites
and institutions to work into the convictions and lives
of the covenant-people. Only in so far as this took effect
was the proper work of the law accomplished; as many
a passage in the Psalms and prophets might be adduced

to prove (for cxiunple, 1's. xv. xxiv. 1.; Is. i. 10-1S; v. 1-7; &v.\

and as appears, indeed, from the apostle's brief but
pregnant delineation of a Jew; for what is the Jew,
properly so called, but one in whom the law has attained
its end? ' He is not a Jew who is one outwardly,
neither is that circumcision which is outward in the
flesh; but he is a Jew who is one inwardly, and cir-
cumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, and not in
the letter, whose praise is not of men but of God," Ro.
ii. ^-, 'J:i.

There are three leading principles or positions to be
here maintained respecting the law, in which the truth
upon the subject may be summed up. (1.) Its predomin-
antly moral aim. as exhibited especially in what formed
the fundamental part of the revelation the law of the
ten commandments and which gave the tone to all the
other and subsidiary parts of the system. (2.) The
symbolical or teaching character of the ceremonial part

LAW

of its cnactin.-nts. Tlie.se stood to tlie mural principles
and obligations of the. law in the relation of signs and
monitors not indeed defining what was right or wrong
in behaviour, but implying that there was a right and

is right and good, and a will disinclined to its perform-
ance, and seeking, by a well-adjusted system of means,
to train the dispositions and form the characters of its
subjects in accordance with their obligations and pro-

a wrong which it behoved the people carefully to con-
sider; and culling in the aid of outward and corpoival
things to remind them of the fact of the distinction.

spects. Its working was from without inwards; and,
of course, in proportion as there might lie a want of
correspondence between the state of feeling within, and

to deepen the impression of it on their minds. Thus the claim.- of duty pressing in from without, there would
the touch of the dead was held to defile, because death be either a resistance to the demands of law. or an
is the wages of sin: and wherever death is. there should enforced observance of them. Yet. seeing the law
be a remembrance of iniquity, and an earnest turning came in as a handmaid to the covenant of grace and
from it. as from that which is abhorrent to the nature promise, and should ever have been so regarded, there-
of the ever living and blessed Cod. Tims, also, certain
articles of food were prohibited, while others Were per-
mitted, to impress them with the truth, that as chil-
dren of the covenant they had perpetually to choose

was no i
who wen
the provision
suppli

for any such discordance existing: tlu
nscious of it having only to fall back up

that earlier covenant to obtain the
thev might need. A nd such, undoubtedly.

between an evil and a good -to lay a restraint upon was the practice of all the better members of the covc-

the tendencies of fleshly nature, and subordinate its nant, as may b
desires t<i the mind of Cod. And in like manner with 1'avid, and tl
other provisions of the law: there was iiothin-- in the through the g:
externalism of these that might be said to stand apart, necks to the y
or to be prescribed merely for its own sake. It pointed heart-, lo
in one respect or another to the eternal principles of gold and
truth and righteousness written on the tables of stoii
and warned men to consider Imw tl
in Mich. : J.1 Beside this teaching element, however,
there wa- a propitiatory and purifying element associ-
ated with the rites and observances of the law. This
was necessary to relieve it of what would otherwise
have been its intolerable rigour. For had it only
spoken of ri-hteoiisiie-s and sin, obligations of duty
and liabilities of puni-hnu-nt. it would have entirely
overshadowed the covenant of promise, and crushed
the spirit of those on whom it was imposed. There-
fore, as it was itself ordained to be a handmaid to that
covenant of promise, it coupled symbols of cleansing
and atonement with methods of instruction and dis-
cipline: so that the sense of guilt which
its provisions it was ever awakening, was graciously
met bv another, and the heart wa- a_;aiu reas-uivd as
to its interest in the favour and lovingkindness of Cod.
I. It will readilv be understood from the preceding
remarks what was the natural, />;<>/>(/, '// /< </'/"/<"''<
ii/in-ntinii i if tin A*"-. Vi<-wed as a whole, and in its
general eliect upon those who ri-'htly understood and
received it, "the law bore the same relation to the
spiritual Judaism, which was afterwards to nier-e in
the Christian church, that the casket does to the jewel

which it incloses, or external fence to the garden which ! and purposes of -race wei
it shelters. In itself it was incapable of giving life: it , mvsterv un
atfor

from the recorded experiences of
who trod in his footsteps who,
;race given tin m. not only bowed their
oki of the law, but received it into their
it. pri/.ed it, as better than thousands of
T, and counted themselves blessed only

nutriment to faith, except s

ritual and sacrifices raised an expectation
things to come- [or through these provided
relief to the fears awakened by the knowh

so far as they found themselves in willing harmony

stood atlectcd with its rc'iuirciii' nts. I'.- i. \\i. xix. xxxvii. :<l;cxix. &c. Jn
all such was real i/.ed in part what was destined to meet
with its oiilv perfect reali/ation in Him who was to be
the end of the law for righteousness, and who. even
before he came into the world, was contemplated as
ivadv to appear with these words in his mouth, " Lo,

I collie, in the Volume of tile book it i- Wl-'Uell of Hie,

I deli-ht to do thy will, () my Cod: yea. thy law is
within mv heart. r> xl 7, -.

At the same time, in the ordinary members of the
old covenant, the degree of conformity now supposed
between the inward state and the outward requisitions
of dutv, could seldom lie expected, and certainly was
ic class of but rarely exemplified. The economy of law was in its
vt rv nature an imperfect one, and by its inevitably
tlircatenin:-,' and imperative form, was titled to work
more upon the lower than the higher impulses of the
soul. Its tendency hence was. to "gender unto bond-
age." Ca iv. l, producing, when too exclusively looked
to. a slavi-h spirit of fear, and a certain measure ot
such a spirit in those who were still by no means en-
thralled bv it. It could scarcely be otherwise, when
the- revelation of law stood so prominently out, spake
s.i loud, so full, so stron--. while the more peculiar gifts

yet revealed only in a
uds. and shadows, and manifold
could scarcely fail, in such a case,
it openly displayed, should also be

its

imperfections. It
that what was mo

aspect of the law, its burdelis

felt that the severe
u- ritual, and terrible

if 1 )etter

t present

L, r e of sin

and consciousness of --uilt|: but it was valuable as an
outward fence against the encroachments < if heathenism,
as a shelter beneath which the tender blossoms of reli-
gion might flourish and expand. The law, in fact, was
intended to protect [and mould] the Christianity of the
( Hd Testament, until, in Christ, and through the out-
pouring of the Spirit of Christ, the latter should attain
a strength and maturity which would enable it to stand
alone" (LitUm on the Church of Christ, p. no). In such a
system of disciplinary treatment there was of necessity
something of constraint; this divine law, like law gene

rally, presupposing in those on whom it was laid, a j of the old covenant; by much the larger proportion of
mind imperfectly instructed in the knowledge of what j the Jewish people came greatly short of it, and know

array of penalties a-'ainst the disobedient, should sink
deep into the heart, and create a kind of trembling awe
upon the spirit even of -'ood men. when they drew into
the presence of Cod and thought of his holiness. They
were, as the apostle intimates, in a species of bondage,
not having yet in the proper sense received the spirit
of adoption, Un. viii. IN (J;i. iv. :i,ii; yet it was the bondage
of children rather than of slaves, loving even while
thev dreaded, rejoicing while they trembled before the
Cod whom they served. This, however, was the case
only with the more enlightened and spiritual members

LAW

the law mainly, if not exclusively, as an irksome bond-
age, frmii which they were fain, as fai 1 as possible, to
get free. In the worse periods of their history they
sought this freedom by altogether bursting the bands
which the law threw around them, and openly embrac-
ing the rites and pollutions of heathenism. Far more
frequently, however, they took the law in part and
forsook it in part; complied with certain of its provi-
sions and neglected others; or, in the crouching temper
of slaves, paid a scrupulous regard to the letter of its
requirements, while they were content to remain desti-
tute of its spirit of willing and devoted love. Hence,
the strong denunciations so often met with in the pro-
phets against one or another of these forms of contrariety
to the covenant of law, Is i. ii. s-l.v. Jc. ii.-vii.;Kzo. xvi. xxiii.;
Ilab. i. ,'cc , and the imperfection occasionally charged
upon that covenant itself, especially on account of its
prevailing outwardness, as compared with the better
tilings to come, when the Lord would deal more directly
with the hearts of his people, and implant ill them a
new spirit of life, Jc. xxxi. ai; Kzc. xxxvi. 22, us.

;5. Tin: relation of t lie law to Christ and Christianity
cannot require much explanation, after what has been
already advanced, if the statements in New Testa-
ment scripture on this branch of the subject are looked
at superficially, they ma} f appear somewhat inconsistent
with each other, and different conclusions will naturally
be drawn from them, according to the class of passages
more immediately contemplated. The apparent con-
trariety arises simply from regard being had in certain
of the passages to the essential principles involved in
the law, and in others to the distinctive form these
assumed in the Old Testament economy as that defi-
nite covenant of law which was established at Sinai.
In the one respect, what existed before exists still, and
must ever exist; in the other, it is done away in Christ.
Our -Lord himself said, in one of his most emphatic
announcements, ''Think not I am come to destroy the
law or the prophets; I am not come to destroy, but to
fulfil. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth
pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the
law, till all be fulfilled," Mat. v.i 7, 18. No words could
more distinctly assert, whatever precise meaning we
attach to the fulfilling here spoken of, an absolutely
good and perpetually abiding element in the law, inde-
pendent of all times and circumstances. And yet they
could not intend to affirm the perpetuity of what then
existed in the very shape and form which belonged to
it; for even the prophets, as we have seen, had connected
with the era to be brought in by Messiah a change so
great, that they did not scruple to represent it as the
making of a new covenant, and an outpouring of gifts
such as could not then be looked for. Nor was less
implied in the Melchizedek priesthood, which he was
announced to fulfil, or in what he himself spake re-
specting the sufferings and death for sin, which were
to precede his entrance into glory the mission of the
Spirit he was to inaugurate, and the new kingdom he
was to set up by the hands of his apostles; while the
children of the kingdom, as it then stood, were to be-
east out, and their temple laid in ruins. All this be-
spoke a mighty change in the external aspect of things,
fallowing uixiii the work accomplished by Jesus in the
flesh. And, accordingly, when the new state of things
had fairly entered, we are explicitly told of the change
of relationship in believers towards the law of their
becoming, in a manner, dead to it through the death

of Christof their being no longer under it. but under
grace of the Christian church itself having become
the temple of God, and believers generally the priest-
hood that ministered in it and so on, IU>. vi. vii.; i l'e. ii. ,-, ;
while still, the law itself was characterized as holy,
just, and good; and the love to Cod and man, which
formed the sum of its obligations, was not the less
enforced as the perfection of all moral duty, Uo. vii. I2 ;
xiii. s, !), lie.

Such are the statements in New Testament scripture
on this part of the subject; and it is clear, on a slight
reflection, that where they speak of a continuance they
must refer to the principles of truth and righteousness
embodied in the law; but where they indicate a change,
they point only to the form of administration. The
law, as already stated, viewed in respect to its formal
character, bore on it the evident marks of relative im-
perfection; the predominant outwardness, and manifold
restrictions, which distinguished it as a system, bespoke
its adaptation to a people still in comparative pupilage;
and the means it provided for purification and atone-
ment by their very nature and the frequency of their
recurrence, palpably inadequate to the end they aimed
at carried with them the evidence of a framework
inherently weak and unprofitable. Jn that respect,
therefore, a change was inevitable; the external frame-
work having served its purpose gave way, but only
that the great truths and principles it enshrined might
be more effectively carried out in the work of Christ
and the experience of his people. These being the
expression of God's essential character, were heartily
responded to by Christ, and in all he suffered and did
most gloriously exemplified. It is as the embodied
righteousness of God, satisfying all its demands, that
he is, and only could be, the Redeemer of his people.
And they who believe in him are now under grace, for
the very purpose that the righteousness of the law might
be more and more fulfilled in them, by their walking
after the Spirit. In short, while the law in its outward
and formal exhibition as a covenant, and in its connec-
tion with a provisional method of discipline and atone-
ment, has passed away, it lives still, and must ever
live, as the revelation of God's righteousness. Only
now, it should be known less as a code of external
enactments, more as a spirit of life and holiness in the
heart. If replenished as he should be with this spirit,
the believer may be said to be free from the law in the
one respect, because he already has it in the other; he
breathes the spirit of holy love it requires, and aims at
that conformity to God's will which it is intended to
secure. But lest any, like the false prophets in former
times, should set up the fleshly impulses of their own
spirit for the promptings of the Spirit of God, the law
still stands with its eternal principles of holiness and
its grand landmarks of duty, to expose their folly, and
determine for ever the path of obedience.

[No reference has been made in the preceding article
to specific provisions in the law, such as enactments
regarding the weekly Sabbath, the annual feasts, mar-
riage, &c., as these will all be found treated under their
respective heads. (See, however, most of them enume-
rated in article LKVITICUS.) It has also been assumed
that the law, as it now exists in the Pentateuch, was
given in substantially its present form through the
ministry of Moses. For a notice of the exceptions
taken against this position by recent critics, sec PEN-
cH, also DKUTEROXOJJV. Fxonus.j

LAWYER

LAWYER [VO/J.IKOS, one versed in. or having to do
with, law]. The expression is very raivlv used in the
New Testament scriptures, hut when used serins to
cunvev the same meaning as teacher of the law or
serihe (compare Mat. xxviii. 3;'i; Lu x. _:.>, with Mur. xii. ->; and .-

SCRIBE.)

LAZARUS. 1. The only certainly historical pei-
son hearing this name in New Testament scripture
was the In-other of .Martha and Mary. A peculiar
interest attaches to him on account of his relation to
these two sisters, and yet more on his own account:
for the narrative of his resurrection from the ^rave.
after having been d'-ad foii: 1 'lavs, must lie regarded
as a crucial one in testing the credibility of the e.-,, S pe]
history, and especially of the (Jospel of .lohn. No
narrative contained in the _;., -pels has heen more keenly
attacked I iy tin- oppon. n's ,,f tin- I'liristian faith down
to the present hour. Its supreme importance, as the
i-i-cord of the most \\oiidi-rful display of the Redeemer's
power during his earthly ministry, has been uni\ . -r-ally
recognized, lieli' vers point to it with triumph, and
unbelievers have been ready t .-take the SUIT* nd< Tin-
of their unbelief up..ii the establishment of that tact
alone.' ['Hefty therefore as we mav suni np a'1 that.
in the alienee of definite materials, we otherwise know
of th'' liist"i'v and cliar:ictei- of l.a/arus. the aeemmt of
his raising tVoin the dead will demand tin- nio.-t careful
eonsiil,. ration which our limits will allow.

La/.arus heloii'.;. d to I'-thanv. a small village on th.'
eastern slope of Mount Olivet, about tit'teen fnrli'ii'js
from .l.-ni.-alem. Jn \i. l-. and K in_; ii]ion the road which
connected the capital with Jericho. What Stanley
(Sinai aii'l r >!!> rails " :i \\ ild mountain hamlet."

known as th, villa-, ,,f Kl Axarieh, still marks the <|)ot,
psessiii'_r no attraction in its, It', memorable only as
" the traditional -ite of the one house and '.'rave \\hich
give it an undying' interest." It has indeed !, 11 arjued
by (iresswell (Dissertations on , Xu. :w that l.a/.a-

rus and his sisters, although th, y may have had a hi .use
in Pethanv. were natives of a villa<_v in (Jalilee whose
name has not been pros. r\vd. the "certain villa*.' '
(Kil<fj.ij ri", of l,u. \. :! v . The argument rests mainlv
on the use of tin prepositions dwi> and IK in. lohn \i. 1.
the latter of which is untranslated in our Kn-li-h ver-
sion. Of these the fir.-t is supposed to designate an
inhaliitant. the second to specify a native of a particu-
lar place. Neither here however, nor in .lohn i. -l"i. t,.
which (Iresswell refers in confirmation of Ids view, can
the distinction he maintained. In hoth eases the clause
introduced hy <V is obviously inserted not to note a
different relationslii]) to two different places, hut to
distinguish the one place mentioned from another of tin;
same name with which it might have been confounded.
In .In. i. -!;", the Bethsaida to which Philip belonged
was not the I'ethsaida Julias at the north-eastern ex-
tremity of the Sea of CaliW. but P.ethsaida, ''the city of
Andruw and Peter," on its western shore. In .In.
xi. 1, the Piethany spoken of is not the Bethany (the true
reading for Bethabara of our English version) of ch. i. :>*,
again referred to in ch. x. 40. and needing therefore to be
distinguished from that Bethany mention of which im-

1 Compare tlio words attributed to Spinoza, and quoted in
must of the commentators, On m'assure, qu'il dis-iit, a ?es amis,
quo s'il cut ii se per.-uader i.-x rusurrectioTi do Lazare, il auroit
lirise en piroes tout son systi'ine, il auroit emlirass.1 sans r,'p\i-
gTiance la foi ordinaire des Chrutieiis. Tlie statement is Bavle's.
(Diet. Spinoza.)

LAZARUS

mediately follows, but Bethany " the town of Mary

and her sister Martha." - In confirmation of the

1 identity of meaning which marks the two prepositions
we may further refer to -In. i. 4."i, 4ii. " \N"e have
found Jesus of idrro) Nazareth, the son of Joseph. And
Nathaniel said unto him. Can there any u'oed tiling

' come out of (t/c'i Nax.aretli .'" The point is of little im-
portance, yet it is satisfactory to find that there is no
reason to depart from the unvarying tradition of the
church, which associates with one particular spot the
family of I'.ethany.

Here then I.a/anis had b. en born, and. with his
sisters Martha am! Mary, had probably lived all his

I days. Whether any other members of the family were
alive at tlie time u hen John introduces us to the circle

| it is impos-ilil'- t" say. It lias often been conjectured
that "Simon the leper, in whose house Matthew and
Mark record that entertainment to have taken place at
which Mary anointed Jesus with the ointment. Mat.
\\\i il; Mar. xiv. ::, was a near ivlath ' of the family.
Nav. as John'.-' >tatenn nt. r'n \,i i, _', ami still more
Luke's, i-ii \. :>. might almost lead us to infer that the
house was Martha's, it has been supposed that Simon
was either the father of th.' family, :; or the husband of
Martha, so that either of them " mi-lit be called in-
diff'.-rentlv the owner ,,f the house" Crcsswc!!, Uis ._'
Tin- former of these inferences is perhaps the more
plausible ,,f the two. We can hardly think of Martha,
from the way in which she is always spoken of. as
married: while it is at the same time probable that
some \vrv Hear relationship did exi->t between Simon
on the on. hand, and La/.arus ami his sisters on the
other.

It was to the house of the latter that Jesus was
accustomed to go when he visited I'.elhany: it was
thither that In would he impelled by even stronger than
ordinary considerations to betake liim-i It when "si\
i lays before the pa<s,,v. r he cam.- to I let ha nv," Jn. xii. 1.
tin- m.-al on that occasion was an evening meal, and
would in all probability he partaken of by the lledeemer
in the house where lie was to iv-t for the ni-ht:
" La/arus was one of them that sat at the table with
him:" "Martha served;' and it is agreeable to what we
otherwise know of Mary's character to suppose that she
would give the striking proof of love to Jesus which the
anointing afforded in her own hoii-e ri'li. T than a
stranger's. N et that house, as w.- have seen, is also
spoken of as the house of Simon. How likely then
that a close relationship existed between these different
pel-sons; and. if so, we see another ground of the attach -
' ment of all the family to Jesus. " Simon the leper"
was not a leper now. (>'<r SIMON.) He had pro-
bably been healed by the Redeemer; another link in
the chain which bound them all to one another and to
him.

The family can hardly have been poor or even of
little consideration. In John xi. lit, we read of "those
about them," as well as themselves, whom the Jews
came to comfort. 4 Jt would seem, Jn. xi. .'is, that they

'-' Alfi.r.l refers for proof that there is 11,1 distinction between
the meaning of X.TO and ix. to Ae. xxiii. :M. which is also eon
elusive. But the passage does not illustrate the usagw of .lolin.

' So Theophylact, quoted in Gresswell, nt supra, rot a- ^.if^aia,

4 Alfoi'd renders, "Martha, and Mary, and their friends."
Tlie English version, proceeding upon the supposition that we
have, l.y an idiom common in later Greek, a periphrasis for tlie
names of the sisters themselves, omits mention of the friends.

LAZ AIM'S

LAZATM'S

possessed ;i family tomb, which tin- poorer Jews did
not possess (romp. '> Ki. xxiii. r,, .K;. xxvi. _'::). The persons
who came from Jerusalem to condole with the sur-
vivors upon the death of La/.unis Were, Jn. xi. in.
"many of the .lews." an expression which, in .lohn's
gospel, lias always reference to the leaders of the
Pharisaic sect, Jn. i. lit; viii.L'2; ix. >,&c. Either the sisters
or Simon, who must have been nearly related to them,
were able to give entertainments in their hon^e. And
finally, the very possession of such costly ointment as
that poured by Mary on the head of Christ. Jn. xii. ::,
indicates a condition at least considerably raised above
that of poverty. But the outward circumstances of
the family sink into insignificance when compared with
the relation in which its different members stood to one
another and to Jesus. To one another they appear to
have been bound by the tenderest ties. The very
ditlerence of disposition which marked the two sisters
would cement their union; tin.' whole narrative connected
with the sickness and death of Lazarus bespeaks their
warm affection to their brother; and all three were more
than usually dear to the Son of man. ' Now Jesus
loved Martha, and her sister and Lazarus," are the
words in which .John, with his usual simplicity, expresses
the closeness of the bond, and the Saviour's beautiful
remark to his disciples, "our friend Lazarus sleepeth"
reveals alike his own attachment to him, and the
degree to which Lazarus had won to himself the hearts
of all. Here then in the bosom of this loving family,
and in that quiet and silent spot, away from Jerusalem,
on the verge of the wild country stretching eastward
to the Dead Sea, "the last collection of human habita-
tions before the desert hills which reach to Jericho''
(Stanley, ut supra"), Jesus often sought rest after the oppo-
sition which he had to contend with, and the toils
which he had to endure, in Jerusalem. Here probably
were spent most of any peaceful evenings which the
Man of sorrows knew on earth. Martha- ever eager to
serve, Mary sitting listening at his feet, Lazarus mind-
fid as "a friend'' both of him and of his disciples, perhaps
the grateful Simon also present to express his joy the
kingdom of ( iod in its loveliest aspects must have been
unfolded in that "tabernacle of the righteous," and
" the voice of joy and of rejoicing" must have been
there.

Hut the time came \vhen sorrow was to enter that
home of love and piety. Lazarus fell sick, and the
dangerous nature of his sickness must have been appa-
rent from the first. We cannot enter into the details
of the correspondence between the sorrowing sisters
and our Lord, but the most important particulars con-
nected with the miracle of the resurrection of their
brother are the following. Jesus was at the time in
Benea on his way to Jerusalem, and at the distance
of two days' journey from Bethany. It would stem
that a great field of labour had there opened to him.
for we are told that "many resorted unto him and
said, John did no miracle, but all things that John
said of this man were true: and many believed on him
there." .Tn.x. 11, u. ( )n receiving the message, " Lord, he
whom thou Invest is sick," "he abode two days still in
the place where he was." We are not told the reason
of the delay, but it is plainly implied upon the face of
the whole narrative that, if it may have been in part

It may, however, he well clouhtecl whether the rendering of the
English version is not the more correct of the two. C'omp.
Kuinoel in loc.

occasioned by unwillingness to leave his present scene
of labour, it was yet made with a full consciousness of
what was in the meanwhile to be the fate of Lazarus,
and of the miracle which he was immediately after-
wards to perform. "This sickness,"' he said, "is not
unto death, but for the glory of (iod, that the Son of
(:ktd might be glorified thereby:" " our friend Lazarus
sleepeth. but I go that I may awake him out of sleep:"
" Lazarus is dead."' Four days had thus passed since
the message had been despatched from Bethany. Two
days were spent in the journey to the scene, and if, as
seems probable, Lazarus had died on the day when the
Saviour exclaimed " Lazarus is dead," four days, ac-
cording to the Jewish method of computation, had
now passed since his death, and, as customary in the
East, his burial had taken place. On reaching Bethany
Jesus did not enter into the town. He stayed outside,
in all probability near the burial uround. Word soon
reached the afflicted family that he had come. Martha,
busy as her wont about the house, is the first to hear
of his arrival and hastens to meet him. Mary, plunged
in grief and secluded in her sorrow from the world, is
longer of receiving the tidings, but no sooner does she
hear f r< mi Martha, who hastens back to the house after
her first conversation with Jesus, that '' the Master is
come and calleth for thee," than she too hastens to
[tour out her sorrow at his feet. The Jews who had
come to condole with her, thinking that she was gone to
the tomb to weep there they had not thought this of
Martha cannot leave her; and the whole company,
Jesus, his disciples, the sisters whose sorrow now flowed
afresh, the members of their own immediate circle,
and the Jews from Jerusalem, are gathered together
amidst the tombs. "Jesus said, Where have ye laid
him? They said unto him, Lord, come and see." It
was too much for him whose consciousness of his own
mighty power and glorious mission did not restrain one
feeling which can sympathize with our infirmities.
" Jesus wept;" and the whole weeping assembly pro-
ceeded to the tomb. " It was a cave and a stone lay
upon it. Jesus said, Take ye away the stone." He
knew what he would do, and, unrestrained by Martha's
hasty interference, he lifted up his eyes and prayed to
his heavenly Father before the open sepulchre. Then
he "cried with a loud voice, Lazarus, come forth; and
he that was dead came forth bound hand and foot
with grave-clothes; and his face was bound about with
a napkin. Jesus saith unto them, Loose him and let
him go."

Such was the stupendous miracle of raising from the
dead one who had been in the grave four days, and the
Evangelist attests its reality not only by the account
which he gives of the miracle itself, but by the fre-
quency with which he returns to the thought of it (comp.
Jn. xii. 1,9,17), and by the connection which he establishes
between its performance and the increased vigour of the
measures now taken against Jesus, Jn. xi. -n. It is need-
less to add to the miracle, if adding it can be called,
by the supposition that the body of Lazarus had begun
to decay, or that the decay had proceeded any length. 1
The words of Martha, " Lord, by this time he stinketh,

1 It does not seem to have been adveited to that in the warm
climate of Palestine the cave would be comparatively cool, cer-
tainly much cooler than any dwelling. Although, too, it was
the fourth day since the death took place, little more than two
complete days and three nights may have passed. The nights,
too, were now cold, see Jn. xviii. 18.

LA/AKl'S

LAZAHTS

for he hath been ilead four days." do not necessarily : Me-sianic hopes of Isra.-!. ami that the Christian

imply that such was the ca-e. They may describe spirit which is sujijxised tp> have transferred these hopes

her own inference rather than the fact, ami we must , to the second advent would, hail it still sought their

agree with Trench in thinking that " it gives the nrracle pledges and fore-sjilendours in ( hrist's earthlv life, have

almost a monstrous character to sujipose it was actuall\ pictured them in a manner more in accordance with

the reanimating of a body which had already under- those other circumstances of striking grandeur and of a

gone the process of corruption" (On tlio Mira-.-K-s, i>. 11". perpetual preservation in life of the raised which were

That p< pint however is subordinate, and it i< not up..n always regarded by it as e-seiitial aci -. pinpaiiiim. nts of

it alone that tin- credibility of the miracle has been " the day of the Lord.' 1 X or on the other hand is there

attacked, \\iththeview of explaining the event as a the slightest tra in tin -V w Ti - tarn, lit that the earl v

whole away, or of at lea t remo rnatural Christians eed ..i' such [.ledges in order lo

charaet.^r, the m- p.-t various theories have been jtroposed. convey to them the assurance that a day was coming

Tiie m. -t import . following. Kithcr il is to when " them that sleej. in Jesus would ( !od brin^ with

be explained on the prii tlie n<itu,\il schoi ! of him." The r. snnvction of Chri-t himself was to their

theol,,_ians. \: m.t from: , i alone necessary ai.d the i'nllv satisfvinu'

seeming death, a swoon (Tuil .>; or the story is an inven- pledge of their In-]..-. "Christ is risen," was the

tioiiuf the evangi or il foundation of their faith, and beyond th. fact, "Christ

is a deliberate deeeiition p.n the j.art of La/.arus and his tin- first - fruits, afterwards th.-v that are Christ'.- at

friend-, to which Jesus nion or less lent him.-. If. in his coming." they s.>u-ht in. thin.: more. The fourth

rot aecp>ni|>lishin- his purjiosc by truth and honour ex j plan a lion, w lii.-h is that of K< nan. ha- been r. jected

The iir-t of these exjilanations it is unnece -ar\ !.\ Strauss as altogether inconsistent with tin- dial-art, r

to con-i ler. Th" whol,-] liool of the Redeemer d ,1 u, i-ui, |.. M; and it may l-e

have l.i exposed, and by nothing more doubted if, anmiig all the votaries of infidelity, it will

t-'' : "i ' ' that they iiml . ive it. That the family of I'.ethany. in

remain now ,.i,i. \ of the |.a-t, and a m.-lan- their anxiety to produce an effect favourable to Jesus,

choly illu.-ti ii which not religion -In.ul.i have combined to commit the recovered and

only but si ieni ill" ini|iiiry can be -ap-ritic.-.l at the shrim- li\ in-- Laxarn.- to the tomb; that Jesus should upon his

of jpi-.-judici.-. The second exjilanation i . tin- arrival have been conducted t.. it: the stone rolh.l

whole nat'ii-" of J..hn's 'gospel, v , , us no away: La/arus -till palp' from his illn, -s have come

altern i pti.in of it as at l.-a-t an forth: ami the Saviour have ai .piiesced in the decej.tion.

honest exj.ression of the beli.-f of the evaiigi-list, or the ,-itlnr I mse In- could no) resist his followers, or

rejection of it a- a work of the most dclil>eratc an.l because the original purity of hi- own conscience had

shameful dee. -it. Th" third and fourth explanations, so been lost is a theory w hidi com bines in it improhahili-

far at l.-a-t, permit the ch.tra :-r of the narrator t.. ties of so monstrous a character that thev net d onlv

be saved, and are al-.m- worthy of our notice. Tin to be mentioned in order to be spurned from us with

thii'pl is tin- mythical interpretati f Strauss, who contempt. It proceeds upp.n a view of t In- charactt r

sees in th" narrative it-ell :i sufficient number of 1111- alike..)' Jesus and his friends utterly ai variance with

historical circumstances to enable him to disjx.se of ':' all that even its author allows of them. The whole

as an authentic history: and win. then traces the ori expedient too is utterly inn-all. .1 for, clumsy, and

Lfin of the story to the desire of the church to In-hold unsuccessful, for it leads t-. a result, .in \i. 17, piv-

in her Messiah ; ,f a ,.j si .jy ,). opjiosite of what i- suj.j.osed (o be sought

resurrection from the dead which had long been con after; .-., that tin- very resort to such a hypothesis

nectcd with his comin-. Such ex].ectatioi Hted mu-t be aceej.ted as a striking testimony to the im-

in the first, were now transferred to tin- second adv. nt: jx.ssibility of eva<ling tin- natural fort f the ace it.

yet it was nep-dful that they ,-hould finil a |.leil._--, " In truth, says Strauss. ' with respect to tin history
ultimate fulfilment in similar exhibitions of hi- power ..f Lazarus, as soon as we abandon the idea of a miracle
din-in'.;- his t-artidy mini-try. N'..r were the rai-in-.- of in the strict sense of the ;, rm. t!,. re r. main- no alter-
the daughter of Jairus and the yoiinu- manot Nain. native but either t" sacrifice tin- honour of Jesus to
already in J..hn's time cnrrenl in tin- traditions of the the truth ..f the narrative, or tin- truth of tin- narrative
church, sufficient f..r tin- j.nrj.ose. Th"se persons, it to the honour of Jesus anil of sound reason" lut sn^ra).
not simply in apj.earance dead, had just tlied. ami had The im].artial in.[uirer, whip starts with IMP foregone
not been committed t" tin- tomb, when they heard and eondiisi.pn again.-t the very ].. s-ibility of a miracle,
obeyetl the call of chri-t. They were thus in a diffe- , will not long hesitate in his choice: while the Christian,
rent position from that of thp.se who had r. turned to ! aecej.tin^ tin- simple meaning of the text, will turn
the dust and had seen corruption. The p],-p|--e of the with deli-ht tip il- tenderness and power, lie will see
resurr.-etion of these last must therefore also be -iveii. in the who],, narrative, alike in tin- partii-idars which
theideaofitalsi.be eml.odi.-d. Hence, according to it mentions ami in those which it omits, no trace of
Strauss, the rise of the myth before us. The d, -tails ! the inventive and exaggerating spirit of a later age.
are due to John, who. piecing together certain facts ! He will see the mighty fact which it announces de-
regarding Martha. Mary, and Methany. which he found ' tailed with a naturalness, a simplicity, and a verisimi-
in the synoptical narratives, and borrowing from the litude altogether at variance with a desire to excite
parable of the sdti-li rich man the name and the wonder or to sat isfy curiosity. He will be alive to that
thought ppf the Laxarus mention, -d there as bavin- -low of holy feeling \\ ith which tin- m.w a^.-d apostle
died, composed his story as a suitable expression of the j commits to paper a scene out of the hi-torv of his
idea, spok.-n of above. |!ut it must at once be obvious Master upon which he had himself dwelt in lovin-- me-
ditation for half a century, and every particular of

that the three raisings effected by Jesus in the a'os

by no means corresponpl to what was expected in tin

;orn>\\ of th
135

LAZARUS

sisters exhibited so characteristically by each; the calm
majesty of Jesus even while that sorrow melts him
into tears; the power of death, and the greater power
of him who has "abolished" it, will at once soften and
elevate his soul, and he will catch the thought, un-
doubtedly the leading one of the whole narrative, that,
amidst the wreck of all here below that is fairest and
most loved, Christ is " the resurrection and the life: he
that believeth on him. though he were dead, yet shall
he live; and whosoever liveth and believeth in him
shall never die,'' Jn. xi. i">, L'IJ.

One difficulty connected with this miracle indeed does
meet us: that, of such a striking character in itself, and
so closely connected with the fate of J esus, it should have
been left wholly unnoticed by the earlier Evangelists.
Upon this point it is impossible to accept the explana-
tion, so often offered, that the omission was made in
order to avoid bringing down persecution upon Lazarus,
still alive when these Kvangelists penned their histories;
to which Lange adds the desire to spare the two sisters,
who dwelt in a lonely village in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of a capital inhabited and visited by so
many Jewish zealots (Lobun Jesu, ii. p. n;ii). Such a mo-
tive is altogether out of keeping with the general cast
of the first three gospels, where nothing strikes the
reader more than the simple objectivity of the narrative
in subserviency to the special design of the narrator;
out of keeping with the facts of the case, for the miracle
was performed in the very presence of ''the Jews."
and led instantly to the dreaded result, Jn. xii. 10; and
not less out of keeping with the spirit of all the early
followers of Jesus, who " rejoiced when they were
counted worthy to suffer shame for his name."' Nor
does there appear to be much more force in a theory
recently proposed (Smith's Diet. art. Lazarus i, that, feeling
the " thread of his life broken," shrinking from all
mention of his former life, Lazarus may have retired
from the world, and the church of Jerusalem may have
come to recognize ' ' that, so long as he and those dear
to him survived, the great wonder of their lives was a
thing to be remembered with awe by those who knew
it, not to be talked or written about to those who knew
it not." Lazarus may have felt thus, and the tradition
noticed by Trench. " that the first question he asked the
Lord after he was come back from the grave, was
whether he should have to die again, and, learning
that it must needs be so, that he never smiled any
more" (On the Miracles, p. 418, note), might well harmonize
with the idea that he did so. But that such should
have been the feelings of Lazarus or even of his sisters
affords no explanation of the silence of those who wrote
their gospels with the sole end of setting forth the
glory of the Redeemer. The explanation too is incon-
sistent with the only other fact which we know of
Lazarus after his resurrection, that, at the supper given
some days afterwards to the Saviour in Bethany, "he
was one of them that sat at the table with him," Jn.
xii. 2. And. finally, it is inconsistent with the course
followed by Luke, who does introduce us to the two
sisters, although he makes no mention of their brother,
and speaks even with what must be allowed to be a
singular vagueness of their place of residence, Lu. x .
The explanation of Neaiider and others is much more
probable, that as the first three gospels record no part
of our Lord's labours in Judea (unless we except the
healing of the blind man at Jericho) up till the time
of the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, immediately

> LAZARUS

before the last passover, so they were led to omit this
miracle also as not falling within the sphere of their
history. This explanation has indeed been pronounced
by Trench to be ''only a re-stating in other words the
fact which needs to be explained'' (On the Mira-lcs, p. .>!';
camp, also Smith's Diet, ut suprii). Such however is not the
ca.se. To explain why Matthew, Mark, and Luke
omit the whole Judean ministry up to the point men-
tioned is something entirely different from explaining
why, since they do so, one great event in that ministry
is left unnoticed by them. In fact, if they had noted
it, the difficulty might have been to explain why it alone
should have been inserted, and the questions arising
out of what would still have been their omission, with
one exception, of the Judean ministry, would have
been rendered even much more puzzling than they
are. It would seem, indeed, that in the reasonings of
different inquirers upon this subject, there is too much
of a tendency to transfer to the early Christian church
the standard by which we measure the greatness of the
miracles of Jesus. There is no evidence that one mir-
acle was then considered to be greater than another.
Even in the account of that before us there is not a
single expression which would call our attention to it
as particularly great. That it was so we feel, and the
whole simplicity and solemnity of the style in which it is
related correspond with the impression which it produces
on us. But it is not more circumstantially told than
that of the opening of the eyes of the blind man in
chap. ix. of this gospel; and, however we may speak
of a gradation in the three raisings from the dead re-
corded in the life of Christ, no thought of such a gra-
dation appears to have entered into the minds of the
Evangelists. It is not therefore in reality more sur-
prising that, from their point of view, they should have
omitted mention of this miracle, than that the other
just spoken of should have been passed in silence. The
simple and satisfactory explanation is. that the Judean
ministry did not fall within the scope of their narrative,
and the reason why it did not constitutes an altogether
different question.

After his resurrection we are told almost as little of
Lazarus as we are told before it. The single fact upon
which we can depend lias been already noticed, that
he was one of those who sat at meat with Jesus at the
entertainment given him at Bethany immediately before
his last passover. Tradition indeed has here, as else-
where, in some degree filled up the blank, but in a
manner too ill authenticated to enable us to rely on it.
Epiphanius gives it as an ancient story that he was
thirty years old at the time when he was raised, and that
he lived other thirty years after the event (Ilxr. GO, 34).
It was the tradition of the western church that, having
been sent out to sea in a leaky boat along with M artha and
Mary and other disciples, he was miraculously preserved
and brought to Marseilles, where he founded a church
of which he became the bishop. But according to the
tradition of the East he must have died in Cyprus, where
it was imagined that his bones were found in the ninth
century (Winer, R. w. B. Lazarus). On such traditions it
is vain to dwell, as vain as to attempt to fill up his to us
unknown life before he first passed through the tomb,
by identifying him with other characters of Scripture
who are not specially named, and whom, therefore,
ingenious speculation may easily claim to have been
he. We know really nothing of him except in that
brief period during which he sickened, died, and was

LAZARUS

buried: was again raised to life, ami began to take his for see above 1 . The one dies and is taken immediately
part once more among living men. It is enough. All to everlasting happiness. Tin.- other is brought hack
that is of importance in his history was in the mind of again from the dead. In no point is there the slightest
the apostle Hummed up in the faet that Jesus loved similarity between them. That in the midst of all his
him and recalled him from the grave where he had lain sufferings Lazarus maintained a spirit of faith and
four days. With that information it becomes us also piety i- not exprcs.-ly mentioned, but we cannot doubt
to be content. that the possession of such a spirit is implied. To sup
2. LAZAKI s. Jie-id.-s La/.arus ..[' l.etliany. there is p,,> L - that the Kcdeenicr assigned him his reward in
the Lazarus mentioned in the striking parable of our tin- other world simply because of his siitl'eriiigs in this,
Lord. Lu. xvi.ty-Jl, ill which the ease of a rich, selfish, ami apart from all thought of his spiritual condition,
and godless \vorldinu' is contrast. -d. b..tii in llii- \\ouldbe inconsistent with the \\hole tone and sub-
world and the next, \\ith that of a humble child of stance of his teaching. it is not however dwelt upon,
faith in the extremity of want and distress. The latter because selfishness audits punishm.-nt are the main
bears the name of Lazarus. Whatc\. r be the d. ri\a- topics of the parable; localise its oliject is not to bring
tioii of the \\ord. whether it lie a contraction for LI. a- out the state of mind and fate of the p.. or, but of the
zarus, " ( ;.,d is my help,' 1 or mean, as Suicer urges, ri.-h man, to \\hom th- former serves onlv as a foil,
'without liel|, ' i. the name would be Nothing can be clearer tlian that, in the case of the
e<mally applicable to the circumstances of him to whom rich man. it i- not hi.- richc- that are his sin, but his
it is given in the parable. Jt is worthy of our ohscr- nnfe.-lin-- and luxurious spiril of .!)' indulgence, his
vation, although it may be difficult to assign the reason, serving mammon and not Hod, his eovetousness, hi-

that a name is thus uiv.-n to th.- [ r man. while the seeking onlv aft.r those thin-s \\liieh were hiidilv

rich man receives none. I'erhap- om- Lord felt that esteemed among men (sec ver l.'M.'.i; and. in contrast with
the lesson which lie would teach \va.- rend. -red m.. re the spirit which thus brought upon him bis doom.
impressive, as regarded the rich man, by his Laving un- it must be tlie -pint of Luxarus which 1,-d to his re-
named one who. if a i-i al p.'1-..n. must liav.- had many ward. Plain as tin- is, it can bardlv siirpri-e us that
friends and been \\.-l! Known in the proud circles of Kenan, with his melancholy inability to appreciate any
earth; and, a- regarded the poor man, 1>\ hi- sin-Jin-..' spiritual thought, should see in the speaker of tin-
out and identifying one \\lio, in - U eh circles, \\.,uld parable only " the exalted democrat and I ibionite, op-
have been deemed unworthy of a nan:.- at all. It is a posed to all the rights of property, ami persuaded that

leading idea t.f the parable that " (MMI'S thoughts sin.- th.-] man's day of retaliation is at hand" Vic do JOSHS,

not as our thoughts," and that "the first shall he last hum p n Stories somewhat similar to this appear to

and the last first." ( Jivat diversity of opinion existed have been in .-iivul.it ion among the .Jews, although

among the tat her.- as to whether the narrative in which how poor and jejune in -. mpari-on mav be seen from

this La/.arus i* introduced to us was a real history, a that .pioted by Hammond in hi- notes on the parable:

parable in the strict sense of the term, or a -lory which. A king made ,-i great t. :i-t and invited all the stran-

founded on fact, was worked out, embelli-h. -d. and ap- g ( rs, and then- came one poor man and st 1 at his

]>lied by the Saviour to the (.articular purpose which ^ a tes, and said unto them, < live me one bit: an. I they

he had in vi.-w. The authorities f,.r each of these considered him not: and he said. .My l..rd th.- king, of

three opinions win he foimd in Suiecr's '/'//..-win/..-, jj. p. all the great feast thou ha.-t made i- it hard in thim-

-'"'. -"' . VfS to <_;i\e me olle bit alllolIU them .'"

It i- hardly necessary to discuss the question. The The history of this La/.arus made a dt cp impression

les.-on- taught \\ouid lie equally Valuable upon anyone upon the chi;rdi. a fact illust rat. d by tin- eircnm-taiic.- to

of the three suppositions; and it may only be remark. -d which Trench eallsattentioii, ' that the term /<(C(<>'should

that the whole method of introducing the story seems have passed into so many languages, 1. SHU; altogether its

to lead most naturallv to th.- idea that we have here a signification as a proper name" on, 1'arablcs, i>. i.v.i,

parable in the ordinary m. aiiin-j of th.- word. Had our L'ailv in the hi-tor\ of the church La/arns was regarded

Lord intended to refer, under the rich man, to ||.-i-od ils the patron -a int. of the sick, ami especially of those

Antipas. it is probable that he would have named him: sufli-rin- from the terrible scourge .f leprosy. The

then- must have been many beggars in .lerusal.-m in hospitals, built for the reception of the innumerable

circumstances similar to this on,-. The La/.arus before sufferers from that dire disease, introduced into Kurope

us then occupies a position so eiitin-ljMlifferent from tliat through the crusades, were named lazarettos: and an

of the La/.arus in No. 1. that we may well be amazed order which devoted itself especially to their care was

at the wilf ulness of Strauss's interpretation, according to known as the order of St. La/.arus. In the seventeenth

which the one is conceived to have given rise to the idea c.-nturv the term La/ari-ts was applied to the followers

of the other. The- one is in the depth.- of the most ex ,,f Vincent d.- Paul, to whom the priory of St. Lazarus at

treme poverty and misery: is cast down, as by persons Paris had It-en assigned. Care of the sick, however,

who were u'lad to be done with him. at the rich man's Nva s onlv a subordinate part of the duties of that order,

gate; is full of sores; looks in vain even for the crumbs a nd their name was derived less from their functions

which fall from the rich man's table; in the d..gs of th-- than their place of residence. The instruction of the

house to whom those crumbs were given finds his only youiiLT and the acting as missionaries to the ] r were

friends. 1 The other is well, if not even richly provide. 1

antithetical nature of the clauses rcn.l.-rs such an interpretation animal* as they were, \ver>- his only friends. The force of the

more probable than that they were. The feeling that this is the : picture is much increased if we umliT.-tand these do<rs to li^ve

s-nse of the ].a.v.a;:e showed it.-eif early, l.y the addition, in . belonged to the house, and to have li.-eii themselves satisfied

various MSS. and versions, of the clause, undoubtedly taken ' \\ith what the wretched I. ;iy.aru- desired in sain. Coinp. Mat.

from I.u. xv. 1.;. --And no man uavo unto him." Thus the ' xv. 27.

LEAD

LEAVEN

their especial tasks. In the performance of these they
have proved themselves among the must unwearied
promoters of Romanism to the, present hour, though
whether they retain the name La/.arists or not we are
unable to say. |>. M.]

LEAD, '['he Hebrew \\ord for lead is rnp (o^iercth},
\vhieh is supposed to have had reference to the whitish
colour of the substance denoted by it, though the ineaii-
inu of the root is somewhat uncertain. The earliest
mention of this natd is in the song of Moses, at the
overthrow of Pharaoh's host, and there the reference is
simply t<> its ponderousness: "They sank like lead in
the iniu'hty waters," l\\. xv. 10; and in one or two other
passages, where a weight of lead, or lead used as a
plumb-line, is mentioned, the reference is entirely of
the same kind. Ain.vii ~;Zoc. v.7,8. Rut in Job. di.-Mx.2i,
where lie heaves the prayer that his words were "graven
with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever/' it is
clearly not the weight of the metal that is alluded to,
but its durability, and in a way \\hieh seems to imply
that the speaker was familiar with inscriptions made
with lead. Some have supposed these might lie in the
form of leaden tablets a form that is known to have
been used in pretty remote times, for in ancient Boaotia,
Hesiod's poem "Weeks and Days" was so engraved
^I'ausanias, 1. ix. c. ,'ii ) while others have thought of letters
cut out in stone, and molten lead poured into them,
for the purpose of raising the inscription and rendering
it at once more perceptible and more lasting. Perhaps,
however, as Repp supposes (Rosenmuller's Bib. Mineralogy
and Botany, Trans, note, p. 04), the language of Job is to be
understood in a more poetical manner, as if he said.
"May the pen be of iron, and the ink of lead, where-
with my words were written on an everlasting rock 7 '
combining, in an ideal manner, the harder and more
permanent things of nature with writing, merely to
express the notion of durability.

There appears also to be an allusion sometimes to a
process with lead, by which the ores of other metals
were purified. Eor it is one of the means of purifying
metals, to mix the alloy \\ith lead, and expose the
whole to fusion in an earthen vessel, blowing upon this
by bellows or other blast. Thus Jeremiah says, cli. vi. >'.),
"The bellows are burned, the lead is consumed of the
fire fiu the crucible], the founder melteth it in vain,
for the wicked are not plucked away" (or, the smelting
is to no purpose, for the evil is not separated). Here,
a writer well acquainted with such processes of art.
say,;. "'This description is perfect. Jf we take silver
having the impurities in it referred to in the text
namely, iron, copper, and tin, and mix it with the lead,
and place it on the fire upon a cupel], it soon melts; the
lead will oxidize and form a thick coarse crust upon
the surface, and thus consume away, but effecting no
purifying influence. The alloy remains, if anything

worse than before " (Napier's Workers in Metal, p. 2:i). So
was it with the covenant-people at that melancholy
period of their history. The Lord threw them into the
furnace of affliction with the view of separating them
from their evil courses, but they clave only the more
closely to these; it was as if there was no purifying
blast (corresponding to what is required in the natural
process of smelting) passed through the mass to accom-
plish the desired result. With this passage another
is not unfrequ entry compared in the prophet Ezekiel.
di. xxii. is-22. It may be doubted, however, whether the

objt-ct in this latter passage was not simply of a puni-
tive description threatening to deal with impenitent
Israel as a heterogeneous ma>s of diverse ingredients,
fit only to be east into the hottest name '.\ith an im-
plication, no doubt, iii the background, that there
i would not be an utter consumption, but, as in the case
of the different alloys mentioned, a residuum of purer
elements. Yet, in getting this residuum, there seems
110 reference to the purifying action of lead, any more
than of the other metals specified.

Lead, it may be added, is seldom found in the
metallic state, but usually as ore com] lined, especially
with sulphur, and occasionally with other substances.
The ores are known to have existed in the regions
which have been denominated the Lands of the Bible,
and were of easy access to both the Egyptians and the
Israelites. Remains of ancient lead mines have been
discovered in the mountains between the lied Sea and
the Nile (Kitto's Physical Hist, of Palestine, p. Ixxiii.) It
appears to have been early discovered, and to have soon
passed into quite general use. It formed a part of the
spoil taken from the Midianites in the desert, Nu. xxxi.22,
and was among the articles of commerce in which Tyre
trafficked, Eze. xxvii. 12. Sheets of solid lead, we are told,
covered the layers of bricks empkn-ed in the construc-
tion of the hanging gardens of Babylon. And in the
comparatively rude and savage periods of the history of
our own country, a considerable business seems to have
been done in it, first probably with the Phoenicians, and
then with the Romans. Ingots or pigs of lead, cast in
Roman moulds, as early as the age of Hadrian, have
been found in several counties both of England and
Scotland. The early mention, therefore, made of lead
in Scripture, as a metal in comparatively common use,
is in perfect accordance with what is otherwise known
concerning it.

LE'AH [ifcuricd]. the elder daughter of Laban. and
o'ne of the wives of .Jacob. She was the mother of six
of his sons, Reuben, Simeon. Levi. Judah, Issachar,
Zebulun, and of his daughter Dinah. The known inci-
dents in her history are noticed in the life of JACOB.
She was buried in the cave of Machpelah. Ge. xlix. :;i.

LEASING, an old word for li/ii/f/ or falsehood.
retained in the English Bible only in Ps. iv. :_'; v. G.

LEAVEN is that principle by which the process of
fermentation is produced, whether in solid substances
like bread, or in fermented liquors. The use of leaven
in baking, rendering the bread pleasanter, and it is
said lighter and more nourishing too, appears to be
very ancient. In Scripture, for instance, we read of
kneading-troughs literally, "instruments or places
for leavening," which all the Israelites took with them
when they went out of Egypt, Ex. xii. ;;4; and the com-
mand to avoid the use of leaven for a week in the pass-
over season is a proof that the people were in the habit
of using leavened bread. The Egyptian kneading-
troughs are also mentioned in the threatening of the
second plague, Ex. viii. 3. And the blessing and the
curse, one or other of which was to come close to every
family in Israel, as they obeyed or disobeyed the law,
was to descend upon their basket and their store, or, as
it is rightly translated in the margin, their kneading-
trough, DO. xxviii. r>, 17. We do indeed find Lot making
a feast with unleavened bread for the angels whom he
entertained, (ic. xix. ?>-, but this is probably to be attri-
buted to the fact that he was in haste. And the same
may be said of the witch of Endor with king Saul,

LEA VEX

LKAVKX

1S;> xxviii :M: unless the fatted calf were killed in a sort ' wave-loaves of two tenth-deals; they shall IK- of fine

of sacrificial \vav, in which case the unleavened bread Hour, they shall he hakcn with leaven; they are the
might have a religious character, of which we now pro- ; tirst- fruits t<> the .Lord." Lo xxiii. i.vir. '1'hese. after

eeed to speak haviu'_r heeii waved in token of their presentation to

Jn the Jewish ritual, the first of the three great the Lord, were left to the priest a- holy things, vor. 0.

annual feasts, that of the passover, was called, in later Also in eh. vii. 1 'J. 1:!. we have the account of the

language, the feast, or the days of unleavened bread, meat o-fering which accompanied every sacrifice of

2Ch. viii.i:!; xxx. i:< 21; Mat. xxvi.ir, and the parallel passages. thanksuhinu'. and the unleavened and the Kavciied

Ac.xii.:i;xx i; ; and tile phrase occurs in the laws of .Moses bread are carefully kept separate: the former no douht

himself, Ex. xxiii.i:,;xxxiv. 1^ so that we even read, ch.xii. 17, hein^ burned at least apart, as representative of the

'Ye shall ol >serve the fea-t of] unleav.-iied bread." \\hoh- . according to the general law: hut the latter.

For the command w-as given that the lamb of the pass- according to the same law. not being hurned, and

over should he eaten with unleavened bread: and that therefore serving only tor the sacrificial least \\hieh

unleavened bread should be eaten seven days, Kx. xii. >, followed. The (.pillion has also been propounded, by

l.-,,L'0 ; \iii.o.7; De. xvi.y,-. 1 Vf ore Moses had fully commu- Kiiobel particularly, that the show-bread was baked

nieated to tlie people the command of the Lord, as it "ith leaven: but there is no evidence in favour of it.

would seem, the course of pn>\ idence eompelK d them and it is against tin whole analog} of the meat-otter-

to act according to it. because the Kgvptians sent them iiiL's, of which this \\as the n<ib], st, and also ii is auainst

away in such urgent haste as to allou them no time for all Jewish tradition, as repn sented lioth by .lo-ephus

leav'eninir their breid, K.x. xii :::>. I'.ut \\ e read of the and by the Talmud. In Am. iv. .", we read of the

voluntary careful ol)edience of the pe(.ple as soon as Israelites ottering u sacrifice of thanksgiving with

were I,, put away leaven O*b. *?M, Kx x | : ,. that i; <--ontext may well surest, or else the leavened bread

was not to be found in their houses, v,r i-.,, nor to IK- f " r l1 '" '"^ l - : "" 1 is l " '* ^tinguished from the

seen with them in all their .juart : I; illlil " :i1 "" nt "-'' ulli '' h ^ " tl '" !V ' 1 ''>' >'J-'-

. .. . , 11. The New Testament names the least ot unleavened

and that whoever ate anv leavened stihstance (VCn . .

... bread, as has been alreailv noticed. And in one ]>a>-

I, >'<'-.. the ad ective. and ,,,.<l, I, > ;.>!, the par;:e:pl, ..

' ' sage, U'u. \ :. %u makes application ot the connection

was to be cut off from his peop : ^ twwll t |,j, ,-, , , 1U1I | t he Jewish passov,-r to the

latter word, Kx in used alongsid, eircumstanecs of the Christian life. " J'urge out there-

of the former, apparently to ileserilw anv Mil, stance. ,',, lv t ] R . ],] l,, lV ,n. that ye ma\ be a lie\\ lump, as ye

acted. To this 1;,\\ of sacrificing the passover in the s;ltT itieed for us; therefore let us keep the bast, not

absence of all leavened substances, We mii-l refer the ^u], ,,],[ l.. aV eii, neither v, ith the h-avell of malice and

command. " Thou shah not ot!i-r the bl, ,,,d ,,f n,\ sacri- \\ ickciliu ss, but \\ ith the unleavened lin ad of sincerity

(ice with I'-aveiied bread." K\. xx - , in eon- and truth." This is drawn as a coliseiplence from the

lirmatioii of which interpretation observe esp -ci;dly tin- -tat. incut gi\i n in the form of a ([Uestioll, vur. ii, " Know

end of the latter \ ye not that a little leaven leav.-uetli the v. h"l.- lump .'"

In like manner the m al utterii the blue >d A iik- reference to the penetrating and Li-aii.-formin^

less otll-ri !!_; of Vegetable l'1'oduets. wa< to be ,,]' un- pouc-rof e\il. \\here\erit find- entrance, is made by

leavened bread. Lc. ii. 1; while it i- further .-aid. HT. 11, I'a'.d a^ain in ( .a. v. '.'. Our l.op! us-d t 1 ^ same

" Xo meat-ottering which v>- shall bring unto the Lord li--i;i-e uheii he cautioned his disciples auain-t the

shall IK- made with leaven;" lilerally, 'shall be made leaven of the 1'liariseesi and of the Sadducees, \\hich lie

leavened; for ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey, guided them to understand as meaning their doctrine,

in anv ollering of the L. i d made by tire." See tin M;.t. xvi. ti, II, l And he said expiv- -\\ . " l',e\\ are ye of

repetition of the rule, cli.vi. i: 1 1 i.-l '!(. M ]". and directions t!,, leave n of the I'liarisees, \\hicli is hypocrisy." l.n xii. 1.

for the use of tliis unleavened otl'ering witli sacrifices The common opinion has always been that the New

of thanksgiving, cli. vii. 12, especially at the consecration , Testament gives distinct artii ulate utterance to the

of the jiriests. cli. viii. 2fl; at the e mipletion of the Na/.a- truth which was taught symbolically in the prohibitions

rites' vow. Nu. vi. i.-., Hi; and at the ollbrinv; of Cideon of the law. Leaven being the ]irinci].le ,,f fernienta

uiioii the rock. .In vi. 1:1-1:1 These unleavened cakes ' tion and it is easv to see how lionev was classeil with

were then given to the priests to eat, being their due it. since it was to the ancients what su-ar is to us), n -

of the- ottt -rings of the Lord made by fire. I.e. \\. ii; ; x. U. presented the power of ehanu'c in the direction of de-
It is to be observed that ltr< nl bread was used in ! composition and corruption, ami was therefore excluded
certain services; only it was merely presented to the from the mat' rials out of which an offering by fire for
Lord without being burned upon the altar, according the altar of Coil might be formed. The same symbo-
t-> the law above ipioted, I.e. ii. ll, \\ ith which some of heal view of leaven was not unknown among the
tiie best authorities connect the verse which follows j heathen classical writers. At the same time there was
translating, not " .l*/r the oblation of the first-fruits. ; nothing essentially evil in leaven, or in anything which
ye shall ott'er them unto the Lord, but they shall not Cod has created: and therefore it might be unnvtrict-
be burned on the altar for a sweet savour;" hut more edly used in common food, and even iniuht be mingled
simply and closely to the original, omitting the first with certain offerings, so called in a looser sense, though

two words, and applying the pronoun ''them to the
leavened substance and honey mentioned in ver. 11.
This is exemplified in the command, on the day of pen-
tecost, to oiler a new meat-offering to the Lord, "two

only under stringent restrictions. And as this restless
principle of decomposition has its value and use, when
things are wrongly constituted or arranged, and must
be taken to pieces or reduced to their elements, in

LEBANON

order that a new ami better order may arise, it is in
trllin'ililo enough ho\v leaven might hi 1 used as an emblem
of the work of Christ and of his Spirit, both in the ease
of the individual and in the ease of society; as our Lord
said, Mat. xiii. :;:;, "The kingdom of heaven is like unto
leaven, which a \voi:ian took, and hid in three measures
of meal, till the whole was leavened." Another opinion
has from time to time been advanced, as it is by Philo,
that leaven is viewed by the Lawgiver in its power of
raising bread, so that the prohibition of it in sacrifice
was a warning against being puffed up in devoting one-
self to God. This might be favoured by the etymology
of both the Hebrew and the Greek word for leavi.ii.
s?v)' and fi'/x?;. But the common view has surelv much
stronger grounds on which to rest: and yet it also is not
destitute of etymological support, since the Hebrew
word for unleavened bread, ns'D (matztzak), is now
generally derived from an Arabic root, implying fresh-
ness or purity and sincerity. [<;. C. :M. i>.J

LEB ANOINT. By this name the double range of
mountains to the north of Palestine is known in Scrip-
ture. Greeks, Latins, and modern writers invariably
give the penultimate syllable short, Lebanon; but in the
Heb. it is Ion"- ri:a\ Lebanon. It means " white," or,

~ IT:

if considered as the intensitive of "ft\ to be white, will
signify ''exceeding white.'' Its root is the same as
that of Alp; Leb and Alp being obviously cognate, if
not identical. It takes its name from the brilliance of
its snowy peaks ; not. as some conjecture, from its
gray limestone, which gives to so many parts of Pales-
tine a faded and shabby appearance.

Lebanon docs not rise in groups or clusters like the
Alps, or in one long ridge like the Apennines; but in
two parallel ranges of very um-i|ual height, running
n earl v north and south; the western sloping gradually
down, by many subordinate ridges and spurs, to the
maritime plain of Phoenicia; the eastern, bv a similar
series of descents, to the sandy Hats of ancient Aram,
that encircle Damascus.

According to the usual reckoning, Lebanon may be
said to extend about SO or 90 miles in length, and
from 15 to 20 miles in breadth: though, of course, in
estimating the breadth and length of such a range, it is
not easy to give a precise measurement.

Its heights have been accurately measured only of late
years. Previously the numbers given have been rather
conjectures than measurements; and even now we have
no accurate or detailed survey of many of its heights.
Some have been recently measured by scientific tra-
veller.- : and we give the result*, as the best way of
enabling the reader to form an idea of the elevation of
the range in. general.

Merj Ahin, a well-watered plain in the north Feet.

of Lebanon, 5,000

Dhor el-Khodifo, highest of the cluster of peaks

north of the Cedars, ....

The Cedar*

Highest point of pass on road from Baalbek to

Cedars,

Khan Murad, on (lie Beirut -'Damascus road,

The twin pe iks (highest of Southern Lebanon),

Ivulat eshSlmkif (castle overhanging the Loonies), 2.205

Source of Oro:itos, 2,1 IS

Baalbek, . . . fl 7'2i>
Hermon, ... ]o ^.75

Banias-Castle. . . .2 200
Damascus. . 2 400

The two ranges were well known to classical writers
as Libanus and Antilibanus; and though this distinc-

tion is not directly brought out in Scripture, yet it is
not unlikely that " Lebanon towards Ihe sun-rising/' Jos.
xiii. ;>, is meant as the name of Antilibanus. Though
the western ridge is on the whole loftier than the
eastern, yet the southern point of the latter, Jebel csh-
Sheikh (Jlermon), towers above all. On one or two of
the highest peaks snow lies all the year through.

Looking up the slopes of Lebanon from the mari-
time plain of Phoenicia one is not struck with the fer-
tility of the district. But when we ascend, the bar-
renne^s di.-appe;ir>, and we find ourselves among culti-
vated slopes and terraces covered with both fruit-trees
and forest- trees.

Like the mountain-groups of Palestine, but unlike
those of the Sinai tic district (which are chiefly sand-
stone and porphyry, with the great central block of
granite constituting Sinai itself), Lebanon is composed
of limestone, of a grayish colour. Villages root them-
selves on its sides and heights; castles (chiefly of
crusading date) such as that of Kiilat-i-sli-frhuklf,
which on a precipice of more than LlOO feet overhangs
the JAVint.es perch themselves on its peaks; while
through its magnificent glens rush torrents, eastward
and westward; the eastward being the well-known
"rivers of Damascus," Pharpar (now XaJtr-el-Auaj),
and Abana (now I>ar<i<l\\- ,\/<rA III/-H/I/]
the Tamurasiuow Ilantur); Magorasniow Xnlir lici/rout};
Lye us (now Nulir cl-KclhY, the Adonis (now Xaltr
fl/rn/tiiii]: the Eleutherus (now Xa/ir d-Kdiir}; and the
Kudisha. Besides these there are numerous smaller
streams. Many parts of .Lebanon arc verdureless; but
others are rich in verdure. The heights are often bar-
ren, but the valleys are clothed with all kinds of trees
pines, oaks, mulberries, olives, and even tigs and vines.
The cedar is not so plentiful as it was three thousand
years ago. In -winding his way through the wild glens
or along the mountain-slopes, the traveller recognizes the
meaning of the scriptural expression, ' ' the smell of Leba-
non," Ca. iv. 11. So also the old poet Ausoiiius, " Florem
spirat odor, Libani seu montes honor thus.'' The little
cluster of ancient cedars, now nearly all that remains
of 1 1 iram's forests, is still visited by travellers, and pre-
sents a specimen of what Lebanon must once have
been. These stand upwards of 6000 feet above sea-level.
The allusions to Lebanon are frequent both in Scrip-
ture and in the Apocrypha. The ' forest of Lebanon " is
referred to. i Ki. vii. >; "the flower of Lebanon," Na. i. 4;
its 'roots/' Ho. xiv. i; its 'snow,'' Jo. xviii. 14; its
"streams." Ca. iv. 15; its "thistles," -i Ki. xiv. 9; its "ce-
dars." i>s. xcii. 12; its "wine," II o. xiv. 7.

"That goodly mountain and Lebanon," De. Hi. -'5,
referred to by Moses, are probably two distinct objects;
not, as is commonly rendered, " that goodly mountain
crcn Lebanon." The goodly mountain is Hermon,
which is visible so far off'; and the whole range of
Lebanon behind it, stretching northward, to the eye of
the dying saint.

There are allusions to several ridges or peaks of Leba-
non in Scripture; but the identification of these with
any modern name is difficult. The most striking of
these allusions is that in the Song of Solomon, ch. iv. s.

With me from Lebanon, my Bride,

With me from Lebanon thou shalt come;

Thou shalt look from the top of Amana,

From the top of Shenir and Hermon,

From the lions' dens,

From the leopard mountains.

i ;

LEI'.AOTH

known as Coele- 8 vria. and contains amon
the magnificent ruins of the temple of the sun at Baal-
bek. Few fragments f ancient splendour an<l idolatry
can equal this, save perhap> those c.f i-'gypt and India.
Such architectural grandeur was singularly suitable fur
the situation: with the snowv peaks of Lilianus on the
one side and Antililianus on the other. Dr. Thomson's

which one is o-lad to have to say that lie has seen
oner, but \\hich he would not willingly encounter a
- -cond time.

The glimpses of the Mediterranean which the traveller
gets and loses as he >lo\\]y winds his way downwards,
through ravines and heights and broken slopes, are re-
markably beautiful: like the similar glimpses of the Dead

almost any other region of th'- \\orld. It i- tin- high-
lands, the' (>b..rland of Syria: and though the whole
district from the KM! S.-a northwanl to A-ia .Minor is
mountainous, yet Leb.moii. ,,r "the Lebanon"as it is
called, i.- piv-unineiitly tlie nioinitain di-triet. II
its name Ai'dnt, the !of:y: ju-t the name- \\liich we can
suppose mi-lit be given by the colonists from th' plains
of the far ea>t. \\ lien fir-t coming \\ itli'm -i_ht of siieh a
noble mountain rair_;e.

Its height uives it in some places the advantage ,,f
a various climate. At its f,mt in such places as I'.ania-
the heat is great, while on its top there sit- the cold of
winter. To this variety of climate frequent reference
has been made, in the many descriptions and praises of
Lebanon that have been given, both in ancient and
modern times. The reader may not be unacquainted
with the following specimen:

Now ui'on S\n;i's land of r, ^es

Softly tin- li-ht of ,-\e reuses,

And. like .1 ^liiry. t!i.- l.ro-.d -.m

Il.-uus ovn- sainted Lebanon ;

Who-e head in wintry u'l andenr t"\veis.

And whitens with eu-rnal sleet :
While suiiiiih r, in a vale of flowers.

Is sleeping rosy at his feet.

The population of Lebanon is considerable: scattered
over its many villages. The inhabitants are chiefly
Druses and Maronites; the latter in name Christians,
the former peculiar in their religion and manners; so
much so that they have been conjectured to be the re-
mains of the ancient Canaanites. There are Mahom-
medans also in different places. See Wurtubet's Heligiun
in the K:isO

Education is making progress in Lebanon, and the

school.- under the charge of the Saleebvs are carried on
uitli vigour and success. The American missionaries
are working also, both iu school- and in the circulation
of the Seriptun -.

