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IV 






THE TEMPLE 

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 




MOSES MICHEL ANGELO 



THE TEMPLE 

DICTION ARY0/V>fc BIBLE 

WRITTEN &? EDITED BY 

REV. W. EWING, M.A. 

FORMERLY OF TIBERIAS, PALESTINE, AND 

REV. J. E. H.THOMSON, D.D. 

FORMERLY OF SAFED, PALESTINE, AND 
OTHER SCHOLARS & DIVINES 




WITH FIVE HUNDRED 
ILLUSTRATIONS 




1910 

LONDON: J. M. DENT & SONS, LTD, 
NEW YORK : E. P. DUTTON Gf CO. 



Printed by R.U.I.ANTYNK HANSON ~ Co. 
At tin- B.illantyne Press, Edinburgh. 



To 

THE REVEREND 
PRINCIPAL THOMAS M. LINDSAY, D.D., LL.D. 

UNITED FREE CHURCH COLLEGE, GLASGOW 
AND 

JAMES DUNCAN MACLAREN, ESQ., M.D. 

DUNREGGAN, ELIE, FIFE 



PREFACE 



RECENT years have witnessed great activity in various fields of research, the results of which are 
of high importance for students of the Bible. The records of antiquity discovered in Egypt and 
the Euphrates valley, with which Palestine stood in such close relations, have been carefully examined 
by expert scholars. Much light has thus been cast upon the history of these far-off days, and upon the 
condition of the world in patriarchal times. The Palestine Exploration Fund and kindred societies 
have carried forward the work of exploration and excavation in Palestine itself. Adventurous scholars 
have risked the perils of travel and research in Arabia. Sir W. M. Ramsay has earned the grati 
tude of Christendom by, practically single-handed, lifting the veil which for centuries had obscured 
the Asia Minor of apostolic days. A great mass of information has thus become available for the use 
of Bible Students, bearing upon the Peoples, the social and religious Life, &c., in Palestine and the 
neighbouring countries, from pre-Israelite times to the days of the apostles. 

At the same time the attention of scholars has been concentrated upon the Literature of Scripture, 
with a view to determine such questions as the Date, Authorship, and Mode of Composition of the 
various books. Vital interest has been revived in many of the writings, especially in the Old Testa 
ment, by a fuller knowledge of their relations to and significance for the age in which their authors 
lived. The Editors of this Dictionary acknowledge the value of the service rendered to the cause 
of Sacred Learning all the more willingly because they are unable to accept many of the so-called 
" results " of Higher Criticism. This applies particularly to the detailed and minute analysis of the 
different books. Here, indeed, the Critics are hopelessly at variance among themselves. This is not 
surprising when it is remembered that the " results " so often rest on no more stable ground than 
questionable assumption and conjecture : these, again, being conditioned by the mental idiosyncrasies 
of individual Critics. The wise words of the late Mr. W. E. H. Lecky may be quoted as expressing 
the judgment of an enlightened and impartial mind : 

" Connected with this subject [credibility of statements] is also the question how far it is possible, 
by merely internal evidence, to decompose an ancient document, resolving it into its separate 
elements, distinguishing its different dates and different degrees of credibility. The reader is no 
doubt aware with what rare skill this method of inquiry has been pursued in the present [nine 
teenth] century, chiefly by great German and Dutch scholars, in dealing with the early Jewish 
writings. At the same time, without disputing the value of their work, or the importance of many of 
the results at which they have arrived, I may be pardoned for expressing my belief that this kind of 
investigation is often pursued with an exaggerated confidence. Plausible conjecture is too frequently 
mistaken for positive proof. Undue significance is attached to what may be mere casual coincidences, 
and a minuteness of accuracy is professed in discriminating between different elements in a nar 
rative which cannot be attained by mere internal evidence. In all writings, but especially in the 
writings of an age when criticism was unknown, there will be repetitions, contradictions, incon 
sistencies and diversities of style, which do not necessarily indicate different authorship or dates " 
(Historical and Political Essays, Thoughts on History, p. 8). 

Excellent work has been done in the larger Dictionaries of the Bible recently published, in the 
way of focussing the information now available. These are written, however, from a more advanced 
Critical point of view than the Editors of this DICTIONARY are able to adopt. Their size and 
price, also, put them beyond the reach of many who are keenly alive to the necessity for competent 
and trustworthy guidance in their study of the Scriptures. The Editors therefore believe that 
there is a place for a DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE which, leaving aside all that is merely theoretical 
and speculative, shall present simply and clearly the state of ascertained knowledge on the subjects 
dealt with, at a price which shall bring the latest results of scholarly investigation within the reach 
of every earnest student of the Bible. 

The Editors have kept steadily in view the needs of the Working Clergyman, the Local Preacher, 
the Class Leader, and the Sunday School Teacher ; while not forgetting the ordinary Reader of the 



PREFACE 

Bible. They have drawn, wherever possible, on their own personal acquaintance with the Lands of 
the Bible, the Peoples, their Manners and Customs, and the Conditions of their Life. Many articles of 
special importance have been entrusted to scholars whose distinction in their own subjects commands 
universal respect. The writers are responsible for the views which they express. 

The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Truro had undertaken to write the article on the English 
Bible. L nfortunately he was prevented by illness from doing this ; and at very short notice Mr. 
Alaclean Watt of Alloa kindly wrote the article. 

The DICTIONARY deals with Biblical Antiquities, Biography, History, Literature, Manners and 
Customs, Natural History, Geography, and Topography. 

Repetition has been avoided by a careful arrangement of cross-references. Space has also been 
saved by a system of easily understood contractions, thus, making possible a fuller treatment of the more 
important subjects. 

The numerous Illustrations, it is hoped, will prove not only attractive but highly useful. Some, 
e.g., show at a glance objects of interest, ancient methods of work, &c. ; others enable the reader to 
realise more vividly the Background and Atmosphere of the Bible History. 

The Editors and Publishers are deeply indebted to Dr. Mackinnon of Damascus, Dr. Paterson 
of Hebron, Dr. R. J. Drummond of Edinburgh, Mrs. Gibson, D.D., LL.D., of Cambridge, and 
Arthur W. Sutton, Esq., J.P., Bucklebury Place, Woolhampton, Berks, for many photographs used as 
illustrations; to Oliphant Smeaton, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., Edinburgh, for valued counsel and assistance, 
especially in the reading of proofs ; and to John Hutchison, Esq.. LL.D., Glasgow, for help with 
articles in the Apocrypha. They have to thank Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. for permission to 
use the following illustrations from Wood s Bible Animals, in addition to those acknowledged in the 
text, viz. : Fallow deer, p. 198 ; Gerizim, p. 221 ; Glede, p. 226; Goat, p. 227; Hawk, p. 251 ; Heron, 
p. 262. 

They have also to thank the Palestine Exploration Fund for the following illustrations, besides 
those acknowledged in the text, viz.: Carmel in Judaea, p. 81 ; Kerak, p. 370; Lydda, Church of 
St. George, p. 403 ; Michmash, p. 464. 

EDINBURGH, December 1909. 



N.B. The initial appearing in the body of an article stands for the subject at the head. 

In Scripture references the figures on the line denote the chapters, the small superior figures 

the verses : thus Jn. 3 16 stands for John, chap. 3, verse 1 6. 
In the titles of books, the small superior figure indicates the edition. 



via 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE v ij 

TABLE OF CONTRACTIONS AND TRANSLITERATION . X J 

WRITERS OF ARTICLES ...... . x jij 

THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE, by the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Ripon . . xv 
SPECIAL ARTICLES 

THE ENGLISH BIBLE, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE .... xx 

APOCRYPHA OF THE NEW TESTAMENT . xxviii 

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE ........ xxix 

THE TARGUMS .... . xxxviii 

VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES . xli 

PHILO JUD^US ........... xlv 

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS ............. xlviii 

THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE DURING THE TIME OF OUR LORD li 

DICTIONARY, CANONICAL SECTION ........ ... I 

APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, INTRODUCTORY ARTICLE ...... 937 



DICTIONARY OF THE APOCRYPHA 



942 



CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA 1012 

MAPS 

1. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NATIONS ACCORDING TO GENESIS . .... 1014 

2. EGYPT AND THE SINAI PENINSULA .... ...... 1016 

3. CANAAN, SHOWING APPROXIMATELY THE PORTIONS ALLOTTED TO THE TWELVE TRIBES . 1018 

4. THE BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN EMPIRES .... .... 1020 

5. PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST 1021 

6. JERUSALEM, ANCIENT AND MODERN 1023 

7. THE TRAVELS OF ST. PAUL . 1025 

8. PHYSICAL MAP OF MODERN PALESTINE 1027 



IX a z 




THE MOSQUE OF OMAR: JERUSALKM 



CONTRACTIONS 



accdg. =aecording, -ly. 


h. 


= husband. 


P. = Priestly Narrative. 


act. = account. 


HA. 


Benzinger s Hebriiische 


Pal. = Palestine. 


AE. Wilkinson s Ancient Egyp 




Archdologie. 


PEFM. = Palestine Exploration Fund, 


tians. 


HDD. 


Hastings Dictionary of 


Memoirs. 


agst. =against. 




the Bible. 


PEFQ. = Palestine Exploration Fund, 


Alx. = Alexandrian. 


Heb. 


Hebrew. 


Quarterly Statement. 


anct. =ancient. 


hist. 


= history. 


Phil. =Philistine, -s. 


Ant. =Josephus, Antiquities of the 


HGHL. 


-Smith s Hist. Geog. of the 


Pnt. = Pentateuch. 


Jews. 




Holy Land. 


poss. = possible, possibly. 


Ape. = Apocalypse. 


HJP. 


= Schiirer s Hist, of the 


prob. = probable, prcbably 


Apcr. = Apocrypha. 




Jewish People in the 


prop. = proper, -ly. 


Aq. =Aquila. 




Time of Christ. 


Psh. = Peshitta. 


AV. = Authorised Version. 


Hx. 


= Hexateuch. 


R. = Redactor. 


AVm. = ,, ,, margin. 


IBD. 


Murray s Illustrated Bible 


rclg. = read ing. 


Aram. = Aramaic. 




Dictionary. 


refce. = reference. 


Arb. =Arab, Arabic. 


ident. 


= identify, identified. 


relg. =religion. 


Asyr. = Assyria, Assyrian. 


inscr. 


= inscription. 


Rm. = Rome, Roman. 


Bab. = Baby Ion, Babylonia. 


Isr. 


= Israel, Israelite. 


A S. Robertson Smith s Religion 


BJ. =Josephus Wars of the Jews. 


J. 


Jehovist. 


of the Semites. 


bldg. = building. 


J". 


Jehovah. 


RV. = Revised Version. 


bk. =book. 


Jos. 


=Jcsephus. 


RVm. = ,, ,, margin. 


br. = brother. 


Jrs. 


=Jerusalem. 


S. =South. 


BRP. = Robinson s Biblical Re 


Jw. En. 


Jewish Encyclopaedia. 


Sam. = Samaritan. 


searches in Palestine. 


k. 


= king. 


SDI). = Smith s Dictionary of the 


cd. = could. 


KB. 


= Guthe s Kurzes Bibel- 


Bible. 


c. = circa. 




worterbtich. 


shd. = should. 


Can. = Canaan, Canaanites. 


kdm. 


^kingdom. 


s. =son. 


cert. = certain, -ly. 


kge. 


= knowledge. 


spt. =spirit, spiritual, -lv. 


char. = character, -istic. 


KIB. 


= Keilinschriftliche Biblio- 


sr. = sister. 


corrsp. =correspond, -ing, -ly. 




thek. 


SSG. =Sanday s Sacred Sites if the 


Com. = Commentary. 


lang. 


language. 


Gospels. 


Com m. = Commentaries. 


Lat. 


= Latin. 


subj. =subject. 


COT. =Shrader s Cuneiform lii- 


LB. 


= Thomson s Land and the 


sugg. = suggest, -ion. 


scrips. and O T. 




Book. 


Sym. =Symmachus. 


cp. = compare. 


lit. 


= literal, -ly. 


Syr. =Syria, Syriac, Syrian. 


D. =Deuteronomist. 


Lit. 


Literature. 


Tg. =Targum. 


DCG. = Hastings Dictionary of 


LOT. 


Driver s Introduction to 


Tg. C c. =Tg. Caecus. 


Christ and the Gospels. 




the Lit. of the OT. 


Tg.Jn. =Tg. Jonathan. 


desc. = descendant. 


LTJ. 


Edersheim s Life and 


Tg-J rs - = Tg. Jerusalem. 


difft. = different. 




Times of Jesus the 


Tg.O. =Tg. Onkelos. 


diffc. = difference. 




Messiah, 1900. 


Tg. PJ. =Tg. pseudo-Jonathan. 


dr. = daughter. 


LXX 


= Septuagint. 


Thd. =Theodotion. 


dyn. = dynasty. 


mod. 


= modern. 


Tim. = Talmud. 


E. =East (direction). 


mr. 


= mother. 


TR. =Textus Receptus. 


E. =Elohist. 


MS. , MSS 


= Manuscript, -s. 


tr. = translate, translaticn. 


EB. Encyclop. Biblica. 


mt. 


= might. 


trlt. = transliterate. 


Egp. = Egypt. 


MT. 


= Massoretic Text. 


usl. usual, -ly. 


Epp. = Epistles. 


N. 


= Ncrth. 


vill. village. 


esp. ^especially. 


n. 


= note. 


Vig. = Vulgate. 


Eth. = Ethiopia 


nar. 


= narrative. 


VV. Versions 


EV. =AV. and RV. 


nat. 


= nature, natural, -ly. 


\V. = West. 


f. = following. 


NHA. 


= Nowack s Hebriiische 


w. =wife. 


fig. =figure, figurative, -ly. 




A rchdologie. 


wd. = would. 


fr. = fat her. 


NT. 


= New Testament. wh. =which. 


gen. = general, -ly. 


obj. 


object, -ion. If"//. \Vestcott and Hurt s Gteek 


GPS. =Gesenius. 


OEJ. 


Onomasticon of Eiihcbiu.s 


Text of NT. 


Gr. =Greek. 




and Jerome. Yr. = year. 


H. Law of Holiness. 


OT, 


=Old Testament. 



CANONICAL BOOKS 



Gn. 


= Genesis. 


Jr. = Jeremiah, Km. 


= Romans. 


Ex. 


Exodus. 


L. = Lamentations. i Cor. ^ 


= ist and 2nd Corinthians. 


Lv. 


= Leviticus. 


Ek. = Ezekiel. 2 Cor. ) 




Nu. 


= Numbers. 


I).]. = Daniel. Gal. 


= Galatians. 


l)i. 


= Deuteronomv. 


Ho. =Hosca. Eph. 


-= Ephesians. 


[o. 


Joshua. 


Jl. =Joel. I hp. 


I hilippians. 


Jg- 


-Judges. 


Am. ---Amos. Col. 


= Colossians. 


Ru. 

I S. , 2 S. 


-=Ruth. 
= ist and 2nd Samuel. 


O. = Obadiah. i Th. ( 
Jh. = Jon ah. 2 Th. i 


= istandandThessalonian 


iK.., 2 K 
i Ch. \ 


ist and 2nd Kings. 


Mi. =Micah. i Tm. ) 
N a. = Xahum. 2 Tm. ) 


ist and 2nd Timothy. 




= ist and 2nd Chronicles. 






2 Ch. ) 




lib. --Habakkuk. Tt. 


= Titus. 


Ez. 


= Ezra. 


/p. = Zephaniah. Phm. 


= Philemon. 


Ne. 


= Xeliemiah. 


Hg. = Haggai. He. 


. Hebrews. 


Est. 


= Esther. 


7.c. = Zechariah. Js. 


= James. 


.11). 


=Job. 


Ml. =Malaclii. i P., 2 I 1 


= ist and 2nd Peter. 


Ps. 
Pr. 


= Psalms. 
= Proverbs. 


M\v. -Matthew. i, 2, & ) 
Mk. =Mark. 3 Jn. ) 


= ist, and, and 3rd John. 


EC. 


= Ecclcsiastes. 


Lk. =Luke. lu. 


=Jude. 


SS. 


= Song of Solomon, 


Jn. =J(,hn. Rv. 


= Revelation. 


Is. 


Isaiah. 


Ac. = Acts of the Apostles. 





I & 2 Es. 


= ist and 2n- 


ICsdras. Sr. 


i:st. Ad. 


--Additions t 


> Esther. 


I5,i. 


J.h. 


= Ju lith. 




ST. 


\Vs. 


= \\ isdom. 




Su. 


To. 


= Tobit. 







APOCRYPHA 

= Ecclesiasticus, or Siracli. Bel. Bel and the Dragon. 

= Baruch. Mn. = Prayer of Manasses. 

=Song of the three Children. iM.,2M. ) =ist, 2ntl, 3rd, and 4th 

= Susanna. 3\I.,4M. ) Maccabees. 



En. = Enoch. 

Ape. Bar. = Apocalypse of Baruch. 

Ps. Sol. = Psalter t>f Solomon. 



APOCALYPTIC 

Assn. M. = Assumption of Moses. 
Bk. Ju. = Book of Jubilees. 
Asc. Is. = Ascension of Isaiah. 



XII. P. = Testaments of the Twelve 

Patriarchs. 
Sib. Or. = Sibylline Oracles. 



2 = b 

\ T 

n = d 
n = h 

1 = u, \v 
T-?. 

n - h 



HEBREW 




TRANSLITERATION 







ARABIC 

~ =d 






J =I 

, -m 
., = n 

, u, w 

o = > 



WRITERS OF ARTICLES 

The Right Rev. the LORD BISHOP OF RIPON. 

Rev. P. HENDERSON AITKEN, D.Litt., Bridge of Weir. 

Rev. S. ANGUS, M.A., Ph.D., Lecturer on Hellenistic Greek in Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. 

Rev. G. H. Box, M.A., late Hebrew Master at Merchant Taylor s School, London, Sutton Rectory, 

Sandy, Beds. 

Rev. W. F. BOYD, B.D., D.Phil., Methlick. 
Rev. WM. M. CHRISTIE, Aleppo, Syria. 
Miss J. M. M. CUNNINGHAM, London. 
Rev. Professor G. H. DALMAN, Ph.D., of Leipzig University, Director of the German Archaeological 

Institute, Jerusalem. 
Rev. JOHN DAVIDSON, M.A., Dunipace. 
Rev. WM. FAIRWEATHER, D.D., Kirkcaldy. 
Rev. A. F. FINDLAY, M.A., Arbroath. 
Mrs. MARGARET D. GIBSON, D.D., LL.D., Cambridge. 
JOHN HUTCHISON, Esq., LL.D., Glasgow. 
Rev. Principal IVERACH, D.D., Aberdeen. 

ROBERT A. LUNDIE, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S., Edinburgh. 
Rev. Professor H. R. MACKINTOSH, D.Phil., D.D., Edinburgh. 
Rev. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Litt., Fellow of New College, Laudian Professor of Arabic in 

the University of Oxford. 
Rev. N. R. MITCHELL, B.A., Whitsome. 
Rev. W. MORGAN, M.A., Tarbolton. 
Rev. JOHN M GILCHRIST, B.D., Skelmorlie. 

Rev. THOMAS NICOL, D.D., Professor of Biblical Criticism in the University of Aberdeen. 
Rev. Professor JAMES ORR, D.D., Glasgow. 
Rev. Professor J. A. PATERSON, D.D., Edinburgh. 
Rev. R. G. PHILIP, M.A., Glencairn. 
Rev. S. M. RIDDICK, M.A., Grangemouth. 
Rev. JAMES ROBERTSON, D.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of 

Glasgow. 

Rev. DONALD Ross, London. 
Rev. A. H. SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., D.Litt., Fellow of Queen s College, Professor of Assyriology in 

the University of Oxford. 

Rev. Professor C. ANDERSON SCOTT, M.A., Cambridge. 
Rev. Professor ERNEST F. SCOTT, B.A., D.D., Kingston L^niversity, Canada. 
Rev. JOHN W. SLATER, B.D., Scone. 
OLIPHANT SMEATON, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., Edinburgh. 
Rev. Professor JAMES STALKER, D.D., Aberdeen. 

Rev. G. W. THATCHER, M.A., B.D., Warden of Camden College, Sydney. 
MARCUS TOD, Esq., M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 
Rev. GEORGE P. WALLACE, B.D., Roberton. 
Rev. L. MACLEAN WATT, B.D., Alloa. 
Professor R. M. WENLEY, D.Sc., the University of Michigan, U.S.A. 

xiii 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 

BY 

THE RIGHT REVEREND THE LORD BISHOP OF RIPON 



THE Bible is the book which for generations has 
inspired the religious life of the English-speaking 
people. It has exercised a wide and deep influence 
upon national thought, life, and character. This in 
itself is a historical fact all the more remarkable now 
that we have begun to understand better the nature 
of the Bible. It is no unfair reflection upon our 
forefathers, who drew mental and moral vigour as 
well as spiritual consolation from the Bible, to say 
that their understanding of the Bible was often 
crude and inexact : happily the ethical power of the 
Bible is not lost, even when certain passages and 
portions are not wholly understood. Indeed the 
very misunderstandings serve to throw into clearer 
light the wonderful influence of the Bible upon our 
country s history. For here is one striking aspect of 
this influence : the Bible is a collection of writings 
which represent the literature of the Hebrew 
people. The literature of the Jews a small 
people, whose historical importance was never 
very great when compared with the world-ruling 
monarchies, and whose political history closed two 
thousand years ago has become the moral guide of 
a great people of the West, and has become to them 
a very real message of God, inspiring their courage 
and largely shaping their destiny. 

There must be some special qualities in this 
literature to produce so remarkable a result ; for 
be it remembered that it is not as literature that 
the Bible was read by our forefathers. It was read 
much more for its ethical force and spiritual outlook 
than for its literary qualities. It would perhaps be 
true to say that two or three generations ago the 
idea of the Bible as literature would have been re 
garded as almost irreverent. Some scholars might 
have tolerated such a description, but popularly it 
would have been resented, if not condemned. And 
yet, as a simple fact, the Bible is a collection of the 
literature of the Hebrew people, and in this fact 
there lies deep and real significance. 

For let us for a moment consider the growth of 
what we call modern civilisation : this growth has 
been largely aided by the influence of the great 
peoples of the past. Greece and Rome have con 
tributed their share to those thoughts and ideas 
which, having found acceptance in the experience 



of the past, have passed into the great treasure- 
house of Western civilisation. In one sense the 
sceptre has never departed from Greece or from 
Rome. In the realm of thought and art Greece 
still rules, and the sovereignty of Rome still finds 
expression in the laws of European nations. But 
Greece and Rome exercised their influence to a 
great extent by reason of their power of conquest. 
Their genius was allied with military power : their 
literature gained opportunities of circulation as the 
power of the sword brought new territories beneath 
their sway. But Jewish literature owed nothing 
to the sword : Israel never had an Alexander or a 
Caesar, and yet the literature of the Hebrew has 
spread far beyond that of Greece or Rome, and has 
entered into the life of Western peoples after a 
fashion which Greek and Roman literature have 
never done. Further, Greek and Roman literatures 
have made their way, if I may use the expression, 
piecemeal into Western life : Europe has known the 
poems of Homer and Virgil and Horace, the plays of 
Sophocles and ^schylus and Terence separately ; 
but Europe has accepted in the Bible a complete 
collection of Hebrew literature it has not known 
Job and Isaiah, Daniel and the Apocalypse, Ruth 
and the Gospels separately, but just the Bible, from 
Genesis to Revelation, as one book. There must 
have been some singular and appropriate quality 
in this Hebrew literature to bring about so remark 
able a result. This quality I believe to be its very 
clear and distinctive religious quality. The Bible 
is religious in a way in which the greatest works of 
Greece and Rome cannot be said to be religious ; 
the Bible is literature, but it is literature impreg 
nated with a religious spirit which can find no 
counterpart in the literature of any other race. 

To say this is not to undervalue what other races 
have done for the advancement of the world. We 
owe philosophical insight to Greece ; law and prac 
tical statesmanship to Rome ; but in the Bible we 
have the literature of a people who surpassed all 
other people in religious sensibility and insight. 
Religious consciousness is to be found among all 
races, but if we want to find the high-water-mark of 
the religious consciousness of mankind, we must find 
it in this literature of the Hebrew people. Here 



xv 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



the spiritual nature of man speaks in its clearest transports us into that happy atmosphere which 
and most harmonious tones. We may make a com- prevailed before heated disputes about matters of 
parison to illustrate our meaning. Let a man dwell formal belief and external organisation had trans- 
among the best creations of Greek art, let him drink formed personal trust into mere unethical cor- 
in its spirit, and he will find that by degrees he has rectness of opinion. In reading the books of the 
created in himself such a standard of taste that New Testament we are raised to higher levels ; 
he can no longer admire, still less take pleasure in, many of the popular and bitter disputes lose their 
the products of a barbarian art. In the same way meaning and value. On the Mount of Trans- 
those who have been nourished in the religious figuration the great leaders vanish, we see no man 
writings of the Jewish people realise how far they save Jesus only, and we know that if any man have 
transcend in spiritual and moral elevation the re- not the spirit of Christ he is none of His. 
ligious conceptions of other races. Naturally here To return the Bible is a literature : it would 
we are thinking of the loftiest heights which Jewish not be true to say that the understanding of the 
religious literature has reached : there are levels spiritual value of the Bible depends upon our ap- 
higher and lower in this literature as in all others, preciation of its literature, but it certainly is true 
but when we walk with Hebrew prophets and that the spiritually-minded man who can under- 
teachers on their own mountain ranges, we know stand its literary form will enter more completely 
that we breathe with them an atmosphere of into its spiritual teaching. The opportunity of 
heaven which, except in Christian literature, is clearly understanding the literary form of the 
never found. various books of the Bible is within the reach of 

In writing thus we are for the moment leaving all Bible students ; the critical study of the Bible 
aside some of the difficulties which meet the Bible carried on in such a destructive spirit has given 
student. There are difficulties historical, literary, place to a rigorous and reverent study, free alike 
and ethical which such a student must be pre- from crass credulity and from eager scepticism : the 
pared to encounter, but even as these are recognised desire to understand what the books of the Bible 
and met, it ought never to be forgotten that it is really stand for has superseded all irreligious and 
to the Jewish literature embodied in the Bible that superstitious passions. Consequently the wish to 
the advancing world has owed a religious quickening exhibit the books of the Bible in their true literary 
and invigoration which has profoundly influenced form has become more general ; in other words, it 
its history and development. is recognised that the Bible contains a literature, 

Hitherto we have dealt with the Bible as a whole ; and that it is part of the duty of the commen- 
but we must remember that the Bible consists of tator to make clear what is the literary character 
two great divisions the Old and the New Tes- of any special book or passage. 

tament. To the simple and devout student of The first obvious distinction which needs to be 
past generations this division between the Old and made clear is the distinction between prose and 
New Testament was of little importance : the two poetry. The utterances of the Bible writer or 
helped one another ; one showed prediction, the speaker need to be classed : is it poetry or prose 
other fulfilment. Many problems and questions, that we are reading ? Professor Moulton, in his 
however, have arisen in more recent times, and most useful work, The Modern Reader s Bible, has 
in their discussion old views of the relationship endeavoured to exhibit the books of the Bible in 
between the various parts of the Bible have been such a way that the reader may at once understand 
modified, but the devout reader of olden days was the literary form of what he is reading. He shows 
not wholly wrong : the New Testament is fulfil- that often, for instance, in the prophets, the sacred 
ment in a great and noble sense of the anticipa- seer will fall into lyric or dramatic utterance : 
tions, hopes, yearnings, prophecies, which breathe suddenly the speaker changes it is no longer the 
through the books of the Old Testament. This prophet speaking in his own character, it is the 
we may frankly recognise ; but we must also prophet making himself the mouthpiece of others 
remember that there is a sense in which the sometimes, perhaps, of Israel, sometimes of God 
New Testament forms a special collection of Himself. These changes in the character of the 
literature : it is the literature of the dawn of speaker need to be noticed, or the reader will fail 
Christianity ; it gives us the story of the origins to grasp some of the most beautiful and pathetic 
of the greatest religious movement which the turns of speech. Let the reader take the last 
world has ever seen. Herein lies its value in the chapter of Hosea, let him read it as Professor 
discussion of questions which have for so long held a Moulton has printed it, and he will hear the 
position of exaggerated importance in the minds of pleadings of Divine love and the penitent responses 
those who look upon religion from without ; for the of the restored and reconciled Israel: we are not 
New Testament gives us the history and judgment listening to a passage which baulks our under- 
of the Christian Church of Apostolic times, and standing by an unintelligible change in form of 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



utterance, but we are present at a scene in a 
wonderful spiritual drama. This would be lost 
sight of to one who had no appreciation of the 
literary form adopted by the prophet. 

The moment we begin to realise the presence of 
a true literary form we adjust our minds to its ap 
preciation ; we measure the passage according to a 
true standard. It is not too much to say that many 
of the crassly erroneous views which have obtained 
currency among Christian people are due to the 
ignorance of literary form or rather, perhaps, to 
the inability to measure the significance of the pas 
sage in consequence of such ignorance. Poetry 
and poetical forms of speech are common among 
Oriental people ; truth was uttered in various 
forms, of which the allegorical and poetical were 
frequent ; indeed it belonged to the spirit of 
emphasis to use imagery in stating truth ; the 
imagery would seize the mind of the hearer, would 
be remembered, and the wide application of the 
truth would be discerned through experience. 
The Jewish writers loved allegorical forms of this 
kind. Witness the way in which the dreams of 
the chief butler and chief baker are interpreted by 
Joseph : as we read the story we are in the pre 
sence of the Easterns ; parables are told and their 
meaning is unfolded. Had this allegorical and 
poetical spirit been better understood we should 
have avoided many of those fierce controversies 
which have troubled Christendom, and which so 
frequently arose because Western minds took literally 
what was spoken poetically. The Western com 
mentator turned poetry into prose, and so developed 
a heresy. 

But, besides realising the literary form, we need 
to remember that the Bible is a growth : that is, 
the books of the Bible belong to different and far- 
sundered epochs ; they reflect, therefore, the ideas 
and customs of varying periods. The political 
conceptions of the reign of Solomon were very 
different from those of the Captivity, and those 
of the Captivity differed much from those of our 
Lord s day. In this fact the Bible differs from 
other so-called sacred books. The Koran and the 
Book of Mormon claim to be ready-made revela 
tions given at one period of time to some specially 
appointed prophet. There is no historical per 
spective in such books ; they are fixed in a change 
less form. The Bible, on the other hand, grew 
from age to age, and attained its supremacy not by 
any loudly-announced claim but by its own slowly 
manifested fitness. 

We may illustrate this by reference to the forma 
tion of what has been called the Canon. Theo 
logians speak about the Canonical Books of the 
Bible. Certain books have been included in this 
Canon : others have been excluded. Christian 
Churches have sometimes differed respecting the 



books which ought or ought not to be reckoned 
Canonical. The best test of the value of any book 
is time : time applies its testing rod to all men s 
works, and the books of the Bible found their way 
into the Canon by the verdict of time : their value 
was felt and known before any authority gave them 
formal recognition. Certain ecclesiastical assemblies 
or councils have given this formal recognition, but 
behind their formal acknowledgment there is the 
endorsement of time. The verdict then formally 
pronounced was anticipated by the acclamation of 
souls. 

The value of the books of the Bible does not de 
pend, then, upon any formal or official declaration, 
however worthy and reverend such declaration 
may be, but upon approved worth. We must 
dismiss from our minds all idea that the books of 
the Bible are bound together by the tie of a common 
epoch ; nor must we imagine that there was one 
time and one only when the writer of any and every 
book of the Bible was formally attested. The books 
belong to different times, and their admission into 
the Canon was various and gradual. 

There is no trustworthy historical account of the 
formation of the Canon of the Old Testament. 
The legend that it was due to the influence of 
Ezra or the judgments of " The Great Synagogue " 
is not to be relied upon. It is more likely that the 
Canon of the Old Testament was gradually formed, 
and the very structure of the books renders this 
more than probable. There were, as Bishop Ryle 
has pointed out, stages through which the books 
themselves appear to have passed an elemental 
stage, in which the various parts of the book were 
formed ; a second stage, in which the book was re 
duced to literary form ; and lastly, a stage in which 
they were selected as worthy a place in the national 
Canon. 

A little reflection will show us how naturally 
these books may have passed through these stages. 
In every nation there are certain old songs and 
legends which have been transmitted from age to 
age. The deeds of heroes, the achievements of 
sages, the striking story of some impending calamity 
happily averted : these have been incorporated in 
popular songs and tales. These are not valueless : 
they tend to form national life and character ; and 
when some one arises with literary gifts or the 
instincts of authorship, these songs and stories find 
a place in his chronicle. In this way we may find 
embedded in the Old Testament certain songs or 
poems, e.g. the Song of the Sword (Gn. 4- 23> 24 ) ; 
the Song of Moses (Ex. iq. 1 ) ; the Song of Deborah 
(Jg. 5.). Such poems possess the warm idealism of 
the writer ; they are not history, but they shed a 
radiance upon history, as all contemporary verses 
may do. To read them as history is to miss their 
meaning and power. Similarly, there are stories 



xvi i 



THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE 



which can only be described as half prose and half 
poetry. The mistake of later ages has been in 
reference to these first to read them as prose and 
to receive them as literally true, and next to read 
them as poetry and to disbelieve them altogether. 
Neither of these methods is wise : both show a lack 
of literary judgment. These splendid stories are like 
the gorgeous garment with which the hero is clad 
after his victory ; everything is done to make the 
hero look dazzling much of his apparel is not his 
ordinary clothing. The hero did not always look 
thus radiant, but underneath the splendour of the 
apparel is the real hero ; and underneath these tales, 
told in high poetical style, there is, more often than 
not, truth of fact. These stories take their place in 
later times : they become the common stock, so to 
speak, from which prophet and teacher may draw to 
illustrate or to enforce their teaching. 

But growth in the books of the Bible shows itself 
another way. The laws of the nation grow out of 
their customs and their experiences. The laws, 
social and religious, given in the Old Testament are 
the records of laws or customs which grew up at 
different epochs, and which were often intended to 
confirm or to modify previous ancient customs. 
Severe laws needful in a rude state of society are 
softened as society becomes regularised. Lynch 
law is superseded as civilisation grows. The 
severity needful at first is not needed afterwards. 
The explanation of many edicts is to be found in. 
the fact that they relax some severe ancient custom. 
It is with this in mind that we must read some of 
the Jewish laws. The humane tendency becomes 
clear when we understand the severity of an earlier 
stage of civilisation. When so read, the Jewish law 
is found to be touched with mercy and gentleness 
compared with the laws of other peoples. 

Again, not all ceremonial laws are matters merely 
of worship. Some are health laws enforced by 
religious sanction. The ceremonial laws in the 
Pentateuch must not be regarded as a complete and 
uniform code : they are rather the accumulations 
of generations ; they express successive experiences ; 
they may become interesting studies of national 
psychological growth. 

All through the Bible, then, we find this element 
of growth, and its value lies in the fact that we can 
trace the development, moral and spiritual, of a 
people who, more than any other, have ministered 
to the religious consciousness of mankind. 

The Bible becomes in this way a record of God s 
dealings with men. It is, in a sense which no 
other book can claim, a revelation ; for it discloses 
not only the experiences of men, but it unfolds in 
fitting degree and order the character of Divine 
action towards them. If life be education as we 
must, I think, believe it to be the Bible is a rich 
and varied chronicle of the methods of such educa 



tion. Whatever difficulties may attach to certain 
Bible stories, whatever critical questions may be 
involved in the study of different parts or books 
of the Bible, the simplest and least educated reader 
has not been deprived of any really valuable teach 
ing. " The religious value is for all : the histori 
cal or quasi-historical for students only," writes 
Professor Cheyne. 

But more than this our enlarged knowledge de 
rived from the critical study of the Bible enables us 
to estimate more truly the moral importance of the 
Divine messages which it records. If we read, for 
example, Professor Barnes book on Isaiah, we rise 
from its study with a heightened admiration of the 
prophet s character, and a truer and loftier concep 
tion of his work. If we read (and we can hardly do 
better) Principal G. A. Smith s works on Isaiah or 
the Minor Prophets, we realise the great and pro 
gressive work which these prophets wrought in 
Israel and for all mankind. 

But while the intelligent appreciation of what a 
healthy criticism has done for us is helpful to a clear 
understanding of many Bible details, and a worthy 
estimate of Bible characters, the supreme spiritual 
truth is open to every honest and devout heart, 
whether learned in criticism or not. For the 
supreme truth is to know the relationship between 
God and man : he who knows this and lives by this 
has all that he needs to know ; for he knows that 
the soul of man can find its home in the heart 
of God. He knows also that by slow degrees this 
supreme truth is unfolded in the Bible. As we follow 
its leading we follow the unfolding of this relation 
ship ; the stages of the spiritual life are seen to 
move to higher and higher planes, till we realise 
that " God is love ; and he that dwelleth in love 
dwelleth in God, and God in him." The joy of a 
Divine companionship becomes a changeless truth. 
" If a man love Me, he will keep My word : and 
My Father will love him, and we will come and 
make our abode with him " (Jn. I4- 23 ). 

The student will realise that in this revelation 
of relationship a great Divine purpose is fulfilled. 
The Bible is a literature but not an incoherent 
literature. As through the changing ages one 
changeless purpose runs, so in this collection of 
Jewish literature we may discover a great spiritual 
goal the bringing of men to God. They arc 
brought to God through various experiences : the 
forces of nature play their part the words of pro 
phets the vicissitudes of national and individual 
life ; till in the person of Jesus Christ a revelation 
tender, complete, intelligible, is reached ; the re 
lationship of sonship is made plain to all and for 
all time, and the conviction of this relationship is 
bestowed upon the hearts of men. " God hath sent 
forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts, whereby 
we cry, Abba, Father." 



Of joy in this relationship no criticism can rob 
the soul. God is over all nature and over all life : 
He hath ever been mindful of His covenant : His 
tender mercies are over all His works : He is loving 
unto every man : His infinite pity marks our fail 
ings and our fall. His forgiveness never fails : no 
criticism has silenced the voice of Him who said, 
" Her sins which are many are forgiven." The 
ample riches of spiritual help are open to all ; for no 
adverse criticism can deprive us of the conviction : 
" If God be for us, who can be against us ? He that 
spared not His own Son, but delivered Him up 
for us ah 1 , how shall He not with Him also freely 
give us all things ? " (Rm. 8. 31 - 32 ). 

The spiritual inheritance bequeathed to us in 
the Bible can never grow less : the spiritual truths 
unfolded are above all things which criticism, in 
vention, discovery, progress may occasion ; and it 
is to these changeless spiritual truths that we need 
to direct our thoughts and our souls. There are 
many inducements to materialism among us to 
materialism of conception and materialism of life. 
Luxury breeds materialism of life : superstitious 
fear of truth breeds materialism of theological con 
ception. In such times we may find deliverance 
from both in the words of our Lord : " God is a 
spirit : and they that worship Him must worship 
Him in spirit and in truth " (Jn. 4- 24 ). 

The Bible student then will certainly go astray 
who reads all parts of the Bible as though they be 
longed to one class of writing. To read poetry as 
though it were prose is to miss much of the beauty 
and of the teaching which is given : to read all 
narrative as though it were a prosaic chronicle is 
nearly as disastrous. Many of the most useful and 
beautiful stories are charged with a poetical spirit. 
How many have stumbled over the story of Jonah, 
or the story of Balaam, and in doing so have missed 
the message which poetically-minded writers strove 
to convey. In these cases, if we can seize the 
moral significance of the stories, we shall be helped 
to understand what we must call the psychological 



conditions which moulded the form of the stories. 
The prophet Jonah, who refuses to carry the 
message of Divine love, finds that the forces of 
nature are against him. Balaam, endeavouring for 
the sake of gain to silence the voice of his own con 
science, hears the voice of protest in everything 
that befalls him : dumb beings grow eloquent 
against him. This power of transferring the emo 
tions of the soul to surrounding nature is of common 
experience : the walls cry out against the thief or 
the murderer. Poets have used this fact, and some 
of the most impressive passages owe their strength 
to this transference of emotion from the actor to 
the inanimate or animate objects around. When 
Godiva goes forth upon her heroic ride, Tennyson 
tells 

" The deep air listened round her as she rode, 
And all the low wind hardly breathed for fear." 

When Dante meets the lion he transfers his terror 
to the atmosphere : " The air trembled " (Inf. i. 
48). It is not wonderful to meet the same trans 
ference of emotion to external objects in Hebrew- 
literature. Men deeply alive, as these Jewish 
writers were, to the close contact of the Divine with 
human life, must not be blamed if they sometimes 
write as men who are more concerned to make it 
clear that the voice of God speaks to men than 
careful to explain how it speaks. Minds full of the 
consciousness of Divine realities express themselves 
naturally in a large poetkal style which is the 
despair or the snare of prosaic minds. As Principal 
G. A. Smith has said, the religious teaching is often 
independent of the historical incident. History 
may teach religion ; but religion can be taught in 
sermon, in poem, in parable, or even in fable as well 
as in history. It is therefore important that the 
Bible reader should consider, as he reads, the lite 
rary form of the passage he studies ; for in this 
way he will be surest of the meaning, and he will 
not lose the spiritual message in whatever form it 
comes. 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



BY 



LAUCHLAN MACLEAN WATT, M.A., B.D., F.S.A.S. 



WHEN Christianity penetrated to Britain it came 
with Latin upon its tongue. There are many con 
jectures as to how it struck our shores ; either, ac 
cording to tradition, with St. Paul himself, or with 
Phoenician merchants in search of tin in Cornwall, 
or in the knapsack or heart of some Roman soldier of 
the Spanish Legion ; and the name of the Nazarene 
would be spoken by the camp-fires, and whispered 
through the forests in Britain, before the shaven 
monks proclaimed the Cross. When the ritual of 
the Western Church landed in 596 with Augustine, 
it was probably the Latin Vulgate of Jerome that 
came with them as their artillery against paganism. 
Yet for thirty-three years before that momentous 
arrival, a Celtic brotherhood had been tending the 
lamp of revelation through gusty persecution ; and 
Gildas tells how, in the time of Diocletian, many 
copies of the native Scriptures perished in the 
British towns and villages. The Church of Co- 
lumba, however, used Latin copies of the Bible ; 
and you can trace the scattered brotherhood of lona 
across Europe by the manuscripts they left behind 
them, with here and there a marginal note in Gaelic, 
as you find a footprint on the rock, or a dagger in a 
ford, recalling forgotten history. The story of the 
mission of St. Augustine is like a poet s dream. 
Every one knows how, one day, passing through the 
streets of Rome, Gregory the monk, a man of great 
mental power and force, which he had already 
displayed in public life ere he had renounced his 
worldly career for the anonymity of the cloister, had 
his attention arrested by a cluster of fair-headed, 
blue-eyed slaves. " Who are these ? " he asked. 
" They are Angles," was the reply. " Nay, surely," 
answered he, u not Angles but angels." For a 
vision swept across his spirit as he spoke, and he saw 
the barbarous folk, in the island remote beyond 
Spain, civilised and humanised by the power of 
Christ. The vision lingered with him ; and, long 
afterwards, he sent Augustine with a band of 
preachers to the misty land across the flood, to 
realise his dream. 

Of course, the Latin Scriptures were as a sealed 
treasure to all except the priests and learned men. 



The first attempt which was made in putting a part 
of them into English form is that which is called 

The Paraphrase of Caedmon. 

Tradition makes Caedmon a rude herd at Whitby 
monastery, founded through the influence of Aidan, 
who had come from lona on the invitation of 
Oswald of Northumbria. Hilda the abbess en 
couraged the cultivation of the knowledge of Holy 
Scripture throughout the sphere of her influence. 
The story has a strong pathos of its own, and should 
be known to every one. It was the custom, in the 
evening, when the feast was over, that the harp 
should pass around, and each man sing a song, some 
rough lay of grappling battle on lone shores and by 
the verge of misty cliffs, songs of the pride of con 
flict and the griefs of war. But, as the harp came 
to Caedmon, silent near the table-end, he had always 
to thrust it from him, saying, " I cannot make a 
song, and I know no song for singing ! " till they 
laughed at him as a dumb companion of the dumb 
cattle he tended. So he would rise and leave them, 
and go to the cattle-shed. But one night came 
visions and voices ; and, as he slept in the straw, 
with the grief of his silence at his heart, a voice 
pierced his slumber, saying, " Awake and sing ! " 
" Thou knowest I cannot sing," his dreaming heart 
made answer, " else should I have been shouting my 
chorus with the rest, instead of being here dumb and 
songlcss." " Nevertheless," continued the speaker, 
" to Me thou shalt sing the song of the beginning of 
things and of the love of God." And in his dream 
he felt himself singing verses he had never heard 
before ; but which remained with him when he 
awoke. The story of the gift spread, and he was led 
to narrate to the Abbess Hilda, in the presence of 
the principal monks, the story of his dream, and the 
verses that had been spoken to him, till his masters 
became the devout hearers of his holy song. He 
was taken into the monastery in order that this 
heaven-given faculty might be cherished as an 
instrument for Christ, till he died in 680, having 
added to the English gleeman s instrument a new 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



chord, turning men s hearts away from the songs of 
brute strength and bloodshed to the story of the 
grace of God in Christ. He was a rude early Milton, 
and his work was the germ of an English Bible. 
The second influence in this great movement was 

Aldhelm of Malmesbury. 

He resolved that he would bring the Christian faith 
into contact with the people. He was a musician 
and a poet, with skill on the popular musical instru 
ments of his time ; so on the Sundays, when the 
people crowded into market, he stood as a gleeman 
on the bridge, till, having caught the ear of the 
crowd, he would sing to them God s redeeming love. 
King Alfred mentions that some of Aldhelm s songs 
lived till his day on the lips of the people. 

In 673, when Caedmon was singing his creation- 
song in Whitby, and Aldhelm had begun his work at 
Malmesbury, was born 

The Venerable Bede, 

who settled in the monastery of Jarrow, now a land 
of furnaces and smoke, filled with the clang of iron 
works and the building of ships. Those before him 
had only told the purport of Bible narratives in their 
own way, but he devoted his leisure to the transla 
tion into English of the Gospel according to St. 
John. He had written, in Latin,, for scholars the 
history of the Church, but this latter was for the 
hearts of English folk. Death came knocking 
at the door, upon a day in May 735, ere he 
was finished. His favourite pupil, Cuthbert, was 
writing to his dictation. " Dear master, there 
is but one sentence still left undone." " Write 
quickly," replied the failing voice. Then, later, 
" Master, it is finished." The venerable saint 
replied, " Thou hast said well, It is finished. 
Now, take my head in your hands, that I may sit 
facing the holy place where I was wont to pray." 
And so he breathed his last, leaving his parting gift 
to his people. 

Everything in the matter of religion and scholar 
ship got a strong set-back with the advent of the 
Danes, who tore down beams and rafters of churches 
for ships timbers, and gave most notable cloisters to 
the flames. 

Alfred the Great 

managed in 878 to arrange a victorious peace with 
these, and then tried to create a national literature. 
He prefixed to his body of laws a version of the 
Ten Commandments, with a curious reading in the 
Fourth Commandment : " For in six days Christ 
made the heavens and the earth." The tradition 
that Alfred translated the whole of the New and a 
portion of the Old Testament is an exaggeration. 



He left an unfinished version of the Psalms when he 
died, and he bequeathed to the ages to come after 
him the patriotic wish that the youth of his kingdom 
should aspire to be able to read the Scriptures in 
their own language. 

The next stage is seen in the 

" Glosses." 

These were interlinear English renderings of some 
manuscript Latin Scriptures. One of these, in the 
British Museum, was said to belong to St. Cuthbert; 
another has the name of one of the Celtic monks 



written on it. 



jElfric, 



who flourished in 1005 as abbot of Eynsham, next 
translated the Pentateuch, with Joshua, Judges, and 
Kings. His purpose in this was pure patriotism 
threaded on the intention to teach the duty of 
battle on behalf of one s country, from the example 
of the wars of Joshua, which he considered worthy 
of the study of a prince in times of stress and 
turbulence. 

Out of the Norman period English emerged as 
the literary language of the kingdom, henceforward 
modified and at the same time enriched through the 
new elements which had become incorporated in it. 
It became thus the instrument of 

John Wyclif, 

who devoted himself to the translation of Holy 
Scripture, and who, through the persecution which 
tried to hamper him in his work, became notable 
for his freedom of faith and fearlessness of char 
acter, till he lives in history as " the Morning Star 
of the Reformation." The Latin translation from 
which Wyclif worked was the Vulgate of Jerome ; 
but, as it depended entirely upon manuscript re 
duplication, the text was liable to great corruption, 
which of course vitiated Wyclif s version. Europe 
was trembling under the footsteps of great move 
ments when, in 1324, Wyclif first saw the light. 
Dante had only been dead three years, Boccaccio was 
thirty years old, and Petrarch only twenty. It was 
an important period for England ; Wyclif, Chaucer, 
Langland, and Gower being contemporary. Lang- 
land in his " Vision of Piers Plowman " brought 
into touch with the mind of the English people, 
through a popular dialect, the Bible-based life of 
simple truth. He represented the Protestantism of 
the people, while Wyclif, a Fellow of Merton and 
Warden of Canterbury Hall, was the type and leader 
of University Protestantism. He escaped serious 
attack until 1381, when his teaching on transub- 
stantiation awoke persecution for himself and his 
disciples, who now were busy apostles, penetrating 
to distant places. He died in 1384 as rector of 



xxi 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



Luttcrworth, beside the river Swift, into which, 
forty years later, his bones were cast by the edict 
of Rome ; but, before he died, the fruit of his 
labour was being carried up and down through 
England, for he had, through many a patient hour, 
been toiling at the task of his life, namely, the giving 
of an English voice to the Latin Bible. It was re 
markable how this work was looked upon. Walsing- 
ham described him as " an enemy of the Church, 
and a nourisher of schism " ; while Arundel calls 
him " a pestilent wretch, who had completed his 
iniquity by inventing a new translation of the 
Scriptures," and Knighton complains that his work 
was casting the Gospel pearl abroad to be trodden 
under the feet of the commonalty, till the jewel of 
the Church was made by it the common sport. 
Nevertheless, John Wyclif, by laying down his 
English Bible on the threshold, kept open God s 
door of entrance to the English people. His work 
was, of course, circulated only in manuscript ; and 
it was not until 1848 that it was printed. Its 
language is quaint and remarkable ; yet, some years 
ago, portions which were read in Yorkshire required 
no explanation, and you may find in it many words 
which are even to-day very good north-country 
speech ; as for example, " sowens " for pottage ; 
" birr " for force, as when " the swine rushed with 
great birr into the sea " ; " sour doug " for whey 
or leaven, the parable of the Leaven being, with 
Wyclif, " the parable of Sour Doug " ; " toun " 
for a farm and farm-buildings ; " wod " for mad ; 
" yowl " for howl ; " tak tent " for take heed. 

Wyclif s Bible has the glory of the pioneer, but it 
suffered from the fact that it was a translation from 
the Latin, which was itself a version from the Greek, 
which was also, in the matter of the Old Testament, 
a translation from the Hebrew. It suffered, there 
fore, from the uncertainty which always must 
result from the passing from pitcher to pitcher, so 
much of the truth of the original getting spilt, and 
so much getting the tang of the vessel upon it. It 
was not, of course, until a later period that Greek 
scholarship came into our land, after Constanti 
nople fell into the hands of the Turk in 1453, 
when the scholars, who made that city their head 
quarters, were scattered with their precious manu 
scripts and learning all over Europe. In 1388 

John Purvey, 

a disciple of Wyclif, issued a revision, with a pro 
logue, commentary, and notes, which superseded 
the earlier version. A hundred and fifty copies 
of this survive, and were examined by Forshall 
and Madden in the preparation of their work on 
Wyclif s Bible. The cost of a manuscript copy of 
Wyclif s translation was 40. Money was scarce 
and food dear, and the nation ground between the 



feudal and ecclesiastical millstones. The truth of 
the Bible was, therefore, disseminated either through 
the industry of Wyclif s poor priests, called Lollards, 
who, as they preached, carried with them copies, 
and sold them to those who could buy, a few leaves 
of Peter and Paul costing as much as a load of hay ; 
but, where people could not purchase the precious 
Book, a Bible club was formed, from whose com 
bined purse a copy was secured, which was read 
together in quiet places, the exercise frequently 
meaning punishment and death. By an Act of 
Parliament at Hampton Court, in 1414, it was 
declared that " all who read the Scriptures in 
the mother-tongue shall forfeit land and money." 
Thus, between the boards of the English Bible, men 
carried their lives. 

Of course, so long as the work depended on the 
multiplication and dissemination of manuscripts it 
dragged itself along with a slow and uncertain pro 
gress ; but time was on the side of the triumph of 
the English Bible, by bringing about (i) the spread 
of the study of Greek ; (2) the invention of printing, 
which enabled copies to be more quickly multiplied 
at a cheaper rate and in smaller bulk than manu 
script ; and (3) the making of paper out of rags. 
Gutenberg had been experimenting with movable 
types before 1439 ; while Fust of Mentz produced 
his books so rapidly and so cheaply that he was 
actually imprisoned as being in league with the 
devil, who was certainly a strange partner in the 
cause of light ! In 1455 was printed the first 
Latin Bible, called the Mazarin, from being found 
in Cardinal Mazarin s library. The printing-press 
reached England in 1474, and Scotland in 1507 ; 
and soon the printed page was to be in the poorest 
cottage, and its truth in the simplest heart. 

Erasmus, the friend of Luther, had lectured on 
Greek at Oxford, and was Professor in Cambridge 
from 1509 to 1514. His fame attracted thither the 
youth of the country from far and near. Amongst 
those who had drunk at the well of knowledge was 

William Tyndal. 

Of his origin little is known. He was born about 
1484, and used the name of Kitchens, both names 
appearing on the title-page of his first acknowledged 
publication. He was a hard student, especially 
of Holy Scripture, Erasmus edition of the Greek 
New Testament in 1516 affecting him deeply. He 
left the university in 1521 to be tutor to Sir John 
Walsh in his native county of Gloucestershire, 
where he was frequently drawn into disputes and 
discussions with the priests, who loved to haunt 
a good table. Later on he revealed how these 
arguments, and the petty persecutions which they 
brought upon him, had made the resolve grow up 
within him to lay the Scriptures before the people of 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



England in their own mother tongue, " that they 
might see the process, order, and meaning of the 
text." On one of these occasions Tyndal declared, 
" If God spares my life I shall make the ploughboy 
know more about the Scripture than the priest does 
to-day." He went to London in 1523, and found 
shelter in the house of Humphrey Monmouth, a 
cloth merchant, having sought vainly the patronage 
of Bishop Tunstall. He came to the conclusion that 
there was no place in England to translate the Word 
of God, so he went abroad in 1524 ; and, though 
the fruits of his labour came back across the sea, he 
never again beheld his native land. The first cer 
tain date is 1525, at Cologne, where he busied him 
self with Roye, his assistant, in printing a complete 
Testament in English. But, through the malign 
influence of Cochlseus, a priest and spy, they had 
to flee to Worms with the sheets which had been 
already printed, where he completed the work, after 
altering the size from quarto to octavo, though later 
the quarto sheets also were issued. The Bibles 
were imported into England packed up in bales of 
cloth as ordinary merchandise. There is no record 
of their distribution ; but pedlars, merchants, and 
preachers went everywhere with them ; they got 
into monasteries and prisons, and men and books 
went to the flames on their account. Campeggio 
wrote to Wolsey : "We lately heard, to his Majesty s 
praise, that he had most justly caused to be burned 
a copy of the Holy Bible, which had been translated 
into the common tongue. No burnt-offering could 
be more blessed to the Almighty God." It was 
evidently a pertinacious burning, for only one 
complete copy of the octavo remains, while of the 
quarto but twenty-two chapters of St. Matthew in 
one fragment abide. But the task of the perse 
cutors was heavier now, for it was no longer the 
mere hunting out of a few manuscripts. The silent, 
never-sleeping foe of ignorance was the unknown 
printer, hid in some secret place abroad, multiplying 
the Word of Truth. The campaign was not un 
accompanied by humour, as in the case of Bishop 
Tunstall, who, in his eagerness, was induced by 
Tyndal s friend Packington to buy up and burn 
the whole edition, the proceeds, however, enabling 
Tyndal to reprint a more accurate translation, while 
at the same time the very flames that burnt the 
Book became its best advertisement. The Pen 
tateuch appeared at Marburg in 1530 ; the Book of 
Jonah next year ; Genesis, revised and amended, in 
Antwerp in 1534, in Roman type; and that year 
came forth a small octavo New Testament with 
some translations of " The Epistles taken out of the 
Old Testament." In 1534 also appeared a New 
Testament by George Joye, of which only one copy 
exists, in the British Museum, a work of no note, 
and looked upon by Tyndal as an impertinence. 
Tyndal s industry never wearied. In 1534, 



however, an Englishman named Philips, having won 
his confidence and borrowed money from him, be 
trayed him as a heretic. He was thrown into the 
prison of Vilvorde, where he lay in miserable dis 
comfort, while England was trembling through his 
work Godwards. It is pitiable to read a letter which 
he wrote to the governor of the prison, in which he 
complains that he suffers from the cold, and that it 
is wearisome to sit alone in the dark ; and he begs 
for his Hebrew Bible, Grammar, and Dictionary. 
On Friday, the 6th of October 1536, he was 
strangled at the stake and then burned. His work 
still lives in the Authorised Version, his nervous, 
simple English making his Bible truly a handbook 
for the people in the things of God. It is mar 
vellous to remember that in the very year of this 
scholar s terrible death the first New Testament 
was printed in England " by authority." It was 
as if the flower of all his life had suddenly sprung 
into fulness from his ashes. The revision of 1535, 
known as the " G. H. Testament," became the 
standard for later reprints. In 1536 no less than 
seven editions appeared, one a beautiful folio. The 
importance of his work was that it was a scholar s 
independent translation direct from the original 
tongues, while at the same time using all the light 
to be had from Luther and others, so careful and so 
masterly that its influence is felt, in bulk of vocabu 
lary and phrase, throughout even the last revision 
made in our own day ; while all translations subse 
quent to his were for the most part revisions of 
his work. 

Next in the roll comes 

Miles Coverdale, 

who is said to have assisted Tyndal with the Pen 
tateuch. He became a priest in 1514, but after the 
arrest of Prior Barnes he left his convent to preach 
in Essex. He had to flee and hide himself in some of 
the German cities. From 1528 to 1535 he leaves 
no trace. Two years after his flight a council was 
held at Westminster, and the Archbishop of Canter- 
buryissued a bill to be read byall preachers,in which 
it was stated that the Holy Scriptures in English 
would rather be to further confusion than edifi 
cation. This stirred up Latimer, who wrote a 
letter to the king, notable indeed for its boldness 
and daring. But, in 1531, the cleavage between 
Henry VIII. and the Pope was taken as an open 
door through which a popular translation of the 
Scripture might creep into the life of England. 
Three years later, Convocation asked the king to 
authorise a translation to be made by certain 
learned men who would be named. The arch 
bishop, notwithstanding opposition, set to work at 
once, and sent round portions to all the bishops 
for translation. The Bishop of London, however, 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



refused to translate his part. Where Coverdale was 
all this time no man knew, but suddenly, out of the 
cloud that enveloped him, came, in 1535, the first 
complete English Bible, with no name of either 
translator or printer upon it. The press and place 
from which this book emerged have never been 
identified. Coverdale s Bible was not a translation 
directly from the Greek and Hebrew, but from the 
German and Latin Versions, though this fact was 
dropped by the English printer from the title-page. 
He used Tyndal s translation for the New Testa 
ment, and also for the books of Moses and Jonah, 
along with Luther, the Zurich Bible, the Vulgate, 
and Pagninus versions. His is the " Treacle 
Bible," from the rendering of Jr. 8. 22 . It is full 
of pithy old words and proverbial renderings ; but 
it is also a brimming well of musical English, and 
much of the mellifluous charm of our modern ver 
sion arises from the masterly collocations of Miles 
Coverdale s English. It was issued, with various 
readings, in two editions, in 1537, by authority of 
the king, and revised by Rogers, who was afterwards 
martyred. This embodied all the work of Tyndal 
and Coverdale, and became the fans of all later 
revisions. Richard Taverner, imprisoned twice, 
though he died in his bed, in 1539 also brought out 
a version, once reprinted in 1549. The work of 
Tyndal was now bearing fruit in English fields ; the 
dead hand had conquered. A third Bible under 
the editorship of Coverdale, for national circula 
tion, was appointed in 1538 to be done in Paris, 
because of the superior paper and printing there. 
But the Inquisition chased the workers and their 
work home to England. The printed sheets, which 
were left behind, were condemned to be burned ; 
but the officer of the Inquisition into whose care 
for this purpose they were committed, wishing to 
make money, sold them to a haberdasher, and, being 
discovered, they were brought, with presses and 
type, across the Channel. The result was the 

Great Bible, 

issued in 1^39, mainly by Coverdale, using Miin- 
ster s Hebrew, Latin for the Old Testament, and the 
Vulgate and Erasmus for the New. This was set up 
in the parish churches, chained to a pillar, where 
the people might freely resort, in their own tongue, 
to the wonder of the love of God, a privilege which 
takes its place among the strange things of the reign 
of Henry VIII. The new edition in IS4O, with 
Cranmer s preface, bore the title of " Cranmer s 
Bible." I lenry died in 1 547 ; and, under the gentle 
reign of Edward VI., the Acts which restricted the 
freedom of the people in regard to Holy Scriptures 
were cancelled. But Mary, called " Bloody Mary," 
succeeded him in his short reign of four years, and 
the old work of Bible-burning and believer-burning 



was resumed, while the very texts of Scripture were 
obliterated from the church walls. Coverdale, 
consecrated Bishop of Exeter by Edward VI., was 
now made a prisoner at large that is to say, he 
moved about under sureties. While abroad, he had 
married a Scotswoman, sister-in-law of Dr. John 
MacAlpine, Chaplain to Christian II. of Denmark, 
and Professor of Theology in Copenhagen, who got 
this king to write imperatively that Coverdale be 
allowed to appear in his presence ; and Mary had 
to agree. So, in February 1555, safe, though with 
the smell of fire upon hi m, Coverdale passed across 
the sea, .the panther s teeth having just missed him. 
After the death of Mary he returned, but spent his 
latter days in obscurity and poverty, till he died in 
1569 at the age of eighty-one. 

A band of Protestant refugees, who had taken 
advantage of the shelter afforded them at Geneva, 
interested themselves during their exile in transla 
tion of the Scriptures, which they looked upon as 
the arsenal of their faith; and in 1557 a version 
of the New Testament, " for simple lambs," was 
accomplished by one of their number, 

William Whittingham, 

who married a sister of Calvin. This book was 
the first English translation of the New Testa 
ment divided into verses, following the example 
of Stephen s Greek Testament ; and it had many 
" annotations of all hard places." But it was 
superseded by the publication in 1560 of the whole 
Scriptures, in what is known as 

The Genevan Bible, 

which was the people s Bible, the handbook of the 
English Puritan, and of the Scottish Covenanter. 
It is known to collectors as " the Breeches Bible," 
from the translation of Gn. 3. , although the same 
rendering appeared in \Vyclifs manuscript. This 
was the first Bible issued from a Scottish press, and 
was known as the " Bassandyne Bible," from the 
name of its printer, and held its own in Scotland till 
the close of the eighteenth century, when it was 
still the pulpit Bible of Crail, in Fife. It passed 
through 1 60 editions, Laurence Tomson s revision 
of the New Testament in 1576 gradually taking 
the place of the earlier version. It had an ad 
dress to Elizabeth, and an address to the reader, 
The example of the previous translation in regard 
to the New Testament was followed in this by 
breaking up the Old Testament into verses and 
printing in Roman type. So popular was it that 
an edition of the Authorised Version was issued in 
1649 with the Genevan notes. 

In 103 Archbishop Parker initiated a scheme of 
Scripture revision, probably suggested by the tradi 
tion of the origin of the Septuagint, namely, by a 



XXIV 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



number of scholars working independently. On his tutor, truly expressed his feeling that he had 
the basis of Cranmer s Bible, Miinster, and Pagni- done his best when he had made him " a karned 
nus, it appeared five years later, and was known as ass," he could not keep him from braying. A 

chance remark and the flatteries of the time, how- 
The Bishops Bible. ever, secured the blessing of a Standard Bible, 



And between 1568 and 1606 it went through nine 
teen editions. The result of the method was of 
course a mosaic of attainments, though the influ 
ence of the Great Bible and the Genevan was felt 
throughout. It was enacted that each bishop and 
archbishop should have in his dining-room or large 
hall a copy convenient for the benefit of servants 
and strangers. Coverdale s Psalter had, in the 
thirty-three years of use, endeared itself to the ear 
and heart of the English people, and could not be 
displaced by the bishops version. The two ap 
peared side by side in the folio Bible of 1572, but 
Coverdale held the field, and still maintains it in the 
Book of Common Prayer, while the Genevan Bible 
remained the book of the household, notwithstand 
ing that the bishops had the sanction and authority 
alike of Church and Parliament. 

The Roman" Catholics, turning, in their exile 
during Elizabeth s reign, to the thought of God s 
revelation, published in 1582, from the College of 
Rheims, an English version out of the Vulgate, on 
the ground that the Hebrew and Greek texts had 
been corrupted by the Jews and heretics. The 
Old Testament appeared at Douay in 1609. The 
translators, Allen, Martin, and Bristow, warn their 
readers against the Protestants, who had cast " the 
holy to dogges, and pearles to hogges," but the 

Douay Bible 

had all the defects of a translation from secondary 
sources, the Vulgate being an imperfect rendering 
of the Septuagint, while the English style carried 
with it a stiff Latin form, though to it we owe such 
enriching words as allegory, advent, victim, &c 
The prefaces are surcharged with high Romish 
doctrine, and the notes are full of ridiculous fables 
of the saints and fathers. It was an attempt to win 
England to Rome ; but it was, after all, a book 
gathered by deliberate choice from side tracks in 
preference to the highway. 

In 1601, at Burntisland, the General Assembly of 
the Church of Scotland expressed dissatisfaction 
with the existing versions of the Bible in use, and 
the king made a characteristic exhibition-speech. 
But in 1603, late on Saturday, 26th of March, he 
was awakened out of sleep, to be hailed as " King 
of England, France, and Ireland " by Sir Robert 
Carey, an English knight who had ridden from 
London in sixty hours in order to be the first to 
carry the momentous news that Elizabeth was dead. 
James had an itch for the repute of scholarship, and 
though George Buchanan the humanist, who was 



The Authorised Version, 

one of the most remarkable by-products of any 
epoch. To settle the divisions and difficulties of 
the Church the king had called the Hampton Court 
Conference in January 1604, and Dr. Reynolds of 
Corpus Christi College, the leader of the Puritan 
party, suggested a new translation of the Bible. 
This at once set on fire the fancy of the king, who 
had already been working at the Psalms in verse, 
with Sir William Alexander of Menstrie, Earl of 
Stirling. The work was not commenced till 1607, 
by two companies at Westminster, and two at the 
University seats of Oxford and Cambridge. Its 
inner history is practically unknown, but in 1611 
the result came out to the world, printed by Robert 
Barker, with that dedication to the king which reeks 
of flattery but which must have been balm to his 
soul ; and the most able preface by Dr. Smith, 
afterwards Bishop of Gloucester. No marginal 
notes, except for philological purposes, were per 
mitted, as the book was not to be a controversial 
publication ; but an opportunity of a fling at the 
Puritans was not to be missed, as in the heading of 
Mk. 6. regarding dancing, afterwards altered. The 
chapter headings were all new, and still remain, 
with the exception of twelve. The dates, based 
on Ussher s chronology, did not, however, find a 
place till the edition of 1701 by Bishop Lloyd. The 
" Authorised Version " was never sanctioned by 
Parliament, nor formally " Appointed to be read in 
churches." It was really " authorised " from the 
final approval of the English-speaking people as a 
whole. The genealogy of it, through the Bishops 
Bible, from the Great Bible, Matthew s, and then 
Coverdale s, which was in the main Tyndal s, made 
the work in reality the crowning monument of the 
labour of the martyrs. It also has had its nickname- 
editions, the first two issues being known as the 
" He Bible " and the " She Bible " from the ren 
dering of Ru. I. 15 ; while another is known as the 
" Judas Bible," owing to a misprint in Mw. 26. 36 , 
the name of the apostate apostle appearing instead 
of " Jesus." A quiet process of revision, steadily 
proceeding up till modern days, made many emen 
dations on this version ; but, though Lightfoot in 
1645 suggested a new translation, and the Long 
Parliament in 1653 ordained that it be proceeded 
with, the Authorised Version lived on unmoved, in 
the life and love of the people. It is truly an 
English book. Its words are in bulk Saxon, the 
Lord s Prayer in Matthew having fifty-nine of its 
words pure English, and only six of Latin origin ; 



xxv 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



indeed the first thirty-five words are Saxon un- of thought and feeling helped to mould and tune 

the language through which the whole Scripture 

1 ^ 1 1^870 on the report of a Committee appointed was to be borne into the hearts that waited for it ; 
by Convocation in consideration of the great ad- and a reciprocal influence must be wisely acknow- 
vances made by Textual Criticism, through the ledged. Proverbial wisdom, ebbing and flowing 
work of Griesbach, Lachmann, Tischendorf, and through lives of effort, failure, or success, gets worn 
Trebles two companies were appointed to revise into concise and epigrammatic phrase, and one 
the version of 1611. The revisers included scholars can see the influence of this securing a footing on 
of all churches, and worked in co-operation with Tyndal s printed page. But once there as the hand- 
two representative American companies. Begin- maiden of the great thoughts of God, she became 
nine* in 1872, the result of their labours was pub- marshal of the prophetic and poetic speech which 
iedinl88ias characterises great literature. The Drama which 

grew up alongside of the groping after divine truth 

The Revised Version. that found issue in Bible translation, was intensely, 

from the beginning, affected by Scriptural teach- 

The alterations due to an improved Greek text j n g^ having its source in the Church, and its agents 
affect readings only, not doctrines, though some Churchmen. But, when the Miracle, Morality, 
omissions are striking, as e.g. the doxology of the an( j Mystery left the churchyard and invaded the 
Lord s Prayer, the three heavenly witnesses, the str eets and common lives of men, it developed into 
eunuch s confession at his baptism ; but many of the t ^ at unexcelled phenomenon of English tragedy, 
new renderings, on the other hand, clarify at one finding its culmination in Shakespeare ; and the 
glimpse what before was obscure, or even incompre- g reat lessons of the soul s triumph and cataclysm 
hensible. This is especially seen in the Old Testa- were spoken often in the very word and form of the 
ment, where the effect of the results of Oriental English Bible. Bishop Wordsworth has shown in 
travel and discovery, with the modern advance of his book, Shakespeare and the Bible, how the voca- 
Oriental scholarship, often gripped the true sense bulary of Shakespeare is saturated and impregnated 
with the power of a fresh revelation. Still, with all w i t h Biblical influences. It would have been won- 
that it has to recommend it, the affection of the d cr f u l had it been otherwise, for the very salt of 
people clings to the old phrases of the Authorised tne sea tnat nc had waded in, and the sand of the 
Version, endeared by association in history and in shore that he traversed, would be found upon him. 
life ; and it will probably take as long for the Re- His age had the Bible close before its eyes. It was 
vised Version to displace the Authorised as it did for natural, therefore, that he should refer, when his 
Jerome s revision to displace the old Latin text. creations were in similar circumstances, to Pilate s 

vain attempt to wash his hands white, to Herod, 

The Influence of the English Bible on English Lazarus, the sword of Deborah, and the outstanding 
Literature has been stupendous and immeasurable, figures of Holy Scripture. It was natural also that, 
In fact, as English Literature itself must always feel even without being a deep student of the Bible, 
within it the beat of the heart of the Elizabethan through much of his writings should be heard the 
Age, and be enveloped almost for all time in the echo of the tune of the English Scriptures, and that 
intellectual and moral atmosphere of that creative Biblical references should come in casually amongst 
period when light broke into chaos, and liberty his fancies. 

walked through the land singing of God and the In Spenser, Biblical morality, embodied in 
soul, so still, to-day, the great influence which knights and virgins, moves through the world 
threads true literature is that of the English Bible, conquering and putting to shame evil, sin, and 
whereon, as upon an irresistible tide, floated the im- oppression. 

mense conceptions of the terribleness of sin, the Even such careless and irreligious poets as Mar- 
balefulness of godless self-seeking, and the shatter- lowe and the imaginative school which surrounded 
ing compasslessness of the soul that drifts, blinded, him, when applying the ethical and spiritual les- 
away from the guiding star of God. The growth sons of their plays, clinch these by a reference to 
of the English Bible meant the growth, develop- the Word of Truth. 

ment, and enrichment of the vocabulary which was Sir Walter Scott, perhaps the most moral teacher 
the vehicle of literary expression, the thread of the and writer of any age, was deeply influenced by 
tapestry on which the master-artists wove God s Holy Scripture, perhaps none more so except 
revelation to their period. In its progress one sees Shakespeare. His allusions are so numerous and 
the advance from the day of a stammering tongue to so devout that the mere excerpting of them from 
a crisp, rich utterance, carrying with it the essence his works would make a volume itself. They re- 
of unnoted and forgotten tributary forces. Of fleet life-companionship and close communion with 
course, in itself, the struggle towards embodiment holiest things, and confirm the spirit, which, when 



THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



he lay, a dying man, and asked Lockhart to read to 
him, made him reply to Lockhart s inquiry as to 
what book he should read, " Can you ask ? There 
is only one Book now." 

Wordsworth and Browning are, of course, purely 
Christian poets, the unexcelled teaching of the 
latter being deep draughts from the fountain of the 
soul s best life. Under the grip of Wordsworth s 
English you feel the flexible fibre and edge of that 
strong English weapon which was forged out of the 
brave heart of Tyndal long ago. Johnson, Tenny 
son, and Ruskin are steeped in word, image, and 
form in the Holy Book which has so much moulded 
the thought and action of the English-speaking 
race. 

Nothing could have been more pregnant with 
suggestion for a mind like Carlyle s than the book of 
Proverbs, and the soul-probing, mystery-searching 
of Job. The Gospel of Work which he adopted 
as his own peculiar message, with his sense of the 
universal spaces and influences invisible which give 
depth and meaning to human joys and sorrows, the 
faith in the goodness of God and the blindness and 
littleness of men, had their source undoubtedly in 
that old Book which built up the independent char 
acter of the sturdy race from whose loins he sprang. 
Arising probably from his innate dislike of Jews, he 
truncated his faith by cutting it free from the meta- 
physic of Revelation, and adopting only the ethic of 
Christianity ; yet in his style were reflected, almost 
without knowing it, the rhapsody and thought of 



the prophets, which he had heard so often by the 
fireside of his father, the stonemason of Ecclefechan. 

In the same way, in the Scottish peasant Burns, 
it was the general teaching of the indestructibleness 
of honour, and the humanness of the Divine Father 
hood drawing the divine in humanity towards it, 
that made his verse throb with the power of tears. 
His teaching maintained the bias it had received 
from that familiar converse with the Genevan 
Bible, and the outlook and inlook through the 
soul-windows of the exiles under the shadow of 
the Alps. 

Especially striking has been the influence of the 
Psalms in both utterance and thought, on the life, 
actions, and politics of men, the field of philo 
sophical and poetic literature having been sprinkled 
throughout with shining gems from the Psalter. 

The subject is inexhaustible, and affords a sphere 
of reading with a purpose, through all that English 
men have ever written. 

Lit. : Lechler s John Wy cliff e and his English Pre 
cursors, by Lorimer ; William Tyndale, a Biography, 
by Demaus, edited by Lovett ; Eadie s The Eng 
lish Bible ; Westcott s and Moulton s Histories ; 
Dore s Old Bibles ; Scrivener s The Authorised 
Edition of the English Bible ; Milligan s The English 
Bible, a Sketch of its History ; Hoare s The Evolu 
tion of the English Bible ; Bible Truths with Shake 
spearian Parallels, by J. B. Selkirk ; Dickson s The 
Bible in Waverley ; Wordsworth s Shakespeare and 
the Bible; Stubbs The Christ of English Poetry. 










ot- SV.SAOOOUE AT MUKUN 



xxvu 



APOCRYPHA OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 



THESE are not of the same value as those of the 
Old Testament, as their influence was not so great. 
The main benefit of their study, as it seems to us, 
over and above the revelation of the progress of 
Christian thought, is the indirect evidence of the 
inspiration of the writings of the NT. afforded by 
their weak, jejune, childish character as compared 
with the genuine works of the apostles. The most 
of these writings never were in any danger of being 
received into the Canon. Certain of them were 
treated in some churches as if canonical. The 
most important of these are the Epistle of Clement, 
and the Homily, which is generally called the 2nd 
Epistle. There seems no reasonable doubt that the 
epistle attributed to Clement is his genuine work. 
It is largely founded on the Epistle to the Hebrew s. 
The occasion of its being sent was disorders in the 
Church of Corinth, not unlike those that occasioned 
the Pauline epistles to that Church. It is especi 
ally valuable for the light it throws on the doctrines 
and institutions of the early Christian Church. 
Very noteworthy is the evidence of loyalty to the 
emperors in chap. 6l., written as it is immediately 
after a season of persecution. The Anonymous 
Homily, generally called the zndEpistle of Clement, 
is worthy of study because of the frequent quota 
tions it makes fm. the Synoptic Gospels, and ap 
parently also fm. other lost sources. A striking note 
is that the books of the New Testament are deno 
minated " The Apostles," in contradistinction fm. 
the " Biblia," the Old Testament. It is the earliest 
example of a Christian Homily. The Epistle of 
Barnabas is appended to the Codex Smaiticus, as 
we have already said: in a Latin version it had 
appeared appended to the Faticanus. It is quoted 
frequently, and treated with the respect due to 
Scripture, as if it had come fm. the pen of the com 
panion of St. Paul. Eusebius, however,has no doubt 
about its spuriousness. Its object is to show that 
Judaism is utterly abolished. It is weak and prolix. 
The " Shepherd of Hermas " was supposed in early 
days to have been written by the Hermas saluted by 
Paul (Rm. i6. u ). It is a scries of allegories some 
what opcrosc and confused. It opens with five- 
visions, in wh. he is shown the upbuilding of the 
Church. The fifth vision is that in wh. an old man 
appear^ to Hermas and gives him certain instruc 



tions ; this introduces " the Twelve Command 
ments," wh. form the second portion of the 
" Shepherd," and the " Similitudes," wh. form the 
third. The main interest in this work, as in others 
of its class, is the insight it gives into the views and 
practices of the early Roman Church. Eusebius 
(HE. iii. 3) seems to have been loth to exclude the 
" Shepherd " fm. the homologoumena. In the same 
section Eusebius refers to the Gospel of Peter. 
This work has been recovered comparatively re 
cently in Egypt by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt ; it 
is obviously ancient, but as obviously unauthentic ; 
one noticeable thing is the favourable view given 
of Pilate. Less valuable is the work also referred 
to by Eusebius and found at the same time, the 
Revelation of Peter. In Egypt also were found 
by the same explorers several fragments containing 
" Sayings of our Lord." At first it was hoped we 
had found the Aoyta referred to by Papias ; this 
hope proved fallacious. They are, however, very 
interesting, some possibly authentic. The Didacbe, 
or " Teaching of the Apostles," ought also to be 
mentioned a small treatise giving exhortations as 
to personal conduct, and directions as to the per 
formance of the various acts of worship. As to 
baptism, it may be administered by pouring water 
on the head thrice in the name of the Father, and 
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Directions 
are also given as to the right observance of the 
Eucharist. One striking thing is that all first-fruits 
are to be given to the prophets, " for they are your 
High Priests." It is evidently a document of the 
first century. There are besides many Pseudo 
nymous Gospels, some of them dating fm. the 
second cent. : the principal of these are, the Prote- 
vangelium of James, narrating the marvels wh. 
accompanied the birth of Mary on to the birth of 
our Lord ; the Gospel of Thomas, wh. surrounds 
with marvels the infancy of Christ ; and the Gospel 
of Nicodemus, elsewhere treated. The others are 
all founded on these to wh. we have here referred : 
with the exception of the last, childishness is the 
most marked characteristic. There are also Apoc 
ryphal Acts as of Peter and Paul, and of Paul 
and Thekla, wh. are ancient and interesting, tho 
valuable only as explaining the notions of the later 
Middle Ages, wh. find expression in their pictures. 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



A NUMBER of writings pseudonymous as to claim of 
authorship, and imitations of the book of Daniel 
as to content, wh. appeared mainly between the 
Testaments, are called Apocalyptic because they 
profess to be Revelations or Apocalypses of the 
future. Most frequently they bore the names of 
prophets and seers already venerated as having en 
joyed a specially intimate association with Deity. 
The majority of these writings are of Jewish origin. 
A singular fate befell the vast mass of them ; much 
read in the first ages of the Christian Church, 
between the sixth and seventh centuries they dis 
appeared utterly, and were rediscovered mainly in 
the course of the nineteenth century ; sometimes 
resurrected from where they had been buried under 
false names in some ancient library ; sometimes re 
leased from imprisonment in the literary dungeon 
connected with an Abyssinian church. Though 
Jewish in origin, only traces of any of them are to be 
found in the Talmud, and in no case is any of them 
quoted as Scripture. In the Christian community, 
on the other hand, they had great influence, and 
are not seldom quoted as authoritative. Notwith 
standing, only one of them, 2nd (4th) ESDRAS, was 
received at all, even among the deutero-canonical 
Scriptures of the Apocrypha. Its position there 
was sufficiently precarious ; though received in the 
English Apocrypha, in the Vulgate since the Council 
of Trent it was relegated to a position outside the 
Canon, after Revelation, and not even assigned that 
by the Lutheran Church. In the case of this book, 
not only was there no Hebrew original forthcoming, 
but, unlike the other books of the Apocrypha, there 
was not even a Greek translation. However, these 
writings are yet of great interest and of no little 
value. As the writers were Palestinian Jews, these 
books reveal the trend of thought and hope in the 
Holy Land before our Lord came. As the preva 
lence of certain kinds of plants and animals reveals 
the character of the soil and climate in wh. they 
have flourished, so it is with literature ; the pre 
valence of certain forms of literature enables us to 
determine the nature of the spiritual atmosphere, 
the mental soil from wh. they have sprung. These 
Apocalyptic writings enable us to understand the 
nature of that field in wh. the Great Sower of the 
seed scattered the good seed of the kingdom of 
heaven. We purpose to restrict our study to those 
Jewish Apocalypses which originated before the 
Advent, and to those that saw the light within a 



century and a quarter after it. To study this 
subject intelligently certain points have to be con 
sidered: the Nature of Apocalyptic; the Occasion of 
Apocalyptic ; the Authors of these Writings ; the 
Books wh. make up Apocalyptic Literature ; and 
the Doctrinal Significance of Apocalyptic. 

(i) The Nature of A-pocalyptic. Apocalypse is 
related to prophecy ; indeed in some respects it 
more fully represented what many even in compara 
tively recent times regarded as the very essence of 
prophecy. To many the prophet was one who cd. 
tell what was to take place and that only ; pre 
diction was the essence of prophecy. It is more 
generally recognised now that the essence of Hebrew 
prophecy lay in the revelation of the will of God as 
the great source of righteousness. The moral needs 
of their contemporaries, their immediate audience, 
bulked most largely with them : prediction was at 
times a sign demonstrating the reality of their com 
mission ; or it was the unveiling the hidden moral 
consequences of a course of conduct. On one 
subject the prophets were predictive ; they were 
sure that the Divine purpose involved the coming 
of a Messianic King who shd. " restore the kingdom 
to Israel," when the " people wd. be all righteous." 
What, however, was subsidiary to prophecy was 
essential to Apocalypse ; it always professed to un 
veil the future.* The attitude of the prophet and 
of the Apocalyptist to his predictions was different ; 
while the first had to " search what or what manner 
of time the Spirit of Christ wh. was in them did 
signify," the second had, if we lay aside the canonical 
Apocalypses, no doubts as to the purport of his 
vision. In literary method there was a difference. 
While the Apocalyptist had visions in wh. the future 
was revealed to him in symbol, and he described 
what he saw in prose, the prophet, even when he 
did not use the forms of verse, was always hovering 
on the brink of it, and his utterances were always 
lyric in their essence. While the prophets most 
generally denounced nations that had sinned by 
name, the Apocalyptist usually veiled the nations 
under symbols ; in Ezekiel and Zechariah, the con 
temporaries with the rise of Apocalypse, we find 
this literary device resorted to. The vision of the 

* The case of the book of Jubilees is apparently an 
exception, as it narrates only what had taken place in the 
past Jubilees; yet this is only apparent, for the times 
the accounts of wh. are given were beyond the sphere of 
actual, indeed much of it beyond the sphere of possible, 
records, and therefore only to be known by revelation. 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



Apocalyptist was wider than that of the prophet ; 
while the latter was occupied with the fate of 
Moab, Ammon, and Mount Seir, the Apocalyptist 
surveyed the whole world and looked forward to 
the end of time and the final judgment. 

(2) The Occasion of Apocalyptic. When those of 
the Jews who returned fm. the Babylonian captivity 
endeavoured to set up again their national worship, 
while they were in a measure successful in that, they 
found that the nation in its political aspect cd. not 
be restored. They were not even permitted to 
retain such shadowy independence as the possession 
of kingship implied ; a thing allowed by Persia to so 
many of her tributaries. Fm. the date of Nehe- 
miah s final return to the court of Artaxerxes to the 
conquest of South- Western Asia by Alexander the 
Great, a cloud settled on the history of Judsea, so 
dense that Josephus appears to have thought that 
Darius Codomannus, who was conquered by Alex 
ander, immediately succeeded Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus. Not only had kings disappeared fm. the 
commonwealth of Israel, but after MALACHI, who 
probably was a later contemporary of Nehemiah, 
prophets also had ceased. The rule of the Per 
sians was always tempered in regard to the Jews 
by the acknowledgment of a certain leligious 
kinship between themselves and the Jews. With 
the advent of the Greek empire Judaism became 
even more a church and less a nation than it had 
been under the Persians. Not only was there the 
intrusion of different political ideals, but their re 
ligion was exposed to a severer ordeal than before. 
The idolatry wh. the Jewish people had learned to 
hate and despise in Babylon appeared under new and 
seductive forms. All the aesthetic elements in their 
nature were played upon by the artistic beauty of 
" the gods of Greece." To this was added the 
glamour of military glory wh., alien to the whole 
prophetic ideal as it was, appeared in new splendour 
in the achievements of Alexander, the founder of 
the Greek empire. Deeper and deeper became the 
degradation. Youths gave themselves over to the 
games of the Palaestra and became ashamed of their 
religion and its most sacred rites. While on the one 
hand the zeal of many of the sons of Israel waxed 
cold, the spirit of many of the more religious among 
the Jews began to burn within them, and they in 
consequence were prone to look into the future filled 
with direful imaginings as to whereunto this wd. 
grow. In earlier days such a state of things wd. 
have awakened the voice of a prophet who, speaking 
in the name of the Lord, wd. have denounced all 
this tampering with idolatry. But there was no 
longer any " prophet among them, or any that knew 
the time." Indeed it wd. seem as if those who were 
the last to claim the title of prophet had degraded 
their office and had worn the prophet s hairy 
mantle to deceive. In the book of Daniel those 



who were zealous for God found a model for a 
different kind of composition, wh. formed a more 
fitting vehicle for the message they wished to convey 
to their fellows ; further, it did not, in appearance 
at least, make so direct a claim to personal inspira 
tion. In another way also it suited the changed 
circumstances of the time. When the prophet 
spoke it was still a time when small kingdoms had a 
place in the plan of things ; empires had only begun 
to be recognised as the means by wh. God wd. carry 
further His preparation for the coming of His Son 
into the world. With the setting up of the empire 
of Alexander the day of small kingdoms wh. had 
occupied little more space than a small English 
county had definitely passed away. This imperial 
stage in the evolution of history was recognised by 
the Jew, imbued as he was with the belief in a coming 
Messianic prince, as only a step in the preparation 
for the setting up of God s everlasting kingdom. 
Further, the deeper the degradation into wh. as a 
nation they sank, the more were they inclined in 
thought to indemnify themselves by glorifying the 
coming kingdom of Messiah the Prince, when the 
Jews shd. have all nations as their servants. With 
the advent of the Greek empire, and still more with 
the advent of that of the Romans, the world became 
vastly larger to the Jew than it had been before. 
Fm. a world that so far as effective knowledge was 
concerned was bounded on the south by the first 
cataract of the Nile, on the north by Mount Ararat, 
on the east by the Euphrates, and on the west by 
the Great Sea and the Grecian Archipelago, " the 
islands of the sea," they arrived at one wh. extended 
southward to Meroe, northward to the Elbe and the 
Tauric Chersonese, and fm. Spain and Britain on 
the west to the banks of the Ganges on the east. 
This burden of knowledge killed the poetic in 
them ; fm. the lyric ecstasy of the prophet those 
who saw visions sank to the prose, sometimes prosy,, 
narrative of the Apocalyptist. Connected with 
this is the further characteristic ; the Apocalyp 
tist is less intensely moral than the prophet ; the 
former appealed to the intellect but the latter to 
the conscience. 

(3) The Authors of these Apocalypses. In study 
ing these books no one can fail to be struck with the 
sameness of ruling ideas wh. characterises them. 
They are clearly the product of one school, and that 
a school of dreamers. None of these books bear 
evidence of being the productions of men whose 
feelings have been stirred and strained by conflict in 
the struggle of life. They seem rather to be spec 
tators of life than actors in it. One class of men is 
known to have flourished at the time when, fm. 
other reasons, we are to conclude that these writings 
originated the Essenes who suit this description. 
They were not, like the Sadducees, taken up with 
politics and using religion as a cloak of covetousness ; 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



nor, like the Pharisees, fana ics for the mere letter 
of the law ; they sought the life of contemplation, 
away fm. all political conflicts or legal quibbling. 
Of them Josephus tells us that they had sacred books 
of their own. He tells us also that they were cele 
brated as interpreters of dreams, a statement wh. 
implies that they recognised in dreams a special 
means of conveying to men a knowledge of the 
future. Of the many sub-sections into wh. the 
Essenes were divided, that wh. most represented 
their special characteristics, and was the best known, 
was coenobitic living in a community of celibates 
much as did the mediaeval monks. This secluded 
life tends to promote visions and visionaries. The 
place where they dwelt, the valley of En-gedi, the 
fertile glen that runs down fm. the wilderness of 
Judaea, which was occupied sparsely rather than 
peopled by shepherds who pastured their flocks, 
and the Dead Sea, the sea of salt, that spread death 
around its shores, tended yet more to make men see 
visions and dream dreams. When they wrote down 
these visions they did not assume the credit of these 
to themselves they affixed the name of some 
ancient worthy, prophet or seer. When they did 
so we are not to regard them as vulgar forgers, like 
those of the second and third Christian centuries, 
who wished the views they favoured to get a credit 
fm. the name they affixed to their writings wh. they 
wd. not receive on their own merits. In their 
dreams the Essenes imagined themselves laid hold 
of by the spirits of these just men made perfect, 
and they wrote as they fancied themselves moved. 
They did not as a rule occupy themselves with the 
sins of a society of wh. they saw nothing, not even 
with the covetousness of the rich and the oppression 
of the poor, nor with the hideous immoralities in 
wh. the nobles indulged; they had been swept up by 
the Spirit into a loftier sphere, all petty moralities 
fell away fm. their sight, the kingdoms of this world 
appeared only to disappear in the great kingdom 
of God. To them the Last Judgment was always 
near, in wh. all wrongs wd. be righted. Fm. this 
community came not only many of the Apocalyptic 
writings, but further, the impetus to the writing 
of the rest. The members of the community at 
En-gedi were not the only Essenes ; there were 
those who dwelt in the numerous cities and vil 
lages that were scattered over Palestine ; indeed 
if Bishop Lightfoot is right they extended their 
influence and spread their doctrines even in Asia 
Minor. Of the books contained in the class we are 
considering, some ar : more visionary and some less 
so. We may presume that the less visionary pro 
ceeded fm. those Essenes who lived a less restricted 
life, mingled with their fellows, and did not eschew 
family life. 

(4) The Rooks wh. make up Apocalyptic. Here, 
as we have already said, we shall restrict our con 



sideration mainly to those which were published 
before our Lord s earthly ministry began ; of post- 
Christian Apocalypses we wd. consider only those 
that were published not later than the second de 
cade of the second century. (For the two Canoni 
cal Apocalypses already treated in the Canonical 
Section, see DANIEL, REVELATION.) 

