Full text of "The theory and practice of lettering, designed for the use of engineers and draftsmen generally, but especially for the use of students in engineering"

ENGIN.
LIBRARY

Engineering

HENRY J.

Vaiv, o C-iUfornia

THE

OF"

LETTERING

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OK

ENGINEERS AND DRAFTSMEN
GENERALLY

BUT ESPECIALLY FOR
THE USE OR

STUDENTS IN ENGINEERING

CHRISTOPHER E. ^HERMAN, C. E

SIXTH EDITION
EIGHTH THOUSAND

MIDLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

COLUMBUS, OHIO.
10O4

Engineering
Library

C. E. SHERMAN.

T31I

Engineering
Library

PRINTED HY
THE CHAMPION PRESS

CoLrMnrs. OHIO.

PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION.

The manuscript for the first edition of this manual was presented as a
college thesis in June 1894, and published in January 1895. In addition to the
changes noted in the second edition some lesser improvements were made in the
third and fourth. The book is now largely rewritten, and enlarged by the
addition of two plates and some historical and other notes, which it is hoped will
lend more interest to the subject. Plates I and II have been redrawn by Mr. J.
H. Vosskuehler of the department of architecture and drawing, Ohio State
University, and plate X was designed and drawn by Prof. Thomas E. French of
the same department. My thanks are due these gentlemen for a number of
good suggestions. Plate IV has been redrawn, and thereby much improved, by
Mr. T. B. Messick of Columbus, O., who also drew plate IX.

I hope that this brochure may continue to be of use to the engineering and
drafting profession, and especially to that young engineer or student, who, like
the writer, is not * a natural draftsman.'

C. E. S.
August 18, 1902.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

In the present edition Freehand lettering has received more attention and
is made the subject of a separate chapter, which is in better accord with its
importance. Three new whole page plates and eleven cuts are added. Also a
few minor changes have been made in the text in various parts of the book.

It gives me pleasure, in this edition, to acknowledge my indebtedness to
Professor J. N. Bradford of Ohio State University, for valuable suggestions
offered in both the present and past editions.

November 6, 1897.

7882CO

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

The endeavor has been made in the present treatise : (1) To compile and
place in order what has been written by others on Lettering, and at the same
time to give the writer's own ideas npon the subject, treating those parts which
had not previously been touched upon ; (2) To reduce the art of lettering, as
nearly as its nature permits, to a science ; (3) To furnish an elementary
practical treatise on the subject for students in engineering.

With these objects in view, the writer has availed himself of all the books
he could find treating on the subject, and even had it been thoroughly covered
in these books taken collectively, a work of compilation, merely, would have
been of value, as the literature on lettering is so scattered ; but besides being
scattered, it is so scant and incomplete that the writer may claim almost entire
originality for the present work, and in furnishing a complete treatise on
Lettering he believes he will supply an urgent need. For a list of books
examined in writing the present treatise see the latter pages of this work.

December, 1894.

Chapter I.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1. Introductory Remarks Among the features that give effect to a
drawing, not one is more prominent than the lettering. A map may be well
drawn in every other respect and yet have its looks ruined by poor letters. The
subject of Lettering, therefore, requires careful attention from the student, or en-
gineer, who would attain even a small degree of proficiency in drafting. A large
number of books and pamphlets on the subject have been published, but most of
them, especially the earlier works, consist simply of collections of alphabets of
various styles, giving little or no information as to how to form the letters, how
to put them together to form words, what styles to use for certain purposes, when
to letter, disposition of the letters, etc. The later books on the subject have us-
ually taken up these matters, in addition to exhibiting different styles of alpha-
bets.

The art of making neat and tasteful letters, such as the ordinary drafting op-
erations of the engineer call for, is within the reach of any person who will take
the pains to observe the details of good models closely, and have the patience to
practice lettering until he has mastered those more important details. Orna-
mental lettering and titles, such as are made on maps intended for popular dis-
play, or which form the title pages to collections of drawings, may require some
high order of talent; but these cases do not often concern the engineer, because
in all drawings made for official or professional use, which will include by far
the larger part of his work in drafting, the letters (even to the title) should be
simple, neat, and dignified in appearance, and should be in accord with the gen-
eral effect of the rest of the drawing. Every engineer should be able to repre-
sent, accurately and neatly on paper, any operations he may perform in the
field, or any design he may make in the office. Such operations will require of
the civil engineer, maps and profiles for municipal, county, and railway improve-
ments, plans for structures including bridge drawings, topographic and hydro-
graphic maps and charts, etc., etc. ; of mechanical engineers, plans for power
plants, drawings of machinery, patent office drawings, etc., etc.; of mining engi-
neers, geological maps and charts, mine maps, and other drawings; and on all
of these drawings simple letters, when well made, look best.

2. Historical The origin of our alphabet is veiled in obscurity. Paleo-
graphists tell us that it probably originated in Egypt. Facts were there first
expressed by pictorial representations, or hieroglyphics, much as our
modern savage inscribed his messages on bark, or on the skins of animals.
The Egyptian priests, in transcribing, abbreviated or simplified these hiero-
glyphs into the so-called hieratic writing, and from this writing the Phoenicians,
sailors of the early seas, probably borrowed many of their characters.

From the Phoenicians the Greeks borrowed all or a large part of their
letters.* The. Greek alphabet thus grew up on the coasts of Asia Minor, and by
the} middle of; the 6th century B. C. had in all essential respects attained its final
.development $ he ^letters had assumed the forms of the Greek capitals with
-winch > we ' ar6 familiar. This alphabet was adopted as the alphabet of
Athens in 403 B. C.

But from an early time the Greek alphabet shows a tendency to separate
into two types the Eastern or Ionian, which became the classical alphabet of
Greece ; and the Western or Chalcidian, which was the source of the alphabet
of Italy. The chief differences between the two are those which still distinguish
our own from the Greek alphabet. The primitive alphabet of Italy, from which
our own is derived, belongs to the Wer'ern Greek type. As early probably as
the 9th century B. C. it was carried by the Chalcidians of Huboae to Cumae,
near Naples, which was a colony of Chalcis. It became the parent of five local
Italic alphabets the Oscan, the Etruscan, the Umbriau, the Faliscan, and the
Latin. Owing to the political supremacy of Rome, the Latin ultimately dis-
placed the other national scripts of Italy, and became the alphabet of the Roman
empire, and afterwards of Latin Christendom, thus spreading over Western
Europe, America, and Australia, and thus becoming the dominant alphabet of
the world.

One hundred years before Christ the alphabet of Latin capitals, or roman
as we" now call it, consisted of twenty-one of our present twenty-six characters ;
but the twenty-one have remained so unchanged in form these twenty centuries
that the child, which has but just learned its letters, could easily recognize
them in Rome as they are carved on the triumphal arches which commemorate
the glories of that departed empire. In the time of Cicero the Romans
borrowed Y from the Greeks, and placed it at the end of the alphabet after X.
Soon afterward Z was also borrowed from the Greek alphabet and placed after
Y. It was introduced into the English alphabet from the French in the 15th
century, being used in English, as in Latin, to spell words of foreign origin
only. The letters U and V were practically interchangeable till about the
10th century, one form, V, answering for both up to that time. W is a Gothic
addition. J is the youngest letter of the alphabet, having been differentiated
from I at about the beginning of the 15th century. In the Old English, one
form is still used for both letters (see plate III), and in the lower case alphabet
the dot over the j still indicates its parentage.

It is difficult, at first, to see how the numerous styles of capitals to be seen
in a modern type catalogue, all came from the original Roman characters. For
example the alphabet on either side of the words Old English in plate Illf,

*This theory has lately been brought into question by recent discoveries at Abydos in Upper Egypt. See
paper read before the American Philological Association, July 9, 1901, by Prof. Wm. N. Tiates.

fThe style here referred to is called 'black-letter' by the printers of this country ; in England the
bibliographers call it Gothic, because it has always been the character preferred by all peoples of Gothic descent.

Del'inne.

appears most unlike the roman, yet it is a degenerate form of the roman
character and originated in this way. The scribes and calligraphists of the
early centuries before printing variegated the roman letters into many queer
book-hands, and in some cases beautiful papal and charter scripts. Angles
were rounded and flourishes added, sometimes to conceal the inexpertness of the
scribe, until in many instances the product could scarcely be identified with the
original. The German scribes appear to have carried this matter of flourishes
to the farthest limit ; at any rate, at the time of the epoch-creating invention of
printing their printers modeled their types after the fantastic letters then in vogue,
and this distorted and illegible letter has remained the national book- and news-
paper-letter of Germany until today. There are many styles of this black letter,
of which that called Church Text, is an example. Black-letter was carried to
England and was the prevailing book-type there so long, that the name Old Eng-
lish is often applied to it or some one of its styles.

The first printers naturally modeled their types after the best book hands
and scripts they could find, and as the calligraphists had developed many styles
by the middle of the 15th century, the infant art-craft started life with a full as-
sortment of type-faces, and type-founders have been adding to the assortment
from that day to this. (See any modern type catalogue.) Many styles of great
use to the printer have been thus developed, and some of use to the technical
draftsman. In this last class the most useful is that shown in plate II, a style
called Gothic by the printers in this country, but often called sans-serif, or gro-
tesque by English type-founders; it follows the form of roman letters, but all the
hair-lines have been thickened to the size of steins. Other useful styles of faces,
originated by type-founders, may be seen in plate VII.

Type-founders are not the only ones who have multiplied styles. The pho-
to-engraving processes have furnished means for advertisers and for writers of
books of alphabets to produce many other designs, some attractive and some oth-
erwise, and many of the styles shown in plate III have been taken from these
sources.

Fortunately for us, while the first German printers were reproducing the
black-letter and other equally fantastic forms, the early Italian printers repro-
duced the simple early forms of roman. These types were brought to Paris in
1470, and fifty years later to England, where they gradually displaced the black-
letter. The roman with its corresponding minuscule, has thus become the char-
acter preferred as a text-letter by all English-speaking peoples and all the Latin
races. Its only serious rival in general literature is the fractur, or the popular
face of German type; but even in Germany roman is largely used as the text-
letter for scientific books, and for inscriptions on coins and medals. Not one of
the many faces introduced by the type-founders of this century has ever been
considered an improvement on, or accepted as a substitute for roman.*

The modern face corresponding to the early roman lapidary characters, is that
called Roman Old Style, which differs from the prevailing roman in having

*De Viiine: Plain Printing Types, page 185,

thicker hair lines. An example of this style is given in plate III on either side
of the words Extended Alphabets. Objection has been raised to modern roman
on the score of its weak hair lines, and modern reformers have attempted to change
them. The most notable recent attempt in this line was that of William Morris,
founder of the Kelmscott Press, but so far, his reform has not been generally
accepted, for book work at least. Morris' reform pertained chiefly to the present
roman small or lower-case alphabet.

The origin of these small roman letters is interesting. At the time of the
early empire, the Romans employed two forms of their letters capitals for
inscriptions ; and for business and correspondence, degraded cursive forms, which
are known to us chiefly from graffiti scribbled by schoolboys on the walls of
Pompeian houses. These two roman scripts are respectively the sources of our
printed capitals, and of our printed minuscules or small types. Out of the roman
cursive, the Irish semi-uncial was developed as a book-hand about the 6th century
A. D. Through Scotland it was introduced into Northumbria by Irish monks,
and became the basis of the beautiful Caroline minuscule, so called because it
arose in the reign of Charlemagne, in the calligraphic schools of Tours, founded
by Alcuin of York. Owing to its intrinsic merits, consisting of its legibility and
the ease with which it could be written, the Caroline minuscule rapidly became
the book-hand of Europe ; but after the 12th century it began to degenerate into
the black-letter, which was imitated in the types of the earliest printers, and is
still retained in German books. The Roman printers, however, reverted to the
better Caroline forms, which now go by the name of "roman" type.

The wide difference existing between our capitals and small letters is thus
explained. We have, in fact, two alphabets, both dating from the first century
A. D., in concurrent use. Thus the forms a b d r g m and h are derived from
the old roman cursive, while A B D R G M H are the roman capitals. In d
the loop of D has been transferred from the right to the left of the vertical stroke ;
in g, two new loops have been formed, the little crook at the top being all that
remains of the G ; in b the upper loop of B opened out and ultimately disap-
peared ; in r the loop and tail of R have undergone nearly complete atrophy ; etc.
Seven of the lower-case roman letters are, however, simply smaller scale repe-
titions of the capitals. In the Russian alphabet of thirty-five letters all of the
minuscules but three or four are small-scale copies of their corresponding capitals.

Arabic numerals were not introduced into Europe until after the 10th
century A. D. Roman capital letters were used until about the 12th century by
the nations of Western Europe to represent numbers, and the student can get
some idea of the difficulties encountered by the early arithmetician by imagining
himself deprived of the ten arabic figures and obliged to carry on his compu-
tations by letters. Thus, divide MDCCCXLIV by XCVIII.

The so-called Arabic figures, most writers agree, originated in India. From
the latter, the Arabs received their system about the 8th century A. D. and
largely developed it, and the Saracens afterwards introduced it into Europe.
Unlike the old roman alphabet, the Arabic numerals have undergone so much

change that some forms made by the early printers cannot be deciphered by an
unschooled reader, and the forms in use before the invention of printing are
much more difficult still to understand. In Strange' s Alphabets is given a
series, of the ten figures, of the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, showing
their changes in form up to the beginning of printing. The desirability of
arranging figures in columns and tables has led to the adoption of a rather
condensed shape ; for example, the zero is not as wide as the letter O of the same
height.

Plate I shows the roman form of Arabic figures. Plate II presents the
Gothic style of the same figures. For a better account of the Arabic numerals
see Prof. Robertson Smith's article on Numerals in Encyclopaedia Brittanica.

The roman numerals I V X L C D M are not now used so extensively, ex-
cept for numbering plates and prefatory pages in books, and for similar purposes.

The history of the alphabet and of lettering is most interesting. The most
authoritative work on the subject is that of Dr. Isaac Taylor, The Alphabet, in
two volumes, published in London in 1883. For a briefer and very interesting
account of the development of lettering with many illustrative examples see
Strange' s Alphabets, published in London and New York in 1898. Since the
invention of printing, the history of lettering is largely that of typography, and
a most useful and instructive book on this' part of the subject entitled, The
Practice of Typography Plain Printing Types, has been written by Mr.
Theodore L. De Vinne. Published by the Century Co., New York, 1901.