[So- I>r. Tlioinsciii's /."-"' inl Jinnl I'orter's f/r. I'din in
r \ mi de \ e ile'ii siJcmlid

f 'li.p contaihs the 1 e-t \ ir\vs of l.el,,ui"ii e.xiant . lr. !>, I-'oresi's
' ' [H U

LKHA'OTH [Hunestex] or I'.I-TM M-HAOTH. a city of
the Newell or "eolith coiinti'v. It wa- lir.-t as-i-jned
to .Indah. J(.s \v ::.', but was afterwards transferred to
Simeon. Jos. xix. r,, along with other cities, in pursuance
of the prophetic sentence pronounced by dying Jacob.
( 'oiifederate with his brother Lcvi in crime, he shares
with him a common doom : '' 1 will divide them in, Jacob,
and scatter them in Israel." <ie x\\iv 'j:., I'd; xlix. 5-7. It
is well known how literally this was fulfilled in the case
of the Levites; who, instead of receiving a compact
and clearlv defined territory, like the other ten tribes,
were located in detached cities throughout the coun-
try on both -ides of the' .Jordan. The same destiny,
though within more circumscribed limits, befell the
Simeonites: in proof of which we have only to observe,
that whereas the place mentioned before Lebaoth, in
the li-t of cities allotted to Simeon. Jos. xi\. 1-s ap-
pears to have been situated not far from ( Ja/.a (w
SAN SAN. v A H i. that which follows it seems to have been
at least two days' journey to the south (.tec Sun. HIM),
while there can be little doubt that Lebaoth itself was
in the neighbourhood of Arad. At the distance of about
four miles to the north-east of Tell 'Arad. "on a low
hill,'' is an ancient site named el-Bey&dh, consisting
now only of ''foundations" and "caves." 1 There is

1 11, Ij. K.s. ii. -I7i; coinp. IV H de I'.M^ii. ~8L>, S:i. Ir)>y~aiid

LKP.15AKUS

LKK.S

an evident affinity l>et\veen the two words.' \\hilethe
situation is all that \\e could wish fur a place whose
name indicates that it was a favourite resort of lions- -
being close to \\"ady el-llaf.'if. hy wliich a.eces.s would
lie L;'ivrii to them from the jimu'les of th'' lo\vor (Jhor
about ..Masada. when; we art,- assured (Do Smiley, i. -!1\!,
their terrible footprints are even yet recognized; and
the "caves" of its Horite founders would furnish se-
cure retreats for them as they watched for opportunities
of auuTession upon the numerous flocks of that eminently
pastoral region."

The name of this city appears, at a later date, under
another and probably corrupted form, as Betll-birei,
i c'li. iv. "i. 3 [K. w.]

LEB'BAEUS \l-crtii}. a name of one of the twelve

apostles. N' JlMiK.

LEBO'JSTAH [frmtl-'tiicfme], a town in the neigh-
bourhood of Shiloh, and somewhere between Bethel
and Shechem, J<i. xxi. in. Robinson identified it with
the village of Lubban. lying on the slope of a moun-
tain in the Wady el-Liibban, through which lie passed
on his way from Jerusalem to Xablous. The village
had the appearance of an old place, and some exca-
vated sepulchres were seen in the rocks above it, but it
is now a place of no importance. Most recent travel-
lers notice it.

LEECH. Sec HHRSK-LKKCH.

LEEK. The word YLTT (; civ. H; Is. xl. (i-s, trans-
lated '''grass," is rendered " leek," Nu. xi. :, " We re-
member .... the cucumbers, and the melons, and
the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic." All the
early translators and the Septuagint (Trpdaa) agree -with
our authorized version; and they are justified by the
grass-like appearance of the leaves of this plant, and
by its popularity in both ancient and modern Egypt.
'The inhabitants are very fond of it, eating it raw as
sauce for their roast meat. The poor people eat it raw
with bread, especially for breakfast, using the earth for
a table, and would scarcely exchange their leeks and
a bit of bread for a royal dinner" (llasselquist, Travels in
the Levant, p. 2-u). There does not seem the least occa-
sion for joining I Tanner (Observations, vol. iv. p. 53), and
those who have followed him. in supposing that the
chatzir of Xu. xi. "> is succory or endive, or some sort
of "green" sal;id. Nothing can be greener or more

Mangles appear also to liavo visited this place, winch they call
" Albnid." 'eh. vii. p. ]0ii); but, from their description, it would
seem either that they have confounded it in their recollections
with Kiu-mul. or (which is very p< ssible: that it has undergone
considerable changes during the interval of more than twenty
years between the two vi^ts. Tt is notorious that the present
inhabitants of Palestine have frequent recourse to neighbouring
ruins for building- materials. For an instance of this. M>O Stew-
art's Tmt a-,,,1 K I, en, p. L'ltf;.

1 Of the interchange of i-le/Ji and >ir,<J we have examples in
.lufna for Ophni. and MPidebeh for Medebu; of tan and -sadf, in
Dhaneh for Thana indeed, it may be said of the linguals and
sibilants generally, that they are liable to such permutation.
Finally, the falling away of the initial hu ,-,<'! adds another to the
many instances of its habitual tendency to merge 171 the Arabic
article eJ (are i, A mi AM).

- For the many proofs of the presence of this animal in the
extreme south of Palestine, gr-e KAI',ZI:I:I, and SoiTir COUNTRY.

3 It is not unlikely that wr,T2 was originally i-i^nTlM' <u '-
perhaps (as the Septuagint rendering Ba^a-sWa, would seem
to indicate! m^rrm; it would then signify ''the dwelling of
lions," and would thus, by a very slight alteration (for which
we have the authority of the most ancient version), be made to
harmonize with the import of the older name, about which, as
it occurs twice, we can feel no doubt.

grass-like than the common leek (A//ium porrnin), and
it would be difficult to find any plant which would
better .suit the context than this herb, which has been
in such request among the Kgyptiaiis from the earliest
times to the present. [.j. H.|

LEES are mentioned three times in Scripture. In
Je. xlviii. 11, it is said, "_Moab hath been at ease from
his youth, and he hath settled on his lees, and hath not
been emptied from vessel to vessel, neither hath he
gone into captivity: therefore his taste remained in him,
and his scent is not changed." It is plain that his
undisturbed condition, and the accumulations of all
good things connected with his long unbroken ease,
are compared to the richest, thickest, and strongest
part of such a liquid as wine, which during the lapse
of time gathers in the bottom of the cask'. The follow-
ing verse continues partly the metaphor and partly the
explanation. "Therefore, behold the days come, saith
the Lord, that I will send unto him wanderers that shall
cause him to wander, and shall empty his vessels, and
break their bottles;" or as others translate, " 1 will send
unto him those that will turn him over as a cask,"
.Y.C. A very similar passage in Zep. i. 12, but speak-
ing of Israelites who had sunk down, in like easy circum-
stances, to more daring ungodliness than their heathen
neighbours who had not had such privileges as theirs
at the beginning, speaks of punishing " the men that
are settled on their lees;" the word in this text which
is translated "settled" being very emphatic, and indi-
cating an act with effort and deliberation to enjoy
sitting down undisturbed. A passage also relating to
the lees or sediment of wine, although the same He-
brew word is needlessly altered into "dregs" in the
translation, occurs in Ps. Ixxv. 8, "For in the hand of
the Lord there is a cup, and the wine is red," or perhaps,
' foams,'' as in the margin; " it is full of mixture, and he
poureth out of the same; but the dreys thereof, all the
wicked of the earth shall wring them out and drink them."
This needs no explanation. The third passage in the
English Bible, though really it is a fourth, is Is. xxv. 0,
" And in this mountain shall the Lord of hosts make
unto all people a feast of fat things, a feast of >i:ii/c* mi
tltc lees, of fat things full of marrow, of ic'nies on ihe.
/ecu well refined." The phrase " wines on the lees," is
the translation simply of the word "lees" or "dregs,"
and there is certainly difficulty about it. Two opposite
contrivances have found favour with critics. Some
few have made this a feast for God's enemies, in which
he will give them a deadly draught of dregs from his
cup of wrath. But the great majority have rejected
this supposition as incredible, and have either slum d
over the difficulty, as in the Authorized Version, or else
have somewhat violently understood the expression as
meaning wine with all the lees strained out. There is
a certain violence in this last explanation, though
straining is a good translation of the concluding word:
for nothing is said of the wine from which the lees
have been taken away, but on the contrary only of the
lees, the dregs themselves; and besides it is not clear
that straining wine was considered a means liktly to
improve its flavour. An ingenious writer in Kitto's
Cyclopedia, treating of this word under the Hebrew-
form C'np'C (shemarim), urges these objections very well,
and thinks that shemarim is here used partly on account
of its similarity to shemanim, " fat things," both being-
used twice: then falling back upon the etymology of

LEGIOX i

the word, lie conjectures that it properly means " pre-
serves," such as the Hebrews largely used. Certainly
the etymology is so simple, that it is commonly used
to explain the meaning- " lees of wines,' 1 as these pre-
serve in them the colour, taste, and strength of the

[G. C.M.I).]

LEGION. This is properly a Latin military term,
/eyio, derived from the verb (/cym). which, when used
in respect to military affairs, commonly signifies t<>
choose or lew. In later times it was imported into
the Greek (Xeytuv), and occasionally occurs, though
only in a figurative suisc, in New Testament scrip-
ture. It was the distinctive term for the largest <li\ i-
sioii in the Roman armv. and, indeed, was understood
to express, not properly u detachment of troops, but an
organ i/ed whole, with troops and weapons of all sorts,
an armv in miniature. 1'he number of men composing
a legion ditl'ei-ecl iY"in time to time, and mav lie stated
generally as varying from :jiion to tlihio. It is under-
stood to have very rarely exceeded the latter number,
and probably seldom came short of the former. Hut
in the times of the empire a considerable l,dv of auxi-
liaries wa- oft en a--ociatcd with the lesion, which in
popular language might be held to constitute part of
its available force: so that ill this looser sense the term

legion mi'_ht comprise sonic thousands more than tho-e
ju.-t stated. Kach levjon was divided into ten cohorts,
each cohort into ten maniples, and each maniple into
so many ceiiturii - the number of centuries, of course,
differing according to the entire number of soldiers
composing the lesion. It \\< re out of place here, how-
ever, to go into further details respectine; the eumpo-i-
tion or employment of the Human l< jion: for. as a I ready
stated, the word never occurs in Scripture in its proper
sense, but as a figurative t> rm for a larje and fully
organized force, and a force not of terrestrial, but of
celestial or infernal agency. When asked for his name
the I ladarene demoniac replied. Lc<jivn, i.u vni.:;n, plain Iv
meaning, that not a stray nienibi r or two, but a vast
force of evil spirits, held possession of his per-on. And
our Lord, when dissuading I'eter from any attempt by
carnal weapons to vindicate his cause, said, "Tliinkest
thou that 1 cannot now pray to my Father, and lie \\ill
presently uivc me more than twelve legions of aii'jvls .'"

Mnt. xxvi. ;,:! - not twelve ft eble men like Vou \\itll a 1 W

earthly weapons, but angels, yea twelve legions of
angels, with the resistless artillery of heaven. It was
an extraordinary contrast: and uas intended to show
how far Jesus was from bcim: compelled bv anv physi-
cal necessity to submit to the condemnation and armies
he underwent how, on the contrary, he yielded him-
self as a willing and obedient servant to the Father's
command.

LEHI [a jawbone], a place mentioned in the history
of Samson. Ju. xv. , 11, u>, and which is so named the
first two times by anticipation, if the name originated
from his miraculous deliverance by the jawbone of an
ass, as apparently it did. The third time Lehi occurs
only in the marginal rendering: in the body of the text
it is rather unfortunately translated, as if Cod caused
the fountain at which Samson quenched his thirst to
spring out of the jawbone itself. We read also, ver. 17,
that Samson named the place Ilamath-Lehi, "the
lifting up of the jawbone," or Kamath of the jaw-
bone; the second translation in the margin, "the cast-
ing away of the jawbone," requires an alteration of the
Hebrew vowels. Josephus speaks of the place, which

Vol.. II.

LEMUEL

formerly had no name, as being still known in his day
by the name Siagon, which is the Greek translation of
Lehi (Ant. v. 8, 8,u). And there is an old tradition, be-
lieved and recorded before the time of the crusades,
but not asserted or even hinted by .lerome iKiutajili.
I';uil;o Ki'ist. uviii. in, though this is sometimes said, that
the fountain was one existing in a suburb of Kleuthero-
polis. now r.eit-Jibrin. Van de Velde. on the other
hand, came on some ruins. Tell Lekivch. three or four
miles to the north of Bir es-Seb'a, the ancient 1'eer-
sheba, of which he says (Narrative, ii. p. 1 to, 140, ''The
peak form of this high strong eminence at the entrance
of the hill-country of .ludali. and its position as the
outermost frontier stronghold toward the south, arrested
my attention: and a sober examination of Scripture
lias since led me to the gratifying conclusion that el-
I.ekiyeh can be no other than the liealoth of Jos. xv.
J 1. and of the list of citii s against the south of .1 udah's
tribe, yd afterwards assigned to Simeon, in whose
iv-Ntcr of cities. Jus. \i\ -. it is called I'.aalath Beer,
Kamath of the south." This would identify it also with
south i;amo;h, i Sa. \xx. 27, and Baalath. 1 Ki. ix. IS; 2CU.
The situation of these places has hitherto been un-
known: it is therefore a \\elcomc accession to our ^eo-
graphical knowledge, if he be correct. In the meantime
there is some reason to fear that he may have been
carried away by the resemblance ,,f the names Lehi and
Leki\eh. \\liich it-elf is not very satisfactory, since the
lir-t is \\ritten with the harsh unttural r >. and the second
apparently \\ ith the strong palatal ~. Lehi does not occur
again in Scripture, unless in li Sa. \\iii. 11, according to
a reading with ditl'<-n nt vowels, which Then ins defends,
after .losephus and the ( 'omplutciisiaii editien of the
Septuajnt. "the Philistines were gathered together
towards Lehi," instead of ''into a troop." [c,. c. M. D.]
LEMUEL [-s-r-, and also >:-. f.cmoel, "(devoted)
to Cod," or perhap-, as ( it-sen ins thinks, " icn a ted) by
( loil." in either case tin.' lengthened form of I.m /. which
also occurs as a proper name. Nu iii. .;], is the proper
name of a king, the instructions of whose mother arc
given. 1'r. xxxi. i-!i. In the absence of all information
on the subject, there have 1 let ii abundant opportunities
for framing hypotheses about Lemuel. According to
one view, still upheld bv many high names, it is a
symbolical \\ord, dt scriptivc of a prince carefully
trained by his mother in the fear of (lod: and some of
the older writers have identified the name devoted to
God," with the significant name Jedidiah, "beloved
of Jehovah. 1 ' which was given to Solomon by the pro-
phet Nathan. According to another view, Lemuel is
the real name of a man outside of the Jewish nation,
like Job. probably an F'domite or Arabian prince.
And this theory has attained a more elaborate form in
the hands of Ilit/ig and Bertheau, not without appro-
bation on the part of Delitx.sch: owing to a grammati-
cal difficulty, they translate the title, "The words of
Lemuel kinu' of Massa," a name which occurs among
the sons of Ishmael alongside of Dumah, which they
take to be an Arabian kingdom, Is. xxi. ii; or as Delitzsch
suggests, "of Mesha," Gt,-. x. 3n. They bring this into
connection with the title of the preceding chapter, and
make Agur belong to the same place; and they think
that /iiaxxt't, in the sense of "prophecy," or "burden," is
really inappropriate in these two passages. The Septua-
gint gives the title " My words are spoken by God, a
king's divine response, which his mother taught him:"

136

LEND

but the throe other Creek versions preserve the proper j
name untranslated, as the Vulgate also does. [G.C.M.D.]

LEND, LOAN. &c SUIIKTY and USURY.

LENTILE [rc^, ad/<!m, Ge. xxv. :M; 2 sa. xvii. 2*;
xxiii. 11; Kzo. iv. !tj. On his way from Mount Sinai, the
late Dr. Edw. Kobinson mentions that, when their
supplies were exhausted, they succeeded in purchasing
from the commissary of the castle of Akabah "a supply
of lentiles, or small beans, which are common in Egypt
and Syria under the name W,-v the same from which
the pottage was made for which Esau sold his birth-
right. We found them very palatable, and could well
conceive that to a weary hunter, faint with hunger,
they min'ht be quite a dainty" (Researches, vol. i. p. 107).

[397.] Lentile .Erao/i lens.

It is interesting to find that the Arabs retain the old
Hebrew name of this little legume, and in the East it
is still used as in the early time. Both in Egypt and
Syria lentiles are parched over the fire in shallow pans,
and, thus dried and cooked, are purchased by the natives
when setting out on their journeys; and it was with
such portable provisions that Barzillai and other friends
supplied king David and his people, when " hungry,
and weary, and thirsty, in the wilderness," 2 Sa.. xvii. 28.
Lentiles, when boiled, dissolve into a soft pulpy mass,
of a chocolate colour, or yellowish brown. To the pre-
sent day, a favourite dish among the Portuguese and
Spaniards is lentiles, mixed with their unfailing oil and
garlic, and flavoured with spices and aromatic herbs.
It was some such " red pottage " which proved so irre-
sistible to the famished Esau. Nor is it without good
reason that the lentile is so esteemed along the shores
of the Levant. It abounds in nitrogenous matter, and
in the absence of animal food is a great resource in
Catholic countries during the season of Lent. Indeed it
is largely consumed amongst ourselves. Under the
high-sounding name, " Revalenta Arabica," we pay a
high price for lentile flour, and in various culinary pre-

LEOPAKD

parations are unawares repeating Jacob's pottage (sue
Play fair's Analysis; Hogg's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 275).

The lentile (En-urn leu*}, is a small and feeble plant,
near akin to the vetch and the tare. Its little purple
flowers are followed by a short slender pod, which con-
tains two, three, or four disc-like seeds, small, flat, and
round, as indicated in the Latin lint, which optical
science has appropriated as a name for circular glasses
with spherical surfaces. On May 24, in the neighbour-
hood of Hebron, although the wheat-harvest had not
arrived in that mountainous region, Dr. llobinson found
them thrashing barley, lentiles, and vetches. [j. H.J
LEOPARD [I"?:, muncr}. The leopard still inhabits
Syria and Palestine, and still bears its ancient Hebrew
appellation. It is not numerous; and possibly it may
have been more common in early times than at present,
as several places are mentioned in Scripture into which
the word uimr enters as an element, as Nimrah. on the
other side of Jordan, a town built there, called Beth-
Nimrah, Nu. xxxii. 3, 30; Jos. xiii. 27, and a stream in the same
region, called the Waters of Niriirim, Is.xv. C; Jo. xlviii. :u.
Perhaps the "mountains of the leopards," in Ca. iv. 8,
may have been a proper name " the mountains of Nim-
rim," also; but in either case the word would convey
the idea of the animal, as we might say in English,
"leopard river,"' and "leopard mountains," and as
"Sierra Leone" means "lion mountains,"

The locality indicated by the last phrase is evidently
that of the lofty ranges forming the northern boundary
of the land Lebanon and Hermon; and there the
leopard is still found. The natives hold it in dread,
and speak of its ravages among their flocks. It is re-
ported occasionally to descend the western spurs of
Lebanon and to attack benighted travellers along the
dreary Sidoniaii shore. Burckhardt mentions it among
the animals of Mount Tabor, and Mariti saw it near
the Sea of Galilee.

The ferocity and bloodthirstiness which marks this
creature, as well as all the species of the genus Felis,
are prominently noticed in Scripture, together with the
craftiness which impels it to lie in wait quietly watch -
! ing for the approach of its unsuspecting victim, when
it bounds upon him with a sudden violence which
rarely fails to be successful. The pursuit of prey by
the Fe.lidce is a succession of rapid bounds, in which
the animal appears rather to fly than to leap; but when
they run, their excessive lightness and agility make the
pace one of great fleetness, though it cannot be long
maintained.

Jeremiah threatens the apostate Jews of his day with
the judgments of Jehovah under these images: "A lion
out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the
evening [hyania '(] shall spoil them; a leopard shall
watch over their cities; every one that goeth out thence
shall be torn in pieces,'' Je. v. o. Hosea uses similar
language: " I will be unto them as a lion; as a leopard
by the way will I observe them," Ho. xiii. 7. In both
passages the peculiar characteristics of the two Felida
are preserved, the treacherous cunning of the leopard
leading it to lie in concealment, while the lion trusts
more to superior strength and open violence. Habakkuk
depicts the sudden and speedy vengeance to be executed
by the Chaldeans under the same imagery : " Their
horses also are swifter than leopards, .and are more
fierce than the evening wolves," Hab. i. 8; where again
we find the leopard associated with what we take to be
the hysena.

LEPEOSY

LEPROSY

The prophet Jeremiah, too. alludes to the spotted
coat of tliis beautiful animal, in showing- the inveterate
uiid incorrigible evil of his countrymen: " Can ....
the leopard change his spots .' then may ye also do good,
that are accustomed to do evil," ,Ju. xiii ->:i.

In a beautiful picture of the peace and harmlessness
of the millennial iviirn of the Lord Jesus, Is. xi., the
total transition from that which is evil to that which is
u'O'id. is expressed bv tile association of those creatures
which now are ferorious ami predatory, with such as
are helpless and unresisting : "The leopard shall lie
down with the kid a prophecy \\hieh niaiiv eminent
interpreters understand lit'-rallv as well a* metapho-
rically.

There is some diltieulty in distinguishing the species
of the fjreat spott'-d eats. Some /oolo^Ut- would make

I.ar.1

the Syrian leopard a separate species, under the name
of /'( /IK ii i IK r. We coi i -id ei- it, hoWeVi i', oiilv a varietv
of /'. /i<i/,iii-i/ii.-: \\hich i- spre.-nl over a lar_re portion ,,f
Africa and southern Asia, but which is distinct from
the panther of tin- former continent, and from the ounce
of the latter. [p. H. ,; ]

LEPROSY, railed emphatically by the .bus the

K/)'.</T (r::m, and the tfrakc <>f thr uronrff irrc :-;:..
because they regarded it as inflicted hv .lehovah as an
indication of his \\rath. is a chronic, cutaneous, tuber-
cular disease, prevalent from the earliest historic times
among the ancient .lews and Egyptians, and a malady
that was very common during the midillc a<gcs in the
different countries of Kurope. and which still exists to
a great extent in many quarters of the new and old
world. Leprosy is one of the most incurable and most
loathsome of human maladies. When speaking of the
cases of it which lie saw in Syria, in the seventeenth |
century, the old traveller .Maundrell describes it as a '
"distemper so noisome, that it might well pass for the
utmost corruption of the human body on this side the ]
grave'' (Letter appended to Travels). There were several I
species of real leprosy, the white, the black, the red, or
a certain form of alopecia, and a mild kind, called
bahak by Moses, and which did not render the subject
of it unclean.

The white leprosy is that which was most prevalent
among the Jews, and called therefore, in medical
phraseology, lepra Mosaira, but by Dr. (iood. feprias!*
Candida. "It begins with mealy crusts and scurfy
scabs, originally not larger than a pin's point, a little
depressed in the skin, Le. xiii. 3, 3d, and covered with

white hairs, ver. .", L', Those spots rapidly spread, ver. s,
and produce wild flesh, ver. 10, i-i, The leprous symptoms
appear most frequently in the hairy parts of the body,
ver. -".>, et seq -. and also on members which have been
ulcefously affected, ver. 1-, et seq." (Kuliseh cm Kx.xl. c. iv.)
" When the leprosy, or elephantiasis of the Creek phy-
sicians, is fully developed," says Dr. Simpson, "it is
characterized by the presence of dusky, red, or livid
tubercles, of different sizes, upon the face. lips, nose,
eyebrows, ears, and extremities of the body. The skin
of the tuberculated face is at the same time thickened,
wrinkled, and shining, and the features verv greatly
distorted : the hair of the evcbrows. eyelashes, and
beard falls off: the eyes are often injected, and the
'I'lijini'-tint swelled: the voice becomes hoarse and nasal;
the sense <:' .-mell impaired or lost; and that of the
touch, or common sensation, strangely altered; for
\\hilst the tuberculated and other affected parts are.
in the first instance, sometimes super -sensitive,
latterly, in i-our.-e of the disca.-e. tliev became
paraly/.ed. or ana-stlietie |<lc\oid of feelili'j-|. As
the malady proceeds onward in its course, the
tubercles soften and open; ulcerations of similar
mucous tul rcles appear in the nose and throat,
rendering the breath extivmelv ot!'eii-ive : tuber-
cular masses, or leprous tubercles, as shown by
dissection, be-in al-o to form internallv upon the
\arious mucous im mbrani s. on the surface of the
kidney, biii'js. ,Vc. ; cracks, tis-uns, and circular
ulcers appear mi the fmvvrs. toes, and extremities;
and joint att'T joint \.\\\> off, bv a kind of spon-
taneous gangrene sometimes the upper and some
1 imes the lower extremities are a Hi cti d by this mor-
t ifyinir and mutilation of the parts" (Km-yr lirit stlicd.)
Dr. H.-dbek saw two lepers in the leper hospital in
I lamel en- Arade sowing peas; " the one had no hands,
the other no feet th.'-e member-, b.-iii-- wa-ted awav
by the disease. The one who wanted hands was carr\ -
ing the other who wanted fei t upon his back: and he
a '.Tain carried in his hands the },-.\^ of seeds, and so
dropped a p.-a every now ami then, \\hich the other
pressed into ()[. -round with his foot ; and so thev
managed the work of one man between the two."

" In the middle aires." says I )r. Simpson, "leprosy
prevaileil in Europe to a fearful extent; la\\s wen- cii-
acted to arrest its spread, and leper ho.-pitals, or la/ar-
h'Mises, Were everywhere erected to receive the victims
of the disease - the leper hospitals were intended for the
i-olatioii of the lepers, not for their cure. In the leper
hospital in Edinburgh the inmates begged for the
general community sitting for the purpose at the door
of the hospital. Thev were obliged f.o warn those ap-
proaching them of the presence of an infected fellow-
mortal, by usino; a wood rattle or clapper. The infected
in European countries were obliged to enter leper hos-
pitals, and were considered legally and politically dead.
The church taking the same view of it, performed over
them the solemn ceremoiiies for the burial of the dead
the priest closing the ceremony by throwing upon
them a shovelful of earth.' 1 The physical causes of the
disease are uncertain. In Europe it is now principally
confined to Norway, where the last census gave two
thousand cases. It visits occasionally some of the sea-
board localities of Spain. It has made its appearance
in the most different climates, from Iceland through
the temperate regions to the arid plains of Arabia in
moist and dry localities. It still exists in Palestine and

LKPROSV

LEPROSY

Egypt the hit, tor its must familiar home, although
Dr. Kitto tliinks not in such numerous instances as in
firmer ages. "On the reputed site of the house of
Xaaman. at Damaseus. stands at the present day an
!i ispital tilled with unfortunate patients, the victims
aiiected like him with leprosy. Outside the Zion gate
at Jerusalem there is still a leper village, the inhabit-
ants of which speak to you 'afar off,' as they did in the
times of (,'hrist. lint the same disease is at the present
hour almost unknown in the central and western king-
doms of Europe, and yet in the middle ages it prevailed
in one and all of them to a frightful extent'' (Dr. Simpson,
in Kuryc. Urit.) This fearful disease made its appearance
in the island of Guadaloupe in the year 1 7 : ' () . introduced
by negroes from Africa, producing great consternation
among the inhabitants. A. M. Peyssonel was sent out
by the French government to investigate the subject
! 7-V.' . and published the results of his investigations.
The disease assumed substantially the same features as
those already described (see Mich. v. iii. art. 211*; Jalm, suet.
lsfi, note -1, Eng. trans.)

It is a most remarkable circumstance, that if the
lepro>y spread over the whole skin, from head to foot,
the person was regarded by the Jewish law as clean.
Le. xiii. 12, is. But as Lightfoot observes, "the poor
wretch was as leprous as ever, and likely to continue
so: only," he adds, ''the malady was so fully broken
out, that the venom was wrought out, as his breath was
not infectious, so that he was restored to social converse
again" (Harm, of the Gosp. sect. 22). This entire breaking
out was. as Pishop Patrick says, ''rather a relief to the
body than a disease nature had discharged all the
putrid humours, and the subject was likely to recover.''
Thin latter explanation is quite sufficient, without any
reference to infection from the breath of the leper, of
which the text (.if Scripture says nothing. " P>v the
crisis in question," says Kurt/, '-the whole of the dis-
eased matter was brought to the surface, and therein-
overcome" (Hertzog, End. Aussatz). It is possible there
may have been a degree of infection in certain phases
of the di-order; but even this is doubtful; and it is
aluays the spiritual aspect of it the legal uncleanness
associated with it not any danger of infection from
it, that the language and treatment employed respecting
it seem to have in view.

In the rules laid down by Moses for ascertaining the
true leprosy, he mentions a cutaneous disorder called
bohak (pm), rendered in the authorized version "freckled
spot," which, although resembling leprosy, is not lep-
rosy, and does not render those affected by it unclean,
i.e. xiii. ss, 3ii. Xiebuhr says bohak is neither infectious
nor dangerous. He adduces two cases of it, a black
boy of Mocha and a Jew. The spots in this disease are
of unequal .size.

There can be little question that the fearful disease
with which Job was stricken was an intensified form of
leprosy malignant elephantiasis (see Gary's Book of Job, p.

17*, &C.)

The laws which Moses instituted relative to leprosy
are briefly as follow : 1 . He ordained that all suspected
persons should be inspected by the priest, who possessed
the necessary qualifications for distinguishing it from
other diseases resembling it, Lc. xiii. If any doubt re-
mained after inspection, the suspected person was shut
up seven days for another inspection; and this might
be repeated, ver. 4, &c. 2. The unclean the really lep-

rous were separated from the rest of the community,
and made, in the wilderness, to reside without the
camp, Nu. v. 1-1, and afterwards, without walled cities,
I.e. xiii. -Ki; 2 Ki. vii. 3, ic.; being at once levitxallv and
socially deiiled. Eroni villages and unwalled towns
they were not excluded; neither were they prevented
access to synagogues, but had there a separate place
assigned them (see Lightfoot, vi. (147, fol. ed. ; Otto's Lux. Rabin.
Phil. 324). Even kings, being lepers, came under the
law of exclusion, as is illustrated in the case of Uzziah,
2Ch. x\vi. 21. 3. The suspected who, upon examination,
were found free from leprosy, were formally pronounced
clean; only in case they had symptoms which disap-
peared during the seven days of shutting up. they had
to wash their clothes, Le xiii. <;, 17, Ml. This formal act of
pronouncing clean was due at once to the suspected
persons and to the community; to the former, to save
them from the inconvenience and annoyance which
might be caused them by suspicion; and to the latter,
to preserve them from groundless fears respecting con-
tact with the occasions of defilement. 4. The leper
was obliged to have his head bare and his clothes rent,
and to put a covering upon his upper lip all tokens of
grief and mourning (*tc MOUKNIXI;), and to cry, Un-
clean ! unclean ! to give warning of his presence to
those approaching, lest they might contract defilement
by too close contact with him, Lc. xiii. 45.

Leprosy was pollut'tny, spread !i>f/ (in respect to the
person affected), transmissire, and incuratile by any
known remedy. It was therefore the standing symbol
of six, the most malignant evil in God's universe of
sin in connection with its deserved punishment the
doom fif death. The leprosy, as Biihr has justly ex-
pressed it, is the foulness of death; the leper is a sepul-
i'hri/m amhiilans (Symboiik, ii. p. 4110). Consequently there
is a very close analogy both between the states them-
selves of death and leprosy, and the modes of purifica-
tion from them respectively. The death- spots which
soon begin to appear in the corpse after the vital spark
has iled, and which spread till the whole has become a
mass of corruption, had their linage in the plague spots
of the leper, which also, if unchecked, wrought on
till rottenness penetrated through the whole system.
"Therefore every leper was a living sermon, a loud
admonition to keep unspotted from the world. The
exclusion of lepers from the camp, from the holy city,
conveyed figuratively the same lesson, as is done in the
New Testament passages, Re. xxi. 27; Ep. v. ^. ... It
is only when we take this view of the leprosy that
we account for the fact, that just this disease so fre-
quently occurs as the theocratic punishment of sin.
The image of sin is best suited for reflecting it : he who
is a sinner before God is represented as a sinner in the
eyes of man also, by the circumstance that he must
exhibit before men the image of sin. God took care
that ordinarily the image and the thing itself were per-
fectly coincident, although, no doubt, there were excep-
tions" (Ilengstenberg, Christol. on Jer. xxxi. 39).

The cleansing of the leper had two very distinctly
marked stages one having respect to his restoration
to the position of a citizen, his admission to the fellow-
ship of the living; and the other to the re- establishment
of his right to participate in the sacred privileges of
the clean. In regard to the first, the priest was obliged
to visit the leper outside the camp; in after times at
his own several house, wherever that might be, or where
the priest might choose to appoint. Having inspected

LEPROSY

the healed leper, and being satisfied with his state, the
priest took for him two living birds (of what species no
notice is given, but they would probably belong fur the
most part to the dove species); one of these he killed
above a vessel of living water (that is, water taken j

fresh and pure from the stream), and allowed the blood

to drop into it. lie then took the other bird and dipped ;
it into the water which had become mingled with blood; ;
also took a bunch of cedar, scarlet (coccus- wool), and
hyssop, witli which, after beiii_ r similarly dipped into
the water, he sprinkled the recovered leper seven
times; and then he let go the live bird into the open
air. to fly at large and consort a-; it mi_ r ht plea.-e \\ith
its kind. This done, the leper, with no fnrtln r c, re
niony than siiaviii'/ his body and washing his clothes.
miv'ht return to the e: t mp and mix fre.-iy witli his
fellow- citizens, though still for a w> ek he had t<> remain
nit of his O\MI tent. This civil freedom, there can !>
no doubt, was represented by the living bird: hut it is

not so clear what is to be understood by the hi 1 of

the other bird minjlcd witli tin- \\ater of purification.
Was this to be regarded in the li-ht of a legal blood
sheddinir a sort of Linage of \\hat the Irp.r hail de-
served to sufli-r- or merely a.- a s\ mhol of life, adding
intensity to the ni'-ans employe, 1 t'or e\pn -,-iip.r his
restoration! Authorities diit'cr here: but tlie diversity
seems to coiiit- chietlv from attempting to brini: too
Lfivat precision into tin- ceremonial. It were p<ihap.-
wrong to say that the .-lain 1'ird properly n presented

the leper a^ one \\lio had been legally dead, since hen-
it was the recovered leper that was concerned: but, mi
the other hand, it could not escape a reflective mind,
that the blood rei|iiired for the ceremonial of his resto-
ration to civil life, could only be not through an avenue
of death; so that here also in tin- restorative process, as
so often elsewhere, death and life strangely intermhiided
with each other. Hut formally, the blood mu-t be re-
garded as strengthening the cleansing and vital power
of the water.

The other sta-'e in the leper's purification had to do
witli his re-adnii--ioii to the sanctuary, or his re-tora-
tioii to the privileges of an accepted \\ or-hippi -r of < lod.
This commenced on the eighth day, at the sanctuary,
when the healed leper brought tirst a he-lamb for a
trespass-offering, witli a log of oil; then a e\\e-lanib for
a sin-offering; also a he lamb fora burnt-offering, and
three-tenths of an ephah for a meat-offering -in eases
of extreme poverty doves being allowed to be sub.-ti-
tuted for the lambs, with a diminished quantity of
meal for the meat-offering. The man was led by the
priest to the door of the tabernacle, where his ttvspass-
offering was slain and waved for him. \Vith the blood
of this victim the priest marked the tip of the leper's
right ear, the thumb of his right hand, and the great
toe of his right foot: then, after sprinkling a little of
the oil seyen times toward the door of the tabernacle,
lie anointed the same parts over the blood. It was to
a nearness the same service as that which was performed
at the consecration of the priesthood, and must be
understood with reference to the priestly character of
Israel as the elect nation, Ex. \ix. o. The leper had lost
his place in this sacred community, while the disease
was upon him which formed at once the image and the
chastisement of sin; and his fresh incorporation with
the community fitly took the form of an act of conse-
cration; and that with the blood of his trespass-offering,
which brought to remembrance the loss the community

had sustained by his separation and uncleanness.
Through this offering he had first to come into a right
position with the community at large: and only then
was he in a condition to offer for himself, as a member
of the great priestly race, the sin-offering, the burnt-
offering, and the meat-offering indicating, in succes-
sion, his reconciliation with (iod. his dedication to the
service of him who had restored him, and the fruits of
righteousness in which this dedication was henceforth
to make itself manifest. The oil. which was super-
added to the blood on the ear, thumb, and toe. must
have borne the same general sense that attached to
anointing- \\ilh oil: it bespoke the promise of the
Spirit's grace to tit the recipient for the service to
which he was afresh coii.-ccratt d (.<i i A NniXTlXc).
And to mark more distinctly the sacred character and
import of the oil. it \\as. before being applied, both
waved before the Lord and sprinkltd se\iii thins.
That the application of the ,,'il and the blood should
have be. n made to part- of the i ar, hand, and foot,
was doubtless to sho\\ ho\\ all the po\\ers and organs
of tin- 7i iaii \\ ere to partake of the consecrating energy,
so that the ear should be ever ready to listen to the
voice of < iod. and the hand and foot to carry into exe-
cution tlie behe-ts of his \\ill. A nd now, when the
whole of this li.n j- and in-tructive ceremonial had been
gone tlii'"U'_J]. tin- recovered leper was admitted to his
dome-tic position in the family, as one who could hold
the place and discharge the functions, whether ci\il or
sacred, \\liich belonged to a n co'jui/.ed member of the
commonwealth of Israel.

The application of the ordinance to ('hristian times
can so readily be made by intelligent readers, that
there is no nece--ity lor enlarjing on it. The blood of
t'hrist, applied to the conscience, and the renewing and
-aiictifyini: urra'-e of the 1 Inly Spirit, dimly fort shadowed
by these symbolical rites, are here the openly revealed,
as they are the only effectual, mean- of purification from
the defilement and death of sin. No one smitten \\ith
the spiiitual leprosy can repair in vain to the remedy
thus pro\ idt d.

LITKII-I OF GARMENTS. The law respecting this
point is 'jiven in I.e. xiii. -17-;">1'. It is there spoken
of a- a tiling that mi^ht infect indifferently woollen,
linen, and skin or leather apparel, and as appearing
in green or reddish spots, which resisted \\a.-hing, and
continued to spread, the material of the '.'arnient mean-
while becoming bare and fretted. Directions were
given to the priest to ascertain whether the appearances
in any case were really of this description, or were such
as to give way to ordinary applications; in the former
case the garment was to be burned, in the latter pre-
served. Much difference of opinion has prevailed as
to what should be understood by this leprosy-like
marrin'.:' of garments, and there is still no certainty
upon the subject. P>ut the opinion of M iehaelis, that
it refers at lea>t chiefly to what is called ilrnd wnrJ, or
the wool of sheep which have died from disease, which
is apt to lose the points and become diseased, is now
generally abandoned, and, indeed, has no proper foun-
dation: since the description given has respect to linen
and skins as well as wool. Xor is there any better
ground for another opinion, that it refers to garments
worn by leprous persons; for of this the text says
nothing. There is more probability in the idea of
Sommer (Bibcl Anhandlungcn, i. 224 1 ), that what is meant
are the fusting-stains occasioned by damp and want of

LKS11KM

LEVI

air, and which, when confirmed, cause the cloth to
moulder and fall to pieces. Put the materials no longer
exist for arriving at a certain conclusion. At the
period of tlie legislation something must have been
known to exist, and not quite uncommon, which,
from a certain general resemblance to leprosy in the
human frame, was wont to be called l>y the same name,
and was. for legal purposes, subjected to a specific
treatment.

LKPROSY ix H<>r>i-:s. This stands much in the same
predicament as the leprosy of garments; it is impossible
to arrive at certainty regarding it. The prescriptions
respecting it are contained in Le. xiv. '.'>'-'>-,~>7 . Michaclis
sought to identify it with the saline efflorescence pro-
duced on walls by saltpetre, although he admits the
spots are seldom found to be of the greenish or reddish
colour described by Moses. The opinion is altogether
improbable, and nothing of that sort now known answers
to the description. It is more likely to have consisted
in the formation of some fungi or minute plants upon
the stone, as has recently been supposed by some in-
quirers (Sommer, Kurtz. &c.); but meanwhile this view,
as well as the other, must be held to be little more
than conjectural. Whatever the nature of the disorder
might be. there can be no doubt, as Baumgartcn has
remarked (Comm. ii. p. UA), that in the house respect was
had to its po.-sessor: since' when it came to be in a
good condition, a cleansing or purification quite ana-
logous to the man's was prescribed. He was thus
taught to see in his external environments a sign of
what was, or might be, internal. The later Jews ap-
pear to have had some idea of this, though others viewed
it differently. Some rabbins say that God sent this
plague for the good of the Israelites into certain houses,
that they being pulled down, the treasure which the
Amorites had hidden there might be discovered (I'utriuk
on Le, xiv. ;;i). But "there is good reason," adds the
learned prelate, "from these words ['I put the plague
of leprosy upon a house ']. to think that this plague was
a supernatural stroke. Thus Abarbanel understands
it : ' \\ hen he saith, ' I put the plague,' it shows that
this thing was not natural, but proceeded from the
special providence and pleasure of the blessed God.'
And so the author of Sepher Cosri (parsii. sect. 58): God
inflicted the plague of leprosy upon houses and garments
as a punishment for lesser sins; and when men con-
tinued still to multiply transgressions, then it invaded
their bodies. And Maimonides will have this to be
the punishment of an evil tongue, i.e. detractions and
calumny, which began in the walls of his house, and
went no farther, but vanished, if he repented of his sin.
T!ut if he persisted in his rebellious courses, it proceeded
to his household stuff; and if he still went on, invaded
his garments, and at last his body" (HorehNevochim,pt. iii.
cnp. 47; Patrick on i.e. xiv. ::i). All this is interesting, as
showing us the opinions of the Jews on the subject;
but notwithstanding all they say, the disease was natu-
ral, yet not the less for that reason, in an important
sense, from God, who rules supreme in the region of
the natural as well as of the divine. [i. j.]

LE'SHEM, one of the names by which the city that
is most familiar to us as Dan was previously desig-
nated, Jos. xix. 47. In the fuller but later narrative of
the Danite conquest it appears as Laish, Ju. xviii. 27, 29.
The original word seems to have been Lasha or Lesha,
Ge. x. 19, but in process of time its meaning was proba-
bly forgotten (see LASHA) ; in which case the transition

from Lctlt'a to Lathcm was a very natural one. We
have a similar instance of the final ain being replaced
by a liquid, in GiUio'a, now Jilln'in. The name, how-
ever, Iuul now ceased to be intelligible, so that fur-
ther change was inevitable; for it is an imperative law
of human speech that the unmeaning must be assimi-
lated to the known and significant. Leshcm, there-
fore, was eventually moulded into Laish, a word which
aptly described a physical peculiarity of the spot (sec
LAISH). A strikingly analogous case is presented in
a city of southern Palestine, which is first called
Sliilhim, Jos. xv. ."_'; then, by interchange of liquids,
,"</iii rii/iiii, Jos. xix. fi; and finally, by an easy adaptation
to local circumstances. ^lnj<iraim, i Ch. iv. :n. But we
need not go so far for an appropriate example of the
operation of this tendency in language. In the great
valley which separates the two ranges of Lebanon,
j and at the gate of which Dan may be said to stand
as sentinel, the Lj/bn of the itinerary of Antoninus is
known to the present inhabitants as Le/nreh, " the
lioness." [E. w.]

LETUSH'IM [hammered], an Arabian tribe, sprung
from Dedan, one of the grandsons of Abraham by
Keturah, Ge. xxv. 3. Why they got this name, or where
precisely were their settlements, is unknown.

LE'UMMLN \jicnplcx], of the same stock as the
preceding, and standing in the same relationship to
Dedan and Abraham. Ge. xxv. 3. They have been sup-
posed to be noticed by Ptolemy under the name of
Alloitmalotee (see Ges. Thcs.)

LE'VI ['r, joined, attached]. 1. The third son of
Jacob by Leah, who felt that she was gaining the affec-
tions of her husband by means of the family of which
she was becoming the mother, and expressed by signi-
ficant names the emotions of her heart. When this
child had been born she said, " Now this time will my
husband be joined unto me, because I have borne him
three sons," Ge. xxix. 34. Of Levi personally we know
very little beyond the facts of his birth, now men-
tioned, and of his death at the age of K57, Ex. vi. in.
One blot in his history was his participation with his
full brother Simeon in the massacre of the Shechemites,
Ge. xxxiv., for which a curse was pronounced on them
conjointly in the blessing of dying Jacob. Yet this
bore upon him not so much individually as in connec-

! tion with his posterity : and it will therefore fall to be

i j '

; noticed, along with anything about his family, in the
I article LEVITES. One passage has presented great
; difficulties to expositors. Nu. xxvi. ;., "And the name of
Amram's wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Lcri,
whom [her mother] hare to Lcri in Egypt: and she bare
unto Amram, Aaron and Moses, and Miriam their
sister." The difficulty is barely surmountable by those
who adopt the common chronology, and suppose that
Israel sojourned 215 years in Egypt, if they believe
that Levi lived so very long as to have a daughter
born to him who bore Moses 135 years after the descent
to Egypt; but it is hopeless if we return to the simplest
view, as most scholars are now doing, and make the
sojourn 430 years. L'sually the difficulty is avoided
by rendering the words differently, ' ' a daughter of
Levi," that is, a descendant of his. This we believe to be
the true sense, though we are not satisfied that it can be
grammatically extracted from the words, except by con-
sidering that the same Hebrew word means both Levi
and a Lerite. Then in accordance with the common
principles of Hebrew grammar, the words may mean

LEVIATHAN

either " t tie daughter of Levi." both nouns being de- ' the most powerful enemy. The structure of the skull is
finite, or else with both nouns indefinite. '' daughter : remarkably solid, and it is surmounted by bony crests,
of a Levite.'' It is this latter translation which we There is a single row of teeth in each jaw: these are
adopt, rendering the passage thus. " And the name of conical, pointed, unequal in length, thirty or more on
Amram's wife was Jochebed, n daiujhtcr
of a Li rite, I/-/IIJ/H ["i"] fjin'c to a Lcritr,"
&c. The force of the statement is that
the chosen brothers. Moses and Aaron,
were " Hebrews of the Hebrews." and
Levites of the Levites. Ood bavin-' so
arranged it that both on the father's side
and the mother's t

Levi to which he committed the care
sacred thin-s.

2. LEVI. The son of Al]
be a disciple of Christ, V ir
The comparison of the <
action with those of tl

the apostle. M.it ix. '.>, leaves no i
reasonably doubtin-' that the tw
belong to the same individual. >

MATTHEW.)

3. and 4. Lr.vi. Two ancestors of our

Lord Jesus Chri-t. Lii i [". C. M. l'.|

LEVIATHAN I;.-). Th- untranslate.1 name of
some vast animal mentioned some four or live times in
the Old 'IV.-tameiit, and described \\ith graphic mi nut, -
ness in .lob \li. The element //'" frequently occurs
in its plural forms, z".~ (thaimiin), pr (I/nun, . rn:p
(tlinnuntli i, and is variously rendered dragon. -erp<nt.
whale, sea-monster. The word ha- been said to
signify <//<'/' out, which would well apply to any
creature of lengthened form. The other element /civ',

the compound term peculiarly applicable to the croco-
dile, which is encased in plate-armour, compo-ed of a
great number of bony pieces di-tim-i, \vt joined toge-
ther. These two are described in detail in the descrip-
tion: - " His scales [strong shields] are his pride, shut up
together as with a close seal. One is so near to another
that no air can come between tin ni. They are joined

jap

(hat the teeth are \isible when the mouth is closed;
hence tin- animal, even when tranquil, seems to be
jrimiin- with rage " \Vlio can open the doors of Ins
face ' His teeth an terrible round about." The ton-ue
is fle-hv. Hat. but five only at the extreme edge, the
inferior , -in face be-in- adherent to the chin and throat:
h'-nce the crocodile hashed! cri'oi K i nisi y re] 'resented as
tongueless.

All the speci.s of this order are of huge size: not
only are they the hu-e.-t of reptiles, but they are among
tin- mo>t gigantic of all animals. ( 'roeodiles have be, n
described as attaining a h-n-lh of t\\< -nty -five feet: but,
no specimens have be, n broii-ht to Europe of marly
that size. They are probably long-li\ed. and perhaps
their increase of dinn unions is commensurate \\ ith their
age. Hi-hly carnivorous and predaceous, fnrce and

one to another, they stick together, that they cannot ciinnin--. tin v are -really dreaded in all the tropical
be sundered," .loi. xli. i.v 17. Not a word of this, any
more than several other parts of the description, is true

regions, \\hich tln-y inhabit. Lurking in the dense
reeds or tangled herbage that grows rank and teeming

of the whale, which is covered by a smooth and soft at the edges of rivers in hot climates, or under the
skin, without the least tendency to form scales. man-roves that interweave their myriad roots in arches

If the behemoth represents tin; hippopotamus, as above the water, or concealed among the bleaching
there seems every reason to conclude, then for a trunks and branches of trees that have- fallen into the
companion-picture no better creature could be selected i stream, these huge' reptiles watch for the approach of a
than the crocodile. Both would be the hugest aid- i living prey, or feed at leisure on the putrid carcasses
mals known familiarly to the inhabitants of Arabia: with which the waters daily supply them. It is even
the crocodile is the most terrible: both inhabit the affirmed that they prefer a condition of putrescence in
Nile: and if Moses, as some suppose, was the author of their prey, and that their practice, when not pressed by
the poem, he was probably personally acquainted with immediate hunger, is, on seizing a living prey, to plunge

both. We think there cannot be a doubt that fc?'/u-
t/ian is specifically the Egyptian crocodile, though per-
haps the word came to be used in a later age in an inde-
finite sense for any huge reptile.

into the stream in order to drown it. after which it is
dragged away to some hole, and stored until decompo-
sition has commenced.

The leviathan in the grand picture of the inspired

Hie crocodiles, constituting the order 7/onVttto among poem is represented as inhabiting the sea. "He
reptiles, are distinguished pre-eminently by the charac- maketh the deep to boil like a pot; he maketh the sea
ter above noticed. They are clothed on the entire like a pot of ointment. He maketh a path to shine
upper parts of the body with distinct series of bones, after him: one would think the dee]) to lie hoary.''
imbedded in the substance of the skin, and for the ' The crocodile, however, is generally believed to con-
most part furnished with a ridge or crest, which greatly | line itself to the rivers, and hence commentators have
augments their strength, and constitutes the whole a >[ felt a difficulty here. Tool suggests ''the great river
coat of plate-mail which is able to resist the assaults of Nilus, which is called a sea. both in Scripture, us Is.

LEVIATHAN'

\i. i;>, in id in other authors, as Euphrates is called
the sea of P.abylon. Is. xxi. l; .K-. li. :;i); or lakes or pool*.
which are most frequently ealle<l seas, both in the. Old
and New Testaments, as every one knows. And in
sueh lakes the crocodiles are, no less than in Xilus,
as it is attested liy Herodotus and Slrabo and others"
(Annotations, in loco).

We are not sure, however, that the passage should
not lie understood literally. Among the decorations
of the palace of Shahnaiicser, M. Botta discovered a
lias- relief continued over live slabs, and representing a
great naval expedition against a maritime city. A
fleet of ships transport timber along a coast washed by
the sea, and studded with fortified islands perhaps the
siege of Tyre by this Assyrian monarch. The sea is re-
presented as filled with various marine animals, such
as fishes of various forms, turtles, turbinate shells,
crabs, and crocodiles (Botta, JI on. deJJinive). This, it is
true, may have been but a license of the artist: but
Mr. Lyell. in his J','iiiri/>!< .< <>f (,io/o>/// } observes that
the gavial. a laru'>-i' species than the crocodile of the
Nile, inhabiting the < lanuvs, descends beyond the
brack Uh wat-Tnf the delta to the sea. And other spe-
cies of the -(nus l 'rocodilus tas restricted i are frequently
known, not only to haunt the mouths of rivers, but
even to swim among i>la.nds, and pass from one to
another, though separated by considerable spaces of
open sea.

There is one portion of the description which we
know not well how to explain, while we are compelled
to reject the received interpretation. It is said, ' out
of his mouth go burning lamps and sparks of fire
leap out. Out of his nostrils goeth smoke as out of a
seething-pot or caldron. His breath kindleth coals,
and a flame goeth out of his mouth,'' Jubxli. 19-21. The
commentators explain this of the breath, which being
long restrained under water, becomes greatly heated
and is expelled with force as a cloud of steam (Bochavt).
" His breathings and blowings," says Pool, ''are verv
hot or naming. . . . This may seem better to agree to
the crocodile, which breathes, as Aristotle affirms, like
the hippopotamus, of which ancient authors affirm that
his nostrils are very larev, and lie breathes forth a fiery
smoke like that of a furnace than to the whale, which
rather casts forth streams of water, . . . than flames of
fire, there being no such great heat observed in whales,
nor, as far as I know, in any other fishes" (Annot. in loco).
On the other hand, this one particular is the only-
feature of the description which (if this interpretation
of the phenomenon be correct) suits the whale and
not the crocodile.

Taylor, in Calmet, says, " Here the creature is de-
scribed in pursuit of his prey on the land. His mouth
is then open. His breath is thrown out with prodigious
vehemence; it appears like smoke, and is heated to that
degree as to seem a flaming fire."

All this, graphic as it seems, is mere closet descrip-
tion; it is not drawn from observation of the living
animal, but from inference founded on what takes
place in other animals, as the horse, for instance, when
greatly heated with exercise. The phenomenon is
produced thus: the animal heat being raised, by rapid
inhalation of oxygen in trotting, to a high pitch, the
expired air is propelled loaded with moisture at a high
temperature, in the form of invisible vapour: no sooner
does this come in contact with the external air, than,
especially if the temperature of this be low, the vapour

is condensed, and a \\hite cloud of steam is seen. Ji
the crocodile this could never take place. Like ail
other reptiles, it is a cold-blooded animal: that is, the
oxygeiiation of its blood is so incomplete, that the
animal-heat does not sensibly exceed that of the sur
rounding medium. Hence the moisture expelled with
j the breath is not condensed by the external air, because
it is already of the same temperature, and no appearance
of steam is produced: the breathing of a reptile is
always invisible.

The only explanation that we can suggest is the fol-
lowing, which is not founded on personal observation.
Perhaps the expulsion of the breath as the animal rises
| from the depths may commence (as that of the C'ttuccu
| certainly does) a moment before the surface is actually
reached; in which case a thin stratum of water would
be driven into the air; this might look like a cloud of
smoke, while the larger drops, irradiated by the sun.
might, by a strong poetic trope, be likened to sparks of
fire. \\ e do not feel, however, that this is quite satis-
factory.

The expression, " his eyes are like the eyelids of the
morning,*' Job xli. i>, lias reference not to their peculiar
brilliance, but to their position in the head. It is an
idea exclusively Egyptian, and is another link in the
chain of evidence which connects the author of the
poem with Egypt. The crocodile's head is so formed
that its highest points are the eyes: and when it rises
obliquely to the surface the eyes are the first part of
the whole animal to emerge. The Egyptians observ-
ing this, compared it to the sun rising out of the sea,
and made it the hieroglyphic representative of the idea
of sunrise. Thus Horus Apollo says: ''When the
Egyptians represent the sunrise, they paint the eye of the
crocodile, because it is first seen as that animal emerges
from the water" (Hiorogl. lib. i. sect. (). It is remarkable
that the same structural peculiarity belongs to the hip-
popotamus.

In Jobiii. S, our translators have strangely rendered
the word "their mourning." a reading which does not
even make sense. They have put '"leviathan" in the
margin, however; and there can be no doubt that the
animal described later in the poem is intended. " Let
them curse it [the night of my birth] who curse the day
on which they roused up a crocodile." A man who
should be so unfortunate as to come unexpectedly on a
crocodile, would probably fall a prey to its rage, and in
tlie inexorable jaws of his devourer might bewail with
execrations the clay of his misfortune.

The crocodile of the Nile was a fit emblem of Egypt
and of its king; especially considered from a Hebrew
point of view as the cruel and powerful oppressor of
God's people. Thus in Eze. xxxii. 2, Pharaoh is apo-
strophized under the figure of a crocodile taken in a net
and slain, so as to defile the rivers with its blood. In
the English version, it is true, the rendering is "a
whale;" but the original is C'2H (thannim), as in Eze.
xxix. 3; and Is. xxvii. 1 ; li. 9 ; Ps. Ixxiv. 13 (in the
last three passages under the slightly modified form of
':r% thannht). In some of these, the two words levia-
than and thannin are so associated as to leave no doubt
of their interchangeableness, and of their meaning.
The allusion is to Egypt.

In Is. xxvii. 1, though this early oppressor of Israel
may be primarily intended, yet we incline to think,
with many commentators, that there is a deeper allu-
sion, and that Satan, ' ' the dragon, that old serpent,

LKV1UATK LA\V

LKVITK

which is the devil." is pointed at; and the binding of
that arch adversary predicted, Ue. xx. _>, which is to
inaugurate tlie thousand years, of blessedness. The
power, hideousness, treaeherv, and ferocity of the croco-
dile, sufficiently justify this impersonation, without the
need of resorting to tlie Egyptian mythology, in which
Typhon, as tlie evil demon, was popularly worshipped
under the form of a crocodile. [P. H. t;.j

LEVIRATE LAW. ffec MAIIIUACE.

LEVITE, the adjective f ( ,rmcd from Levi, and also
used as a sulistantive to express individuals belonging
to his tribe, like Keubenite. < ladite. Israelite'. Kdomite.
ixre. Levi had lieen associated witli Simeon in the
massacre of the Sliechcmites. an act \\hicli miuht he
])alliated on account of the circumstances of provoca-
tion, Imt which did not admit of justification. On his
death-lied .Jacob theivt'oiv said of them, Ge. xlix. 5, 7,
" Simeon and Levi are brethren: in.-trumeiits of cruelty
are in their habitation.s. . . . ( 'ur.-'i -d be their an-vr,
for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it \\as cruel : I
will divide them in Jacob, and scalier them in l.-rael."
Tlii- is often, and with police; correctness, call, d a
curse; yet we liave to remember that it was a eiirse
only in certain rc-peets. aiid to a ct rtain decree, since
it forms part ol' his dying A/<.W,/y, \\hicli was pn.-
iioimced upon the sons of Jacob as a whole, and which
al-o ajiplied to tin m individuallv, ver. 2\ There was
therefore a blessing to Le\i, although nii.diticcl and re-
stricted by a cur.-e iv.-tin.; upon one ferocious and cnn
niii'.: action: and there was a p"--ii.ili; v of such a
mitigated curse producing fruits nn-et for repentance
should (Jod lie [.leased to -rant ".race for this end. and
a possibility of its very penalty I., in- trai.-formt d into
a peculiarity of benefit. And so it occurred in the
Mlb-ei|iient history, that the tribe of Levi held a place
of spt rial honour and nearness to ( Jod. And tlie very
dividing and scattering of them was made .-uh-ervieiit
to the purp(pse of employing them as teachers of their
brethren, and leaven to work upon the mass of the
people with whom they v.eiv mixed up. ,\av. the verv
withholding of a territorial position brought into view
their peculiar privilege : 'Only unto the tribe of Levi
lie gave none inheritance; the sacrifices of the Lord
(Jod of Israel made by tire are their inheritance, as he
said unto them :" "Hut unto the tribe of Levi Mo-es
gave not any inheritance; the Lord (lodof Israel was
their inheritance, as he said unto them," Jos. xiii. 14, :;
:uiil see Nu. \\iii. _'", to which the refereliee is made. Hence
we observe a marvellous change in the other threat dying
blessing iiroiiounced on the tribes, that of Moses, I> e .
xxxiii. 8-n, "Ami .,f Levi he said. Let thy Thummim
and thy Trim be with thy holy one. wh'.m thou didst
prove at Massali, and with whom thou didst strive at
the waters of Meribah: who said unto his father and
to his mother. I have not seen him: neither did he
acknowledge his brethren, nor knew his own children:
for they have observed thy word, and kept thy cove-
nant. They shall teach Jacob thy judgments, and
Israel thy law: they shall put incense before thee, and
whole burnt-sacrifice upon thine altar. Bless. Lord,
his substance, and accept the work of his hands: smite
through the loins of them that rise against him, and of
them that hate him, that they rise not again." And
this blessing expresses the normal state of the Levites,
including the priests, in the theocratic constitution,
as was indicated after the repression of the rebellion
of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, which was partly

Vol. II.

ecclesiastical and partly political, by the miraculous
blossoming of the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi,
N'u. xvii.

The particulars of this great revolution, by which
Levi rose from a position of disfavour to one of special
honour from so low a blessing that it may be called a
curse, to so high a blessing that it became the concen-
tration of all the blessedness of Israel - is conceivable
according to the common procedure in the Lord's king-
dom of -race. The rule is, ' Before honour is humility;"
' He that humbleth himself .-hall be exalted;" " \Vho-
soever will be great among you. let him be your min-
ister, and whosoever \\ill be chief among yon, let him
be your servant, even as the Son of man came not to
be mini>teivd unto, but to minister, and to inve his
life a ransom for many." The Apostle and Hi-h-priest
of our profession \\ as made sin for us. was made a
cur.-e for us. that he mi Jit cut. r into his ulory, and
dispense all blessings to us. His chosen servants do
not rei|unv to be. nor can be, made sin. for they are
already sinful, even as others, at time- the chief of
-inn. rs, like that man \\lio \\as thus trained for beeom-
iu- a more abundant labourer than all his fellow-
apostles. P.ut they have to be disciplined into a right,
knowledge of their sin-, and true humiliation for them.
as I'et'-r was brought to this extremity that "lie fell
down at Jesus' knees, savin-. I >epart from me, for I
am a -infill man. O Lord ;" when the reply was idvcli
to him who was now ripened for the \\ork. " l-'ear not,
from henceforth thou shalt catch nun." l.u. v. s,u>. And
that which is intelligible according to the common law
of the kingdom, is set before us historically in the

bl. s.-iniC of Mo.-eS iploted above. Levi is there spoken

of iii language which fluctuati s between the individual
and the collective meaning of the word, as often happens
in tin -e blessings. Two brothers, of pure Levitical
blood, had been selected by the Lord to brin- [srael

out of Kirypt. Kx iii. iv. vi. 2fi, 27; vii. 1-<I .Moses, who was

the chief of the two. wa- iii the first place very tho-
roughly humbled, belli- so di c ply convinced of his
unlitiiess. that he carried his unwillingness to accept
office to a sinful length, and after his acceptance he wan
on the point of und'T-oin'.: death from the Lord's own
hand for want of faith or ne-li-cnce of duty. Tin;
humiliation of Aaron, the elder brother, came at a later
period, when he involved himself in the sin of the
people about the golden calf, Kx. xxxii., and was saved
from divine destruction only by the special intercession
of .Moses, Ue. ix. L'ii; his fall hein- the more memorable,
as no doubt its lessons would lie the more- impressed
upon his own mind, by the circumstance that at the
very time, unknown to him, he was designated to
Moses by the Lord as the pel-son called to occupy the
highest ordinary office in the Old Testament church,
the high-priesthood, and to transmit it to his son and
his son's descendants after him. Yet in spite of these
manifestations of corruption, Moses and Aaron were
the most eminent and the most favoured of the Lord's
saints, and representing Levi they are denominated in
this blessing, ''thy holy one," or "thy gracious one, '
called to peculiar nearness to (!od, and therefore to
peculiar c-ontendings for (iod, and exposed to jirorin'i
and strtrinff at the hands of the people for forty years,
from Massali. Kx. xvii. 2-7 (in which passage at ver. '2 it
ought to be "Give ye us water"), to Meribah. Nu. xx.
2-1 :i; not without other special instances of proved excel-
lence and promised blessing, particularly in the case of

137

LEVITE

Aaron's son's son Phineli.is, Nu. xxv. (5-13. Yet the whole
tribe of Levi appears to have shared in the gracious
spirit which was so largely enjoyed by its leaders : for
the language in the blessing of Moses, " Who said unto
his father and to his mother, I have not seen him," &c.,
unmistakably points to the faithfulness, or otherwise
to the early repentance and clearing of themselves, by
the whole tribe of Levi, on occasion of the worship of
the golden calf, when they were called to act as the
executioners of judgment in the Lord's hot anger,
slaying " every man his brother, and every man his
companion, and every man his neighbour," for which
a special blessing was pronounced upon them, Ex. xxxii.
2.V2;). They had shown themselves possessed of the
zeal and the intrepidity of their father Levi : but these
good qualities were free from the taints of treachery,
and self-will, and cruelty which he had manifested, and
therefore henceforth the curse pronounced on him
should pass into a blessing. That blessing is summed
up by Moses in the service at the altar and in the in-
struction of the people, both belonging pre-eminently
to the priestly portion of the tribe of Levi, and the
first being exclusively theirs : yet the Levites at large-
assisted in a subordinate capacity about the altar,
though not at it, in the highest sense, and they would
all the more be employed in the moral duties of reli-
gious instruction. How deeply the lesson contained
in these words of Moses sank into the conscience of the
people is traceable many times in the history of Israel,
down to the commentary upon them by the prophet
Malachi, cii. ii. 1-9, who threatens the degenerate priest-
hood in his time with a curse instead of a blessing,
perhaps not without an allusion to that primitive curse
by Jacob, which was always coming back upon them
in proportion as they fell from their attainments in
godliness.

How much was, in the first instance, made known
to the Levites in respect to their office and dignity may
be somewhat uncertain. Yet from that day they really
were consecrated to the Lord, in faithful attachment to
whom they had forsaken all natural ties (compare the
apostles, Mat. xix. 27-2!)); and their separation came out to
view very completely so early as the first day of the
second month of the second year of the exodus, Nu. i. 1,
on occasion of the command to take the census, when
the Levites were not to be numbered along with the
rest of the tribes, nor to take up a position in the same
line with them in the encampment, ver. 47-63. The full
account of their calling and position is given in Nu. iii.
5-13, from which it appears that they were a gift from
the children of Israel to Aaron, to be used by him and
his sons the priests as assistants in all the inferior parts
of their work, being " wholly given" to him, nethunim,
a participle, the adjective form of which, nethinim, is
familiar to us in the later history of Israel, as the title
of those who afterwards relieved the Levites of the
most menial offices about the house of God. In like
manner there is a direct reference to the meaning of
the name Levi and Levite, "joined," or "attached,"
in Nu. xviii. 2, where Aaron is commanded, "And
thy brethren also of the tribe of Levi, the tribe of thy
father, bring thou with thee, that they may be joined
unto thee, and minister unto thee." The reason of this
gift on the part of the children of Israel was, that all
the first-born had been consecrated to the Lord, since
the day on which he smote all the first-born of the
Egyptians : and while this continued to be the rule

with the first-born, of beasts, which were offered upon
the altar, or, in the case of unclean beasts, were simply
killed, or else exchanged for others fit to be so offered,
the first-born of men were redeemed by the gift of the
Levites as a substitute. The numbers of the male
Levites, and of the first-born males from a month old
and upwards, were found by a special census to be
nearly equal, and the inequality was adjusted by a pay-
ment into the sacred treasury, on account of the excess
of the latter, Nu. iii. 40-51. This is repeated in Nu. viii.
5-22, in a passage principally occupied with a narrative
of the purification of the Lovites, in order that they
might enter on their work. This purification presents
several points of analogy, not only to that of the priests,
Le. viii., but also to that of the leper who had been healed,
Le. xiv.; consisting as it did of bathing the flesh, shaving
the hair, washing the clothes, then imposition of hands
by the children of Israel on the Levites, and waving
them as a wave- offering to the Lord, while the Levites
in turn laid their hands upon two bullocks, which were
oli'ered to the Lord on their behalf the one as a sin-
offering, and the other as a burnt- offering. For in the
very nature of the case there was a peculiarity in the
circumstance that the Levites were made an offering.
Speaking generally, they might be called an offering
from the congregation to the Lord, a sort of tithe of
men, which became the property of the priests, like
other consecrated things, Nu. xviii. n, &c. But speaking
with precision, men and things cannot be classed to-
gether : there were peculiarities arising out of the fact
that they were reasonable creatures, moral agents, who
had contracted sin, and must themselves be pardoned
and renewed if they were to be an acceptable offering
to the Lord; and peculiarities again, because it was not
possible that they, the Lord's free men, could become
the absolute property of the priests, like cattle and life-
less things, or that they could be offered to the Lord in
any other sense than that of presenting their bodies to
be a living sacrifice for a reasonable service. They
became therefore the assistants of the priests, appointed
to be at their service for any work that might be as-
signed to them; and competent apparently for the dis-
charge of any duty so assigned, always excepting that
which was peculiar to the priests, namely, approaching
to either of the two altars for the respective purposes
of offering sacrifice and burning incense. This was
"the priest's office," which no person might invade
upon pain of death, Nu. iii. 10, which nevertheless was
presumptuously invaded by Korah and his companions,
though not without paying a fearful penalty, which left
a marvellously deep impression upon the congregation,
N. xvi.: and which was anew fenced in by an explicit
law repeating the consecration of the Levites, their
attachment to the priesthood for service, and their
rigorous exclusion from the priestly office itself, Nu. xviii.
1-7. Yet in this way the Levites came to be holy per-
sons called to the service of God, and occupying a place
between the priests on the one hand, and the tribes of
Israel at large upon the other. The outward indication
of this was given in the intermediate position appointed
to them in the encampment: and language is even ap-
plied to them which approaches indefinitely close to the
language which is applied to the priests, " The Levites
shall pitch round about the tabernacle of testimony,
that there be no wrath upon the congregation of the
children of Israel; and the Levites shall keep the charge
of the tabernacle of testimony, "NU. i.r,s, comp.withch. xviii. 5.