(a) The most prominent and important of the 
Apocalypses that fall within the limits thus laid 
down is the book, or rather the collection of books, 
of Enoch. To some extent the book (or books) 
of Enoch has been considered under the heading 
ENOCH in the Canonical portion of this Dictionary, 
as Jude has quoted fm. it by name. The impress 
left by Enoch on the Jewish mind was a strong one. 
The mystery that surrounded him was fitted to 
deepen this ; like Elijah, and before him, he had 
been removed into God s presence without tasting 
of death ; even while on earth he had walked with 
God, enjoying familiar intercourse with Him. By 
Talmudic Judaism he was identified with the great 
angel who was all but God and was named Metatron 
(meta thronou, " beside the throne ") the Judaic 
escape fm. acknowledging a second person in God 
head and admitting that Jesus was that Person. 
The lofty ideas the Jews afterwards associated with 
Enoch must have been present, though in a less 
developed form, much earlier. We can imagine 
how the thought of what such a one as this must 
have seen in his communings with God wd. fill the 
imaginations of those visionaries by the Dead Sea. 
Some one, his thoughts going back to Enoch and 
forward to the Messiah, his visions carrying him 
now down to the depths of Gehenna, now up to 
the very presence of God, was moved to write. He 
felt that though his hand held the pen it was the 
antediluvian saint, who had never died, that really 
supplied the thoughts. He was carried up into 
heaven and saw the ten thousands of the saints and 
heard the voices of the archangels praising God. 
He sees, standing in the presence of God, the Son 
of Man, who is to be the Messiah in God s time. 
Unveiled before him stand the mysteries of the 
Last Judgment, and he sees the wicked carried away 
to punishment ; he sees also the final victory of the 
saints. The course of the heavens occupies a por 
tion of one vision. A subject wh. possessed great 
interest for the Apocalyptists, the angels that kept 
not their first estate, these occupied his visions also. 
Later, another of the brotherhood, remembering 
that of Enoch s great-grandson it was said, as of 
himself, that " he walked with God," had his mind 
filled with similar subjects, but regarded Noah as his 
guide : he too takes up astronomical speculations. 
Whether he wrote only the fragments wh. are pre 
served in " Enoch," or compiled a book fm. wh. a 
copyist made the extracts wh. appear, none can tell. 
A later brother still felt himself impelled to write, 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



but he, like the first writer, claimed to be the 
spokesman of Enoch. He wrote, and his writings 
were placed before and after those previously pub 
lished in the name of Enoch. He devotes a great 
deal of time to the condition of the angels who had 
sinned ; he visits them in their captivity and cata 
logues their names ; he also gives an account of the 
people of God fm. the beginning to the time of the 
Maccabacan struggle. He too is occupied with 
astronomy, and tells the tale of the heavenly bodies 
in a way yet more elaborate than those wh. pre 
ceded. There are still later additions. Although 
in this we are compelled to maintain our opinion in 
the face of the formidable authority of Dr. Charles, 
we regard the centre portion of the book of Enoch as 
the oldest, and wd. date it before the Maccabaean 
time. The first and third portions we wd. date 
about the time when the Maccabasan struggle was 
nearing its first triumphant period, before the 
Assidaeans were offended and deserted Judas. Be 
tween these we wd. place the Noachian portions. 
Of the later additions some appear to have origi 
nated as late as the times of Herod the Great. We 
ought to observe that Dr. Charles has decided that 
the writer was a Pharisee : we are not aware of the 
grounds of this decision. To our view a comparison 
of the Mishna, a production of the Pharisaic school, 
with Enoch wd. be sufficient to disprove this identi 
fication. Moreover, there is no word in Josephus 
or elsewhere of the Pharisees being in secret pos 
session of sacred books, as we know the Essenes 
were. Further, the practical absorption of the 
whole Essene sect in Christianity explains the vastly 
greater influence this book exercised in the Church 
than over Judaism if the author were, as we regard 
him, an Essene. As is well known, the book of 
Enoch had totally disappeared fm. the knowledge 
of European Christendom for nearly a millennium 
until some copies of an Ethiopic translation were 
found by Bruce the traveller, in Abyssinia. Later, 
portions of the Greek fm. wh. the Ethiopic had been 
translated have been found ; it too was a transla 
tion fm. a Heb. original, but no portion of this has 
been recovered. 

(b) Daniel was assumed as prompter by a later 
visionary, and his vision has had a greater success 
than those either of his predecessors or successors ; 
it was received into the Canon of Scripture as part 
of the book of Daniel. Our view is that the 
eleventh chapter of Daniel is of much later origin 
than the rest of the book. Any one who reads the 
prophecy of Daniel in the original must observe, 
when he commences the eleventh chapter, a total 
change of atmosphere. The style of the Hebrew is 
different ; the animal and angelic symbolism wh. 
characterises the rest of Daniel has disappeared ; 
instead we are introduced to actual kings of the 
south and the north. This visionary, who had 



assumed the name of Daniel, must have foreseen 
all this warlike turmoil ; the marching and counter 
marching of the armies that fought for the posses 
sion of Palestine and Coele-Syria, coming now fm. 
the north, fm. Antioch, and now fm. Egypt in the 
south ; and so dreaming, he wrote. It may be, 
as some have thought, that a vision of Daniel has 
been lost, and that what we have in the eleventh 
chapter is a visionary s interpretation of the lost 
vision wh. it has replaced. It may be noted that, 
unlike other Apocalypses, it does not end in the 
Last Judgment, but adopts the first verse of 
Dn. 12. as its conclusion. Probably this chap, 
never existed apart. 

(r) Later is the Apocalypse of Baruch, which, 
like so many of this class of writings, had disap 
peared, but was found in a Syriac version of a Greek 
translation of a Hebrew original. The conflict with 
Syria had ended in the independence of Judaea under 
John Hyrcanus ; peace settled down on the com 
munity at En-gedi. But when the conflicts with 
heathenism without ceased, strife began within. A 
gross insult offered by a Pharisee to the memory of 
his mother threw John Hyrcanus into antagonism 
to the whole party. This antagonism was em 
bittered under Alexander Jannaeus, leading up to 
a bloody persecution of the Pharisees. Alexandra, 
his widow and successor, took the Pharisees into 
favour. At her death began the terrible fratri 
cidal struggle between her two sons, and the yet 
more ominous intervention of the Romans under 
Pompey. This roused the feelings of the recluses 
of En-gedi. The desecration of the Temple by 
Pompey led their thoughts to the time when 
Nebuchadnezzar overthrew the Jewish State and 
burned the Temple. One of the visionaries feels 
the spirit of Baruch, the amanuensis of Jeremiah, 
laying hold of him ; he sees Jerusalem falling before 
the assault of the Babylonian army, and all the woe 
and horror of the sack. But behind the Chaldaean 
soldiery he sees four angels of God with torches in 
their hands ; when they have caused the earth to 
swallow up the Holy Place and its furniture they 
open a way for the Chaldaeans to enter the Holy 
City. Baruch fasts, and another vision is given him ; 
he is told to exhort Jeremiah to go to Babylon with 
the captives to strengthen them. This is in singular 
contradiction to Scripture, wh. relates that Jeremiah 
elected to remain in Judaea, and that then, after 
the murder of Gedaliah, he was carried down into 
Egypt. In answer to a prolonged prayer of Baruch 
God Himself appears to the saint to comfort him, 
and tells him of the times to come. There are 
twelve successive times, symbolised as floods of 
water alternately dark and bright ; these, however, 
take the Apocalyptist merely to the time of Cyrus. 
Later are other black waters, the times of persecu 
tion under Epiphanes; then another flood of waters, 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



wh. are partly dark and partly bright. This re- originated in the century preceding the birth of 

presents the times of the later Maccabees, when Christ; all these difficulties find an easy explanation, 

brother strove with brother, when hired assassins It is to be noted that Papias attributes to our Lord 

carried out the behests of envy, and when " blood a description of the millennial plenty wh. is found 

touched blood." The bright waters may be pre- in Baruch 29. Dr. Charles thinks it was an old 

sumed to be the conquests of Alexander Jannasus traditional imagination, and therefore not at all 

and the prosperous rule of Alexandra. The darker impossible for our Lord to have used the words 

flood of Roman interference comes on, but behind it in question. However, they suit the place in wh. 

is seen the glorious light of the Messianic kingdom they occur in Baruch so well that they seem to be 

and its splendour. After this Baruch writes an original. If so, we must date this Apocalypse in 

epistle to the nine tribes and a half dwelling in pre-Christian times. We thus see no reason to 

Babylon, and binds it on the neck of an eagle to change our view, that the nucleus, at anyrate, of this 

convey to them. This epistle does not seem to be book was written at the time of the overthrow of 

by the same hand as the earlier portion of the work. Crassus by the Parthians ; when the Roman empire 

As to the date of this Apocalypse, we venture to was divided against itself. 

differ fm. Dr. Charles, and retain the opinion we (J) The next writer took for his model not the 

have elsewhere expressed. Dr. Charles says it was visions of Daniel but the book of Psalms. Tho the 

" written in the latter half of the first century of collection of Psalms to wh. we refer is called the 

the Christian era." The description of the Roman Psalter of Solomon, there is no evidence that the 

power, that had overthrown the kingdom of Israel, writer made any claim to being the instrument of 

as a " forest " with a multitudeof trees, while it suits the spirit of Solomon. A plea has been advanced 

Republican Rome does not suit the time when all with great confidence (by Drs. Ryle and James) 

the powersof the Roman State, no longer distributed that these Psalms are the work of a Pharisee. There 

among consuls, praetors, tribunes, and senators, was is certainly much to make this view plausible, but 

absorbed by the emperor. Then the description of the fact that these Psalms have been so much more 

the leader, who was to be the last to survive among influential among the Christians than among the 

the trees when the destroying flood carried them Jews decidedly militates against it. The writer 

away, suits Pompey much more than any of the may have been brought up a Pharisee and later 

emperors ; he is a great tree, but only a tree like joined himself to one of the freer sub-sections of 

the rest, not raised, as was the emperor, above all the Essenes. The author of the Psalter, like the 

comparison. The name given to him suits this writer of Baruch, was deeply impressed with the 

also ; he is " leader," madboro. After Tiberius the disaster that befell Judaism when Pompey seized 

emperor, alike in Greek and Aramaic, was desig- Jerusalem and took the Temple. He, however, 

nated " king." There have been several hands at lived to see the body of the proud conqueror cast 

work on this Apocalypse, as Dr. Charles has pointed away on the shore of Egypt, slain by the Egyptian 

out, and consequently the features do not always monarch whom formerly he had befriended. Un- 

harmonise, but the results he reaches seem difficult like so many of his friends, the writer of the 

to reconcile with any interpretation of its genesis. Psalter of Solomon appears at one time of his life 

The late date he assigns to it fails to explain a to have taken an active share in public business, 

feature in the literary history of this book wh. and scathingly assails certain members of the San- 

Dr. Charles recognises as singular. Written, as he hedrin whose moral conduct deserved reprobation, 

regards it, by a Pharisee in defence of Judaism, it is The present Psalter of Solomon contains eighteen 

accepted by the Christians, but is not acknowledged Psalms ; but as there are quotations fm. this work 

by the Jews. Dr. Charles seems to us to have in the Pistis Sophia, none of wh. is to be found in 

failed to recognise the historic conditions of the the Psalms we have, and as when the reference is 

problem. By the time he thinks Baruch was given with the quotation to a special Psalm the 

written Jews and Christians were in antagonism to number is higher, probably the original Psalter 

each other ; a Jewish book wd. not have been re- was twice as large as that we have. Of the present 

ceived fm. the hands of the Pharisees unless it had Psalms the i8th is the longest and most interesting. 

a considerable known antiquity. Again, though It is a long description of the Messianic king and 

Judaism became wholly Pharisaic, yet this Apoca- His times. There are several phrases in it, wh. find 

lypse was not acknowledged by the Jews. It must echoes in the New Testament ; thus it is said of the 

also be observed that there is no indication of the Messiah (v. 42), " On account of His God He shall 

presence in the Jewish community of any sect that, not be weak, because God shall make Him mighty 

like the Christians, separated themselves fm. their in His Holy Spirit " ; this has an echo in Jn. j. 34 , 

countrymen to associate with the Gentiles. If this " God givcth not the Spirit by measure unto Him." 

was, as we think it, the product of the Essene school, A further resemblance may be seen in v. 45, " He 

wh. merged so soon in Christianity ; if, further, it shall feed the flock of the Lord," wh. is echoed in 

xxxiii b 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



Jn. 10. u , " I am the Good Shepherd." Another his sons mercenaries in the most approved style of 
striking passage is tobc noted, where theresemblance the Hebrew Hagada. The writer is so enamoured 
is not so much of words as of spirit (v. 36) : "There of the "week" that he maintains that the year 
shall be no injustice in those days of His, because has only 364 days, that is exactly 52 weeks, and 
they shall be all holy, and their King is Christ the denounces those who wd. make the year a purely 
Lord." There is a dubiety about the reading of lunar one of 354 days. Dr. Charles, whose opinions 
the last clause, not, however, because of any dif- always merit the highest consideration, wd. date 
ference in MS. authority, but fm. its apparently this book somewhere between B.C. 250 and IOO, 
Christian character, especially as Ki pios was the with the added note that it was nearer the former 
received rendering of the sacred name YHWH. date than the latter. Personally we think the com- 
Thc elevated rank attributed to the " Son of Man " position of this book coincided with the beginning 
in the book of Enoch makes this calling the Messiah of the Hcrodian rule : the special animus against 
" Lord " not so extraordinary if the writer was an Edom seems to point to this. We agree with Dr. 
Essene. A manuscript professing to contain por- Charles in regarding the writer as a priest : the im- 
tions of some of the missing Psalms has recently portance he gives to ritual, and the prominent place 
been found, but the question of its authenticity he assigns to Levi, all point to this. Dr. Charles 
may be regarded as yet sub judicc. thinks the original language of Jubilees to have been 
(e) The book of Jubilees has characteristics wholly Hebrew; the use of Mastema for "Satan" seems 
different fm. any of the writings hitherto con- to us to point to Aramaic being the language, a 
sidered. While the writer of Enoch was saturated possibility wh. Dr. Charles does not even consider. 
with the thoughts and symbolism of Daniel, the (/) Also connected with the great lawgiver is 
writer of Baruch had before his mind the prophecies the Assumption of Moses, a book referred to in the 
of Jeremiah, and the writer whose works we have Epistle of Jude. The condition in wh. we have 
just been considering had been a close student of this book is somewhat peculiar. It has come down 
the Psalms of David, the author of the book of to us only in a fragment of a Latin translation made 
Jubilees had devoted most of his attention to the fm. a Greek version of a Hebrew original. The 
historical books. There is throughout an apolo- translator seems to have had but a slight acquaint- 
getic colour given to the narrative, as if the writer ance with Greek, and no great mastery of Latin, 
were always considering how the Greeks or rational- Although it is only a fragment, there is much in it of 
istic Hellenised Jews wd. regard the transactions the highest interest. The picture of Moses ascend- 
related. He finds the framework of his scheme of ing Mount Ncbo accompanied by his faithful ser- 
history in the Jubilee, the week of weeks + one, vant Joshua points out its place of origin. Across 
i.e. half a century. The source of this history is the the Dead Sea fm. the settlement at En-gedi rise 
" tablets of the heavens," or as they are called in the mountains of Moab, and one of them is Nebo, 
Daniel, "the Scripture of truth." Moses in the the mount on wh. Moses had died and been buried, 
first year of the Exodus, the third month and the The ccenobites wd. naturally be led to think of 
l6th day of the month, went up into Mount him as morning by morning they saw the sun 
Sinai, and there had the " tablets of the heavens " rise in splendour fm. behind those peaks. As the 
opened to him, and in them he was able to read all writer of the book of Jubilees wrote of Moses, and 
the past history of the world up to his own time, read of the events of the past in the "tablets of the 
Every event is set down in its own Jubilee and week heavens," so here we find him revealing the future, 
of years in that Jubilee, and special year of that The difficulties wh. attend the interpretation of this 
week. While in the Biblical account the only book arc great from the number of lacunae in the 
women named as living before the flood arc Eve, sole MS. in wh. it is preserved, fm. the presence of 
the wives of Lamech, and his daughter Naamah, blunders in translation that can be recognised, and 
the writer has no difficulty in assigning wives to all the probability of there being yet more wh. we 
the antediluvian patriarchs. When the morality cannot fix, and fm. the possibility that there may 
of an incident seems doubtful in the light of more have been blunders in the Greek as a version fm. 
advanced ideas, the difficulty is got over by judicious the Hebrew ; added to these are the possible mis- 
omissions or suggested additions. Thus, in the story takes of copyists in all three languages, and one can 
of the slaughter of the Shcchemites by Levi and recognise how far the modern reader is fm. being on 
Simeon, while it is said that they beguiled them, certain ground. It seems, however, fairly certain 
the nature of the snare is omitted ; and there that some date about A.n. 6 is the time of composi- 
is added a " statute in Israel " forbidding the tion. Archelaus has been deposed, and it is thought 
Israelites to give their daughters to a Gentile ; yet certain that ere long Philip and Antipas will be de- 
further, the age of Dinah was declared to be only posed also, a hope that events did not fulfil. There 
?lvc years. In ch. 37. we have an account of a is something to be said for Dr. Charles view of the 
conflict between Jacob and his sons against Esau and composite character of this work, but the fragmen- 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



tary state of the remains forbids dogmatism. The 
great crux of the book is the person referred to as 
" Taxo," a Levite who, overwhelmed with the state 
of Judah, retires with his seven sons into a cave. 
The probability is that, had we the Hebrew, we 
might by one or two methods of Gematria make at 
least a plausible guess as to the person intended. 
We cannot say that any of the numerous solutions 
proffered can even be said to be plausible. 

We shall only glance at one or two Apocalypses 
that seem to be post-Christian. Of Jewish origin, 
they yet appear to have been written by Christians 
after the promulgation of Christianity. 

(a) The first of these is " Fourth " Esdras, wh. 
we have already mentioned as hanging on the fringe 
of semi-canonicity. Although by liberal excisions, 
on plea of removing interpolations, a nucleus wd. 
be left wh. mt. be maintained to be pre-Christian 
without it being possible to prove the contrary ; 
yet this remainder wd. be so colourless that it wd. 
be difficult to explain its existence and preservation. 
We are therefore inclined to regard it as post- 
Christian. Certainly the vision of the eagle with 
its twelve wings and three heads points at the 
earliest to the reign of the Flavian emperors. It is 
the work of a Jewish Christian working in a circle 
of predominantly Jewish ideas. Its Essenian origin 
is betrayed by the explanation suggested of the 
number of pseudepigraphic books used by the 
Essenes, in the tale of Esdras writing with the help 
of five associates the sacred books, ninety-four in 
number, twenty-four to be published but seventy to 
be retained. Besides the Latin version fm. wh. our 
Authorised is trd. there are Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, 
and Armenian versions wh. have been used in the 
preparation of the RV. 

(/>) The Ascension of Isaiah. This as we have it 
is a composite work made up of three elements : the 
Testament of Hezckiah, the Martyrdom of Isaiah, 
and the Vision of Isaiah. The Martyrdom and the 
Testament of Hezekiah seem to have been in the 
hands of the writer of the Hebrews (Hb. 1 1. 37 ; 
cp. Asc. Is. 2. lf> , 5. 11 ). The most interesting is 
the Vision, wh. gives a semi-docetic account of the 
birth of our Lord. The date of the first two por 
tions must be fixed to the period of the death of 
Nero ; both portions were in the possession of the 
writer of the Hebrev/s ; while Nero the matricide 
king has died, the fact is fresh in the mind, and the 
Last Judgment is expected immediately. There is 
more difficulty as to the date of the Vision, but from 
the fact that it was not only known to Ignatius but 
assumed by him to be known to those to whom he 
was writing, it cannot be assigned to a later date than 
the last decade of the first cent. ; it may be earlier 
by another decade. Probably the combination of 
these into our present book was the work of a Jewish 
Christian of the first decade of the second cent. 



(f) The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs has 
hitherto generally been reckoned among the latest 
of the pseudepigrapha, but the weighty authority 
of Dr. Charles has been thrown into the scale 
against this view ; he declares for a very early 
date. He regards this book as written during the 
reign of John Hyrcanus by " a Pharisee who com 
bined loyalty to the best traditions of his party 
with the most unbounded admiration of Hyrcanus." 
Whereas formerly it was held that these Testaments 
had been written in Jewish Greek, he maintains, and 
seems to us nearly to prove, that Hebrew was its 
original tongue. We do not know how he gets over 
Levi 6. 1 , " I found a brazen shield, wherefore the 
name of the mountain is called Aspis " (Gr. " a 
shield "). It may be a play on S/nrion, a name 
of Hermon, wh. also means a " coat of mail," only 
the locality assigned to Aspis does not suit Hermon. 
At the same time, we do not feel equally impressed 
with the evidences he adduces for the early date. 
The insult offered to the memory of the mother of 
Hyrcanus by Eleazar cd. not be an isolated pheno 
menon ; it was but the culmination of a long pro 
cess of alienation fm. the Hasmonaeans on the part 
of the Hasidim. They had deserted Judas Macca- 
basus at the battle of Eleasa when Judas began to 
seek foreign alliances ; no Pharisee cd. be loyal to 
his sect and have an unbounded admiration for 
John Hyrcanus. Still less cd. an Essene have had 
such an admiration for him. The description of 
the High Priest (Levi iS. 2 "), wh. Dr. Charles as 
signs to John Hyrcanus, is to us an echo of the Ep. 
to the Hebrews. It is to be observed that Levi 
distinctly states that " the priesthood shall fail," 
and adds, " Then shall the Lord raise up a new 
priest." The passages in wh. Dr. Charles sees a 
dependence of our Lord and the apostles on the 
Testaments of the Twelve show truly a depend 
ence but in the other direction. In one of the cases 
our Lord distinctly claims originality : " Ye have 
heard that it has been said by them of old time, 
Thou shalt not commit adultery : but I say unto 
you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust 
after her hath committed adultery with her already 
in his heart " (Mw. 5. 27> 8 ) ; cp. Benjamin 8. 2 , 
" He that hath a pure mind in love looketh not on a 
woman to fornication." Yet closer is the resem 
blance between Mw. i8. 15 , " If thy brother trespass 
against thee, go and tell him his fault between thec 
and him alone : if he shall hear thee, thou hast 
gained thy brother " ; and Gad 6. 3 , " If one sin 
against thec, speak to him peaceably ; and if he re 
pent, forgive him " : even greater is the likeness to 
Lk. lj. s . For our part the dependence is clearly of 
the Testaments of the Twelve on the New Testa 
ment, not the reverse. We do not refer to what 
Dr. Charles regards as Christian interpolations ; 
he does not show what are his criteria for interpola- 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



tions. \Vc feel ourselves still necessitated to main 
tain the post-Christian origin of these writings. 

The Sibylline Oracles. Closely connected with 
the Jewish Apocalyptic writings are the so-called 
Sibylline Oracles ; although at the same time they 
differ in many points fm. them. They originated, 
not in Palestine as did the Apocalypses, but in 
Egypt. Greek, not Hebrew, was the language in 
wh. they were written, and their models of compo 
sition were found not in Daniel and the Hebrew 
prophet?, but in the Delphic and other oracles of 
Hellenism and their responses ; hence they were 
written in the epic dialect and in hexameter verse. 
These Oracles did not assume the names of saints of 
ancient Israel, but professed to be spoken by the 
Sibyls. Those ancient prophetesses, residing in 
different countries and believed to have lived at 
different ages, were supposed to have seen into the 
future, and in symbolic language to have foretold 
what was coming on the earth. The story is well 
known of the Sibyl who came to Tarquin and 
offered him nine volumes of sacred oracles ; on his 
demurring at the price she burned three of them, 
demanding the same sum for the diminished number 
as she had asked for the whole ; when he again 
hesitated she burned another three and once more 
presented herself, still demanding the same sum of 
money ; now the king bought the books, and they 
were placed in the Capitol : all this, we say, is well 
known. In Livy there are frequent references to 
these books being consulted ; whatever their origin, 
it is beyond doubt that there were sacred docu 
ments kept carefully in the Capitol, to be read in 
times of disquieting omens. If we may judge fm. 
the occasions on wh. the Senate ordered that these 
books be consulted, it wcl. seem that they resembled 
in contents those magical treatises found in Nineveh 
and Babylon, arranged, like them, under possible 
events, under each of wh. was told what was por 
tended by it, and what sacrifices and ceremonies 
were due in consequence. When the Capitol was 
burned during the Civil War between Marius and 
Sulla in the year B.C. 83 these precious volumes were 
consumed, and on his securing the supreme power 
Sulla endeavoured to replace what had thus been 
lost by means of oracles drawn fm. every quarter ; 
this new collection was placed under guardians like 
the former, to be used, like it, for consultation in 
emergencies. This search for oracles stimulated 
production, as was natural ; and the Alexandrian 
Jews, who had previously invented not a few 
" oracles " and Delphic verses, were specially active 
in this industry. Students of Herodotus will re 
member the number of floating prophecies of wh. 
he chronicles the fulfilment. These couplets (for 
generally they arc little more) afforded a model for 
the inventors ; hence the dialect and the verse 
adopted. The object of the Jews was to glorify 



their national faith in the eyes of the supercilious 
Greeks. Possibly the earliest attempt at a collec 
tion was made in the first Christian century, when 
not only were previous Jewish forgeries included 
but also some versicles that had already adorned the 
pages of Herodotus. New editors took the collec 
tion in hand, to the increase of its size. The final 
redaction may have been as late as the reign of 
Justinian. It sometimes seems to the reader as 
if the framework of our extant Qracula Sibylhna 
had been a poem of Juda?o-Christian origin, wh. 
narrated the history of the world fm. the beginning 
to the end of time, in wh. elements drawn fm. Greek 
mythology were introduced into the Bible story, 
the leaves of wh. had got scattered and mingled with 
leaves fm. other sources, and were roughly collected 
into books at a later time. The first book, wh. re 
lates the history of the world fm. the Creation to the 
capture of Jerusalem by Titus, is fairly consecutive. 
The story of the Flood and the account of the death 
of our Lord are given in it at a length out of propor 
tion to the space. The second book appears to be 
an amplification of the Apocalyptic portion of our 
Lord s discourses (Mw. 24.), in terms that suggest 
that the period of disorder wh. began with the 
death of Caracalla gave vividness to the picture. 
After that confusion supervenes. In the third 
book there are passages wh. suggest that they are 
leaves missing fm. the first, as the account of the 
building of the Tower of Babel, wh. is associated 
with the War of theTitans; and the call of Abraham. 
Mingled with this are accounts of the Ptolemies, 
the War of Troy, and the Persian invasion of Greece. 
Not infrequently a book begins in a way that pre 
supposes a plan already formed ; thus the fifth 
begins with an account of each successive Roman 
emperor fm. Julius down to Hadrian, designating 
each obliquely, mostly by the numerical value 
of their initial in the Greek alphabet. Having 
reached Hadrian, a dive is taken into the indefinite. 
The eighth book has an acrostic of the name Christ, 
and the third has a distinct reference to Dn. II. 
There are a great number of references to the 
Gospel history and to the life and death of our 
Lord, so that it is evident that the Oracula Sibyllina 
were finally edited by a Christian. In all there are 
nominally fourteen books of varying lengths, made 
up of fragments of widely differing dates. Doubt 
less some of the fragments wd. throw light on the 
beliefs and expectations of the Jews in Egypt during 
the century wh. immediately preceded our Lord s 
Advent and that wh. succeeded, but it is impossible 
to date them with any certainty. 

(5) The Dodrinal Significance of Apocalyptic. 
While one wd. not claim for the Apocalyptists in 
spiration, yet Providence, wh. was passing the nation 
throughanumberof educativeexpericncesto prepare 
them for receiving Christianity, had fitted these men 



APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 



specially to give voice to the thoughts and feelings 
of their fellows. Therefore we may learn fm. them 
the extent to wh. the process of preparation had 
gone. We cannot, in the short space open to us, 
do more than indicate the lines of advance. In 
theology proper, the doctrine concerning God, 
there is advance towards a more worthy idea. 
Though the prophets had proclaimed the univer 
sality of God s rule, yet at times there are phrases 
used that render it a matter of doubt how far they 
apprehended the meaning of their own words. 
Thus in Isaiah (63- 19 ) we have the prophet s ex 
postulation : " We are become as they over whom 
Thou never barest rule" (RV.), i.e. "the Gentiles." 
To the Apocalyptist all the world was under the 
government of YHWH. To the prophets Provi 
dence was a narrow affair, embracing only the races 
the Moabites, the Ammonites, the Assyrians, the 
Babylonians that came into immediate contact 
with Israel. Their intrusion into the affairs of 
Israel is regarded as due to the moral condition 
of the chosen people : the accident, so to speak, 
of their declining fm. the worship of God is the 
cause of the Assyrian or Egyptian invasion. To the 
Apocalyptist these empires, as they successively rise 
and fall, are part of a Divine plan wh. wd. be com 
plete in the coming of the Messiah. The whole 
world was involved in this Messianic kingdom, not 
merely Israel, though the special dignity of the 
chosen people is recognised. This leads us to one 
of the most important sides of Apocalyptic doctrine : 
their doctrine of the Messiah, their Christology. 
This is brought into close relationship to the Logos 
doctrine. In Enoch we see a being super-angelic, 
all but Divine, who is called " Son of Man," and 
who is to be the Messiah ; the assertion of His 
absolute Divinity seems trembling on the lips of 
the writer. It seems impossible to deny that our 
Lord s use of this title " Son of Man " was de 
rived fm. the book of Enoch, and with the term 
the thought of His being the representative and 
go el of humanity are connected. With this is 
involved the Trinity : though only faintly per 
ceived, there is what seems to be an idea of a 
spiritual influence proceeding fm. God yet not 



God, as in the passage already quoted fm. Ps. Sol. 
I/. 42 . Although the anthropological side of theo 
logy is less to be noted in these writings, yet on the 
border-line between this and theology proper, the 
relation between God and man, the writers are 
sure of the most absolute fore-ordination that 
everything is written in the " tablets of the 
heavens." The doctrine of sin is not prominent ; 
in fact, one of the characteristic differences between 
prophecy and Apocalyptic is the want in the latter 
of the denunciation of wrong so frequent in the 
former. On two subjects the Apocalyptist directed 
special attention : angelology with its correlate 
dcmonology, and eschatology. We know that ac 
cording to Jewish tradition the men of the Captivity 
brought the names of the angels back with them fm. 
Babylon ; and rather more than a quarter of a cen 
tury ago Dr. Kohut endeavoured, tho with less 
success than his learning deserved, to identify 
the archangels with the Zoroastrian Amhaspands. 
\Vhatever the source, the angelic hierarchyin Enoch 
is great and complex. According to this book there 
were archangels, generallynumbered as four, though 
sometimes the number is larger ; there are many 
classes and divisions, wh.wd. occupy more space than 
we have at disposal to discuss. The angelology of 
St. Paul seems to embrace a hierarchy equally com 
plex, and classes equally numerous, but the nomen 
clature is different. Over against the angels are an 
equally numerous hierarchy of demons, the angels 
that kept not their first estate. The name assigned 
to the leader of these fallen spirits differs in diffe 
rent Apocalypses. Closely connected with this is 
eschatology ; the punishment of the fallen angels 
occupying a great deal of attention in the opening 
chapters of Enoch. The establishment of the 
Messianic kdm. is followed at no long interval 
by the Last Judgment, and the punishment of the 
wicked. Alike in Enoch and in 4th Esdras elaborate 
descriptions are to be found of the place of punish 
ment. To a large extent, though somewhat modi 
fied, the views thus expressed have found their way 
into the eschatology of the Church. Thus in many 
different lines these Apocalyptists prepared for the 
reception of Christian doctrine. 




COIN OF RHEGIUM 
WITH HEADS or CASTOR AND POLLUX 



THE TARGUMS 



DURING the period of the Exile the land previously 
occupied by the Jews had largely been taken pos 
session of by inhabitants of other parts of the 
Babylonian empire to whom Hebrew was unknown, 
or at all events little known. Aramaic had become 
the lingua franca of all South-western Asia, so 
whcnccsoevcr the peoples came, and whatsoever 
their native language, they spoke Aramaic : in it 
political and commercial business was transacted. 
Further, the Jews who had been left in the land, 
few and poor, wd. necessarily learn the language 
of the immigrants, with whom they wd. come per 
petually into business relations, if only in matters 
of buying and selling. At the same time, since 
on the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris the 
ancient tongue of Babylon embalmed in the cunei 
form had been replaced in ordinary matters by 
Aramaic, the exiles were compelled to use it in 
their intercourse with their neighbours in Baby 
lonia. The returning exiles, therefore, if they had 
any knowledge of Hebrew, knew Aramaic more 
thoroughly. Hebrew in consequence dropped out 
of use when the returned exiles who remembered 
their childhood passed away. Although Heb. and 
Aramaic are cognate tongues, yet to the Jews in the 
days of Ezra and Nehemiah the law had to be inter 
preted before they cd. understand it. Dante has to 
be translated before a French audience can appre 
ciate La Divina Commedia, yet French and Italian 
are cognate tongues. When the habit introduced 
by Ezra of having the law read regularly in the 
synagogue was established, a class of officials arose 
whose function it was to interpret in Aramaic what 
was read, as the law always was, in Hebrew. This 
was called a " Targum," fm. tar gem (Aram.), " to 
translate," a root which appears in " dragoman," 
connected with regam, " to throw " ; the sense was 
regarded as thrown fm. one language into another. 
For approximately six centuries the Meturgemanim 
or interpreters spoke their versions : when a verse of 
the law was read in Heb. the Meturgeman repeated 
the Targum or version ; of the Prophets three- 
verses were to be read, followed by the interpreta 
tion. The Meturgeman was under very specific 
rules. He was forbidden to read his version lest the 
hearers might imagine it was the original Scripture 
that they were hearing. The reader was required 
to keep his eyes close on the roll of the law lest the 
hearers shd. think he was merely giving the human 



interpretation of the Divine law. The regular 
reading of the law through, in the course of a year 
or set number of years, gave a fixity to the Targum 
of the Pentateuch long before writing came in to 
assist memory and to crystallise the traditional 
rendering. 

The earliest committed to writing was the 
Targum of Onkelos, sometimes called the Targum 
Babli ; its origin must have been in Palestine, but 
received by the Babylonian schools, and ratified 
by their imprimatur, it became the received or 
official " Targum " of the law. There is a diffi 
culty as to who this Onkelos was, and a confusion 
between him and Aquila, the reviser of the LXX 
Greek version. Each is said to have made his ver 
sion under the direction of Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi 
Joshua ; both, we are told, were proselytes the 
names are the same, the n being inserted to make 
pronunciation easier. It has been suggested that, 
as Aquila s translation of the law into Greek was 
regarded as a model of accuracy, Qnkelosi was an 
adjective fm. that name, and meant " with extreme 
accuracy." The history of both becomes what in 
any other than Talmudic literature wd. be too 
wildly improbable to be called legendary. Onkelos 
is declared to be a nephew of the emperor Titus ; his 
father s name was Kalonikus (Callinicus). When he 
became a Jew the emperor sent a cohort to take him 
prisoner, but he repeated certain texts to them and 
converted them to Judaism, and this happened not 
once, but three times. He called his uncle fm. the 
grave to consult him as to the advisability of be 
coming a Jew, &c. The law was regarded as the 
most precious possession of Israel : the duty of cor 
rect interpretation was therefore the more incum 
bent on the interpreter. The version wd. be most 
carefully made, and when received as correct wd. be 
handed on with the most scrupulous accuracy from 
Aleturgeman to Meturgeman. The rendering wd. 
thus get a certain fixity by tradition, if not also 
something of sanctity. By the middle of the second 
century, when the last hope of an independent 
Jewish State had been quenched in the blood of the 
followers of Bar-Cochba, Aramaic had nearly passed 
away. The knowledge of the Targum of the law 
was in as much danger of being forgotten as the 
vowels of its Hebrew, hence it had to be com 
mitted to writing. All the scrupulous fidelity of the 
traditional rendering of the Palestinian Meturge- 



X XXVI 11 



THE TARGUMS 



manin was preserved. Hence it deserved to be 
called Onkelosi, " Aquila like." Only in poetic 
passages as in the blessing of Jacob especially in 
the parts regarding Judah and Joseph or in the 
song and blessing of Moses, is expansive paraphrase 
resorted to. 

We subjoin the blessing of Judah (Gn. 49.8-12) as a 
specimen of the poetic expansion sometimes found in 
Onkelos. We quote fm. Etheridge s translation. " Jehucla, 
thou art praise and not shame : thy brethren shall praise 
thee ; thy hand shall prevail against thine adversaries, 
thine enemies shall be displeased ; they will be turned 
backward before thee, and the sons of thy father will come 
before thee with salutations. The dominion shall be thine 
in the beginning, and in the end the kingdom shall be in 
creased from the house of Jehuda, because from the judg 
ment of death, my son, hast thou bsen withdrawn. He 
shall repose and abide in strength as a lion, and as a 
lioness there shall be no king that may cut him cff. He 
who exerciseth dominion shall not pass away fm. the house 
of Jehuda nor the Saphea (the book of the law) from his 
children s children for ever until the Meshiha come, whcse 
is the kingdom and unto whom shall be the obedience of 
the nations. Israel shall pass round about in his cities ; 
the people shall build his temple, they will be righteous 
round about him, and be doers cf the law through his 
doctrine (teaching). Of goodly purple will be his raiment 
and his vesture of crimson wool with colours. His mountains 
shall be red with his vineyards, and his hills be dropping 
with wine ; his valleys shall be white with corn and with 
flocks of sheep." 

At times, to avoid the appearance of anthro 
pomorphism, a paraphrase is introduced. As an 
example of this we may take Gn. II. 5 MT., "The 
Lord came down to see the city and the tower wh. 
the children of men builded " (EV.). Tg.O., " And 
the Lord was revealed to punish the work of the 
city and the tower wh. the sons of men had built " 
(Etheridge). In some cases, in the desire for ex 
treme accuracy of rendering, violence is done to 
the genius of the Aramaic. In Hebrew J"1N, the 
sign of the accusative, frequently occurs, especially 
in the earlier books, and with as great frequency 
do we find IV in the Targum a form rare in 
ancient Aramaic and unused in more recent forms 
of the language, as in the Peshitta of the New 
Testament. In Biblical Aramaic it appears once 
in Daniel to support the oblique case of a pronoun. 
In the Sinjirli inscription the cognate J"ll is used in 
the same way. The probable date of the Targum 
Onkelos is late in the second century. 

The Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel is a 
rendering of the " prophets " in the Jewish sense of 
the term into Aramaic. To the Jews, Joshua, Judges, 
Samuel, and Kings are the Nebiim reshonim, " the 
former prophets." When the Jews were forbidden 
by Epiphanes to read the law in the synagogue, 
they began to read portions of the prophets. Like 
the law the prophets required an interpreter, and 
in due course the interpretation was committed 
to writing. This Targum is attributed to Jonathan 
ben Uzziel, who is said to have been a pupil of Hillcl. 
It is said that when he began to write his Targum, 
Pal. was shaken by a voice from heaven wh. de 



manded : " Who is this that reveals My secrets to 
the sons of men ? " This Targum is slightly less 
exact than that of Onkelos, slightly more given to 
paraphrase. 

As a specimen cf his style Jonah i.s may be taken. The 
verse is rendered in AV. : " Then the mariners were afraid 
and cried every man to his god, and cast forth the wares 
that were in the ship into the sea to lighten it of them." 
In Jonathan it appears thus: "And the shiprnen were 
afraid and prayed a man to (from) his fear (his god), and 
when they saw that there was n t in them help, they cast 
the wares that were in the ship into the sea to lighten it of 
them." 

It appears to have been committed to writing 
shortly after that of Onkelos a statement that 
implies that it is pseudonymous, wh. undoubtedly 
it is. Jonathan was said also to have translated Job, 
but that Targum was withdrawn ; it is said, how 
ever, to have been republished, so that it is supposed 
to be his Targum of that book we have in the 
rabbinic Bibles now. The style, however, is not 
the same. He is said to have intended to write 
a Targum of all the Kethubim, but to have been 
forbidden fm. heaven. In the neighbourhood of 
Safed a cave in the limestone rock is shown as his 
tomb. 

There is a very paraphrastic Targum of the 
Pentateuch called by his name, usually cited as the 
Targum of the Pseudo-Jonathan. Closely con 
nected with this is the Targum Jerushalmi, wh. 
reads like a recension of that of Pseudo-Jonathan. 

The extent to which the paraphrase is carried 
may be seen in Targum Pseudo- Jonathan and Tar 
gum Jerushalmi as compared with Onkelos. 

Onkelos (Gn. 3- 18 ) : "Thorns also and thistles 
shall bring forth for thee, and thou shalt eat the 
grass of the field." 

Pseudo- Jonathan : " Thorns also and thistles 
shall grow and multiply for thy sake, and thou shalt 
eat the grass that is on the face of the field. Adam 
answered and said, I pray Thee by the mercy that 
is before Thee, oh Yeya [YHWH], that we may not 
be deemed like unto the beasts, that we shd. eat 
grass that is on the face of the field. May we arise 
and toil with the toiling of our hands, and eat food 
from the food of the earth, and thus that there may 
be a distinction before Thee between the sons of 
men and the offspring of cattle." 

Jerushalmi : " And thorns and thistles shall it 
multiply for thee, and thou shalt eat the grass that is 
on the face of the earth. Then began Adam and 
said, I pray, through the mercy that is before Thee, 
Yeya (YHWH), let us not be accounted before Thee 
as the beasts that eat of the grass of the field. May 
we be permitted to toil with the toil of our hands 
and eat food from the fruits of the earth, and thus 
may there be a difference before Thee between the 
sons of men and the offspring of cattle. " 

The Targum to the Hagiographa is very para- 



XXXIX 



THE TARGUMS 



phrastic ; sometimes several versions coalesce, and 
increase the appearance of paraphrase. It is ascribed 
to Joseph Csecus but this was merely a name. The 
various portions of the Hagiographa seem to have 
been Targumised at different dates and by authors 
with different ideas. Job, wh., as mentioned above, 
was wrongly ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, is 
very diffuse, and seems to contain elements of 
very different ages. There arc in it frequent cases 
where different Targumic renderings have coalesced. 
Psalms is rather better. An example may be taken 
fm. Ps. no. 3 , "Thy people shall be willing in the 
day of Thy power," wh. is thus rendered, "Thy 
people of the house of Israel shall be obedient to 
the law in the day of battle. " * 

Proverbs is very close to the original. Its likeness 
to the Peshitta version has been remarked. The 
five Megilloth are of varying merit, on the whole 
abounding in Midrash. There are two Targums of 
Esther wh. the reader may find in Cassel s Commen 
tary. There probably was, in most of these cases, 
an earlier Targum wh. was used as the basis for an 
embroidery of Midrash. There is no official Tar- 
gum of Daniel or Ezra, Nehemiah or Chronicles. 
There is a late Targum of Chronicles wh. was pub 
lished separately ; it shows signs in the beginning 
of the influence of the Jerushalmi. A Targum of 
Daniel has been found, but it is in Persian. The 
reason why there is no Targum of Daniel or of 
Ezra-Nehemiah is supposed to be that Aramaic 
portions occur in both. 

The usefulness of the Targums of Onkelos and 
Jonathan is very considerable. The Targum may 
at times reveal a text slightly differing fm. the 
Massoretic, but it always reveals the sense wh. the 
rabbins, Babylonian and Palestinian, put upon given 

* The example of the rendering of Ps. no. 1 given 
in M Linteck s Theological Dictionary is not that in the 
Warsaw edition of the rabbinic Bible. It is unfortunate 
that the writer of the article does not give the edition of 
the rabbinic Bible fin. wh. he made his translation. 



texts at the actual date at which they were executed. 
A striking peculiarity is the frequent introduction of 
mcmra (word) dc Tcya (JH\VI1) where the text has 
" God "or Jehovah : thusGn. 3_ 8 , " They heard the 
voice of the word of the Lord God walking in the 
garden " ; Jg. 6. 12 , " The word of the Lord is 
thy help, thou mighty man." This usage suggests 
the Logos of Philo and of the fourth Gospel. 
Although neither " Onkelos " nor " ben Uzziel " 
had been committed to writing, both Philo and the 
writer of the fourth Gospel wd. have been accus 
tomed to hear in the s\ nagogue the phrase memra 
de Teya occupying the place of YHWH ; and logos, 
with its double meaning of " reason " and " speech," 
being the natural translation of the term with this 
connotation, would readily lead to the Philonian 
speculation and the Johannine statement of doctrine 
in the prologue of the fourth Gospel. We have 
mentioned only the official Targums, the others are 
full of Haggadic elements. 

There is also a Targum on the Samaritan Pen 
tateuch, wh. is valuable as preserving the dialect 
of Aramaic spoken in Samaria. In codices of the 
Sam. Pnt. in parallel columns with the text or 
on the page opposite to it, there is usually found 
a Targum or version of it either, as in more 
recent MSS., in Arabic, or in Samaritan Ara 
maic. This latter keeps very close to the original, 
even in poetic passages. As a specimen Jacob s 
blessing of Judah (Gn. 49. 8 " 12 ) may be taken : 
" Judah (praised) art thou : thy brethren shall love 
thee ; thy hands shall be on the neck of thine 
enemies. The whelp of a lion is Judah : fin. the 
slaughtered, my son, thou hast withdrawn thyself, 
treading down: when thou couchest as a lion, and as 
a lioness, who shall rouse thee ? The sceptre shall 
not depart from Judah, nor the ruler from among 
his ranks, until Shilo shall come : to Him shall the 
nations be subject." It is of use in fixing the text 
of the Sam. Pnt. See SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 




VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES 



I. OLD TESTAMENT 



I. Greek Versions. Until the rise of Chris- 
tianity the Jewish people were satisfied with the 
SEPTUAGINT as adequately presenting in Greek the 
meaning of their sacred law. They even invented 
miraculous adjuncts to the process of translation 
in a way that invested it with a ^K^Jz-inspired 
authority. When Christianity appeared, and soon 
became predominantly Greek, the Jews assumed 
another attitude towards the Alexandrian transla- 
tion. Christian controversialists drew their argu- 
ments exclusively from the LXX. At times they 
used passages where the Greek disagreed with the 
Palestinian text, which was gradually consolidating 
into the Massoretic. The Jews sought an effective 
means of answering their assailants, and so desired 
a translation which would more exactly represent 
the Hebrew. 

(i) The earliest Greek Version, and in many re- 
spects the most important after the LXX, is that of 
Aquila ( AKuAas). Epiphanius (Pond, et Mens.),ihe 
value of whose evidence on any subject is on a par 
with that of the Talmud, asserts that Aquila was 
the stepson (pentherideus) of Hadrian, and that he 
was sent by the emperor to superintend the building 
of the Temple at Jerusalem. While there, having 
been led to study the Scriptures, he became a 
Christian and was baptized. He was, however, 
addicted to astrology, and despite the exhortations 
of the Church authorities, he persisted in casting 
horoscopes. In consequence he was expelled from 
the Christian community which he had so recently 
joined. Thereupon he became a Jew ; and in 
order to avenge himself upon those who had re- 
jected him, he resolved to translate anew the He- 
brew Scriptures into Greek, in such a way as to 
deprive the Christians of many of their proof-texts, 
It seems certain that he was a proselyte from 
heathenism. The Talmud (see TARGUMS, Onkelos) 
agrees with Epiphanius in asserting this. The 
version of Aquila renders the Hebrew into Greek 
with such slavish literal fidelity that at times it is 
unintelligible, and frequently violates the laws of 
Greek grammar : e.g. bereskitb, " in the beginning," 
is derived from rosh, and kephale in Greek means 
" head " : he therefore renders bereshith, cv Ke<a- 
Acuoj, which really means " in sum." In the same 
verse eth, the sign of the accusative, he translates 
" with " (sun), and in defiance of Greek grammar he 



joins it to the accusative instead of the dative case. 
Hebrew idoms he rendered by the mechanical pro- 
cess of word-for-word translation. Further, in 
choosing a Greek equivalent for a Hebrew word, 
he endeavoured to find one with a parallel etymo- 
logy. If we had Aquila s version in its entirety 
we should be able with absolute certainty to 
reconstruct the Hebrew text from which it was 
made. 

(2) Symmachus, who made a version somewhat 
later than Aquila, is said by Eusebius to have been 
an Ebionite, with what truth it is impossible to 
decide. Epiphanius declares that he was a Sama- 
ritan ; but there is no evidence in the fragment of 
his version that is preserved that he followed the 
Samaritan recension in preference to the Masso- 
retic. He had greater mastery of Greek than Aquila, 
and also aimed at greater elegance of style. He 
inclined to resort to paraphrase when it suited his 
dogmatic proclivities. He appears to have written 
early in the second century. 

(3) Of the versions used by Origen in his Hexapla, 
the third named is that of Theodotion. Of this 
translator even less is known than of the former two. 
Irenaeus quotes from his version, coupling it with 
that of Aquila as having neanis, " young man," in 
Is. 7. 14 instead of partbenos, " a virgin." He de- 
clares that both were Jewish proselytes ; but that, 
while Aquila was from Pontus, Theodotion was an 
Ephesian. The whole of the book of Daniel, as it 
appears in the LXX, is in the version of Theodotion. 
We are therefore in a better position to form an 
opinion of this version. In the main Theodotion 
appears to have been an emendator of the LXX 
rather than an independent translator. In the 
case of Daniel, however, he seems to have translated 
for himself. Dr. Gwynn (Smith s Diet, of Christian 
Biog., s.v. " Theodotion") thinks that even in regard 
to Daniel he was merely a reviser. Evidence of this 
is sought in Justin Martyr s quotation of Dn. y. 9 " 28 . 
While in general it agrees closely with the original 
LXX as seen in the Chisian, in a few cases it agrees 
with Theodotion against the Chilian. Dr. Gwynn 
thinks that the source of these divergences must be 
a prc-Thcodotion LXX version of Daniel. The 
variations, however, are just such as might be made 
by copyists to whom the version of Theodotion was 
naturally familiar. They would be liable, perhaps 



xli 



VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES 



unconsciously, to substitute what was customary 
for what was strange. 

In the Hcxapla Origcn makes occasional use of 
other three versions ; but the surviving frag 
ments are not sufficient to enable us to form any 
definite judgment as to their respective general 
characteristics. 

II. Syriac Versions. (i) Of the Syriac versions 
the most important is the Peshitta (" simple "). 
Ephrem Syrus regarded it as already ancient in 
his day (A.D. 108-373), and repeatedly found in it 
words the meaning of which had been lost. That 
being so, we can hardly date it later than the first 
half of the second century of our era. One Syrian 
tradition claimed for it a far greater antiquity, 
declaring that the Law was translated by the direc 
tion of Solomon. Another, slightly more moderate, 
attributes it to the priest sent by the king of Assyria 
to teach the colonists of the Northern Kingdom 
" the manner of the God of the land." 

Laying aside the products of Eastern imagination, 
the probability is that the Peshitta is the work of a 
Judseo-Christian. Only a Jew was likely to be so 
thoroughly acquainted with Hebrew ; and only a 
Christian would desire in this way to make public 
the contents of the Law and the Prophets. More 
than one may have been engaged in the task ; but 
the similarity in style throughout is much greater 
than is found in the various books of the LXX. 
While as a translation it follows very closely, in some 
cases it diverges from the Alassoretic text : e.g. in 
Gn. 2. 2 , instead of " seventh day " it reads " sixth 
day " with LXX and Sam. In 4. 8 it inserts " Let 
us go into the field," also agreeing with LXX and 
Sam. In Gn. 6. 3 Psh. makes Adam 130 years old at 
the birth of Seth, agreeing with MT. and Sam., 
while LXX makes him 230. With MT. it makes 
Methuselah 187 years old at the birth of Lamcch : 
LXX makes him 167, and the Sam. 67. Note also 
the remarkable rendering in Gn. 4. 1 . According to 
MT. Eve says, " I have gotten a man, the Lord 
(eth-JHWH) " : so Luther. The Targum renders 
" from (miti) the Lord," and is followed by AV. 
LXX translates, " I have gotten a man through 
(dia) the Lord " : hence R.V., " with the help of 
the Lord." The Psh. translates, " I have gotten a 
man for (le) the Lord." 

Unlike most translations, the Psh. tries to get rid 
of redundancies : e.g. in Ru. I. 1 MT., LXX, and 
EV. all read, "in the days when the judges judged," 
but the Psh. has " in the days of the judges." In 
Jh. I. 5 MT. reads, " Jonah had gone down to the 
sides of the ship, and he lay and was asleep " : LXX, 
more graphic, says, " he slept and snored " : Psh. 
says simply, "went down to the sides of the ship and 
slept." The relation of the Pcshittu to the MT. 
shows that, while the Massoretic text was in process 
of formation, it had not yet become fixed. The 



Psalter is evidently by a hand different from that 
which wrote the rest of the version. In the method 
of formation the titles of the various Psalms differ 
from those in MT. and LXX. It is not as close to 
the Massoretic text as the rest of the version is. 

(2) As Greek became predominantly the language 
of Christianity, the Church depended more and 
more upon the LXX for its knowledge of the Old 
Testament. The Syrian Christians therefore felt 
the necessity for some acquaintance with the render 
ings of the LXX. A translation of the SEPTUAGINT 
into Syriac was made by Paul of Telia. It is 
founded on the Hexaplaric text of Origen. It gives 
not only all the omissions and insertions of the LXX, 
but also all the marks made by Origen to indicate 
the relation in which the text stood to the Hebrew. 
A large portion of this version has been published 
at various times, and from different sources. The 
most important was the book of Daniel, published 
by Bugati in 1788, which confirmed the then re 
cently published Chisian codex. This version is 
chiefly valuable for the help it gives in criticism of 
the text of the LXX, and for the means it furnishes 
of estimating the changes introduced by Origen in 
order to conform the LXX to the Palestinian text 
of the Hebrew. The Coptic and Ethiopic versions 
of the OT. were also dependent on the Greek, 

III. Latin Versions. Greek, the sacred lan 
guage of Christianity, was generally known in Italy 
and Gaul. The early Roman Fathers, Clement, 
Hermas, and Hyppolytus, as well as Irenasus, bishop 
of Lyons, all wrote in Greek. In the Roman pro 
vince of Africa, however, and in Spain, Greek was 
not universally known. 

(1) Old Latin. The earliest version seems to 
have been made in Africa. It was a translation 
from the Greek. This is evident when we compare 
with the LXX the quotations of Tertullian and 
Cyprian from the Old Testament. A revision of 
this version seems to have been current in Italy, 
which w r as free from the roughness characteristic of 
North African Latin. 

(2) The Vulgate. Christian scholars with some 
knowledge of Hebrew became aware of the great 
differences between the text of the Hebrew and that 
of the LXX, from which the version in common use 
had been made. The need was felt for a version 
which would more closely represent the original 
Llebrew. This need Jerome set himself to supply. 

This scholar was specially fitted for the task by his 
acquaintance with Hebrew : although it was not 
until late in middle life that, in his retirement at 
Bethlehem, he began the study of the sacred tongue. 
He first revised the Old Latin, making changes only 
where errors had quite destroyed the sense. He 
then settled down to a translation direct from the 
original Hebrew, and at this he toiled from his 
sixtieth to his seventy-sixth year. He completed 



xlii 



VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES 



the translation of the Old Testament, and also of 
the Apocryphal books of Judith and Tobit and the 
Additions to Daniel. These last, being in Greek, 
were hastily thrown off. The rest of the Apoc 
rypha, as unauthorised by the Massoretic Canon, 
he did not translate. They were allowed to stand 
as in the Old Latin version. 

The translation is of unequal value, the historical 
books being most carefully rendered. In his work 
Jerome employed every available assistance. He 
not only used the LXX, but also secured, with great 
difficulty, a copy of Aquila from a synagogue. His 
first assistant was a Jewish convert ; later he pur 
chased the help of Jewish rabbins. This latter 
fact lends the Vulgate a certain value as indicating 
in some degree how far the Palestinian text of 
Jerome s time coincided with our ordinary Mas 



soretic. Differences do appear in many places : 
e.g. in Dn. 8. 20 the MT. reads, " the kings of the 
Medcs and the Persians " ; but Jerome reads, " the 
king of the Medes and the Persians." The MT. 
makes a difference between the name of the Baby 
lonian king Belshazzar and that given to Daniel as 
a member of Nebuchadnezzar s court, while Jerome 
makes them identical. In both cases all the other 
versions have the same rendering. Opposition was 
offered to the introduction of the version of the 
Psalms made by Jerome direct from the Hebrew : 
he therefore substituted a more carefully revised 
version, made from the Hexapla text of the 
LXX. 

Other versions of the Old Testament, such as the 
Arabic, Coptic, Armenian, and Gothic, are all 
late and secondary. 



II. NEW TESTAMENT 



(i) The Peshitta. For long the Peshitta was 
believed to be the oldest translation of the New 
Testament. Recent discoveries have shown this 
position to be untenable. In the present state of 
the evidence it is impossible to decide with certainty, 
but there is reason to think that it cannot be dated 
earlier than the end of the fourth century, or the 
beginning of the fifth : the omission, however, of 
I and 2 John and Revelation seems to point to a 
much earlier date. 

The existence of a Syriac Version early in the 
second century is proved by Eusebius, who says 
(HE. iv. 22) that it was used by Hegesippus : this 
refers to the latter half of the second century. At 
the same time Tatian, the contemporary of Hege 
sippus, composed his Diatessaron, or combination of 
the four Gospels into one narrative. It is evident, 
at all events, that the four Gospels were extant in 
Syriac before this, since Hegesippus in Jerusalem 
would quote from documents with which he was 
familiar, not from the recent work of a con 
temporary. For more than a century the com 
mon form in which the Gospels were used was 
the Diatessaron of Tatian. It was employed by 
Ephrem Syrus in his prelections on the Gospel 
history. 

The relation between the Curetonian and the 
closely kindred Sinaitic recensions is still sub judicc. 
The Sinaitic has this peculiarity, that it is written 
in Western, not Eastern, Aramaic, which until re 
cently was called Chaldee. In the genealogy of our 
Lord it is said that " Joseph begat Jesus," a state 
ment that seems to negative our Lord s miraculous 
birth. We must remember, however, that only in 
this form could His birth be duly registered. In 
the Peshitta the Acts of the Apostles and the 
Epistles closely resemble the Gospels in style. 



I Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation are all 
omitted, as are also the first eleven verses of Jn. 8. 
and I Jn. 5. 7 . The relation of our present Peshitta 
to the Greek is not slavish. Not infrequently, when 
the Greek repeats words in a verse or in adjacent 
verses, the Peshitta varies them, possibly in the in 
terest of style. The value of this version, already 
high, will be greatly increased by the publication 
of a critically accurate text. A recension of the 
Peshitta was published at the instance of Philoxenus 
in 508, afterwards revised by Thomas Hcraklcnsis. 
Even in the present condition of the text, the 
Peshitta repays careful study. 

(2) The Vulgate. We have seen that there was 
a Latin version of the Old Testament, at least in 
Africa, early in the second century. The like is 
true of the New Testament. This is proved by the 
citations of Tertullian. This version was somewhat 
rough in style, and often, instead of translating, it 
simply transferred Greek words into the Latin : 
e.g. machcera for fj-d^aipa in Jn. i8. 10 . This version 
survives only in fragments, of which there are over 
forty, and in quotations found in the writings of the 
Fathers. These furnish proof that it underwent 
much revision and alteration. The MSS. in use 
during the third and fourth cents, differed widely 
from one another. That circulating in Italy was 
marked by greater refinement in style and vocabu 
lary, the rough Latinity of Northern Africa being 
modified to suit Italian taste. L nder these cir 
cumstances any attempt to restore the Old Latin 
version is doomed to failure. 

Amid the existing confusion the necessity for an 
authoritative version became obvious. At the in 
stance of Pope Damasus (366-384) Jerome under 
took to revise the Gospels. This he did in such 
thorough fashion as to produce practically a new 



xliii 



VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES 



translation. He then proceeded also to revise the 
Acts and the Epistles, including the Revelation. 

In making his translation Jerome kept so closely 
to the Greek, even in the order of the words, that 
Bentley proposed to edit an edition of the New 
Testament founded directly on the Vulgate. The 
Vulgate has special interest for English-speaking 
peoples, as from it Wycliffe made his version. From 
it also was made the Douay version, in use among 
English Roman Catholics. 

The name Vulgate was not originally applied to 
Jerome s version ; he himself uses the term in his 
Epistles and Commentaries, now for the LXX, and 
again apparently for the version in common use, 
which was a simple rendering of the LXX into 
Latin a habit of his which has led distinguished 
people into blunders. 

The Coptic versions of the NT., Memphitic and 
Thebaic, cannot be traced to any very early date, 



but the probability is that both were executed 
about the beginning of the third century. It 
may be doubted how far a Coptic translation 
was due to necessity, and how far to the associa 
tion of special sanctity with the Coptic. It has 
a value too slight for the criticism of the text of 
the NT. 

1 he Ethiopic version appears to have been made 
at a date slightly subsequent to the Coptic versions. 
Like them, it has been made directly fm. the Greek. 
\\ hile the ancient Ethiopic version is published, a 
translation into the more recent dialect is often 
interleaved with it. 

The Gothic of Ulphilas dates fm. the fourth 
century, and is interesting as exhibiting the ear 
liest endeavour to translate the Scripture into the 
Teutonic tongue. 

No versions of the New Testament of more recent 
date are of anv value for Criticism. 




xliv 



PHILO JUD^US 



THE period subsequent to the envelopment of 
Palestine by Alexander the Great (B.C. 331) 
witnessed a profound transformation in the 
spiritual and intellectual outlook of the peoples 
who dwelt round the Mediterranean basin. In 
the course of their development all unitary civili 
sations erect bamers to intimate admixture with 
foreign elements this is an inevitable accompani 
ment of their existence as distinctive cultures ; one 
need only cite contemporary Europe. Alexander s 
"world-empire," and, even more, its Roman suc 
cessor, not only tended naturally, but attempted 
consciously, to destroy these lines of demarcation. 
The rulers, like good statesmen, desired to create a 
common spirit wherein their motley subjects might 
partake, and thus to weld a stable unity from many 
races. As with similar movements, this one grew 
slowly. For it involved the fusion of elements dis 
similar, if not hopelessly antagonistic, originally. 
The clear-cut intellect of Greece, enamoured of 
moderation, was required to combine with the ex 
clusive religious nationalism of the Hebrews, whose 
extreme monotheistic moralism repelled Hellenic 
genius ; while both had to accommodate them 
selves to heathen occultism, alien from the Greek 
because of its intellectual, from the Jew because of 
its religious, confusion ; and to the superstitious 
nature-worship vestigial irremediably in the Orient, 
represented familiarly alike to Jews and to hellenised 
Romans by the variegated cults of the great pro 
vince, Egypt. So immense were the difficulties of 
fusion that it is little wonder the process did not 
reach maturity for three centuries. The spread of 
Greek as the language of the educated, its use as a 
commercial medium, and the translation into it of 
the Hebrew Scriptures (the Septuagint) forwarded 
the assimilation much. At length it found clas 
sical expression in the works of Philo Judseus, the 
chief ornament of the so-called Jewish-Alexan 
drian school of philosophy ; not philosophy, strictly 
speaking, however, but a wonderful mixture of 
philosophical, philological, theological, and mytho 
logical factors, all dominated by a thcosophical 
intent. Accordingly Philo must be regarded as 
one of the most important, because one of the most 
pivotal, figures in the general thought of " New 
Testament times." Moreover his extant writings 
serve to illuminate the intricate, and still obscure, 
age that intervenes between the latest books of the 



Old Testament and the formulation of Christian 
theology. He must be reckoned with, that is, as 
much for his epoch as for his peculiar teaching ; 
what he represents is at least as impressive as what 
he tells. 

Unfortunately, very little is known of Philo s life. 
The place and date of birth are irrecoverable. It 
may be said, with relative certainty, that he was 
born at Alexandria, Egypt, of a most influential and 
wealthy, possibly priestly, Jewish family. The pro 
bability is that his birth did not fall before B.C. 25 
or after B.C. 10. Several relatives occupied the fore 
most official positions at Alexandria and, later, in 
the Roman empire. It is unquestionable that he 
enjoyed every advantage in education money was 
no object and that he possessed riches which 
enabled him to dedicate his life to thought and 
scholarship. We are aware that he made a visit 
almost in the nature of a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
perhaps in youth, there to offer prayer and sacrifice 
in the Temple of the God of his fathers ; that he 
acquired knowledge of the Holy Land, and, to some 
degree, of the Hebrew tongue. The single event in 
his career that can be dated accurately was his visit 
to Rome in the winter of A.D. 39-40. He repaired 
thither as a member of the triumvirate charged to 
place the grievances of the Alexandrian Jews before 
Caligula, and to protest, in particular, against the 
order that they worship the emperor. Philo was 
spokesman, most likely chief, of the deputation, 
whose failure proved a foregone conclusion in this 
reign. He tells us himself that political activities 
and worldly affairs had no attraction for him ; and, 
as the external life of the scholar is uneventful, we 
must reconcile ourselves to the scanty references 
that can be gleaned incidentally from his own works, 
as from those of Josephus, Eusebius, Jerome, Suidas, 
Photius, and Isidorus of Pelusium, who are not 
always paragons of accuracy. A simple way for the 
Bible reader to fix the relative date of Philo is to say 
that, from first to last, he lived contemporary with 
St. Paul. 

Viewed as a whole, Philo s system (and he was 
anything but a systematist) is an eclectic scheme 
conceived and executed on an elaborate, even 
chaotic, scale. And one may allege, not unfairly, 
that the dominant purpose tends to obscure the 
systematic features, on the surface at least, if not 
fundamentally. Philo is an eclectic, because he 



xlv 



PHILO 



combines Jewish religious principles, as he con 
ceives them, with certain developments from Greek 
philosophy regnant in his time ; he incorporates 
with both some elements, chiefly of a mystic 
character, derived from current Orientalism, and 
remains unconscious, probably, of the logical con 
clusions involved in his procedure. It is clear, 
however, that he addressed himself to a double 
audience : first, to the educated classes of the 
Greco-Roman world to expound and defend 
Hebrew religion, also to point out its merits as the 
universal religion of which all vaguely felt the need ; 
second, to his co-religionists to persuade them that, 
after all, Greek philosophy bore a message for them, 
because its principles were not only in ultimate 
agreement with the traditional tenets of their faith, 
but served to enforce, if not to formulate, them. As 
a result, his purpose could be achieved by a line of 
thought in which Jewish Scriptural beliefs were 
blended with Platonic, Stoic, and Pythagorean 
ideas. It may be noted that this process was no 
new thing ; it dates back at least as far as the 
Septuagint (beginning B.C. 280). 

The means adopted by Philo to fulfil his pro 
gramme hinge upon the famous allegorical method. 
It is assumed that the Scriptures possess a double 
sense. The one appears on the surface in the 
literal statements ; it is the " lower " meaning, hence 
Philo s attacks upon " the sophists of literalism." 
The other, hidden and spiritual, is manifest only to 
the trained thinker, the " initiate." The deside 
rated identity of Jewish and Greek conceptions was 
to be proven by showing that the latter constitute 
the esoteric teaching of the former. Philo de 
veloped this view, current in rabbinism ere his 
time, to an unprecedented degree. Thus Moses 
becomes, in the language of Oriental occultism, 
the hierophant of the mysteries concealed in the 
Scriptures, Adam is pure reason, Eve the senses, 
the serpent desire, Noah the type of righteousness, 
Abraham virtue gained by higher wisdom, Jacob 
virtue acquired by practical experience, Rebecca 
patience, Rachel physical beauty, the ark of the 
covenant the intellectual world, the cherubim the 
chief Logoi who proceed from the Logos, who, again, 
proceeds from the ineffable Deity, and so on. Ac 
cordingly the system, such as it is, supplies the full 
exposition of these latent, allegorical implications 
it is the theory of the history, the essence of the 
veiling prose recital. The same method had been 
applied by the Stoics to the Greek poetical myths, 
so that Philo stood upon doubly familiar ground. 
Obviously enough, of course, such exegesis implies 
that the thinker knows how to reach the object of his 
search he has a key ; thus a group of dynamic con 
ceptions is presupposed. In this we find Philo s 
philosophy properly so styled a species of theo- 
sophy. 



Being a theosophy, Philo s thought is based 
primarily upon the doctrine of God. This, in turn, 
was influenced powerfully by the strong tendency of 
the age to separate between God and the world, 
with an attendant elevation of the former and de 
preciation of the latter. Hence, too, that vague 
craving for a new revelation wherein Philo s Jewish 
outlook found its opportunity. On disengagement 
from the imaginative, often irrelevant, accompani 
ments with which he surrounds it, his idea of Deity 
is found to contain a curious admixture of Jewish 
and Platonic factors ; these, again, lead to certain 
consequences, derived mainly from Stoicism as to 
matter, and from Pythagoreanism as to form ; 
Oriental elements also affect the last. According to 
Philo, then, man may apprehend the existence of 
God by inspection of the universe, and by revela 
tion ; on the contrary, he can never know how God 
exists. The real being of Deity must remain hidden 
from him in the nature of the case, because it pos 
sesses no qualities. So, like the classical Greeks, 
Philo holds that God is the eternal, immutable 
Reason ; and with pre-Stoic thought he empha 
sises, even accentuates, the great gulf fixed between 
God and the world. As a result, there can be no 
living God in the Hebrew sense, because God is 
unchangeable, as Plato, and, even more emphati 
cally, Aristotle, taught. On the other hand, as in 
Hebrew religion, God lives for Philo, possesses a 
personality, can reveal Himself. His adoption of 
Platonic dualism enables him to maintain this over 
against Stoic monism. In a word, the pressure of 
Hebrew faith upon Greek speculative conceptions 
makes it necessary to arrange a medium of revela 
tion. Philo accomplishes this in his second great 
doctrine of the Logos. 

Man s world is a lower sphere too imperfect 
for the real presence of the Deity, who would 
be smirched by the contact. Nevertheless, it is a 
cosmos, testifying everywhere to rational meaning ; 
therefore, it must be pervaded by an indwelling 
reason. Thus the Stoics thought, and developed a 
species of pantheism. No Jew could adopt this 
view and continue to maintain his national mono 
theism. But the conception of some kind of Divine 
effluence seemed indispensable to Philo. Conse 
quently he speaks of the Logos as a " second " Deity, 
having an existence of its own over against the 
world, because it embodies the activity of the 
true God. God creates all things indirectly by 
His Logos, and this manifestation always retains an 
operative, or dynamic, character. Quite clear as 
concerns its independence of the physical universe, 
the status of this " proceeding " is by no means 
clear as concerns God. Inevitably, Philo fails to be 
decisive here. His Judaism inhibits him from deal 
ing with the Logos outright as a " second person," 
while his Hellenism draws him towards an identifica- 



xlvi 



PHILO JUD^EUS 



tion of it with God, as an issue of Divine potency. 
Faith compels him to monotheism, reason would in 
volve him in a pantheistic or emanational theory. As 
a matter of fact, he intends the Logos both to mediate 
between God and the world (thus giving it the im 
print of personality), and to be the presence of God s 
creative power in the world (thus reducing it to the 
level of a " Word " or active quality, like " Wisdom " 
no more). Apparently he was content to let the 
apposition rest unhealed. Nor did this subterfuge 
oppress him, because his main interest was in re 
ligion rather than in metaphysics. The inevitable 
vagueness of theosophy, as compared with the 
scientific precision of philosophy, saves him here. 
It satisfies him that the Logos effects certain results 
in and for man ; especially it is " the power of God 
unto salvation." This is enough the metaphysical 
problem lapses. As man enters into communion 
with the Logos he becomes, as Philo says it is, " the 
Son of God." Accordingly the diremption of 
human life is surmounted, and the most difficult, 
distressing questions fall away. It is impossible to 
enter here upon the intricate question of the rela 
tion between the Philonian conception and that of 
the fourth Gospel. The balance of present evi 
dence is that the author of the Gospel obtained the 
Logos atmosphere from Philo, although his treat 
ment of the details, especially as respects incar 
nation, was subordinated to different ends, and 
developed amid other associations. Briefly, the 
phrase " Son of God," as applied to the Logos in the 
Gospel, has no more than a verbal identity with 
Philo s expression ; nevertheless both men are im 
pelled to this fundamental position by the same 
problem. Philo presupposes also a multiplicity of 
Divine forces inferior to the Logos. Among these 
are the Platonic Ideas, now ranked as efficient 
causes, thanks to Stoic influence ; the angels of 
Judaism and the demons (gods) of heathenism. 
Ultimately, then, God remains the reasonable 
" form " of the world, while matter, a " second 
principle," at first an indistinguishable mass, ap 
pears to us in the definite objects of daily experi 
ence through the constant operation of the inter 
mediate forces, of which the human soul is one. 
Escape from the " prison house " of flesh is thus a 
necessary end, and Philo s ethics contain a distinct 
ascetic infusion. 

Philo s writings serve to show how completely he 
applied Hellenistic ideas within a Jewish matrix. 
The principal remains belong most probably to 
three works, all commentaries on the Pentateuch 



and the Mosaic law. Of these the popular presen 
tation, written for the information of the Hellen 
istic world in general, rather than for the scholarly 
" initiate," has come down most complete. There 
are at least seven other treatises, of which the most 
attractive is that descriptive of the causes that led 
to the Roman embassy, and of the repulse encoun 
tered. Some eight works attributed to Philo are 
in dispute. The most important of these is, pro 
bably, Concerning the Contemplative Life, where 
moral asceticism and monastic communities are 
extolled. 

For the English reader the most succinct account 
of Philo, particularly of his works, is to be found in 
E. Schiirer, A History of the Jewish People in the 
Time of Jesus Christ, division ii. vol. iii. pp. 32 if. 
(Edinburgh, 1886) ; compare the same writer s 
article in the Encyclopedia Britannica. An excel 
lent account is also to be found in The Jeu ish 
Encyclopaedia. The most elaborate English work is 
James Drummond, Philo Jud/zus ; or the Jewish- 
Alexandrian Philosophy in its Development and Com 
pletion (2 vols., London, 1888). A general account 
may be found in Heinrich Ewald, The History of 
Israel, vol. vii. pp. I94f. (London, 1885) ; and in 
A. Hausrath, A History of New Testament Times, 
vol. i. second division, chaps. 4-6 (London, 1885) ; 
the treatment of Philo, and especially of his writings, 
is one of the disappointing portions of this history, 
which gives a picturesque review of the general 
situation in culture. H. Graetz, History of the Jews 
from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (London, 
1891), gives an account of the causes and results of 
Philo s embassy to Rome (vol. ii. pp. 183^), and a 
strongly pro-Jewish presentation of the manner in 
which Philo exalted Judaism at the expense of 
heathenism (ib. pp. 2o6f.). The best English dis 
cussion of the relation between Philo and the fourth 
Gospel is Ernest F. Scott, The Fourth Gospel, its 
Purpose and Theology, pp. 54f., I45f. (2nd cd., 
Edinburgh, 1908). In F. C. Conybeare, Philo 
about the Contemplative Life (Oxford, 1895), a dis 
cussion of the authenticity of this treatise is to be 
found, and one may gather from it some of the 
influences which moulded Philonian ethics. An 
English translation of Philo s writings has been made 
by C. D. Yonge (Bohn s Library) ; the Greek text 
of T. Mangey is the one cited usually. Full refer 
ences to Philo literature are given in Schiirer as 
above, whom it is well to consult in the last (4th) 
German edition for the latest information. 

R. M. WEN LEY. 



xlvii 



JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS 



Is a most important figure in the group of 
authorities for the period of the origin and 
early spread of Christianity. We are dependent 
upon him for our knowledge of conditions in 
Palestine, and, to a lesser extent, of the rela 
tions between the Jewish world and the religions, 
society, and government of the Roman empire. 
He was born at Jerusalem A.D. 37-38, and died at 
Rome in the early years of the second century, when 
we do not know exactly. On both parental sides 
he sprang from the highest rank of the priestly aris 
tocracy, and enjoyed the advantages conferred by 
wealth and position. He received a thorough edu 
cation, becoming intimate with the culture of the 
Pharisees and Sadducees, while a knowledge of Greek 
familiarised him with Hellenistic ideas. By his own 
account, he was already expert in the traditions of 
the elders at the age of fourteen. At sixteen he 
forsook learned circles at Jerusalem, being moved 
probably by current apocalyptic revivals, and with 
drew to the desert of Engedi, in order " to slake his 
thirst for knowledge." He spent some three years 
here, placing himself under the tutelage of Banus, 
an Essene hermit, and practising severe asceticism. 
Belief in the occult, and in magic, shared by him 
with his contemporaries, was confirmed by this ex 
perience, as was his devotion to the law and to cere 
monial purity. Accordingly, when he returned to 
Jerusalem, he did not join the Sadducees, as might 
have been anticipated from his social position, but 
became a Pharisee. He explains for the benefit of 
his Hellenistic readers that the Pharisees are like the 
Stoics ; a most significant intimation, for it throws 
a flood of light upon his cosmopolitan point of view. 
From A.D. 52-66 the misgovernment of the Roman 
procurators, Felix, Albinus, and Florus, and the 
anarchy at Jerusalem under Annas, the High Priest 
(62), inflamed the people, the patriots first, and then 
the plundered aristocrats, against Roman rule. The 
brief respite under Fcstus seems to have abated the 
zeal of the upper classes, among whom Joscphus 
moved. Thanks to this friction, many malcontents 
were sent to Rome, and thither Joscphus repaired, 
probably in 64, to intercede for some priests whom 
he knew well. Like Paul, he was wrecked on the 
voyage, rescued with a remnant of his fellow-pas 
sengers, and landed at Puteoli. There he met 
Alityrus, a Jewish mime (actor) popular in Nero- 
nian circles, who gained him access to the empress 



Poppasa, at Rome. Poppcea, herself a Jewish prose 
lyte, espoused his cause. He concluded his mis 
sion successfully, and returned to Jerusalem shortly 
before the revolt of 66, bearing valuable presents 
from her. More important was the object-lesson 
he had learned in Roman wealth and power. This 
served to confirm him in the idea, incipient possibly 
under Festus, of a modus vivendi between the Jewish 
leaders and the Roman government. In common 
with his rank, he held aloof from the war of libera 
tion, but, with the directing classes generally, was 
swept into it by irresistible popular demand. The 
second period of his life coincides with the terrific 
struggle that ensued. 

After the disastrous evacuation of Jerusalem by 
Cestius Gallus, the aristocracy joined the revolu 
tion and filled the chief offices, Josephus being sent 
to Galilee as civil and military governor. This was 
the point of greatest strategic importance. The 
appointment of a student by nature and nurture to 
a position of such military responsibility is remark 
able, and must be traced to social influence and 
political exigency. Josephus conduct of the pre 
parations for defence embittered the patriots, who 
suspected him of collusion with the Romans, and, 
led by John of Gischala, a Zealot extremist, ap 
pealed for his removal, without success ; his friends 
were too powerful, himself too adroit. Whatever 
may be said of his later literary life, Josephus was a 
man of the world in practical matters. His half 
hearted policy, with its greatness in small things and 
smallness in great things, has been the subject of 
denunciation. More than likely he was convinced 
that resistance would be useless in the long run, and 
had an eye upon his own fate in what he regarded as 
the inevitable issue. At any rate his measures were 
not calculated to check Vespasian with opposition 
such as might have been forthcoming from a com 
mander animated otherwise. After many danger 
ous incidents and hairbreadth escapes, concerned 
not least with his own people, Josephus, himself a 
fugitive before the Roman army, was shut up with 
his troops in Jotapata, a stronghold on the north of 
the lake of Gennesaret, in May 67. The place was 
defended with desperate valour for forty-seven days, 
when Titus surprised the weary garrison, scaled the 
walls under cover of a fog, and put the inhabitants 
to the sword. Josephus fled for refuge to a cave, 
where he preserved his life from his associates by the 



xlviii 



JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS 



aplomb that never forsook him. Discovered at 
length, he was taken to Vespasian s camp, where he 
plied the superstitious soldier with the arts of the 
mystagogue, predicting his elevation to the purple 
an event that actually occurred two years later. 
Vespasian treated him well, extracting useful in 
formation in return. The infatuation of Titus for 
Berenice, which began now, gave the Jewish aristo 
crats a new source of influence with the Roman 
generals, to Josephus benefit doubtless. At all 
events, when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, 
he liberated his captive, who was taken by him to 
Alexandria forthwith. According to Roman cus 
tom, Josephus assumed the family name of his bene 
factor, and was known thenceforward as Flavius. 
He returned to Palestine with Titus, and from the 
Roman camp witnessed the appalling events that 
preceded and accompanied the siege and sack of 
Jerusalem. Here he was in frequent peril, not only 
from the Roman soldiery, who attributed their re 
pulses to his machinations with the Jews, but also 
from his countrymen, who regarded him as a base 
traitor, and tried to kill him, when he went out 
as Titus representative to negotiate capitulation. 
But, thanks to his adroitness as a courtier, he re 
tained the favour of the Flavians through good 
report and evil. After the siege he accompanied 
Titus to Rome for the triumph, and the imperial 
city was to be his future home. With this extra 
ordinary series of adventures the second period of 
his life closed. So well did he stand with the im 
perial family that he was relieved of anxiety for life. 
A royal house lodged him, a pension was bestowed 
upon him, he received a fertile estate in Palestine, 
was exempted from tribute, and admitted to Roman 
citizenship. In a word, the Jewish Pharisee gave 
place to the Hellenistic literary man, who became an 
invaluable intermediary between the empire and his 
own folk, at least from the Roman imperial point of 
view. Apart altogether from personal questions, 
his position at Rome is of profound significance as an 
indication of the influence wielded by Jews through 
out the empire at the time, and as an illustration of 
Roman policy towards distinguished men of other 
races and faiths, provided they were willing to sup 
port the Latin overlordship. 

The works that constitute Josephus so invaluable 
an authority are as follows : 

I. Concerning the Jewish War, completed before 
the death of Vespasian (A.D. 79). Written origi 
nally in Aramaic (not extant now), the author s 
mother tongue, it was translated into Greek by 
Josephus himself, who prepared for the task by 
taking lessons in Greek composition, and learned to 
use this language fluently. The author s division 
into seven books is as follows : i., the history from 
Antiochus Epiphanes (B.C. 175) to Herod the Great 
(B.C. 4) ; ii., from B.C. 4 to A.D. 66, including the 



first phases of the war ; iii., events in Galilee in 67 ; 
iv., subsequent events till the investment of Jeru 
salem ; v. and vi., the siege and capture of the 
Holy City ; vii., the course of the insurrection after 
the fall of Jerusalem. With all its defects, common 
to it with other histories at that time, the work is 
most important, because the production of an actor 
in the drama and an eye-witness of its tremendous 
close, and because Josephus had access to Roman 
State documents. Naturally, he glorifies his own 
people, so far as compatible with his position at 
Rome, and his history is " romantic " in this respect. 
The portions most open to question concern the 
part played by himself. Here his manifold defects 
of character must occasion grave doubt. But, 
on the whole, as history then went, the War is a 
careful performance. Its general credibility must 
be granted, even allowing for the lack of accuracy 
permitted to historical writers in that age. Our 
defensible suspicion of, even contempt for, the 
character of the writer should not be permitted to 
exert bias in this regard. 

II. The Antiquities of the Jews, finished about 
A.D. 94. Josephus divided this work into twenty 
books, and dealt with the entire history of his people 
till the war of 66. The books fall into five groups : 
(i) bks. i.-x., from earliest times to the close of the 
Babylonian Captivity, that is, parallel substantially 
with the OT. ; (2) bk. xi., the Persian period of 
Cyrus ; (3) bks. xii.-xiv., the Hellenistic period, 
from Alexander the Great, including the Hasmo- 
naean dynasty, and events till the reign of Herod the 
Great ; (4) bks. xv.-xvii., Herod s reign (B.C. 37-4) ; 
(5)bks.xviii.-xx., from the death of Herod to A.D. 66. 
The work is dominated by a distinct tendency. 
The Jews were suspected, when not hated, in the 
Roman world, thanks largely to themselves. Jose 
phus attempts to place them in a better light, and to 
explain the Scriptures to the Gentiles. In short, he 
addresses himself, not to his own folk, but to the 
educated classes in Grseco-Roman society. For 
this reason he often softens Scriptural history and 
omits offensive incidents. The early Hellenistic 
period is treated sketchily (a most unfortunate 
gap), while Hasmonaean times are covered largely 
at second-hand from authorities like Strabo ; the 
same may be said of Herod s reign, where Nicolas 
of Damascus is the chief source. The concluding 
books are constructed loosely. On the other hand, 
the preservation of excerpts from lost writers, the 
lists of High Priests, the full consideration of Roman 
affairs from Caligula, and the incorporation of im 
perial State papers, afford material of great moment 
to modern investigators. Perhaps the most striking 
feature of the work is its total failure to appreciate 
the spiritual elevation of Jewish religion at its 
moments of deepest inspiration. The Pharisee in 
Josephus, and his Hellenistic cultural associations, 



xlix 



JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS 



caused this obliquity, which, negatively, offers 
many hints regarding religious conditions at the 
time. 

III. The most impressive of the writings was 
composed probably just after the Antiquities. 
Since Jerome s time it has been known as Against 
Apion, but is better described by an older title, 
Concerning the High Antiquity of the Jews. It is 
essentially an apology for Jewish religion against 
heathen misrepresentation and traduction, in two 
books. Evidently fosephus wrote it con amore, 
hence its peculiar value. The exposition and de 
fence of Moses and his legislation are warm, even 
eloquent ; the attacks on Greek polytheism, as well 
as the references to authorities not extant now, are 
of special interest to the student. The acrid reply 
to Apion, descending to the level of vituperation, 
occupies a subordinate place. The whole work 
shows that its author could forego on occasion his 
customary attitude of worldly wisdom and calcu 
lating self-regard. 

IV. Aside from its introductory and concluding 
chapters, the so-called Autobiography (Fita), written 
in the first years of the second century, is a mis 
nomer. Stung by the attacks of Justus of Tiberias, 
an associate of Galilean days, who, in his History of 
the Jewish W ar, accused Josephus of heading the 
anti-Roman rebellion, our author dedicates his 
Autobiography to a reply. Little reliance can be 
placed upon its account of his career in Galilee. 
Indeed, he may be said to invert the facts. But 



Josephus position at the Roman court rendered re 
pudiation necessary, while his familiar connection 
with the Ciesars was calculated to give his explana 
tion a colour that it cannot bear for us. 

English readers who desire to obtain a fuller grasp 
upon the significance of Josephus may consult the 
following works with advantage. For a conspectus 
of the entire period, W. D. Morrison, The Jews 
under Roman Rule (" Story of the Nations " series, 
London) ; for a full analysis of the sources, and all 
co-operant circumstances, Emil Schxirer, A History 
of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, 
division i., vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1890) ; for an ac 
count (somewhat critical) of Josephus transactions 
in Galilee, A. Hausrath, A History of New Testa 
ment Times, vol. iv. seventh division, chap. ?. 
(London, 1895). A very unfavourable presenta 
tion, from a Jewish source, is to be found in H. 
Graetz, History of the Jews from the Earliest Times to 
the Present Day, vol. ii. chap. 10 (London, 1891); 
against this may be set the objective article in The 
Jewish Encyclopedia. The most available transla 
tion in English is that of Whiston, of which there 
are many editions ; the best English translation 
of The War of the Jews is that of Traill, edited 
by Taylor (1862). The best Greek text is that 
of Niese. Full references to Josephus literature, 
covering all possible points, may be found in 
Schiirer, whom it is advisable to consult, for the 
latest information, in the last (fourth) German 
edition. R. M. WENLEY. 






SENNACHERIB BEFORE LACHISH 



BABYLONIAN PRIEST 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE DURING THE 
TIME OF OUR LORD 



UP to the end of the eighteenth century it was 
assumed that the language of Palestine during our 
Lord s life on earth, and by consequence that in wh. 
His discourses were delivered, was ancient Hebrew, 
the language of Moses, of David, of Isaiah. This 
view seemed to be confirmed by the references to 
Hebrew in John, Acts, and Revelation ; as in Jn. 
ig. 13 , " the place that is called the Pavement, but in 
the Hebrew Gabbatha," so in v. 17, " the place of a 
skull, wh. is called in the Hebrew Golgotha." We 
find, however, on consideration, that these words 
are not Hebrew in the strict sense of the term, but 
Aramaic. Till within the last quarter of the past 
century it was practically assumed that Aramaic was 
merely a later debased form of Hebrew. That idea 
was finally disposed of by the discovery of the Ara 
maic inscriptions of Sinjirli, wh. dated fm. the time 
of Tiglath-pileser. Certainly most of the pseudony- 
mic Jewish Apocalypses were written not in Ara 
maic but in Hebrew. As these, however, claimed to 
be the work of ancient patriarchs, and hence to be 
of great antiquity, it was needful, to give any veri 
similitude to the claim, that they shd. appear in the 
ancient sacred tongue. It may be regarded as cer 
tain that at all events Hebrew in the stricter sense 
of the term was not the ordinary language of Pales 
tine at the period in question. For more than a cen 
tury now there has been no question on this point. 

In more recent times it has been assumed very 
generally that the language of the inhabitants of 
Palestine at the period of our Lord s ministry was 
Aramaic. Most, however, have admitted that the 
country was essentially bi-lingual, using both Greek 
and Aramaic. Hence the question becomes nar 
rowed down, and, as it is admitted that Greek was 
known by practically all the inhabitants, it really 
resolves itself into the question of the relative pre 
dominance of the two tongues wh. was the most 
generally used. One method of approaching this 
question is to endeavour to discover what was the 
condition of things in neighbouring countries. The 
country in the nearer East of whose history and 
habits we know most at this period is Egypt. In 
that country Coptic had been almost entirely dis 
possessed by Greek. It is true sacred proclamations 
were engraved in ancient Egyptian, both in hiero 
glyphic and cursive characters, but these in the 
days of the Ptolemies and the Caesars were always 



accompanied by a Greek translation a thing that 
wd. have been needless had it not been that the 
majority of the inhabitants had ceased to under 
stand easily the ancient tongue of the country. 
This is confirmed by the fact that the great mass of 
the papyri found recently dating fm. the reigns of 
the later Ptolemies are in Greek. These are not 
merely literary remains, copies of the works of Greek 
and classic writers, but private letters letters even 
of schoolboys. Egypt had adopted Greek as its 
familiar language, tho the sacred services of worship 
were carried on in Coptic. This practice of heathen 
Egypt of associating their ancient language with 
worship was carried over into the Christian Church, 
but the medium of business and social intercourse 
was Greek. In Cilicia we have fewer remains, yet 
the balance of evidence is decidedly to the same 
effect. Formerly, in the days of the Assyrian as 
cendency, whatever may have been the primitive 
language of Cilicia, Aramaic had become that of 
common use, as we learn from the Sinjirli inscrip 
tions. This, however, had been totally dispos 
sessed by Greek centuries before the days of our 
Lord s earthly life. In the third pre-Christian 
century the great lights of the Stoic schools were fm. 
Cilicia, and they all wrote in Greek, and a Greek 
university was set up in Tarsus. In the neighbour 
ing island of Cyprus all the inscriptions except 
the very earliest are in Greek. Again, inland in 
Lycaonia, Greek was the language in common use ; 
in this the apostles addressed the inhabitants, and in 
Greek they professed their faith in Christ. It is 
produced as a mark of special excitement, and per 
haps religious fervour, that it was in the speech of 
Lycaonia they declared that " the gods had come 
down in the likeness of men," and recognised 
Hermes in Paul and Zeus in Barnabas, or whatever 
were the Lycaonian equivalents of these Hellenic 
divinities. The cripple whose cure caused the ex 
citement understood Greek, for Paul saw that he 
had faith to be healed ; he had listened understand- 
ingly fm. the first, and at last did so believingly. 
Altho the evidence is yet scantier of countries to 
the east of Palestine, yet even here, where Aramaic 
had a much stronger hold, there is evidence of 
the prevalence of Greek. From the banks of the 
Euphrates philosophers came to teach in Athens. 
More of evidence than avowed and serious philo- 



ii 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



sophers is Lucian, the Voltaire, the most marked and A slight contributary evidence of the preva- 

inlluential writer of Greek, yet a native of Samosata lence of Greek may be found in the number of 

in the centre of the Aramaic-speaking district. Greek words in the Mishna, and the nature of 

Earlier, in the end of the first Christian century, them. Matters connected with zvar and civil 

is the Assyr-ian sophist Isacus, whose eloquence in government are designated by Greek terms ; 

Greek is commended in the highest terms by Pliny, thus the provincial governor was called hege- 

[uvenal refers to him : lie must have early been in man and his province hegemonia. An army was 

the habit of speaking Greek to have become so cslrafia (o-rparta), war -polcmos (TroAe/Aos), pay 

copious and accurate in its use. In Palmyra, opsonla (o^wi-tor), &c. The rulers of a town were 

altho laws were proclaimed and engraved in called arcke (PX 7 )) collectively. Even the most 

Aramaic, as we know fm. inscriptions, even in essentially Jewish council, the Sanhedrin, derived 

regard to municipal dues on carts and carriages a its name from crwefynoi , the prosecutors qutlqor 

Greek translation had to be appended, as if the (/carv/yopo^), an advocate -parcqlet (7rapaA?^Tos). 

ancient tongue was not undcrstanded of the Even the reserved right to recall a loan without 

common people." Nearer to the land of Israel was reference to the Sabbath even this specially Jewish 

Phoenicia, and we find the Syrophocnician woman arrangement was known by the Greek name 

called a "Greek." These things being so, the a -pro-~.elnil (Trpotr/SoXifi. Trade and commerce showed 

priori probability is very great that it was in Pales- the effects of this Hellcnisation : a pen was qalamos, 

tine as in the neighbouring nations. Indeed, had an account book pinaqs (TT ira). Sowith dress, etzto- 

this not been the case, classic authorities wd. have //V/;(o~roAa); sandal((ra.v^(i\Lov\sudarin((Tov^a.pio\ : ). 

adduced this peculiarity as one of the many in wh. Furniture also, see/sal (subscllium ) ; a seat, qatkedra 

the Jews were " contrary to all men." (Ku#e8pa) ; a bowl, phtlt (</uaAi;) ; a wine barrel, 

Further, circumstances within Palestine tended pbifos (TTI$OS). These examples a selection fm. a 

to the same conclusion. All over Palestine were multitude are drawn, of course, from the Alishna, 

Greek cities, cities that prided themselves on their wh. was not committed to writing for nearly a 

Hellenic culture and Hellenic civic rights. There century and a half after our Lord s crucifixion, yet 

was the Decapolis, the league of the " ten Hellenic the number of them occurring in a work devoted 

cities " : the number was really more, but that was to purely Jewish questions, written by those who 

the name assumed. Of these the majority were boasted themselves on their Hebrew purism, ex- 

either in Palestine proper or on its immediate hibits the extent to wh. in the last quarter of the 

borders. Besides these there were cities in the second century, Hellenism had permeated Jewish 

Shcphclah that claimed also to be Greek, as conversational language. This implies that the 

Raphia, Anthedon, Jamnia, Joppa, Apollonia, process was not recent ; the writers of the Mishna 

Cacsarea Stratonis, Dora, and Ptolemais. There wd. have avoided everything recent that related 

were other cities, such as Samaria, Gaba, and them to the Greeks. It really meant that these 

Sepphoris, that were Hellenised. Justin Martyr rabbins were obliged to use these words if they 

belonged to thc first of these, and he was essentially wd. be understood. 