3. Technical Terms The following sketches illustrate some technical
terms as applied to type by type-founders and printers :

1. Counter. G. Shoulder.

2. Hair-Line. 7. Pin-Mark.

3. Serif. 8. Nick.

4. Stem, or Body-Mark. 9. Groove.

5. Neck, or Beard. 10. Feet.

Of the above terms, only those applying to the face of the type are used in
lettering. Some terms used in lettering are as follows :

1 . Stem, or body-mark ; a stroke similar to the upright strokes in the letter
H above. The straight ones are called simply straight stems, the others
curved stems.

Counter ; the space between stems.

Serif, or ceriph ; a horizontal light line at the top and bottom of a stem, as
in the above cut.

Hair-line; in the case of roman letters, a line joining two stems. The
term hair-line, as used in printing, is very indefinite. In the Old
Roman letters these "hair-lines" are quite thick.

Bracket ; when the angle between a stem and serif is filled in or rounded
off, the serif is said to be bracketed to the stem.

6. Spurs; we shall use this term to designate those portions of roman
letters which resemble the right-hand part of the roman letter L.

7. Capital ; that form of letter with which a sentence begins.

8. Lower-case ; the ordinary text-letter of a book other than the capitals.

9. Majuscule ; the name applied to a capital letter in ancient Latin manuscripts.

10. Minuscule ; small or lower-case letters. A term usually applied to the
small letters of old Latin manuscripts.

11. Uncial letters are those modified f* forms of capitals, oneof which is
illustrated in the following letter: ^^ They first appeared about the
2nd century A. D. but did not come into general use until the 4th
century.

The terms stem, serif, and hair line apply more particularly to roman letters.

Among printers letters are also classified as ascending, middle, and descend-
ing letters. The capitals of a given text are all ascending, and cap Q is both
ascending and descending. Lower-case h is ascending, m is a middle letter, g is
descending, and j is both ascending and descending.

4. Forms of Letters The first thing the student of lettering has to
master is the forms of the individual letters. Plates I and II present the styles
of capitals for which the engineer will have the most use, and they give in detail
the form of and the relative space occupied by each letter. The roman and
Gothic capitals given in these plates may be easily shaded up in a variety of
ways, so that when the beginner has mastered these two styles, together with the
"Single Stroke Gothic", and the stump letters given in plate IV, or some other
suitable small letter, he is well equipped for lettering engineering drawings.
There is no short cut in learning the forms of the various letters : it requires care-
ful attention to and patient practice from good models.

Plate I presents the upright roman capitals and roman form of Arabic
numerals. This style of lettering has long been standard, and it is the funda-
mental form from which almost all others have been derived. It is used to a very
great extent in various kinds of work, and when well drawn is not surpassed in
neatness and beauty of form ; and it therefore demands careful study. The form
of each letter can be better understood from a careful examination of the plate
than from any perusal of a written description. However, attention should be
called to some of the more important points.

To facilitate a comparison of forms, as well as to afford a simple means of
drawing large letters mechanically, the space occupied by each letter has been
divided into a number of little squares. The length of a side of one of these
small squares is one-sixth of the height of the letter, and this unit one-sixth of
the height is taken as the correct thickness of the straight stems. This repre-
sents average practice among draftsmen, although practice varies widely accord-
ing to the style of letter employed. Among type-specimens one may find styles
in which the thickness of the stem ranges all the way from one-half to one-
sixteenth the height of the letter. One-sixth is usual, and will be adopted as the
normal unit throughout this manual.

ANALYTIC ROMAN

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, J

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-J

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In addition to the small squares, circles have also been drawn upon some
of the letters to better show their shapes. Also, instead of inking in the steins
solidly as in ordinary print, they have been inked in outline only, for greater
clearness. Letters drawn in this way, with only outlines shown, are said to be
"open". The best way for the beginner to study the characters is to copy the
plate, marking off the requisite number of squares and sketching in the letters
as shown. By doing this he ought to learn, in connection with the shapes of
the letters, the following points.

The widths of the letters vary considerably. By width is meant the
dimension at the widest part, always excluding serifs.

I is 1 unit wide.

J is 31 units wide.

U and N are each 4i " "

F, H, L, P and R are each 4* " "

B, E and S are each 41 "
A, T, V, Y and Z are each 5 " "

C, D, G and X are each 5i " "
K, O and Q are each 5i " "

M is 6 or just square.

W is 7* "

Thus M is the only letter that is just square, (this is the origin of the
printer's em, a unit for measuring composition) ; the W is nearly two units
wider, but all the other letters a^ narrower. On letters less than half an
inch in height, a variation of i of a unit in width will scarcely be noticed, so
that on small letters F H L P R B B and S may all be of the same width.

The upper parts of the letters B B K S X and Z, it will be seen, are not so
large as the lower parts. This fact, which has long been recognized in printing,
depends upon a curious optical faculty which was known to the ancients. Take
either the large or small letter S for example ; if you turn a book upside down
and look at the letters, every S will seem much smaller at the bottom than at
the top, although when the book is properly held, both parts appear the same
size to the eye. The fault of the eye is corrected in the type by making the
upper parts of those letters, which cause optical illusion, smaller than the lower
parts. For the same reason the upper parts of the figures 3 and 8 are made
smaller than the lower parts. The horizontal hair line near the middle of the
letters B B F H and R is nearer the top than the bottom of the letter, while in
the letters A and P it is nearer the bottom. The curved parts of the letters C
D G O and Q are arcs of ellipses, as shown by the broken circles drawn on each
of the letters mentioned. Since the curved parts of these letters are so nearly
arcs of circles, some draftsmen draw them with the compass, as they do also the
curved parts of the same letters when drawn in Gothic style ; if the letters are
small the difference will hardly be perceptible, but it should be remembered
that in standard letters these parts should be parts of ellipses. The curved
parts of the letters E F L, T and Z may be mads witli the compass if so desired,

although these parts are not necessarily arcs of circles. The letter L, :j made
the same width at the bottom as the letters H and F are at the top. Two-fifths
of a space up from the bottom and down from the top of each letter are drawn
broken horizontal lines. These lines show where to begin to bracket the angles
at the extremities of the letters. The matter of rounding off these corners, as
shown, and of extending the little spurs to their proper length should be care-
fully observed by the draftsman, as they not only heighten the beauty of the
letters, but they also give an impression of accuracy in the drawing. As a
general rule, beginners make the ceriphs too short, and fill the angles too
much. To properly draw the roman alphabet freehand is a severe test of the
accuracy and carefulness of a draftsman.

In the foregoing remarks some of the peculiarities of the reman letters
have been pointed out. The student will note others by observing the plate
carefully, and will perfect himself by practising on each letter. In making
roman capitals when no alphabet is near for reference the beginner sometimes
forgets which side of the letter to shade (make heavy). In such a case the
following rule is well to remember. All parts slanting from the upper left hand
corner to the lower right are shaded, and all other inclined parts, witli the
exception of the letter Z, are not.

Plate M presents the upright Gothic capital letters and figures. In this
plate, as in plate I, the space occupied by each letter has been divided into
squares, each square having its side equal to one-sixth the height of the letter.
In this plate also, the letters have been inked in only in outline, in order to
better show their form and construction. A complete Gothic alphabet inked in
solidly is shown in plate IV. It will be seen that the main difference between
roman and Gothic letters is, that the latter are of the same thickness in all their
parts. The same rule which has been given for the stems of roman letters,
gages the thickness of Gothic letters, that is, the thickness is generally about
one-sixth the height of the letter.

Taking the dimensions at the widest parts, the widths of the Gothic letters
are :

I is 1 unit wide.

J is 4 units wide.

L is 4i "

F H N P and U are 4J "

B E R and S are 41 " "

D T V and Z are 5 " "

A C G K O Q X and Y are 5 " "

M is 6 " "

W is 7* "

By comparing this table with the table of widths of roman letters some
slight differences will be noticed. The most important difference is the
widening of the letters A and U. This change is necessary because of the effect
of thickened stems on the counters. The other differences in width between

ANALYTIC GOTHIC

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romaii and Gothic forms of the same character are so small as to be neglected in
small letters, say in letters half the size of those shown in the plate, or smaller.

Some of the remarks on the details of the roman capitals apply also to the
Gothic. Thus the letters B E K S X Z, and the figures 3 and 8 are not so wide
at the top as at the bottom. Also the curved parts of the letters C D G O and
Q are arcs of ellipses, as shown by the circles dotted on them ; in some styles of
Gothic type the curved parts of these letters are made circular, but it is better
form to make them arcs of ellipses, as shown.

The student can master the Gothic alphabet, given in plate II, in the same
way he has learned to make the rornan letters. Gothic letters being of the same
thickness throughout and not having serifs, nor so many curved parts as the
roman letters, are much more easily and quickly made, and for this reason are
much used by the engineer. Gothic letters can be made "open," as in the plate
we are now considering, or the outline may be filled in solidly, as in ordinary
type, or be shaded up in a variety of ways as shown in plate III, so that it is a
style of letter which may be used to advantage on a variety of drawings.

An especially useful letter is the Gothic alphabet shaded as sho\vn in the
second line of letters from the bottom in plate IV. To make this style, each let-
ter is first drawn entire in pencil, then those sides of the letters are inked, which
would be in shade if the light were considered as coming from the upper lefthand
corner down at an angle of forty-five degrees across the letter; if desired the light
may be considered as coming from the upper right hand corner down towards the
lower left, and the letters shaded accordingly. Care must be taken to do the
shading- accurately and consistently, and especially is this true of the curved letters
if neat results are desired. Letters formed in this way can be easily made to look
neat and can be quickly drawn, two great advantages.

5, Mechanical Methods of Lettering By the method of laying off
squares, as illustrated in plates I and II, having regard also to the succeeding
articles on spacing, sizing, and disposition of the letters, the beginner will be able
to letter any drawing he may choose. In this way any suitable letters may be
sketched on the drawing in pencil and then inked in with the right-line pen, us-
ing irregular curves or bow pen for the curved parts of the letters; the pencil con-
struction lines are, of course, erased after inking. One writer has adopted this
system for every alphabet in his book, with the additional simplification of replac-
ing all curves by straight lines ; but the resulting letters appear too stiff and me-
chanical to be very pleasing.

A second method is to procure from some type foundry a catalogue having
a large assortment of letters, and by means of a tracing, transfer from the cata-
logue any desired letters to the drawing. (A series of alphabets printed on slips
especially for this purpose may be purchased of the Queen Supply Company of
Syracuse, New York, for 50 cents.) Another way still, is to procure stencils of
letters of desired sizes and styles from some dealer and use them with the aid of
the suggestions on spacing, sizing, etc., already mentioned ; but the objection to

this method, as also to the preceding one, is that it requires such a large number
of letter stamps or copies, to fit the various cases of lettering that occur, that time
is lost in selecting the proper letters from so many.

To save the time which good pen lettering requires, an instrument has been
devised by J. A. Ockerson, C. E. The device is described as follows: For letters
a stamp is used. The type composing any desired name is set up and clamped in
a type holder at the base of the piston, and after inking, is impressed upon the
paper through an opening in the base of the frame. The outer edges of this base
being rectangular,, with two of them parallel to the line of type, serve as guides
in locating names. For numbers, three concentric revolving discs are used, each
disc containing the ten numerals in type, so that any combination of three figures
is readily formed. Ockerson' s device is being used to some extent by the United
States engineers, and it is claimed to be quite economical and efficient in offices
where lettering is done on an extensive scale. On smaller works the device has
not as yet come into general use, and it is probable that it would not be so eco-
nomical in smaller offices. The device is sold by the A. S. Aloe Company, St.
Louis, Mo., and any one wanting a fuller description can procure a descriptive
pamphlet from them

Lettering triangles, made of transparent celluloid or hard rubber, are also
used to some extent. These instruments are used in connection with a T square
and are similar to the ordinary triangle in having two edges perpendicular to each
other, but the hypotenuse is replaced by a number of edges at various slopes cor-
responding to that of the stems of the letters having inclined parts. With the
simplest form of this instrument, the T square must be shifted for each letter of
different slope. In a later form this inconvenience is avoided. The most useful
form of lettering triangle is that devised by Professor Jacoby and made by Theo.
Alteneder, Philadelphia. In this triangle the edges adjacent the right angle
are 3 and 8 respectively, the l^potenuse thus giving the proper slope for inclined
or italic letters.

No mechanical device can take the place of the ability to letter drawings
freehand neatly and quickly. For treatment of this subject see next chapter.

6. The Spacing of Letters The spacing of letters is fully as important
as their correct formation. Bach letter may be perfectly shaped, and yet if the
letters are not properly spaced the finished word will look awkward. It will be
seen from plates I and II that letters vary considerably in their width, the I be-
ing the narrowest and the W the widest: "If, therefore, the letters composing a
word be spaced off at equal distances from center to center, the interval or space
between the letters will be more in some cases than in others. Thus in the

To avoid this, write in first one letter and then space off a proper interval,

and then write in the next letter and space off the interval as before, and so on,
thus:

When, as frequently happens, the words are very much extended in order
to embrace and explain a large extent of surface or boundary, and the space oc-
cupied by the letter is small in comparison with the interval, the disparity of in-
tervals will not be noticed, and the letters may then be laid off at equal spaces
from center to center, thus :

When the lines of letters are curved the same rules for spacing are to be
observed as above. If the letters are upright the sides of each letter are to be
parallel to the radius drawn to the center of the letter, and the bottom and top
lines at right angles to it. If the letters be inclined, as Italic letters, then the
side lines of the letters must be inclined to the central radial line, as on a hori-
zontal line they are inclined to the perpendicular, thus:"*

However, upon closer examination, we find that the method of spacing first
explained above does not completely remedy the difficulty. For plainer explana-
tion let us take the word "Waverly." From plate II we can find the proper width
for each letter, and we will accordingly write in the letters, allowing between

"'Appleton's Cyclopedia of Drawing

each one an interval equal to two-fifths the height of the letter, (the usual inter
val), thus :

It will be seen that notwithstanding the fact that we have not spaced the
letters off at equal distances from center to center, but have given each letter its
proper width with the same interval between each one, the word, as a whole, looks
awkward to the eye. The fault is that the letters L and Y appear to be quite too
far apart, and the letters W A and V slightly too much so, to agree with the
spacing of the other letters.