LEVITE

LKVITK

For their support, when engaged in the Lord's ser-
vice for the benefit of the congregation, yet without
u share in the land such as the other tribes received,
there was a double provision made. (1.) There were
tithes the tenth part of all the produce of the land,
both animal and vegetable, Lu. xxvii. s>-;u. Properly
speaking, there, were t\vo tenths given to (iod. One
tenth the tithe of which we commonly speak, was
given wholly and directly to the Levites for their
support; and of this in turn they gave a tenth to the
priests, NU. xviii. L' I-:;.', \\hciv vcr.-c :;1 expivs-es, in tin-
original more strongly than in our translation, that
this was their liin in nturn fi-.r M<<Y ttrn't'i in the
tabernacle. l!ut there wa< also a titlie which it had
been the custom for the godly from patriarchal times to
consecrate to holy purposes, and for which the Israelites
would find abundant use in their fca-ts at the tabor-
nacle and their freewi!l-otti-riiiL r s. This second tithe
the mass of tin 1 people .in th. one hand would have to
s|ieinl, while tin- priests on the otlu r woiiM have the
firstlings and first fruits to appropriate in the same
manner, L)o. xiv. -j:j; but tin- common Levite would he
worse oil' than either of th. se classes, ;l !id thus a t ver.
'27 it is expressly said that on such occasions lie was
not to be forgotten, but to I,,- called to take a share;
whilst a further modification was made, vur. L'V-'-'I p< '"-
milting this tithe to lie spent at home every third and
si\th year (no doubt to insure a lietter attendance .-it
the sanctuary in the seventh year, of uhich mention is
made immediately at'ten. though h. re a^ain tile Levite
was to have a bountiful share. aLui- \\ith the stran<_>-' r.
the fatherless, and the widow. Also, at ch. xviii. 7. >,
it is implied that those Levites who v.eiv actually
ministering at th. hou-.- of (;,! received L'ifts and p> r-
quisites. r_'.) There uas a pn>\ ision for their resid-
ence in fortv-ei_;ht cities scattered over the twelve
tribes; the importance of which was ineivasi d by
the circumstance, that aniou^ th.se citii s \\.re in-
cluded the si\ cities of refuge for man slavers, NU. xxxv.
Jn th" stateineiits of ver. I. ~>. there is some ditiicultv
in understanding the limits ,,f the suburbs of the-e
cities assigned to them for pastura-v; thouuli from the
days of ,J. I). .Michael is there has been a prettv general
understanding, that the city wall was a square, each side
being IIHH cubits: and that the boundary of tile sub-
urb was luuii cubits out from this; making the
suburbs consist of four quadrangles, respectively 20ii(j
cubits long on the four sides north, south, east, and
west, and half as much in breadth. Yet there are
others who prefer to consider the length of the citv a
variable quantity; and to account the boundary line
of each side of the suburb lioni) cubits, exclusive
of the part opposite to the- city wall. It is not said,
however, that a Levitical city was occupied by the
Levites to the exclusion of the tribe within whose
bounds it lay. All that the Levites were entitled to
claim was a sufficient number of houses to dwell in.
Accordingly we read in the arrangements of the law of
jubilee and redemption, Lc. x XT. 33, according to a strictly
literal translation, ''And if [a man] redeem of the
Levites, then the sold house property, even [that which
is inj the city of his possession, shall go out in the
jubilee : for the houses of the cities of the Levites that
is their possession in the midst of the children of
Israel." Yet our translators have not given any
erroneous idea by paraphrastically rendering purchase
in place of redeem. The use of the word here does

indeed make the sentence somewhat obscure at the first
reading; hut we arc to explain it, as Keil does, after
old Jewish tradition, by the fact that the cities be-
longed to the tribes, so that a man who bf>n;//tt a house
from a Levite in one of these cities was ndainni;/ it to
his tribe. The suburbs, however, could not be sold at
all; and the houses mi:_:'ht be redeemed a<_rain by the
Levites at any time, according to their necessities and
their ability. Since the Levitical cities did not cease
to belong to the tribe within which they were situated,
there is the more obvious propriety in the expression,
"the Levite that is within thy gates." Do. xiv. 27, &c.;
and very markedly in 1 >e. xviii. ti, " And if a Levite
conic from any of ///// ijatis out of all 1-rad, where he
sojourned,' 1 although his leaving this is at ver. S ''the
sale of his jKifriiiiHiii/." And for the same reason the

Le\ ites appear to have been r. t'lvl'ed. in -.,,!, h . re-peets
at hast, to belong to the tribe within uhich thev re-
sided. So we read, Ju.xva.T, " There was a young man
out of liethleh. -ni-.ludah. ,,f tin fmnilii ,,f Jn,f,i/,, ////..
ims a /.,/;?, .and he sojourned there." Thus also I'.l
kanah. the father of Saiir.iel, who was certainly a

Levite. is called an Kphrathite, 1 s i. i i, which is com-
monly interpreted an Lphrainu'te; and if so, the reason
of it must he sought for in tin's, that his place of resi-
dence was Mount L'phraim. as the same verse relates.
The same explanation is the likeliest that has been
otteivd of the designations in the titlis of I's. Ixxxviii.
l\\xi\.. Heman the K/rahite, and Kthan the K/rahitc :
these m.-n bcin- th" two famous I.evitical singers, but
receiving the appellation K/.rahite from X.-rah the son
of .ludah. uithin whose territory they resided. And
tlr.i- the Levites are never reckoned a thirteenth tribe,
but are viewed as hem-- absorbed in the twelve tribes
among \\h,, ni they were distributed.

The tribe of L.-vi \\as divided accord'ni-; to its gene-
alogy, as record' d most fully in K.x. vi. ]>'>-'27: see ulso
1 Ch. vi. 1-:!, li;-l!) (in Hebrew v. 2*- 30; vi. i-H.

( (1) I.ililii; or I.aa.l.ui, 1 ( h. xxiii. 7, s
"( (.') Shiini; in- Shiiin-i, Nu. iii. IS, ic.

KOHATJI

( (7) Mahali. or Malili.
t (S; Mushi.

This genealotry gives three princi]>al families sub-
divided into eight. The children of Hebron, alone of
Kohath's sons, are not recorded in this passage; but he
had descendants (though possibly only putative descend-
ants, according to the law of the childless brother); for
the Hebronites are a recognized class of Levitical
families both in the Pentateuch and in Chronicles.
I'.ut with all the tiihes there is a difficulty in making
out the genealogical families, probably owing to some
practice of grouping or of subdividing for reasons now
unknown. Thus in the second census, Xn. x\\i. ".?,.>,
the three great families of (Jershon, Kohath, and
Merari are grouped, not in eight subdivisions as in this
table, but in six Libnites, Hebronites, Mahlitcs.
Mushites, Korathites, Amramites; and if the Korathites
1*3 identified with the Izharites, then the order of them
in the table will l>e transposed here as follows 1, 5,

LKVITE

LF.YITF

7, >. 4, ''>, while '2 and <! arc passed over. Ami oa
occasion of bringing up tin. 1 ark to Jerusalem, i C'h. .\\- i 12,
we au'.-tiii find the Levites marshalled in six divisions
under six "chief of the fathers,' 1 or "heads of the
fathers." l',ut this number is attained in a very
peculiar manner by taking the three groat families,
and in the order Kohath, Merari. Gershom, then the
sons of Elizaplian (son of Uz/iel, son of Kohath); and
finally the sons of Hebron, and the sons of l'z/,iel.
But even in the table in Kx. vi. we are not to affirm
that \ve have the exact and full genealogy; as there
is reason to assert that there are links of the chain
awaiitiug even in the case of the pedigree of Aaron
and Closes, which has all the look of greatest complete-
ness.

However this may be. in the legislation of Moses, a
good deal is connected with the division of the Levites
into three great families. It has been already noticed
that they pitched round the tabernacle that is, on the
four sides of it, nearer to it than the encampments of
the other tribes. J!ut there were four grades of honour,
corresponding to these four sides. The highest, of
course, was that of the priests, with whom Moses was
associated. They pitched on the east side, at the
entrance of the tabernacle, inside the leading camp
that of Juduh. Of the three families of plain Levites,
the ivohuihites (to whom the priests belonged by gene-
alogy) took the south side, inside the camp of Itenhen;
tlie Grershonites took the west, inside the camp of
Ephraim; and the Merarites took the north, inside the
camp of Dan. This is mentioned in Xu. iii.; where
also, and more fully in ch. iv.. are mentioned the cor-
responding differences in honour among the families in
reference to the march of the children of Israel. The
priests alone might touch the most holy things, or even
look at them; but when these had been packed up,
they were given to the Kohathites to bear, under the
guidance of .Eleazar, Aaron's elder son. Ithamar, his
younger son, had the oversight of the other two families,
to whom the rest of the furniture and the materials of
the tabernacle were intrusted; with this difference be-
tween them, that the coarser and heavier parts were
assigned to the Merarites. The order of taking down
and setting up the tabernacle, by these three families
respectively, is indicated at Xu. x. 17. -1. And when
the princes of the twelve tribes presented for the ser-
vice of the Lord the six covered waggons, drawn by
twelve oxen, in which they had brought their gifts for
the dedication of the tabernacle, Moses was directed
by the Lord to distribute these among the Levites,
according to the nature of their service: four waggons
to the heavily burdened Merarites, two to the Ger-
shonites, but none to the Kohathites, who must hear
their charge upon their shoulders, Xu.vii.i-!). The ne-
glect of these prescriptions when David first attempted
to bring the ark to Jerusalem, and two Levites drove
it in a cart, while one of them did not hesitate to put
his hand to it to keep it steady, cost the presumptuous
man his life, i Ch. xiii. 7-io ; xv. 12-11.

There is a small point which is not wholly free from
obscurity, namely, the age at which the Levites were
to begin to exercise their functions. In Xu. iv. 3, &c.,
it is said they were to be numbered for their work
from thirty to fifty years of age; but in ch. viii. 24-26,
the command is given, "This is it that belongeth unto
the Levites : from twenty and five years old and upward
the}' shall go in to wait upon the service of the taber-

nacle of the congregation; and from the age of fifty
years they shall cease waiting upon the service thereof,
and shall serve no more: but shall minister with their
brethren in the tabernacle of the congregation, to keep
the charge, and shall do no service." Since their ceas-
ing at fifty is mentioned without any explanation in
ch. iv., and in ch. viii. is first mentioned as absolute
ceasing from the service (literally, as in eh. iv., the
warfare), and is subsequently explained as still leaving
them to do the lighter work included under the term
iiunisterln;/; the conjecture is natural and easy that
between twenty-five and thirty they were not yet ad-
mitted to full work, but were serving a kind of appren-
ticeship. And more especially since ch. viii. speaks of
their duties generally, and ch. iv. speaks exclusively of
their work in carrying the tabernacle and its furniture,
when the children of Israel were marching, the still
more specific conjecture of Heiigstenberg and others
has much probability in it. that they began work at
twenty-five, but were not permitted to take part in
carrying the tabernacle till they had readied the age
of thirty. In later times we find the still younger age
of twenty mentioned an alteration which is probably
to be dated from the time of David, who introduced
many new arrangements, as shall be noticed in the
sequel. For whereas we have a census of the Levites
for the puqiose of making these arrangements, in which
they "were numbered from the age of tltirtij vears
and upwards, 1 ' i Ch. xxiii. :',; it is written again, ver. 21-27,
"These were the sons of Levi. after the house of their
fathers; even the chief of the fathers, as they wire
counted by number of names by their polls, that did
the work for the service of the house of the Lord, from
the age of ln'oity years and upward. For David said,
The Lord God of Israel hath given rest unto his people
that they may dwell in Jerusalem for ever; and also
unto the Levites; they shall no more carry the taber-
nacle, nor any vessels of it for the service thereof
[compare the similar language of Josiah, > ch. xxxv. ::].
For />;/ the la.it vorch of David the Levites were num-
bered from twenty years old and above."' And this age
of twenty years is the only one mentioned in subsequent
history in the time of Hezekiah, 2 Ch. xxxi. 17, and in the
time of Zerubbabel and Jeshua. E:-r. iii. s.

Two circumstances are worth noticing in the provi-
dence of God. analogous to other cases in which pro-
vidence remarkably fitted into the legislation which
proceeded from him. First, in regard to the numbers
of the Levites, observe the total number from one
month old and upwards, and again between the ages
of thirty and fifty, as given in Xu. iii. iv.

From ii Between thirty Per centace of the
month old. and fifty. latter to the whole.

Kohath, . . 8.000 (?) 2750

Gershon, . . T.f.OO 2f>::0 -M> +

Meruri, . . 6,200 3200

2--'.:W> (?) S5SO -:!85

The Kohathites as a whole are the most numerous,
and the Merarites are the least so: and this seems to
have been the relative position of the three families
generally in numbers and importance. But for the
immediate work in the wilderness, the Kohathites had
need of fewest men, and the Merarites of most; and
when we look to the age for carrying the tabernacle,
the proportions are marvellously reversed more than
a half of the Merarites, and less than a third of the
Kohathites, being of this age. The proportion of the
Kohathites becomes almost exactly a third, if we reduce

LEVITE

8-3

LEVITE

their whole number from bu'OO to S3(iO, so as to make ' I>ut as it has been already explained that these cities

the total of the Levites 22,000, which is almost certainly were to be occupied by the Levites only to the extent

the correct number, as is proved by comparing Xu. iii. to which they required them; so it must be added that

y.i. 4:!, 4>: though there has been an ingenious sug- it is doubtful whether the Levites ever possessed nearly

gestion made by the Jews in order to avoid the ne- the whole of them. For V H some of the towns do not

cessity for this conjectural emendation. The whole seem to have actually come into the possession of the

number of the Levites from a month old and upwards Israelites at all. (2 l We know that they were often

had risen at the time of the second census. Xu. xxvi. 02, careless and fraudulent in the matter of pa\ing tithes;

to 2:;.(HM>. The census bv David from thirty years and ami we have no reason to think that they wen' more

upwards. I Ch. xxiii. 3, gave 3S. Ill HI, which should perhaps cou.-cientious in this part of the provision for the

be best compared with the >;>'> between thirty and Levites. (''>' We actually do find a Levite sojourning

fifty under .Moses at tirst. It is difficult to compare in Bethlehem-Judah pretty early in the time of the

accurate! v the numbers of the tribe of Levi with those judges, Ju. xvii. 7-0. This was his house, and yet it was

f the other tribes

if them was not a Levitieal citv: and he was

caving it in search of
1 Y.-sihlv I ) this may
r of I .e\ itical citii s
the sum is given the
Calculating bv modern tables, it has been said that the same as in Joshua, but the particulars fall short one

taken on a different principle, so as to give the number a place where he mi: lit setth

of tin; men of war from twenty year- old and upwards,

at least according to the almost universal opinion, named in 1 C

Levites of th.' .-ame a'_v with the other Is
cen.Mis. would amount to about ]:',niiii.

the in .ludah, one in Benjamin, two in Dan. and two in
Xehulon. There are also differences of names, which
we can scarcelv hesitate to sav that physically they may be nothing more in some cases; hut in others there
were much the weakest of the tribes, and perhaps for may be indicated a change to a new city, because an

that very reason th- better titled to take the position
of moral and spiritual superiority which Hod as.-igned
to them.

Secondlv, tin re was a peculiarity in providence as to

ild one was no longer .-uitahle.

I hiring the period subsequent to Joshua's adminis-
tration we have little account of the Le\itts; tin-nub
the clo.-iii'_r chapters of Jud _>- and the opt niii". ehaji-

their geographical distribution. There were forty- eight ters of 1
cities allotted to them in all: that is, to four division.-,
consisting <>f the prie-ts and the three great Levitieal
families, as in the arrangements for encamping round
the tabernacle; and. as in that case, the priests took
somewhat the best position, while there was an ap-
proach to the average of (\\i-l\e cities to each. Wt
as the tabernacle was .-et up at tirst in the tribe of
Ephraim, and was to be removed and to remain in the
tribe of .ludah. on the borders of Benjamin, it was
these tribes who had the Kohathiti- race, and in parti-
cular it was Judah and I'eiijamin who hail the priests.
And as it is likelv that Judah and its neighbours could
best bear the burden, and as the tendency would be to
attract the Le\ite- toward.- the sanctuary, it was these
tribes who had the large-t number of cities to provide.
The arrangement of the following table is taken from
Jos. xxi , while the tribes which had a city of refuge
within them are distinguished by the letter I,'; from
which marking it will be seen that two of these fell to
each of the three families, the priests having no privi-
lege above the common Levites in this respect.

Ju.Iali (n)>

Simeilll )"

Benjamin,

Simple
Levite

^ I Issarll,

Xa r litali UO, .
' j East Manasseh (Ki

[Reuben (p.),
t | Oa.l (R),
"2 ( Zebulon, .

sometimes ce

degenerate p

the first book of Chronicles we have very full accounts
of the rc-arran-emt tit by David of the tabernacle ser-
vice, as it was about to pa.-s into the hi_hi -t form of
outward u'l"i'v in connection with the budding of the
temple; iu regard to w hich he had "iveii instructions
to Solomon, having raised him to the throne during
his own lifetime, l cii. xxi 1 . xxiii. 1. And all David's dii ec-
tions were accurately cat ried out in respect to the priests
and Invites bv his son Solomon, mi the ".round that "so
had David the man of Hod commanded." 2 Ch viii. 1 1, i:>.
A class of students ha\e brought their so-called criti-
cal spirit to bear on these accounts, and ha\e h---i-
tated to say wh'-ther or nt the Iran-actions of a later
a"v illicit have been attributed to David and Solomon.
But in addition to the ordinary and universal grounds
on which we receive the statements of Scripture in spite
of their objections, there is a special ground in this
case; that no one can plausibly suggest any later period
for devising and executing such changes. They are
recorded chiefly in 1 Ch. xxiii. -xxvi., which Bertheau
in his commentary arranges as follows:

a. The number of Levites and their business gene-
rally, ch. xxiii. 2-.">.

b. Their fathers' houses, or genealogical arrangement,
i-li. xxiii. i;-2:!; with an appendix L'oiug hack upon the sub-
ject of the first part, \cr. 2-:;2, and indicating that the
genealogy is of the overseers of the house of the Lord,
as explained afterwards.

c. The twenty-four classes of priests, ch. xxiv. 1-1:1.

d. The presidents of the corresponding twenty-four
classes of Levites, given already in b, ch. xxiv. 20-31.

e. The twenty-four classes of singers and their leaders,

eh xxv.

f. The classes of porters, ch. xxvi. 1-111.

g. The administrators of the treasures, ch. xxvi. 2o-2.
h. The officers for the outward business, ch. xxvi. 20-32.
In ch. xxiii. 2-/>. a, we have the arrangement of

the Levites generally according to their occupations, by

LEVITE

the census of their numbers from thirty years old and
upwards, into four great classes.

1. To set forward, or oversee, the work of the house

of the Lord, 24,000

l'. Ofliivrs ;uid Judges, 0,OuO

:',. 1'orters, 4,000

4. Singers; with David' ,s instruments, . . . 4,000

And this first section seems to contain the summary
or germ of everything that follows. If we enter on
the examination of these details, it is useful to observe
at the commencement that there are two principles of
arrangement traceable to a very large extent the one
according to the three great families of Gershon, Ko-
hath, and Merari; the other into twenty-four classes,
or <- courses," rnp7ro> rnahhlegoth, translated in the
Septuagiiit e0??/xe / ot'at, the word which is used of the
courses of the priests in Lu. i. 5, 8; but the translation
of the Greek and the English at eh. xxiv. and xxvi. 1
is needlessly varied to Siaipecreis, "divisions" perhaps
taking their turn of two weeks' service, so as to fill up
the year by the assistance of some intercalations, with
two courses in each lunar month. The division into
the three families is most unmistakably noticeable in
the case of the singers; that into the twenty -four classes
or courses in these singers and in the priests.

But the 24,000 to oversee, or set forward, the work
of the house of the Lord, as in the above table, at once
suggest to us twenty -four courses of one thousand each.
Such an arrangement into twenty- four genealogical
divisions appears to be given in b, eh. xxiii. G- 23, with
the names of the leaders or presidents somewhat im-
perfectly in d, ch. xxiv. 20-31, wherever. 31 very expressly
speaks of these men "casting lots over against (or, as
it might be translated, " equally with") their brethren
the sons of Aaron," namely, in the twenty-four courses
of the priests, as given in the preceding context. Per-
haps the order may be made out somewhat as follows,
although Bertheau constructs it a little differently by
certain conjectural emendations, especially as to the
last:

; - f 8, 9, Laadan ( Libni).

Geishomtes, | 10) ' n > Stumei, . . . 3

. cj

("13-17, Aim-am, . . 2

(Exclusive of the priests.)

xxiii. 12. Kohathites, \ IS, Tzhav, . . 1

1!, Hebron, . . 4

I 20, Uzziel, ... 2

(21, 22, Mahli, ... 2

xxiii. 21. Merarite^, J. 2:i, Mushi, . . .3
xxiv. (20,27, Jaaziah, . . 1

Then the work of these Levites, their overseeing, or
setting forward everything in the house of the Lord, is
specified more exactly in what Bertheau calls the appen-
dix to this section, in ver. 28-32, except ver. 30, which
has reference to the singers. This passage connects
their labours very closely with those of the priests,
whom in fact they assisted in every way; hence "the
work of the service of the house of God" is attributed
directly to the priests, at 1 Ch. ix. 13. Perhaps it also
included his g, ch. xxvi. 20-28, at least we do not know
to what other class of Levites to refer these, the trea-
surers of the house of God. These again are distinctly
connected with at least two out of the three great
families. Eor, passing over Ahijah, the general trea-

surer, perhaps, of whose parentage nothing is said (as
indeed some critics read instead of A/itjaJi, AMlitm,
which means, "their brethren"), we have (1.) the Ger-
shonite Jehieli and his sons, ver. 21, 22; sue also ch. xxix. <;-8,
which appears to connect his work with treasurers of
free-will offerings; (2.) Hhebuel, a descendant of Moses,
and therefore a Kohathite, ver. 21; (3.) Shelomith, ap-
parently also a descendant of Moses, to whom were
committed the treasures of spoils dedicated in war,

ver. 2,V 28.

It is unnecessary to speak of the 2-i courses of priests,
c, as given in ch. xxiv. 1-19, since we confine our-
selves here to the simple Levites as much as possible;
and d has been already noticed in connection with
b. But e, in ch. xxv., presents us with another list
of 24 courses those of the singers, arranged in bands
or choirs of 12, making the whole number 12 x 24, or
288; although ch. xxiii. 5 speaks of their entire number
being 4000, out of which perhaps the actual choirs were
selected. These were ranged according to the families
of three men whom David set over the service of song;
four belonging to Asaph the Gershoiiite, six to Jedu-
thun or Ethan the Merarite, and fourteen to Hemaii
the Kohathite. The genealogies of these three men,
in the three great Levitical families respectively, are
given in ch. vi. ; and the identity of Ethan arid J edu-
thun is inferred from a number of incidental statements,
for instance, cli. xv. 10, 17, with ch. xvi. 37, 41. From these two
chapters now quoted, it appears that David had pro-
ceeded in the arrangement of the Levites so far as to
classify the singers, at the time that he brought up the
ark to Mount Zioii; and during that singular state of
transition, in which there were two religious centres
for Israel, with a high-priest for each, Asaph was re-
tained beside David before the ark, while Heman and
Jeduthun were with the high-priest Zadok before the
tabernacle at Gibeon. And the same passages indicate
that David was at the same time beginning to arrange
the porters.

The full account of the appointment of the porters,
however, is to be found in f, that is, ch. xvi. 1-19. There
is considerable intricacy in tracing the minutiae of these.
Oehler conjectures that they belonged to the three
Levitical families, and that the heads of these were
"the three keepers of the door," who, along with the
chief priests at the siege of Jerusalem, were taken and
put to death by the Chaldeans, 2 Ki. xxv is ; Je. lii. 21. Some
additional light might be thrown on their arrangements
by a careful comparison with another account in
1 Ch. ix., which certainly hints at the work of these
porters being so ancient, that it was once under the
direction of Phinehas, the son of Eleazar the high-priest,
as it expressly speaks of their final arrangements having
been ordained by David and Samuel the seer, ver. 20,22;
as it also seems to indicate that the time of service in
the courses of the porters was only for a week, ver. 25,
an account which tallies well with the narrative of the
revolution in which Athaliah was deposed, and Joash,
the rightful king, placed upon the throne, 2 Ch. xxiii. 4, (i, 8.
There are however special difficulties in using the pas-
sage, i Ch. ix. ; because it has always been a disputed
point whether it refers to the time of David, or even to
the period antecedent to the exile at all, or whether it
has not to do entirely with arrangements after the re-
turn from Babylon, on account of its resemblance to
Ne. xi. One thing is clear in 1 Ch. xxvi. 17, 18, that
the porters were arranged on four sides of the temple,

LKVJTK

LKVITK

pl-tliw;.

4
4

wards

Asiippin

i (ver. 15,

"the 1)0,1

seof Asupi

lim,"

that i;

't<i

IS, at

Parbi

ir.

c.st

aid (perl

;aps .i'.6(!/'

If, or fodl

"(-),

at the

c;i

v ,

L'arbar

nor

strictly

at it than

the jircvii

.usly

liamei

>OI

and, as it would seem, to the number of '2-1, according be tempted to look for the third family in the sons of
to the usual tendency to arrangement by that number. ' Asaph, vcr. 1, since Asaph the singer was a Cershonite:

vcr. IT, eastward . ii ^' u t there is nothing to connect this Asaph with the

singer of the same name, rather the contrary, since he
is of the same lineage as Kore, and the name Asaph
is to be regarded as a contraction for Ebiasaph, accord-
ing to ch. ix. 1',). In that chapter, ver. 2.', the number
of the porters in all seems to be given as -2\~2. I'>ut in
ch. xxvi. we observe two enumerations; the smaller
Jl perhaps being of those in each family circle in that

It is impossible, however, to make out the three families ' narrower sense in which we moderns commonly use
complete! among these porters. They seem to a very the word family, and the larger being the number of
large extent to have been Kohathites. descendants of relatives united in the same service in families in a
Korah. or Kore, an 1 also Mcrarites, ver. I:L One mi_rht wider sense.

ver. 1. K>. /,",:>, . Mc.-ln -l.-n li ih: vi-r. 2, 3, sons, .
(Shelemiali, ver. i I; Shalliini, cli. ix. I 1 .').
vcr. -I. [ Knlmthlt- I bededmn (soil of .Jcdutlmn. cli. \\i. :;
ver. 1". Minn- '-, ll'.sdi

( >ne is tempted to indulge in run jeeture, and to alter
'.'."> int'i '."I, so a^ to obtain a multiple of '2 1 ; but it is
wiser to refrain.

The work of the porters. keepiii'.r watch at the house
of the |, ,nl, seems to have Keen eonipan-d to the otliee
of sentries and watehes in tip- military life of the Lord's
li i.-t. icli ix I'.i. Compare also the expression, "war
the \\arfare." in connection with the work of the
Levites about the tabernacle, e.-peciallv carrying it in

the wilderness. Nn. iv J :, ,vr. in

It only remains to notice, i h. in eh. xxvi. _".'-">_'. the

L'-vitos set to " 1 1 le < >U t W a I'd llUSUU'SS OVCF l-Hlel, for

officers and judges," the total number of whom, accord-
ing to eh. xxiii. 1. was OHIO. Tin- details are not so
complete, as to enable us to make up this number, thou >h
we have no reason to qiie-tioii its aecuracv. There
were -
cli.

xxvi. 'J'.i. /:/</,''-, ( 'lii'iian iali and his SMIIS, Xumb.T not ;_'i\vn.
,, :;). //,/ ;>... , lla-hai. i.di . ind Iii.s brethren, on I ...

tin- west side of Jordan, . . . f

,. HI, ;;-'. //./,,v,,,,V.,. .I,.nj.,h and his brethren, mi ) .,-
thceast side of Jordan, . . . )"

It is ipiite possible that the remaining 1'ion mav have
been made up by ( 'heiiaiiiah. He is, for ought that
we kno\V. tin- same who is termed "the chief of the
I.esites for ,<((;/," ch. \\ L".', and " master of the *".'/, '
vcr. 27, on occasion of the removal of tlie ark to .Mount
/ion; but the translation of this word is extremely
dubious, and the marginal rendering, for the carriage,"
is certainly simpler and more probable. It is peculiar
that all these three classes of officers and judges should
! under leaders of the Kohathite family, and, as the
words naturally suggest, all Kohathites themselves.
Jerijah might be the saint.' as Jeriah, a Ilebroiiite men-
tioned among the '_> 1 heads of the Levites who had the
general oversight of the house of the Lord, ch. xxiii. i!>;
but though the name admits of this, tlie circumstances
of the ease are unfavourable to the identification, if we
are right in understanding that David distributed the
common Levites into these four great bodies over-
seers, porters, singers, and officers and judges in the
outward business.

At the disastrous crisis in the religious and political
history of Israel, when the ten tribes constituted them-
selves into an independent kingdom not under the
chosen seed of David, and adopted a looser form of
worship, with a taint of heathenism in it, the Levites

appear to have generally adhered to the divimly in
stituted arrangements in polity and religion. Accord-
ingly they left the territory of the ten tribes, and
flocked into the kingdom of ,l\nlah. \\ithin which the
cities of the priests wei'e situated. It is not clear from
the notices in Scripture, 2('h. xi. i::, 14; xiii. !M1, whither
they were led to iviHiuiice their possessions simply on
account of religions scruples, while it was a consequence
of this that Jeroboam cast them uti'. or whether a plan
of scculari/in- their [>ossessioiis was a part of his origi-
nal scheme, which of course would place tin in all in
antagonism to his innovations. I'ut it is clear that
religious coii-iderations acted very powerfully, if not
primarily or exclusively; because multitudes from other
tribes w ithdrew in the same manner, who had no worldly
obji-et but the reverse, and whose simple wish was to
"set their heart- t.. seek the Lord Cod of their fathers,"
cli. \i n; : x\ : Certainly also at a later time, \\ln n cor-
ruption had taken a very linn hold of the kingdom of
Judah. and kinu Hi / kiah exerti-d himself in reforming
religion, it is recurded, that while both priests and
l.--\ it is had cause to be ashamed, and wi n- so, ,ii \\\ 1.1,
yet, ch x\ix. ::i, " the Levites \M-re more upri'jht in heart
to sanctify theiusehes than the priests." ( )n the other
hand, tliere is ex] press testimony to a fact which we
should have been prepared to conjecture a-- probable in
itself, that some coii-id,rabie portion of the Levites
Were involved ill the defections of the nation, and tip
some extent answerable for these, especially K/e. xliv.
ld-13, "And the Levites that are gone away far from
me, when Israel went astray, which went astray away
from me after their idols; they shall even bear their
iniquity. Yet they shall be ministers in my sanctuary,
having charge at the gates of the house, and minister-
ing to the house: they shall slay the burnt-offering and
the sacrifice for the people, and they shall stand before
them to minister unto them. IJecause they ministered
unto them before their idols, and caused the house of
Israel to fall into iniquity: therefore' have I lifted up
mine hand against them, saith the Lord Cod, and they
shall bear their iniquity. And they shall not come
near unto me, to do the office of a priest unto me, imr
to come near to any of my holy things, in the most
holy place." From these closing words an inference
has been drawn, that the Levites may have sometime
been urged into the current of corruption by the hope
of being placed on a level with the priesthood of the
house of Aaron; a.s also, at ver. 1/5, the prophet con-

LKVJTK f

trasts with their behaviour the faithfulness of "the
priests tho Lcvitcs, tlie sons of Zadok, that kept the
charge of my sanctuary when the children of Israel
went astray from me." Vet this is a mere conjecture.

In the reign of the pious and energetic Jehoshapliat,
\ve find Lovites as well as princes and priests named
for a commission to teach in the cities of Judah, and
carry about the hook of the law with them, 2Ch. xvii. r-'j,
and the like is to he said of his court erected in .Jeru-
salem at, a later time, "for the judgment of the Lord
and for controversies/' ch. xix. s-n. And OH occasion of
his struck; with that formidable confederacy of heathen
nations, which threatened to overwhelm him, ch. xx., he
and his army wore animated and directed by a prophet
who was a Levite of the sons of A.-aph, ver. II; as it
was. " the Levites of the children of the Kohathites,
and of the children of the Korhites, " that praised "the
Lord (!od of Israel with a loud voice on high," vcv. ID.

\\ e ha\e already noticed that it was the Lt. vites
who acted as porters and ministers in the temple under
Jehoiada the high-priest, who deposed the usurper
Athaliah, and set the child Joash on the throne,
'-' Ch. xxiii.

In the reforms of king Ilezekiah, amid which the
Levites were found more upright in heart than the
priests, according to the testimony we have already
quoted, the Levites acted under the guidance of a com-
mittee of fourteen, representing in twos, we know not
precisely how, the three great families of Kohath and
Merari and (.iershon, the three families of the singers
of the sons of Asaph and Human and Jcduthun, and
the family of Lii/.aphan, a subdivision of the Kohath-
ites, whose right to a special place in this list between
the two sets of three is unknown to us. The singers
were reinstated in their place, with their instruments,
"according to the commandment of David, and of Gad
the king's seer, and Xathan the prophet; for so was the
commandment of the Lord by his prophets/' 2(,'h. x\i\. -s>.
And the king and the princes "commanded the Levites
to sing praise unto the Lord with the words of David,
and of Asaph the seer," ver. ;;o ; as it is generally believed
that there is suliicient internal evidence that the most
of the psalms bearing an inscription with the names of
Asaph or the sons of Korah, were written between the
age of David and that of Hezekiah. hi fact, the com-
plete restoration of David's arrangements for the Le-
vites. seems implied in the language, di. xxxi. 2, "And
Hezekiah appointed the courses of the priests and the
Levites after their courses, every man according to his
service, the priests and Levites for burnt-offerings and
for peace-offerings, to minister, and to give thanks, and
to praise in the gates of the tents of the Lord." Per-
haps some special arrangements mentioned in the chap-
ter may have been new amidst the bustle of restoration
of the old system of support for the priests and Levites.
And it lias been also considered an innovation which
brought the Levites nearer the altar than ever hitherto,
when, at He/.ekiah's restoration of the temple-service.
cli.xxix.34, " the priests were too few. so that they could
not flay all the burnt- offerings; wherefore their brethren
the Levites did help them till the work was ended, and
until the other priests had sanctified themselves;" and
at his great passover, ch. XXX.IG.IT, "the priests sprinkled
the blood (of the burnt-oiferings, or passover- offerings,
ver. 15), which they received of the hand of the Levites; for
there were many in the congregation that were not sanc-
tified; therefore the Levites had the charge of the killing

LEVITICUS

of the passovers for every one that was not clean, to
sanctify them unto the Lord." This modification of the
original law and usage, if it was such, which had been
introduced under the pressure of necessity by Hezckiah,
appears to have been the established practice at the
time when Josiah held his passover, ch. \.\xv. in-12; and
at the same time we find the singers and porters at
their work according to the arrangement of David with
"Asaph, and Human, and Jeduthun, the king's seer,"
ver. 1.3.

After the exile the Levites did not return in numbers
proportioned to the people at large, and especially to
the priests, as is plain from the lists in

12S

148

In these lists those who are called Levites may pro
bably be "the overseers of the house of God," desig-
nated generally as Levites, in distinction from the
singers and porters, who had more specific functions.
We have not the materials for forming an opinion
whether the extreme smaliness of their numbers ought
to be attributed to their greater corruption, as Oehler
thinks, or to the temptations arising from the very
inadequate support accorded to this humble class of
servants in the sanctuary, sec Xe. x. ;jr-;: { .; xii. 44; xiii. 10.
Eighty years after the first return, when Ezra led up a
body of colonists, it required a special effort to obtain
any Levites at all, Ezr. viii. i.vit). Possibly matters gra-
dually-improved; at least, from Ne. xi. 3-1 9, we learn that
the proportion of the Levites dwelling at Jerusalem to
the priests had risen so much as to be 456 to Il!i2, the
whole inhabitants enumerated being 8044; of these 4,16
there were 172 porters. .Also this and the succeeding
chapter indicate that Xehemiah succeeded in restoring
pretty much the arrangements of David, at least as to
the singers and porters: only, as the territorial arrange-
ments of the tribes were not restored, there is nothing
said of properly Levitical cities.

In the JSfew Testament the Levites are scarcely-
mentioned. In Jn. i. lit, we read that the Jews sent
priests and Levites from Jerusalem to ask the. Baptist
who he was. From Ac. iv. 36 we learn that Barnabas,
the distinguished associate of the apostle Paul, was a
Levite. In the sealing of the 144,000 from the twelve
tribes of Israel, in He. vii., Levi appears as one of the
tribes, the number twelve being preserved by the omis-
sion of Dan.

In the symbolical description of the glory of the New
Testament church, and of the calling of the Gentiles.
Is. ixvi. 21, it is written, "And I will also take of them for
priests [and] for Levites, saith the Lord.'' [G. C.M.D.]

LEVTTICUS is the name commonly given to the
third book of Moses, after the example of the Vulgate,
which retained this name invented by the Septuagint
Greek translators. The word is an adjective formed
from the proper name Levi or Levite, and is tolerably
descriptive of a book which is occupied very largely
with the rules for sacrifices and other sacred services.
It has been noticed that similar names are found in
Rabbinical works, such as "the law of the priests/'
"the law-book of the offerings." But the common
Jewish name, and that by which it is designated in the
Hebrew Bible is Wayyiqrd, according to the practice

LEVITICUS

81)

LKV1TU.TS

of naming the books of the Pentateuch, from a word I nients which warrant us to understand that the book
or words as near the beginning as may be. Leviticus ! of Leviticus in general consists of the laws which were
is the middle book of the Pentateuch; and the .lews Driven between the time that the tabernacle was fully
have noted that the middle litt<:'f of tlie entire law of set up and the time that it departed from Mount Sinai,
Moses is the 6 in <jalili'>ii, "belly." in Le. xi. \'l. that in the direction of the land of promise, that is, between
the middle vi-<l is c~n. " sought," in ell. x. lo. and the first day of the first month, and the twentieth day
that the middle cirsc is eh. viii. S. j of the second month of the second year of the exodus,

The book begins, < And the Lord called unto Moses. ' Kx. x! >, 17, and \u. x. 11.

and Kjiid-i:. mitn li'nn out <>J t/n ! iln.rn<JLrh "f ' In this book of Leviticus there are plainly two great

i/ntifiii, saving," &c. This bodv of laws, relating pecu- subjects, wliich we mav designate \\ith Keil. first, i-li
liiirly to I-rael in their church capacity, was delivered i.-xvi , the fundamental law ami ordinances for the cove-
to them, through their mediator .Muses, of course, from nant fellowship of Israel with .lehovah: and secondly,
the niercv-seat of the taberua-'le. the plaee of app 'inted eh. xvii.-xxvii., the law> for the hallowing of 1-racl in this
meeting and uf '_T.ieious revelation, accord, n_r to |-].\. covenant fellowship with (!od. It is a division answer-
x\v. '!-. \u. vii. v.i. Yet the tabernacle moveil from ; ing to the two great characteristics of Mod's people,
place to place through the wilderness, und rev. latiuus privilege and duty, or grace conferred and injured on
continued to be Driven to suit new circumstances which I the one hand, and on the other hand uraee wrought
emerged in the hi.-torv of tin; p.- >ple. |',ut the laws in into them and manifested bv them. 'I'lius the L, rd
this book ap]>ear to have been given coiitinuouslv a( on.' at .Mu':u' Sinai had invited I -ra< 1 to In-come to him "a
period, at tin- commencement of the sp.-cial |e-i..lation. ' kingdom of pri--ts. and a holy nation." l-:\ xix. ii, and
and to have been the fir.-t in jioint of lime aft' r the , the foi-ni'-r designation may be said to be expanded in
fundamental legislation connected with the proelama- j the tirst part of Leviticus, and the second designation

Moses on tho summit of Mount Sinai. In regard to giving them the means of using their privileges of access
the>e last it is said, K\. \\\i. .;.', that when the Israeli to.- to ( ,'od as their (Iced, mav be coiisid. red a commentary
ventured to com.- near to Moses, after thev had |>er- I upon the preface to the ten commandments: \\hile the
ceived the shining of his countenance, ''he gave tin m ten commandments themselves, with promises and
in commandment all that the Lord had spoken uith thre-iteninu's anncxeil in certain instances, find their
him in Mount Sinai." And it i- this expression which comni' ntary in the second part of this book, with its
i- r. ])r-ateilly used in the h iok of I,, viti.-us: as tiie \\ho],- rule.- for enjoying, usiiiir, and n:anif. -tinu' the covenant-
series of la\\s upon sacrifices are said, to !" position in a lioly lifi-, with a statc'inent attached of the

those " which the Loi-il commanded Most s /// M<m,,t , blessings and cur-!.- that must follow upon obediei

,y/W, /// //,, (/// t/,,,/ /,, cnmnniiiilul the .-i,'.'.!,;:, ,,J :ui<l disobedience resj>ectively. And then- is a very

jrness of Sinai.'

i,mk\ '

I. The- law of offerings, ell. i.-vii.

1. Generally : luals, cli

i.-vi. 7 11 hrew, eh. i.-vj
[ 1.] linrn* otferiius, ,-h. i.
I J.] .Meat-ott'.-i-iiu's, eh ii.
I-':. 1 Peace otierin.'-, eh. iii.

[,-).] Trespass offerings, eh v. 11 vi. 7 (Hebrew , : , -.
_. Siwc-ial additional directions fir the

diiti--sand privileges in sacrificing; with s.. me newly men
ti.inel v.iri-ties in meat-oil, -rin_'s ami peace -oiferin;.'- ch. vi.
S vii. MS (Hebrew, ch. vi. vii.)

II. The investiture, >v.c.. of A iron and his son- with tile priestly II The lioline-- of the priests and the oll'.-rin.'s, eh. x\L xxii.
ollic-e, ch. viii.-x. l. Manifestati .11 of the -pe'-ial holine-s of the priest.-; |1] in

1. Conseeration of the pre.N, and of the tabernacle, in con their res; riet.-d mourning for the dead; pj] in the peculiar
nection with them, eh. viii .spotlessness of their marriages; [:;| in theirnoi approaeliii.g

2. Their tir-t sa.-riti--es eh. ix. the altar when they suffer from bodily defects, ch. xxi.

;i. Declaration of their holiness, by tlie terrible rV offiod. by | '2. And that of the olfenn.'s. whieh are not to be touched by a
his ,/.,/.<( if instruction on tlie subject, and by the condtict ! priest while' line-lean, nor by a stranger; and tlnty themsetlves

'.t inn
ithii :

ir people, a!l;m : in the I
ei .leh. i\ah and not in the way* of tlie he ith.-n, eh. xvii. XX.

tcj >Hi \\\\ : the anini ils heing kill.'d at
the tabei'iiarle door; mil yet th- blood, the atonement for

11, eh. xvii.
J. l'mit\ in the marri-iu'e relation, it<;.; and children not to

1,. .rjv,'.n to Moloeli, eh. xviii.

:; Instam-es of lioly eondiiet tow-ard ( io 1 and man. ch. xi\.
1. Knforcem -n: of . h. xviii. with [ieiialties, eh. \x.

to be in irked out, as holy by certain peculiar 411 ilitieations,
c-h. xxii.

III. Hnles as to means .f noiirislinu-nt, and a- to occasional III. Manifestations of holiness, both ut special se LSOHS and at
states of body, ch. xi. xv. all time.-, eh. xxiii. xxiv.

1. (.'lean and nn.-lean animals whieh of them may be eaten 1. Set, times whieh are soeeial as holy convocations, ch. xxiii.
and may be touched without defilement, and purifications, , -'. Israel's holiness uninterruptedly, as represented, [I | by the
c-h. xi. li_'hthieh burned continually in the tabc-i-iiac'le; p-| b\ the

J. Childbirth, and purifications, ch. \ii. show-bread continually presented in the tabernaele. [3| by

:'. Leprosy, and imriticatioiis, ch xiii. xiv.

-1. Other times of bodily defilement, and purifications, eh. xv.

IV. The day of atonement, the annual summing up and inter i.-- IV. Means of perpetuating tie- The. H

application of all the means of grace for the collective church, j 1. I.exally: The saliljatical years c-ulminatin- in tho Jubilee,
and with a call to each individual to improve the opportunity, i the restoration of all things, a- appointed in the law of Hod

ch. xvi. at first, ch. xxv.

J. Morally: Covenant discipline, for really preserving the

Vol.. II.

people in (iod's favour, or restoring them to it, ch. xx\i.
V. Appendix, on vows, ch. xx\ii.

138

LEVITICUS

The justification of any analysis such as this, must
be found chiefly in its simplicity and sullieielicy. l'i,t
one or two remarks may be added with propriety
(1.) Many of the divisions are made prominent by I lie
titles. "And the Lord spake unto Moses," or the like,
with which they commence: or by the concluding
fomu ili;-. >:ieh as occur at ch. vii. '- } >7 , : '>S and xi. 4>'i, -17.
and xiii. .'<:', and xiv. 54-57, ami xv. ">-!, :;::. -. The
nature of these opening or closing expressions may often
indicate the nature of the section, or confirm the im-
pression derived from reading the subject-matter. Tims
the general law of sacrifices is followed by a recapitula-
tion which dwells upon some matters that concerned
the priests more than the people. Therefore Moses is
commanded in reference to the forme 1 !', ch. i. 2, to n/,en/c
unto the f/i/'u'rcii of Jtrui'l ; but in reference to the latter,
cli. vi. :', to command A<tr<m mnl his umis, with which also j
compare ver. '2^, I'.l. In a manner entirely analogous to
this, the titles of ch. xxi. xxii. run thus, "Speak unto
the priests, the sons of Aaron, and say unto them;"
"Speak unto Aaron and to his sons:" whereas in the
three preceding chapters the titles run, " Speak unto
the children of Israel;" " Speak unto all the congrega-
tion of the children of Israel;" though it is certainly
more comprehensive in ch. xvii., "Speak unto Aaron,
and unto his sons, and unto all the children of Israel.''
perhaps because 1 the priests were specially interested in
the regulations which follow, as to killing animals at
the tabernacle, and as to the blood of atonement. In
fact, the unbroken connection of all the three chapters,
xviii. xix. xx., is marked out by the expressions often
occurring, " 1 am the Lord;" " f am the Lord your
God;" '' Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am
holy," .fee. ().) The division has a more artificial look
in our English Bible than it really ought to have, on
account of an alteration for the worse from the Hebrew
division of the chapters, as noted in the analysis.
(4.) A similar disadvantage to the English reader arises
once or twice from the authorized translation. There
is hopeless confusion occasioned by the rendering, ch.
v. i;, "He shall bring his trespass-offering unto the Lord,"
a rendering certainly permitted by the words, yet pre-
vented by the language of the end of the verse, and by
the want of any new paragraph to break oiF the rules
for the sin-offering until ver. 14: it ought to have been
rendered uniformly with ver. 7, "he shall bring for h is
trespass,' 1 '' Also in ch. xxiii. '2. the word "feasts" is
not a happy rendering, though it has been preserved
more uniformly than many others; perhaps "set times,"
"appointed times of meeting," the Scotch "trysts,"
would best give the meaning, as it would suggest the
contrast between seasons of peculiar approach and holy
service, as explained in this chapter, and the service
" continually " of a people always near unto him, of
which the next chapter gives two emblems, in their
presentation of oil for the light, and of the show-bread
with its incense. ('>.} The last chapter comes in as a
sort of appendix, all the, legislation, strictly so called,
having been ended some time before: but vows were
not primarily included in the revelation and lav/ to
Israel by Moses. No special encouragement was given
to them; and so far as practised, they were left very
much to the direction of patriarchal usage and the light
of nature, except that some restrictions were put upon
them here, and in Nu. vi. xxx. Compare the silence as
to tithes to be brought to God's house and spent upon
his service (distinct from the Levites' portion), though

LEVITICUS

this was natural in consequence of patriarchal example.
and a sense of intrinsic propriety, and the expending
of gifts in God's presence is therefore taken for granted
in the law; yet without any express regulations, till
those which come as it were incidentally, and like an
appendix, in De. xii. xiv. (<}.) We are not to look for
such logical arrangement as may be found in a modern
code. Tin; law to Israel was given in a popular man-
ner, and recorded in a book meant for all to study:
and its regulations partly arose, in the course of Provi-
dence, out of emergencies which the Divine purpose
had arranged for bringing out some particulars of the
Divine commands. There is very much less of history
however in this book of Leviticus than in any of the
others; it is confined to the sections, <;h. viii.-x. ami ch. xxiv.;
and there is an obvious resemblance between the pro-
vidence and the commands in ch. x. and those in ch.
xxiv. 10--!o, where the laws of (Joel are seen to be in
full operation, enforced either by his own immediate
act, or by the solemn act of the people in obedience to
his express command.

Very much less of this book than of any of the rest
has been impugned by the sceptical criticism of modern
times; and it is in general conceded that it presents an
accurate view of the Mosaic worship and rules of con-
duct, even where men have denied that it is the com-
position of Moses himself. As might be expected.
however, the prophecy in ch. xxvi. is pronounced to be
the composition of a later age, by those who refuse to
believe in proper inspiration and prediction.

Owing to the nature of this book, as it is very much
the ritual of the Jewish church, we could not expect
much direct quotation from it in the New Testament,
though we do find an instance, such as ch. xii. 8, in
Lu. ii. '24, "to offer a sacrifice according to that which
is said in the law of the Lord, 'A pair of turtle-doves
or two young pigeons.' " On the other hand there are
extremely frequent references to it, not only in the
epistle to the Hebrews, but also throughout the New-
Testament, inasmuch as the whole sacrificial system
pointed continually to Christ, the true and only proper
sacrifice for sin. Some of these references indeed are
specially to the passover, one of the earliest, most
striking, and in one sense the most fundamental of the
sacrificial services, of which we read chiefly in Exodus;
but with the exception of these, it is in the book of
Leviticus that we have to look almost always for the
Old Testament figures of the realities in the sacrifice
and priesthood of Christ. And as all the arrangements
for atonement culminated or were concentrated in the
services on the annual day of atonement, Le. xvi , we
need not be surprised to find in it a remarkable resem-
blance to the work of Christ, to which attention is
specially directed in ILeb. ix.

Yet since the book of Leviticus is also largely occu-
pied with the rules for holy living suitable to God's
redeemed people, we find quotations and references
which bear upon this other topic. The great reason
for holiness, i re. i. in, " Because it is written, Be ye
holy, for I am holy," is taken probably from Le. xi. 44,
though it is substantially repeated several times in this
book. This holiness, however, is in the Now Testa-
ment set free from many restrictions and imperfections
which were connected with the instructions concerning
it in the temporary and local dispensation given through
Moses. Especially all ties to a particular centre, the
seat of the tabernacle and the altar, are broken by our

LIBERTINES

LTP.XAH

Lord in his discourse to the woman of Samaria, Jn. iv.
2i-^\. The like is to be said of the special seasons in-
troduced by the law of Moses. Ga. iv. :>, i<> ; r,,i. ii n;, 17. The
latter passage refers also to the indifference of parti-
cular meats and drinks, as do other passages in the
epistles of Paul: and the lesson, as well as some still
wider, was impressively taught to Peter in his \ision
at Joppa, Ac. x., and alHrmed by the council at Jeru-
salem. Ac. xv. The whole t. pii'tle to the Hebrews mav
_

be regarded as in some respects a coiumeiitarv upon
the Levitieal law. pointing out th<- essential unity of
the two economies, and yet the immeasurable supe-
riority of the new over the old.

The singular arrangements of th" y, ar of jubilee,
that is, of glad sound. Le. xxv., aim> d at piv-erving the
constitution of things in th,. church of I-ra, 1 as it had
coni" troin tin- hand of (.od. and included provisions
for rectifying what, had gone wrong, and for restoring
what had b, en lost. The n ference to this, and to the
blessings colinecteil with this, i- plain in the language
of Ps. l.xxxix. LI, ''Blessed is the people that know
the joyful sound, they shall walk, O Lord, in the light
of thy countenance. The sam>- reference is equally
plain in the grand description of th" gn at prophet pro-
claiming the acceptable year of the Lord. N. ;
which our Lord r, ad and applied to himself in the syiia

goglle of Nav.nvtil. [,'l. iv. llj J] I'.Ut tile fulfilment

which had begun that day during hi- personal ministry
on earth, and \\hicii is In ing earrieil on at pivsi-nt, \\ill
H"t be c 'inpl"t"d, and cannot presi-nt tlieantitvpe of
some of the features in the year of juhii.v. till "the
times of restitution of all things," the deliverance "from
the bondage of corruption into the glorious liberty <>f
t ; ," ehildivn of (Jod," "the adoption, to wit. tin
deinption of our 1> ,<\\ ," \.- \\\. i , u: : i;
-'V-'n, of which it ought to be considered the type.

i Hi inks \vhieh nny lie consulted en Leviticus are ilie unvat

well kimwii commentaries MM tin- HIM.- at laiye; s| i-il com

mentarie- ,,i, the Pent.iteueh, such as \ins\\orth

elder, and liaum-arten's I I anioii" those

<if oar o n da\ ; , : k.

like the recent volume of A. A. l;,i:i ir. !'>, i n

eminent living (Jerman schol irs, Kn..liel. a th..roiuh Hat :<>nali-t.
and Keil. a -, au 1 and v. r, sensible Ian i.er.n, givi
marvMf all i Ii .t ha.- been accomplished, even to our own ilay,
in the interpretation and elucid.-it i<>n MI' the b,.,,k. M'ich \\ill
also I.,- found in il,,. best m.,,|,M-n works cm .lewi-h ant i.e.
such as those of Kwald and K.al: and particularly th'.-e ,.n ihe
sMalx.'ie-il MI- typical <y.-tem "f worship, e<p.viali\ hahr and
Fahbairn; al-o in the w,.ik-f lleng-tenlierg and Kurtz on the

MMsaic i.M'ei-ings; and s,,tne materials also in 1 ks c.n the

Mosaic constitution or system ,,!' laws, ,,f which Miehacli-' is the
best kiiMV, n, thdii-.'h he is a must unsatisfactory guide.. Excel-
lent artu-les, s ; c,f them very elaborate, by Odder. I.eyrer,

and liucischi, are given in Her/.,,',', under the heading-. / e,
<;:liih,l,, I., ,-i, and /., ,-il, , ';//-. /'-iv^.w. Ht ;,</"</' , S.i/,/,i:t/,- ,i,,d
J':l,<r,ahr, StfitHjtsilzt.] [c;. e. M. i,.|

LIBERTIXES [A^/irJVoi, properly a Latin word.
Libcrtini, freednien, either such as had, from being-
slaves, personally obtained their freedom, or who were
born of liberated parents"]. A party of Jews so called,
having a synagogue of their own at Jerusalem, appear
in the account given of the persecution raised against
Stephen, Ac. vi. i>. Nothing is said of their previous
history, but the probability is, that in the course of the
political disturbances which were ever and anon oc-
curring among the Jewish population, they or their
fathers had been carried as captives to Koine, and, on
their subsequently obtaining civil liberty, had settled
down there. Their having a synagogue at Jerusalem j

implied that some of their number were generally, per-
haps alwavs, in that neighbourhood, but their head-
quarters would still be in Koine. It is reported by
Philo that a large portion of the city beyond the Tiber
was inhabited by Jews of this description (Leg. ad i'ai.\
and Tacitus relates that so many as 4l l (i(i freednien.
professing the Jewish religion, were transported by
Tiberius to Sardinia ( Ann. viii. LY,>. Other views have
been taken of the party designated Libertines in the
Acts, such as that they were Italian fricdmeii who had
embraced the Jewish faith, or were natives of a place
called Lihertum in Africa: but that given above is so
probable in itself, and now so generally eoneurn d in,
that it alone is entitled to consideration.

LIB XAH [irliitun:-*]. 1. A station of the Israelites
in the wilderness. \u xx\iii. L'o.L'l. Thev had already
turned southwards alter tia ir fatal rebellion at Kadesh,
Nu xiv. L'.'I; lie ii l; and had ha It i d for a time at Kimmoii-
I'are/. probably tho sana as Jel el Ikhrimm or llarim:
,sYi III MMn.N-i'AKi / . whence they proceeded to Libnah.
\Ve mav look for the latt'-r. there!', re, at a day's
march to the south of J< hcl Ikhrimm, the locality bt ing
\d turtln-r ili t' rmined by the signification of the name
itself, and by tin- position of the ii"\t station, appar-
ently id, ntical with 'Ain el-Jughamileh, about thirty
mil, - or t\\o day-' journey smith of Jebel Ikhrin.ni (net
L'lssAiii. Accordingly, near the point uh, r, Lord I'rud-
ho"'s roii:. from S ;il /.to 1 Vt ra mi'-rseet, d that ot Si t t/.i n
from (iaxa to Sinai, i- a .-pot about half-way between
Jibcl Ikhrimm and 'Ain el-Ju.ghamileh, ca'll, d ll)r
(l-Alii/<l</. " the "'/, ilt stone" ,llil. . lies i ;,,;. i. This, then,
mav fairlv claim to ivpn sent the Libnah of the 1s-
rai-liti-h itinerary. It i- situated in a branch of the
gnat \\adv el- Arish. whicli abounds in pasturage for
(ami Is and flocks, and is the principal drain of the Tib
waters. It is still a landmark to the traveller as h.
crosses th" central desert: \\hile the 'chalk" formation
of its rocks, and the '' white -and" by which it is spe-
cially characterized iXimm. j-t. \i. , satisfactorily account
for tip- de-i^iiation l.ilmnli. of which indeed the modern
name is simply the ei|ui\ aleiit. That this title had a
peculiar significance. ] s evident from the Ian.

Dr. \\ il-oii when in the neighbour!) 1. "The glare,"

he wi'it, -. " from the chalk over which we were travel-
ling [northward along \\ady <T'Ar,-h|, and from the
cliff's around us, was quite intolerable. I wa- obliged
to dismount from my camel to have th" sphere of
reflection upon mv eves contracted; but even in this
way I found but little abatement of my visual agonies.
At mid-day we were close upon the flanks of the
remarkable chalk range which we had nhservt d running
to the north-north-west from the time that we had got

to the summit of Jebel Till" 'I, amis of the liible, i. ai:,, L'liii).

2. LIHNAII. A city in the lowland of Judah, Jos. xv. 42.

T. It was evidently a place of importance. For (1)
Joshua went out of his way to besiege it, although it was
not one of the leagued cities, against wliich his efforts
were at the time especially directed, Jus. x. l-.i, 2!i, "",: '", '''
He was too good a general to leave so strong a place
unsubdued in his rear, d'; It stands at the head of
the group of nine Shephelah cities to which it belong?,
Jus. xv. IL'- II. ('>) It ranked next to Hebron among the
nine cities of Judah and Simeon which were assigned
to the Levites, Js. xxi. i:! ; K'h. vi :,-. (4) Its revolt from
Jehoram simultaneously with that of Kdom. 1 was

LIBXA11

L IPX A IT

thought worthy of being placed on record. LM<J. viii. 22;
2Ch. xxi. 10. (."0 It sustained fur sometime the attack
of Sennacherib at the head of a powerful army. i'Ki. six v ;
is xxxvii.8. ( ( >> It was the native place of ilamutal,
\vho became the wife of Josiah, 1 and tin 1 mother of two
of his successors on the throne of .1 udali, .lehoah i/ and
Xedekiah, 2Ki. xxiii. 31; xxiv. IS; Jo Hi. 1.

II. I-'roi;i the circumstance tliat Libnah is twiee
mentioned along with Lachish. it has been supposed
tliat the two cities \\ere adjacent. Hut this does not j
appear to In- a legitimate infen i:''e froiu tlie contexts
of tlii' two passages. (1) Joshua is said to liave :
"passed" or "crossed over" from Makkedah to Libiiah,
from Libuah to Lachb-h. and from Lachish to Kglon.
Jos. x. 2!i,3i, ::i; the original 12V importing either the pas-
sage of ,'i riv.-r or mountain, or. in the absence of such
obstacles, tlie traversing a considerable space of level
ground. 2 Nor is this word used indiscriminately; for
in the same passage we are told that the ''kinu r of
Gezer came >'/> to help Lachish." and that Joshua.
"vent i'f>" from Kglon to Hebron, and " returned" from
Hebron to Debir. Jos. x. 33,30, 3S. ('2') The juxtaposition
of tlie two names in the duplicate narrative which de-
scribes Sennacherib as "warring against Libnah," after
"he was departed from Laehish,'' is at once explained
by a reference to the sacred writer's previous statement,
that the king of Assyria " came up against nil the \
fenced i'it!<* f J /"!<!//, and took them,'' 2 Ki. xviii. 13.
L:iel.i.,li and Libnah are mentioned together, not be-
cause they were contiguous, but because they were the
two principal strongholds of Judah in the south- west.
(:">) lint all uncertainty as to this point is removed by
the enumeration of Laehish, JMakkedah, &c., in a
group of cities totally distinct from that in which
Libnah appears, comp. Jos. xv. 37-41, with ver. .12-11.

III. We are enabled, however, to go beyond merely
general and negative considerations in our endeavours
to ascertain the position of Libnah. (1) In the list of ;
kings subdued by Joshua, it stands between Horniah
and Arad, cities of the ''south," on the one hand, and
Adullam and Makkedah, cities of the maritime plain,
on the other. Jos. xii. 14-10. This is suggestive of a loca-
lity towards the south of the Shephelah. where it
borders on the Negeb. (2) Of the four groups into
which the cities of the Shephelah are divided, the first,
Jos. xv. 33-30, comprises those of the north-cast; the

Edom and Libnah, thus occurring at tlie same time, had been
previously concerted. A n-feiviuv, houever, to tlie later narrative
in Chronicles ( which often supplies particulars of great value),
shows that while tlie Kdomite rebellion was a merely political
movement, the conduct of the people of Libnah was actuated
by far higher considerations. We are expressly told that they
refused to acknowledge Jehoram's authority " Im-ause he had
forsaken ih> Lord God of his fathers." Tim question was put before
them, ' vthctl'er it be right in the sight of God to heark.-n unto
men more than unto (Jod;" and they came to the righteous
determination that they " ought to obey (Jod rather than man"
(Acts iv. 10; v. L".I). A fidelity which thus enabled them (unlike
the inhabitants of Jerusalem) to disregard the example of an
idolatrous court, and (unlike the rest of Judah) to be equally
proof against the threats of royal vengeance. 2 Cli. xxi. 11, may
probably lie ascribed instrumentally to the lea\en of piety dif-
fused by the presence, of so many ministers of religion in this
second city of the priests, combined with its remoteness from

the contagious atmosphere of tlie metropolis, and its own strength

as a frontier bulwark of the kingdom.

1 Is it unreasonable to conjecture that this good king's choice
may have been determined by the reputation which Libnah
had acquired in days gone by for its noble stand on behalf of
the truth against an apostate predecessor?

- This serves asan additional argument, in favour of the opinion

second, ver .37-41, those of the centre, from tin; northern
frontier near Jaffa, to about the latitude of (laxa; the
third, ver. 12-44, the south-east, and the strip of country
between (laxa and Wadys Sheri'ah and Khuweilifeh
(which appear to have separated the Shephclah fiom
the Xegeli); and the fourth, \cr.4.Vi7, the I'hili.-tian
cities on the west or sea-coast. As Libnah belongs to
the third of these groups, this a^ain is indicative of a
position in tlie extreme south of the Shephelah. (:'>)
An analysis of the group itself narrows the question to
a point at which identification becomes almost a moral
certainty. There can lie little doubt that Kther corre-
sponds to 'Attarah, Ash an to Sehan, Jiphtnh to Bati-
hah, and Ashnah to I)rir Fsneid (xcf Low CorxTRV).
These four sites, which immediately follow Libnah in
the catalogue, are apparently close to (laza one being
north-east of it. one east, and two to the south. The
conclusion therefore seems inevitable, that Libnah was
not far from (laza, and most probably in a southerly
direction. In exact agreement with these indications,
we find a place called Lchhcn, about live miles south of
(laza, near the northern bank of Wady Sheri'ah. 3 It
appears to be the same as Lebhem, described by Felix
Fabri and Breidenbach in 14s:5 as the first halting-
place in the route from (laza to Sinai. It was a "vil-
lage," with a "large, dee]), but dry well"' (i;ib. lies. i. sot:
Lord. Lindsay, ii. 34"). This position in the direction of
Kgypt throws light on Sennacherib's motive in march-
ing from Lachis.li to Libnah. The latter was the best
point from which, while retaining his hold on Judaea,
he could watch the movements of Tirhakah. who was
approaching in order to create a diversion in Hexekiah's
favour. 4

IV. The name and situation of Lebben being thus
all that we could desire, it only remains to notice a
possible objection arising from the insignificance of the
present remains of so important a city. This is at
once obviated by the fact that Libnah was not con-
structed of stone, as was the ease generally with the
cities of Palestine, but (as its name imports r of brick.
This circumstance, which is not peculiar to Libnah,
but characterizes the neighbourhood in general, suffi-
ciently accounts for the scanty remains of antiquity 6
in south-western Palestine, and the consequent diffi-
culty which geographers have: found in identifying some
of its most famous cities. Dr. liobinsoii. on his way

that Laehish is not to be identified with the modern Um Lakis.
inasmuch as it is too near 'Ajlan to satisfy the term here em-
ployed. Kce note under KKILAH.

:i Kiepert's ma]), 1840. Zimmermann, with less probability,
locates it somewhat further south.

4 The Egyptian version (according to Herodotus) of the dis-
aster which miraculously befell Sennacherib's army about this
time, viz. that " a number of field mice, pouring in upon the As-
syrians, devoured their quivers and their bows, and, moreover,
the handles of their shields" (Ilrod. ii. 141), curiously coincides
with the terms of the prophetic announcement by Isaiah :
"Therefore thus saith the Lord concerning the king of Assyria,
lie shall not come into this city, nor ghnut an ari'nu' there, nor
come before it with MI Id," 2 Ki. xix. .'i'J.

* Libnah is derived from luban, which signifies (1) "to be
white;" (_!) "to make bricks," whence lebennh, "a brick," so
called from the white and chalk'/ clay of which bricks were made
(earn.)

Thus, when the Scottish deputation arrived at Heir Esneid
(the probable representative, as we have seen, of the adjacent
city of Ashnah), they remark, " We could find no trace of any
ancient building; the houses are all plastered with mud" (Narra-
tive, p. 108). And yet the prefix " Peir 1 ' makes it certain that
some large edifice, such as a temple, church, or convent, must
formerly have stood here.

LIBNATH

LICE

from Tell es-Saneh to Gaza, was struck with the change tian. Michaclis observes, as evidence that it is not

in this respect. ".luseir." lie writes, "was the tirst a Hebrew word, that it does not occur in any of tin-
village we had yet seen in 1'alestine not built of stnc. ; connate languages, the Aramaic, Samaritan, or Kthi-

The materials <if tlie houses are liere nnburnt bricks; opic.

and such continued to be the case all the way to (laxa. ! If the word is Kirvptian. the authority of the l.XX.

and is so elsewhere throughout the plain. The bricks would be peculiarly valuable, as their version was

are formed from the common loam of the soil, with made in Egypt, \\hile the ancient language was still

straw intermixed to bind the ma-s together, as in extant. Now tluy render the Hebrew- word, in each

Iv/ypt. They are of very large M/C. and are nier. i\ occurrenc-e. by ,7\-:'i(,->(s. the plural of ow, which i.-

dried in the sun. Manv of them. newly made, were the same as wiy. 1 '.y this word the (I reek naturalists
laid in rows along the ground, in the process of drying " i understand the minute insects but too familiar to us.

(i;ili. lies. ii. :;r..i,:.7"i. The Scotti.-h depntation. wiio tra- which we designate by the names of green-fly and

veiled in the opposite direction, sp.-ak of the "mud- plant-lice ctf>!<i.< . Linna-us adopted the word r//////,s

brick walls" which evervwhere nut their view from to designate the gall-nies. but it is clear that plant-lice

ol-'Ari-h to Doi'.lis (Julis), a little to the w.-t of ,l and not -all-flies are described by Thoophrastus (Hist.