Greek ; he seems to have known neither Hebrew Connected with this is the number of purely 

nor Aramaic. All of these had mints, and were Greek names we find in Josephus. Altho the sons 

allowed to coin copper and silver money. On these of Mattathias and his grandsons all bear Hebrew or 

coins the inscriptions, even far on in the Roman Aramaic names, his great-grandsons, the sons of 

period, are in Greek. As to the cities of the De- John Hyrcanus I., all bear Greek names Aris- 

capolis, the present writer, in the course of a couple tobulus, Antigonus, Alexander. With the excep- 

of days stay in one of them, Gerasa (Jcrash), turned tion of John Hyrcanus II. and his grand-daughter all 

up scores of Greek inscriptions but never saw one the later Asmonseans bore Greek names. Altho the 

in Aramaic. This was the case, altho not a few of Herodians were anxious to commend themselves to 

the names occurring had Semitic elements. The the Jews, their subjects, they all bore Greek names 

inhabitants of these cities spoke Greek and prided except Phasael, the brother of Herod the Great, 

themselves on this. These cities were the markets Further, we know that the process of Hellenisa- 

of the surrounding country. This wd. constrain tion had not only begun but had been carried a 

even the country people to master Greek, also. The considerable way before the time of the Maccabees, 

territory formerly Philistine, as also the territory of The younger Jews, to the horror of their fathers, 

Tyre and Sidon, and that of the Syrian kingdoms or became addicted to the games of the Palaestra : and 

governments, all predominantly spoke Greek, and the drama too was introduced ; for this Philo is 

with these there was a constant unrestricted inter- our evidence. In their eagerness for the games the 

course on the part of the Jews. This wd. neccssi- younger jews were even ready to obliterate the 

tate and imply a very general knowledge of Greek covenant sign of their Judaism. Of course there 

among the Jews. was a reaction when Epiphanes attempted to hasten 

Hi 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



the process and Hellenise their religion then the 
Jews resisted. Still in everything else the process of 
Hellenisation may be supposed to have gone on, as 
proved by the general use of Greek names and the 
eagerness with wh. Judas Maccabaeus strove to find 
allies among the Greek republics even while fighting 
with the Grecian forces of Epiphanes. 

We would finally refer to the rarity of any refer 
ence in Josephusto an interpreter being used: intwo 
of the cases where it is mentioned the reason is 
assigned for it wh. wd. imply that had the reason 
not existed an interpreter wd. not have been em 
ployed. In the first case (Jos. BJ. V. be. 2) Titus 
sent Josephus to speak to the Jews in their own 
language, " for he thought they might yield to 
the persuasion of a fellow-countryman." In the 
second instance (Jos. BJ. VI. vi. 2) Titus ap 
pointed an interpreter as a sign that he, the 
" conqueror," wd. not talk directly with them. 
That in other instances Josephus was employed to 
speak to the Jews, besieged as they were, in their 
own tongue, was simply that he imagined that they 
wd. be more easily influenced by a fellow-country 
man speaking in their own tongue. He names 
many of the localities as if they had Greek names, 
whereas others he calls by Aramaic names an 
evidence that these places had Greek names among 
the people. When trials are carried on, as that of 
Herod s son Antipater, as Varus was present, and 
different Greek-speaking persons intervened, the 
trial must have been in Greek (Jos. Ant. XVII. 
v. 2-7). 

We have in the preceding portion of this article 
drawn our evidence from sources external to the 
NT. The book of Acts gives what transpired after 
our Lord had left the earth ; what the apostles did 
may be an index to what our Lord had done. Two 
instances are mentioned in wh. Aramaic was used. 
The first is when Paul addressed the multitude 
from the stairs of the Fort Antonia (Ac. 2i. 40 ) ; we 
are told he spake to them in the " Hebrew tongue." 
The result of this was that " they made the more 
silence" (/xuAAoi/ Trapeo-^ov f]<rv\iov) : theywd.have 
listened, but the language of the home charmed 
them to the greater silence they wd. have under 
stood him had he spoken to them in Greek. The 
next case is Paul s account of his conversion before 
Agrippa (Ac. 26. 14 ) : he says he was addressed in 
" the Hebr w tongue " a statement that implies 
that he might have been addressed in Greek. 
Further, we know there were Greek or at all events 
Grecian synagogues in Jerusalem: synagogues, that 
is, of those whose language was Greek, who pre 
sumably knew no other tongue, or at all events were 
so much more familiar with it than with Aramaic 
that they worshipped with greater comfort in that 
tongue. It must be noted also that the deacons 
appointed by the apostles, while presumably Jews, 



with the single exception of Nicolaus of Antioch, 
yet all bear Greek names. Prof. Roberts has dwelt 
on the phenomena of Pentecost. While they all 
heard in their own tongue " in wh. they were born " 
the wonderful works of God, they must have had a 
common tongue to express their wonder, and this 
must have been Greek. One point he does not 
note, that Greece is the one country the language 
of wh. is not represented. No Greek says that he 
hears in his own tongue the wonderful works of 
God because he was being addressed in Greek, as 
every one expected to be : that was not regarded as 
a marvel. Peter, then a fisherman, declared un 
lettered, yet spoke Greek. When Paul is tried 
before the Sanhedrin, the Roman chiliarch is 
able to understand the questions in regard to wh. 
Paul is put on trial, wh. he cd. do were the pro 
ceedings carried on in Greek, but not if Aramaic 
was the language of the court. This, however, we 
wd. not press, as, however unlikely in the circum 
stances, interpreters mt. be employed to inform 
Lysias of what was done. 

But from the Gospels our principal proofs must 
be drawn. We find only three instances in wh. our 
Lord used Aramaic. When He addressed Jairus 
daughter and recalled her to life He said Tafitha 
qumi (Mk. 5- 41 ). Why is that instance singled out ? 
If our Lord was in the custom of speaking Aramaic 
there was no reason in mentioning this fact. If, 
however, He was not so accustomed to do, then we 
have a revelation of tender consideration : the little 
girl is awakened fm. the sleep of death in the very 
same words in wh. she had been often awaked by 
her mother or her nurse. The next is Mk. y. 34 
Eph-phatha, " Be opened." Here there was a suita 
bility in causing the man who had been till now deaf 
to hear first in the home language of Palestine. The 
last instance is the most sacred instance of all, the 
cry upon the cross, Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani. 
This is natural ; many instances there are of men 
returning to the language of childhood in the 
article of death. Moreover, He may have learned 
the 22nd Psalm not in Hebrew but in Aramaic, 
when a child at His mother s knee. It is to be 
noted that the mob around the cross seem not to 
have thought that He wd. repeat a portion of a 
psalm in Aramaic, but that, being a claimant to the 
title of Messiah, Henaturally wd. be calling on Elias. 
Here there is a point to be noted. Eliyabu docs 
not naturally lend itself to this misconception, but if 
they hadexpectcd Him to call out in Greek then Elia 
wd. be quite naturally and easily misheard ior_Eh. 
There are besides individual terms as Raca, in con 
trast to More, the one Aram, and the other Greek 
a use that seems to point to the idea that descending 
to the vernacular gave an additional insult involved 
profounder contempt. We find the same among 
ourselves : the use of a provincial term of contempt 



liii 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



implies deeper contempt than if the term used is 
one that has classic usage in its favour. This wd. 
imply that our Lord spoke the Sermon on the Mount 
in Greek. Another case is the use of Oorban, the 
technical word for a consecrated offering: this rather 
implies that our Lord spoke Greek and inserted this 
one technical word, tho we admit that this is not 
to be pressed. The use of Abba by our Lord in 
Gethsemane also really points to the rest of it being 
in Greek, and not, as Zahn wd. claim, that it was 
in Aramaic. 

We have mentioned the numerous Greek names 
to be found in Josephus, and that the seven deacons 
had all Greek names. We find further that two of 
the apostles had Greek names, Andrew and Philip. 
Another has a name that is at all events half Greek 
Bartholomew Bar Tolmai, the son of Ptolemy. 
Thomas, we are told, was also called Didymus. He 
was known as commonly by the Greek translation of 
his nickname as by the Aramaic original. Of those 
with whom our Lord came in contact was the blind 
beggar at Jericho, Bar Timseus : that too is a Greek 
name. Simon of Cyrene, whom the soldiers com 
pelled to bear the cross, certainly has a Jewish name, 
but his two sons have foreign names, the one Greek 
and the other Latin, " Alexander and Rufus." The 
Syrophoenician woman, who, we are informed (as 
noticed above), was a Greek, speaks to Him and is 
addressed by Him in a language she understands : 
she understands the language in wh. He speaks to the 
disciples, and takes advantage of the turn He gives to 
His objection to formulate a new plea. When the 
Greeks desire to be introduced to Him He continues 
His discourse about their coming there is no evi 
dence that there was any change. "The ruler of the 
Jews," the second vice-president of the Sanhedrin 
if we may rigidly render the title our Lord gives 
him, " the Master of Israel " had the Greek name 
of Nicodemus. We sec that all classes, rulers in the 
Sanhedrin, beggars by the wayside, ordinary trades 
people, had Greek names ; this proves the great 
prevalence of them. In regard to this, a point has 
to be noted : while between all European nations 
the commonest names arc really present in all of 
them in slightly different forms, as John, Juan, Jean, 
Giovanni, Johan, the relationship between Jewish 
and Gentile names was more remote. Many of the 
Jewish names involved the sacred name YHWH,and 
many of the Greek names involved the names of 
heathen deities. If the Jews had such names as 
Zechariah and Jchohannan (Joannes), theGreeks had 
Diotrephes and Apollonius (Apollos) : names cd. not 
therefore be translated out of Aramaic into Greek 
a new Greek name had to be adopted. The fact, 
then, that while they had, so many of them, two 
names, some of them were so generally referred to 
by the Greek name alone, wd. seem to prove that 
Greek, not Aramaic, was the language generally 



used. Altho occasionally (twice, in fact) the Ara 
maic Cephas is used, the Greek Peter is immensely 
in the preponderance ; the cases are, where our 
Lord gives him the name and in Paul s reference to 
him in the Epistle to the Galatians. A parallel case 
may be found in the Spanish gipsies, who, as we 
know fm. Borrow, have a name in the family and a 
name for their Spanish neighbours. They all know 
Spanish and speak it in public, altho in the family 
they speak Gitana. Were any one to address a crowd 
of them in Spanish they wd. perfectly understand 
what was said, but they wd. be more moved if they 
were addressed in the tongue of their tents. 

Quotations from the OT. in the NT. That 
in recording quotations made or in making them 
the evangelists shd. in general quote fm. the Sep- 
tuagint does not prove anything. In translating a 
theological workfm. German into English the trans 
lators will generally take the AV. of passages quoted 
in the original prob. in Luther s version, unless some 
point is made clearer by retaining Luther s words. 
In regard to these quotations we must bear two 
things in mind: first, that there was then no habit, as 
there is now, of verbally accurate quotation fm. prose 
writers ; further, the possession of the Scriptures, 
while probably general enough, did not make them 
easy of quotation. The bulky papyrus rolls wd. not 
be convenient to handle, so accurate quotation is 
not to be expected. Further, we cannot deduce 
anything as to usage in Palestine from Paul s custom 
in his epistles, wh. were directed to churches com 
posed largely of converts fm. heathenism, whose 
native language was Greek, and whose acquaintance 
with the books of the OT. was made through the 
medium of the LXX. In the case of the Epistle to 
the Hebrews and the Epp. of James and Peter the 
case is different ; they were avowedly written to 
Jews. Only in one case in Hebrews (i3- 5 ) is the 
quotation nearer the Hebrew than the Greek. 
There are four quotations in James ; one of these 
(2. 11 ) differs fm. both the LXX and the Massoretic ; 
all follow the Greek against the Hebrew. Of the 
more numerous quotations in 1st Peter only one is 
nearer the Hebrew than the Greek ; in most of the 
other cases the quotations are all but verbally accu 
rate, the variations being such as follow fm. memoriter 
quotation a method of quotation wh. implies that 
the apostle used Greek commonly even in his study 
of the Scripture. 

When we come to the Gospel a new phenomenon 
meets us. Generally stated, it is this : As a rule, 
when the evangelist quotes our Lord s words the 
agreement with the LXX is close. In the case of 
Matthew and John, and to some extent Mark, when 
the evangelist himself quotes he is in closer agree 
ment with the Hebrew. We naturally do not see 
this distinction in Luke, who, being a Greek, used 
the Greek received version. Such a statement 



liv 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



must be confirmed by examples. There are ten those used by the LXX impels one to believe that 

quotations in the first four chaps, of Matthew s here our Lord quotes fm. the LXX but strengthens 

Gospel ; six of these are quotations in the narrative, it by bringing it into closer accord with the Heb. 

three are made by our Lord Himself, and one by The next case is one in wh. there is no close agree- 

Satan to our Lord. The first (Mw. I. 23 fm. Is. j. 14 ), ment either with the Heb. or the LXX. In Mw. 

" Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and II. 10 it is, " Behold, I send (uTrooreAAw) My mes- 

they shall call His name Emmanuel." The Heb. in senger (ayyeAos) before Thy face (717300- WTTOV), and he 

this passage has " she shall call," the LXX " thou," shallprepareThywaybeforeThee." TheLXXreads 

wh. are liker in the square character ; but the tau (Ml. 3.*), " Behold, I send out (ea7roo-TeAAw) My 

and vau of the angular script are very like, and if messenger (ayyeAos), and he shall survey the way 

vau is written instead of the tau we have the third before My face (77/300- WTTOU)." The Heb. as ren- 

pl. instead of the third sing. fern, or second sing, dered by AV. is, "Behold, I will send My messenger, 

masc. The Greek phrase for "conceive" is different and he shall prepare the way before Me." The 

in the evangelist fm. the LXX. In Mw. 2. 6 the words chosen suggest an acquaintance with the 

evangelist diverges fm. both Heb. and LXX, especi- Septuagint. The long passage in Mw. i z. 18 21 quoted 

ally by inserting a negative; the rest of it is evi- by the evangelist has no connection with LXX: very 

dentlv translated directly f m. the Hebrew. Translat- few of the leading words are the same. In the second 

ing ^N as "prince" was possible to one reading the p lause there is an instance that proves Matthew s 

Heb., but impossible to one with only the Greek independent use of the Heb. The Heb. is nathatti 

before him. So too Mw. 2. 15 agrees with the Heb. r "^ alaye, in the LXX we have loWa, taking 

against the Greek. The phenomena presented by naiban in its more common sense, whereas the 

Mw. 2. 18 (Jr. 3 1. 15 ) indicate that the evangelist quot- evangelist has #^o-tu. In the parabolic discourse of 



ing fm. the Heb. was influenced by acquaintance our Lord in Mw. 13. there are two quotations, one 

with the LXX, so as to choose /cAavfyios and 08173/10$ of them, in our Lord s words (vv. 14, 15), from Is. 

for " lamentation and bitter weeping," but adds 6. 9 - 10 , wh. is verbatim fm. the LXX. It is to be 

TroAvs to represent tamrurim, " bitter " ; the rest is observed that this quotation occurs four times in the 

fm. the Heb. In the case of Mw. 3. 3 the LXX is very NT. The other is introduced by Mw. himself 

close to the Heb., and in what difference there is f m - Ps. 77.2 ; in it, while the first clause is verbatim 

the evangelist leans to the LXX. The next chap. fm. the Septuagint, the second is a translation fm. 

records the temptation of our Lord. Our Lord the Hebrew. It ought to be observed that the 

(Mw. 4. 4 ) quotes Dt. 8. 3 verbatim fm. the LXX. first clause here is close to the Heb., only the number 

In the second temptation the devil quotes fm. Ps. is different, sing, in the Heb. but pi. in Mw. and 

91. n - 12 in agreement with LXX, so our Lord s the LXX a difference that may indicate a differ- 

answer is also verbatim fm. the LXX. At first sight ence of reading in MSS. of A.D. 30 fm. that of the 

there seems a variation in v. 10 as compared with Massoretes. We have two quotations by our Lord 

Dt. 6. 13 ; in the LXX there is (ftofB^B-ijcnj, while in Himself in chap. 15. : in both cases the LXX is 

Mw., as also in Luke, it is TT/DOO-KW^O-CIS. But the followed even when its rendering is incorrect. The 

Codex Alexandrinus here differs fm. the Vaticanus, quotation by our Lord of Gn. 2. 24 in Mw. I9- 5 in 

wh. supplies the standard text by reading TT/DOO-KVV^- the question of divorce is interesting ; it agrees with 

o-is. The Sermon on the Mount may be omitted, as the LXX except in two particulars it omits the 

there are in it no real quotations. In Mw. 8. 17 pronoun after " father," and the proposition wh. is 

comp. with Is. 53- 4 , a quotation that occurs in the combined with /coAAaw just the variations that a 

narrative. The Heb. as translated by AV. reads, "He person familiar with the LXX mt. make when quot- 

hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows." ing fm. memory. It is to be noted that as Heb. and 

The LXX renders, " This Man bears our sins and is Aram, tend to repeat the possessive pronoun after 

grieved on account of us," whereas Mw. according each noun, the total omission of the pronoun indi- 

to AV. is, " Himself took our infirmities and bare cates that neither Hebrew nor Aramaic was domi- 

our sicknesses." This again is a case where the nant in His mind. The next two quotations in this 

evangelist has translated direct fm. the Hebrew, chapter are also made by our Lord, and agree ver- 

but has been influenced by a reminiscence of the bally with the LXX. When, however, Matthew 

LXX, with wh. he was well acquainted. The next (2i. 5 ) quotes fm. Zechariah (9.), it is very freely 

case is fm. our Lord s lips (Mw. g. 13 , also I2. 7 , fm. nearer to the Hebrew than to the Greek. There are 

Ho. 6. 6 ) : here the LXX. has been strengthened fm. three other quotations in this chapter. These are 

the Heb. The LXX reads, " I will ($eAw) mercy all in the words of the Lord Himself, and all in 

rather than sacrifice." The Heb. AV.has, "I desired close agreement with the LXX. In the following 

mercy and not sacrifice." The Gospel version is, chapter there are five quotations, one made very 

" I will have (#eAw eAeos) mercy and not sacrifice freely by the Sadducees to Christ (Mw. 22. 24 ) : 

(Owiov)." The fact that the words chosen are indeed this may be regarded as a statement of the 

Iv 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



Mosaic Levirate law without any special attempt 
at quotation. The other four are quoted by our 
Lord, and are close to the LXX. The only excep 
tion to what we have found to be our Lord s habit is 
the quotation fm. Zc. 13." in Mw. 26. 31 , wh. is close 
to the Hebrew tho not identical with it. The next 
quotation (Mw. 27. - 10 ) is fm. Zcch., named by 
the evangelist " Jeremiah " : this is taken fm. the 
Hebrew with transposition of clauses. \\ e need 
not proceed further ; we seem to ourselves to have 
proved our case ; our Lord s practice was to quote 
fm. the LXX, and Matthew s to quote fm. the 
Hebrew. That Matthew shd. do so is natural 
when we bear in mind that according to an un 
broken tradition he wrote his Gospel originally in 
Aramaic a tongue as cognate to Hebrew as Dutch 
to German. It may have been that it was not 
directly fm. Hebrew that Matthew translated his 
quotations, but fm. a traditional Aramaic Targum 
wh., altho unwritten, was handed down nearly un 
changed. There is, however, no such close resem 
blance to be observed between the quotations of 
Matthew and the Targum of Jonathan as might be 
expected were this true : thus in Mi. 5/ 2 , quoted in 
Mw. 2. 6 , Jonathan does not insert the negative. 
When Matthew translated his Aramaic Gospel into 
Greek, as Josephus did his history, he may have re 
tained the resemblance to the Heb. in his quotation. 
The point, however, to be explained is the regularity 
with wh. our Lord s quotations agree with the LXX 
as against the Heb. If our Lord was in the habit of 
quoting the OT. fm. the LXX that wd. explain this. 
But this wd. imply that our Lord spoke Greek. 
When Matthew translated his Gospel from the 
Aram, in wh. he had composed it into Greek, while 
he appears to have translated his own quotations 
directly, in regard to his Master s he has conformed 
with more or less accuracy to the LXX. The only 
motive for this difference of treatment must have 
been that this more accurately represented the facts 
of the -case. In Mark there are two cases where the 
quotation does not seem to be in accordance with 
the LXX, one fm. the lips of our Lord and the other 
fm. the evangelist. The first of these (Mk. i^..- 1 
quoted fm. Zc. 13.") exactly coincides with Mw. 
26. 31 . The difference is not great ; in our Lord s 
quotation the main difference; are the difference of 
tense in the verb for " smite," and the difference of 
number -"shepherd" instead of "shepherds," as it 
is in LXX, and a different word for " scattered" : 
indeed e /ccr au> can scarcely be said to be an adequate 
translation of p3. The sentence looks a remini 
scence of the LXX corrected fm. the 1 leb. The 
other (Mk. I5- 28 ) in the narrative is nearer the Heb. 
than the Greek. In one case in Luke there is a 
manifest difference between the text of the quota 
tion in the Gospel and in the LXX, i.e. in 2. 23 - 24 , 
but in neither is the resemblance close to the Heb. 



In the case of the fourth Gospel it is difficult to 
come to a decision. John seems to act more inde 
pendently of his sources than do the other evan 
gelists. 

Altho Acts as written by Luke might be supposed 
to be completely Hellenised, as having been written 
by a Greek, yet in the opening chapters, where he 
must have used written authorities or got in con 
versation the evidence of persons who had been 
witnesses of the events narrated, in all cases the 
source shines through. The speeches, while Luke 
epitomises, and they therefore show traces of his 
style, yet exhibit the original beneath, as one may 
see by comparing the speeches of Peter and James at 
the Council in Jerusalem (Ac. 15.). If there was any 
one who wd. have stood firmly by the Hebrew, or 
in default of it by the Palestinian Targum, it was 
James, yet in his speech the quotation wh. he makes 
(and it is a long one) rests on the LXX mainly. So in 
Peter s speeches ; when, as in Ac. 2., he is addressing 
Jews, he quotes fm. the LXX. Although Stephen 
was a Hellenist, yet as his trial was before the 
Sanhedrin, and he had been a resident in Jerusalem, 
if Aramaic was the language commonly used then 
he certainly wd. have spoken in Aramaic, but 
judging by the evidence of quotations he did 
nothing of the kind. 

So far, then, as we can sum up the evidence fm. 
quotations, it is all but conclusive in favour of Greek 
being the most commonly used language. In no 
matters are men so conservative as in those relating 
to religion ; no race is so conservative naturally as 
are the Jews. Yet it is fm. the Septuagint these 
Jews are represented as quoting, and it is fm. the 
Septuagint that our Lord quotes Scripture to them. 
Only two things prevent us from claiming the proof 
as being absolutely conclusive. In the first place, 
the uncertainty of the Heb. text. Our present 
Massoretic text, behind wh. it is impossible to go in 
the meantime, appears to have been founded on 
two texts, one wh. supplies the Ori, the other fm. 
wh. is drawn the K tkib. The MSS. fm. wh. these 
have been taken do not seem to have been chosen 
fm. any specially critical accuracy in them if we 
may judge by the numerous blunders that have 
been perpetuated but more probably as having 
belonged to some rabbi of great reputation for 
sanctity and knowledge of the Law. The Heb. 
text in Palestine at the time of our Lord may have 
differed fm. the present AIT. in not a few features. 
In the second place the Greek text is also uncertain. 
Our ordinary LXX is a reprint of the Vatican text ; 
this in not a few cases is in opposition to the 
Alexandrian and the Sinaitic, not to speak of the 
Lucianic recension. Still, after every allowance is 
made, it is hardly possible to resist the conclusion 
that Greek, not Aramaic, was the prevalent tongue. 

We would not pretend that there are no argu- 



Ivi 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



ments in favour of the view wh. we oppose when so 
many distinguished scholars hold it. Not a few 
have regarded those Aramaic words and sentences 
we have referred to above not as exceptional, but as 
specimens of our Lord s ordinary mode of discourse. 
An answer to the difficulty of finding a reason for 
these being singled out is to assert that Mark, 
knowing that the instances in question were times 
of high excitement, chronicled the ipsissima verba 
then. While this might apply to the explanation 
on the cross, it wd. apply not only to the quotation 
from the 22nd Psalm, but also to all the other words 
then uttered ; why was this alone given in the very 
words ? One would have thought that if our Lord 
was in the habit of speaking Aramaic, certainly He 
must have said, when " He bowed His head and gave 
up the ghost," not TereAecrTou but meshalam, and 
then, if ever, was an occasion when the very word 
spoken should have been recorded. Though less 
striking, yet a case where one wd. have expected the 
evangelist to have given the Aramaic words used, 
if our Lord did use them, was when He commended 
His mother to the care of the beloved disciple. In 
fact all our Lord s sayings on the cross, even the 
simple cry of nature, " I thirst," wd. naturally be 
regarded as sacred, and given exactly as they were 
spoken. Only the quotation from Ps. 22. is given. 
The plea that the evangelist Mark desired to record 
times of emotion does not apply to the other cases. 
When Jesus unstopped the ears of the deaf mute with 
the word Ephphatha, there are neither symptoms 
of emotion nor occasion for it. While in His word 
to the little maid whom He raised fm. the dead 
there is tenderness, wh. is shown in using the 
Aramaic of the nursery to a child, and so worthy of 
being emphasised by the very words being recorded, 
there is no emotion shown or implied that moved the 
evangelist to single out this occasion had our Lord s 
custom been always to use Aramaic. But there are 
cases of emotion in wh. the evangelists do not give 
the Aramaic, as when He addresses the Pharisees as 
" Ye fools and blind " (Mw. 23. 17 ). If they were in 
the habit of recording the very words in seasons of 
emotion, why did they not give the words here ? 
As, however, it is Mark who alone gives these 
Aramaic phrases, it might be answered that while 
he had this habit the other evangelists had not. 
He, however, relates one oc asion in wh. our Lord 
was filled with emotion (Mk. 3_ 5 ) : " He looked 
round about with anger " ; yet the evangelist does 
not give the command addressed to the man with 
the withered hand in Aramaic. The most natural 
explanation is that Mark gave the Aramaic words 
where they were used because they threw light on the 
character of Jesus. One fails utterly to see the 
cogency of Zahn s assertion that because of these 
instances Jesus must have addressed the multitudes 
in Aramaic. 



Zahn s discussion of the question in the Intro 
ductory Remarks to his Introduction to the New 
Testament is complicated by his superabundantly 
elaborate demonstration that it was not Hebrew 
our Lord spo e. It ought to be noted that he 
refers to a various reading of our Lord s quotation 
of the 22nd Psalm found in the Faticanus and the 
Latin of the Codex Bezae, wh. if representing the 
original text wd. imply that not in Aramaic but in 
Hebrew did our Lord quote the psalm in question. 
This view is to some extent confirmed by the EAwi 
wh. in WH. is found both in Mw. and Mk., a form 
that suggests Elohim rather than Elaha. That our 
Lord should give His disciples occasionally Aramaic 
surnames, wh. had the nature of " pet names " such 
as we find every day in families, does not prove that 
He used the language in wh. they were formed in 
ordinary conversation. It is admitted that Pales 
tine was bi-lingual, and that the language within the 
home was most generally Aramaic. This is the 
state of matters in Wales and the Highlands of 
Scotland. Should one travel by railway in cither 
of these places he will hear conversations between 
natives carried on not in Welsh or Gaelic but in 
English. The same thing may be noticed in 
Belgium. In such circumstances a kindly nick 
name wd. naturally be formed in the home-tongue, 
altho for every other purpose English or French 
was employed. So too his arguments from cer 
tain place-names being in Aramaic (Gabbatha and 
Bethesda) : these names might be, and prob. were, 
old, dating it might be before the Greek occupa 
tion. Aceldama is on a different footing. Assuming 
that the place was named from the purchase of the 
ground by the " price of blood," and from Judas 
suicide on it, it was not an ancient name but given 
freshly. But it was connected with religious ideas, 
with horror against money tainted by treachery as 
was Judas reward, and in regard to a place defiled 
by his suicide, so naturally the name wd. be in 
Aramaic. The shout of Hosanna, wh. Aramaic as it 
is proves that Hebrew was not the language of the 
multitude, does not prove that Aramaic was. It 
rather proves the contrary, for naturally the evan 
gelist wd. have added le bar eh d^Datceed (Mw. 2i. 9 ), 
as these last words would be united in one act 
of hearing. The truth must be recognised that 
Hosanna had changed its meaning, and no longer 
meant " Save now," but had become merely an 
exclamation of congratulation, and so conveyed as 
little of the original meaning of the word as docs 
Halleluiah when it occurs in a modern English 
hymn. The arguments from the fact that the 
Targum in Aramaic was still pronounced along with 
the Hebrew in reading the Law and the Prophets, 
merely proves the conservatism that exists in all 
nations, and most of all among the Jews, in regard to 
religion. A parallel is to be seen in Roman Catholic 



Ivii 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



countries. The Bible was translated into Latin that 
it might be understood by those who cd. under 
stand Latin but did not understand Greek, but it is 
continued to be read in Latin, after people have 
ceased to understand Latin, simply fm. conser 
vatism. A singular side-evidence of this is to be 
found in the name " Onkelos," given to the Targum 
of the Law. The name is really " Aquila," the 
name of the translator of the slavishly accurate ver 
sion of the OldTestament intoGreek. This Targum 
of the Law was Onkelosi, as accurate as Aquila s 
Greek version a proof that the Greek version was 
familiarly known. That this was the case a fact nar 
rated by Jerome proves. He w r as anxious to get a 
copy of Aquila, but found great difficulty ; at length 
hegotone as a great favourfm.asynagogueinGalilee. 
Dr. Zahn s quotation fm. Eusebius showing that he 
declared Aramaic to be the mother tongue of the 
Syrians does not mean any more, as to the linguistic 
habits of the people, than the statement, equally true, 
as to the late Dr. Norman Macleod, that Gaelic was 
his mother tongue, which would not prove that he 
usually spoke in that tongue. Talmudic evidence 
is worthless, as the Talmud was not committed to 
writing till half a millennium after the events. The 
story of Gamaliel ordering the Targum of Job to be 
buried wd., if true, prove merely his objection to 
the Targum being committed to writing instead of 
being handed down orally. The Targum was 
committed to writing because the Aramaic ver 
sion w r as liable to be forgotten, as the language 
had by the second century so nearly disappeared 
that it cd. no longer be left dependent on oral 
tradition. 

\Ve wd. not be held as maintaining that there are 
no arguments that can be advanced in favour of 
Aramaic being the most commonly used language. 
The principal are those that can be drawn fm. 
Josephus, some of wh. we have already con 
sidered. 

There arc, however, other arguments : the most 
important is the fact that tho Josephus wrote his 
history first in Aramaic he translated it into Greek, 
and when he did so he got the assistance of friends. 
From this it has been argued that his knowledge of 
Greek was rudimentary. But a little thought will 
remove that idea. In regard to our own language 
there is a very considerable difference between 
literary English and the colloquial English wh. 
we speak and which we use in our ordinary 
correspondence. Still greater was the difference 
between the Greek wh. was spoken and familiarly 
written in Egypt and probably in Palestine, and 
the literary style of those who made Thucydides 
and Xenophon their models. When Dr. Living 
stone returned from his first discoveries in Africa 
he got a literary friend to put his journals into 
literarv form. 



One incident that tells most strongly against the 
view I am inclined to adopt is the interview of 
Claudius Lysias with Paul (Ac. 2i. 37> 38 ), especially 
its opening sentence, " Canst thou speak Greek ? " 
This is advanced by Pfannkuche. If it stood alone 
it wd. have great weight; it, however, is part of 
a considerable narrative. Immediately before he 
put his question to Paul, Lysias had demanded of 
the multitude who he was and what he had done, 
" and some cried one thing and some another 
among the multitude ; and when he cd. not know 
the certainty for the tumult, he commanded him to 
be carried into the castle." Here it is clear the 
multitude understood the chiliarch s question and 
he understood the language of their answers, but the 
tumult hindered him fm. uniting all the conflicting 
statements into a comprehensible whole. Every 
thing proves the captain of the garrison spoke 
Greek. It follows thus that his question applied 
merely to the individual in question the Egyptian 
who was known to be ignorant of Greek. It 
proves nothing as to the spread of the knowledge of 
Greek among the Jews. 

Dr. Zahn admits the general prevalence of Greek 
among the inhabitants of cities, but thinks that the 
peasant class those corresponding to the fdlahtn of 
the present time only knew Aramaic. But while 
we mt. admit the plausibility of this view, the ques 
tion of the existence of a class, in any large numbers, 
in those days corresponding to the fellahin may 
require more proof than is available. The huge 
number of cities wh. Josephus asserts to have 
been in Galilee proves that a very large propor 
tion of the cultivators of the soil were resident 
in cities. It was not unnatural that they shd. live 
in cities walled and fortified, as Palestine had been 
so often invaded in Greek times, and raided by 
robber tribes at other times, that the protection of 
cities wd. be sought. Simon the Cyrenian, when 
the soldiers compelled him to bear the cross, was 
coming in from (Mk. I5. 21 ; Lk. zj. 16 ) " the field " 
(CITT aypov). Many like him, while resident in cities, 
laboured in the fields. Thus it might seem likely 
that the fellahin class was so small as to be negligible. 
Even they wd. have to master Greek to some extent, 
if only for the purposes of buying and selling. It is 
not unlikely that the prevalence of Greek wd. be 
greater in some portions of Palestine than in others. 
Galilee, as the region in wh. the Gentile element 
was prominent, wd. likely have a larger proportion 
of those who spoke Greek. Judca, where the most 
celebrated rabbins resided in our Lord s days, 
might be supposed to be more conservative of 
Jewish customs and language. It is to be noted 
that all examples wh. seem to imply the prevalence 
of Aramaic drawn fm. Josephus apply to Judea and 
Jerusalem. As our Lord s ministry was mainly in 
Galilee, this has little application to the present 



Iviii 



THE LANGUAGE OF PALESTINE 



question ; while the prevalence of Greek in Galilee 
wd. imply that He spoke in Greek when He ad 
dressed the multitudes. 

Fm. the number of Aramaic inscriptions found 
in Egypt it wd. seem not unlikely that Aramaic, 
like the modern Yiddish, was understood by Jews 
all over the world, hence Paul s introduction of 
Maranatba into an epistle directed to a Gentile 
church (i Cor. i6. 2 2 ) with the expectation that the 
force of the phrase wd. be understood. 

We think it may be claimed that the balance of 
probability is decidedly in favour of Greek being the 
general medium of co versation between the people 
of the Holy Land while our Lord was in the world. 
While Aramaic was the language of the nursery and 
the home, in the street and the market-place that 
used was Greek. It is to be admitted that Prof. 
Marshall s interesting investigation as to the origin 
of the identities and differences between the Synop- 
tists, and the probability of this being found in an 
Aramaic primitive document, has a certain weight in 
favour of the prevalence of Aramaic. It is certain 
that the explanations he suggests are at the least 



highly plausible : while against these explanations 
being correct is the fact that Luke as a Greek wd. 
be unlikely to understand Aramaic. Yet even if we 
granted Professor Marshall s hypothesis, this primi 
tive Aramaic Gospel might exhibit the conservatism 
of the Jews, while, as the subject of the Gospel was 
of the highest religious value, it naturally wd. be, 
as not impossibly also was the Apocalypse, com 
posed in Aramaic, if not in Hebrew. All this 
might be true and yet Greek be the generally 
spoken language. The question of the origin of 
the Gospels is now in another phase, wh. is else 
where discussed. Irrespective of these questions, 
the common element might be handed fm. apostle 
to apostle, and evangelist to evangelist, as were the 
Aramaic Targums, although Greek might be the 
language in wh. it was composed, and the changes 
fm. the original deposit might be due to defective 
memory. 

The Literature open to the English reader is 
Pfannkuche, Clarke s Biblical Cabinet ; Roberts 
Discussions on the Gospels ; Young, article in 
Hastings Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. 




lix 



I THE TEMPLE 

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



AARON (Heb. Aharon), br. of Moses (Ex. 6. 20 , 
P. ; Nu. 26. 59 ), three yrs. older (Ex. 7. 7 , P.). A. seems 
to have acquired influence in his tribe ; by Divine 
suggn. he came to meet Moses, and assembled the 
Elders of Isr. to confer with him (Ex. 4- 29 , JE.). 
He became the associate and spokesman of his br. in 
their interviews with Pharaoh (Ex. 4_ 14 , JE. ; 7.*, P.). 
The Priesthood was fixed in his line (Ex. 28. 1 , P.). 
While Moses was absent on the mountain, A. was 
intimidated into making the GOLDEN CALF (Ex. 32., 
JE.). Notwithstanding this, A. was not deprived of 



The first two, offering strange fire on the altar, died before 
the Lord; consequently the P hood descended in the lines 
of Eleazar and Ithamar. The High P hood was in the line 
of Eleazar during the rule of the Judges : poss. in the 
person of Eli it passed into that of Ithamar : it returned to 
the line of Eleazar when Abiathar was dispossessed. Critical 
opinion is that Zadok was not an Aaronite. For this no 
proof is adduced. But see AHITUB. 

ABADDON, the name given to the k. of the mys 
tical army of locusts (Rv. 9- 11 ), " the angel of the 
bottomless pit." The Gr. equivalent is Apollyon. 
The Heb. term occurs thrice in Job, twice in Pr., and 
once in Ps., rendered by EV. " destruction." It 




DAMASCUS. THE ABANA APPROACHING THE CITY FROM THE MOUNTAINS 



the P hood. He was consecrated High Priest (Lv. 
8. lff> ). A. united with Miriam agst. Moses (Nu. 12., 
JE.), when Moses was vindicated. The Reubenites, 
led by Dathan and Abiram, claimed the P hood,prob. 
on the plea of primogeniture (Nu. l6.,P.); Korahalso 
objected to the lead among the Levites assumed by 
the sons of Amram. This rebellion was punished by 
the earth opening her mouth, and swallowingDathan 
and Abiram and their followers. Korah and his 
company, when offering incense, were burnt up by 
the fire of God. The High P hood of A. was ratified 
by the budding of his rod, while the rods represent 
ing the other tribes remained unchanged (Nu. 1 7., P.). 
This rod was preserved in the Holy of Holies before 
the Ark : later tradition asserted that it was placed, 
with the pot of manna, within the Ark. 

A. married Elisheba, dr. of Amminadab, and had four 
sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar (Ex. 6. !:l , P.I. 



is thrice associated with " Sheol," and once with 
" Death." 

ABANA or AM AN A, one of "the rivers of Damas 
cus" (2 K. 5. 12 ),now el-Barada, the Gr. Ckrisorrhoas. 
It is fed by the melting snows and springs of Anti- 
Lebanon. Draining the hollow S. of Zebtddny, it 
breaks E ward through a charming gorge, ll ady 
Barada, on the S. bank of wh. tradition places the 
tomb of Abel. About five miles further down, the 
volume of water is more than doubled by the stream 
from Ain Fijeh (Gr. pege), one of the most copious 
fountains in Syria. Then, turning to the SE., it 
follows the line of a deep, richly wooded vale, until, 
issuing from the mountains, it is tapped by many 
channels to irrigate the plain. 

About half the ordinary volume of water is caught by an 
aqueduct higher up the valley, and led to the city along the 
face of the hill, the residue flowing citywards along the bed 



Aba 



TKMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Abi 



of the river. The A. forms the main water supply, and in 
deed makes poss. the life of Damascus. It givos fertility to 
the fields, fruitftilness to the orchards, and is lost at last in 
the marshy lakes E ward. 

ABARLM (\-Unlrlni), lit. " the parts beyond," i.e. 
beyond Jordan. Only once (Jr. 22.-, AV. " pas 
senger," RV. " Abarirn ") it appears without the 
article. It is usually connected with bar or hare, 
" the mountain " or " mountains of Abarim " (Nu. 
2J. 12 , .ice.). In Nu. 2 1. 11 , 33- 44 , \ve have " Ije- 
Abarim " for Heb. Ivye Ha abartm, lit. " the 
heaps " or " ruins of Abarim." But l lyye may be 
the name of a city. 

In Kk. 39.". perhaps we shd. read "in the valley of 
Abarim." A. seems to have been applied to the whole range 
K. of Jordan, as seen fm. the W. 

ABBA, trltn. of stat. emph. of (Aram.) ab," father." 
It was used by our Lord in his prayer in the Garden 
(Mk. I4. 36 ). Paul employs it (Rm. 8. 15 ; Gal. 4- 6 ). 
It is always joined with ho pater. It is addressed by 
children to their fr., never by servants to their mas 
ter (cp. On. 22. 7 , Psh. and Tg. O, with 2 K. 5- 13 , 
Psh. and Tg. J.). 

ABDON. (i) S. of Hillel, Ephraimite of Pirathon 
(Jg. 12. 13 ). He had 40 sons, and 30 grandsons, who 
poss. were subordinate judges. He judged Isr. 8 
yrs. (2) A Levite city in Asher (jo. 2 1. 30 ) = Abdah, 
E. of Achz.ib. 

ABED-NEGO, the Bab. name of Azariah, Daniel s 
companion. It is put for Abed-nebo, to avoid 
using the name of a heathen deity (Dn. I. 7 ). See 
DANIEL. 

ABEL, " breath " or " vapour " (but cp. Asyr. 
a phi, "son"), second s. of Adam (Gn. 4. 2f -)- He 
was a shepherd, and because he offered to God a 
more acceptable sacrifice than that of his br. Cain, 
the latter slew him in a fit of jealousy. 

A. ranks as the first martyr (Mw. 23. " 3 ), who, " death not 
withstanding," speaketh still (He. n. 4 ) : but " the blood of 
sprinkling" "appeals more mightily to God than did the blood 
of his martyred saint " (lie. 12. - 4 ; see Davidson in loc.). 

ABEL, " meadow." In i S. 6. 18 , pTob. = tben, 
" stone." (i) A. Beth-Maacha (2 S. 2o. 14 , &c.), 
usly. identd. with A III fl-Oatnh, A. of Wheat," S. 
of Merj A yun, and c. 6 miles W. of Banias, in the 
midst of fertile and well-watered land. It was cap 
tured by Benhadad (i K. i$. 20 ), and again by Tig- 
lath-pileser (2 K. I v 29 ). The vill. is perched on the 
mound covering the ancient fortress. (2) A-Cera- 
mim, " A. of the vineyards," near Minnith in Moab 
(Jg. ii. 33 ). (3) \-Maim = \o. i. (4) A-Meholah. 
" A. of the dance " (Jg. J. 22 ), the home of Elisha 
(i K. 19. 16 ), prob. the ruin near .-I in IJrkvrb, c. 16 
miles S. of Beisfm. (5) \-Mizraim, " A. of the 
Egps.," or, if we read Ebel, " mourning of the 
Egps." (Gn. 5o. n ) : not identd. (6) A-Shittim, 
: A. of acacias," in the plains of Moab. Over 
against Jericho, E. of Jordan, is the " Valley of 
Acacias," but no cert, identn. is yet poss. 



ABI, ABIA, AB1AH. S,r ABIJAH. 

ABIASAPH, " Father of Gathering " (Ex. 6. 2 * ; 
i Ch. 6. 23 , Ebiasaph), head of one of the families of 
the Korhites. 

ABIATHAR, " Father of Abundance," the only 
one of the sons of AHIMELECH, the High Priest, who 
escaped the massacre at Nob. Escaping to Adullam 
with the sacred Ephod, he became David s priest. 
By firm friendship to A., David acknowledged the 
kindness of Ahimelech, which cost him his life. For 
his part A. continued faithful to David all his days. 
When Adonijah desired to secure the reversion of 
the kdm. A. followed him, and was dispossessed of 
the High P hood by Solomon. A. was the last High 
Priest of the race of ITHAMAR (Ant. VIII. i. 3). 

ABIEL, " my father is God," grandfr. of SAUL 
and ABXER (i S. 9.*, I4- 51 ). 

ABIEZER, " my father is help," eldest s. of 
Gilead (Nu. 26. 30 , Jo. ij. 2 , &c.). He, or the clan 
descended fm. him, appears to have migrated to the 
W. of Jordan and settled in Ophra. Gideon was 
his desct. The name was transferred to the district 
occupied by the clan (Jg. 8. 2 ). 

ABIGAIL (2 S. 3. 3 , &c. ; Heb. " Abigal"). 

(1) W. of Nabal, who, by her beauty and discretion, 
won the heart of David, the guerilla leader (i S. 25.), 
and after Nabal s death became his w. She was his 
companion in adventure and peril (i S. 27. 3 , 3<D. 5 18 ). 
When settled in Hebron, she bare him Chileab 
(2 S. 3. 3 , LXX, Dalouia ; i Ch. 3.1, " Daniel "). 

(2) Dr. of Jesse (2 Ch. 2. 13 16 ), or of Nahash (2 S. 
ij. 25 ), sr. of Zeruiah, and also of David, if, as many 
critics suppose, " Nahash," in 2 S. 17., is a scribal 
error for " Jesse." She married Ithra the Ishmaelite, 
and became the mr. of Amasa. 

ABIHAIL, " my father is might," w. of REHO- 
BOAM, dr. of Eliab, br. of David (2 Ch. 1 1. 18 ). It is 
imposs. that A. cd. be the lit. dr. of Eliab, David s 
eldest br. ; she prob. was a desct. in the third or 
fourth degree of descent. 

ABIJAH, ABIJAM, " my fr. is Jah." (i) Dr. 
of Zecharir.h, mr. of Hezekiah (2 Ch. 29- 1 ), " Abi " 
in 2 K. i8. 2 . (2) S. of Rehoboam and MAACAH the 
dr. of Absalom (2 Ch. I l. 20f -). He reigned over two 
yrs. in Jrs., doing evil, but was preserved in the kdm. 
for David s sake (i K. I 4 . 31 , is. lff -, " Abijam "). He 
waged war with Jeroboam, wh.,accdg.to the Chron 
icler, culminated in the overwhelming defeat of the 
latter, A. taking cities fm. him (2 Ch. 13.). 

There is no necessary discrepancy between this and the 
act. in K. A bad man posing as good is not very unusual. 
Jeroboam s defeat may only show that God can work with 
indifferent instruments. Baasha seems soon to have re 
gained the captured towns (2 Ch. 13. " , 16. ] ). Ephron is 
perhaps = Ephraim (Jn. n. 54 ; cp. 2 S. 13. -*). What is 
further recorded of A. is not greatly to his credit. The rest 
has perished with the lost commentary of Iddo. (3) Second 
s. of Samuel (i S. 8.2; i Ch. 6. *, Abiah ; RV. "Abijah"). 
(4) S. of Jeroboam I. who died in childhood, that he nit. be 
taken away "from the evil to come" (i K. 14. . 13 ). (5) A 
desct. of Eleazar, to whom the lot assigned the eighth course 



Abi 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Abi 



of the priests, of wh. Zechariah, the Baptist s fr. , was a mem 
ber (i Ch. 24. 10 ; Lk. i. 5 ). (6) Abiah, RV. "Abijah,"s. of 
Becherfi Ch. 7. 8 ). (7) Abiah, RV. " Abijah," w. of rlezron, 
and mr. of the posthumous Asher (i Ch. 2.- 4 ). 

ABILENE, a tetrarchy lying between Chalcis and 
Damascus, with its capital at Abila (Lk. 3- 1 ; Ant. 
XVIII. vi. 10, XIX. v. I, XX. vii. i ; BJ. II. xi. 5). 
It prob. included the Anti-Lebanon and Alt. 
Hermon. Abila stood on the Chrisorrhoas the 
Barada c. 16 miles fm. Damascus. This corrspds. 
with anct. ruins at Suq Wady Barada, a vill. on the 
bank of the stream where the rich plain opens below 
the gorge. 



His reign was in some respects salutary. He is re 
cognised as a defender of Isr. (Jg. lo. 1 ). During the 
absence of A. the Shechemites rebelled and called in 
GAAL, a partisan warrior. A. returned, and having 
captured the city, wreaked his vengeance on the in 
habitants. Thebez, a neighbouring town wh. had 
joined in the rebellion, was besieged by him. 
Having taken the town he was pressing the siege of 
the citadel when, on his approaching too near the 
door, a woman threw a piece of a millstone, wh. so 
injured him that he entreated his armour-bearer to 
thrust him through, that he mt. escape the igno 
miny of being slain by a woman. Thus died, assail- 





- 









Photo 



SITE OF ABILENE SCg WADY BARADA 



The name Neby Habil, applied to the tomb on the S. 
height, is cert, derived fm. that of the city. The tetrarchy 
was prob. founded c. B.C. 4, when the inheritance of Herod 
the Gt. was divided. Agrippa I. was confirmed in posses 
sion of it when Caligula came to the throne in A.n. 37. After 
Agrippa s death in A. 1>. 44 it was administered by the Rms., 
until in A.D. 53 it was granted by Claudius to Agrippa II. 
It was finally merged in the province of Syria. 

For Lit., see Schiirer, HJP. I. ii. 335 n. 

ABIMELECH, " my fr. is k." (i) S. of Gideon 
by a Shechemite concubine. Assisted by his She- 
chemite kinsfolk he declared himself k., and put to 
death all his brs.save JoTiiAM,who escaped (Jg. 9- lf -)- 
\Vhile the men of Shechem were engaged in the 
festivities of the coronation, Jotham appeared on 
the slope of Gerizim and addressed to the assembled 
people the parable of the trees choosing a k. We 
cannot tell the size of the kdm. of A., but it must 
have extended over a considerable portion of Pal. 



ing an obscure town, the first aspirant to the throne 
of Isr. (2) K. of Gerar, contemporary with ABRA 
HAM. (3) K. of Gerar, contemporary with ISAAC. 
A. may have been a title implying hereditary k ship. 
This prob. explains the title of Ps. 34., where A. 
stands in place of ACHISH. 

ABINADAB, " the fr. of liberality." (i) A Levite 
of Kiriath-Jearim, in whose house the Ark abode 2O 
yrs. (i S. 7- 2 ). He was fr. of Uzzah and Ahio. 
(2) Second s. of Jesse (i S. l6. 8 ). (3) S. of SAUL, 
slain on Mt. Gilboa (I S. 3i. 2 ). 

ABI RAM, " my fr. is high." See DATHAN. 

ABISHAG, a very fair damsel fm. Shunem, 
brought to cherish k. David in the feebleness of old 
age (i K. I .). Later she was the object of an in trigue 
between Adonijah and Bathshcba, wh. proved fatal 
to that aspiring prince (i K. 2. 13f ). Sec BATHSHEBA. 



Abi 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Abr 



ABISHAI, David s nephew, s. of Zcruiah (i Ch. 
2. 16 ). He appears as a man of great personal intre 
pidity, skill, and prowess in battle. He was ready 
for any perilous enterprise, going e.g. with David by 
night into the camp of Saul, to the very side of the 
sleeping k. (l S. 26. 6f -). He shared in the victory 
over Edom in the Valley of Salt (i Ch. i8. 12 ). He 
held high command in the campaign agst. the 
Ammonites (2 S. io. 10 - 14 ). He succoured David 
fm. Ishbi-Benob, slaying the giant (2 S. 2i. 16f -). He- 
was chief of the mighty three who brake through the 
host of the Phil., and drew water fm. the well of 
Bethlehem for David (2 S. 23. 16ff ). His slaughter of 
300 men confirmed his claim to high rank among 
the heroes of David. 

Withal he appears as something of the swashbuckler, with 
little in him of chivalry or generosity. He wd. have slain 
the sleeping Saul. He bears with Joab the guilt of Abner s 
murder (2 S. 3- 30 ). He wished instantly to slay Shimei (2 S. 
i6. 9f -), and later thought only of vengeance 12 S. ig. 21 ). He 
seems to have been privy to the murder of Amasa (2 S. 2O 10 , 
Ant. VII. xi. 7). Prob. he died before David : otherwise a 
person of his consequence wd. have been heard of in connec 
tion with Adonijah s revolt. 

ABISHALOM = ABSALOM. 

ABNER is said to be the cousin of Saul(l S. I4. 50f -, 
where v. 51 shd. evidently read " Kish the fr. of Saul, 
and Ner. the fr. of A., were sons of Abiel "). This 
is more likely than the act., given in I Ch. 8. 29> ^ 
o.. 35 39 , wh. makes him Saul s uncle (cp. Ant. VI. iv. 
3, vi. 6). Accdg. to Jewish tradition the witch of 
Endor was his mr. Saul made him captain of the 
host (i S. l-f 50 , IJ. 55 ), and after Saul s death lie 
was the main support of Ishbosheth. A. seems 
to have had little pleasure in bloodshed, and to 
have slain unwillingly (2 S.2. 14 " 26 ). Ishbosheth 
deeply offended him by a suggn. of disloyalty. He 
went to Hebron, and undertook negotiations for 
uniting Isr. under the sceptre of David. He de 
parted on his errand, but to the great sorrow and in 
dignation of David he was treacherously recalled and 
murdered by Joab and Abishai, for the blood of 
Asahel whom A. had slain in battle (2 S. 3. 26 - 30 ). 

A. s death broke the spt. of Isr. s resistance. Ishbosheth 
was murdered, and his head buried in A. s tomb (2 S. 4. -). 
It may be evidence of A. s piety that "out of the spoil won 
in battles" he dedicated " to repair the house of the Lord" 
(i Ch. 26. - 7 ). A. s s. Jaasiel is mentioned later, as over the 
tribe of Benjamin (i Ch. 27. 21 ). 

ABOMINATION. (i) To abak, "an abhor 
rence." It was an A. to the Egps. to eat with the 
Hebs. (Gn. 43- 32 ) : Shepherds they held an A., as 
also sacrifice of animals sacred to them (Gn. 46 , 34 ; 
Ex. 8. 26 ) ; evil practices were the " A. to the Lord " 
(Dt. I2. 31 ). (2) Piggul, " fetid," sacrifices left till 
the third day (Lv. J. 18 ). (3) Skfqetz., " unclean," 
the flesh of animals forbidden by the law to be eaten 
(Lv. II. 10 ). (4) Shaqqtltz, "detestable," usly. of 
idols ; e.g. of Milcom (i K. ii. 5 ). 

ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION. This 
phrase occurs twice in the Gospels (Mw. 24- 15 ; Mk. 



13. 14 ) ; three times in DANIEL (c). 27 , ii. 31 , 12. n ). 
TheGr. is bdclugma ton eremoseon ; theHcb.shiqqutz 
mesbomem and shomem. The refce. of the phrase in 
our Lord s mouth was to the presence of the Roman 
standards in the Temple. A. of D. occurs in I M. 
i. 4 , and there applies to the placing by order of 
Antiochus of the altar of Zeus on the Brazen Altar 
in the Court of the Temple. In Dn. the A. of D. is 
somewhat more difficult. RV. renders g. 27 , " upon 
the wing of abominations shall be one that maketh 
desolate " ; AIT. is corrupt, as neither in LXX, nor 
Thd. of Gr. \ \ . ; nor in the Vlg., nor Vetus of Lat., 
is there any trace of kanaph, " wing." The text 
behind the words of our Lord cd. not have con 
tained it, else the suitability of " wing " to Rm. 
"Eagles " wd. have necessitated a refce. to the word. 
Psh. has it, but makes it pi. The true rdg. is evi 
dently qodcsk, answering to hieron of the two Gr. W., 
the en topo hagio of Mw., the hopou on del of Mk., 
sancto of the Vetus, and tfmplo of the Vlg. The A. 
of D. in Dn. 1 1. 31 and in I2. 11 are echoes of g. z ~ ; in 
Dn. ii. 31 the refce. as in I M. I. 54 , is to the action 
ot Epiphanes placing the altar of Zeus in the 
Temple : of the other passage no tenable inter 
pretation has been suggd. 

ABRAHAM is the most important fig. of anti 
quity. With him as the great ancestor of the Heb. 
race, the hist, of Isr. begins. Born in L r of the 
Chaldecs, the s. of Terah, an idolater (Jo. 24- 2 ), he 
set out with his fr., his w. Sarai, who was also his half 
sr. (Gn. 2O. 12 ), and Lot his nephew, and settled for a 
time in Haran, where Terah died (Gn. ii. 31ff ). 
Thence, at the call of God, he went into Canaan, 
taking his vv. and nephew, with his household and 
property (Gn. I2. lff -). At Shechem A. first received 
the promise of the land. There he built an altar to 
the Lord : a second he built at Bethel, as he jour 
neyed S. (Gn. I2. 7 9 ). Dearth in Can. drove A. to 
Egp., where, calling Sarai his sr., he brought her into 
grave danger. God protected her, and A. returned 
to Can. with the reproach of Pharaoh, whom he had 
deceived (Gn. I2. 10 -I3. 1 ). 

Overcrowding of the pasturage by the greatly increased 
flocks of A. and Lot, led to continual bickerings between 
their respective herdsmen. At Bethel therefore, in the in 
terest of peace, A. separated from Lot, generously permitting 
the latter to claim and occupy the rich lands in the Jordan 
Valley ; and God s favour was marked by a repetitk n of the 
promise to him and to his seed. A. then moved to Hebron 
(Gn. 13.). 

The cities in the Jordan Valley having rebelled against 
CHKUORI.AOMER, he marched upon them with his subject 
princes, and, having overwhelmed their armies in the Vale 
of Siddim, sacked the cities, carrying off much plunder, and 
many prisoners, among whom was Lot. With a small force, 
augmented by his confederates, Mamre, Eshcol, and Aner, A. 
pursued the victors, surprised them in a night attack, utterly 
n uted thorn, and rescued both booty and captives. On his 
return he was met by MKI.CIIIX.KDEK, k. of Salem, who blessed 
him, to whom as " priest of God Mcst High" he gave "a 
tenth of all." Fm. the k. of Sodom he wd. take nothing but 
the portion of his allies (Gn. 14.). 

A., now an old man and childless, doubted the 



Abr 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Abs 



promise to bis seed. God therefore renewed the 
promise, with foreshadowings of a vast posterity and 
a great hist., and confirmed it by a weird and im- 
. pressive ceremonial (Gn. 15.). 

Sarai, her hope crushed by multitude of years, 
adopted an expedient common in the country she 
had left (Laws of Hammurabi, Johns, 146), soon 
bitterly repented of, by wh. Hagar the Egyptian 
maid became the mr. of Ishmael (Gn. l6. lffi ). A 
great future was promised to Ishmael, but only a s. 
of Sarai could inherit A. s blessing. In his hundredth 
vr., God changed the name of Abram, " exalted 
father," to Abraham, wh. is explained to signify that 
he wd. be the fr. of many nations (Gn. I/. 5 ), and the 
rite of circumcision was prescribed " as a token of the 
covenant." When she was ninety years old Sarai s 
name was changed to Sarah, and she was assured of a 
s., whereat A., incredulous, laughed. This suggd. 
the s s. name, Isaac, fm. the Heb. verb " to laugh." 
A. entertained " unawares " the angels who were 
going to the cities of the plain, and One greater than 
the angels, who reiterated the promise of a s. by 
Sarah, despite her unbelieving laughter. The angeb 
set out for SODOM, and the Lord told A. of its im 
pending destruction. Then followed A. s memor 
able, tho ineffectual intercession. Next morning, 
going up to the scene of the intercession, A. saw the 
smoke of the burning cities ascending like that of a 
mighty furnace (Gn. I9. 27f -). 

At Gerar Sarah was delivered fm. a danger similar to 
that wh. had threatened her in Egp. (Gn. 20.), and at the 
appointed time her s. Isaac was bcrn (Gn. 21. ff.). At her 
instance Ishmael and his mr. were driven away (Gn. 2i. s ff). 
Abimelech, the Phil, k., desired an alliance with A., now a 
wealthy and powerful chief, and terms were arranged and 
sealed at Beersheba (Gn. 21. ^ff.). 

While sojourning in the Phil, country, A. s faith 
endured its sternest test by the command to slay in 
sacrifice his s. Isaac. The trial was borne trium 
phantly, and the occasion was used to discourage 
human sacrifice, showing that the spt. of loyal obedi 
ence and submission was alone acceptable to God 
(Gn. 22.). 

When Sarah died, A. bought the Cave of Mach- 
pelah as a burying-place. His first possession in the 
land of promise was a grave (Gn. 23.). 

Realising his approaching end, A. sent his servant 
to Haran, who brought Rebekah thence, fm. among 
his own people, as a w. for Isaac (Gn. 24.). 

A second w. of A. was Keturah, by whom he had 
six sons (Gn. 25. lff- ) : to the sons of his concubines he 
gave gifts, and sent them E wards away fm. Isaac, 
who shd. be his sole heir. At the age of 175 A. died, 
and was buried by Isaac and Ishmael in the Cave of 
Machpelah (Gn. 2;.). 

The familiar intercourse of God with A. gained him the 
name of " Friend of God," by wh. he is known in the E. to 
this day Khalil Ullah, or simply <?/-A7;<7//7, " The Friend" 
(2 Ch. 2o. 7 ; Is. 41. 8 ; Js. a. 23 ). His faith, wh. was " counted 
to him for righteousness" (Gn. 15.6 ; Rm. 4. ;l ), by wh. he 
secured the blessing, became a perpetual theme of admiratk n 



( He. ii.sff.). Mere nat. descent from A. was popularly sup 
posed to serve men heirs to his sptl. inheritance an error 
wh. the Baptist, Jesus Christ, and His followers earnestly 
controverted (Mw. 3. 9 ; Lk. 3.8; Jn. 8. x -; Rm. 9. "). By 
faith the Gentiles are brought \uthin range of the promise, 
and are blessed with faithful A. (Gal. 3. 9 ). 

A. ranks not only as the great ancestor of many peoples, 
but as the " prophet " (Gn. 2o. 7 ), through whom the revela 
tion was begun ; as the founder of that relg. wh. is to gather 
all nations within its scope. So closely is the revelation as 
sociated with A., that the Supreme Deity is never spoken of 
in Scrip, as the Gcd of Adam, Enoch, or Noah, but only 
as the God of A. and his descts. 

No success has attended the effort to assign the fig. 
of A. to the realm of mythology ; while the theory 
wh. explains the incidents in his hist, as reflections 
of the movements and intercourse of peoples and 
tribes, although ingenious, is not convincing. 

For the critical analysis of the relevant passages 
in Gn., supported by the majority of critics, see 
Driver, LOT. 

For later Jewish traditions see Tg. J.,on Gn. 1 1, 28 ; 




TRADITIONAL SITE OF ABRAHAM S HOUSE : HEBRON 



Ant. I. vii., viii. ; Baring Gould, O. T. Characters in 
Jewish Life ; Taylor, Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, 
p. 94 ; Polano, The Talmud (Selections from}. 

ABRAHAM S BOSOM (Lk. i6. 22f -), in wh. to lie 
marks the bliss of Paradise, in contrast with the 
misery of Hades. 

This fig. is taken fm. the custom of reclining at meals, 
where, -if one leans back, his head will rest in the bosom of 
the one next him. Thus at the supper, the beloved disciple 
leans "on Jesus breast." The most highly honoured guest 
was placed in this position next the host, the most intimate 
and friendly relation being thus indicated. The position of 
the Son relatively to the Father is so described. He is "in 
the bosom of the Father" ( Jn. i. ls l. To the pious Isr. the 
reward of fidelity on earth was entrance into the society of 
A., Isaac, and Jacob (4 M. 13. 1S ; Mw. 8. 12 ). 

For later developments and Lit., see Salmond, 
Christian Doctrine of Immortality, 342ff. 

ABRECH, trltn. of a Heb. word : EV. translates 
" bow the knee " (Gn. 41. 43 ). No quite satisfactory 
explanation has been suggd. EV. is perhaps as good 
as any (LXX, " herald," Psh. " father and ruler," 
Aq. " kneel "). 

ABSALOM, third s. of David, was of royal de 
scent on both sides, his mr. being Maacah, dr. of the 
k. of Geshur (2 S. 3- 3 ). To avenge the outrage on his 



Aby 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ace 



sr. Tamar, he compassed the death of his br. Amnon, 
and took refuge fm. David s wrath with Talmai, his 
maternal grandfr. (2 S. I3. 20fl: ). But " the king s 
heart was toward A." This Joab observed, and by 
means of a wise woman of Tckoa, secured his recall, 
after three yrs. of exile (2 S. i4- lff -)- Two yrs., how 
ever, passed ere A. cd. bring about complete recon 
ciliation with his fr. A. was truly a princely fig. : 
" in all Isr. there was none to be so much praised 
for his beauty" (i S. i4.- 5ff -)- His ambitions were 
equal to his appearance, and his abilities were not 
far short. He provided a bodyguard for himself 
(f/). Pisistratus, Herodotus i. 59) ; and prepared 
the way for a revolt by cunningly cultivating the 
goodwill of the people (i S. I5. lff )- After four yrs. 
he raised his standard at Hebron, the old capital 
of the kdm. At first his revolt was extraordinarily 
successful. Even David of the lion-heart, struck 
with fear, fled with such troops as he cd. muster to 
Mahanaim beyond Jordan. The adhesion of Ahi- 
thophel promised well for A. By his advice, on com 
ing to Jrs., A. took possession of the royal harim, 
thus making the breach with his fr. absolute. Ahi- 
thophel further counselled a swift descent upon the 
fugitive k. in his weariness and weakness ; but 
Hushai, David s friend, who had joined A. in order 
to defeat the counsel of Ahithophel, drew such a pic 
ture of the old warrior k. at bay, that his plan of cau 
tion was adopted, and A. s opportunity was lost. 
Tidings were sent to David, and Ahithophel, seeing 
his counsel ignored, and knowing doubtless that this 
meant the failure of A. s enterprise, and ruin to all 
who favoured him, went home and hanged himself 
(2 S. 16., 17.). 

A rally to David at Mahanaim enabled him to 
send a formidable force to meet A., whose army was 
routed in the Forest of Ephraim. A. himself, caught 
by the head in the branches of a terebinth, was slain 
by Joab, in spite of the k. s order to " deal gently " 
with him. David s lament for his s. is one of the 
most pathetic in all hist. The body of A. was 
treated as that of a criminal (2 S. i$.). 

A. s sons evidently died before him, and so to keep his 
name in remembrance, he erected a pillar in the k. s dale 
, 2 S. i8. )t! ), of \vh. there is now no trace. The monument 
in the Kidron Valley is obviously of much more recent date, 
prob. of the Herodian period. 

ABYSS = AV. DEEP, wh. sec. 

ACACIA, RV. Sec SIIITTAH TRKE. 

ACCAD ( .^KY^a city in X. Babylonia, prob. = 
Agada, near Sepharvaim (Sipparu), and absorbed by 
it. It is grouped with Babel, Erech, and Calneh 
(Gn. lo. 10 ). Here reigned Sargon I., the first ruler 
of all Bab. A. united with Sumir in the titles of 
Asyr. ?nd Bab. ks., is supposed to mean X. with S. 
Bab. The lang. in wh. the sacred texts of Asyr. and 
Bab. were originally written is called Accadian, the 
lang. of Accad. It is agglutinative. 

ACCHO, RV. ACCO, a strong city on the sea 



board of Asher (Jg. I. 33 ; BJ. II. x. 2), never con 
quered by Isr., the Ptolcmais of I M. and NT. ; St. 
Jean d Acre, Accaron, and Aeon of later days ; poss. 
Ocina of Jth. 2. 28 ; the mod. l Akka. It stands 
on the X. point of the Bay of Acre, facing the pro 
montory of Carmel in the S., under wh. lies the 
mod. town of Haifa. A rich and fertile plain, 
watered by the Belus and the Kishon, stretches in 
land to the foot of the mountains of Galilee. 

A. is a city of 10,000 to 12 ooo inhabitants, mainly 
Moslems. The Governor controls the districts of Haifa, 
Tiberias, and Safed. Recently that of Nazareth was de 
tached, and placed under Jrs. The town is entered by a 
strong gateway in the S. The sea-wall is much broken, and 
the inner harbour has disappeared. The landward defence 
is a double rampart. The railway connecting the Hauran 
with Haifa and Damascus will diminish its grain trade ; but 
oil fm. the olive groves of Galilee will stiil be a valuable 
export. 

Fm. the days of its alliance with Tyre and Sidon 
until it fell into the hands of Rm., few cities have 
had a stormier career, or have passed through greater 




ACCHO 

vicissitudes. Under the name of PTOLEMAIS it ap 
pears for the last time in Scrip, as a place visited by 
the apostle Paul (Ac. 21."). 

Lit. : Jos., -pastim ; Reland, pp. 53-J-ff. ; Gibbon, 
by index ; Robinson, BRP. iii. 8gfi. ; PEFM. \. 
pp. l6off. ; Guerin, Galilee, i. 5O2ff. 

ACELDAMA (RV. AKELDAMA). With the price 
of blood a field was bought by the traitor Judas for 
himself (Ac. i. 18t ), or by the chief priests, " to bury 
strangers in " (Mw. 27. 6i ). In allusion toZc. n. 13 , 
it is called " the potter s field " (Mw. 27."- ] ) ; and 
fm. that time Akeldama, " the field of blood." 
The translation is exact : the Aram, baqel dema 
cannot be otherwise rendered.* From the fourth 
cent, tradition has located this field S. of the 
lower part of the Vale of Hinnom. In the time of 
the Latin kdm. a large charnel-house was erected by 
the Hospitallers on the brim of the valley. This is 
still called sharmen = " charnel," or (by Christians) 
Hakeldama, Arb. Haqq ed-Dam, " blood price." 
But the name skama, wh. is the old French chande- 
mar = champ dema, is attached to the sloping ground 
above the charnel-house, where, in fact, a field wd. 

* Cp. Dal man, Grammatik des jud. paldst, Aramdisch," 
pp. 137, 202. 



Ach 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ach 



be located, rather than on the steep edge of the 
valley. If strangers were buried there it wd. hardly 
be in the luxurious rock-hewn sepulchres in the face 
of the declivity, among wh. was the tomb of the 
high priest Ananos (B J. V. xii. 2), but in simple pit 
graves, like those of the lower class of the people. 

G. H. DALMAN. 

ACHAIA in the NT. signifies the Rm. province of 
that name. The anct. A. on the S. shore of the Gulf 
of Corinth was merged in Macedonia at its conquest 
in B.C. 146. The separate province was constituted 
in B.C. 27, including Peloponnesus, Thessaly, /Etolia, 
Acarnania, perhaps Epirus, with Eubcea, and certain 
islands, excepting the free cities. At first it was a 
senatorial province : under Tiberius it was again 
joined to Macedonia as an Imperial province. From 
the time of Claudius it was senatorial, under a pro 
consul, whose seat was in Corinth. Prob. c. A.D. 
44. Thessaly was added to Macedonia, Epirus and 
Acarnania becoming a separate province. While 
" Greece " in Ac. 2O. 2 clearly means A., genly. the 
whole of Greece must be taken as comprehended in 
" Macedonia and A.," so frequently mentioned to 
gether (Ac. I9/ 21 ; Rm. I5. 26 ; ^ Cor. 9.2 ; i Th. i. 8 ). 

As in most cities of importance, there were trad 
ing communities of Jews in Athens and Corinth 
(Ac. i;. 17 , iS. 4 *). 

ACHAICUS, a Corinthian believer who, with 
Fortunatus and Stephanas, visited Paul in Ephesus 
(i Cor. i6. 17 ), prob. a freedman of the Mummii. 

ACHAN, s. of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah (i Ch. 
2. 7 , Achar). Although everything in Jericho had 




fm. Saul. His first stay ended with his feigning 
madness, in consequence of learning that the ser 
vants of A. recognised him as slayer of Goliath (i S. 
2i. llff -). When the pursuit of Saul manifested itself 
as relentless, David again betook himself to A. (i S. 
27. : ). Before the battle of Gilboa A. made David 
and his men his bodyguard ; the Lords of the Phil, 
wd. not allow him to go into the battle (i S. 29. 6t ). 
It is unlikely that the A. to whom the servants of 
Shimei fled was the above ; prob. his grandson 
(i K. 2. 39 ). 

ACHMETHA (mod. Uamaddri), the capital of 
the province of Media, where the records of the 
reign of Cyrus were kept. In A. was found the re 
cord of the decree of Cyrus in regard to the return of 
the Jews to their own land and the rebuilding of the 
Temple (Ez. 6. 2 ). The Agbatane (Ecbatane), de 
scribed by Herodotus, and ascribed to Deioces, is a 
different place. 

ACHOR, cmeq tkbor, " Vale of Trouble " (Jo. 
15. 7 ; Is. 65- 10 ; Ho. 2. 15 ), on the boundary between 
Judah and Benj., the scene of Achan s execution (Jo. 
7. 24ff -). It is prob. Wady Qelt, wh. opens on the 
plain to the W. of mod. Jericho. 

ACHSAH, dr. of Caleb, w. of Othniel, who won 
her as the reward of taking Debir. At her request 
springs were added to her dowry, the dry Negeb 
(Jo. I5. 16fl -; Jg. l. 12ff -; I Ch. 2. 4 9 ). 

ACHSHAPH, a royal city of the Can. (Jo. II. 1 , 
I2. 20 ), on the border of Asher (Jo. ig. 25 ). Kkirbct 
el-Kesaf prob. represents the anct. town. It lies S. 
of Nahr el-Oasimiyeh, with ruins dating fm. the 5th 
cent. A.D. The difficulties in the way of ident. with 
any site further S. seem to be insuperable. 

ACHZIB. (i) A city in Judah named between 
Keilah and Mareshah (Jo. I5- 44 ). It was near ADUL- 
LAM (Gn. 38. 5 = Chezib), and is mentioned in Ali. 
i.i4_Achzib = " a lie "and in I Ch. 4 . 22 . It is 
prob. A in el-Kezbah, in Wady es-Sunt. (2) A town 



PEF. Photo 



WEDGE, OR TONGUE, OF GOLD 



been devoted, A. took 100 shekels of silver, a wedge 
of gold, and a Babylonish garment (see Macalister, 
Bible Side-lights, 1 2 iff.). The repulse of Isr. before 
Ai led to investigation. By the lot A. s guilt was 
discovered, and, with his family, he was stoned in 
the Valley of Achor (Jo. 6. 17f -, 7. lf -). The fate of A. s 
children seems opposed to Dt. 24. 16 ; but that refers 
to crimes against society : this is a sin against God. 
The punishment of children was only an intensifi- ACHZIB 

cation of the shame we attribute to relatives of on the boundary of Asher by the sea, of wh. the tribe 

criminals. did not dispossess the Can. (Jo. IQ. 29 ; Jg. I. 31 ). 

ACHISH, k. of Gath, to whom David twice fled OEJ. places it 9 Rm. miles fm. Ptolemais, on the 

7 




Act 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Act 



way to Tyre. This points definitely to fz- /.tl>, a. 
wretched hamlet overlooking the sea. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, THE. This is the 
fifth bk. of the NT. Canon. It is an act. of the 
labours of St. Paul, to wh. chaps. I.-I2., recording 
the founding of the Church under the leadership of 
Peter, the breaking down of the separation between 
Jew and Gentile, and the preparation of St. Paul for 
his Mission, form the Introduction. These chaps, 
fall into two sections. The first, endingwith chap. 5., 
recounts the Ascension, the election of Matthias, 
and the events of the day of Pentecost ; the descent 
of the Holy Ghost, and Peter s sermon, when 3000 
were converted. The healing of the lame man by 
Peter and John led to the Apostles trial before the 
Sanhedrin, and so to a further opportunity of pro 
claiming the Gospel, when 5000 were converted. 
The whole section ends with Gamaliel s decision 
that the matter may be of God. The next section 
narrates the appointment of Deacons, the zeal of 
Stephen, his trial and execution, wh. Paul is intro 
duced as superintending. The persecution thus 
begun scattered the brethren, some of whom 
preached the Gospel in Samaria. While journeying 
to Damascus to carry on the inquisition he had pur 
sued in Jrs., Saul was met by Jesus, and being con 
verted, he began to preach the faith he had sought 
to destroy. On his return to Jrs. the brethren re 
ceived him with suspicion ; and, to escape a conspi 
racy, he was hurried off to Tarsus. The division 
between Jew and Gentile was still further narrowed 
by the visit of Peter to Cornelius, and the Council at 
Jr?. wh. followed. 

While God was leading Peter into wider views, 
and through him the disciples in Jrs., the matter 
came up in Antioch in another way. There men of 
Cyprus and Cyrene spoke to the Greeks, preaching 
the Lord Jesus. Their success led to the mission of 
Barnabas, who sympathised with the movement. 
He recognised in the new r field thus opening, a sphere 
for wh. his friend was specially fitted, and went to 
Tarsus to seek Saul. The two friends were sent 
shortly after to bear a gift for the relief of the poor 
saints in Jrs. : a tribute of love to the mother 
Church. That Church was then suffering persecu 
tion : James had been slain ; Peter was arrested, but 
was delivered by an angel. With the return of 
Barnabas and Saul to Antioch, taking with them 
John Mark, the Introduction ends. For the nar. 
that follows, see PAUL. Parts of Paul s life are 
treated in great detail : others are passed over in 
silence. The writer wd. naturally give ampler space 
to the things of wh. he claimed to be an eve-wit 
ness : want of information may explain the blanks. 
The nar. ends without recording Paul s death. Per 
haps the writer designed a third treatise : if written, 
it has not been preserved. 

The Text of A. has come to us in five great L n- 



cials, tfABCD, and the Codex Laudianus (E), 
and several Cursives : of VY., Vlg., and Psh., be 
sides Heraclean Syr. and Old Lat., Codex Bezae 
presents many peculiar rdgs., of wh. no quite 
satisfactory solution has been offered. 

A. was not early, or much quoted, but Papias 
knew it ; he refers to Philip the Deacon and his drs. 
(Ac. 21. 9 ), and to Justus Barsabas (Ac. I. 23 ). Euse- 
bius docs not report him as quoting A. Irenaeus, 
Tertullian, Hyppolytus, and Clement of Alexandria 
quote frequently. There are echoes of A. to be 
found in Ignatius, Polycarp, and others. 

The author of the third Gospel is universally ad 
mitted to be the writer of A. The style is identical. 
Some half cent, ago Zeller hinted a doubt, but no 
critic has yet followed his suggn. Unwavering tradi 
tion identifies the author with Luke, the companion 
of St. Paul. Acceptance of this wd. practically 
settle the questions of date and historicity. 

The unity of A. has been impugned : it is alleged 
that a writer of the 1st or 2nd decade of the 
2nd cent, found an itinerary of St. Paul s Mis 
sionary Journeys, and added to these various legen 
dary incidents. Agst. this we must set the unity of 
style and of plan ; and consider the relation of the 
speeches, the " we " passages, and the itineraries to 
the whole. Classical authors habitually composed 
speeches, expressing not what was actually said, but 
what they thought might suitably have been said. 
In these cases the authors own style prevails 
throughout the speeches. In A. this is not so. 
Tertullus does not speak like James, nor either of 
them like Paul. The speeches are poss. condensed in 
some instances fm. notes taken at the time, and in 
others, fm. oral reports of those who had been pre 
sent. But while the speeches differ in style fm. each 
other and fm. the author, the " we " passages, the 
itineraries, and the rest of the book are identical in 
style. The writer prob. used authorities, written or 
oral, as he did in the Gospel. Alford (NT. vol. ii.) 
points out that in chaps. I7. 16 -i8. 5 , where Paul is 
left alone, there are phrases foreign to Luke s style, 
consonant with that of Paul. The incident in 
chap. 8. may have been supplied by Philip ; the gen. 
hist, of the foundation of the Church by Peter, 
James, or John Mark ; and so with the rest. There 
is no good reason to doubt the unity of A. 

The questions of date and authorship are closely 
related. If, as tradition asserts, Luke was the 
author, A. cannot be later than the last quarter of 
the 1st cent. Some who regard A. as written, in 
part at least, by a companion of St. Paul, have suggd. 
other names, e.g. Silas and Timothy ; but there are 
conclusive reasons why none of these cd. have 
written the "we" passages : cp. l6. 16 ls , 20. 5 - 6 . Har- 
nack has recently shown the high probability that 
the writer was a physician, as we know Luke was 
(Col. 4- 14 ). Accdg. to A., he accompanies Paul to 



Act 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ada 



Rm., and there we find him in Col. 4. 14 , 2 Tm. 4. 11 , 
and Phm. 23 . The accuracy in details points to the 
hand of a contemporary. The writer knows, e.g., 
the varying titles borne by the magistrates in differ 
ent cities : strategi in Philippi, and politarches in 
Thessalonica : in Roman Asia there are function 
aries called Asiarchs : the city of Ephesus glories in 
the title of neokoros to Artemis : Gallic is proconsul 
in Corinth when Paul is there. This exact kge. is in 
striking contrast with the wild confusion of the Cle 
mentines. Mistakes in such matters are easily made. 
Sir G. O. Trevelyan, writing in Macmillan, spoke 
of " Aldermen " in Scottish towns, where " Bailies " 
were intended. Sir William M. Ramsay has also 
shown the author s accurate kge. of geographical 
details. 

The alleged diffcs. between A. and the Pauline 
Epp. is made an objn. to the Lucan authorship. The 
autobiographic notes in Gal. and I and 2 Cor. do 
not fit easily into the scheme of the Apostle s life 
shown in A. But the diffc. of purpose explains why 
Luke did not include the events alluded to by Paul 
in his Epp. The Pauline Epp. were early collected, 
and a falsarius, whatever he left out, wd. cert, have 
noted the events vouched for by the Apostle himself. 

Again, it is objected that the teaching of Paul in 
A. differs fm. that in the Epp. But the discourses in 
A. are addressed to unbelievers, the Epp. to be 
lievers ; natly. the teaching differs. A falsarhis, 
with the Pauline Epp. before him, wd. have been 
tempted to make the discourses centos fm. the Epp., 
as was done by the author of the Epistle to the 
Laodicaeans. 

As to the purpose of A., Baur maintained that it 
was intended to be an eirenicon between the school 
of Paul and that of the older Apostles ; thus, he 
says, Peter is made to speak the lang. of Paul, and 
Paul s attitude to the Judaisers appears much more 
conciliatory than it really was. Regarding the first 
point, it is necessary to note that the resemblance 
between I P. and the Pauline Epp. is very great. As 
to the second, Paul s attitude towards the Judaisers 
who traduced himself and tried to sap his work, is 
natly. difft. fm. that towards the Apostles, who were 
willing, he tells us in Gal., to acknowledge his Mis 
sion to the Gentiles. 

Further, there is said to be an artificial symmetry 
between the miracles attributed to Paul and those 
ascribed to Peter. But, if the writer had wished to 
institute a parallel between these two apostles, he 
wd. surely have made it more obvious. It wd. 
not have been left to a professor in the igth cent, 
to make the discovery. It is much more natl. to 
take A. as an act. of the work of Christ among the 
Gentiles, carried on by Paul, introduced by a nar. of 
the foundation of the Church, and the preparation 
for its spread beyond the limits of Judaism. 

The alleged resemblances between Jos. and A. 



have been taken to prove that the author of A. 
must have read Jos. The resemblances are slight, 
and are more than counterbalanced by diffcs. Of 
course some critics, as Overbeck, reject the miracu 
lous as incredible. But miracles are incredible only 
on the assumption that the miraculous is proved to 
be impossible. 

AD AD AH, ad adah (Jo. I5. 22 ). Prob. we should 
read ar arah, answering to Aroer (l S. 3O. 28 ), now 
dr ara, S.E. of Beersheba. 

ADAM, a city in the Jordan Valley (Jo. 3- 16 ), 
prob. situated at Tell ed-Damieh, near the mouth of 
the Jabbok. Moore (Judges, p. 212) suggests that in 
I K. 7. 46 we should read nOIN (n) mayCD instead 
of the meaningless rni?D2, and render " at the 
crossing (ford) of Adamah " = A. of Jo. 3. 16 . The 
bridge built by Sultan Bibars is a ruin ; the ford is 
still in constant use. 

ADAM, the name of the first man (Gn. 5- 1 , P. 
aclam). The word also denotes "mankind " (2."). 
The name is connected with adamdh, " ground," 
of the dust of wh. man is formed. He is placed in a 
garden prepared for him, to dress it. He names all 
creatures as they pass before him. He is companion- 
less until God forms Eve to be his w. At the suggn. 
of the serpent, the two disobey the command : they 
eat of " the tree of the kge. of good and evil," and 
are expelled fm. Eden, under sentence of death. 
Subsequently CAIN, ABEL, and SETH are born to 
them. Having begot " sons and drs.," A. dies at the 
age of 930 yrs. 

Accdg. to LXX, A. was 230 yrs. of age when Seth was 
born. There are several myths of the origin of man : see 
CREATION. There are also traces of a story of the Fall in 
cert, mythologies, most clearly in the Zeuda- Vesta. In 
singular illustration of the Bible story, Darwin asserted on 
scientific grounds that man must have been originally uni 
sexual. None the less wd. he lie created by God fm. the dust 
of theground, that a million generations of inferior creatures 
intervened between the dust and the man. 

ADAM, BOOKS OF. (i) A Christian Apoca 
lypse found in four recensions Ethiopic, Syr., Gr., 
and Lat. (2) Testament of A. in Syr. (3) The 
sacred bk. of the Mandasans, wh., however, has little 
resemblance to the preceding. The " Apoc. of A." 
and the " Test, of A." seem to have been founded 
on a Jewish Alidrash of wh. there are traces in the 
Tim. In the Qabbala, many of the elements of wh. 
are pre-Christian, although its present form is medi 
aeval, Adam Qadmon is an important factor. The 
Apostle Paul may have a reference to this (i Cor. 
I5. 45t ). But the analogue to A. Qadmon is Paul s 
" second A." 

ADAMAH (Jo. ig. 36 ) is located with some cert, 
at Admah, c. 10 miles N. of Beisan, on the high land 
W. of the Jordan Valley. 

ADAMANT, Heb. shamir. In eight of the 
eleven cases where this word occurs it is trd. 
" brier " ; in the three remaining cases it evidently 
means a mineral of extreme hardness. In two in- 

A 2 



Ada 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Adr 



stances, Ek. 3. and Zc. j. 1 1 , it is trd. A. In Jr. i~. 1 
it is trd. " diamond," but as the Jews did not know 
the diamond the substance intended is likely some 
form of corundum. 

ADAMI-XEKEB (Jo. 1 9 . 33 ), on the XAV. boun 
dary of Naphtali. Accdg. to LXX, two places are 
intended. Adami may be identd. with ed-Damieh 
on the heights S.W. of Tiberias. 5<v XEKEB. 

ADAR, the last month of the Hcb. yr. Sec YEAR. 

ADDAR (Jo. l.v 3 , \\. " Adar "), a place on the 
S. border of Judah : unidentd. 

ADDER. This word trs. four Hcb. words 
pfthrn (Asp), lzrp/.\i (COCKATRICE), achshub and 
shephi-bhon. Of these latter two the former occurs 




ADDER- CFRASTKS 

only in Ps. i-ftx 3 , " adders poison is under their 
lips," prob. the dark brown viper is meant ; the 
second is prob. the cerastes ; the word only occurs 
in " Jacob s Blessing," Gn. 4 9 . 17 . 

ADINO. S<v JASHOBEAM. 

ADMAH, one of the cities invo.ved in the de 
struction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gn. lo. in , 
I 4 . 2 - 8 ; Dt. 2 9 . 23 ; Ho. II. 8 ). 

ADOXIBEZEK, " Lord of Be/.ek," a Can. chief 
conquered by Judah (Jg. I. 4 " 7 ). Having captured 
him, they cut off his thumbs and great toes. He- 
confessed having treated seventy kings in like man 
ner. This is a round number, meaning " many " ; 
the Oriental has no idea of numerical accuracy. 

ADOXIJAH, fourth s. of David, born at 1 lebron, 
his mr. being Haggith (2 S. 3."* ; I Ch. 3/ 2 ). As 
David s oldest surviving s., when that monarch s life 
was nearing its close, he sought to secure for himself 
succession to the throne. Assisted by Joab and Abi- 
athar, and accompanied by a numerous retinue, 
among whom were royal princes, he made a great 
feast at En Rogel, preparing to assume forthwith the 
regal office. Xathan and Bathsheba, to whose s. 
Solomon the succession had been promised, in 
formed the k. David at once commanded that 
Solomon slid, be anointed and proclaimed, and shd. 



take his scat upon the throne. The royal guard re 
mained by the k., and saw his orders executed 
amid such popular acclamations of joy that " the 
earth rent with the sound of them." A. s company 
scattered in terror when the news reached them, and 
he fled for refuge to the altar. His life was spared 
for the time (i K. I.). An intrigue in wh. he sought, 
with the help of BATHSHEBA, to obtain the hand of 
Abishag, natly., owing to her relations with the old 
k., roused suspicion that he was trying to revive his 
claim to the throne ; and, at the command of Solo 
mon, Benaiah put him to death (i K. 2. 12ff -). 

ADOXIRAM = ADORAM, was over the tribute 
under David (2 S. 2O. 24 ), and Solomon (i K. 4. 6 ). 
He was stoned by the I=rs. at Shechem (i K. I2. 18 ). 

ADOXIZEDEK, " Lord of Righteousness," k. of 
Jrs. He headed a confederacy agst. Joshua. De 
feated at the battle of Bethhoron, he fled with his 
confederates to a cave at Makkedah, whence he was 
brought out and killed (Jo. Id. 1 26 ). If, as seems 
prob. fm. the Tell Amarna tablets (vi. 32.), Tzedeq 
was a Phoenician deity, A. wd. mean " Tezdeq is my 
Lord." 

ADOPTIOX. The word viofletrt a is used by Paul 
alone (Rm. 8. 15 - 23 , 9 . 4 ; Gal. .j.. 5 ; Eph. I. 5 ), to indi 
cate the relation into wh. God s people are brought 
to Him. Among the Rms., to whose practice Paul 
seems to refer, there were two forms of A. (i) If he 
were his own master (sui funs ), a man cd. pass into 
the family of another only with consent of the 
people assembled in Camilla Curiata, by whom he 
was relieved of the obligation to perform the rites of 
his former Gens, or Familia, and bound to observe 
those of the new. (2) If he were still In potestate 
Pain s, under the authority of his fr., since in Rm. 
law the fr. was regarded as strictly the owner of his 
s., the transfer was effected by a formal sale and pur 
chase, to wh. the term mancipatio was applied. 

A s. legally adopted stood, in the eye of the law, in the 
same relation, in every respect, to the fr. by whom he was 
adopted, as a s. begotu n in lawful marriage. 

There was nothing corrspdg. to this in Isr. , although such 
informal A. as that of Esther by Mordecai may have been 
usual. The leviratelaw was intended to prevent a man being 
It-ft without heirs. 

ADORAIM, a fortress built by Rehoboam in 
Judah (i Ch. II. 9 ). Trypho came to A. " in Idu- 
maea " (i M. I3- 20 ; Ant. XIII. vi. 5). It was re 
duced by Hyrcanus, and restored by Gabinius (.-Int. 
XIII. ix. I ; BJ. I. viii. 4). It is now represented 
by the vill. of Dura, \\ . of Hebron. 

ADORATION, the expression of the emotions 
caused by the contemplation of Deity. In words 
A. became Hymns and Prayers ; many examples of 
both are found in the Psalms. A. is expressed in 
attitude, standing (2 Ch. 2O. 5 ) ; sitting (2 S. 7- 18 ) ; 
spreading out the hands (i K. 8. 22 ; Ez. 9- 5 ) ; kneel 
ing (Dn. 6. 10 ) ; falling on the face (Lev. g. 24 ). 

ADRAMMELECH. (i) A god worshipped with 



Adr 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Age 



ANAMMELECH by the colonists fm. Scpharvaim (2 K. 
I/. 31 ). They seem to be identl. with the Bab. deities 
Adar and Anu. The former of these is identd. with 
Hadad. In Shalmaneser s inscrip. Benhadad be 
comes Benidri. (2) A s. of Sennacherib, and one of 
his murderers (2 K. ig. 37 ). See ANAMMELECH. 

ADRAMYTTIUM is of Biblical interest only 
because of the ship in wh. Paul made his memorable 
journey to Rome (Ac. 27, , lff -). The town lay at the 
head of the gulf of that name, on the shore of Mysia, 
over agst. Lesbos. In Rm. days it was a great com 
mercial centre, and also for a time an assize town. 
The mod. vill., Edremid, is further inland. 

ADRIA (Ac. 27. 27 ). This sea took its name from 
Adria (or Atria), a town near the mouth of the river 
Po. The name at first applied only to the adjacent 
waters, but gradually its significance extended until 
its boundaries were marked by the shores of Italy, 
Sicily, and Malta on the W., and the shores of 
Greece on the E. (Strabo, by index, Bohn). Fm. 
Crete to Malta, therefore, the course of St. Paul s 
vessel lay entirely within " the sea of A." 

ADULLAM, a royal city of the Can. (Jo. I2. 15 ), 
in the low land occupied by Judah, near to Jarmuth, 




Photo, PEF. 



ADULLAM 



Socoh, and Mareshah (Gn. 38. lff - ; Jo. I5. 35 ; Mi. 
I. 15 ). A. was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Ch. II. 7 ), 
and occupied by the returning exiles (Ne. II. 30 ). A. 
is identd. with l ld el-Ma, " Feast of Water," or l ld 
el-Miyeb, " Feast of the Hundred," a ruin c. 8 miles 
X.W.of Beitjibrin. 

The Cave of Adullam (i S. 22. 1 , &c.), doubtless 
applied pdr excellence to that cave among those 
in the neighbouring valley in which David took 
shelter. 

ADULTERY, breach of the marriage vow. To 
the Heb., with his ideas of the importance of de 
scent, A. was only committed when the woman was a 
w. The ordeal of " bitter water" (Nu. 5- 14ff ) served 
to mitigate the fierceness of jealousy. The penalty 
of A. was death by stoning. No infliction of the 
penalty is recorded ; this does not prove that it 
never was inflicted ; the hist, of any mod. nation, 



condensed as severely as that of Isr. in the Bible, wd. 
have no room to tell of the execution of criminals. 
It had, however, sunk into disuse before the coming 
of Christ (Jn. 8. lf ). Isr. was regarded as married to 
the Lord (Jr. 3 1. 32 ) : any following after other gods 
was treated as A. (Jr. 3. 8 ). 

ADUMMIM,TiiE ASCENT of (RV.),on the boun 
dary between Judah and Benj. (Jo. 15.% i8. 17 ), 
" over agst." Gilgal, and on the S. side of " the 
torrent." This points clearly to Tal at ed-Dum, 
" the ascent of blood," on the road fm. Jericho to 
Jrs. on the S. side of the ravine of Wady Oelt. The 
name doubtless comes from the ruddy-coloured 
marl showing on the slope. 

ADVOCATE. See COMFORTER. 