This defect can be remedied by making the intervals between the letters
mentioned smaller than those between the other letters, thus making the inter-
vals irregular as well as the widths of the letters, as follows :

Here it will be seen that while E R and L are a full interval apart, the
distance between the spaces marked off for W A and V is less than a full interval,
while there is little or no interval between the spaces marked off for L and Y.
Upon the same principle we have made the interval between the spaces
marked off for V and E slightly less than a full interval. Thus we may gather
the following : when the letters L and T, L and Y, T and A, L and V, T and J,
F and J, etc., come together in the order indicated, they should be spaced consid-
erably closer together, and when letters occur in words thus, VA, AV, LO, FO,
TO, WA or similar combinations, they should be spaced slightly closer together,
in order that the finished word will not appear to be irregularly lettered, but will
look correct to the eye. There should not be a preponderance of black rior of
white, and to gain this end the white areas between the letters should be approx-
imately equal in amount. The idea in spacing letters properly, thus,is the same
as in making map work neat generally, the letters should be so spaced as to im-
part the desired impression clearly and quickly and give a pleasing general ef-
fect.

The interval between words, ordinarily, is equal in width to the height of
the letters on the line. But this matter depends so much on circumstances that
there is no regular rule to be followed.

The details which have been pointed out above may seem trivial, but it is
exactly attention to these little matters that makes the skillful draftsman, and
if they are carefully studied and practiced at first, it will afterwards become sec-
ond nature for him to observe them.

Size of Letters The size of letters, relative to the drawing on which

they are to appear, is an important point and will depend upon two things ; the
scale of the drawing, and the importance of the object described. The largest
letters are generally used in the title for the name of the object or tract repre-
sented, the smallest for explanatory notes usually ; and between these dimen-
sions, the sizes are proportioned to the importance of the different features rep-
resented. Numerous suggestions have been offered in defining the heights of
the letters to be used, but it is hard to frame a rule that shall fit all cases. The
following proportions have been suggested by Prof. Charles McMillan :

Scale.

Height of largest upright
capitals.

Height of small letters for
explanatory notes.

or 1 inch=50 feet.

2640 or 2 feet=l mile.

52^,0 or 1 foot=l mile.

10560 or 6 inches=l mile.

j mcu.
j 5 inch,
jo inch.
fo inch.

100 inch -

100

Select a map for illustration. Since a pond in one map may rank in import-
ance with an ocean in another, it is evidently impossible to prescribe exact sizes
of letters for the different features. The following has been suggested by anoth-
er writer : "As a rule no letter should exceed in height ^ of the length of the
shorter border of the drawing on which it appears." This may be followed as a
general guide in limiting the size of the largest letters to be used, while the pro-
priety of relative importance, should, of course, be everywhere observed, as for
example, on a map a city demands larger letters than a town, a river needs larger
letters than a creek, and a county would require larger letters than a township.
The above rule, together with an examination of the drawing in hand and obser-
vation of other drawings, will serve to give the beginner a fair idea of the proper
gradation. It is the rule for beginners to make the letters too large for the draw-
ing, and they seldom get the lettering proportionately too small.

8. Disposition of the Letters Names should be so placed on drawings
as to be easily read, show clearly the object designated, and not obscure the
other features of the drawing. After the careful consideration of this rule the
draftsman should next bear in mind that names should be so placed as not to ap-
pear crowded, and thus mar the general effect. The following rules taken from
"Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching" are well chosen, and apply to
drawings in general, as well as to maps in particular.

For isolated features, the names are placed, when possible, at the right or
left of, and close to the different objects designated and parallel to the lower edge
of the border, the space between the letters and words conforming to these of or-
dinary print

14-

For communications, the names are placed parallel and close to the edges or
boundaries ; the spaces between letters remaining the same as in ordinary print,
while the words are separated by intervals, which for uniformity in the same
map, may be taken equal to the largest word there used for these designations.
The bases of the letters are best turned toward the communication, and such part
of the latter should be selected for the name that when the drawing is held in its
proper position the letters will not be reversed : e. g, if the road extends upwards
to the right or downward to the left, or in a vertical direction, the name is placed
on the left of it ; if horizontally, above ; otherwise to the right.

For streams the same rules apply as for communications, except when their
widths are at least twice the height of the letters, in which case the names are
placed along the axis of the streams, independently of the direction of the cur-
rent which is indicated by an. arrow. The accompanying figure shows the prop-
er positions of names relative to lines of features having various directions :

For elongated outlines, as in the case of forests, marshes and bodies of
water, the names are extended in the direction of greatest dimension and along
straight or smoothly curved lines midway between the boundaries. The letters
are not "extended," but, with the words, are so spaced that the name in each case
will occupy nearly the entire length, of the feature, the spaces being proportional
to those used in ordinary print. In certain cases, when names placed on the
features would obscure them, or the scale of the map is very small, a legend, or
list of the names is placed in an unimportant part of the map, or outside the bor-
der ; and corresponding letters or numerals attached to the different names and
features serve as mutual references. These names should be horizontal, and ar-
ranged in one or more vertical rows,

When to Letter The entire drawing, even to the lettering, should first
be made in pencil, if the draftsman would be sure of his work. Disregard of this
rule many times spoils a drawing and often wastes time in the end. Generally
in a pen drawing, with the exception of the title, the letters should be inked in
first, as the characteristic lines of the other features will usually be more easily
followed if they should be broken, than would the lines of the letters. Of course

the letters should be so placed that, observing the rules already given for dispo-
sition, they will not fall on places which other features must occupy ; but this is
often unavoidable, and in such a case the feature that is more easily followed is
the one to be broken.

In some special cases the letters can be made large and open and the features
inked directly upon them ; but it is better to break the lines enough to place
each letter, if this will cause no mistake in interpreting the drawing.

If the drawing is to be tinted, the letters should be inked in last, having
been so executed previously in pencil that no erasing will be required after
inking ; the tint would be partially removed by erasing the pencil lines that
have been washed over, and, if the letters are inked before the color is laid the
ink will very likely blur upon being washed over, even though it may be
advertised as "waterproof".

The usual order of procedure, then, :-n a pen and ink drawing, is to make
the entire drawing in pencil, letter it and draw the title in pencil next (and if
this precaution is taken it matters not whether the lines or letters are inked
first), ink in lines and letters of the body of the drawing, and ink the title last.

10. Style of Letter to be Used The style of letter to be used depends
upon the character of the drawing and upon the permanent general interest of
the work, and, generally more than one style is used to designate the different
features of the same drawing. Usually it will be found advantageous to use
several styles to describe the various features, but it is not advisable to use too
many styles on the same drawing, where m&ny of the different features can be
distinguished easily by differently sized lexers of the same style.

The following rule is to be observed : the letters used should agree with the
cJiaracter of the drawing ; they should be in accord with the general effect of the
drawing on which they are placed. Thus, while a complicated and highly
finished drawing may receive letters of a more ornamental character, plain and
simple letters look better on a plain drawing. We would not use rustic or
vaguely formed letters on a geometrical drawing. In such an instance one of
the geometric styles, say Block letters, or the Geometrical letters just below the
Old English alphabet in the center of plate III, would be more appropriate.

In any case, no hand-writing should be allowed on a finished drawing.

In plate III a variety of styles is given, partly to show some that are appro-
priate for technical drawing, partly to indicate what styles not to use, and partly
to illustrate some miscellaneous features in lettering. The writer first learned
lettering from a book of " alphabets for the use of architects, engravers,
engineers, artists, sign-painters, etc.," without any word as to which was the
engravers' letter, which the sign-painters', and which the engineers', and the
result was even more confusing to the novice than the present plate would be
without an explanation. From the above source the styles indicated as Pearl,
Old English, and Velvet were taken. These letters, or similar styles, may be

seen on many old drawings, but at present are out of date, as practice now tends
to much simplicity in technical work.

For mechanical drawing the simplest styles are used. Gothic, Geometrical,
Block, or Half-block are those most frequently used, but plain Gothic is used
more than any other. For sub-titles and details the "Single Stroke Gothic ",
(called also " Hairline Gothic "), is an excellent letter. For explanatory notes
stump letters capitalized with inclined roman are good ; also, the letter known
as the " Kngineering News Style ", capitalized with inclined Hairline Gothic, is
excellent for explanatory notes, and the lettering of other small details. For
title-letters to mechanical drawings in addition to the above styles, plain upright
rornan, and plain Gothic with a shade line around each letter as shown at the
bottom of plate V, may well be iised. If the drawing were very bold and black,
the Half-block shaded as in the words United States in plate III might be
suitable for important title-words.

Roman is the standard style for topographic maps and charts, if drawn in
ink. Upright roman is used for titles, and for the names of the more important
political divisions, as. states, counties, townsnips, cities, etc. Water features are
always designated by inclined letters ; for this either roman or Gothic may be
used, Gothic being used for the smaller and less important bodies of water, as
ponds or creeks, depending on the scale of the map. Stump letters are also used
for unimportant stream names, and other minor features. Inclined Hairline
Gothic is often used for communications, as roads and railroads.

Topographic drawings in water color require a light form of letter. Open
roman is most frequently used but is somewhat disappointing. For important
title-letters the open Finished Roman near the top of plate III, answers well.
Open Gothic may also be nsed, and where large letters must be used to cover a
wide expanse of symbols in color, the " Gothic Shade-line" letter, shown second
line from the bottom of plate IV, is very good. As in pen-topographic drawings,
inclined letters are used to denote water features.

For street names in large scale city plats, plats of additions and sub-
divisions, the Gothic shade-line letter just mentioned is good because rapidly
made, and because the body of such a drawing is usually light and requires a
light form of letter. The " Shaded Roman " near the bottom of plate III is a
good title-letter on drawings of municipal improvements.

For working drawings of engineering structures, Gothic shade-line, or
Gothic variously shaded may be used in the title, and single-stroke Gothic, and
stump letters for details, bills of material, and explanatory notes. Inclined
roman is used as a capital letter for these stump letters, and the latter should be
three-fifths as high and thick as the accompanying capitals. As the plans
become more important and of more permanent interest the lettering may be
done in upright roman characters if appropriate to the body of the drawing.

For more elaborate drawings still, such as plans for public buildings,
architectural designs, etc., the lettering may appropriately become more artistic.

MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS

III

, I

ROMAN

OLD

STYLE

"T ^ N E

ALPHABETS

B Q^ZG
K P V X

C F H W

ITALIAN PRINT

HDFHJKNPq-EEDMBTRICAL-SUVyVXYZ^

GEOMETRIC ITALIC

INCLINED GOTHIC

BJ^H

QUAINT ROMAN

Roman Old Style may be used in the title, and for sub-titles Quaint Open,
Quaint Roman, or some of the styles shown in the lower portion of the plate of
type-specimens, always being careful to see that the style chosen harmonizes
with the general appearance of the rest of the drawing. In the next chapter
some additional architectural styles are given.

Other useful title-letters are Italian Print, (which should be used sparingly,
however), and roman shaded as in the words Shaded Roman near the bottom of
plate III. On either side of these words are the letters B M P I R etc. which
are too ornamental for ordinary work, but which might be used sparingly in
titles on a map that is to be engraved and on which, consequently, some time
might be spent in finishing.

If a Gothic or roman letter inked in solidly would be too black to harmonize
with the rest of the drawing, either style may be drawn in outline only and
filled with " shading " of suitable blackness. The Gothic alphabet, especially,
lends itself to this treatment, but the student should be careful not to choose
bizarre designs of filling as illustrated in the words Shaded and Letters in the
bottom line of plate III. The shading of Gothic and roman letters is further
illustrated in the first and last titles in the first plate given in the chapter on
titles, and these two examples indicate approximately the maximum amount of
shading consistent with good taste.

Owing to the haste with which drawings sometimes have to be made and
the time consumed in making ordinary letters, a style of lettering called Round
Writing, also called German Round Hand, has for some time been in use. An
example of this style is given in plate III ; it has been used to quite an
extent by engineers, especially on working drawings. The objection to it is,
in kind, similar to that urged against hand-writing, that is, it does not so easily
give a clear and concise impression as do the older and standard styles of letters ;
it can not always be read at a glance. This objection is not nearly so marked,
of course, in Round Writing as in hand-writing. However, as lettering by
this means is so rapidly done, Round Writing will probably always be used to
quite an extent, especially in working drawings. The method was devised by
Frederick Soennecken, and was used in Germany before being introduced in
this country. The characters are all made by single strokes of the pen, an
especial pen and pen-holder having been devised by the inventor for the purpose.
The student who wishes to inquire further into the subject can procure copy
book, pens and holder from Keuffel and Ksser, New York and Chicago. The
copy book contains instructions for learning the method.

The words Extended and Alphabets, near the upper part of the plate, show
how the proportions of letters may be changed to make words fill an elongated
or compressed space. Any style may be similarly treated, and when modified
as in the first word mentioned are said to be extended ; when treated as in the
word Alphabets the letters are said to be condensed or compressed. Condensed
letters are extensively used in newspapers for headlines.

" S

= -"' JL ^J

In the various words near the bottom of the plate, below the Velvet letters
N to Z and above the words Shaded Roman, is illustrated the effect of different
shading and filling, together with modified forms. These words selected from
advertisements, etc., also illustrate the value of correct spacing. Take the word
Melange for example ; the individual letters are oddly shaped, yet the spacing
is true and the word, as a whole, is not displeasing to the eye. According to
what has been previously said, few, if any, of these styles would be used on
strictly technical drawings ; they are given here to illustrate shading, spacing,
and the devices sometimes employed to overcome the difficulties of spacing ; see
the words Medical, Factotum, etc.

In the foregoing paragraphs we have given suggestions on selecting
suitable styles for various work, but this subject is more a matter of experience
and observation, than a question to be settled by rules.

If the student wishes more elaborate styles, he can become acquainted with
them by observing artistic street signs, lithographs, and the like, or by
consulting type-founders' catalogs, from which many books on lettering are
derived ; but if he expects to devote himself to engineering drafting only, it will
be better for him to master thoroughly a few simple styles, than to attempt the
more difficult ones.

For additional remarks on freehand styles see next chapter,

IV FREEHAND LETTERS

UPRIGHT ROMAN CAPITALS

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO

3 IL

1234567890

INCLINED ROMAN CAPITALS

ABCDEFGHI JKL MN
OP QR STUVWXYZ

UPRIGHT ROMAN SMALL

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

SINGLE STROKE GOTHIC

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

INCLINED SINGLE STROKE GOTHIC

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

STUMP LETTERS

a b c de fqh i/k Im n op qrs ta o wx 112

^ U LI <J

UPRIGHT GOTHIC 5MALL

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

INCLINED GOTHIC CAPITALS

A B C D E F G H I J K L
MNOPQRSTUV W XYZ

UPRIGHT GOTHIC CAPITALS

1234567890

B c D z; r GJ r\ \ j K

NOPORSTUVWXYZ&

Chapter II.