Juseir (Narnitivu, p. MI, C .i7,!i:i, li''J, ld, ll'J); and. in connection I'l.iut. iv. in under the name ot M'ITT<S.
with the lir>t-meiiti"iied place which was not far from It would be absurd, however, to Mippose that really

Libnaht, th-ir language aptlv sets forth the perishable ft)>/iiil<* were inteii.led. The plague was not upon the

character of the building material chiefly employed in gardens and conservator!' of Egypt, but " upon man

its vicinity : ''Most of the houses are built completely and beast." Weeonsider that our Knglbh rendering

of mud. At present they are as hard and as dry as is tin- true one: and that the pests wire lire. In this

stone: but we cnuld readily imagine how easily the ease why did nt th I. XX.. it may be asked, plainly

wind rend the wall, i. [i:. w.j known appellation for the louse. 00d/). perpetuated in
LIB'NATH. .Si SIIIHOK-LIBXATII.

LIBYA. The name is commonly supposed t
derived from the people by whom the country was I We mu>t remember that the l.XX. were foreigners,

originally inhabiti d, namely the Lnbim which see), making their translation under the eye of an K-vptian

Among the Jews who had come to worshipat. Jerusalem, monarch, and that the people were peculiarly jealous
and who heard the tirst proclamation of the -ospel on , of the national honour. It would not he an unnatural

the memorable day of 1'eiitecost, are mentioned "dwel- feelinu' in the Jewish doctors, if they desired to treat

lers ill the parts of Libya about ( 'yrene." Ac. ii. 1<>. Those as delicately as they could a subject so humiliating; and

who had come from L_rvpt are also mentioned; so that thus to ivnd'T the ori-jinal by a word that mijit sug-

Libva mu-t be under-tood not in the larger sense in gest the true meaning rather than one which nakedly

which the term was often us--d by the (,n. ks and IJo- ex]nvssed it.- oll'ciish vne>s. \\c l.-arn from Herodotus

mans, as comprehending the whole of the northern part that the people of Iv.rvpt paid scrupulous attention to

f Africa, but in its stricter application to a particular

/h an extent was this earrii

province. The province of Libya, which stretched alou- that the priests ,-hav. d their entire persons once every
the African coast, to the west of Kifvpt. and lav riidit three days, " that n> ''/, Her, nor any other fold crea-
over aL, r ain>t < 'i-ete, wa> of somewhat uncertain dimen- ture, might IK; about their bodies' II|IT,.,I ii '''. Ad-
sions, especially on the southern side, where it stretched mittiiiLT the possibility of such a moti\e in the minds
into tin- interior. That part of it which lay nean st to of the LXX.. nothing e.uld be more suitable to save
the valley of the Nile, commonly designate,! Marmarica the amour prnpn of the l-iLryjitian ]ie.ple. than the in-
(Liiiva , was inhabited by a variety of nomade tribe:-, sect they selected. Its close parallelism to the human
and was in -Teat part des.-rt. The other and more parasite is remarkable : its minuteness, its fertility, its
westerly portion, which went by the name of <'iir> II'K-H pertinacity, its li\ in- upon the vital juices of the or
(Libya, was much more fertile, and possessed some ganism it infests, yet with, ut destroying its life, all
cities of considerable population and resources- in par- the.-e mark it out as it lunar, as we ha\e reco-ni/ed in
tieular live. I'.eivnicc, Arsinoe. Ptolemais, Apollonia, our familiar terms, "plant-louse." "rose-louse," i\e.,
Cvreiie, whence it was also called /'<t/,/,//'tini<i. It while the offensive disgustingness of the plague was kept
is to this latter region, undoubtedly, that the .lews out of siudit.

Rpoken of in the Acts belonged, as may be inferred from , .losephus' authority, taken for so much as it may
tin; mention of ('yrene along with Libva. The general be worth, is in favour of the Kngli>h rendering: as he
character of the re-ion, and the nature of its jiojmlation, ! rejiresents many of the Kgvptians living of phthiriasis,
have already been noticed under CVKKNK. ! and alludes to th'- shamt fulness of the plague.

LICE [:, ken: c::. L-inn<i,n\. This is the name. ' Our accomplished entomologists, Kirby and Spence,
confessedly, of some small insect, which Jehovah used place these minute but disgusting insects in the very
to humble the pride of Pharaoh and the Egyptians, in front rank of those which inflict direct injury upon
the third plague. Ex. viii. ic-l'J. Jioth forms of the He- man. A terrible list of examples they have collected
brew word are used in the narrative, but neither occurs j of the rava-t s of this and closely allied parasitic pests,
anywhere else. That the instrument of the scourge' They remark that, "for the quelling of human pride,
was minute we may infer from the circumstance that and to pull down the high conceits of mortal man.

this most loathsome of all maladies, or one equally dis

it was the dust of the earth that became k<n.

A vast amount of learning has Ijeen expended in the
attempt to show what particular insect is intended;
but with exceedingly little result. Etymology does
not help us, and the word itself is probably Egyp-

gusting, has been the inheritance of the rich, the wise,
the noble, and the mighty: and in the list, of those
that have fallen victims to it. you will find poets,
philosophers, prelates, princes, kings, and emperors.

LIEUTENANTS

LIFE

Jt seems more particularly to have been a judgment
of God upon oppression and tyranny, \vlietlier civil
or religious. Thus the inhuman Pheretima mentioned
by Herodotus, A.ntioehus Epiphanes, tlie dictator
Sylla, the t\vo llerods, the emperor Maximin, and,
not to mention more, the persecutor of the Protestants,
Philip the Second., were carried oil' by it.'" (Introd. to
Kntomol. iv.)

The case of Herod A grip pa. Ac. xii. -j::, is scarcely in
point. lie is described as "eaten of worms," cr/cwX?;-
Ko t JpuTcs; and as Josephus, who was his contemporary,
represents his disease as being in his bowels, the ravages
were doubtless produced, not by lice, but by the larva?
of some winged insect.

The Egyptian plague may have been somewhat like
that dreadful disease common in Poland, and known as
p'iicn Polori lea, in which the hair becomes matted toge-
ther in the most disgusting manner, and is infested
with swarms of vermin. Each hair is highly sensitive,
bleeds at the root on the least violence, and if but
slightly pulled feels exquisite pain. Lafontaine, whom
Hermann calls a very exact describer, affirms that mil-
lions of lice appear on the wretched patient oil the third
day of this disease (Mem. Apterul. 7s).

These insects form the order A ttophiru of Leach, and
Parasitic of Latreille. Most mammalia, if not all,
and probably all birds, are infested by them; each
beast and bird, as is stated, having its own proper
species of louse, and sometimes two or more. Three
distinct species make the human body their abode.
The species must thus be immensely numerous; but in
the case of birds we think that the statement is exag-
gerated. [i>. ii. c;.]

LIEUTENANTS. This term is given in our Eng-
lish I'ibles as the rendering of a word of Persian
origin, avhaxdarpanlin (D^TTCTO). Tt was the Persian
title for a class of officers, those who ruled over a
province, and may therefore be regarded as nearly
synonymous with grand satrap, or pasha among the
Turks, (rice Ges. Thes.)

LIFE [Heb. C'TT. Gr. .(w??]. The Scriptures nowhere
define life. It is the business of science to define it;
and science, even in our day, is unable to give a defini-
tion, being still in ignorance of what constitutes the
essential principle of vitality. Life is more than bare
being or existence. It is being with self-action, self-
motion, self- consciousness.

In man, assuming the trichotomy of his nature into
body, soul, and spirit, Jife consists in, or is dependent
upon, the union of these several parts of his being;
while its opposite, death, results from the separation of
the parts. The union of soul and body is life in its
lower form, the union of soul and spirit is life in its
higher development. The death of the body consists
in its separation from the soul, while the separation of
the soul (-^VX-TI) from the spirit (iri>evp.a) constitutes the
death of the soul, i.e. spiritual death, terminating, un-
less prevented by the regeneration or requickeriing of
the soul, in death eternal. (See Olsliausen's Opuscula Tlioo-
logica, l>:u, De notione voeis ^ in libris Novi Testament!.)

The Scriptures are everywhere a revelation or mani-
festation both of the life of God and the life of man.
They reveal to us in their successive books, with ever-
increasing fulness, all that is included not only in the
nature and being of God, but also in the nature and being
of man as it was originally, as it is now, and as it is

to be hereafter; and in virtue of this twofold revelation
of divine and human life to a world which had lost
the true conception of both alike, the Bible may well
be called the book of life.

Life is one of the chief characteristics claimed in
Scripture for the true God as distinguished from the
false gods of the heathen Je. x. 10, "Jehovah is the
true God, he is the living God (D"n DYTN), and an
everlasting' Xing," corn p. Ac. xiv. !.">, firiffTpiffitLv CTTL TOV
Seof TOV ferret while, in distinction from all created
living beings, he is represented as having life in him-
self, Jn. v. a;, and as alone having immortality, i Ti. vi. in.

The divine life resides in infinite fulness in the Word
or Logos, who is designated on that account "the
Word of life," Un. i. 1, and of whom it is said in the
same sense as of the Godhead generally. '' in him was
life," i.e. in a sense in which life was or indwelt in no
creature however exalted. More emphatically still the
Word is called " the life," "that eternal life which was
with the Father, and was manifested unto us." ] Jn.i. 2.

The manifestation of the life of God takes place in
the manifestation of the life of the Word; and the
Word of life, thus manifesting himself, is, as St. John
declares, "the light of men, : ' Jn.i. 4. All the know-
ledge which men have ever had, or ever can have, of
the nature, perfections, and will of the invisible God,
and of their relations to him, is and must ever be
derived from the self- manifestation of the Son "No
man hath seen God at any time;" "No man can see him;"
1 Ti. vi. 10. The light which he inhabits is light unap-
proachable (^cos airpoffirov; only, then, by some other
light can he be seen, and that other light is the manifes-
tation of the life of the Word; (a) in his works of creation
and providence, Jn. i. 3; (Ii) in the revelation, of his grace
and truth, Jn. i. 17; and, (c) in the personal exhibition of
his glory, by being "made flesh and dwelling among us,"
so that men could " behold his glory, as the glory of the
only begotten of the Father;" and in answer to the
demand, " Show us the Father and it sufficeth us," he
could say, ' ' Have I been so long time with you, and
yet hast thou not known me 1 He that hath seen me
hath seen the Father; and how saj'est thou then, Show
us the Father?" Jn. xiv. a.

Side by side, and /-art paKsu with the manifestation
of the life of God in the Scriptures, has advanced
the manifestation of the life of man first, as newly
created and uiifallen; then as lapsed from God, apostate
and condemned; next, as redeemed in the second Adam,
and partially restored to the image of God under the
dispensation of grace; and finally, as destined to be
fully restored in the world of glory, arid to attain to all
that is included in the gift and heritage of eternal life
far; aiwvios. The life of man includes a lower and a
higher life, corresponding to his twofold nature of body
and soul; to his twofold relation to the creature and to
God; and to his twofold sphere and stage of existence
the present world and the world to come. And ac-
cordingly the term life, as applied to man in the Scrip-
tures, has various degrees of meaning, sometimes ex-
pressing only the lower aspect of human life, at other
times referring only to its higher form, and at others
signifying the whole of man's life both in body and soul
natural, spiritual, and eternal. In the earlier por-
tions of Scripture the lower sense of the term is the most
prevalent; but as the revelation of divine truth and grace
advances, the word becomes more and more rich and

LIFE

inclusive in its significance, till at last in the Xevv Testa-
ment it reaches its pleroma of meaning, and becomes com-
prehensive of all the spiritual and eternal endowments

and blessings of redeemed, justified, sanctified and glori-
fied humanity. This gradual but immense development

gives uf fulne>s in the significance of the word, when
ns(;d to denote the higher spiritual life ( ,f those \vlio
are sanctified iii ( liri.-t Jesus. Sometimes the whole
of that life is denoted 1'V it, sometimes oulv one or
other of the various elements of v,hich it is made \ip.
In Io>. v. 1 \ justification only is. meant by it as op-

to the ne\\ ctiaracter and conduct resuitinu' from ln-in-j
planted together with Christ in the likeness of his
d.-ath and resurrection. hi 2 Co. v. I. \\ h iv niortalit v
is spoken of as 1 iuu s\\allo\\vd

evangelists win n c.'iupared with on,- another. Sueh a
v a rial ion has recent I v Keen point, d out hy M veral d-r-
nian theologians in the New Testament, use of the
phrase ''eternal life, ' j"u.>v)cuuij>ioj (in particular liv \\ 'ci.-s.
in hi> treatise, Ihr Jt>ltannciti-1n I.' /< <',<, /-///"//I *< iitoi
lirinnlzii'iiii iint<rt>t<-lit. ]~-<'>'2: in a review of the same
in tin; Shu!',,,, iiinl Ki-itlkfn for 1MJ4, :;d heft.; and in
llert/.og's A'//. /,'/. art. " Kternal Life'). Ail the New
Testament writers agree in ivpivsi ntliiv: the new life
which is bnuiirht in liy the Lord Jesus Christ, as an
eternal or everlasting lite, luit they undouhtedly vary in
the jioiut of applying tiie t'vni eternal life" to the
new life of tl.e 1,. liever as he_;,n ,,n earth, and before
it has yet expanded into the lite of heaven. The
three first evangelists never so apply it. but confine
the phrase exclusively to the life of -lory. The apostle
1'aul often conveys the idea ,,f the unitv or identity
of the new life of believi rs in lioth its successive stages
of grace and ulory, though he nowhere applies the
epithet eternal t" the lift: as a whole, but confines it
exclusively to the future heavenly stage of the life:
whereas it is strongly characteristic of the apostle
John's u.-age to speak of the new life of -race as already
the life eternal: not only to teach the unitv and con-
tinuity of the new life in this world and the next, in the
same sense that St. Paul does, but to Lrive expression to
that unity in the way of applying to the life, as it exists
in this world, epithets which are elsewhere restiicted
to it as it is yet to lie developed in the world of glorv.
"This <x life eternal, that they should know thee. the

: me peace and joy ol present communion with
his Lord, than to be occupied only, or mainlv, with the

> LICHT

hope of a future celestial communion. St. 1'eter is
distinctively the apostle of hope, and his two epistles
are full of the hope of "the salvation ready to be
revealed in the last time.'' of " the grace that is to he
brought unto us at the revelation of Jesus Christ," of
" the inheritance incorruptible, and undeliled. and that
fadeth not away, laid up in heaven." I'ut St. John
i- distinctively the apostle of love and life, and his
three epistles give far more prominence to the new life
of love \\hicli the children of Cod live now on earth,
than to the heavenly life of n'lory ^hi'-h is yet to be
revealed. Already to him the heavenly life is begun
and is richly enjoyi d. He lias the hlt>scd end already

ill tile ble.--.ed be-'i llllillg. Allvadv ill his vieW alld

style of speech, the life of tahh and love and. hope is

the life eVeria-tillu'. j I'. I.. ]

L1KK. TREE OF. >',, ADAM.

LICiHT. It i- not our intention to enter at all into
tin- quo-timi of the physical character of liuht. nor
yet into the eireumstaiic - of it- creation. It is cer-
tain that li-'ht was in existence, and that it was illumi-
nating our w..rld. loii-_' b, t'ore man or the ],|-eseii( races
of animals or vegetables had their hcin^ upon it. though
some. \\e I,, lieve, liave doubted whether the source of
it iii those remote period- \va- tiie same as at piv.-i nt.
It i- -p 'ken , .f in Scripture as owinir it- < xisteiice to
tin- exjiress \\ord and ji<it of the Almiuht v: and few sen-
tences even of holy writ are nmre sublime than that

early verse -if the 1 k of (iein - : -. " And Cod said. Let

then- be lie-lit : and there was liirht."

(>t all the li!-nelits \\hich we have, a- inhabitants
of this lower uorld, iveehed from Cod, there are few
more n-markable than th, possession of li-ht. with an
or-anixation i-nablin-; us to make use of it. Without
these we should obviously be utterly unlitted for the
life we ha\ e to Lad, nor is it e--\ to coi;,-,-i\-e any other
state at --nee oi rational and of eoi-poi-eal existence of
which we could I,,- capable. And not only is this the
case, but nearly the \\hole ,,f , l( ir knowledge of the
material universe is derived through the medium of
sight. Small indeed would be our acquaintance, were
we deprived of li_dit oi- of the power of m.-dsing use

of it. even of those things with \\hidl \v e could come

mit IP arly int-, contact: \\hile of the universe at large,
the orbs of heaven, the va-t systems of world-, around
us, the very existence -hould have been unknown to us.

Nor does liuht become ],-<s wonderful the further its
nature is examined. The investigations of later years
have done much to increase our admiration of it. Its
exi|uis!te and unsullied purity, which yet is the result
of the combination of rays of various lines: the w< n-
derful delicacy and variety of colour, \vhieh. perfectly
colourless itself, it is made the means of exhibiting to
our view; the astonishing beauties detected by yet
closer examination, bv searching with the magnifying
apparatus into the more concealed properties of the
prismatic spectrum, or by observing the exquisite effects
produced by tin- polari/.td beam all these increase our
astonishment at the results produced by the command,
" Let there be li-ht."

Such topics, however, as these, belong rather to the
ordinary cyclopedia than to the " Ilible- 1 )ictionary,"
and we shall confine ourselves, during the rest of this
short paper, to what may seem our more proper
department.

Considering what litrht must have been in the view
even of the very simplest spectator, especially perhaps

LIGHT

LFGX-ALOE

in countries where ;i clearer atmosphere and ;i sun
higher in tin- heavens would niudi increase its power,
it would not lie surprising that it should exercise u
vast influence over the imaginative powers of man.
Of all forms of false worship, none probably showed
icself more early than the worship of the sun, the
adoration of the groat source of light and heat. There
seemed a constant tendency, as "they beheld the
sun when it r-hined, or the moon, walking in bright-
ness," for their "heart to be secretly enticed," for them
to be " driven to worship them and to serve them."

Such being the case, it is most interesting to notice
how God in his holy word at once checks the tendency
to idolatrous worship, to homage offered to created
things: and yet gives abundant scope to the poetic
tendencies, as wo may term them, which he has im-
planted in the mind, by the noble manner in which
the various wonders of creation, and perhaps light more
than any of them, are made to show forth in figure
things spiritual or even divine. In two instances,
I's. viii. and xix., perhaps in several more, the thought of
the great luminaries themselves is made use of, at
once to humble the pride of man, and to lead him to
the more devoted worship of that Being who made them
all: and whose laws, and judgments, and testimonies are
superior even to the physical works of his hand.

We will now endeavour, though with no very strict
regularity of arrangement, to point out some of the
varieties of figurative instruction connected with our
present subject. In the iirst place, the Almighty him-
self is very frequently spoken of in the Scripture, as con-
nected with the idea of light, and this nearly as much
in the Xe\v Testament, the language of which is on
the whole less figurative, as in tho Old. Thus, 1 Jn. i. :-,,
''God is light, and in him is 110 darkness at all;' 1 and,
Ja. i. ir, " The Father of lights, with whom is no varia-
bleness, neither shadow of turning." Thus also, to
select a few from very numerous examples, IV civ. 2,
" Who coverest thyself with light, like as with a gar-
ment;" and, iTi. vi. 1C, "Dwelling in the light which no
man can approach unto." Into the figurative repre-
sentations of God, it is also not unfrequently the case
that great sublimity is introduced by the combination
of the iigures of darkness and of light, and by making
them mutually enhance each other. Thus, Vs. xviii. n,
"lie made darkness his secret place; his pavilion
round about him were dark waters and thick clouds
of the skies;" which gains considerably in force, from
the clause which follows it, "at the brightness that
was before him" (atrb rrfS rriXavytjaeus ev^iriov aiVor,
LXX., the brightness of his presence, which no veil
could long conceal), " his thick clouds passed." And
thus, in his descent upon Sinai, he is spoken of as
"dwelling in the thick darkness," while at the same
time such a radiance of glory proceeds from him, that
the very face of Moses, after the conference, had a
brilliancy upon it which the children of Israel could
not steadfastly behold. This, then, may serve as to
light in general denoting glory, or in particular the
gl<>ry of God.

\\ ith regard to our Saviour Jesus still more remark-
ably is this figure employed, especially by St. John.
Thus, .in. i. I, "In him was life; and the life was the
light of men." Life dwells in him, as water in a foun-
tain, or as light in the sun; dwells in him and flows
from him. And this life consists of light, illuminating,
purifying, vivifying. Thus also we might refer to

Jn. i. 9; viii. 12; xii. ?>~>. !(>, and 4<>, and many other
passages of St. John's gospel; besides numerous expres-
sions in the other gospels, as for instance in the song of
Zacharias and the song of Simeon, r,u. i. ~x, 7:1; ii. :!2.

But we shall perhaps do best by noticing the appli-
cation of the word light in other modes. It is used
continually of holiness and purity, as opposed to un-
holiness and defilement. Thus, to take two or thri e
out of numerous examples. Pr. vi. 2:;, ' For the com-
mandment is a lamp; and the law is light." The con-
text evidently shows that the thing principally intended
was its keeping us from what is impure. A'_'ain, Js.v. 2<i,
" which put darkness for light, and light for darkness:
which put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter." Ho.
xiii. 12, "The night is far spent, the day is at hand: let
us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let us
put on the armour of light." We might quote also,
as striking instances of the same class of figure, 1 Jn.
i. 7, and ii. 9-11.

Light, also, as might naturally be expected, is fre-
quently used for spiritual illumination, especially that
illumination which is effected in the soul by the in-
dwelling Spirit of God. And here the references we
might make would be well nigh innumerable, so that
we shall content ourselves with just one or two as a
specimen. 2 Co. iv. o, " God, who commanded the light
to shine out of darkness, hath sinned in our hearts, to
give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in
the face of Jesus Christ." Ky. v. i-l, "Awake, thouthat
sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give
thee light." We will cite also the noble expression of
St. Peter, 2Fe ii. '., "The praises of him who hath called
von out of darkness into his marvellous light, '

Again, light is often used as a figure in general for
anything which tends to cheer or to render prosperous.
Thus, 1 Ki. xi. 30 and Es. viii. 1G. Hence it is applied
with much force to spiritual joy arising from the happy
influences of the Spirit of peace. Hence the frequent
use of the expression, " The light of thy countenance."
Similarly, I's. xxvii. i, " The Lord is my light and my
salvation." and. I's. xcvii. n, "Light is sown for the
righteous, and gladness for the upright in heart." This
use of the figure seems however principally confined to
the Old Testament. We may notice a striking variety
of it in Job xxx vii 21, " Men see not the bright light
in the cloud;" their trouble so oppresses them that all
seems dark, they observe not the happier times in store
for them.

We must not omit to notice the revealed Word of
God as represented in connection with the light. Thus,
I's. cxix. 105 and Is. viii. 2<>.

The figure is also applied to the heavenly state.
Thus, Col i. 12, " ("Jiving thanks unto the Father, which
hath made us meet to be partakers of the inheritance
of the saints in light." See also Is. Ix. 19, 20, and lie
xxi. 23, and xxii. , r >.

Finally, the figure is applied to angels, c.;/. 2 Co. xi.
14; and occasionally to holy men, as to John the
Baptist, Ju. v. 35; and to Christians in general, Mat. v. i-i;

Ep v. 8. [T. S.]

LI GIST- ALOE. This word occurs only once in the
English Bible. It is in Balaam's beautiful parable,

Nu. xxiv. 0:

"How goodly arc tliy tents, O Jacob !

And tliy tabernacles, O Israel !

... As the trees of lign-aloes which the Lord hath planted,

And as cedar-trees beside the waters."
There seems no good reason to doubt that the lign-

LKU'RK

LILY

aloe ('i/iit/! iii) is the plant on which authorities so good
as Celsius and Uoyle have agreed, the A'juilaria A'jallv-
r/i/iiii of Northern India. (<S! ALOE.) Not only is the
fra'j rant wood, olitaiiied from its diseased or decaying
tiinU-r, exceedingly prized in commerce, but the tree
itself, with its massive b"le and magnificent stature, is
well Worthy of being named alongside of the cedar.
Nor is there much force in an objection lately ottered.
' The passage manifestly implies that the prophet had
seen the (t/n'c'ini '/i'iii>'ii<:/, and that in all probability
they were some' kind of trees sufficiently known to t la-
Israelites to enable them to understand the allusion in
its full force" (Saiith's Du-ti":.;iry "fU.e l;il'!e, .\u< It mi-lit
as soon be ur^'ed th.it allot i>ur poets, from Chaucer
down to Southey, \\lio allude to palms and eedars must
have seen them gro\\in_;, or that Milton must have
seen the fig-tree, " \\hich in Malaliaror I )eecan spreads
her arms." No doul.t I'.alaani knew about the tree.
lie was prolialilv familiar with its fragrant \\ood. from
so remote a period a favourite arti'-le <if ea-tern com-
merce; and even if the Mesopotamia!! soothsay r had
not travelled into India in search of its mysterious
knou led-c. he could i-asilv liave learned from the traders
regarding this remarkable treeeiiou-'h to tire his imagina-
tion and surest a natural figure to his noble apostrophe;
and from similar sourees his hearers who. by the way.
were not " Israeliu-s" lint Moabitoo m:iv ivaililv have
derived information sufficient for fnllv appreciating
the allusion of their prophet. ' >n the sunn- prineiple
it might he conteii'led that the " cedar- trees" of the
next sentence could not lie t'i>- cedars of Lebanon.
Few Moahites, and, up to this time, no Israelite. c,,nld
have visited Lebanon: and neitlr r c-edars nor a'piilarias
urew in those regions. Fortunately, however, in the
interests of poetry, the imagination is familiar with
manv ohji-cts which th>- eve lias not seen: and to this
.Mi'lianiti- seer, as well as his audience, these two
trees, with their srentcd wood and towering stature.
so naturally associated and so mutually su^nesth v.
mav have Keen sutti -iently known through distant
report to ifive a 'jrand significance to I'.alaam's com-
parison. [.I. I!. |

LIGURE. The name of a precious stone, forming
the first in the third row on the hi_di-pri'-st's In-east
plate-. I-A. \\uii. in. Tin- word itself is the l-'n^Ii-h form
of the (ireck \i' r i''/>ioi'. i-m]>loved liv the Sept. as an
equivalent for the Heli. /<-/",;< iziT'i. The gem denoted
liy thetireek woi-d reseml>l.-s amhcr. and is a species of
jacinth. derivim; its name from Li-uria. a i-.-^ioii in the
north of Italy, where it ahounded. l'>ut whether this
was actually the ^'-m meant under the !lel>. li.<lnm is
I iy no means certain.

LILY [;cic, xh,,h -xJ, nh , n:-i-ic ; . *!> oh-xli<tn-nli : K^'IVOV}.
In our own and many other lanuuauvs the word ///// is
of lar^e significance, and takes iji a vast variety of
plants which, ln-auty cxcepted. have not much in com-
mon. Shakspeare speaks of

"Lilies ,,f nil kiinls.
The- fli.w,.r-.le luiv liein- one;"

Imt the " rleur-de- Louis," the badire adopted liy Louis
the Seventh of France, when he joined the crusaders,
was an iris, represented l.y the yellow flair-flower, with
which we are familiar in wet meadows and aloiiir the
marrin of our winding streams drix pxfHdacorun) .
This halberd- shaped blossom has little resemblance to
the cups of jrold and silver (the nymph:eas and nuph.ars)
which float on the surface of our tranquil lakes still

Vol.. II.

less to the broad salver of the Victnrln r( : na. all of
which we have agreed to call water-lilies: and these
again are very distinct from the (iuernsey lilv (Xtrii/c
sarnicn*!x) and other members of the amaryllis family,
to which jiopular usage or poetic courtesy has extended
the lily name, although sc-ientilic la-raldi-y excludes them
from the true lilv order. Unless it were in a nation of
gardeners, it would lie vain to look for a riirid nomen-
clature. No doubt the .lews Wel'e like ourselves; or
rather, the Jewish children : for practically thechildnn
of all lands are the botanists. At life's outset, our
heavenly Father lays us down on the soft cool grass,
aiiion_st the daisies and the "stars of IVthlchcin."
They are our playthings, almost our companions, and
\\e call them all by their names. It is onlv when we
grow tail, r that new objects arrest us, and \\e lose
si--lit of the flowers; but if \\e ever notice them again,
we prefer the infantile nomenclature, \\itli all its
poetry, to the hard titles imposed by the systematist.
The childn n and the peasantry of Finland ^ive the
name of lily to datiodils and nuphars. in di fiance of l.in-
na-us; and. althouu'h spt-aking of trees 'from the cedar
to ili' hyssoj)," Solomon could have taught them better.
it is likely that both old and young in 1'alestine ex-

tellded to more plants than one the name ylit'li-fhiilin.
F\en tin- l,otani~t includi s allion-'st the Liliacea-. the
tulijis. hy.iciiit'is. fritillarie-. stars of Fethleliem. and
scarlet lili. s. \\liieh the Holy Land still yields so freely :
and it' tlie lotus "I' tin Nile had been naturali/.cd in
any n si rvoir or i:\er. like the lar^e yellow \\ater-liliis
\\hichstill flourish near the Lake of M.rom. it would

1 40ii.) Wliite l.ily l.il

not have been unnatural to bestow on it the self-same
name.

On this subject we once sought the opinion of Sir
\V. ,1. Hooker, and with the obligingness which is so
often associated with the highest scientific eminence,
he sent a long and elaborate reply, from which we
cannot do better than transcribe the following sen-

139

LILY

tences: '-I have thought much, and have read what
botanists have written on tlie lily of .Mat. vi. '2s ; but
.1 Ljrievc to say. the more I read on such subjects, the
more 1 doubt the possibility of coming to satisfactory
conclusions. I remember at one time bein'j' satisfied
that .the .1 /,/'///////.- In/in was the lily of Scripture. 1
think Sir .lames Smith first maintained t/nit in his
pamphlets entitled ( '<>,>sid< ration* rcsjii-i-/iii;/ C'ain-
/<;/<//<. and Difun-c <>f (/ C//"i'f/> ; and in Flora
Gra-i'a \ >i . :\-. [>. m), where he says, -ila-e est apud
Atticos planta conmaria. " iVc. ['In Attica the yellow
amarvllis is used for garlands, and is frequently planted
in Turkish cemeteries as a token of the love of sur-
vivors. Its splendid blossoms, golden, and truly regal,
frequently adorn the warmer fields of Kurope at the
close of harvest. Hence, undoubtedly, they corre-
spond to the field lilies of the gospel much better than
the white lilies nf the garden, which never grow spon-
taneously in Svria a circumstance confirmed by the
name 0.7/110 Kpiva. or 07/1(0 \a\fs, which the Creeks
give them at this day.'] Kirby replied to this in a
little dissertation, published in the Christian Remem-
brancer, 1819, or thereabouts. He knocks this pretty
hypothesis on the head, by saying this plant could not
be used for fuel, and gives his verdict in favour of |
Li/inin ciiiididiini. the Kpivov of Dioscorides, the withered
stems of which are very likely to be cast into the oven."
Kirby's conjecture is almost, if not altogether, right.
We have 110 fairer flower, and we cannot wonder that
sacred and legendary art has long employed the white
lilv as the perfect emblem of purity. It is still a ques-
tion, however, whether the white lily (Lili/'n> can-
iliilnni) is a native of Palestine; and the scriptural
allusions are still better borne out by her more splendid
sister, the scarlet martagon (Liliuiit clndi'((l<n>icum}.
Without having had the advantage of visiting the
locality, we have no doubt that this is the plant of
which Dr. Thomson speaks so glowingly: '"The Hu-
leli lilv is very large, and the three inner petals meet
ab ive, and form a gorgeous canopy, such as art never
approached, and king never sat under, even in his
utmost glory. And when 1 met this incomparable
flower, in all its loveliness, among the oak woods around
the base of Talior. and on the hills of Nazareth, where our
Lord spent his youth, I felt assured that it was to this

he referred I suppose, also, that it is this identical

flower to which Solomon refers in the Song of Songs,
' 1 am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys.
As the-lily aiii'ine thorns, so is my love among the
daughters.' The bride, comparing her beloved to a
roe or a young hart, sees him feeding among the lilies,
C;L ii. 1, 2, ifi. Our flower delights most in the valleys,
but is also found in the mountains. It crrows among
thorns, and I have sadly lacerated my hands in ex-
tricating it from them. Nothing can be in higher con-
trast than the luxuriant velvety softness of this lily,
and the crabbed tangled hedge of thorns about it.
Cazelles still di-light to feed amoim' them; and yon can
scarcely ride through the woods to the north of Tabor,
where these lilies abound, without frightening them
from their flowery pasture" (Land and the Book, part ii. eh.
xviii.)

The LUiiiiii clialcedonicum, or scarlet martagon,
thus combines within itself all the features suggested
by the lily of the Song and of St. Matthew. It delights
in the valleys; it is often found amongst thorns; its
dried stem may be used for fuel, and "cast into the

iven :" and, with its stately growth and flowing coro-

net, it is a trnl v imperial flower, which may well

hallenu'e Solomon in all his glorv. And if aught

further were required, to rivet the proof, and exclude
all competitors, we have it in (.'a. v. 13. where, regard-
ing the royal bridegroom, it is declared, " His lips are
lilies." Here it is manifest that neither the white lily
nor the golden amaryllis would answer the purpose of
the sacred poet; which, however, is admirably sub-
served by the ruby tints of this gorgeous blossom.

At the same time we are quite prepared to believe
that the architectural ornamentation mentioned. iKi.
vii. 1'.), '2-2, may have been taken from the Egyptian lotus
(Niim^litra lotus). When Colonel Williams was en-
gaged in his excavations at Susa. he came on the traces
of a palace of the ancient Persian monarchs rivalling
Persepolis in grandeur. "The bases of the columns
were bell-shaped, and richly carved, in representation
of the inverted flower of a plant, which we usually

term the Egyptian lotus Round the swell of

the bell is an elegant and elaborate wreath, formed
by alternate buds and perfect flowers of the lotus"
(Loftus' Chaldaj.i, r . M:!). Could there be a better com-
mentary on the "chapiters" (capitals) of lily- work "on
the top of the pillars" in Solomon's temple? We can-
not open a book of Egyptian antiquities without ob-
serving how constantly this lily of the Nile recurs as
the staple ornament in Egyptian art; and recent dis-
coveries show that much farther east than Palestine,
amongst the Assyrians and Persians, the beauty of its
form was fully appreciated; and that it was continually
repeated, in bud or full-blown, by the artist, the archi-
tect, and the worker in metals. And who that knows
even our own water-lilies, " serene in the calm water,
but no less serene among the black and scowling
waves," can wonder at the love, passing up into a sort
of religious veneration, with which Egypt regarded its
lotus and India its kindred iielumbinm ?

LIXKX

LINEN

\Vliat i.- like dice, fair tl.iwer.
The -elide ;iiid tlic linn? llms In-arili;,'
To (he blue sky dint alabaster on).,
As to the shower;

' was helel to be linen of ,i finer quality than usual, lie.
xli. i'J; Kx. xxxix ^--, \e. Our translators seem occasionally
to have hesitateil whether linen or silk should he
adopted as the rendering; at Cc. xli. -I '2 */// is the mar-
ginal reading, and at 1'r. xxxi. _!'_', \\here there is no
marginal muling, .-/// is the rendcrini;- given in the
| text. I 1 ', Veil Ocscnius still hesitates between the two
renderings, indeed gives as the first and proper niean-
1 iii'_r of .-/((.-/i, />;/*.: and 1,11^'uic doth, tlnti i.<, xillc in- i-uttiin,
and that u-/iitc,jiiie, and diar. Hut he allow.- that it is
al-o u.-ed of linen stutl's. particularly in Kx. xxxix. "JS,
"Consider the lilies." \Voiidrou.- is < loci's chemistry. ; \\herethewonlhas rc.-pect to the dress of the priest
who out of Mack mould and invisiMe vapour builds up hood, and where the articles are spoken of both as being,
that column of chrysolite, and crowns it \\ith its Ham- in part at least, made of had ("breeches of lmd"\ and
ing capital.' And how .-trance is Cod's husbandry! ; this l,ad twisted. I n the Si pt. flu *lt i- always rendered
In-tead of taking the lily into a conservatory, ami b ',,/.<.< (.li'ffffos : so that this latter \\ ord also

(>, love is ni(i.-t like diee,
Tne love of woman: ipiiverin^ to die Mast,
Thi-ouuh every nerve, \ef routed deel> and fa.-t
.MieU life's dark sea.

And faith -O, i.- Hot faith
Like thee, too, li!\, .-in-in-in:; into li./nt
Still Imoyantly, above the billow's ini-ht,

Throuuh the storm's breath':" -V,v. //<!<

thorn.-: but there a^ain his mvsterious hand is at work, books. K/e xxvii. ir.; 1 rh. iv. L'l; xxv. -.7; L' ch. iii. 11; v. 1J, I-N. i. 7;
controlliim' its atlinitie.-. building- up its fabric, enrich- : viii i:., was anciently held to be the same \\ith ..-//< .-/(,
hi'.: its beaut v : so th it the same soil from which one { and the Targumists also uniformly treat them as idcii-
nature can oiilv extract the harsh a-trinuent .-l..r with tical. If we could, therefore, determine \\itii certainty
its cruel spines and .-pears, \ields to another llexile the material of /. //.--.(. we should also determine the ma-
leaves and balmy blossom. So the church of ( 'hri.-t is terial of .--/M .-//. l',m this i- not ipiite easily dune, as
a lilv of the valley : the believer is a iilv in the mi.Ut ' the passage's hearing \\ilh any distinctness on the sub
of thorns. The life of faith is not lived in the convent i ject are neither numerous nor altogether decisive,
or in tin- sanctuary, but out of doors, in the inisvm- : In Ne\\ Testament scripture th> re is only cine pas
pathi/.hi''; world, in the midst of .-ecular men. I'.ut the i sage \\hich can be referred to; it i- when- ihe alien-
du.-t fnm the world'.- highway, \\liic-h to clammy vi-cid ; dants of the -loiili. .1 1,'c-de, m, r are n presented (sym
steins and coarse weed-like natures clings in thickening bolically) a,s clothed in lii/tmlm shininu and clean, or
coats, finds small lodgment on th" ]ioli.-hed stalk, on i v\ hite and clean. !:> xix. .-, 1 1, \\hich is explained to mean
the cha-ed silver or ruby chalic, . of tin- lily. The can s i the righteousness uf th.- sain;.-. 1 1 .-re. however, it i-
and avocations which make others of the earth sn the appearance of the attire its clean, hriuht. and
earthy lie. d not secularize, the < hristian: and from the shinin- asp. c t not the material of \\ liich it \\ as formed,
same soil, the same atm 'sphere, from which they ilerive that plainly was in v lew, and cotton or silk mi-lit,
disam'eealile or repul.-ivc attributes, he can absorb eijually with linen, have been contemplated as foriliing
grace tor grace, and -ive forth excellence for excellence. the substanc.- of the natural fabric, which to the eye- of
The same boimtie- of Providence, the same wealth or ! the apoealyptist carried a symbolical meaning. A pas-
pro.-p.Titv. which make Nabal m >re churlish and sage more directly bearing <>n the jioint occurs in Hero-
thorny, make- .lo-.-ph more generous, more tender, and dotus . n. -;>. in v\ hich. speaking of the mummies, he says
fot--i\inu r ; the same sunshine which elicits the balm of tliatthey were wrapped in bands of byssiue sindon m'0u-
the lilv, matures in the blackthorn its \eijuice; the ros ,ii criTi'?;s rAaiul'cn . Tliere can be no doubt, that by
same shower which makes brier- and thi-tles more rank. the- xiiitlnn here Inn n was meant, so that by.-sine linen or
tills the lilv cup with nectar, and clothes it in raiment linen made of b\ ss must have been an article oi I'-gVp-
ec-lip-in-- Solomon. [.i. n. | tian clothing. The fact, it may be added, involved in
LINEN. There are several words in I lebivw \\hich the statement of Herodotus, as to the kind of clotli em-
have bei-n rend. -red Unfit in our Knyjish liible, and ployc-d in the dressing of mummies, ha.- now been
which it is necessary to notice in detail, as the meaning thoroughly ascertained - though at a comparatively re
is somewhat different in each. l!y much the most com- : cent period cotton, not linen cloth, was -en- lallv held by

mon term is n,id n;\ the i t-meanin,^ of whic-h is the learned to have Ix-en the fabric employed. Ilec-rc-n

Ki-l,iiratiiiii. or a distinct and separate thing, and the ; (Hist, liesearclies, KKM'. i-li. iv.i states it broadly, that " the

common m--aniiiL;- Inn n i-lnili, with the su'o.>rdinate dress of the mummies was chiefly composed of cotton;

ideas of white and line --supp -ps.-d by the rabbins to be ! and Schweighaeiisc-r, in his note- on the passage in Hi ro-

so called, because of the isolated appearance presented dotns, refers to both the opinions of ancient authors and

by the stalks of flax on th" ground, and by < .Yseiiius the observations that had been made on the cloth itself,

from probably the distinctness of the threads in the in proof of its having lx;en made of cotton wool. .More

texture of the cloth. It is very frequently u-cd with careful investigations, however, have overturned this

reference to the garments of the priesthood, Kx. xxviii. l^ ; view, the- results of which are thus related by Wilkinson:

xxxix. -J-; Le. vi. Hi; xvi. 4, c., which. like those of the ; "The accurate' experiments made-, with the aid of

priesthood in Egypt, were undoubtedly of linen, and powerful microscopes, by Dr. I' re, -Mr. I'-auer, .Mr.

if a white appearance. Another term, which the
rabbinical .lews held to be (mite synonymous with
/"((/ is fln-ah ccri, which Abene/.ra describes as signify-
ing equally with /mil " a species of flax, growing in
Egypt alone, slender and white;" this first, then the:
cloth made from it. In the Authorized Version the
epithet line is coupled with liitat to convey what was
understood to be the full sense of the word; the tVcWc

Thompson, and others, on the nature of the fibres of
linen and cotton threads, have shown that the former
invariably present a cvlindrical form, transparent, and
articulated, or jointed like a cane, while the latter
offer the appearance of a flat riband, with a hem or
bonier at each edge; so that there is no possibility of
mistaking the libres of either, except, perhaps, when
the cotton is in an unripe- state, and the flattened shape

of tin; centre is less apparent. Tin- results having been 1
found similar in every instance, and the structure of
the Ml ires thus unquestionably determined, the threads
of nmmniv cloths were submitted to the same test,
and no exception was found to their being linen, nor
were they even a mixture of linen and cotton thread
(A no. K-yp vol. Mi. M.V).

There can no longer, then, lie any reasonable doubt
as to two points namely, that the Egyptian mummies
were wra]ipeil in linen cloth, and that thw cloth went by
the name of hvssitie. But whether linen was the only
cloth so called, is another question, and, apparently, j
must be determined in the negative. ////, and thcx/i,
we have already seen, were two names for the same ,
thin^. .15 ut the Arabs of the present day designate
tine muslin bv the name fln*li. or X/KI.X/I, which goes
far to establish the application of the term in ancient
times also to a similar cotton fabric. Then we have
the fact, which is admitted on all hands, that the cotton
plant was anciently cultivated in Egypt, and dresses
made of it, which were worn by all classes. Pliny
expressly states that the cotton fabrics were remarkable
for their brightness and softness, and were most agree-
able to the priests of Egypt. I'estes unit- Miffnlutt/itts
.I-I'iii liti' ;/)((/ /t.-iitiitr (xix. -'). \Ve learn also from Plu-
tarch that cotton garments were supplied by the
government for the use of the temples (l)c Is. s. 78). Yet
the same writer assures us that linen was preferred
(DC Is. R.I). Herodotus even affirms that the priests
wore nothing but linen clothing, nor were they allowed
to use any other, and that the people generally dressed
in linen, which was always new- washed (ii. 3?). It is
impossible that both testimonies can lie correct; unless
it be, as Wilkinson supposes, that the statement of
Herodotus refers to the inner portion of the dross of the
priests, or to the garments which they were obliged to
wear when entering a temple to minister. It is not
improbable that on solemn occasions the priestly dress
had always to be of linen, as the dead, not excepting
those who belonged to the humbler ranks of life, had
always to be wrapped in it; while still the ordinary
attire may have been chiefly of cotton, or, at least, of
cotton and linen indifferently, according as the soft-
ness of the one or the coolness of the other might be
most relished.

The conclusion which seems necessarily to follow from
all this is, that the terms by** and s/iex/t were used with
some freedom as regards the material of the fabrics to
which they were applied, and that cotton as well as linen
cloth was included, both alike being capable of the lus-
trous appearance and the fine texture which were usually
associated with the terms. It might be the more natural !
to apply such terms in this indiscriminate way. as it is :
known to have been the practice in Egypt, at pretty .
remote periods, to weave a cloth which combined
threads of Max and cotton: the woof. Julius Pollux
states, being made of the wool of the cotton nut,
and the warp of linen (OIK.UH. vii 17), a practice still in
use among the modern Egyptians. Of the quality of
the linen cloths of ancient Egypt comparatively little
is known, excepting as it appears in the mummy ban-
dages. P,y much the larger proportion of these are of
coarse texture: but some pieces have been found of a
better kind one examined by Mr. Thompson, with the
warp containing 90 threads in an inch, and the woof
44; but others sent by Mr. Salt, and now in the British
Museum, have as many as MO threads to the inch

in the warp, and about *i 1 in the woof, while ihe finest
production of the Dacca loom has only 100 threads in
the one. and 84 in the other. Wilkinson obtained a piece
of linen at Thebes having even ~\~>~2 threads in the warp,
and 71 in the woof, to each inch. This piece is further
distinguished by being covered with small figures and
hieroglyphics, and these so finely drawn that the liii< s
sometimes could with difficulty be followed by thec\e;
the ink, however, had not run, and must have been
carefully prepared for the purpose (Anc. Ktryp. iii.j,. u;,).
It appears, also, that some of the mummy cloths were
fringed the fringes consisting of several threads twisted
together and knotted. Mr. Thompson, as quoted by
Wilkinson, says of the selvedges of the Egyptian cloih-<.
that '' generally they are formed with the greatest care,
and are well calculated by their strength to protect the
cloth from accident. Fillets of strong cloth or tape
also secure the ends of the pieces from injury, showing
a knowledge of all the little resources of modern manufac-
ture. Several of the specimens, both of fine and coarse
cloth, were bordered with blue stripes of various pat-
terns, and in some alternating with narrow lines of
another colour. The width of the patterns varied from
half an inch to an inch and a quarter. Had this pattern,
instead of being confined to the edge of the cloth, been
repeated across its whole breadth, it would have formed
a modern gingham, which we can scarcely doubt was
one of the articles of Egyptian industry." (A>Vc FIJI N<; i:.)

There are still a few words, beside those already con-
sidered, which in the English Bible have received the
signification of linen: stidlit (fie), rendered in the
Sept. ffivowv, in our Bible either s/<C(fs (margin, xhlrtx,
Ju. xiv. 12, i;i), or fine Uncn, Is. iii. :'.',; IV. xxxi. lit, properly,
however, a loose inner garment, a sort of shirt, and
only identified with fine linen because it is known to
have been made of that kind of cloth, and usually of
the finer quality; pithtih (nri'i'E), properly flax, Kx. i\.:;i,
then the cloth made of it, or generally linen material
as opposed to woollen, Lc. .\iii. 17, 4^; Is. xlii. 3; xliii. 17, in the
two latter passages the wick of lint or tow; v/tautiaz
(1"^i s ii' 1 ) , a word of uncertain derivation, and only twice
used to signify a garment made of two sorts of threads,
linen and woollen, which the Israelites were forbidden
to wear, Lc. xix. lit; Do. xxii. 11; ftmi (fO?), found only
once, and signifying the fine thread or yarn, whether of
flax or cotton, employed in the manufacture of delicate
tapestries, Fr vii. K> None of these terms, it is obvious,
introduce any new element into the subject itself now
under consideration; they have respect, some to the raw
material, others to the manufactured product: but indi-
cate nothing as to the comparative extent to which linen
and cotton fabrics were employed. In the rendering of
some of these, as of the other and more common terms,
our translators have too frequently confined the import
to limn, as if that alone could have been thought of,
and too uniformly excluded cotton. Not unfrequently
the l-'nid of cloth, as to quality, rather than the mate-
rial of which the cloth was formed, should simply have
been expressed.

On the symbolical import of the fhien or fy/ss/ie gar-
ments of the priesthood, see PRIEST, Priesthood
(Dress of).

LI'NUS. A Christian at Rome, from whom a. saluta-
tion was sent through Paid to Timothy, 1 Ti. iv. 21. Ac-
cording to one of the traditions respecting the early
church of Rome, it was to him that the government of

LFOX

101

LION

the church was committed at the martyrdom of Paul
and Peter. Another stream of tradition, however, makes

Clement the person. -Hut the consideration of tlie ijues-
tion belongs to church history, rather than to the do-
main of Scripture.

LION [_"i, ui'i ; TV*- aruft ; T:. ijur : T^r, l; L >li',r;
err, Ml; *rr. /"/,,></,; ir:, A //'.-/, . -rnr, .s7<, /</; XiW,
lnt\. The copiousness of nomenclature l>y \\hich any

particular animal is KUO\\U ;n an\ ian-uai;e, is an mui
cation not onlv of the riches of that ton-tie, but of the
popular familiarity of the animal. It is ;-aid that the
Arabic has a hundred names for the lion a gorgeous
hvperhole, no doubt which shows not only that the
language is extraordinarily full and versatile, which is
true, but also that the sexes, a-t s, r-tates and con-
ditions of the animal, had taken a strong hold of the
popular mind as familiar ideas. Our own language
atl'ords parallelisms to a certain extent, but only in tin-
case of verv common creatun s. Thus, horse, stallion,
mare, colt, tillv, foal, steed, char-vr. hack, cob, roan,
j, r ray constitute a synonymy still more copious than
that enumerated above, and mav help the Kn-lish
reader to apprehend the nature of the diu-rsity of terms
for the same object, but under diverse conditions.

A i'l or ur'nli M-cins to be the generic name of the
lion: '/<// is usi d with in-'t to signify the whelp, yet
able to take prey, !--. xlix. !; /</</</>, a youiii: lion, in
the pride of adolescent vigour, with his great teith
grown, l's. hiii. c, and havinu' a covert of his own. .k-.
x\v. ;; ; /,/',,', a lion in full maturity of adult a_'e, a lion
/:iir ciiiiiuin'C, and hence often rendered with some
epithet -"an old lion," (ic. xlix. ;i; Na. ii. ll, "a great
lion," Nil. xxiii. -I; xxiv. ;i ; ,Inl i. r., "a ~t'Hit lion." ,J"b iv. ll;
I'h! iiah, a lioness; l<ii.<li, "an old lion," Jubiv. 11, perhaps
a fierce or enra-vd lion; dim-lull, rendered "a ti, rce
lion." Col. II. Smith, after I Jochart. sug-
gests as the distinctive- meaning of this
term "a black lion," apparently from -inc.
.v/< if/in i\ black; but may it n->t l>e a lion on
the ipiest for prey, scu J"b xxiv. :., a hunting,
prowling lion ' This would well accord with
Gcseiiius' derivation of the word from an
UllUscd root In //'.>, "or )(/'(?'. The y.oolo-Jst
just named alludes to the blackness of tin-
skin beneath the fur and on naked parts, as
the Hose, the Miles of the paws. <\;c., in
some occasional specimens; but if the idea
lie indeed that of blackness, may not the
black-mailed variety be intended .' This is
bv no means uncommon at the Cape, when-
it is distinguished by the I'.m-rs as "the black
li-iii." We cannot say with certainty that
this varietv was ever found in Palestine,
but in some of the Asiatic breeds there is
an admixture of black hail's with the yellow
ones, which occurring in ditlereiit degrees
causes the general hue to be darker or lighter. In
South Africa the black -mailed lion is reputed to be of
superior ferocity to the pale, which would seem to
agree with the usage of the term n/mr/m/. Pliny, more-
over, attributes a black lion to Syria (Hist. Nat viii. 17).

There can be no doubt that J^T? (I ah!') is the origin
of the name of the animal in most of the languages of
ancient and modern Kurope: compare the lijm of the
Germans and the Icennr of the Dutch.

Copious historic evidence exists of the abundance

of the lion in earlv times, not onlv in all the regions of
Western Asia, but also in South-eastern Kurope. He-
rodotus, having mentioned that the baggage-camels <.f
Xerxes were attacked by lions, on the march from
Acanthus, near .Mount Athos, to Therina or Thessalo-
nica. takes occasion to oh>erve that "in those parts

lions are nunu nuis no one would e\er see a

lion anywhere eastward of the Xestus. throughout the
fore-part of Kurope. nor to the west of the Achelous,
in the rest of the continent: luit they breed in the tract

bi-tween tho.-e. two rivers" ^Ilovud. vii. VJCi). I'ausailiilS

mentions tin- friijiieut de-et nt of lions t'r.'ia Mount
Olympus into the plains of Macedonia.

No example occurs, we belie\e. of the lion as one of
the beasts of chase in the numerous hunting-seeiKS
depicted on the K-_yptiaii monuments. I'.ut in a
paintin:;' at l>eiii- 1 la^.-an. e\ ideiice is ._q\ , n ,,f the train-
in,: of this noble animal a> the auxiliary it man in
hunting the herbivorous cr. atuns. The lion is de-
picted as ha\ in- brought down an iKe\. \\ hii h he holds
until the archer, who is at some distance, comes up.
( n ci mr.se this lion mav ha\ e been a present from N ubia
or l.ibya; but the f re- 1 ui ney \\ith which li-un s of the
animal \\ere introiiuced into works of art shows that
it \\a> familiar to the people. The K-'vptian monarch
\\-as sometimes accompanied to battle by a tame lion.

In the Ninevite bas reliefs, numerous examples occur
of lion-huntii!- : it was t \ idi nth a favourite occupation
of the Assyrian kin-s. wh-> asjiircd to emulate the
prowess of Ximrod. Accordingly the animal is repre-
.sented in \arious situations, sometimes the assailant,
sometimes the assailed, and \\ith a remarkable vigour
and tidelitv. that prove how often the artists must have
mplated tlie .svK'an monarch in his native freedom.
To the present time lion.- stalk over the Assyrian plains,
and numbers of th'-m make their lairs in the desolate

ruins of Habyl' Hi and surrounding cities. 'I his chief oi

the '' wild bea>ts" cries in their desolate houses, Js. xiii. L'J.
From Svria and Pale-tine it has long disajipeared.
\'t t scriptural evidence, as well as that of profane
history, is decisive as to its ancient abundance there.
Samson met a lion in the vineyards of Timnath, and
slew it, .in xiv. .1. Jtavid also overcame one while keep-
ing his father's sheep, 1 Sa. xvii. :;i-::7. A lion killed the
disobedient prophet at llethel, l Ki. xiii. JI, though its
instincts were so supernatnrally held in restraint, that,

LION

102

LITTEU

when discovered, it had neither eaten the carcass nor

torn the as.s. A lion sk

an in Samaria win

refused to smite the prophet when authoritatively com-
manded to do so "in the word of Jehovah,'' 1 Ki. xx.
;r>, 30. Lions slew some of the mongrel race whom the
king of Assyria had Id-ought to replace the deported
ten tribes, -2 Ki. \vii. i 1 :.. Beuaiah ''slew a lion in a pit
in time of snow,'' > Sa. xxiii. 20; a feat which is enume-
rated as one of the daring acts that placed him among
David's worthies. The slothful man is twice repre-

sented in the Proverbs,

xxii. 13; xxvi. 13, as saying,

There is a lion in the streets:" an imaginary danger,
truly, yet doubtless founded on the occasional occur-
rence of such an incident. The loftv mountain ranges
of Lebanon and Hermon were the haunts of lions as
well as leopards, Ca. iv. s.

Many comparisons in the prophets are drawn from
the habits and instincts of this formidable animal;
generally given with a graphic power which shows
how familiar the original was. The invasion of the land
by Nebuchadnezzar is repeatedly presented by Jere-
miah, ch. iv. 7; xiix. 10; 1. 4-t, as a lion driven out of the
thickets that fringe the Jordan, by the swelling of the
river; an incident which must often have spread destruc-
tion among the herds and flocks of the contiguous pas-
tures. Ezekiel, too, sketches the origin, rapacity, cruelty,
and fate of the later kings of Judah, under a sustained
allegory, ch. xix. i-o, of a lioness training her whelps
one by one to the condition of a young lion (kephir),
which carrying out his ravenous propensities was beset
by the hunters, at length taken in the nets, chained
and caged, so that his roaring should no more be heard
upon the mountains. In like manner Nineveh, the
stronghold of the proud and fierce Assyrian kings, is
described by Nahum : " Where is the dwelling of the
lions (arioth), and the feeding-place of the young lions
(kephirhri); where the lion (arieJt], even the old lion
(tab!), walked, and the lion's whelp (r/fir aricJt), and
none made them afraid i. The lion (an'eh) did tear in
pieces enough for his whelps (r/roth\ and strangled for
his lionesses (I'bioth), and rilled his holes with prey, and
his dens with ravin,'' ch. ii. n, 12 a simile peculiarly
appropriate, from the lion having been the favourite
emblem of the Assyrian monarchs, as appears from the
monuments.

The lion was the selected similitude of the first of
the symbolic living creatures in the Apocalyptic vision.
Re. iv. 7, as it had previously furnished one of the faces
of the cherubim seen by Ezekiel supporting the divine
glory, Eze. i. 10. It is said to have formed the distin-
guishing standard of the tribe of Judah; and this tra-
dition is borne out by its having been chosen as the

emblem of the tribe by Jacob, Go. xlix. !i, in his prophetic
blessing on his sons. Perhaps Balaam also alluded to
it when he compared the people to a great lion (/uri],
and a young lion (aric/i), Xu. xxiii. 2t; ,\xiv. !>. The Lord
Jesus himself, in prevailing to open the seven-sealed
book of Revelation, assumes the title of "The Lion of
the tribe of Judah," Re v. ,',.

Naturalists are disposed to consider the lion as n
genus, consisting of some three or four species. Two of
these are found in Asia, the one called, from the scanti-
ness of its mane, the maneless lion (Leo goozeratcnsis) ,
found only in Western India; and the other, furnishrd
with that appendage in its ordinary profusion, L. asiati-
cus, which is spread over Bengal, Persia, the Euphratean
valley, and some parts of Arabia. This is smaller,
and more slightly built, than the African lions, with a
fur of a lighter yellow. It is doubtful, however,
whether it is really more than a variety.

The roar of the lion is described as an appalling
sound by those who have heard it in the gloom and
solitude of night. He is said to have the power, bv
putting his mouth to the earth, of
causing the sound to seem to come
from all quarters; so that the feebler
animals, confounded, frequently flee
into the very danger they desired to
avoid. The allusions in Am. iii. 4, seem to imply that
it is sometimes a note of triumph. [

LITTER. The word occurs only once in the Eng-
lish Bible, in the plural, with the alternative on the
margin of coaches. But the other is no doubt the better
rendering of the Heb. word is, which has much the
same meaning as the Latin h-ctica, a sort of portative
couch or sedan-chair. We have the same word, but
differently rendered, in Nu. vii. 3, and connected
with waggons or chariots litter- waggons, or probably
waggons made somehow like litters. In Is. Ixvi. 20, the
only passage where the term occurs by itself, the Lord's
converted people are represented as going to be brought
to Jerusalem from all nations " in chariots and litters,
and upon mules," &c. Litters, in the sense of portable
couches, or palanquins, borne by men, are known to
have been anciently in use among the Egyptians, and
are represented on the monuments. But it is not pro-
bable that these were known, or at least in common
use, among the Israelites; nor could they be in the eye
of the prophet when referring to journeys from dis-
tant lands, which were to require the service of ''horses
and mules and swift beasts." There are articles, how-
ever, still frequently employed in the East, which may
be regarded as substantially coincident with the litters
of the prophet. Of these we have a description from
the accurate pen of Mr. Lane. He says (Arabian Nights,
eh. viii. n. s), " The kind of litter borne by mules is
generally one resembling the palkee (or palanquin); it
is borne by four of these animals, two before and two
behind, or by two only or, more commonly, by two
camels, and sometimes by two horses. When borne
by camels, the head of the hindmost of these animals is
painfully bent down under the vehicle. It is the most
comfortable kind of litter; and two light persons may
travel in it." The one exhibited in woodcut No. 404,
is used in Persia, and bears the name of takht-e-rewan.
It is borne by mules. There is, however, he further
tells us, another and very common kind of camel-litter
called mnsattah: "It resembles a small square tent,
and is chiefly composed of two long chests, each of

LIVKI;

I.I/AKD

and occasionally also its symbolic use. is that they
Mx-in to identify it more with tin; source ami centre
of lift; than Wf arc wont to
do (as. indrrd, the ancients
<_ r enerallv diil', and some-
tiiiit-s put I i rir where Wf
woiiM Mibstitute Iniii-t.
'I'hus Jeremiah speaks of
his li\vr being poured u]pou
thf rarth. rh. li 11, meaning
that vital part in him which
carried along with it all
power of sentiment, cour-
;o_;e. or strength. So .'ujain,

together \\ith a small pole iv-thiir on the camel's I'r. vii j. 1 !, where the misguided and foolish youth is re-
pack -saddle. sii])port the covering, which form-; what presented as proceeding in his course till a dart strike
may In; called the tent. This, vehicle accommodates through his li\ er that is, till his very heart-strings are
two persons. It is generally open at the front, and |, ,-,,!<. -n, ,, r ],fe it-elf is <_roue. These. li<. w-v. r, are the
may also be opened at the Lack Though it appears ,, n ] v ,.,a>,ages when- language of this sort occur.-,
comfortable, the motion is uneasy." Then- i-, he adds. (l ,i,, TS | iaV( . frequentlv been adduced. Mich as Ce. xlix.
still another kind of litter, called tluhr,, ,,,},, also >o,,,, - ^ ,,^ xvi ,,_ hi ; ,,_ &c _ whon . ()m . trfuisl:ltol( . , riv( .
times 1,,'tiij, which accommodates Lut one person; it ^.^ /<(l|J , l//rj ,..,.), lik( , ,, llt tlll . Wl , n| ; t l leso cas( . s

consists of a small --mare platform with an :iivhed . .

. i- dilleiviit; it is -r;: t/.r, /,//!. ,//,-,/. csrel/tiirc, and is

coveriir_ r . and is placed on the Lack ot one camel, two

square chests Leinir usually >lun_' on each side of the vcr pn.p.-rly to 1,,. identified will, any ]art ,,f the
animal, as a foundation for it to rest on. The engrav- corporeal frame <<- CI.OKY). 'I'h.-re is n pa.-sai,'e in
in- in woodcut No. I 'I.',, shows the eharact'T of this Scripture in which lifer stands either for Ixnrt or

t,,,,!/iti:

LIZARD [n^-. rt,,,,/,}. \\ ,- have already given
reasons (.< ( 'IIAMKI.KON ) for considering the k<i<-li to
he the gecko. The I'hi.il, is douLtless a kindred ani-
mal, and is well enough rendered " li/ard" in our ver-
7-ioii. N\ln it we inipiire what particular species, we
are met Lv !_r' p ;i.t, p<-rha]is insuperalile, tlifficultii s, and
can onlv form conjectures more or It ss proLaLle. 'I he
word, like /,<,! i i'/i. with which it is associated, occurs lint
once. vi/.. in l,e. .\i. -i". in the li;-t of "creeping thing's"
foi-Lidden to Le eaten. I'evoiitl this intimation that a
reptile i.- intended, the ||,-Lrew !;.- of the name gives
us no information. The I. XX. render it ^aXo/StuTTj?,
which with the Cricks was tin- name, more frequently
uiiiler the form dcr^aXo/'ia.TTjs, for tlie common gecko.
At the same time tliey give I'/iiii/n In, ii, xaainXcwf, as
the equivalent of l.-<,<i<-l, . 'I he autherity of the I. XX.
in a case like this, invohiiiLf the identification of
article very di-tinctlv. The framiiiLr which composes small and uLscure reptiles from names occurring Lut
the seat, it will he observed, is very light and simple: once, and that in a Link \\rittin twelve centuries
and there is hanging Ly the sitle- the u.-u;d ^kin-Lottle Lefore their time, is not of great value. There is.
for water. moreover, often much confusion and vagueness in the

LIVER f-c: l.-,'nl\. from the roof /., I,, /////, apf.lication of popular names to the oLscunr crea-
in tin: sense either of actual wtijht, the heaviest of tun-s. Kxamples of this uneertaint \ occur in all coiin-
the viscera, or, as is more jiroLaLlc, of greater value tries. In our own investigations of the natural his-
and importance, the chief as regards the health and tory of .Jamaica, we have 1,,-en repeatedly pu/./letl Ly
action of the system]. The word often occurs in the it: thus in one part of the inland the term inxnlxltn-1-
natural sense, as indicative of a vital or-an in the is commonly used to denote the gecko: in another
animal system, and e-peeiallv with reference to the part it is equally familiar, Lut it means a species
parts of animals slain in sacrifice. i.. : hi. i, in ; iv. ;i, &c ' of miilinin/n. The names petchary, rain-hird, tomfool.
I'.ut in this respect it calls for no particular remark. ' and others, indicate certain Lirds, Lut are applied
The- use to which the liver was applied for purposes of . to different species in different localities. \Ve mas
divination Ly the ancient heathens, was not unknown refer to the article on tin; '.rreen woodpecker in Var-
to the Jews, though it is onlv once referred to in the rell's AY/V /'.-/; I'.'n-il* fel. 2, vt,l ii. p. n::), for an amusing.
Hebrew Scri]tures. and wit'i reference.- to the proc.-ed- : Lut not very satisfactory, investigation as to what
ings of a heathen prince, Kzu. \\\. -ji. There is no evi- particular bird is meant by the term "woodwale."
deuce of that form of superstitious augury having ever , in use. among our poets about five hundred years a;jo.
obtained a footing among the covenant-people. (&< Good authority is given for applying it to the greater
DIVINATION.) The chief peculiarity amonu' them, as spotted woodpecker, the green woodpecker, the golden

tin- H.',.l:ij I'riss.-sllririitiil AH.ni

LIZAI!!)

LIZARD

is suli'ered only the ordinary wear and tear
of the time - we shall not be .-urpri.-.ed if ft number of

lloulston, from a specimen which he had in captivity.
\Ve merely premise that the tongue is capable of being

what tubular, secretes a viscid fluid, to which, wh
suddenly shot forth, the insect adheres, and
instant retracted into the mouth.

''When a fly, so maimed as not to be aide to escape.
but still sufficiently vigorous to move its legs and
wings, was so placed that its fluttering might attract
the chameleon's attention, the animal advanced slowly
until within tongue's reach of it: then, steadying itself
like a pointer sometimes stretching out its tail, some-
times fixing it against an adjacent body, and directing
both eyes steadfastly on the prey, it slowlv opened its
mouth, and suddenly darted forth its tongue : which,
advancing in a straight line, seldom failed of striking,
with its glutinous cupped extremity, the object aimed
at. Near the point of the tongue there is a small
gland which secretes a glutinous fluid; but even
when the point happened to err, the prey did not
always escape, sometimes adhering to the sides of
the tongue. The tongue thus laden then retired
into the mouth, but somewhat more tardily than
in its advance. The tongue is probably the sole
agent of the chameleon in obtaining food. Hies
have often rested on its body; and though it has
looked wistfully at them, it has had no means of
taking them. 1 have frequently observed them on
its very lips, without any attempt to seize them.
Kven when placed before it, if not sufficiently dis-
tant to afford room for the necessary evolution
of the tongue, the chameleon was under the ne-
cessity of retiring for the purpose" (Trans. Irish Soc.)
Other remarkable peculiarities in the chameleon
are its want of bilateral sympathy, and its power
of changing colour. The former phenomenon is
most conspicuous in the eyes, which are sufficiently
strange in other respects. They are large, full, and

has much in common with the gecko; and in I prominent; but the eyeball is entirely covered with the
adopting this identification we do but transpose the common rough skin of the head, except a very small
renderings of the LXX. for /><>(/! and /'faiJt. aperture opposite to the pupil. Stranger still to behold,

The chameleon is a reptile whose peculiarities take because unparalleled by any other known animal (except
a strong hold on the imagination of an observer who fishes, in which we have found it common), the eyes
for the first time becomes familiar with it in its native act independently of each other: so that one may be
haunts. It is strictly arboreal: and the structure of the directed to an object in front, while the other remains
feet is suited to this habit by the same modification ! idle, or is actually exploring the region behind. Mr.
which adapts the scansorial birds for their tree-life, lily th observes that ''these most singular creatures are
The toes of each foot are arranged in two groups, each particularly remarkable for the diminished sympathy
group being enveloped in a common skin as far as the j of the two sides of their whole frame, one of which
claws. The two sets of toes, two behind and three ; may be asleep and the other awake, one of one colour
before, are so placed as to be opposed to each other, and the other of another, &c.; the separate movement

of their eyes being merely another phase of the same
phenomenon. Hence it is remarkable that, unlike
most other animals, the chameleon is totally unable to
swim, from the incapability of its limbs of acting in
due concert" (Cuvier's Anim. Kingdom, London, lS40,p. 27*).