AENEAS, a man in Lydda, bed-rid from palsy for 
8 yrs., healed by Peter (Ac. 9. 33 ). 

AENON, a place " where there was much water," 
" near to Salim," W. of Jordan (Jn. 3- 23 - 26 ). OEJ. 
places it 8 Rm. miles S. of Beisan, near Salim and the 
Jordan. A group of seven springs close to Umm d- 
Arnddn, ed-Deir, and Tell er-Ridgba, on the last of 
wh. is the tomb of Sheikh Salim, seems to meet all 
the requirements of the nar. The difficulties in the 
way of identn. with the springs in Wady Far ah 
seem insuperable. 

Lit., Sanday, SSG. 33ff. ; Conder, Tent JTorkf 
p. 49 ; SDB. s.v. 

AGABUS, a Judaean Christian, a prophet ; he 
foretold a drought (Ac. II. 28 ) and Paul s imprison 
ment (Ac. 2 1. 10 ). In the latter case the prophecy was 
acted, like that of Isaiah (2O. 2 ), and Jeremiah (2J. 2 ). 

AGAG, poss. the title of Amalekite ks. (Nu. 2~). 
A., defeated, and spared by Saul contrary to divine 
direction, was hewn in pieces by Samuel (i S. I v). 

AGAGITE, applied to Haman, whom the Jews 
believed to be descended fm. Agag (Est. 3.*, &c. ; 
Ant. XI. vi. 5). 

AGATE, in AV. trs. two Heb. terms, sbebo and 
kadkod. It is doubtful whether either is really the 
stone we mean by the agate. The second of the 
Heb. terms RV. trs. " rubies." Delitzsch idents. 
sbcbo with the Asyr. subu, wh. seems to have re 
sembled our diamond. 

AGE. Scrip, represents human life as gradually 
shortening. Fm. Adam to Noah men s ages range 
fm. 969 to 777 yrs., Enoch at his translation being 
365 yrs. old. Fm. Shem toTerah, 600 to 205. The 
Patriarchs lived over loo yrs., Isaac reaching 1 80. 
At a later period 70 is regarded as the normal length 
of life. 

In OT. old age is represented as the token of 
God s favour, and as the reward of virtue (Gn. 25. 8 ; 
Ex. 2O. 12 ), while an early death marks God s dis 
pleasure (Ps. I02. 23 ; Is. 65 . 20 ). This may act. for 
the respect wh. to this day is paid to the man of 
many yrs. in the E. (Lv. ig. 32 ; Jb. i.v 10 ). "The 
hoary head is a crown of glory " (Pr. l6. 31 ). 



ii 



Agr 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Agr 



Mere seniority carries with it many rights and privileges, 
the elder br. ,*.-., exercising no little authority over his juniors. 
The " elders " were powerful in Isr. , and \\ere regarded as 
repositories of wisdom (i K. 12.". *). The name "elder," 
applied to the holder of a particular office in the Christian 
Church, leaves no room for doubt as to the class fm. whom 
officials were originally chosen. The same is true of the 
Sheikh ("elder") of an Aiab tribe to-day. As strife and war 
lead to the cutting oft" of men in their prime, the continuance 
of old men in a community is a token of prevailing peace. 

AGRICULTURE. Scrip, represents culuvation 
of the soil as the first of human occupations (Gn. 




PLOUGHING ON THE PLAIN OF SHARON 



2. 15 , 4.-). In the Nile Valley A. nourished at a very 
early period ; and in Pal., before Isr. s time, it ap 
pears to have been largely pursued. The lowlands 
at least were tilled in anct. times, and the system of 
terraces is very old. Isaac is the first of the Patri 
archs identd. with A. (Gn. 26. 12 ). The change fm. 
nomadic to settled life compelled Isr. to become 
tillers of the earth when they took possession of Pal. 
This assumption underlies their law. The land be 
longed to 1". (Lv. 25. 23 ). Isr, held and cultivated it 
on His terms. A. was thus closely associated with 
rclg. 

Pal. differed fm. Egp. with its fertilising river, in 
that it depended almost entirely on the rainfall. 



It was recognised that the land must lie fallow at 
stated intervals (Ex. 23- 10 ), and later, this was se 
cured by the Sabbath law (Lv.2 v). Dung was used 
as manure (2 K. 9. 3 , c.). The unit of measure 
ment was the amount ploughed by a yoke of oxen in 
a day (l S. i-f. 14 ; cp. Arb. faddarf). Boundaries 
\vere marked by stones or stone heaps. Shifting 
these was a serious crime (Dt. ig. 14 ; Ho. 5- 10 ). 

A. was most prosperous in Rm. times, owing to 
the security enjoyed, and the excellent provision 
made for watering. 

As an occupationtaughtby God Himself (Is. 28. 26 ), 
A. was followed by all, even by men of good family 
(i S. II. 5 ), and much of the land on both sides of the 
Jordan bears evidences of anct. cultivation, although 
now reduced to simple pasture land. 

When the first rains softened the ground, hard 
baked by the summer heat, ploughing began. The 
plough made but a shallow furrow (see PLOUGH). 
Sowing followed shortly if weather were favourable. 
Occasionally to-day barley is sown as early as Nov., 
but it may be delayed till the end of Jan. Wheat is 
sown immediately afterwards. The seed mt. be 
scattered thinly broadcast, or dropped carefully 
into the furrows (Is. 28. 25 ). Sometimes it was sown 
first, and then ploughed or trampled down. The 
ploughed land was levelled with an implement not 
described (Is. 28. 24 ; Ho. lo. 11 ), made perhaps of a 
stout board, or cylinder of stone. To-day a bush 
often serves as harrow. 

Two kinds of seed mt. not be sown together (Lv. 
ig. 19 ; Dt. 22. 9 ). This is part of the gen. restriction 
agst. mingling of diverse kinds. Ingenious plans 
were devised for laying out the fields, so that space 
mt. be saved, and yet a margin left between the 
difft. crops. 

Barley harvest begins in the Jordan Valley about 




TREADING OUT AND WINNOWING GRAIN (Egyptian) 



The great streams and springs lie too low to be avail 
able for irrigation beyond a very limited range. 
Artificial means were thus necessary to preserve the 
water, and to utilise it for field and garden. 

The main crops were wheat and barley, but spelt, 
beans, lentils, millet, and flax were also grown. 



the end of March, and is gen. in April. Wheat har 
vest comes some three or four weeks later. The 
main dangers to be feared during the intervening 
months are mildew, if the weather be dull and 
damp ; the destructive power of the E. wind ; 
locusts and robbers (Dt. 28." ; 2 Ch. 6. 28 ; Am. 4.). 



12 



Agr 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Aha 



In the mountains crops are genly. light, but in the 
valleys and plains, especially in the Hauran, the 
yield is splendid, at times from 60 to loo-fold. 

Harvest, wh. lasted about seven weeks, is pictured 
as a time of great joy (Is. 9- 3 ; Ps. 4. 7 ). The grain is 
cut with shearing hooks, and carried on the backs 
of animals anctly. also in carts (Am. 2. 13 ) to the 
threshing-floor, in a position as exposed as poss., 
near the vill. There it is trampled by unmuzzled 



Under her influence he built a temple in Samaria for 
Phoenician Baal, and set up the ASHERA, with full 
establishment of idolatrous priests, temple-atten 
dants, &c. (l K. l6. 31ff -). A. must have acquiesced in 
Jezebel s attempt to stamp out the worship of J"., 
by the destruction of His prophets. Yet he seems to 
have connived at the concealment of loo of them by 
Obadiah (i K. l8. 3f -). He approved of the trial pro 
posed by ELIJAH, poss. in the hope that J". wd. vin- 




PLOUGHING AND SOWING (Egyptian) 



animals (Dt. 2 v 4 , &c.), or crushed under the thresh 
ing board, wh. is made of stout planks, about 5 ft. by 
4 ft., with rough stones set in its under surface. In 
anct. times as still in Egp. the threshing waggon 
was also used. It was a strong oblong frame, into 
wh. were fitted parallel rollers ; round these were 
fixed sharp circular blades of iron. This was drawn 
over the grain in the same way as the " board." 
Both were used for the torture of prisoners (2 S. 
I2. 31 ; I Ch. 20. 3 ; cp. Is. 41. 15 ) ; but see HARROW. 

The grain having been separated and the straw 
crushed into small pieces (tibn), the whole was cast 
into the air by means of a wooden fork and shovel 
(fan), when the wind carried away the chaff, and the 
grain fell at the worker s feet (Ps. I. 4 ). The best of 
the chaff is now preserved for fodder, the refuse 
being burned. Fire on a threshing-floor, where 
everything is tinder-dry, burns with a fierce flame 
(Mw. 3 . 12 ). 

Small quantities are threshed with a stick or flail 
(Ru. 2. 17 ; Jg. 6. 11 ). Threshing lasts roughly till the 
beginning of the vintage. The grain remaining 
when the tax paid in kind has been taken, and any 
sales effected, is usly. stored in great cistern-like re 
ceptacles. See BARN. 

AGRIPPA. See HERODIAN FAMILY. 

AGUR, s. of Jakeh, a sage otherwise unknown, to 
whom Pr. 30. is attributed. The word massa, wh. 
AV. renders " prophecy," RV. takes as a place name. 
The place is not known. Poss. A. is not a proper 
name, but descriptive. It mt. mean " collector." 

AHAB. (i) S. and successor of Omri, reigned in 
Samaria 22 yrs. (i K. i6. 29 ). Despite the hard 
judgment passed upon him as " one that did evil 
in the sight of the Lord, above all that were be 
fore him," the nars. indicate much good as well as 
evil in the char, and life of A. 

A. married JEZEBEL, dr. of ETHBAAL, k. of Tyre, 
who may be truly described as his evil genius. 



dicate Himself, and cause Jezebel to renounce her 
purpose (i K. l8. 17 ). The hope was vain (i K. 19.*). 
See ELIJAH. 

The Syrians under Benhadad, or Hadadezer, are 
suddenly introduced as besieging Samaria, poss. at 
the end of a campaign of wh. we have no record. 
A. was ready to surrender, but intolerable terms 
were proposed, and, cheered by the word of a pro 
phet, the besieged attacked, and utterly routed the 
enemy (i K. 2O. lff- ). Next year the Syrians returned 
with a strong force, confident of victory if only they 
cd. meet Isr. in the plains, thinking J". to be a " God 
of the Hills." A. met them as they desired and in 
flicted upon them overwhelming defeat, on the flat 
land E. of APHEK. He took Benhadad prisoner, and 
was denounced by a prophet for sparing him alive. 
By a treaty then arranged Benhadad was to restore 
the cities taken fm. Isr. by his fr., and to grant cert, 
privileges to Isr. in Damascus. 

The dastardly legal murder of Naboth, prompted 
by Jezebel, was sincerely repented of (i K. 21.). 
From the inscrs. it appears that A. fought along with 
Benhadad Hadadezer and others agst. Assyria at 
Qarqar, contributing 2000 chariots and 10,000 men, 
when the Asyr. claim that the allies were defeated 
(COT ~ i. i83ff.). Moab was held in subjection 
during his reign (2 K. I. 1 ), and he met his death in 
a campaign agst. Syria for the recovery of Ramoth 
Gilead (I K. 22.). 

A brave and capable soldier, and a patriotic k., he 
was too much under the influence of his tigerish w. ; 
yet was he not wholly given over to the worship of 
Baal (2 K. lo. 18 ). The later Jews place him among 
those who have no share in the world to come. 

(2) A false prophet denounced by Jeremiah 
(29. 21f -), burned by the k. of Bab. 

AHASUERUS. (i) K. of Persia fEz. -f 6 ), sup 
posed by some to be Cambyses, but there is no evi 
dence that he ever bore this name : Xerxes may be 



Aha 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ahi 



the k. intended. (2) The husband of Esther. Al 
though in Est. Ad. he is called Artaxerxes, it seems 
almost cert, that the k. intended is Xerxes. The 
notes of time correspond : the feast in his third yr. 
coincides with his return fm. the Egpn. expedition, 
and his seventh yr. \vd. just give sufficient time to 
carry out the arrangements wh. resulted in the ele 
vation of Esther, after his return fm. the disastrous 
invasion of Greece. In char, also he agrees with the 
Xerxes of Herodotus. (3) The fr. of Darius the 
Mede (Dn. 9. ). 

AHAVA, a stream or canal beside wh. Ezra as 
sembled the Jews willing to return to Palestine (Ez. 
8. 15 ) ; there appears to have been a town of the 
same name on its banks. No cert, identn. has been 
reached. 

AHAZ, s. and successor of Jotham, k. of Judah. 
The name is shortened from Jehoahaz. Asyr. inscrs. 
give it as Jahuchazi (COT. 2 2576.). A. began to 
reign in his aoth yr. (2 K. l6.-~). This shd. prob. 
be corrected with LXX ft <?/. in 2 Ch. 28. *, to 25th 
yr. Otherwise his s. Hczekiah wcl. seem to have 
been born in his nth yr. He reigned 16 yrs. 
But the chronology of this reign presents diffi 
culties wh. cannot at present be cleared up. 

A. was a weak and capricious prince (Is. 3. -, 7. 2rf -)- ^ e 
favoured heathen idolatries, and made his own s. "pass 
through fire" (2 K. i6. :t ). The "chariots of the sun" 
and the " altars on the roof of the chamber of A." were 
prob. introduced by this monarch (2 K. 23. 11 "-). Re 
jecting the counsel of Isaiah (Is. y.f. ), with part of the temple 
treasures A. purchased the aid of Tiglath-pileser of Asyr. , 
who subdued Damascus and took possession of the E. terri 
tory of Isr. But when his enemies were rendered powerless, 
A. himself had to render homage to the conqueror in Damas 
cus (2 K. 16. "). The hist, is written in Ch. fm. another 
point of view, with many diffcs. in detail. 

AHAZ1A1I. (i) S. of Ahab and Jezebel, k. of 
Isr. Under him Moab rebelled against Isr. Suffer 
ing fm. a severe accident, he sent to Ekron to in 
quire of Baalzebub as to his fate. His messengers 
were intercepted by Elijah, who rebuked the idola 
trous mission, and announced the near death of the 
k. For A. s relations with the prophet, sec ELIJAH. 
He reigned for over a year (i K. 22. 51(r - ; 2 K. I.). 
(2) S. of Jehoram and Athaliah, k. of Judah (2 K. 
8. 24ff -). He is called Jehoahaz in 2 Ch. 2i. 17 , &c., 
where the elements of the name arc simply trans 
posed, and Azariah in 2 Ch. 22. 6 , wh. is prob. an 
error for Ahaziah. A. went with his uncle, Joram of 
Isr., to war with Hazael of Syria, at Ramoth Gilead. 
Joram being wounded, they returned, Joram to 
Jezrcel and apparently A. to Jrs. A. went down to 
Jczrcel to visit Joram. Having seen his uncle slain 
by Jehu, he fled, but was wounded, and died at 
Mcgiddo. He was carried to Jrs., and " buried with 
his frs." (2 K. 9 . lfr ). 

The Chronicler s act. is in many respects irrecon 
cilable with the foregoing (2 Ch. 2 1. 17 , 22. lff ). 

AHIAH, RY. AHIJAH, s. of Ahitub, grandson of 
Eli (i S. i-f. 3 ), u priest of the Lord in Shiloh." He 



went with Saul agst. the Phil., clad in priestly attire 
(i S. I.).. 3 18 ). He was prob. identl. with Ahimelech, 
who succoured David at Nob (i S. 2i. lff -). Doeg the 
Edomite saw and reported to Saul what A. had done. 
This brought destruction upon the priests and upon 
the whole community at Nob, Abiathar alone of the 
house of A. making good his escape (i S. 22. 9ff -). 

AHIJAH, the Shilonite prophet who, by the fig. 
of the torn garment, foretells to Jeroboam the dis 
ruption of the kdm., and the falling away of the ten 
tribes to him (i K. II. 29 ). Long afterwards, answer 
ing the appeal of Jeroboam s w., he announced the 
approaching death of his s. Abijah, and the destruc 
tion of his house (i K. i4- lff O- The record of " the 
acts of Solomon," " in the prophecy of A. the Shilo 
nite " (2 Ch. 9- 29 ), unhappily has perished. 

Men of the same name are mentioned in I K. 4.-*, 

1 v 27 the fr. of Baasha, k. of Isr. I Ch. 2. 25 , 8. 7 , 
II. 36 , 26. - ; Ne. IO. 26 . 

AHIKAM, s. of Shaphan and fr. of Gedaliah, was 
sent with other three to inquire at HULDAH the 
prophetess regarding the " bk. of the law " found 
in the Temple (2 K. 22. 12 ). He succoured the 
prophet Jeremiah when threatened with death at 
the hands of the people (Jr. 26. 24 ). 

AHIMAAZ, "my br. is wrath." (i) S. of 
Zadok, a notable runner in his day, who acted as 
Hushai s messenger, along with Abiathar, informing 
David of Absalom s plans, and once at least en 
countered grave peril. He outran the Cushite in 
carrying to David news of Absalom s defeat (2 S. 
15., 17., 1 8.). (2) Fr. of Saul s w. Ahinoam (i S. 
i|. 50 ). (3) One of Solomon s 12 officers, whose 
station was in Naphtali, who provided victual for 
the k., &c. His rank may be inferred fm. the fact 
that he married the k. s dr. (i K. 4- 10 ). 

AHIMELECH. (i) = AHIAH. (2) A Hittite 
follower of David (i S. 26. 6 ). 

AHINOAM, " my br. is pleasantness." (i) W. of 
Saul, dr. of Ahimaaz. (2) A. of Jezreel, w. of 
David, who accompanied him in his wanderings, and 
was mr. of Amnon, his firstborn (i S. 25. 43 , 27. 3ff - ; 

2 S. 3 . 2 ). 

AHIO, s. of Abinadab and br. of Uzzah, who 
perished for touching the Ark (2 S. 6. 3 ). Two Ben- 
jamites also bear this name, sons of Beriah and of 
jehiel respectively (i Ch. 8. 14 - 31 ). LXX takes all 
these as common nouns, translating " brother " and 
" brothers." As the words are consonantally the 
same, poss. A. shd. not be taken as a proper name. 

AHITHOPHEL, " my br. is folly," an extremely 
able but unprincipled counsellor of David, who 
took the part of Absalom in his rebellion (2 S. 
i5. -- 31ff -, i6. 15ff -, 17.). 

Absalom followed his advice in the matter of the royal 
harim, making absolute the breach with David. But his 
further counsel of instant and strenuous pursuit was discarded 
in favour of Hushai s. A., seeing the one chance of success 
thrown away, went home to Giloh and hanged himself. 



Ahi 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ale 



A. would appear to have been the grandfr. of 
Bathsheba. It has been suggd. that displeasure with 
David s conduct in relation to her may have caused 
his alienation. 

AHITUB, " br. is goodness." (i) S. of Phine- 
has, grandson of Eli, and fr. of Ahiah, or Ahimelech 
(i S. I4- 3 ). (2) Fr. (2 S. 8. 17 ; I Ch. l8. 16 ) or grandfr. 
(I Ch. 9- 11 ; Ne. II. 11 ) of Zadok the priest. Poss. 
2 S. 8. 1 " shd. read " Zadok and Abiathar, the s. of 
Ahimelech, the s. of A." The name also occurs in 
I Ch. 6. 1U ; i Es. 8. 2 ; 2 Es. i. 1 ; Jth. 8. 1 . 

AHLAB, a city of Asher (Jg. I. 31 ), poss. on the 
site of Gush Halab, the Gischala of Jos., Fit. 10. ; 
BJ. IV. ii. iff., the mod. el-Jisb, cp. Relandi Palces- 
tina, p. 8l2f. 

AHOLAH, AHOLIBAH. See OHOLAH, OHOLI- 

BAII. 

AHOLIBAMAH, RV. OHOLIBAMAH, dr. of 
Anah, of Hivite descent, w. of Esau (Gn. 36. 2 ). 

AI, " a heap " or " ruin " (Gn. I2. 8 , I3. 3 , AY. 
Hai; Jo. 7.2- 5 , &c. ; Ne. II. 31 , Aija ; Is. IO. 28 , 
Aiath ; in Jr. 49. 3 read " Ar "), was taken by Isr. 
and reduced to a heap. It appears as inhabited 
after the exile (Ez. 2. 28 ; Ne. J. 32 ). A. lay beside 
Beth Aven, on the E. side of Bethel (Jo. J. 2 ). 
Valleys on the N. and W. made it easy of defence. 
The site prob. corrspds. with that of Khirbet 
Haiyan, near et-Tell, fully 2 miles E. of Bethel, 
on the road to Jericho. 

AIJALON, AJALON, "place of deer" (Jo. 
io. 12 , &c.). (i) A town assigned to Dan, but not 
possessed by them (Jo. ig. 42 ; Jg. I. 35 ). It was forti 
fied by Rehoboam, and later was taken by the Phil. 
(z Ch. ii. 10 , 28. 18 ). The name Aialuna occurs in 
the Tell el Amarna letters. It is identd. with Talo, 
on the Jrs. road, about 2 Rm. miles fm. Emmaus 
Nicopolis (OEJ.) and 14 miles fm. Jrs. (2) A. 
in Zebulun (Jg. I2. 12 ) is not identd. 

AIN, " eye " or " spring," is the first part of 
many place names in Scrip, (i) Near the E. border 
of Isr., W. of Riblah (Nu. 34- 11 ), poss. el- din, near 
Ain el- Asy, the source of the Orontes. (2) A 
town assigned to Judah (Jo. I5- 32 ), and again to 
Simeon (Jo. I9- 7 ), where, instead of Ain and 
Rimmon, we shd. prob. read " En Rimmon." This 
may be identd. with Umm tr-Ramamln, N. of Beer- 
stieba, near wh. is Bir Kbuelfa, a copious spring 
with considerable ruins. 

AIR. The atmosphere was supposed to be the 
abode of evil spirits ; hence Satan is called " the 
prince of the power of the air " (Eph. 2. 2 ). Poss. 
this is connected with the fact that in Heb., ruab, 
" spirit," also meant " wind," a connection present 
also in Gr. The Zoroastrian idea was that tempests 
came fm. Angro-Mangyas Ahriman, the personi 
fied principle of evil. 

AKRABBIM, ASCENT OF, " ascent of scorpions," 
or " mountain path " (Guthe), mentioned on the 




S. border of Isr. (Nu. 34. 4 ; Jo. iq. 3 ), and on the 
border of the Amorites (Jg. I. 36 ), is prob. the ascent 
by H ady el-Fiqra, whence the passes Naqb es-Sufa, 
Naqb el-Temen, and Naqb el-Gharb, open towards 
Pal. to the SW. of the Dead Sea. 

ALABASTER, a translucent limestone, of fine 
texture, used for making 
vases in wh. unguents were 
kept (Mw. 26. 7 ; Mk. I4 3 ; 
Lk. 7. 37 ). 

ALAMMELECH, RV. 
ALLAMMELECH, a place 
inAsher (Jo. I9. 26 ). Perhaps 
the name lingers in Wady el- 
j\lelek, a tributary of the 
Kishon, near Haifa. 

ALEXANDER, (i) THE 
GREAT, s. and successor of 
Philip, k. of Macedon ; born 
B.C. 356. When he was 20 
he mounted the throne on 

the assassination of his fr. ; ALABASTER VASE (Assyrian) 

within a yr. he had conquered Illyria and Greece, 
and was elected to the leadership in the war agst. 
Persia. In the following yr., B.C. 334, he crossed 
the Hellespont with an army of 34,000 men, and, 
winning the battle of the Granicus, placed all 
Asia Minor under his feet. After a time spent in 
gathering the fruits of his victory, in B.C. 333, he 
encountered, at Issus, Darius, who had placed him 
self at the head of an army of something like half a 
million. Darius and his force were scattered like 
chaff. A. did not pursue Darius but turned S. to 
the conquest of Egp. and Syria. These conquests 
accomplished, he now marched agst. Darius, who 
had assembled a yet huger army than that wh. had 
been overthrown at Issus. The armies met at 
Arbela, when again the Persian host fled. From 
this A. carried his arms to Samarkand in Central 
Asia and to the banks of the Sutlej in India. As his 
troops wd. follow no further he returned to Bab. 
and was endeavouring to organise his huge empire 
when he was struck with fever, and died at the early 
age of 33, after a reign of 13 yrs. No military 
conqueror ever left so deep an impress on the 
hist, of the world as did A. The whole of S.W. 
Asia was Hellenised ; philosophers fm. beyond the 
Euphrates taught in the schools of Athens. See 
DANIEL. (2) S. of Simon of Cyrene (Mk. i^. 21 ). 

(3) Poss. the Alabarch of the Alexandrian Jews, br. 
of Philo, associated with the high priest (Ac. 4_ 6 ). 

(4) A prominent Jew in Ephesus, put forward by 
the Jews as their apologist (Ac. ig. 33 ). (5) Prob. a 
Jewish Christian who, with Hymenseus, had fallen 
into error (i Tm. I. 20 ). (6) A coppersmith (metal 
worker) who opposed Paul, to the deep resentment 
of the latter (2 Tm. 4- 14> 15 ). It is poss., but hardly 
prob., that the last three refcs. are to the same man. 



Ale 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



All 



ALEXANDRIA, the largest Hellenic city in the 
Roman Empire. It was founded by Alexander the 
Great, 332 B.C., on the strip of land vvh. separates 
the lake Mareotis fm. the Mediterranean. It had a 
large population of various nationalities. Diod. 
Siculus (XVII. >2) declares that it " excels all other 
cities in population, having thirty myriads of free 
citizen?." The Jewish colony was very large and in 
fluential ; it had its own magistrates, an Alabarch, 
and a Senate. Josephus claims that this Jewish 
colony was founded by Alex, himself ; it was certly. 
greatly increased by Ptolemy Soter. A. was the 



Its population now is 



to unite it with the Nile. 
nearly 400,000. 

Alexandrians. One of the classes that disputed with 
Stephen (Ac. 6. n ). "Synagogue" in this passage prob. 
means community," as the number of A. resident in |rs. 
was prob. too great to be accommodated in one Synagogue. 
In Safed in Galilee the Jewish community is divided into 
several " congregations," each having its own officials, and 
possessing more or fewer Synagogues accdg. to their numbers. 
These are named after the nationalities fm. vvh. they have 
conn 1 . A similar arrangement prob. held in Jrs. in the days 
of the Apostles. 

ALGUM (2Ch.2. 8 ,9. l() ) r ALMUG (i K. io. n ), 

trees. The terms clearly indicate the same tree. 




ALEXANDRIA 



centre of Hellenic thought and learning, and the 
Jewish colony became thoroughly Hellenised. It 
was for their benefit that the Septuagint translation 
was made. Fm. the works of Philo we learn the 
extent to wh. the Jews of A. were influenced by the 
" wisdom of the Greeks." It was fm. his Alex 
andrian culture that Apollos gained such influence 
over the Corinthian believers. A. was the chief 
business city in the Roman Empire. Ships of 
Alexandria were constantly engaged conveying 
grain to Rome ; so the ship in wh. Paul suffered 
shipwreck was a ship of A., as also that by wh. he was 
conveyed fm. Malta to Italy. 

A. was reduced to insignificance during the 
middle ages, but was restored to importance by 
Mehemet Aly, who made the Mahmoudiyeh canal. 



It was brought fm. Ophir, and also fm. Lebanon. 
Dr. Post (HDB. s.v.) points out that the same name 
in different districts int. signify difft. trees. But, 
lacking definite kge. of where Ophir was, and what 
tree is meant, we have no reason to think it cd. not 
grow in both districts. Many idents. have been 
suggd., the most genly. favoured being with red 
sandal wood. No cert, decision is poss. 

ALLEGORY, a prolonged parable. A parable is 
an incident, whereas an A. is a hist. Bunyan s 
" Pilgrim s Progress " is a classic example of an A. 
St. Paul regards patriarchal hist, as an A. (Gal. 4- 24 )- 

ALLEMETH, AV. ALEMETH (i Ch. 6. co ; 
}o. 2 1. 18 , Almon). A city assigned to the sons of 
Aaron in Benjamin. It is identd. with Almit, N. of 
Anathoth. 



16 



Aim 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Alt 



ALMO1>AD, s. of Joktan (Gn. io. 26 ; I Ch. I. 20 ). 
Prob. an Arb. tribe, district, or town is intended, 
but no identn. is poss. at present. 

ALMOND, shdqedh, " waker," " so called because 
of all trees it is the first to awake fm. the sleep of 
winter " (Ges., Lex). The tree is mentioned in 
EC. I2. 5 ; Jr. I. 11 ; and Gn. 3O. 37 ; in the last case 
the name is luz (AV. wrongly " hazel "), the name 
(lauz) used in Arb. for tree and fruit. The fruit is 
referred to in Gn. 43- 11 , &c. 

The A. blossoms early in Jan. The flowers, are almost 
pure white, slightly tinged with pink. It is a most beautiful 
feature in the landscape, heralding the coming spring. The 
fruit begins to form in Feb., and in March the foliage is 
complete. " The almond tree shall flourish," compares the 
white hair of age to the blossoms on the yet leafless A. tree 
(Ec. 12. 5 ). The delicate tint of pink is not apparent on a 
gen. view, so the objn. of Ges. (Heb. Lex. s.v.) falls to the 
ground. 

The A., Amygdalus communis, order Rosace<s, sub-order 
Amvgdalete, is indigenous in Pal. The trees range fm. 
12 to 15 ft. in height, with irregular branches. The leaves 
are long, ovate, serrate, acute. The flowers, wh. come 
before the leaves, are set in pairs, the blossom being over an 
inch wide. In April and May the fruit, a firm green pod, 
fm. 2 to 3 in. long, and about ^ n - thick, is largely eaten. 
Soon, however, the shell hardens, the succulent covering dries 
round it, and the kernel matures. The A. is esteemed a great 
dainty in the E., and is used in preparing many popular 
dishes. 

Four varieties of A. are found wild on the mountains, both 
E. and \V. of Jordan. They do not attain the size of the culti 
vated A., and their fruit is small and bitter. 

The A. does not seem to have been found in anct. Egp. 
{Gn. 43- 11 )- The beauty of its blossoms was early appreci 
ated by emancipated Isr. , and the cups for the golden candle 
stick were modelled on its flowers (Ex. 25. 32 ). 

ALAISGIVING. To sympathise with the un 
fortunate, to relieve poverty and distress, was re 
garded as a duty in Isr. (Dt. I5. 7ff )> and A. was a 
distinguishing mark of the righteous man (Ps. 1 12. 9 ; 
Lk. I9- 8 ). So closely were A. and righteousness as 
sociated in the people s mind, that the one word 
tzedaqa came to be used for both. It is just poss. 
that the sense of A. is present in Pr. io. 2 , as in Dn. 
4. 27 . Certainly in To. 4. 7ff , where A. " delivers fm. 
death," and Sr. 3. 30 , where A. " makes atonement 
for sins," A. and righteousness are identd. 

Jesus Christ takes it for granted that a righteous 
man, or one who desires to be thought so, will do 
alms (Mw. 6. lff- ). All He does is to warn agst. im 
proper motives. He expects His followers to be mind 
ful of the poor (Lk. II. 41 , I2. 33 ). Peter and John 
acknowledged the claim of the unfortunate man at 
the temple gate for help (Ac. 3. 6 ) ; one of the first 
acts of the infant Church was to arrange for the 
assistance of the needy (Ac. 4. 32ff -, 6. lff -) ; the A. of 
Cornelius attests his high char. (Ac. g. 36 , &c.) ; and 
throughout NT., A. is regarded as evidence of the 
right Christian disposition (Mw. io. 8 ; Lk. 6. 30 ; 
Ac. 24. 17 ; Js. 2. 6 , &c.). " It is more blessed to give 
than to receive," said Jesus ; and His own deeds 
(Mw. i4. 15ff - ; Mk. 8. lff -, &c.) may be taken as illus 
trating the spt., at least, wh. shd. characterise His 
followers. 



The usage in the E. to this day tends to ident. A. with 
righteousness. The word Sadaqdh means "alms given to 
the poor for the sake of God." Beggars whcse ranks are 
perpetually recruited by the victims of disease and misfortune, 
appeal for help ever in the name of God. No one ever re 
fuses directly. If a man have nothing to bestow, or have 
not the will, he will piously respond, " God will give to you." 
The gen. recognition of the duty to relieve the needy is em 
bodied in the Arb. proverb, " He who has a loaf is debtor to 
him who has none." Among the religious a reputation for 
liberality in A. is greatly coveted. But "Oriental benevo 
lence has no thought of attacking the cause of poverty. . . . 
A. is a current act. with Gcd " (Mackie, Bible Manners and 
Customs, p. I45f.). 

ALOES. The A. of Scrip, must be distinguished 
fm. the A. of mod. medicine, to wh. they are in no 
way related. In four places where they are men 
tioned ( abalim, Pr. y. 17 ; abdl5th, Ps. 45.8, SS. 4." ; 
dAcn;, Jn. ig. 39 ), a fragrant substance is intended, 
employed to give a pleasant perfume to the clothes, 
the bed, &c., and mingled with the spices in wh. the 
dead were wrapped. There is no certy. as to whence 
it was derived. Abdullah ibn Sina Avicenna an 
Arb. physician, born A.D. 986, says it was obtained 
fm. the tree known to the Arabs as ud, wh. is identd. 
with Aquilaria Agallochia, a native of N. India, wh. 
supplies the wood-A. of commerce. The aromatic 
qualities of the wood, it appears, are set free only in 
the process of decay ; therefore to secure the per 
fume it is often buried for a time. 

There is no evidence that this tree, wh. in its native 
conditions attains splendid dimensions, ever grew in Pal. ; 
although it is poss. that it once flourished in the Jordan 
Valley. The context in Nu. 24.6 makes it imposs. to read 
Ohallm, "tents" (as LXX), but what trees Balaam alludes 
to we canm.t be sure. The same name does net always mean 
the same tree in difft. countries. He may have intended some 
tree of luxuriant growth, familiar to him in Mesopotamia. 
But even this was not necessary, as he refers to the cedar, 
wh., although well known, had prob. never been seen either 
by Balaam or those whom he addressed. 

ALPHA and OMEGA, the first and last letters of 
the Greek alphabet, taken to signify " the first and 
the last" (Rv. I. 8 , 21. 6 , 22. 13 ), the idea also ex 
pressed in Is. 44- 6 . The Heb. equivalent is "Aleph 
and Tau." 

ALPHAEUS. (i) Fr. of Matthew (Levi). 
(2) Fr. of James the Less, the apostle. Whether he 
is to be identd. with Cleopas or Clopas has been 
much debated. See CLEOPAS, CLOPAS. 

ALTAR, mostly Heb. mizbeah, " place of sacri 
fice," Gr. thusiasterion (madbab, Ez. y. 17 , Aram. ; 
har cl, RV " upper altar," Ek. 43. 15 ; \ir7el, Qri 
arTel, RV. " altar hearth." Shiilhan is = mizbeab in 
Ek. 41. 22 , Ml. I. 7 , and obviously also in Ek. 44- 16 . 
Bamah in Jr. y. 31 (lit. " high place," LXX bomoi) is 
prob. = A. Lebemm in Is. 65- 3 shd. be rendered 
with RV. "upon bricks." Mizbeab (Gn. .p. 20 ) 
shd. prob. read matztzebab. Komos (Ac. iy. 25 ) is 
an A. to a heathen deity : cp. I M. I. 59 ). 

The polytheism of the anct. Semites associated a 
deity with every obj. and place of importance, and 
offerings were made to the god where he dwelt, in 
stream or well, on hill top or tree. Then it came to 



Alt 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ama 



be believed that the deity wd. enter a structure or 
stone set up for him, and this was regarded as the 
residence of the god Beth-el (Gn. 28. 18 ). At first 
the PILLAR must have served as A., the blood of the 
victim or oil of offering being poured or smeared 
over it (.w SACRIFICE). The A., as distinguished 
fm.the pillar matztzebah arose,perhaps,to meet 
the necessity for a hearth, when men felt that not 
the blood only, but also the flesh of the victim, shd. 
be offered to the deity in sacrifice. 

The JE. nars. record the building of many A.s in 
many places, and the offering of sacrifices thereon, 
by the first frs. of the race and other distinguished 
servants of J". : e.g. Gn. 8. 20 , 12. 7 , 22. !) , 26. 25 , 
i5- 7 , Ex. I/. 15 . This seems expressly authorised 
by Ex. 2O. 24 : " In every place where I record My 
name, I will come unto tliee and bless thec." It 
was a common practice up to the reign of Josiah 
(Jo. S. 30 ; Dt. 27.6 ; Jtr. 6. 24 ; I S. y. 17 , &c.). P., on 
the other hand, recognises only one A., the place of 
wh. is in the nation s central sanctuary. Other 
existing A.s are regarded as merely commemorative 
monuments (jo. 22. loff -). 

The A. mt. be a single sacrificial stone (Jg. 6. 20 , 
9., &c.). Genly. it was an erection of unhewn 
stones (Ex. 2O. 25 ; Dt. 2J. 5 ; I K. l8. 3()f -), or a 
mound of earth (Ex. 2O. 24 ). It shd. not be so high 
as to prevent one standing on the ground from 
handling the offerings. In later times importance 
was attached to more artistic bldg. of the A. (2 K. 
i6. 10 ). The prescription of unhewn stones (Dt. 
27. ; Jo. 8. 31 ) may be due to the influence of the 
primitive idea, that the deity dwelt in the stone, 




ASSYRIAN ALTAR 



and that his wrath mt. be incurred by breaking it. 
The action of Judas regarding the polluted A. 
(l M. 4 . 46 , cp. Tim. Middoth, I, 6) illustrates the 
reverence in wh. the A. was held. 

The flight of a fugitive to a temple meant an ap 



peal to the deity there worshipped for hospitality 
and protection. He natly. went to the A., as the 
spot par excellence where the god and his wor 
shippers met.* God s A. was an asylum for one who 
slew another by accident, but not for the deliberate 




ALTAR WITH STEPS : BAALBEK 

murderer (Ex. 2i. 13f -). The horns of the A., evi 
dently reckoned peculiarly holy (Lv. 4. 7 18 ), to wh. 
Adonijah and Joab clung, were projections at the 
corners, the origin and use of wh. are now unknown. 
Stade suggests that they are a reminiscence of the 
time when J". was worshipped under the form of a 
young bull. This, however, is a mere guess. 

For A. of burnt-offering and A. of incense, see 
TABERNACLE and TEMPLE. Lit. : Robertson Smith, 
RS. 1 by index ; Benzinger, HA. index ; Kennedy, 
HDB. s.v. 

AMALEK, AMALEKITES. A nation of pre 
datory nomads occupying the territory the Negeb 
extending fm. the S. of Pal. to Mt. Sinai, the 
triangle between the two arms of the Red Sea. The 
earliest notice of them we have is in Gn. 14. , where 
we are told that Chedorlaomer inflicted on them a 
disastrous defeat. When Isr. came out of Egypt 
they encountered A. at Rephidim, and, led by 
Joshua, defeated them. The report of the spies 
(Nu. I3- 29 ) implies that when they traversed the 
land A. possessed the S. of what was afterwards the 
territory of Judah. The Song of Deborah (Jg. 5- 14 ) 
seems to indicate that A. were allies of Sisera, and 
took advantage of his oppression of Galilee to carry 
their raids as far N. as the territory of Ephraim. 
The Mt. of the A. in wh. Abdon was buried prob. 
commemorated that raid and the destruction of A. 
there. On act. of their treacherous attack on Isr. 
near Sinai, by Divine command perpetual war was 
proclaimed against A. They seem to have lived by 
robbery, so the continued national existence of A. 
was a menace to civilisation. As anointed k. of Isr. 

* So the suppliant went to the hearth of the human 
benefactor whose aid he sought (C. Nepos, Vita 1 , II. 8). 



18 



Ama 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Amn 



SAUL was commissioned to destroy A. and made a 
campaign agst. them (I S. I5. 2ffi ). Despite the 
harrowing they had endured fm. Saul, while he was 
engaged with the Phil, they made a raid and cap 
tured ZIKLAG, carrying away the wives and families 
of DAVID and his troop (i S. 3O. lff -). He pursued 
them and annihilated the band. An A. came to 
David after the battle of Gilboa claiming to have 
killed Saul. After this A. disappears from hist. 

Prof. Cheynesays (EB. s.v. JERAHMKKI.) : " Amalek, the 
nanu is unintelligible ; the centre of the Amalekites must 
have been near to the Jerahmeelites. To admit the identn. 
of Amalek and Jerahmeel is in accordance with similar idents. , 
and throws bright light on many passages." This is hardly 
an argument. 

AMARIAH. (i) Fr. of Ahitub (i Ch. 6. 7 ). 
(2) A High Priest in the time of Solomon (i Ch. 
6. 11 ), poss. the same as the foregoing. (3) A Le- 
vite, desct. of Kohath (i Ch. 23. 19 , &c.). (4) A 
High Priest in the time of Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. I9- 11 ). 
(5) A Levite who, in the time of Hezekiah, received 
and distributed among his brethren the free-will 
offerings (2 Ch. 31. 15 ). (6) One of those who mar 
ried strange wives (Ez. io. 42 ). (7) A priest who 
signed the covenant with Nehemiah (Ne. io. 3 , &c.). 
(8) One of the descts. of Perez, s. of Judah, who 
dwelt in Jrs. after the exile (Ne. II. 4 ). (9) An an 
cestor of the prophet Zephaniah (Zp. I. 1 ). 

AMASA," burden." (l)S.of the Ishmaelite Ithra 
and Abigail, sr. of David. He corrfmanded Absa 
lom s army (2 S. I/. 25 ). After his defeat by Joab he 
submitted to David and was appointed commander- 
in-chief, displacing Joab (z S. I9- 13 ). Joab treacher 
ously slew him at " the great stone of Gideon " 
(2 S . 20. 9ff -). (2) An Ephraimite (2 Ch. 2 8. 12 ). 

AMAZIAH, s. and successor of Jehoash, k. of 
Judah, in the beginning of the 8th cent. B.C. He 
avenged his fr. s murder (2 K. \\~> ; 2 Ch. 25. 3 ). 
He marched agst. the Edomites, exciting the anger 
of Ephraim, accdg. to the Chronicler, by rejecting 
their offer of help, and gained a great victory in the 
Valley of Salt. He captured Sela, or Petra (?), and 
took away much spoil. Puffed up by his success, he 
challenged Jehoahaz, k. of Isr., to battle. Despite 
that monarch s desire to put him off, enraged poss. 
by the contemptuous parable of the thistle and the 
cedar, A. persisted, met Jehoahaz at Bethshemesh, 
and was overwhelmingly defeated. The conqueror 
took Jrs., broke down part of the wall, and carried 
away much plunder. A conspiracy was formed agst. 
A. and he was slain at Lachish, whither he had fled, 
having reigned perhaps 29 years. 

AMBER, a fossil resin (Ek. I. 4 - 27 , g. 2 ). RVm. 
gives " electrum " (gold alloyed with silver), prob. 
correctly, for Heb. hashmal. LXX renders " elec 
tron," a word wh. may mean either the resin or the 
metal. 

AMETHYST, the ninth gem on the High 
Priest s breast-plate (Ex. 28. 19 ), the twelfth founda 



tion of the New Jrs. (Rv. 21. 20 ). It is a purple- 
coloured quartz crystal, and was believed to possess 
the power of preventing drunkenness hence the 
name in Gr. 

AMMON, AMMONITES, Vine Amman, " sons 
of A.," a people whose land lay between the Jabbok 
and the Arnon, E. of Jordan. The Amorites under 
Sihon had driven the A. back fm. the Jordan, fm. 
20 to 30 miles, and made Heshbon the capital 
of the conquered territory (Jg. u. 12ff -). Informer 
times the whole Ammonite land had been held by 
the giant Zamzummim, to wh. race prob. Og 
belonged (Dt. 2. 20 , 3. 11 ). 

Whether the act. given of their origin (Gn. ig. 38 ) 
be taken as literal hist., or as a myth wrought under 
the influence of the hostility of later days, their 
descent with Isr. fm. one parent stock is ackged. ; 
and this is confirmed by the forms of their personal 
and place names wh. are preserved to us. 

The strong positions behind wh. they retired 
secured the A. agst. further encroachment by the 
Amorites ; and when Isr. came, by divine direction, 
they left the A. untouched (Nu. 2I. 24 ; Dt. 2. 19 - 37 ). 

The A. appear as enemies of Isr. in Jg. 3. 13ff- , io. 7ff -, 
and are overthrown by Jephthah (n. 33 ). Saul de 
feated Nahash, the A. k., and frustrated his attempt 
to take Jabesh Gilead (i S. II.). Nahash became a 
friend of David ; but his s. Hanun shamefully en 
treated the messengers sent by David to condole 
with him on his fr. s death. David and Joab de 
feated the A. ; after a long siege their capital, 
Rabbath A., was taken, and on its inhabitants 
terrible vengeance was inflicted (2 S. io. lff -, II. 1 , 
I2. 26ff -). Solomon built a high place for Milcom, 
the god of the A. (i K. 1 1. 5 - 35 ). 2 Ch. 20. gives an 
act. of an uprising of A. and other foes agst. Judah 
in the days of Jehoshaphat, when, excited by mutual 
suspicions, the enemy turned agst. each other, to 
their utter destruction, Judah being a mere spec 
tator of the battle. Tribute was paid by A. to 
Uzziah (2 Ch. 26. 8 ) and also to Jotham (2 Ch. 

2 7 . 5 ). 

For their unspeakable cruelty, and their malicious joy in 
Isr. s misfortunes, the prophets heap reproach and threaten 
ing upon them (Jr. g. 26 , 25.2!, ay. 3 ; Ek. 21. w(l -, 25. ar - ; Am. 
i. 13 ; Zp. a. 8 ). Along \\iththeChaldeans and others, the A. 
oppressed Judah in the time cf Jehoiakim (2 K. 24. -). In 
later days Baalis, k. of A., envious prob. of the prosperity 
cf Judah under Gedaliah, sent Ishmael, a scion of Judah s 
royal house, to assassinate that unsuspicious governor (2 K. 
2=;. 22ff - ; Jr. 40. u , 4i. lff -). The A. furnished fresh evidence 
of their enmity to Judah in the days of Xehsmiah (NV. 4- 7ff -). 
They had not changed in the days of Judas Maccabaeus, 
who subjected them to humiliating defeat (i M. 5- lff -). Krn. 
B.C. 64 until A.D. 150 the A. rank as considerable in number ; 
but fm. the 3rd cent, they are heard tf no more. 

For the relg. of the A., see MOLECH, MILCOM. 

AMNON. (i) Eldest s. of David and Ahinoam 
(2 S. 3- 2 ). In revenge of his outrage upon his half 
sr.,Tamar, he was slain by her br. Absalom (2 S. 13.). 
Absalom calls him Aminon (2 S. I3- 20 , Heb.), poss. 



Amo 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Amo 



a diminutive used in contempt ; or it may be a 
scribal error. (2) S. of Shimon (l Ch. 4.-). 

AMOX. (i) S. of Manassch and Meshullcmcth 
(2 K. 2i. 19 ; 2 Ch. 33- 21 ), k. of Judah c. 643-642. 
All that is known with certy. of him is that he fol 
lowed the idolatries of his fr., and even exceeded 
them. He was slain by conspirators among his own 
servants, and buried in his tomb in the garden of 
Uzza. His murder, however, was avenged by the 
people of the land, wh. seems to show that, in spite 
of his religious declension, he had won the regard of 
the common people. The succession was secured 
for his s. Josiah. (2) A governor of Samaria (i K. 
22. - 6 ; 2 Ch. l8. 25 ). (3) One of the " children of 
Solomon s servants " (Ne. 7. 59 = Ami, Ez. 2. 57 ). 

AMORITES. The name mt. poss. mean " the 
people of the summits," or " highlanders," but this 
is not cert. It is not applied to any single people in 
Scrip. In 2 S. 2 1. 2 A. stands for Cans, genly. The 
Hivites are A. (Gn. 34- 2 , cp. 48., &c.) ; so arc the 
[ebusites (Jo. i;. 63 , &c., cp. io. 5f ), and the Hittitcs 
(Gn. 23., cp. 14. 13 ). Again, these peoples seem to 
be distinct (Xu. 13. "), "the Jebusites, and the 
Hittitcs, and the A. dwell in the mountains." Og 
and Sihon are both A. ks. (Dt. 3i. 4 ). Og ruled in 
Bashan, while the A. under Sihon thrust the AMMO 
NITES E ward fm. the Jordan, and held a breadth of 
fm. 20 to 30 miles of the land between the three 
rivers, Arnon, Jordan, and Jabbok. In early times 
the A. possessed territory SAV. of the Dead Sea 
(Gn. I 4 . 7 ; Dt. i. 7 44 ). 

The A. are mentioned in Bab., Asyr., and Egpn. 
inscrs. As early as B.C. 3800 Pal. and Syria were 
called " the land of the A." by the Bab., and on the 
Egpn. monuments of the 1 5th cent, this name is 
applied to X. Pal. There are several refcs. to the 
A. in the Tell el Amarna tablets ; but the informa 
tion we at present possess leaves us greatly in the 
dark regarding both the people and their hist. 

Lit. : Saycc, The Jl kiie Race of Ancient Ptil., in 
Expositor, July 1888 ; Races of ike OT. (1891); 
Tomkins, Journal of the Anthropological lust., xviii. 
3. p. 224. 

AMOS, the third of the Minor Prophets in the 
Hcb., the second in LXX, was a herdsman of TEKOA. 
Em. the word used for " herdsman " it is inferred 
that he tended a special breed of sheep. He seems 
to have had an orchard of sycamores, a kind of 
coarse fig. As Tekoa was on a height, the orchard 
was prob. in one of the wadies leading down to the 
Dead Sea. He is summoned to his office without 
any preliminary training in the prophetic schools, 
and sent to prophesy agst. the X. Kdm., esp. agst. 
Bethel. He is one of the earliest of the literary 
prophets. A. s activity was during the reign of 
Jeroboam II. (790-759). 

The bk. may be divided into three sections : 
(i) A series of denunciations (chaps. I. and 2.) of 



diflft. countries for specific crimes, ending with 
Judah and Isr. The symmetrical arrangement of 
these denunciations gives the section something of 
the solemnity of a sentence of doom. (2) An address 
to Isr., rebuking their idolatry at Bethel and Gilgal, 
denouncing their hypocrisy, luxury, and oppression 
of their brethren (3. -6.). This section is full of 
striking passages, e.g. 6. 4 " 13 , in wh. there is a delicate 
refrain. (3) A succession of visions wh. formed 
parabolic occasions for prophetic discourse. 

The text of A. is fairly correct ; the diffcs. be 
tween LXX and MT. are unimportant, and are all 
due to similarities of letters in sound or appearance, 
e.g. Raiphan (Remphan, Ac. y. 42 ) and Chiun. The 
confusion may be at once explained by refc. to the 
plate of Alphabets in Jiv. Enc. i. 449. Some critics 
Cheyne, Marti assert that there are interpola 
tions ; but their conclusions are deduced solely fm. 
their ideas of the scope and limitations of the pro 
phet, and are therefore valueless. 

The style of A. is accurate and rhythmic : the 
illustrations are drawn mainly fm. pastoral and 
agricultural life. 

The authenticity of A. has rarely been denied. 
Havet s arguments practically amount to this : the 
state of society revealed by the prophecy wd. suit 
the days of John Hyrcanus, therefore it was 
written then. It may be enough to say it wd. also 
suit France in^he days of Xapoleon III. 

A. s refcs. to the Pentateuch are of importance. 
Their reality is admitted to some extent by Dr. 
Driver (SDB. j.t-.). He restricts them, however, 
(i) to the Law of Holiness, so far as ceremonial is 
concerned, and hints (2) that the histl. refcs. may be 
due to tradition. As to (i) the directions for the 
offering of the " sacrifice of thanksgiving," todak, 
arc found in Lv. 7- 12 " 15 , part of P. The denuncia 
tions of the falsity of the worship at Bethel (4- 4 ), 
imply a kge. of the Deuteronomic Law on the part, 
not only of the prophet, but also of his audience. 
The word koq, rendered " commandment " (2. 4 ), is 
a favourite term with the Deuteronomist, esp. con 
nected with shamar, " to keep." As regards (2) the 
word bapak, used in refc. to the destruction of 
Sodom and Gomorrah, it has the sense " to over 
throw " very rarely, except in relation to these 
cities. A. uses it here, although in all other cases he 
takes it in its more usual significance, * to turn." 
This implies a written source. We have only given 
a selection of instances wh., in their cumulative 
effect, make it morally cert, that A. had the Penta 
teuch nearly complete. Of course, as Dr. Driver 
says, the evidence is not demonstrative ; but histl. 
evidence never can be. 

The relation of A. to Joel is interesting. Two 
striking phrases they have in common : " The Lord 
shall roar out of Zion, and utter His voice from Jrs." 
(Am. i. 2 ; Jl. 3- 16 ) ; "The mountains shall drop 



Amp 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Amu 



with new wine " (Am. g. 13 ; Jl. 3- 18 ). In each case 
the phrase is peculiar. Both prophets refer to the 
" day of the Lord," but to difft. aspects. Wh. is 
the earlier we shall discuss under JOEL. 

Messrs. Day andChapin, in the Amer. Jour. ofSem. Lang. , 
Jan. 1902, maintain that the prophecy of A. is post-Exilic, (i) 
Because it is a unity, and many passages are regarded as 
late by Cheyne, Taylor, and G. A. Smith. If the correctness 
of these critical decisions is denied, this argument falls to the 
ground. It is for these critics to show how they escape D. 
and C. s argument from homogeneity of style and unity cf 
structure. (2) Because it is too sublime to be pre-Exilic. 
But in many Lits. the earliest writings are the most sublime. 
Homer is not denied sublimity, nor Dante. If it is denied 
that Job and Jcel are post-Exilic, this argument also falls to 
the ground. (3) Because the lang. is late. As the writers 
deny that the Song of Deborah is early, and point out nobk. 
or portion of a bk. wh. they consider early, one suspects that 
they regard all Heb. Lit. as post-Exilic. But perhaps their 
argument is intended to be a reductio ad absurdiiin. 

AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Macedonia, on the E. 
side of the Strymon. A loop of the river almost sur 
rounds the city ; hence the name, Amphi-polis. 
Founded as a colony by the Athenians in B.C. 436, it 
was captured by Brasidas, B.C. 424. In an attack 
led by Cleon for its recovery, both Cleon and 
Brasidas perished. Here, after the battle of Pydna, 




COIN OF AMPHIPOLIS 

Paulus ^Emilius declared the Macedonians free. 
Paul visited A. on his second Missionary Journey 
(Ac. ly. 1 ), another Paulus, declaring a nobler free 
dom. The mod. vill. Neocbori occupies the anct. 
site. 

AMPLIAS (AV.), AMPLIATUS (RV.), is saluted 
by Paul as " my beloved in the Lord " (Rm. l6. 8 ). 
The name occurs in the Catacomb of Domitilla ; 
poss. this A. is buried there. 

AMRAM. (i) S. (descendant) of Kohath, s. of 
Levi (Ex. 6. 18 20 ), married his fr. s sr. (kinswoman) 
Jochebed. He was fr. of Miriam, Aaron, and Moses, 
and poss. headman of his tribe. (2) S. of Dishan 
(i Ch. i. 41 , RV. " Hamran " ; Gn. tf. 26 , " Hem- 
dan "). Aniramites, a branch of the Levite family 
of Kohath, who traced their descent from Arnram. 

AMRAPHEL (Gn. I4. lf -), k. of Shinar, confede 
rate with CHEDARLAOMER, ARIOCH, and TIDAL. A. 
has been identd. with Hammurabi, the sixth mon 
arch of a dyn. reigning in Bab. A series of tablets 
deciphered by Dr. Pinches appears to prove these 
ks. to have been contemporaries. A. had been sub 
ject to Arioch (Eri-aku, otherwise Rim-Sin), who 
was an Elamite vassal k. of Ellasar (Larsa), but estab 
lished his own dominion by the overthrow of the 
Elamite power and proclaimed himself " k. of the 



four regions, k. of Shumir and Accad." His revolt 
agst. the Elamites was prob. synchronous with the 
overthrow of Chedarlaomcr 
by Abraham at Damascus. 

Interest in A. has been in 
creased by the discovery at Per- 
sepolis of "a block of black 
diorite about 2.25 metres high, 
tapering from 1.90 to 1.65 in 
circumference" (Johns, Bab. and 
Asyr. Cont., p. 14), inscribed 
with the Code of Hammurabi. 
A portion of the writing has 
been obliterated, but nine-tenths 
cfit have been preservedamount- 
ing to 3600 lines. A collection of 
letters to and from A. have also 
been found. All these things 
unite to make A. the best known 
potentate in that Millennium. 

AMULETS (Is. 3. 20 , 
RV.) are objs. carried or 
worn about the person to 
protect the bearer fm. evil. 
Thus, among the Arabs a 
blue bead strung on the 
hair of a boy, or knotted in 
the mane or tail of a horse, 
is thought a sure protection 
agst. the . lalign influence 
of the "evil eye" (Mw. 
2O. 15 ). A bone fm. the 
vertebras of a wolf, worn 
on a string round the neck, 
is a cert, safeguard agst. 
consumption. 

The word lehashim (Is. 
3- 20 ) is derived fm. lahasb, 
wh. means "enchantments," 
and also " the objs. by wh. enchantment: 
averted." Jahn (Bib. Arch., par. 131) thinks 
were figs, of serpents carried in the hand by 
women, as Arab women, before Mohammad, 
golden serpents between their breasts. 




are 
these 
Heb. 
wore 




AMULET 
From A. Jcremias Das .4.7". iw Lichte ties Alien Orients- 

Benzinger (//-:/., p. 436) thinks that jewelry had, 
in the earliest times, a religious significance as amu 
lets (Ex. 1 1. 2 *; Ho. 2. 13 ; cp. Gn. 2 4 . 47 , 35 4 ). 
Poss. on this act. Gideon asked for the golden rings 



Ana 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



And 



taken as spoil I m. the Midianitcs (Jg. 8. 24 ). There 
also we find crescents with chains upon the camels 
necks, as well as crescents and pendants worn by 
the ks. (RV.). 

Phylacteries may have been sanctioned to take the place 
and discourage the use of A. (Dt. 6. 8 , n. lfl ), \\hilethe orna 
mentation on the High Priest s robe, pomegranates and bells 
(Ex. 28. :i;! , \c. K may have been originally in the nat. of 
amulets (Benzinger, //./., p. 428). \\ ith these \ve may com 
pare the mod. Arb. tilasiit and hijiib, words fm. the (Jof j an, 
or mystical sentences written on paper, sewn up iu cloth or 
leather, and worn on the person. Of the same nat. seem to 
have been the famous Ephesian Spells (Ac. 19. iy ), "small 
slips of parchment in silk bags, en wh. were written strange 
cabalistic words, of little or lost meaning . . . prob. a sur 
vival of the old Phrygian cultus of the powers of Nature." 

The lews were strong believers in A., and the Rabbis 
though 1 it worth while to give directions for their use, for 
both animals and men (Shabbath, f. 53. i, 61. i, 2 ; Git/in, f. 
67.21. Their use among the heathen v\ as widespread. Even 
the Christians at times us-ed the Gospels in this way (Jerome 
on Mw. 4.- 4 ). The council of Laodicea forbade their use. 

To this day protection is sought by means of A. in the E. , 
for cattle and other property, e.g. a house. A rough repre 
sentation of a hand, in white or in red, is a frequent sight on 
the walls, esp. of new houses. 

AXAB, a city of the Anakim taken by Joshua 
(i i.- 1 ) in the Judean hill country (I5- 20 ). It is the 
mod. Aiiah, S.\V. of Hebron. 

ANAHARATH, a city in Issachar (Jo. ig. 19 ), 
prob. the mod. En-Na urab, S.E. of Jebel ed-Duhy, 
the so-called Little Hermon. 

ANAK, the ancestor of the ANAKIM (Dt. 2. 10 ). 
Prob. really a common noun, " necklace " (SS. 4.), 
or even " neck " (cp. Arb. l unq, " neck," anaqa, " to 
embrace "). If this is so the name bene Anaq really 
meant " sons of the Xeck," i.e. " giants." They 
are also called descendants of AREA (Jo. I5- 13 , 2 1. 11 ). 
The term A. in Xu. I3. 33 is merely explanatory of 
" Nephilim." They inhabited HEBRON, wh. was 
called KIRIATH-ARBA. Three leaders of the Bene 
Anaq, Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talinai, were driven 
out by CALEB (Jo. I5- 14 ). After this they disappear 
from hist. 

AXAMMELECH, " Arm is prince " (Schrader, 
COT.- i. 276), a god of the Sepharvaim (2 K. IJ. 31 ). 
The rites of worship are the same as those of 
Molech, with whom perhaps the writer of K. meant 
to ident. the Bab. Anu, god of the sky (Barnes, 
UDH. j-.t 1 .). See ADRAMMELECH. 

AXAXIAH. (i) Fr. of Maaseiah, grandfr. of 
Azariah (Xe. 3. 23 ). (2) A town occupied by Ben- 
jamites after the exile, identd. with Beit Hantna, 
c. 4 miles X. of Jrs. 

ANANIAS (Hananiah, " J". is gracious."), (i) A 
member of the primitive Church in Jrs., who, having 
sold 3. piece of land, conspired with his w. SAPPHIRA 
to gain repute for generosity (see ALMSGIVING) by 
deceiving the brethren. On being exposed he fell 
down dead ; a like fate overtaking his w. (Ac. 5- 1 " 11 ). 
(2) The Damascene Christian who baptized Saul 
(Ac. 9. 10 17 ) ; while a Christian, apparently yet a 
devout Jew (22. 12 ). (3) High Priest, s. of Nede- 



baeus, president of the Sanhedrin at the trial of 
Paul (Ac. 23. 2ff -). When Paul had only begun his 
defence, A. commanded to smite him on the mouth. 
He was one of Paul s accusers before Felix. 

His elevation to the High P hood was due to the influence 
of Herod of Chalcis. He consistently supported the Herodian 
policy of submission to Rome. His s. Eleazar belonged to 
the fanatical party, and refusing, as governor of the Temple, 
to offer the customary sacrifice for the emperor, he precipi 
tated the conflict. When the uproar began, A. hid him 
self, but the fanatical mob found and put him to death. In 
the Tim. A. is called Johanan (John), and is charged \\ith 
gluttony and extortion. 

AXATHOTH. (i) A Levite town in Benjamin 
(Jo. 2 1. 18 ), now Anata, 2 J miles X.E. of Jrs., a small 
hamlet with remains of anct. bldgs. It was the 
home of Abiathar (i K. 2. 26 ) and other men of note, 
but it owes its fame to Jeremiah, its greatest s. 
(Jr. I. 1 ). It commands an extensive view over the 
uplands to the X., and across the wilderness towards 
the Dead Sea. It is exposed to the full blast of the 
burning E. wind. (2) A s. of the Benjamite 
Bechcr (i Ch. y. 8 ). 

ANDREW, Gr. Andreas, br. of Simon Peter, s. of 
Jonas, born in Bethsaida of Galilee, resided with 
Peter in Capernaum (Jn. l. 40f -, i2.- off - ; Mk. I. 21 - 29 ). 
He was a disciple of John the Baptist, and along 
with another was the first to follow Jesus (Jn. l. 35ff -), 
to whom also he brought his br. Simon. Jesus called 
him with Peter to discipleship, fm. his work as a 
fisherman on the Sea of Galilee (Mw. 4- 18ff - ; Mk. 
l. 16ff ), and his name appears in the lists of the 
Twelve. W 7 hat is related of him in Jn. 6., where he 
tells of the lad with the fishes, and in Jn. 12., where 
he brings the Greeks to Jesus, may betoken the prac 
tical char, of the man. Nothing further is recorded 
of A. in Scrip. Origen (Euseb. HE. iii. i) says that 
he laboured in Scythia. Hence he is the patron 
saint of Russia. Accdg. to the Acta, A. et Mattbia; 
(Tischendorf, A eta Apocrypha ), he was sent to the 
Anthropophagi. He is said to have preached also in 
Amasea, Sinope, Xicsea, Nicomedia, Bysantium, 
Thrace, Macedonia and Achaia, and to have been 
martyred in this last province at Patra; (Miracula 
Andre fc). An alleged statue of him was long shown 
at Sinope, and the marble scat in wh. he taught. 

The tradition that A. died by crucifixicn is best supported, 
altho tlie Egpn. Acts of A. add stoning. The X-shaped 
cross, called by his name, is associated with him onlv by very 
late tradition. 

It is said that Artemius toc.k the relics of A. frcm Patrce 
to Constantinople in 357 or 358. From Constantinople they 
were conveyed to Amalri in 1210. Part of his cross is enclosed 
in one of the piers supporting the dcme of St. Peter s in Rm. 

St. Rule, an Eastern monk, is said to have brought the 
arm of A. to Scotland c. A. I). 369, and buried it at St. 
Andrews, where he founded a church, the tower of wh. still 
stands, bearing his name, St. Rule, or Regulus. 

For traditions, see Ada Sanctorum for Oct. 17. 
For Lit. see Lipsius, Apokryphen Apostelge- 
schichten, i. 543ff. 

AXDROXICUS, saluted along with Junias by 



Ane 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ang 



Paul (Rm. 16.") as his " kinsmen," " fellow- 
prisoners " ; they are declared to be " of note 
among the APOSTLES " ; the interesting biographical 
fact is added that they were Christians before the 
Apostle himself. 

As the word used for " fellow- prisoner " is not Paul s 
usual word, it has been suggd. that it ought to be taken in a 
metaphorical sense; there seems, however, no valid ground 
for this. What Lightfoot suggs. in regard to AKISTAKCHUS 
may apply to A. 

ANEM, a town in Issacher (i Ch. 6. 73 ), prob. 
identl. with En-Gannim (Jo. 2i. 29 ), the mod. Jemn. 

ANER. (l) Br. of Mamre and Eschol, Amorite 
chiefs in alliance with Abraham, at Hebron (Gn. 
I4- 13 24 ). (2) A town in Manasseh W. of the Jordan 
(i Ch. 6. 70 ), wh. Guthe suggs. may be an error for 
Ta nak, TAANACH (Jo. 2i. 25 ). 

ANGELS. In OT. and NT. alike, the existence 
of beings between God and man is assumed. The 
term designating these is, in both Heb. and Gr., 
a word that denotes a " messenger " (Gn. 32. 3 ; 
Js. 2. 2 , &c.). Appearances of A. are frequent in the 
Pentateuch, but restricted to J. and E. In most in 
stances " the A. of God," or " of the Lord," is 
named, but in cert, cases several are mentioned, 
e.g. Gn. I9- 1 , 32. 1 . The word does not occur in Jo., 
but the " Captain of the Host of the Lord " may be 
taken as = " the A. of the Lord " in Gn., Ex., and 
Nu. In Jg. A. appear in the call of Gideon, and the 
promise of Samson s birth to Manoah. In the histl. 
bks. A. are referred to in connection with the ap 
pearance at the threshing-floor of Araunah, the 
deeds of Elijah, and the destruction of Sennacherib. 
To these may be added the " horses and chariots of 
fire," protecting Elisha (2 K. 6. 17 ). In Jb. A. appear 
in the prologue as " Sons of God " (i. 6 ), identd. by 
parallelism with the " Morning Stars," who sing 
together at the Creation (38."). Altho wiser 
than men, God charges them with " folly." There 
are many refcs. to A. in the Psalms not only under 
that name, but also as " the Mighty " (Elim, 29. 1 ), 
and " Sons of the Alighty " (Sg. 6 ). A. are not pro 
minent in the prophetic writings till we come to Zc. 

The doctrine of A. is considerably developed in 
the NT. An A. announces the conception of Jesus 
to Mary (Lk. i. 26 ) and Joseph (Mw. I. 20 ). At His 
birth a band of A. appeared to the shepherds 
(Lk. 2. 9f> ). After His temptation A. ministered to 
Him ; an A. strengthened Him in Gethsemane. At 
His resurrection A. greeted the women who came to 
embalm His body (Jn. 2O. 12 ). An A. rolled away the 
stone fm. the door of the Sepulchre (Mw. 2S. 2 ). At 
His ascension " two men in white apparel," pre 
sumably A., sent the apostles back to Jrs. (Ac. i. lot ). 
An A. released the apostles fm. prison (Ac. 5- 19 ). 
An A. appeared to Cornelius (Ac. io. 3 , &c.), loosed 
the chains of Peter (Ac. I2. 7t ), and announced to 
Paul the safety of his fellow-passengers (Ac. 27. 23 ). 
In several cases Paul mentions A. in his epistles. 



The " Principalities and Powers in Heavenly 
places " (Eph. 3. 10 ) are A., and the terms imply that 
there is in some sense a hierarchy. This idea has 
been elaborated by Dionysius the Areopagite. 
There arc notices of A. in the epistles of Peter and 
Jude. The latter is esp. interesting, because it 
takes for granted the fall of cert, of the A. The bk. 
of Rv. is necessarily the principal source of our kge. 
about the A. The word A. appears in Rv. nearly as 
often as it does in all the rest of the NT. 

A. are also called " gods " (Ps. 138. ), "holy ones" (Dn. 
4. 1 ), and " watchers " (Dn. 4. 13 ). Related to A., altho dis 
tinct from them, are CHERUBIM and SKRAPHIM. In their 
intercourse with men, A. assume a human form, usly. that 
of white-robed young men of dazzling beauty. \Ve may 
note the weakness of contemporary art, wh. can attain angelic 
beauty only by making A. women. 

Their name indicates their function : A. are 
primarily God s messengers. He sends A. to sup 
port His people (Ps. 91. n ) ; to guard them (Ps. 34. ; 
Dn. 6. 22 ); to call them to duty, as Gideon (Jg. 6. m ) ; 
to convey a promise, e.g. the birth of Samson (Jg. 
1 3. 3 ), of John (Lk. i . llf -), and of our Lord (Lk. 1 . 26f -) ; 
to warn (Mw. 2. 13 ) ; to rebuke (Jg. 2 1 ). To the 
enemies of God s people their function is punitive : 
A. chase them (Ps. 35. 5 ), destroy them, as Senna 
cherib (Is. 37- 36 ). A. have charge over individuals 
(Mw. i8. 10 ), as princes they have authority over the 
nations (Dn. io. 2or ), they have charge over churches 
(Rv. I. 20 ), and they have the care of the objs. of 
Nat., e.g. of the waters (Rv. l6. 5 ). In our Lord s 
parables A. fulfil important functions in the pro 
gress of the divine kdm. ; they watch over that pro 
gress (Mw. I v 27 ) ; at the end they separate the 
wicked fm. the righteous (Mw. l^. 41 - 49 ). They 
attend the Divine Majesty (Ps. 68. 17 , a difft. word 
here), they praise God (Ps. 103.2). 

Two names of A. have come down to us ; Michael (Dn. 
io. 13 ; Jir.; Rv. i2. 7 ) and Gabriel (Dn. S. 16 ; Lk. i. 111 . 2 *). 
In the apocryphal bk. of Tobit, Raphael is added. The 
Enoch bks. have many more names cf A., including the three 
just mentioned. It is to be presumed that the Archangel 
of i Th. 4. 18 is Michael. The Tim. also presents us \\ith an 
elaborate Angelology. It has been suggd. that there is a 
connection between the Zoroastrian Amhaspands and Jewish 
Angelology, and that the Seven Spirits of God " go back 
to the same source. If this be so, it is singular that the 
Priestly Document, alleged by Critics to have c riginated in 
the Persian period, shd. have no mention of A. 

Notwithstanding their prominence in Scrip, it can hardly 
be denied that men have ceased to believe in A. Perhaps 
the abounding materialism is the nemesis cf our want of faith. 
That there should be an crder of beings between God and 
men is inherently prob. That Gcd, who carries cut His pro 
vidential designs to a great extent by means cf finite, intelli 
gent agents, wearing material bodies, i.e. human Ixings, shd. 
use other intelligences to earn- tut the plan cf the Universe, 
is in accordance with analogy. What we know phenomenally 
as the Laws cf Nature may be the outcome of the steady 
will of some lofty angelic Intelligence. 

ANGELS OF THE CH JRCHES (Rv. 2., 3.). (i) It has 
been maintained, e.g. by Trench, that the A. were bishcps. 
It is true that in less than half a cent, after Rv. was written, 
the monarchical constitution evolved made the bishops so 
powerful in their respective churches that they were respon 
sible for everything done. But (a) there is no instance cf 
a bishop being called an A. of a Church ; () the episcopate 



Ani 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ano 



was prob. not then instituted ; (c) elsewhere in Rv. A. are 
always sptl. beings. (2) Some, e.g. Ebrard, hold that the A. 
were messengers sent by the Churches to receive the Apostle s 
counsels. The epistles were doubtless conveyed by mes 
sengers ; but in each case they are addressed "to the A." 
The dative, to nggelo, dees not natly. mean "for the A.," 
i.e. for him to carry to the Church that had sent him. The 
usage of Rv. is also agst. this view. (3) Some, e.g. Milligan, 
prefer to regard A. as a personification of the Church ad 
dressed. This nit. suit in some respects, but again the usage 
of the bk. is agst. it. In Rv. a church is personified, not as 
an A., but as a woman (cp. chap. 12.). (4) Others, e.g. 
Alford, give A. the meaning it commonly bears in Scrip. 
This is favoured by the analogy cf the rest of Rv., and by 
the identn. of the Stars with the A. (Rv. i.-), found also 
elsewhere (Jb. 38.", cp. 4- 18 , i,. 1 -" , Rv. 9.-"). It agrees with 
theangelic functions noted above ( Rv. i6. :> ; Dn. lo. 14 ; Mw. 
i8. 10 ; Ac. 12.15). It is nat. that there slid, be A. of the 
Churches. It is no objn. to say that the A. are blamed : 
this accords with Jb. 4. is. As finite beings, A. are limited 
in kge., wisdom, and power. Whatever the relationship 
between a guardian A. and the obj. of his guardianship, 
blame may be quite legitimate. A teacher is blamed for 
backward scholars. 

On the whole the last-mentioned view seems best to meet 
all the requirements. 

AXIM (Jo. i;. 50 ), a town in the Judean high 
lands, mentioned with Eshtemoh, prob. corrspds. to 
the double ruin of Ghuwein, W. of Eshtemoh, c. 12 
miles S. of Hebron ; cp. OEJ. s.v. Anab and Este- 
moe. 

AXISE (Mw. 23. 23 ), RVm. "dill," Gr. Ai,ethon = 
Anethum Graveolens. It is the common Dill, Tim. 
Shabath, Arb. Skibith, of wh. (Maaseroth, c. iv. 5) 
the fruit, leaves, and stem are " subject to tithe." 
It is found both wild and under cultivation in Pal. 
It is much appreciated as a. condiment, and in many 
forms of illness it is valued as a medicine. 

AXKLE CHAIXS (Is. 3 . 20 , RV.), light chains 
attached to the ankles, to produce a measured and 
graceful step. 

ANKLETS (Is. 3. 18 ) were wrought frequently of 
the precious metals, in the form of bracelets, and 
worn on the ankles. In walking they made a pleas 
ing, tinkling sound. 

AXXA, a prophetess, dr. of Phanuel, of the tribe 
of Asher, in Jrs., at the time of our Lord s birth 
(Lk. 2. 36 ), poss. an Essene, age 84, talked of Jesus 
to other Essenes, i.e. " them that were looking 
for the redemption of Isr." (Thomson, Books that 
Influenced our Lord and His Apostles, pp. 7:5-122), 

AXXAS, AXAXUS (Jos.), s. of Seth, was High 
Priest from A.D. 6 to A.D. 15, and had afterwards the 
unique privilege of seeing his five sons and his s.-in- 
law raised to that office (.-Int. XVIII. ii. 1-2 ; XX. 
ix. I ; Jn. l8. K! ). It was held also by a grandson. 
A. was a man of enormous wealth, and enjoyed 
great influence with the Rms. His house derived 
large revenues from what the rabbinical writers 
called " the booths of the sons of Hanan." These 
Edersheim idents. with the temple market, arid the 
four shops on the Mt. of Olives, where money mt. 
be changed into money of the sanctuary, where 
pigeons and other requisites for sacrificial purposes 
cd. be obtained (Z-TJ. i. pp. 3761?. ; ii. 547). Great 



profits were made off these sales; and in exchanging, 
the unsophisticated countrymen were shamefully 
defrauded. We can understand A. s animus agst. 
Jesus, if it was his money-making traffic that was 
pointed at in the description of the temple as " a 
den of robbers " (Mw. 2I. 13 ). 

A. is called High Priest, when Caiaphas held the 
office (Jn. l8. 19 ), and again as H. Pt. he is mentioned 
in Ac. 4. 6 . From Jos., however, we learn that one 
who had attained that dignity ever afterwards re 
tained the title. The leading men in the high 
priestly families seem also to have borne the name. 
The nearest parallel to Lk. 3_ 2 , where A. and 
Caiaphas are conjoined in the H. P hood, is in Jos. 
BJ. II. xii. 6, where he speaks of " Jonathan and 
Ananias the H. Pts." (TOVS apx te / s I. *at A.), 
Ananias being in office, but Jonathan being named 
first, perhaps as the older man. 

Considering his position and influence, there is nothing 
extraordinary in Jesus being informally examined by A. 
before being sent to the H. P. (Jn. iS. 1 - " -). Lk. leaves room 
for this examination (22. 341 -), while Mw. and Mk. omit it 
altogether, apparently transferring to the morning events of 
the night. 

Lit. : Edersheim, op. cit. ; Schiirer, H JP., index. 

AXOIXTIXG. Among the Hebs., as among 
the Grs. and Rms., the limbs were rubbed with oil 
after washing, to preserve the skin soft, esp. in the 
hot dry air of summer. In S. 
Arabia the Arabs rub oil over the 
whole body, believing that it 
strengthens the body and protects 
them agst. the heat of the sun 
(Xiebuhr, Beschreibnng von Ara- 
bien,p. 131). On festive occasions 
the Hebs. anointed themselves ANOINTING A GUEST 
(Am. 6. 6 ; 2 Ch. 28. 15 ; Ps. 23. 5 ; cf. Lk. 7. 47 ). Its 
omission was a sign of mourning (2 S. I4_ 2 , I2. 20 ). 
It was applied to the hair of the head, to the beard 
(Ps. I33- 2 ), and the whole frame (Ek. l6. 9 , &c.). 
To anoint a man s feet was a mark of special honour 
(Lk. 7_ 46 ; Jn. I2. 3 ). Pure olive oil was commonly 
used (Ps. cp. ; Dt. 28. 40 ; Mi. 6. 15 , &c.). Very 
early the oil was mingled with various fragrant per 
fumes. The mingling was done by female slaves 
(i S. 8. 13 ) or perfumers (Ex. 3O. 35 ; Xe. 3. 8 , 
RVm., &c.). Oil of spikenard came to be regarded 
as the most precious ointment (SS. I. 12 ; Mk. I4. 311 -). 

Ks. were designated by anointing (l S. IO. 1 , l6. 13 ; 
I K. 19. lo ), and A. also marked their assumption of 
office (2 S. 2. 4 , 5. 3 ; 2 K. II. 12 , 23. 30 , &c.), altho 
this is not recorded of all. It has been suggd. that 
A. meant consecration to the P hood, wh. in anct. 
times was combined with the kship. (Benzinger, 
//./., p. 307). The custom of A. ks. on their ascend 
ing the throne was widespread in anct. times, and 
persists to this day as part of coronation ritual. 

All the priests seem to have shared in the priestly 
A. (Ex. 28. 41 , 30. 22ir - ; Lv. 7. 35 , io. 7 ; Nu. 3- 3 ), but 




Ant 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ant 



the H. P. alone is called " the anointed priest " (Lv. 
A. 3 - 5 16 , &c.). The reason for this may be found in 
the fact that the H. P. was anointed after being 
robed, and again sprinkled with oil after the sacri 
fice ; while the other priests participated only in the 
sprinkling (Lv. 8. 12> 30 ). A specially mingled oil was 
reserved for this purpose alone (Ex. 3O. 33 ). 

The consecration of stone pillar or Matztzebah, 
prevalent among other peoples, we find also in Scrip. 
<Gn. 28. 18 , 35- 14 ). The Tabernacle and its furniture, 
and the altar after the sin-offering, were conse 
crated with oil (Ex. 3o. 26 , 40. 10 ; Lv. 8. 11 ; Ex. 2 9 . 36 ). 

In relation to the prophets A. seems to have had 
only a metaphorical significance (i K. ig. 16 - 19 ; cp. 
I Ch. i6. 22 ; Ps. I05. 15 ). Any one selected by God 
for special work is spoken of as " anointed." So 
Cyrus (Is. 45- 1 ), the nation of Isr. (Ps. 84- 9 , &c.), and 
the Servant of the Lord (Is. 6I. 1 ; cp. Lk. 4. 18 ). 
" The Anointed " or " The Messiah " came to be 
the title of the promised and expected Deliverer 
(Jn. I. 41 , &c.). So the chosen of God in the NT. 
are His anointed (i Cor. I. 21 ; I Jn. 2. 20 - 27 ). 

The practice of oiling the shield before battle is 
alluded to in 2 S. I. 21 , RV., and Is. 2l. 5 . 

Oil was used as a healing agent (Mk. 6. 13 ; Js. 
5. 14 ), also mingled with wine (Lk. lo. 34 ), and so it 
becomes a fig. of the pardoning and cleansing grace 
of God (Is. i. 6 ; Ek. i6. 9 ; Rv. 3. 18 ). 

Ointments were applied to the dead in prepara 
tion for burial (Mk. I6. 1 ; Lk. 23. 56 ; Jn. ig. 40 ; 
cp. Jn. I2. 7 ). 

ANT, a gregarious family of hymenopterous 
insects, of wh. several species are found in Pal. The 
industry (Pr. 6. 6 ) and foresight (Pr. 3O. 25 ) of the A. 
are proverbial. Sir John Lubbock now Lord Ave- 
bury in his bk. on " Ants, Bees, and Wasps," gives 
many striking illustrations of the A. s wisdom and 
industry. It used to be thought a mistake to speak 
of the A. as gathering grain : that it does so is now 
beyond doubt. 

ANTICHRIST. As the shadow follows the sun 
light, so the idea of A. accompanies that of the 
Christ. When it appears in the NT. it is clear that 
the writers refer to an idea familiar to those whom 
they address ; A. is part of the heritage Christianity 
took over fm. Judaism. Even among the Jews we 
cannot trace the origin of the idea ; it certainly 
appears in Apocalyptic Lit., but not early ; and in 
the Targums, but still later. In Tg. J. to Is. 1 1 . 4 the 
last clause is rendered, " by the breath of his lips he 
shall destroy Armilos the wicked." Here ArmllSs 
= Romulus, i.e. Rome. The idea seems to be drawn 
on the one side fm. the Ilth horn of Dn. 7., 
and the little branch horn of Dn. 8. ; and on the 
other fm. Belial, as in the frequent phrase " s. of 
Belial." 

In the LXX this is never given as a proper name, it is 
always interpreted as " sin, " lawlessness," phrases that 
agree in thought with these of St. Paul in 2 Th. 2. :i . 



In Rv. the influence of Dn. is much more obvious. 
In his Epp. the apostle John applies the term to 
false teachers. If we take in connection with 2 Th. 
2. 3 ; Eph. 2. 2 , " the spirit that now worketh in the 
children of disobedience," we see that Paul and 
John are really at one. A. was a spiritual potence 
who expressed himself in wicked persons : he was 
a person, but a spirit. The two apostles differ in 
this : while Paul regards the Imperial Power of 
Rome as that wh. kept the spiritual potence of evil 
in restraint, John in Rv. treats the Roman Imperial 
system as the appearance in history of the power 
of A. It may be that in the evolution of the idea 
of A. the educative influence of Persian Mazdeism 
may be traced, but the germ is to be found in 
BELIAL. In Apocalyptic we find Beliar is the name 
given to the spirit that opposes God, as in the Ascen 
sion of Isaiahs so St. Paul asks, " What agreement 
hath Christ with Beliar ? " (fFH.}. 

During the Middle Ages the imagination of Jew 
and Gentile commentators was exercised on the 
subject of A. ; the latter endeavoured to twist the 
name of Mohammed so that the letters when 
reckoned as numbers wd. amount to 666 ; the 
former dwelt on the marvels " Armillus " wd. do. 
\Vith the Reformation the question assumed a new 
aspect ; Protestant divines saw A. in Papal Rome, 
and Papists declared Luther to be the " Man of 
Sin." In more recent times some have held the 
Napoleons, 1st and 3rd, to be A. The solution is 
to be sought in a more spiritual region ; the Spirit 
of Evil, whose influence is manifested in political 
ambition, in lawlessness, in evil generally, all is A. 
All evil, moral, physical, and political, is to be 
destroyed by "the breath of the lips " of the return 
ing Son of Man, as the " stone cut out of the moun 
tain without hands " smote on the feet the image of 
worldly empires, and not only destroyed, but took 
its place and filled the earth. It may be that the 
process is going on already ; all spread of Chris 
tian principles, all removal of evils in the physical 
frame or the body politic, is the " Lord destroying " 
A. with the brightness of His coming. Although in 
the Ascension of Isaiah Beliar is identified with Nero, 
and though the trend of Critical opinion is to follow 
this identification with regard to the " Man of Sin," 
holding the restraining force to be Claudius, we feel 
it is making prophecy of too private an interpreta 
tion. The resolution of 666 into Neron Oesar 
involves several difficulties that cannot easily be 
removed, e.g. it wd. be meaningless to give Nero 
seven heads and ten horns. 

Lit. : Bousset, The Antichrist Legend ; Eadie, 
Thessalonians, dissertation on " Man of Sin " ; 
Milligan and Liicke, Revelation, Elliot. 

ANTIOCH. (i) A city on the Orontes the 
modern el- A si in the wide and fertile plain be 
tween Mt. Casius and Mt. Amanus, c. 120 stadia fm. 



Ant 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Apo 



the river s mouth. It was founded in B.C. 300 by 
Seleucus Nikator, and called Antiocheia fm. his fr. 
Antiochus. The city prospered and was enlarged by 
Antiochus the Gt., and by A. Epiphanes. The 
population was formed of Greeks, Syrians, and Jews. 
These last had a governor of their own. In one of 
their synagogueswere placed the spoils taken fm. the 
Temple by Epiphanes, his successor having restored 
them to the Jews. The community numbered many 
proselytes, of whom was Nicolas (Ac. 6.). A. was 
the centre of Hellenism in Syria, although its 
mingled population, fickle and fanatical, could not 
properly be called Gr. An uprising of its people 
agst. Demetrius II., in favour of Trypho, was put 
down by the assistance of Jonathan Alaccabaeus and 
3000 Jewish soldiers ; but afterwards the city passed 
to the youthful Antiochus and his general Trypho. 
It was captured in B.C. 83 by the Armenian k. 
Tigranes,whomPompey vanquished in turn, making 
the city free. Under the Rms. it became the capital 
of the province of Syria and of the E. Under the 
Caesars it attained its greatestprosperity. The rights 
of the Jews, recorded on tablets of bronze, were 
respected by the Rms. To Herod the Gt. the city 
owed its splendid pillared street. Accdg. to a late 
writer, Titus set up over the gates the cherubim 
taken fm. the Temple. Close by was the grove of 
Daphne, a sanctuary of Apollo. In population A. 
ranked after Km. and Alexandria. The city was 
noted for its love of Art and Lit., its love of 
pleasure, its profligacy, and its satirical bitterness. 

A. soon became a centre for both Jew and Gentile 
followers of Jesus (Ac. II. 19 ), and here they were 
first called Christians (Ac. II. 26 ). On his first and 
second missionary journeys, St. Paul set out fm. and 
returned to A. (Ac. I3>, i^ 26 *, I5. 40f -, i8.~). 
Here also took place the dispute between Paul and 
Peter as to the relation of Gentile Christians to the 
Mosaic law (Ac. I v ; Gal. 2. lltt ). A. played an im 
portant part in the early days of Christianity, and 
continued to be the chief city in Syria as long as it 
was controlled from the \V. With the coming of 
the Arabs the dominion passed to Damascus ; and 
now it is represented by a poor town of some 6000 
inhabitants called Antakiycb. 

Lit. : Reland, Palastina, ligff. ; Conybeare and 
Howson, Life and Eristics of St. Paid; Guy Lc 
Strange, Pal. under the Moslems, index ; Ramsay, 
St. Paul the Traveller, Cap. III. ; Jos. passim. 

(2) Pisidian A. was " a city of Phrygia towards 
Pisidia " (Strabo, xii. 569, 577), prob. also founded 
by Seleucus Nikator. Built by men fm. Magnesia on 
the Maeander, the Rms. declared it free in B.C. 190. 
Augustus raised it to the status of a colunia with 
Latin rights, under the name of Caesareia Antio- 
cheia, when it served, along with other colonies, in 
the region of wh. it was the centre, to overawe and 
restrain the barbarous Pisidians in the Taurus Mts. 



It possessed a Jewish synagogue, preached in by 
Paul on his first missionary journey (Ac. I3. 14ff ). 
The consideration and influence enjoyed by women 
in Phrygia is illustrated in ver. 50. The ruins of A. lie 
2 miles E. fm. Yalowatch, on the skirts of the long 
ridge called Sultan-Dagh, in a strong position, c. 
3600 ft. above sea-level, overlooking a large and fer 
tile plain, wh. stretches away S.E. to the Limnai 
(Lake of Egerdir), and is drained by the river 
Anthics. 

Lit. : Ritter, Erkunde von Asien, xxi. 468. Arun- 
del, Discoveries in Asia Minor, i. 28 if. Ramsay, 
Ch. in Rm. Emp., 25-35 > $* Paul the Traveller, 
99-107 ; The Cities of St. Paul, 2^jff. 

ANTIPAS, contraction for Antipater, a martyr 
of Pergamus (Rv. 2. 13 ). 

ANTIPATRIS, built by Herod the Gt., and 
named fm. his fr. (Ant. XIII. xv. I, XVI. v. 2 ; BJ. 
I. xxi. 9), now the ruin Oal at Ras el- l Ain, in the 
plain N.E. of Jaffa, at the source of the river Aujah, 
on the road fm. Jrs. to Caesarea (Ac. 23. 31 ). 

APE (Heb. qof), a quadrumanous mammal im 
ported by Solomon (l K. io. 22 ), prob. some form of 
baboon. 




APES FIGURED OX ASSVRIAN MONUMENT 

APHEK, APHEKAH. (i) A royal city of the 
Can. in the plain of Sharon (Jo. I2. 18 , LXX), prob. 
= A. in I S. 4- 1 , and A. near Antipatris (BJ. II. 
xix. i), not identd. (2) A city of Asher (Jo. I3- 4 , 
I9- 30 ), held by the Can. (Jg. I. 31 , A-phiq), poss. the 
mod. Afqa, on Xabr Ibrahim. (3) Genly. thought to 
be in the plain of Esdraelon (i S. 29. 1 ). Robertson 
Smith (O77C. 2 273, 415), Wellhausen (Comp. d. 
Hex. 254; Hist. 39), and G. A. Smith (PEFO. 1895, 
252) think it may be = i,inwh. case the Phil, would 
assemble in Sharon, and approach Jezreel by way of 
Dothan. If, however, they advanced fm. Shunem 
(i S. 28. 4 , 29. a ), A. must have been in the plain W. 
of Jezreel. The monk Burchard (1283) professed to 
have seen the ruins of A. to the W. of El-Fuleh. 
(4) The scene of Benhadad s overthrow (i K. 
20 ;26, 30^ ; n t ] ie ;i/; f /.<5 ; - 5 t he tableland E. of Jordan. 
It is identd. with J- iq, E. of the Sea of Galilee, some 
times called Afiq. This place is prob. the scene of 
Joash s victory (i K. I3. 17 25 ). 

APHEKAH, poss. identd. with A. (i). 

APOLLONTA, a town passed through by St. 
Paul (Ac. I7- 1 ), in the district of Mygdonia, c. 30 



26 



Apo 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ara 



miles fm. Amphipolis, and 38 fm. Thessalonica. 
It lay on the Via Egnatia, near Lake Bolbe. The 
name poss. survives in the mod. Pollina. 

APOLLOS, contraction for Apollonius, a Jew of 
Alexandria, a disciple of John the Baptist. A. came 
to Ephesus and was brought to the kge. of Jesus by 
Aquila and Priscilla. From Ephesus he went to 
Corinth. Some ascribe to him the Ep. to the 
Hebs. Not impossibly the points of resemblance 
between the adventures of Apollonius of Tyana and 
of Paul may be due to the fact that one of Paul s 
companions was known to have borne that name. 

APOSTLE. The word apostolos means prop, one 
sent and commissioned for special work. Jesus is 
thus the A. of God (He. 3. 1 ; cp. Lk. 4 . 43 ; Jn. I/. 18 ), 
and cert, brethren are As. of the churches (2 Cor. 
S. 23 , RVm. ; Php. 2. 25 ). Our use of the term is con 
fined to those sent and commissioned by our Lord 
for particular service. In this sense it is first used of 
the Twelve whom He sent to preach, &c. (Mw. lo. 2 ; 
cp. Lk. 6. 13 ; Mk. 6. 30 ). The Twelve seem to have 
thought the Apostolate limited to that number (Ac. 
l. 25ff -), ?nd proceeded to fill the vacancy left by 
Judas Iscariot. Subsequent events proved that no 
such limitations existed. Paul and Barnabas (Ac. 
I4. 14 ), James the Lord s br. (Gal. I. 19 ; I Cor. I5. 7 ), 
Andronicus and Junias (Rm. 16."), and prob. Silas, 
so long the companion cf Paul, were As. 

It was required of an A. that he shd. have seen 
the Lord, and be able to bear testimony as an eye 
witness to His resurrection (Lk. 2\.^ ; Ac. I. 8 , 22 ; 
I Cor. g. 1 ). All those mentioned above may very 
well have possessed this qualification. The A. re 
ceived his commission directly from the Lord Him 
self (I Cor. I2. 28 ; Gal. I. 15 i7 ; Eph. 4- n ), and he 
was authenticated, not by any human authority, but 
by the " signs of an A." (2 Cor. I2. 12 ), and by his 
success in gaining converts (I Cor. g. 2 ). 