FREEHAND LETTERING.

11. After the student has become familiar with the forms of each letter,
and has learned to letter by dividing up the space for each one into squares and
using the ruling-pen and irregular curves as explained in preceding articles,
he should then learn to make the letters freehand, simply using two pencil
lines for guides. While the mechanical methods previously explained may be
resorted to in making large letters on elaborate maps, or on drawings which are
to be kept ac permanent records, and on which the draftsman will have time to
make the letters exact, yet in most drawings this is too slow a method, and he
should be able to make letters freehand neatly and quickly.

Accordingly, in plate IV are given seven alphabets which the student
should learn to make freehand. The upright roman and Gothic small alphabets,
given in the plate, have been put in more for completeness than for any great
use which is made of them by the engineer ; they need not be mastered, as they
are so little used in drafting. The upright roman small letters are used in the
published maps of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the U. S. Geolog-
ical Survey, but, outside of this, they and the Gothic small letters are little used
in engineering drawings, for the reason that it takes so much time to make them
satisfactorily. The Gothic lower case is perhaps the most difficult of all to make
look neat. Stump letters are employed almost universally in drafting in place
of the upright or inclined roman small letters. These stump letters should
slant at the same slope taken for inclined capitals, that is, a slope of three to
eight.

The upright and inclined roman capitals, the single stroke upright and
inclined Gothic, the stump letters, and the upright and inclined Gothic capitals,
which are given in the plate, are used almost daily by the draftsman, and when
the student has learned to make these letters freehand neatly and quickly he is
well equipped for lettering engineering drawings. Even though the student
may not succeed in thoroughly mastering these styles with regard to the forms
of the individual letters, still with the proper spacing and sizing the effect is
superior, as has been previously stated, to lettering in which each letter is
perfectly formed, but in which the spacing or sizing has been improperly done.
Therefore, let the student master as nearly as he can the freehand styles here
given and not become discouraged if he does not become expert.

In freehand lettering, at least top and bottom pencil guide lines should
always be drawn first, and then the letters drawn in pencil before being inked
in. Possible exceptions to this are single stroke freehand letters, where the
only pencil lines necessary in some cases are the guide lines ; but very often

with, these letters it will be desirable to draw them, in pencil first, to be sure of
the spacing. 77?^ student, before entering upon the following instructions, is
supposed to know the relative width of every letter of the alphabet, having
learned them from plates I and II, or from the tabulated widths on pages 7 and
8, as given in the preceding chapter.

12. Preliminary to Arts. 13 and 14 Before taking up freehand
lettering the student is supposed to have had training enough in drawing to
make him proficient in such exercises as connecting two parallel lines by
freehand normals, bisecting short distances by eye, placing dots on one line
directly underneath those on another, etc., etc. ; if not, he should practice these
simple exercises until he can do them rapidly and accurately freehand, checking
himself with triangle and tee-square. The ability to draw freehand quickly a
short straight normal, as kl perpendicular to km in Figure A, and to bisect
short distances by eye, as km by a dot at w, is very useful if not essential to
skill in rapid freehand lettering.

The student should note carefully the following injunctions before
beginning on the roman and Gothic letters of the next two articles :

(a) These instructions relate to drawing the letters in pencil.

(b) Use a six or seven H lead-pencil.

(d) Remember that stems are I the Jieiglit of the letter in
thickness.

(e) Remember tJiat serifs are one unit long. This applies to the
sizes usually drawn freehand, and comprises all roman letters half an
inch or less in height. For larger letters than those shown in the
following cuts the correct length of serifs is as given in plate I.

(f) Always rule top and bottom guide-lines. If the letters are
large a third may be ruled midway.

(g) Rule guide-lines with straight-edge, draw width-lines freehand.
The latter lines may be drawn with triangle but this will usually take
more time and cause more trouble with the spacing. A given letter is
always finished (or nearly so) in pencil before the width-lines for the
next succeeding one are drawn.

(h) Always use limiting verticals, or "width-lines" as we shall
call them, in connection with guide-lines, as illustrated in sketch below,
where de and hi are the width-lines for A. The distance apart of these
limiting verticals, in units of & the height, is given for each letter on
pages 7 and 8, and is the width at widest part excluding serifs.

(i) Always use a square as explained below in drawing these
width-lines. The dot and dash lines represent the squares, the broken
lines denote the width-lines, in the figures following

The use of square and width-lines is illustrated in the accompanying cut,
and the advantage of using them may be shown in drawing the roman capital A.
Let the student first draw freehand, without side guide lines, the two outside
lines of the letter as at 1 of the figure. He will find it difficult thus to get both
lines at the same slant and the letter of correct width. Next let him proceed as
at 2 : here the width-line de was first drawn, then fg so as to make defg
square, then one unit (or a stem) cut off the right hand side leaving dehi to
contain the letter ; by eye bisect dh by a dot at w and join we and wi. By the
second method both uniformity of slope and correct width are easily secured, if
the student can readily estimate a square.

A square can usually be readily and correctly drawn by any person who can
draw a short normal as de fairly well, since the two guide lines aid very
materially in quickly placing freehand the fourth side very close to its proper
place, at least within a quarter of a unit, and this error will seldom be noticed in
ordinary letters.

If the beginner should attempt to mark out the rectangle for a letter
without the use of the square the result is usually that the narrow letters are
made too wide and the wide ones too narrow. Let the student draw some letter,
as J or W, by this method.

a d w h f k m p t

I7L

Figure A

In making each letter, then, the square should first be used, and the
necessary space cut off or added according to width of letter. Thus for N cut off
li stems ; for W add 1 stems and obtain the proper rectangle, as p q r s at 4 of
the above figure. After drawing the left-hand width-line, the work may be
abbreviated by simply placing a dot on the top guide line at a distance marking
off a square, instead of drawing a full line there. The amount cut off or added
may be as easily measured from this dot as from a line.

Each letter is finished in pencil before the width-lines for the next are
drawn. This rule is to aid in spacing correctly. After the letters are penciled
in they may be inked freehand or with the use of right-line pen, according to
size of letters and skill of the draftsman.

If the student has carefully noted the above instructions, the remaining
directions are very simple, and the method of forming each letter is sufficiently
indicated by the arrows in the following figures. However, a few remarks, which
may be helpful, will be made in connection with the letters as we pass them by.

13. Upright Roman Capitals A few remarks applying especially to
these capitals first. In the following cuts the serifs are usually omitted, with
the understanding that they are the last strokes made in each letter. They

-22

should be carefully extended to their proper length before rounding off the
corner between stem and serif, and remember that in letters half an inch in
height or less, these corners need little or no bracketing. This is illustrated in
the two L's on the preceding page. The second L shows that it is better not to
use bracketing at all, than to fill the angle too much a common fault with
beginners.

All spurs (portions similar to the right hand part of L) should be made
carefully. If they are drawn as in the first L, the letter will appear too stiff. If
the angle is not filled enough, the letter will have a 'starved' appearance,
especially if accompanied by fat stems. The spur should end in a hairline at
either extremity. A spur on an enlarged scale, is shown at 7 of Figure A.

The roman letters have more optical illusions than perhaps any other style.
These are to be humored but must not be exaggerated. Thus in plate I the
letters are large and eccentricities are readily noticed, but on smaller letters they
should be reduced in proportion. For example, in letters an inch high the
lower right-hand corner of N if brought to a sharp point projects 3 o of an inch
below the guide line, but in a letter i of an inch high this distance would be
only about ^o of an inch, a very small quantity.

On small letters the sharp points on N A V M and W are best formed by
stopping all strokes on the guide-lines and adding the point by a pen dot after
the lettering is otherwise completed.

In the cuts accompanying, the letters are grouped approximately in the
order of difficulty of construction.

TMK

I is the simplest letter to draw, and is the only one not requiring the
preliminary square. After stroke 1 is in position stroke 2 is drawn at one unit's
distance from it. The method of finding without dividers the thickness of a
stem for a given height is to place a dot midway between top and bottom, and
trisect one of these spaces as shown.

H. Mark off a square as gaged by the height of letter, cut off li stems from
the right-hand side, and the order of strokes is as indicated. To correctly place
stroke 5 first bisect the height by a dot and draw 5 very slightly above this.

In. L T B F and Z be careful to properly draw the spurs. These spurs as
shown in Figure A should terminate at the free extremity in a hairline i of a unit
long, and all spurs should be 2i units long from the guide lines except the
upper spurs of B F and Z which are 2 units in length.

L. Cut off li stems from the square. If the next letter in a word following
L, is A, make the L only 4 or 4i units wide.

T. Cut off 1 unit from its square, and make strokes 1 and 2 each 2i units
long. Next bisect the distance between them by a dot which enables strokes 3
and 4 to be quickly and accurately placed.

B is li units less tlian square, and stroke 2 is a hair inside of 3. Stroke 5
is properly placed very slightly above the middle, by first bisecting the height
with a dot. Stroke 6 is half-way between 3 and 4, and extends li units either
side of 5.

F. Stroke 5 is a trifle above mid-height, as in K, and 4 is midway between
2 and 3, and same length as the corresponding stroke in B.

Z. Cut off a stem from the square. Stroke 1 is 2 units long, stroke 2 is
2i units long. Place a dot on the top guide, li units from right-hand width-line,
and stroke 3 extends from, this dot down to the lower left-hand corner. Stroke
4 must begin exactly at the upper right corner and be parallel to 3. If
necessary the directions should be shifted to make the inclined stem one unit
thick.

In large letters inclined stems appear thicker than vertical stems of
the same width, and the student will therefore have to be careful not to accident-
ally widen sloping steins while inking them.

N. Cut off If stems from a square, and make strokes in the order given.
Stroke 3 begins on 1 at a very small distance 5 of a unit below the guide line
and ends on 2 at tlie same distance below the lower guide line. Stroke 4 is
parallel to 3 and at such distance as to make the stem a unit thick.

A, This letter may be brought to an acute apex at the upper guide, or
made blunt as in plate I. If accurately made the acute vertex looks better, and
should extend 5 of a unit over the guide line. To draw A, first draw a square,
cut off a stem, bisect top of the rectangle by a dot and draw strokes as shown.
Stroke 4 is drawn so as to apparently bisect the triangular area ; its distance
from the bottom should be two units. The usual mistake is to place stroke 4
too high.

V. Is drawn as indicated, using the dot on the lower guide to direct strokes
1 and 2. Its vertex extends, in the form of a hairline in small letters, 5 of a
unit below the lower guide.

M. Strokes 1 and 2 of this letter mark off a square. After strokes 1, 2
and 3, a dot is placed on the lower guide bisecting the distance between 1 and 3,
and strokes 4 and 5 meet each other 5 of a unit below this dot. Stroke 4
begins exactly at the intersection of 3 and the upper guide, but stroke 5 begins
on 1 at 5 of a unit below the top guide, The usual mistake is to begin 5 too
low on stroke 1, and the same error is frequently made in N.

The lower middle part of M is sometimes made blunt, as the top of A in
plate I, and if this is done it should not extend below the lower guide.

K. After the square draw 1 and 2. Place a dot on the top guide 1? units
from the right side of the square ; from this dot draw stroke 3 to meet 2 two
units from the bottom. Stroke 4 is guided by placing a dot on the lower guide

2 units from the square line, and another dot on stroke 3 one unit from 2.
Stroke 5 is parallel to 4 making the stem of correct thickness.

X. Half a stem off a square gives its rectangle. Place dots on the top
guide i a unit from the sides to guide strokes 1 and 2. The lower extremity of
2 should end on a dot li units from the side. It may have to be shifted slightly,
so that 2 and 3 shall be parallel and a unit apart, 3 to end just at the corner.

Y. Is placed in same sized rectangle as X. Bisect the bottom of the
rectangle by a dot to guide 1 and 2, which are drawn indefinitely at first. On 1
two and one-quarter units above the bottom place a dot, and stroke 3 joins this
with the upper left-hand corner. Stroke 4 is parallel until it meets 2. Stroke 5
joins the junction of 2 and 4 to the upper right corner. Beginners frequently
make the inclined stem join the vertical one at the middle, instead of below the
middle which is proper.

W. Add li stems to a square and you have the rectangle containing the
letter. On the lower guide place two dots 2 units inside the width-lines and
draw strokes 1 and 2 to them. After stroke 3, bisect by a dot the distance on the
top guide between 2 and 3 and from this dot draw 4 parallel to 2. If 4 thus
drawn meets 1 on or a hair below the Lower guide, finish the letter ; if it does
not, shift stroke 4 parallel to itself until in the proper position, when stroke 2
may be shifted a corresponding amount and the letter then finished.

Strokes 5 and 6 are parallel to 1. Stroke 6 should never fall to the left of 4.
In letters less than e of an inch high, or in larger sizes if condensed, the portion
of the stem 5-6 to the left of stroke 4 may be omitted and the middle part of W
brought to an acute apex on the upper guide. A common mistake is to assume
that the stems of W are parallel to that of V.

The lobes of B P and R are similar, and their correct shapes as given in
plate I, should be carefully noted.

P is similar to the corresponding portion of B, with the exception that
stroke 3 in P is a trifle below the middle. Stroke 5 is first made vertical and
straight and then rounded at each end into 4.

B. The lower lobe is about i unit wider than the upper. Strokes and 7
are made straight verticals at first and then rounded into 4 and 5 ; but these two
stems must be joined by hairlines. This remark applies also to the R following.
The effect of running the two curved stems together is shown in the first B, and
is a mistake commonly made.

D. Its width is determined as in all the previous letters, by first drawing a
square and reducing this by the correct amount. Make stroke 4 a vertical
straight line first and then round its extremities into stroke 3. Guard against
running the curved stem around upon the guide lines ; as shown in plate I a

small portion of hairline should intervene between the curved stem and the
guide lines at either extremity.

U. The method of construction is sufficiently indicated in the cut.

J. The left-hand portion extends up two units or more from the lower
guide. Finish the lobe as a complete circle before filling in the angle between
strokes 2 and 5 as shown in plate I. This angle, in small letters, needs little or
no filling.

R is perhaps incorrectly drawn as often as any letter of the alphabet, the
mistakes most frequently made being to run the two curved stems together, and
to run the lower curved stem around upon stroke 8 as shown in the second R.

The curved parts of the letters C O and Q are arcs of ellipses. Not
infrequently the beginner makes these letters of the general shape shown in the
first O of the following cut, his idea being that the letter is circular, and that
the curved stems must extend to the guide lines. Contrast the result with an
O drawn after the shape suggested in the second one, which although somewhat
extreme in this direction is more pleasing than the first example. The correct
form is shown in plate I.