The habit of changing its colour, for which the
chameleon has been long proverbial, though somewhat
exaggerated in popular statements, is yet a highly
curious phenomenon. M. d'Obsonville thus describes
the range of the alterations : " The hue is natu-
rally green ; but it is susceptible of many shades,
and particularly of three very distinct ones Saxon
green, deep green, and a shade bordering on blue and
yellow green. When free, in health, and at ease, it is
of a beautiful green, some parts excepted, where the

hould find difficultit

n line of a small animal mentioned but once, and that

in which that book was written had

y of the Hebrew word,

n cotniate with a word

veral time- in the Old Testament, and gene-

" secretly, " privily." Now

is a lizard abundant in the Kast which is remark-

1 stealthy way in which

tne chameleon (Charimleo rulriaris)

Thir-

and thus each foot becomes a true grasping hand with
two thumbs and three fingers; ami is used in the way
which surh a structure indicates, to grasp the twigs on
which tlie reptile crawls. Its ordinary pace is, as we
liave already observed, peculiarly sly, slow, and cat-
like: bringing forward each foot almost imperceptibly,
and taking a firm grasp before the other is brought up;
and thus it creeps about with its belly on the branch,
and its yellow-green skin so accurately simulating the
hue of the leaves, that it is with great difficulty recog-
nised. All this extreme caution is required for the
capture of its insect prey. This consists chiefly of flies,
which in the rays of a sub- tropical sun are brisk, shy,
and prone to take wing on the slightest alarm. The
manner of the capture is graphically described by Mr.

LO-AMMI

10.;

LOCUST

skin, being thicker and more rough, produces gradations ; LXX. render the \vunl by iprai^ij, -which means the
of brown, red. or light gray. When the animal is pro- /.< a well-known disease e>f corn: certainly an erron-
voked in open air. and veil fed. it becomes a blue eous application, since it is the trees which are threat-
green; but when feeble, or deprived of free air. the elied, which rust does not attack.

prevailing tint is yellow green. I'nder other cireimi- Cescldus and others derive the word from a root
stances, and especially at the approach of one of its j signifying to sound: hence a locust that makes a
own species, nj matter of which se.x. or when siir- ' shrill noise." This attribute would rather point to
rounded and teazed by a number of insects thrown ' the Cicada; larye four- winded insects of the order
upon him, he then almost in a moment takes alternately ! /fumo/i/cru, which arc popularly considered either as

the three diilerent tints of yrceii. If he be dyiny. locusts or as nearly allied to them. These abound in

particularly of hunger, the yellow is at first pivdomin- all warm countries, sitting in the trees by thousands.

ant: but in the first staye of putrefaction this changes and maintaining by .lay and night a shrill ringing sound

to the colour of dead leaves.'' which is almost deafening. The Creeks, by a .- trail ye

The physical cause of //<Co:<'7<?Wx. as we may term ' perversion of ta.-te. liked this din. and thou-jht it

this system of changes, has been variously sought, and musical 1'octieallv .-nppo-id to live upon the de\\.

various explanations have been -Jvcm That it resides and to he pi rpctuallv occupied in soiiy, tluy \\eiv eon

in the blood seems pretty wdl ascertained, and we .-ideivd to I,,- imper.-onatioi,s of happiness, and almost

add the opinion.- of the accomplished ;>h\ ,-iolo-i-t just divine. The poets were con-tantly in\okm^ tin m. in

quoted. "First, the Mood ,,f the chameleon is of a Ibis style : " The muses lei ve thee, sweet liarbinyer of

violet blue: which colour it \\ill preserve for some Dimmer: I 'In ebus himself loves the,- and ha- , ndowvd

minutes on linen or paper. e-p,-'-ia!ly on such .1- have tin e \\ith song: thou art nevi r \\orn v, ith old age; thmi

been stccpe-el in alum- water. In the -,-eoinl phu e. the art wise, t arth born, musical, impassive, bloodless: thou

different tunic!. -s of the vessels are yellow, as well in art all but a god' ik-i.i

their trunks as in their ramifications. Th,- epidermis. So tar from living en dew. however, tin \ are ver\

or exterior skin, when s,-parat,-d. is trail-parent, v,ith- destructive, t'eodiny voraciously in the lar\a slate on

out any colour: and the second .-kin is yellow, as aiv the root- ,,f plant- 1 elieath the earth,
all the little vessels that touch it. I: pro- Col. 11. Smith proposes to derive the name 1;ht1;al

liable that the change of colour dejiends upon the mix- from a<'hal,!>,- root signifying /o /-/"//, and suggests

tuivs of blue and yellow, from \\hieh result eiitfe-n nt the .l/-//<'/x rdiijiiitu, or j<ric-di(n, a- it i.- called in 1he

shades of yiveii. Thus \\ hen tin- animal, li. althy and south . f Fran,-,-, from its sinyiil.-tr attitude. Iliit tin re

well fed. is provoked, its b] I is carried in greater is an insuperable objection against tliis identification in

abundance from the h.-art towards the extremities: tin- habits of the insect, for th,- titanti*. so tar from

and swelling the \vssds that are -pivad over tho skin. b,-iny a scourgi to the ayrieulturist. are really i ilident

its blue colour subsides; and \\ith the yellow of the allies; th,. \\h,,le tribe h, iny e.\<-hi-ivi I v carni\ oroiis,

vessels pn.elue- s a blue green that is seen throuyh tin piwin- on ins. -els.

ejiidermis. When, on the contrary, the animal is in, Th, re is in. occasion to waste much iv.-earch on the

povcri.-hed and depriv, d of fn e air, the exterior vessels word urMt, v.hidi by tin- unanimous cons( nt of \, rsions

beiny more empty, tlieir colour pn vails, and th,- animal and commentate rs signifies tin- yn-at devastating locust:

becomes of ;i yellow -reeii, till it recovers its liberty, i- doubtless including in this appellation ft'ri/l/ii.-i ni!;/rutii-

wdl iHiui'i-hed. and without pain. \\ln-n it regains it- riux, >,. f/n-i/ttritut, <-. fl '/i/j>tin.t, and perhaps i tin r

former colour: this h,-iny the con-,-.juence of an djui- species, which thmiyh g> m rally similar in form. si/,.

librium in the liquids, and of a due proportion <>f them and habit.-, are yet di-tii,,_i,;-h, d bv ( nt, moh 'gists.

in the vessels." [p. n. <;.J Tiny are insects of tin- order UrUm^tfra, which are

LO-AM'MI [/". t mil jm,,,!,}. applied symbolically as ch;:racteri/ed by having four wings, the first pair

a name to the .ideal) son of the prophet !lo-,-a. iu parchment, like, flexible, more or It s.- ov. rlappiiiL;: tln-

whoin \\asmeantto be embodied tin- sad truth that second pair delicate. la rye, generally folded like a fan,

Israel was to IK? meanwhile cast off, Flu. i. it. and covered duriny repose by the first pair: the jaws

LOAVES. \\hat bear- this name in our Knvji.-h are stroiiy and formed forbitiny; the larva- and pupa-
Piible would often be better expivsM d by i-it/.;.~; in are active and voracious, and resemble the imayo ex-
shape somewhat flat and round, though sometimes also cept in wantiny winys. The tribe Sullalm-in in thi.-
anyular. if one may judye from the specimens from order has the hind limbs enormously developed: the
Fgypt which have survived. (,Sr I',KI:AI>.I thi-_hs are l,.ny and swollen, and the shanks still longer,

LOCK. S,, CATK, also HnrsK. stiff, and spinous: th.-y are thus foim.d for leaj.ing,

LOCUST |n:iN. arlnh ; ::. //<,/,. -n, rhaf/a!, ; rj^>, j and their leading characters are strikingly expressed

tzlat:af; aKpis, akris], [ T nder the article CiHAssnuppKu, by the inspired lawgiver, when pronouncing them

we have endeavoured to identify tin- .</'/ and the dean. " l'>ery flying creeping thing that goeth upon

h!inl,: we shall here devote a few words to the all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal

t:/<tt.;n!, and then yive some account of the </////, ', uj.ou the earth." I.e. \i. -_'i. Among these, the true
which is beyond all doubt tho mi-rat'-iy locust. (locusts have the antenna- moderately short, and not

The won! t:/ii/:nf occurs but once. In the solemn running off to a. fine thread: the first winys, when at

warning, but too prophetic of their history, in which rest, slope away like the roof of a house; and tin; tarsi

.Moses announced to Israel tin- consequences of di.- ' of the feet have but three joints. They constitute; the

obedience, among the- curses there- is this one. "All genus Arrt/i/tiuii of CJeoffrov. /.urtmtn of L,-adi. and

thy trees and fruit of thy land shall tin- f:/nt^i/ ce.n- i Grilling of Fabrieius.

sunn-." DC. xxviii. 12. \Ve may not understand this of! The species definitely called )ni'</nit,>i-iiiK. whicli is

the locust, fe.r that insect had been threatened just the one most commonly seen in Palestine, is two inches

liefe.re. VLT. ;:\ by its orelinarv appellation, ar/n/i. The- , and a half hmy, with the- fore win-'-s brown e-le.inied

VOL. II. 140

LOCUST

individuals have at various times been taken even in
England. It is. however, in (lie countries of Africa and
Western Asia that the species becomes truly formidable
to man. The inspired description of one of the plagues
of Eirvpt says. "They eoverud the face of the whole
earth, so that the land was darkened; and they did cut
every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees
which the hail had left: and there remained not any green
tiling in the trees or in the herbs of the field, through all
the land of Kgypt," Ex. x. 15. The prophet Joel, too.
describes an attack by these in>eeis in very awful lan-
guage. "A fire devoureth before them; and behind
th-m a flume buriuth: the land is as the garden of
Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilder-
ness: yea, and nothing shall escape them Like

the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall
they leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth
the stubble, as a strong people set in battle-array. . . .
The earth shall quake before them: the heavens shall
tremble: the sun and the moon .-hall be dark, and the
stars shall withdraw their shining. ' .loel ii. 3, a, 10.

Without mooting the question whether the Holy Spirit
has not in the vivid picture sketched by the prophet
intended judgments far more terrible than the desola-
tions of a flight of locusts, it cannot be doubted that the
imagery is taken from these insects, and abundant mo-
dern evidence justifies the accuracy of the delineation.
Harmer says, ''Clouds of locusls frequently alight
on their plains, and giving the preference to their
fields of millet, ravage them in an instant. Their ap-
proach darkens the horizon, and so enormous is their
multitude, it hides the b'u'ht of the sun. When the
husbandmen are sufficiently numerous, they sometimes
divert the storm, by their .-imitation and cries; but
when they fail, the locusts alight on their fields, and
there form ;i Lied of six or seven inches thick. To the
noise of their flight succeeds that of their devouring
activity; it resembles the rattling of hail-stones, but
its consequences are innnitelv more destructive. Fire
itself eats not so fast; nor is there a vestige of vege-
tation to be found when they again take their flight,
and go elsewhere to produce like disasters " (Obser. iii.
305).

Clarke compares the swarms of locusts seen by him
to a shower of snow when the flakes are carried bv the

LOCUST

wind. They covered his carriage and horses; and the
whole face of nature was covered by the living veil.
Major Moor has recorded that when at 1'oonah he was
witness to an immense army of locusts, which ravaged
the Mahratta country, and was supposed to (.tome from
Arabia (this, if correct, is a strong proof of their power
to pass the sea under favourable circumstances] . The
column they composed, bis friend was informed, ex-
tended five hundred miles: and so compact was it,
vihen on the wing, that, like an eclipse, it completely
hid the sun, so that no shadow was cast by any object,
and some lofty tombs distant from his residence not
more than two hundred yards were rendered quite in-
visible. This was not the f^cuxta mir/ratorla, but a
red species; which circumstance much increased the
horror of the scene; for. clustering upon the tries after
ill. v had stripped them of their foliage, they impark d
to them a sanguine- line iKirl.y and Spei.ce, Introd. \ii.)

.Harrow, speaking either of this or a kindred spt cies
which he met with in South Africa, deseiibes its mul-
titudes in still more wondrous terms. An area of
nearly two thousand square miles might be said lite-
rally to be covered by them. When driven into the
sea by a north-west wind, they formed upon the shore
for fifty miles a bank three or four feet high, and when
the- wind was south-east, the stench was so powerful
as to be smelt at the distance of one hundred and fifty

miles (Travels, 257V

This last statement illustrates Joel ii. 'JO: "I wdl
drive him into a land barren and desolate, with his face
toward the east sea, and his hinder part toward the
utmost sea: and his stink shall come up, and his ill
savour shall come up, because he hath done great
things."

it is but a poor reprisal that the wretched inhabi-
tants can make upon their invaders when these are
starving them, that they can cook and eat their bodies.
Insects do not constitute any portion
's^ ; >^ of our western dietary, and doubtless
prejudice would go far against tho
trial, but in some countries they have
been eaten from time immemorial by
the poorer classes of pe< >] >le. A ecord-
iliLC to I >iodorus (Diud Sic. ii;. 2'., seme
tribes in Ethiopia were named Arrl-
(/iijt/ta</i, from their use of this food;
and Pliny says that it was not rare
amonu'st the Parthians (Hist. Nat. xi. 2:>).
The Arabs at Mecca, when corn is
scarce, grind locusts in a hand-mill 01-
pound them in a mortar, making a
sort of meal of the bodies, of which
they make cakes and bake them like
bread. At other times they boil them
well, and stew them in butter (llasselq.
Travels, 232). Morier also informs us
that on occasion of a great swarm at
Bushire, crowds of poor people gather-
ed up the insects to dry and salt them
for sale in the bazaars. " When
boiled the yellow ones turn red, and
eat like stale or decayed shrimps" (Second Journey, 44).
These and numberless other evidences tend to confirm

[408. ]---*

* On the sculptures from Koiryunjik, now in the Kritish
Museum, men are represented bearing dried locusts fastened on
sticks. The engraving, No. 40S, shows the hands of one of them
\vitli the sticks of locusts.

LOD

LOAD'S DAY

the plain and literal understanding of the statement
that John in the wilderness fed on locusts and wild
honev, M:it. iii. 4. 1 1' H. (',.]

LOD, the LYDDA of the New Testament, which see.

LODEBAR [n-ll/fiit pasture], a town in (Ulead.
apparently ii"t far from Mahanaim, the residence of
Ammiel, whu.se son befriended David in the time of his
distress. 2 Sa. xvii. 27, cuinp. ix. 4, 5. Itspreci.-e locality is
lint indicatrd. nor has anv trace of it be.-n found in
modern times.

LODGE, as occasionally connected with gardens:
fie (;.\i;i>i:x. where a representation of one is ui\eii,
and for the more general sense of -pending the night,
or dwelling for a short season, .- INN.

LOG [/(//"'. li'i-~ii,\. the small, -t of HJ'ivw HUM-
snres, containing (according to the rabbins tlie iw> h'tii
jiart of an Lin. > .M I:AS,I KI .-.

LOGO.S. .Si NVi-Kii.

LOIS, tin- moth, r of Km, ice and uTandmothei- of
'I'iinotliv. well reporU d of h\- St. 1'aitl as a \\oman of
faith and probuv. > i

LOOKING-GLASS. Th< word only occurs twice
in t!ie ' >!d Testament, and in t\\o form.- i>r. ;//.. 1-1.
i-; n.v'~"2. i/t'tra/i, i:\ vx\viii. \ both from the root
\>-rli ' . !ii N .. "I'l-.-taiip lit .-eri]iinre

tli.' (Iri'ik word i'ljoTTT/iui'. n-ndtretl -impl\ </luit* (of
similar d.-i-ivatioii and ini] port with tin- I b i.rc\\ . a thing
for looking into, or being seen in. i.- found in a few
passages. I Co. xiii. 12; 2 (.'u ..: l-;.li i. 23. I hese passages
\\ill IM- found noticed in a pn-\ ions article (!I.ASS),

of which the chief ingredient was copper. It is aseer-
taincd that they were susceptible of a high lustre: for
some of those discovered at Thebes, after having been
buried in the earth ft>r centuries, have been found
capable of taking on a considerable polish ; Wilkinson,
iii. p. :>>-i).

In regard to form. the mirror of the ancient Lgyp-
tians appears to have been nearly round, set upon a
handle of stone, wood, or metal, according to the taste
f tile owner. The handli s seem to have varied in
form and device much more than the mirror itself, as

from th

inch h

wln-iv it was also stated that the material of which
the ancient mirrors were made- was not what is now
used, but finely polished brass. This is distinctly inti-
mated, indeed, in the passive of Kxodus referred to.
where the looking-glasses of certain devout women
were consecrated to the Lord, and turned into the
laver, at which the priests were to wash as they went
into the tabernacle. Some have doubted whether steel
was not. rather than brass, the metal of which the
mirrors were composed, as mirrors of that description,
also of silver, and various other materials, are known to
have been used by the ancients. lint those used by
the Hebrew females in the wilderness would undoubt-
edly be such as were common in Egypt; and it appears
frmn the monuni'-nts that these were of mixed metal.

may be seen trom tlie specimens wlr.cli nave survived.

LOKD. Tni- i.- the ri ndering of two woids in the
Hebrew, Adunui and JI:HOVAH. .Hut as the words
themselves are very different, and it is important
that readers of the Lible should know, when /,/</
-tands for tlie one. and w in n for the other, our transla-
tors have printed I."ii;> in capitals whenever it i- the
equivalent of .1, hovah. and in ordinarv letters when it
<tands for . \dniiai. Hv attending to this distinction
Km_di.-h readers can ea-ily perceive which i> the word
in th-- original, although it had certainly been hotter if no
such dubiet v had existed in the translation, and.K hovah.
\\hiih i.- found in a i w pas.-a < , Kx. vi : [s. xii. 2, had
be, n found in all win le it exist- in the Hebrew; for h\-
the pr.-ctiee ai-tually adopted the prop, r force of the
original i- oft. n l.i.-t. I'.ut see J I:IK>VAH.

l.OKD'S DAY. THK. This , xpression, so familiar
to Ciiristians now. and for many au'e-. i- mdv once
found in New Te-tann nt scripture, and in that which
was in all pn liability it,- latest book (lie. i. Id, "I was
in tin: spirit on the Lord's d.".y. <Y rTj M//UI/I// <,,t'/ia>.
That bv this was meant the first day of the w i ek u/ /uia
TU.-V aa.1 t idri-:i'. l.u xxiv, I; .In. xx. I, or /.ua (rap/j'arci . l Co.
xvi l ), has been from the t arlii st times the all but un-
nnimous belief of ( 'hri-teiidem: and other ojiinions,
broached reeeiitlv bv a few ( o rman rationalists as
that it might be the Jewish sabbath, or the day if
coming' do. m o] inions br< .;-eln d n n ]\ in the inter, -t
icular theorie- deserve no ri filiation. The
native import of the expression itsi If. and the unani-
mous voice of ( 'hristian antiipiity. L ave no proper r.n m
to doubt upon the subject. lloldii;'.' the two forms of
expression, therefore, to be but ditlerent modi s of de-
si_:'natin'_r the same dav. wo ha\e, in the fir.-t instance,
to inijiiiiv into the di.-tineti \v character of that day, so
far as we have in the records of New T< -lament scrip-
ture the material- of learning the mind of our Lord and
his apo-th s respecting it.

Various notices occur to show that a vi ry marked
distinction, and indeed a peculiar saeredness. was
from tin- commencement of the ('hristian chuivh
attached to this dav. It was honoured by Christ him-
self. J laving on that day risen from the dead, he also
on that dav appeared once and a^ain to his disciples.
Here the qui ry rises, not simply, Why this day
was chosen bv him for these appearances, but why
his choice of it is so particularly mentioned '. It is not
usual for the evangelists to specify on what day an
event happened, unless in. Iced when they speak of the
discourses which Christ delivered, and of the miracles
which he performed on the Sabbath-day. ^ hy then
fix our attention on the fir.-t day emphatically and
repeatedly, in connection with Christ's reappearance, if
not to intimate that it had now succeeded to this special,
this sabbatical sanctity !

It has been usually understood though the opinion

LORD'S J).\V

LOS

LORD'S DAY

Holy Uhost descended in abundant and preternatural
influences, \\as also the first day of the week. On the
same day, as already stated, .lohn was in the Spirit.
Why on that day rather than another? And why is
the distinction put on it anew recorded? X or is that
all. He calls it '"the Lord's day." That by Lord, he
means the Lord Jesns, appears from the whole con-
nection, and can scarcely In; said to be disputed. Such
designation of a day suggests appointment by him and
him. "\Ve have a parallel expression in
supper.'' ]f this phraseology prove th

siipper so called to be a sacred meal, then the Lord's

therefore design some day in particular; and to none
can the words be referable pre-eminently referable.

with power by his resurrection from the dead sur-
mounting humiliation, confounding opposition, and
swallowing up death in victory.

Public worship was observed on this day by the
primitive Christian churches, sec 1 Co. xvi. I, 2. The
words " in store " may be more properly rendered
''into the treasury." The work here enjoined was
worthy of the Sabbath beneficent giving by the richer
saints of Corinth to the poorer saints of Jerusalem.
The language employed supposes this to have been a
day of assembling, when Christians coming together
might make a collection tendering jointly their offer-
ings for a benevolent object. The apostle, too, speaks
only of giving, not of earning, on that day; while we
are led to think of other days as suitable for work and
its gains. Nor was this a local but a general arrange-
ment. ''As I ordered the churches of Galatia, so do ye."

We have a like passrii

Here, it is to be

observed, that the Lord's supper and preaching are
spoken of only in connection with the iirst day of the
week, and that Paul seems to have tarried for this day,
as specially .suitable for such services, whether in re-
spect to its facilities or obligations. The received views
and usages of our country would induce a Christian
minister still to act just as Paul acted under like cir-
cumstances.

The history of the Christian church testifies, that
from very early times it has suspended secular labour,
while we have still more cumulative proof that it has
celebrated religious ordinances, on the first day of the
week. This practical acknowledgment of the sacred-
ness of the season is without any discoverable exception
or opposition in ancient annals. Other innovations, if
they were of consequence, were resisted; and they origi-
nated controversies which furnish proof of resistance.
Had the observance of the Lord's day been introduced
after the apostolic age, such a novelty, by its conspi-
cuous nature, would have openly challenged hostility
to change; and we cannot account for its uncoil tested
prevalence, unless by regarding it as a known and in-
disputable perpetuation of apostolic practice. It is
unnecessary here to do more than indicate a few main
links in the chain of proof which connects the subse-
quent practice of the church in this respect with that
of the apostles. \\c have scarcely entered into the
second century, not more certainly than twenty years

speaking of the Christians in Jiithynia being in the
habit, among other things, of "meeting together on a
stated day, and Miiging hymns to Christ as a Cod "-
the day being, beyond all doubt, the first day of the
week the only day with which he was in a peculiar
manner identified. Justin Martyr, writing about A.D.
140. is still more express; for he states distinctly that
all Christians, whether in towns or rural districts, met
for worship, the reading of Scripture, and the celebra-
tion of the Supper, on the .Day of the Sun; and in more
places than one lie specially connects the observance

with the resurrection of Christ. In a fragment of

church met for purposes of instruction and worship.
After this, the evidence becomes so full, that it is need-
less to refer to particular authors; the writings of Ter-
tullian and Cyprian, Iremeus, Clement of Alexandria,
Origen, and various others of less note, render it per-
fectly certain that the first day of the week was empha-
tically the sacred day of the Christians: that they were
as much distinguished by the observance of this, as the
Jews were by the observance of the seventh day; and
that, connecting it as they did with the resurrection of
the Lord, and the finishing of the work of our redemp-
tion, they thought its observance ought to be celebrated
with manifestations of spiritual joy and gladness.
Hence, it came to be regarded as improper to fast, or
kneel in public worship, on that day- -which ecclesias-
tical canons formed into an established rule. Then
came, in A.D. 321, the famous edict of Constantine,
formally recognizing the sacredness of this day, and
enjoining that "all judges and the civic population,
together with the workshops of artizans, should rest on
the venerable day of the Sun" allowing only harvest
and vintage work to be done, lest the fruits of the season
might perish. It is impossible to regard this edict
otherwise than as a homage paid by the head of the
Roman empire to the general feelings of his Christian
subjects; and Eusebius undoubtedly gives the true ac-
count of it when he Fays, in his Life of Conxtantine
(b. iv. c. i 1 -), "he ordained one day to be regarded as a
special season of prayer, namely, that which is the first
and chief of all, the day of our Lord and Saviour.''

Some (for example Dr. Hussey, in hi
Lecture] would regard the practice of our Lord and his
apostles, followed up as it was by the practice of imme-
diately succeeding times, as of itself sufficient to estab-
lish the religious obligation of the Lord's day, and
that which alone renders it binding. .But this is going
somewhat too far in one direction, and too little in
another; since it leaves out of view the important con-
nection between this and a previous day, which pos-
sessed a sacred character, and which seems plainly to
be recognized in the very institution of the Lord's day.
There is a marked resemblance, and yet reasons for a
change. Let us glance at these.

The grand claim of this day to religious deference is,
that on it Christ rose from the dead. His resurrection
was an event of momentous and joyous consequence
terminating his humiliation demonstrating the accept-
ance of his sacrifice by the Father completing his title
to mediatorial recompense and insuring the salvation
of his people.

LORD'S DAV LORD'S DAY

But to see more clearly and largely the claims of this i when he rose from the dead, then succeeding himself
day to i preferential regard, compare (l.i Christ's state ami entitling his people to newness of life,
on the first day with his condition on the seventh day. > "Which of these creations, then, shall l>e deemed the
During the Jewish sabbath he was in the grave: on the more worthy of commemoration.' Scripture answers
first day he achieved against the grave what his foes the question. " Behold,'' ways Jehovah, "I create new
had attemjited against him. breaking its Lands asunder, heavens and a new earth, and the former shall no longer
and casting its cords from him. "Whom Cod hath be remembered nor come into mind." This language
raised up, having lo..sed the pains of death, because it would have no fultilnii nt if \\e i-etained a day for keep-
was not possible he should be holdcn of it," Ac. ii. .'4. If ing us in mind of the first ereaiion. and the second
the Sabbath were a time of -loom, as some consider it, nceived no commemorative season whatever,
we mi -lit Htlv select for il that dav on which the (''>.> Compare the tir-t day of the week witli tile dav
mangled frame of tli- Saviour lav i'i the d;ist of the of deliverance from Kgvptian bondage. Immediately
earth. lint if the Sabbath be a d> Ikdit t!ie ilav of on escaping fr. in the Ri-d Si a. in \\hich their enemies
days in privilege and bliss then, what day so inappro- purMiin- them were drowned, the Israelites observed
priate for it as that whVi ( 'hri-t spent in the sepulchre, the Sabbath: and this n-t from sla\ ery, coaleseing witli
wliile liis followers v. d, and de- the n ; from creation, eidianei-d from that time the
jected; and what day so seasonalile as that of his resur- sacredness of the d.iy. " Reni'-mber." said .Moses,
ivetion, replacing all sullerin- and abasement b\- the "that thou \\ a t a servant in the land of Kgvpt. and
joy set b fore him, and b getting his people to ;i li\. ly that the 1 ,ord thy Cod brought thee out thence through
lioj t their hcaveiilv h\\\< : a mLditv hand, and bv an outstretched arm. therefore

That the day of Christ's rising would attain a joyous the l.onl thy Cod commanded thee to h. ep the S.ah-

eonseqiieiiee under the evangelical ecoliomv, had been batli." Do. v. l.'i

not obsi-urely intimati-d in ( lid T. -lament prophecy: Was this, then, the greatest and most memorable of

"The stoii.'. said ti;i' psalmist, "which tin- builder.- redemptions' Such is not the judgment of Sei-ipt ure.

refused, is become the head stone of i : This It pointed, in prophecy, to a nobler emancipation at a

is thi' Lord's rlning. it is marvellous in our eves. Thi.- higher price, and declared. " I'.. -hold the davseome.

is the day which the Lord hath made: we will rejoice saith the Lord, that it sh:dl no more be said. The Lord

and ! -lad in it." fs. cx\ .::.! In explanation of Ih.th that brought U]i tin- children of l-ra<l out of

this passage, an apostli says: " Ji-.-us nf Na/aivth. \\ lio M1 \'_\ pt," .1,- xvi 1 1. r.. Surdy we are not to n tain a day

ye onicilied. Cod rai-i-d from the dad; . . . this i- for commemorating \\hat is no more to be mentioned :

the stone which was of you builders, and surely, if the event ellaeed had such a season, the

which is become the head of the corner.' I'.y this greater event effacing i' musl be more worthy of the

exposition, C'hrist, in being enn-ilied. was sel at noug] : in.

ot the builder-: in i-i.-inu' I'mm the di-ad, he beca the Such a transmutation of ordinances as \\e h;i\e b, en

head of the corner: and tin- d: ;, of thi glorious change contending for. is rather conformable than antriu'onistic

is the day which Cod hath mad or appointed special! v to the genius of the N, w Testament. Most intelligent

and characteristically .'ritual rejoicing, read, rs \\ill see its analogies in the nlatioii of eirenm-

lo si.-e the claim- o| n. comjiai-e c2. th" cision t<i baptism of the passover t<i the supper and

.-veiitli and first day- in their relation to rest. Laeh was of the ^yna^ogne rule and s< i-\ ices to spiritual ( 'hri-tian

conseipient on a work of creation. To this idea Scrip administration. In all these; cases, however positive

tmv it-. It -ives expressiuii and prominence: and we substitution may be controverted, we see a remarkable

cannot, without remarking it, see the harm >n v of di-- s.imeni f essence an<l significance, with circumstantial

jieiisations. Man's fall, n state is likened bv Script i;re div. r-itv.

to chaos, out of which ( Jod lirulieht order and beauty. It has tlm- appear.,] that along \\iththe abiding
"Tliey are wise," says Jeremiah, , , "to d,, oliligation of the Sabbatli, Scripture emmciates a change
evil: but to do irood they liave no knowledge. I beheld of the day. The>e positions an- not ,.f equal importance,
the earth, and. lo. it was without form and void: and In the nature of thimrs there eann.(. strictly speakin-',
the heavens, and they had im li-ht." Wliile the 1,,-t be an identical day for all the inhabitants of the earth:
state of man is represented as a second chaos, so the and an approximation to such identity is not, compar-
recovery of man bv Christ is exhibited as a new able, in consequence, to the essential duty of dedicating
creation. "Behold. I create new heavens and anew to Cod one day in seven. Still, it is satisfactory to
earth: . . . but be ye -lad and rejoice for ever i u that find that tin- Chri-tian Sabbath is in every aspect do-
which I create; for. behold. I create Jerusalem are- fensible; and that, if we are summoned to its advocacy,
joieinir. and her people ; , joy," [- kv. ir. i-. Cod is also WL . can till our mouth with arguments in justifying the
expre-sly represented as cr.-atin-,' us anew in Christ ways of Cod to man. Much stress has been laid by
Jesus unto -ood work-. Here. then, beyond contro- anti -Sabbatarian WTiters on the countenance afforrled to
versy, was a creation: and when did Christ rest from their view by the Christian fathers, as controverting
it? Surely when the work of it was finished, and all | the observance of the Sabbath in patriarchal times, and
his agony and ignominy were left behind. On this j rather disavowing than acknowledging the obligation
point, too, revelation is explicit. " We are buried with of the fourth commandment. ..lost of these fathers
Christ by baptism into death, that like as Christ was were converts from heathenism; and they accepted the
raised up from the dead by the -lory of the Kather, , Xe\v Testament without duly studying or comprehend-
even so we also shoulrl walk in newness of life," Ro. vi. 4. ing its relation to the Old. On the subject of their
From these passa-es we learn thai* there was to be a i connection they alwavs speak conftisedlv. They snp-
seeond creation that this second creation would be i ]>ose themselves in disparaging Judaism to commend
the spiritual redemption effected by Christ and that ' Christianity, and are disposed to contrast, where they
he rested from his work and entered on hi- recompense j should rather compare and harmonize, the two economies.

Lomrs

LORD'S

Their testimony in such a ease as this is of minor con- '
sequence, except as to matters of fact: ami they Lear
witness clearly ami indisputably to the gene-nil ohscrv-
ance by ( 'hristians of the Lord's day, Loth in respect to
the celebration of worship and abstinence from Lusiness.
S >nie construe the patristic allusions to the SaLLath still
more favourably. They maintain as does J'.ishop
Patrick, for example that the fathers, in controverting
the observance of the SaLLath by the patriarchs, de-
signed only the legal formalities of the day. which had
not tln.ii come into force. They bring quotations from
Ireil.-eus and. others a--< TthiLi' the decaloui.e to Lo of
perpetual obligation, and claiming for the Lord's day
divine authority. They cite Justin Martyr as associat-
ing the creation and Christ's resurrection, when Mating
its grounds and obligations. From Ireiueus, and less
early but still ancient fathers, such as Clemens Alex-
andriiius and Origeii, they adduce instances of trans-
ferring the name of the old Sabbath to the altered day.
and reasoning from the one to the other as to the proper
mode of keeping the generic rest. Mr. Gilfillan thus sums
up their evidence: " l'>v one or more of them, uneontra- '
dieted by the others, has each of the doctrines been held,
which in our davs have, though improperly, been termed
Sabbatarian the primeval appointment and patri-
archal observance of a weekly day of rest and worship
the substitution by divine authority of the first day of
the week as the ( 'hristian SaLLath for the Jewish sc\cnth
day and the consecration by the same authority of
the Lord's day entirely to rest from secular labour, and
to the immediate service of ( rod, as required and directed
in the fourth commandment eases of necessity and
mercy being, as they were also under the former eco-
nomy, exempted " (The Sabbath, by the Rev. James iii!i\liaii,
stiriinir, i> *). See further under SABBATH. [D.K

LORD'S SUPPER, THE. If we formed our esti-
mate of the Lord's Supper from the discussions to which
it lias given rise, we mi^ht snppos,. it to be an extremely
obscure, if not wholly unintelligible, institution. Varied
and conflicting views of it have been advocated with
the intensest x.eal not iinfrequentlv with the fiercest
rancour and have enlisted in their defence the plenti-
ful resources of ingenuity and learning. Such alterca-
tion, however, is not decisive evidence of any abstruse-
ness or intricacy in the subject of dispute; it may result
from aiming to be wise above what is written. The
human mind surrendering itself to this ambition, is only
misled by its wittiest devices, and in seeking other than
divine light, merely darkens counsel by words without |
knowledge. Our impressions of this solemnity may be
very different and altogether deferential, if we are con-
tented to "receive the word with all readiness of mind/'
and whatever interpretations may be proposed, esteem
it our iiolilt-st, occupation to search the Scriptures
whether these things are so.

In treating of this ordinance, we will glance at the
facts connected with its appointment then seek to as-
certain from Scripture its import -and, h'nally, examine
the controversies of which it has been made the occasion.

I. Facts connected icith it* /i/i/jfiintmmt. -Jesus insti-
tuted the supper while he was observing the passover j
with his disciples. We need, then, to have distinct
conceptions of the paschal feast, which the supper in a
measure presupposes, and in alliance with whose observ-
ance it was inaugurated. But a full exposition of this
Mosaic festival would be irrelevant, and is not at all
necessary; some references to it will here suffice.

P>y those who have studied the intimations of Scrip-
ture in alliance with Jewish antiquities, the following
is supposed to have been the order then oLst rved. The
guests first drank a cup of wine mingled with water.
They had next all the provisions {'laced on th'- table
bitter salad, unleavened bread, roasted land), and thick
sauce symbolic, it is said, of the clay out of which the
Israelites made bricks in Kgypt. This last is under-
stood to have been the dish in which the treacherous
Judas dipped with his Ma.-ter. The company then
tasted the bitter salad. Then, in order, we are told, to
surprise children, and incite them to inquire .".bout the
passover. all the dishes were removed, and after a time
bi-ouglit back. Thereafter a second cup was drunk.
The supper, properly so culled, was subsequently eaten,
in concluding it they drank a third cup, and before
parting a fourth cup. All these constituents or stages
of the feast were alternated with washings, thanks-
givings, expositions, and praise.

The unleavened bread used at the paschal solemnity
was doubtless that which (. hrist brake and gave to his
disciples, and the third cup closing the festival anil
allied with thanksgiving, is generally understood to
have been the thanksgiving cup, or. as Paul calls it,
" the cup of Lies-ing," which he handed to his disciples,
enjoining them all to drink of it. It is agreed, how-
ever, that there was a fourth cup, along with the drink-
ing of which other p-alms were sun_r: and this is the
more likely to have been the sacramental cup. that it
was introduced when the repast was otherwise over,
and may therefore be said to have been taken by our
Lord " after supper;" and also that a special sanctity
was attached to the last cup at feasts, both in Jewish
and Gentile conception.

JJut must it of necessity have been one cup. and only
one. to which an evangelical significance was given!
In Luke's account, Christ is twice mentioned as taking
and giving the cup- -once before and once after supper
and both instances are recorded solemnly and circum-
stantially. On the former occasion before supper--
''he took the cup and gave thanks:" so exhibiting it
as a cup of blessing, and said. "Take this and divide
it among yourselves." This looks like sacramental
action and language of consecration, though leaving
room for after and fuller explanation. If it be not,
what is the intent of ic? ^Vhy this special mention of
what Christ now did in relation to the cup, rather than
the salad or the lamb' All human theorizing has
tended not simply to ally the appointment of the supper
with the observance of the passover, but to exhibit the
origination of the New Testament ordinance as abso-
lutely precise in its time, words, and forms. The lan-
guage of Luke seems to raise the question, though we
have never seen it mooted, whether Jesus really made
so much distinction between one cup and another, or
whether by " this cup," he meant "this wine" the
wine of this feast, in whatever cup contained as now
invested with altered significance for a new- dispensation.

It is acknowledged by all that each guest had a cup
for himself, and also ate without passing along the
unleavened cake or cakes which might happen to be
placed near him. Some tell us that the head of the
feast also handed round a cup, and broke and distri-
buted bread, after 4-he manner which our Lord exem-
plified. But if Christ simply did what was usually
done in these respects, why so much particularity and
emphasis in the narration of his procedure ? The tran-

LORI/S SUPPKU

LORD'S SUPPER

sitioii from pin-taking to imparting from individual
and personal to social and communicative action- is
verv prominent and conspicuous in the gospels, and
certain! v favours the impression that in its time or
manner the dispensation of the elements was unwonted,
as well as their evangelical application, it' ( 'hrist gave
away bread and wine, which, by the usages of tlie feast,
lie would liave taken to himself, the apostles could not
luit regard as remarkable this unlooked-for deviation
from established custom. To part with his food was a
touching token of ivsi'j;nin<_r on their behalf the lit'':
which it .-u-tained.

As the Lord's Supper formed, in the first instance.
a sequel to the pa-chal feast, man} of the primitive
Christians turned this fact into a precedent, and
still celebrated the eucharist at the conclusion of a
meal. They held their love-feasts, and ended th' m
liv eommemoratiiu Christ's death. Such conduct was
iialil'- to abuse; and, in the case of Gentile converts,
th liabilitv was unicli aggravate d by their prior .
ciation-. They remarked that the \. .rd - Supp. r suc-
ceeded not onlv to u tVa-t. but to a saerilice: and in
this aspect it seemed to th. m analogous to their former
heathen banqueting consequent on expiation.-. They

had been aeclisi.omcd to eat tilings otlcf-d to idols in
tin'-- nocturnal orgies; and as their oblations ditler. d
much in costliness, an ! were allied, in some instances
at least, with more or le-s sumptuous fare, according
as tli quests w Te indigent or alHuent. their common
assemldinu' wa- not to a common repast: but evi ry one
liad his own pro\ isions; and th. - presented the <\
ti-i-iin-sof temporal condition. The communicant
Corinth wen- chargeable \\ithall this voluptuous and
invidious revelrv. Tiiev introduced tin- eucharist bv
feasting, under ih.- plea.. \\ e mav belii\e. that it had
been so observed originally: and. \\ith a selfishness and
sensuality der',\ed from their own superstition, every
one ute before observing it his own supper. The-e
.-uppers had all the diversity of their lots in life, so that
" one was hungry and an. th'-r was drunken," or rather,
one was fami>hed while- another was surteited.

It appears that some members of tin- church, rather
than be involved in such improprieties, absented them
selves from the earlier bancpieting, and aimed to be in
time only for the divinely appointed service. lint tiny
were not waited for. The practical rebuke which they
administered rather provoked indecent lia.-te on the
part of the ^uiltv. to disappoint them bv terminating
the solemnity before they arrived. All this desecration
gave I'aul occasion to sav. " \\heii ve come together
to cat. tarrv one for another; and if any man hunger,
let him eat at home, that ye come not together unto
condemnation,'' 1 C'o. ,\i. :;:;, :;i.

It is not to be understood that all the primitive
churches were chargeable with such irregularities. Tip-
same apostle who thus censured the church at Corinth,
had occasion to commend others, with whom, even
though absent ill the flesh, he was present in the spirit,
"joying and beholding their order;" and to the Corin-
thians themselves he said, on a general view of their
behaviour, " I praise you. brethren, that ye remember
me in all things, and keep the ordinances as I delivered
them unto you."

So far we have adverted to facto, aiming simply to
show what took place when the Lord's Supper was
instituted, and at its earlier celebrations.

I!. Let us now seek to ascertain from Scripture

the import of this ordinance. "As often as ye eat
this bread and drink this cup. ye do show the Lord's
death till he come." These and other expressions of
Scripture unequivocally teach us that the supper has
relation to Christ's death, and is designed to keep it
prominently and iinpt-rishably in view. Unless it be
so regarded it cannot be understood. It is an impres-
sive and vivifving exponent of Christ's decease; and
however varied may be its relations however compre
lien-ive and illumining its significance, here all its
meaning' centres, ami hence all its teaching radiates.
It, sho\\s the Lord's death - .-hows in what capacity
and with what intent lie died; and a right view of his
deith so obtained. 1 .conn s expository of all other
aspects and uses of this solemnity. This .proposition
we will endeavour to make good.

If \\e were not so familiar with the subject , we would
be at once struck \\ith the sin-'ularity of assigning such
honouring celebration to such a catastrophe as Christ's
\\liv so press on considerate at'n ntioii the
Joomv end of fallen humanity' There is joy when a
man is born into the World, and the event is often the
occasion of mirthful festivities. Ciur departure hence
is regarded, on the contrary, \\ith awe and disrelish;
and if the eminent and Useful are removed, their re-
moval causes -ratulatioii to none but the selfish or vin-
dictive. Y.t contemplation is here summoned and
required t" be pre-eminently directed not to the
stupendous miracles of ( hrist not to his elevated dis-
courses and immaculate virtue but to his expiri"-'
moments and mortal suffering. II,- wills to be ever
present to thought and all'ection. as pouring out his
sonl unto death In, \\inu the head, and giving up the
ghost.

Nor was there anything in the mode of his decease
to strip it of il - terrors and invest it with attractiveness.
11. did not bi.l adieu to the world encompassed by
friend- admiring and comforting him: nor did he perMi
in successful battle. trampling on tin- necks of his foes,
and falling into the arm- of victory. In its manner
his end was appalling. It had every attribute which
could render it dp-adful. and recommend apparently a
fo|-( tfuln. -s ..f it.- horrors. lie died by the hands of
th .executioner condemned by tiie.b\\.- for blasphemy,
and bv the 1,'omans for sedition doiii-- nothing by
eloquence or mi^ht to deliver himself and so far was
lie then from having credit or solace in the fidelity of
his disciples, that one of them betrayed him. another
denied him, and all of them forsook him and hYd. His
capital punishment, too, was of the most revolting
character crucifixion. No death could lie more
ai;-oniy.ini: in itself, or more odious in public estimation.
I'.v the judgment of Scripture every one was cursed
that hung upon a tree: and Koine, strictly forbidding
anv of its citi/.eiis to be crucified, reserved this terrific
peualtv for the guiltiest of slaves. To erect a stone of
remembrance over such an end. was a new thing in the
earth, and such as had nev.-r enter-d the heart of man
to conceive.

If it be said that attention is claimed after all not to
Christ's death itself, but to some of its concomitants
as memorable to the doctrine or the example of the
distinguished sufferer the assertion is gratuitous. It
is made not only without proof, but against proof in
direct opposition to all the language of institution,
directing contemplation and assigning consequence to
a broken bodv, to shed blood, and in every way to a

death of violence. Nor was this tliu only occasion on
which Christ so expressed himself. He had exclaimed,
' Verily, verily, 1 say unto you, except ye eat the flesh
and drink the Mood of the Son of man, ye have no life
in you. Whoso eateih my flesh and drinketh my Mood
hath eternal life, and 1 will raise him up at the last
day," ,Tn. vi. ;,,;, r,i. On all other subjects Christ spoke
with the justest taste and exquisite delicacy. Why
does lii' here, adopt a style apparently so different
alien to the usages of civilization, and suggesting to
thought the hideoiisness of cannibalism? It is vain to
talk of eastern figures, and remind us that cvi.n anionu'
ourselves instruction is designated the food of the mind.
The question her.' respects not instruction, but the
Instructor; and no example has ever been brought from
either cast or west, of any other master exhorting his
disciples to feast on himself, and. to preclude all dubiety.
instancing expressly his flesh and his Mood. Hence
we draw an important deduction. If such commemo-
ration nnd phraseology be altogether unexampled, we
conclude -and are shut up to the conclusion that
there must be something peculiar in the death of C 'hrist.
to a& ount for the rite by which it is celebrated, and
the diction by which it is described.

What the peculiarity of Christ's death is we are not
left to conjecture. The institution in all its diction and
action testiiies, and its essential value largely consists
in testifying, that Christ's decease was expialorv. This
will be apparent if we observe more particularly how
it allies his death with cvrctuuit and fiirt/iratex*. He
said, "This cup is the new testament in mv blood,
shed for the remission of sins unto mam."

This translation supposes the blessings of salvation
to be here figuratively bequeathed to us in a testament
or will.

lint what, then, is the moaning of the new testa-
ment ': With what o!</ will is it contrasted? The
idea of two wills is evidently inadmissible. The' ( : r<-ek
word so rendered, diaOrjKtj, corresponds to a Hebrew
word, ma, which invariably signifies covenant, and so
the term should have been translated here. And what
of the covenants? A few explanatory words regarding
them will be found not to be a digression.

.Man was originally promised life on condition of
obedience, and the tree of life was a seal or voucher of
Jehovah's fidelity to his engagements, of which our
first parents would have been permitted to taste as the
pledge of secured happiness, if they had successfully
concluded their term of probation. This constitution
under which man was at first placed is usually called
by us "the covenant of works."

In the economy of salvation, again, the Father speaks
and acts as the representative of (iodhead, assigns the
Son the stupendous work of redemption, and promises
to reward magnificently its fulfilment. This plan of
mercy is called in our theology '-'the covenant of re-
demption." It was made not directly with us. but
with Christ, and with us only as seen in him our
surety.

In^ Scripture, however. Cod is often exhibited as
entering into covenant with his worshippers themselves.
He does so in a subsidiary and secondary sense.
As respects the righteousness which justifies on the
ground of which we are pardoned and accepted-- the
covenant was made with ( 'hrist. and with his people
only as represented by him. But we are invited to be-
lieve in Christ, and to commend our faith by its fruits;

LORD'S SITRKI:

and if, by patient continuance in well-doing, we seek
for glory, and honour, ami immortality, we are promised
eternal life. The believer accedes to these proffers,
and his concurrence in them, or, to use the language
of our fathers, closing with them, has the character
of federal engagement. In this last sense a covenant
is a dispensation of religion in its practical relation to
us; and we enjoy its privileges when we are brought
by it into fellowship with Cod when he becomes our
Cod, and we become to him a people. It is evident
that there may be a plurality of such covenants or dis-
pensations, each evolving more clearly than the one
preceding it the will of Cod in Christ Jesus concern-
ing us.

When Christ speaks of the new covenant, he designs
a new dispensation in the sense explained, and contrasts
it with the old dispensation or economy established
through .Moses.

These remarks on covenants are preliminary to the
statement we have now to make, that when blood is
mentioned in connection with them, we can only regard
that blood as sacrijiciul. Covenants were often made
by sacrifice. The principle of such transactions si ins
to have been, that the contracting parties imprecated
like destruction on themselves as befell the immolated
animal, in case they should violate their vows. All
covenants had not this confirmatory ritual; but so often
as an animal was slain to strengthen a covenant, that
animal was deemed to be a sacrifice. The Scriptures
evince plainly this relation. 'Thus we are told. Kx. xxiv.
:>, 8, that "Closes sent young men of the children of
Israel, which offered burnt-offerings and sacrificed peace-
offerings of oxen unto the Lord. And .Moses took the
blood and sprinkled it on the people, and said. Ik-hold,
the Mood of the covenant which the Lord hath made
with you concerning these words." Here we have not
only sacrificial blood connected with a covenant, but a
form of expression so like what Christ used, as strongly
to indicate intentional citation: "1'ehold," said Moses,
"the blood of the covenant." ''This." said Jesus, "is
the new covenant in my blood.'' Christ thus declared
in effect. "As the former covenant was confirmed by
sacrificing oxen, so do 1 confirm this new covenant
by the sacrifice of myself."

1 ksides allying the shedding of his blood with a cove-
nant in the words of institution, he allied it also with
forrjirencss with "the remission of sins." P.ut what
blood, except that of expiation, was so conjoined, either
in the Old Testament scriptures or in Jewish belief'
iS'one but sacrificial blood was accounted to have such
relation to pardon. In Le. iv. we have sacrifice and
forgiveness several times associated. Paul pronounces
Jesus to have been a "propitiation, that through faith
in his blood we may have the remission of sins." Ko. iii. >:,.
In the epistle to the Hebrews we have the high- priest
represented as going "into the second tabernacle, not
without blood, which he offered for himself, and the
errors of the people," ch. ix. 7. And we have, in the
same chapter, the comprehensive and unqualified de-
claration, that ' without shedding of blood there is no
remission." ver. i'a.

Here, then, we learn that the death of Christ is cer-
tainly peculiar; and also, from its connection both with
covenants and forgiveness, that the peculiarity consists
in its sacrificial character. There were typical obla-
tions lief ore. He is the antitype the true sacrifice
the only true sacrifice the one Lamb of Cod taking

LORD'S SUPPER

113

LORD'S STPPKU

away the sins of the \vorld. Therefore is his death

depicted as no other death was ever depicted com- emblems we have communing with an incarnate and

memorated as no other death was ever commemorated: ! crueitieil Saviour: and to this end lie must In- such as

and therefore in the eurharistieal ordinance, as in the : a true and all-availing sacrifice supposes the man who

preaching of the gospel, \ve have Christ Jc sus set forth | is Cod's fellow smitten with the sw..rd of justice for

evidently crucified amony us. In the same spirit Paul then may he fulfil his promise: " Where two or three

determined to know nothing aim my the Corinthians are gathered together in mv name, there am 1 in the

hut ( 'hrist and him crucified: and ]imte.-ted for himself, midst of them."

"(lod fcirliid that 1 should nlory. save in the cross of | Tims, also the cn<-]i<iritii<'al nature of the supper is

oiii 1 Lord .lesiis Christ. by whom the world is crucified explained. His dt ath. a- an execution, was iu'iiomi-

unto me, and I unto the w<.rld. ' C;i ri. 11 ! nimis and murderous as an expiation, it was hoiionr-

\\henwehaveasccrtainedtVomthesoleinnriteunder able and beneficent. The l-'ather -lorilicd the Sun

consideration, that the death of Christ was e\piat"i-\ -. in acknowledging him in lie an adequate ransom for a

we have a sure L'Tonndwork for the prosecution of <pur guilty rai-e; and this appi pintnu-nt. so transcendent in

subject. Sacrifice is a complex conception. It in itself, liecame still more a ground <pf thanks in coiinee

and reconcile men to God, then he mu-t hive had a signs of the times spoke only of his departure. The
nature to -uti'er. and a nature to give value and efficacy ' in-iitutioii it-elf corroborate d th>- harbin-jvr- < f c\ il. and
to his siit!enii'_r. We are thus c. pnfrouteil with the presaged unmistakably death and bereavement. Yet.

two -rand articles of his maiih 1 and his Godhead: beyond this going, Christ foretells a coinin; such a

lor th'-y who deem him to have been a true sacrifice, enmiu-- as would supersede this service 1>\ hi. .do r privi-
confess both: and no resting- place has ever been found 1. go eclipsing the li-ht of presi nt revi latimi bv a more
short of the conclusion that the -ntt'erin- nature was e\,-ellent Jory. There i- a conyruity between tlnse
human, and that the ennobling nature \\as divine. ivt ro-pect.- and ant icipation-;. He \\ho j- qualified te

\\ ith these views all phases i,f this ordinance consist, be the 1,'edeeinc r of the world, is also competent to be
and they mutually elucidate and eon-oborate one another, j its.lud-e. He who, in heiny once off. red. could bear
( 'hrist. as befits the dignity thus ascrilied to him, her. the sin- of many, ma\ also unto them that look for him
I, //<.</ii/i.< tor his church. He gives former elements a appeal- the second time without sin unto salvation -
new interpn tation. It is startling to find the l...rd of may come to be -lorified in his saint-, and admired of
L'lory levelled with the commonalty in th< ir iv]i_ii,.u- all them that believe in that .lav.

observances sitting as they -at doing as they did The teaching of this institution, as we have explained

and deferring with the most servile formalist to the it, shows also its concord with other institutions. The
dicta of .M,pses. Mut suddenly the scene changes the / tiMnn r had immediate respecl t.. the deliverance from
subject appears the nil. r and, at the word ,,f Jus Kgvpt.and some of its constituents pointed plainlv to
mouth, old things ],a>.- away, and all things become this consummation. The bitter herbs told of bitter
new. fn eH'ect he put tlie bread and wine in the room bondage as past and -one: and tlie unleavened bread
of the lamb, giving them the same essential signincation told of the celerity of the deliverance afti.rded when
with circumstantial change for altered condition so God was their deliverer, and, waiting on no tardy opera-
abrogating as well as appointing supersediny and tion of secondary causes, bi-ou-ht them forth with a
setting aside an imposing pillar of the Aaronic ritual, strony hand and an outstretched arm. I'.nt what did

and setting up its lovelier equivalent in the kingdom the land. mean, and what its hi 1 besmearing their

of(.'od. The last lawful jiassover was thus announced vestibules? These had no |>lace anion- the antidotes

to ' Vt ' r : and the ivvolmioni/ini: e'.mmand went to their plagues no resemblance to any pending privi-

forth ' Do this in remembrance of me." j lege. And its significance is seen ,,nlv when we recog-

.lesus not (.nly inm.vate.l in religion, but appointe<l a ni/.e in it a shadow of better things t... come the sub-
service in honour of himself. He who is the- author ' stance being of Christ a lamb slain, in respect to
is also tlie object of this homage. Neither Abraham, i appointment and efficacy, from the foundation of the
nor Moses, nor any prophet, thus exhibited his own world.

consequence; and if .le.-us was a men- man. however | Jn connection with the person and work of Christ
great amony men. we cannot dissociate this self- i here symbolized, it is well to notice specially the rela-
exaltation from vanity and arrogance. Hut if the , tion of this ordinance to laptixm. Moth these ordi-
Word that was made flesli was with God. and wast Jod. 'nances may be said to be expository of our whole

religion. Hut each of them presents to us specially
certain truth, though in relation to other truth, and as

connected with the enti

To become meet for the inheritance of the saints in

then it was condescension in him to appoint an ordi-
nance which should help us to remember and reali/e
his obedience unto death, even the death of the cross,
and give us ravishing disclosures of his redeeming love.

It is in the same light that this institution is expres- . light, we must undergo two grand changes the OIK
Riveoifelloieitltlp. "Thecupof blessing which we bless, ' legal, the other moral the one delivering us from the
is it not the communion of the blood of Christ ! The | condemnation of sin, and the other from its power,
bread which we break, is it not the communion of the , To deliver us from the condemnatory guilt of sin was
body of Christ T I Co. x. 10. We cannot, strictly speak- ' more immediately the work of Christ to transform

mg, have communion with a lifeless corpse. The our depraved nature is more characteristically the work
\..... II. m

LORD'S SU'l'KK

114

LOKD'S SUPPER

of the Spirit: and these two grand essentials <f salva-
tion these two central pillars oil which the whole
fabric rests- are distinctively set before us in the two
sacraments. I n the Lord's Supper we have represented
to us Christ delivering us from the curse of the law, in
being made a curse fur us; and in baptism, salvation
from defiling depravity. l>y the \\ashing of regeneration
and renewing of the .Holy Ghost, shed on us abun-
dantly through Jesus Christ our Lord. Here, then,
we see that our evangelical rites are not unmeaning.
Xor are tin v capriciously significant, denoting one
thing' or another tiling indifl'ereutly and disjointedly.
.But what is great in statement, is honoured also in
symbol; and the two grand phases of salvation, doc-
trinally regarded, arc the emphatic and prominent
subjects of sacramental exhibition. Look at thorites
of other religions- --so confused, multifarious often
frivolous and contemptible and then contrast with
them our sacraments, exhibiting to the eye the same
faith proclaimed by the gospel in the ear and evolv-
ing essential principles in their mutual dependence and
magnificent harmony! But all this sublime teaching
p'-rishes if the supper commemorate not the sacrificial
death of a divine Saviour.

It sustains this character in almost numberless par-
ticulars. To be worthy of such authorship it must
serve some great and distinctive use or uses; and this
condition it fulfils. It would be of great value if it
simply reiterated the gospel message in another form;
for varied illustration stimulates interest and aids
comprehension. JSut while it appeals to a separate
sense, it also corroborates the vision, which it doubles,
and has an important place among the evidences of
Christianity. Had it not been introduced at the time
alleged, it could not have been fabricated afterwards
without contradicting its own pretensions: and there-
fore it is a credential, as well as memorial, of the events
which it respects.

It is a visible pledge, not simply that Christ once so
loved us as to give himself for us, but that he retains
this affection in all its intensity. He would not tan-
talize us by recalling a regard now faded and enfeebled.
The perpetuated celebration of his death thus evinces
not merely a present but a perennial devotion to our
good, and shows that he is equally bent on our happi-
ness, as when for our sakes he was agonized in the
garden, lacerated bv the scourge, transpierced by the
nails, and suspended on the tree.

Space fails to notice all features of this ordinance
commendatory of its Lord. The gospel is addressed to
all. How befitting is it to have also an institution
discriminating the church and the world, and not
merely constituting a proclamation of its tidings, but
also expressing an acceptance of their blessings! And
how simple the emblems are! how devoid of osten-
tation, meretricious ornament and, we may add, all
affectation of originality! Old emblems are used,
though with new application, just as the rainbow.
already existing, was made the token of security from
recurring deluge.

Consider how adapted to the gospel economy these
symbols are not sanguinary and painful but blood-
less, nutritious, cheering, lleflect what avoidance of
extremes is here. On the one hand, sense is not dis-
owned. The heart is approached through different
channels of perception, as by one who knows our frame
and remembers that we are dust. On the other hand,

we have no more forms than maybe auxiliary to faith;
and the exceeding plainness of the ceremonial transfers
attention to its denoted truth, to the grace now mani-
fested and the glory to be revealed.

IVIark, in a word, how fitting was the time of its
appointment, bringing the emblems and the facts into
the closest possible connection preparing the disciples
for the sore trial which awaited them, and enforcing
the commemoration of his death, and its many implied
and dependent duties, with all the tenderness and per-
suasiveness of dying entreaty ! Of win mi can all this
be said Of whom else than of Him who liveth and
was dead, and behold he is alive for evermore, and hath
the keys of hell and of death? He hath said, "This
do in remembrance (.if me:" and, ''J'.lessed are they
that do his commandments, that they may have right
to the tree of life, and may enter in by the gates into
the city."

We have thus endeavoured to show, from the words
of institution, that the suilerings of Christ were sacri-
ficial that a true and availing sacrifice supposes a
suffering human nature and ennobling divine nature:
and that when we thus in the supper recognize the
vicarious satisfaction of Immaiiuel, God with us. we
have the key to all its mysteries, and find in this means
of grace a luminous and concentrated exposition of the
glorious gospel of the grace of (kid.

III. Controversies to ifJiich tJ<e Lnnl'tt >';>//(/ lm.<
f/ircn occasion. It has appeared that abuses crept into
the observance of this ordinance even in the times of
the apostles. These being expressly rebuked could not
easily be perpetuated. Yet we may descry their influ-
ence and character in succeeding corruptions. The
same propensity which they evinced was still cherished,
to cling to paschal and pagan usages. As at the pass-
over, the Jews feasted on a sacrifice, and the heathen.
in their baiiquetings, also ate things which had been
ottered to idols, there was here preparatory pretext
for viewing the supper in the same light, and pronounc-
ing the elements to be expiatory. To hold them in
peculiar esteem seemed to be honouring to the institu-
tion; and this sacrificial view of them aided a growing-
tendency to regard them with superstitious reverence.

Sacrifice supposes a priesthood, and ecclesiastics,
growing in the disposition which soon manifested itself
to usurp lordship over God's heritage, were pleased with
an interpretation of this ceremonial which constituted
them a distinctive and sacred order, and invested them,
like the tribe of Levi and the family of Aaron, with
peculiar powers, to which others might not aspire.

The practice of feasting before communicating, led
to the scandal of some being drunk with wine, wherein
was excess: and to cure this evil, the strong measure
was adopted of withholding the wine from the general
body of the communicants. The clergy still communi-
cated in both kinds, and they were gratified by a change
which formed an auxiliary demarcation between them
and the laity.

These innovations, of which we have endeavoured thus
briefly to indicate the germs and trace the growth, were
ultimately developed into the papal doctrine of tran-
substantiation. with all its associated pretensions and
exhibitions. At the celebration of the mass, the priest,
somewhere about the middle of the service, pronounces
the words of consecration, and at that instant a mira-
culous and inconceivable metamorphosis is effected.
The form of the sacramental wafer remains: but the

LORD'S SUPPKII

115

LORD'S SUPPKR

matter which supported that form is gone, and has been
replaced by the contained body and blood, soul and
divinity, of the Lord Jesus.

The only evidence of the prodigy is Christ's sayinir.

'This is my body- -this is my bl 1." How small the

foundation for so great a superstructure! The Chal-
dean Hebrew had not a word for symbol, or symbolize,
and therefore averred a tiling to lie what it represented.
The evangelists coulu. no doubt, have supplied the
blank in the Creek, which wa- a copious language: but
they were not careful to alter idiom, and they rendered
exactly Christ's words just as wv do th<-irs. This was
their uniform practice. " \ am the vine. " 1 am the
door," "This is my body," "The seven stars are the
seven churches." In so cxpres.-in-_ r him-elf. Christ
marked the relation of the supper to the rite which it
superseded. " It is the Lord's passover." I'.ut these
were not the only word- of consecration; and hi.- diction
in its integrity precludes all mistake. In savini:. " I >o
thi- in remembrance of me," he plainly showed that
the service was to recall and not to constitute his
sensible presence. Tim- al-o. when he said. " A.- often
as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup." he plainly
tau-ht that the elements are still bread and wine at
the time of eat inn' and drinking' th> m.

l!y the doctrine of t ran-ul i-tant iat ;oii, the disciples
ate, in the tir-t in-taiice. a erueihed Saviour before he
had been crucitied. and the living .Saviour put hi- de-
ceased self into th' ir bauds! The tenet involves con-
tradictions so numerous and palpable, that a loni;' li-t
of them has become stereotyped in such discus-ions.
Instead of iv-exhibitim: it, we oiler the-e remarks, in
which there may be little novelty, but we hold them to
be fundamental and decisive.

1.) Scripture in every view supposes the trust worthi-
ness of our corpon al perceptions: and we should bring
into doubt its whole me.--a'_v and evidence by contro-
verting the testimony of our senses.

i'2.1 \\ e cannot, it' we would, di.-believe our organs
of sense. Kven those who have st < nied to themselves
to disprove, have not |,e.-n able to di.-credit the exist-
ence of a material world. Transubstantiation is a
dream a va^'iie nonentity and Komanists. in imagin-
ing they believe it, practi-o delusion on themselves.
It is vain to contend with fundamental laws of belief.

(3.) The dogma affects to adhere rigidly to Chri-t's
words, and yet widely departs from their literal accep-
tation. What lie declared to be still bread and wine,
the Romanists allege to be bread and wine no longer.
About his contained soul and divinity, of which they
speak, he said nothing. And to make words express
matter without form or with a form not its own is
to violate their literal sense, which includes alike essence
and properties.

The church having gradually entered into papal per-
versions, came also gradually out of them. It was not
easy for the Reformers to divest themselves entirely and
at once of antichristian errors which had been so long
maintained and revered as truths, and they are even to
be commended for a dread of sudden and sweeping
changes of sentiment, which might peril religion in
repudiating superstition.

Luther taught that bread and wine remain after con-
secration. This was a step in the right direction. Ife
shrunk from going further; and, in accordance with
prior conceptions, maintained that Christ is present in
them also. This doctrine of the Lutherans is com-

: nionly called consubstantiation. They dislike the

: name, and prefer to assert the real presence, without
indicating its nature. It is enough, they think, to

; avow the fact, proffering no definition of its mode.

j JUit the assertion they make involves of itself eon-
tradietion and absurdity. Kcpiallv with the Iv'oinanists
they support: Christ to have been crucitied and not

: crueitied when the ordinance was appointed. They
suppose different material substances the elements
and Chri-t's body to occupy the same place: they sup-
pose tin- one ln.dv of Christ to oceupv at the same
moment different places: and thev a.-cribe deception to
the senses destructive of ail evidence.

I n avoidance of such mvst ical and irrational positions,
IMshop Hoadley contended that the elements, from first
to last, are mere bread and wine, to be reverentially
eaten and drunk in remembrance of Christ. This lan-
iruage leaves uinleteriidne.l what i (> ! remembered,
and with what species or amount of homage. lie <!!'
not regard Christ's death as a true sacrifice, and hence
the ordinance lost, in his delineation.-., its essential
-acivdnes-. and partook of the commonplace and the
se^ularit \ of complimentary entertainments. My sueh
"a plain account," evangelical Christians were revolted,
and were induced to seek some medium I etw ecu tran-
sulistantiation and consiib-tantK.tion on the one hand.
and this naked, vapid ceremonial mi the other. While
.Johnson had incline.) so far to j.apal views, as to phad

for an " unbl ly sacrifice and altar, unveiled and sup-

polled," Warburtoii and ('udworth ivco^niy.ed in the

j -upper a t'.-a^t upon or after the sacrifice of < 'hrist.
The-e views, \\ith an aspect of distinction, pass into
each other. They all seek to ideiitit'v in principle the
heathen feasts on sacritices ami the Christian eucharist
so pronouncing the elements to be. in some \\av or
other, a sacrificial oblation. This principle, while it
identities, also confutes them. We have not hen', as
in heathen t'ea-ts, the ottering. I'v the common admis-
sion of such authors, the true sacritici-d Saviour is not
piv-eiit and eaten in the elements; and every aid nipt
to show that he is so virtually, or in eifct, utterly
fail-. The sacrifice of Christ is not there, and it has
no equivalent. Any endeavour to find what may
"take 1 it.- place," interferes with its singleness, and
detracts from its sufficiency. We may be told that
this is a sacrifice of thanksgiving, having no value in
itself, and acceptable lo Cod as representini; Christ's
sacrifice. In other words, we have a sacrifice of one
kind to commemorate a sacrifice of another kind, and
a eucharistical stands for an atoning oblation an e.x-
position in which it is difficult to perceive either con-
gruitv <>r sense. Polemical theologians may resolve
''sacrifice into "representation of sacrifice;" but if
we gave the designation of sacrifice to the Lord's
Supper, the multitude will see in the common name
a common nature, with consequent claim on like lie-
peiidence and regard; and the disputants themselves,
when the terror of Home is not before their eyes, will
attach to the language of sacrifice which they use its
ordinary sense, and see- in it reconciling power and
priestly ministration.

]!ut the language of Paul leaves no doubt, they tell
us. that the Lord's Supper is a feast of a sacrificial
nature: for he draws a parallel between it and heathen
feasts of this description. He speaks of "the tables of
devils and of the cup of devils.'' AVhat can these be
but the altars of superstition and its poured-out obla

LORD'S

110

LOAD'S Sl'PPKR

linns.' Thc-e he declares to be incompatible with the
Lord's Supper; so assi-niii',;- to them the same preten-
sions \\ith the fundamental ami irreconcilable difference
of truth ami falsehood. Such i-easuiiiiig is plausible,
but not convincing. We are not aware of any instance
in which the word ta/>/i* can be shown to denote altar*.
For such an improbable rendering tin-re is no need here,
as the apostle is speaking of feasts ill which tallies
served their common use; and it sufficed to make good
his charge of incompatibility, that the parties seated at
these tables ate things otJered to idols, in ostensible
acknowledgment of idolatry, and then observed an
ordinance commemorating < 'hrist's atoning death, which
excludes all other sacrifices by its sole and sufficient
efficacy. In fact, to pronounce the supper a eucharis-
tica'i sacrifice, or a sacrifice of any kind, would invali-
date the exclusiveness of Christ's sacrifice, and thus
render the apostle's argument less pointed and decisive.