The A. was sent as Christ s ambassador, to preach, 
to bear witness, and to make disciples of all nations 
(I Cor. I. 17 ; 2 Cor. 5. 20 ; Eph. 6. 20 ; Lk. 24. 48 ; 
Mw. 28. 19 ). But while it was agreed that Paul and 
Barnabas shd. " go unto the Gentiles " Paul calls 
himself " the A. of the Gentiles " (Rm. II. 13 ) and 
to Peter " the gospel of the circumcision " was com 
mitted (Gal. 2. 7 " 9 ), no special territories seem to 
have been allotted to the various members of the 
band. 

The relations of the A. to the churches he 
founded, as counsellor, superintendent, and authori 
tative interpreter of truth and morals, are well 
illustrated in the letters written by Paul to the con 
gregations originated by him. 

APOTHECARY shd. in all cases be read with 
RV. " perfumer." The refc. is always to spices and 
mixing of perfumes (2 Ch. i6. 14 ; Ex. 3O. 25> 36 - 
37 29 ; EC. lo. 1 ; Nc. 3. 8 ). 

APPEAL. See PAUL. 



APPII FORUM, a place 43 miles fm. Rome on 
the Appian Way. Rm. Christians met Paul at A. F. 
(Ac. ij. 28 ). Horace (Sat. I. 5) mentions it as filled 
with sailors. Ruins near Treponti are supposed to 
represent A. F. As the head of a canal, A. F. was a 
centre of trade ; hence it was called the Forum or 
Market of Appius. 

APPLE, APPLE TREE. It is enough to say 
that the apple of the Bible is just the apple. All 
attempts to ident. it with the apricot, the quince, 
the orange, and the citron are futile. The tree 
grows to a good size, and affords pleasant shade 
(SS. 2. 3 , 8. 5 ). The fruit is sweet to the taste, and is 
much appreciated for its smell, esp. by the sick, who 
find it most reviving (SS. 2. 3 , j. 8 ). The very name 
survives in the mod. tuffdh (Hcb. tappuab}. Thus 
also Tiffah is the Arb. name of Beth Tappuab (Jo. 
I5. 33 ). Dr. Post suggs. (HDB.) that the " pictures 
of silver " may be the baskets of filigree work in wh. 
the oriental silversmiths excel. 

AQUILA and PRISCILLA, a Jew of Pontus and 
his w., who had settled in Rome, but left when the 
Jews were expelled by Claudius (Ac. l8. 2 ). They 
were in Corinth when Paul arrived, and made their 
acquaintance. They were of the same trade as 
himself, so he lived with them. Both names are 
Rm., so it may be regarded as prob. that they 
possessed the citizenship of Rome. Tho it is not 
cert., it appears likely fm. the nar. that they were 
Christians when Paul met them. A. and P. left 
Corinth with Paul, accompanying him as far as 
Ephesus, where they took up their abode (Ac. l8. 19 ), 
Apollos was instructed by A. and P. (Ac. i8. 24 ). 
They are saluted by Paul (Rm. i6. 3 ). From this it 
has been deduced that they had returned to Rome ; 
but some have thought that the Epistle to the Rms. 
was, from Rome, sent on to Ephesus, and that 
chap. 1 6. was added ; that A. and P. were therefore 
still in Ephesus ; a view that is made more prob. by 
the fact that they are saluted in 2 Tim. 4. 19 . It is 
to be noted that in this passage P. is called Prisca. 
What befell them afterwards is not recorded. 

AR, a city on the S. side of the Arnon, the mod. 
Wddy Mojib (Nu. 2i. 15 ; Dt. 2. 9 ), the same as Ar 
Moab (Nu. 2I. 28 ; Is. I5. 1 ), prob. also Ir Moab (Nu. 
22. 36 ), to be identd. with " the city that is in the 
valley " (Dt. 2. 36 , &c.). It lay on the border be 
tween Moab and the Amorites in early times, and 
Isr. in later days. It may perhaps be identd. with 
the ruin noted by Burckhardt, wh. stands in a piece 
of " pasture land " below the confluence of the 
Mojib with the Lejjun. 

ARAB, a city near Dumah in the Judean uplands 
(Jo. I5- 52 ). It may be er Rabiyeh, a ruin near 
Domeh. 

ARABAH, Heb. ha arabab, "the Arabah " : 
AV. so renders only once (Jo. i8. 18 ) ; elsewhere 
" plain " : but so RV. uniformly, where the great 



27 



Ara 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ara 



hollow of the Jordan Valley, fm. the Sea of Galilee 
S wards, and its continuation to the Gulf of Akabah, 
or any part of it, is referred to (Dt. I. 1 , 4- 49 ; Jo. 
II. 2 , &c.). In the pi. EV. translate " plains " see 
PLAIN. The plains of Moab ( arabolb) are clearly 
the Steppes E. of Jordan, corrspdg. to the " plains 
of Jericho " on the W. Both are included in the 
A. For the A. N. of the Dead Sea (Sea of the A., 
Dt. 4- 49 ; Jo. I2. 3 ), see JORDAN, JORDAN VALLEY. 

About 10 miles S. of the Dead Sea a line of white 
cliffs, composed of sand, gravel, and marl, crosses the 
valley fm. X.W. to S.E., forming the limit of the 
Gbor. From this line S wards stretches the hollow 
known as el- l Arabah to-day. It gradually rises for 
about 60 miles, when the floor of the valley is 
c. 700 ft. above the level of the Red Sea, and c. 
2000 ft. above the Dead Sea. It then descends to 
the shore at Akabah, a distance of some 45 miles. 
In its S. reaches it forms " the wilderness of Zin " 
(Xu. 34- 3 ). It well justifies its name, arabdb, 
" Desert Steppe." At its N. end the A. is c. IO 
miles wide. It narrows to about ^ mile nearly 
opposite Jcbel Haroun ; fm. that point to Akabah 
it averages about 5 miles. The undulating surface 
is formed of loose gravel, stones, sand, and stretches 
of mud. It is torn by water-courses that come 
down fm. either side, converging on Wady el-Jaib, 
by wh. all the contributions fm. the adjoining 
mountains are carried X. to the Dead Sea. Here and 
there a (shrub gbada ) or acacia may be seen ; green 
patches around the springs, e.g. at Ain el-U aibeh on 
the W., and l Ain Abu Jt airedeh, or Buwairedeb, on 
the E. ; and in parts of the water-courses, willows, 
tamarisks, reeds, and stunted palms. Up to the 
level of the Red Sea, some 25 miles S. of the Dead 
Sea, we are clearly traversing an old sea-bottom, the 
worn terraces of marl, &c., and other deposits, 
showing the height to wh. at one time the waters of 
the Dead Sea must have risen. The A. is bounded 
on the W. by the deeply furrowed edge of the great 
limestone uplands of et-Tib, the Wilderness of 
Paran ; and on the E. by the naked crags of Edom, 
wh., worn into strange fantastic forms, guard the 
gorges by wh. the highlands may be approached. 

Twice the Isr. seem to have passed through the 
A. : first, when they journeyed to Kadesh Barnea, 
and second, when they had to go S ward as far as 
ll ady cl-Itbcm, to find a way by wh. they mt. go 
round the land of Edom (Xu. 2O. 21 , 2I. 4 ; Dt. 2. 8 ). 

For Geology, see PALESTINE. 

Lit. : Hull, Mt. Scir, passim ; Stanley, Sinai and 
Pal. 2 index ; Robinson, BRP., index. 

ARABIA, ARABIAX. A. is the name of the 
great peninsula wh. is bounded on the \\ . by the 
Red Sea, on the S. by the Indian Ocean, on the E. 
by the Persian Gulf, and on the X. by Syria and 
Pal. This vast country of sand and desert hills, 
dotted with infrequent oases, with a great fertile 



tract in the S., loomed large and vague before the 
minds of the Scrip, writers. 

Among the names of Arabian families given in the lists 
(Gn. 10. , 25.), Sheba and De :an are familiar. Hazarmaveth 
survives in the mod. Hadramant. The location of Havilah 
and Ophir is still in dispute. No cert, trace of Joktan, who 
plays such an important part (Gn. IO. 26 ), is now to be found. 
Even to Jeremiah (6. 20 ) and Joel (s. 8 ), Sheba, a great and 
powerful kdm., is known dimly as " a far country," " a nation 
faroff" ; and to the evangelists, it is still " in the ends of the 
earth" (Mw. 12. 4 -, Lk. n. 31 ). 

In Is. 13.2, and Jr. 3.2, Arabian appears as a gen. desig 
nation of dwellers in waste places. 

Arabian, as the name of those who lived in the 
great peninsula, occurs only in 2 Ch. 2 1. 16 , " the 
Arabians wh. are beside the Ethiopians," who seem 
to have dwelt in the S. This, however, may be in 
tended to denote the S. Arabians as distinguished 
from the X. Arabians (Socin, KB. s.v.}, a distinction 
recognised in the genealogies, the Ishmaelites (Gn. 
25. 12ff> , P.) being the N. Arabians, as agst. the S. 
Arabians, the children of Joktan (Gn. io. 2off -), whose 
great ancestor was Eber. As the genealogical tables 
stand e.g. cert, tribes, as Sheba and Dedan, appear 
ing as " sons " of Cush and also of Keturah it is im- 
poss. to construct fm. them an ethnological chart. 

Ishmael came in later times to be " associated 
vaguely with A. in gen." (Ant. I. xii. 2) : Mohammed 
was supposed to have been descended fm. him, 
through Kedar, and his tomb is still shown at 
Mecca.* 

The ks. of Ereb (RV., mingled peoples) are men 
tioned in I K. io. 15 and Jr. 25. 24 , with the ks. of A. 
The same name occurs in Is. 2i. 13 (EV. Arabia). 
These are the tribes in the Syrian desert and N. 
Arabia, elsewhere called Kedar, and Children of the 
E. In the Cuneiform Inscrs. Arabians appear with 
Kedar and the Nabataeans, as a N. Arabian people. 
Herodotus (III. 5) relates that the Persians, pro 
posing to invade Egypt, on the advice of Phanes of 
Halicarnassus, obtained permission from the k. of 
the Arabians to pass through his territories. He 
mentions lenysus, a seaport not identd., and the 
Arabians held the coast as far as Lake Serbonis and 
Mt. Casius. Their territory adjoined that of the 
" Syrians " see ARAM. They are therefore a N. 
Arabian people, who seem to have made some 
advance in civilisation since they were under the 
rule of a k. 

In Xe. 2. 19 , 4.", 6. 1 , we find the Arabians in league 
with the enemies of the Jews. These are prob. to 
be identd. with the Nabataeans, who at a later date 
played a considerable part in the hist, of the 

* " In medieval Jewish writers the lang. of Ishmael, or 
of Kedar, means Arabic. In the OT., however, it is to 



nidae (descts. of Joktan, s. of Abraham s sixth ancestor Eber, 
and consequently much less closely connected with Isr.), Gn. 

1 - - .. .- 1 . l_ _ _ 



Genesis, p. 244). 



28 



Ara 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ara 




Maccabees. Their territory is the A. of the XT. ; and pos 
sibly the Arabians of Ac. 2." may have been Jewish settlers 
in their country. Accdg. to Jos. (Ant. XVIII. v. j), Aretas, 
k. of the Arabians, inflicted signal defeat upon Herod 
Antipas, in revenge for the insult put upon him by the latter, 
who divorced his dr. to make way for Herodias. The battle 
was fought in the yr. 37 A.n. , about wh. time Paul escaped 
fm. the ethnarch of Aretas in Damascus, and went into A. 
See ARETAS, PAUI,. The Arabian authority i.e. the Naba- 
tnean appears then to have extended fm. Damascus, prob. 
granted to the k. by the Emperor Gaius, to the shores of 
the Red Sea, including the Sinaitic Peninsula (Ac. g. 23 , 
2 Cor. ii.3, Gal. I .i7 > 4 .25). The last is heard of the Naba- 
tpsans in 106 A.n. , when the governor of Syria, Cornelius 
Palma, converted "A. belonging to Petra " into a Rni. 
province. 

Isr. was necessarily brought into close relations 
with the N. Arabians by reason of their neighbour 
hood, and with the S. Arabians by means of com 
merce ; this, however, not directly, but through 
the N. Arabians who were the great carriers. This 
prob. acts, for the vagueness of Heb. kge. regarding 
S. Arabian peoples. 

Among the articles of commerce received from 
S. A., incense was the most important (Ek. 27.). 
This is a gum secured fm. a particular tree, by slits 
made in the bark. The industry has been pursued 



ViEvv or ANIIOCH FROM THE CRUSADER S HILL 
(Sec pp. 25 and 26) 

country (i M. ii. 17 39 , 2 M. 5- 8 ). When Ptolemy 
defeated Alexander Balas the latter fled into A., 
\vhcre the Nabattean prince, Zabdiel, beheaded him, 
and sent his head to Ptolemy (l M. n. 17 ). One, 
Eimalcuei, EV. Simalcue (Syr. and Jos. Malchus, 
Ylg. Emakhuel), reared Antiochus, the s. of Alex 
ander (l M. il. 3!) ). Aretas Arb. Haritba 
(2 M. 5. 8 ) was k. tyrannos of the Nabatasans. In 
Grai co-Rm. times they were a powerful people to the 
S. and E. of Pal., Petra being their capital. During 
the last decades of the I gth cent, many inscrs. were 
discovered, and deciphered, wh. cast much light on 
their hist. (For Lit. see Schiirer, HJP. I. ii. p. 345f-, 
esp. Gutschmid, J erzeichniss der Nabat discben 
Koin xr, in Euting s Nabat discbc Inschriften aits 
Aralien ; Hommel s sketch in Hilprecht s Explora 
tions in Bible Lands.} 

We first hear of the NabatEeans in 312 H.c. , in connection 
with the attack upon them by Athemtus, the general of 
king Antigonus I. an attack at first successful, but ending 
in utter and inglorious rout. Whether of Aramrean extrac 
tion, as some hold, or of Arabian stock, and identical with 
Nebaioth, as others contend, they were at this time " un 
civilised nomads. " Gradually, however, they advanced, and 
in the end of the 2nd cent. B.C. they had become a power to 
be reckoned with. These are the Arabians of Jos. and the 




29 



Ara 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ara 



fm. anct. times in a small district on the S. coast, 
with the old city Dafar as its centre. Sprenger 
(Gfog. 299) thinks the incense trade lay at the foun 
dation of anct. commerce, such vast quantities of it 
were used in connection with the religious cere 
monies of those days ; and Prof. Margoliouth 
(HDB. i. 134) notes the interesting fact that " the 
verb arab and its derivatives are used in Heb. to 
signify commerce." It was natural that this pro 
lific source of Sabsan wealth shd. be strictly con 
trolled and guarded. Precious stones and gold are 
mentioned as articles of commerce (Ek. 2J. 22 ), and 
as gifts brought by the queen of Sheba to Solomon. 
If Havilah was in A., as seems prob., it had early a 
reputation for the excellence of its gold (Gn. 2. 11 ). 
Ophir (Gn. io. 29 ), another rich gold-producing dis 
trict, is also claimed for A. Gold must have been 
exported in considerable quantities, if Parvaim, 
whence came the gold with wh. Solomon " gar 
nished " the house of the Lord, be identl., as seems 
prob., with the Arabian Sak el-Farwain. " Bright 
iron," accdg. to some anct. versions (RVm.), " from 
Uzal " (Ek. 27. 19 ), indicates a trade, wh. Doughty 
thinks mt. still be profitably pursued in some parts 
of A. San a, wh. is commonly identd. with Uzal, 
still produces steel wh. is greatly valued. Dedan 
furnished " precious cloths for riding," and Kedar, 
the wealth of the nomads " in lambs and rams and 
goats." Exports of " bales of blue and embroidered 
work," and " chests of rich apparel, bound with 
cords and made of cedar," attest the progress made 
in Arts and Manufactures. 

Lit. : for geography, Sprenger, Die Alte Geo 
graphic Arabiens ; Briinnow and Domaszewski, Die 
Provincia Arabia ; Musi i, Arabia Pctrcza. For 
hist., Ency. Brit. s.r. For recent works see 
Hommel s sketch, as above ; Doughty, Arabia De- 
serta. For religion, Wellhausen, Reste Arab, Hei- 
dentums ; Noldeke, Hastings 1 Ency. of Rig. and Eth., 



ARAD, the city of a Can. k. in the Negeb (Nu. 
2 1. 1 , 33- 40 ), smitten by Joshua (l2. 14 ). The Kenites 
settled S. of the city (Jg. I. 16 ). It is identd. with 
Tell Arad, a ruined site on a large rounded hill 
1 6 miles S. of Hebron. 

ARAM, (i) S. of Shem. (2) S. of Kemuel, 
grandson of Nahor. (3) A nation whose territory 
stretched fm. the " Great Sea " to the Tigris, and 
fm. the Taurus mountains and Armenia to Pal., 
Babylonia, and Arabia. The W. part of this stretch 
was at first occupied by the HITTITES. When they 
come into the Bible nar. the Arameans form a num 
ber of independent states. The oldest of these, 
Aram-Naharaim, " A. of the two rivers," rendered 
MESOPOTAMIA in EV., with A.-N. in the marg. 
CHUSHAN RISHATIIAIM. k. of A.-Naharaim, ruled 
Isr. 8 yrs. (Jg. 3. 8 10 ). A.-N. is also called 
Padan-A., " the field of A." (Gn. 25. 20 ). This was 



the province between the Euphrates and the Tigris. 
A.-Zobah lay X. of Damascus and E. of Hamath 
(i S. I-)-. 47 ). A.-Betb. Rehob in the same region was 
hired by AMMON to help them agst. David (2 S. io. 6 ). 
The same applies to A.-Maacah. Between these 
last was DAMASCUS, the most important of the 
divisions of A., and that which came most in con 
tact with Isr. ; it gradually absorbed the great 
mass of A., but was conquered by the Assyrians 
under Tiglath-Pileser (2 K. l6. 9 ). For Aramean 
Language see SYRIAC. 

ARARAT, in the OT., is the name of a country 
corrspdg. in part to the later Armenia. In the Asyr. 
Inscrs. it appears as Urardbu, or Urartu. The N. 
boundary of the kdm. was the Araxes, although it 
never seems to have included the mountains now 
called A. The Asyr. cuneiform characters came into 
use in A. in the gth cent. B.C., the syllabary being 
considerably modified. In the Vannic texts the name 
is given as Biainas, or Bianas, wh. is represented by 
the mod. Van. For an act. of A., and what is known 
of its hist., &c., see Sayce, " The Cuneiform In 
scriptions of Van," in the Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society, 1882, 1893, 1894. 

The Ark of Noah, is said to have rested on the 
mountains of Ararat (Gn. 8. 4 ). Adrammelech and 
Sharezer, the murderers of Sennacherib, fled " to the 
land of A." (2 K. I9. 37 ; Is. 37. 38 , RV. ; in the latter 
passage LXX ei s A.pfj.eviav ; AV. in both " Ar 
menia,"), with wh. Asyr. was then at war, the Asyrn. 
leader being Esarhaddon. A. is named along with 
Minni and Ashkenaz (Jr. Si. 27 ). Minni, Mana in 
the Vannic Inscrs., and Ashkenaz, prob. the Asyr. 
Ashguza, lay to the E. of A. 

All the traditions with one consent place the resting-place 
of the Ark in this region. The great height of the Armenian 
plateau, rising from 6000 to 7000 ft. above sea level, natly. 
appealed to the duellers in the wide plains as the district 
where the great ship must first touch ground. There is, 
however, no agreement as to the exact spot. 

Berosus the Chaldsean (Ant. I. iii. 6) said that there was 
still some part of this ship the ark of Xisuthrus " at the 
mountain of the Kordyseans," and that the people took away 
bits of the pitch to use as amulets. The (Jhaldasan records 
call it the mountain of Nazir," wh. may be identl. with the 
peak of Rowande/, S. of Lake Urumiyah. Xicolaus of 
Damascus (Jos. Inc. cit.) places it on a mountain called 
Baris, the Lubar of the Book of Jubilees (v.), wh. is identd. 
with |el>el Judi, S. of Lake Van. Here the Kurds say traces 
of the Ark are still to be seen. 

The mod. A. is the most conspicuous feature of 
the landscape to the far N. It rises 17,000 ft. above 
the level of the sea : it is called in Turkish Aghri 
Dagh, " the Painful Mountain " ; and in Persian 
Koh-i-Nuh, " the Mountain of Noah." Arghuri, a 
vill. built on the slope of the mountain, destroyed 
by earthquake and avalanche in July 1840, was re 
puted the place where Noah planted his vineyard ; 
while Nachitjevan, in the plain of Araxes, was said 
to be the patriarch s burying-place. 

ARAUNAH, the Jebusite owner of a threshing- 
floor on Alt. Moriah, chosen as the spot where 



Arb 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Arg 



David shd. build his altar, after the plague was 
stayed (2 S. 24. 18 ; I Ch. 2 1. 18 ), called in Ch. Oman. 
He sold the ground and his oxen to David for 50 
shekels of silver (2 S. 24. 24 ) ; accdg. to the Chronicler 
the price was 600 shekels of gold (l Ch. 2 1. 25 ). 

AREA. Ss? KIRIATH-ARBA. 

ARCHELAUS. See HERODIAN FAMILY. 

ARCHEVITES, inhabitants of ERECH (Gn. io. 10 ) 
placed as colonists in the territory of the Ten Tribes 
by the Assyrians (Ez. 4. 9 ). 

ARCHIPPUS,a Christian saluted by Paul (Phm. 2 ) 
as " our fellow-soldier," supposed by Lightfoot to 
he s. of Philemon. Tradition makes A. Bishop of 
Laodicaea in succession to EPAPHRODITUS. 

ARCTURUS. AV. thus renders Heb. ( ash, 
aisb (Jb. 9. 9 , 38. 32 ), following the Vlg. ; LXX 
gives Hesperon ; Luther " wagen " = " the plough " ; 
RV. " the Bear," wh. seems to be correct. 

AREOPAGUS, a low hill, rising fm. the Agora of 
ATHENS to the W. of the Acropolis. Myth de 
clared A. to be so named, because Mars (Ares) was 
there tried for homicide. A. afterwards applied to 
the supreme court of Athens in regard to homicide, 
sacrilege, and cognate crimes, wh. sat here. Under 
the Rrns. the power of A. was extended to em 
brace the functions of a Town Council and a Uni 
versity Senate. During this period A. seems to 
have sat at least for preliminary investigations, not 
on the hill, but in the Stca Basileios. In the nar. 
(Ac. 17.), although individual members of the court 
were present, e.g. Dionysius, there does not seem to 
have been a judicial investigation. In order to hear 
Paul give a statement at length of his opinions, the 
philosophers adjourned, if not to the easily acces 
sible eminence of A., at least to the Stoa Basileios 
where the court ordinarily sat. The courtesy with 
wh. he is questioned and the informal conclusion of 
the proceedings point to this. 

Lit. : Ramsay, Paul the Traveller ; Curtius, Stadt- 
geschichte v. A then ; Findlay, Annual of the British 
School at Athens, I. 

ARETAS (Heb. Hareth), k. of the Nabatzeans ; 
his capital was Petra. A. was fr.-in-law of Herod 




COIN OF ARETAS 

Antipas (HEROD). It is supposed that Caligula 
granted Damascus to A., and that Claudius con 
firmed the grant, as there are no Damascus coins 
of either of those Emperors, altho there are those 
of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, and later emperors. 
During the time immediately succeeding Paul s con 



version A. held Damascus by an Ethnarch. &r 
ARABIA. 

ARGOB, named with Arieli (2 K. I5- 25 ). The 
passage is genly. understood to mean that these were 
guards of Pekahiah, surprised and slain along with 
their master by Pekah and his fellow conspirators. 

ARGOB, a district in Bashan, or Bashan itself 
for the name is used as the equivalent of Bashan in 
Dt. 3. 13 in wh. there were threescore fenced 
cities " with high walls, gates, and bars, beside the 
unwalled towns country towns a great many " 
(Dt. 3. 4 , 6. 13 ; I K. 4 . 13 ), called " the A." (Dt. 3. 13 ). 
It was conquered by " Jair, the s. of Manasseh," and 
was assigned as territory to his tribe. From Dt. 3. 14 
we may perhaps infer that it bordered upon Geshur 
and Ma acah. In the present state of kge. it is 
imposs. with cert, to ident. the district. 

Gesenius trs. \4rgob, " a heap of stones," deriving 
it fm. the root ragab = r again. This derivation is 
precarious. It cannot be proved that ragab ragam. 
In Jb. 2 1. 33 , 38. 38 , regeb seems to mean " clod." 
Perhaps therefore we shd. take A., not as " stony," 
but " arable land." This wd. rule out El-Leja 1 , a 
tract wh. otherwise mt. claim consideration. A. ap 
pears to have been a clearly denned district. Khebel, 
wh. invariably precedes the name, is first " a cord," 
then " a measuring line," then " the measured 
area," such as a tribal portion. There is no district 
in the country the boundaries of wh. are so dis 
tinctly marked as those of El-Lfjff, " the refuge." 
It lies to the N.E. of the Hauran, N.W. of Jebel ed- 
Druze, and is composed of lava, wh. has flowed fm. 
the volcanic hills E. and S. Its average height above 
the surrounding plains is over 20 ft. A savage and 
forbidding wilderness it is to-day ; although there 
are stretches of rich land, and many traces of anct. 
cultivation within the rocky barriers. (For descrip 
tion see Ewing, Arab and Druze at Home, 26ft.) 
Viewed fm. a distant height it looks like a dark 
island resting on a sea of emerald. The names of 
seventy-one ruined sites in El-Lfja 1 were collected 
by Ewing (PEFQ., 1895, pp. 3666.). It corre 
sponds to the TRACHONITIS of Jos. and the NT. 
The whole district, including the Hauran, and the 
slopes of the mountain Jebel Hauran, or Jebel ed- 
Druze is remarkable for the char, and quantity 
of the remains of anct. towns and cities. Most of 
these are prob. not older than the beginning of our 
era. Those of the Gr. and Rm. period are easily 
distinguished ; but it seems prob. that many of 
them rest upon much more anct. sites, where the 
spade of the excavator may yet reveal not a little of 
surpassing interest. 

Lit. : Merrill, East of Jordan ; Ewing, Arab and 
Druze at Home ; PEFO., 1895 ; Porter, Five Tears 
in Damascus, The Giant Cities of Bashan ; Thom 
son, LB. ; Burton and Drake, Unexplored Syria ; 
De Vogue, Syrie Centrale ; Driver, HDB. s.v. 



Ari 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ark 



ARIEL. (I) " Chief man " (Iv/.. 8. 18 ). (2) RV., 
name of a Moabite whose two sons were slain by 
Benaiah. The name occurs in Moabite Stone, line 
12, of a place. May the men slain by Benaiah not 
have belonged to that town ? (3) Name for Jeru 
salem (Is. 29.) (4) Name for ALTAR (Ek. 43. 16 , 
bar el). 

ARIMATHEA, the home of Joseph who took the 
Saviour s body fm. the cross, and laid it in his own 
tomb (Mw. 2 7 . 57 ; Mk. 15 ; Lk. 2 3 . 50 ; Jn. I 9 . 38 ), 
not cert, identd ; prob. = RAMAII (i S. I. 19 ). 

ARIOCH. (i) K. of Ellasar, confederate with 
Chedorlaomer (Gn. 14. ! ). The Tablets show us 
Eriaku, k. of Larsa. Later A. was overthrown by 
Hammurabi (AMRAPHEL). (2) Captain of Nebu 
chadnezzar s guard (Dan. 2. u ). 

ARISTARCHUS,a Jew of Thessalonica (Ac. 24.^ 
27- 2 ), a friend of St. P.aul, who accompanied him fm. 
Troas to Jrs., and thence to Rome, where he re 
mained (Col. 4- 10 ). Paul calls him his " fellow 
prisoner," but there is no hint of his accusation. 
He may have immured himself to be near his friend. 
(Cp. Lightfoot on Col. 4. 10 .) 

ARISTOBULUS, an inhabitant of Rome (or per 
haps Ephesus), cert, of whose household are saluted 
by St. Paul (Rm. l6. 10 ). A. does not appear to have 
been a Christian or he also wd. have been saluted. 
It has been suggd. by Bishop Lightfoot (Ph., p. 174) 
that A. was a grandson of Herod, a man of great 
wealth, and intimate with Claudius ; he thinks it 
prob. that A. by this time was dead, but that his 
household kept together, poss. being bequeathed to 
the emperor. 

ARK, NOAH S. See FLOOD. 

ARK (Ex. 25. 10 , &c.), A. of the Testimony (Ex. 
25. 22 , &c.), A. of the Covenant of the Lord (Nu. 
lo. 33 , &c.), A. of the Covenant (Jo. 3. 6 , &c.), A. of 
the Covenant of God (Jg. 2O. 27 , &c.), A. of God 
(i S. 3. 3 , &c.), A. of the God of Isr. (i S. 5. , &c.), 
A. of the Lord God (i K. 2. 26 ). These names are 
frequently interchanged. 

The A. is represented as a chest 2^ cubits in 
length, i in breadth and depth (Ex. 25. 10 ). Made 




t ^ 

f 


IBSnBBBHn 


y ""> 




II 





EGYPTIAN ARK 



of acacia wood accdg. to God s direction, within and 
without it was overlaid with gold. A rim or mould 
ing of gold ran round the top ; four rings of the 



same metal were put " in the four feet thereof," 
two on each side. Two staves of acacia wood, over 
laid with gold, were put through the rings " to bear 
the A. withal." The staves were never withdrawn. 
The two tables of stone on wh. were the " ten 
words " i.e. the " Testimony" (Ex. 25. 16 ), or the 
" Covenant " (i K. 8. 1 , &c.) were placed within. 
In later times it was believed that a pot of manna 
and Aaron s rod that budded were also in the A. 
(He. 9_ 4 ). But the OT. knows nothing of this. 
The pot of manna and Aaron s rod were laid up 
" before the Testimony " (Ex. i6. 34 ; Nu. i;. 10 ). 
2 Ch. 5. 10 says u there was nothing in the A. save 
the two tables wh. Moses put there at Horeb." 
Over the A. was placed a covering of pure gold, 
kapporeth, from kdphar, " to cover," in the sense of 
covering, or expiating sin ; therefore, EV. " Mercy 
Seat." At either end of this and of one piece with 
it, stood a cherub. These looked towards the mercy 
seat, and their outspread wings covered it (but cp. 
I K. 6. 27 , 8. 6 ). Between the cherubim is the place 
where the presence of God is manifested (Ex. 25. 22 , 
I S. 4- 4 ). On the day of Atonement the incense 
cloud was made to cover the mercy seat, and on it 
was sprinkled the blood of the sacrifices (Lv. i6. 13ff -). 

That the A. was originally the sanctuary of a tribe wh. 
united with Isr. in the desert, and that it contained a fetish 
stone, is a theory that rests upon nothing but ingenious 
speculation. For discussion of this and similar ideas, see 
Benzinger, HA. index. 

Fm. the first the A. was an obj. of special rever 
ence to all Isr. Its resting-place in the tent of 
meeting is sufficient evidence of its truly national 
char. By its movements those of the camp were 
regulated (Nu. io. 33ff -). It has been inferred fm. 
this passage that the A. was thought of as moving 
spontaneously, but in view of the arrangements for 
bearing the A. (Dt. lo. 8 , &c.), the inference is un 
warranted. The cloud was the guide of those who 
bore the A. 

The importance of the A. is illustrated by the 
part it played at the passage of the Jordan, at the 
capture of Jericho, and at the memorable scene in 
the Valley of Shechem (Jo. 3., 6., 8. 30ff -). The A. re 
mained in the camp at Gilgal during the war of con 
quest. Then it was moved to Bethel (Jg. 2. lff -), or, 
as the true text seems to be, to Bochim, prob. near 
Bethel (Moore, Judges, in he.). It is next found in 
Shiloh (i S. 3. 3 ; cp. Jo. iS. 1 ), whence it was taken to 
war agst. the Phil. It was captured, but such evils 
fell upon the Phil, in its presence that it was re 
turned with gifts, on a new cart drawn by kine, to 
the great stone at Bcth-Shemesh, whence it was 
taken to Kiriath Jearim, to the house of Abinadab, 
where it remained for a long time (i S. 5., 6., j. lt -). 
Owing to the disaster to Uzzah (2 S. 6. 6ff - ; I Ch. 
I3. 9 ), the A. was left for a time in the house of 
Obededom. Blessing rested on the house, and three 
months later the A. was transported to Jrs. with 



3 2 



Arm 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Arm 



great rejoicing, and placed in" the tent wh. David 
had pitched for it. From the tent it was moved to 
its place in the Holy of Holies, in Solomon s temple, 
under the wings of the cherubim (l K. 8. 6 ). The 
temple was rifled by Shishak, k. of Egp. (i K. I.).. 25 "-), 
but the A. is not mentioned among his spoil. Fm. 
1 Ch. 35. 3 it appears that away fm. its place in the 
temple the A. could rest only on the shoulders of the 
Levites. The command to restore it to the house, 
may point to its having been displaced by Manasseh 
(z Ch. 33."), when he introduced his idol. It may 
have continued till the city and temple were de 
stroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (Jr. 3- 16 17 ; 2 Esd. 
IO. 2 -). The tale of Jeremiah concealing the A., &c., 
in the side of Mt. Pisgah (z M. 2. 4 ), is destitute of 
support. The A. disappears fm. hist. In the second 
temple one point of inferiority to the first was that 
it contained no A. 

What was done " before the A." was regarded as 
done in the presence of God. Thus after the defeat 
at Ai, Joshua rent his clothes and fell on his face 
before the A., and communed with J". (Jo. J. 6fl - ; see 
also the sacrifice (2 S. 6. 13 ), and dancing before the 
A. (ver. 13). The A. was cert, regarded as in some 
sense the dwelling of God, so that the presence of 
the A. secured His (Nu. io. 35f -). It is carried into 
battle for the encouragement of Isr., and the Phil, 
hearing this are afraid, saying, " God is come into 
the camp " (l S. 4- 3ff -). It is found in the field at 
Kabbah (2 S. 1 1. 11 ). When David fled fm. Absalom 
the priests carried out the A. with them, cert, as a 
pledge of God s presence ; and only at the k. s com 
mand was it restored to its place. David had 
attained to a clearer vision of the relation of God 
to his people (z S. I5. 23ff "). See also TABERNACLE, 
TEMPLE. 

ARMAGEDDON. See HAR-MAGEDON. 
ARMLET (Ex. 35. 22 , RV. ; Nu. 3i. 50 , RV. ; 
" tablets," AV.), ornaments worn on the upper arm, 
either whole rings or clasps. 

ARMOUR, (i) Shiryon, "coat of mail," a 
breast-plate of scales (i S. IJ. 5 ). (2) Oob a, "hel 
met" (i S. ij. 38 ). (3) Mitzchah, 
"greaves" (i S. _ I 7 .). (4) 
Tzinnab, " large shield," borne 
by shield-bearer (I S. 17."). (5) 
Magen, " small shield " (Jg. 5- 8 ). 
(6) Sbelet, supposed to be a kind 
of shield (2 S. 8. 7 ). 

ARMOUR - BEARER, one 
who bare a large shield (tzinnab), 
EGYPTIAN WITH LARGE who also seems to have carried 
additional spears. Fm. the Asyr. 
marbles he appears to have been ready to despatch 
those whom his master had wounded. Jonathan s 
A. seems to have been also a gallant warrior (i S. 
14. , &c.). 
ARMOURY, (i) Otzar, fig. (Jr. so. 25 ), else 



where, " storehouse " or " treasury " (i K. y. 51 
Ne. io. 39 , &c.). (2) Nesheq (Ne. 3"). This is 
identd. with Solomon s " house of the forest of 





ASSYRIAN COATS OF MAIL 

Lebanon," so called prob. fm. the wood of wh. it 
was built. (3) Talftyotb (SS. 4- 4 ), a tower built by 
David as an A. (RVm. a tower "with turrets "). 

ARMS. See WEAPONS. 

ARMY. When Isr. journeyed through the wil 
derness they were organised as an A. in wh. each 
tribe formed a brigade and each family a battalion. 
There is no trace at this time of any distinction of 
arms, as spearmen, archers, or slingers. In the war 
against Benjamin (Jg. 
2O. 16 ) we learn that 
there were among the 
Benjamites 700 left- 
handed slingers . that 
were singled out as 
marksmen ; implying 
that there were a con 
siderable corps who were 
neither marksmen nor 
left-handed. The defeat 
of Saul at Gilboa appears to have been mainly due to 
the weakness of the Hebrew army in archery,a weak 
ness that DAVID set himself to remove (2 S. I. 18 ). 
Later, after his conquest of Hadarezer, David intro 
duced a limited number of chariots into the armies 
of Isr. (2 S. 8. 4 ). The fact that both Asyr. and Egp. 
had cavalry renders it not improb. that Isr. had this 
arm also. Before the days of Saul the armies of 
Isr. were undisciplined hordes ; the inhabitants of 
difft. vills. wd. prob. fight, each under their own 
headman ; but otherwise there docs not seem to 




EGYPTIAN ARCHER 



33 



Arm 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Arn 



have been any cohesion. Saul gathered three although the X. KJm. developed most, we have 
thousand men to be the nucleus of a standing army more particulars in regard to the S. Jehoshaphat 
(l S. 11,.-). After the defeat of the Phil, at Ephes- appears to have done a great deal for the military 





ARCHERS AND SHIELD-BEARER (Assyrian) 

dammim this standing army was increased ; David 
got the command of a thousand men (l S. iS. 13 ). 
Under David the standing army was increased 
much more. If we presume that all his regulars 



CHARIOT (Egyptian) 

organisation of Judah (2 Ch. I/. 13 19 )- We have on 

the monuments many illustrations of the armies 

of Egp. and Asyr. on 

wh. the armies of Isr. 

were to a large extent 

modelled. 

In NT. times Rome 
is the authority in mili 
tary affairs. The Rm. 
unit was the Legion ; 
it w r as raised under 
Augustus to its nomi 
nal complement of 6lOO EGYPTIAN HORSEMAN 
men ; it was divided into 10 cohorts and 60 cen 
turies. With cavalry and allies, a Legion really 
amounted to nearly 1 0,000 men. Over each cen 
tury was a centurion. 





ASSYRIAN HORSEMEN 



were faithful, then we may estimate their numbers ARNON, now Wady el-Mo jib, E. of the Dead 

by the fact that Ahithophel demanded twelve Sea. It formed the boundary between Moab on the 

thousand men when he wd. pursue after them. A S., and the Amorites under Sihon on the N. (Nu. 

levy en masse was resorted to in actual warfare when 2i. 13 , &c.). It became the S. boundary of Isr. E. of 

a large proportion of the male inhabitants joined the Jordan (Jo. I2. 1 , &c.). It is formed by the junc- 

the standards. After the revolt of the Ten Tribes, tion of two streams c. 13 miles E. of the Dead Sea, 



34 



Aro 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Art 



Seil es-Sa ideh fm. the S., and Wady Enkeileh fm. 
the E. It flows W ward along the bottom of a deep 
gorge, and nearly 3 miles E. of the Dead Sea it is 
joined by the waters of Wady Welch fm. the N.W. 
These streams drain a wide tract of country \V. of 
the Hajj road. 

The " fords of A." are mentioned by Isaiah (i6. 2 ). 
A city may be intended in Jr. 48. 20 . Mesha says on 
the Moabite Stone that he made the " high way in 
A." and built Aroer. Remains of a Rm. road are 
found on either slope of the valley, traces of the 
bridge in the stream, ruins called Mahattet el-Hajj, 



his victorious march (2 K. lo. 33 ). Mesha (Moabite 
Stone Inscr.) claims to have built poss. "fortified" 
it, so it must have been again in the power of 
Moab (cp. Jr. 48. 19 ). The old Rm. road descends 
into the Valley about an hour W. of KHrbet .4ra :r. 

(z) "A. that is before Rabbah " on the Amorite border of 
the territory assigned to Gad (Jo. 13. 2S ; Jg. n. st ). No 
identn. is yet poss. 

(3) A city in Judah (i S. 30. 2S ), prob. the same as Adadah 
(Jo. 15.), now Ar dra, c. 14 miles S. E. of Beersheba, 

ARPAD, a city named with Hamath (2 K. iS. 34 ; 
AV. Arphad in is. 36. 19 , 3y. 13 ), identd. with Till 
Erf ad, c . 1 3 miles N. of Aleppo. It is called Ar-pada 




ASSYRIAN WARRIORS IN ARMOUR, FIGHTING IN CHARIOTS 



" Station of the Pilgrimage," on the S. bank, and 
Aqraba on the N., the ruin of Ara ir, or dr ar 
Aroer, lying further to the E. The Valleys (AV.) 
or Brooks (RV.) of A. are no doubt the Wadies con 
tributory to the main stream (Nu. 2i. 14 ). 

Lit. : Tristram, Land of Moab ; Dr. G. A. Smith, 
in PEFQ., 1904, 190^ ; Brunnow, Die Provincia 
Arabia ; Musil, Arabia Petr<ca, i. passim. 

AROER, Heb. Aro er. (i) A city on the N. bank 
of the Arnon, identd. with the modern Ara^r, or 
*Ar ar. Taken by Sihon fm. the Ammonites, it 
passed into the hands of Isr. (Dt. 2. 36 , 3- 12 , 4- 48 ; 
Jo. 1 2. 2 , I3. 9 - "; Jg. n.26 ; 2 S ^ w h e re H. P. 
Smith (Samuel) reads " fm. A. and fm. the city that 
is in the midst of the Wady "). This seems to be 
the city named in Nu. 32. M , wh., although it lay on 
the S. border of the territory of Reuben, is said to 
have been built by Gad. Hazael pressed S. to A. in 



in the Asyr. Inscrs. It was captured in B.C. 740 by 
Tiglath-Pileser III., after a two years siege. 

ARTAXERXES, Artacbshashta, " Great King." 
(i) A Persian monarch who, induced by the adver 
saries of Judah and Benjamin, hindered the building 
of the Temple (Ezra 4. 7 " 24 ), supposed by some to 
be Pseudo-Smerdis, known by another name ; by 
others he is identd. with (2), because there is no 
trace in cuneiform inscrs. of Persian monarchs 
having two names. 

The text of Ezra as we have it clearly implies that A. 
reigned before Darius Hystaspis, and third after Cyrus the 
precise position occupied by Smerdis the Magian. The want 
of epigraphic evidence that Persian monarchs had double 
names proves nothing : we shd. not have known from inscrs. 
that the successor of Tiberius was called C aligula, or that 
the s. of Severus was called Caracalla. We know that the 
prince in question had two names : Herodotus calls him 
Smerdis (Aeschyl. Pers. 770, .\fardos], but Ctesias, Tanyo- 
xarces; and Xen >phon, Tanaoxares. If the latter was the 



35 



Am 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ash 



real throne name of the usurper, it was nat. for a Jewish 
scribe to change the little known Tanyoxarces into the well- 
known A. ; such a suggn. implies less change than the idea 
that the transaction referred to took place under (2). In the 
hist, of " )ossippon ben Gorion " Epiphanes is called " Es- 
pasianos " (Vespasian). 

(2) S. of Xerxes called Longimanus. NEHEMIAH 
was cup-bearer to A. (Xe. I. 11 ), and permitted by 
A. (2. 6 ) he went to Judca to act as Governor. A. 
reigned from B.C. 465-6.0. 425. EZRA petitioned 
A. for leave to go to Pal. and for assistance (Ez. J. 6 ), 
his petition was granted, and the authorities in the 
province " beyond the River " were ordered to 
supply his needs to " 100 talents of silver, 100 
measures of wheat, loo bottles of wine, and ico 
bottles of oil " (Ez. 7- 22 ). From classical authori 
ties he appears to have been one of the best of the 
Persian monarchs. 

ARUBOTH, RV. ARUBBOTH, the third of 
Solomon s commissariat districts, including Sochoh 
and Hepher (i K. 4- 10 ). No identn. of the district 
is now poss. 

ARUAIAH, a place near Shechem where Abime- 
lech dwelt (Jg. 9- 41 ), poss. el- Ormeb, S.E. of Nablus. 

ARVAD, a small island off the Syrian coast, c. 30 
miles N. of Tripoli, held by the Phoenicians ; the 
modern Arzvad. The Arvadites were skilful sailors 
and brave soldiers (Gn. IO. 18 ; I Ch. I. 16 ; Ek. 
27. 8 - 11 ). In B.C. lioo Tiglath-pileser I. took the 
city. At a later date Ashurnazirpal availed himself 
of their seamanship (COT. 2 i. 173). Strabo (XVI. 
ii. 30) says that the city on the island was founded 
by men who fled from Sidon in B.C. 761 ; but it is 
really of much earlier date. Water supply was ob 
tained fm. the mainland ; but springs of fresh water 
in the sea were resorted to in war-time. It was the 
centre of successful commercial enterprise, wh. 
passed, however, in later times, to its colony on the 
mainland, Antaradus, the mod. Tartits. 

ASA, s. and successor of Abijah, k. of Judah, c. 
B.C. 918-877. In I K. I5. llff> we have an act. of A. s 
zeal in cleansing the land fm. idolatry, in wh. he did 
not even spare his mr. The hostile action of Baasha, 
k. of Isr., in fortifying Ramah agst. A. led him to 
secure the help of Bcnhadad of Syr., at the cost of 
the gold and silver treasures in the temple and in 
the palace. This ally quickly reduced Baasha to 
inactivity ; whereupon A., with the materials col 
lected by Baasha, protected his frontier by fortify 
ing Geba and Mizpah. The u pit " made by A. 
from fear of Baasha, may have been a reservoir for 
provision agst. a siege (Jr. 41. 9 ). " In the time of 
his old age " he suffered fm. what was prob. gout. 
The Chronicler (2 Ch. 14., 1 5.) goes into much more 
detail. The important additions he makes arc : the 
assembling of an army of 580,000 men ; A. s victori 
ous war with Zerah the Ethiopian ; the conference 
with Oded as to his work of reform ; the cove 
nant made with the Lord ; the condemnation by 



Hanani of the alliance with Syria, and the punish 
ment of the prophet ; the statement that A. in his 
sickness " sought not to the Lord, but to the 
physicians." He was buried in the City of David, 
with costly and splendid ceremonies. 

The diffcs. in chronology between the two nars. are not 
here discussed, as no satisfactory explanation of these is at 
present poss. 

ASAHEL. (i) The youngest s. of Zeruiah, br. 
of Joab and Abishai, distinguished by fleetness of 
foot (2 S. 2. 18 ). He was one of David s heroes, and 
commander of a division. He fell by the hand of 
Abner, whom he rashly persisted in pursuing (2 S. 
23. 24 ; i Ch. 27. ~ ; 2 S. 2. 23 ). (2) A Levite in the 
reign of Jehoshaphat. (3) A collector of tithes 
under Hczekiah (2 Ch. ji. 13 ). (4) A priest in the 
time of Ezra (Ez. io. 15 ). 

ASAPH, a Levite, s. of Berechiah, one of those 
set by David over the service of song (i Ch. 6. 31> 39 , 
i6. 5 ), called a " seer " (2 Ch. 2 9 . 30 ). Twelve of the 
Psalms 50, 73-83 are ascribed to A. The 
" Brethren of A." were a guild of singers : the 
" Psalms of A." were really those that were the pro 
perty of this guild. At the same time they might 
have been originally composed by A., and modified 
to meet new necessities, as is the case with mod. 
hymns, and also, it may be noted, with mod. 
Arabic poems. Joah (2 K. i8. 18 ) and Mattaniah 
(Ne. II. 17 ) were descts. of A. 

ASENATH, w. of Joseph, dr. of Potipherah, 
priest of On. There is an interesting story of 
Asenath among the later Pseudepigrapha. Fabri- 
cius, Codex Pseudep. J T. 

ASH (Is. 44. 14 ), RV. " fir tree." The AV. trans 
lators seem to have been misled by the superficial 
resemblance between Hcb. oren, and Latin ornus^ 
" the ash." They are in no way related, and the A. 
is not found in Pal. It is imposs. to say with cert, 
what tree is meant. The most prob. suggn. is that 
the pine is intended (LXX), and of the three 
species found in Pal., the maritime, or stone pine, 
best meets the conditions. It is -planted : witness 
the groves planted to stay the indrift of the sand 
along the coast. It is nourished, by the rain ; it is 
never watered by irrigation. It yields a fine firm 
resinous wood, wh. may be easily carved into an 
image, and it is in great demand as fuel. It will not 
bear transplanting, it is true (Celsius, Hierob.i. 193), 
but " planting " means only the planting of the 
seed in suitable soil. The tree is called by the Arabs. 
Sanaubar. 

ASHAN, prob. = CoR-AsHA\. It is in Judah (Jo. 
It;. 42 ), is given to the priests (Jo. 19." ; I Ch. 6. 51 ), 
and is described as belonging to Simeon (i Ch. 4. 32 ) : 
unidentd. 

ASHDOD, or AZOTUS, a strong city of the 
Phil. : the name seems to signify " fortress." It is 
now Esducl, fully 20 miles S. of Jaffa, and c . 3 miles 



Ash 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ash 



fm. the coast line (Jo. I3- 3 ). It was formerly occu 
pied by ANAKIM (Jo. n. 22 ). Assigned to the tribe 
of Judah (Jo. I5- 47 ), it seems never to have been 
possessed by them (l S. 5- 1 , &c.). Uzziah s conquest 
(2 Ch. 26. 6 ) seems to have been but temporary (Am. 
I. 8 ). It was taken by the Tartan the general of 
the Asyr. Sargon, c. B.C. 711 (Is. 2O. 1 ), and by the 
Egyptians under Psammitichus after a siege of zgyrs. 
(Herod. II. 157), c. B.C. 630. Perhaps Jeremiah re 
fers to this in the phrase " the remnant of A." 
(25- 20 ). Its inhabitants appear as hostile to the 
Jews under Nehemiah (4.", l3- 23> 24 ). A. was over 
thrown by Jonathan (l M. lo. 84 ), and added to the 
province of Syr. by Ptolemy. A. was declared free 
by Pompey, B.C. 63 (Ant. XIV. iv. 4 ; BJ. I. vii. 7), 
and rebuilt by Gabinius (Ant. XIV. v. 3). On the 
death of Herod it fell to his sr. Salome (Ant. XVII. 
viii. i), and A.D. 10, to the Empress Livia (Ant. 
XVIII. ii. 2 ; BJ. II. ix. l). The only mention 
of A. in NT. is in connection with the preaching 
of Philip (Ac. 8. 40 ). 

ASHER, " happy." Eighth s. of Jacob ; his mr. 
was Zlipah. A. had four sons and one dr. (Gn. 35. 26 , 
46. 17 ). In the blessings of Jacob he is promised good 
fortune (Gn. 49. 20 , J. ; Dt. 33- 24 ). Numbering 
41,500 adult males on leaving Egp., A. numbered 
53,400 in the plains of Moab (Nu. I. 41 , 26. 47 , P.). 
A. was placed between Dan and Naphtali, N. of the 
tabernacle. Sethur represented A. among the spies 
(Nu. I3- 13 ). Influenced prob. by profitable rela 
tions with Phoenician neighbours, A. never took 
many of the cities assigned to him (Jg. I. 31 ). Later 
he is reproached for unpatriotic inaction (Jg. 5. 17f ), 
and his name is not found in David s list of chief 
rulers (l Ch. 27. 16 - 22 ). No hero arose from A. 
Some from A.humbled themselves, and came to Jrs., 
at the call of Hezekiah. Anna (Lk. 2. 36ff -) belonged 
to A. 

The towns allotted to A. are not all identd., and 
little more than a guess at the boundaries is poss. 
(Jo. I9. 24tt ; Jg. I. 31 - 32 ; cp. Jo. I7. lof -). Xakr ez- 
Zerqa may have formed the S. boundary, and the E. 
border may have run N wards at a distance of 8 to 
lo miles fm. the coast. Fm. about opposite Tyre 
it seems to have swept E ward, including most of 
Beldd Beshara, and Beldd esh-Sbiiqlf, returning to 
the sea near Sidon (see Ant. V. i. 22). Orange and 
olive still grow to perfection in glen and slope, while 
rich crops are reaped fm. the plains. (2) An un- 
identd. town on the border of Ephraim and Man- 
asseh (Jo. IJ. 7 ). 

ASHERAH. See GROVE. 

ASHES, (i) Heb. epber, Gr. spodos. The word 
is used fig. for what is transient and worthless (Gn. 
I8. 27 ). " Proverbs of A." (Jb. I3. 12 , Heb.) are vain 
speeches. To wear sackcloth and sprinkle the 
person with A. is throughout Scrip, a common sign 
of grief, of humiliation, or of penitence (2 S. I3- 19 ; 



Est. 4. 1 , &c.). To lie or sit (Est. 4. 3 ; Jb. 2. 8 ) or 
wallow (L. 3. 16 ) in A. marks profounder intensity 
of feeling. See further RED HEIFER, SACRIFICE. 
(2) The word deshen is used (Lv. I. 16 , 6. 10 , &c., P.) 
for the A. on the altar when the burnt offering is 
consumed; but it is = epb?r in Jr. 3 1. 40 . (3) Fiah 
(Ex. 9. 8 - 10 ), RVm. prob. correctly " soot." (4) 
Jpher (i K. 20. 38 41 ) shd. be rendered with RV. 
" headband." 

ASHIMA, a deity of the Hamathites (2 K. ij. 3(f ), 
otherwise unknown. 

ASHKELON, a city of the Phil, close on the sea 
coast, c. 12 miles N. of Gaza, now Asqaldn (Jo. 
1 3* > Jg- I - 18 )- If it was ta ken by Judah, it passed 
again to the Phil. (Jg. I4. 19 ; i S. 6. 17 ). Accdg. to 
Herodotus (I. 105), it contained the oldest temple 
of Astarte, or Aphrodite Urania, wh. was pillaged by 
the Scythians. It passed under the power of Egp., 
and then of Bab. It submitted to Jonathan (i M. 
IO. 86 ). As the birthplace of Herod it was greatly 
adorned by him (BJ. I. xxi. n). It was given to 
Salome by Augustus (BJ. II. vi. 3). Later it was 
burned by the Jews. At the outbreak of the war 
the Jews attacked it, but were twice beaten off by 
its Rm. defenders (BJ. III. ii. iff.). It played a 
considerable part in the hist, of the Crusades. The 
existing ruins date fm. these times. The anct. har 
bour has disappeared, and great inroads have been 
made by the sand, alike upon the bldgs. and the 
once flourishing gardens. 

ASHKENAZ, s. of Gomer, grandson of JAPHET 
(Gn. io. 3 ). The Jews imagine the Germans de 
scended fm. A., hence German-speaking Jews are 
called " Ashkenazim." 

ASHNAH. (i) A town in the Shephelah be 
tween ZORAH and ZANOAH (Jo. I5- 33 ). (2) A town 
between Iphtah and Nezib (Jo. I5- 43 ), not identd. 

ASHPENAZ (DANIEL). 

ASHTAROTH. See ASHTORETH. 

ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM, a site of great anti 
quity, where the Rephaim were defeated by Che- 
dorlaomer (Gn. I4- 5 ). It corrspds. with the " Car- 
naim " or " Carnion " of the Maccabees, where it is 
described as a city of great strength, and extremely 
difficult of access. It fell, however, before Judas. 
The temple of Atargatis, in wh. the inhabitants had 
taken refuge, was destroyed, and 25,000 were slain. 
OEJ. distinguishes two sites with similar names. 
One of these is cert. Tell Ashterd, ^ miles S. of el- 
Mtrkez, a hill once strongly fortified, about 80 ft. 
high. It cd. never, however, have answered the de 
scription of A.-K. given above. Tell el-Astfary, c. 
4^ miles further S., while nothing can be inferred 
fm. the superficial resemblance of the name, wh. is 
radically different, standing on a tongue of land be 
tween the gorge of the Yarmuk and a great cleft 
with a waterfall at the top, protected behind by a 
triple wall, must have been a position of enormous 



37 



Ash 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ass 



strength and difficulty of access. El-Mezerib, a cd. therefore be held only by men of wealth ; and as 
once strongly fortified city, on an island in the a sacred character attached to the office they are 
midst of a small lake, on the great Hajj road, has sometimes called " high priests " they were men of 
also been suggd. But any hope of cert, identn. now influence. They seem to have retained the title 
lies in excavation. . after they had retired fm. office. 

ASHTORETH, the female counterpart of BAAL Lit. : Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, excursus on 
in the Phoenician Pantheon ; she is the great nature- Asiarchate ; Ramsay, Cities and Bishopricks of 
goddess, the giver of fruitfulncss. As Baal was the Phrygia, I. $5-58 ; II. cap. xi. 
Sun in one of his aspects, so A. was the Moon, the ASNAPPER (Ez. 4. 10 ), prob. Asshurbanipal, s. of 
Queen of the Stars. In this aspect she has the Esar-haddon, k. of Nineveh fm. B.C. 668 to 626. 
crescent as one of her attributes. Most frequently 
in the statues of A. she appears as a naked female, 
sometimes nursing a child. She was the goddess 
of sexual passion, hence was worshipped with rites 
licentious and impure. The name indicates some 
affinity with the Bab. goddess Istar, but A. has not 
the mythologic importance of Istar. The temples 
of A. were numerous, and her name forms a frequent 
element in Phoenician personal names. A. fre 
quently appears in the plural as ASHTAROTH, and is 
then generally associated with BAALIM. (Rawlin- 
son, Phoenicia?) 

ASHURITES, a tribe over wh. ISHBOSHETH ruled 
(2 S. 2. 9 ). As no such tribe is known it is supposed 
that we shd. read " Ashcritcs." LXX reads Tba- 
seiri ; a rdg. due to the resemblance between alepb 
and tau in Samaritan script. 

ASIA, in the NT., invariably means, not the Con 
tinent, but the Rm. province of that name, with its 
capital at Ephesus. It was formed when in B.C. 133 
Attains, k. of Pergamum, bequeathed his kdm. to 
the Rms. It included the W. part of Asia Minor, 
Mysia, Lydia, Caria, part of Phrygia, with the coast 
towns, the Troad, and the adjoining islands. The 
seat of government at first was Pergamos. It soon 
passed to Ephesus ; but Pergamos and Smyrna were 
both rivals for the title " First of Asia." It was a 
Senatorial province under a proconsul, hence Gr. 
antbupatos (Ac. I9- 38 ). To win this rich and 
prosperous province seems to have been the purpose 
of Paul and Barnabas in devoting the first mission 
ary journey to its great cities. This seems to have 

been Paul s aim in the second journey until hindered During A. s long reign Elam was conquered and 
by the Spirit. But his opportunity came during his Egp. held in subjection ; but the Asyr. Empire was 
long residence in Ephesus, when he met with people being exhausted, and old age had weakened the 
from all parts of the province (Ac. 19. 10 ). In Apoc. monarch himself; hence by the end of his reign 
A. has the older and wider significance. there are signs of decay. A. has earned the grati- 

ASIARCH (Ac. I9- 31 , AV. " chief of Asia," RV. tude of succeeding generations by the Library he 
" chief officers of Asia "). Little is known with collected, and the copies of anct. Bab. writings he 
cert, regarding these officials. An A. is mentioned caused to be made. A. s connection with sacred 
by Strabo (xiv. 649) in B.C. 50. The office may have hist, is due to the colonists he sent into the N. Kdm. 
existed fm. the formation of the province of Asia. ASP, a species of poisonous snake (Heb. pftken), 
Some think they were elected annually ; others, identd. by Tristram with Egpn. cobra. The Heb. 
every four years. They seem to have had to do with word occurs six times in Scrip. ; four times it is 
the assemblies for the worship of Rm. and the cm- rendered A., twice " adder." 

perors. They presided at the festivities and games ASS, the most commonly used beast of burden in 
in the great provincial cities, and prob. defrayed the the nearer East, alike in anct. and mod. times. Its 
expense of the spectacles, as did the Rm. aediles. It gentle step commends it to the rider ; while it 

33 




Ass 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ath 



carries stones fm. the quarry, sheaves fm. the field, 
or sea-borne commodities inland fm. the harbours. 
In Heb. the sexes are distinguished hamor, the 
male, and athon, the she-ass. The prophet of Judah 
who came to rebuke Jeroboam rode on the first (i K. 
I 3- 23 )j an d Balaam on the second (Nu. 22. 22 ). " A 
young ass" is ^yzr (Zc.g. 9 ). There are two breeds of 
A. common in Pal. a small black or dark-brown A. 
and a large white one. There seem to have been 
both breeds in anct. times. Civil rulers are distin 
guished as " Ye that ride upon white asses " (Jg. 
5. 10 ) ; to a certain extent this is still the case. 

The intelligence of the A. is depended on in the East : in 
a long string of camels there are a number of small black 
donkeys dividing the camels into groups of four or five. They 
are provided for the riding of the drivers, who are, however, 
usly. walking together at the extreme rear, while the donkeys 
are left to act as guides. The A. is depicted in Egpn. and 
Asyr. monuments along with captives not infrequently fm. 
Syria. The wild A. has two names in the OT. ,pere and 
drod ; there are two wild species found in the neighbourhood 
of Pal., but there is no cert, that the words represent difft. 
kinds ; or, if they do, wh. of the two either represents. In, 
the Asyr. monuments they are depicted as objs. of chase. 

ASSEMBLY, AV. renders both edah and qahal 
by A. ; RV. restricts A. to the latter. Qahdl is a 
meeting of the community regularly convened for 
business, as distinguished from the community in 
its more gen. aspect ; hence LXX usly. render by 
ekklesia except in Gn., Ex., Nu., Pr., and Ek. For 
fuller discussion see CONGREGATION. The other 
Heb. words rendered A. do not call for treatment. 
In the NT., only in Ac. 19. has ekklesia, referring 
to the citizens of Ephesus, something of its classical 
significance, i.e. the citizens of a Hellenic city con 
vened for legislative or administrative purposes. 
Elsewhere EV. invariably render " church." Pane- 
guris (He. I2. 23 ) is primarily an assembly of a whole 
nation. Sunagoge is the technical term for Jewish 
places of worship apart fm. the temple. In the 
NT. it is only once (Js. 2. 2 ) used of an " assembly " 
of Jewish Christians. 

ASSOS, the mod. Behram, c. 20 miles E. of Cape 
Lectum, on the shore over agst. Lesbos. The acro 
polis was built on a height that sloped up fm. the 
shore, and the remains show it to have been a strong 
position. A. seems to have been architecturally an 
exceptionally fine city ; while the sculptures found 
in the temple of Athena are of singular value now 
distributed between Paris, Constantinople, and 
Boston, U.S.A. A harbour constructed by means of 
a mole gave hospitality to the ships of merchant 
men, while a Rm. road connected A. with Troas and 
the coast towns beyond. This road, cutting straight 
across the promontory, was much shorter than the 
voyage round Cape Lectum (Ac. 2O. 13 ). 

ASSHUR, ASSYRIA. See BABYLONIA. 

ASTROLOGERS, ASTROLOGY, ASTRO 
NOMY. Astrologers professed to tell the future 
fm. the relative position of the stars. A long trea 
tise on Astrology in several recensions has come 



down to us fm. the reign of Sargon I. Closely con 
nected with Astrology is Astronomy : indeed the 
former may be regarded as a deduction fm. the 
latter ; without some sort of Astronomy, Astrology 
wd. have been imposs. The Astrologers of Bab. cd. 
predict eclipses with some accuracy. They were re 
garded as, ministers of idolatry, and are denounced 
by Isaiah (4/. 13 ) as habcre shamayim, " dividers of 
the heaven," hoztm b kokablm, " star-gazers," and 
modi^m lehodashlm, " monthly prognosticators." 
Fm. the Babn. and Egpn. kge. of Astronomy, the 
Hebs. cd. not escape some tincture of the science ; 
but their acquaintance with it seems to have been 
scanty. Almost all we know of the Heb. names of 
the constellations is drawn fm. the semi-foreign Bk. 
of Job. There we find Klazzdroth, " the signs of 
the Zodiac " (38. 32 ), ash, or aytsh, " the Great 
Bear " (g. 9 , 38. 32 , AV. Arcturus "). Orion is kesil 
( 9 . 9 , 38. 32 ; Am. 5. 8 ) ; the Pleiades, kimah (Jb. 9 . 9 ; 
Am. 5. 8 ). Some think Draco is indicated by nahash 
bariah, " the crooked serpent " (Jb. 26. 13 ). When 
the Babs. began their observation of the heavens, 
the star " Alpha Draconis " was prob. the pole-star. 
" The Chambers of the South," hadrey teymdn (g. 9 ), 
are the Southern Constellations. Natly. the sun is 
prominent in the mind of the Hebs. The progress 
of the sun through the signs of the Zodiac had been 
noticed (Ps. 19. 6 ). The phases of the moon were 
observed, but " New Moon " was announced on ob 
servation, never by calculation. The planets (maz- 
zdloth, 2 K. 23., poss. another form of mazzaroth, 
" signs of the Zodiac ") received worship. Saturn 
is " Chiun " (Am. 5- 26 ), and Venus is haylayl ben 
shohar, " Lucifer, s. of the morning " (Is. i-f. 12 ). 
Fm. this we may infer that all the planets were 
named. In the Bk. of Enoch there are some inte 
resting, if crude, astronomical hypotheses to explain 
the varying length of the day. In Daniel, ashsha- 
ptim (l. 20 , &c.) are those who use enchantments, 
rather than Astrologers. These are more prob. re 
presented by the Asyr. word harturnim, derived fm. 
harutu, " a staff." Nebuchadnezzar s irritation at 
the delay in interpreting his dream was due to fear 
lest the auspicious time shd. change a proof that 
he was dominated by Astrological ideas. 

ATAD, a place associated with the great mourn 
ing of Joseph and his brethren, on their way to Heb 
ron with the body of Jacob (Gn. 5O. lor ), apparently 
E. of Jordan, but not identd. 

ATAROTH. (i) A town near Dibon, E. of 
Jordan (Nu. 32. 3 - 34 ), identd. with Khirbet .-fttarus, 
c. 7 miles N.\V. of Dhlbdn. (2) A town on the S. 
boundary of Ephraim (Jo. i6. 2 ), also A.-Addar (vcr. 
5), the mod. Ed-Dariyeb, 12^ miles N.\Y. of Jrs. (3) 
A town also on the S. border of Ephraim E ward, 
unidentd. (4) In I Ch. 2. 5 " 1 prob. a family is meant 
(RV. Atroth beth Joab). 

ATHALIA, dr. of Ahab, called also dr. of Omri, 



39 



Ath 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ato 



her grandfr. (2 K. 8. 1S " 26 ; 2 Ch. 22. 2 ), w. of 
Jehoram, k. of Judah (z Ch. 2 1. 6 ). She introduced 
the Phoenician Baal-worship, and secured the break 
ing up of " the house of God," and the dedication 
of its furniture to Baalim (2 Ch. 24."). Her s. 
Ahaziah having been slain, she grasped at power, 
and had the seed royal destroyed, Joash alone being 
saved alive by his aunt. For six years she exercised 
the royal power. Then Jehoiada, the High Priest, 
made an arrangement with the officers of the 
soldiers, and of the guard, to have Joash brought 
forth and proclaimed k. The use of " the spears and 
shields that had been k. David s," wh. were given 
to the captains over hundreds, was doubtless in 
tended to make a popular impression. Joash was 
brought into the temple, crowned, received " the 
Testimony " or law, and hailed k. with great re 
joicing. The noise brought A., who only then 
learned what was on foot. Her shouts of treason 
awakened no response. Apprehended, and hurried 
beyond the precincts, she was forthwith slain. 

The Chronicler gives the crowning of Joash as the result 
of a. popular movement, while none but Levites are permitted 
to enter the house of the Lord : this in accordance with the 
sanctity of the place, wh. mt. not be profaned by the feet of 
heathen mercenaries, such as the Carites (2 K. n. ; 2 Ch. 

22., 23. \. 

(2) A Benjamite, s. of Jcroham (l Ch. 8. 2C ). 
(3) S. of Jeshaiah, returned fm. Bab. with Ezra (S. 7 ). 

ATHENS stood c. 3 miles fm. the coast, in the 
Attic plain. It was the centre of civilisation, of Art, 
and Letters in anct. Greece, and the mother city of 




ATHENS 

the great empire of former days (see Diet, of Gr. and 
Rm. Geog.~). In NT. times it was in the Rm. pro 
vince of Achaia. It was treated with special favour 
by the Rms., and enjoyed many immunities. The 
Piraeus was and continues to be the port of A., but 
the anct. walls connecting it with the harbour were 
already in ruins. The most striking feature of the 
city was the Acropolis, a hill, the platform of wh. 
was occupied by " one vast composition of archi 



tecture and sculpture, dedicated to the national 
glory, and to the worship of the gods." Among the 
triumphs of Art, masterpieces fm. the hands of 
Praxiteles and Phidias were still to be seen ; and 
also the statue of Pericles, to whom the Acropolis 
owed its glory. To the W. lies the lower height of 
the Areopagus, called " Mars Hill," fm. the Temple 
of Mars wh. stood upon it. S. of the Areopagus was 
the Agora, a spacious square, surrounded by splen 
did bldgs., and adorned with noble sculptures, re 
calling the great events in the hist, of A. This had 
been " the centre of a glorious public life, when the 
orators and statesmen, the poets and artists of 
Greece, found there all the incentives of their noble 
enthusiasm, and it still continued to be the meeting- 
place of philosophers, of idlers, of conversation, and 
of business, when A. could only be proud of the re 
collections of the past." Here Paul met the philo 
sophers with whom he spoke of Jesus and the resur 
rection (Ac. IJ. 18 ). The eagerness of the Athenians 
to hear new things was a matter of old standing 
(Demosthenes, Phil. i. 10), while their " over-re 
ligiousness " is well attested. Jos. calls them " the 
most religious of the Grs." (Contra Ap. ii. 12). On 
every hand were altars and temples of the gods. 
The Athenians seem to have sought to win favour 
fm. every known god, while altars " of unknown 
gods," agnoston tbeon, are mentioned by Pausanias 
(I. i. 4) and Philostratus (fit. A poll, vi. 2). There 
seems to have been ground for the satirical saying 
that it was " easier to find a god than a man in A." 
(Petronius Arbiter, Silt. c. 17). No trace of the 
anct. synagogue has been found, but the inscrs. on 
cert. anct. tombstones attest the presence of a com 
munity of Jews. 

Lit. : Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of 
St. Paid, x. ; Mommscn, Athena Christiana. 

ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF, called in later 
Jewish lit. " the day," or " the great day," fell on 
the loth day of the yth month. It is referred to in 
Ac. 27. as " the fast." Directions as to the day and 
its appropriate ritual are given mainly in Lv. 16., 
23 > 26 32 . With these must be taken Ex. 30. 10 , Lv. 
25., Nu. 29. 7 11 , He. 9.". Fm. these we gather 
that fm. the evening of the 9th till the evening of 
the loth day was " an holy convocation." The 
people were commanded to " afflict their souls," 
i.e. to observe a strict fast, abstaining fm. all food 
and drink. No one should do any kind of work. 
The penalty for breach of these requirements was to 
be " cut off fm. among the people." A special burnt 
offering " for a sweet savour " was made, a young 
bullock, a ram, and seven he-lambs, all without 
blemish, with their meal offerings ; and one he-goat 
for a sin offering. 

The great business of the day was laid upon the 
High Priest. He took a young bullock for a sin 
offering, and a ram for a burnt offering for himself ; 



40 



Ato 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Aug 



and for the people, two he-goats for a sin offering, 
and one ram for a burnt offering. Taking off his 
ordinary clothes, he washed, and put on the holy 
garments of linen. Thus arrayed he presented the 
bullock for the sin offering, making A. for himself 
and his house. Then setting the two goats before 
the Lord, at the door of the tent of meeting, he cast 
lots upon them, one for the Lord, and one for 
Azazel. That wh. fell to the Lord he offered as a sin 
offering. The other he set alive before the Lord, 
and made A. for him ; thus apparently fitting him 
to carry away into the wilderness the people s sins. 
He then killed the bullock to make A. for himself 
and his house. Taking a censer with coals off the 
altar, and sweet incense in his hand, he went within 
the veil, cast the incense on the burning coals, caus 
ing a fragrant cloud to envelop the mercy-seat. 
Then he sprinkled with his finger the blood of the 
bullock on the E. side of the mercy-seat, and before 
the mercy-seat, seven times. This done, he went 
out and killed the goat for the sin offering for the 
people, and carrying of its blood within the veil, 
sprinkled as before, making A. thus for the Holy of 
Holies. In like manner A. was made for the tent of 
meeting, because of the uncleanness of the Children 
of Isr., by sprinkling the blood of the sin offering on 
the altar of incense ; the H. Pt. being alone in the 
tent during the whole ceremony. Issuing from the 
tent he then made A. for the altar of burnt offering, 
putting of the blood of bullock and goat on the 
horns, and sprinkling seven times with his finger 
upon the altar. 

The H. Pt. then took the live goat, laid his hands 
on its head, confessed over it the iniquities of the 
Children of Isr., their transgressions and their sins, 
and sent it away into the wilderness by the hand of 
one who stood ready, that it mt. bear their iniquities 
into a land of separation, whence there cd. be no 
returning. Entering again the tent of meeting, the 
H. Pt. laid aside the linen clothes, assumed his ordi 
nary garments, and, coming out, offered the burnt 
offering, making A. for himself and for the people. 
The fat of the sin offering was burnt on the altar. 
The other parts of the sin offerings, their flesh, &c., 
were carried without the camp and consumed by 
fire. The man who performed this duty, and he 
who led away the goat for AZAZEL, washed their 
clothes, bathed themselves, and then returned to 
the camp. 

The trumpets of Jubilee, proclaiming liberty, &c., 
were ordered to be blown on this day. 

Many mod. scholars believe that this legislation belongs to 
a late date ; that it is post-exilic. They rely upon such 
points as these : absolute silence as to its observance in pre- 
fxilic times; such phrases as "afflict your souls," which 
occur elsewhere only in late Lit. ; the fixing of particular days 
in the year for fasting, and the highly elaborate ritual, are 
taken as indicating a time cert, subsequent to the exile. 
Questions concerning the day of A. must be considered in 
connection with the system to which it belongs. When the 



date of what is called the Priestly Code is satisfactorily 
settled, the smaller problem will also be solved. 

Particulars as to the observance of the day of A. in 
later times are found in the Mishnic tractate Yoma, 
Ant. III. x. 3, and Philo, irepi rrjs e/^So/xvJs nal TMV 
eoprwv (ed. Mangey, ii. 296). In order to guard 
agst. pollution, the H. Pt. was secluded for seven 
days before in a special chamber, away fm. his own 
house. He entered the Holy of Holies four times. 
The prayer he used before killing the sin offering is 
specified, and directions given for the sprinkling, 
additions being made to those in Lv. The two 
goats were to be .as like each other as possible. On 
the neck of that wh. fell to Azazel, a piece of scarlet 
cloth was tied. The H. Pt s. prayer over it is given. 
When the sins of the people had thus been laid on 
it, some of the nobles of Jrs. went with it outside the 
city, and one man led it into the wilderness, where 
he hurled it over a precipice. See AZAZEL, SCAPE 
GOAT. 

It is to be noted that the sins to be atoned for 
were such as mt. be attributed to human frailty, 
apart from deliberate purpose of evil. Those who 
were unable to go up to the temple were held to par 
ticipate in the solemnities, if they observed the 
directions as to work and fasting. 

As Jesus Christ is compared and contrasted with 
the H.Pt.(He.9.),it is proper to observe that in this, 
the supreme function of his office, the H. Pt. acted 
as the representative of the people. But his minis 
try only prefigured that of Jesus Christ ; it made 
nothing perfect. With the blood of beasts he en 
tered but once a year into the Holy of Holies. Jesus 
by His own blood entered once for all into the 
presence of God. He makes an abiding purification 
for His people, who, no longer standing afar off, have 
free access perpetually to their God and King. 

Lit. : Mishna, tractate Yomd ; Lightfoot, The 
Temple Service, Works, 1823, ix. pp. I73ff. ; Eder- 
sheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services, 263ff. 

ATROTH, RV. ATROTH-SHOPHAN (Nu. 
32. 35 ), a town built by the Children of Gad, near 
Aroer and Jazer, not yet identd. AV. reads 
" Atroth, Shophan," as two names. 

ATTALIA, a seaport on the coast of Pamphylia, 
near the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, and c. 15 
miles fm. Perga. It was built by Attalus II. (B.C. 
159-138). It is now Adalia. Steamers cast anchor 
outside the harbour, wh. can now be used only by 
smaller craft. The place was visited by Paul on his 
first missionary journey (Ac. I4- 25 ). 

AUGURY. See DIVINATION. 

AUGUSTUS, great-nephew and adopted s. of 
Julius Cajsar ; b. B.C. 63, d. A.D. 14. After the 
murder of his uncle (B.C. 44), A. with consummate 
duplicity hoodwinked Cicero and the Republicans ; 
and, having secured an army as against Antony, 
united with him and Lepidus to form the 2nd Tri- 
r B 2 



Aug 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Baa 



umvirate. Lepidus was soon thrown aside ; Antony 
having been defeated at Actium, B.C. 31, A. reigned 
for 44 yrs. sole emperor. During this period our 
Lord was born. See JF.SUS CHRIST. 

AUGUSTUS BAND, THE, of wh. Julius, to 
whom the charge of Paul was committed, was a cen 
turion, was prob. a name for the Praetorian Cohorts, 
as the Imperial Guards were called. Tacitus (Hist. 
II. 92) mentions a Julius who was a centurion of the 
Praetorians, appointed one of their prefects. This 
wd. explain the influence Paul seems to have had 
among the Praetorians, " those of Caesar s house 
hold." In Ac. 27. l the RY. rendering is not quite 
accurate ; it is not " the Augustan band " but " an 
Augustan band," implying that this cohort was one 
of several. These cohorts cannot be called A. as 
being composed of inhabitants of Samaria, although 
it was named by Herod Sebaste, " the Augustan " ; 
the words used w r d. have been difft. 

AYA, prop. AYYA, a place whence people were 
brought to occupy Samaria, after Isr. had been 
carried away by the k. of Asyr. (2 K. I7- 24 )- 

AYEN. (i) The plain, Hcb.%W;,of A. (Am. I. 5 , 
RY. " valley ") is prob. the great hollow between 
the Lebanons, wh. is still known as el-Biqa = Coele 
Syria. The sun worship at Baalbckk may act. for the 
Aven = idolatry. (2) A contraction of Beth Aven 
(Ho. io. 8 , cp. 4. 15 ) = Bethel. (3) Applied in con 
tempt, by a slight change in the name, to the great 
city of On, or Heliopolis, in Egp. (Ek. 3O. 17 ). 
AVENGER OF BLOOD. " See Kix, NEXT OF. 
AVIM, AVITES, prop, with RY. AVVIM, Av- 
VITES. (i) The idolatrous people of AVVA (2 K. 
I7- 31 ). (2) A people prob. of the 
original inhabitants in S.W. Pal. 
(Dt. 2. 23 ), whom the invading Phil. 
" destroyed." The survivors fm. 
this destruction seem to have been 
absorbed by the conquerors : at 
least along with them they escaped 
a new " destruction " at the hands 
of Joshua (Jo. I3- 3 ). 

AX, or AXE, in EY. trs. seven 
Heb. words, (i) Garzen (Dt. I9- 5 , 
20. 19 ; i K. 6. 7 ; L. io. 15 ). It was 

used to fell timber, with a head of 
EGYPTIAN AXES irfm t}m mt _ slip from thc nclvc . 

(2) Hcrcb, "knife" (Jo. 5. 2 ), "razor" (Ek. 5.1), or 
" tool " for stone dressing (Ex. 2O. 25 ). This last 
is prob. intended in Ek. 26.. It is usly. rendered 
" sword." (3) Kasbsbil (Ps. 74 . 6 , RY. " hatchet "). 
(4) Magzerdb (2 S. I2. 31 ). (5) lltrerdb (i Ch. 



2O. 3 ), shd. prob. read Magzerdh. (6) Ma atzdcl 
(|r. io. 3 ; Is. 44. 12 , A\"m. and R\".). (7) Oardom 
(Jg. 9 .48; j S. 13. 20.21; Ps. 74 . 5 ; Jr. 46.22), used 





EGYPTIAN BATTLE-AXE 

in cutting wood. In NT. A. trs. <iivr) (Mw. 3- 10 ; 
Lk. 3. 9 ). 

AZARIAH, "whom Jah helps." (i) S. of 
Amaziah, k. of Judah = UzziAH. (2) S. of Hilkiah, 
fr. of Seraiah (i Ch. 6. 13 , 9- n ; Ez. 7- 1 ). (3) S. of 
Oded, who met Asa returning fm. the conquest of 
the Ethiopians, and exhorted him to that reform of 
relg. by wh. his reign was distinguished (2 Ch. 15.). 
(4)" S. of Jelioram = Ahaziah (2 Ch. 22. 6 ). (5) The 
H. Pt. who prevented Uzziah fm. burning incense 
on the altar (2 Ch. 26. 17> 20 ), although Solomon had 
done the same incident omitted by the Chronicler 
without rebuke (i K. 9. 25 ). (6) The fr. of Joel 
(2 Ch. 2 9 . 12 ). (7) A H. Pt. in the time of Hczekiah 
(2 Ch. 3i. 10> 13 ). He was also " ruler of the house of 
God," wh. may be = " captain of the temple " (Ac. 
4. 1 , 5. 24 > 26 ). (8) S. of Hoshaiah (Jr. 43.2), one of 
the men who opposed Jeremiah, and carried him 
with the remnant of the people into Egp. (9) One 
of the Heb. youths, called in Bab. Abcdnego (Dn. 

T 6, 7,11,19 ~ 17N 
i. , z. ). 

A. was a popular name : cp. I K. 4. - 5 ; I Ch. 

2.8,38, 39 } 6.9. I"- 36. 2 Ch. 2I. 2 , 2^\ 28. 12 , 29. 12 ; 

Ez. 7. 1 3 ; Ne. 3. 23 - 24 , 7. 7 , 8. 7 , io. 2 , I2. 33 . 

AZAZEL (SCAPE-GOAT). This trltn. is 
adopted by the R^^ in prefce. to " Scape-goat " of 
the AY. See SCAPE-GOAT. 

AZEKAH, whither Joshua pursued the Can. fm. 
the battle of Beth Horon (Jo. IO. 10 -), was assigned 
to Judah (Jo. i_v 35 ). It was near the Yale of Elah 
(i S. 17."-). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Ch. II. 9 ; cp. 
Jr. 34. )- Lt is named between Lachish and Zorah. 
It was occupied by the Jews after the captivity (Ne. 
II. 30 ). While the district in wh. it lay is thus well 
indicated, the site is not yet identd. 

AZMAVETH (Ez. 2> 4 = Beth Azmavcth, Nc. 
y. 28 ). It is mentioned with Anathoth among the 
towns occupied by the Jews after the captivity, and 
is identd. with Himzeh, between i Andta and Jeb a. 

Several men bore this name (2 S. 23. 31 ; I Ch. 
8. 36 , I2. 3 ). 



B 

BAAL, pi. BAALIM, the supreme male deity of ascription of sex. B. means " Lord," " possessor " ; 
the Shemites ; prob. originally bisexual the pro- therefore B. is an attributive, not a proper name, 
gress of anthropomorphism natly. involving the At first B. and Jehovah were identd., hence Saul and 

42 



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Bab 



David had sons whose names had B. as a constitutive 
element (i Chr. S. 33 , g. 39 , I.J.. 7 ). Gradually it was 
recognised that the connotation was so difft. that it 
was simpler to regard them as difft. beings. One 
point of diffce. was that B. was worshipped by 
images, while J". was not. The attributive char 
acter of B. is confirmed by the fact that it always has 
the article. It occurs 52 times in the sing., and 16 
times in pi. In the same passage, and in refce. to 
the same obj., sometimes first the one is used 
and then the other (cp. Jg. 2. 11 - 13 ; I K. i8. 18 - 19 ). 
Here appears a phenomenon akin to what we meet 
in Romanist countries ; the " Virgins " are in 
dividualised by the localities where they are wor 
shipped. While in one sense they are all difft., with 
difft. attributes ; in another they are one. Some 
times the distinction of sex was understood without 
diffce. of name, as indicated in LXX by fern, art., 
Jr. z. 23 . However, ASHTORETH was usually as 
sumed to be the fern, of B. In Canaan these were 
identd. with the sun and the moon respectively. 
This was a purely local identn., as the Bab. Bel is the 
same deity, but has apparently no connection with 
the sun. B. seems to have meant deity in his 
governmental relation to his worshippers. The 
local Baalim do not show any solar connection. 
B.-Zebub, " god of flies " (this prob. shd. be read 
Zebu!, "a house," i.e. "the sky"). B.-Berith, wor 
shipped in Shechem, Jg. g. 4 . B-Peor, lord of Peor. 
While originally B. worship was degenerate Jah- 
vism, it was difft. when JEZEBEL introduced the wor 
ship of the B. of the Sidonians, with his bloody and 
obscene rites ; hence it was so fiercely combated by 
ELIJAH. 

BAAL (i Ch. 4. 33 ), prob. = BAALOTH-BEER. 

BAALAH. (i) = Kirjath-Jearim (Jo. I5- 9 ; 

I Ch. I3. 6 ). (2) (Jo. I5. 29 ) = BALAH (ig. 3 ), BlLHAH 

(i Ch. 4. 29 ). (3) MOUNT B. (Jo. ij". 11 ), lying be 
tween Ekron and Jabneel. 

BAALATH, in Dan (Jo. ig. 44 ), poss. = B. (i K. 
9. 18 ; 2 Ch. 8. 6 ), named by Jos. (Ant. VIII. vi. i), 
with Bcth-horon, as not far fm. Gezer. 

BAALATH-BEER, or RAMAH of the SOUTH (Jo. 
ig. 8 , RV.), BAAL (i Ch. 4 . 33 ), a hill S. or S.E. of 
Beersheba, poss. marked by the white-domed 
sanctuary, Oubbet el-Baul, S. of Tell el-Milh. 

BAAL-BERITH. See BAAL. 

BAAL-GAD, " Baal of Fortune " or " Destiny," 
N.W. of Hermon in the plain (Jo. II. 17 , &c.). It 
marked the N. limit of Joshua s conquest. It is to 
be distinguished fm. B. -Hermon. Conder thinks it 
may be l Ain Jedeideh. 

BAAL-HAMON, LXX Beelamon (SS. 8. 11 ). 
This may be = Belamon (Jth. S. 3 ), in wh. case it was 
near Dothan, and is perhaps to be identd. with 
Ibleam Bel- ameh, c. ^ mile S. of Jenin. 

BAAL-HAZOR, the property of Absalom, where 
Amnon was murdered. It was " beside " Ephraim, 



and is prob. ident. with Tell Asur, c. 5 miles X. of 
Bethel (2 S. 23- 23 ). 

BAAL-HERMON. " Mount of B.-H." stands 
in Jg. 3. 3 for " B.-Gad under Mt. Hermon " in Jo. 
I3- 5 . But some place E. of Jordan is indicated in 
I Ch. 5. 23 , where the Baal of Hermon was wor 
shipped. This may be ident. with Bdnids, but 
there is no cert. 

BAALIS, k. of the Ammonites. See GEDALIAH 

(Jr. 4- 14 )- 

BAAL-MEON, a town fortified ("built") by 
Reuben, its name being changed (Nu. 32. 38 ), the 
Beon of v. 3. As Beth B.-M. Moses assigned it to 
Reuben (Jo. 13. 1? ). It was taken and fortified by 
Mesha (Moabite Stone Inscr.), and is named by Ek. 
as a city of Moab. Jeremiah calls it Beth Meon 
(48. 23 ). OEJ. places it near the hot springs (Callirr- 
hoe in the Wddy Zerqa l\Ia 7n), 9 Rm. miles fm. 
Heshbon = the modern Khirbet jMa^ln. Accdg. to 
Euseb. it was the home of the prophet Elisha. 

BAAL-PEOR, " the Baal of Mt. Peor." See BAAL 
and PEOR (Dt. 4. 3 ; Nu. 25. 3 ; Ps. io6. 28 ). 

BAAL-PERAZIM, a place of worship in the 
plain of Rephaim, near Jrs., where David defeated 
the Phil. (2 S. 5. 20 ; i Ch. I 4 . n ). Mt. Perazim in 
Is. a8. 21 prob. refers to this place. 

BAAL-SHALISHAH (2 K. 4- 42 ), a seat of Baal 
worship in the " land of Shalishah," wh. lay be 
tween Mt. Ephraim and the land of Shaalim 
(i S. g. 4 ) : poss. Kefr Thilth (PEFM. II. 285, 298^). 

BAAL-ZEBUB, Gr. Badmuian (z K. I. 2 , &c.), 
" the Baal of flies," worshipped at Ekron. See 
BAAL, BEELZEBUB. 

BAAL-ZEPHON, the Egpn. deity, Baali Sapuna, 
after whom a place was called (Ex. I4. 2> 9 ; Nu. 
33. 7 , P.), near the spot where Isr. crossed the Red 
Sea. Nothing is now known either of the place 
or of the kind of worship there practised. A town 
Sapuna is mentioned in the Tell Amarna tablets 
No. 174, ed. Winckler (KB.). 

BAANAH. (i) A Benjamite who, along with his 
br. Rechab, murdered Ishbosheth, and was exe 
cuted and disgraced by David s orders (2 S. 4- 5L ). 
(2) Fr. of Heleb (2 S. 23. 29 ; I Ch. II 30 ). (3) One 
who returned with Zerubbabel (Ez. 2. 2 , &c.). 

BAASHA, s. of Ahijah of Issachar, prob. of 
humble birth (i K. I6. 2 ). Having murdered Nadab 
at Gibbethon, and destroyed the whole house of 
Jeroboam I., he assumed the monarchy, and reigned 
in Tirza 24 yrs. For his wars with Judah and the 
combination agst. him with Syrria, see ASA. He did 
evil, and destruction was denounced agst. his house, 
as it had been agst. that of Jeroboam I. (i K. i6. lf -). 

BABEL, BABYLON, the most famous city of 
antiquity, capital of BABYLONIA. The act. of the 
foundation of B.,Gn. 1 1., relates to early movements 
of the population exhibited in a mythic form. It is 
prob. that the city of the tradition was a yet older 



43 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bab 



city, wh. was destroyed. The Asyr. name Babilu, 
the Gate of God," was transformed into Babel to 
be a mnemonic of " the confusion of tongues." 
Various causes led to the Temple there becoming 
the most important shrine in Bab. The obj. of 
every kinglet who aimed at extending his sway over 
all Bab., the point toward wh. every external con 
queror directed his efforts, was the possession of 
Bab. It was here that Hammurabi (AMRAPHEL) 
fixed his capital. During the Asyr. supremacy B. 
had its own k., and this independence was the occa 
sion of many rebellions agst. the k. of Asshur. In 
order to avert this Tiglath-pileser, Sargon, Esar- 
haddon, and Ashur-bani-pal assumed the title of 
k. of B. and made it twin capital with Nineveh. 
Sennacherib was so enraged by its rebellions that he 
destroyed it ; his s. and successor rebuilt it. It 
owed its greatest splendour to Nebuchadnezzar. 
In Herodotus and Kteeias we have elaborate de 
scriptions of the walls and bldgs of B. These two 
acts, differ in the circumference of B. by 14 miles ; 
as, however, there were two walls, one may be the 
circumference of the outer, the other of the inner. 
It was surrendered to Cyrus by treachery in the 
I Jth yr. of Nabonidus. It continued a place of 
importance into the Gr. period. It is now repre 
sented by mounds and masses of brickwork on the 
E. bank of the Euphrates. These mounds occupy 
much less extent than that assigned to B. by the 
classical historians. Oppert has given a map of the 
city on classic scale, and includes within the walls 
Birs Nimroud, wh. is usually identd. with Borsippa. 
The mounds above referred to represent the Palace 
of Nebuchadnezzar, the Temple of Bel, and the 
Hanging Gardens. The bricks brought from B. are 
all stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. 

BABEL, TOWER OF. Each of the primitive 
cities of Babylonia had a special temple erected to 
the God there principally worshipped, and of this 
temple the ruler (patt si) was priest. Em. the ruins 
and representations on Asyr. bas-reliefs, we learn 
that these shrines were built first on a mound, and 
then in successive stages, each occupying much less 
room than that below it. The temple of Bel- 
Marduk in Babylon was of this char. 

As there \verc older cities than B:ib. , it is poss. that the 
tradition was transferred to it fni. one of them. The LXX 
version of Is. io. 9 preserves the tradition that it was Calneh 
where the "Tower" was built. Hommel (fflil).) hints a 
prefce. for Kish, a city only known to us by the monuments. 
The " Confusion of Tongues " gathers into dramatic unity 
the providential process by wh. God prevented the setting up 
of a premature civilisation. 

BABYLONIA and ASSYRIA. These two 
powers represent one movement in Civilisation, 
Religion, Literature, and Art, as much as do 
Britain and America. Their political methods, 
their religious ideas, and objs. of worship are the 
same : this is true also of their ideals of Lit. and 
Art. In Lang, and Writing they are practically one. 



As their hists. further interlace, it will be advan 
tageous to consider them together under the heads 
of Political History, Civilisation, Religion, Lang, 
and Lit., and Art. 




BABYLONIAN KING 
From Hommel s Bahylonien und Assyrien 

I. History. The earliest monarch who cd. in 
any degree claim to rule over B. was Sargon I., the 
fr. of Naram-sin. 



44 



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Bab 



The date of the latter is fixed by an inscr. of Nabu-nahid 
wh. declares that he ruled 3200 yrs. after Naramsin. As the 
date of Nabu-nahid may be taken as B.C. 550, this wd. make 
the date cf Sargon approximately B.C. 3800. We do net 
know the data wh. led Nabu-nahid to fix the interval, nor 
the precise length of the earliest Babylonian yr. , but after 
all cleducticns we can scarcely place Sargon later than B.C. 
3000. There are the names of isolated sovereigns of an ap 
parently earlier date ; but we know neither the length of 
their reigns nor the extent of their kdms. The ccnnected 
hist, cf B. begins with Sargon I. Before his time B. was 
occupied by small towns with parochial territories, ruled 
over each by its own patesi. With Sargon of Agade began 
the first definite attempt to unite B. under one sceptre. 