O. After drawing the rectangle place bisecting dots on each of the four
sides to guide the strokes as given. Arcs 123 and 4 may then be joined to
each other by straight (or nearly straight) lines. The verticals 5 and 6 are
then rounded into the outline.

Curved stems should be slightly thicker than straight ones, that they may
appear to be of the same thickness. See Figure B and remarks thereon.

The same general method used in O should be followed in making the
outlines of Q C and G.

Q. Is made as an O first and then the lower curved distinguishing part is
added. It is difficult to make this last part look neat. Two forms of the letter
are given either of which may be used.

C. Stroke 4 and the upper spur of this letter must be carefully drawn.
On the top guide in Figure A, at 7, is one of these spurs exaggerated to show that
the sharp point at the top must extend as much beyond the guide line as the
curved hairline accompanying. The corresponding parts of G and S are
similarly extended a trifle over the guides. See plate I for correct models.

G, Stroke 1 should be inside of 7. The horizontal stroke 6 must be
within i a unit of mid-height. The usual mistake is to get this too low.

S is usually counted the hardest letter of the alphabet to draw. Find the
width-lines first, strokes 1 and 2 can then readily be placed, after which a
method of making the other strokes is shown. Strokes 7 and 8 will usually
require a little readjusting.

Time must be taken by the student to secure the proper form for the letters.
The novice often fails to realize this. That plain roman letters look so simple
when completed, does not signify that they are readily made, except by those
who began carefully and have gained rapidity by practice. It saves time to
begin with care. A habit, formed at the beginning, of making letters carelessly
is apt to stick to a fellow through life.

The following cut exaggerates the results obtained by inaccurate work.
Omitting serifs, the letters H O E V and Z have all been made the same height,
width and thickness of stem. The H appears wider than it really is, the O too
short and the stems not thick enough, the B and Z appear top-heavy although
no wider at the top than at the bottom, and the sharp apex makes the V appear
too short. The romau letters also appear slightly taller than the Gothic letters
following.

HOEVZ MOEAL

Figure B

The second part of the figure shows that optical illusions have also quite a
share in determining the forms of Gothic letters. The letters M O B A and L,
in the figure are all of the same height, width, and thickness, yet they appear
quite differently. Especially is this true of the O, as compared in width and
height with the other letters.

These facts may help the student to be a little more patient in following
the instructions given on the roman and Gothic alphabets.

The order of making the strokes, in inking, need not be that used in
penciling but it is approximately the same. It will be better usually to make
the upright and inclined strokes of the pen toward the draftsman, especially if a
fine pointed pen is used. This kind of pen, a Gillott 303 or 170, according to
large or small letters, will be used for roman and Gothic letters whose -stems
cannot be made at single strokes.

14. Upright Gothic Capitals When Gothic letters are too large to
have their stems made at single strokes, the direction and order of penciling the
strokes given in the instructions following may be used. The Gothic alphabet
is easier to draw than the roman, but the same method of drawing it should be
used, that is, use guide lines, squares and width-lines as in the preceding article,
and draw first those strokes whose positions are at once known and which then
help in placing the remaining parts ; the order of drawing these remaining
strokes may be frequently varied from that given in the cuts, it will be found.

In the figures of this article, the 'square-lines' and many width-lines have
been omitted, with the understanding, though, that they are to be used as in the
preceding article. The widths of the Gothic letters are tabulated on page 8, or
may be obtained from plate II.

27-

H After cutting off li stems from a square to obtain the circumscribing
rectangle, the strokes are as indicated, 1 and 2 coinciding with the left and right
sides of the rectangle respectively. Strokes 5 and 6 are correctly placed by first
bisecting the height with a dot the bar to be slightly above mid-height.

E The middle bar is placed by the use of a dot as in H and is half the
length of the bottom bar. The top bar is i unit shorter than the bottom one.

F Central bar placed slightly above the middle as above, and is half the
length of the top bar.

L Cut off If units from a square to get its width. If the next succeeding
letter in a word is A, narrow the L to 4 units

T Bisect stroke 3 with a dot to guide strokes 4 and 5.

M Is somewhat difficult to draw neatly, the trouble being to keep the
junction of the inclined and vertical stems from being too thick without making
the middle opening appear too large. After strokes 123 and 4 place a bisecting
dot on the lower guide. Above this II units, about, place another dot, and
strokes 5 and 6 join this dot with points on the top guide about I of a space from
3 and 4. Strokes 7 and 8 are parallel to 6 and 5 respectively, making the
inclined parts a unit thick. This should make the width of the middle portion
on the lower guide less than a unit.

N After strokes 123 and 4, place dots at unit distances from 1 and 2, as
shown at top and bottom. Stroke 5 begins at the dot on the top guide and ends
on stroke 3 at a trifle less than two units from the bottom. Stroke 6 is parallel
to 5 and must end on the lower dot. The inclined stem must not be over a unit
thick.

K After strokes 1 and 2 place a dot on 2 two units above the bottom.
Place a dot on the top guide half a unit from the right side and 3 joins this
point with the dot on 2. On the lower guide place a dot li units from the right
side, and another on 3 at li units from 2 to guide stroke 5. Strokes 4 and 6 are
parallel to and unit distance from 3 and 5 respectively.

Z After strokes 123 and 4 place a dot on 3, li units from the right side.
Stroke 5 joins this dot with the left end of 4. Stroke 6 is parallel to and unit
distance from 5, but must end at the intersection of 3 and the right width-line;
some shifting of strokes 5 and 6 may be necessary to secure this.

A Find its rectangle, bisect the top by a dot which guides 1 and 2. After
drawing 3 and 4, place a dot 2 units from the bottom ; strokes 5 and 6 are
equidistant from this dot.

The vertexes of A and V may be made slightly less than one unit wide, but
should not be wider than a unit.

V Bisect the bottom of its rectangle by the dot which guides 1 and 2.
Strokes 3 and 4 are simply parallel to 1 and 2 and at unit distance as shown.

-28-

W Mark off the proper rectangle by adding 1* stems to a square, then
place dots on the lower guide about 2 units from the width-lines, and a bisecting
dot at the top. These dots guide the auxiliary strokes 123 and 4 which guide
the outlines.

X Place dots on the upper guide li units from the width-lines. Strokes
1 and 2 join these dots with the lower corners as shown. Strokes 3 and 4 are
parallel to 1 and 2 respectively and at unit distances.

Y Find the center of its rectangle quickly by eye and place a dot half a
unit below ; this dot guides 1 and 2 (a unit apart) and marks their upper
extremities. Strokes 3 and 4 join these upper extremities with the upper
corners as shown.

D requires no special instructions, except to say that it is helpful to use
bisecting dots to guide the curved strokes. Thus, a dot should be placed mid-
height on the right width-line and stroke 3 is then made symmetrical with this
dot.

U The outside strokes may be made first, if desired, instead of following
the order given.

J Stroke 1 should begin 21 units above the bottom.

P B and R The middle horizontals in these letters are guided by first
placing dots at midheight. In P the bar is a trifle below the middle, in B a
trifle above, while in R it may be placed at the middle.

O C Q As in the roman forms, the exteriors of the curved letters are
better drawn first, in some such manner as shown, before the interior strokes
are made. Use width -lines and bisecting dots, which help in making the
exterior strokes symmetrical.

G Stroke 6 is but i unit below the center.

S One method of making the strokes is given ; but methods of drawing
this letter vary considerably with different draftsmen. Stroke 3 should begin 2
units above the guide. The middle portion of the letter should be almost
horizontal.

All Gothic curved letters, also, should extend a trifle over the guide-lines,
to cure the optical defects shown in Figure B.

15. Numerals and Inclined Capitals The instructions of the preced-
ing two articles will be found a sufficient guide, it is believed, for the
construction of the large roman and Gothic inclined capitals shown in plate IV

FREEHAND LETTERS

{Single Stroke Roman

KL fof H 0>'PQ m^n V'W

J ~ ~J 67 - N? vJ^S" ft & 7 6

ABCJ)EG-FHI<JKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Tiopcirstu v w x y z
STROKE GOTHIC

A Bt&B 'Ef'&MdiML WI>

BCDEFGHIJKLMNO.PQRSTUVWXYZ

RE-ISSUED-AUG 20 97B

- 1542 -

PENNSYLVANIA LINES WEST OF PITTSBURGH.

SOUTH-WEST SYSTEM

TENDER, ALL CLASSES:
DRAFT RIGGING DETAILS.

A.R.H.

APPROVED

SUPT.M.R

COLUMBUS.O.

CHIEF DRAFTSMAN

This is a Style of Lettering Used in The Engineering News

For Single Stroke Roman and Stump Letters and figures a
fine pointed pen should alvsays be used

, FOR SINGLE STROKE GOTHIC LETTERS AND
WGV.R.ES A BALL POINTED PEN SHOULD ALWAYS BE US 3

12334567890 % &&&$&$&$*&
//' %'5f^'&i&WSB&* /234S67890

The instructions for inclined single stroke roman and Gothic capitals follow.
See plate V and articles 16 and 18.

From plates I and II and the suggestions preceding the student may devise
his own method of forming the roman and Gothic forms of the arabic numerals.
It is as important to know the correct forms of figures as to know the letters, so
they should be carefully practiced.

16. Single Stroke Roman The stems, hairlines and serifs of the
capitals accompanying stump letters, unless the latter are unusually large, are
made rapidly by single strokes as shown at the top of plate V. The directions,
for forming these letters can be seen from the alphabets there given, the first
one showing the order in which the strokes are made, the second a completed
alphabet. The direction of making the strokes, unless otherwise indicated by
an arrow, is in all cases downward for vertical or slanting strokes, and from left
to right in horizontal or hairline strokes. The instructions given are for pen
strokes, and a sharp pointed pen is used as in stump letters. Only two guide
lines are needed.

Although we have called this alphabet single stroke roman, yet a few of the
letters can not be made by single strokes. The middle portion of S will require
retouching as in the stump letter. Also the spurs of B F L T and Z will need
retouching after the letters are otherwise complete. In small letters these spurs
need but a mere pen dot to fill them enough.

After completing the letter A by drawing the two serifs on the lower guide
line, the letter may be improved by enlarging the junction of stroke 1 with the
serif below ; but the beginner must guard against making this enlargement too
heavy, otherwise it had better be left alone. Similar portions of the letters
K M N U V W X and Y may be treated in the same manner (see plate I for
correct forms).

Stroke 4 in the letter G is a short heavy stroke tapering to a point at the
lower extremity, and at its upper extremity covering a portion of stroke 3. The
acute angle between strokes 1 and 2 may be advantageously filled a little, if too
much ink is not used. Similar portions of the letters C and S may be treated
likewise, if the letters are not too small.

Strokes 1 in V, and 1 and 3 in W, should stop short of the lower guide line,
the lower apex being made acute by the hairline stroke 2 in V, and by hairlines
2 and 4 in W. The upper apex in the letter A may also be made acute in this
way.

The figures are just as important more so in some drawings as the
letters and should be as carefully practiced. Directions for forming them are
given in the lower portion of the plate. The height of figures, if used in
connection with stump letters, may be a trifle less than that of the corresponding
capitals. To illustrate, in the following, September 1902, the figures appear
slightly too large to match the letters. If the word is printed in capitals thus,
SEPTEMBER 1902, the figures appear slightly too small to match, and may
be enlarged a very small amount, accordingly.

Upright single stroke roman letters may be formed aftei the methods just
given for the inclined. The inclined letters though, are more easily made
(presumably because we incline our handwriting) and are more frequently used.

17. Stump Letters In stump letters the direction and order of making
the strokes are most important. The following cuts sufficiently indicate the
method of forming each letter, and need but few comments.

In speaking of the four guide lines we will refer to them as numbered from
the bottom to the top.

(a) These instructions relate to drawing the letters with pen. To be sure of
the spacing and spelling it will frequently be found convenient to sketch the
letters roughly in pencil first.

^b) Use a fine pointed pen. For letters /o to \ of an inch high use a Gillott
170, or equivalent ; for larger letters use a Gillott 303 slightly worn ; for very
small letters use a Gillott mapping pen, or equivalent.

(c) Use four guide lines as shown. With a little experience the draftsman
will need only the two middle ones. The distance between the first and second,
and between the third and fourth, is of that between the second and third.

(d) All strokes are made downward toward the draftsman, except the few
horizontal strokes which occur.

(e) Straight stems and the axes of curved ones slope at j horizontal to 8
vertical.

Some draftsmen make the stems downward and the hairlines upward as
shown in the second a and d of the first cut. If this is done the hairline as
stroke 4 in a is apt to make too acute an angle with the stem. Also, in such
letters as $, stroke 2, if made upward, is apt to drag the ink from the stem into
the angle. Another objection to making the hairline strokes upward is that the
pen is more apt to catch and splash if the paper is rough ; but, of course, smooth
hard paper is preferable for lettering.

_ _ _ _ ,_

a. The upper hairline of stroke 1, and similar portions of c d g q and .y
may be made downward as a separate stroke, if the letters are very large.

c. The upper part of stroke 1 may be otherwise made as in the corres-
ponding part of r, if desired.

e. Stroke 2 may be retouched at the angle, after the letter is finished, to
make it resemble the romaii lower-case letter.

f. In another form of this letter the stem extends below the second guide
and ends as g does. The form given is simpler and looks as well if properly
made. If the letter is large be careful not to drag the ink from the stem in
crossing with stroke 2.

zfenixfe ^fertv/w/: TTC

i. The dot must not be placed too High On or a little below the fourth
guide is preferable. This applies also to/.

k. Do not crowd strokes 2 3 and 4 together too closely ; it is a common
mistake to do this.

/. Stroke 1, similar to corresponding strokes in b and d, ends with a short
hairline to the right, with which stroke 2 connects.

m. Stroke 1 is a straight stem ; stroke 3 begins with a short hairline ;
stroke 5 begins and ends with a short hairline. Be careful to make these
strokes parallel and at proper distance apart.

o. Never attempt to make this letter at one stroke, as beginners frequently
do.

q. Stroke 3 is a straight stem without serifs.

r. Strokes 2 and 3 correspond to the upper portion of stroke 1 in c and s,
but since this is the distinguishing part of the letter it should be drawn
carefully as indicated.

s. Stroke 1 is so sinuous that no attempt need be made at first trial to keep
the heavy part of proper thickness throughout. It can be retouched by an extra
stroke, after the letter is otherwise complete.

t. Stroke 1 begins halfway (or a little above halfway) between the third
and fourth guides. Stroke 3 is a quick hairline stroke on the third guide. The
precaution noted under /^ should be taken with this stroke.