But I 'aid declares, we are reminded, that to eat and
drink unworthily, is to be ''guilty of the body and blood
of the Lord:" and surely if the supper were not a sacrifice,
the dishonour done it could not be tantamount to Christ's
murder. They who use such an argument incline it
mav be unconscious! v to papal or Lutheran doctrine,
if Christ lie not sensibly present in the elements if
the bread and wine remain bread and wine, and derive
their saeredness and value not from what they are, but
what they represent, then how can the guilt of abuse
depend for its heinousiiess on assigning or not assigning
to acknowledged representation a sacrificial cast of ex-
pres-ion ! The sense thus put on Paul's words is alto-
gether extreme. 5/oot/guiltiness denotes murder; but
to be "guiltv of the IHK/I/." is language never used to
i!e>i-uate the crime. Besides, the apostle speaks of
such unworthy communicating as was visited with
chastisement from the Lord, tending and designed to
prevent condemnation with the world. Had he viewed
the erring parties as being in effect Christ's murderers,
he would rather have portrayed them as being of the
world, and rushing 011 its doom. His meaning plainly
is, that dishonour to the symbols is dishonour to the
Saviour symbolized. We may be guilty of such con-
tempt by neglecting to communicate, as well as by
communicating amiss: and indeed it is the neglectful,
scornful apostate, not the supine or comfortless com-
municant, who is charged with crucifying the Lord
afre.-h, and putting him to ail open shame.

Let those who obscure this subject by ascribing a
semi- sacrificial nature to the elements, remember that
they wlio communicate unworthily are said not to
discern the Lord's, body. Then the eucharistical feast
is a inliiijii of discernment; and the object discerned is
the Lord's broken, bleeding body. The justest account
of the institution is consequently that by which it brings
most truly and fully into view Chri.-t and him crucified.
To stay thought on the medium, and enhance its con-
sequence by decorative colouring, is to paint the glasses
ot the tel.-seope. and make it exhibit man's devices in-
stead of God's heavens. K very good and perfect gift
is from above. In the Lord's Supper we have a good
and perfect lense purely crystalline as that of the eye

and that we may see by it the noblest of all sights.
we have but to keep it as it is given us, and apply it
to its use, and cease, by our daubings. to bedim its
transparency.

Is the Lord's Supper an abiding institution in the
Christian church .'

Mr. Man-lay, in his.-lyxi/o'/// for the Society of Friends,
classes it with rites which are "but shadows of better
things. ' and " cease in such as have obtained the sub-
stance.'' Yet he owns that " thev v ho had received
the substance used it for a time for the sake of the
weak.'' Gurney, in his Treat !.-' mi tin- l'<l iijiim* Picu.-
l'iar'it'x of tlic Friuid*, supposes that Christ alluded to
the iiax.>trr in the expressions usually regarded as in-
stituting the sti/i/w not that Christ enjoined a con-
tinned observance of the passover but knowim,' that
it would be long observed by bis disciples after being
abrogated and obsolete, he required them to improve
this sanctioiiless proceeding by keeping him in memory!
Such an opinion is sufficiently confuted in being stated.
The grand objection of the Friends to the Lord's Supper
is, that it has too much of sense for a spiritual economy.
They fen-get that the mind can be reached only through
the senses. Mr. Gurney cites on his title-page Paul's
saying, ''The kingdom of God is not in word but in
power." Yet he pleads for ''the use of the Christian
ministry, whether in preaching or in prayer."' But
sight and hearing equally pertain to corporeal percep-
tion; and why may not the eye be addressed as well as
tin- ear' To tell us that whether we eat or drink, or
whatsoever we do, we are to do all to the glory of God,
and therefore every meal should be a Lord's Supper, is
to be wise above what is written. Paul distinguishes
expressly between the supper and ordinary meals, by
requiring that if any be hungry they should eat at
home; and that they should come to this church ordi-
nance not to satisfy their appetite, but to cultivate
devotion. The ordinance is to be observed till Christ
come. He was leaving in a sensible manner, and we
are to keep it till in a sensible manner he return. A
spiritual coming does not annul it: for after the day of
Pentecost, we find it still celebrated by the apostles.

With what frequency should the Lord's Supper be
observed ': Simie think the primitive Christians observed
it daily some that the celebration of it was at lea>t
weekly while others doubt if such brevity of interval
can be established as. a general fact. The language of
Scripture is indefinite. " As often as ye eat.'' ''While
ve often eat," is an improbable rendering. Convenience
would vary: and therefore much is left to discretion.
It is the testimony of experience, that where the supper
is very often celebrated, few on each occasion join in
the celebration of it, and thus the ordinance fails of one
of its ui'eat designs to manifest the unity of the church:
" For wo. being many, are one bread and one body; for
we are all partakers of that one bread," 1 Co. x. 17.

What species of wine should be used at the Lord's
Supper? Some who allow that the Jews had intoxi-
cating wines, contend that the wine of the passover
was the simple unfermented juice of the grape, or a
beverage produced from soaked raisins. Inebriating
wine is best when old; but it was said, in compliment
to the sacramental wine, that Christ would drink it new
with his disciples in the kingdom of heaven. Some,
however, understand the expression "new" of new cir-
cumstances, or as equivalent to anew, afresh. The early
Christians attached importance to the admixture of
wine with water, as symbolizing the united escape of
blood and water from the Saviour's pierced side. The
relation is fanciful, and not in accordance with fact.
It was the separate discharge of the blood and the water
which showed the fatality of Christ's wound; whereas,
in the supper, they are not distinguished but blended.

LO-RUHAMAH

117

LOT

Should the public be excluded when the Lord's Supper |
is observed .'

As the .lews called their passover Haggadah, a show-
ing or declaration, that is. of the events it recalled, so
iu the supper we are said to show or preach the Lord's
death. The primitive Christians seem to have regarded
the term as having a personal application, and denoting
an exhibition of the truth to one's own mind, or at
most to the company of communicants. The secrecy,
however, with which they observed the communion may
have resulted le.-.- from religious principle than the
dread of per.-ccution. The Church of Fn-land adheres
to this ancient usage, and allows only communicants to
]>e present at the- observance of the supper. The late
.Mr. Hall, of liri-tol. was in favour of >u. h pri\acy:
\\hile .Mr. I'.rown, of lladdin-'ton, uas led by the im-
pression whidi the communion service mad'' on hi-

own mind in childh 1. to think that children should

never he kept out of the chuivh on MIC}, occasions.
Certainly the expression, ''Ye do show the Lord's
death." is iiio>t naturally explained of public proclama-
tion. ( p. 'inies- of celebration i- the ^i-in-nd character
of Christian worship: and if th<Tc had heell any i xe-e
\\ho witness it: and while disciples only are Smiled to
partake, all. We are di-po-ed to think, -hou!';
coin-aged to look and listen, that they may learn and
obey the truth, hefoiv \\ho-e eyes .le-us Christ hatli
been evideiitlv set forth criiciiied anioii^ them.

[Tin- n.ll.miir.; treatise* on the I..>nl'.- su|.|ier ma\
suited : .S "Vd . , the Kev. C. Hi .Ip , M. \.:

.(,. AtttiHi't I" .!.<

/).,-;, / M, , 1 . '. I'l'.

],,,inlon:' .1 7Y. [. '' > ''. '>: the Kev. r..l\Miril

|{icker.-t,-th: rharnock's worku :

S.'f,'!-' a/ tlf J.'n\l.'.< Xiti'in-i-, I'.v l!.ii|ili I inlHorth. D.D.; .1 /' -

f, :: ,,f '// 7','.
of tin K,,,l,lt'liil I" ' ' ' .'I'' 1 'nillllUT,

Aivhl.i-l.u], i,f Canterbury; ./ // . hy Jona-

than KdHitnls; .1 /' J

|). |l.; Tin " .I,;,!.,/, l,y \Villialll

orme: 7V. Ln , the l;.-\ D. K:n.. I.I. l> : X,

,/,/ N,,,vo,,.,,/,./ K.i-lvL-tntimi*. l.\ tin- late Ainlivu Tin .ni.-on,

H.D.. K.liTil.iir.-li. i 111 the siihjcct of tli.- ival priwinv of Christ

in tin- sic-r.-i nt, as o|i[Mi>i'il to "I'rai't.-irian a in I Itehii-li \ i.-ws. t In-

treatise i il Dean (Jooile w ill be liuunl of lunch service. ] [D. K ]

LO-RUHA'MAH [ H nt /-/,/a/J. The symbolical

name given to the- ud<-ali daughter of Hosea. in \\hom
was meant to In- embodied the solemn truth that Cod
had meanwhile withdrawn the exercise of mercy from

his rebellious people. II... i. ii.

LOT |-r-, mil, ii. ntrcrlnr/]. Th<- name of the
son of llaran, the son of Terah. who died before
his father. Aliraham seems then to have treated Lot
much as if lie had been his own younger brother; and
when Abraham and his father moved from I r of the
Chaldees, Lot went \\ith them, Ge. xi. -J7, .')!. Again,
when Abraham left llaran for Canaan at the command
of the Lord. Lot went with him, and they carried "all
their substance that they had gathered, and the souls
that they had gotten in Jlaraii," Ge. xii. -I,:.. They con-
tinued together, no doubt, as we read in the following
chapter of them coining up together out of Kgypt. each
with his varied possessions; and these had now grown
so large, that there was not room for both together in
the land of Canaan. To prevent the unseemly spec-
tacle of brothers quarrelling ill the presence of the
doomed Canaanites and Perizzites, as indeed there had

been strife already between their respective herdsmen,
Abraham proposed a separation, yet generously gave Lot
his choice of the locality in which he would settle. And
Lot took notice of the ama/.iiii;' richness of the plain or
valle\ of Jordan, like the garden of the Lord itself, but
with inhabitants who "were wicked and sinners before
the Lord exceedingly," and made a choice which in-
jured him probably in his temporal as well as his spiri-
tual interests. For. the next chapu r tells how the
people of Sodom and the neighbouring cities became
subject to Chcdorlaoiner and his associate kings in the
east: and uhcii the cities made an unsuccessful iv\. It.
Lot \\asearried captive, and all his goods along \\ith
him. From this misfortune, however, he \\as reco\ civd
by the o'ood success of Abraham's expedition, under-
taken for his sake. The next mention of him is in
Ce. xix.. \\hei-e \\e read of his receiving the t\\o angels
but unaware of th"ir heaveulv character, merely exer-
cising hi- virtue of hospitality, for which he is com-
mended. Ilo. xiii. -.'); and here we find him occupying a
/,,,//,, in one of the streets of Sodom, instead of dwell-
ing near it in a h /if, as formerly. <!.. \iii. .'. 11'. It is un-
in cessary to :;o over th-- details of that e\eiitfnl ni
ending in his flight \\itli his \\ile and t\\o daughters
from the doomed city. Hi.- wife, \\lio has been con-
jectured by K \\ald and others to be l-eah. Ce. xi. -".',
"looked back from behind him," or "from after him."
li.-r direction- probably having bei n to keep her eyes
upon him as she followed him. "and sin- became a
pillar of salt.'' Thi- in-piivd account doe- not neces-
sarily imply a special miracle in n spect of In r. notliing
more than that the storm of tire and brimstone, \\hieli
uas ile.-tro\ inu Sodom, reacln-d In-i- also, and left her
lifeless lioclv. iin-1-usted. it may be, uith that fearful
shower: nor i- an\ tiling at all said of the circum-
stance- in our Lord'.- words. I.u xvii. ::_', " lo member
Lot's \\ife." Later .le\\ ish u riters. indeed, and some
of the ( hri.-ti in fathers, speak of this pillar of .-alt, of
its standing in their day, of tin -ir having seen it. and
of some marvellous and even monstrous thinus about
it. I '.ut these are not to be confounded \\ ith the simple
.-tateini'iit of Seripture; and inde. d they grew by de-
_r. . -. for the oMe-t and nio-l modest state meiit is that
of the apocryphal book of \Vi.-doin of Solomon, ch. \. 7,
"(if whose wickedness, even to thi.- day. the waste
land that snioketh is a testimony, and plants bearing
fruit that never come to ripeni-.-s; and a standing pillar
of salt is a monument of an unbelieving soul." The
last thing that is recorded of Lot is his ivtirinu, in fear
of new danger, from /oar to the cave in the mountain,
when- he lived with his daughters, and was entrapped
by them into the repeated commission of a horrible act.
The children of these dan-liters of Lot were the respec-
tive ancestors of the .Moahites and the Ammonites,
which two nations therefore received the name of "the
children of Lot," IK- ii.!i,i!i ; Ps. Ixxxiii. s ; the former passage
requires kindly dealing with them on the part of Israel,
whose kindred they were; but the latter records their
bitter hatred to the covenant-people. The modern
Aral >s are said still to use the expression, "cities of
Lot," "people of Lot," in reference to the cities and
inhabitants of that neighbourhood.

The character of Lot has been the subject of much
speculation. I'nbelieving criticism has found a foot
hold for its attacks in the history of his wife, re-sting,
however, upon the .statements for which there is no
authority in Scripture, to which we have already alluded;

LOT

LOVE

and in the alleged incestuous origin of the Moabites
and Ammonit' s, which it is pleased to trace to the
malignant imagination, of the later Jc\\s and their
hatred of foreign nation.-. This, however, is a matt'-r
which need not detain us. More interesting, and of
real practical imp< irtaiiee. is the consideration of Lot's
spiritual position and diameter. The unintentional
testimony in his favour by the men of Sodom. Gc.xix.9,
is expanded and connected \\ ith other acts of ( lod's pro-
viileliee liy I'eter. 2Pc.ii.r- 9, God "delivered just Lot,

vexed with the iiltliy conversation of the wicked: (for
that righteous man dwelling among them, in seeing and
hearing, vexed his righteous >oiil from dav to dav with
their unlawful deeds;) the Lord knoweth liuw to de-
liver the godly out of temptations, and to reserve the
unjust unto the day of judgment to lie punished."
This is inspired authority for regarding him as a
man of genuine piety. Plainly lie shared to some
extent in the blessing of Al>raham. and this seems to
have been for Abraham's sake, lint he had not Abra-
ham's clear faith and steady purpose,; as was manifest
in his choice of Sodom for a dwelling, and the taint lie
contracted in that abominable city, else he could not
have made the proposal he did make to the men of the
city about his daughters, nor could he have fallen so
terribly when he lived in the cave. Also his solicitude
about Zoar implies a weakness and unsteadiness of
faith, or \vliy should he have thought that he must seek
a refuge in it. and that he could not escape to the
mountain and be safe there, when he had the command
and promi.-o O f God? And. yet again, his vacillation
appears in his retiring from Zoar to the mountain "for
he feared to dwell in Zoar " although he had no longer
the divine command to forsake the society of men, and
no need to leave the city, which had been spared in
the longsuffering of God, for the express purpose that
it might be an asylum to him. [c. c. M. n.]

LOT OR LOTS. The practice of determining a
doubtful matter, or trying to ascertain a probable issue,
by the use of the lot. must have begun very early: for
at the time of the exodus it comes into notice as a
familiar mode of procedure, by which matters of the
most sacred and important kind might be brought to a
conclusive settlement. Thus, of the two -'oats which
formed the prominent victims on the great day of
atonement, the parts assigned to each were determined
by lot, T.c xvi. <;; and at a subsequent period the respec-
tive positions and inheritances (if the several tribes in
the land of Canaan were determined in the same way,
Xu. xxvi. .-,:,; xxxiv. 1.",; Is. xv. l,xc. So too ill the history
that follows, on various occasions, when doubts needed
to be resolved, or a kind of uncertain choice to be made.
Jn. xx. '.".i; l Sa. xiv. ii; Ks. iii. 7: TV. xvi. :;:: ; and in Xew Testa-
ment time- it was by lot that the decision was arrived at
between the two nominated to the place of Judas in the
'']' 'Rtolate, Ac.i, is. In none of these cases is any indica-
tion given of the mode adopted for gaining the result: and
we are thrown, for any light to be had on the subject.
on the general usage of antiquity. Here, however,
the usage differed. Very commonly among the Latins,
and especially when several parties were concerned
who had to be represented in the transaction, little
counters of wood, or some other light material, were
put into a jar 'called sitella) with so narrow a neck that
only one could come out at a time. After the jar had
been filled with water, and the contents shaken, the
lots were determined by the order in which the bits of

wood, representing the several parties, came out with
the water. In oilier cases thev \\ere put into a wide
open jar, and the counters were drawn out bv the
hand. Sometimes, again, thev were east in the man-
ner of dice a form which must in substance have been
known and u*ed among the Hebrews, as Solomon, in
the passage referred to above, Fr.xvi. 33, speaks of the
lots being cast into the lap. As the rant in;/ or f/ir/'n;/
of the lot is the- expression commonly employed, the
mode was probably not very different from that of
throwing dice pebbles, perhaps, of different colours
or sizes be in-' taken to represent the parties interested.
As a recognized form of obtaining the mind of the
Lord in critical cases, the use of the lot appears to
have bem gone, about in a serious manner by the cove-
nant people, and commonly aceompanii d bv prayer.
Yet the passage in Proverbs would seem to indicate that
the lot was either not uniformly so used, or used in
reference to matters with which it was impn.prrlv
associated: as it implies that the actual disposal of
affairs might be widely different from what the casting
of the lot in the lap appeared to determine. Among
the heathen the foretelling of fortunes by means of lots
was a quite common mode of divination (cic deDiv. i. :;i\
and a class of persons (sortilegi i tuimd it into a regular
traffic. The practice made way among the early
Christians, especially in the mode often adopted of
writing out on little tablets passages of Sciiptmv. and
putting them into an urn; the one first drawn out
being supposed to intimate the divine mind respecting
the party interested. Even where there was no formal
lot-casting after this fashion, the principle of it was
frequently followed by Christians catching at the first

verse of Scripture which at a critical or anxious mo-
1

' ment met their eye or ear. Referring to one case of
that description in A.D. 507, Gibbon says in a note (oh.
1 xxxviii. n. ,'ii\ "This mode of divination, by accepting as
an omen the first sacred words which in particular
circumstances should be presented to the eye or ear,
was derived from the pagans: and the Psalter or Pible
was substituted for the poems of Homer and Vinril.
From the fourth to the fourteenth century these tortcs
stinrtorttm, as they were styled, were repeatedly con
demned by the decrees of councils, and repeatedly
practised by kind's, bishops, and saints." There can
be no doubt of the truth of this; and if there was such
a tendency to abuse of that kind even among the early
Christians, we may be pretty sure it existed also among
the ancient Jews. We may the rather suppose this,
as other cognate practices of heathenism not only ob-
tained, but in spite of all remonstrance, continued to
hold a footing among them to the very last (we DIVINA-
TION).

LOT frequently occurs in Scripture in the sense of
appointment, portion, or inheritance. This was a secon-
dary meaning of the word, but one that quite naturally
came into use the thing befalling or by divine desti-
nation becoming one's share, being put for a specific
mode of getting it.

LOUSE. Sec LICE.

LOVE [rnrtN, dyd-n-rj, d>i\la]. Love cannot be made
intelligible by definition to any one who has not felt it,
no more than light or colour can be defined to a man
who has been blind from his birth. Though the Scrip-
tures therefore are full of the subject of love, and con-
tain revelations, examples, and precepts of love, infi-
nitely surpassing the conceptions expressed in all other

LOVE

119

LOVE

books, they nowhere define it either as it exists in (I ml
or num. "He that loveth not.'' says St. John, ''knoweth
not God, for God is love." 1 Jn. iv. o. God can only be
known and understood by him that loves-- a maxim
which rests upon and presupposes another -that love
can onlv be kno\vn and understood by him who has
love in his own heart.

It is remarkable that this maxim of the apostle should
be enunciated in connection with the very last and
highest of all the revelations of love contained in the
Scriptures, viz. that love is the very essence and nature
of the Godhead -'"God is love." and that " in this,"
as the crowning manifestation of all. " was manifested
the love of God toward us. because that God sent hi-
onlv begotten Sun into the world, that we miuht li\e
through him. Herein is love, nut that \\v lo\ ed God.
but that he loved u-. and sent hi- Si.n to he the propi-
tiation for our sins." The maxim enunciated thus at
the close of the whole revelation of G.>d's love, serves
in fact to di-close the principle Upon which the whole

of that revelation, as to its mod,- .if utterance or con-
veyance, has been conducted. The apo.-tle's deepe-t
meaning s< 'ems to be that the love of God to man could
onlv be made intelligible to men by the ana!o_v of huiii.in
love -it could onlv uttei i t.-i ] 1 < xpi't '-.-I \ t 1 v or effecti vel v
to man's In-art and understandiii'_ f bv thi j u-e of Ian
gua'j'e deri\ed from the relations and affections and
manifestations of liMinan love. And in point of i'act.
on surveying the whole Bible r. \ elation of the love of
( iud from be^inniiiu' to end, it will be found that it ha-
proceeded throughout upon tlii.- principle of analogy.

\\'heii Gud mad'- man. he made him in his own
inia^'e- in the ima_;v. amouu "ill T > xx'cllcncii -. of l,i-
own love. .Mans love thus 1 came, iroin the very
tir-t moment of hi- existence, the ret], ctioii of ( nid's love,
that is to sav, analogous in kind, though inlinitelv in
ft rior in intensity, From the tirst then fore it was
coni])etent for man to reason upwards from the lo\e
which he felt and found in his own nature, to the supreme
love whic-h existed and acted in the nature of his ( 'rea-
tor; and from the !ir-t also it became possible for the
supreme love ton veal it-elf miv and more fullv to
man, bv u-iii'.;' the lanuua^e of human affections and
accommodating it- utterances to the analogy of all
those near and dear relations, in and by means of
which alone men come even to know and understand
all the depth and tenderness of love which God has
implanted in their own nature. When God made man
in the imaue of his own love, he made him at tin. 1 same
time male ami female. The human image of God's
love assumed immediately two chief varieties of form
and complexion. The love of God was imaged not
only in the manly love of Adam, but in the womanly
love of Eve. To the strength and masters' of love
as it appeared in man. had to be added the tender-
ness and gentleness of love' as it appeared in woman,
in order to make up the full- orbed human imaire of the
love of ( loil. This of course laid a foundation for the sub-
sequent revelation of the divine love, in forms of speech
derived both from the masculine and feminine forms of
human affection, whether as exhibited in the relations
of bridegroom and bride, or husband and wife, or father
and mother, or son and daughter, or In-other and sister.
The God of love could make use of all the riches of human
love, both as it is in man and as it is in woman, and
as it unfolds itself to view in all these intimate rela-
tions of family life, in order, by an analogy deeply

founded upon his own creative act of making man in
his own linage, to manifest his own love more and
more abundantly to the highly favoured creature whom
he had thus made. And accordingly the Bible is full
of such analogical manifestations from beginning to
end. There is no legitimate form of human affection,
and there is no legitimate relation of domestic life,
which is not drawn upon for illustrations of divine
love: and that, too, in the way of showing that what-
ever in anv of these forms and relation;- the love of
man may be. the love of God is greater still, both in
strength and tenderness, both in force and gentleness
vea infinitely greater, even "as hi^h as heaven is
above the earth." And so far i- it from being true,
we- may here remark in passirg. that the Old Testa-
ment, as compared with the New. i- almost exclusively
a revelation of the severity rathi r than of the -oodness
of (lod, that it in fact contain- a much larger number
of -uch ati't ctiin; appeals to human feclii LS ir. illustra-
tion of the divine love than the New Te.-tament itself.
The latter, of course, is still the chief and crowning
revelation of (l.ni's love, as before remarked: but this
n velation be^an in the Old Te.-tament. and had pro-
ceeded to a very advanced point in it before its canon
closed: and we repeat, that so far as concerns the use
of lan-ua^e and illustrations drawn from the tenderest
relations and affections of the human heart and life, the
Old Testament has in many places an advantage over
even the New. The following are a few of thc-e pas
sages, arranged according to the different relations and
v aril-ties of human love alluded to :

Bridegroom and bride : "A- th>' bridegroom rejoice! h
over the bride, so -hall thy Cod 7-ejoice over thee,"
K lx.ii.:,. Husband and wife. K liv. ;,---. Je. x\\i. ::_'; Ho. ii. in.
Father and soil, !>< xxxii 0; Is. Ixiii. l.">, Hi; Jo. \.\.\i. -">; Il.sxi.

.Mot her and child. I- Ixvi. 13; xlix. i:;-ni.
When we pass to the New Testament We find the
-ame analogical method still employed, but imw all the
less frequently that w.- have a! hii-th arrived at the
era of a more din-et and intense manifestation of the
iuv isible ( lot! vi/.. his incarnation or manifestation in
the ile.-h: tlioujh iveii this supreme revelation, it may
be observed, n >ts ultimatelv upon the same principle,
that human nature, as made originally in the image of
( iod. is inherently fitted to be the medium of conveying
the knowledge of the diviiie. (inr Lord could use
those ama/.ing words to his disciples. " He that hath
seen me hath seen the Father; and how sayest thou
then, Philip, Show us the l-'ather." But none the less
does he occasionally, in the manner of the old prophets,
make use of illustrations derived from human and other
creature-love : ''.If a son shall ask bread of any of you
that is a father," iV.c. " If ye then being evil, <\c., I/mi-
HVK'h /,,/(' shall your heavenly Falher give the Holy

! Spirit to them that a-k him'" I.u. xi. li-i:t. " O. Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, how often would 1 have gathered thy children
together," &c., Lu. xiii. :!t. And is there not an allusion to
the tenderness of parental feelings, even in the language

; employed by the apostles to set forth the ineffable
greatness of the love of the Father in sending forth the
Son to be the propitiation for the sins of the world, and
in their way of reasoning from it? " He that a/Kind
tint his own Son. but delivered him up for us all, how
shall he not with him also freely nive us all things?"
llo. via. :!L', compared with M:il. iii. 17, "And they shall be

; mine, saith the Lord of hosts, in that day \\hen 1

[ make up my jewels, and I will spare them as a man

spareth his own son that scrvoth him." 'In this was
manifested tin.', love of (MM! toward us, because that
God sent //i.-t mill/ /i<i:<illin ,S;;/ into the world that we
might live through him," 1 Jn. iv. :>, compared \uthUe. \\ii. 2;

!!'. \i. 17.

Equally large and no loss striking is tho use which
the Scriptures make of this analogy between divine
and Iminaii love, in setting forth the obligation of tin;
latter, when spoken of as a duty, and in exhibiting its
pre-eminent place and excellence when spoken of
in its evangelical form as a Christian grace one of
the essential constituents of Christian life. Every-
where in Scripture, in the < >ld Testament as well as
the Xew, tlie love of God to us is set forth as the
standard and example, as well as the motive, of that
love which men owe both to God and one another.
What is the preface to the decalogue itself, but a re-
membrancer of the love which ,leho\;ih had manifested
to his people as their Redeemer and Deliverer: "I am
Ichovah thy God. which brought thee out of the land
of Egypt, out of the house of bondage'" And how
impressively is the freeness and fulness of this love
dwelt upon and emphasized in the appeal of J)e. vii.
6-8: ' For thou art an holy people to the Lord thy
Cod; the Lord thy (!od hath chosen thee to be a special
people to himself," &c. -"The Lord did not set his love
upon you. nor choose you, because ye were more in
number than any people." c x;c. " l!ut because the Lord
love;! you. &c., hath the Lord brought you out with
a mighty hand,"' &c. Such had been the love of their
(lod to them, and to their fathers, and such also
behoved to be their love to him and to one another;
for, " On these two commandments hung all the law
and the prophets."' But if such an analogy and stand-
ard of love could be made use of under the old cove-
nant, how much more was it available and effective in
the Xew Testament, which revealed the last and
supremest manifestation of the love of (Joel to mankind I
ft is no wonder, then, that the "Apostle of love'" in
particular should make large and frequent use of this
supreme manifestation of divine love, as the supreme
motive of that love which, as men and Christians, we
behove to cherish and display to one another. " Be-
loved," he exclaims, "if God so loved us, we ought
also to love one another," 1 Jn. iv. u. ''Hereby per-
ceive we the love of (hid. because he laid down his life
for us; and we ought to lay down our lives for the
brethren,'' 1 .In. iii. lii. "Wo have known and believed
the love that Cod hath tons. Cod is love; and he that
dwelleth in love, dwelleth in Cod, and God in him,"
1 Jn. iv. iti. In one sense, this commandment that we
should love one another as God had first loved us, was
no new commandment, hut an old one the same which
men had received from the beginning; but in another
sense it was new, because of the immense amount of
new li-ht which the gospel had shed upon the whole
subject of love, both as it is in God, and as it behoves
to be in his renewed and sanctified children in com-
parison with which all the light formerly possessed was
but darkness. But " the darkness is past," urges the
apostle, "and the true light now shineth," Un. ii. 8;
from which it follows, that "he that saith he is in the
light, and hateth his brother, is in darkness, even until
now:'' whereas, "he that loveth his brother, abideth in
the light, and there is none occasion of stumbling in
him." Gospel light is, more than anything else, the
light of the knowledge of God's love especially as seen

LOW COUXTKY

in the person, character, life, and whole redemption
work of the Lord Jesus Christ -"God manifest in the
fle>h. ' There is a glorious newness in the love of God
as thus revealed, as concentrated in this one glowing,
burning focus; and when such a love holds itself forth
in the person and teaching of the Lord .Jesus himself,
as the supreme standard, and example, and motive of
love to all his disciples, it necessarily imparts its own
newness to the old commandment; and we can well
understand the grounds and force of the Lord's memor-
able words, of which the snblimest words of St. .John
are only the fervent reflection: "A new commandment
I give unto you, that ye love one another, ax I Jiace
luccd i/o it. "

In view of the prominent place assigned by our
Lord to this new commandment, it is not surprising
that the apostle Paul should have emphasized so
strongly the indispensubleness ami the pre-eminence of
the grace of love, 1 t'o. xiii.- " Though 1 speak with the
tongue of men and of angels, and have not love. .1 am
become as sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal." tVc.
"Love never faileth : but whether there be prophecies,
they shall fail; whether there be tongues, they shall
cease; whether there lie knowledge, it shall vanish
away," kc. And when we read his admirable descrip-
tion of the grace which he exalts above both faith and
hope, it is impossible to doubt that it was the love of
the Saviour of the world himself which formed the
consummate original of a portraiture so faultless and
absolute. "Charity suffereth long, and is kind: cha-
rity envieth not." t x:c. " Bcareth all things, believeth
all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things."' It
is also instructive to mark, and is a striking example
of the perfect accord that existed among the apostles,
amid diversities of form and manner, that he \\ho was
more peculiarly the preacher of faith is the one who
has left the most elaborate and Blowing description of
love to be found in Xew Testament scripture. [p. I,.]

LOVE, FEASTS OF. Ke FEASTS OF LOVE.

LOW COUNTRY [Heb. rrrr, MejAtMt. from the
root to be Inn- or ,//<'/. and signifying a low or flat tract
of country. With one exception, however j<>s. xi. it;,
where it is coupled with a particular mountain and
denotes its adjacent plain- it is always used in Scrip-
ture with the article, ha-ShepMlali, the lowland; that,
namely, by way of eminence, as contradistinguished
from a hilly region in the immediate neighbourhood.
Accordingly the Sept. alwa vs give it this definite mean-
ing', usually 7) TreSivrj or TO TreSiov, the plain; sometimes
the proper name itself, r) e</xz\??, Je. xxxii. 41; <>l>. i<); 2C'li.
xxvi. to. In our English Bible there is an unfortunate
variation in the rendering, which tends much to obscure
the meaning of several passages, and to deprive the
word of its specific local import. Sometimes it is "the
low country," 2 Ch. xxvi. in; xxviii is, also in the margin of Jn.
i. <; sometimes " low plains," i Ch. xxvii. >*-, 2 cii. ix. 27;
thrice, simply "plain" Jo. xvii. 2C>; ob. <j; Zee. vii. 7; but
most frequently "valley," "valleys," "vale," alto-
gether thirteen times, Do. i 7; Jos. ix. i, &c. It had been
greatly better to employ throughout the designation of
"the lowland" meaning thereby the lowland of the
territory of Judah, as contradistinguished from the
other divisions of it, in particular " the hill region,"
which skirted it on the east.] This Shephelah, or low
country, formed one of the three divisions of the inheri-
tance of Judah (see JUDAH, TRIBE AND TERRITORY OF) ;

LOW rorxTRY

and was a recognized district of Palestine. A few

passages, rightly rendered, make this tjnite plain.
Thus, in J )e. i. 7, we read successively of places in " the
Arabah (the ]>lain about the Jordan), in the hill (hilly
region of Judah). in the Shephelah (lowland), and in the
Xegeb (south ," &c. The same enumeration occurs in
.Tos. ix. i; x. 4": xi. ]'!: and in Ju. i. '. the children of
Judah are said to have gone down to tight against the
Canaanites that dwelt "in the hill tor hill country),
and in the Xegeb, and in the Shephelah." See also
the passages alrcadv referred to in tin- prophets.

It.i /tfiiiinluricx. The.-e are nowhere formally de-
scribed, and it is impossible to iix th< m 1>\ exact -'>.
graphical landmarks. As in similar cases th- <ii -iu'-
nation. having iv-p-ct to the natural features of the
region, i-- sUppos-d to indicate with suiiii iriit dNtinct-
ne-s its -i-iicral position and extent. It is the < \p..n-
sive level tract which lies between the hill countr) of
.liidah on the east, and the Mediterranean Sea on tin-
west. Tlii.- tract ci .mpri-'-d a Iar-v poition of the 1'hili--
tia'i territory, the whole of it to the south, though not
i-ntiivly to the north. In tin- ()ii<ii,in.--/ii;,i, of Ku.-ebius
tin- coinparativelv mi id em eit v of K!< utheropoli- > 1 it.
Jibrinl is represented as it- centre: " the Sliephelah."
says hi', " is the whole of t hat level country \\hich lio-
around Kle'itheropolis to\\ard t'u- south and West."
In icality, Kleuthcropolis was tuo far inland to furm a
proper centre as between east and we-t, but it lav very
in -ar half way frum north to -outh. .ludjn-; as \\.11
from the nature of the country, a- from the notices
found of it and of its eitie- in Scripture, it had. it
not absolutely yet very nearlv, for its southern IHHIH
dary tin- Wadys Slieriah and el Khu\\ eilifeh. a little to
the south of Gaza, and on the north tin- \Vadv Surar,
which stretches fr..m a point below .latl'a toward Jeru-
salem, and passes nearly midwav between Ashdod and
Kkron. The district extends along the shore fr,,ni
twenty-live to thirty miles, and inland fn.m twentv to
twenty-lhe. l'>i;t the situation and extent "t' the coun-
try will be best understood by seem-' its place mi the
map. as given in connection with the article SOITII

Col M'liV.

/(.i Cities.- A full lUt of the cities in the Sh,-],helali
is found in .los. xv. '-\'-\~-l7, cntaiiiin-- altogether fortv-
two, with their villages or farm cots. Tlie\ fall into
four groups; the .;/>.</, as already indicated under l.nt-
.NAH, apparently lying mi the north -east Kshtaol,
/oreah or Xorah (for the position and identification
of both of which see under ZoRAH . Ashnah, Zanoah.
Kn gannim, Tappuah, Enani, Jarnmth, Adullam, Socoh,
A/.ekah. Sharaim, Adithaim, Gcderah. and Gcdero-
thaim fourteen the hist two bein-' taken as one): the
itri-fiinl in the central parts, /enan. lladash. Migdal-'ad,
Dilean, Mixpe.li, Joktlieel, Lachish, I'.ozkath. i'lglon,
Cabbon, Lahmam. Kithlish, (Jederoth, J'.eth-dagon,
Xaaniah, Makkedah sixteen: the third in the south-
east, Libnah. Hther, Ashan, .Fij^hah. Ashnah. Xexib,
Keilah, Achxib, Mareshah -nine; and the fimrtli. the
three chief I'hilistian cities along the coast, Kkron,
Ashdod, and Gaza. A considerable number of these
places have been identified, some with perfect cer-
tainty, others with great probability, as may be seen
by referring to the respective names; but in respect to
others we are without any determining data, such as
might be sufficient to afford a proper clue to their dis-
covery. The very number of the places, however, and

(some of them known to be of considerable importance,
VOL. II.

attest the former prosperity and abundant iv sources of
this part of ancient 1'alcstine.

/C.< ijtncral chara'-ta'iftii'K. The external form and
appearance of the Shephrlah have been ahvadv indi-
cated. It presented the aspect of a wide plain, though
in it by any means an entire flat, for all travellers speak
of the ground as undulating, and varied by occasional
rising grounds, but more so near the mast than farther
inland. The prospect from licit .librin i> described bv
Van di Yeldc a- a "gently undulating tract a meadow
stretching as far as the eye can reach, and clothed in the
lovelier-t garniture of u'rass and tlnwers that the eye can
beln .Id" ii p. r... . And wh.ii in the \ cry heart of the
Shephelah. on the mad from Tell , s-Satii h (probably the
Mi/peh of the second di\ ision' to Akir ( l-ikron). he says :
"The luxuriant jtvi-n carj.etinu; of thi- '_ivat plain was
ijiiite unlirok.-ii: its distant parts, bv their delicate blue
colour, seemed to nierue into the sea. . . . [ was. more-
over, encompassed with cultivated iu Ids. exhibiting so
spleinlid a luxuriance, that it wa> trulv deiiulitful for
tile eyes to see the heavy ears of corn beiidii; u to the
_r"iind IP i.v.i, naO. Ri'binsoii. in like manner, -peaks
of the -Teat fertility i.f the soil, \\hich a] pi and to be
-mid through all the plain: tin 1 crops, wh-re\cr i! was
cultivated, were abundant: but from the circumstance
of the land belli- in the hands of the govi nuni'iii. and
no one bein-- pi-rmitted to Imld jirixate ].ropert\. the
rountrv was thinlv penpled. the inliabitants \\er' poor.
and e\-ry thing IH.IV th. impress of decay and oppression
(Uf.-i. - Th' iii-h the crop- were almost

uniformly - 1. v< t one hall the plain lav uncultivated.

lli>we\er. one can i asily understand hn\\ in -uch a
ciiuntrv. so n inai'kal ii- fur it- rich v< rdure. \sith -rass
in some part-, as old Sandy- expressed it. " wai-t high,"
king I //.iah shuiild ha\e had " imn h cattle in the
Shephelah. It- peculiar adaptation for -ra/in- pur-
puses is also ivtVrred to in Xep. ii. i 1 ., 7: .le. xxxiii. ] :',.
which describe the return of prn-perit \ to the n-ii.n
by its re-occu].atii'n with flocks and In riN. And e\en
now, coinjiaratively iinpo\eii-lied and in vl' ''ted as it
is. we yet lit ar of travellers La/.ing arnimd them from
some gentle i-mim nee > llol.in.-i.ii, for in-tance>, and
seeing "flocks and birds, and troops of camels and
asses, besides the tents of the lleliadvaild their num-
erous horses" (p. :;i.n. Among oihi r productions, it
would appear th.it syeaniori trees weiv e.xce ( din-lv
plentiful in the Shephelah: for it is said of Solomon
that he " made cedars to be as the s\ cainore trees that
art- in the \ ale (the Shephelah i for abundance," IKI.X.LT.
Xeither these, nor any other kind of trees, can now lie
said to be abundant in this re-ion; indeed, all travellers
speak of tin- bare aspect of the country in that respect,
and note the appearance of a solitary palm here and
there, or of occasional fig- orchards and groves of olives,
as at (la/a and a few other plaei s on the coast. J!ut
that sycamore-trees may. in other and better times, have
been there in abundance, is evident from the few sur-
\ivors which still at times -reel the traveller. Thus,
at a village called Pennishail. not far from (!a/a, the
Scottish deputation remark that " many old and ver-
dant sycamores, with gnarled trunks and branches
spreading out toward the east, adorned the plain "
(vol. i. ].. i;n). It is added, "they are far from being
abundant: and indeed trees of anv kind are few in the
Holy Land." On the whole, it must be clear, that the
more the situation and characteristics of this division
of Judali are understood, the more deeply must one be

142"

ECKE. EII'E OF

impressed with tlic minute accuracv of the references
made to it in the scripture- nf the ^ >ld Testament.

LUBIM [according in (u-senius from ^'T. an unused
root, (<> t//ii:tt, and denoting inhabitants of a dry or
thirstv land). Thcv arc commonly idi.-iititit.-d with the
Eehabim (C'TT) of Ge. \. !'>. one of the sons or off-
spring nuvs of Mi/raim. and with the Lihvans of the
Greeks and Unmans. The few passages of Old Testa-
ment scripture in \vlfn-h tliev are mentioned class them
along with tlie Egyptians and Ethiopians, -2 cii. xii. :;;
xvi. x Na. iii. '.); Da. \i. -I."; ami there can be no reasonable
doubt tha.t they wen- the early inhabitants of the
African coast, -which stretches to the west of Eirypt,
ami was known by the general ii;sine of Libya (.-.re
LIBYA*. That they should have become tributaries to
Eu'vpt. when the Egyptian ]n>\ver was in its strength,
or allies owning a certain allegiance to that power, is
only what mi^ht have b. en expected. Tint the notices
\ve have of their early historv and relations are too
obscure and fragmentary to v ield results of a very
definite description.

LU'CAS. See LI-RE.

LU'CIFER. the Latin name for the morning-star,
meaning liyht~bringer, corresponding to the Greek
6(i>ff(f>6po'>. It occurs onlv once in Scripture, and as
the equivalent of the Hcb. TTT. Itcild, Is. xiv. 12, which
means apnai/iii;/ fn-ii//<fi/< as (verbal J'i. from Wl).
Coupled as it is with the explanatory epithet son of the
'ninriiiiiij, there can be no doubt that the rendering
Lucifer is unite appropriate: and the application of it
to the once bright and aspiring king of .Babylon adds
peculiar force and beauty to the poetical delineation in
which it occurs. In another and far higher sense,
however, the designation was applicable to him in
whom promise and fulfilment entirely corresponded,
and it is so applied by .lesns when he styles himself
"The bright and morning Star." lie. xxii. Hi. In a cer-
tain sense it is the emblem also of all those who are
destined to live and reign with him, Re. ii. 2\ These
are the only scriptural applications of the term: but
from the fall of the proud and domineering Babylon
being r'-^ardcd by some of the fathers as a reflex of
that of Satan, Lucifer came to be .among them, and in
later times, a very frequent designation of Satan. This,
however, is without countenance in Scripture.

LU'CIUS, a ( 'yreiiian, mentioned among the pro-
phets ami teachers of the church at Antioch, Ac. xiii. i.
He is probably the same who joins in Paul's salutations
to the church at Home, Ro. xvi. 21.

LUD [meaning unknown]. 1. One of the sons of
Shem, (.ie. x. 22, or of the people sprung from him -ge-
nerally supposed to be those called by the Greeks
Lydians. Such was the view given by Josephus (Ant.
i. i-., sect. 4), anil he is followed by the great majority of
the learned Luseliius. .lerome, Bochart, Gesenius,
IY.C. The region in which they settled was a district of
Asia .Minor, having latterly Sardis for its capital. The
Lydians in process of time became merged in the gene-
ral Grecian population of that part of Asia; and the
district which bore their name was but a limited pro-
vince. In remote times, however, the people of that
race had a more prominent position, and under Gro-sus
a considerable empire was for a time wielded by the
Lydians. But it proved of comparatively short dura-
tion.

2. LTD. A son of Mi/raim, or a race of Hamites
in the Egyptian line, Ge. x in. In later times the Ludim

are coupled with the Ethiopians and Libyans, cognate
African stems, also with the |-'u\ ptians. and were
famous bowmen, .le. xlvi. !> ; i:/ c . x\\. :; ; is. \ivi. i:i. Their
settlements in Afri---a are not known with tins' certaintv.
Boehart (f'hul. iv. 21;) would conceive than to have been
a brain h of tin- Ethiopians, and to have consequently
lived iii the Ethiopian district. Others think that thev
should rather be placed on the west coast of Africa, pro-
bably in the district Tigitana. lint there are no exact
data to go upon, and it is impossible to speak with
certainty. The people of End. who, in Lze. xxvii. KI,
are coupled with those; of Persia 011 the one side, and
.Phut on the other, as among the host of Tyre, are com-
monly regarded as the Ludim of Africa, But this also
must be considered problematical.

LUKE, LIFE OF. The name in ('reek is Aoii/ca?,
Luras, most probably a contraction for L'iraiinf. as
Silas for Silvanus. He is mentioned by name; in only
three places of Scripture Col. Iv. 14; 2TL1'. 11; Philc. 24.
It has never, however, been doubted in the church
that the person spoken of in these places was the
writer of the Gospel which bears his name (Alford's Trol.
khe>l. vol. i. ; Oostevzceon I.ukei. iM. Luke was a physician,
and appears to have continued to exercise his profes-
sion while he was with Paul, Col. iv. 14. This dms not
indicate the rank of lite in which he was born, as
slaves were not unfrequently educated for this calling;
but it certainly indicates an education and culture of
a far higher kind than was enjoyed by the other writers
of our Gospels. Medicine was an art always held in
honour, and in the age of Luke reckoned the most
lucrative of professions (Pliny, Nut. Hist. b. xxix. <?. 1). The
style of his Gospel also indicates its writer to have been
a man of liberal education i'Aif"r<l,rrol. iv. ix. i). The
Ixomish church, on the authority of a late tradition,
generally considers him to have been a painter as well
as physician (Xiccpli.Ilist. Kcdes. ii. 4:0. Traditions of this
kind have no weight, We have no authority for sup-
posing that he met with Paul until the time when that
apostle came to Troas on his way to Macedonia. Ac.
xvi. 10. That he there met with Paul, and joined him-
self to him, is justly inferred from the use of the first
person plural "we," svhich occurs here for the first
time, and indicates the presence of the writer. There
are some who maintain that Luke had already joined
Paul at Antioch, Ac. xi 27-30. For the literature and
authorities for this opinion, see Jonrnul of Sacred
Literature, October, 1S<J], p. 170, and Conybearc and
Hosvson's Life of Pan/, chap. v. new 7 ed. London,
1SG1. Luke's object in joining Paul was to help in
the preaching of the gospel in Macedonia. We are
not, however, told anywhere of his own preaching in
public, Ac. xvi. 13. After the persecution of Paul and
Silas at Philippi, he was absent from Paul for a period
of several years, after which he rejoins him at Philippi,
where they had parted, and sails with him to Troas,
Ac. xx. ;>, ii ((.'onyl'tvire !\nd Ilowson, ch. ixO We gather this
from the renewed use of the first person plural " we,"
after its discontinuance from Ac. xvi. 18. 19. Luke
was not involved in the persecutions of his companions
at Philippi. nor did he accompany them from that place.
Our inference from all this seems to be that Luke
was at this time an inhabitant of Philippi, that he re-
mained at Philippi until he subsequently there rejoined
Paul; and that when he first met him at Troas, he did
not intend to join himself permanently to him (Oosterzee
on Luke i. 14). Alford thinks that during the interval

I.rKF, LIFE OF

LTKE. GOSPEL (>K

between his first and second meeting with Paul a down to the close of the apostle's first imprisonment
period of about seven years -he may have travelled at Ifoiue, Ac. xxviii. "; 01. iv. i-i ; I'hilc. in. lie doubtless
into i'alestine to eolleet materials for his Gospel U'r..i. \ was of great use to Paul in his medical capacity. Col.
iv. iv. 3). There is, however, no evidence for this. iv. 14. Whether he continued with him as constantly

We know verv nearly the time when Luke re- | after hi* release from prison as previous to it. we can-
joined Paul. He was certainly in his company when i not certainly say. The great probability is that he
the apostle sailed from Philippi on his way to .leru- ' did. He would scarcely leave, in his age and increased
sal'.-m with the alms collected in Macedonia and , infirmity, the friend with whom he had so long re-
Greece, Ac. x.\. .'.,>;. The reason for his rejoining Paul ' maiiied. He was with him a very short time prior to
is not so '4YH. -rally agreed mi. There is. however, his martyrdom, and is then spoken of in a way that
a passage in - I'd. which mav throw liu'ht upon tliis leads us to think that Paul and lie were verv constant
point. That epistle was written during the stay of I companions. -jTi.iv. n. Of his life after this, and of the
.Paul in .Macedonia, related in Ac. \x. 1. liefdiv he time and manner of his deatli, nothing' at all certain is
came "into (.recce, vov. '-', win-re, and Hot as some kuowniAl: nl, l'r<.l h. i.: Ada S.uu-t"r Lih, i Vt< l'i_r. vul. vlii. I'rus-

spciit the three' months i>f Ac. xx. -'>. I 'iirinir !iis -tay , he mi-t Paul at Tro:>-, Ac \.i m. Teitidlian thought
in Macedonia. Ac. \x. i, li- wrote thu- to the Cor- that he was converted by Paul (Adv. Miin-ion, iv. :>V
inthians, "\Ve have si-nt with him i.e. Titu- the I There is no indication in the Scriptuns of thi- haviii'-;-
brother, who-,- praise i- in th- iro-pel throughout all the been tile case. 'I'he early fathers and the old. r ( In is
churches," - 1 .. . : i-. Then- have been Very many tian commentator- held that he was by birth a .lew
conj-'ctuiv- \\ho this " brother" U as (All'unl"H the text) | (HluomlieM's (ir. Test. L'ri-l i Some of the fathers

\Ve can niilv allude to thos-- \\hich appear to indicate even held tint In- was one of ih>- seventy d ; -c:p!cs sent
liim as iiein_ Luke. out bv I'lirist. l.u x. 1 Ki'iplKinius, Cc.nt Iliur. li. 11, Alfurd,

The snlpscription of tlie epistle mentions its having i' r ..l.i.) This idea is ,>\,rthro\\ n b\ his ,.v, n admi--ion

i.- eenerallv held bv the fathers, and by many eminent '. Christ, l.u i. 1-4. I ! appear- to ha\c been of (o-ntile

mod, -ni comni'-ntators. as (Jrotius. I >l-l.au-.-n. Ooster- j origin, i I. h li-ll; and K.c,-, bins and Ji-mme r, lat>-

zee. \N'ith th>--e ojiinions tin- passage in :>('<>., Coin thai lie \\a- born at Antioch. an opinion \\l;ich i- \,r\

p:iri-d with the hi-torv in Acts, seems to coincide. > commonK acccjited Knscb Kci-l Hist, iii i: .1. :.:. s, -i-ipt.

This " lii-dther" was certainly one of tlios,- ni'-ntioned IT Lucas) 'I'ln fathers ju-t naiiied are. how-

in Ac. \\. 1 tj, as accompanvinix Paul into Asia with ! ever, by some thought to IK,\,- f,,i-med their opinion

the alms. I lei- expressly mentioned as "chosen of from impropei-ly eonni.-inu him with the Lucius ,,f

Macedonian, oral least one who had lived for a con- , maintain- that lie was a .lew, and an eyewitness of
siderable time in Mac, donia. Thi- \\ould shut out all the events h-- relates; \\hile many hold that he was
of Paul's companion- except Luke, Aristardiu-, and | , irieiually a (leiitile. tir.-t converted to Judaism, ami

ther," 'JCu. viii.-jj,ci)iiip:iruilwitli \c six :".>, oftentimes proved with I'aul [leculiarly ([iialifieil him for uritin-;- the life

diligent: and we tlms are led to choose littwi-i-n Luke of C'lirist and the Acts of the Apostles. I"- 1 '-!

and Secun.lu-. The fact that tlie 'broth.,-" was! LUKE. GOSPEL OF. M<,t!n* for in-H!,!;/. The

specially cho<,-n to trur< / trith J'<i">'. I'oupled \\ith the j penman of thi- Co>p,l has distinctly told us his motives

fact that all the r,--t of his companions sailed away I for \\ ritinu;. It was because many had taken on tliem-

froiu I'aul, leaving him to follow after in tl runijtniii/ selves the part of setting forth tlie life and teaching of

i if /.ii/.-i- ii/iiin. A,-. \\. . -..'.,-> em- to |i,,int with tolerable Chi-i-t, that lie also determined to write upon the

certainty to Luke a.- his selected companion: while the , subject, in ord, r that his friend The< >],hilu> mi-.dit

description of him as having praise in th,- e'os]>el ; obtain certain information of uhat had 1ak,-n place,

thnniuhout all the churches, is more applicable to Luke ' an d mi^ht be able to distiimuish the true from tlie false

than to Secundus. who is onlv mentioned once bv name. , in current traditions, \\liidi. \\ithont such a (lospel as

the Roman province of which Kphesus was the capiti _ , - ,

If tliis view be ac,|uie-ee,l in, we can ascertain the included those of Matthew and. .Mark, or one of them,
exact time and reason why Luke au'ain associated him- in the number. Alford seems to us to reason conclu-
self with Paul. On this apostle's arrival in Macedonia. ' sivelv against tliis \ie\\ U'i-1. rli. i. 11; iv. 11; :-eo ;ilsu Kl,r:ir<Cs
Ac. XX. 1,2, Luke is selected by the churches there to | (,.,S].L-! Ilist-ry, Tr.-u.s. ],. :.:,\; d,.-t, r/tx's l.u. i. i:,, -'.M. I'"rom the

travel with him to Jerusalem with their contributions. | manner in whicli Luke speaks of them, it appears cer-
Partlv for this reason, partly from personal fitness. ] tain that he attached imperfection of a greater or less
Paul then selects him. along with Titus anil another, , kind to every one of them. They were probably ,.f
to xn to the Corinthians to secure their assistance, different characters; but none of them were thoroughly
Luke is therefore absent from Paul during the L.T' ater ' to be relied on. Mo-t of them were probably imdcr-
part of the time specified in Ac. xx. 1-.",. and for this taken with the best intentions, while a small number
reason does not resume the first person until, having may have been written for the propagation of error,
accomplished his mission, he sets out with him on the . Some were probably executed by men of sense and

journey to Jerusalem, vur. :., <;

From the time of Luke's second meeting with Paul,
he lived in close ami constant familiarity with him

piety, while others would be the work of credulous,
fanatical, or weak-minded persons. Certain of the
writers might, like the author of Maccabees, - j .M;u\ .xv.:;*,

LKKK, GOSl'KL OF

LUKE, GOSPFL OF

allow that with good intentions they were lint men,
.-tiid might have failed: while others might lav claim to
the highest authority. But the evangelist excludes
them all alike from a title to ini/>/ir/f <-<>iiji<l<_n<-< .

This appears to us a most important point, and to
iv juiiv careful consideration. The Gospels in question
either endeavoured faithfully to represent apostolic
teaching, or claimed to have done so. Whatever was the
nature ' it' each, its aim or its elaim <'.< nf tin It '//jln .;/ lei ml :
it was to si:t forth a declaration of the things lielievod
by Christians, "even as '/// delirered tlnm ir/,/r/i from
tl/c /nijinniit'i ti'tfc eye-witnesses ami r/i/i/ixfcrx of f/ie
word '-(congruentiam vel qua^itam, vel obtentam, Bengcl,
(iuoin.^, i.e. as tile original apostles delivered them to
(he elrireh. If this aim succeeded, or this claim were
just, we should in these productions have had accounts
just as authoritative as if the apostles themselves had
written them. Now the existence 1 of a great number
of such Gospels would not give rise to any necessity for
writing another G-nspel of no higher pretension. The
more numerous they were, the less requirement there
would he for another. But in Luke's mind their exist-
ence in great numbers necessitated his writing. It was
because they were written that he felt compelled to
write; and, therefore, according to him, they had either
failed in an honest purpose, or laid claim to an autho-
rity to which they had no title (stier's Words of Jesus, 2d eel.
h, 1859; Preface to Mark) . The honest were imper-
fect, the dishonest were false. Their numbers were
only the source of additional perplexitv. The multi-
tude of conflicting opinions called for an accurate his-
tory. The mind of the church was becoming disti'acted
and uncertain by the variety of Gospels all professing
to give the truth, and therefore I. like felt compelled
to narrate the life; of Christ as it truly was, from its
mysterious commencement to its close. The only fair
inference, then, from his alleged reason for writing-
seems to be, that all the writers referred to had failed
in what they aimed at or claimed to have done. The
declared object of his own, as compared with theirs, eh.
i. i, lead> us to the same conclusion. Luke wrote in
order that Theophilus might know ''the certuinti/'' of
the things in which he had been instructed. He thus
leads us to the conclusion that unless he wrote, Theo-
philus could not have this certainty.

The word (tTrixeiptu} by which he describes their
undertaking seems to add weight to this view. It
suggests, by Luke's own use of it elsewhere, the possi-
bility, or even the probability, of failure (Ac. ix. 211 ; xix. r.',;

and Wordsworth's dr. Test, on last text; Kbi-m-d's Cos. Hist. 550).
So many of the best scholars among the fathers under-
stood the phrase (Alford's Coin, on Ln. i. 1 ; sec also Jour of Sac.
Liter, new series, i. >tV Dean. Alford indeed maintains that
the difference which Luke asserts between his Gospel
and the others is not "any difference in kind,'' but
'liecause it possessed completeness, whereas they were
fragmentary.'' Of these Gospels, however, we know
nothing except what we are told by Luke himself, and
the idea we receive from him is that they were as full
and circumstantial as, if not more so than, his own. He
describes the plan of his Gospel as similar to theirs. It
was in the accuracy of his information, not in its greater
fulness, that he pointed out a difference: while their
united statements doubtless would form an amount far
surpassing his Gospel in extent. We therefore set aside
Alford's view on Luke's authority. Our present apo-
cryphal Gospels give us no idea of the earlier uninspired

Gospels (OosUT/eu's Lnke i. '>:,). Under the name of "Acts"
or Gospels." writings of this nature have been attri-
buted to the pen of most of the apostles (Jones, Canon of
Vow Test. Oxford, 1*27,1. 107-111). Apocryphal epistles are
referred to by St. i'aul, L'Tli. ii. 2; Mi. 17. .Mr. . I ones thinks
an apocryphal Gospel is referred to in Ga. i. C Canon,
i. l:;:n. None of these writings have however come down
to us (Confessions of j. < Coleridge, p. s). They in part gave
rise to our inspired writings of the New Testament, but
have themselves utterly perished.

Qualifications of Luke. Of those who were neither
apostles nor eye witnesses of the life of Christ, none
could possess higher qualifications for an evangelist than
Luke. He was. in the first place, the intimate friend
and companion of St. I'aul. This alone would, in our
opinion, fully qualify him for the work. As we under-
stand St. Paul, he claims to have received bv revelation
that knowledge of the circumstances of Christ's li fe which
the other apostles received from personal observation.
The '-gospel which was preached'' by him in Arabia,
immediately after his conversion, was communicated to
him by revelation, and must have embraced vervmanv
particulars of the life of Jesus, i Co. xv. i-s ; Ga. i. u-ir.
The addresses of the apostles, as we find them in the
book of Acts, whether spoken to believers or unbe-
lievers, were based upon the facts of Christ's life: and
such doubtless was the nature of the teaching of St.
Paul. When he comes to particulars, and mentions
special circumstances communicated to him bv revela-
tion, we find that his account perfectly harmonises
with this view. In his account of the last supper,
i Co. xi. j::--jfi, and of the witnesses of the resurrection,
1 Co. xv. 3-7, he mentions minute circumstances not re-
ferred to by either Matthew, Mark, or John, as con-
tained in the revelation '' he received:" and in Acts xx.
3;1, he mentions words of Christ not found in any
Gospel. But besides this acquaintance with I'aul,
Luke had abundant opportunity of personal acquaint-
ance with apostles and eye witnesses of the life of
Christ. During the years which elapsed from his leav-
ing Paid at Thilippi to his rejoining him there, Ac. xvi.
40 ; xx 5, 6, he may, as some think, have visited Judea.
He went up with I'aul on the visit to Jerusalem re-
lated in Ac. xxi. And during Paul's two years' im-
prisonment at Cffisarea, Ac. xxiv. 27, it is generally con-
ceded that Luke remained in attendance on him.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that he had abun-
dant opportunities of inquiring into the circumstances
of Christ's life in the places where they occurred, and
from the persons in whose presence they happened.
The use made by him of such knowledge in the draw-
ing up of his Gospel will be modified more or less by the
date which we assign to its composition. The liberal
education which our evangelist received also qualified
him for his work. In particular his education as a
physician peculiarly fitted him for writing a life in
which the miraculous and the supernatural were so
largely blended. A physician and a foreigner, he gives
the same account of the works of Christ as nu'raculous
which the other evangelists do, and in particular de-
scribes demoniacal possession in such a way as prevents
our confounding it with lunacy, with many of whose
s\ - mptoms it agreed, cb. iv. 41.

Order of Luke's Gospel. With respect to the order
and arrangement of events in Luke's Gospel, different
opinions are held by eminent scholars. Some main-
tain that Luke seldom writes with regard to chro-

Ll'KE. GOSPEL OF

nology, but narrates according to a classification of
(.vents, as Livy, Suetonius, Florus, and other writers,
have done; others hold that he relates with regard to
time (I '.loom field's Or. Test. Preface to Luke; Alf"i'd on Lukei. ;iK
He himself lays claim to write "in order" (rat'e^s),
but different views are held as to what he means.
Writers such as Chemnitz and Ebrard understand it of
the classification of events; while Osiander, Wieseler.
Olshausen, Oostcrzce understand it of chronological

arrangement ( Winird's Gosp Hist. '.>: Olshauseii on G. i. Ill;
Osterzee's Luke i. :!7). It is only ill Luke's writings that
we find the term used, and he seems always to use it
with reference to time, l.u. viii. l: Ac iii. .1. and especially
ch. xi. 1-1 ij, where eacli event is told in exact order of
time. His gospel al-o bears marks of being written
with regard to order of time. llen^el describes it thu.-:
He relates in order, first the acts of Christ, hi- con-
ception, birth, boyhood, baptism, benefit-, preaching.
passion, resurrection, ascen.-ion (Gnom. on Luke i. :;).
Alfordin his ProUyviiinia ssiyn, " The evangelist begins
with the announcement of the birth of ( hri.-t's fore-
runner, and concludes w ith the particulars of the ascen-
sion, thus embracing the whole -reat procession of
events bv which our redemption bv Christ \\asu>hored

in. accomplished, and -,-aled in heaven. ' This appear.-
i i i

to le what Luke claims f^r himself, namely, to writ, a
well digested narrative, possesse 1 of full claim to chro-
nological accuracv, but this chronology not that of diary
but of history, which often, in order to ^i\e u- a full
and clear view of some subject, brings down the account
of it to its completion, and then goes back to take up
some other subject left behind in order to present the
unbroken view of the other (Liicke, Comment, on St. .Tohn,
3d od. v. i. p. an). An example of this occurs in Luke's
account of I 'eter's denial, ch. xxii. .Vj-CJ, which he d, -cribes
without a break, though lie was well aware, ver.50, that
the space of one hour intervened between the second
and third denials. His chronology is that of history.

Relation of Lnkt to Matthni: and Mark. The rela-
tion of Luke's Gospel to those of Matthew and Mark,
in their respective order of time and other circum-
stances, has given rise to a uTeat variety of opinions.
According to an early tradition Luke's Go-pel was
composed after the two others. Tradition \\a- not,
however, unanimous u] >on this point (Klinird, Gosp. Hist. p.
5.v;>. This opinion, it is thought, originated from an
idea held by some of the fathers that the Gospels
alluded to by Luke ill his preface were those of Mat-
thew and Mark. Dean Alford has collected the opinions
of eminent modern critics on the relative order of the
synoptic Gospels, and ranged them into six divisions
d'rolog. ch. i. sect. ii. p. :>, note). Of these, Iliisching, Evan
son, and Vogel hold that Luke was the first written of
the ( iospels. The more carefully we read these Gospels,
the more impossible it seems to us to arrive at any
conclusion as to their relative order in time from a
comparison of their contents. If from some passages
we seem warranted to form a definite or probable
opinion, other passages occur which completely over-
throw it, and we at length rise from their perusal
under the full persuasion that, with all their marvel-
lous agreement, they were written in perfect indepen-
dence each of the other. The only argument we know
of that can help us on this question is that derived
from Luke's preface. He there apparently speaks of
all the written accounts of Christ's life with which he
was acquainted, and attributes some imperfection to

-") LUKE, GOSPEL OF

them all. He thus appears to have been ignorant of
the existence of any authoritative Gospel when he
wrote, and it is hence possible that none such was then
in being. It is also, however, quite possible that
Matthew's Gospel may. according to early tradition,
have been written before Luke's, but. if it were. Luke
does not appear to have been acquainted witli it.

Ii/iltjHiH/i arc of Li'/ct. Whatever be our view of the
relative order of the Gospels, there can be no question
that Luke is as a writer independent of both Matthew
and Mark. He is no servile follower of either or both
of these evangelists, but fiv-Iv -ives his own views and
statements in what he rdao s , \'i' i.l. 1'n.'. iv. ii.; Michadis,
Sun- Test sec. Ixxxiv.; Oosl rzee on Lu : . It) His Gospel bears
the fullest testimony to this. ||js ii rs ( two chapters
have a variety of information quite peculiar to himself.
His LTeiiealou'v is in -real part adilieivut one from that
followed by Matthew, ch. iii. In ch. ix. '-'>\ he mentions
what no oth'T (lo-p.'l mentions, and what \\as not
knov, n to the apostle- present. \i/.. the subject of our
Lord's conversation \\ith Mo-e- and Kiias during their
sleep. One of the nio-t interesting portions of Christ's
life, nani'-lv. IPS farewell journey through the cities of
Samaria and Galilee, minutely detailed by St. Luke,
is iio\\ here mentioned in the other Gospels, di. x. to xviii.
In ch. xxii. o he aloii'' mentions the entering of Satan
into Judas, \\hich was of nece.-sity unpi n-ei ved by any
apostle. In ch. xxii. \ he alone mention.- that but two
of the di-eiples wire sent to prepare the pas-over, and
alone mentions their names. In ch. xxii. _'!( he places
an interval between the deliviry of the bread and cup.
\\hich is not hinted at in the | aralh 1 ( o,-| els. In ch.
xxii. i:i, he alone mentions the presi nee of an angel at
the a^onv of Ji -us. In eh. xxii. ."iii, he alone mentions
which ear of Malchus was cut off. In ch. xxii. :V.t. he
is peculiar in his mention of the space of time which
intervened bt tween the second and third denials of
Peter. The look of Christ on Peter is found only in
Luke. cli. xxii. f.i. The le-al assembly of the presbytery
after daybreak, obscurely alluded to by .Mark and
Matthew, is here plainly related, di. x\ii r.ii-ri. 'I he
story of the penitent thief is peculiar to Luke. En m
all this his independence as an evaii_eli-t is plain.