After the dyn. of Agade had fallen, that of Ship- 
urla came into prominence under Gudea. The next 
dyn. had their capital in Ur. This dyn. built much, 
as proved by the number of bricks that are found 
with their names. The Dyn. of Ur seems to have 
been overthrown by an incursion of Elamites who 
held the supreme power in Bab. for a couple of 
cents. The effect on Bab. of the Elamite rule was 
like that of the Gallic invasion of Italy on Rome 
it removed all likely opponents to its supremacy. 
With Hammurabi (AMRAPHEL), the 6th of a, till 
then, inconspicuous dyn. of rulers, Bab. rose to Im 
perial dignity. He wrested the power fm. the 
Elamites. It may be that the defeat wh. Abraham 
inflicted on the Elamite monarch, Kudur-Lagamar 
(Chedarlaomer), paved the way for the supremacy of 
Hammurabi (Ge. i-f. 15 ). We may place the end of 
his dyn. about B.C. 2100. 

The overthrow of this dyn., if not caused by 
a Cassite invasion, at least synchronises with it. 
These Kashshu seem to have come fm. the moun 
tainous region at the head waters of the Tigris. 
Simultaneous with the Cassite rule were the be 
ginnings of Asyr. Colonists, refugees fm. the 
Cassite invaders, made their way northward fm. the 
alluvial plain and founded cities in the region after 
wards called A. 



veh, the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen between 
Ninoveh and Calah ; the same is a great city." In the RV. 
Nunrod is the nominative ; he is said to have gone " into 
Assyria." Marduk is now identified with Nimrod. The 
cities of A. were soon combined under the rule of one mon- 
arch and, conscious of their strength, early began to inter- 
fere in the affairs of B. Between Assruiruballit, k. <,f A., and 
Burnaburyas II., k. of B. (B.C. 1350), there was first rivalry, 
wh. was healed by the marriage of ihe heir of the k. of B. to 



great-grandson, Kurigalzu II., on the throne of his father, 
Half a century later, under the rule of Shalmaneser I., A. 
began her career of conquest. His campaigns were mainlv 
W. of the Euphrates, so he did not intervene in the affairs 
of B., but his s., Tikulti-ninib, ruled over A. and B. 
With the murder of Tikul-ninib, A sank into temporary in- 
significance, whileunder theruleof Marduk-billidm I. (Mero- 
dach-baladan) there was a resuscitation of the power of B. ; 
but this was limited by the incursions and conquests of the 
Elamites. About B.C. 1135 arose Nebuchadnezzar I., who 
ferried his arms to the shores of the Mediterranean. Though 
he had a conflict with A. in wh. he claims victory, he made 
no permanent conquests in the N. 



1 1 oo) . His conquests in the N. and W. led Marduk- 
nadin-akhi, k. of B., to invade A., when he was de 
feated. Tiglath-pileser followed up his advantage 
by conquering B., and capturing the city. He left 
Marduk-nadin-akhi the vassal kingship. Tiglath- 
pileser carried his arms victoriously into Elam. 
After his death A. sinks for a time into obscurity. 
This is no doubt owing to some extent to paucity of 
records ; but prob. also it was due to great racial 
movements putting the more settled communities 
on the defensive. 

It is poss. that at this time occurred the intrusion of the 
Kaldi from Arabia into B., who if we take the rendering 
of AV. were assigned cities by the Asyrs. and amalga 
mated with the people of B. 

Again A. revived when Tiglath-pileser II. came 
to the throne. This restoration of the Empire was 
carried on by his successors, till it culminated in the 
reigns of Asshur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser II. 

The latter, in carrying on his conquests to the W. , en 
countered the Syr. confederacy under Ben-idri (BENHADAD) 
of Damascus and AHAB of ISRAEL in the battle of Qarqar. 
Shalmaneser claims the victory, but the fact that the cam 
paign had to be renewed again and again gives his alleged 
victory the appearance cf a defeat. At length when Isr. 
and Syr. were weakened by mutual conflicts he captured 
Damascus and received the submission of Benhadad the s. 
of HAZAEL; JEHU also brought tribute. 

Shalmaneser intervened in the affairs of B., 
at the call of Marduk-nadin-shum, whom he 
maintained on the throne as his vassal. After 
the death of Shalmaneser (B.C. 825) a period of 
decadence set in. It is true that victorious cam 
paigns are recorded in the annals, but the limits of 
the Empire are receding. 

During this period arose the brief empire of JEROBOAM 
II. ; an empire only poss. during a time when Egp. and 
Asyr. were weak. 

In 74^ Tiglath-pileser III. ascended the throne 
and restored the prestige of A. He appears to have 
been a usurper, as he does not claim a royal ancestry. 



A. in turn revived under Tiglath-pileser I. (B.C. 



k. of B. He overthrew Rezin, k. of Syr., and con- 

que red Galilee ; he reduced Isr. to the position of a 

i JTJ A r T j i_ j i j 

vassal state under HosnEA. AHAZ of Judah declared 

himself the vassal of A. to be protected agst. PEKAH 

and R Qn his death Hoshea rebelled agst. his 

T IT-HI 

s. and successor, Shalmaneser IV. (called L lulai, as 

k. of B.), who marched into Pal. and laid siege to 
Samaria. During the siege he died, and was sue- 
ceeded by Sargon II., who captured Samaria and 

deported all the leading inhabitants. Sargon was 

,- , r jjj 

one of the greatest sovereigns of A., and extended 

the Empire in all directions. In a campaign in 

Cili ; the Yavna (the Greeks) were encountered 
.... . . . . v . . , ... ,. 

and defeated by him. By his I artan (generalissimo) 

he appears to have conquered the Phil. (Isa. 2O. 1 ). 

TT rprp ; v<v ] t \, P S11 kmission of Herekiah the result 
. " * 

it wd. seem, of a difft. campaign fm. that agst. the 

Phih (I sa . lo. 26 32 ). Fm. the throne-name he chose 
it wd. appear that Sargon claimed an ancestry wh. 



45 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bab 



linked him to the anct. k. of B. of the same name. 
Certainly this dyn. occupy themselves much more 
with the affairs of B. than those wh. preceded them ; 
in fact Babylon and Nineveh were twin capitals of 
the Empire under some of these monarchs. Various 
efforts were made to conciliate the people of the 
Southern Kdm. ; Sargon stayed occasionally in 
Bab. The efforts of the Sargonids at the pacifica 
tion of B. were hindered by Marduk-billidin (Mero- 
dach Baladan) II., k. of Bit-Jakin, who had secured 
the throne between the death of Pul (Tiglath- 
pileser) and the accession of Sargon. Sargon, after 
a time, placed a younger s. as k. On the accession 
of Sennacherib Marduk-billidin appeared, and the 
deposed k. was murdered. Sennacherib, after re 
peated attempts at satisfying its inhabitants, de 
termined to treat Bab. as Frederick Barbarossa 
endeavoured to treat Milan ; he decreed its utter 
desolation. Whether as taking advantage of these 
difficulties in B., or as ally of Marduk-billidin, 
Hezekiah withheld his tribute ; Sennacherib, in 
marching agst. Tirhakah (Taharqa), determined to 
bring Hezekiah again into subjn., captured the 
majority of the cities of Judah and compelled 
Hezekiah to pay a large ransom (2 K. i8. 14 ). Hear 
ing of the advance agst. him of Tirhakah, Senna 
cherib determined to take Jrs., feeling a hostile for 
tress a danger to his communications, but pestilence 
swept away the greater part of his army (Is. 37- 36 ; 
2 K. IQ. 35 ). 

Herodotus relates this event fin. an Egpn. standpoint : 
Herod, calls Sennacherib k. of the Arabians. 

On his return to B., Sennacherib had to face a 
coalition of Elam with B. After several vicissitudes 
he was finally successful and appointed his s., Esar- 
haddon, viceroy in B. Sennacherib was assassinated 
by two of his sons, and Esarhaddon ascended the 
throne. Prob. during his viceroyalty Esarhaddon 
rebuilt Bab. Manasseh of Judah, whom he reckons 
one of his vassals, when he threatened rebellion, was 
carried to Bab., not Nineveh. Esarhaddon conquered 
Egp. and split it up into kdms. It was Esarhaddon 
who sent the heathen colonists into the Northern 
Kdm. of Isr. (Ez. 4- 2 ). He was succeeded by his s. 
Asshur-banipal (Asnapper); he confirmed the power 
of A. in Egp. and completed the conquest of Elam. 
In the course of his long reign the Empire of A. 
gained its widest extent. On his death a period of 
rapid decadence set in ; his sons, Asshur-itil-ila, and 
Sinshar-iskun (Saracus),were unable to maintain the 
Empire. The circumstances of the fall of Nineveh 
can only be vaguely guessed. The numerous cam 
paigns of the warlike Sargonids had no doubt ex 
hausted A. ; there may have been incursions of 
nomads fm. the Altaic steppes ; there cert, was the 
rebellion of Egp. under Necho ; the setting up of 
an independent B. under Nabopollasar ; and the 
alliance of the latter with Media. If we cd. dis 



entangle the prose fm. the poetry in the prophecies 
of Nahum we mt. form some idea of the occurrence. 
Nineveh, unlike its rival Bab., utterly disappeared 
within a comparatively short time after the fall of A. 

The fall of A. was the occasion of the rise of the 
last Babvlonian Empire. Nabopollasar assumed 
the headship of the Asyr. Empire, and his s. 
Nebuchadnezzar encountered Necho at Carchemish, 
and defeated him. Necho had endeavoured to 
secure Pal. and Syr. as the Egpn. share of the fallen 
Empire, but his hopes were destroyed by this 
disaster. The young conqueror followed up his 
success by pursuing the Egpn. army to the boun 
dary of their own country, and securing the allegi 
ance of the recent vassals of Egp., who had formerly 
been all vassals of A. While engaged on this, he re 
ceived news of his father s death. Leaving the 
heavy troops and the long line of captives to follow 
the usual caravan route through Syr., he crossed the 
desert with the light troops alone, and secured the 
throne agst. any usurper. Unlike his Asyr. prede 
cessors, the inscrs. of Nebuchadnezzar do not record 
his military expeditions so much as the temples, by 
the erection of wh. he honoured the gods. Fm. the 
influence he had on the fortunes of the Jews, he is 
prominent in Scrip., but the Empire of Nebuchad 
nezzar was much less than that of A. ; the North and 
East were the share of the fallen Empire appro 
priated by the Medes. 

In his pursuit after Necho, Nebuchadnezzar had 
by a sharp siege compelled Necho s vassal Jehoiakim 
to submit to him, surrender a part of his treasure 
as ransom, and give hostages. For 3 yrs. he was 
faithful to his new suzerain, but in the 4th yr. 
he rebelled. Poss. he may have been seduced by 
promises of Egpn. aid ; or Nebuchadnezzar may 
have been occupied in war at a distant part of his 
Empire. It was 3 yrs. before Nebuchadnezzar 
came agst. the rebellious vassals. By this time 
Jehoiakim was dead, and his throne was occupied by 
his s. Jehoiachin, a youth. Nebuchadnezzar put his 
uncle Zedekiah on the throne. He also rebelled, 
after he had reigned about 8 yrs. Tho Jerusalem 
resisted obstinately, it was at length taken and 
demolished. 

During his long reign of 43 yrs. Nebuchadnezzar 
practically rebuilt Bab. He was succeeded by his s., 
Evil-merodach, who was assassinated by his brother- 
in-law, Neriglissar, after a reign of 2 yrs. Neri- 
glissar reigned 4 yrs. and was succeeded by his s., 
Labosoarchod (Labashi-Marduk), a mere child, who 
after a nominal reign of 9 months, was put out of 
the way, and a Bab. noble, Nabunahid, was put on 
the throne. So the race of the Chaldean conqueror 
came to an end ; himself, his s. and his grandson 
had occupied the throne, as prophesied by Jere 
miah (27."). Although he was not of the family 
of Nebuchadnezzar, he may have married into ic. 



Bab 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bab 



The reign of Nabunahid was characterised by an en 
deavour to centralise the worship of the Empire by 
bringing to Bab. the statues of the various local 
deities ; his efforts do not seem to have been counte 
nanced by the priesthood. The beginning of his 
rule was vigorous, and appeared likely to be pros 
perous, as the threatening power of the Medes was 
broken by the successful revolt of Cyrus, the k. of 
the vassal state of Anshan. Nabunahid reigned 16 
yrs ; during at least five of these he was in some way 
incapacitated ; the annals tell us that " the k. was in 
Tema " ; certain of the functions of royalty were 
therefore in abeyance, and others were performed 
by the " king s son," Belshazzar, who seems to have 
possessed warlike energy and skill, as the annals 
always declare him to have been with the " rabuti " 
on various points of the frontier. In B.C. 536 Cyrus, 
having conquered Lydia, turned his arms agst. B., 
poss. by invitation of the priesthood. By treachery 
Bab. was surrendered to his general Gobryas. So 
ended the Assyro-Babylonian Empire. It ought to 
be noted that, to the Jews, the Persian Empire was 
a continuation of that of Asy. ; even Darius 
Hystaspis is called " the k. of Assyria " (Ez. 6. 22 ). 

II. Civilisation of Babylonia and Assyria. 
We have a very considerable amount of information 
as to life and manners in B. and A. In the age of 
Hammurabi, rather more than two thousand yrs. 
before Christ, we have the Code of that monarch, 
and further, a collection of letters fm. and to him. 
We are thus in a position to estimate to some extent 
the degree to wh. society had become organised in 
B. by the beginning of the second millennium B.C. 
For a later date, there are gathered in the difft. 
Museums of Europe and America, collections of 
contract tablets, i.e. clay tablets on wh. are recorded 
mercantile transactions of various kinds. These are 
of widely difft. dates, but are fullest about the end 
of the Sargonid period, and the last Empire of B. 
In a state of barbarism the individual has to do 
everything for himself ; the only complexity is 
what is involved in the constitution of the family. 
As society grows in civilisation the individual be 
comes a more and more specialised organ, in an 
organism ever widening and always becoming more 
complex. In some aspects society was more com 
plex in B. than among ourselves. There were four 
grades of legal status ; crimes had a difft. heinous- 
ness accdg. to the status of the criminal, in relation 
to the victim of the crime. There were Patricians, 
Plebeians, Serfs, and Slaves. Each of these had 
certain rights as agst. the others. In the family 
there was equal complexity ; there were four classes 
of children legitimate children, the progeny of 
legalised concubinage, natural children, and chil 
dren by adoption. Besides the priests of various 
grades and various deities, there were female 
votaries connected with difft. shrines. There is 



some difficulty as to these votaries ; they may be 
married, but it is assumed that the marriage relation 
is merely nominal ; yet arrangements are made in 
the Code of Hammurabi for the sons of these 
votaries. Whether such a person was the s. of the 
votary s nominal husband by her maid, accdg. to an 
arrangement regularly entered into, or whether 
there was some such custom in regard to votaries as 
that narrated by Herodotus (I. 196), does not seem 
clear. In business and commerce, if relations were 
not as complicated as among ourselves, there were 
commission agents, partnerships, rents, leases, and, 
latterly at any rate, banks. Such various and exten 
sive mercantile undertakings implied ample means 
of intercommunication. The two great rivers wd. 
early suggest to the inhabitants of B. the advantage 
of waterways ; this led to the making and preserva 
tion of canals, wh. were also useful for irrigation. 
If roads were not made with the solidity and 
mathematical accuracy of the Romans, still trade 
routes were kept open. Large caravans regularly 
conveyed goods fm. the shores of the Mediterranean 
and the Red Sea, if not also fm. India. The staple 
occupation was agriculture, and the presence of the 
great rivers led to canals for irrigation. All this im 
plies an efficient administration of justice ; tribu 
nals on the whole fairly impartial, and a police 
fairly effective. Save in the matter of relg. there is 
truth in what Dr. Johns says (Bab. and Ass. Laws, 
viii.) : " A right thinking citizen of a modern city 
wd. prob. feel more at home in Anct. Bab. than in 
Mediaeval Europe." 

Such a state of civilisation cd. not be attained at 
once ; but as we have no records we can only con 
jecture the line of progress followed. We see traces 
that immediately before the period of wh. we have 
distinct kge. B. was covered with small walled towns, 
the inhabitants of wh. cultivated the territory in 
their immediate vicinity. In the centre of each 
there was a ziggurat, or tower, built in lessening 
stages ; this served at once as a temple and a fortress. 
The rule was in the hands of the patesi or local 
priest. There was all the civilisation open to a vill. 
community, but that alone ; there wd. be car 
penters, smiths, &c., all the trades that cd. be sup 
ported in a small community. Any undertaking 
that implied the combination of several communities 
was imposs. Certain cities began to attain a leader 
ship, and their rulers assumed the title of king. 
More extensive works cd. now be undertaken ; 
canals for irrigation and dykes to limit the inunda 
tions, due to the annual swelling of the Tigris and 
the Euphrates ; these structures required perpetual 
care, watchfulness, and repair ; and the incidence of 
the burden of this cd. only be settled by a central 
authority. By the times of Hammurabi the central 
authority was thoroughly established. Each town 
had its patesi ; prob. a hereditary office. The soul 



47 



Bab 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bab 



of civilisation, that without wh. all co-operation wd. 
be imposs., is the administration of justice. The 
Code of Hammurabi exhibits the function of the 
judge as so fully understood that no definition of his 
functions, or statement of the mode of his appoint 
ment, is thought necessary. The cities retained a 
good deal of independence each under its own k. or 
pat e si ; and the judge appears to have had the elders 
of the city as his assessors in any trial. 

The fundamental industry being agriculture, 
tenure and tenancy of land occupied a prominent 
place in the legislation of B. In the sale of land 
there were not only documents, but also careful 
plans. Serfs were sold along with the land when the 
portion sold was at all extensive, sometimes in the 
case of a large estate a city is mentioned as part of 
the subj. sold, though gen. the number of inhabi 
tants indicates that it was rather a hamlet. The 
fundamental measure was the U or double cubit = a 
yard ; 12 of these squared was the GAR, and 1 806 
of these was a GJ^ = ^ acres. Land was also 
measured by the amount of grain required to sow it 
The boundaries of fields were marked by boundary 
stones, many of wh. have come down to us. 

As has been already mentioned, the inhabitants of 
B. and A., esp. the former, were greatly occupied 
with commerce ; of every sale of any importance a 
record was made : apparently not only was a copy 
kept by each of the principals, but a third clay tablet 
was deposited in the village temple. This early 
suggd. a medium of exchange. The unit of value 
was the GUR of corn ; it was soon found that the 
precious metals formed a better medium, so we find 
the silver shekel as the unit of value = a GUR ; gold 
was to silver as 12 to I. Although there are no 
specimens of coins even from the latest Empire of 
B., yet their " sealed money " whether it meant 
bars of silver stamped, or small bags sealed as con 
taining a given amount served very much the 
same purpose. When Abraham purchased the field 
of Machpelah the price he paid was said to be 
" current money of the merchant." All following 
on this we have rent of land, leases, hiring of 
labourers, debts and interest. Although slavery by 
its nat. implies a lengthened hist, in wh. the custom 
arose and crystallised, yet we find it existing in the 
most primitive forms of culture : our most anct. re 
cords do not show us a time when it was not. Slaves 
in B. had certain clearly defined rights wh. made 
them less of mere chattels than were the negroes in 
America ; they cd. acquire property, engage in 
trade, and be principals in contracts with freemen. 
Serfs were on a higher plane than slaves ; although 
they cultivated plots of their master s ground, they 
often possessed land and stock of their own. Be 
tween these classes were the married slaves who had 
a house of their own. Fathers often sold their chil 
dren, " it was a sure provision for life for a child, to 



sell him as a slave to a family in good position " 
(Johns, B. tf.l.L.,p. 173). 

More closely connected with the very foundation 
of society is the constitution of the family. Mar 
riage in B. had primitively been by purchase : as in 
the case of Abraham with Isaac, the father arranged 
the union. The normal condition was monogamy, 
but in cert, cases, noticeably in the case of a female 
votary, who was a wife merely in name, she was ex 
pected to act as Sarah did, and send her maid to the 
couch of her husband in her stead. Barrenness or 
disease on the part of the wife seem to have implied 
the same relationship. A man sometimes married 
two sisters at the same time, tho this was rare. 
That a slave girl shd. be the concubine of her master 
is regarded as the prob. state of matters ; she had a 
different legal status if she had borne her master 
children. Children mt. be adopted ; indeed a cert, 
claim on the family inheritance mt. be grounded on 
the fact that a child had been brought up in it ; his 
foster father cd. not send him away penniless. The 
patria potestas is strongly maintained ; if a son 
struck his father his hands were to be cut off (C. of 
H.). Cert, trades had careful regulations made for 
them ; doctors esp., then house-builders and boat- 
builders ; shepherds, farmers, and boatmen were 
also regulated. It is assumed that the property of 
the father is, on his decease, to be equally divided 
among all his sons ; there seems no trace of primo 
geniture giving any advantage as it did among the 
Jews (Deu. 21. 1< ). The number of letters and con 
tracts that have come down to us, many of them 
signed by the actual scribe, show the important 
place in the life of B. filled by the scribe. It may be 
observed that several of these are women. 

As Science can only be pursued under a stable 
government, the state of Science is an indirect evi 
dence of the civilisation of a community. The 
enactments in the Code of Hammurabi in regard 
to physicians, imply considerable proficiency in 
some of the simpler forms of surgery. It was, how 
ever, mainly in ASTRONOMY that B. taught the 
world. The Babylonians had fixed the length of 
the yr., the signs of the Zodiac, the phases of the 
moon, and the principal planets. On their return 
fm. B. the Jews adopted the Calendar of B., and the 
names of the months. See YEAR. 

III. Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. We 
have seen that the primary name of the principal 
ruler of a city was patesi ; whether or not " priest 
hood " was involved in name is not cert., but in 
practice he was the High Priest of the local shrine. 
These pyramidal ziggurats were the most prominent 
objs. in the flat plain of B. So far as can be ascer 
tained there was only one deity worshipped in each 
small city. Sometimes the deity was simply called 
Bel, " Lord of," of a given place, e.g. Nippur ; who, 
we find, is also called En-lil. Others become identd. 



48 



Bab 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bab 



with powers of Nat. ; thus, the god of Sippar was Heaven, Earth, and Sea. At a later period female 
Shamash, " The Sun God," and the god of Ur was counterparts are assigned to these as wives, but these 
Sin, " The Moon God." Some of the names seem are colourless creations. Beneath these is a lower 
to be attributive, although it is difficult to decide, Triad of heavenly bodies Shamash, the sun god ; 
from the occasional ambiguity of the signs. That Sin, the moon god ; and Ramman, the god of the 
the natl. obj. was regarded, not 
as the god but as his symbol, | 
may be proved by a scene on a 
" Sun-god tablet " in wh. the 
deity is represented sitting in his 
shrine, while a fig. lets the sun 
down with ropes. If each vill. 
began intending to worship the 
one supreme God, but soon was 
led to give prominence to cert, 
attributes, or to associate Him 
with cert. natl. objs. as His 
symbols, we can easily under 
stand the growing differentia 
tion. It wd. soon appear that 
the difft. names and attributes 
represented difft. beings ; the 
analogy of this process we have 
seen in Roman Catholic coun 
tries with regard to the " Vir 
gins " of difft. places (see above). 
The ascription of sex might 
follow fm. grammatical or attri 
butive reasons. When, possibly 
owing to assaults by marauders 
fm. the mountains or the desert, 
the separatist tendency was 
superseded by one wh. led to 
combination, the relation of the 
deities to each other had to 
be taken into account. The need of a unifying atmosphere. Then comes Marduk, the s. of Ea, who 
Theogony led to the composition of the sacred becomes later identd. with Bel, and is regarded 
Epics by some unknown poet or poets, who per- by Nebuchadnezzar as the supreme Deity. This 
formed for B. what Hesiod did for Greece. The identn. is made the easier that Bel primarily meant 
attribution of sex suggd. marriage and progeny. "Lord." Along with Marduk is his s. Nabu (Nebo), 
This in turn suggd. a Cosmogony in wh. the gods prob., as Marduk was a sun-god, originally the 
themselves had a beginning. The ages of the re- planet Mercury, latterly the god of wisdom. Ner- 
spective gods seem to have been to some extent gal is also a prominent deity, the god of battle, pesti- 
fixed by the relative date at wh. the city in wh. their lence, and of the dead. The relg. of B., although so 
temple was, attained prominence. Further from markedly polytheistic, may have sprung fm. mono- 
physical or metaphysical reasons, cert, beings were theism, and certly. shows tendencies back to mono- 
looked upon as more primitive ; thus Chaos, per- theism. Many of the hymns of B. mt., if J". were 
sonified as the Dragon Tiamat, is looked upon as to replace Marduk, be used by a pious Heb. At the 
existing before the gods a view wh. we find also in same time the actual worship of the people, it is 
Hesiod. Such a beginning shows the influence of almost cert., wd. be the crassest idolatry, 
philosophic reflection rather than free mythologic IV. Language of Babylonia and Assyria. In 
imagination, and therefore represents the end, not the actual evolution of a lang. the spoken ncces- 
the beginning, of the evolution of theologic thought, sarily precedes the written ; words are first spoken, 
Apsu is assigned to Tiamat as consort ; then follows and then after a time comes the thought of record- 
the birth of the gods. There are traces of a yet ing the words so uttered. When one learns the 
earlier theorising as to the gods. Accdg. to it, at the living lang. of a civilised people, the words spoken 
head of all things was a Triad or Trinity, consisting and written are learned almost simultaneously. In 
of Anu, Bel, and Ea, the deities respectively of the case of the recovery of the lang. of Anct. Bab. 

49 




BABYLONIAN TEMPLE (Ziggurat) 
From Hommel s Babylonien und Ass\rien 



Bab 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bab 



and Asyr., the discovery of the significance of the 
strange chars, cut on the face of the rock at Be- 
histun, preceded by a considerable length of time 
the successful trn. of these into their vocal equiva 
lents. The problem was complicated by the fact 
that the lang. of the earlier inhabitants of Bab., who 
invented the cuneiform script., greatly diffd. fm. 
that of Nineveh and Bab. in the days of the Sar- 
gonids and Nebuchadnezzar, hence the same chars. 
had widely difft. sounds. 

The story of the decipherment of the cuneiform inscrs. is 
one of fascinating interest, but too k ng to be narrated here : 
suffice it to say the accurate copies made by Carsten Niebuhr, 
the brilliant conclusions drawn fm. a painstaking study cf 
these by Grotefend, and the verification, and to a slight ex 
tent the correction of these by the skill, perseverance, and 
daring of Rawlinson supplemented by the labours of others, 
have opened to modern times the volumes of Babylonian and 
Assyrian hist. , that had been shut for more than two mil 
lennia. Further discoveries and decipherments revealed the 
fact, that the writing cf the time of the Sargonids and 
Achaemenids, was a late form at once of spelling and script. 
The relation in wh. these stand to each other may be com 
pared to that of the Old English Black Letter to mod. type. 
Only in the earliest form, that in wh. the code of Hammurabi 
was inscribed, is there any trace of the hieroglyphic origin 
of this form of writing ; and even in it the instances are few 
where this is obvious. The form of the chars, in this earliest 
script suggs. that the inscr. was scratched en a hard surface. 
Some of the bricks fm. Mugheir have been stamped by a 
stamp in relief ; this was rjrob. moulded on an excised inscr. 
made on stone. When clay became the ordinary \\riting 
material the incisions were made by a fine blunt metal chisel, 
the end pressure of wh. made the wed ge-shaped mark whence 
this script is called cuneiform. 



<HMf -^T 



First line: c. B.C. 3750. Second line: c. B.C. 2000. 
Third line : New Asyr. Cursive. 

DEVELOPMENT OF CUNEIFORM SCRIPT 

(Title of the King : lit. " King of the Four Regions " = 

All Babylonia) 

It was early guessed that each char, represented a 
syllable, and it was also soon recognised that, as in 
Egpn., determinatives marked off the meaning of 
the substantives, e.g. when a word meant the name 
of a god it was preceded by the sign ^ T , when it 
meant a country by V^~. The difficulty of analysing 
the structure of the recovered lang. was increased by 
the number of syllabic signs over 400. Many of 
t hese represent widely differing sounds ; and further, 
not a few instances are found in wh. the same sound 
is represented by difft. chars., e.g. the name Eri-akti 
(ARIOCII) may be also read Rim-Sin. Gradually, 
however, the grammatical forms were ascertained, 
when it was found that the later Babylonio-Assyrian 
tongue was Semitic. The verb is nearly as elaborate 
as the Arabic ; it has twelve conjugations, arranged 
in three classes, and three tenses. The pronouns are 



essentially the same as in other Semitic langs. The 
discovery of the extensive library of Asshur-bani- 
pal, and afterwards of other collections of bks., 
enables us to speak of a Babylonian and Assyrian 
Lit. The earliest literary form that langs. assume is 
poetry. Asyrn. is no exception to this gen. law ; its 
Lit. proper consists almost entirely of sacred Epics, 
hymns to the gods, and penitential psalms. Prose, 
as a literary vehicle, seems never to have been at 
tained ; their hists. are baldly annalistic. Weber 
(Babylon. Lit.) maintains that there was an elabo 
rate and strictly maintained system of versification. 
It seems to have been founded on relations of 
thought rather than of sound, as is the case with the 
poetry of the Hebs. For the Epics of Creation and 
the Deluge, see CREATION, FLOOD. The lang. of the 
Babylonian penitential psalms suggs. to the reader 
the Heb. Psalter. See PSALMS. 

While we have above devoted ourselves mainly to 
the Semitic tongue in use in the monuments of the 
Asyr. Empire, there was an earlier lang. called pro 
visionally, sometimes Accadian, sometimes Sume- 
rian, the precise relationships of wh. are difficult to 
fix. In this the sacred books seem to have been 
written, and were trd. into the later Semitic tongue. 
In the library of Asshur-bani-pal numerous sylla 
baries were found giving the equivalents in the 
more recent lang. of the words and phrases of the 
more anct. Another change had taken place before 
the days of the Sargonids. Aram, appears to have 
superseded Asyrn. as the spoken lang. of the people. 
A number of weights were found in the palace of 
Sargon, having on the one side the denomination of 
the weight accompanied by the names and titles of 
Sargon in Asyrn., while on the other we have in 
Aram, merely the weight in shekels ; the one side 
was the formal and legal, the other was that meant 
for ordinary use. Our coins present a similar pheno 
menon ; on the one side we have the k. s titles in 
Latin, on the other the denomination of the coin 
in English. The numerous contract-tablets that 
have been preserved give us another proof of this ; 
while the contract proper is in the Bab. -Asyrn. 
char, and lang., the docket on the wrapper is very 
frequently in Aram., a practice wh. implies that 
those searching the records mt. be presumed to 
be more intimate with Aram, than with Assyrian 
(Winckler, Gesch. Bab. and Asyr., p. 179). 

V. Art in Babylonia and Assyria. Although 
in Architecture the Solomonic Temple drew largely 
fm. Egp., in the details there seems to be evidence of 
Asyrn. influence. The cherubim, name and form, 
appear to have come fm. B. ; the belt of alternate 
cherubim and palm-trees has a decidedly Asyrn. 
feeling. Springing up in a wide, alluvial plain, in 
wh. clay was plentiful and quarries inaccessible, the 
bldgs. erected were masses of brickwork. At first 
these bricks wd. be merely sun-dried, then wd. be 



Bab 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bal 



learned the effect of fire in making clay almost as 
hard and durable as stone. Such a material did not 
lend itself to pillars or lintels ; the ?Aggurat, with its 
successive stories each smaller than that beneath it, 
was the architectural form that suited best the cir 
cumstances of B. At the same time clay was a sub 
stance that suggd. modelling. When the Art of B. 
passed into A., where slabs of soft gypsum were 
easily accessible, modelling in clay became sculpture. 
As the people of A. were essentially a warlike race, 
whose favourite amusement was the chase, their Art 
glorified force rather than power. This led to the 
prefce. for bas-relief over free statues. Prob. the 
soft gypsum would have crumbled had the artist of 
those winged, human-headed bulls, now in the 
British Museum, cut away the lower part of the 
slab, and left the weight of the body to rest unas 
sisted on the legs. This sculpturesque tendency 
weakened the influence of the Art of B. and A. on 
the Israelitish people. In B. the bas-reliefs were 
often on glazed and coloured brick, as may be seen 
in the Louvre. 

BABYLON IN NEW TESTAMENT, (i) In 
the Ape. (e.g. Rv. 17.) it is Rome that is intended, 
as appears fm. these facts : (a) It is a city (v. i8 a ) ; 
(Z>) built on seven hills (v. 9) j (c) of great wealth 
and immorality (v. 2) ; (d) having imperial power 
(v. i8 b ) ; only Rome united these characteristics in 
the days of John. (2) In I P. 5. 13 there is more 
reason for discussion. Most Protestant Comm. 
since Calvin maintain that the lit. B. is meant. In 
favour of this is the fact that in all other Epp. places 
referred to are lit. places, not symbols. All Romanist 
Comm. and some Protestant hold that Rome is in 
tended here ; in favour of this is the Apocalyptic 
use ; the universal tradition that Peter was in Rome, 
a tradition that is confirmed by the presence with 
the writer of Mark (i P. 5- 13 ), whom we know to 
have been summoned to Rome by the Apostle Paul 
(2Tm.4. n ). The allegedimpossibility of there being 
a Christian Church in B. is founded on the story re 
lated by Jos. (Ant. XVIII. ix. 5-9), that the Jews in 
B. were all massacred or expelled ; many of the 
statements in this story seem scarcely worthy of 
credit. Jewish tradition always represents the 
Jewish community of B. as being both large and 
prosperous. It is difficult to decide, but the usage 
of the Apostle John, and the early tradition of 
Peter s presence in Rome, seem to throw the 
balance in favour of the Romanist view. 

BABYLONISH GARMENT (Jo. 7 21 ). While 
the robes of Ninevite ks. show no indication that 
they were embroidered, in the portraits of Bab. ks. 
we see evidences of elaborate embroidery ; prob. 
such was the robe that Achan coveted and took. 

BACA, THE VALLEY OF (Ps. 8 4 . 6 ). All anct. 
W. render " the vale of weeping." The word baka 
occurs only here in the sing. The pi. (2 S. 5- 23 ; 



i Ch. I4. 14 ) EV. render " mulberry trees " ; RVm. 
more prob. " balsam trees." The drops of balm 
may have suggd. the fall of tears (Heb. bek7, " weep 
ing "). It shd. poss. be taken as a fig. of speech. If 
any real vale is intended, it cannot now be identd. 

BADGER SKINS, as coverings of the Taber 
nacle (Ex. 25. 5 ; Nu. 4- 6 ). A mistrn. ; prob. the 
skin of some species of seal is meant. 

BAG. (i) Harifim, used only in pi., the B. in wh. 
Gehazi received silver fm. Naaman (2 K. 5- 23 ). In 
Is. 3. 22 AV. renders " crisping pins," RV. " sat 
chels." (z) K7s, in wh. the travelling merchant 
carries his weights (Dt. 25. 13 ; Pr. i6. n ; Mi. 6. 11 ) ; 
also used for " purse " (Pr. I. 14 ; Is. 46. 6 ). (3) Kelt, 
denoting genly. " utensil," " clothing," " tool," &c. 
In Is. ly. 40 49 , it is clearly the shepherd s bag. In 
such a B. prob. the " little lad " (Jn. 6. 9 ) carried his 
provisions ; the " scrip " or " wallet " (RV.), wh. 
the Apostles were to do without (Mw. io. 10 , &c.). 
(4) Tzeror, fm. the idea of " compressing " or 
" tying together." The " bundle " of money (Gn. 
42. 35 ) shd. prob. be B., or " purse " (cp. Jb. I4- 17 , 
Hag. I. 6 ). The corrspdg. verb is used of binding up 
the contributions for the restoration of the Temple 
(2 K. I2. 10 ). (5) Balantion (Lk. I2. 33 ) is a purse. 
(6) Glossokomon = glossokomeion, prop, a case for the 
mouthpiece of an instrument ; prob. a portable 
cash-box (Jn. 12. 6 ). (7) Zo>/<?(Mw. io. 9 , &c.) refers 
to the pouch in the girdle, wh. is commonly used 
as a safe purse in the East. 

BAHURIM, in Benjamin, the home of Shimei 
(i K. 2. 8 ), lay on the road followed by David in his 
flight fm. Absalom, over the crest of Olivet (2 S. 
I5. 30 , I6. 1 ), and down the N.E. slopes to Jericho. 
B. prob. was near Wady Fara, wh. may be " the 
brook of water " of 2 S. I7- 20 . At B. Abner dis 
missed Paltiel, sending his w. Michal to David (2 S. 
3- 16 ). Here David s messengers were hidden in a 
well (2 S. I7. 15 20 ). B. was the home of Azmaveth, 
one cf David s heroes (2 S. 23. 31 ; I Ch. II. 33 ). 

BAJITH, RV. BAYITH, "a house," &c. It is 
used only once as a proper name (Is. I5- 2 ). RVm. 
here gives " the Temple " ; it may be = Beth- 
Bamoth, " the house of the high places " of the 
Moabite Stone Inscr. Like the Arb. bayt, the word 
has many meanings : house, tent, palace, temple, 
dwelling-place, family, race, are some of them. It 
appears often as part of place names, e.g. Beth-El. 

BAKING. See BREAD, OVEN. 

BALAAM (Bil am), s. of Beor (Bosor, 2 P. 2. 15 ), 
fm. Pethor (Pitru), soothsayer and prophet of God, 
brought by BALAK to curse Isr. (Nu. 22-24, 3 1 )- B. 
first refused, then on being asked a second time con 
sented. On his way occurred the incident of the ass 
seeing the Angel of J". and warning him. 

To understand B. we must bear in mind that prophecy 
by Divine Inspiration and soothsaying were not yet dis 
criminated. While B. recognised that no curse, unless it 



Bal 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bam 



expressed the Divine sentence, wtl. harm Isr. , he believed 
that if Isr. cd. be templed to sin agst. J". He mt. be enraged 
to destroy them. He hoped to be able to circumvent God 
and gain the reward promised by Balak (Mi. 6J> ; Tg. u. 25 ; 
Rev. 2. 14 ). He was slain in the defeat of Midian (Nu. 31. 8 ). 

BAL AH stands in Jo. if). 2 for Bilhah in I Ch. 4- 29 . 
It was assigned to Simeon, and is prob. = Baalah in 
Judah (Jo. I5- 29 ). It is not identd. 

BALAK, s. of Zippor, k. of Moab, summoned 
BALAAM ; otherwise unknown. 

BALANCE. The common word is moznayim, a. 
dual, referring to the two scales. Qdnch (Is. 46. 6 ), 
" reed " or " stalk," is prob. = zugon (Rv. 6. 5 ), de 
noting the beam of the B. Peles (Pr. i6. u , LXX 
rope, AV. " weight," RV. " balance " ; Is. 4 O. 12 , 
LXX statbmos, EV. " scales ") may be the beam, or 
tongue of the B. 




BALANCE (Ancient Egyptian) 

The beam, tapering towards the ends, was sus 
pended by a ring or cord passed through a hole in 
the middle, or tied round it : the scales were hung 
by cords fm. the ends. A " tongue " projected 
downwards at right angles fm. the centre of the 
beam. A plummet suspended fm. the same point 
enabled one to see when the tongue was perpen 
dicular, and so the B. even. 

It was easy to falsify the B. by slightly shifting the 
central adjustment, or in steadying the plummet, to 
incline it to one side. Values were measured by 
weight (Gn. 23. 16 ; Ex. 22. 17 " pay," lit. " weigh " 
3^. 24f , &c.). The merchant s weights, originally 
stones, were carried in a bag. See WEIGHTS. 
" Weighing in the B." is a fig. expression for the 
testing of char. (Jb. 3i. 6 ; Dn. 5. 27 ). 

BALDNESS was regarded as a misfortune, if not 
as a disgrace, among anct. peoples. Herodotus 
(iii. 12) says it was very unusual in old Egp. ; and 
mod. research confirms his observation. He thought 
their practice of shaving gave strength to the hair. 
B. was one of the disasters that befel the soldiers of 
Nebuchadnezzar in the long siege of Tyre (Ek. 29_ 18 ), 
owing poss. to unwonted diet and conditions. 

B. caused by leprosy or ringworm, and therefore 
unclean, is carefully distinguished fm. nat. B. (Lv. 



13.), wh. involved no ceremonial disabilities. But, 
unusual as B. was, and to this day is, in Pal., a cert. 
suspicion attached to it, and to be called " bald- 
head " was deep indignity (2 K. 2. 23 ). Held thus in 
reproach, B. became the symbol of wretchedness and 
misery (Is. 3. 24 ; Jr. 47. 5 , &c.). Artificial B. was 
prohibited (Lv. 2i.), referring to the idolatrous 
rites of neighbouring peoples. But the Nazirite cut 
off his hair on completing his vow (Nu. 6. 18 ; Ac. 
l8. 18 , &c.). Well-set hair was a point of manly 
beauty (Is. 3- 24 ). Its cutting off was a sign of 
mourning (Jr. i6. 6 ; Ek. 2/. 31 ; Mi. I. 16 ), the cus 
tom herein diffg. fm. that of the Egpns. (Gn. 41. ]4 ). 
See HAIR. 

BALM. It is not cert, what substance is in 
tended by the Heb. tzori, trd. " balm " by EV. 
(Gn. 37- 25 ). Fm. its association with Gilead in Jr. 
8. 22 , 46. 11 , it has been regarded as the product of 
some tree growing in Gilead, in repute as a medi 
cine. The mastic has been suggd. This tree grows 
in Pal., and in the Greek islands, but not E. of the 
Jordan. Tristram curiously says it is " specially 
abundant in the woods of Gilead." He seems to 
have confused it with Arb. daru, the terebinth. 
The mod. monks ident. B. with the Ziiqqitm. Gum 
made fm. the fruit, wh. is like the olive, is valued as 
a salve, and is largely sold to pilgrims. But in Pal. 
it is confined to the Jordan Valley. Prob. the B. of 
Scrip, was the product of the Mecca balsam, Arb. 
balasdn, the Balsamodendron Gileadense, a native of 
S. Arabia. This is the tree, a root of wh., accdg. to 
Jewish tradition, having been brought to Solo 
mon by the Queen of Sheba, was cultivated, and 
flourished greatly in the plains of Jericho (Ant. VIII. 
vi. 6). It was plentiful in the days of Herod the 
Gt. (Ant. XV. iv. 2 ; Pliny, N. H. XVI. xxii.). The 
tree has now totally disappeared fm. these parts. 
The gum was exuded through incisions made in the 
bark, and was for long a valued article of commerce. 





EGYPTIAN STANDARDS. See BANNER 



BAMAH, High Place " ; in Ek. 2O. 29 only, as a 
proper name. Contempt and scorn are expressed by 
?omc play upon the word B., but no satisfactory ex 
planation has yet been offered. 

BAMOTH, a place where Isr. halted on their 



5 2 



Ban 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bap 



way fm. the Arnon, between NAHALIEL and PISGAH 
(Nu. 2l. 19 ), and near Kirjath-Huzoth. It is prob. 
ident. with B.-BAAL (Jo. I3- 17 ), and may be the 
Beth-B. fortified by Mesha (Moab. St. Inscr. 1. 27). 
Guthe suggs. the height of Jcbel l Attdrus. 

BANISHMENT. See CRIMES AND PENALTIES. 

BANNER (ENSIGN STANDARD), a pole with some 
device upon it, used in Egpn. and Asyrn. armies. 
It is used figly. in Scrip. (SS. 2. 4 ; Ps. 6o. 4 , &c.). 

BANQUET. EV. have tried to preserve the 
meanings of misbteh (lit. " a drinking ") accdg. as it 
seems to indicate eating and drinking, or drinking 
only or chiefly. In the former case they render 
" feast," in the latter " banquet " (cp. Gn. ig. 3 
with Est. 5- 4 , &c.). Banqueting-house (SS. 2. 4 ) is 
lit. " house of wine " ; and banqueting (l P. 4. 3 ) is 
" drinking," Gr. potos. The name mishteh shows 
that drinking was a prominent feature of old time 
feasts. See FEASTS. The guests were entertained 
by musicians and dancers. 



ger ) is like a child just born " (Teb. 48b, J. E. II. 
500, cp. Jn. 3. 5 ). " Except a man be born of water 
and of the Spirit, he cannot enter the Kdm. of God." 
The Greek terms used, the verb (BaTrrifa, and 
the nouns /^aTrrto-px and ySaTrricr/jios, have an evolu 
tion worthy of consideration. The verb occurs four 
times in LXX, twice in the canonical books : 2 K. 
5- 14 , of Naaman ; Is. 2l. 4 , symbolically of iniquity 
overwhelming one ; twice in the Apcr. ; Jth. 12." of 
ceremonial washing, Sr. 34. (3i.) 25 of ceremonial 
cleansing after contact with a dead body. The verb 
originally meant " to dip " ; it was changed in two 
opposite directions ; on the one hand it was intensi 
fied to mean " to overwhelm " (see Diod. Sic. XV. 80, 
Polyb. I. li. 6 ; VIII. viii. 4 ; so also Jos. BJ. IV. 
iii. 3). In Is. 2l. 4 the verb has this force, " iniquity 
overwhelms me." At the same time it is softened 
to simple sprinkling in Sr. 34. (3i.) 25 - The received 
trn. of this verse does not bring out its precise 
meaning ; it ought to be rendered " He that is bap- 




MUSICIANS AT EGYPTIAN BANQUET 



BAPTISM, BAPTIZE. The initiatory rite of 
the Christian Church : it was appointed by our 
Lord in the Apostolic Commission (Mw. 28. 19 ), 
and used as such by the Apostles (Ac. 2. 41 ). Before 
this the Apostles had administered B. (Jn. 4- 2 ). It 
is not introduced as a new thing by our Lord ; it is 
assumed as a rite having a cert, if indefinite refce. to 
the coming Messiah ; hence John the Baptist is 
challenged why he baptizes, if he is neither the 
Messiah nor His prophetic forerunner. B. was the 
initiatory rite among the Essenes (WAITERS FOR THE 
REDEMPTION), and also was continually practised by 
them (BJ. II. viii. 7). It was no novelty to give 
bodily cleansing a sptl. meaning, e.g. the symbolical 
washings of the Levitical law, the interpretation of 
wh. was given when Ezekiel said, " Then will I 
sprinkle clean water upon you and ye shall be clean ; 
fm. all your filthiness and fm. all your idols will I 
cleanse you " (Ek. 36. 25 ). If we may trust Talmudic 
tradition, some form of baptismal washing formed 
part of the ritual for the reception of a Gentile 
proselyte into the Jewish community. The special 
significance attached to this part of the ritual is 
worthy of notice. " The bathing in the water is to 
constitute a new birth, wherefore the ger ( stran- 



tized fm. a corpse cleansed by sprinkling fm. con 
tact with a corpse if he touch it again, what profit 
is his washing ? " i.e. the washing that accdg. to Nu. 
ig. 11 21 followed the cleansing sprinkling. Having 
had the " water of separation " sprinkled upon him, 
and thus the uncleanness due to his contact with a 
corpse having been removed, if a man again touch a 
corpse, his going on to " bathe himself in clean 
water " wd. be valueless. Only in this way can 
we preserve the force of the contrast between 
/SaTTTi^o/tefos and Xovrpu ; a distinction wh. we find 
in the LXX of Nu. ig. 19 . The passage in Jth. really 
confirms this, (i) However reckless the writer of 
that romance may be he seems to have known some 
thing of Pal., and cd. not fail to know that in the hill 
country between the plain of Esdraelon and Jeru 
salem there is no " fountain " (jn/yj) large enough 
for a woman to immerse herself in it. (2) No 
writer cd. mean to represent a general so mad with 
love that he wd. allow even the obj. of his affec 
tion to contaminate by bathing in it one of the 
fountains " by " (really " in ") the camp. (3) The 
purification of the Jews did not mean " immersion " 
but " affusion." Before leaving this we note the 
fact that when aTrrifa means " overwhelm " it is 



53 



Bap 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bap 



totally divorced fm. ail idea of submergence in a 
flood, as may be seen in the passage cited fm. Jos. 
In that passage the historian declares that the influx 
into Jrs. of the fanatics from the country districts 
ultimately destroyed (e/SdirTKrav) the city. The 
nouns are not found in the LXX : the NT. usage is 
that /frMTTio-px is used of the Christian rite (Rm. 6. 4 ) 
of the B. of John (Mk. I. 4 ), and metaphorically of 
calamities (Mw. 2O. 22 ; Mk. io. 38 ). The use of 
/JaTTTio-^os is more gen. ; it is doubtful if it is ever 
used of Christian B. ; it is used of the Jewish cere 
monial washings. 

It is difficult to fix precisely the significance of 
the B. of John. That it was not equivalent to the 
B. of Christ is clear fm. Ac. l8. 25 , I9- 3 . Yet if we 
press Jn. 4- 2 , the Apostles must either have been 
themselves unbaptized, or had only received the B. 
of John. John s B. was a B. of repentance in the 
expectation of the coming of the Messiah, in whom 
they should believe (Ac. K). 4 ) ; and it is significant 
of the unrest that pervaded the Isr. of the disper 
sion in the time of our Lord, that a doctrine so 
vague shd. have disciples in Alexandria and Ephesus. 
The B. administered by the Apostles before Christ s 
resurrection must have had many points of analogy 
with that of John. 

Those who administered the Sacrament of 
Christian B. seem genly. to have been Church 
officials, as the Apostles and Philip. Yet Ananias, 
who baptized Paul, does not appear to have held any 
office. On the other hand the Apostle Paul does 
not regard " baptizing " as among his highest duties 
(i Cor. I. 14 ) ; he left it to the Church officials whom 
he had already ordained. When B. assumed some 
thing of a magical meaning, and the rite itself was 
regarded as necessary to salvation, any believer was 
held, in cases of emergency, to be able to administer 
it effectually. 

In the earliest days as at present in our Foreign 
Mission Stations, the great mass of those baptized 
were adults. That there is no record of the B. of 
infants is of even less value than the argumentum 
e silentio is ordinarily. Fm. the analogy of our 
Modern Missions we see how much more import 
ance is given to the B. of an adult convert than to 
the B. of an infant of parents already Christian. 
Fm. the way in wh. the then world, Jew and Gentile 
alike, with the exception of a few philosophers, re 
garded the child as merged in the family, and the 
family summed up in its head, there wd. have been 
need of a positive enactment to have prevented the 
rise of the belief wh. lies at the root of infant B. and 
wd. natly. have produced it. The fact that again 
and again whole households are baptized, in the 
light of what we just adverted to, renders the con 
clusion prob. that there were children baptized in 
some of these cases. This view is strengthened 
when we recall the fact that Paul in Col. 2. 11 - 12 , 



shows that he regards circumcision as superseded 
by B. ; that circumcision was administered to in 
fants wd. seem to have made it incumbent on Paul 
to warn believers agst. falling into the nat. mistake 
of thinking that B., like circumcision, was applicable 
to the children of the faithful. If faith is necessary 
to B., it is necessary to holiness, yet the Apostle 
Paul declares those children to be holy only one of 
whose parents was a believer (l Cor. 7- 14 ). The 
meaning of our Lord s declaration when He took 
the little children into His arms and blessed them, 
that " of such is the Kdm. of Heaven," does not 
seem to be exhausted when it is regarded as a state 
ment of the spt. that ought to animate His followers. 
The testimony of Christian antiquity is, when pro 
perly understood, to the same effect. Of great 
value is the testimony of Tertullian, as he personally 
thought it hazardous. Could he have maintained 
with any show of probability that infant baptism 
was an innovation, he cert. wd. have done so, with 
all the vigour of his fiery rhetoric. Origen declares 
infant baptism to be a practice received fm. the 
Apostles. Other testimony mt. be brought for 
ward, but what we have advanced may suffice. The 
undeniable rarity of any notice in the first Christian 
centuries of men of mark in the Church having been 
baptized in infancy, may be explained partly by the 
fact above alluded to, that the whole Church was 
a mission to the heathen, so converts were more 
noticed than those who had grown up in the faith, 
who wd. necessarily be few. Another influence was 
at work wh. tended to increase this rarity, the idea 
that there was a very special heinousness in sins 
committed after baptism ; this led many, as the 
Emperor Constantine, to delay baptism till death. 
A similar practice obtains among the Scotch High 
landers in regard to Communion. It was the nat. 
result of such a view that infant baptisms would 
tend to diminish. 

The mode in wh. B. was administered is not by 
any means so clear as some wd. have us believe. 
Although the balance of opinion is in favour of im 
mersion, there are a number of difficulties in the 
way of accepting it. If we take the cases of B. re 
corded, while there are none that necessitate total 
immersion, there are several in wh. it seems almost 
imposs. to imagine this as the mode followed. The 
first and most obvious case is the B. of the " three 
thousand," followed by that of the " five thousand " 
in Jrs. after the dry season had begun ; in a city 
whose whole water supply was derived fm. cisterns. 
The case of the Ethiopian eunuch : on the way S. 
from Hebron to Gaza, there wd. only be shallow 
pools where springs bubbled up ; nowhere a foun 
tain like that at Tell el-Oady in wh. a grown man cd. 
be immersed. It seems, to say the least, extremely 
unlikely that there wd. be a plunge bath in the 
house of the Philippian jailer. As will be seen in 



54 



Bap 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bar 



the article BATHE the ancts. rarely bathed by plung 
ing into water ; it was more frequently by affusion : 
one bathed by pouring water on oneself, or having it 
poured over one by an attendant. Another thing 
wh. may be advanced is the way B., e.g. that of our 
Lord, is represented in anct. pictures. He is shown 
standing up to the knees in water, while John pours 
the water on His head (see Didache 7). It is a mis 
taken idea that St. Paul s comparison of B. to burial 
implies any external resemblance between the pro 
cesses. Jewish burial in Pal. was in caves nat. or 
artificial, in wh. there were either shelves or short, 
small tunnels ; in either case there was no resem 
blance to immersion. In the Catacombs we see that 
the Christian ideas of BURIAL were akin to the 
Jewish. The real ground of the fig. lay in the fact 
that /?a7TTiu> had, besides its ceremonial meaning, 
the signification of " utter destruction." By B. the 
past sinful life is utterly destroyed, and the believer 
is born to a new life. It is a misrepresentation to 
call the common mode in wh. B. is administered 
" sprinkling " ; it is really " affusion " attenuated to 
a symbol ; just as in the " Lord s Supper " a full 
meal, the principal meal of the day, becomes merely 
a crumb of bread and a sip of wine. One sacrament 
has become merely symbolic, without diminishing 
its sptl. validity : may it not be so also with the 
other ? (Clem. F. Rogers, Baptism and Christian 
Archeology, Oxford, 1903). 

Unquestionably in the early Church B. was re 
garded as equivalent to Regeneration (REGENERA 
TION). The various aspects of this will be discussed 
below ; meantime we note again that, in the admis 
sion of the heathen proselyte to the Jewish Church, 
B. was the symbol of birth. Our Lord s words as re 
corded in Jn. 3- 5 , " Except a man be born of water 
and of the Spirit he cannot enter into the Kdm. of 
God," gave a certain plausibility to the view above 
indicated ; the refce. in our Lord s statement is 
really to the Jewish proselyte B., but transferred to 
the Christian ; the proselyte entered by faith into 
the Commonwealth of Isr., so by faith only cd. he 
enter the holier Commonwealth, the Kdm. of God. 
The words of the Apostle Paul in Tt. 3. 5 , " He saved 
us by the washing of regeneration," seem to support 
the same idea. The Apostle s refce. is not to the 
physical ordinance, but to the sptl. change of wh. 
it is the symbol. 

The Significance of B. On the human side B. is 
really a vow of consecration to the service of God. 
In the case of adult B. the vow is taken by the person 
baptized himself ; in the case of children, by their 
parents. The ordinance has a divine side ; it is 
given by God to believers, administered by the 
Church. The Protestant doctrine may be stated in 
the words of Turrettin, " B. is a sacrament in wh., 
by the external sprinkling and cleansing, there is de 
clared and sealed to believers their internal absolu 



tion, alike the remission of sins and sanctification 
through the blood and Spirit of Christ." It is as 
sumed in this that in the case of infants the faith of 
the parents is taken for that of the children. The 
Anglican doctrine is that " B. is actual internal puri 
fication " (Plummer, HDS.). " B. is called wash 
ing of regeneration, not because it symbolises it, 
but because it effects it " (ib.). 

" B. with the Holy Ghost and with fire " is de 
clared by John the Baptist to be the characteristic 
of the B. of Him whose forerunner he was (Lk. 3- 16 ). 
Symbolically this was fulfilled at Pentecost ; actu 
ally throughout the whole hist, of the Church has 
been manifested this B. of the Holy Spirit, this en 
dowment with the fire of zeal. " B. of blood " is an 
ecclesiastical phrase to denote martyrdom. It was 
an axiom of the Anct. Church that the B. of blood 
superseded the necessity for the B. with water. 

Another matter that has to be considered, though 
briefly, is the presence of " sponsors," or to use the 
ordinary Anglican terminology, " godfathers and 
godmothers " at B. Originally, as we learn from the 
term (A-post. Const, viii. 32), the sponsor testified to 
the char, of the candidate for B. These sponsors 
were usly. the deacons. In regard to infants the 
office appears to have been instituted in times of 
persecution in case the parents mt. fall victims. 

B. for the Dead (i Cor. 1 5. 29 ). There have 
been many attempts to give an explanation of this 
passage wh. shall meet all difficulties ; none has been 
quite successful. If, without cataloguing the various 
opinions, we investigate the matter for ourselves, 
the first thing that meets us is the fact that the 
Apostle assumes a practice to be extant, a practice 
wh. must have quickly fallen into disuse, as the Gr. 
fathers do not know it as Christian. We learn fm. 
Lightfoot on this passage, that in the case of one 
dying in ceremonial uncleanness, another on his ac 
count underwent the cleansing rites. The reference 
here is prob. to this. Such ceremonial purification 
wd. be meaningless if there were no resurrection. 
The Apostle s appeal to the practice no more implies 
an approval of it than our Lord s question to the 
Pharisees (Mw. I2. 2T ), " By whom do your children 
cast them out," implies approval of their methods of 
exorcism. There was a large Jewish community in 
Corinth, and among the Christians a considerable 
Judaising element ; such a practice wd. be perfectly 
well known when the Apostle was writing and mt. 
have been imitated by the Judaiscrs. Within half 
a cent, the breach between the Jews and the Chris 
tians became absolute ; hence Chrysostom and the 
other Gr. fathers mt. well be ignorant of it. The 
Marcionite practice of baptizing a living believer 
for one who died as a catechumen, may have arifcn 
fm. this passage. 

BARABBAS is the Gr. form of Aram. Bar-Abba 
= " s. of the Teacher." B. was imprisoned for in- 



55 



Bar 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bar 



surrection made in the city and for murder (Lk. 
2 3- 19ff )- J onn ca ^ s mm a " robber," and this agrees 
with the char. Jos. gives to the revolutionaries of 
that time (BJ. IV . iii. 4). When Pilate offered, 
accdg. to custom, to release to the Jews a prisoner at 
the Feast, they vociferously preferred this murderer 
and robber to Jesus. It is poss. that the two who 
were crucified with Jesus were associates of B. in the 
insurrection (Mk. 15. 7 ). In Mw. 27. 16 17 , cert, cur 
sives, the Armenian V., and copies of the Jrs. Syriac, 
give to B. also the name of Jesus. This is prob. due 
to a scribal error. 

BARAK, " lightning " (cp. Carthaginian Barca), 
s. of Abinoam of Kcdesh-naphtali, also in Jg. 5- 10 , 
connected with Issachar, was roused by Deborah 
(Jg. 4- 6 ), and poss. by his own suffering (5- 12 ), to as 
semble the N. tribes agst. the Can. oppressors of Isr. 
His forces gathered on Mt. Tabor, Deborah being 
with him. During a fierce storm that beat in the 
faces of the enemy, he swept down and practically 
annihilated the army of Sisera, in the soft soil of 
Esdraelon, along the banks of the Kishon. He is 
named joint author of the song of triumph com 
posed on the occasion (Jg. v 1 ). 

BARBARIAN. The Greeks divided mankind 
into Gr. and B., i.e. speakers of Gr. and speakers of 
other tongues. In this sense the inhabitants of 
Malta are called B. (Ac. 28. 4 ). So in I Cor. 14.", a B. 
is one who speaks an unknown lang. The conven 
tion was accepted as implying no reproach. Paul 
(Rm. I. 14 ) and Philo (Life of Moses, 5) class Jews as B. 
The Romans at first acquiesced in the custom, but 
discarded it as other ideas became associated with the 
word. The Greeks, however, called them B. till the 
end of the E. Empire. 

BAR-JESUS. See ELYMAS. 

BARLEY is extensively grown in Pal. It is the 
staple food for horses. B. and wheat meal mingled 
form a not uncommon article of diet (2 Ch. 2. 10 ). 
Only the very poor use B. meal alone (Jg. J. 13 ; Jn. 
6. 9 - 13 ). The use of B. meal for the jealousy offering 
(Nu. 5- 15 ), and of B. to purchase the adulteress (Ho. 
3- 2 ), may indicate a cert, contempt for the persons 
concerned. For sowing, &c., see AGRICULTURE. 

BARN. See GARNER. 

BARNABAS (" s. of consolation " or " exhor 
tation," Ac. 4. 36 ), otherwise Joses, a Levite of 
Cyprus. Eusebius (///:. I. 12) says B. was one of the 
" Seventy." B. introduced the newly converted 
PAUL to the Apostles at Jrs. (Ac. 9. 27 ) ; later he in 
duced Paul to leave Tarsus, whither he had retired, 
and come to Antioch (Ac. u. 25 ). They went as 
deputies fm. Antioch to Jrs. (Ac. II. 30 , I2. 25 ). Soon 
after their return, set apart by the Church, they 
started on a missionary journey to Cyprus and Asia 
Minor (Ac. I3. 2 -I4. 20 ). When they had completed 
this they were sent again to Jrs. to consult the 
Apostles as to status of the Gentile converts (Ac. 



I4. 2G -I5. 22 ). On their return to Antioch Paul pro 
posed that they shd. revisit the churches they had 
founded, but as B. wished to take John Mark, his 
nephew, whom Paul cd. not depend on, they sepa 
rated. With the exception of a passing refce. in 
I Cor. 9., B. disappears fm. NT. Tradition says 
he was martyred in Cyprus, whither he departed 
with his nephew after leaving Paul ; they show his 
grave not far fm. the ruins of Salamis. Other tradi 
tions take him to Milan, Rome, and Alexandria. 
To him among others is attributed the " Epistle 
to the Hebrews." The anct. writing called the 
" Epistle of Barnabas " is universally regarded as 
pseudonymous. 

BARTHOLOMEW, " s. of Tolmai," i.e. " of 
Ptolemy." John omits B. fm. his list of Apostles, 
and gives Nathanael in his place Nathanael does 
not appear in the Synoptics, wh. always name Philip 
and B. together. In John s record Philip brings 
Nath. to Jesus. B. is therefore prob. = Nath. There 
are traditions of B. preaching in Armenia, and also 
in India, where he was tortured by flaying ; but we 
have no sure kge. of his life. 

BARTIM^US (Mk. io. 46 ), " s. of Timsus," the 
blind man healed by our Lord after leaving Jericho. 
Luke (i8. 35ff -) mentions also one man, but places the 
miracle before entering the city. Matthew speaks of 
two, but agrees with Mark as to the place. B. may 
be named because he was the more energetic and in 
sistent, and acted as spokesman. For discussion of 
the variations in the nars. see Trench, Miracles. 

BARUCH, s. of Neriah. The friend of Jere 
miah (Jr. 32. 12 ), and his amanuensis (36. 4 ) ; he read 
the prophecy before JEHOIAKIM, and shared with 
Jeremiah, the risk of imprisonment (v. 26). Accdg. 
to Jos. (Ant. X. ix. l), B. was in the end imprisoned 
with his friend and was released at the capture of 
Jrs. by Nebuchadnezzar. After the murder of 
Gedaliah, B. was accused of having suborned Jere 
miah to prophesy agst. the remnant of Judah going 
down to Egp. The after hist, of B. is unknown. 
For " The Prophecy of Baruch," see BARUCH, APO 
CRYPHA. 

There is an Ape. that claims B. s name. It was found in 
a Syriac trn. by Ceriani in the Ambrosian Library, Milan, 
and published by him in 1866 ; its prob. date is B.C. 59. 
Another work of a later date appeared entitled "The Rest 
of Baruch " ; it prob. was composed in the and cent. 

BARZILLAI, " of iron," a rich man of Rogelim 
in Gilead, who succoured David with great gene 
rosity when fleeing fm. Absalom (2 S. I/. 27 ), and 
conducted him back over Jordan when the rebellion 
was crushed. He excused himself, on the ground of 
old age, fm. going with the k. to begin a new life in 
the city, but committed his s. Chimcham to David s 
favour (2 S. I9. 31ff -). David commended the chil 
dren of B. to the kindness of Solomon (l K. 2. 7 ) ; 
but his descts. seem later to have fallen on evil days 
(Ez. 2. 61ff -). 



Bas 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bat 



BASHAN, often with the article in Heb. hab- 
bashan, " the B." It corrspds. in meaning prob. 
with el-Bataniyeh, " wheat land," applied to a dis 
trict N. of Jebel ed-Druze. While it has a narrower 
significance, B. seems to have denoted genly. the 
land E. of Jordan, stretching fm. the border of 
Gilead to the roots of Hermon. The boundaries 
are given in some detail, but with our present kge. we 
cannot certly. follow them. Geshur and Maacath 
seem to be given as the W. border of B. (Jo. I2. 4ff -, 
I3. llff -), but if Golan (Dt. 4. 43 ) were in the district 
that bears its name to-day the Jauldn B. must 
have reached to the brink of the Jordan Valley. 
This is the boundary indicated in Dt. 4- 47 . In 
favour of this is Dr. G. A. Smith s attractive suggn. 
that DAN was at Bdnias, on the slope of the moun 
tain, wh., if true, gives an intelligible sense to the 
saying, " Dan . . . leapeth forth fm. B." (Dt. 
33. 22 ). Again, the Mt. or Alts, of B. (Ps. 68. 15 - 16 ) 
can hardly be Mt. Hermon, wh. is never certly. 
ascribed to B. " Mt." or " Alts, of protuberances " 
or " humps," mt. well describe the uplands of el- 
Jauldn, as seen fm. the heights of Naphtali, the 
many great mounds that mark extinct volcanoes 
giving a " humpy " appearance to the high plateau. 
On the other hand " Alt. of God " does not so aptly 
apply to these wide uplands. The only alternative 
seems to be to agree with Wetzstein (Das batanaiscbe 
Giebelgeberge, 1884 ; KB. s.v.), and recognise the 
Mt. of B. in Jebel ed-Druze, with its humplike 
summits. 







PEF. Photo 

MOUNTAIN OF BASHAN (Peak of el-Kuleib) 

If B. lay E. of Geshur and Alaacath, then these 
unconquered peoples lit. " dwelt in the midst of 
Isr."(Jo.l 3 .i3). 

The desert S. of Bozrah, and the N. border of 
Gilead, formed the S. boundary of B. It reached E. 
to Salecah, the mod. Salkhad, on the ridge of Jebel 
td-Druzc ; and prob. included lands to the N. cor- 
rspdg. to the mod. HAURAN. Its chief cities seem to 
have been ASHTAROTH, EDREI, GOLAN, and SALE 
CAH ; but it was strong in fenced cities : under the 
numerous ruins that stud the country the remains of 
these anct. strongholds may yet be found. 



It was ruled by the giant Og, but his empire ended 
with the victory of Isr. at Edrei (Jo. I3. 1U , &c.). It 
was the scene of the mighty deeds of the warrior Jair 
(Dt. 3. 14 , &c.). It was allotted to the half tribe of 
Alanasseh (Jo. Ij. 30 , ly. 1 , &c.). It was conquered 
by Hazael the Syrian (2 K. lo. 33 ), but recovered by 
Jeroboam II. (2 K. I4- 25 ). In later times it passed 
into the hands of the Nabatxans : then it became 
part of thedominion of Herod the Gt.,and was ruled 
in succession by Herod, Philip, and Agrippa II. 

The lion long since finally disappeared, but the 
leopard, nimr, is still met with at times (Dt. 33.22 ; 
SS. 4- 8 ). The rams of B., but notably the cattle, 
were famous, and are taken to represent blatant and 
brutal strength (Ps. 22. 12 ; Ek. 39. 18 ; Am. 4. 1 ). B. 
is frequently named with Carmel, as excellent pas 
ture land, but nothing is said of its crops, wh. are such 
an important feature to-day. The reddish brown 
soil, disintegrated lava fm. the surrounding craters, 
yields abundantly, esp. in en-Nuqrab, " the hollow." 
On the E. slopes the oak, esteemed for oars by 
Tyrian sailors (Ek. 27- 6 ), still nourishes. 

Lit. : Guthe, Zeitscbrift des Deutsch. Pal. Ver., 
XII. 230 ; Schumacher, ib. XX. 6jff. ; Smith, 
HJHL., 575f. ; Porter, Giant Cities of B. ; Ewing, 
Arab and Druze at Home. 

BASKET represents several Heb. and Gr. words, 
(l) Sal, " a twig," a B. for bread (Gn. 4O. 16f - ; Ex. 
29- 3 ), for meat (Jg. 6. 19 ). (2) Salsiloth, for grapes 
(Jr. 6. 9 ). (3) Dudh, used for carrying genly. (Jr. 
24. 1 ), prob. like that used in Pal. now, not unlike 
that in wh. carpenters with us carry their tools. 
(4) Kophinus (NT.), used with refce. to fragments 
taken up after the feeding of the 5000 (Alt. 14.2 ; 
Mk. 6. 43 ; Lk. g. 17 ). (5) Spuris, the ordinary pro 
vision B. used in refce. to the feeding the 40x30 



(Alt. I; 



Alk. 8. 8 ) ; in Ac. g. 25 , the means of 



Paul s escape ; in 2 Col. 1 1. 33 sargan is the word. 
In Am. 8. 1 - 2 , klubh is used for a fruit B., but this 
word in Jr. 5. 27 is " a bird-cage." 

BASON in the OT. represents several Heb. 
words, prob. names of difft. forms or sizes of the 
same utensil. Although a great many metal and 
pottery vessels have come down to us, there is no 
means of fixing special names. B. (agganotb) were 
used by Aloses in making the Covenant (Ex. 24. 6 ). 
HIRAM made B. (mizraqoth) " of brass " (l K. J. 45 ), 
" a hundred B. (mizrdqini) of gold " for Solomon 
(2 Ch. 4. 8 ). The same word is used (Am. 6. 6 ) of 
drinking vessels, but trd. " BOWLS." Our Lord 
used a B. (VITTTT^) in wh. to wash the disciples 
feet (Jn. I3. 5 ). 

BAT (Heb. atalleph, supposed by Ges. to mean 
" night-flier "). It is the only class of mammals en 
dowed with the power of flying ; hence regarded 
by the ancts. as a bird (Aristoph. Aves, 1564 ; Plin. 
H.N. io. 61 ). In Lv. ii. 19 , Dt. I4. 18 , the B. is 
reckoned a bird, and unclean. The B. is used as the 



57 



Bat 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bat 



symbol of utter desolation (Is. 2.-), " A man will 
cast his idols to the moles and to the bats." In Lv. 
and Dt. Luther renders " schwalbc," but without 
any justification ; in Is. he trs. " fliedermaus." 
There arc several species of B. in Pal. ; it is very 
common. 

BATH, BATHE (Hcb. rafratz). Although to B. 
is a luxury in such a climate as that of Pal., it may be 
doubted whether we have in Scrip, any instance of 
an Isr. bathing for any but ceremonial reasons, or for 
the sake of cleanliness. It is prob. that the Isr. 



excluding older sons by other wives. Adonijah s rash 
enterprise was almost fatal to her hopes ; but with 
the help of Nathan, she proved equal to the occa 
sion. She must have known the necessary conse 
quence to Adonijah of his request for Abishag. She 
encouraged his suit, and so furnished Solomon with 
a pretext to remove a dangerous rival. We may 
perhaps trace to her influence, while Solomon was 
still a youth, the fate of Joab and Shimei. 

B. disappears suddenly from hist. Had her s. 
grown weary of her masterful ways ? 




EGYPTIAN LADY IN BATH, WITH HER. ATTENDANTS 



bathed by affusion as did the Egyptians. In Greece 
the practice appears to have been for a person to 
dash water over himself fm. a large basin. Fm. 
Jn. I3- 10 it may be deduced that the custom of 
washing the whole body daily was common. The 
Essenes looked upon this daily B. as a religious act. 
See WAITERS FOR THE REDEMPTION. 

BATH-RABBIM. See HESHBON. 

BATHSHEBA (i Ch. 3.*, BATHSHUA), dr. of 
Eliam (2 S. 1 1. 3 ), or of Ammiel (l Ch. 3_ 5 ), prob. 
granddr. of Ahithophel (2 S. 23. 34 ), w. of Uriah the 
Hittite, one of David s warriors. She appears to 
have been a woman shrewd, ambitious, and un 
scrupulous. Prob. discontented with her lowly 
station, in her husband s absence at the siege of 
Kabbah she sought successfully to ensnare the k., 
and became his mistress. It was easy to frustrate 
David s design in bringing Uriah home. If she did 
not sugg. the scheme, when that soldier returned to 
the front bearing his own death sentence, we may be 
sure it had the good wishes of his faithless w. The 
k s. chivalry cd. not leave her to the fate of an 
adulteress, so she became his w. Having gained 
a footing in the palace, she rapidly acquired a 
powerful influence over the monarch, and secured 
the succession to the throne for her own s., Solomon, 



Some think that Ahithophel turned agst. David because 
of his grandclr s. betrayal. It is not likely. An oriental 
\vd. not be too nice about the manner of his kinswoman s 
advancement. 

Lit. : Marcel Dieulafoy, David the King, pp. 
21 iff. ; Margoliouth, New Lines of Defence. 

BATTERING-RAM (Hcb. kar, " ram "). The 
principal engine for beating down the w:ills of a 
fortress in anct. days. It consisted of a long, heavy 
beam of wood, latterly headed with iron. Those 
that worked the B. were protected by a roof ; some 
times working in the basement of a TOWER moved to 
the walls on wheels. Battering-rams were used by 
the Asyrs. (Ek. 4. -% 2i. 22 ). 

BATTLE. An action in WAR in wh. the main 
part of the opposing armies were engaged. There 
does not seem to have been any manoeuvring in the 
B. of OT. times. The opposing forces, drawn up 
in line of battle, after a discharge of arrows and 
javelins, advanced against each other and fought 
man to man ; panic seems usly. to have decided 
the result. Ambushes seem the nearest approach 
to manoeuvres used. 

BATTLE-AXE, BATTLE-BOW. See WEAPONS. 

BATTLEMENT (Hcb. ma aqek), a parapet or 
dained to be erected round the edge of the flat roof 
of a I IOUSE to prevent one accidentally falling off 



Bat 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bed 



(Dt. 22. 8 ). B. was also a part of the fortification of 
a wall (nefishoth, Jr. 5- 10 ). Ges. renders here " ten 
drils," RV. " branches." 




BATTERING-RAM 

BAY (Heb. amv.tzim ), a COLOUR, reddish brown 
(Zc. 6. 3> "), ascribed to horses. 

BAY TREE (Ps. 3J. 35 , AY.) is a mistrn. RY. 
gives correctly " tree in its native soil." If, how 
ever, some green and spreading tree was in the 
Psalmist s mind, the sweet bay, Laurus nobilis, a 
beautiful evergreen, growing plentifully on Carmel 
and Gilead, wd. be no unfamiliar sight. 

BDELLIUM, bedSlab (Gn. 2. 12 , LXX, anthrax ; 
Nu. II. 7 , LXX, krustallos), a product of the land of 
Havilah, to wh. manna was likened, and therefore, 
as Driver remarks, a well-known substance. Some 
think it a precious stone, others the pearl. Remem 
bering how the ancts. valued aromatic gums, we 
need not hesitate to ident. B. with the Gr. bdclla or 
bdellion, the Lat. bedellium, a transparent, yellowish, 
wax-like substance exuded by a tree found in 
Arabia, Bab., India, &c. ; the best coming from 
Arabia. Bedolah is poss. a foreign word (KB.}. 
For authorities see Driver, Genesis, on 2. 12 . 

BEAM. The trn. of eight Heb. words in EY. ; 
two of these are connected with WEAVING ; ereg, 
trd. also " shuttle," manor, " the cross-piece of the 
frame of a loom." In six cases B. means various 
portions of the carpentry of a HOUSE. In Mt. y. 3 , 
Lk. 6. 41 , SOKOS means a B. of wood, though the word 
may apply to stone (Diod. Sic. II. 36, B. Xi9ivai). 

BEANS (Heb. po/ = Arb. ful) have been culti 
vated in Pal. fm. anct. times. Flowering in Jan., 
they are reaped in May. They fig. among the pro 
visions given by Barzillai to David (2 S. IJ. 28 ). 
With the poor they are a frequent dish. When 
ground they are sometimes mingled with the meal 
of wh. the bread is baked (Ek. 4. 9 ). 

BEAR (dobb). The Syrian B. is now restricted, so 



far as Syria is concerned, to the Lebanon and the 
Anti-Lebanon. It is sometimes, though rarely, 
carnivorous ; when it has tasted blood it becomes a 
terror to the shepherds fm. the havoc it works. In 
OT. times it seems to have been found in every part 
of W. Pal. 

BEARD. The Egyptians shaved the face (Gn. 
41. 14 ), but wore artificial beards. The Jews allowed 
the hair to grow long on chin and upper lip. Cert, 
idolatrous cuttings of the hair were forbidden (Lv. 
ig. 27 ). Only disease justified shaving (Lv. I4- 9 ). 
To neglect the beard is a sign of grief (2 S. ig." 4 ). 
To pluck or cut the B. is a great indignity (Is. 5O. 6 ; 
2 S. io. 8 ). Only a madman wd. defile it (l S. 2i. 13 ). 
The beardless meet scant respect in the East. Men 
swear by the B., and the suppliant seeks to to. ch 
the B. of one fm. whom he begs. 

BEATING. See CRIMES AND PENALTIES. 

BEAST. The trn. of three Heb. words in the 
OT. and three Gr. in the NT. Of the OT. words 
hay, " life," is any creature having life ; behemak, 
primarily " an animal of the ox tribe," then extended 
to mean " any quadruped " ; bir occurs only in Ps. 
y8. 48 out of the Pent., and means " cattle." Of the 
NT. words zoon is the most gen., in Rv. (RY. 
" living creatures "), of the " four " round the 
throne (see REVELATION) ; the second, tberion, 
" wild beast," in Rv., of the representative of 
Antichrist ; ktenos, " an animal as an article of 
property," e.g. " a beast of burden." 

BECHER. (i) S. of Benjamin (Gn. 46. 21 ). 
(2) S. of Ephraim (i Ch. j. 20 , Bered). Lord A. 
Harvey idents. those two ; he thinks that as the 
slaughter of the Ephraimites (i Ch. 7- 21 ) had ren 
dered it necessary that the drs. of Ephraim shd. 
seek husbands in other tribes, B. shd. be regarded as 
the s.-in-law of Ephraim and the s. of Benjamin. 

BED, BED-CHAMBER. The sleeping arrange 
ments of the Hebs. were very simple. It was not 
their custom to undress, and as among their suc 
cessors in Pal. to-day, a mattress stuffed with cotton, 
hair, or even straw, spread on a rush mat on the 
floor, served as a bed for the great majority. The 
covering in winter was a quilt, but in warmer 
weather a special covering cd. be dispensed with. 
The pillow was a cushion stuffed like the mattress. 
It was therefore easy to carry a man on his bed, and 
also for a man to carry his bed (i S. ig. 15 ; Lk. 
5. 18ff ). The diwan or raised platform round three 
sides of the room, two to three feet wide, and 
covered with cushions, used as a sofa in the day 
time, is often slept upon. This is prob. true also 
of anct. times. Occasionally the di^an is built of 
stones and mortar, but it is often just a frame of 
wood wh. can be moved at will. Among the better 
classes much time is spent in ornamenting this 
frame, and in embroidering the covers of mattresses 
and cushions. The common people have no sepa- 



59 



Bed 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bee 



rate bed-chamber. The living room serves all 
purposes. In summer the Bs. are spread on the 
roof, or in the court. Many who sleep outside have 
only the outer hair cloak for a wrap, and a stone for 
a pillow. But fm. of old, in bldgs. of any preten 
sions, the sleeping apartments have been as private as 
poss. (Ex. 8. 3 ; 2 K. 6. 1 2 , &c.). " Bedstead " ap 
pears only once in EV. (Dt. 3- n ), but the meaning 
is uncert. Bedsteads, however, are figd. on the 
Egpn. and Bab. monuments, so we may infer that 
they were not unknown to the Hebs. 

SEDAN, (i) A judge (i S. I2. 11 ) not named in 
Jg. LXX and Psh. take it as an error for Barak, a 
view now commonly accepted. The Rabbis sugg. 
" Ben Dan " = Samson. (2) S. of Ulam (i Ch. y. 17 ). 

BEE (Heb. debordh, Arb. nahul), a common 
hymenopterous insect frequent in Pal. The B. of 
Pal. (apis j as data} is smaller than the ordinary hive- 
bee, lighter in colour, and its sting is not so strong. 
Now the B. is found in Pal. not only wild but also 
domesticated ; but in Bible times there is no trace 
of anything but the wild bee. The nat. of its 
flowers, so many of them being honey-bearing, and 
the abundant limestone rocks with their frequent 
caves, make Pal. a country peculiarly suited to the 
B. ; hence honey was a staple export (Ek. 27. 1 ). 
Like all inhabitants of the nearer East the Isrs. 
delighted in sweets ; hence to declare anything 
" sweeter than honey " is to call it supremely 
pleasant (Ps. I9- 10 ). It appears to have been eaten 
alone (Pr. 2.|. 13 ) ; at the same time it seems always 
to have been wild honey that was thought of 
(Ps. 8i. 16 ). 

The fierce way in which the B. swarms out agst. any in 
truder was the characteristic rru st noted (Ps. n8. 12 ). As 
the result of the B. not being domesticated the feature of B. 
life most prominent to \Yestern nations, its diligence, does 
not seem to have been observed by the Isrs. That a swarm 
of Bs. should settle in the carcase cf a lion does not seem 
extraordinary to any one who has seen how quickly in Pal. 
ewn the carcase of a camel is reduced to a dry skeleton. 

BEELZEBUB (Mw. io. 25 , &c.). Although RV. 
retains this spelling, relegating with AV. " Beelze- 
bul " to the margin, the latter is certly. correct. 
He appears as the " prince of devils." He was 
clearly a familiar fig. in the popular angelology of 
the time. Some think he is the old god of Ekron 
(2 K. 1 . 2 ), the latter part of his name transformed in 
contempt, so that he becomes " god of the dung 
hill." Of this there is no proof, and everything 
about him is wrapped in obscurity. See BAAL- 
ZEBUB. 

BEER, (i) A place where Isr. halted N. of 
Arnon, and the digging of a well was enshrined in 
one of the oldest Heb. songs (Nu. 2i. 1Gff -). It may 
be = BF.ER-ELIM. The Targumists make this the 
lastappearance of the water that followed the people 
in their desert wanderings (cp. I Cor. io. 4 ). It was 
given for Miriam s sake, because she had guarded 



the infant Moses. At her death it disappeared, 
and thenceforward had always to be summoned by- 
special act ; e.g. smiting the rock at Kadesh, and 
digging here. " Miriam s well " was finally located 
in the Sea of Galilee, and is now shown between the 
city and the baths (see Driver, Expositor,vol. ix. 1 889, 
I5ff.). (2) The town to wh. Jotham fled (Jg. 9- 21 ), 
not identd. 

BEER-ELIM, " Well of the mighty," on the 
border of Moab, prob. = BEER (i). 

BEER-LAHAI-ROI, " Well of the Living One 
who sees me " (Gn. i6. 14 , &c.), where God arrested 
Hagar in her flight fm. Sarah, and Isaac sojourned 
in later days ; on the way to SHUR. It may be the 
mod. .-Jin Mutueilej?, c. 50 miles S. of Beersheba 
(see PEFO. 1871, 2 if. ; Driver, Genesis, in loc.). 

BEEROTH, one of the cities the inhabitants of 
wh. deceived Joshua (9- 17 ), in Benjamin (i8. 25 ). 
The murderers of Ishbosheth were Beerothites (2 S. 
4. 2 ). The name appears in Ez. 2. 25 , Ne. j. 29 . It 
is prob. et-Bireb, the first night s resting-place of 
caravans going N. fm. Jrs. ; the traditional place 
where Jesus was missed (Lk. 2. 43 ). 

BEEROTH-BENE-JAAKAN, a halting place of 
Isr. in the desert, not identd., prob. on the border of 
Seir or Edom (Dt. io. 6 ; Nu. 3^. 31 ). 

BEERSHEBA, the modern Sir es Saba , " Well 
of the Seven" (Gn. 2 1. 31 ), or "of Swearing" 
(26. 33 ). The two explanations are prob. the same, 
fcr the Heb. verb " to swear " means really " to 
pledge oneself in some way by seven sacred things " 
(cp. Herodotus, iii. 8 ; Robertson Smith, RS. 2 , 
i8if.). Driver (Genesis on 2i. 31 ) concludes that 
the refce. is to the seven wells. 

B. lies fully 27 miles S.W. of Hebron. Two large 
wells are on the N. bank of W ddy es-Saba , one of 
them 12! ft. in diameter, and between 40 and 50 ft. 
deep, to the surface of the water. It is locally con 
nected with Abraham. In the bed of the valley, at 
some distance from these, are five less important 
wells. Although now desolate, the ruins around 
prove it to have been once a populous district. The 
place has associations with Abraham (Gn. 2i. 22f -), 
Isaac (26. 2r f -), and Jacob (28., 46. J ). As the most im 
portant outpost to the S., it came to be spoken of 
as the S. limit of Isr. (" Dan. to B."). It is men 
tioned in connection with Samuel s sons (i S. 8. 2 ), 
Joab s census (2 S. 24." : I Ch. 2I. 2 ), and Elijah s 
journey to Sinai (i K. I9- 3 ). It was the birthplace 
of Zibia, mr. of Joash (2 K. 12. l 2 Ch. 24. 1 ). It 
was reoccupied after the Exile (Ne. II. 30 ). Amos 
refers to some heathen ritual connected with B. 
(5- 5 , 8. 14 ). 

BEESHTERAH. See ASHTAROTH. 

BEETLE (Heb. hargol, Lv. u. 22 , the leaper "). 
It is one of the insects that may be eaten ; the 
creatures it is associated with, and the char, by wh. 
they are to be recognised, prove B. to be a mistrn. 



60 



Beh 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bel 



RV. " cricket " is better. Though B. are numerous These prob. resembled the B. figured in Wilkin- 



in Pal., none of them progress by leaping. 

BEHEADING. See CRIMES AND PENALTIES. 

BEHEMOTH (in form pi. of Heb. bebemdh ; 
Ges. says it represents the Egpn. p-ebe-moout, " the 
ox of the river "). An animal described poetically 
in Jb. 4O. 15 24 , the hippopotamus, a pachyderm, re 
stricted to African rivers. Described incorrectly by 
Herod, ii. 71. In the Jewish Haggada B. occupies a 
secondary place to LEVIATHAN, but shares with it the 
distinction of supplying fm. its flesh, food for the 
Saints at the Messianic feast. These two great beasts 



son s AE. II. 312 ; a leather bag fitted into a 
wooden frame, with a pipe, metal-tipped, to carry 




BEHEMOTH (Egyptians Hunting) 

are to kill each other. They are referred to in Ape. 
Bar. 29, as reserved as food for the Saints, in the 
days of the Messiah. 

BEKAH, half a shekel (Ex. 38. 26 ). See MONEY. 

BEL. The original gen. name for deity, latterly 
identd. with Marduk (BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA). 

BELA. (i) =ZOAR. (2) S. of Beor (to be dis 
tinguished from BALAK,S. of Bcor), who reigned over 
Moab in Dinhabah (Gn. 36. 32 ), a city E. of Jordan, 
not identd. (see PEFO. 1902, loff.). (3) S. of Ben 
jamin (Gn. 46. 21 , &c.). (4) A Reubenite, s. of 
AZAZ (i Ch. 5. 8t ). 

BELIAL (Beliya aP), means primarily " worth- 
lessness," usually connected with " man of," or " s. 
of " (i S. 25. 25 ; Jg. I9. 22 ). In the OT. B. is not a 
proper name, only appellative. In the NT. it be 
comes a personal name in the changed form of 
Beliar ; this change is due to rough Syr. pronuncia 
tion ; later, as Syr. had transferred d-rjp from Gr., 
the second element in the name was supposed to 
mean " air," and it is rendered the " Lord of the 
Air" (Eph. 2. 2 ). In Apocalyptic Lit. = SATAN, 
e.g. Asc. Is. 

BELL. In OT. only on High Priest s robe (Ex. 
2S. 33 ). In Zc. I4- 20 the word shd. be rendered with 
LXX " Bridles." 

BELLOWS, once only mentioned in Scrip, in 
connection with the smelting of lead (Jr. 6. 29 ). 




BELLOWS 

the wind to the fire. A man stood with one under 
each foot, pressing them down alternately,pulling up 
the exhausted skin with a string held in the hand. 

BELSHAZZAR. Accdg. to Dn. 5. 30 the last k. 
of Babylon ; he claims Nebuchadnezzar as his fr. 
(Dn. 5. 13 ) ; in Baruch he is declared associated with 
Nebuchadnezzar on his throne (Ba. I. 12 ). Accdg. 
to MT., B. makes a great " feast for a thousand of 
his lords," in the course of wh. a writing appears on 
the wall wh. is interpreted to mean his overthrow, 
" that night was B., k. of the Chaldeans, slain." 
The act. in LXX (Chigi) differs fm. MT. in many 
points, most markedly in not asserting that B. died 
the night of the feast. It was thought at one time 
that B. was unhistorical ; Berosus did not mention 
B., but declared the last k. of Babylon to have been 
Nabunahid. The device adopted by Jos. to main 
tain the historical existence of B. was to ident. him 
with Nabunahid ; others (Niebuhr) held B. to be 
another name of EVIL-MERODACH. It has been 
found, however, that B. was the name of the eldest 
s. of Nabunahid, and that fm. the 7th to the nth 
yrs. of his fr. s reign he had to fulfil the functions of 
kingship. That Nebuchadnezzar is called the fr. of 
B. is paralleled by Shalmaneser s calling Jehu the s. 
of Omri. B. appears to have been a gallant soldier ; 
so long as he held the reins Cyrus did not invade 
Babylonia. There is nobility in his treatment of 
Daniel wh. is apt to be forgotten ; although Daniel 
had interpreted the writing on the wall to mean 
judgment on him, he did not because of this, bate 
one jot of the reward he had promised. Dr. Pinches 
(SDR.) computes that he wd. be 57 yrs. of age at 
his death. 

BELTESHAZZAR. The Bab. name of Daniel 
accdg. to MT. All the more anct. W., i.e. LXX, 
Theod., Pesh., Vulg., have the same trltn. of B. and 
Belshazzar. The motive that led the Scribes to 
change Moses (Moshe) into Manasseh, in Jg. iS. 30 , 



61 



Ben 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ber 



has induced them to insert " t," to make a diffce. be 
tween the name of the prophet and that of the k. 
All arguments agst. the authenticity of Dn. based on 
Dn. 4- 8 , MT., are worthless. 

BENAIAII. (i) S. of Jehoiada of Kabzeel in 
Judah, one of David s mighty men, whose deeds are 
recorded in 2 S. 23. 20ff - He was " captain of the 
guard." He remained faithful in Adonijah s rebel 
lion, and assisted at the coronation of Solomon. By 
his hand Adonijah, Joab, and Shimei were executed 
(l K. 2. 25 - 2!)ff - 46 ). (2) B. of Pirathon (2 S. 23 30 ; 

1 Ch. II. 31 ). Men of this name are mentioned 
(I Ch. I5. 1S - 24 ; 2 Ch. 20. 14 , 3 1. 13 , &c.). 

BEX-AMI, s. of LOT S younger dr., and ancestor 
of the AMMONITES (Gn. I9- 38 ). The LXX and \ Ig. 
insert " Ammon," making B. " the s. of my people," 
a phrase explanatory of the name ; this is evidently 
an afterthought. Delitzsch explains AMMOX as a 
patronymic fm. B. While the kindred people of 
MOAB are always named simply by the name of 
their ancestor, the AMMONITES are genly. called 
<k bene Ammon." 

BENE BERAK (Jo. I9- 45 ), a town in Dan E. of 
Jaffa, now Ibn Ibrdq. 

BENEFACTOR, Gr. Eucrgcies, the title dis 
tinguishing Ptolemy III. and Ptolemy IX., ks. of 
Egp., B.C. 247-222 and B.C. 147-117 respectively. 

BENHADAD, the name of three of the ks. of 
DAMASCUS (Syria). In Asyrn. B. appears as Bar- 
Hadad (Saycc, HBD.}. B. means, " s. of the god 
HADAD." (l) s. of Tab-Rimmon, ally of ASA (l K. 
I5- 18 ). (2) S. and successor of (i). He warred with 
AHAB, besieged SAMARIA unsuccessfully, and was 
decisively defeated at APHEK (l K. 20). In the 
Asyrn. annals he is called Dad-Idri, and heads a 
great confederacy agst. Shalmaneser II. ; Shal- 
maneser claims to have defeated B. and his allies at 
Qarqar. He is prob. the k. of Syria referred to in 

2 K. 5., 6., 7., 8. ; murdered by HAZAEL (2 K. 8. 15 ). 
(3) S. and successor of Hazael (2 K. I3. 3 - 25 ). 

BENJAMIN, at whose birth his mr. Rachel died, 
was called by her BENONI, " s. of my sorrow." Such 
a name mt. seem to bode evil, so Jacob called him 
B., " s. of my right hand." He was Jacob s youngest 
s., and figs, almost as the pet of his fr. and brs. In 
all the transactions concerning B. in Egp., these 
latter show up in an attractive light, very gratifying 
to Joseph (Gn. 42., 45.)- B. was then, however, no 
mere child. Joseph is represented as about 40, and 
in Gn. 46. 21- 26 , B. himself is the fr. of a family when 
they go down to Egp. 