// is practically two z's put together, with the serif left off the second one.

v. The serifs of the letters v w and/ are replaced by curved hairlines by
some draftsmen. Still another form of making these letters is shown in plate V
in the word 'always' in the second line of stump letters below the central title.

x. After making stroke 1 be careful not to drag the ink into the lower
angle when drawing the hairline across. For this reason the latter stroke had
better be made in two parts as shown.

z. Turn the pen sideways to make strokes 1 and 2.

All strokes in stump letters are intended to be made quickly, and with an
hour or two of persistent practice the student should get the 'swing of it'.

Indeed, the writer never learned to make stump letters properly until obliged
once to spend two weeks in drawing nothing but stump letters. The letters
were used to mark the names of the postoffices and streams on a state map.

The serifs of stump letters are usually the last strokes made in each letter,
and are then made as short quick hairline strokes. The proper capital for
stump letters is the single stroke roman explained in the preceding article. The
stems of capitals corresponding to the letters in the above cuts, should extend
from the second to the fourth guide line, and should properly be only slightly
thicker than the stems of the stump letters.

18. Single Stroke Gothic Upright and inclined Gothic single stroke
alphabets are given in plate IV. These two alphabets are extensively employed
in technical work, because so legible and quickly made. In plate V the method
of making the inclined letter is given, and the same method may be used in
making the upright form. In either case a ball-pointed pen should be used,
that all the lines may easily be kept the same thickness. The effect of using a
fine-pointed pen is illustrated in the words Re-issued Aug. 20 97 B (in plate
V) which were taken from a drawing the title to which appears at the central
portion of the plate. Glancing at the letters E, it will be seen that the
horizontal strokes are not as thick as the slanting strokes, and were so made
incorrectly, probably by making the strokes side-ways with a fine-pointed pen.
Even when a stroke is made toward the draftsman, if a fine pointed pen is used,
it is difficult to keep all* parts of uniform thickness, so always use the proper
pen.

After what has been already said little need be remarked about these letters.
As is natural with other single stroke styles, it is natural and easier to draw
inclined strokes toward the draftsman ; but, since a ball-pointed pen is meant to
glide as smoothly in one direction as another at the same time making a line
of uniform thickness much more freedom is allowed in the direction and order
of making the strokes in this alphabet. In the plate, unless otherwise noted,
slanting strokes are supposed to be made downward, and horizontal ones from
left to right.

After what has been said on the freehand alphabets preceding, little need be
remarked about these letters.

Stroke 2 in K begins on 1 about two units from the bottom and may be
made upwards. Stroke 3 should be far enough away from 1 to keep the letter
from appearing cramped.

With a little practice the letters M N and W can be more rapidly made by
taking the strokes in the order given in the plate, otherwise the beginner should
draw the outside strokes first.

As stated before, the figures are as important as the letters and should be as
carefully practiced. A common mistake is to bring the middle portion of the
numeral 2 down into its lower horizontal part at an acute angle as shown in the
line Re-issued Aug. 20 97 B. The middle portion of this figure should be
almost horizontal as shown in the correct forms at the bottom of plate V.

Beginners frequently make the letters of a drawing carefully and then use
written forms of figures. The remark that no handwriting should be allowed on
a drawing, applies also to figures.

19. In Mechanical Engineering the style of letters used on drawings
is usually of the simplest character. Roman, Gothic, and stump letters, or some
modification of these, are commonly employed, the Gothic letters being, perhaps,
used more than any others. The letters given in plate V are all suitable to use
in mechanical drawings.

In the center of the plate is a title taken from a drawing made in the motive-
power department of a well-known railroad. It will be noticed that the letters
are all of the plainest character, consisting of large and single stroke Gothic
styles. Formerly in this department Round Writing was used, but the
occasional ambiguity, caused by an extra flourish of a draftsman's pen, proved
serious enough objection to cause a change. Printed forms of a portion of the
titles are kept on hand, and the draftsman traces this and adds the special name
and number of the drawing. In. the title given, the words Tender, All Classes ;
Draft Rigging Details, together with the number 1542, and the draftsman's
initials, A. R. H., form the especial title, the other words and figures all being
copied from the printed form. In this way all the titles are lettered uniformly,
and, all titles appear at the lower right hand corners of the drawings, for ready
reference when they are filed in cases. The rectangle at the lower central
portion of the title, is for the stamp of the office, which indicates the date of
issue of the blue print, none but blue prints being sent from the office. To the
right of this is the date of the drawing and the chief draftsman's signature. To
the left is the signature of approval by the superintendent of motive power. No
scale is given in the title ; since the measurements must be exact, they are
therefore all marked 011 the details. Should any dimension be omitted by
oversight, it is asked for by telegraph, the number of the drawing, 1542 in this
case, easily and unmistakably designating the proper drawing. The number
1542 is the serial number of the sheet, all drawings being numbered consecu-
tively in the order of their production.

For lettering the details of the above drawing, single stroke Gothic letters
such as are shown in the words Re-issued Aug. 20 97 B are used. The
sizes of the letters vary with the importance of the details ; and the smaller
Gothic letters are capitalized by larger letters of the same style. The first
issue of a drawing is known as issue A. The design of the chief draftsman is
tested on the road or in the shop. If changes are desired or recommended by
the superintendent they are made in the chief draftsman's office, the original
number of the drawing being retained, and the number of the edition is indicated
by a letter. In the case cited, the words just quoted above, which were
taken from the same drawing on which the title given above appeared, indicate
that the original has been amended once and is now, Aug. 20, 1897, re-issued.
The letter C would indicate that the drawing had been amended twice.

It lias been said that lower-case Gothic letters, such as are given in plate IV,
are difficult to make, and hence are little used in technical drawing. However,
an example of a style of Gothic lower-case is given just below the title in the
middle of plate V, which is easily made, looks neat, and is very appropriate for
mechanical drawings. Explicit directions for forming this style, and upright
letters of the same kind, v.iih accompanying capitals, are given in a book written
by Mr. Chas. W. Reinhardt, chief draftsman of the Engineering News.

For title words in mechanical drawings, Gothic letters with shade lines
drawn partly around them, are easily made, and look quite well. An example
of this is given in the alphabet at the foot of plate V ; in this alphabet the
Gothic letters were quickly drawn by single strokes with a ball-pointed pen, and
the shade lines added with a fine-pointed pen. Block letters, also, are often seen
in the titles of drawings appertaining to mechanical engineering.

20. Architectural Letters In architectural drawings lighter and more
artistic styles of letters are allowable than in the more technical classes of work.

Architectural drawings are, to a greater extent than other drawings, made
for public display or inspection, and on this account more elaborate or fanciful
styles may be used ; also, in such drawings there is usually an absence of black,
heavy outline, and to harmonize with this a lighter form of letter than usual is
suitable.

As in so many other classes of work, the roman letter is made to do service
in architectural drawing, in either its plain form with the outlines only, inked
in, or in one of its many modifications. A modification of the roman alphabet,
known as a variety of Roman Old Style, is shown at the top of plate VI ;
another modification is shown at the bottom of the same plate, and either one of
these styles is appropriate for use in the titles of architectural drawings which
do not present too heavy an appearance otherwise.

The second alphabet from the top, in plate VI, together with the letters and
figures next above the last alphabet in the plate, are illustrations of more
fanciful styles. These letters are better suited for title words than for detail
work, as they will generally require too much time to be extensively used.
However, they are more easily made than they appear at first sight. Permission
to give these styles was kindly given by the draftsmen whose names appear in
the plate.

In the central part of the plate is given a freehand title adapted from one on
a competitive design, for the improvements at the U. S. Military Academy, sub-
mitted by Carrere & Hastings, Architects, New York. A copy of the original
may be seen in the Architectural Review for July 1903. It makes an excellent
display letter and may be quite rapidly drawn freehand, although better results
still may be had by using right-line and bow pens. Notice that all letters in the
same line are of one height irrespective of the importance of the words.

The words Universalist Church are copied from the words as they
appear upon a stone tablet in an existing structure* They exhibit another
style of modifying, letter forms to serve an architectural purpose.

ABCDEFG

ROMAN OUD STYLE:

LMNO

T AI Ar.o .130

;TUV

-GENERAL-PLAN-

-SCALE -ONE -INCH -EQUALS -ONE- HUNDRED -FEET-

-SHOWING-PROPOSED-
TREATMEN.T-OFGR0UNDS-AND-BUILPBNG

- F-TH IB -

- U N !TE ESTATES

-WEST-POINT

/f^ M

Oln

~ \ i

)a*

L /T J -H-A

U / -J -- *

, - '!-. i. ..

Ov ' t *j-- i *

CD .<^r
* (ft?

Vk 2^^o

L< 7 II e-K

x'\ ITf-iVl! 1 i

no. QOO

! ! " > ' II

BODE

^ /i ^
c- 4 c;

\U Yf VXf

u /

Some architectural draftsmen in using the roman or modified roman letters
for title words, replace the letter U with a V. This mars the legibility of a
word, and is for this reason objectionable.

21. Type Specimens In plate VII are given some type alphabets
selected from the catalogues of the American Type Founders Co. and of
Barnhart Brothers & Spindler. In the upper part of the plate are given
standard type forms of letters and figures for engineering drawings. In the
lower portion of the plate are given some less technical type forms, which are
appropriate for architectural work.

Type forms really set the standard. To say that the lettering on a drawing
" looks just like print" is usually the highest compliment it can be paid.
People who read, are accustomed day after day to see type letters of either
standard styles or of modified styles, which are of recognized merit. If, there-
fore, on a drawing the lettering in general follows a type form, but departs
irregularly from it, the draftsman is pretty sure to be criticised. Also, since
type forms have so much influence, it is possible, although it may not be
desirable as viewed at present, that the standard styles set by type forms a few
years hence, may not agree with those of today.

Type specimens, therefore, are worthy of careful observation and study.

(For mention of title given in the center of plate VII, see article 30).

22. Remarks The following extract taken from the preface of Prof. C. B.
Wing's little pamphlet on freehand lettering is to the point : " The importance
of freehand lettering seems to have been disregarded heretofore. The alphabets
that have been previously given are adapted almost exclusively to the elaborate
lettering of drawings that are to be engraved. In such cases time may be
profitably spent on the drawing, because it becomes a small item when divided
among a great number of prints. Working drawings, however, are blue printed
only a few times, and the lettering must be done quickly or it costs too much.
No one thing is more helpful to the young draftsman in gaining the confidence
of superintendent and workmen, than the ability to letter a drawing quickly,
neatly, and so plainly that no workman can ever make a mistake because of
inability to read words and figures."

"The author believes that every person can acquire a hand for lettering as
well as for writing, and that nearly as much originality is shown in one as in
the other. It is recommended that beginners try copying several of the styles
given ; that they choose the one which seems easiest ; and that they practice
this with great persistence till they are able to reproduce it well and quickly.
The acquiring of one hand gives facility in acquiring others."

" In some offices all draftsmen are expected to adopt the same style of
lettering, in order to attain uniformity in the drawings. The author has in
mind a set of standards for wooden trestle bridges in which the different plates
were drawn by four or five different men ; the lettering has a uniform appear-
ance, but a careful examination will show the individuality of each hand."

" Nearly every one can learn to do good freehand lettering by careful,

persistent work ; but if any one should fail, he may select one of the geometric
forms, using the right line pen and straight edge, and then strive to acquire
speed in execution, without a sacrifice of legibility."

TYPE SPECIMENS VII

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&

abcdefgliijklinnopqrstuYWxyz

Cape 1234567890 Town

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR8TUVWXYZ&

Lake 1234567890 Tsad

ABCDEFGH IJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&

Steam 1234567890 Crane

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

LAW IT ALIC

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUYWX Y Z $
12345 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 67890

LOCK WITH 1O FEET LIFT

DETAILS OF .

UPPER PORTION OF LOCK

OUTING

QUAIXT OPEN

JEPQEM fl

ELANDKAY

flBBCDEFGQHIJKLnMN/ v iOOFQR5TUVVXYZ&
ELEVATION 1234567890

DEVINNE ITALIC OUTLINE

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX YZ&

flacadamize DEVINNE 1234567890

ABCDEFGH IJKLMnNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&

Chapter III.

TITLE LETTERING.

23. General Considerations The title to a drawing should answer
distinctly the fonr questions, what, where, when, and who. In other words, the
title should tell what the drawing represents, for what use it was made, and to
what scale it is drawn ; where the tract or object represented is located, and
where the drawing was made ; when, giving the date of the survey or design,
and the date of drafting ; who the designer or chief engineer is, and who did the
drafting. Thus in plate VIII, where several examples of titles are offered for
discussion, the first title given answers these questions.

The different parts of a title should be made prominent in the order of their
relative importance. Thus, taking the above mentioned title as an example, the
words Chattanooga to Stevenson, Ala. are made the most prominent, because we
are supposing the entire line to be profiled in two or more sections, each section
being profiled on a separate sheet or roll of paper, and one section embracing
that part of the line between Chattanooga and Stevenson ; it is desirable to know
at first glance which part of the line the profile in hand represents, and the
words Chattanooga to Stevenson tell this. If the profile represented the whole
line complete on one piece of paper, then " East Tenn. and Ala. R. R." should
have been the most prominent. The other words are lettered to catch the eye in
the order of their importance. The second title, given in plate VIII, is taken
from the records in the office of the Ohio State Canal Commission. Here the
several canals of the State have been mapped by sections, each section being
drawn on a separate sheet. The sheets are bound in book form, one set of books
to each canal, and the title mentioned above has been taken from the set
showing the Miami and Brie canal. The portion of this canal lying in
Cincinnati, having been drawn in several sections, the words, in the title
selected, in the order of their importance are " Eggleston Avenue," " Cincinnati,
Ohio," and " Miami and Erie Canal." Of course the draftsman should know
beforehand the order of the importance of the words before he begins to draw the
title, and sometimes when a number of different drawings are made in series, it
will require considerable thought to arrange the styles and sizing so as to obey
the rules already given and at the same time have all the titles appear uniform,
and have each title harmonize with the drawing on which it appears.

Where drawings are made to illustrate written descriptions, or are accom-
panied by written descriptions, the title is, of course, often not so comprehensive.
When the drawing represents some familiar object, a simpler title is also often
u.sed. Thus the last title shown in plate VIII is an example. Such a title
might be used on a drawing, made for public display, of a well known tract of

land. However, it is a good rule to make drawings as nearly as possible self-
explanatory, and there is little or no danger of getting too much information on
them in a neat and concise form, even though they may be accompanied by full
written descriptions.