Acfurari/ /'/./;/. The aceniacy wi'li which Luke
lias drawn up his Gospel appears in many instances.
Tims, he is particular in telling us the dates of his
more important events. The birth of Christ is referred
to the rei^n of Augustus, and the '_;'"veriinient of Syria
bv Cyreniiis. ch. ii. i-:;. The preaching of John the
Haptist is pointed out as to its time with extreme cir-
cumstantiality, ch. iii i-i J'.ut it is in lesser matters that
accuracy is chiefly shown. Thus the mountain storm
on the Lake of Geimesaret is marked by him with a
minute accuracy which is not seen in Mark or Matthew

(compare ch. viii '.':! with p-in.llel Cupels, and with Joseplms, .1. W.
in. x.; Irhyand Mannlos, TntvcN, ch vi.) Ill ch. xxi. 1, wcread
of a gesture on Christ's ]>art which marks a wonderful
accuracy on the part of Luke. We read (here that
Christ " lotikdl 11 j>," and saw the rich casting their
gifts into the treasury. From Mark xii. 41 we learn
the reason of Luke's expression, which he does not
give himself, for there we read that Christ, after warn-
ing his disciples against the scribes, " .'( dmniC' and
would therefore have to look up in order to see what
was going on. This minute accuracy marks Luke's
description of our Lord's coming to Jerusalem across
the Mount of Olives, ch. \ix. 37-41. Travellers who are

GOSPEL OF

very accurate hi topographical d( seription speak of two
distinct sights of Jerusalem on this route, ;ui inequality
of ground hidiih;' it fora time after one lias iirst caught
si-ht of ii (Clerical Jcmrn;il, Au t : -, I v,.;. ;,. :;:c . Luke dis
tinctly refers toihis nice topographical point: in ver -17
he ni;irks the tir.-t sight of Jerusalem, and in ver. -1 I
In 1 marks tin; second sight of the citv, now much nearer
than before. The correctness of Luke's date in the
matter of the government of Syria by Cyronius has
indeed In en "ft'-n questioned, but on insufficient
grounds. Tin- just way of dealing with very ancient
documents which have given general proofs of tru-.t-
wnrthiness. but which in particular instances make
statements that do not appear to us to he correct, is to
attribute this apparent want of correctness to our
ignorance rather than to that of the writer. In the
particular case before us recent research has shown
that Cyrenius was in all probability tw!c< governor of
Syria, thus establishing 1 , instead of overthrowing, the

correctness of Luke (AlfonVsGr. Text mi the place; i-'airl, aim's
llermeneutics, p. -101; Journal of Sac. Lit'.Tature, new sor. iv. 17).

i'oiiitcct'ioii of Luke' * Gofpcl f/l/i //n.i/ o/ J/ara'oH.
Various questions have been started, especially of late
years, as to the supposed connection of Luke's Gospel
with that used by the heretic Marcion. [t has been
said that the evangelist and Marcion drew their mate-
rials from the same source. The opinion of the fathers,
probably the true one. was that Marcion drew out his
< iospel (.n the basis of Luke's, omitting or altering what
he disapproved of. This whole question is treated of

in many works (Vulckmar, Das KvanyeliumMardons; Bp. Tliirl-
walil's Introduction to Schleiermaclier on St. Luke).

friiiri-i' / ^1/niijtfii- Gu.<j>i.fx. .Much more important
questions are those connected with the general source
of the synoptic Gospels, and that of Luke in particular.
Bloomfield mentions four leading theories as to the
origin of the synoptic gospels. ]. That one or two of
the three were taken from the third. 2. That all three
were derived from some original document. Greek or
Hebrew, common to all. '3. That thev were derived
from dcta'-hcd narratives of parts of the history of ChrUt
communicated by the apostles to the first converts.
4. That they were derived from oral tradition (Gr. Test.
Preface to Mark). Dr. Marsh was the first, we believe,

in this country to start the notion of a document in
Hebrew common to the synoptic Gospels (Dissertation on
<!ri_'in, tic., of the three first Gospels; Mi<ldletou's Gr. Art. on

Luke i.) Alford lias put forward a theory, embra<-ini:'
substantially the third and fourth of those mentioned bv
Bloomfield, which now meets with a good deal of favour
in some quarters. He gives, usas the origin of the first
three Gospels the ''common substratum of apostolic
teaching never formally adopted by all. but subject
to all the varieties of diction and arrangement, addi-
tion and omission, incident to transmission through
many individual minds, and into many different locali-
ties."--" the transmission, through men apostolic or
almost apostolic, yet of independent habits of speech
and thought, of an account which remained in sub-
stance the same" (Prolegomena to the three Gospels, ch. i.
sect, iii.) In his prolegomena to Luke he gives this as
the origin of his ( iospel :'di. iv. sect, h )

Mr. Jowet, in his A'x.s// nit tie Interpretation of Scrip-
ture, gives us a theory, which, while expressed in bolder
language, is in reality the theory as put forward above
by Alford. In accounting for the fact how in the
synoptic Gospels " there can be so much agreement in

words, and so much disagreement both in words and
facts how there can be all degrees of similarity and
dissimilarity," he- says, " the most probable solution is,
that the tradition on which the three first < Jospels are
biiseil was at; first preserved orally, and slo\\iv put to-
gether ami written in the three forms which it assumed,
at a very early period, these forms being in some
places perhaps modified by translation." As the re-
sults of this theory he mentions that " we can no longer
speak of three independent witnesses of the gospel nar-
rative: there is no longer the same necessity as heretofore
to reconcile inconsistent narratives: the harmony of the
Gospels only means the parallelism of similar words.
There is no longer any need to enforce everywhere the
connection of successive verses, for the same words
will be found to occur in different connections in diffe-
rent gospels. Nor can the designs attributed to their
authors be regarded as the free handling of the same
subject on different plans. Lasth , no weight can he
given to traditional statements, if facts about the author-
ship, because the fathers who have handed down these
statements were ignorant or unobservant of the great
fact, which is proved by internal evidence, that they
(the Gospels) are for the most part of common origin"
(Essays and Keviews, 4th ed. p. 3VO). We do not think this
theory stands examination. It supposes a common
tradition of our .Lord's life and discourses, which as-
sumes circumstantial differences according to time and
place, but preserves a general resemblance. There is
some little plausibility about this as long as we confine
our attention to the synoptic Gospels, but there is a
fourth Gospel, that of St. John, which must be taken
into account. 1] ere is a Go.-pel t< -tall v unlike ihe others.
in plan, and narrative, and locality, and language, and
idea. How does the existence of this fourth Gospel
suit tlie theory that there was in the Christian world a
common tradition, which, descending at first orally,
preserved a common resemblance with circumstantial
difference, thus accounting for the agreements and dis-
agreements of the different accounts ? This new fact
overthrows the theory as completely as a new fact in
science overturns a theory based on a partial examina-
tion of facts. Again, the fact that the early church
knew nothing of, and, amid all their views, never hinted
at. such a theory, amounts to a positive denial of its
reality. The fathers perpetually speak of the Gospels
in all their bearings in their origin, similarity, and
diversity but thev never account for them in this way,
AVe cannot suppose that, if there had been a general
oral tradition in the church, at last reduced to writing,
and that from this the Gospels used in the church had
been drawn out, nothing should have been known about
it. and no tradition of it, even the faintest, preserved.
Again, this theory fails to account for some of the most
remarkable features of the synoptic Gospels. Any-
one who takes up a harmony of the Gospels will see
page after page answering to their parallels in method,
incident, and word. Oral tradition, no matter through
how few hands it passed, never yet preserved such
a resemblance. Far less could a tradition which, as
in this case, had travelled into different countries.
Xor could this theory account for a very remark-
able unity of plan to be noticed in the synoptic-
Gospels. AVhile it might account for a general re-
semblance to the tradition, it cannot account for a com-
mon divergence from it. Such a common divergence
exists. AVe know that Christ visited Judea and Jeru-

LTKE. GOSPEL or

salem. and attended the Passover, much oftener than '
we are told in these Gospels. How can we account for
their common silence on these important ami hading
features of Christ's history, which must, and as we
know from John's Gospel did. form a huge part of the
common tradition \ Here the theory quite breaks down.
Three men, coming without concert to a tradition of
which the life in Jndea and Jerusalem was a main fea-
ture, would not all have utterlv ignored it. Auain,
this theory cannot account for the substantial agree-
ment in their narrative of the synoptic (iospe]-. There
are apparent discrepancies indeed, but there is al-o so
strong and minute an agreement, that the sceptics of
another a ire charged the evangelists with collusion,
until, forced from thi~ ground, they now charge them
with mutual contradiction. For three distinct narra-
tives possessed of such substantial agreement the theory
in question fails to account.

Source* of Jsiiki's (rofiKl. Kejeeting then any such
sources for the svnoptic (Josprl- -vnerally. we come to
consider those from which Luke drew out his narrativ e.
These are chief] v comprised under one or other of these
views: 1. That \\hich supposes Lids- to have chiefly
derived his information from the apostle Paul. '_'. That
which suppos.-.- him to have _ath< r>-d it chiefly from
diligent inquirv anioiiLT competent witnesses of the facts
he narrates, such as the apostles, our Lord's mother or
members of her familv, from writti n documents, and
similar sources. :>. That which allows him t have
collected his materials from both these sources com-
bine. 1. Eccle-iastical (estimoiivis unanimous in favour
of the Pauline origin of Luke's ( lospd ^Iremeus, Adv. II. .T.
iii. 1; Terminal., Adv. M.ir. iv. :,; Allord, I'rol. iv. ii I There are
al-o several internal evidences which seem to show the
close relation between them: as. an apparent quotation
liv Paul from Luke's gospel, i Ti. v. 1- c'.uip. with Luke. \.
7; see UennersCnomi'i.i; a very mark' d agreement between
Paul and Luke in their account of the last supper,
where both ditl'er from the manner in which it is related
in Matthew and Mark. Mat. xxvi. 2(1; L.I xxii. r.>; l Co. xi. 24;
another, in their relation "f the in(.-r\al between our
Lord's giving the bread and cup to the disciples, which
is elsewhere' unnoticed. Lu xxii. 20; l Co xi. -j.:,-, and another,
in their account or allusion to our Lord's appearance
to Peter after his resurrection, also not noticed by the
other evangelists. Tin.- second opinion is maintain' d
hv writers of the highest character (Oosterzeeon Lukci. 20;
Alford, Prol. iv. ii.) It is based upon \\hat is supposed to
be the evangelist's own declaration in his preface, that
he derived his materials in the same way as others did. !
viz. from eye-witnesses upon what is felt by them to
be the best and most natural wav. namely, the having i
recourse to tlv ordinary sources of information where
such were, as in the present cast.-, accessible: and upon
the analogy of the church's history, which has been
generally committed to writing by competent witnesses,
and not through supernatural information. Either of
these sources, or both together, appears to us to be in
itself perfectly satisfactory. Various considerations
will lead to the adoption of one or other of them by our
readers.

Genuineness ofdoxjid. -The genuineness of this Gospel
is beyond any fair question. It is quoted as the com-
position of St. Luke from the time of the apostolical
fathers without a break to the time of Chrysostom

(Alford, I'rol. iv. vii.; Bloomtield's Gr. Test. Preface to Luke; Home's

Introduction) The genuineness of the first two chapters

!7 Ll'KE. GOSPEL OF

is disputed hv some, but on no good grounds. Its con-
taining an account of the miraculous conception of
Christ is probably the reason that has led to this. J\lar-
eion is the oiilv authority on which they are disputed,
and it has been shown that he is no authority in the
present instance (Larduer's Credibility of Gospel History; Mill
on the Mythic Interpretation of Luke i.; Oostevzee on Luke i. .

Infjiiratimi oj (ii'.^n/. The inspiration of this gospel
has been more fivqikiitly denied than its authenticity.
Its canonical authority and inspiration ha\e been de-
fended by Professor Alexander in his l\i,/<,n </ t/ti (>!tt
,i,,,l _\,,,- Tivhtmcnt axctrtainiit. p. jn-_>--jlu. The tes-
timonies of the faiiiers of tic tir-t t\\o centuries toils
inspiration have been collected by Lardiier in his ('/<'
iltliiliti/ oj' tin inifi.il. Eusehius ranks it among those
universally reci hi d as di\ine (Hist. Kid iii. 2:.).

l>iiti. The date is vi rv variously represented. .1 (can
Alford armies at leii-th from Acts xxviii. :;n. that the
Acts of the Apostles uas v, ritteli two years after Paul's
first visit to Koine, i .< . according to him, in the spring
of A.D. 03, and that Ins Gospel must therefore ha\e
been u ritteti before this date. and. as \\oiild appear
from internal i \ ideiice. considerahlv before this date,
probably from A.I), fill to .",> I'r. 1. di. iv. sect iv. vol. i ; an.l
Clironi>li>cic:il Talili . Vets, vol. ii.) I Ionic enume-

rates \ arions dates of dillereiit commentators, and stales
that the majoritv of them a.--i-j;n il to A.D. ii:! or ill
(Introd. to Scriptures, vol. iv p. ii. di. ii. si The identi-

lication of Luke with "the brother" of 2 Co. viii, 1^
Life of l.uki- 1 . set ins to stamp considerable prohabililv
on the early tradition that "the gi .-pel" tin re spoken of
ua- our Gospel bv St. Luke, and if so, is eonelusi\e
as to it- date. The mention that his " praisi- is in nil
tii <!< n i-rl.<." an expression apparently much more
i \tensi\e in application than "the churches oi Mace-
donia" ( l.-eu here spoken i l in the chapter, is n mark-
able. As a preacher of the gospel, Luke i-nouhiiv
even mentioned; I nit as a writer of a Gospel, it is, in such
terms his performance would be spoken of. It umild
rapidlv be circulated, and the praise of ils writer be
recounted, throu'jh tin- church's of ( hri.-t. Mr. I '.irks
has lately reproduetil this \ ieu (Ilono Apostolic;u, p. 242),
but it is not ooinnionlv adi pled in modern tini' -. Its
nce|itioii would make the date of Luke to be 1 efore
A. Ii. ;">7. about \\hich time the second epistle to the
Corinthians uas \\ritteii (Adam Clarke 011 2 Cor. vii. is ; St.
chrysostoni on samel. If we acquiesce in the view that
1 Ti. v. 1 s is a ((notation from Luke, ue must assign it
a date earlier than the epistle, uhieh would probably
place it from A.D. ,".o to .VI. An larly date is proha
bio. The imperfect accounts of our Lord's life, oral
and written, in circulation before this time, uould pro-
bablv necessitate an early authoritative Gospel. \Vhtn
churches were widely scattered throughout the empire,
apostolic presence would not sutlice for the varied
wants of the Christian communities. Such wants ori-
ginated apostolical epistles at an early date, and would
naturallv call for an early life of Christ. Luke met
with Paul a short time after the council of Acts xv.,
which met about A.I), />(>. He was in intimate com-
munication with him from this time until he left, him
in Acts xvi. The subsequent period of separation is
with considerable probability held to have been the
time for the drawing out of the' ( iospe]. Jiengel inclines
to a still earlier date (Gnom. Preface to St. Matthew). The
vounger Thiersch assigns it to the time of Paul's im-
prisonment at C;esarea, A.U. 5o-GO (Christian Church, p. Ms,

translated by Cariylr). 1]
li-hed until after the
Hist. v. s).

/'/./'c nf }\~i-i/i,i : /. It was tlie opinion of the first
c 'Uturics that Lukes (oispel was composed in Aehaia.
1 >r. Lardner has examined the testimonies of this pe-
riod, and agreed in its conclusion (La-rdncr's Works, Oct.

vi. 130-130). This is also Alford's view (1'rol. iv. v.) .Mi-
chaelis prefers Alexandria (Int. Lectures to New Test. sect.
xcvi.) Thiersch selects Ciesarea (Christian Church, ] b).
J lorne mentions some other views (lutrod. to Study of U.S.
vol. iv.) (Joster/ee inclines to lumie (Com. on Luke i. !(>).
For whom written. The (Jospel of Luke was written
in the first instance for the instruction of Theophilus.
It is then-fort' of conseijUeiict.' to know who he was.
lie appears to have been a man of rank, therefore of
liberal education, a (lentile, and an inhabitant probably
of Italy, if not of Rome itself (Olshauscn, Gosp. i. 77-79; Oos-
teiv.ee mi Luke i. 27). Tile idea that the name is to be taken
as an appellation, signi!i"ant of all friends of ( iod. though
adopted bv Wordsworth, is gencraliv rejected ^Alt'ord,
(.ir. Te.st. mi cli. i. :n. Dr. Kairbairo tliinkshe was a Syrian
ijleniiene'itics, 17-1. We cannot however suppose that it
\sas written for him alone, though his character and
(lentile origin may point out the nature and scope of
this 'j'l'spel. Th:it it was written forOentile comcrts
was the opinion of antiquity (Bloomfield's Gr. Test, Preface).
This is very generally held now (Sticr's Words ..f.b MI*,

Preface to Mark; Wordsworth's Lecture prefixed t(.> Luke). Alford

holds tliat it was written for all Christians without dis-
tinction of Jew or Gentile. This is probably the exact
truth. The gospel of Christ broke down the distinc-
tion of Jew and Gentile, and it is not likely that any
of the Gospels, and Luke's perhaps less than any of
them, would be written for the peculiar use of either
of the two once distinct, but now blended classes.

i^f !//c ami < Imrai'ti /. From a man of Luke's educa-
tion we would expect a superior style of writing to
that of the other Gospels. It is accordingly recognized
by scholars as more classical in its idioms. Its compo-
sition is of a more studied kind, and the writer more
frequently gives bis judumcnt of the events he relates.
In completeness Luke far exceeds the Gospels of Mark
and Jo] in. It has been often remarked that he is
peculiarly rich in his record of brief observations and
occasional sayings of I'hrist. Tie has also very many
parables peculiar to his gospel, and these some of the
most beautiful and instructive to be found in the sacred
narratives. Richness of detail and graphic power
generally mark those which he alone relates. Such
are the parables of the good Samaritan, ch. x., of the
ri''h fool, ch. xii., of the prodigal son, ch. xv., of the pub-
lican and I'liarisee, ch. xviii., and many others.

('milt ,if* .,/' (,'i>.--jifl.- We will now proceed to give a
brief view of the contents of this Gospel and the order
in which they are arranged. From the preface and the
gospel itself wo learn that Luke's object was to give
such an account of the life of Christ from its com-
mencement, as would afford to the Christian mind a
full idea of the true significance of that life. In exhi-
biting the relation of Christ to John Haptist. in whom
the old covenant was represented, he places him before
us as the fulliller of Jewish law and prophecy: while in
his genealogy he only uses the Jewish parentage to con-
nect the second head of the human family with its first
head Adam. We may first divide this Gospel into two
divisions: the former containing chapters one and two,

and giving such information of our Lord's life before
the period of his public ministry as Luke thought it
needful to relate; the latter, embracing the remainder

of the gospel, giving us a history of our Lord's ministry,
and terminating with his farewell to earth at his ascen-
sion.

Chap. i. contains a narrative of events previous to the birth
of Jesus, viz. the annunciation of the birth of his forei miner,
.John ISapti.-t, ."/ L'.'J; annunciation of the birth of Christ. -(j 38;
and some most beautiful hymns of prai-e with which Klizabeth.
.Mary, and Xacharias greet the expectation or fullilnieiit of these
events.

Ch. ii. gives an account of the nativity, ami of the way in
which it was regarded by the angels of heaven and the faithful
of the old dispensation, I IJS. < 'lie anecdote of our Lord'.- i <;.-
houd. marking vhe coh.-ciousncss of his divine mission, and a
sketch 01 his ordinary lift; and development to the opening o: his
ministry, close this chapter, 4n ./_'.

Ch. iii. gives an account of the testimony home to Jesus by
the preaching and baptism of John; brings Je.-us before us as
baptized by. John, and owned by a \oice from heaven a? Cod's
Son, and traces up his genealogy to Adam.

Ch. iv. gives, us an account of our hord's preparation fur his
public life by the endurance of temptation, 1 t.'l; gives us an
id. -a of the persuasive nature of his ['reaching, and of his claims
to be the fulfilment ol' ancient prophecy. 1-1 lil; presents him to
us as a worker of miracles, and narrates the persecution and the
popularity which alternately markid his career, l> 1.;.

Ch. v. relates the first call of 1'eter, James, John, and Levi,
and Christ's putting f"rward hi.-, claim to forgive sin. 1 L't; in
his reception of sinners he marks the gracious character of his
mission, L'7 ;):'.

Ch. vi. relates Christ's claim to 1 e l.-rd of the Sabbath. 1-11;
the call of the twelve apostles. I'J- hi; and a discourse of Jesus,
sup| o.-ed by many to be an abridgment of Matthew's sermon
on the mount.

Ch. vii. relates the tirst fruits of the Gentiles to Christ in the
faith of the Roman centurion, 1 In; a miracle of resurrection,
11-lii; John Baptist's message to Jesus from the prison. Is- 30;
and Christ's pardon of the sinful woman, ;;7 .")0.

Ch. viii. i elates a tour of preaching throughout Galilee, in
which the twelve accompany Christ, 1; during it occurs the
.-econd iccorded miracle of raising the dead. -1 1 DO.

Ch. ix. relates the mission of the apostles to preach. 1-0; the
miracle of the feeding of the live thousand, 11-17; the transfigu-
ration, - JS-:)5; followed by Christ's plain announcement of his
approaching death, 4:: -l/i; commences the account of his last
farewell journey through Galilee and Samaria, in anticipation of
his crucifixion, ol ii-.

Ch. x. relates the mission of the seventy disciples, 1 17; the
parable of the good Samaritan, '27 37.

Ch. xi. gives various lessons relative to prayer, 1 l.'i; relates the
blasphemous opposition of the Pharisees to Jesus, and his stern
denunciations of their hypocrisy, guilt, and coming ruin, l.~> .VI.

I'll. xii. gives various lessons of warning and tncoura;_emeirt
to his disciples in the prospect of the trials that would await
them on his departure, l-5'.>.

Ch. xiii. affirms the universal need of repentance, 1 ".; records
various parables, illustrative of the nature of God's kingdom, of
the way to that kingdom, and the struggle for it, 6-1.0; and an-
nounces the overthrow of Jerusalem. ;'.4-35.

Ch. xiv. rebukes earthly pride, 1-14; parable of the supper.
10-24.

Ch. xv. Parables of the lost sheep, of the piece of silver, and
the prodigal son, 1-H2.

Ch. x\ i. Parables of the unjust steward, the rich glutton and
Lazarus, 1 :!i'.

Ch. xvii. Christ gives directions about forgiveness, heals ten
lepers, and predicts his second coming in judgment, L'0-57.

Ch. xviii. Parable of the importunate widow, 1-8; of the
Ph irisee and publican. 9-14; children are brought to Christ,
I". 17; he declares the danger of riches, 18-30; commencement
of the last journey from Jericho to Jerusalem, 31-43.

Ch. xix. Zaccheus entertains Christ in Jericho, 1-10; parable
of the nobleman and pounds, l'J--.'V; Christ passes over the
Mount of Olives into Jerusalem and the temple, 28-48.

Ch. xx. Christ's teaching in the temple, 1-8; parable of the
husbandman, 9-1'.'; enemies of Christ fail to entangle him in his
talk, 2^-47.

Ch. xx i. Christ predicts the destruction of Jerusalem, and
the end of the world, 5 -,'!S.

LUNATIC

ll'i

LVDDA

ch. xxii. Jmlascuiisjiireswith the priests against Christ, 1-ti;
the last passover, and institution of the Lord's, supper, s. 'Jo;
Christ'.- preparatory trial in tlie high priest's palace, ami IV er's
denial, < \ <'<>: (.'hrist's r: indemnat i-n I .y the council of the San
hedrim. (In 71.

Ch. v.xiii. Christ's trial l>cf>.re 1'il.ite and Iler...l, 1 :::;; his
erneitixiun. ->'i '>'': \.irion- t'eelinu's of derision, unbelief, repent
anee, faith. Arc., displayed l.y the lookers-on, :tt 4:>: death and
htirial <>f Cln-i-it, I'i ."'0.

Ch. xxiv. I'e.siinvrtion . .f.Ie-n:-. I -; \ i>it ,.f Peter to the'JTave.
1-J; Christ ;i]>]iears to two of the disciples at Knunan- I:; ::::; his
a |, pea ranee to the eleven a post les and others. :;;; -t-e his a-cen.-i<>n.
oU, .".1; faitli and joy of t!ie diseiples, :._', .V:. | it i . j

LUNATIC, tlu- literal renderino of the C.reek o-eXi?-

j'ia.(V>uffo:. which is twice iM-d in 'he \i-\\ Testament
fur:; class cif cli-i :i -i persons, who experienced tlie
healino; p,.\v. i of Jesus, M ,- iv. -J4; xvii i:>. Ill the fh>t
of tin- two pa -e.es the affection appears to be distin-
o-uisln-d frmiL \vli:it wore called ilriinmiarul pos-, --i< ms
(8aifJi.ovi^o/j.cvov! KO.I (TfX^j'iaj'o/xe'i'oi's . wliiic in the second

tin 1 lunatic pel-sun furins one i .f the 111' >st marked cases
nf i|i moniaoal ao-encv. I ' v luiiatie, or innon-struck, tin-
ancients \\vri- w out to designate tin >- \\ 1m w i-n- subject
t-> epilepsy. Orijen. -peakiu.; of e]>ili-pties, says, "the
vulgar call tin-in lunatics, because tin- madness i if do
limns accompanies them thrui.uh the lunar course'
Cel iii -'". ; in other \vurds, th.-y believed tin- di--
ease to lie aeti'd <ili l>v tin- union, so as ( i _f"U \\ ith
hi-r ineri-a-'-, and a'jain di-cT'-ase \\ln-n sh'- \\.nu-d. As
used in Scripture, the \\nrd is >implv tu Ke taken in it>
popular inqxirt, a~ aiith>T ti-nn for e],il,.],^\-. m- such-
like paroxvsiuul affections, l.ut attinniii-.; notliinj is to
the nature m- orioiu of th<- di

LUZ. the aneieiit name i.f l',i inn. uhich si .
of a to\\n lniilt in tin- laud of th- Ilittite- liy the man
who lii-travel tin- uri-;:ial eiu int.. the hand of the
Israelite-. .In _ I'.ut its precise lo ( -;ditv and -\ili

sequent historv are <|nite unknown.

LYCAO'NIA. A |ij-..vin- of Asia Minor, the
boundaries of which di tiered so much at various pi riods
that it is impossible no\\ to deserilie them with accu-
racy, (ieiierally sjieakino; i( mav l- >aid ; liat l.vca<>-
nia was ill the south of .\-:a Minor hounded to tin-
north by ( lalatia. to the ea^t l>v ( 'appadocia. to the west
by 1'i-idia and rhry-'ia. and to the south 1 >v ( 'ilicia :
but the actual limit- were raivlv the sann- Ion- together,
a city beiii'.r reckoned non in one and now in another
province, as it pleased lip- K'oiiian ^o\crnor>. or anv
potentate of the vicinity.

Tin- country i- a table-land, bounded to the north
and south by hiuh mountains, and on the north opecialiv
tit only for pa>tura-e. The soil is -really impregnated
\\ith salt, and water for drinkino- can in u'eneral be had
only from deep wells. Tin-re an- -,-veral extensive
lakes, most of which are salt.

The Lyoaonians seem to have had a lan-.rua--e of their
own. distinct from that of tin- provinces b\ which thev
were surrounded; this the writer of the Acts mentions
as ''the speech of Lycaonia." Ae. xiv. M, but we have no
traces of it remaining. Tin- best authorities, with whom
Calniet agrees, s]ieak of it as merely a coi-ru|it (Jn-ck.
The people were a fierce and warlike race, never fully
subdued by the Persians, and coin|neivd rather than
amalgamated by the Creeks. They acquired a kind of
independence under Amyntas. who is called bv Strabo
their kin;:'. After his death the province fell under the
dominion of the Romans, who incorporated a lar^e
portion of it with C'appadoeia.

The chief citv of Lycaonia was Iconinm, now called

Vol.. II.

Konyeh: and others of importance were Laodica-a i called
( 'ombusta to distin-nish it from other cities of the same

', name), Deri e. Lystra, and Autiochiana. [H. c -s.'|

LYC'IA. A province of Asia .Minor, in the south-
wot, having 1'amphylia on the east. C'aria on the
west, 1'hrv-ia on the north, and the sea on the south.
Its two chii f towns, 1'atara and Myra. were both.
though on different occasions, visited by 1'aul. AO. s\i. 1 ;
xxvii ,'i The people were early o'iven to seafarino-
iller.nl. v!: ,ir.^, and havinu' also a fertile soil, they at

. tained to coiisidi-rable wealtli and prosperity. Many
architectural remains of the district and coins have
been recovered and illii>tratcd. bv Sir Charles l-'eilows,
as w.-!I a-- by somu other l-in-lish travellers. Tin-
people maintained lon.o; tlieir independence: they snc-
cessfully resisted t'ni-sus of l.ydia. and under the I'er-
,-ian ride wviv allowed to retain their own kind's as
.-atrap-. l-'.veii to the time of the emperor Claudirs.
Lycia contrived to secure for it -elf tin- privileges of a free
state; but thenceforth it was reduced to the ordinary
condition of a Uoiuaii province, and shared in the gene-
ral fortune- of that part of the empire.

LYD'DA. anciently l."i> [.->'<'/'. v""' 1 ''"''! -^ '" XV1!
which, Ul H ler tin name of I ,o,l. occurs in a tVw pas-a^e-
of tin- Old 'I'e-tanient. and appears to have Ir.-eii either
i -lit iivlv or in -real part built by the He 1 1 ja mites, i rh. viii
]- i: s ,.::.. How members of that tribe sliould

ha\e -ot possession of it :- unkiio\\n. for it lav at some
di tancc from their proper territorv. and was within
the confines of Kphraim bein_ about nine miles ea-t
: .loppa, and on :l,e i-o.-id from thence to Jerusalem.
From the l.'omalis it --..it tin- name of i )i,,spolis. but is
now. and ha-, pri ibabK 1 ecu ah' a \ - bv t he nat i\ e popu-
lation, call i d l.ndd. Though it never eoines into imtic-e'
in connection with the more stirring events of Old
Te-!ament hi-torv. \ et mention is occasionally made of
it in tin- Apocr\ pha and d..-, phus i M,,,- xi. ::l; J. v Ant.
xiv. 11, sect. -': xii. li; Wars, ii I'.i, sei-t l.&i-.l I hiring the many
vicissitudes wliich |ia--t d over I'al'-tine between the
return from I'.abvloll and tin ^o-pel ai;e. l.\dd;i was
th'--ub|eet of not a few ehaii'_es. |n particular, it-
inhabitant- were reduced to slavery, aloiiL; with those
of several other cities. b\ Cassius. who after the death
of Julius Ca-sar came to Palestine and practised manv
criiiltii-s; tln-v were afterwards restored to lihcrtv bv
Anthon\. At a later period. C.-st ills Callus, tin- l!u.
man proconsul under Nero, when inarchino; against Je-
rusalem reduced it to ashes (.Ins Wars, ii. Ill, sect. 1 1. It
soon revived, however, for even under Vespasian it
had attained to some importance, and is described bv
Josephus as a \illaov not inferior in si/e to a city 'Wars,
iii :!. sect. .".-. Ant. x\ c.. sect 'JV Sometime previous to that

| it had been visited bv St. IVter in one of his tours

1 tlirouo'h the coimtrv district.- of Judea, and was the
scene of a miraculous cure wrought by him on a paralytic
of the nanr- of .Mm as. Ac. i.x. ::-'.::.'. This -reatly aided
the cause of ( 'hri-tianit v in the neighbourhood, and a
church of some importance spruno- n]i in the place.
Lydda became the seat of a bishop, of whom mention is
often made in the ecclesiastical annals; and in the course
of tin- Pelagian controversy a provincial synod met there

'.\.!>. 41">l, whose proceedilio's, however, reflected no
honour on the place. Its -rand ecclesiastical distinction
consisted in its having been probably the birth -place of
the renowned Saint ( Jeorge, and certainlv the place of
his sepulture. A ni.-igniHceiit church, of uncertain date,
was there erected in his h .Hour. The crusaders found

143

LYSTKA

[410.

village, having nothing to distinguish it but the ruins
of the church of St. George, and the fine gardens and
orchards by which it is surrounded . Kohius'in, lies iii [j.4!i;

Van dc Vul le, Memoir, ]>. 331).

LYDTA, The district in Asia AJinor inhabited
by the offspring of the Sethite LCD (which see). It
occurs only once in the Knglish Bible, K/u. xxx. :>, and
then as the incorrect equivalent of C'T? ([<"<l i in). Th;:
province had Mysia on the north. Phrygia on the east,
and ('aria on the south.

LYDTA. A woman of Thyatira, who, at the time
of .Paul's first visit to Macedonia, was resident in
Philippi, as a seller of purple, that is. probabh , of
purple-dyed cloth. She became a convert to the faith
preached by the apostle, and received him into her
house, herself the first member of a church which soon
sprung into great vigour, and was distinguished for its
hearty and devoted zeal in the cause of the gospel.
Ac. xvi. 14- 4u. (Ste PHILIPPIC

LYSA'NIAS, tetrarch of Abilene, in the time of
Tiberius Civsar. when John the Baptist entered on his
public ministry, Lu. iii. i. In later times some have
attempted to throw doubt on the statement, but with-
out any valid grounds. (See undir Aim.F.NK.)

LYS'IAS, CLAU'DIUS. A R, .man captain, or chili-
arch, who at the time of Paul's last visit to .Jerusa-
lem happened to be in charge of the troops which were
stationed in the citadel, lie was the means of rescuing
the apostle from the fury of the crowd, and of after-
wards saving his life from a cunningly devised strata-
gem that was laid by a company of Jewish zealots,
Ac. xxi. :>7-.'j(i; xx ii. Nothing more is heard of him; but
from the prompt and impartial manner in which he
conducted himself, as between Paul and his accusers,

he appears to have been a person (if prudence and
sagacity.

LYS'TRA. A town of Lycaonia in Asia .Minor,
the birth-place of Timothy, and interesting as the scene
of several important incidents in the apostolic history.

> It is not easy to iix on its exact site. Hamilton places
it at Pin P>ir Kilisseh, where there are some ruins,
that is, about thirty miles south-east of Iconium.

! Arundel considers the neighbourhood of Lake Bey
Shehr. about as far to the west of the same place, to
be a likely site, and Leake prefers Khartoun Serae, a
spot about midway between the two. From these
opinions it will be seen that the problem as to the
position of Derbe and Lystra is not likely to receive a
speed v solution. Thus much only can be decided, that
as St. Paul went from Iconium to Lystra. and from
thence to Derbe, this must be the geographical order in
which we may expect the cities to be found.

In the Acts of the Apostles it is related that St.
Paul, in company with P>arnabas, having healed a
cripple at Lystra, Ac. xiv. >-2i, was saluted as a god bv

1 the people, and that the priest of Jupiter brought oxen
and garlands, intending to otter sacrifices, taking Paul
to be Mercnrius and P>arnabas Jupiter. This the
apostles succeeded in preventing: but soon afterwards,
on the arrival of certain Jews from Iconium who pre-
judiced the people against Paul and Barnabas, a tumult
was excited, in which Paid was stoned, and taken out
of the city as dead. He revived, however, while the
disciples were standing around him. and again returned
into the citv. After having y'oiie for a short time to
Derbe. he took Lystra on his way back, and apparently
met with better treatment, as no mention is made of
anv further violence, Ac. xiv :'i. [11. c s.J

.MAACAIi MACCABEES, HOOKS OF

MAACAH. MAACHAH [both forms are adopted mother, and was hence so called, though in reality she
in the English 1'iibl'. though the Hebrew i.- tin- same. wa.-thc grandmother of Asa: and bein- an idolatrous
'"'frT?, OjijJt'mxiuii]. A .-mall district and kin-dom on as well as imperious woman, he found it necessary.
the south-east declivity of .Mount Hermon, or perhaps w hen he came "f age, to have her removed from the
stretching further into the east, and bordering on what court, and In r corrupt wavs forbidden, i Ki. .\v. i;;, 11.
is now called the Eejah. I's position is now IP re Her affinity to the royal house of Oeshur may possibly
exactly defined: but it appear.- to have been at no account for her idolatrous tendencies.
great distance from Oe.-hur. as the Oeshurites MAACHATH1TKS. X MAACAH.
.Maachathite- are commonly coupled together, .1 .s. xii :>; MA ALEH- A RK AB BiM [.<(/;/ of itcorpifin*. > r
xiii. 13 It is expressly stated in the second of the pas- itf-/i!<ni.*' //.<.<]. The A uthori/ed Version has only
sages referreil to. that the country actually })ossessed once pr<--er\ed the name in this form. Jus. xv. :i : in the
by the Israelites after the conquest of Ba-han extended two other passages, Xu. xxxiv. 1. Ju. i :;r,, where it occurs.
only to the border of the region occupied by the ])eojile the term MHH/I/I is translated, and the expiession is
ot Oeshui and Maachah: and that the original inhabi- "the -.'oiii- u|. to A k rabbi m." Tin-re can be n doubt
tants continued to retain their territory, though .-ubject that it w a.- a pass over some mountain rid.- in ar t In-
to [sraelitish supremacy. Nothin- i- In aid of Maaeah nortln rn extremitv of the Aral'ah or -rial \\adv that
and it- [leople in th" future hi-tor\ of |-i, t .l tilith- -tretched southward from the Dead Sea in the direction
reign of David, win n ih y appear, in league with the "f Sin.-.i: for it is mentiom-d twice in the southern
children of Ammon. taking part in one of the fiercest boundary line of Canaan, in a manner which d tcr
conflicts which the royal psalmist had to maintain mines it to have been somewhere to the south of Kab-
against siirroundinu enemies, i s.i. x i;- 1 -; uli \:\ :. In /.eel. and the flat jun-le or -hor which lies at the south
both passages alike the readhi-; ought to be, not "king of th. head Sea. The houndan line, as marked in
Maacah." but "the kin-' of Maaeah." Tint hi- quota the pa.-.-ag< - ivf. rred to. may be seen under K.\1!K.\.\:
for the struggle was only a thon-and men. while l.-htob see al-o K u-./.i- :n.. and the map attached to Snriil
had twohe thoii-and. and tin- Syrians of Beth-r.-hob ('IHNTKV. ( Inr infoi-mal i..n is not exact eiiou-h to
and Zoha twenty thousand, m.iy ju-t]yln regarded a- dc-t. rniin.- with |ierl'i-ct certainty tin- precise pass or
a proof of the comparative smallnes- of the resources road intendid in the Hebrew term. Hence some
"I Maacah and its king. understand l>\ it tin- pass of Safeh Stanley, others of

MAACAH. MAACHAH. 1. The name ..f s.-ve Xaweirah hi Sauleyi. others again of Su'tah Orove,

ra! men. "t whom. howe\--r. scarceh anything i- \\ il:

known except their genealogical m- social position tin- MA AKATH [<!es. Lammim*. l>iiniinti-\. a town in

father ..f . \i-hi-h. kin-- of Oath. IK '. tin- father of the hill country of J udali. included in the same -n.np

llaiian. on.- of |)a\id'- heroes, in. xi i . the father ,,f w it h Halhnl, Bcth-y.ur, Oedor, lieth-aiioth, and Eltekon.

shephatiah. i\ ho was head of the Simeonit. - in 1 >a\ id's .1- -. \v >. ;,..,. Son," of them are known to have been at

time, 1 Ch. xxvii. n; no great distanci from Hebron: but tin- exact Icalitv

2. MAACAH. Several female.- bon this nan,.-. A of Maarath is unknown.

daughterof Xahor by hi- concubine Keiimah, (.;, MAC CABEES, BOOKS OF. Though these 1 k

:;!; the concubine of Caleb, by whom In- had several f'-ini no part .-t' inspired Scripture, vet, a.- the matters
"ons, i ch ii !- ; a granddaughti r of B.-njamin. who I. contain, d in tin m have a very c], , . . and. in some re-
came the wife of Maehir, Hi, >,: Hi; the wife of Jehiel. -poets, impoi-taiit. bearing on Scripture, they are en-
one of the ancestors of >; U il. im. viii >.> the dau-'hter of titled to a larger space than we usually give to apocn
Talinai, king of Gesliur. who became the wife of David. phal books. Tiny are five in number, and of very
and the mother of Absalom, in, hi. _<; the daughter, or various character. We -hall give some account of eacli
more probably the granddaughter, of Ab-alom. wife of in order.

1,'choboam. and mother of Abijam, i Ki. xv. i Al.i FIII.-I B,".n;, Ft professes to give the history of the
shaloni i.- tin- name of h.-r father in the passage referred _|,. w> ,!,,,.;,,._. t i n . ,.,,j,, u ,,f Antiochus Epiphane.-. and
to, but in -J Ch. xi. 'Jo it i.- Absalom: so that the downwards to the death "f Simon the Jewish high-
former may ju-tly be regarded a- another form of the priest, and the accc.-sion of his son John Hyrcanus. It
same word. By Jusephus and some Jewish writers thus embraces a period of forty years, fivm H.C. i 7.' to
she is called the daughter of Tamar and Lrranddau'diler n.c. 1:',.",. It _i\,sa most accurate and graphic account
of Absalom. In -J Ch. xiii. '2. however, tin- mother of of the heroic and successful struggle of the Maccabaan
Abijam is said to have been Micaiah. th,- dan-liter of brethren in 1 ehalf of religious freedom, of which wo
I'riel of Oibeah. It is probable that Micaiah was a have given a brief and imperfect outline below. The
mere variation of Maacah. or a mistake for it in the author is not known: hut the work has been very gene-
copyiii";- in the Septuagint and Syriac it is the same rally ascribed to John Hyrcanus. It is probable that
as in -2 Ch. xi. -Ji), Maacah -and that I'riel was Inr it was composed in his time, by himself or some one
father by Tamar. Ft is also probable that this Maacah employed by him. because the history is carried no
is the same who is called the mother of Asa, the son further than the date of his accession, and the Mac-
and successor of Abijam. and who, during the minority caba-an war.- had then come to a close. Some contend
(.f her grandson, exercised the influence and authority for a later date, because mention is made, at the close
usually assigned to the queen-mother. She acted as of the work, of memoirs of Hyrcanus. ch.xvi.a4. 1'os-

.MA('< AI5EES. I'.OOK-

.MA<VAP>EES. !',<)< )KS

<ihlv the book i> ;i compilation from ]ml)lic documents.
made under the direction of the Jewish authorities.
These we kiui\v were carefully preserved, -J.M^C. u. n.

As to the language in \vliii-h the work was originally
written, there seems no reason to doubt that it was the
Syro-Chaldaic or Hebrew. Jerome declares (Proles?.
(iuleut.) that lie l;ad seen the original, though this has
lieen regard* d as lost. "Yet, it is to be observed,"
savs 1 )r. ('ot'on, "that Keimicott. in his Di.tscrtatin
(lenerulit, cites two .MSS.. one of \\hich. No. -17-1. is
preserved at Rome (JLibr. Mavcub. Ch..Idaicc). written early
in the thirteenth century: a second, No. (il '.',, existing
at Hamburg (Libr. Maccub. Hebraicu), written in the year
] M,S " ^Introduction, p. xxO Origen also testifies to the
Hebrew original Knsub. Hist. F.rdcs. vi.a.i). He gives the
work a Hebrew title, viz. >'////<//>'</, /;<, El, "The
Sceptre of the Prince of the Sons of (tod;" or otherwise.
"The Scourge of the Kebels against the Lord" a desig-
nation which, in either sense, well suited the heroic
Judas whose exploits the book records. From the
C'haldaic the work was translated, probably by Theo-
dotion, into Greek. The English version is from the
Greek likewise. It is allowed on all hands to be a,
trustworthy history.

SECOND |!<>OK. This book embraces a period of
fifteen years, from the commission of Heliodorns to
plunder the temple (B.C. 17-1 \ to the victory of .hulas
over Nicanor (B.C. 101). and consequently traverses
much of the same field with the first book, though
commencing ten or twelve years earlier, it opens with
two epistles, purporting to be sent from the Jews in
Jerusalem to their brethren in Alexandria, exhorting
them to observe the feast of dedication, instituted hv
Judas on occasion of his purifying the temple, as nar-
rated below. These letters are not regarded as genuine.
The second is chargeable with an anachronism. It is
written in the name of Judas Maccabavus, who died
thirty-six years before the date assigned to it. Tt is
dated in the 188th year of the era of the Seleucidse,
ch. i. in, i.e. B.C. ~i'2i>, whereas Judas was slain B.C. liil.
It contains, moreover, many things of a fabulous kind.
which Judas and the council of Jerusalem never could
have written (Prideaux.annolCC). The body of the work
is an abridgment of a history by one Jason, in five
books, which records the exploits of Judas Maccaba'us
and his brethren, and embraces the chief transactions c< >n-
nected with the Jews during the times of Scleucus IV.,
Antiochus Epiphanes, and Eupator his son. T.oth
Jason and his abridger are supposed to have been
Hellenistic Jews: and the style of the work, with the
manner of computation employed, tend to confirm this
conjecture. The epitomizer is conjectured bv I'rideaux
to have been an Hellenist of Alexandria, because of
the expression " the great temple," applied by him to
the temple at Jerusalem, to distinguish it apparently
from the temple which Onias had erected in Egypt, and
which was in every way inferior to the great original
on which it had been modelled. The work has been
variously ascribed to Philo. Josephus. and Judas Mac-
caba -us. It is supposed to be the same with the MOK-
Ka^aLKi^v cTrcro/'.T) in the Stronidta of Clemens Alexan-
drinus, and its probable date, is about B.C. !/>(!. The
original language is Greek. There is a Svriac and
Latin version, both very ancient and very wretched.
The English version is from the Greek. In respect of
trustworthiness, the second hook of Maccabees does not
take rank with the tir.-t, It contradicts the first book,

giving a totalh different and erroneous account ot the
death of Antiochus Kpiphanes (CI>N>I>. i M;ir. vi. niv. itii L';\I;U.
i. 1 1, ii;; i.\. :>N), while the statements in the letters are in
consi-telit with those in tin. 1 body of the Work. It is.
moreover, in many places at variance with Scripture
(conij.. -2 Mac. i. 1^ willi K/r. iii. -i, :j ; ii. .'. s will, ,k. iii. 1C). The
work, in a word, is full of chronological error.-, exag-
gerations, miracles, and fables, and is therefore a nio.-t
un.-afe guide. Notwithstanding, the claim for canoni-
cal authority is put in by the Romanists in favour both
of first and second .Maccabees u uuc.Trid. ness, iv.), thou'Ji
not advanced by them in favour of the other hooks.
In the proper place we shall consider the question of
the canonical authority of the Maccabees.

THIRD UoiiK. Tip's book covers a period of ei^ht or
nine years, and contains an account of the persecution
of tin- Jews in Egypt under Pioleiny I'hilopater IB.C.
~\ 7 1 . That persecution having taken place lon^' before
the Maccabsean period, this book should have been
placed first in order, or rather should not have been
placed among the Mn<-i i <il,u-x at all. Hut the name is
used with the latitude to which we have drawn atten-
tion below. First and second .Maccabees take rank be-
fore the so-called third book, on account of their greater
authority and repute, as is generally supposed, Jose-
phus transfers the persecution of which this book treats
to the reign of J'tolemy Physcon. The incidents are
briefly these : Ptolemy, proceeding to Jerusalem, after
his signal victory over Antiochus the Great, at Haphia.
demanded admission into the inner shrine of the temple.
and, in spite of all remonstrances, had passed into the
inner court, when a sudden terror seized him, and he
was borne almost lifeless out of the sacred precincts.
Returning to Alexandria, burning with hatred against
the .lews, he had as many of them as he could gather
together shut up in the hippodrome to lie trodden under
foot of elephants. The citizens were iinited to the
spectacle; and the elephants were maddened with wine
and frankincense. J!ut instead of turning on the Jews,
the enraged animals trampled down the spectators, to
the dismay of the tyrant, who was himself present. On
this he ordered the Jews to be set free, and restored to
them their ancient privileges, regarding tlu ir salvation
as a most remarkable interposition of divine providence
in their favour. The author of this book is supposed
to have been an Alexandrian Jew. Dr. Allix, in his
Judgment of the Jetcixh Church, thinks the work may
have been written during the reign of 1'tolemy Philo-
} later, or a little after the book of Fcclesiasticus (B.C.
J<H>). Franciscns Junius and others attribute it to
Philo (Cotton, Intro, xix.) It is found in the .Alexandrian
and Vatican MSS. of the LXX. It is not in the Vul-
gate. and therefore not among the apocryphal books in
our English translation. The original is Greek. There
is a Syriac version, but no ancient Latin one, the
( arliest being that of Froben, A.D. l/ioS. As to the
credit that is due to the book, some, with De Wette
and Milmaii, regard it as entirely fabulous. The latter
calls it a "romantic story" and a ''legend.'' Others.
with Dean Prideaux. pronounce the groundwork of the
history to be true, notwithstanding of the romantic
dress in which it appears. The English versions are
those of Lynnc, in 1~>~>0; of Whiston. in his Authentic.
Dufiimciit*, 171K-1727: of Orutwell, in T78/>; and of
Cotton, in 1S3'2: which last is based oil Winston' s ver-
sion. though professedly departing from it wherever an
examination of the original seemed to demand it.

MACCABEES. BOOKS OF

Forum Uo<>K. k contains an embellishment of the
story of the martyrdom of old KIcazar, and of the seven
brethren, with their mother, under Antiochus Kpi-
phaiies, us uiven in '2 Mac. vi. v ii. We cannot enter
OIL the details. The work is supposed to be the same
with that entitled <'<> //,//////.</ tl Gaurnmcnt ur /;';/////'/(
nf fltni, which I'hilostrutns. Lnsebiu-. and Jcniine
have ascribed to .Fo.-ephus. Some, however, maintain
that the works are not identical. A manuscript, pur-
porting t<> be the fourth book, and containing the his-
torv of John Hvivamis, i- said to have been found in
the librarv of Sum-to IV-jnini. at Lyons, in France.
( ulin'-t. however, pronounces this a mistake, and thinks
the MS. in question must have been one of the fifth
boo!;, the subject of which is undoubtedly the same
with that of the supposed fourth book ii ..tt.m, li.tro.
[i. xxviii. The work i- found in t'ne Alexandrian and
Vatican MSS. ,,f tbe LXX. It is inm^lated into Ln---
lish by Cotton.

Firm HOOK. -Comprises thi .le-wi-h hi-torv from

the attenijit on the trea.-lirv by lleliodorus. B.C. 17'i.
downwards to tin- , vtinctioll ol ihe A-mona-uii line.
It contains alsu a historv of the ver-imi of the LXX.
The auth ir is unknown. Tiie dale is siibse(|iieiit to
the destruction of Jerusalem by I'itus Vespasian. It
I- extant in Svriac and A rabic. but i- .-uppo-i d t<i hav e
been ori^inallv written in Hebre\\. and thence to have
been translated into (Jreek. Dr. Cotton's Knglish
translation is from the Latin version of the Arabic
I. xt.

Ml. -I,, I nintnili-ttl utifliorltil of tin* hooks. On the
subjec-t of tin- canon ici t v of tin- apocryphal books gene-
rally, the reader is referred to the article- in this work
under A I'lu'ii'i i'li A and ('ANON. \\ e must, however.
oiler one or two remark- here. The que-tion here has
respect to the first two book- alone: for all concur in
rejectinu the rest from anv title to a place in Scripture.
And the argument, in their case, i- nece arily. to a
lare'c extent, a general one. that is. involving the
character or po.-iti..n of all the books belonging to the
same class. It must be conn did that, as evt-rv one
acquainted with the historv of tin- canon knows, in
the early Christian church there was not an absolute
or universal exclusion of the Maccabees and other
ap icrvphal books from the sacred list. Some of th--

lathers- us Origen and Augustine hesitated, and

allowed them a kind of dubious authority: and tin
same remark applies to the decrees of perhaps one or
two councils. But it is to lie observed, at the same
time, that the uviieral voice, the almost unbroken
testimony of the church, is. without hesitation, on the
side of exclusion. !t can surprise no one to find that
the Old Testament canon was not determined without
some difficulty by the Christian church, or that certain
books should have presented more dittieu'tv than others
when their position came to be settled. lint we know,
besides, what it was that occasioned any hesitation in
the curly Christian church on this matter. That hesi-
tation, limited us it undoubtedlv was. arose from the
general list- of the version of the LXX.. which contained

the apocryphal books alon^ with the canonical 1 ks

of the Old Testament, and thus created doubt and eon-
fusion; and the doubt or difficulty would increase in
proportion as the ( Ireek Christians separated themselves
from the stricter Jews, and thus lost the knowledge of
the Hebrew Bible, ami became dependent on the Sep-
tuagillt (Creducr, ISuitriiije, ii. 31H; OcHk-r in IK-rtxni.', K;inuii;.

$ MACCABLKS. BOOKS OF

It is remarkable, however, that while the New Testa-
ment writers use the version of the LXX.. neither the
Maccabees nor anv portion of the Apocrypha is ever
quoted bv them, far less appealed to as inspired autho-
ritv. There mav be allusions to the Maccaba-an his-
torv in the New Testament, us in He. xi. :>f> to - Mae.
vi. IS, 111. and in some other places. lint these are
vcrv general and doubtful: and thouji indisputable,
could no more entitle the books to be held sacred, than
the quotation bv i'aul of a heathen peel should elevate
him to tin- level of an inspired authority. The eurl\
fathers and councils of the church follow the apostolit
example: and it was not until \.li l.Vl'i that the council
of Trent, in d> fiance of the voice of all antiquity. cxalUd
eleven apoervphal books to a place in the canon, and
pronounctd an anathema on ail who would not receive
t'l.-ni entire, with all their part- as sacred and canoni-
cal. It i- true, indeed, as noticed above, that dubious
language in n-uard to the caiionieity of the apocryphal

1 ks was usi d by some in ear'lv times, and tlusc, men

hi-h in authority. If. however, the doubtful expres-
sions be interpreted in the Ii--hl of the explanations
with which tin v are ac, onipanied. the fat la rs who use
them will be found in perfect accord with the voice of
the church at large. They distin-uisln d bitwcdi
canonical, apo.-n phal. and pscudepigraphie writings.
Thev rejected the lust entirely. They regarded the
lir-t only as in-piivd. while tiny allowed to the second
class th-- place,,f wik.s Use fill in thcin-elv es. though
imt iiispiivel. end which, therefore, mi^ht be profit. tblv
read in the public assemblies, as might also the Ai'f.t <;/
tin Mni-liii-.-, on the anniversaries of tin ir death. Hence
this class was called dvayivwffKOfji.d'a (<iii((;/Iinikonienu),
/.<:. books which mijit be Used for public h s-ons or
le-adinu. It is further to be noticed, for the -uidance
of the student, that some-tiim s the word i-dnmiicitf is
used in the loose sense of helonuin'-; simply to this
middle class; and we are imi. bted to Jerome for clean r

views em llle subject thall se-clll ge-llcrally to have- pie

vailed In-fore his time-. He- n-vertcd tee the -eiminc
Jev i-h canon, ami would allow nothing to be canonical
but writings inspire-d by Cod, and \\hich mi'Jit he-
queited a- proof of doctrine-. Having fixed the- cuiioni-
i -it v of the t\V< llt\ twe> books of the- He-bre.-w Scriptures,
he savs emphatically: " (^uicqied extra hos e st inter
Apoe-rvphu poiieiidnm." Such works nun ben-u'l m/

it il'ijiraf in,,, in /,/i/iitt. but are: Hot to be Used <iil ,1,11-1, >ri-

tutini (iTl<xi<t.<ti<-<ii-ii,,i lini/, ,,II/II,H roiijirmaiidmn (I'mlc.^.

in Lit*;-. Sulnin.: lliivcniick'- Ii>i. nl'tl.o (_';iu,,i,, in his lntveielue-ti,.ii
tee (del Tus!;imuiit. [>. 7ii, Ki.j;. 'J'lvms ; Cosin's Hintm-y of the t'.uieni,

As to the cani'iiicity ot th" upoervplial books now
nieire immediatelv in qiiestion. the few authorities
that can be e-ite-el in faveiur of it have only to be- read
in the li-ht of the above observations to enable us to
ascertain the- value' of the in. We shall look at them
for a moment. Oriue-n, it is true, speaks somewhat
looselv in many places. He in-'ludes the Maccabees
under the- general name of Scriptures; but he expressly
excludes them from the canon strictly so called, which
he limits to the twenty-two books which ihe Hebrews
have le-ft us i I'l-ok-u. in ('ant apudEusebium). It is nei more-
than just that any doubtful expressions of this father
should be construed in the light of that statement.
Augustine, too. included the twei Maccabees and other
apocryphal works in the- canon \I>L- civ. Ik-i) ; and the
famous council of Carthage IA.LI. ''>'.<',). at which he is

supposed to have been present, and over which ho must !
havo exercised a profound influence, included them in i
like manner. 1'ut Jahn. and many eminent Roman
Catholics, candidly admit that this meant nothing more
than giving them a place among the hooks, iit for public
lessons (i. i:c>). It is certain that Augustine himself,
however dubiously he may sometimes speak, made :i
distinction of rank among the books of the canon (ix-
Oo.:tr. Christ. h and when speaking specially of the Mac-
cabees, he takes care expressly to exclude them from
the canon strictly so called (Do Civ. DeO. It is a some-
what singular fact, moreover, that the Greek report of
the council of Carthage does not contain the Maccabees
in its catalogue of adopted books, which has given rise
to suspicion ''that the Jesuit Labbe completed it in
this form as he pleased when compiling his fl/xti.H'i/ of
Coitnci/s.'' There are many other things affecting the
credit of this alleged decree, which may be seen in
Cosin. and such writers as treat professedly of the sub-
ject. Admitting, however, that the decree is genuine,
it by no means proves, as we have seen above, that the
Maccabees were exalted by the council of Carthage to
the level of inspired books. We say nothing of the
decree of the council of Florence in 143!'. which ad-
mitted the Maccabees and other apocryphal books into
the canon, because the authority of that decree is made
to rest ultimately on Augustine and his council of Car-
thage. The decree, moreover, is on good grounds de-
clared to be forged. On the whole, then, it must be
held that there is no historical evidence in favour of
the canoiiicity of the Maccabees; and if we regard in-
ternal evidence, the numerous absurdities of the second
book, as well as its gross errors, among which may be
mentioned the encouragement it gives to the practice
of praying for the dead (ch. xii. 4D-4;">\ are sufficient alone
to exclude it from the rank of a canonical book. In
Germany a controversy about the value of the Apocry- !
pha, and the propriety or impropriety of having it ;
bound up with Scripture, has been conducted with
great keenness. It broke out, after a period of rest,
in 1850. On the one side are Schiller, Keerl, and
Wild; on the other, Stier, Hengsteiiberg, and Bleek.

| The chief works on the books of Maccabees are the following:
- Jo. Tiainoldi disi'ri; Lib, '//(< A,>oc,-i!/>/i>i, ,-.;/( r./<v<'s Ti.slv-
,,,enti cuh-ersmn Pnnti.flci'it, 15VI; Bishop Co-in'.s Hixtnry of tin
Ctcuoii, lf>~>7; Archbishop Tiber's Siimmary ot I/if Ciu'iatlnn Jl>-
Hriiim; Froelick's Aiiwilm li>tii>,,i X ; i,-w, 1741; Michaelis cm the
Mnccu.lj.<, KM: Wilson's ]i,,o/,-g of the A,>ocry t ,lM, ISO!; CottonV
Fhr Jiooi's of MnKd.li'->:*, 1S:W; Keerl, <1 . A,JOC,: <>. A. T.\ and
the Gorman writers, referred to above as en^ayed in the
Apocryphal controversy. There is an admirable summary of
Oosin's elaborate work in the Appendix to Gaussen's Canon ni'
thi' Jii.li/ $C:-ijit<'.i-c.->, p. i ',_", i Hi 1 ,-.' (En.'lish Translation. London,
LS.V.').] [ii. i-.]

MAC CABEES. The Asmonamn family, who make
so distinguished a- figure in the Jewish annals, from B.C.
167 onwards to the time of Judea being made a pro-
vince of "Home, were called Maccabees from Judas, a
distinguished member of the house, whose surname
was Maccabseus. The etymology of the word is un-
certain: and a multitude of conjectures have been
ha/.arded, which may be seen in Calmet and elsewhere.
The most generally received opinion hitherto has been,
that the name is made up of the initial letters of the
words forming the motto on the standard of Judas --
nvr cbiQ HDfcD 'p (Mi Citnioi'n /lt.'-clo/i!>ii Jehovah)
"Who is like unto thee, Lord, among the gods T
Kx. xv. 11. Thus we have ^p (Mukkabi). Another
derivation is from the Hebrew word "IJTO, a laninier

'i MACCABEES

Judas being appropriately styled the liaiiuni nr, from
his irresistible power in beating down and crushing his
foes. The name, however, as abundantly appears, was
not confined to the family of Judas, but was subse-
quently extended so as to embrace other sufferers in
the same cause, even though living in earlier times
(:i Maccab. Prideaux's Connection, anno 21(i).

The Maccabaean struggle, besides being a noble one,
is of importance as occupying a somewhat conspicuous
place in prophecy, and as giving rise to a remarkable
change in the Jewish polity in respect of the place of
the priesthood.

The terrible persecution of the Jewish faith under
Antiochus Epiphanes first brought the Maccabsean
family into notice. This tyrant fully realized Daniel's
prophetic character of a ''vile person/' Da xi. LI. No
sooner was he raised to the throne than the persecution
began. Jle deposed and banished the wise and good
high-priest Onias, and sold his office to his brother
Jason for a large sum, and then again for a sum still
larger to another brother, Menelaus. During the
absence of Antiochus on his second invasion of Egypt,
a report of his death having reached .Jerusalem. Jason
seized the opportunity of recovering his office, assaulted
and took the city, put his enemies to death, and inflicted
all manner of cruelties on the inhabitants. When
tidings of these things reached Antiochus, under the
impression that a general revolt of the Jews had taker,
place, he hastily returned to Jerusalem: and on his
way his rage was still more inflamed by being told that
the rumour of his death had occasioned great joy to
the Jews. He therefore laid siege to the city, and
having taken it, put 40.000 of the inhabitants to death,
and sold as many more into slavery. At the same
time he entered the temple, and sacrificed a great sow
on the altar of burnt- offering, and, to complete the pro-
fanation, sprinkled the broth made of its flesh all over
the place. He then despoiled it of its precious vessels
and furniture, and returned to Antioch laden with the
treasure.

On occasion of his fourth and last invasion of Egypt,
he was met and arrested in his victorious career by the
Roman ambassadors, who ordered his instant departure
from that country, on pain of the wrath of the senate
at Borne, Da. xi. :io. Not daring to disobey, he turned
his face homewards, and passing through 1'alestine. let
loose his pent-up wrath upon the Jews, and commis-
sioned Apollonius, with an army of ^2.000 men. to
destroy Jerusalem. Taking advantage of the Sabbath,
this cruel lieutenant, faithful to his master's orders.
came upon the people when assembled in the syna-
gogues for worship, massacred the men, and made the
women and children captives. He then set fire to the
city, demolished the walls and fortifications, and with
the ruins erected a fort on an eminence which com-
manded the temple, so that the worshippers on their
approach to it were slain, while the place itself was
defiled with every abomination; and the daily sacrifice
was made to cease, according to the prediction of Daniel,
ch. viii. y-i2;xi. :u. The date of this remarkable event is
June, B.C. 107.

Antiochus next issued his famous decree which
brought matters to a height and the Asmomean heroes
to the stage. The king commanded that all people in
his empire should conform to the religion of the sove-
reign 011 pain of death. The decree was aimed chiefly
against the Jews. The persecution of that people was

bitter in tin.- extreme. Their worship was interdicted;

circumcision of children was made a crime: and tin- law.
wht-rever copies of it could he found, was destrnycd.
The temple was consecrated to Jupiter Olympias. whoso
ima".e and altar were erected within ii. Two women,
wh ', in spite of the edict, had circumcised their chil-
dreii. bad tlu. little ones him- about their necks, a'.id
in that condition were first paraded through the streets,
and then (Inn- headlon- from the city walls, dmtr-a!
consternation s> i/.'d the Jews. The alternative was
conformilv or death. Manv apo.-tati/ed. l'>nt piv-
cisely at this juncture, (o.d. in hi- proviiieiice. rai-i d
up tlie Maivabee-. whose, pietv. and courage, and vie-
tories. form one of the brightest and nut stirring chap-
t'-i-s iii hi-t,orv. and h-n-l t . the .b wish state in it- la.-t
da v.- s,,n let hi) i_ of the -h >r\ that belonged to it iii earlier
times. The Jew i.-h .-;M: reappears in the eveniiii. 1 -. and.
dispersing the clouds that had gathered round it. tinned
all thiiu- with its partluy _;! irv ere it sank to rise no
more.

MatMtliias. the head of the M aceaha-an lamiU. wa-
a liiie.-d ilesceiid.int of A-iiiona-u- (,1ns pirns, .Vntii| \ ., - .
and a priest of the course of .loarib. He dwelt at
.Modin. in the tribe of |>an. with five sons .lolm.
Simon. Judas. Klea/.ar, and Jonathan all of whom.
like their father, weiv di-tin-'iii-hed tor piety ami
valour. When the kin ; s commissioner came to Modin
t> enforce tlic commamls of hi-ma-ler. lie assembled
the people, and. ad. In in- MaUathia-. exhorted him.
as the chief citixeii. to set an example of obedient- .
Tlr- refusal wa- in-tant and resolute: and when an
apostate Jew stepped forward to .-aeritice at a heatlali
altar which hail been erected for the occasion, Matta
thias, burning' with x..-al. I'hineha--like. rose up and
slew him. Next, with the help of hi- sons, he -lev.
Apelles the commissioner, and his attendants with him.
Tlieii. bavin- tied to tin 1 mountains, the faithful annni-
the Jews gathered round him: ami civ bin-, he found
himself at tin- hea.d of a little army, with which he
sallied forth from his retreat, and intimidated or tie-
strovetl the persecutors. At tin same time be pulled
down the heathen altar- ami everywhere iv.-toivd the
ancient, rites and worship. \Voin mit with -i-eat a-e
and fatiuut-. h.- tlietl the next vear li.c. lii'I . IVfore
!iis death, he ealleil his four sons together, ami. exliort-
in'/ them to be steadfast, appointed . I udas captain and
SiiiMii coansellor of the little band of jiatriot-.

Judas, -tii-nani" 1 Maccaba-ns, followed in the foot-
steps of his father. He lield the eommainl" for six

vears. and. durin- that | riod. liis exploit- border on
i i

the miraculous. He vanquished tin- army of Apollo-
nius. the Svrian ueiier.d. who perished himself in the
conflict. A not In r Syrian armv. with its leader, shared
the same fate. Aiitioehu-. tliou-h burnini; with i-a-c
at, these disasters, was unable personallv to take the
tield a-ainst Judas, in con-ec|nence of revolts in tin-
tributary kingdoms of Armenia and Persia. "Tidinu-s
out of the east and out of the north troubled him.'
lu. xi. ii (Join/ abroad to reduce these kingdoms, he
left strict orders with Lysias. his depnty-^ovcrnor. to
carry arms into J udea and exterminate the .Jews. The
army of Lysias, under the joint command of 1'tolemv
Macron. Nicanor, and a veteran named (Joruias.
amounted in all to 40.01111 foot and T'^'o horse. The
o|i|iosin-' army under Judas was only tiooii strong,
which, moreover, was nltimatelv reduced to :iiltlo. \\hen
proclamation had been made, accordin- to the law,

' MACCABEES

K-. xx. .I--, that tho.-e who had built houses, planted
\ hit-yards, or had betrothed wives, or were faint-hearted,
should depart. I>ut thou/h few in number, the Jew-

\Vere resolute and brave. Tllev C'onilnitted them-elves

to ( lod, and went forth to com|uer or die. The arm of
their (lod and the genius of their leader etlt cted a woii-
drous deliverance for them. J udas having discovered
that a detachment under (lor-ias wa- to be despatched
durin- the niuht to surprise ainl overwhelm him. in
stantly conci ivod the bold de.-i/n of turn in/ the tactics
ot the enemy a-jein-t themselves. Suddcnlv leaving 1
his camp. h. f< li unexpectedlv on the main body of tin
Svrian army, bereft of its choice-t troops, and obtained
a complete victory over it. The panic amoii/ the
Svrians was so -real, that the host was speedilv thrown
into c. infusion, and tied in all directions, lea vim/ : >0(io
men dead on the field. Juda- restrained h - warriors,
as (i or/ i as was -till abroad. I'.ut wh-n that captain
retnrneil from his un-iicce-st'id excursion, he was ci n-
lounded to tind the Svrian camp di si rti d and in flame-:
and his -oldiers were stricken with Mich terror, that no
persuasion could induce them to face their fee-. '1 he\
broke and tied. Juda- pursued. sle\\ -rent number-.
and -ath'-red incredible -poil. not only of the' Syrian
annv. but of tin- merchant-, who. at the invitation of
'ii' S\ rian-. had accompanied it. with the de-i/n of
pureha-in/ tin captive Jews as slave-. Thus " the
people that did know their ( hid were -troii/ and did
exploits," In. \i :_ Shortly after, another -reat battle
was foii-ht. in which Nicanor was defeat, d. and -jn.iiin;
Svrian- slain. I. \-ia- him-elf. with an armv of ijo.unu
n.eii. m-xt -utl'i reil the like i/nominious defeat at the
hand of Judas and a little army of lo.oou Jews.

Juda- and hi- compatriot- now applied themselves
to tin- clean-in/ of the temple. They ca-t down the
heathen altar, s. t upa^ain the altar of Jehovah, re-
appointed prie-t-. and offered -acrilie ( -. and, in a word,
re-e-tahli-hed the ancient order and wor.-hiji, after tin-
lapse of thn-e and a half year-. |)a \ii :, from the time
in which th' sacrifice and oblation had been made to
cease. In commemoration of tin- -real event, the feast
if dedication was instituted, and continued to he
observed down to the time of the Saviour, i M n- iv..-,,ii :
Jii >....'. It is however matter of doubt whetlnr
the all i-ioii in tin- evan/elist be to the same feast
(C-siu\ Itistery of tho C:uiou, p --'I'V The temple \vor-hip
was never a-ain interrupted till the final overthrow of
the sacred edifice under Titus \Y-pa-ian. Meanwhile
Aiitioehu.-. hasteiiin/ home to retrieve the disasters
\\hichhis arm- had sutt'ei-i-d in .India, and breathin/
veii/eance a-ahist the Jews, was arrested by the Lain!
of death at Taha'. on the confines of I'er.-ia and Mah\-

l.inia. He -uH'ered the -t excruciating tortures both

of lie ( |\- and mind, and died, iniputin/ hi- a/onies to
the visitaiioii of(lo,| for his impiety in profanin/ the
temple at Jeru-alem. " He came to his end and none
could help him." H:i \i. I". The subsequent career of
Judas, durin/ the times of Antiochus Kupator and
Demetrius, was marked by many si/nal victories over
the Svrian force-. \r/.. over Lvsias and an army of
MI. IHMI men: over Timotheus, and an armv of I'jujioii
foot and 2~iHii horse: and over Nicanor. with an army
of :>."). nun men. The Jews seem, however, to have
been exhausted liv the e ver-iiicreasin/ hordes sent
a/ainst them: for. in his last conflict. Judas had but
:',ouo men to oppose to a verv numerous and powerful
armv. and of these onlv ><'i> remained faithi'ul to their

general. Yet IK- disdained to t!,v. and tVll at last
overwhelmed by numbers.