In the wilderness B. numbered 35,400 men of war 
(Nu. i. 37 ) ; in the plains of Moab 45,600 (Nu. 26. 41 ). 
The position of the tribe on the march was with 
Ephraim and Manasseh, W. of the tent of meeting 
(Nu. 2. 18ff -). Palti represented B. among the spies, 
and the " prince " of B. at the division of the land 
was Elidad, s. of Chislon (Nu. 13., 34- 21 ). 



The boundaries of B. s territory were : on the E. 
the Jordan ; the N. fm. Jordan across the plain, up 
the mountain by way of Ai and Bethel, and down to 
Bethhoron the lower ; the W. fm. Bethhoron to 
Kirjath-Jearim, and the S. fm. K.-J. to the N. shore 
of the Dead Sea and the Jordan, including Jrs. (Jo. 
l8. llff -, P.). " The goodness of the land " on act. of 
wh., accdg. to Jos. (8ia rr]V T^S yvys dpeTrjv, Ant. V. 
i. 22), the portion was so small, applied mainly to the 
part in the plains of Jericho. B. thus guarded the 
approaches to the highlands ; that by way of Ai fm. 
the E., and the longer and easier ascents from the 
W., notably that scene of glorious conflicts, by 
Ajalon and Bethhoron ; while he sat astride the 
path connecting N. and S. As was nat. in the cir 
cumstances, B. produced brave and skilful soldiers, 
esp. archers and slingers. They seem also to have 
cultivated the use of both hands, wh. gave them 
great advantage in battle (l Ch. 8. 40 , I2. 2 ; Jg. 2O. 16 , 
&c.). The left-handed Ehud was the second de 
liverer judge (Jg. 3. 15 ). 

A terrible story is told cf B. in Jg. 20-21. It is not free 
from difficulties, but clearly reflects some horrible crime, 
and fearful vengeance. The first k. , popularly elected, was 
Saul the Benjamite. His tribe shared his hostility to David, 
as sho\vn by the conduct of Shimei and Sheba (2 S. i6. 5 , 
19. 2). At the disruption of the kdm., Jrs. had become 
the capital of the Davidic house, and the S. portion of B. 
natly. amalgamated \vith Judah. Bethel, however, was in 
the hands of Jeroboam, and belonged finally to the N. kdm. 
We may suppose therefore that s<,me j art of the tribe, how 
great we cannot say, joined in the revolt fm. Rehoboam. 

The second of the judges and the first of the ks. were 
Benjamites. But the glory of his career who fell on Gilboa, 
was eclipsed by that of another Saul, who also claimed de 
scent from B. , to whose enterprise the Gentile world owes, 
under God, the blessings of the gospel. 

BEOR, " torch " or " burning." (i) Fr. of Bela, 
k. of Edom (Gn. 36. 32 ; I Ch. I. 43 ). (2) Fr. of 
Balaam (Nu. 22. 5 , &c.). 

BERACHAH, RV. BERACAH, "blessing." 

(1) A Benjamite who went to David at Ziklag 
(l Ch. I2. 3 ). (2) The scene of Jchoshaphat s 
thanksgiving for victory (2 Ch. 2O. 26 ) = Breikut, W. 
of Tekoa. 

BEREA, RV. BEROEA. (i) A town in Mace 
donia, to wh. Paul went when driven fm. Thessa- 
lonica (Ac. I7. loff -), c. 50 miles S.W. of the latter 
town. The Jewish community there is well spoken 
of. The town preserves its anct. name, J crria or 
Fcria, and is still a place of some importance. 
Sopater, a companion of Paul, was a native of B. 

(2) = Aleppo, see APOCRYPHA. (3) (i M. 9- 4 ) = 
BEEROTH. 

BERED (Gn. i6. 14 ), accdg. to the Targumists = 
Kbalatza, called by Ptolemy Elusa, idcnt. with 
Khalasah, c. 15 miles S. of Beersheba. 

BERI, a desct. of ASIIER (i Ch. 7- 36 ). BERITES 
(Hcb. Benin], poss. the clan descended fm. B. (2 S. 
20. 14 ). The passage in wh. B?. are mentioned is 
corrupt. 

It is an account of SIIKKA, s. of Bichri, and his rebellion ; 



62 



Ber 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bet 



EV. render "And he" (JOAB or Shebu) "went through 
all the tribes of Isr. unto AKEL and BETH-MAACAH " (here 
it is clear fm. v. 15 : cp. i K. 15.2 : that we ought to read 
Abel-Beth-Maacah) "and all the B. (LXX \appi, Psh. 
qerliH, Vlg. viri electi, reading tdhiirim) ; Driver (Sam. 
p. 264) suggs. Bikrim, "the clansmen of Sheba the s. of 
Bichri," a rdg. wh. necessitates a change of punctuation ; 
Lord A. Harvey (Speaker s Commentary} wd. tr. "for 
tresses"; "and they were gathered together," the kthib 
reads "and they were despised"; "and they went" (in) 
" after him " a rendering wh. implies that B. were followers 
of Sheba. 

There is, not far from Abil-el-Qamh (Abel-beth- 
maacah), an Arab vill. Kefr-JBir im, wh. may repre 
sent Berlm. 

BERIAH. (i) S. of ASHER (Gn. 46. 17 ). (2) S. of 
EPHRAIM, born after the death of his brs. " Ezer and 
Elead, whom the men of GATH that were born in the 
land slew because they came down to take away 
their cattle " (i Ch. y. 21 ), who received his name 
fm. this calamity (v. 23). He was the ancestor of 
JOSHUA (v. 27). 

It is difficult to determine the nnt. or date of the affair 
wh. led to the death of the brs. of B. ; they may have been 
slain in Goshen opposing a raid of the AviM ; or they may 
have fallen in a raid agst. Gath. Either of these vvd. assume 
that the event occurred during the residence cf Isr. in Egp. 
Another theory is that we have here to do, not with persons, 
but with clans ; and that the slaughter in question took place 
after the conquest of the land. Accdg. to tnis view, the 
begetting of B. was the adoption into Ephraim of a portion 
of the Asherite clan of B. Though it is plausible, the state 
ments as to birth of B. are too personal, and the descent of 
Joshua fm. him is mentioned in tco matter of fact a way 
for this theory to be prob. 

BERNICE, BERENICE, dr. of AGRIPPA I. and 
Cypros, dr. of Phasael. A girl of 16, she escaped 
with difficulty fm. the riot on the death of her fr. 
(Ac. I2. 23 ; Jos. Ant. XIX. ix. i). She was already 
married to her uncle Herod of Chalcis, by whom 
she had two sons. On his death, while in the bloom 
of her beau ty, in her 2 1 st yr., she came to reside with 
her br. Agrippa II., who had succeeded his uncle, 
her h., as k. of Chalcis. In order to put a stop 
to scandalous charges of incest with her br., she 
married Polemo, k. of Pontus. Polemo, enamoured 
of the wealth if not of the beauty of B., consented to 
be circumcised. She soon left Polemo and returned 
to her br. at Caesarea Philippi. It was during this 
second residence with Agrippa that she accom 
panied him in his visit of courtesy to Festus at 
Caesarea Stratonis (Ac. 25. 13 ), the Roman capital of 
the province of Judea ; and so was present at the 
examination of PAUL. Though much his senior she 
so fascinated Titus, that but for the opposition of 
the Roman public he wd. have married her. She 
endeavoured in vain to protect the Jews fm. the 
cruelties of Florus ; with no more success she strove 
to dissuade the Jews from making war agst. the 
Romans. The date of her death is not known 
precisely. 

BERODACH-BALADAN, a scribal blunder in 
2 K. 20. 12 for MERODACH-BALADAN (Is. 39. 1 ). 

BEROTHAH (Ek. 47. 16 ), probably = BEROTHAI 



(2 S. 8."), wh. in I Ch. i8. 8 is called Cun. It lay 
between Damascus and Hamath. An echo of the 
old name is poss. heard in Wady Brissa, in the 
Lebanon, not far from Kadesh on the Orontes. 

BERYL, a precious stone not very clearly identd., 
but supposed to be our topaz. Its Heb. name, tar- 
shish, in all likelihood was given because it was 
brought fm. the Spanish TARSHISH. It appears in 
the fourth row of the High Priest s breastplate. 

BESOR, a torrent S. of Judah (i S. 3o. 9 - 10 ). It 
may be Wady Ar arah (Robinson) or Wady esh- 
Shari ab (Guthe). 

BETAH, named with Berothai (2 S. 8. 8 ), called 
Tibhath, prob. correctly, by inversion of the letters 
(i Ch. l8. 8 ). 

BETEN, an unidentd. city in Asher (Jo. ig. 25 ). 
OEJ. places it 8 Rm. miles E. of Ptolemais. 

BETHABARA, RV. BETHANY (Jn. i. 28 ). 
Origen preferred the former rdg., although nearly 
all the copies to wh. he had access had the latter. 
No Bethany E. of the Jordan has been found. 
Conder (PEFM. II. 39!?.) locates B. at the ford of 
Abarab, on the Jordan, above the mouth of Nahr 
jfalud, near Beisan. This satisfies all the require 
ments of the nar. (cp. Sanday, SSG. 23, 35 ; Guthe, 
KB., s.v.~). Bethabara = " place of crossing"; 
Bethany = " place of the boat." 

BETH-ANATH, " Temple of Anath," in Naph- 
tali (Jg. I. 33 ; Jo. iy. 38 ) = Ainatha, 12 miles N. of 
Safed. 

BETH-ANOTH, in the hill country of Judah 
(Jo. I5- 59 ), prob. = Beit Ainun, 3 miles N. of 
Hebron. 

BETHANY, (i) The home of Lazarus and his 
srs., and of Simon, on the Mt. of Olives (Mw. 1 1. 1 ), 
c. 15 furlongs fm. Jrs. (Jn. 1 1. 18 ). This points de 
finitely to el- Azarlycb, a vill. on the SE. slope, 
pleasantly situated among fruit trees, and command 
ing a wide prospect of the Wilderness of Judea, and 
across the Dead Sea. Under the old Convent 
Tower in the centre of the vill. a vault is shown as 
the tomb of Lazarus. The anct. tombs lie E. of the 
vill. It was on the Mt. hard by that Jesus was 
parted fm. His disciples (Lk. 2.f. 50f -). (2) See 
BETHABARA. 

BETH-ARABAH, on the border of Judah and 
Benjamin, in the Dead Sea plain (Jo. I5. 6 61 , i8. 22 , 
l8. 18 , ha Arabab), unidentd. 

BETH-ARBEL (Ho. lo. 14 ), may have been either 
Irbel (or IrbiJ), N. of Tiberias, on the S. lip of Wady 
Ham am ; or IrbiJ, in Gilead, NE. of Pella. The 
balance of opinion favours the E. site. 

BETH-AVEN, " House of Idolatry " or " Noth 
ingness," in Benjamin, between Bethel and Mich- 
mash, near Ai (Jo. 7 2 , i8. 12 ; I S. I3- 5 ). Hosea 
seems to apply this name in mockery and contempt 
to Bethel (4.^, &c.). 

BETH-AZMA\"ETH = AZMAVETH. 



Bet 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bet 




BETH-BAAL-MEON = BAAL-MEON. to the stone set up and anointed (Gn. 28. 22 ), but 

BETH-BARAH (Jg. 7- 24 ), prob. = BETHABARA. natly. soon attached to the place consecrated by the 

BETH-BEREI (i Ch. 4. 31 ; RV. B.-Beri) is called divinity residing in the PILLAR. The sanctuary over- 

Lebaoth in Jo. I v 32 , I9- 6 . A town in Simeon shadowed in importance the neighbouring town of 

unidentd. Luz, to wh. finally its name was given. Jacob 

BETH-CAR (i S. y. 11 , LXX /3ai#x<V), whither visited B. again on his return from Padan Aram 

Isr. chased the Phil. ; poss. Beth-horon (KB. J.c 1 .). (Gn. 35- 3ff : for critical analysis and discussion, see 

Driver, LOT. and Genesis). 

When Isr. came B. had a k. (Jo. I2. 16 ). It was 
allotted to Benjamin (Jo. l8. 22 ), but riot occupied ; 
and later it was captured by Ephraim (Jg. I. 22 ; 
I Ch. 7- 28 ). The headquarters of Isr. were moved 
fm. Gilgal to B., and for a time the Ark rested here 
(Jg. 2O. 18 , LXX), and B. became a place of sacrifice 
(i S. lo. 3 ). Near B. was the home of Deborah 
(Jg. 4- 5 ). It was one of the towns in Samuel s cir 
cuit (i S. 7- 16 ). Here Jeroboam set up the golden 
calf, intending the shrine and ritual to rival those 
of Jrs. It was the residence of the priests of the 
high places, and the most important sanctuary in the 
N. kdm. (i K. I2. 29ff - ; Am. y. 13 ). Fitly enough it 
was here that Jeroboam heard the prophet s dcnun- 

BETH-ARBEL URBEL. IN GALILEE) datlon Q f doQm ^ R ^Ifl.^ J t wag captured by 

BETH-DAGON. (i) A town in the Shcphclah Abijah, k. of Judah (2 Ch. I3. 19 ). For the prophetic 

(Jo. I5- 41 ), the mod. Beit Dejan, c. 6 miles SE. of attitude to B., sec Jr. 48. 13 , Am. 3. 14 , &c. BethAven 

Jaffa. (i) On the border of Asher (Jo. I9- 27 ), for is the name it deserves. Despite the idolatry, how- 

wh. Conder suggs. Tell D auk, near the mouth of ever, a school of the prophets flourished here (2 K. 

the Belus, S. of Acre. 2 - 2f )j ant ^ near by, bears avenged the insult to Elisha 

BETH-DIBLATHAIM (Jr. 48. 22 ) poss. = Al- (2 K. 2. 23 ). The priest who taught the people im- 

mon-D., the station between Dibon-Gad and Nebo ported by Asyr. resided here (2 K. I/. 28 * 1 -). As the 

(Nu. 33- 46f -), unidentd. Samaritans place B. on Mt. Gerizim, Conder thinks 

BETH-EDEN. See EDEN. the priest may have lived there (Tent Work, 25 1). It 

BETHEL, the mod. Beitln, on the N. road, c.\2 was occupied after the Exile (Ez. 2. 28 , &c.), fortified 

miles fm. Jrs., a poor vill. of c. 400 inhabitants, by Bacchides (i M. 9- 50 ), and disappears fm. hist. 

crowning a slight eminence. Four springs and a with its capture by Vespasian (BJ. IV. ix. 9). (2] An 

rock-hewn reservoir to the S. afford a plentiful unidentd. town in Judah, variously spelled, Bethul, 

Bethel, and Bethuel (Jo. ig. 4 ; I S. 3O. 27 ; I Ch. 4 . 30 ). 
BETH-EA1EK, an unidentd. town in Zebulun 
E. of Acre (Jo. ig. 27 ). 

BETHER (SS. 2. 17 , AVm. "division," RVm. 
"perhaps the spice malobathron"). In Jo. 15. 9 , 
LXX. A. reads f3ai.0^p, and I Ch. 6. 59 /3ou##T/p, as 
cities in the SW. of Jrs. At B. the Rms. quenched 
the rebellion of Bar Kochba in Jewish blood. It is 
now Bitilr, c. 6 miles SW. of Jrs. (see Milman, Hist. 
of the Jews, 434ff.). 

BETHESDA. " There is in Jrs. by the sheep 
gate a pool, wh. is called in Heb. Bethesda, having 
five porches " (Jn. 5- 2 ). We shd. read, " There are 
in Jrs. at the sheep-pool, wh. is called in Heb. 
supply of water, but the uplands around are bleak Bezatha (or Bcthzatha), five porches." Bethesda wd. 
and stony. Here Abraham built an altar (Gn. I2. 8 ). be Aram, for betb-hcsda, " place of compassion " : 
On a point to the E. commanding an extensive view, Bezatha mt. be the well-known name of a quarter of 
including the plains of Jericho, prob. Abraham Jrs. N. of the Sanctuary (see JERUSALEM). The pool 
parted with Lot (Gn. 13). To Jacob s visit and of this quarter wd. then be intended. But the 
experience B. owed its name (Gn. 28. loir -). "The writer may have understood the word as Aram. 
place " may mean the spot where Abraham sacri- betb setba, " place of the sheep." 
ficcd (fp. Arb. maqam}. The name at first applied The pool was prob. square, with a porch on each. 

64 




Photo 

SACRED STONE CIRCLE NEAR BETHEL 



Bet 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bet 



side, and a causeway dividing the pool into two 
parts, with a fifth porch in the middle. So Cyrill 
of Jrs. understood it. In his time the pool was 
shown, under the name of the Twin-pools, in the 
NE. quarter of Jrs., not far from the position of the 
old sheep gate. Part of this double pool was found 
again in 1888, near the present Church of St. Anne. 
The Gospel gives no clear indication as to the 
position of the pool ; nothing, therefore, can be 
said agst. this old identn. Only in later times was 
Birket Isro ln, the large pool on the northern boun 
dary of the present sanctuary, taken for Bethesda. 
It prob. belongs to Roman Jrs. G. H. DALMAN. 



Jordan, " Place of the Partridge " (cp. Arb. hafaf), 
now l Ain Hajleh, with the adjoining monastery 
Oasr Hajleh, SE. of Jericho. 

~ BETH-HORON. Upper and Lower B.-H. 
corrspd. to the mod. Beit Ur el-Foqah, and Sett Ur 
et-Tahtah (Jo. l6. 3> 5 ). They were on the border of 
Benjamin and Ephraim, but assigned to the latter 
GO. i8. 13 - 14 , 2 1. 22 ). Fm. el-Jib (Gibeon), 6 miles 
N. of Jrs., there is an ascent of 6 miles to B.-H. the 
upper, on the highest point of a ridge, down wh. 
there is a rough descent of c. 4 miles, past B.-H. the 
lower, towards the plain. They command the most 
important approach fm. Sharon to the central up- 




Photo. Bonfils 



BETH-EZEL (Mi. I. 11 ), an unidentd. town, 

poss. in the Phil, plain. It may be = Azel (Ze. I4- 5 ). 

BETH-GADER (i Ch. 2. 51 ), poss. = Geder (Jo. 

BETH-GAMUL (Jr. 48. 23 ) = Umm el-Jamdl, S. 
of Medeba. 

BETH-GILGAL (Ne. i2. 29 ),poss.=Gilgal, near 
Jericho. 

BETH-HACCEREM, RV. B.-HACCHEREM 
(Ne. 3. 14 ; Jr. 6. 1 ), " Place of the Vineyard," near 
Tekoa, and suitable for a beacon, may be the Hero- 
dium S. of Bethlehem, or Ain Kdrim, W. of Jrs. 
(Conder). 

BETH-HARAM, AV. wrongly BETH-ARAM 
(Jo. 13."; Nu. 32. 36 ; "Beth-Haran," Jos. Ant. 
XIV. i. 4 ; cp. XVIII. ii. i), now Tell er-R dmeh, on 
the S. bank of Wddy Hesbdn, c. 6 miles E. of Jordan. 

BETH-HOGLAHJ in Benjamin (Jo. i8. 21 ), near 



lands. They were therefore repeatedly fortified 
(i Ch. 7. 24 ; i K. 9. 17 ; 2 Ch. 8. 5 ; i M. 9 ; 50 : 
|th. 4. 4 - 5 ). Down these rugged steeps were driven 
in rout the Amorites (Jo. IO. 10 ), the Syrians under 
Seron, and again under Nicanor (i M. 3. 13ff , 7- 39ff -), 
and the Romans under Cestius Callus (BJ. II. xix. 
8, 9). Hither also turned a company of the Phil, 
agst. Saul (i S. I3. 18 ). 

BETH-JESHIMOTH, the S. limit of Isr. s camp 
E. of Jordan (Nu. 33. 49 ; Jo. I2. 3 ). It was allotted 
to Reuben (Jo. l3- 2 ), but appears in Ek. 25- 9 as a 
city of Moab. It is prob. Ain Svwfimfb, c. I mile 
fm. the NE. corner of the Dead Sea. 

BETH-LE-APHRAH, AV. HOUSE OF APH- 
RA (Mi. I. 10 ), an unidentd. Phil. town. 

BETH-LEBAOTH, " House of Lionesses " (Jo. 
I9. 6 ) = BETH-BEREI (i Ch. 4/ 31 ), a town in Simeon. 

BETHLEHEM, the anct. Ephrath or Ephrathah 
< c 



Bet 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bet 



(Gn. 35. 19 , 48/5 Jo. IJ. 59 , LXX), in Judah, lies 
c. 5 miles S. of Jrs., on a double knoll with steep 
sides N. and S. It is a town of some 5000 inhabi 
tants, mostly Christians, industrious tradespeople, 
who make a good livelihood by selling their carved 
work in olive wood, mother-of-pearl, &c., to pil 
grims and tourists. The Church of the Nativity, 
E. of the town, is the oldest Christian church in 
use to-day. The roof is English oak, the gift of 
Edward HI. The traditional spot of the Nativity 
is in a cave under the church. In an adjoining 
apartment, tradition says, St. Jerome wrote the 
Vulgate. 

At B. Rachel died. It was the home of Boaz and 
Ruth, and seems to have been fm. old time in 
friendly connection with Moab (Ru, passim, I S. 
22. 3 4 ). Here dwelt the family of David. When 
garrisoned by the Phil., three mighty men brake 
through their ranks, and brought David water fm. 
the well (2 S. 23. 14ir ), wh. tradition idents. with a 




BETHSAIDA JVLIAS. FROM THE JORDAN 

cistern NW. of the town. It was fortified by Reho- 
boam (2 Ch. n. 6 ), and re-occupied after the Exile 
(Ez. 2. 21 ; Ne. 7- 26 ). It is enshrined in affectionate 
remembrance for all time as the birthplace of Jesus. 
(2) B. in Zebulun = licit Lehm, c. 7 miles NW. of 
Nazareth. 

BETH-MAACAH (2 S. 20. I5 ) = ABEL I. 

BETH-MARCABOTII, an unidentd. city near 
Ziklag, in Simeon (Jo. 19." ; I Ch. 4. "). 

BETH-MEON = BAAI.-MKOX. 

BETH-MERHAK, AV. " a place that was far 
off," poss. the city boundary (2 S. i_v 17 ). 

BETH-MI LEO. See M ILI.O. 

BETH-NIMRAH, " Place of the Leonard " (Xu. 
32. 3 " Nimrah," v. 36 ; ]o. n. 27 ), now Tell Ximrtn, 
on the edge of the plain E. of Jericho. 

BETH-PALET, KV. B. -IT. LET, a town S. of 
Beersheba (Jo. iv 27 , &c.). 

BETH-PAZZEZ, an unidentd. town in Issachar 
(Jo. I 9 . 2 ). 

BETH-PEOR (Dt. 3. 2!) , &c.). Srr PF.OR. 

BETHPHAGE, an unidentd. vill. near Bethany 



(Mw. 2 1. 1 , &c.). Clermont-Ganneau suggs. Kefr 
et-Tur, on Olivet. 

BETH-REHOB, a town by the valley in wh. 
Laish, subsequently Dan, lay (Jg. i8. 28 ; 2 S. lo. 6 ). 
Some think it may be the anct. name of Bdnids. 
BETHSAIDA. (i) A town in Lower Gaulonitis 




BETHSAIDA OF GALILEE (?) 



(Ant. XYIII. ii. i, &c.), near the shore of the Sea 
of Galilee, adorned by Philip, and called Julias, 
in honour of the Emperor s dr. It is mentioned 
in Lk. 9. 10 , prob. also in Mk. 8. 22 . Schumacher, 
the best authority for this district, draws atten 
tion to the good road connecting el- l Araj on the 
shore, with et-Tell, fully a mile inland, on higher 
ground (The Jaulan, p. 246), and asks if el- Araj mt. 
not be the fishing village, and et-Tell the princely 
residence a suggn. which Sanday attributes to 
Guthe (SSG. 48 .). He inclines, however, to ident. 
B. with et-Mes adlych, fully a mile and a half E. of 
the mouth of the Jordan. (2) B. of Galilee (Jn. 
I2. 21 ), the home of Philip, Andrew, and Peter (Jn. 
i. 44 ), poss. also of James and John. It is referred to 
in Mk. 6. 3 m No site bearing this name has been 
discovered, and the early pilgrims say nothing of it. 
But in the lapse of cents, a prob. insignificant vill. 
mt. disappear it may have been but the " fisher 
town " of Capernaum while the name, like that of 
Salim, int. wander to a neighbouring shrine. In 
Sheikh Ah es-Saiyddtn, " Sheikh Aly of the 




BETIISAIDA OF GALILEE (Colony at et-Tabigha) 

Fishermen," on the rocky side of Tell Areimeh, E. 
of Khan Minyeh, there is prob. an echo of the anct. 
name. B. may yet be found either at et-Tabigha, or 
at khiin Minyeh itself, if Capernaum be finally 
identd. with Tell Hum (or Talhum, as Macalister 
suggs.). 



66 



Bet 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bet 



Some have tried to prove that B. of Galilee was in Gaulo- 
nitis, and was in fact ident. with B. Julias (Guthe, KB. s.v. ; 
G. A. Smith, HJHL., 459 ; Sanday, SSG. and DCG., s.v. 
CAPKRXAUM). The argument seems to be that Jcs. places 
Gamala, a fortress midway down the E. shore of the Sea of 
Galilee, now in Gaulonitis, and again in Galilee. If this was 
the usage of the time, the Evangelist mt. quite legitimately 
describe Julias, wh. lay between Gamala and the Jordan, on 
the very border of the province, as " B. of Galilee." 

The passages cited fm. Jos. really tell the other way. Judas 
is spoken of as a " Gaulonite" of Gamala (Ant. XVIII. i. 
i), while elsewhere he is called a " Galilean." But it is not 
unusual to describe a man as belonging to the district most 
closely identd. with his life, even if he were not born there. 
There is nothing to support the theory here. 

Jos. was placed in command of the two Galilees, and 
Gamala was added to his jurisdiction (BJ. II. xx. 4). If 
Gamala had been in Galilee, there wd. have been no need to 
specify it separately. But, to make the matter certain, the 
following paragraph says that " in Gaulonitis he fortified 
Seleucia, and Sogane and Gamala." It wd. have been im- 
poss. in any case, fm. the special arrangements made in view 
of war, to infer that, at an earlier date, B. Julias was in Gali 
lee, even if Philip had not given such convincing proof that 
it belonged to his tetrarchy. 

The boundaries of Galilee are specified in Bf. III. iii. i. 
There, obviously, the Sea is reckoned to Galilee, and the dis 
tricts adjoiningit to the E. are named, Gaulonitis among them. 



natural use in the circumstances can hardly shake the in 
ference fm. the uniform usage in NT. 

Further, there is no suggn. that the disci [les had been 
driven out of their course, when they found themselves over 
agst. " the land of Gennesaret " (Mk. 6.). This wd. have 
implied a wind from the E. But if their course was from 
point to point along the E. and NE. she re, an E. wind wd. 
not have distressed them, and certly. cd. never have blown 
them out to sea. It is clear that they were rowing agst. 
contrary winds. The time occupied from evening till the 
fourth watch seme 8 or 9 hours, wd. be absurd if their 
objective were B. Julias. But toiling in the teeth of a storm 
from the W. , such as cne often sees today, it is quite intel 
ligible. This points definitely to a site for B. of Galilee near 
or in the Plain of Gennesaret. 

It is to be remembered also that in the time cf Christ, B. 
Julias was one cf those centres cf Greek influence, wh. He is 
never known to have entered. It is therefore unlikely that 
He wd. send His disciples thither. 

The " scene of the miracle " on the E. of the Lake is cf 
course not fixed with any deliniteness. An inference based 
on the assumptk n that it is known is therefore futile (San- 
day, DCG., s.v. Capernaum, end of par. 4). Even if the 
two Bs. were only 3 or 4 miles apart, they belonged to difft. 
jurisdictions. When we remember how frequently names 
are repeated in Pal. , we need not wonder if Fisher Home " 
appeared twice, in each case marking a gcod fishing ground. 
There are two Safeds in Galilee to-day. 




BETH-SHAN : CITADEL MOUND 



Finally, Gamala is described as a part of Lower Gaulcnitis, 
when Vespasian advanced to besiege it (BJ. IV. i. i). The 
testimony cf Jos. is perfectly clear. Gamala, although jc ined 
to his command, was never regarded as being in Galilee. 
The proof of the theory therefore, as far as it rests on Jos., 
entirely breaks down. 

It is nothing to the purpose to cite Ptolemseus (A.D. 140) to 
the effect that Julias was in Galilee (Dr. Furrer, quoted by 
Sanday, SSG. 95), since arm ng other changes in the inter 
val, ]ulias was definitely attached to Galilee in A.D. 84 
(Smith, HJHL. 459 .). 

Dr. Sanday thinks that the words in Mk. 6. 45 have been 
too strictly interpreted. He reminds us that the Gospel 
"was prob. written at Rome and that its authcr was a 
native of Jrs., not of Galilee. We cannot be surprised if 
his lang. on topographical joints lacks precision." But is 
it not just in this Gospel that we shd. expect precision on 
such points, if it embodies the recollections of Peter? He 
was not likely to convey wrong impressions of the scenes of 
his boyhood and young manhood, or of the sea wh. he knew 
so well. 

With all respect for the judgment of the scholars named, 
it is difficult to believe that tis rb nipav cd. ever have been 
used of a point a little way alcng the shore, with no dis 
tinct b.iy (Guthe) to cross, irtpav has a sufficiently definite 
meaning, " the other side" of river or of lake. In no other 
case in NT. cd. it well be rendered as these scholars suggest. 
As Dr. Sanday courteously implies that those who oppose 
his view have invented a second B. to support their own, it 
may not be out of place to ask if this interpretation wd. ever 
have been heard of, but for the somewhat shaky theory it is 
brought to buttress. The citation of the verb JiaTrepaidw, used 
of a voyage from Tiberias to Tarichaea (Jcs. Vit. 59) a 



BETH-SHEAN, BETH-SHAN, at the E. end of 
the vale of Jezreel, on the S. bank of Nahr JaluJ, 
where it sinks into the Jordan Valley, the mod. 
Beisan. It was a city in Issachar, assigned to Man- 
asseh (Jo. lj. us - ; Jg. I. 27 ). The Can. were not 
driven out, but when Isr. became strong they were 
set to task-work. The Phil, held it after Saul s de 
feat on Gilboa, and here exposed the bodies of him 
self and his sons (i S. 3i. 7ff )- Here Jonathan eluded 
the snares of Trypho (i M. I2. 40 ). It was called 
Scythopolis by the Greeks. After a chequered hist, 
it was rebuilt by Gabinius (Ant. XIV. v. 3), and was 
the only city in the Decapolis VV. of Jordan (BJ. 
III. ix. 7). Jos. mentions its heathen inhabitants 
(Vita, 6). The Mishna (Avoda Zurah, i. 4) notes it 
as containing an idol. It is now occupied by a 
colony of Circassians. 

BETH-SHEMESH, " House " or " Temple of 
the Sun." (i) B.-S. in Judah (Jo. I5. 10 , &c. = Ir 
Shemesh, Jo. I9- 41 ), the mod. A in Sbems, 15 miles 
W. of Jrs. It was assigned to " the sons of Aaron." 
Here the Ark rested (i S. 6.), and Amaziah was cap 
tured (2 K. I4. n> 13 , &c.). Under Ahaz it was taken 
by the Phil. (2 Ch. 28. 18 ). (2) An unidentd. city in 



67 



Bet 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bis 



Issachar (Jo. 19."). (3) An unidcntd. city in 
Naphtali (Jo. ig. 38 ). (4) A place of idolatrous wor 
ship in Egp. (Jr. 43- 13 ), the famous city of Heliopolis, 
known in the Middle Ages as l Ain Shems. 

BETH-SHITTAH,aplacepastwh.theMidianites 
fled (Jg. 7."), prob. Shutta, in the vale of Jezreel. 

BETH-TAPPUAH, Place of Apples," a town 
in Judah (Jo. it;. 53 ) = Taffuh, W. of Hebron, forti 
fied by Bacchidcs (i M. 9- 50 ). 

BETHUEL. See BETHEL. 

BETHUEL, s. of Nahor, fr. of Rebecca and 
Laban (Gn. 22. 23 , &c.). 

BETH-ZUR, a town in Judah (Jo. I5. 58 ), forti 
fied by Rchoboam (2 Ch. 1 1. 7 ), and reoccupicd after 
the Exile (Ne. 3- 16 ). Here Judas defeated Lysias 
(l M. 4- 29> 61 , " Bethsura "). Taken by Antiochus 
Eupator (i M. 6. 31> 50 ), it was fortified by Bacchides 
(l M. 9- 52 ). It fell into the hands of Simon Mac., 
B.C. 140 (l M. II. 65 , I4- 33 ). It is the mod. Beit 
Sur, W. of the Hebron road, near Halbul. 

BETONIM, a town in Gad (Jo. I3. 26 ), poss. 
Batnek, SW. of cs-Salt. 

BETROTH. See MARRIAGE. 

BEULAH (" married," of the woman), applied to 
Pal. (Is. 62. 4 5 ), to wh. God turns again " with a 
love as strong and deep as the first love of a bridal 
pair " (Delit/.sch, ad loc.}. 

BEZALEEL, the principal architect of the 
Tabernacle in the wilderness, and the principal 
artificer under whose superintendence the various 
articles used in the Tabernacle worship were made, 
and the structure itself erected. In Ex. 3 1. 2 we are 
told that God called him to the work. He was the 
s. of Uri the s. of HUR, of the tribe of JUDAH. 

BEZEK. (i) In Judah (Jg. i.5), prob. Bczkah, W. 
of Jrs. (2) Where Saul assembled his army (i S. II. 8 ), 
prob. Khirbet Ibzik, c. 14 miles NE. of Nablus. 

BEZER, a city of refuge in Reuben, in the 
Mishor, or tableland E. of Jordan (Dt. 4. 43 ; Jo. 
2O. 8 , &c.), poss. ident. with BOZRAH. 

BIBLE. Sec SCRIPTURE. 

BIER. Sfc BURIAL. 

BILDAD, one of JOB S three friends. He is called 
a Shuhitc a term that implies that he was a dcsct. 
of ABRAHAM through Shuah his s. by KETURAII. In 
the LXX, tyrannus, " ruler of the Saucheans." In 
the dialogue he speaks after ELIPHAZ and before 
ZOPHAR ; in char., too, his speeches are inter 
mediate between the polished eloquence of the first 
of the interlocutors, and the blunt coarseness of 
the third. 

BILEAM = IBLEAM (i Ch. 6. 70 ; Jo. 17.", &c.), 
a Levite city in Manasseh = Bel dmeh, ^ mile S. of 
Jenln. 

BILHAH. (i) Rachel s slave, mr. of Dan and 
Naphtali (Gn. 29. 29 , &c.). (2) A city in Simeon 
(I Ch. 4. 29 ) = Baalah (Jo. i;. 2 *), Balah (Jo. I 9 . 3 ), and 
Baalath (Jo. I9- 44 ), unidentd. 



BIRD, and FOWLS, stand for three words in OT., 
l of>h, " a flying creature," ayit, " a bird of prey," 
tzippor, " a twittering bird " ; and for two in the 
NT., petcinon, " a flying creature," and orneoii, " a 
ravening bird." In our Lord s parable of the Sower 
Bs. represent evil (so Rv. l8. 2 ; Jr. y 27 )- Bs. are 
also the symbol of transitoriness (Ho. 9. 11 ) . Though 
song-Bs. are not a prominent feature of the E., yet 
the song of the B. is a sign of spring (SS. 2. 12 ). Fowls 
were supposed to be specially endowed with wis 
dom (Jb. 28. 21 ). 

BIRTH. Childbirth seems to have been easy 
among the Hebs., as it still is among Oriental 
women, esp. the Arb. (Ex. I. 19 ). The " birth stool " 
(RV.), on wh. the mr. sat in labour, is still occa 
sionally in use, but the common attitude is kneeling 
on the knees. MIDWIVES were in attendance. The 
child was washed, salted, and wrapped in swaddling 
clothes (Ek. i6. 4 ), a custom wh. still prevails. An 
Eastern friend once hinted to the present writer the 
opinion that Europeans have a peculiar odour, be 
cause they are not salted in infancy ! In early times 
the mr. suckled her children (Gn. 21. 7 ), but in later 
days resort was had to nurses, esp. by the better 
classes (2 S. 4. 4 ; 2 K. II. 2 , &c.). In NT. times the 
name was given to boys at circumcision on the 8th 
day (Lk. i. 59 , 2. 21 ). In earlier times there is no 
trace of this custom, the name being given at birth 
by mr. or fr. (Gn. i6. 15 , 29. 32 , &c.). The birth of a 
s. rendered the mr. unclean for 40 days, that of a 
dr. for 80 days. Similar provisions existed among 
other nations, e.g. among the Greeks (HA. 147!?.). 

BIRTHDAY. The ks. of Egp. were accustomed 
to celebrate Bs. with feasts (Gn. 4O. 20 ). Fm. 
Jb. I. 4 we gather that the practice was common. 
The customs of Persians and Greeks are alluded to 
in Herod, i. 133, 2 M. 6. 7 , Jos. Ant. II. v. 3. And 
in NT. (Mw. I4. 6 ; Mk. 6. 21 ), Herod Antipas makes 
a feast for his lords on his B. 

BIRTHRIGHT. See FAMILY. 

BIRZAVITH, RV. BIRZAITH, a town in 
Ashcr (i Ch. 7- 31 ), poss. = Blr ez-2.eit, near Tyre. 

BISHOP represents the Gr. cpiskopos, " overseer," 
the title of the officials sent by Athens to superin 
tend the affairs of her subject allies. As ekklesia, the 
Gr. word trd. Church, means primarily the as 
sembly of the citizens of a Gr. Republic for the 
transaction of business, and the council that pre 
pared business for this Assembly was a Gerusia, the 
members of wh. were called " presbyters " or 
" elders " ; it is a seductive idea that there was fm. 
the beginning an Episkopos, representing the Church 
universal, or, in stricter analogy with Hellenic 
notions, the Church at Jrs. As a matter of fact 
it seems cert, that at first Bs. and Elders or Presby 
ters were identl. (i) The same persons are called 
" elders " and " bishops " (Ac. 2O.,cp. vv. 17-28, and 
Tt. i., cp. vv. 5-7). (2) "Bishops" and "elders" 



68 



Bit 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bio 



are never united in the same clause as if they filled 
different offices, as Bs. and deacons are (Php. I. 1 ). 
(3) " Elders" are exhorted to exercise the functions 
of a "bishop," episkopein. The same identy. of Bs. 
with Elders is implied in Clem. Rom. XLII. and 
XLIV. In the Epist. of Ignatius first does the B. 
appear separate from the eldership, though here the 
B. is pastor of one congregation (ekklesia) ; the 
Elders are compared to a " garland " (stephanos) 
round him ; so Apost. Const. II. 

From this the evolution of the diocesan Bishop 
was easy and natural. The times of persecution 
and heresy which followed called for a monarchical 
constitution in the separate churches. For this 
development the Church may have had apostolic 
authority. 

BIT, BRIDLE, Heb. resen, metheg; EV. render 
both words " bridle " ; once only (Ps. 32. 9 ) metheg 
is trd. " bit." Resen is clearly the Arb. rasan, 
" halter " ; while metheg prob. corrspds. to lijdm, 
"bit." Mahsom (Ps. 39.!) shd. be "muzzle." 
Chalinos (Js. 3 > 3 ) is a bit or curb. 

BITHIAH, an Egpn. princess (i Ch. 4. 18 ), w. of 
Mered. She is distinguished fm. another w. called 
" the Jewess," and may have been a convert. Her 
name signifies " dr." or " worshipper of J"." 

BITHYNIA, a district in the NW. corner of 
Asia Minor, named fm. the Thracian immigrants, 
the Bithynians. It was left to the Rms. by Nico- 
medes III., B.C. 74. It was joined with Pontus in 
a single province, wh. Augustus made Senatorial, 
B.C. 64. It was not visited by Paul (Ac. l6. 7 ). 
There were Jews in B. (i P. I. 1 ), and the younger 
Pliny gives to the Emperor Trajan an act. of the 
Christians there (Ep. ad Traf. 96, 97). 

BITTER HERBS. The eating of a salad of B. H. 
with the lamb and unleavened bread (Ex. I2. 8 ; Nu. 
9- 11 ) was in line with immemorial practice in the 
East. The watercress, the pepper-grass, the endive 
are plentiful and genly. used. They were pre 
scribed, doubtless, because they cd. be swiftly pro 
cured. 

BITTER WATER. The ordeal of jealousy (Nu. 
5- 11 31 ). Holy water was taken by the priest, and 
dust from the floor of the Tabernacle was strewed on 
it ; then the woman suspected of adultery was made 
to drink it, calling down curses on herself, if guilty. 
If she had been unfaithful, disease of a loathsome 
kind fell upon her ; if innocent, she bore children. 
This ordeal was really a protection of the innocent 
agst. the insane jealousy of the Oriental. 

BITTERN (Heb. qippod), AV. ; RV. trs. " por 
cupine." There is considerable difficulty in decid 
ing between these two renderings. In favour of AV. 
are : (i) the habits attributed to the B., e.g. frequent 
ing marshes (Is. I4- 23 ), " lodging in the upper lin 
tels " of desolate houses (Zp. 2. 14 ) ; (2) it is associ 
ated in Is. 34. 11 and in Zp. 2. 14 with qa ath, " cor 



morant," wh. is certly. a bird ; (3) Aq. trs. " pelican" 
and Thd. " swan." In favour of RV. are : (i) the 
apparent meaning of the word fm. its etymology ; 
(2) the fact that the corrspdg. word in Aram, and 
Arb. means " porcupine," or " hedgehog " ; (3) the 
LXX and the Vlg. both tr. by words meaning 
" hedgehog " ; (4) the Psh. and the Tg. tr. by the 
etymological equivalent in Aram., wh. means " por 
cupine " or " hedgehog." On the whole we prefer 
the RV., as the descriptions of the habits of the B. in 
the poetical passages quoted are slightly ambiguous, 
while the etymological evidence is strong and un 
ambiguous. 

BLACK. See COLOUR. 

BLAINS. See DISEASES. 

BLASPHEMY. See CRIMES AND PENALTIES. 

BLEMISH, (i) Bodily defects wh. rendered an 
Aaronite incapable of fulfilling the priest s office 
(Lv. 21. 17 21 ). (2) Defects in animals wh. made 
them unfit for sacrifice (Lv. 22. 20 25 ). Accdg. to the 
Talmudists the PRIEST mt. suffer fm. fifty specified 
Bs. ; the animal fm. seventy-three. 

BLESSING and CURSING, (i) Effective; 
divine B. or C., thus God blessed " the house of 
Obed-Edom " (2 S. 6. 11 ) ; on the other hand God 
declared CAIN cursed (Gn. 4- 11 ). (2) Indirect; 
prayer or imprecation. In the East, the efficiency of 
B. or C. for good or ill is universally believed in. 
There poss. was an element of this in JACOB S eager 
ness to gain his father s B., and his dread lest, his de 
ception being discovered, his father shd. curse him 
(Gn. 27. 10 - 13 ). So with MICAH (Jg. I7- 1 - 3 ), and 
BALAK, and BALAAM (Nu. 22. 6 ), B. and C. were to be 
put on Mts. Gerizim and Ebal respectively (Dt. 
II. 26 27 ). The priests were to bless the children of 
Isr. (Nu. 6. 23 " 21 ) : this was done after the morning 
and evening sacrifices. (3) Declarative ; blessing 
God (Gn. I4. 20 ; Ne. 8. 6 ; Dn. 2. 9 ). It shd. be 
noted that in Jb. 2. 9 , where AV. has" Curse God and 
die," the word used is barak, " bless " ; RV. gives 
the idea " renounce " ; the lit. rendering wd. be 
" bless," the meaning being " take good-bye of." 

BLINDING. See CRIMES AND PENALTIES. 

BLINDNESS. See DISEASES. 

BLOOD is identd. with "the life " (Lv. 1 7. n ),hence 
its sacredness in the eyes of the Isr. This idea ap 
pears to have been held beyond the limits of Isr., as 
the dependent idea of sacrificial ATONEMENT is so 
widely spread. Further, fm. this flowed the idea 
that blood wantonly shed, even that of a beast, 
brought a curse (Lv. I7. 4 ) ; the guilt of murder lay 
in the shedding of " man s blood " (Gn. 9- 6 ). 
Bloodguiltiness (lit. " bloods "), murder (cp. Gn. 
9. 5 , 42." ; Pr. 28. 17 ). The attempt to use Ek. 3. 18 
to soften the meaning of Ps. 5i. u seems as absurd as 
it wd. be to make " murder " mean merely " hate " 
in Lk. 23. 19 , because in I Jn. 3- 15 it is said, " Whoso 
ever hateth his br. is a murderer." Fm. this also 



69 



Bio 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



followed the prohibition of B. as an article of FOOD 
(Lv. y. 26 , I/. 13 ). The Blood of Christ = His Aton 
ing work (Mw. 26. 28 ) ; this is prominent in the Epp. 
(E P h. 2. 13 ; I P. I. 19 ; I Jn. I. 7 ; Rv. I. 5 ). Blood, 
Avenger of (god). Slid, a person be killed, it was 
the duty of the eldest in the clan to take vengeance 
by slaying the slayer, whether the death were the re 
sult of accident or intention. It was to limit this 
that the CITIES OF REFUGE were instituted. The 
thought of the East has changed in regard to man 
slaughter : it is no longer the horror of the shedding 
of blood that is prominent ; it is the loss of the fight 
ing strength of the clan ; hence, to equalise matters, 
a man of the clan to wh. the slayer belonged must be 
killed, whoever it is. Monetary compensation to 
some extent implies the same idea. The anct. Gr. 
idea is more in accordance with the Jewish, e.g. the 
case of Adrastus (Herod. I. 35). 

BLOOD, ISSUE OF; BLOODY FLUX. See 
DISEASES. 

BLUE. See COLOUR. 

BOANERGES, the name given by our Lord to 
the sons of Zebedee and explained to mean " Sons 
of Thunder " (Mk. 3- 17 ). This title may have been 
given to James and John because of their vehement 
zeal which led them to desire to call down " fire fm. 
heaven " on those Samaritans who refused to re 
ceive their Master (Lk. 9. 5 ). There has been a 
difficulty as to the precise Aram, words that this 
term represents, but in the Sinaitic Palimpsest 
(Lewis), B. appears as Beni-Ragshi without any ex 
planation following, proving that the word was in 
telligible to Palestinians ; the diffce. in the vowel 
may be due to an attempt to represent the broader 
pronunciation of Galilee. ^.J~!, properly " tumult," 
mt. have " thunder " as a secondary meaning, altho 
no other example survives. 

BOAR (Heb. hazir, Arb. kbans7r), occurs only in 
Ps. 8o. 13 of the wild animal ; the Heb. word is .found 
other six times, but always apparently of the 
domestic swine. The wild boar is still fairly comrriQn, 
esp. in the thickets near the Jordan. 

BOAT. See SHIP. 

BOAZ, a pillar standing in front of Solomon s 
TEMPLE, prob. as obelisks in front of Egpn. temples. 
It has the same name as the ancestor of Solomon, 
but whether it was so named because of him is not 
cert. 

BOAZ, a wealthy land-owner in Bethlehem, the 
benefactor, and then the h. of Ruth (Ru. 2fT.), an 
ancestor of David, and so of Christ (Ru. 4_ 17 ; Mw. 
I. 5 ; Lk. 3 32 ). 

BODY. No word in early times stands for the 
complete bodily organism, altho various members 
are named. " Flesh " in Scrip, indicates the 
material or bodily part of man. Botte homer, 
" houses of clay " (Jb. 4- 19 ), may mean " clay huts," 
but perhaps more natly., the dwellings of the human 



spt., i.e. " bodies," corrspdg. to 2 Cor. 5 A Geshem 
(Dn. 3. 27 , 4. 30 ), and nidneb, lit. " sheath " (Dn. y. 15 ), 
are used for the body. In NT. soma stands for the 
complete body as distinguished fm. the spt., each 
being regarded as an essential constituent in the 
nat. of man (Laidlaw, HDB., s.z>.}. 

BOILS. See DISEASES. 

BOLLED. " The flax was boiled," RV. " was in 
bloom," i.e. about the latter half of Feb. (Ex. 9- 31 ). 

BOLSTER (i S. I9. 13 , &c.), invariably in RV. 
" head." 

BOND, BONDAGE, BONDMAN, BOND 
MAID, BOND-SERVANT, BOND-WOMAN, 
BOND-SERVICE. Although slavery cannot be 
an absolutely primitive condition, yet as far back as 
records carry us we find the institution in existence. 
It prob. originated in the victors sparing the chil 
dren of an otherwise exterminated tribe ; the 
sparing of captives wd. be a later stage in develop 
ment ; then sale and purchase, when the B.-man 
became a chattel. Though slavery undoubtedly 
existed among the Hebs., we have comparatively 
few refcs. to it ; we must therefore supplement our 
Biblical information fm. other sources. In Bab., in 
the days of Hammurabi, bondage was an understood 
relationship, and was regulated by the Code. The 
condition of the B.-man and B.-maid are considered 
and regulated in the Law (Ex. 2I. 2 "- 20 - 21 - 26 - 27 ; 
Lv. 2t;. 39 54 ), but it is the case of the Heb. who has 
sold himself that is in question. He cd. only serve 
six years, and if the year of JUBILEE intervened, that 
period mt. be shortened (Lv. 25. 10 ). The existence 
of foreign slaves is assumed, but their status is not de 
termined by law. A Heb., if his master had given 
him as w. a foreign B. -woman, mt. become per 
manently the B.-man of another. A race in bon 
dage occupied the condition of an inferior caste. 
Thus Joshua did not make the Gibeonites slaves 
to individuals ; they were " hewers of wood and 
drawers of water to the congregation." There 
seems to have been a form of serfdom, as we learn 
fm. the case of Ziba in relation to the family of Saul. 
While l eled, the Heb. word, means slave, tia ar, 
" youth," was frequently used for servant, whether 
B. or free. Although slaves cd. not have been 
numerous in Pal. in the days of our Lord, yet, fm. 
the frequency with wh. the word doulos occurs, 
the institution was well enough known. The 
Apostles had to consider the duties of slaves and 
slave-owners (Col. 3. 22> 4. 1 ). See further, SLAVE, 
SLAVERY. 

BONNET in AV. stands for two Heb. words, 
(i) Migba oth (Ex. 28. 40 , &c.), RV. uniformly 
" head-tires." (2) P?er (Ex. 39 28 EV. " goodly "; 
Is. 3 . 20 RV. " head-tires "; 6l. 3 , AV. "beauty," 
RV. "a garland"; 6i. 10 , AV. "ornaments," 
RV. " a garland " ; Ek. 24- 17 , AV. " the tire of 
thine head," RV. " thy head-tire " ; 24_ 23 EV. 



70 



Boo 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bra 



" tires " ; 44- 18 RV. " tires." Prob. the ordinary 
eastern head-cloth is meant, wh., bound on with a 
fillet of wool, is at once an ornament and a good 
protection agst. the sun. 

BOOK. See WRITING. 

BOOTH. The booth is of simple construction, 
consisting of four upright posts with cross-bars in 
wh. are wattled leafy branches. In such a shelter 
the peasant often spends most of the working months 
in the fields. In a booth raised upon tall poles, the 
watcher sits guarding the fruit or vegetables in the 
open (Is. I. 8 , RV.). Bs. served instead of tents for 
the army (2 S. 1 1. 11 , R.V., &c.). See TABERNACLES, 
FEAST OF. 

BOOTY. See WAR. 

BORROWING. See USURY. 

BOSSES were metal studs added to the surface 
of the anct. buckler of wood and hide to blunt the 
effect of a blow and bind the structure more closely 
together (Jb. I). 26 ). 

BOTCH. See DISEASES. 




BOWELS (Heb. me aim, Gr. crTrAuy^va), the 
seat of the emotions, tender or painful. Accdg. to 
Heb. psychology the various functions of the soul 
were distributed to the various organs of the body. 

BOWL represents several Heb. words, (i) Alen- 
aqqith (Aram.), a libation vessel (Ex. 25. 29 ). (2) 
Gabia, a cuplike ornament of the golden candle 
stick. (3) Gol, gulla, anything hemispherical (i K. 
7. 41 ; EC. I2. 6 ). (4) Mizraq, a BASON (Nu. 7."). 
(5) Sapb sephel, anything to contain liquid (Jg. 5. 25 , 
6. 38 ). 

BOX, AV. for Heb. pak (2 K. 9. ), better RV. 
" vial " ; for " B. of ointment," see ALABASTER. 

BOX TREE. The true boxwood is not found in 
Pal. The Syriac tr. Cupressus Semper virens, is only 
a guess. It was evidently a familiar tree, being 
named with others well known (Is. 41. 19 , 6o. 13 ). In 
Ek. a/. 6 , we shd. prob. read with RV., " inlaid in 
boxwood," DntrxrO for D ntTXTO. The tree 
is not idcntd. 

BOY. See FAMILY. 

BOZEZ, a " rocky crag " opposite another called 
Sench (i S. I4- 4 - 5 ), wh. rose on the N. of the pass 
" in front of Michmash." Conder idents. it with 
the N. cliff, " a remarkable bastion of rock," E. of 
Ulukhmas. 

BOZRAH, "a fortification." (i) The capital 
of Edom (Gn. 36. 23 ; I Ch. I. 44 ). It is often referred 
to by the prophets (Am. I. 12 ; Is. 63.*, &c.). It may 
be el-Buseireh, J miles SW. of Tujlleh, on the main 
road to Petra. Or it may be Oitsur Basbair, SE. of 
Dibon. The latter, however, may be BEZER. (2) B. 
in Moab (Jr. 48. 24 ) is prob. = I. The great city in 
the Hauran seems too far to the N., and prob. 
appears for the first time in Alaccabees as Bostra. 



BOTTLES OF SKIN 

BOTTLE (Heb. nebel and no\I) was the skin of 
kid, goat, or bullock, stripped off and sewed up so as 
to retain roughly the shape of the animal. When 
Bs. are used for the conveyance of milk or water, 
the hair is not removed but simply turned inside. 
For wine or oil they are slightly tanned, partly with 
oak bark, and partly by being hung in the smoke. 
When new wine is put in these skin bottles the pro 
cess of fermentation is not quite complete, and so 
the bottles suffer a distention ; then the astringent 
power of the wine fixes them so that they can dis 
tend no more ; hence the saying of our Lord (Mw. 
9. 17 ). There were also earthenware Bs. (baqbuq). 
Possibly the glass Bs. now found in tombs, for keep 
ing perfume in, wd. be known in OT. times. 

BOTTOMLESS PIT, Gr. phrear tes abussou, 
" the pit of the abyss." See PIT. 

BOW. See ARMS. 




BOZRAH, WESTERN- GATE (B.il 



BRACELETS have always been a favourite orna 
ment among Eastern women. They are made in 
great variety both of form and material. They were 
also worn by men (Nu. 3L 50 ). Tnat worn bv Saul 
was prob. part of the royal insignia (i S. I. 10 ). The 
" bracelet " in Gn. 38. 18 - 25 , shd. be " cord," pathtl, 
by wh. the signet was suspended round the neck. 

BRAMBLE is used in AV. for a(ad (Jo. 9. 14 , &c., 



Bra 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bre 



RV., a thorn "),and boah(h. 34.", RV.," thistle "). 
The B. is, however, mentioned in Lk. 6: M . 





BRACELETS (Ancient Egyptian) 

BRANCH. Many Ileb. and four Gr. words are 
rendered B. in EV. B. is used figly. as in English. 
Oaneb, used of the Bs. of the Golden Candlestick 
(Ex. 25. 32 , &c.), is lit. " cane." Tzemab (Is. 4.2 ; 
Jr. 23- 5 , &c.) and nrtz.fr (Is. II. 1 ) are clearly applied 
to the Messiah. Klema appears only in Jn. 15., as 
the B. of a vine. The other three NT. words, 
Baion, klados, and stibtis, were interchangeable (Jn. 
I2. 13 ; Mw. 2 1. 8 ; Mk. II. 8 ). 

BRASS (Heb. iiabiisb, nebiisbah, nehosbetb, Gr. 
chalkos). Where a simple metal is intended (e.g. 
Dt. S. 9 ; Jb. 28. 2 ), we shd. read " copper." Some 
times, as in the case of Goliath s armour (i S. IJ. 5 ), 
" bronze " may be meant. This alloy of copper and 
tin was known and used for such things B.C. 2286. 
B. is a symbol of hardness (Lv. 26. 19 , " your earth as 
B."), of drought (Dt. 28. 23 ), of strength (Jb. 6. 12 ). 
B. in NT. stands for money, the coins most fre 
quently in use being bronze (Mw. io. fl ). The 
Brazen Altar and Brazen Sea were prob. of 
Bronze (JYV TEMPLE). Moses made a Serpent of B. 
that the serpent-bitten mt. look to it and live (Nu. 
2 1. 9 ). It becomes the symbol of the uplifted Christ 
(Jn. 3- 14 ). Several anct. serpents of copper have 
been found in Pal. Some think they were designed 
to represent the Serpent of Moses. 



(Gn. i8. 6 , &c. ; Jo. 9. 5 - n - 12 ). When thus prepared, 
leaven was not necessary (see LEAVEN). A common 
form of loaf is circular, fully 6 inches in diameter, 
and about an inch thick. But the most popular 
cakes are very thin, as their name indicates marquq, 
from waraq, " leaves " or " paper," corrspdg. to the 
Heb. raqlq. The dough is rolled out, and then by 
dextrous casting between the hands and forearms, 
the desired thinness is secured. With a skilful twist 
the baker throws it over the plate, or on to a cushion, 
whence it is transferred to the heated side of the 
oven, and it is quickly ready for use. In eating this 
with butter, thickened milk, or cooked food, a por 
tion is torn from the cake, folded to form a sort of 
spoon with wh. the food is conveyed to the mouth, 
the " spoon " being eaten with each mouthful. 




PF.F. 



BRONZE COBRA 



BREAD was usually made of wheatcn flour ; bar 
ley mt. be added (2 Ch. 2. 10 ). See BARLEY. Other 
cereals mt. be mingled (Ek. 4.). Prob. the earliest 
way of baking was to lay the dough, when prepared, 
on hot ashes (Is. 44. 15 - 19 ; r/>. I K. i;. 12 - 13 ; Gn. i8. 6 ). 
Smooth stones heated by fire came to be used for 
this purpose ; and then the convex sheet of iron, 
found now almost everywhere in the East, part of 
the ordinary furniture of the Arb. tent (see OVEN). 
The original practice, no doubt, was to bake B. just 
when required, and to eat it preferably while fresh 




SERPENT OF COPPER (Hollow) 

Thus many will sit round a single dish, dipping the 
B. in turn (Mw. 26. 23 ). 

It is a mark of true liberality to give B. to the 
poor (Pr. 22. !) ) ; to deal B. to the hungry is accept 
able to God. In the entertainment of the stranger 
B. must not be absent (Lk. II. 5 ). To injure one 
with whom we have eaten B. is esteemed unpardon 
able infamy (Ps. 41 . 8 ). Hence the obloquy of Judas 
deed (Jn. I3. 26m ). See HOSPITALITY. 

B. has always been regarded in the Orient with a 
certain religious reverence, as the evidence of God s 
bountiful care. Hence Orientals never willingly 
waste a morsel (Jn. 6. 12 , &c.). They will rescue a 
crust from the mud and give it to a dog, or lay it 
where birds may find it. 

As the staple article of diet, B. is used for the food 
necessary to sustain life (Gn. 3- 19 ; Is. 5i. 14 , &c.). 
Manna is called B. (Ex. i6. 4 , &c.). Referring to this 
Jesus calls Himself the " living bread," the B. " that 
came down fm. heaven," of wh., if a man eat, he 
shall live for ever (Jn. 6. 35 , &c.). 

BREAST-PLATE. See ARMOUR. 

BREAST-PLATE OF THE HIGH-PRIEST 
(Heb. hosben, " ornament " ; the full name is hosben 
hammishpat, <: the ornament of judgment " ; the 
Gr. version conveys a slightly difft. idea, to logeion 
ton kriseon, " the oracle of judgment "). The B. 



Bre 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bre 



was essentially a bag in wh. the oracular URIM and 
THUMMIM were placed. The materials of it were 
the same as those of the EPHOD, gold, blue, purple, 
scarlet, fine twined linen (Ex. 28. 15 ). It was in size 
a cubit each way, and was fastened to the Ephod by 
chains of wreathen work and " a lace of blue." In 
serted in the B. were twelve gems, on wh. were en 
graven the names of the twelve tribes of Isr. The 
B. was worn by the H. P. when he went into the 
presence of the Lord, that he mt. " bear the judg 
ment of the children of Isr. upon his heart before 
the Lord continually." The gems by wh. it was 
adorned are treated under their names. 

BREECHES, part of the dress prescribed for the 
priests, made of fine linen, tied round the waist, and 
reaching to the thighs (Ex. 28. 42 , 39. 28 ; Lv. 6. 10 , 
i6. 4 ; Ek. 4 4 . 18 ). See PRIEST. 

BRETHREN OF THE LORD. Who the bre 
thren of the Lord were is a question that owes its 
main interest to the bearing of the answer given, on 
another question that of the perpetual virginity 
of Mary the mr. of Jesus. Many views have been 
held, but only three call for notice here, (i) The 
first takes the words lit., as meaning that they 
were the sons of Joseph and Mary, born after Jesus. 
This seems to be the view of Hegesippus, A.D. 160 
(Euseb. HE. iv. 22) ; it was advocated by Tertullian 
(died A.D. 220), and was restated by Helvidius 
hence called the Heh idian view and others c. 
A.D. 380. (2) The second, that of Jerome the 
Hieronymian put forward in opposition to that of 
Helvidius c. A.D. 380, makes them the sons of the 
virgin s sr., " Mary of Clopas," thus clearing the 
way to assert the virginity, not of Mary only, but 
also of Joseph. (3) The third, that supported by 
Epiphanius c. A.D. 370 the Epiphanian regards 
them as the sons of Joseph by a former w. A clear 
and careful digest of the Lit. will be found in 
Lightfoot s Com. on Calatians, pp. 2747?. 

A study of the relevant passages of Scrip. (Mw. 

T 25 T-> 47 ,^ 50 . Ml- <? 20ff., 31ff. T r 40. 47 . T 1, 

1. , !,. , . / . , 1V1K. j. , 1$. , JjK. 

2. 7 , 4 . 16 - 30 , 8. 19 , 2 4 . 10 ; Jn. 2. 12 , 7. 2 8 , I 9 . 25ff - ; Ac. 
I. 14 ; Gal. i. 18f -; I Cor. g. 5 ) will bring out the 
following points : (i) The mr. and B. of Jesus are 
spoken of as if living in the relationship nat. to 
mr. and sons in a family group. (2) They did not 
ackge. the claims of Jesus, and refused credit to His 
mission. (3) Consequently none of them were 
among the Twelve. 

The last point is fatal to Jerome s view, wh. re 
quires that not one but three of the B. of our Lord 
shd. be of the Twelve. Apart fm. this, Jerome has 
to make " Mary of Clopas " mean " M., the wife of 
C.," whereas the nat. meaning is " dr. of C." He 
has to ident. Clopas with Alphasus, making the 
latter a Gr. trltn. of the former (Aram.). But 
Alphseus stands for the Aram. Halpai, and cd. not 
poss. represent an Aram. Olopba. Further, two 



sisters bearing the same name, Mary, cannot be 
lightly accepted. The passage on wh. this is based 
(Jn. ig. 25 ) prob. refers to four women, named in 
pairs, " his mr. and his mr. s sr. prob. Salome 
Mary the dr. of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene." 
The copula is not put between pairs. 

In addition to this, Jerome s theory is quite un 
supported by early tradition. 

The Epiphanian view rests on no reliable autho 
rity. Hegesippus is indeed claimed as almost cert, 
favouring it (Harris, DCG. J.c .), but this is doubt 
ful. Origen, who inclines to the view of Mary s per 
petual virginity, although not regarding it as autho 
ritative, cites in its support two apocryphal books, 
The Gospel of Peter the part containing the refce. 
is lost and the Protevangclium Jacobi. 

Lightfoot rejects the Hieronymian theory, wh. 
even its author did not consistently hold. He re 
gards the Epiphanian and the Helvidian as pretty 
equally balanced, but favours the former on what 
seems hardly adequate ground. "One objection," he 
says, " has been hurled at the Helvidian theory with 
great force, and as it seems to me, with fatal effect, 
wh. is powerless agst. the Epiphanian." Jesus on 
the Cross commits His mr. to the care of John, and 
the charge is at once accepted. If she had four sons 
besides drs. living at the time, wd. Jesus " thus have 
snapped asunder the most sacred ties of mutual 
affection " ? The mere fact of their unbelief, soon 
changed to faith, cd. not " override the paramount 
duties of filial piety." With them living in the same 
city, worshipping in common, cd. she thus be " con 
signed to the care of a stranger " ? 

" Stranger " is perhaps hardly the word to use of 
one who was the bosom friend of her S., bound to 
Him in the close intimacy of sympathetic compre 
hension ; and prob. her own nephew. We do not 
know how His B. were placed ; but we may be sure 
that in the house of the beloved disciple His mr. 
wd. find the calm and loving friendship wh. her 
pierced and bleeding heart required. And we have 
only to note that if these others were her step 
children, there was a stronger reason to avoid any 
thing that mt. look like a slight upon them, to sec 
with what " fatal effect " the objn. wd. tell on the 
other side. 

The existence of a tradition of the perpetual vir 
ginity of Mary, in the early Church, may seem to 
favour the Epiphanian theory. But this may easily 
have arisen fm. the name given her in common use, 
as the Virgin mr. of the Lord. And perhaps it wd. 
be the less carefully examined, because it seemed to 
lend support to the excessively high ideas of the 
value of virginity, wh. became prevalent in the 
second cent. 

In favour of the Helvidian view is the nat. mean 
ing of the lang. of Scrip. " Brother " means 
" brother," not " cousin," or one more remotely 



73 



C 2 



Bri 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Bur 



connected, or not connected by blood at nil. It 
takes the plain meaning of Mw. l. 2 , /ecu OI K 



os ot> ereKev viov, as indicating the 
limit of abstinence ; while the description of Jesus 
as her " first-born " \vd., in other circumstances, be 
taken to mean that other children were born later. 
The difficulty remains, of course, that if Mary were 
the mr. of a large family, some of whom held by no 
means obscure positions in the Church, this fact 
shd. have been so utterly forgotten in the course of 
a single cent. 

On the whole the balance of available evidence 
seems to favour the Helvidian theory. 

Lit. : Lightfoot, as above ; recent Bible Diction 
aries, s.i . Expositor, 1908, Oct., pp. l63ff., Nov., 

PP. 457 ff - 

BRIBE, BRIBERY. See CRIMES AND PENALTIES. 

BRICK, Heb. lebendb (from laban, "to be 



the water elsewhere rendered " stream," u river." 
(2) Tear, an Egpn. word, applied almost invariably 
to the Nile and canals of Egp. It is rendered B. 
only in Is. 19. 6> 8 . In Jb. 28. 10 , it is the channel 
for water cut among rocks. In Is. 33- 21 " streams," 
EV. In Dn. 12. it is applied to the Tigris. (3) Mlk- 
hal occurs only in 2 S. IJ. 20 . The derivation and 
meaning are uncert. (4) Nafyal is the word com 
monly rendered B. There is no exact equivalent in 
Eng. It is applied to the valley with a watercourse 
in the bottom, and corrspds. to the Arb. Wady. It 
shd. be distinguished from gai\ a hollow not imply 
ing the presence of a stream. Like the Arb. wddy, 
nabal is used now for the valley (Nu. 2 1. 12 , &c.), and 
again for the stream (Dt. 9. 21 , &c.). In Pal. the 
wadys form a striking feature of the landscape. 
Breaking down fm. the watershed of the Western 
Range, their descent E. to the Jordan Valley is short 




BRICK-MAKING AT ANCIENT THEBES 



white "), clay moulded and sun-dried or burnt in a 
kiln ; the former was frequent in Egp., the latter in 
Bab. When made of Nile mud, the sun-dried Bs. 
were liable to crack in the sun unless they had straw 
in them. The invention of B. is attributed to Bab. 
(Gn. II. 3 ), in wh. case " slime " (bitumen) was used 
for mortar. Babylonian Bs. are usly. whitish in 
colour, in size about 14 in. sq., 3^ in. thick, and 
stamped with the name of the k. in whose reign they 
were made. In 2 S. I2. 31 , Jr. 43. 9 , Na. 3. 14 , we find 
mention of B. -kilns, showing the acquaintance the 
Hebs. had with B. -making. 

BRIDE, BRIDE-CHAMBER, BRIDEGROOM, 
BRIDEGROOM S FRIEND. See MARRIAGE. 

BRIDLE. See BIT. 

BRIER. See THISTLES and THORNS. 

BRIMSTONE. Sulphur is plentiful in Pal. ; in 
the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea sulphur springs 
are frequent, as also near Gadara. Fm. the sulphur 
ous smell that sometimes accompanies a thunder 
storm, it was spoken of as a " rain of fire and B." 
(Gn. I9. 24 ). 

BROOK represents several words in Heb. 
(i) A-pliiq (Ps. 42. ] ) is prop, the channel containing 



and steep. In the course of ages, terrific gorges 
have been hollowed out. Wady el- Aujeb, e.g., wh. 
enters the Jordan Valley N. of Jebel Ourttntid, de 
scends 4200 feet in about 15 miles. The slope 
towards the W. is longer and more gradual. The 
alluvial deposits in the valleys are rich, and, where 
cultivated, yield good returns. For great part of 
the year many of the watercourses are dry, depend 
ing for supplies solely on the rain. The Jordan is 
the one " river " of Pal., but cert, other streams, 
such as the Jabbok and the Yarmuk, are almost en 
titled to the name. 

BROTH. See Foon. 

BROWN. See COLOUR. 

BUCKLER. See ARMS. 

BUL. See YEAR. 

BULL, BULLOCK. See Ox. 

BULRUSH. See REED. 

BULWARK. (i) (Heb. hel, Is. 26. 1 ), usly. 
rendered " rampart " (Na. 3. 8 ). (2) Matzod (Ec. 
9- 14 ), a defence of besiegers, but trd. " snares" (j. 26 ). 
(3) Matzor, the same as 2 (Dt. 2O. 20 ). 

BURDEN, (i) Literal (Ex. 23.* ; 2 K. s. 17 , 
&c.). (2) Of Prophecy, a specially Isaianic word 



74 



Bur 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Caes 



(Is. 13. , I5. 1 , 17. ! ) ; used by Jr. (aj. 33 *-), of false 
prophecy; accdg. to Isaiah s usage is Na. I. 1 ; 
Hb. i. 1 . (3) Symbolic, of the sense of oppression 
due to trial, &c. (Gal. 6. 2 ). 

BURIAL. As recognised by Tacitus, the habit 
of the Jews was to bury their dead. When the 
person had ceased to breathe, some near relative, 
his eldest son for prefce., closed the eyes ; the body 
then having been washed, it was wound round with 
linen, and the head bound with a napkin. Although 
embalming was not a Jewish custom, spices, as we 
see fm. the case of our Lord (Jn. I9- 39 ), were used 
plentifully. Simultaneously with these prepara 
tions for entombment, the voice of lamentation was 
raised, not only by relatives, but by persons hired 
for the purpose (Jr. 9. 17 ; Mk. 5. 38 - 39 ). Accom 
panied by these mourners, personal and profes 
sional, the body was carried on a bier to the tomb. 




BED AND BIER (Egyptian) 



No coffin was used by the Hebs., except in such a 
case as that of JOSEPH, and perhaps his fr. It seems 
prob. that the graves of the poor wd. simply be dug 
in the earth ; only the wealthier people cd. afford 
rock-cut tombs. Of this latter class some, where 



the surface of the rock was bare of soil, were exca 
vated for a couple of feet into the rock, and a slab 
to serve as a lid prepared to be placed over the de 
posited body. It was prob. to such tombs as these 
that our Lord referred (Lk. n. 44 ), " graves which 
appear not." More distinctively Jewish, however, 
was what may be called cave B. See jurther, 
SEPULCHRE. 

BURNT-OFFERING. See SACRIFICE. 

BUSH represents two Heb. words : (i) siah, a B. 
in the sense of a plant of a particular size (Jb. 3O. 4 ). 
(2) Seneb, the B. wh. " BURNED," " and was not 
consumed," in wh. J". appeared to MOSES (Ex. 3- 2 ). 
Fm. a somewhat doubtful etymology Gcs. assumes 
seneh to be a thorny bush of some sort ; in favour of 
this is the LXX batos, " a bramble," wh., however, 
does not grow on SINAI. 

BUSHEL (madias), a Rm. measure, about a peck 
(Mw. 5. 15 ; Mk. 4.21; Lk. ii. 33 , where it is the 
vessel, not the measure that is in question). 

BUTLER. See CUP-BEARER. 

BUTTER. See FOOD. 

BUZ, Abraham s nephew, s. of Nahor and Milcha 
(Gn. 22. 21 ), br. of Uz, progenitor of a tribe settled 
in the NE. of Edom (cp. Jb. 32. 2 ). " Buz and 
Hazo (v. 22) are poss. the countries of Bazu and 
Hazu (the former described as full of snakes and 
scorpions) wh. Ezarhaddon invaded (KI. II. 131 ; 
Driver, Genesis in loc.). 

BUZI, the fr. of EZEKIEL the Prophet (Ek. i. 3 ), 
an Aaronite ; because B. means " despised," some 
Rabbinical comm. ident. him with JEREMIAH. 

BY AND BY, tr. in AV. of three Gr. words, 
meaning really " immediately " ; RV. " straight 
way." 



c 



CAB (Heb. qab), a measure of capacity containing 
c. 3 pints. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

CABUL. (i) A city on the border of Asher and 
Zebulun (Jo. I9- 27 ), the Chabolo of Jos. (Fit. 43, 
&c.), the mod. Kabul, a vill. E. of Acre. (2) A dis 
trict containing 20 cities given by Solomon to 
Hiram (i K. 9- 13 ), prob. connected with the above 
(Buhl, G4P. 221). 

CAESAR, the cognomen (family name) of Julius 
C., the Dictator, and also of his gt.-nephew and 
adopted son, AUGUSTUS ; it was transmitted as a 
title to all the successors of AUGUSTUS. C. appears 
only as a title in the NT. (Mw. 22. 21 ; Ac. 25."). 
Three Cs. are named : AUGUSTUS (Lk. 2. 1 ), 
TIBERIUS (Lk. 3. 1 ), CLAUDIUS (Ac. II. 28 , l8. 2 ) ; 
Tiberius is the C. referred to in Jn. ig. 12 , and Nero 
in Ac. 25 11 . Our Lord s birth occurred during the 
reign of Augustus, His ministry, death, and resur 
rection under Tiberius ; and Paul s missionary 
labours and martyrdom under the three following 



Cs. The Gospels and the later Epp. were written 
under the Flavians. Thus the foundation of Chris 
tianity coincided with the rule of the " twelve Cs." 
Until the Neronian persecution the Rm. power was 
on the whole favourable to the spread of the Church. 
With the burning of Rm. under Nero began the life 
and death struggle between the Empire and the 
Church. 

C/ESAR S HOUSEHOLD. As Paul was handed 
over to the Prefect of the Praetorians, as the Im 
perial guard were called, he wd. be continually in 
contact with members of that body, and in conse 
quence with members of " C. s household. This 
wd. include not only the immense host of slaves 
actually in the palace, but also the numerous Im 
perial freedmen. Many of these were doubtless 
Jews, and therefore filled with Messianic hopes. 
Many of the names of those saluted in Rm. 16. have 
been found in Columbaria appropriated to mem 
bers of the Imperial household. Agst. this identi- 



75 



Caes 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cai 



fication is the idea, wh., however, is without sup 
port fm. MSS. or VV., that the l6th chap, of Rm. 
really belongs to an Epistle to the Ephesian Church. 
C^ESAREA. (i) C. PALESTINA, on the sea coast, 
fully 30 miles N. of Jaffa, was known as Strato s 
Tower, B.C. 200 (Ant. XIII. xi. 2). It was greatly 
enlarged and adorned by Herod the Gt. (B.C. 12), 
who named it C. or Sebaste (.-Int. XV. ix. 6 ; 
XVI. v. l), in honour of Augustus. He instituted 
public games on a vast scale. The building of a 
good harbour added to the importance of the city, 
making it the main sea-port of the country. It be 
came the seat of the Rm. procurator of Judea. It 
was owned for a time by Agrippa I., whose tragic 
death here is recorded (Ac. I2. 19> 23 ). It was the 
home of Philip the Evangelist, and the station of 
Cornelius (Ac. 8. 40 , 2i. 8 , 10.). It was visited by 
Paul in his travels (Ac. g. 30 , l8. 22 ), was the scene of 
his repeated examinations, and hence he set out for 
Rome (Ac. 23- 23 , &c.). Strife between the Jewish 
and Gentile inhabitants of C. occasioned the out- 

ROMAN 

AND 

MEDIEVAL RUINS 

KAISARIEU 



of the cathedral are still seen on the site of a temple 
built by Herod ; also the traces of two aqueducts, 
by wh. water was brought across the marshes fm. 
the Crocodile river. The circuit of the anct. wall 
was much greater than that of the wall built by the 
Crusaders, wh. Sultan Bibars destroyed (1296). 
(2) C. PHILIPPI stood on a triangular terrace at the 
S\V. foot of Hermon. The ruins of wall and towers 
testify to its anct. strength. Hard by the fountainof 
the Jordan rises in front of the great cave, dedicated 
of old to the worship of Pan, the Paneion, whence 



Seal* 





SACRED GROTTO AT BANIAS 

the name Paneas was given to the whole district 
(Ant. XV. x. 3). There is no more romantically 
beautiful place in all Syria. Unfailing streams bless 
the soil, fruitful garden and fair field are dashed 
with grateful shade fm. mighty oak and fragrant 
wood. The rushing water makes music in the glen, 
while high over all frowns the grim fortress, es 
Subeibeh, fm. the E. height. Herod the Gt. built a 
temple here in honour of Augustus. Philip en 
larged and beautified the town, and called it C. 
The district was visited by Jesus (Mw. l6. 13 , &c.). 
Called Neronias by Agrippa II., the old name pre 
vailed over both C. and N., and still persists in the 
Arb. form of Banias a vill. of some 350 inhabi 
tants, built among the ruins. 

CAIAPHAS (Heb. prob. Qayapba), a nickname 
of Joseph (Ant. XVIII. ii. 2), High-priest during our 
Lord s earthly ministry. Valerius Gratus had de 
prived ANNAS, C. s fr.-in-law, of the H. -p hood, and 
after three sons of the last named had briefly en 
joyed the dignity, appointed C., shortly before 
PILATE succeeded him in the procuratorship. 
Although he had the dignity, his fr.-in-law had 
most of the power. C. took a leading part in the 
condemnation of JESUS. C. saw that any political 
rising mt. be made an excuse by the Rm. to deprive 
the Jews of the remnants of independence wh. they 
break of the war (#7- H- xn i- 7> x v - 4^0- The still retained. Hence, as Jesus had been proclaimed 
Jews suffered cruelly at the instance of Florus. by multitudes as the Messiah, and therefore the 
Eusebius the historian was bishop of C. The ruins prob. leader of a revolt in the near future, C. 

76 



PEF Draining 



Cai 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cal 



thought it expedient that He shd. be put out of the 
way before He occasioned an uproar. When direct 
testimony failed to supply the Sadducean with a 
plausible pretext, C. adjured Jesus to declare 
whether or not He were the Messiah, forcing Him, 
either by abjuring His Messiahship to lose His 
power over the people, or by affirming it to furnish 
a reason for handing Him over to the Rm. as a rebel 
agst. their authority. C. was removed fm. the 
pontificate by Vitellius shortly after the recall of 
Pilate. Of his after fate there is no record. 

CAIN, the first s. of Adam. The name in Heb. is 
ident. with Oayin, " a spear," wh. mt. sugg. the 
man of blood who slew his br. The motive for the 
crime was jealousy, indicating a condition of heart 
wh. sufficiently explains the rejection of his offering. 
His sullen question, " Am I my brother s keeper ? " 
has become proverbial as describing the attitude of 
the selfish and unbrotherly. Convicted of the 
murder, he feared for his life. Protected by a 
terrible threat of vengeance agst. any who mt. hurt 
him, a mark was put upon him by wh. all mt. recog 
nise him, and he was banished to the " land of Nod " 
= " flight " or " exile," where he is represented as 
building a city (Gn. 4- 17 ). Among his descts. were 
the tent-dwellers, and those who originated the arts 
and handicrafts (4. 20> 21 ). Accdg. to Jewish tradi 
tion C. was killed in mistake by Lamech, who also by 
misadventure killed his s. Tubal Cain (Eisenmenger, 
Entdecktes Judenthum, I. 47of.), prob. an invention 
to explain the fragment of song (Gn. 4- 23f )- 

There are cert, difficulties in the nar. wh. we are not yet 
in a position to solve. The distinction of shepherd and 
husbandman, with their characteristic diffcs. , seems to belong 
to a later time, although indeed it is not easy to say what is 
primitive and what is not. The building of a city, and the 
apparently widespread population, also present problems. 

(2) A city in Judah (Jo. 15. 5T ), prob. ident. with 
Khirbet Yaqin, S. of Hebron, near which is the 
alleged tomb of C. 

CALAH, RV. trs. Gn. io. n , " Out of that land 
he (NIMROD) went forth and builded Nineveh, 
Rehoboth-Ir, and Calah." Although it is thus re 
garded as one of the earliest Bab. Colonies in Asyr., BRONZE FIGURE OF APIS WITH SACRED MARKS ON HIS BACK 

Shalmaneser claims to have founded C. It is repre- re b e llion of Isr., called upon the Levitcs, his own 

sented now by^the mound known as Nimnld, SE. of tr ib e , to aven ge the Lord ; and they slew 3000 

Nineveh. In it have been found the ruins of the men- Then Moses renewed the petition in more 

palaces of Asshur-nazir-pal, Shalmaneser II., Tig- definite terms, wh. he had presented to God in the 

lath-pileser III., and Esarhaddon. These stood on mou nt, that He wd. pardon the sin of His people ; 

a great stone-faced platform overhanging the Tigris. in the Su blimi t y of his self-devotion he is ready to 

CALAMUS. See REED. bc accurse d for them. 

CALEB, s. of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Tudah 

/X T o \ r i i * T Criticism distinguishes J. and E. portions of the nar., out 

(IMu. 13.*, &c.), one of the spies sent by Moses, E j ohim occurs in j. ancl jHVH in E. ; neither is complete 

shared with Joshua the distinction of opposing the without the other. The incident is also recorded m Dt. 

advice of the faint-hearted, and received with him 9- " 

the reward of entering the promised land. He Moses burnt the G. C. and ground it small, then 

claimed and received fm. Joshua, as his possession, cast it into the brook and made the people drink 

Hebron and the mountainous district belonging to the water. This event is referred to m Ps. lo6. 19f 
it (Jo. I4. 6 -, where he is called " the Kenizzite " ; For the CALVES at Bethel and Dan, see JEROBOAM. 

77 



1 5- 13f ) Fhe city was assigned to the Kohathites, 
the surrounding country and vills. being possessed 
byC. (2i. lof -). For C. s genealogy, see I Ch. 2. He 
seems later to have been assumed as the hero- 
ancestor of a clan settled around Hebron (l S. 25.-*, 

3- 14 ). 

CALEB EPHRATHAH (i Ch. 2. 24 ). The true 
readg. prob. is " Caleb came to Ephrathah " the 
district of Bethlehem. See EPHRATHAH. 

CALF, THE GOLDEN (Heb. egel, really " bul 
lock," Ex. 32. lf -). Starting fm. a highly sptl. relg., 
the Egyptians, among whom the Isrs. had lived for 
four cents., had descended to the lowest zoolatry, 
and worshipped, among other animals, very promi 
nently the ox. The winged, human-headed bulls of 
Bab., whence Isr. had come, showed the sacred 
char, there ascribed to the ox. It is therefore not 
astonishing that when MOSES had left them for forty 
days Isr. shd. fall back fm. the high sptl. level at wh. 
Moses endeavoured to keep them, and that they 
shd. revert for a visible symbol of Deity to Egp. 
They appealed to Aaron, and he demanded their 
golden ear-rings ; fm. these he made the G. C. It 
is prob. that the gold in thin plates covered a core of 
wood. While Moses was in the mount J". warned 
him of what was taking place in the camp ; this 
warning wd. be conveyed in symbol and by sugg., 
so the real concrete meaning only dawned upon him 
when he saw the God who had brought the people 
out of Egp. worshipped under the animal symbol of 
the god Apis (Ex. 32. 4 ). Moses, when he saw the 




Cal 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Can 



CALNEH (Gn. io. ui ), one of the four cities that 
formed the beginning of Nimrod s kdm. ; unidentd. 

CALVARY. See GOLGOTHA. 

CAMEL (Heb. gamal and beker, the latter prob. 
meaning " a dromedary "), the largest domesticated 
ruminant ; it is practically the oldest of the larger 
mammals, as a C. not specifically difft. is found in the 
Miocene. The C. was among the first of animals to 
be domesticated. What the date is among plants 
that the C. is among animals to the inhabitant of 
SW. Asia ; it is the Arab s most valuable posses 
sion. The C. bears his burdens ; it has great powers 
of endurance, going days without food or water ; 
its hair is woven into cloth for his tents, or for gar 
ments, like that of John the Baptist (Mw. 3_ 4 ) ; its 
milk is drunk, its flesh is eaten, and fm. its skin shoes 
are made. The C. seems to have been first domesti 
cated in Arabia, as it is rare and relatively late on the 
monuments of Egp., and is not mentioned in the 




CAMEL: ASSYRIANS LOADING 



Code of Hammurabi ; yet Abraham, Jacob, and 
Job have flocks of C. (Gn. I2. 16 ; Gn. 3o. 43 ; Jb. 
42. 12 ). As suited to the needs of the nomads, the 
possession of the C. mt. be largely restricted to 
them. While the C. is adapted to tread on sand and 
gravel, and can live on the roughest provender, it is 
liable to slip and fall on mud ; a fall to a C. is fre 
quently fatal ; hence they wd. be less useful on the 
banks of the Nile or the Euphrates. Not only is the 
C. the great bearer of burdens as he always has been, 
but he is the great roadmaker ; the broad, heavy 
feet of the C. tread the sand and gravel into a firm 
pathway. Long strings of Cs., laden with wheat 
fm. the Hauran, whenever the harvest has been 
thrashed and winnowed, are to be met on their way 
to Akka or Haifa ; sometimes as many as loo may 
be seen following each other in single file, separated 
into groups of four or five by donkeys. The C. is 
the stupidest of domesticated animals : it can never 
find its way back to its home. The C. is surly and 
ill-tempered ; he has no affection for his owner, if 
even any recognition of him ; he growls when he 
receives the signal to kneel, even if it be for unload 
ing ; and growls equally when he is summoned to 
get up. The C. s Furniture (Gn. 3i. 34 ) means 
prob. the palanquin in wh. women travelled on 



C.-back. As the C. is the largest animal in use in 
SW. Asia, its size is the chartc. emphasised in pro 
verbs ; thus our Lord declares, " It is easier for a 
C. to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich 
man to enter the Kingdom of God " (Mt. ig. 24 ) ; 
again He speaks of those who " strain out the gnat 
and swallow theC."(Mw.23- 24 RV.). It ought to be 
noted that the cloth made from C. s hair is soft, and 
brown in colour. Although the flesh of C. is eaten 
by the Arabs, it was unclean to Isr. (Lv. II. 4 ). 

CAMP (Heb. mahaneh, "host," Gn. 32.2), the 
temporary resting-place of a tribe or army. In 
Nu. 2. we have an act. of the encampment of Isr. in 
the wilderness. They were divided into four Cs., 
prob. widely apart (see NUMBERS). The Isrs. used to 
erect round their C. a rampart of wagons (l S. 26. 7 , 
wrongly trd. " trench," AV.) ; sentinels were 
placed at recognised " watches " (Jg. y. 19 ) ; Cs. 
were usly. placed on heights (Jg. 4- 12 ). Fm. the fact 
that sieges were commonly very prolonged, " to be 
siege " a city was " to encamp agst. it." In such 
cases " booths " (succotti) were erected (l K. 2O. 16 ). 

CAMPHIRE. This is the henna plant, found in 
Egp., Nubia, Arabia, and in the cleft by the Dead 
Sea. It grows to a height of 7 or 8 ft., " with pale 
green foliage, and clusters of white and yellow 
blossoms, wh. emit a delightful perfume." The 
leaves, dried, powdered, and made into paste with 
water, are used to stain figures on the hands and 
feet, and to dye the nails and the hair a very 
favourite form of adornment in the E. A sprig of 
henna, for its sweet perfume, is put in nosegays. It 
is worn about the person by women (SS. l. 13> 14 ). 
It seems to have been grown along with the 
spikenard, and other plants yielding precious 
perfumes (SS. 4. 13 - 14 ). 

CANA OF GALILEE (Jn. 2"-, &c.), the home of 
Nathaniel, where Jesus wrought His first miracle. 
Guthe curiously makes it the home of Simon (Mw. 
io. 4 ; KB. s.z 1 . ). There is no clear indication of 
position. It was in the uplands, whence one had to 
" go down " to Capernaum (Jn. 2. 12 ). The rival sites 
are Kefr Kennah, 3 miles fm. Nazareth, on the mod. 
Tiberias road, and Khirbet Qana, 8 miles N. of 
Nazareth, on the edge of the plain of Asochis. This 
is prob. the vill. named by Jos (Fit. 1 6, cp. 41). 
Conder Suggs, a third claimant, l Ain Qatia, near er 
Reineh. There is no steady tradition pointing to 
any site. The Crusaders cert, accepted Khirbet 
Qana, or, as it is also called by the natives, Qana el 
TV/77 = Gr. Kava rv]s FaXtXt as (see evidence in 
Conder s Tent Work, 79ff.). The pilgrims agree 
only in placing C. between Nazareth and Caper 
naum. Probability seems inclined to the northern 
site. 

CANAAN. See PALESTINE. 

CANAANTTES. Although used frequently for 
all the non-Isr. inhabitants, C. referred primarily to 



Can 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cap 



the dwellers on the sea-coast and the valley of the 
Jordan (Nu. I3- 29 ). It wd. seem that the Phil, were 
regarded as C. (Jo. I3. 2 3) ; fm. Mw. IS- 22 , con 
firmed by Euseb., Prepar. Evang. I. 10, the Phoe 
nicians were regarded as C. This view of the ex 
tent of the C. is in agreement with Gn. IO. 19 . Fm. 
their dwelling on the sea-coast the thought readily 
suggs. itself that they were immigrants, a view wh. 
is confirmed by Dt. 2. 23 , where it is asserted in re 
gard to Philistia, that the Avim were the original 
inhabitants, but dispossessed by the Caphtorim. 
As in Gn. io. 6 Canaan is represented as br. of Miz- 
raim (EGYPT), it wd. seem that the C. and the 
Egyptianswere looked uponas cognate peoples. The 
C. were advanced in civilisation ; they had cities 
united in confederacy ; in war they used chariots of 
iron (Jo. IJ. 16 ) ; fm. the spoils taken by Thothmcs 
III. it appears that they had also made advances in 
manufacture. They were addicted to trade, hence 
C. in later times meant " merchant " (Is. 23. 8 ). As 
to the lang. of the C., it appears to have been Heb.; 
this is implied in Is. ig. 18 . In its wider use C. com 
prehends other five, or, with the addition of the 
Girgashites, six, races ; regarding these, see under 
their respective names. 

CANDACE, the Ethiopian queen whose trea 
surer was baptized by Philip (Ac. 8. 26f< ). C. was 
prob. a dynastic title. See ETHIOPIA. 

CANDLE, CANDLESTICK. For C. we shd. 
prob. always read " lamp," and for C. -stick, " stand." 
RV. retains C. in Jr. 25. 10 , Zp. I. 12 , without appa 
rent reason. The lamp-stand is found in the pro 
phet s chamber (2 K. 4- 10 ). It figures in the Gospels 
(Mw. 5. 15 , &c.). The nebrashta (cp. Arb. nibras, 
" lamp ") supported the lights in Belshazzar s 
great hall (Dn. 5. 5 ). The advent of the lucifer 
match has removed the necessity for the lamp kept 
always burning in the eastern house, wh. supplied 
the figs, in such passages as Ps. l8. 28 , Pr. 24. 20 , Rv. 2. 5 . 



CAPERNAUM appears in the Gospels as a highly 
favoured city. When driven out of Nazareth Jesus 
found shelter here, and C. becomes " His own city," 
where only He is " at home " (Mw. 4. 13 , 9.* ; Mk. 




TELL HUM. FROM THE WEST 

CANE. See REED. 

CANKERWORM, the caterpillar stage of the 
LOCUST. 

CANON. See SCRIPTURE. 




EXCAVATION OF SYNAGOGUE: TELL HUM 

2. 1 ). It was the scene of many of His mighty works 
(Mw. 8. 5ff> , II. 23 , &c.). Peter and Andrew were 
called on the shore, and Matthew fm. the " place 
of toll" (Mk. I. 16 ; Mw. 9. 9 ). Reports of Jesus 
teaching here are given in Mw. iS. 2 , &c., Jn. 6. C. 
stood " by the sea " (Mw. 4- 13 ), in or near the plain 
of Gennesaret (Jn. 6. l7ff - ; cp. Mw. I4 34 , Mk. 6. 53 , 
BJ. III. x. 8). A Christian tradition traceable to 
the 4th cent, idents. C. with Tell Hum, a ruin on the 
N. shore of the Sea of Galilee, ^\ miles W. of the 
mouth of the Jordan. A Jewish tradition seems to 
locate C. at Khan Minych (Conder, Tent Work, 
294). The question has been discussed recently by 
Dr. Sanday (SSG., and Journal of Theological Studies, 
quoted Expository Times, XV. looff.), Prof. Knight, 
and Rev. Asad Mansur, of Nazareth (Expositor, July 
1906, April 1907), Mr. A. S. Macalister, and Dr. 
Masterman (PEFO. April and July 1907). The 
only contribution of value is made by Mr. Macalis 
ter. Fm. the pottery found on the two sites, he con 
cludes that at Khan Minyeh " there was no settle 
ment whatever in the time of C.," while Tell Hum 
" flourished at exactly the period of the glory of C." 
This seems to negative the claims of Khan Minyeh, 
tilting the beam in favour of Tell Hum. For sure 
grounds of decision, however, we must await the 
results of the excavations now going forward. 
Meantime we make four observations : 

(1) The pottery points to the Rm. period, but 
hardly with cert, to the time of the Herods. The 
bldgs. seem to date fm. that of the Antonines. 