The descriptive part of a title is sometimes placed in small print on
another part of the drawing, apart from the main portion of the title.

24. Position of the Title The title should be so placed on a drawing
as not to appear cramped. It is sometimes placed outside the border, especially
when it consists of a single line of letters, but this rule should not be followed
when a suitable place can be found inside. A general rule is to place the title
above or below the center of the drawing, near, but not too near, the border, and
if the drawing is symmetrical, the title should have the same axis of symmetry.
If the drawing is unsymmetrical, the title may be placed in either of the corners.
In drawings of irregular objects, maps of irregular tracts and the like, the title
may be put wherever the shape of the drawing affords the best space,
considerable freedom being thus allowed.

On drawings which are too long to be seen at one glance, as profiles or roll
maps, two or more titles, if necessary, may be used at convenient distances
apart. Where a series of drawings are to be made for permanent records, and
are to be filed away in drawers or cases for reference, it is often desirable to have
the titles on the separate sheets appear in the same corner in each one, for
convenience in handling When this is the case the selected corner should be
reserved for the title beforehand on each drawing. The lower right-hand corner
is the one usually chosen in such a case, but any one of the others may be
selected if desired. The matter is determined often by the shapes of the plats.

25. Size of the Title In the first place the size of the title, as a whole,
should be in proportion with the drawing. For drawings of small scale the title
should usually be smaller than the title of a drawing of larger scale on the same
sized sheet. The following specific rule may be found helpful : When a
drawing held in position has its longest border horizontal the length of the title
should not be greater than one-fifth the length of this border, and the height
(width) of the title should not be greater than one-fourth the length of the
shortest border. Even this rule often allows too large a title.

The largest letters of the title, which will generally be used for the name of
the machine designed, the locality mapped, the structure planned, or the like,
should not be greater in height than ^ of the length of the shorter border ; the
smallest letters of the title will usually be used for the date, the draftsman's
name, and for explanatory notes, and between these two sizes the other words of
the title will require letters of intermediate sizes, according to their relative
importance. For a scale of 1:10,000 (1 inch = 833s feet) Reed gives the
following practical rules for maps : " Make the largest letters of the title, for a
map of about two feet by three feet dimensions, three-tenths (f ) of an inch in
height. For a map of about one foot by one and a half feet dimensions, make
the largest letters of the title two-tenths (f ) of a:i inch in height, and

proportionally for maps of other dimensions ; and since explanatory notes arc
always very small letters, the intermediate grades are readily assigned."

26. Form of the Title The form of the title may vary considerably
according to the size and shape of the space in which it is placed. When the
space allotted is high and narrow, the title should be designed as nearly in
harmony as possible. Where the title must occupy a long space, which is not
very high in proportion, the letters of the title may be correspondingly flat, and
to gain this end the letters may be extended as in the word Extended in plate
III. The title must be distinct and not appear to be cramped, nor must the
lines of letters be so far apart as to give the title a loose or disconnected
appearance.

Sometimes the title consists of one or more lines of letters across the entire
top of the drawing, but generally it will consist of straight lines of letters
grouped as in the second title given in plate VIII, or of some simple combination
of straight and curved lines of letters as the first title given in the same plate.
When the lines or rows of letters are curved, usually arcs of circles are used,
with the center of the arc on the axis of symmetry. Other forms may be
devised, but some such simple combination as either of the ones illustrated are
generally employed. One form of title that is seen occasionally is in bad taste ;
it is the form in which the curved lines sag towards (are convex towards) the
central line of letters. When the letters are arranged in this manner the curved
parts tend to give the impression that they have no connection with the rest of
the title. The curved lines should be arranged concave towards the central line,
as the word Profile is towards the line of letters Chattanooga to Stevenson, Ala.,
in the first title given in plate VIII.

Where the space allotted to the title is irregular in shape there is often
room for much ingenuity in arranging the title to harmonize with its
surroundings. Where titles are required for elaborate drawings, which are made
for display or similar purposes, title lettering becomes an art by itself. An
example of a more elaborate title is given at the bottom of plate VIII, but it is
rarely necessary for the engineer to make such a one.

27. Construction of the Title The construction of a title is illus-
trated in the second one given in plate VIII, to which reference through the
following discussion should be made. Having determined the position, size, and
form of the title, and which words should be given most prominence, rule pencil
lines for guides as shown, parallel to the bottom of the drawing. Then write on.
scratch paper and number the letters of the main words, thus :

1 2 8 4 56 1 8 < 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

BGGLESTON AVENUE,

counting also the space, or spaces between words. We see that the whole
number being sixteen the center line should be between the eighth and ninth
letters, provided all the letters and the spaces between words are of the same
width ; but we already know that letters are not all of the same width, and

suppose, in the present case, that we wish the interval between the words to
be a little narrower than the space occupied by an average letter, which is the
usual distance allowed between words. Noticing this point, and that the
letters A and V are the widest letters of the row and occur on the same side of
the center, but are spaced slightly closer together, as explained previously, we
would say as a first approximation that the center line comes nearer the O than
the N in the word Eggleston. Accordingly we begin near the center and pencil
in the letter N, then space off the interval between the two words, and pencil in
" Avenue." With the compass measure off to the left of the center a distance
equal to that from the center line to the end of the word Avenue, and at the
point thus found begin to pencil in " Eggleston." Now, if the position of the
center line relative to the row of letters has been correctly estimated, the letters
will fall in their proper places ; if not, the work must be erased and another
trial made ; by erasing a few of the letters near the center slight discrepancies
may be adjusted. The advantage of lettering one-half the row at a time in this
way, is, that if the first approximation is not right, usually only a few letters
near the center need to be erased to gain the proper adjustment, whereas if we
begin at the left-hand end first and letter through the row, the whole row might
have to be erased.

Suppose that the next line of letters in the same title we wish to be shorter
and smaller, and we mark the limits as shown by the short vertical lines at
equal distances from the center. In this case suppose we do not wish to take
the time to mark the letters on scratch paper and number them, now that we
have one line of letters penciled in already as a further guide. If we begin at
the left-hand and letter through to the right, the last letter may fall outside, or
partly outside, the limiting line as shown, and we would have to erase and try
over again. It would be better to pencil the word " Ohio " backwards from the
right-hand limit and then commence at the left-hand and pencil in the first
word, allowing any small discrepancy to fall in the space allowed as an interval
between the two words, for, this space does not have to be so exact as that
allowed to a letter. This method of lettering from extremities towards the
center, illustrates a second way of penciling in the rows of letters.

If the axis of the title is not that of the sheet, the longest line of letters, or
the most difficult line, may be lettered from left to right in the usual way, its
length bisected and the axis taken through the mid-point. The remaining lines
are then fitted to this axis as above. Portions of a title which have to be
repeated frequently, on the same sheet or separate sheets, may be drawn on a
slip of paper and transferred each time. The draftsman as he progresses will
find a number of methods of shortening the labor of drawing a title.

Thus we see that the process of sketching in the lines of letters of a title
first explained is a series of approximations ; bnt the practical draftsman does
not stop to measure precisely the difference in width between the different letters
and intervals to calculate exactly where the center line would fall, but from a
casual consideration of these points and from, previous experience, he estimates

EXAMPLES OF TITLES

VIII

I AND

CHATTANOOGASTEVENSON ALA

PREPARED FOR THE DIRECTORS OF THE
EAST TENNESSEE VIRGINIA & GEORGIA RY.

VHKir. At( D MS& IT 1 ?. KllJS.S(g^fL,E flK)s4 FT.
CH'F ENG'RS OFFICE CHATTANOOGA DRAWN 8Y C.E.SHERMAN SEP 1889

U iM^raQTi!

INC; INN/

NATION r

EGGLESTON AVENUE

CINCINNATI, QJ-JJO

SHOWING LOCATION OF

MIAMHERIE CANAL

OF TH

where the center would fall, and is usually able with few or no changes to
correctly pencil in the line at the first trial. It is a mistake beginners some-
times make to think that the middle letter of the row should fall on the center.
The letter P, in the first line of letters in the title we have just discussed,
happens to fall at the center, because the letters M and A on the left of the
center are wider than the other letters in the line, and the interval between
words on the right of the center has, for compactness in this case, been made
smaller than usual.

The beginner should also be cautioned about getting the lines of letters too
far apart. The distance between two rows of letters in a title should seldom be
greater than the height of the largest letters on either side of the space we are
considering. The whole title should, of course, be drawn in pencil before being
inked in, the pencil lines being afterwards erased.

28. The Style, or Styles of Letters to be used in the title should be
appropriate to the drawing as a whole ; they admit of more variation, however,
than the lettering on any other part of the drawing. The letters of a title may
all be of the same style, differing only in size, they may all be of the same style
and shaded differently, or they may be of different finish and size in the same

title.

1 The letters should correspond in conspicuousness, or body of color, with
the rest of the drawing, not being obtrusive from great heaviness of solid black
outline, or unobservable from excessive faintness. Also violent contrasts of
heaviness among neighboring portions of the title should be avoided ; although
there may be a gradual change both of intensity and size from the most to the
least important words of the title. Plain and simple titles look best on similar
drawings, while a complicated and highly finished drawing may receive a title
of a more ornamental character.'

Plate IX gives an idea of some of the styles used in mechanical drawings.
The first title was invented, and shows about the maximum limit of artistic
lettering employed on a mechanical drawing, that is to be sent away from the
shop. The remaining two titles were taken from actual designs, and show that
it is customary not to use so many styles as exhibited in the first example. The
central title is a fairly representative one, and some of the letters show that the
individuality of a draftsman may be displayed in lettering almost as plainly as
in handwriting. The last title shows how simple are the styles usually
employed on a mechanical drawing, and, if the drawing were intended for shop
use only, the lettering would be even simpler still. The flourishes or space-
fillers to the left of " R. Hoe & Co." are used to balance the title. They save
time for the experienced draftsman occasionally, because when they are used not
so much pains need be taken to balance the lettering. Another example of their
use is shown in the first title in the plate.

Plate X shows some freehand architectural titles. The central one is a
heavy title made by single strokes of a Payzant pen, and is of weight suitable
for a drawing of somewhat heavy outline, and, for detail letters on the same

drawing, those shown in the lower left-hand corner are suitable. The title at the
upper right-hand corner shows a 'colonial' style now frequently used. The
wide spacing in the first and last lines of the title would not be so appropriate
with other styles. In the upper left-hand corner is a title designed to fill a panel.
Some of the letters of this title show that shading may also be employed in
architectural letters to make a title match its drawing. This title, with several
ethers in the plate, illustrate a method of avoiding spacing letters from a central
line. Just above the central title is a sketch letter suitable for a perspective
sketch, or freehand drawing of some proposed building or interior treatment, used
only in hastily gotten up drawings. The lettering in the lower right hand cor-
ner is self-explanatory. The lettering above that in the lower left hand corner,
shows a very useful style now much in vogue in architectural work. It is easily
and quickly made and is suited in character to much of the work of the archi-
tect. It shows the tendency of architects toward using simple styles.

The matter of punctuating the title varies considerably in practice.
Usually the words are so arranged that no punctuation marks are required,
except for abbreviations, and the periods after well known abbreviations may
even sometimes be omitted. // is best, however, to print all the words in full,
unless there is not room enough, or unless the title would appear entirely too
cramped in the space in which it is to be placed. The title should not be
conspicuous for its punctuation marks, nor conspicuous for their absence where
they are needed. In any case it should be so executed that no mistake can
possibly be made as to its meaning. The title pages of books furnish
illustrative examples for study.

To add to the effect of a title, or relieve it from undue stiffness, flourishes
are sometimes employed. This is illustrated in the title given at the bottom of
plate VIII. In the first title given on the same plate, in the last line between
the words Chattanooga and Drawn, is a flourish. Some such flourish as this,
two examples of which are given in plate XI, may be placed between rows of
letters which are too far apart horizontally or vertically, to relieve the undue
stiffness. Two other simple designs for flourishing are given in plate XI, at the
right and left of the central scale designs, one of which, or some similar design,
might have been used in the above mentioned title, had the words Profile of The
been arranged on one curved line, leaving too much white space between it and
the next line below, the flourish being used to partially fill this space. But
where flourishes are used they should be simple in design, for it is easy to
overdo the decoration.

Titles placed on banners or fluttering ribbons, or amidst landscape sketches
on technical drawings, are waste of time, and, besides, are nearly always in bad
taste. As in the rest of the drawing, no handwriting should be allowed in the
title.

29. When to Ink the Title The title of a drawing should be inked in
last ; for, after all the other details of the drawing are finished the draftsman

MECHANICAL TITLES

PILLOW BLOCK

Engine

ROCHESTER, N.Y.

J" = /Foot Augus

IQ02

Drawn by.

Traced by.

Checked by_

Approved by_

OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

Chem/c&l L&bor&torV.

r^ i L s~^

Lolumbu>, U.
B.F.STURTEVANT CO., BOSTON. MASS.

'/4=l' July 3, 1Q02

15-7429 - C

CAST IR9N FIVE 5TEP 5PLIT C?NE PULLEY 5-

F-O R

No. (50 STOP -CYLINDER PRESS

IS I V

<&$&> Q%Q> CMd OSS R.HOE 8c CO.,

Half Size^- 24" Bolts 5*39

2-i" - 5*4O
Drawing No.258 2 -J" 3*43

DraftsmanNo. 15 G-z" Nuts 5* IO

ABCniTEOTVDAL TITLES ETC.

^HWfi
" 1

PROP qy ED- PLAN
FOR, THE ENLARGEMENT OF

BARNES -HIGH -SCHOOL

JOHN QVMNCY WiyoN -ARCIIITF-^

OcTOBER_--7--l 3 O i

POST-OFFICE e- COVRT'HOVSE
FRANCISCO-CAL-

A5KEN SVPERVISINC-ARCHT

OF- <6TEE:Ls CorsaTRvcrion

"-AV5EFVL ^XTYLE FOR.
ARfTHITECTVRAL LETTER.-
INO iy THE SINGLE STROKE
OLD ROMAN MORE OR. LESS
EXTENDED - - - - - - -

XTMIS LETTER. T^AY BE
T^KDE RAPlDLy WITHASUIT-
AbLE PEN AT1D 15 ALWAYS
EFFECTIVE, - - - - - -

NOTE-OOFFIT OF BALCOMY TO 5E OF
TERRA GOTTA /AOVLDED A5> SHOWN
ON DETAIL SHEET \\1\7.
TERRA COTTA COR6ELO.