Judas was succeeded livliis brother Jonathan, who
conducted tlic uoyernnieiit for seventeen years. 'I'he
persecution ot' tile Jews oil the death of Judas was
most bitter, and i \'eii exceeded in its virulence that
under Antiochus Kpiphanes. The adhe.rents of the
Maccabees Wei'U hllll'ed nut, and being carried to

Uaechides. the Syrian commander, were put to death
by him in the most cruel and barbarous manner, In
these circumstances Jonathan was raised to power
('liable to resist the forces of Bacchides in the field, he
retired with his brother Simon, and such as had
gathered round him. to places of strength, where he was
able to maintain himself against superior numbers,
ritimately a. jiea.ce was concluded with P>acchides. and
Jonathan had leisure to rectify the disorders of the
siate. 1 hiring the content f->r the Syrian crown between
I >emetrius and Alexander l!alas, Jonathan sided with
the latter, who. in consequence, v\heii he came to the
throne, ina.de him general "f the forces in Jndea and
liigli- priest of the Jewish nation, which latter dignity,
coiilirmed by the suffrages of the jieojde. continued in
his family till the time of Herod. The oliice had now
been vacant for seycn years from the death of Alcimus.
The family of Jozedeeh had lield the otKee from the
time of the return from the Babylonish captivity; and
it \\as transmitted by lineal descent to that Onias
whom we have mentioned above as deposed and ban-
ished by Antiochus Kpiphanes, and who was in the end
murdered at Antioch. The soji of ( )nias, and the lawful
heir to the diuiiitv. beinu' disappointed that it was not
bestowed on him on the death of his uncle, the wicked
Menelaus, fled into Egypt: and there, rising into great
favour with 1'tolemy I'hilometer and Cleopatra his
queen, he obtained jiermi>sion to erect a temjile on the
patt-rn of that iu Jerusalem, within the prefecture of
Heliopolis 'H.C. 14!M. where the Jewish worship was
celebrated from that time onwards to the destruction
of Jerusalem. Onias o'ained over the kinu by alleging
the impolicy of the En-yjitian Jews going annually to
Jerusalem to worship: and he persuaded the Jews by
an a|>peal to Is. xix. IS, 1!>, and to the well-known
reading. "City of the Sun" (He'iopolisi. instead of
"City of Destruction." On the failure, therefore, of
the family of Onias. by means uf his residence in Ku'vpt.
Jonathan, whose family was of the course of Joarib.
which is tho first class of the sons of Aaron, had the
best title to succeed. It is uncertain whether the
Asinona'ans were of the race' of Jo/edcch. After a
most brilliant career. Jonathan was treacherously mur-
dered by Tryphon. an aspirant to the Syrian crown.
Simon succeeded his brother Jonathan. In the midst
of the civil contentions which then prevailed, he was
exalted by Demetrius to be sovereign jirince as well as
high-priest of the Jews. At the same time the land
was declared free from all foreign yoke. A ne\\ era
was introduceil: and the Jews no longer reckoned by
'lie years () f the Syrian kind's, but by those of Simon
and his successors. This prince, like his predecessor,
died by the hand of a traitor. During a jirogress
through the cities of Judah. he was invited to a feast
by his son in-law .1'tolemy, in the city of Jericho.
Fearing no evil, he went thither with his sons Judas
and Mattathias. They were all three treacherously slain
at the table of their relative. The illustrious John
Hyreanus succeeded his father Simon, and conducted

the government for a period of thirty years. History
accords him the honour of being one of the greatest
princes of that au'e. After a little while he declared
himself totally independent of the Syrian crown, nor
was Judea ever again subjected to it. His power urew
in the midst of the civil dissensions which prevailed in
Syria. His sons Aristobulus and Antigonus reduced
Samaria and levelled the city with the dust, in spit-- if
a. large Syrian army that had been sent to its relief
(B.C. 1'ilM. And such was the terror of Hyrcanus'
name, that from this time to the end of his days, he
\\ a - allowed to rejiose in quiet from all foreign wars.
He was succeeded by Aristobiilus his son. who first
since the captivity put on the diadem, and assumed
the title of king. His name is. however, stained with
the blood of his relatives. He reigned but one year,
and was succeeded by his brother Alexander Jairmeus,
who. after a long but inglorious rei^'n. was in turn sr.c-

; ceeded bv his widow Alexandra. His sons llvrcanus

and Aristobulus contended for the supremacy on the
death of their mother. The Roman general Rompev.
on appeal being made to him. decided in favour of
Hyreanus, but at the same time made Judea tributary
to Rome (B.C. (3:5). At a later period. Antipater. an
iduimean, was made governor-general of the country
under Hyreanus, by authority of Julius Ga'sar iH.c. 4V.
Herod and I'hasael, sons of Antijiater. had the same
honour conferred on them by Antony. .Meantime.
; Antigonus. son of Aristobulus, attempting to possess
i himself of Judea, was defeated by Herod. J'ut the
i'arthians. esj>ousing the cause of Antigonus. invaded
the land with a great army, and having taken Jeru-
salem, and made Hyreanus captive, jilaced Antigonus
on the throne. Herod, however, by the helji of the
Romans, and after a long struggle, ultimately recovered
his government. The Romans had constituted him
king of Judea, and for a jieriod of thirty-four year.- he
reigned with equal ability and cruelty. Antigomis,
besieged in Jerusalem by the united forces of Herod
and the Romans, was compelled, after a .-tout resist-
ance, to surrender. He was carried before Antony.
1 \\lio designed to reserve him for his triumph. J'ut the
cruel and susjiioious Herod L:'avc the Roman general
no rest till authority was granted to put Antigonus to
death. He died by the hands of the common execu-
tioner H.C. :>7 : and with him ended the illustrious line
of Asmoiuean prinees, who. for I'J'.i years, had govermd
Judea with equal honour to themselves and benefit to
the jtublic interests. It remains only to notice the
fearful and bloody tragedy which ended in the entire
extinction of the house. Herod, never thinking him-
self safe, as long as anv of them remained, murdered
in succession Hyreanus: Aristobulus. the son of Hyr-
eanus, and Alexandra his wife; Mariamne. the daughter
of Alexandra, and the beautiful and beloved wife of the
tvrant himself, with two sons which he had by her. viz.
Alexander and Aristobulus.

[Jalm's Hcbmc Conimnmcealtli ; Prideaux's Coiinftioiis: .Tose-
nluis, Jui-iflt Aiit'iijii'ittit; first and second Maccabees; \vithilie
heathen historians of the period. Stuckhouse's Hid. <>ftl,e JHWr
contains ;m excellent summary of Prideaux (Rlackie and Son's
illustrated and annotated edition, (ilasgow: ls;,7).| \R.v.\
MACEDO'NIA. An imjiortant kingdom of ancient
Greece, and subsequently a Roman province. At the
accession of Alexander III., commonly called Alex-
ander the Great, the kingdom was bounded on the
north by Meesia and Illvrieiun, on the south by Thessaly
and Epirus. and on the east and west respectively by

MACEDONIA 107 MACHPKLAM

Thrace and the Egean Sea ami by Epirus and tin.- and imprisoned: luit at midni_ht the place \\as shaken

Adriatic. The country may lie dcscriVd as an iindii- by an earthquake, the jailer converted to L'hristiauity;

latino plain, into which run the spurs of several riders and on the morrow Paul and Silas were released, and

of mountains, and surrounded en three sides by the \veiit on their way. I'aul. after much persecution,

mountains themselves. Among the most distinguished \vent to Athens and Corinth: hut Silas and Timethv

of these are Athos and Olympus. Macedonia is well remained in Macedonia, and \\v hear of tlieii 1 return

watered hy the rivers Strymon. Axius. and .Haliacmoii, while I'aul \\a- at the last-named city. Ac. xviii. 5. ]|o\\

Besides several smaller streams. Its ancient i-apital th'- churches planted hy Paul and his companions

was I'ella, the hirth-p'ace of Alexander, and other im- Hourishi d we learn from many passages in the epistles:

portant cities were Philippi, The.-salonica. Amphipoiis. ho\\ liberal they were is plain from St. Paul's olcr-

Apollonia, and Peiva. The Mill i-. fertile, and th. vation,- to the Konuns, liu. xv. _'<;, and the Corinthians,

climate healthy and temper.it-. though consider! d 2CV. \i. !', as \\ell as tVem his letter- to the Philippinns

more sevei-e than thai of the more southerly parts of and the Thcssulonians, tTh.i.r,*. '1'he Macedonian

(recce. The. ancient Macedonians; weiv a hardv and Christians are commended on all grounds, and held up

warlike people: and tin ir military system \\a- con- as an example toother churclies. The apo.-tle visited

sidered very perfect, especially after the introduction Macedonia again during hi- thiid missionary journey

of the c. 1. In-.ited /ili'il'iii ' a bod v of able warriors, so in the year /i 7: and rem.-.iiied there from tin summer

arnieil and .-o ai-r.iir.M-d as to he then looked on as all to the autumn of that year, at \\hiehpiriod he \\ rote

but irresistible. Compai-ed witii the nation-, south of th.- second epi-tle to the ( 'orinthians. In the winter

Thessaly. the Macedonians were a rude and uncultivated he ajain left for Corinth. < Mice more in the year tio

people. 'I'he civili/.ation of Athens reached tliein hut he prohahly vi-itcd the country alter his n turn from

slowly, ami they never, even under Alexander, attained his tir.-t journey t" koine; and auain. forthi la-t time,

to an ecjiialitv u uh tin- more favoured part- of ( ireece. in t he .-umm. r of the v ear 07, during \\ Inch la-t visit lie

I'mler the Koinan ".-"Vermm-nt Maeecloiiia was at wrote the first epistle to Timothy. The summer of the

lir-t di\ided into f.,ur districts, named iv-perti\vlv following year \\ itiies.-ed the cxeciition of St. Paid at

Macedonia Prima, Secunda, Tertia. and Quarta. This Koine, and th.- d> atli of VTO his persecutor. (Sit

di\isi.m \\as made hy Paulns . laniiiu-. alt. r th.- Kittle AMI'HII'nl.Is, Al'uI.l.nMA, Pi i;i:\. PliM.IIM'l. Tm>.-.\

of Pydna: and he assigned Amphipolis as the capital LiiXH'A. &c.) [ll.f s|

of the tir-t district, uhidi emhraced the whole country MACHPAXA I [probably <-l,,<tk-<-I,,tlud, Ces.], one

east i if the Strymon: Th alonica as that of the second, of the Oadit.- \\lio att.-ieln-d them-e!\ , s t,, Da\id in

which included all between the Sirvmoi! and the the \\ilderness, \\lio.-i- faces were like lions, and their

Axius: Pel la a- that of the third, \\hich, extendin." from f. et s\\ ift a- r. s, i < t.

the .\\ius In the Pencils, comprehended a collider- MACHBE'NAH ['/<</,-, Ces.]. the name of a place,
ahle part of alieii u! Tln-->alv: and IM-i.:- : .. ralU understood, in the south of .ludali

fourth and lai'uest di\ision. which embraced all the although, in ilie only place \\ln-n- it is mentioned,

remaining portion of the country. Thi.- division did I Ch. ii. i: 1 , it appear- to il, n.4. th.- son of .>he\a. and

not, how.-ver, la-t loiii;-. The \\ hole of Maced.-nia. grandson of C'al-h. hy his concuhine Ma.'K'hali. Put the

with Thessaly, J-ljiinis. and Thrace, l.ee:nne suhse- other names in the .-anie connection an- imdoiihtedK

imeiitly one jirovince. The--alonica c.iiitiuuecl to l,e name- of places, and hy Sheva heinu the father of

the capital: hut the importance i,f Amphiiiolis \\.- ( < Maehhi nah. we are in all prohahility to understand

gradually transferred to I'hilippi. that the place was hnilt and ]nopled h\ him and his

Macedonia is deeply interesting to the ( hri-tian ofl'-priii'. 1 -. Put we have no information respecting 1 the

student. Passing over its early history, which forms site ,,f Machht-nah.

one of the most n-markahle chapters in the annals ( .f MA'CHIK [.-<,/</]. 1. The eldest son of Manasseh

the world, we shall consider it solely as it apjiears to and Maaehah. (ic. 1. L'O; 1 C'li. vii. 14; \\ho-e childn-n. it is

us in the records of the New Testament scripture. The, said, were hrouuht up on the knees of Joseph. 11.

country is referred to under the general name of ( ireece was the father of ( iih-ad. and one half of his deseend-

in the prophecies of the Old Testament: hut the name ants, who were ln.th numerous ami valiant. Jus. xiii ::i.

lirst occurs in the Acts of the Apostles, Ac. xvi.u. St. The other half had their inheritance on th,- \\est of

Paul was at Troas in the year ;V_', in the course of his Jordan, within the houndaries of ( 'anaau proper. The

second missionary journey, and intended to ._j-n and onlv other cliild of Maehir. of whom mention is made,

carry the v,'"s]H-I into Pythinia: hut was, as he states. ! is a daughter, Ahiah. who married into a family of

"not sufi'ered" hy the Spirit to do so. In this per- , Judah, l cii. ii. 21, aa. In the war \\ith J.-ihin, the

]ilexity, and douhtin-- what he shoidd. do. hi- saw in a descendants of Maehir distinguished themselves, and

vision a man of Macedonia, who entreated him to <j;n \vcivcelchrated in the soni;- of Dehorah. Ju. v. 11. Ap-

over and help them. Regarding this vision as a divine jiarentlv. however, it is only the western section of

instruction, the apostle oheyed, visited in succession , them that is meant, as they are named in connection

Philippi, Thessalonica, Perea. Amphipoiis. Apollonia. with trihe- to the west of Jordan, while Cilcad is

and other cities, preaching the word wherever he I rehuked for remaining at ease during the struggle, vor. ir.
went, and estahlishing many churches- one. at least, ! 2. M.UIUH. A son of Ammiel. of Lo-])ehar. a

of which remains to this dav. At Philippi Paul and ; descendant of the preceding, who is honourahlv men

Silas resisted the superstitions of the time: and having ! tinned for the kindness he showed to Mephihosheth,

silenced a "damsel who had a spirit of divination," | tin- lame son of Jonathan; and, at a later period, for

her masters, enraged at the pecuniary loss which they ! the timely supplies he furnished to David when he tied

suffered hy this miracle, gave up the apostle and his from the face of Absalom, a Sa. ix. i; x\ii -i-.
companion to the authorities on the vague charge of j MACHPE'LAH. In the- original it has the article

"exceedingly troubling the city." They were scourged i Jiti-ii><n-/,/,< I ah: hut why it should have this, or what
VOL. II. 144

was the import of the word, is unknown. It comes into
notice simply as the tract that contained the field with
the cave which became the burying-gronnd of Abraham
and his family. The cave itself is first called "the
cave of Machpelah." and is described as being in the
end of Ephron's field, (Jo. xxiii. <>. ]!ut in the fuller de-
scription, which is Lfiven at the completion of the pur-
chase, the language runs thus, " the field of Ephron,
which was in .Machpelah, which was before Mamre:
the field and the cave which was therein," vor. 17. So
that, apparently, Machpelah was the larger designation,
which included the field with its cave; and not Mach-
pelah as a whole, but merely the portion of it which
comprised the field of Kphron, became the property of
Abraham. That it lay near to Hebron there can be
no doubt, and the building which has so long stood over
the reputed cave is generally understood to have pre-
served the true tradition. For a representation of it,
and an account of the contents of the cave, see under
HEBRON.

MAD'AI, the Hebrew term for Mcd/.'x. first occurring
as the designation of the third offspring of Japheth.
Go. x. 2, but whether to be taken for the name of the
third son, or, in an ethnical sense, for the people sprung
from him, is a matter of dispute among commentators.
The latter seems the more probable opinion, as many
of the names in the genealogical table in Ge. x. are
those of nations, rather than of individuals. See further
under MKDKS.

MADIAN, an occasional varia-
tion of the more common name
Midian, Ju. ii. 'in-, Ac. vii. 2i.

MADMAN 'N AH \duncihill]. a
city in the south of Judah, the
twenty -fifth in the list given in
Jos. xv. In another list, which
contains the cities assigned to the
tribe of Simeon out of the inherit-
ance of Judah. Beth-marcaboth ap-
pears to occupy the same place that
Madniannali did in the former list,
comp. ch. xix. 5 with ch. xv. ,'!i; and it has
hence, with apparent justice, been -^aaiiiSj3iii^-
inferred that these were but two
names for the same place. The iiSfiSslPti

latter of the two Ik'th-marcaboth
(house of chariots, or place for
vehicles) may have been applied
to it 011 account of its being a
suitable place for these resting at on
the public road. Similar designations are, Sansannali
(inclosure of horses), and Hazar- Siisain (village of
horses). According to Eusebius and Jerome, the place
was known in their day under the name MT/J'OH?. and
was a hamlet not far from Gaza : and there to this
day is a station, called Mini/iii/. on the regular route
from Egypt to Western Palestine, about fifteen miles
S.S.W. from Gaza -the very route which was taken
by the Ethiopian eunuch when travelling in h/s chariot
from Jerusalem toward Egypt, Ac. viii. 20-28. This,
accordingly, is the site adopted for the ancient Mad-
mannah by Mr. Wilton (Ncgeli, p. 210), also by Robinson
in his Later Researches (vol. i. p. 002).

MAD'MEiST, a variation of the preceding, but applied
to a quite different place a town in the country of
Moab, and only mentioned in Je. xlviii. 2, in connec-
tion with the desolation to be caused by the threatened

s MAGDALA

invasion of the country: but its locality is entirely
unknown.

MADME'NAH, another variation of the word, and
the name of a city in the tribe of Benjamin, which is
represented by Isaiah, ch. x. :;i, as fleeing before the
approach of Sennacherib's army. This is the only
notice we have of it, and no trace has been found of it
by modern research.

MA'DON {contention, xtrif<], a city apparently of
some importance in Canaan at the time of the conquest,
since it had a king of its own. Jobab, who joined Jabin.
king of Hazor, in the league he formed to defeat the
plans of Joshua. Jos. xi. i. It is no more heard of in
sacred history; and though an attempt has lately been
made (by Rabbi Schwartz) to identify it with Kcfr
Menda, in the plain of el-Iiiittauf, there have as yet
been produced no probable grounds in support of it.

MAGDA'LA. According to the received text, sup-
ported by a good many MSS. (E, E, G, II, K. L, S, U,
V, X, A), this is the name of a town or region to which
our Lord and his disciples came after the second miracle
of the loaves and fishes, Mat. xv. 39. In the correspond-
ing passage in Mark's Gospel, Dalmanutha is substi-
tuted for it. ch. viii. in. And what increases the per-
plexity, three of the older MSS. (B K D), with several
of the ancient versions and fathers, read Magadan,
instead of Magdala in Matthew, which is adopted by
Tischendorf as the more correct text. No remains,

however, literary or monumental, have been found to
throw light on this Magadan. Whatever may be the
correct reading in the passage referred to, that there
Avas a Magdala within the range of our Lord's ministra-
tions, may confidently be inferred from the epithet
o-iveii to one of the Marys the Magdalene. The name
is most probably a later form of the Heb. 31ir/dol, or
tower, which several places bore as a proper name; and
the modem representative of the Magdala. to which
Mary belonged, and from which our Lord and his
apostles could not have been far distant on the occasion
mentioned above, is generally supposed to be the
poor village of d-Mejdel, on the border of the Lake of
Galilee, a little more than an hour's ride north of
Tiberias. It has a miserable appearance, and there are
no ancient ruins; but it is in the immediate neighbour-
hood of a beautiful plain, and a mountain that rises

MAGI

nut lo.-.s than three or four hundred feet high ^Kobh.s'iii,
lies. vol. iii. p. -j?S). "The sitration." says Stanley ti>. ss;),
' otherwise unmarked, is dignified by the high lime-
stone, rock which overhangs it on the- south- west, per-
forated with eaves, recalling', l>v a curious though
doubtless unintentional coincidence, the scene of (A>r-
rc^io's celebrated picture."

MAGI, M A( J 1 A N S. .M A ( i H ' I A N S. These terms
arc translations of the die. k //.a- ; oi, which is sometimes
rendered in our version by the last here uiven, and in
one instance bv the more general a])|iellation "wise
men. Apart from Scripture thev are more usually
known bv the titles main and magiaii. Thev wen-
supposed to be adepts in that secret learning which in
the more reinott; antiquity had its seat in lv_ypt, and
at a later period in < 'haldea. The Hebrew term corre-
sponding to it, ir-mrr i-hurtuniwiiit . thoii-h of doubt-
ful otymolugv. is imder-tood to liave been much the
same as ,<m-ri<l .//'/,,., (ifpoypa/j./J.a.Te?5), a class, ,f prie>t.-
skilled in the knowledge and interpretation of writings
that were accounted sacred, and in divining, through
any sort of simis and ]ii-oi lilies, the w ill <>f Heaven. They
are mentioned aloirj; with others, who probably, in ordi-
narv circumstance-, had to do \\ it h si parate departments

of the reputed 1, al'l ! i II U' .'1 1 1 d .-kill of the a^V, I Jilt in times

of emerge] ii 'V appeal' t > have been III Hell identified \\ itli

these. Sllcll Wel'e tile C'^^ 'linkvillllll'l, tile Wise IneH

bv \\av i >(' eminence; the ~'~TI"2 OIK k<t.*'ki/>/itnt\ nnri'n'-
f>'i<. as they are called in our \er-ion. or. as it should
perliajis rather be. (m'lt<lnti rt but tlie preei-e shade of
meaning is doubtful : the CTrtf > ".-/< '/;//<///( \. very com-
monly rendered <<x/;'nA/'/i /.-. sometimes also r/inn/n >v. To
both of these last term-, as \\ell a- to the iirst (i-hartiim-
inn//;, the term /.la'/ot, I, at. /;"/<, is indiscriminatelv
applied bv the ancient.-. It i- ori-'mailv a P'lsian or
.Meilian woi'd (nuv/li or ///'//". but latterlv naturalized
among the Greeks and Romans. It occurs once also
in the Hebrew Scriptures. In .Ic. \.\\i\. '>. we liavi
Rah-iiUty \''2"^) as a proper name, but cap.ible of 1 ini:
rendered rh!ef-iiia<jns, the h, ad and repre-eiitati\ c of
his class. "They are called ma^i," savs I'orphvrv
i Do Aiistin. iv. o. i<;i. ''amonu' the Persians, who uie uise
in respect to divine things, ami attend on them."
.More specifically, llcsychius says, "The devout, the
theologue or divine), and priest is called by the Per-
sians Hiatus;" and more fullv still the scholia.-t on
Da. iv. 7 quoted by Schlcusner at /xa-,os'. "Thev call
those maid who wait upon the tire vi/.. the sacred tire
which was worshipped!, and perform ablutions, and prac-
tise, as they reckon. wise observation of the stars."
According to Herodotus the magi were :i tribe of the
Modes, .who professed to interpret dreams, and had the
official charge of sacred rites ti. i"i, 1117, i _>,,, i::j> ; they were,
in short, the learned and priestly class, and havini:', as was
supposed, the >kill of deriving f ri)1 n books and the ob-
servation of the stars a supernatural insight into coming
events, they came to be possessed of ^Tcat influence,
and never failed to be consulted on all ureat occasions.
Whether there was a native class amoiiLT the .Babylo-
nians who practised the same learning and arts, or the
Median tribe became naturalized also there, there can
be no doubt that a class bearing the name of magi, and
holding much the same position as among the Persians,
existed in Babylon. Nay, so much did they appear to
be at home there, that the word C'haldeaii came to be
nearly synonymous with magus among the Greeks and

Romans, and reference is also made in Scripture to the
Ljix-at account that was made among the Babylonians
of that kind of mystic lore and assumed supernatural
skill, for which the magi were renowned. Is. xlvii. !>, U;
[j.i. ii _', ic. Indeed, later investigations tend rather to
make Babylon than .Media and i'ersia the centre of full
blown inagianisin. " Originally, the Median priests
\\ere not called magi, but were characterized by the
names which are found in the Zend avesta. Atharva.
and such like. From the Chaldeans, however, they re-
cei\ eil the name of magi for their priestlv caste, and it is
tliu- We are to explain what Herodotus says of tile magi
b, in-' a Meilian tribe: .-,. early as his day the priests of
Media were di situated ma_i. The same \\ as the case
\\ith the I'er-ians. They also originally (i.e. before
their acceptance of the /.end religion did not call their
priests maui. el.-e the earlv opposition among tin in to-
u.,nl the Medes Would Hot have taken the form of one
against the m.iu;i i-i C. Mullcr in Ht-rzog's Encl. with thcau-

But \\liether ('haldea or Media may have originated
tl name, and ni\eii the inu.-t distinct form to the ma-
gian system, it is certain, that about the period \\lnii
th'- Med.i- I 1 , r-iali empire rises into view, the liiaui as
a bo,|v had a higher place there than thev had even in
Babylon, or perhaps in any other region. 'I'he follow-
inu' account of Heereii I'lThians, ch. ii.) may still be
taken as eorri it. " Tin- ma_ia;:.- and u i.-e nun formed
tiie most dixnitieil portion of the court: they surround' d
the kind's person, and \\eiv indispensable to him as
soothsayei's and di'.in.r-. Next t" the wives and
eunuch- of tip- nionaich. thev had nearest access to his
person. It uas a principal part of the education of
the monarch t" be instructed in the loie of the magi
(Cic. dv Divinaliunc, i. !), a pri\iieee communicated to very
few personages besides, and th"s<- highly favoured.
This doctrine of the magi, mixed up witli the hendi-
tarv opinion- ot the IVr.-ians. was designated the lau
of the .Med< .- and Persians, and embraced a knowledge
of all the -a.cri d custom-, precepts, and usages which
concerned, not only the \\or.-hip of the di ity. but the
uh"le ]iri\ate life of every worshipper of ( irmn/.d.

it appears p

from a comparison oi several pas
hahle that they compo-ed the council of the king's
judges, of which mention is made a- ear!\ as I he time
of ('ambvses 1 1-;- i. i:; ; Hurud. iii. .M; vii. l;a, \c. >"' Norduis
it appear to have been materially otherwise \\ith the
magians in the comparatively late Parthian dynasty,
which from HA'. '2~i<'> began to gain the ascendency in
Western Asia, (ireat as the (ireek influence had been
throughout the East since the' time of Alexander the
<!reat, it had not in the least changed the relation of
the magian party to the reigning power, or diminished
its importance. Of the two councils, by which every-
thing was ruled in the Parthian kingdom, one was com-
posed of the ma'4'ians, among whom the king himself
was enrolled the other of the princes and nobles (Tosi-
ilunius, as ciU'itud by Struli", xi. l>. M:.; I'lin. xxi. 11; xx.x. 1). The
magi also continued to be the priests and prophets of
the nation, as well as the advisers of the king (I'liu.
xxxvii. '.i; Miu-ruli. iv.) But, at the same time, the charac-
ter of the old Zend religion, the religion of light ami
fire, fell more and more into the background, and the
idolatrous worship of Greece and Western Asia made
1 wav. As a natural consequence the vaticinatory, astro-
logical, and magic elements (in the ordinary sense of
the term) which from tho first liad a certain place

MAGI

1(1

in magianisni, became more fully developed, and,
on the Around of assumed converse with the gods,
and sti[>ei'ioi- insight into the hidden agencies of na-
ture, the character and influence of the party increas-
ingly degenerated into those of the enchanter and
the wizard. In Kgvpt and Babylon wonder-workers
of this description had existed from an early period,
and in the service of the prevailing idolatry. In Kgypt
this was less evident. 'There the priestly caste was a
distinct guild or fraternity, and had its recognized con-
nection with the state alike in its civil and in its reli-
gious capacity; but in Persia, so long as the purer and
more ancient form of religion prevailed, the niagian
priesthood were kept up to a moral and intellectual
elevation, inconsistent with the arts of imposture so com-
mon at a later period. Polytheism however continued
to exert its demoralizing influence, and by the Christian
era the term magus had become synonymous with
thaumaturgist or enchanter. These made imposture
their *tudy; they pandered to the superstitious desire
common to all mankind to pierce the veil of the future;
they dealt in sybilline oracles, astrological calculations,
in the interpretation of dreams and omens, and claimed
to some extent the power of determining, as well as
forecasting, the events of the future; they pretended, by
the application of certain drugs, the repetition of some
cabalistic formulas, or the exercise of a mysterious control
over the effective powers and hidden agencies of things,
to have the coming fortunes of men in a measure in
their hands. How persons of this description swarmed
at Iionie about the gospel age, the many sarcastic
allusions in the Latin satirists (Hor. Sat. i. _';O<1. i. 11; Juv.
iii. 0; x.'.):;), and the decrees again and again passed by
the senate denouncing them as pests and commanding
them to be driven away, too clearly evince; and the
names commonly applied to them of Chaldeans, magi-
cians, astronomers, dealers in Babylonian numbers,
and such like, leave no doubt as to the quarter whence
the city was chiefly replenished with them. Tacitus
very characteristically describes them as a race, which
in a state like Rome would always be shunned, yet
always retained (et vitabitur semper et retinebitur) .
That they abounded also in the other parts of the empire,
and especially in the regions where the gospel spread,
appears from the notices contained in New Testament
Scripture. In the very first advance made by the
heralds of the gospel in an outward direction, they
encountered a noted character of this description
Simon, who for a time had his head-quarters in the
chief city of Samaria, and by his magical arts aston-
ished and captivated the whole country. They even
called him, on account of his skill in thaumaturgy,
" the great power of God." At Ephesus, which was
one of the strongholds of idola.try in Asia Minor, with
somewhat of an eastern tinge in its worship, the apostle
Paul found also a centre of magical operations, carried
on to such an extent, that the books containing the
verses, forms of incantation, devices of all sorts used
in the traffic, when sacrificed at the .shrine of the gospel,
were computed to be worth 50,000 pieces of silver.
The Jews themselves caught the infection, notwith-
standing the stringent prohibitions in the law against
all forms of magic and sorcery. Beside the sons of Sceva
and others mentioned in connection with the work at
Ephesus who were evidently dealers in magic, Ac. xix.
I:J-IG, we have the case of Bar-Jesus in Cyprus, other-
wise Elymas the magus, who by his skill in this way

to the cause of truth drew down on himself the severe
rebuke of the apostle and the immediate judgment of
heaven, Ac. xiii. o-n. These are specimens of that adap-
tation of imposture to the credulity and superstition of
the age, against which the first preachers of Christianity
had to contend.

It is quite conceivable, however, that in the proper
regions of magianism, there may still have been members
of the party who stood comparatively free from the
deteriorating influences to which it was exposed, and
who, as occasionally happens among the corrupt priest-
hoods of modern times, discovered an affinity to the
better rather than the worse elements of the system with
which they were associated. In the quiet study of their
ancient books they might readily attain to sounder
views of the divine government over the world, and a
higher regard to the true and good among men, than
was consistent with their taking part in the arts and
wiles of the vulgar tribe of magicians. And if to a
thoughtful use of such materials of instruction as were
more properly their own, some of them should add (as is
every way probable) a measure of acquaintance with
those still better treasures of wisdom, which the exiled
Jews carried with them through all the regions of the
East, it would not be difficult to understand how there
may have been found among the magi persons vastly
superior to the low traffickers in soothsaying and sorcery
who really searched after divine knowledge, and were
disposed to hail indications of light from whatever
quarter they might come. Such, certainly, were the
magi who at the commencement of the gospel era.
startled Jerusalem with their appearance, Mat. ii. i
" wise men from the East," as they are not inaptly, if
with scarcely critical exactness, designated in our version
-men, no doubt, prepared by a special providence for
the momentous era that had arrived in the world's his-
tory, and informed and guided by a wisdom higher than
human, yet not the less, we may be sure, fitted by their
own previous knowledge and training for the service
they were, through the Spirit, called to perform in
coming, as the representatives of heathendom, to do
homage to the new-born king of Zion. Their very ap-
pearance at such a time and for such a purpose was a
proof that the Gentile world, in certain of its more
favoured localities, had a measure of preparation for the
coming of Christ. And if in being led in their singular
course by the sign of a star, there should seem to smack
something of their astrological art, even Wetstein was
read}'- to admit, that though "the rules of that art were
undoubtedly futile, vain, and fallacious, yet they might
sometimes hit upon the truth." As the Lord can make
even the wrath of man to praise him, so he knows how
to turn their falsely reputed wisdom or science to the
interest of his kingdom, and so as in reality to con-
found and antiquate itself. He did so in earlier times,
when the half-superstitious, half-enlightened minds of
the Philistines were guided to right conclusions respect-
ing the ark of God and the chastisement it was the
occasion of inflicting on their country, i Sa. vi. i-ic. And
it need not, therefore, surprise us, if now at a crisis
immensely greater, he should have done so, whether it
might be by the appearance of some meteoric phenome-
non adapted for the occasion, or (as some have supposed)
by a peculiar conjunction of planets, which it has been
calculated took place at no great distance of time from

MAC I

141

MAC!

the era in question. The narrative is given in the second not to return to Htroil, and went back to their own
chapter of St. Matthew's ( Jospel. It is very simple, and country by a different route, Mat. H. iu.
merelv relates that they were guided liy a star: we do 'I'he time occupied in their jouniev to Pethlehem
not learn what tile appearance of tile star wa<. or how has Keen imagined by many to have lieen two years,
they came to the conclu-ioii that it was intended to because Herod caused all the children in Pcthlclu in
lead them to the birth place of th.e Messiah, nor is any and the coasts thereof to he put to death, fru/n tt<;> i/mr,*
information given as to the rank which they held IT the <il<l <unl undi r. according to the time sliowed him lv tin-
occupation which they followed in their own country, magi, Mat. ii. 10. JUit this is a very fallacious inference.
nor indeed as to what tliat country was, save only tliat it No countrv from which the magi can bo supposed to
was in the Ka.-t (cnrb dfaroXcDf). They, speaking of the come lie- at so great a distance from .lerusalein as to
new-born king, said they had r-een his star in the East - require two years for a jouniev thither the furthest
probably inferring:' it to lie his by connecting- it with the district- of IVrsia would necessitate less than as many
ancient prediction of one of their own numberr< sped ing months - and the \\ holesaleand indiscriminate slaughter
a star destined to arise out of Jacob i Hal a am. N'n. \\iv.i; i, commanded by Hi rod was douhtlos- made to extend so
coiij tied with the general expectation, \\hieh is known far in order to make sure of its aim Herod naturally
to have prevai!>-'l far and uid.- about th< time, that -uppo-ing that the chili! ini^ht have been l)orn either
the head of a universal empire was to arise in Judea a little before or a little after the star's appearing.
(Tac. Ann v. 13; Scut. Vestas c. 41. ! 'artiiia Ilia V p. rha]is be The number of the magi ha- been the Mlbjcct of

iianied as tlie specific region from which, witli tile greatest much conjecture: three has bet it di i. rmiiied b\ tradi-
degn-e ot probability, t lie magi niav be supposed to ha\ r ti"ii. and name- g-i v.-n to them in I lei > re w. ( 'reek, and
come -both because smile where in that iv-gi"n \\a-the Latin: the Poman ehurcli lias decided on ( laspar, -Mel-
ai i' -it-lit scat of the religion with whicli mag-iani.-m was cliior. and 1'althasar. has pronounced them to have been
originally associated, and heeau-e the gro.-.-ei- form- of kinu-. eaiioni/.cd tin m. and established their .-brine at
superstition and. idolatry which prevailed in \\e-tern I'ologne, where it is atfirnn d their relics are still to be
A-ia had -till ir.t pelietrate<l so d- '-plv into the cuun- found. Among the manv curious fanc-ies about these
tries occupied of old by the M'-de-alld PiT-rins. l',!;t " wise lllell," one was that thi'V Wi-re representatives
t!i pr -else locality, a> it cannot be certainly known, so of the thr> e parts of the world then known - Kurope,
it is of no great moment: somewhere it must have been Asia, and Africa, and that one of them \\a< a negro.
in the eastern part- of (.'haldea. or in the higher dis- The paint. T- of the tifteenth and si.\tc ( ntli centuries
tricts beyond. That they were persons of distinction is were sensible of the pictorial eiH-.-t which thi- legend
probable fi-i.m the nianii'-r in v. Inch tin v \'. i re received t nabl-d them to pi-nduce. and the\- favoured it accord -
and entertained at Jerusalem by Herod, a- well as in-ly. Tin- life, character, and po-ition of the magi
from the value of tln-ir piv-tnt<: though even this is before tlieir visit to i '.eihleln m and after their return
by no means certain, tor the nature of their inquiries to their eastern home are wrapped ill obscurity,
at Jerusalem must have been too deeply interesting to The notion that the maL:i were kings seem- chiellv
Herod to allow him to pass them osvr without attention to rest upon a passage in the book of I'salms "The
and inquiries on his own part, and it does not appear kin ,'s of T.ii-.-hi>h and of tin- isles shall bring presents,
that the Virgin and her Inr-baiid \\ . r. at all rai-ed from the kinv- of S!n-ba and Saba .-hall oiler gift.-," I's. Ixxii. Id,
their lowly condition by the lireselits of the magi. The and some media-val <li\iin- -peak of their r.iyaltvas
starseemseitherto have <lisappeared or to have remained ]'crfectlv certain and known t<> all the learned in pro-
stationary \\liile they \\eivat .1 . T: i -; ' 1 ei 1 1 . and to have fane history. To us, In. \\e\vr. that historv is silent.
resumed its guidance when tliey left that city, and then and the passage in I'salm- i- far too general to he
to have conducted them to lletlilehem. where it stood i-apable of a spec! lie a]. plication here,
still ami finally vanished. The circumstance- of tin- An tonal nneertaintv n -t- on the religion ami phi-
case enable us to decide that the a]. pearaiice in tin- air l">.,phv "f tin- maui. Probabilities \\oiild point to
\\hich led tin- magi to Pethlehem was not jn-operlv I 'er.-da as their country, to fire-worship as their religion,
speaking a star, the distance of the hea\enly lit.dii s from to the prie-tln>od as their station, and to /r. roaster as
our globe making it impossible that one of these should ' the founder of their creed and philosophy. There is
serve as guide, and we pass over without comment the ! no iva-mi to suppo-e that thev embraced Judaism as
absurd legends related on the subject by the writers of the iv-nlt of their vi-it to Pethlehem: and tin- legend
ecclesiastical romance such a^ that of the ancient apo that tln-v \\eiv afterwards converted to ( 'hristianity by
cry]>hal bo.,ks which bear tin- nann- of Seth. and which ! the preaching- of Thomas rests on no other foundation
say that it appeared as a circle of light, having a young- than that St. Thoma* is In Hi nil to have carried the

chiltl in its centre and a cross over it, and that the
child spoke to the magi and directed them where to go.

ispel into their countrv.
In tin- catheihal of (.'olognc, the tomb, as it is called,

It must have been a meteoric phenomenon, at a of the three kings stands as a gorgeous monument, ami
sufficient elevation in the atmosphere to be taken bv witness of tin- ignorant ami presumptuous devotion
the uneducated eye for a star, and m>t too high to : which has been canoni/.ed bv Pome: for that the bones
serve as a guide: its motion must have been slow, so as of men. who only Hashed for a moment on the theatre
to suit the rate of travelling common at that day (and i of go.-pel history and then disappeared into a far conn-
indeed at the- present! in the Kast, from three to four J trv. should have been preserved apart, and preserved
miles an hour, and its appearance not sufficiently eon- a> tin- remains of three eastern kings, is against all

spieuous to attract the attention save of those specially
informed as to its object. We need be under no dif-

ivason. and the tradition which affirms it can only b
eharactcri/A-d as a shameful experiment upon human

ficulty as to the mode in which the magi were thus in- ; credulity. The magi in their pahni< r davs were the
formed, for we find that after they had fulfilled their learned priests, advisers, and counsellors of kings, but
original intention they were warned of (!od in a dream not themselves king's; thui: position and calling virtually

excluded them from the regal olKcx; and in tlic gospel
age the hearing they once incidentally had on the
affairs of state had well-nigh ceased. Even the number
three is arbitrarily fixed, and probably had no better
ground to go upon than the threefold present of gold,
frankincense, and mvrrh, which they laid at the- feet of
Jesus as, if each must have brought a separate gift !
.It may have been so, bnt the text is silent upon the
subject: and there were other traditions which differed
in this respect, one in particular which the Eastern
church c.xtensivelv adopted, and which made the num-
ber twelve. Here, however, it were out of place to go
into details, which belong rather to ecclesiastical his-
torv than to scriptural interpretation. Those who
wish to pursue this branch of the subject may find a
full account of all the medieval fables respecting the
magi, with a satisfactory vindication of the common
view, in Spanheim's llu.bia Ecan'jd'ta. [H. c s.J

MAGIC. A term used to denote the art or science
of working wonders beyond the ordinary powers of
man. It is derived from the Greek fJidyos, a mayiaii
one of the //<,</'> :in ^ modern oriental scholars derive
this from mcjh or Moy/i -which in the I'chlevi language
signifies a priest. Thy iiia'ji appear to have been a
sacerdotal body especially addicted to the study of na-
tural philosophy, and are more usually known by the
title " wise men," or '' wise men of the East.' Zoroaster
is said to have reformed or consolidated their doctrines,
and the sect remains in existence to this day. The
I'arsees of Bombay are the successors to the system
held by the Guebres, and these continued the traditions
of Zoroaster till they were destroyed by the Mahom-
medan invaders of Persia. (>'ec MAGI.)

In very early times the magi, properly so called,
became confounded with all natural philosophers, and
especially with those who had, or pretended to have, the
power of overruling the ordinary course of nature, or in
other words of working miracles. Hence the meaning
of the term magic given above; and the derivative term
magician was employed to signify a wise man a sooth-
sayer an interpreter of dreams an astrologer or a
necromancer.

Magic may be divided into two classes natural or
scientific, and supernatural or spiritual the one attri-
buted its wonders to a deep practical acquaintance with
the powers of nature the other to celestial or infernal
agency. But both systems seem to have taken their
origin in traditional accounts of early miracles in at-
tempts to investigate how such miracles were per-
formed, and whether it were possible or not to imitate
them. It is clear that the conclusion to which such
inquirers came would depend mainly on the amount of
belief they had in the religion of which these traditions
formed a part some would reject both the religion and
the legend- some would accept the legend as a fact but
hesitate as to the religion among these the more en-
lightened would attribute the wonder to the agency of-
science, while others would implicitly accept the fact, or
presumed fact, and ascribe it to the energy of gods
or demons. Thus would early arise two distinct sys-
tems of magic, and such it is evident are set forth in
the pages of holy writ.

Before examining the accounts given of magic and
magicians in Scripture, it will be necessary to state
what the theory of scientific magic was, or we shall
be met on the threshold of our investigation by the
assertion on the part of the sceptic, that the matter

is one not worth inquiring into, lint is merely an absurd
and ridiculous superstition, now happily obsolete; and
oil the part of the believe!, that it must, by its very
nature, be an unlawful and indeed a forbidden know-
ledge.

'The theory of atoms held by the Epicureans appears
to have been the basis of most magical speculations. The
doctrine itself is much older than Epicurus; but as lie
placed it before the philosophical world in an intelligi-
ble form, it is more convenient to refer to his explana-
tions, than to endeavour to build up the same; scheme
from earlier and less fully developed systems. It may
be expressed somewhat after this manner: all changes
in nature take place by the operation of atoms on other
atoms, and must ultimately therefore be effected by
mechanical action. "Wherever man can substitute arti-
ficial action of the same kind, he can produce the same
effects as those of nature. The Krjvpticin who knew that
warmth only was necessary to secure the growth of
the tmhatched bird within its shell, could apply the
requisite heat and hatch the chicken in an oven. The
agriculturist could regulate the supply of water to his
land could accelerate the growth and fructification of
plants by modifying the temperature and other atmo-
spheric influences, and the first limit set to his power is
made evident by his very small amount of knowledge
as to what the operations of nature really are. \\ hen
the seed is placed in the ground, swells with the mois-
ture, attracts and assimilates those elements by which
it lives and grows, the inquirer who knows how to
watch may attain the art of applying those agencies
himself he may render the process slower or more
rapid may produce in one season the fruits of another,
and become in fact, though to a very small degree, a
natural magician. It soon became a question how far
these powers might be enlarged how rapidly these
processes might be effected. It appeared 110 physical
impossibility to clothe the barren twig with leaves to
ripen the immature fruit on the tree, all in the space
of a few hours perhaps a few minutes, in like man-
ner the processes of animal life might, it was thought,
be imitated and accelerated. The magicians of Egypt
' might rapidly people the land with frogs, flies, and
, locusts. It required but in the first place a knowledge
, of the mode in which nature acted; and secondly, the
power of applying the same agencies. No one in those
times, any more than in our own, could presume to say
how far the human intellect could proceed, nor where
it should find the final barrier. Had they been told
that the lightning should be drawn down from the
skies, and used to convey human messages that the
reflection should be permanently fixed in the mirror,
and the likeness of the gazer sent across the globe the
learned would have probably accepted all these as
future developments of science, and the ignorant have
regarded the prediction as one to be accomplished only
by diabolical aid. All the actual achievements of mo-
dern science would have been treated in the same way,
and Roger Bacon was in his own day regarded as a
magician, because he foresaw the burning of gas, the
employment of balloons, and the use to be made of
steam. In fact, natural magic, as treated by the higher
class of writers on the occult philosophy, is an imagina-
tion indicating intellect of the noblest order; and those
who in a spirit of calm investigation make it the subject
of their researches, will be less inclined to smile at the
fallacy of its deductions than to admire the loftiness of

MAC; ic 113 .MACK'

the conceptions which it unfolds. On the other hand. ' Moses, supported that advice by miracles. When they

the spiritual or geotie. magic relied entirely on the admitted that the tinker oi" (iod was there, Pharaohs

powers of spiritual beings: it demanded no knowledge excuse vanished, and the next plague -that of boils

of nature, and rarely required any moral or intellectual attacked the magicians themselves, and we hear of

preparation. Its works were understood to be purely them no more. That they could not produce lice would

miraculous; and those who practised it, claimed the seem almost conclusive against their having acted

and authority over, whom their science consisted. out a certain amount of integrity in the magicians

The earliest account of any magical proceedings iv- th< v at once admitted their o\\ n impotence, and Un-
corded in Scripture is to bs found in the history of llachel. divine aid granted to their great rival. The words
Whensheleft her father's house with her husbandJaeob, used in the original describe the "wise men" of Kgypt
her sister I, "all and her family. >h<- is stated to have as decipherers " revealers, v and state that they "did
stolen the //na'/w that were her father's, <;. \\\i. Laban so with their /////# <<.<'' izmrr. lahatft'cm). Jf any
pursued the partv and claimed to liave his ' :- c;c >rs " mere juggling were practised, il mi-lit be aided by the
returned. IJachel by a stratagem evaded her father's smoke of such fumigations, and the greatest miracle of
search, and carried awav the "GODS" in question, all would be the swallowing of their serpents by the
Now the-e t> rii/i/iiitt are described bv Jonathan l>-u serpent-rod of Moses. \Ve liave several instances on
I'/./.iel as follow- : "Th'-vhad munl'-p-d a man wlio ivon-d of water or wine being made to assume the ap-
was a first-born son. and bavin-; enihalmi-d his hind pearance of blood one especially in the case of Xerxes,
with salt and spier-., thev wrote divinations on a plat'- the wine poured into the cup of that prince one in-lit
of u'old, and ]iut it undi-r his tongue, and p!;e-' d it at Mippi-r. wliile he was meditating the conquest of
against the wall, and it converged with them, and (ireece, appeared to be changed into blood. Thema-i
I .all, in worsliijijied it. This extremely improbable ac- were asked for a Dilution of the unieii. and thev unani-
count is almost sufficiently disproved by the facts of the moii-lv di-clared that it intimated the di.-pleasuiv of
case. Tliat Iv'achel did ma consider th- terapliim a- very the gods at the kin-- s intend. -d eNpeditioii. 'I'his story
sacred is evident from her treatment of them isce I.e. xv. r.i i. is toll 1 bv \'a!t rius Ma \imus 'Ml- i. caj>. .'0, and deri\ c s
\ordoesitseematalllikelythataworshipperof the additional probabilit v from the fact that Arlabanus
true (iod would liave stolen and carried awav idols, had strongly dissuaded the king from the war, and had
Put the "terapliim." whatever thi-v we]-.', had. it \\a> attempted in another wav to \\ork upon his supersti-
im i u'ined. oracular ] lowers. Tli<'V wen- in us. among th>- tion. Tlie art of the K-yptiau ma-jcians is thus shown
K-yptians and the Syrians, and the case of .Micali. re- to be a common trick that of Mo-, s remains by its
lated in the book of Judges, cli xviii , shows this point vastness a true and prop, r miracle. (In the whole,
in the clean -t way. Ibre al-o thev were the o'hjiet then, th'- object of the writer appears to be to show
of theft, and here too they were denominated "CODS." th.it the ma-icians did what they could, by their ac-

'I'he next and most important pas--.au''- in the IVnta- ijiiaiutance \\ith science, hut that in tin- case of Mo.-es

tench on the subject of ma-'i'- relate> the pron-edin-s of the fiii!_ r cr of (iod was employed.

the magicians before 1'haraoli at the time \\heii .Moses The hi-t,>rv of Balaam furnishes us with another case

claimed permission for the people of I srael to go into the of a man habit nail v usin-' ma-ical in can tat ion- " \Vln n

wilderness. The whole narrative is charaeteri/ed by a I'.alaum sa\\ that it pl^a-ed the Lord to hl<-ss Israel, he

remarkable degree of candour, but it is not quite <-\ i- went not , a- at oth, r times, to -e, k for c nchantments."

dent whether the writer intends to represent the lv_ryp- The word "fni-JirtittMoitts" here adds to the difficulty of

tian ma-icians as practisim; natural or supernatural understanding the true position of I'.alaam; in the origi-

niagic. It is to be remarked that thev had notice of nal it i- " nwluinhhii,"' the plural of that singular word

the miracles which .Moses was about to perform, so that rendered in< '>-. iii. '*<-i'/>i-nt ;" it would therefon seem to

they were prepared to do the same so far as it W'as in their indicate that llalaam had been heretofore in the habit

I lower: next, that in no ca^e did they attempt to undo the of consulting fallen spirits, but that on the present occa-

wond'T wrought by the Hebrew legislator before their simi he abstained from doin-- so. bein-' satisfied that

eyes. Th(;y might have been expected to restore its purity (iod had determined to bless Israel. Probably Balaam

to the river, when .Moses had turned it into blood - so far believed in the (iod of the Hebrews as to ac-

to de.-troy or drive away the fmgs. lice, and locusts knowledge him as a great and potent deity, but not the

to heal the boils and blains - to illuminate the dark- sole, nor perhaps the supreme, (iod. This notion was

ness: but they did nothing of the kind, all their works verv prevalent among the nations round about Canaan,

tended but to increase the existing evil. Nor does and numerous instances of its existence are recorded in
Pharaoh seem to have exjiected anything better of them. ' holy writ. On the other hand, the idolatrous among

At last a plague is inflict, d which thev could not imi- the Jews entertained a theory not very dissimilar -they

tate. and they immediately exclaimed, "This is the held, indeed, that the great I AM was the maker of
finger of (iod !" j heaven and earth, and (iod over all: hut they also be-

From all this it would seem the writer's intention to ! lieved that the gods of the heathen were real and power-

intimate that the Egyptian magicians considered Closes ful beings, and willing to aid those who called upon them,
to be one of their own profession what he did. that they j 1 lence we have a basis for supernatural magic performed

claimed to be able to do also he worked by the same- bv the aid of mighty spiritual beings, and calculated to
means, and only exceeded them in decree. And this was ' strike with awe and wonder those who beheld its effects,
unquestionably the opinion of the king himself; other- | (Jf this kind of magic Balaam was probably a professor.

wise it would be difficult to understand his continual He was no stranger to signs and wonders, nor did he

refusal: he no doubt justified himself in adhering to
the advice of the magicians by the fact that they, like

exhibit any astonishment when they occurred; he readily
and without terror entered into conversation with his

I II

ass, and availed his case out fully with tin- angel, lie
w:is as much disappointed as llalak himself with the
result of the transaction-die wished to curse Israel
and to retvive the rewards of divination, luit lie found
himself und. r an unexpected constraint: he quite un-
derstood tiie nature of that constraint, and gave was
\\ itliout further resistance.

The .1 esvs hclieved tliat magic a< a natural science
had lieen coniiiiiinicated l>v God to Adam in the garden
of paradise 1 ; their vicsv on the sulpjcct was generally
adopted liv iiiedia:val Christian writers, ami is s\'ell ex-
presseil by Delrio ill liis />ix</ii!;;itit>iu a Mii'jicit: (lib. i.
i-;i]>. '.',\ "As to superstitious er geotic magic, it> mis-
eliievous and fallacious character plainly sliows Satan to
have lieen its author, out natural or legitimate magic
was communicated, t"_. tin r with all other sciences, to
Adam lis' liis divine ..Maker, and posterity, tau-jht 1'V
Adam, has distributed it in everv auv over the ssorld,
and as J'sellus and 1'roelus assert, it is nothing more
than an exact knowledge of the secrets of nature, so that,
by observing the course of the stars, the changing of the
heavens, and the sympathies and antipathies of things
among each other, matter may lie applied t matt.-r in
the appropriate time, place, and manner, and thus efl'ects
may be produced, which, to tiii^e ignorant of their
causes, svill appear portentous or miraculous." J-5ut
these words are not to lie understood in the rational
and scientific way in which a modern naturalist would
accept them they deal with what were called the
" occult properties'' of things, one or two of which will
be instanced and explained. It was supposed that the
mandrake could not be drasvn from the ground \\ itliout
causing tiie death of the person pulling it up. At
such a moment the plant, which svas believed to have a
kind of half human existence,

''Uttered the uiihiiai;iii;iMe uriimi,
"Which none roul.l he.-ir und live."

" There be," says J)e Loire in liis '/'/icori/ of fi/in'/ )(.-;
(c. iii.), " certain seeds within the eyes of cocks, which shin-
ing and shooting into those; of lions, do so pierce and
strike their eyelids, and inflict upon them such pain
and grief, that they are constrained to tiee from them,
not beinj; able to abide- or endure the sight of the
cock." Pliny's \iitni-nl ///Wo/'// is the great store-
house of such fables, and the knowledge of all these
imagined wonders, together with the means bv \\hich
they iniu'ht be combined, modified, or controlled, formed
the science of natural magic. This constituted a larye
portion of the learning of the Egyptians, and Moses, as
well as .Miriam and Aaron, were believed to have been
among its most successful cultivators. According to
the Talmudists. it was a literal fact that when Aaron
ea-t the ear-rinu's into the tire, "there came out this
calf." no mould haying been prepared, but the molten
calf having been the production of magic. lint of all
students of this wondrous science none were so profound
as Solomon. He was acquainted with the mystic name
called the " sJtemJiamphoruxrh.," by the proper use of
which he could work all miracles; he obtained power
over all spirits, and imprisoned under his seal those
who Were rebellious; he discovered the ' xrft(()il!i;" by

the agency of svhieh he built the temple ^ itlmut human
tools, and to him by special revelation were made known
all the secrets of the three kingdoms of nature. The
reign of Solomon forms an epoch in the history of
manic, and Mahommedan as well as Jewish writers
refer to him as being the most accomplished magician

the world ever beheld. As may easily be imagined the
magic exercised by Solomon was a spiritual science,
and according to later svriters was closely connected
svith astrology, inde< d, without such union magic of this
kind could have no existence. The ancient astrologers
tati'jht that the stars were the habitations of demons.
some benevolent and otli' rs malignant; that according
to their courses in the heavens they had power on earth:
that plants, minerals, animals, places, things, colours,
nations, kind's, and all human beings, were under the
government of these spirits, as well as the stars which
they inhabited; and while all svere overruled by a,n
almighty Providence, still that the stars were mighty
for good or evil. This opinion was held by the most
eminent theologians, and formed indeed a part of the
sacred philosophy of the period. Jt will be found
largely explained in the works of Picus Mirandula,
Albertns Magnus, and other leading writers of the
ecclesiastical order. One thing very remarkable in all
this is, that it drafts into its spiritual system all the
gods of antiquity, giving them a rule and influence, not
greatly diverse from that which their ancient worship-
pers assigned to them: and thus adopting, sometimes in
a spiritual and sometimes in a scientific sense, all the
fables of the old mythology. ]t accepted the miracles
j attributed to the gods of heathenism, accredited their
oracles, explained the marvels attributed to ancient
maui'icians. and allowed all the superstitions of the past

to stand as authenticated facts. This plan had many

advantages, besides what at that period would appear to
be its probable truth. It gave a colour to those miracles
; which were claimed on behalf of saints, and it furnished
a demonology which had all the evidence of antiquity to
support it. A remarkable instance of the ur-e to
which such a theory could be turned is given in the
life of ( ireuory, bishop uf Neo Ca^ara-a. eommonh callt d
Thaumaturgus, or the wonder-worker. Hibadeiieira
(Vitro Sanctorum) tells us that Gregory and his retinue,
travelling from Amasia to Xeo C;esar;ea (nosv Trebi-
/onde) to take possession of his bishopric, took up his
abode for a night in a temple of Apollo. On leasing
in the morning he found that oracles had been ^iveii in
the place, and he forbade the oracular demons to exer-
cise their craft any more. When the priests found the
oracles dumb, and by whose agency this had bet n brought
to pass, they pursued Gregory, and demanded that he
should restore the power lie had destroyed: this he did
by wiiting on a scrap of parchment the words. (i/-ti/ai'//
1<> fin f /HI iias iittti'. On this being placed upon ;he
alt. 1 1 1 the oracular power returned; but the priests, re-
cognizing the superiority of Gregory in the whole trans-
action, requested another miracle for confirmation, and
their request being granted, they embraced the < 'hris-
tiaii faith, and the ancient temple was converted into a
church.

The .Tews believed that all sicknesses were inflicted
on men by evil angels, whose agency was nevertheless
strictly under divine superintendence. This doctrine
was imported into the spiritual magic of the early and
middle ages of Christianity, and was closely connected
with the theories of astrology. Each part of the human
frame had its own astral government, and was thus
brought under the influence of special spirits: each
plant or mineral used in medicine was subject to the
same agencies. The cause of the disease and the mode
of its cure were sought in the same direction, and thus
magic, astrology, medicine, divination, and demonology

MACHO 1

were \vrought into one strange and almost inextricalle
confusion. During the apostolic period these opinions
flourished in great force: and \ve have ]>roof, in the
history of Simon Mai; as. that the apostles themselves
were regarded liy magicians as distinguished nieinliers
of their own body, just a.- the incidents which occurred
at Lystra and Melita show ho\\- willing the populace
were to regard them as gods.

The most remarkable use to which the theories of
th" atomic magic were applied with regard to the holy
Scripture, was in explaining the nature and properties
of the tree of lit'.-. Jt was observed that tlio sentence
of death was executed upon Adam, not by the imme-
diate depmatioii of life, hut by exclusion from that
garden in which the tree of life was planted. I), nee

it was inferred that a- the olijeet of the tree of life was
to give longevity, and from time to time t<> restore the
waste of tissue, to repair the decay of energy, and
thus by natural mean- to pr..loii_; life indeiinitelv. so it
\\ould In- possible, could tin- el.-iiients of \\hich that
fruit was coinpiiscd I.,- ascertaineil, to make men im-
mortal even now. The search afdr what was called
" the elixir of life" occupied even ill iviiii.te antiquity
the attention of magical students, and the annals of
the so-called science furni-hed many example- i .f those
"ho had nut sought in vain. The a!chemi>ts. \\hn
were the must scientific as well as tin- mo-t philoso-
phical of all magicians, cai-ried the doctrine a little
further, they held that then- was a principle i,f perfec-
tion, physical as well as spiritual, implanted in certain
sub-tanccs. and that tin -< when appli. d to the imper-
fect, removed frmn it all its impurities, that liy means
of it all m.-tal- mi-ht IK- chan-jed intu -"Id. all human
liodies intu tin- >imilitnde of that l.e>to\\ed ou Adam
at his creation, and that in like manner all other
essences mi-Jit he rendered each alisolutely perfect in
its own kind. The fruit nf the tree of life contained this
principle as it was capable of being applied to the
human frame, and they helie\ed that by Adam'.- eat
in-' of that tree duriii^ his abode in paradise, his life
and that of the antediluvian patriarchs was lengthened
out to nearly a thousand years. It is necessary to
oh.-erve that Christian writers on this suhjeet, while
they do n,,t di-pute the etlicacy of the elixir, state
plainly their belief that it is n,,t (.. he discovered hv
human .-kill, and that in fact it. could only bekimwn
by esjiecial revelation, the divim- wisdom having en-
veloped it in a cloud of mystery too dark for man to
penetrate.

This purely scientific ma^ic had few followers, it had
attractions only for the student who loved wisdom for
its own sake. The spiritual ma^ic which promised
power, pleasure, and riches, the results of study with-
out the labour, and communion without danger or at
least without immediate danger -with spirits of a lofty
and powerful order, was far more attractive, and drew
within its circle the impostor as well as the seeker ,
after truth.

We have already alluded to the state of magic in
Kgypt during the time of the J'haraohs it continued '
to flourish in that kingdom during the whole course of i
its long and varied history. Pliny speaks of the sepa-
rate schools of mau'ic in the earlier period, and gives

the names of the magicians who opposed Moses he

calls them Jaiunes and .Totapes (Xut. Hist. lib. Uxx <-;ii>. i'l
but he joins Moses with them, evidently not know-
ing the narrative of the Pentateuch. St. Paul, in his

Vol.. II.

MAHALATH

second epistle to Timothy, ch. iii. s, preserves the names
of two. whom he calls dannes and .lamhrcs. We hear
also of distinguished astrologers, such as Petosiris and
Xeccpso. and are told by many authors that these all
learned their art from Thoth or Hermes Trcsmc^istus.
the Thrice-great Hermes of Milton: but according to
Jahlonski, Thoth signifies a column, and the story that
so many persons, separated by long ages, were all taught
by Thoth. means that they derived their information
fmm the records painted or engraved on columns. At
a sub-ei|iii nt period Solomon is said to have communi-
cated magical knowledge to the people of Abyssinia
throuuh tin- queen ot the South, and to Kgypt through
the attendants on Pharaoh's daughter. Astrology was
e-pecially an Kgvptian science. Ptol, my Philadelphia
is said to have been warned hv an astrologer that if
he allowed his celebrated library to be completed and
opened on a certain day, it would ultimately be de-
stroyed by lire, for that Mars \\oiild be then most ma-
lignantly ported in the a-ceiidant. In the time of
Hadrian it was an Kiryptian, Ptolemy, who reduced
the rules of astrology to \\ritini;'. and LTave the world an
elaborate treatise on the imaginary science. Alchemv too
uas a -real pn ,-iinied success; and it seems to have been

belies ed ill the tillle of l>inc!etiall that tile KgVptiail

priests had tin- jiower of making "'old at their will, and
were actually making use of (heir power against him.
Suidas in his l.<.r'-,, (art. \i)ufiu relates this, and
states that the emperor treated tin- Ivjyptians \\ith
great harshness on account of this belief, buviim' up at

a -jrei-t price all their magical 1 ks. sei/iii- such as

eould be obtained \\ithniit payment, and ilestrovino-
th"in all.

I U-ei k ina-ic find- its type in the wild le-elid of
M'llmi. and is chiefly inten -tin- here as tln-ou iny a
li'jht mi the -tran-i ly miiul. d s\-tem prevalent in the
apo>t"lic ]ieriod. The " Kphesiaii letter.-" \M re amulets
or tali>mans, and Kphesus, as we know from the narra-
tive of the Acts, was the head quarters of ma-ical in-
caiitations at that epoch, and we have a reinarkalile in-
stance of the ettect ]iroduc(d I .\ t he j in-aching of the
vji-p.-l related in di. x i x ' ' M a i IV of those who used
curious arts ITU TT( i,if/,~a> collected their books and
burned them In -fore all." Ac. six. lit, anil tin-, were so
precious that the value of them was estimated at tit'tv
thou-and drachmas, upwards of t'17 IMI of our money.
These arts were greatly, if not chiefly, practised by the
.lews. ,)cwi.-h astrologers, Jewish magicians. .IcwiVh
ne(Tomaneers. were in all ages regarded as especially
skilful. In the alchcmican or scientific mayic, they
were less interested, and few Hebrew names of note are
mentioned in its annals. The spiritual ma^ic was by its
very nature wholly opposed to the law of Moses, which
contained several sever.- denunciations against its
practice, and classed it with witchcraft and necro-
mancy. | ||. ( _s. |

MA'GOG. the name of the second son of Japheth,
(Jo. x. _', or of the tribes that sprung from him. under-
stood to be substantially identical with the Scythians
of classical writers. (.*vr multr (inc.)

MA'GOR-MIS'SABIB [/o-/v,r-n^m/-<//w,], a sym-
bolical name; given by .Jeremiah to T'ashur the priest,
indicative of the trouble and distress which were to
encompass him on account of his wickedness and out-
rage done to the prophet, (f^n- PASHTH.)

MAH'ALATH. a word of uncertain meaning, pre-
fixed to two of the Psalms, r s . im. ixxxviii. Why inserted

145

MAIIALATIT

140

MAKKEDAH

in the titles to these sacred lyrics, and to them alone, it perished, that the exact site is a matter of some tin-
has been a matter of dispute among critics and com- certainty. Ruins bearing the name of Ma,nl have
mentators. and still continues to bo so. If taken in been discovered, with which some would identify the
use put unit by < iesenius. and some others, harp, ancient town (Robinson,iii.;Appen. xi. p. 106;Porter, p. 322); but

others dispute the conclusion, both in regard to the
town and to the stream, that should be identified with
the Jabbok, on which it stood. (>'cc unu<r JOKIIFJIAH
instrument. The same substantially may be and PENUKL.
said of other related meanings, such as chorus, or some , MA'HAJS T EH-DAN [the camp of /in,,}. This was
sort of musical note, which has been occasionally advo- '. the name given to the place where the detachment of
cat<-d. Kwald confesses that he could find no proper Odd Danites encamped on occasion of setting out to
key to the meaning, and leaves the word untranslated conquer additional territory for their tribe, in the north
(P..et. b. i. p. !7iV 1 1 cngstenberg takes the word in the of C'anaan. and the name was retained till the time of
sense of .</<///(.. and understands it to indicate the the composition of the book of .Indues, .in. xviii. 12. In

this verse it is described us

Kirjath-jearim,

that is. in the district connected with this citv; and

:i/i>ra//// diseased and sickly state of the parties of whom
tlie psalms speak, which might have been adopted had
'.lie contents been, in that respect, altogether peculiar: again as beinu' /,<//!,/(/ Kirjath-jearim, in which state-
but this can scarcely be affirmed. In short, so far as , ment no doubt the city itself is intended. It is men-
critical research has yet gone, the word in this appli- tioned at a later date, though in an earlier chapter of
cation of it must be held to be without any satisfactory . this book, cli. xiii. i\ as the scene of early movements of
explanation. ' the Spirit which Samson experienced. Here the An-

MAH'ALATH. 1. A daughter of Ishmael and | thorized Version needlessly varies the name by translat-
wife of Esau, who also bore the name of Ilashemath. , ing it, though Mahaneh-Dan is given in the margin:
Ge. xxviii. n, xxxvi. 3. (Nee BASHKMATH.) 2. One of the and in this place its situation is described as "between
wives of Relioboam, 2 Ch. xi. 18. It is not said whether Zorah and Kchtaol," which, is also the situation of
she bore him any children. i Samson's burying place, ch. .\vi.3i. And indeed it was

MAH' ALATH-LEAN NOTH. These two words from these two towns that the 000 men came, ch. xviii. 11.
go together in the title of Ps. Ixxxviii., instead of the ' The precise spot cannot now be identified: in fact the
simple Mahalath of Ps. liii. But there is the same situation of Eshtaol itself is uncertain. [G. C. M. D.]
variety of interpretation in regard to Leannotli as in | MA'HER-SHA'LAL-HASH-BAZ [haxtdlt to tie
regard to Mahalath. and the same uncertainly as to spoil, set zetli tl,/ /,r<//], a symbolical name by which the
the result. "For singing." "for responding," "for" ! prophet Isaiah was in>tructul to designate the son that
or -''concerning affliction," have each been adopted by was to be born to him by the prophetess, oh. viii.l-4. It

diii'erent commentators,
clue to the meaning.
MAHANAIM [two

There is as yet no certain was designed t