-E, In &A.C.K, OF- T O

DOTTEO LIMES SHOW
F-OR. FLr/N&H I N &

IN'

WITH-INTERIOR.-DEG
ORATION-THE-STYLE
ADOPTED -MUST BE-i N-

-BETREATED-WITH-FR-

may frequently ' balance ' the whole drawing, by taking advantage of the
freedom allowed in selecting the styles and finish of the letters used in the title.
Sometimes the title is drawn on a separate piece of paper and then copied on
the drawing. The advantage of doing this is, that before copying, alterations
may be made until the title is seen to harmonize with the rest of the drawing.
This scheme is especially useful in cases where elaborate titles are to be made
and it is desirable to do as little erasing as possible on the drawing.

30. Type Specimen In the central part of plate VII is given a portion
of a title (reduced one-half) taken from one of a series of drawings (blue prints)
of concrete structures, designed for the Illinois and Mississippi canal, which
were made in the U. S. Engineer Office at Chicago. The remainder of the title
consists of the words " Scale i in. = 1 ft," together with a scale diagram, which
for lack of space has been omitted in the plate. It happens that the number
" 10 " comes at the middle of the first line, and is made larger to give a pleasing
effect. But attention is called especially to this feature ; the letters of any one
line are all (with the exception noted above) of the same size, irrespective of the
importance of the words. Thus in the last line of the title, the letters in the
word "of" are made the same size as those in the words "upper portion" and
"lock." This plan has been carried out throughout the titles and sub-titles of
this series of drawings, with manifest advantage. The lettering, including the
figures, (which is the finest the writer has seen) was first done with sets of type
and a hand stamp, as described on page 10, on drawing paper, then the drawing
and lettering together were traced on vellum from which the blue prints were
made.

31. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON LETTERING We have given in the
preceding pages both mechanical methods, by means of which any person can
learn to form letters and words, and illustrations and practical suggestions by
means of which the student may improve himself in freehand lettering.
Beginning with the study of the forms of the individual letters, the student, by
studying spacing, sizing, disposition, and styles, progresses through mechanical
methods, freehand lettering and title lettering, until he has mastered the whole
subject of technical lettering. In the preceding pages it has been attempted to
explain the principles and governing laws of the subject in so far as they are
discoverable, so that any person by study and practice may master the subject.
It should be born in mind, however, that the lettering, as well as the other
features, of a drawing is intended primarily to suit the eye ; that is, to convey
the ideas, the drawing is meant to convey, to the mind through the medium of
the eye, and to gain this end we find we may often depart from rule. For this
reason it may happen that a person may sometimes observe every recognized
law of the subject, and yet not excel in drafting, while a person who has never
studied the subject may be a good draftsman, although he -is likely to follow
unconsciously the governing laws.

However, the writer believes that the skill for lettering technical drawings
well, is an accomplishment which can be acquired by study, by observation, and

by practice : that beyond this we enter the realm of art where talent is required,
but that as technical drawing makes up a large part of the work of the engineer,
he should strive to perfect himself in this branch. Lettering, therefore, as a
prominent feature of technical drawing, should receive its due share of attention.
In closing, let us again urge the importance of practice. No one would think of
learning to swim by simply reading how to do it, so, no one can learn to letter
by simply perusing text. In no other business is the saying truer that 'work
makes the workman.'

Chapter IV.

NORTH-POINTS, SCALES, AND BORDERS

32. The subject of north-points, scales, and borders, although not a part of
lettering, will be treated here in connection with that subject, as it is usually so
treated in such books as have touched upon the matter. In what follows, use
has largely been made of a chapter on map drawing and lettering by F. S.
Denuison in Hodgman and Bellows' " Manual of Land Surveying."

33. North-points When the drawing is a map or plat of a survey, north-
points or meridians are used to indicate direction. If no north-point appeared
on such a drawing, the top would be taken to represent north, the right hand
east, and so on. Regarding north-points, the following is taken from the article
by Prof. Dennison :

"A true meridian is a necessary adjunct of all rightly constructed maps, as
it is directionally their common line of comparison, and without it no just notion
of the situation of the territory represented by the map, or of the bearing of its
lines, can be obtained. It is, in fact, one of the co-ordinates to which reference
is made for the solution of all problems of position on the drawing, and as such
is entitled to consideration. This line should, therefore, be a somewhat
conspicious object, and the object of its existence demands that it should not be
so obscured by ornament as to defeat its use as a sharp, clear line of reference
for all north and south lines. Nevertheless, the draughtsman is warranted in
giving to its construction more than a hasty or careless consideration. It is
usual to ornament the northern end of this meridian with some neatly drawn
and characteristic device, such as an arrow head, a fleur-de-lis, the head of a
mediaeval lance, etc. At its southern extremity is sometimes placed the feather
end of an arrow, or a crescent. Near the middle of the line may be drawn an
east and west line, or four or eight pointed star, or radiating lines marking
convenient points of graduation of the circle. It is well, also, to draw the
magnetic meridian at the time of the survey, through the middle point of the
true meridian, and mark the declination. This magnetic meridian should be
even less ornamental than the true one, and when both are used it is generally
agreed to draw a complete arrow head on the latter, while the magnetic line is
subordinated by giving it only half a head, drawn on the right or left hand side,
as the declination is east or west."

a The construction of a meridian affords considerable opportunity for the
display of skill and taste in the draughtsman. It may easily be made an
attractive, simple and elegant figure, reflecting the intelligence and spirit of an
accomplished workman ; or by its awkward design and slovenly execution,
shake one's confidence in the mental capacity of one upon whom we should have

a right to rely. Perhaps it would not be inappropriate to say that the meridian
line should be sufficiently long on most maps, to serve conveniently the purpose
of transferring its direction to other parts of the drawing by means of a triangle
and a straight-edge. The arrow head at the vertex should be a sharply pointed
figure, entirely different from the obtuse, non-descript object which too often
offends the eye in that position. And, to avoid all possibility of mistake, it is
well to place the letter N some slight distance above or below the arrow point.
When a star is used to give the various points of the compass, its radiating arms
should be narrow and slender, with sharp points, avoiding all appearance or
suggestion of dullness. In short, the entire figure should be constructed in the
spirit of lightness and radiation, in harmony with its office, which is simply that
of indicating direction"

In plate XI are given five designs for north -points which were taken from
Esser's 'Alphabets,' and one (the central star) taken from Worthen's, Topo-
graphical Drawing. For ordinary use one of the first three will generally be
found appropriate. However, if the drawing is more elaborate, one of the more
elaborate ones may be selected to correspond, or the draftsman may design one
to suit the case in hand. As already stated, a star is sometimes used. When
the magnetic meridian is also indicated, as in the central star of the plate, the
amount of variation from the true meridian should be stated in print between the
two. The size and position of the north-point may vary considerably. Usually
it is placed somewhere near the top of the drawing where the shape of the latter
affords a convenient place, but sometimes when it consists of a simple design it
is drawn directly upon the other features. This plan, however, should not be
followed when a convenient place can be found for it. Its size will depend upon
the size and scale of the drawing. Generally it will be slightly shorter than the
length of the title.

34. Scales The scale of the drawing should, of course, invariably be
given. This is either done by indicating it in print, or by drawing for the pur-
pose some such design as is seen in the center of plate XI, or by a combination
of both, as in the design at the lower left hand corner of the central part of the
plate. Where the drawing is not to be reproduced, as a plan or other drawing
made for office use only, the scale may be indicated simply by lettering, as in
the first title on plate VIII ; but where the drawing is to be reproduced by any
one of the various processes of printing, as for example, a map to be engraved,
it is better to indicate the scale by some such design as either of these shown in
plate XI, as the reproduction may not be of the same size, and, therefore, not of
the same scale as the original, and the design will then show the amount of
reduction or enlargement. The scale is generally placed near the title, usually
underneath it ; if this rule is not followed, the scale is placed in some part of
the drawing where it can readily be found.

35. Borders Strictly speaking, the border is an unnecessary part of the
drawing, as the utility of the latter would not be injured by the entire absence
cf a border. But, in at once limiting the eye to that portion of the paper which

NORTH POINTS SCALES & BORDERS

3 Fed Per Inch

I Z J 4 5

c a. 1 e o / Jlf 6 e >s

Z 3 4 5 ' S 7 8

47 HENR

Vni

has a distinct claim upon its notice, and in adding materially to the impression
of completeness, accuracy, and neatness which one receives from such a drawing,
the border is not without even some utilitarian value. As has been said of the
north-point, the title, and the lettering in general, the border should agree in
character with the rest of the drawing. In the lower part of plate XI a number
of designs for borders are given. The simple heavy line, or a heavy line
enclosing a lighter one, is a very good border for ordinary drawings. Two light
lines enclosing a heavy one in the manner shown, is a border that has been
much used by the United States engineers. Very elaborate drawings, or
drawings made for display, may receive more ornamental borders ; but even in
such elaborate drawings it should be remembered that freehand decorations
representing garlands, vines, tassels, etc., are generally in bad taste. The
simple borders used on the fine maps of the United States Coast Survey show
that plain borders are often not inconsistent with elaborate drawings, and that
the beginner is therefore in more danger of overdoing than underdoing the
matter of borders.

The border on a technical drawing usually encloses a rectangular area, and
should be made to enclose as small an area as is possible without appearing to
cramp the drawing. To gain this end it is sometimes convenient to break the
border and allow projecting parts of an irregular figure to protrude. When
parts so protrude, they should not extend farther than half way between the
border and the edge of the paper, if it is desired to attain neatness in the
drawing.

Regarding the width, " a rule commonly followed is to make the total width
of the border about the one-hundredth part of the shortest edge of the drawing,
supposing the latter to be rectangular in shape. If two lines, a heavy and a
light one, are used for a border, the white space between the heavy and light
line is usually made about the width of the heavy line."

The distance between the border and the edge of the paper is also a matter
for consideration. The usual width of this margin around the border is an inch
and a quarter or an inch and a half, on drawings of less dimensions than, say,
two and a half feet by three feet. The width of this margin, however, depends
upon circumstances, such as the scale and shape of the plot ; for example, of
two drawings made on the same sized sheets, the one drawn to the larger scale
may consistently have a wider margin. It is best to allow at least an inch and a
quarter on all drawings, we may safely say. Of course if collections of draw-
ings are to be bound, the above rules may be modified to suit the circumstances.

36. REFERENCES The following works were consulted in first writing
this book :

Appleton's Cyclopedia of Technical Drawings, pages 65 to 70, and pages
174 to 181. There are some good suggestions on spacing in this book which
have been quoted in the article on the spacing of letters in the present treatise
at page 11.

A Practical Treatise on Topographical Drawing, extracted and slightly
modified from Appleton's Cyclopedia and edited by Wm. E. Worihen. This
work is comprised in Appleton's, but has a few suggestions in addition.

Ames' Alphabets is a collection of 35 plates of letters and figures "adapted
to the use of architects, engravers, engineers, artists, sign painters, draftsmen,
etc." This work contains several plates of letters suited to engineers, but the
majority of the plates are too ornamental for technical drawings.

Plain and Ornamental Standard Alphabets, by Frederick Copley, is a
collection of 46 plates of " alphabets of all the various hands in modern use,
with examples in each style, designed as a text book." Most of these alphabets
are too elaborate for technical use, but there are a number which are appropriate
for titles.

Freehand Lettering for Working Drawings, by Prof. C. B. Wing, of Leland
Stanford, Jr. University, is a little pamphlet of alphabets, only three or four of
which, in the writer's opinion, are to be recommended for ordinary use. There
is a pithy preface to this pamphlet, which has been quoted from on page 35 of
this book.

Industrial Science Drawing, Part II, by S. Edward Warren, contains in
article 246, page 146, a few suggestions on lettering, including title lettering.

Draughtsman's Alphabets, " a series of plain and ornamental alphabets,"
by Herman Esser, is a collection of 31 plates of letters for draftsmen, sign
painters, architects, etc. From this work have been taken five of the designs for
north-points, given in plate XL For the rest of this book, the remarks made
about Ames' alphabets will apply.

Students Alphabets is a pamphlet of eight plates taken from Esser's book
of alphabets and slightly modified, published by Keuffel & Esser, New York
and Chicago.

Topographical Drawing and Sketching, by Lieut. H. A. Reed, from pages
63 to 69, contains some valuable ideas on lettering topographical maps. These
suggestions are applicable to general maps and have been quoted in part in the
article on Disposition of the Letters, page 13 of the present work.

The Draughtsman's Handbook of Plan and Map Drawing, by G. G. Andre,
contains some useful matter on lettering, together with three or four plates of
letters. The book is English, and hardly represents American practice at the
present time.

A Manual of Topographical Drawing, by Lieut. R. S. Smith, contains some
suggestions on lettering in articles 78 and 79, and 80 and 81, pages 40 to 45.

In a Manual of Land Surveying, by Hodgman & Bellows, is a chapter on
map drawing and lettering, by C. S. Dennisoii, which is well worth reading by
every draftsman. This chapter, as already mentioned, has been drawn upon
largely in the article upon north-points, scales, and borders.

In the Manual of Topography, by J. Enthoffer, the aesthetics and
construction of letters are elaborately discussed on pages 23 to 33, and three
plates of letters are given to illustrate the text.

The Book of Ornamental Alphabets, Modern and Mediaeval, by F.
Delamotte, is a collection of 54 plates of alphabets, initial letters, etc., all of
which are too elaborate for use on technical drawings.

A System of Easy Lettering, by J. H. Cromwell, is a paper-bonnd collection
of twenty-six plates of alphabets. In this work is shown a method of lettering
in which "we have but to divide any surface we may wish to letter into squares
(or parallelograms, as the case may be), in pencil lines ; form the required letters,
in ink or paint, according to the style chosen ; erase the pencil lines, and the
lettering is complete." This method, however, results in letters too stiff and
awkward in appearance to be used very much.

In the Theory and Practice of Surveying, by Prof. J. B. Johnson, the short
article on map lettering, is pithy and to the point.

Mechanical Drawing, by C. W. MacCord, is "progressive exercises" for
mechanical engineers, in its first part, but contains on page 52 a plate of good
borders for drawings of machines, etc. Some of these borders have been selected
or modified for plate XI of the present work.

In writing the present treatise the attempt has been made to include all
there is on lettering in the above mentioned books that is of practical value to
the engineer.

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