(2) The local name is undoubtedly Tell Hum. 
Mr. Macalister supports the derivation from Kaphar 



79 



Cap 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Car 



Tanbumim, a Jewish variant of C. As no Arabic 
speaker wd. " ever think of applying the word Tell, 
mound, to this flat, widespread ruin," he thinks 
it " more prob. that the name is one word, Talkum, 
not two, Tell Hum." But in Egyptian Arabic tell 
means " ruin," and the Rev. Asad Mansur, an edu 
cated Syrian, whose lang. is Arabic, after examining 
the site, says : " I do not understand what the ob 
jectors mean by the word tell. In Arabic tell 
is used for any heap of ruins or mound. So that the 
ruins of Tell Hum themselves are to-day a tell 
(Expositor, April 1907, 370). The rejection of 
" Tell Hum " is therefore precarious. 

(3) The difficulties as to the fountain called C. 
by Josephus, still remain. If it is, as seems cert., 
l Ain ef Tabgba, it is not only 2 miles distant ; the 
efficacy of the spring was exercised westward away 
from Tell Hum. Having regard to the ruins on the 
neighbouring slopes, it is hard to see why the foun 
tain shd. be connected with Tell Hum, wh., standing 
on the shore, had no use for its water. 

(4) Fm. AIw. II. 23 , &c., it mt. be inferred that 
C. stood on a height. 

CAPHTOR, CAPHTORIM. The PHILISTINES 
are said to come fm. C. (Am. 9 > 7 ), poss. CRETE 
(Dillmann), or CILICIA (Cheyne). 

CAPPADOCIA, the Rm. province N. of the 
Taurus Mts., stretching fm. the Euphrates in 
the E. to the border of Lycaonia in the YV. Jews 
early found their way into C. (i M. I5- 22 ), main 
taining, however, their intercourse with Jrs. (Ac. 
2. 9 ), and among them were converts to the Christian 
faith (l P. i.i). 

CAPTAIN, a military title (Heb. nasf, nagld, 
and sar, wh. are also rendered " prince " : Gr. 
cMiarchos and strategos = Lat. tribunus militis). 
The corrspdg. title in mod. armies wd. be " colonel," 
and anything over that rank. 

CAPTIVITY. See ISRAEL. 

CARBUNCLE represents two Heb. words. 
(l) Eqdab, only used in Is. 5|. 12 of the gates of the 
glorified Zion ; the gem intended is not identd. 
(z) Barqath, bareqetb (Ek. 28. 13 ), part of the 
treasures of the k. of Tyre. The second form ap 
pears in the third stone of the High Priest s breast 
plate (Ex. 28. 1? , 39- 10 ). Prob. this is the " emerald." 

CARCHEMISH (Heb. Karkcmlsb, Egpn. Qar- 
qamesb, Asyr. GargamisK), a city commanding the 
fords of the Euphrates. Formerly C. was identd. 
with Circesium, near the junction of the Khabur 
and the Euphrates (Smith s Diet. Gr. and Rm. 
Geog?), but it has been proved (Maspcro, G. 
Smith, &c.), fm. Egp. and Asyr. inscrs., and by ex 
cavations on the spot, to have been much further up 
the river. It is now represented by Jerablus (Gr. 
Hierapolis or Bambyce, Syr. Mabug), a vill. on the 
W. bank of the Euphrates. C. was taken by 
Thothmes III. fm. the Retennu, c. B.C. 1520, and 



held by the Egyptians for rather more than a cent. 
It then fell into the hands of the Hittites and 
became the capital of one of their kdms. When the 
Ninevite Empire was revived by Asshur-nazir-pal 
the Hittite k. Singara became tributary, c. B.C. 876. 
On the fall of the Asyr. Empire it was in the pos 
session of Pharaoh Nccho for a short time. In the 
decisive battle for this city, c. B.C. 605, Necho was 
defeated by NEBUCHADNEZZAR, thereafter C. be 
came part of the Bab. Empire. Its remains, accdg. 
to G. Smith, consist of the ruins of huge walls and 
of a large palace. 

C ARM EL, usly. with the art. the Carmel, " the 
garden with fruit trees," is a mountain that rises 
abruptly fm. the shore, at the S. extremity of the 
bay of Acre, and extends to the SW. about 13* 
miles. The Monastery of Elias stands on the pro 
montory, at a height of 500 ft. Rising gradually, 




PROMONTORY OF MOUNT CARMEL . SEEN FROM HAIFA 

the ridge reaches its greatest height at Esfiyeh 
(1742 ft.). It sinks in the depression of Jl ady el- 
Mifteleb, rising again in cl-Mabraqah (1687 ^0- 
The mountain forms roughly an oblique triangle, 
its base running S. along the edge of the plain. It 
falls steeply on the NE. and E., but sinks gradually 
to the SW. in a series of long vales and ridges. 
Surrounded by plains on three sides, this great 
mountain forms an impressive feature of the land 
scape, arresting the eye fm. all parts of central Pal. 
The water supply is limited, but it still justifies its 
name, prosperous vills. dotting its fertile slopes. 
Oak, olive, and pine, myrtle, honeysuckle, box, and 
laurel grow luxuriantly, while in the spring its 
sides are radiant with the rainbow hues of multi 
tudinous flowers. Cisterns, oil and wine presses 
hewn in the rock, attest the anct. cultivation. It 
is often refd. to in Scrip., e.g. as a symbol of beauty 
(SS. 7. 5 ), of fertility (Is. 35. 2), of prosperous and 
happy life (Jr. 5O. 19 ) ; while a blight upon C. signi 
fies disastrous days for Isr. The position of the 
mountain made it worthless fm. a military point of 
view, but its isolation, and its abounding caves in 
the hard limestone, made it a haunt of refugees fm. 



80 



Car 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cas 



old time (Am. g. 3 ). Its remote heights with their carriages," RV. 
spacious outlook, its sheltered retreats and shady " made ready." 
groves, attracted worshippers before the dawn of 



took up our baggage," RVm. 




CARMEL IN JUDAII 

hist. On a place of sacrifice already anct., Elijah 
raised his altar (i K. l8. 30ff -), and here transpired the 
conflict of imperishable memory wh. closed in the 
carnage of the brook below. The place is genly. 
identd. with el-Alnhraqah, " the place of burnt- 
offering," a sanctuary of the Druzes in the moun 
tain to this day. Near by is a Latin Chapel. Some 
think that C. is the scene of the incidents recorded 
in 2 K. l. 9ff - (see ELIJAH). The cave of Elijah is 
shown under the monastery, but an older claimant 
is that in ed-Detr, near Ain es-Sik. Elisha also 
frequented C., clearly visible fm. Shunem, across 
the level reaches of Esdraelon (2 K. 2. 25 , 4- 25 ). 
C. was on the S. border of Asher, but later belonged 
to Tyre (BJ. III. iii. i). (2) A town in the uplands 
of Judah (Jo. I5. 55 ; I S. ij. 12 ), owned by Nabal 
(i S. 25. 2 ), the mod. el-Karmal, 7 miles S. of 
Hebron, with considerable ruins, a tower of the 1 2th 
cent., a large reservoir, caves and tombs. The 
inhabitants are called CARMELITES (i S. 27. 3 , &c.). 
CARPENTER. See HANDICRAFTS. 




CART (Assyrian) 

CARRIAGE, in AV. always means something 
"carried." (i) Kebuddah, RV. "goods" (Jg. 
IS. 21 ). (2) A7/7, RV. "baggage" (i S. I7- 22 ; Is. 
io. 2 ). (3) Nesffak, RV. " a burden " (Is. 46.!). 
In Ac. 2i. 15 , AV. trs. a verbal phrase, " took up our 



CART, agSla (i S. 6. 7 , &c. ; EV. tr. " wagon " 
in Gn. 45 , 19 , &c.). It seems to have been a two- 
wheeled wooden vehicle, used for transport of pas 
sengers and goods, drawn by two oxen or cows. In 
the Egpn. and Phil, plains, they cd. be easily em 
ployed. Poss. in Pal. they were used in the fields 
as at the present day. For threshing wagon (Is. 
28. 28 ), see AGRICULTURE. 

CARVE, sometimes used as = " grave " ; e.g. 
" graven image " (Jg. i8. 18 ), wh. represents one 
word in Heb., -pesel. More specially it trs. qala , 
and is used of the wooden panels of the Temple 
carved with " cherubim and palm-trees." AV. trs. 
batiivotb, " carved works " : better RV., " striped 
clo ths." 

CASEMENT, Heb. eshmb (Pr. 7.6, RV. " lat 
tice," as in Jg. 5. 28 and SS. 2. 9 ). See HOUSE. 




ASSYRIAN CASTLE ON RIVER BANK 



CASLUHIM (Gn. io. 14 ; i Ch. I. 12 ), a race re 
presented as springing fm. Mizraim (Egp.), fm. 
whom the PHILISTINES sprang. 

CASSIA, Heb. qiddah (Ex. 3O. 24 ; Ek. 27. 19 ), 
qetzi oth (Ps. 45. 8 ). Prob. both words refer to 
strips of aromatic bark fm. the Cinnamomum Aro- 
maticum, a native of Cochin China, inferior in 
fragrance, and so in value, to cinnamon. 

CASTLE, (i) Tirah (Gn. 25- 16 ; Nu. 3l. 10 ), 
RV. " encampment," prob. consisting of reed huts, 
defended by a rampart of thorns. (2) Armon 
(Pr. l8. 19 ), usly. "palace" (Is. 25.2). (3) Bira- 
rtlyoth (2 Ch. I7- 12 ), " fortresses." (4) Migdol (i Ch. 
27. 25 ), usly. " tower." (5) Matzod, matzuddh 
(i Ch. ii. 5 - 7 ), "a strong-hold." In Ac. 22. 24 the 
Tower Antonia is called C. 

CASTOR AND POLLUX, twin sons of Zeus 
and Leda, and brs. of Helen, the patrons of sailors ; 
hence the name of the Alexandrian ship (Ac. 28."). 



81 



Cat 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cen 



CATERPILLAR, Jlcb. basil, and yelcq, the 
LOCUST in its wingless or caterpillar condition. 
The second of these is usly. trd. CANKERWORM ; 
fm. Na. 3- 16 it \vd. seem that its assumption of 
wings had been observed. 

CAUL, (i) 2 othcreth, the membrane enclosing 
the liver (Ex. 29. 13 ). (2) Segor, the enclosure of the 
heart, the rending of wh. signifies utter destruction 
(Ho. I3. 8 ). (3) Shab tslm (Is. 3. 18 , EVm. "net 
works "), prob. represent the ornamented veil worn 
by women in the E., covering the head, and tucked 
under the hair behind. 




CAVE DWELLERS AT PETRA 

CAVE. In the limestone rock the main forma 
tion of Pal. natl. caves abound. They have often 
been modified by human art, and used for various 
purposes. In the sandstone of the Edom plateau, 
caves hollowed out in old time, prob. the homes of 
the Horites, the anct. cave-dwellers (Gn. I.).. 6 , &c.), 
may still be seen, esp. in and around Petra. On the 
E. of Jordan vast Cs. were transformed practically 
into underground cities, like that still to be seen at 
Der ah, although now unoccupied. In mod. Pal. 
some vills., e.g. Siloam and Gadara, consist largely 
of Cs. protected by a wall in front. Cs., prob. 
dwellings in anct. times, are used to store grain, 
heavy stone doors being swung in their mouths. 
Others, carefully cemented, serve as cisterns. One 
such, of vast extent, under the city of Safed, is said 
to contain water sufficient for many months for the 
whole city. The Cs. afforded shelter for the shep 
herds and their flocks by night, and in stormy 
weather. They were places of refuge in old times 
(Gn. 19." ; Jo. io. 16 , &c. ; see esp. Hist, of David). 
They were used for sepulture (Gn. 23. 19 ; Jn. 
II. 38 , &c.). They were the haunts of robbers in 
later times. Herod the Gt. routed out the turbu 
lent occupants of the Cs. in Wady Hamam, the tre 
mendous gorge that breaks back fm. Magdala {Ant. 
XIV. xv. 5). He also stamped out the banditti 
harboured in the Cs. of Trachonitis (XV. x. i). 

CEDAR. The C. is the noblest tree in its order 
(Conifera, cone-bearers "). In its native home, 
the Taurus and Lebanon ranges, it attains gigantic 
stature, and lives through many cents. Although 



in countries where it has been introduced it yields 
timber of inferior quality, in its own mountains the 
wood is fine, close-grained, and greatly valued fm. 
old time for its aromatic perfume, its beauty, and 
durability. Remains of the anct. forest that prob. 
once covered the mountain are found in difft. 
parts. The most striking is the famous grove at 
the source of the Kadisha. The Phoenicians who 
dwelt on the skirt of the mountain were skilful in 
handling the C., and to them was entrusted the 
erection of the splendid bldgs. and timber work in 
Jrs. (2 S. s. 11 , 7.2 ; i K. 5. 8 , &c.). Part of Solo 
mon s glory was to make C.-wood common in Jrs. 
(i K. io. 27 ). It natly. appears in the fig. lang. of 
Scrip. Jehoash boasts himself a C. agst. the thistle 
Amaziah (2 K. i-f. 9 ). The righteous grow in 
strength and beauty like the C. (Ps. 92. 12 , ic>4. 16 ). 
The C. of Lv. I4- 4 is prob. some species of juniper 
growing in the wilderness. It is uncert. what tree 
is meant in Nu. 24. 6 . 

CENCHREA, RV. correctly CHENCIIREA, the 
seaport on the E. side of the isthmus of Corinth, 
named in connection with Paul s vow (Ac. i8. 18 ), 
and as the home of the deaconess Phoebe (Rm. I6. 1 ). 

CENSER. Heb. mahtah and miqtoreth ; the 
latter only occurs twice, and both times with a bad 
connotation (2 Ch. 26. 19 ; Ek. 8. 11 ), yet etymologi- 
cally it seems to be the technical word. In Egp. 
the C. was either a metal spoon or a pot, prob. of 
earthenware. The former word is elsewhere ren 
dered "snuff-dishes" (Ex. 25. 38 ) and "firepans" 
(Ex. 27. 3 ). C. occurs thrice in NT. (Gr. thumia- 




EGYPTIAN CENSER 

terion, more prop. " altar of incense " (Heb. g. 4 ), 
the LXX equivalent of miqtoreth ; libanotos (Rv. 
8. 3 ), prop. " frankincense "). 

CENTURION, the commander of fm. 50 to 100 
men in the Rm. army. Although in the extent of 
his command similar to a " captain," in social posi 
tion the C. seems more nearly equal to a " sergeant " 



82 



Cep 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cha 



in our army. Five centurions are mentioned in 
NT. : the C. whose servant was healed (Mw. 8. 5 ) ; 
the C. who watched the Cross (Lk. 23. 47 ) ; COR 
NELIUS, the first Gentile convert (Ac. lo. 1 ) ; the C. 
told off to superintend the scourging of Paul, who 
warned the " chief captain " agst. carrying out his 
purpose ; Julius, to whose charge Paul was com 
mitted when he was sent to Rm. It is to be noted 
that they all appear as having acted worthily. The 
badge of the C. was a vine-twig. 





CENTURIONS 

CEPHAS. See PETER. 

CHAFF. AV. so trs. 4 words, (i) Hasbash (Is. 
5.24, 33."), ij t> d ry g rass . ( 2 ) MStz (Jb. 2i. 18 , 
&c.) consists of the light husks and smaller pieces of 
straw wh., in the process of winnowing, are often 
driven by the wind far fm. the threshing-floor. 
(3) Tebcn (Jr. 23. 28 ), this is the straw broken and 
crushed by threshing, wh. in winnowing falls in a 
heap hard by the grain. It is largely used for 
fodder. It is trd. " straw " in Gn. ^4- 25 , but 
"stubble" (Jb. 2i. 18 ) is wrong. (4) Or, Aram., 
of uncert. meaning, prob. the small dust of the 
threshing-floor. The Gr. ackuron (Mw. 3. 12 ; Lk. 
3- 17 ) prob. = Icben. Only the refuse is ever burned. 

CHAIN, AV. so trs. bah, prop. " hook " (Ek. 
I9 4 - 9 ), nefrosheth, " brass," prob. " fetter " (Jr. 
39. , &c.), netlphoth, prop. " pendants " (Is. 3. a9 ), 
karu zim, prop. " strings of jewels." The other 
words meaning prop. " chain " need not be speci 
fied. Cs., esp. of gold, were a mark of distinction 
and symbol of authority (Gn. 4I. 42 ; Dn. 5 > 7 ). 
They were used for adornment (Nu. 3i. 50 ), and in 
ornamental work (Ex. 28.1 4 ). With Cs. or manacles 
captives and prisoners were bound (Ps. I49- 8 ; Jr. 
40.1, &c.). In NT. demoniacs were, as now, bound 
with Cs. (Mk. 5- 3 ) ; so Peter (Ac. I2. 6 ) and the 
dragon (Rv. 2O.1). Prisoners were chained by the 
wrist to the soldiers in charge of them (Ac. 28. 20 , 
&c.). Criminals in Eastern fortresses to-day may 
be seen chained together by the ankles. 

CHALCEDONY, the third foundation of the 
New Jrs. (Rv. 21. 19 ). The mod. C. is a kind of 
agate. King (Antique Gems) thinks it was an in 
ferior kind of emerald. 

CHALD^EA, CHALDEANS, in Biblical usage 
BABYLONIA and BABYLONIANS ; earlier Bab. usage 



seems to have restricted C. to the part of Bab. near 
the Persian Gulf, as Merodach Baladan is some 
times called the k. of Beit Yakin, and sometimes k. 
of the country of the Kaldu. In Heb. the C. are 
called Kasdim, a name that seems connected with 
Kassatu ; a race that had the supremacy in Bab. 
about B.C. 1300. The Kaldu seem to have been a 
race of nomads civilised by contact with the Babs. 
Tried by the standard of lang. they appear to have 
been Semites. The use of the MT. in Daniel, wh. 
seems to make C. the name of a caste of magicians, 
is due to a false reading. In the majority of in 
stances the LXX omits C. or puts the word in a 
difft. connection. 

CHAMBERLAIN. The word so trd. in EV. is 
saris, lit. " eunuch" (2 K. 23.1!; Est. i. 10 , &c.). 
These men often control the internal arrangements 
of the oriental palace, supervise the harlm, and exer 
cise great influence with their masters (Ac. I2. 20 ). 
Erastus was city treasurer of Corinth (Rm. I6. 23 , 
RV.), not C. (AV.). 

CHAMELEON (Heb. koah, Lv. ii. 30 ). The 
C. is common in Pal., but prob. it is not here 
intended. The Heb. word means " strength," 
a characteristic one does not associate with the C. 
AV. trs. C., following LXX. ; RV. " land-croco 
dile." RV. renders tinshemeth, " chameleon " 
(Lv. II. 30 , AV. "mole"). The same word ap 
pears among the names of birds in v. 18, where it is 
rendered, RV. " horned owl," AV. and RVm., 
following LXX, " swan " ; so also in Dt. I4. 16 . 
This suggests some corruption of the text in Lv. 
II. 30 . Whatever the koah was, it was prob. among 
the unclean animals with wh. Isr. cd. not fail to be 
familiar, both in Egp. and Pal. See J. G. Wood, 
Bible Animals. 

CHAMOIS (Heb. zemer, Dt. I4. 5 ), a clean ani 
mal of the deer or antelope family. " Chamois," 
however, of EV., is certainly wrong, as the C. does 
not occur in either Egp. or Pal. " Camelo-pardus " 
of LXX and Vlg. is equally untenable. Psh. with 
greater probability renders " wild sheep." The 
agility of this animal suggests the goat rather than 
the sheep (Wood). 

CHANCELLOR (Heb. V?el t?em, lit. " lord of 
judgment," or " man of commands "), the title of 
Rehum, one of those who wrote to Artaxerxes agst. 
Jrs. (Ez. 4. 8 9 - 17 ). Sayce connects (Fern with Asyr. 
Dbem, applied to reports to the Bab. and Asyr. ks. 
fm. representatives in foreign lands ; and wd. tr. 
" lord of official intelligence," or " post-master." 

CHAPEL (Heb. miqdash, "sanctuary"), a 
mistrn. of AV. in Am. 7-i 3 , applied to BETHEL. It 
exhibits, however, the dependence of this sanctuary 
on the Court, calling it " the k. s C." 

CHAPITER ( = Capital), represents three Heb. 
words : (i) kothereth, " a chaplet " (i K. y. 16 -) ; 
" the ornamental upper portion of a column " ; 



Cha 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Che 



applied to the moulding of the >v bra/en lavers " ; 
(2) fzephetk, of doubtful meaning, used for I (2 Ch. 



3- 15 ) 5 (3) 



" (Ex. 3 8 - 17 )> of tne pillars 



of the TABERNACLE. 

CHARGER, the large round tray of metal, wood, 
or wattled work on wh. cooked food, e.g. meat with 
rice, is set down for a meal. Cs. of precious metal 
were esteemed as gifts, as salvers among ourselves. 

CHARIOT (Hcb. mainly merkabah and rekeb), 
an anct. two-wheeled vehicle used for civil (Gn. 
41. 43 ) and military (Jg. 4- 15 ) purposes, drawn usly. 
by horses, but sometimes by other animals (Is. 21."). 
The form of the C. was practically the same fm. the 
times of the Pharaohs to tha-t of the Cassars ; the C. 
in wh. Joseph rode did not differ essentially fm. 
that in wh. the Ethiopian eunuch sat and read 
" Esaias the Prophet." 

CHARITY is the AY. tr. of agape. We shd. 
read with RV. in every case " love." 

CHARM, CHARMER. See DIVINATION. 

CHASE. See HUNTING. 

CHEBAR, a river of Bab. by the banks of wh. 
Ezekiel saw his visions (Ek. I. 1 ), not = HABOR (2 K. 
I/. 6 ) ; poss. a canal (Shaft en-All) : identd. by 
Hilprecht, Bab. Exp. of the Univ. of Pennsylvania, 
ix. pp. 2yf., 76 ; E.\ pl. in Bible Lands, p. 411 n. 

CHEDORLAOMER (Gn. 14.!), k. of ELAM, con 
federate with AMRAPHEL (LXX, chodollogomor). 
The name is Elamite : Kudur-Lagamar. In some 
what late inscrs. we find refcs. to the allies of C. as 
contemporaries ; the name of C. also occurs, but 
fm. the absence of the determinative it is not abso 
lutely cert, that he is a k. During the reign of 
Hammurabi (Amraphel) the supremacy in Bab. 
passed fm. ELAM to Bab. (see BABYLONIA and 
ASSYRIA) ; the occasion of this may have been the 
overthrow inflicted on C. by ABRAHAM at Hobah 
(Gn. I4. 15 ). 

CHEESE. See FOOD. 

CHEMARIM, pi. of c homer, of Aram, origin 
(Zp. I. 4 ). It is trs. " idolatrous priests " (2 K. 23. 5 ; 
Ho. IO. 5 ). It has this evil sense in these three pas 
sages, but in the Syr. it carries no reproach. 

CHEMOSH (Heb. Kemosb), the name of the 
supreme Deity of the MOABITES (l K. II. 33 ). JEPH- 
THAH appears to regard C. as supreme God of the 
AMMONITES (Jg. II. 24 ) ; it has been suggd. that the 
reading shd. be " Milcom." C., however, was prob. 
an attributive made a name, as Milcom or Molcch 
cert, was ; the fr. of Mesha seems to have been called 
Chemosh-Molech : the separation between C. and 
Molech may have been a later development. 

CHEPHAR-AMMONI (AV. C.-HAAMMONAI), 
" vill. of the Ammonites," in Benjamin (Jo. i8. 24 ), 
prob. = Kefr sfna, c. ^ miles N.E. of Bethel. 

CHEPHIRAH, a vill. of the Hivites, near Gibeon 
in Benj. (Jo. g. 17 , &c.), the mod. Kefir eh, c. 5 miles 
SAY. of el-Jib. 



CHERETHITES AND PELETH1TES. The 
former of these fig. as a branch of the Phil, settled 
in the Negeb (i S. 3O. 14 ) ; the latter seem a variation 
of Phil. As the Phil, came fm. CAPHTOR, wh. has 
been identd. with Crete, it has been argued that C. 
= " Cretans." These two races formed David s 
bodyguard (2 S. 8. 18 ) ; the Swiss Guards of the later 
French kings are brought forward as an analogue. 
There is no cert, indication of their existence after 
the first yrs. of the reign of Solomon. C. are called 
" Carites " in RVm., following the Kthlb. 

CHERITH, THE BROOK (i K. i;. 3 - 5 ), was 
" before," i.e. " E. of Jordan," therefore not Wady 
Qelt. In some unknown retreat among the gorges 
of his native uplands, familiar enough to him, the 
prophet fm. Gilead wd. find safe asylum. 

CHERUBIM AND SERAPHIM, attendants on 
the Divine Majesty in a Theophany. In the record 
the fig. of C. is presumed to be familiar to the Isr. ; 
no description is given, and we have to deduce the 
form of the C. and S. fm. what is said about them. 
That the C. had wings appears fm. Ex. 25. 20 . In 
the first appearance of C. they are associated with a 
" flaming sword " that guarded the " way of the 
tree of Life." In Ek. io. 20 we have what at first 
sight purports to be a description of C., but when 
looked at more attentively this becomes more doubt 
ful. We sometimes find the whole combined mani 
festation is one C. (Ek. 9. 3 ) ; sometimes the four 
" living creatures " are regarded as each C., and so 
are referred to in the plural (Ek. io. 1 ). Again (Ek. 
io. 21 ), we are told " every one had four faces " ; yet 
in v. 14 we learn that " the first facewas the face of a 
C." We have to do, it wd. seem, with a very fluid 
symbol. At first C. was the symbol of storm, taking 
the place of the storm-cloud (Ps. i8. 10 ) ; in Ek. the 
symbol appears to be extended to take in all nature. 
The C. are the sptl. beings behind physical pheno 
mena. While C. are regarded as the sptl. side of the 
" storm-cloud," the " chariot of JHWH," the S. 
were the sptl. side of the lightning flashes that came 
fm. the cloud. Further as the HOLY SPIRIT is the 
Divine Hypostasis by wh. God realises Himself in 
things, the C. and S. may be regarded in their collec 
tive capacity as symbolising, in a rudimentary way, 
the third Person of the Trinity. The " seven Spirits 
wh. are before His Throne " are usly. regarded by 
orthodox divines as completing the Holy Trinity, 
with " Him wh. is and wh. was and wh. is to come," 
and " Jesus Christ the Faithful Witness, the First- 
begotten of the Dead, the Prince of the Kings of the 
Earth." It may be noted that " the four Beasts" 
(RV. " living creatures ") represent the naturalistic 
side of the sacred symbol. But at the same time they 
have a cert, individuality ascribed to them. What 
has been said of the C. applies also to the S., wh. are 
C. regarded fm. a special point of view. There does 
not seem to be any connection with the winged 



84 



Che 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Chr 



bulls of the Ninevite palaces, save that both are 
composite symbols. The hist, of the degradation 
of the tremendous beings of Isaiah s and Ezekiel s 
visions to the chubby child s face, with wings and 
no body, is a somewhat amusing episode in the de 
velopment of art. In the first place, while four 
wings were assigned to each CHERUB, they had only 
one face each, and that of childlike roundness ; two 
of the four wings covered the feet, wh. were thus 
only indicated ; the hands also were inconspicuous. 
In the next stage only the four wings were seen, and 
that in a somewhat tangled condition, as if the 
artist was encumbered by at least the second pair. 
The last step was to have only two wings and these 
of small size, while the face was undisguisedly that 
of a child. 

CHESALON, on the N. border of Judah (Jo. 
I5. 10 ) = Kesla, c. 2 miles N. of Kiriath-Jearim. 

CHEST (Heb. a/-o, usly.trd. " ark," e.g. ark of 
the Covenant " : not, however, of Noah s " Ark "), 
used of the box for offerings made by Jehoiada (2 K. 

I2. 9 ). 

CHESTNUT TREE. The C. does not grow in 
Pal., so it was not indicated by ""armon (Gn. 3d. 37 ; 
Ek. 3 1. 8 ). The plane tree grows luxuriantly, and 
forms just such aji impressive object as the prophet 
clearly alludes to. The branches wd. lend them 
selves to such a purpose as that of Jacob. Natura 
lists agree in identifying armon with the plane. 

CHESULLOTH (Jo. i9. 18 ) = Chisloth Tabor 
(ig. 12 ), on the border of Zebulun. It is the mod. 
Iksal, on the N. edge of Esdraelon, c. 3 miles W. of 
Tabor. 

CHEZIB (Gn. 38. 5 )=AcHziB. 

CHILD, CHILDREN. See FAMILY. 

CHILION, s. of Flimelech and Naomi. See 
RUTH. 

CHILMAD (Ek. 27. 23 ), apparently a region with 
wh. TYRE traded ; unident. 

CHIMHAM. (i) For Barzillai s sake, C., prob. 
his s., was well entreated by David (2 S. ig. 37 - ; 
cp. I K. 2."). (2) A geruth, " lodging-place," on 
the highway to Egp. (Jr. 41. 1T ), may have been 
built by him, or called by his name as proprietor of 
the land. 

CHINNERETH (Dt. 3. 17 ; Jo. ii. 2 ; " Chinne- 
roth," I9- 35 ), a city apparently N. of Rakkath 
(Tiberias ?), poss. on the site of mod. Magdala, fm. 
wh. the Sea of Galilee derived its OT. name (Nu. 
34- 11 , &c.). 

CHIOS (Ac. 20. 15 ), the mod. Scio, an island off 
the coast of Asia Minor, due W. of Smyrna. It is 
30 miles long, and fm. 8 to 18 miles broad. Its 
principal city bears the same name. Wine and gum 
mastic are its most profitable products (cp. Herod s 
voyage to the Black Sea, Ant. XVI. ii. 2). 

CHISLEU. See YEAR. 

CHISLOTH-TABOR. See CHESULLOTH. 



CHIUN (Am. 5. 26 ), the name of an Asyr. deity, 
prob. Kai-wa-nu = Saturn ; the name appears to 
have got the vowels of sbiqqutx, " abomination," so 
that readers mt. avoid taking the " name of the 
heathen god " into their mouths. Another inter 
pretation takes C. to mean " pedestal " a rendering 
that has little to recommend it save the AV. tr. of 
Sikkuth as " tabernacle," wh. is genly. abandoned 
now. Prob. we shd. render " idol " instead of 
" images " ; and recognise in the word trd. " star " 
the name of another deity. 

CHLOE (i Cor. I. 11 ), a lady, members of whose 
household, prob. Christians, told Paul of the 
bickerings at Corinth. 

CHORAZIN (Mw. ii. 20ff - ; Lk. io. 13 ), the mod. 
Kcrazeh, a considerable ruin on the rt. lip of Wady 
Kerazeh, N. of Tell Hum. There are a few carved 




PEF. Drawing 

CARVED NICHE AT CHORAZIN 

stones, remains of the anct. synagogue. A paved 
road connected the city with the great highway 
to Damascus. 

CHRIST. See JESUS CHRIST. 

CHRIST, PERSON OF. The question which 
Jesus asked His disciples at Caesarea Philippi, " Who 
say ye that I am ? " is still the central one for 
Christianity. Peter s answer to that question was, 
" Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God " 
(Mw. i6. 16 ; in Mk. 8. 29 , " Thou art the Christ "). 
What do the words of this confession mean ? The 
answer of the Apostolic Church, which the Church 
in all ages has accepted as its own, is not obscure. 
Christ is the eternal Son of God, manifested on 
earth for man s salvation true Man and true God 
in the unity of one Person. Often as the attempt 
has been made to remove Christ from this high 
dignity (Fbionites, Gnostics, Arians, Socinians, 
Humanitarians, &c.), the attempt has invariably 
broken down. The present age witnesses a new 
endeavour on the part of the adherents of a 
non-miraculous Christianity to interpret Christ in 
terms of mere humanity, but it may be predicted 
this, like the attempts which have preceded it, will 
end in failure. The facts will not fit into it. No 
historical Church (Latin, Greek, Protestant) has 
yet suggested the removal of this article from its 
creed, nor would it stand long if it did. 

The doctrine of the Person of Christ, as the 
Church has held it, involves three points, (i) That 



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Christ was true man possessed humanity in its 
integrity. (2) That Christ was more than man 
the Son of God, existing from eternity, Divine in 
nature as the Father is Divine. (3) That in Christ 
Divinity and humanity existed in the unity of a 
single- Person. It is believed that this doctrine 
rests on Biblical data is, indeed, nothing more 
than what Scripture teaches on the Person of 
the Redeemer. 

I. A glance may be taken, first, at the Old Testa 
ment -preparation for this doctrine of a Divine and 
human Christ. Messianic prophecy is sometimes 
said not to transcend the limits of an earthly king. 
This, however, is hardly the case. (l) Ps. 45. 
cannot be pressed in this connection, though its 
language is applied to Christ in Heb. I. 8 9 . But 
other Messianic psalms, e.g. Ps. 2., 72., lio., do 
seem to transcend the limits of ordinary humanity. 
It is in no mere strain of Oriental eulogy that a 
King is looked for who is set by Divine decree 
at God s right hand, who shall reign for ever, in 
whom, in fulfilment of the oracle to Abraham, all 
nations shall be blessed. (2) The Immanuel oracle, 
culminating in the marvellous announcement, 
" Unto us a child is born," &c. (Is. y. 14 , 8. 8 , g. 6 - 7 ), 
has a grandeur and breadth which imply Divine 
prerogatives: " God with us " (Mw. I. 23 ). (3) The 
servant of Jehovah, especially as depicted in Is. 53., 
is rejected and put to death, yet enjoys a triumph 
which means a Divine exaltation (vv. 10-12). 
(4) The One " like unto a Son of Man," in Dn. y. 13 , 
to whom is given an everlasting kingdom (v. 14), 
was naturally identified with the Messianic King, 
and in later Apocalypse (Enoch) was regarded as 
Divine. Similarly. " the Messenger of the Cove 
nant " in Ml. 3- 1 " 3 has attributes which transcend 
humanity. While the theocratic King is in this way 
practically invested with Divine attributes, there is 
no speculation as to the nature of His Person. 

II. It is to what is narrated and taught about 
Christ Himself in the New Testament that w r e 
naturally turn for full instruction on His Person. 
The high Christology of the Epistles is hardly dis 
puted. But it is contended by many that the 
doctrine of the Epistles is contradicted by the 
picture of the historical Christ in the Gospels. A 
distinction is again drawn between the Synoptic 
Gospels, which, it is alleged, know nothing of 
Christ s dignity, and the fourth Gospel. This, it is 
allowed, does teach it, but is set aside as a product 
of later theological reflection. It may be shown, 
however, that, while certain contrasts must be ad 
mitted, these are overstrained when held to imply 
an essentially different view of Christ s Person. 

I. The Synoptic Gospels. Interwoven with the 
picture of Jesus in these Gospels are superhuman 
traits which no ingenuity of criticism can remove. 
Jesus is truly human, yet supernatural in a sense 



and degree which it requires the apostolic doctrine 
to explain and justify. The two names which are 
given to Christ in the Gospels attest this " Son of 
Man " and " Son of God." (l) The one name 
affirms His unique relation to humanity. He is 
true and perfect man. He represents universal 
humanity. Not " Son of David," or " Son of 
Abraham " only, but " the Son of Man." The title 
may be suggested by Daniel, and have Messianic 
significance. But as it came from Christ s con 
sciousness (He alone uses it) it meant a sense of 
relation to the race. (2) The other name affirms a 
like unique relation to God. He is not " Son " 
only, but " the Son " in a peculiar and incommuni 
cable sense (Mw. ll. 27 ). He constantly in speech 
distinguishes His own relation to the Father from 
that of His disciples. He claimed the title " Son of 
God " in a sense which the High Priest interpreted 
as blasphemy (Mw. 26. 63 65 ; cp. Jn. I. 49 51 , lo. 33 36 ). 
In the baptismal formula He is united as Son with 
the Father and the Holy Spirit (Mw. 28. 19 ). 

More particularly, no one now will doubt that in 
the Synoptic Gospels Jesus is represented (l) as 
partaker of a true humanity. The Gnostic fiction 
of a phantasmal Christ finds no support in these 
narratives. Jesus is born of a human mother ; 
grows in wisdom and stature ; hungers, thirsts, 
sleeps, is weary ; is sustained by food ; suffers pain ; 
endures temptation ; sorrows, weeps, rejoices ; is 
moved with indignation ; at length dies upon the 
Cross. A truer man never lived. The tendency 
in these days is not to question Christ s humanity, 
but to resolve everything into it. He is not only 
man, but perfect man the ideal or archetype of 
humanity. 

But (2) into the framework of this picture of one 
truly human what wonderful traits that transcend 
humanity are continually wrought ! Not here and 
there, in features that might be removed, and leave 
the general representation intact, but as part of the 
total picture. Christ is miraculously born so the 
only two Gospels that narrate His earthly origin 
affirm (Mw. I., 2. ; Lk. i., 2.). He is perfectly 
sinless. Through His whole life He separates Him 
self in consciousness from sinners puts Himself 
over against them on the side of God as their 
Saviour. He is the Holy One (Lk. I. 35 ; Mk. i. 24 ). 
He is announced by the Baptist as the Baptizer 
with the Holy Spirit (Mw. 3. n ), and Himself be 
stows the Spirit (Luke 24. 49 ). He represents Him 
self as the goal and fulfilment of all Old Testament 
revelation (Mw. 5. 17 , 12. 6 , 26. 24 - 31 - 54 ; Mk. g. 12 ; 
Lk. 4 . 17 -2i, 22. 37 , 2 4 . 27 - 44 , &c.). He is the Christ 
the Messiah at once the Founder of the Kingdom 
of God and Lord over it (Mw. I6. 16 19 - 27 28 , 25. 3]ff -, 
&c.). All power and authority have been given 
Him in heaven and on earth (Mw. II. 27 , 28. 18 ). He 
performs stupendous miracles on nature and on 



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man stills the storm, raises the dead. He an- His being " wearied " at the well (.f. 6 ), of His 

nounces His coming again to judge the world, and " weeping " and " groaning " at the grave of 

proclaims Himself the Judge the arbiter of the Lazarus (ll. 33 38 ), of His saying on the cross, "I 

everlasting destinies of men (Mw. 25. 31ff -, &c.). thirst " (ig. 28 ). He died a true death, and ex- 

On one supreme occasion He was gloriously trans- perienced a true resurrection. Yet through the 

figured (Mw. ij. 1 " 8 , &c.). His death is voluntary humanity a Divine glory shone. It was from what 

(Mw. 26. 53 ), but after His death and burial He rises John beheld in Him as man that he rose to think of 

again from the dead. Can any one affirm that this Him as the only-begotten of the Father (i. 14 ). 

is the image of One who can be put in a frame of 3. The Book of Acts agrees with the Gospels in 

mere humanity ? It is not there the Gospels put seeing in Jesus One who was perfectly human yet 

Him. We have seen that the Son is joined with the truly Divine. He was " a man approved of God 

Father and the Holy Spirit in the one Name into by mighty works, and wonders, and signs which 

which we are baptized (Mw. 28. 19 ). Not without God did by Him " (z. 22 : Peter takes the people 

good reason does Bousset declare that " already the here on their own ground) ; but He had been 

oldest Gospel is written from the standpoint of exalted to be " both Lord and Christ " at God s 

faith ; already for Mark is Jesus not only the right hand (vv. 34-36), and had poured forth the 

Messiah of the Jewish people, but the miraculous Spirit on the Church. He was the ordained "Judge 

eternal Son of God " (Was wissen wir von Jesus? of living and dead" (io. 42 , i/. 31 ). Only through 

p. 54). Him can men be saved (4- 12 , IO. 43 ). 

2. The Gospel of John. The representation in the 4. The Epistles and Revelation. (i) The perfect 

Gospel of John is not essentially different, except humanity of Jesus is attested or implied continually, 

that the Divine side of Christ s Person, in accordance Christ was "born of a woman" (Gal. 4> 4 ), was 

with the aim of the Gospel (John 2O. 31 ), is now put " born of the seed of David according to the flesh " 

in the forefront, and the discourses and miracles (Rm. I. 3 ; 2 Tm. 2. 8 ), took flesh and blood (He. 

are selected with a view to illustrate Christ s Divine 2. 14 ), was made in all things, except sin, like unto 

Sonship. His brethren (Rm. 8. 3 ; He. 2. 17 , 4- 15 ), endured 

(1) The key to the Gospel is given in the pro- temptation (He. 2. 18 ), prayed " with strong crying 
logue. " The Word became flesh " (i. 14 ). "The and tears," was made perfect through suffering 
only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the (He. 5. 7 " 9 ). The mark of Antichrist, according to 
Father, He hath declared Him" (v. 18). The John, was the denial that Jesus had " come in the 
" Word " (Logos) who became " flesh " was in the flesh " (i J. 4 . 2 - *). 

fullest sense Divine. " The Word was with God, (2) As undeniably is Jesus conceived of in the 

and the Word was God " (v. i). He was the Epistles of Paul, John, and Peter, the Epistle to the 

Divine agent in creation (v. 3). Stress is laid in Hebrews, and the Book of Revelation, as a Being 

various sayings on Christ s pre-existence. He was truly Divine. " Existing," Paul says, " in the form 

" before Abraham " (8. 58 ). He had glory with the of God," He " emptied Himself, taking the form of 

Father before the world was (i/. 5 - 24 ). As in the a servant " (Php. 2. 6 - 7 ). He created all things in 

Synoptics, all authority is given to Him (i/. 2 ). heaven and in earth (Col. I. 16 ). All things are 

The chief point of contrast with the Synoptics is " through Him, and unto Him ; and He is before 

that in the latter this clear declaration of pre- all things, and in Him all things consist " (vv. 16, 

existence is wanting. This, however, only proves 17). Similarly in Hebrews, " through whom He 

the fidelity of the Evangelists in recording Christ s [God] made the worlds " ; " Upholding all things 

utterances. Not one of them but knew and be- by the word of His power" (i. 2 - 3 ). In Revelation, 

lieved that Christ had pre-existed. But they never He is " the Alpha and Omega," " the first and the 

put this claim in Christ s own mouth. It could not last" (i. 8 - 17 ). Divine worship is ordained to be 

be looked for at a time when Christ had not yet paid to Him (Php. 2. 9 - 10 ; I P. 3- 22 ; He. I. 6 ; 

publicly proclaimed His Messiahship, or in dis- Rv. 5. 11 14 ). In every Epistle He is conjoined with 

courses and parables addressed to Galilean multi- the Father, sometimes with the Father and the 

tudes. Even in John it occurs only rarely. Yet, Holy Spirit, as the Source of blessing to the Church, 

as the passage quoted from Bousset shows, it is im- The recurring formula is : " Grace to you and peace 

plied in what the Evangelists do say about Jesus, from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ " 

If Christ was Divine, pre-existence follows. (Rm. I. 7 , and generally). Cp. the Trinitarian 

(2) But, again, not less than in the Synoptics is passages (i Cor. I2. 4 6 ; 2 Cor. ij. 14 ; I P. i. 2 ; 
Jesus in John s Gospel truly human. "The Word Rv. I. 4 - 5 ). Theological difficulties as to the union 
became flesh " (i. 14 ). He had human needs and of Divine and human in this one Person have not 
wants, experienced human emotions, was tenderly yet arisen. But that the Son is regarded as at once 
sympathetic, had mental trouble as His hour drew Divine and human, and this in the most perfect 
near (i2. 27 ). It is John who preserves the trait of sense, is beyond reasonable question. 

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III. The questions which the New Testament 
writers do not yet raise could not but arise for the 
later thought of the Church. How is this union of 
divinity and humanity in one Person to be con 
strued ? The rise of heresy and error negations 
or mutilations of the truth on one side or the other 
(Gnostic denials of the humanity ; Ebionitic and 
Unitarian denials of the divinity ; Arian denials of 
eternity and full Godhead, &c.) made reflection 
on and testimony for the complete truth imperative. 
The problem also was one which, for its own 
satisfaction, the Church had to consider. Many 
answers were attempted, but most had to be 
rejected. Apollinarianism sought to substitute the 
Divine Logos for the rational soul in Jesus ; but 
this was rightly pronounced a mutilation of the 
humanity. Nestorianism conceived of the union as 
a moral " indwelling " of the personal Logos in the 
human soul of Jesus : this was rejected as a dis 
solving of the unity of the Person. Eutychianism 
spoke of a blending of the natures, or of an absorption 
of the human in the Divine ; this was repelled as 
repugnant to the distinctness of the natures. In 
A.D. 451 the Council of Chalcedon affirmed the 
unity of the Person of Christ " in two natures," 
without confusion, conversion, division, or separa 
tion, and this doctrine has passed into the creeds of 
the Greek, Latin, and Protestant Churches. 

The Chalcedonian decision states a truth, but 
leaves the problem of the bo:v of the union un 
resolved. Modern Christologies have too often cut 
the knot by rejecting the Divine Person, and re 
verting to a more or less disguised Humanitarianism. 
Jesus is God-filled man or even less. Against this 
the teaching of Scripture, as traced above, the con 
sciousness of the Christian Church, and the need of 
a Divine Saviour for the ends of redemption, unite 
in protest. A peculiar form of modern Christology 
is the " Kenotic." On this view the Incarnation 
meant the laying aside by the Son of God of His 
Divine glory, attributes, and even consciousness ; 
His abdication for the time of His place and 
functions in the Godhead ; and His being born as 
a human babe with all the limitations which that 
state implied. His Divine glory is resumed at the 
exaltation. Such a renunciation of the attributes 
of Godhead, however, as this theory supposes, must 
be pronounced an inconceivability ; nor is there 
anything in Scripture to warrant such a view. The 
humiliation of Jesus relates only to His earthly 
manifestation Difficult as the conception may be, 
there seems to be implied in the Incarnation a 
twofold state of being, corresponding to Christ s 
twofold nature as God and Man. As in John : 
" No one hath ascended into heaven, but He that 
descended out of heaven, even the Son of Man, 
who is in heaven " (3- 13 ). 

The question is frequently raised in modern 



times : How does the Incarnation affect Christ s 
human knowledge ? On one side there have been 
those who denied all limitation in Christ s know 
ledge all ignorance. On the other side are those 
who freely impute to Christ not only ignorance of 
most things, but abundance of error. Neither 
view can be justified. That Christ was humanly 
ignorant in spheres that lay beyond His Messianic 
vocation is implied in what is said of His growth in 
" wisdom and stature " (Lk. 2. 52 ), and indeed in 
His assumption of a true humanity. Calvin, com 
menting on Lk. 2. 40 , says : " If we do not choose to 
deny that Christ was made a real man, we ought 
not to be ashamed to acknowledge that He volun 
tarily took upon Him everything that is inseparable 
from human nature." In this he includes ignor 
ance. In one notable case Jesus disclaims know 
ledge of the time of His own Advent (Mk. I3- 32 ). 
Ignorance, however, does not necessarily imply 
error. From that it must be held that Christ s 
mind was free, even as it was from sin. 

JAMES ORR. 

Lit. : On Messianic prophecies A. B. Davidson, 
OT. Prophecy, chaps. I8.-2O. ; Richm, Messianic 
Prophecy ; Orelli, OT. Prophecy ; on NT. evi 
dence Denney, Jesus and the Gospel ; Liddon, 
Our Lord s Divinity ; Biblical Theologies of Weiss, 
Oosterzee, &c. ; on Church theories Orr, Pro 
gress of Dogma ; on Kenotic theories A. B. Bruce, 
The Humiliation of Christ ; on whole subject 
Dorner, Person of Christ. 

CHRISTIAN, a name coined by the Antiochians 
for the followers of Christ, c. A.D. 43 (Ac. n. 26 ). It 
is used by Agrippa (Ac. 26. 28 ), and appears again in 
I P. 4- 16 . Tacitus (Ann. xv. 44), and Suetonius 
(Xero 16), use it as a familiar name of Christ s 
followers. The Jews wd. refrain fm. its use because 
of the significance attaching to the name " Christ " 
= " Messiah." If it were a term of contempt, this 
wd. explain why, at first, it was seldom used by 
Christians ; and not until well into the second 
Christian cent, do we find them gen. so describing 
themselves. 

CHRONICLES, I. and II. (Heb. Dibre hayyS- 
mtm, " the events of the days," Gr. paraleipomenon, 
" Appendices "). Our English name is derived fm. 
Jerome, who in the list of OT. Bks. in Prologns 
Galeatus calls this Bk. CHRONICA ; this name has 
been gen. adopted in European VV., e.g. Luther s 
German and Osterwald s French. Originally it 
was one bk. ; but the unwieldy size of a papyrus roll 
large enough to contain the whole of C. led, as in 
the case of Samuel and Kings, to its division. The 
relation of C. to EZRA and NEHEMIAH has occa 
sioned some diffc. of opinion. The almost uni 
versal opinion of mod. scholars is that EZRA and 
NEHEMIAH formed one bk. with C. ; on the other 
hand the early Jewish opinion appears to have sepa- 



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rated C. from Ezra and Nehemiah ; the received 
LXX, the Psh., Melito of Sardis, and Jerome all 
separate the bks. The Tim. (Baba a thro), while 
assigning the writing of C. to EZRA, separates C. fm. 
Ezra s own bk. The Apcr. bk. of I (3) Esdras 
begins with 2 Ch. 35., and, going to the end of the 
bk., contains the whole of the canonical EZRA with 
the 8th chap, of NEHEMIAH, inserting the episode 
concerning Truth after the 4th chap, of the 
canonical Ezra (EZRA and ESDRAS [Apcr.]) : a pheno 
menon wh. seems to indicate that at some point in 
the evolution of the Canon, C., and at all events a 
portion of Ezra and Nehemiah, formed one bk. 
The structure of NEHEMIAH will be considered 
under EZRA and NEHEMIAH. 

Contents. C. may be regarded as an epitome 
of the hist, of the world fm. Adam to the Decree 
of Cyrus restoring the Jews. To the end of 
chap. 9. we have the genealogies mainly extracted 
fm. earlier Canonical bks. with notes frequently 
drawn fm. sources now lost, e.g. I C. j. 21 - 22 . The 
writer seems originally to have intended to give 
a genealogy for each of the Tribes of Israel ; if he 
carried out his plan the portions referring to two 
have not come down to us. The most noticeable 
feature is the prominence given to the Tribes of 
LEVI and JUDAH ; to some extent also of BENJAMIN. 
The Temple stood close to the boundary between 
Judah and Benjamin, and the function of the 
Levites was found in the Temple worship. The 
next portion (i C. lo.-ag.) is occupied with thereign 
of DAVID. There are many insertions and omis 
sions, condensations and amplifications, wh. make 
the narr. of C. different fm. that of S. and K. ; the 
purpose of these apparently is to concentrate the 
reader s attention on the Temple. David s con 
quest of JERUSALEM, where the Temple was to be, 
and his making it his Capital ; the bringing up of 
the Ark fm. Kirjath-Jearim first to the house of 
Obed-Edom, and then to Jerusalem ; his foreign 
conquests, and the treasures of gold and silver wh. 
he thence acquired and stored up for use in the 
adornment of the Temple ; his desire to build a 
Temple ; his purchase of the threshing-floor of 
Araunah ; his appointment of SOLOMON as his 
successor; and his directions to him as to the bldg.of 
the Temple all prove that this was the point fm. 
wh. the author considered the hist, of David, and 
indeed of Isr. The hist, reaches its culmination 
in the act. of the reign of Solomon, wh. occupies 
the first 9 chaps, of 2nd C. ; all notice of Solomon s 
declension is omitted, and even his literary activity 
(l K. 4. 29 -33) Solomon has an interest for the 
writer only as the k. who built the Temple. The 
rest of the bk. exhibits the same characteristics. 
After REHOBOAM S loss of the Northern Kdm. and 
the plunder of the Temple by SHISHAK, those ks. 
are made prominent whose efforts were directed to 



the reform of worship, or the repair of the Temple. 
ABIJAH, although not commended in i K., is 
honoured because of the speech assigned to him in 
wh. he glorifies the Temple and its worship. His 
son ASA has 3 chaps, devoted to him ; his victory 
over the Ethiopians wh. followed his putting down 
of idolatry in his kdm. (14.) ; the further manifes 
tation of his zeal and his great sacrifice (15.) ; his 
fall, his taking of the Temple treasures to hire 
Benhadad s help agst. BAASHA, k. of Isr. (16.). 
JEHOSHAPHAT has a yet larger space devoted to him 
because he continued the work of reformation ; 
nevertheless he makes alliance with the wicked 
house of OMRI, falls into danger and suffers loss on 
this act. (i 8.) ; is rebuked because of it by Jehu, s. of 
Hanani, and submits (19.) ; thereafter he gains a 
great victory over the combined forces of Moab, 
Ammon, and Mount Seir (20.). The wicked reigns 
of JEHORAM and AHAZIAH, and the usurpation of 
ATHALIAH, are more summarily treated. The nar. 
expands when it relates the hist, of JEHOASH, the 
Temple child ; his being hid, anointed, and pro 
claimed k. in the Temple (23.) ; his zeal for the re 
pair of the Temple during the lifetime of JEHOIADA, 
his preserver ; his declension, punishment, and 
death (24.). AMAZIAH, UZZIAH, and JOTHAM, war 
like, and on the whole prosperous ks., are passed over 
with greater brevity ; their activity had little to do 
with the Temple. Of Uzziah it is recorded that he 
attempted to desecrate the Temple by usurping the 
Priest s office and offering incense : but God smote 
him with leprosy. The evil reign of AHAZ, and the 
punishments inflicted on him because of his idola 
tries, occupy chap. 28. As to the reign of HEZE- 
KIAH, the nar. of C., when compared with that in 
2 K., is in parts fuller, and in parts more condensed ; 
the parts relating to his reformation of the Temple 
worship, his celebration of the Passover, are dwelt on 
at considerable length ; while his deliverance fm. 
Sennacherib, his recovery fm. sickness, the message 
of the Bab. ambassadors to him, are condensed (29.- 
32.). Although the reign of Manasseh is the longest 
of all the ks. whether of Judah or Isr., yet the narra 
tion of it occupies only 20 vv., nearly the half of this 
space being taken up with his captivity, repentance, 
and consequent efforts at the restoration of the 
Temple worship, incidents that have no place in 
the bk. of K. The concluding vv. of chap. 33. 
suffice for the short and wicked rule of AMON. The 
reformation of worship and of morals, and the repair 
of the Temple connected with JOSIAH are expanded 
fm. the nar. of K. ; dwelt on at yet greater length 
is his Passover. His annexation of the provinces of 
the N. Kdm. in the confusion that accompanied the 
fall of the Empire of the Sargonids is passed over 
without notice (34., 35.). The reigns of the four ks. 
after the fall of Jrs., and the edict of CYRUS, are re 
lated in the space of a score of verses. When we 



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treat of EZRA we shall find similar prominence given dentally dropped into the genealogy of HEMAN ; the 
to the Temple. After this summary of its contents, Chronicler has split the lines into nine names. 



it will be obvious that C. is primarily a hist, of the 
Temple and its worship, with passing refcs. to con 
temporary events 



Some of the resulting names are common enough : e.g. 
Hananiah and Hanani ; the others, while not occurring else 
where, can be paralleled in form. This portion of the verse 
does not appear in the Psh. While in MT. 6 out of the 14 

Sources The Genealogies in the 1st chap, names in this verse are repeated in relating the order of the 
, i , s-> t i i courses of the singers, in Psh. the names that are doubtful 

are apparently taken fm. Lrn. ; some ot those that assumead iff t . f orm : e . g . Romanti-ezer (MT.) becomes in the 
follow are drawn fm. Ex., Nu., Jo., and S. The Psh. Rumon ; and Jcshbekashah (MT.) becomes Eliashib 
other genealogical lists are prob. taken fm. the [^- K n ^ s ^ciden^^^^^ 

records preserved by cert, families ; that there were tjmes vv h en om j t ting an incident fm. his source the Chronicler 

quotes words and phrases wh. imply the portion he has 
omitted: e.g. 2 Ch. io. lr> refers to Ahijah s prophecy, wh. 
yet is omitted. Some of the documents on wh. the Chronicler 



such registers is proved by the sons of Barzillai 
(Ez. 2. 62 ; Ne. y. 64 ), who claimed to be Aaronites 
but were unable to find " their register." Some 



of the histl. notes, e.g 
origin to this source. 



relied may not have been contemporary with the events, and 

38-43 7 21-23 O we their some of them may have suffered fm. the hands of interpola- 
- , i i 11 t, tors, but he seems to have given us a fairly accurate version of 

in the chaps, following t 2 w hat they recorded. It is not scientific to degrade C. because 




parently = tne"JBk. ot tnc jvs. ot isr.," " ineaomgs evunts wh _ we know only }m u _ ancl vvn . were supp 

of the Ks. of Isr." (2) The bks. of various prophets, be instances of flagrant inaccuracy, e.%. the captivity of 

, a " TJip wnrrU nf Sarmirl the Serr " " The words Manasseh in Bab., have been proved to beat least prob. In 

e -S- 1C 5ecr > me woras thg cage Qf Manasseh> the idolater and persecutor, whose 

of Nathan the Prophet," and " The words of Gad iniquities had caused the destruction c.f Jrs., who was be- 

the Seer " (i Ch. 2Q. 29 )," The Story (midrash} of the lieved to have put Isaiah to death, whose evil reputation ap- 

-r, , T i i >j / ?-ii_ 9<>\ o i, 11 pears in unsoftened harshness in the reign of Nero when the 

Prophet Iddo" (2 Ch. i3- 2 -),&c. ; poss., however, all scension of Isaiah was written> it sce & nls im p ro b., a ln-.ost 

these prophets wrote the annals of their successive imposs., that a writer shd. invent fcrhim a repentance, even 

times in a condensed shape, each message being in its <" preceded by a captivity. The singular piece of historic 

u TJI accuracy in sending him to " Bab. rather than to Nineveh, 

turn added to the document that is now our J5ks. when Esar-haddon had l;een crowned k. of Bab., treating 



of Kings." This view is confirmed by ^ Ch. 32. 32 , 
" The rest of the acts of Hezekiah . . . are written in 



it, along with Nineveh, as the twin capital of his empire, 
can scarcely be attributed to luck. The case of 2 S. 21. 19 , 
compared with i Ch. 20. 5 , seems at first sight an obvious 
the Vision of Isaiah the Prophet, the S.of Amoz,in the effort of the harmoniser, but when the passages are koked 
bk. of theKs.of ludah and Isr." : see also 2 Ch. 2O. 34 at more carefully this dees not seem so clear. It is ad- 
TIT T TT T j TT TI. T. mitted that the pas-age in S. is corrupt, that Jaare-oregrm, 

RV., KINGS I. and II. There are, however, nume- forest of weav rS) - f s not a man . s j; amei and that j a * ir in 

rous cases where events are recorded of wh. there is C. is more prob. In the Psh. the name is given as Malaph- 

no trace in the Bks. of Kings, e.g. " the falling away zequri, " teacher of weaving," wh. seems an effort to put a 

r A ,! / ^ <: \ u T i i i i i sense into the Masoretic name. Ihe a/n, "brother of, of 

of Asa (2 Ch. 16.), Jehoshaphat s victory m the the or j g j na i document, has been confounded with eth, the 

Valley of Berachah " (2 Ch. 2O. 1 30 ), and " Pekah s sign of the accusative. 

victorious expedition into Judah in the reign of C. records the Hist, of the Temple, and of 

Ahaz " (2 Ch. 28. 5 - 15 ) ; these seem to have been Judah and Jrs. so far as involved in it. Fm. this 

extracted fm. prophetic Lit., although not inserted point of view it may be taken as accurate, 

in our Bks. of Kings. (3) The lists of David s Style. That the Hcb. of C. is relatively late is 

" mighty men," of those that came to him to what mt. be expected in a post-exilic bk. ; but this 

Ziklag, of the singers, the musicians appointed by may easily be exaggerated. When we compare C. 

David, were prob. drawn fm. official documents, with EC. we find far more traces of lateness in the 

The relation of the Chronicler seems in some points latter bk. ; in EC. we have the short relative so fre- 

to have been slavish dependence without adequate quent in Talmudic ; the vav conversive is rarely 

understanding ; in others his modifications have used. If we apply these tests to C. we find the 

been much greater than mod. historians permit Chronicler regularly uses the vav conversive, and 

themselves. This is most observable in regard to never employs the short relative. Making allow- 

numbers wh. are increased beyond all reasonable ance for the diffc. between prose and poetry, the 

belief. In this case, however, it is prob. we have to Heb. of C. has a close resemblance to that of Haggai 

do with the megalomania of a later Jewish scribe, and the earlier chaps, of Zechariah. Shd. it be said 

With regard to C. and most of the Kethubim, accu- that the Chronicler imitated the earlier and more 

racy of transcription was not protected by Syna- classic style : agst. this it is to be noted that style, 

gogue reading. as an indication of a period, was not recognised ; 

Historicity. Putting to the one side the mis- the writer of EC. cd. claim to be Solomon, and have 

directed efforts of the ambitious redactor, we find, his claim allowed without making any attempt to 

as we have already remarked, a slavish dependence avoid the peculiarities of his own time, 

on the sources. A well-known proof of this is Date and Author. Fm. the style, as above 

I Ch. 25- 4b , in wh. a portion of a Psalm has acci- noted, C. wd. seem to be nearly contemporary with 

90 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Chr 



Haggai and Zechariah. Agst. this is to be put the 
fact that in the genealogy of Zerubbabel (i Ch. 
3- 19 " 24 ), Anani, the last name, is of the 6th genera 
tion after Zernbbabel ; in Ne. I2. 1(M1 the priestly 
genealogy is carried down to Jaddua of the 5th 
generation ; Jos. makes Jaddua contemporary with 
Alexander the Great, a view that is confirmed by 
vv. 22f., " the priests to the reign of Darius the 
Persian " this " Darius " being, fm. the connec 
tion, Darius Codomannus who was overthrown by 
Alexander. These stages in descent occur only in 
two genealogies the priestly, wh. was cert, kept 
with great care, and the Davidic, wh. was kept prob. 
with scarcely less care. A copyist who wished to 
bring the nar. up to date wd. have no difficulty in 
adding the various names : in both passages there 
are traces of interpolation. These later members 
of the genealogies are prob. due to the editor who 
exaggerated the numbers. Jewish tradition, alike 
in the Tim. (Jtv. En.} and the Apocalyptic 2nd 
Esdras, points out Ezra as the writer. Everything 
in the char, of Ezra suits the contents and style of 
C. Despite the adverse weight of critical opinion, 
we think that C. was originally written by Ezra, and 
edited about the time of Alexander the Great. This 
hypothesis appears to act. for all the phenomena. 

CHRONOLOGY, the science of dating events in 
relation to other events. The earliest system of 
dating that has come down to us is by the yr. of the 
reign of the monarch. When people began to have 
a Calendar, that is before any extant hist., the rela 
tion of the regnal yr. to the Calendar became a 
matter of importance. The most common way was 
to reckon the first yr. of the k. that during wh. he 
ascended the throne, even though it mt. be in its 
last month : this method was genly. adopted. It has 
obvious disadvantages. The first yr. of one sove 
reign has been already denoted as the I3th or 14-th, 
or whatever the number mt. be of his predecessor : 
thus at each change of monarch a yr. was added. 
Again, when a k. assumed his s. as colleague ; it be 
came a matter of doubt whether the regnal yrs. of a 
monarch who had been colleague with his fr. and 
survived him, shd. be reckoned fm. the date of his 
assumption as colleague, or fm. his reign as sole 
monarch ; this is a frequent cause of confusion in 
the C. of the Bks. of Kings. The Babs. got rid of 
these difficulties by reckoning the first yr. of a sove 
reign that wh. began on the New Year after his ac 
cession ; the portion of the preceding yr. wh. was 
included in his reign was called " the beginning of 
his reign " ; so 2 K. 25. 2 ~. If there were colleague- 
ships on the throne during the Bab. supremacy, no 
trace is left on the contract tables. The Asyr. C., 
though not reckoned on the Bab. system, is also very 
precise. The Egyptian methods are less reliable. 
Whether the various dyns. are to be regarded as all 
successive, or some of them as contemporaneous, is 



yet in doubt. When a synchronism can be got, it 
is clearly a great advantage in chronological investi 
gation. It is esp. advantageous in regard to the C. 
of the Bible ; the Christian Revelation in both 
Testaments is distinguished fm. every other Lit. 
claiming to have a Divine origin, in that it claims to 
be the hist, of a Divine process, related by human 
agency. While the Divine thought must be pre 
sent there is also always the possibility of error. 
Biblical Hist, embraces the two Testaments ; there 
is between the end of the first and the beginning of 
the second a period of four centuries and a half wh. 
need be little more than referred to. Fm. the con 
tact with the Greek power every event during that 
period is brought into relation with the Era of the 
Seleucids, and through it with the Rm., ab urbe 
cotidita (AUG.) " fm. the foundation of the City." 
Neglecting then this intermediate period, there are 
two series of dates to be considered, the OT. and 
the NT. ; these we take in order. 

The Chronology of the Old Testament. This 
occupies the period fm. the Creation to the end of 
the 2nd Governorship of Nehemiah ; that is to say, 
on the received C. of Ussher, fm. B.C. 4004. to B.C. 
430. This must be divided into several shorter 
periods accdg. to the relation in wh. they respec 
tively stand to known external hist, (i) There 
is what may be called the Prehistoric : fm. the 
Creation to the Call of Abraham. This period is 
divided in two by the Flood. Here no events are 
narrated and no persons named in the sacred Hist, 
that can be identified in profane. (2) Semi-historic: 
fm. the Call of Abraham to the Foundation of Solo 
mon s Temple. This period, like the former, is 
divided into two by an outstanding event in this 
case the Exodus. While there are refcs. in the 
Bible story to events and persons known fm. other 
sources, there are no corrspdg. refcs. fm. profane 
hist, to any Biblical person or event. It embraces 
about a millennium and a quarter ; fm., approxi 
mately, B.C. 2200 to B.C. 950. (3) Historic : fm. 
the Foundation of the Temple to the 2nd Governor 
ship of Nehemiah ; approximately fm. B.C. 950 to 
B.C. 430. Regarding this shorter period we have 
fuller information, and may divide it as follows : 
(a) Fm. the founding of the Temple to the Revolt 
of the Northern Tribes. (/;) Fm. the Revolt of the 
Northern Tribes to the Fall of the House of Omri. 
(f) Fm. the Fall of the House of Omri to the Fall 
of Samaria. (J) Fm. the Fall of Samaria to the 
Capture of Jrs. by Nebuchadnezzar. (/) Fm. the 
Capture of Jrs. to the Decree of Cyrus. (/) Fm. 
the Decree of Cyrus to that of Darius. (g) Fm. 
that to the and Governorship of Nehemiah, B.C. 
430. 

(i) The Prehistoric Period. In calling this 
period prehistoric we do not imply that the events 
narrated did not happen, or that the persons named 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



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never lived, but that the events have come down to 
us in a parabolic or mythic form. The questions 
raised as to the historicity of the Bible nar. here are 
discussed under BABEL, FALL, FLOOD : we have to 
do here only with the sequence of events and the 
time occupied by them. As we have already said, 
this period falls into two parts. 

(tf) Fin. the Creation of Adam to the Deluge. 
Accdg. to the received C., wh. we owe to Arch 
bishop Ussher, the Creation occurred B.C. 4004. It 
seems imposs. to evade or deny the evidence wh. 
goes to show that man has lived upon the earth 
much longer than 6000 yrs. Even admitting the 
full force of the arguments wh. mt. enable us to 
shorten the Egpn. dates by regarding many of the 
dyns. as contemporary, we cannot place Menes 
later than about 1000 yrs. anterior to the received 
date of the Flood. Egpn. hist, did not begin with 
Menes : there are numerous remains of prehistoric 
races. Yet further back are we carried by Bab. 
hist. ; at present it seems cert, that Sargon I. was 
reigning B.C. 380x3, when, accdg. to the received C., 
Adam had 700 yrs. yet to live. Moreover in Sargon s 
time Bab. appeared to stand at the end of a long 
civilisation. We cannot in the present condition 
of kge. estimate precisely the value of the ante- 
diluvial records ; yet we may note cert, things : 
many Biblical genealogies are defective in some 
places, wh. we can so far complete : many more, we 
have reason to suspect, are incomplete, but have not 
the means of making the lack good : any number of 
links may have been dropped out of the ante 
diluvian genealogy. The extreme age ascribed to 
the patriarchs may be due, as some have thought, 
to the " month " being then the " year " (Heb. 
sbenab means primarily " repetition "), i.e. the 
period in wh. the celestial phenomena repeated 
themselves, tho of such a mode of reckoning we 
have no indication. When, however, we compare 
the Biblical tales of the " beginnings " with those of 
Egp. and Asyr. we are struck with the moderation 
of the former. The Biblical genealogy fm. Adam 
to Noah has come down to us in three forms : the 
Massoretic (MT.), wh. we have in ordinary English 
Bibles ; the Septuagint (LXX), the Gr. tr. used 
by the Apostles and the Early Church ; this in 
creases the period between the Creation of Adam 
and the Flood by nearly 600 yrs. ; and the Sam 
aritan, in the recension of the Pnt., used by the 
Samaritan community in Nablous ; this shortens 
the period in question by almost 350 yrs. When we 
compare the three Genealogies, we find that in re 
gard to the first five terms and the seventh, MT. 
agrees with Sam. agst. LXX ; in the sixth it agrees 
with LXX agst. Sam. ; in regard to the next two 
all three differ ; while in regard to Noah all three 
are agreed. In this way the balance seems to lie 
with MT. as most near the original. 



At birth of s. 
Adam 
Seth 
En os 
Cainan 
Mahalaleel 
Jared 
Enoch 
Methuselah 
Lamech 

At the Flood 
Noah . 



MT. 


LXX. 


S.un. 


130 


230 


130 


10 5 


205 


I0 5 


90 


190 


90 


70 

65 
162 


170 

165 
162 


70 

65 
62 


65 
187 


165 
167 


65 
67 


182 


188 


53 



600 



1656 



600 



2242 



600 



1307 



The reasons that lie behind these variations can 
only be vaguely conjectured ; the desire to lengthen 
the time between the Creation and the Flood can 
scarcely act. for the LXX diffcs. as the lengthening 
is relatively so little. 

(b) The remarks made in regard to the period 
before the Flood apply equally to that between the 
Flood and the Call of Abraham. It seems necessary, 
in the present state of kge., to regard not only the C. 
of MT., wh. is the shortest, but even that of LXX, 
the longest, as too short to meet the requirements of 
archaeology. It is the twilight that skirts the his 
toric. Here, as in the antediluvial period, there 
are three lines of Genealogy, the MT., LXX, Sam. : 
of these the MT. is much the shortest, and the 
LXX considerably the longest. 

Sam. 



130 
130 



30 
79 



75 
1017 



Birth of s. to Shem MT - 


LXX. 


after the Flood . 2 


i 


Age at birth of s. 




Arphaxad 35 


3S 


Cainan 






130 


Salah 






30 




Eber 






34 


1-4 


Peleg 






30 


130 


Reu 






3 2 


132 


Serug 






3 


130 


Nahor 






29 


179 


Terah 






70 


70 


At his call- 




Abraham . . 75 


75 



367 1246 



Here, as before, in the majority of instances two 
sets of figs, agree agst. the third. MT. agrees with 
Sam. in saying that Arphaxad was born " two yrs. 
after the Flood" LXX, "in the second yr. after the 
Flood " ; they also agree in omitting the second 
Cainan inserted by LXX after Arphaxad : in re 
gard to the age of Arphaxad and the five who come 
after (LXX) Cainan, LXX and Sam. agree agst. 
MT. ; as to the age of Nahor all three differ, while 
as to that of Terah and of Abraham at his call all 
three are at one. This leads us to regard Sam. as 
best representing the primitive text. 

For the period before the Flood the MT. 
reckoning, and for the period after the Flood that 
of the Sam., are prob. the most reliable. Com 
bining these two we get approximately the dura 
tion of the whole period from Adam to the call 
of Abraham : thus 



92 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



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Before Flcod . 
Till Abraham . 



MT. 

1656 
3 6 7 

2023 



2242 
1246 

3488 



Comb. 

Sam. MT. & Sam. 
1307 1656 

1017 1017 



2324 



2673 



When more of the mounds of Bab. and Pal. are 
ransacked, the Genealogies of Scrip, may poss. be 
supplemented, or explained. Till that time comes 
our attitude shd. be one of suspended judgment, 
forbearing hypotheses. 

(2) The Semi-historic Period: fm. the Call 
of Abraham to the Foundation of the Temple. 
During this time there are refcs. in the Bible to 
recognisable historic persons and events, but no 
corrspdg. refcs. have yet been found in profane 
records to Biblical chars, or transactions. The 
Exodus divides this period into two po tions of 
nearly equal length. 

(a) The Call of Abraham. If we may regard the 
identn. of AMRAPHEL with Hammurabi as proved, 
the Call of Abraham may be dated approximately 
B.C. 2200. 

We may not assume absolute accuracy for the Chrono 
logical estimates of Nabunahid ; dyns. may have been con 
temporary wh. he regarded as successive ; links may have 
been left out or inserted ; we cannot tell. 

Fm. the Call of Abraham to the birth of ISAAC 
was 25 yrs. (Gn. IJ. 17 ) ; Isaac was 60 yrs. old at the 
birth of JACOB and ESAU (Gn. 25. 26 ) ; and Jacob was 
130 yrs. old when he went down to Egp. Of these 
numbers the sum is 215 yrs. ; wh. wd. make the 
date of going down into Egp. B.C. 1985, towards the 
end of the Hyksos period. In Ex. I2. 40 it is said 
that " the sojourning of the Children of Isr. who 
dwelt in Egp. was 430 yrs." The nat. meaning is 
that this covered the residence of the people of 
Isr. in Egp. : not the whole period fm. the Call 
of Abraham to the Exodus. This wd. place the 
Exodus in the most flourishing period of Egpn. 
hist. ; the period made illustrious by the reigns of 
the three Thothmes and of Queen Hatasu. An 
event such as the escape of the children of Isr. was 
not one to be chronicled on the walls of temples. 
The age of Hammurabi has only been approxi 
mately fixed and may be even a couple of cents. 
later. On the other hand, Egpn. Chronology is 
very uncert. The oppression and the Exodus may 
have occurred a cent, later than the date given 
above. Jos. in his quotation fm. Manetho indi 
cates his belief that the Exodus took place during 
the reign of Tuthmosis (Thothmes) : he prob. had 
some traditional reason for this identn. If the 
Habiri of the Tel-el-Amarna tablets are to be 
identd. with the " Hebrews " we have another fact 
confirmatory of the above suggn. The oppres 
sion is commonly dated under Rameses II., and 
the Exodus under his s. and successor Menephtha. 
The recently discovered inscription of Menephtha 



seems to imply that the Isrs.were already in Canaan. 
Moreover it makes the stay of Isr. in Egp. too long, 
and does not leave time for the 480 yrs. wh. elapsed 
(l K. 6. 1 ) between the Exodus and the Foundation 
of the Temple. That Rameses in his campaign agst. 
the Hittites did not encounter the Isr. is explicable 
by the fact that he passed through the territory of 
the Phil. 

() The period fm. the Exodus to the founding of 
the Temple was 480 yrs. (I K. 6. 1 ) ; there seems no 
more reason to assume that Solomon was inaccurate, 
than to regard Nabunahid as necessarily accurate in 
the far longer time he considered to have elapsed 
between himself and Naram-Sin. The LXX has 
440 yrs., due poss. to the attraction of the two " 45." 
That Jos. makes the period 582 yrs. is of little value, 
as he has merely summed up the numbers given 
in the bk. of Judges ; numbers that are suspicious 
by the frequent recurrence of " 40 yrs.," and the 
possibility that several of the Judges were contem 
poraries. The Solomonic number may be regarded 
as confirmed by the argument of Jephtha (Jg. 1 1. 26 ) 
that Isr. had enjoyed 300 yrs. of undisturbed pos 
session of the Trans-Jordanic territory in his day. 
This wd. leave 1 80 yrs. to be distributed among the 
Judges who succeeded Jephtha and the reigns of 
Saul and David. No note of events affording 
synchronisms occur in Jg., unless Chushan-Risha- 
thaim can be identd. The suggn. of Dr. Sayce 
(HCM.) that he was a chief of the Mitanni who as 
sailed Egp. and were driven back by Rameses III. is 
worthy of consideration ; poss., however, too late. 
He may have been one of the kings of the Hatti with 
whom so many of the Egpn. kings were in conflict. 
We may fix the end of this period the founding of 
the Temple not earlier than half a cent, before 
B.C. looo, nor later than half a cent, after, say 
B.C. 950. 

(3) The Historic Period : fm. the Foundation of 
the Temple to the 2nd Governorship of Nehemiah ; 
fm. approximately B.C. 950 to approximately B.C. 
435, when Artaxerxes Longimanus died. This 
period may be divided as follows : (<;) The rest of 
the reign of Solomon and the Revolt of Ten Tribes. 
(/>) Fm. the Revolt to the Fall of the House of Omri. 
(f) Fm. the Fall of the House of Omri to the Fall of 
Samaria, (d) Fm. the Fall of Samaria to that of 
Jrs. (e) The Bab. Captivity to the Decree of Cyrus. 
(/) Fm. that to the Decree of Darius, (g) Fm. the 
Decree of Darius to Nehemiah s second appoint 
ment as Governor. 

(a} Taking the date of the Foundation of the 
Temple as B.C. 950, the Revolt may be placed about 
B.C. 910. This occurred while Shishak (Sheshonk) 
was k. of Egp. ; but this synchronism, though con 
firmed by Egpn. annals, does not much assist 
Biblical C. 

(b) The presence of Ahab at the battle of Karkar 



93 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



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(B.C. 854) makes one date fairly definite ; it will 
place the Fall of the House of Omri between B.C. 850 
and B.C. 840. The sum of the reigns of the kings 
of Isr. during this period is 98 yrs. ; that of the 
kings of Judah is 95 yrs : 

Kings of Judah. Kings of Israel. 



2 4 



Rehoboam reig 


it-d 17 yrs. 


Jeroboam reigi 


Abijah 


3 


Nadab 


A s.i 


-41 . 


Haasha 


lehoshaphat , 


2 5 M 


Klah 


lehoram , 


8 ,, 


Omri 


Ahaziah 


i i. 


Ahab 






Ahaziah 






Jc horam ,, 



Fm. these fallto be deducted five yrs. fm. the reigns 
of the Davidic kings, and eight yrs. fm. the reigns of 
the Northern kings, to compensate for the yrs. 
reckoned twice at each accession to the throne. 
Moreover, there are cases of co-regency : among 
the kings of Judah one is clearly noted. Jchoram was 
colleague with his fr. at all events two yrs. before 
his death (2 K. 8. 16 ) ; very prob. also, for a yet 
longer time, Jehoshaphat was the colleague of Asa 
his fr. The same thing appears to have occurred 
in the kdm. of Isr. 

(r) The period fm. the Fall of the House of Omri 
to Capture of Samaria by Sargon is clearly defined 
by the dates given in the Asyr. gypsum slabs. \\ c 
learn that Jehu paid tribute to Shalmaneser II. in 
B.C. 842 ; this wd. prob. be done immediately on his 
usurping the throne. Samaria was taken by Sargon 
B.C. 722 ; but some have thought (Fotheringham, 
Chronology of tkc Old Testtmnit, p. 72) that the 
overthrow of the Northern kdm. occurred II yrs. 
later, and that what took place in 722 was the depo 
sition of Pckah. It is cert, that in 711 Sargon sent 
an expedition agst. the Phil. (Is. 2O. 1 ), and poss. 
then he deposed Hoshea. The sum of the reigns of 
the kings of Isr. fm. the accession of Jehu to the 
deposition of Hoshea is 143 yrs., while that of the 
kings of Judah is 164 yrs. 



Kings of Israel. 

Jehu reigned 28 yrs. 

[ehoahaz 17 K hoash 

Jehoash 16 Amaziah 

Jeroboam 41 Azariah 

Menahem 10 Jot ham 

Pekahiah 2 A ha 7, 

Pckah 20 Hczekiah 

I loshea o 



Kings of Judah. 

Athaliah reigned 6 yrs. 

40 ,, 
2r, 



M3 I 164 

The older Chronologers tried to harmonise these 
totals by inserting " interregna " in the Northern 
list ; it is now seen that even the sum of Northern 
reigns is too long by 10 or 20 yrs. The difficulty 
must be met by supposing " co-regencies." 

(it) The sum of the reigns of the kings of Judah, 
fm. the Capture of Samaria to that of Jrs., is 



* When Samaria was taken. 



134 yrs. ; accdg. to the Bab. reckoning the period 
fm. 722 to 586 (the date of the capture of Jrs.) is 
136 yrs.; fm. 711 it is 125 yrs. On neither 
hypothesis is the discrepancy great. 

(r) The period fm. the Fall of Jrs. to the Decree 
of Cyrus is clearly marked ; fm. B.C. t;86 to ^38 is 
48 yrs. The events narrated in bk. of Daniel, and 
the favour shown by Evil-Merodach to Jehoiachin 
(Jeconiah, 2 K. 25. 27 30 ), are the only things re 
corded. 

(/) The Decree of Cyrus seems to have been taken 
advantage of only to a very limited extent ; if 
" Ahasuerus " of Ez. 4_ 6 is Cambyses, and Arta- 
xerxes of 4." is Smerdis the Mede, we have a reason 
for this. The Decree of Darius Hystaspis, B.C. 520, 
marked a renewal of Jewish activity. 

(g) The period fm. the Decree of Darius to the 
death of Artaxerxes Longimanus embraces the bks. 
of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. It has an import 
ance in the hist, of the Canon, as Jos. declares in 
his treatise agst. Apion, that one of the marks of a 
bk. received into the Canon was that it had been 
written before the death of Artaxerxes Longimanus. 

In Nehemiah I2. n - ", there is mention of the 
High-priest Jaddua, a contemporary of Alexander 
the Great, and of " Darius the Persian," presumably 
Darius Codomannus, who was overthrown by 
Alexander. As, however, no events are recorded 
during the period between the death of Artaxerxes 
and the date implied by these refcs. we cannot 
reckon it into OT. Chronology. 

The C. of the inter-Biblical period will be con 
sidered under the various bks. of the Apocrypha. 

The Chronology of the New Testament. This 
is divisible into the C. of the GOSPELS, and that of 
the ACTS. The majority of the critical dates will be 
discussed under JESUS CHRIST and PAUL ; in the 
present article we shall only indicate general con 
clusions. 

(rf) The C. of the Gospels. In regard to this part 
of NT. C. there are three dates of primary import 
ance : (i) That of the Nativity ; (2) that of our 
Lord s entrance upon His ministry ; (3) that of 
His Crucifixion. 

(i) The Nativity. The Talmudic date wh. wd. 
make our Lord s visit to Egp. take place during the 
persecution inflicted on the Pharisees by Alexander 
Jannaeus, our Lord being then a young man, may be 
dismissed without discussion. Almost as untenable 
is the date advocated by Bunsen (Chronology of the 
Bible, p. 78), B.C. iv This idea is founded on the 
statement of Irenaeus, that our Lord entered on 
His ministry when He was between 40 and 50 yrs. 
of age ; and the shout of the multitude (Jn. 8. 57 ), 
" Thou art not yet 50 yrs. old, and hast thou seen 
Abraham ? " It involves the tossing out of doors 
the Gospel of Luke as a historical authority, in 
favour of the statements of Irenaeus, who wrote 



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more than a cent, after Luke, and of the jibe of the 
Jewish mob. As imposs. is the date assumed by 
Dionysius Exiguus as the first of our Era ; the Gos 
pels of Matthew and Luke unite in placing the 
Birth of our Lord in the reign of Herod the k. ; but 
accdg. to the Dionysian date Herod was already four 
yrs. dead. The commonly received date B.C. 4 
implies" that the Nativity occurred in the December 
immediately preceding Herod s death, a date ren 
dered imposs. by the prolonged char, of his last ill 
ness, and his apparently perfect health at the time 
of the visit of the Wise Men. A number of lines 
converge on 6 or 7 B.C. ; Lewin (Fasti Sacri), Turner 
(HDB.), Ramsay (Was Christ born in Bethlehem ) 
agree in this date. Singularly Kepler was led to 
this date fm. astronomical reasons ; he found that 
three of the planets Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars 
were in conjunction in the constellation Pisces in the 
yr. B.C. 6. The synchronism of the death of a s. or 
sons of Herod, as noted by Macrobius, points to the 
same date. The date of the " enrolment " (" tax 
ing ") under Quirinius (" Cyrenius "), referred to by 
Luke (2.*), seems on Professor Ramsay s showing to 
have, in all probability, taken place in one or other 
of these years. The one chronological statement 
that seriously conflicts with this is Jn. 2. 20 , " 40 
and 6 yrs. was this temple in bldg." ; if this dia 
logue took place at the very beginning of our Lord s 
ministry, and if Luke s " about 30 yrs. of age " is to 
be taken as a Gr. way of saying that this was His 
precise age (Ramsay, Was Christ born in Bethle 
hem ? p. 197), it seems difficult to place the birth of 
our Lord earlier than B.C. 4. It mt., however, be 
the second yr. of our Lord s ministry, and if " 40 
and 6 yrs " meant, as in Jewish reckoning they mt., 
little if at all more than 45 yrs., we arrive at the 
earlier date above mentioned. 

It may be observed before passing to other mat 
ters that the 25th of December cannot be the true 
anniversary of the Nativity, as it is between the be 
ginning of May and the end of October that shep 
herds in the East are with the flocks at night. The 
ingenious calculations of Lewin make the beginning 
of August a not improbable date. 

(2) The Beginning of the Ministry. Our 
Lord s ministry began with His baptism, and this 
seems to have occurred early in the Baptist s 
Mission. The determinants of date in Lk. 3. 1 may 
be held as applying directly to our Lord s Mission ; 
the Mission of the Baptist and its char, are thus 
another note of time. What precisely is meant by 
" the 1 5th yr. of the reign (hegemony) of Tiberius 
Cesar " is a question of some difficulty ; the choice 
lies between " the 1 5th yr." after the death of 
Augustus, and " the I5th yr." after Augustus had 
transferred to Tiberius the supreme command in 
the Eastern provinces. If the former is preferred, 
then our Lord s Baptism took place in the beginning 



of A.D. 29 ; if the latter, then the Baptism must be 
dated A.D. 26. Of these dates Lewin prefers the 
former, and Ramsay the latter, while Turner, 
taking the notes of time in Lk. 3. 1 as applying to the 
preaching of John, wd. date the opening of the 
Ministry A.D. 27. The determination of these de 
pend to some extent on the date to be assigned to 
the Crucifixion. 

(3) The Crucifixion. As, in the light of John s 
Gospel, the length of the Ministry must be three 
yrs., the possible dates are 29, 30, 33. Here the 
day of the week on wh. our Lord was crucified is of 
some importance ; tradition has practically without 
variation declared that it was a Friday a tradition 
wh. has the support of the Didache ; yet there are 
several considerations wh. throw doubt on this, 
(i) Our Lord s definite statement (Mw. I2. 40 ), " For 
as Jonas was three days and three nights in the 
whale s belly ; so shall the Son of Man be three 
days and three nights in the heart of the earth." If 
He had been crucified on Friday, although He had 
been a portion of three days in the grave when He 
rose again, He had only been two nights. (2) When 
Joseph of Arimathasa went to Pilate to beg the body 
of Jesus, the sun having set, and so a new day begun, 
that day is called " the preparation," i.e. Friday 
(Mk. I5. 42 - 43 ). (3) At "the ninth hour," within three 
hours of sunset and Sabbath, our Lord cried out, 
" Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani " ; there is too little 
time, even if we deny the correctness of the last 
argument, for the transaction of all that was done. 
(4) Maimonides declares (yad ha-IIazakah) that the 
Jewish Calendar is so arranged that the Passover cd. 
not happen on the third, fourth, or sixth days of the 
week. (For further development of this, see West- 
cott s Introd. to the Study of the Gospels, p. 348 ; 
Gall, Good Friday, a Chronological Mistake.} These 
reasons seem very cogent ; the main difficulty is the 
early tradition that Friday was the day of the 
Crucifixion. As the Jewish state was overthrown 
A.D. 70, and the Church became more and more 
essentially Gentile, the Jewish mode of reckoning 
the day fm. sunset to sunset wd. fall into forgetful- 
ness ; hence prob. the mistake. If this is correct it 
wd. seem that our Lord s crucifixion took place on 
the day preceding the " Preparation " of the Pass 
over, A.D. 30. 

(/;) The C. of Acts. The first important date is 
that of the conversion of St. Paul. There appears 
little reason to doubt the accuracy of the date as 
signed by Lewin (Fasti Sacri, p. 253), A.D. 37. The 
fact that Aretas had possession of Damascus fixes 
it between A.D. 34 and A.D. 40. The evidently 
slackened condition of Rm. authority, as evidenced 
by the murder of Stephen, points to the yr. of 
Tiberius death, and the accession of Caligula. The 
conclusion of the Acts, when Paul had already 
" dwelt two whole yrs. in his own hired house," may 



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be placed at A.D. 61 ; his release may have occurred 
the following yr. The Pastoral Epp., except 
2 Tm., were written during this season of re 
gained freedom. Paul s second arrest was prob. in 
A.D. 65 ; in prison he wrote 2 Tm. Prob. his 
martyrdom may be dated in that same yr. 

Although the dates of the publication of the later 
books of the NT. are important, they belong more 
to Biblical Criticism than to Chronology : the dates 
of the FOURTH GOSPEL, of HEBREWS, and 2ND PETER 
will be considered under these headings. 

CHRYSOLITE (Rv. 21. 20 ), prob. the Oriental 
Topaz. Src BERYL. 

CHRYSOPRASUS (Rv. 2i. 20 ), prob. a leek- 
green variety of AGATE. 

CHURCH. " He saith unto them, But whom 
say ye that I am ? And Simon Peter answered and 
said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. 
And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art 
thou, Simon Bar-jonah, for flesh and blood hath not 
revealed it unto thee, but My Father wh. is in 
heaven. And I say unto thee, that thou art Peter, 
and upon this rock I will build My Church, and the 
gates of hell shall not prevail agst. it ; and I will give 
unto thee the keys of the kdm. of heaven ; and 
whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound 
in heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth 
shall be loosed in heaven." The words of Jesus em 
bodied in this incident form the fundamental state 
ment of Scrip, on the subj. of the Church. The 
very difficulty and obscurity of some of the clauses 
are guarantees of truth ; and the scene in wh. they 
occur was so critical in the life of our Lord that the 
record of it was sure to be faithfully retained in the 
memory of the Twelve. Apart, however, fm. difrcs. 
of interpretation, the intention of Jesus to found a 
Church on earth is unmistakably intimated ; and 
He prophesies that it will last till the end of time. 
Jesus was not merely a teacher, who breathed into 
human existence a new spirit, destined to refresh 
and sweeten society : He was at the same time a 
founder, who appreciated the virtue of positive 
institutions, and He not only set agoing an incom 
parable influence, but provided the channel in wh. 
it shd. flow fm. land to land and fm. generation to 
generation. 

Jesus Himself made use of the word in only one 
other recorded instance, to wh. allusion will be 
made below ; but it occurs more than a hundred 
times between Acts and Revelation. There can be 
no doubt that it was introduced into the NT. fm. 
the Old, where, in the LXX, it is the word for 
" congregation," as in classical Greek it was the 
name for a public meeting. It ought not to be for 
gotten that, in its true conception and essence, the 
Church existed even before the commencement of 
the Christian era ; as is indicated in the words of the 
Scots Confession of I ^60 : " We maist constantlie 



belief, that God prescrvit, instructit, multipleit, 
honourit, decoirit, and from death callit to lyfe His 
Kirk in all aiges, fra Adam till the cumming of 
Chryst Jesus in the flesche." 

Though the adjective " ecclesiastical " is directly 
derived fm. the NT. noun, our own word " church " 
has a difft. origin, being fm. a Gr. adj., wh. means 
" belonging to the Lord," and is applied in I Cor. 1 1 . 
to the Lord s Supper, and in Rv. I. to the Lord s 
day. It no doubt, therefore, designates the Church 
as the Lord s house. Whatever, however, be the 
form of this term, no proof is required to bring 
home to any mind the place it holds in the hist, and 
lit. of the mod. world. It is obviously one of the 
great words of mankind, the sound of wh. has gone 
forth to the ends of the earth. It has been con 
tinually on the lips of the nations wh. have been 
foremost in the progress of the past ; and, as new 
peoples emerge into the light of hist., they learn to 
repeat it. To a third part of the human race it is 
a term familiar yet sacred. Every utterance of it, 
however, echoes back to its pronouncement by 
Jesus at Caesarea Philippi ; and all the omens con 
spire to prove that the prophecy in wh. the word 
was embodied is destined to a still more universal 
fulfilment. On the rock, wh. is neither Peter apart 
fm. his testimony nor his testimony apart fm. Peter, 
and can be Peter only because he was built on Him 
who is the chief corner-stone, on wh. were built all 
the apostles, so that the Church may be said to be 
built on them all on this rock has the edifice of 
wh. Jesus prophesied been rising fm. age to age ; 
and it is no ruin or antiquarian relic, but a structure 
still attracting the very ablest hands, to rear it up to 
the measure of the dimensions of the Founder s plan. 

In the great saying of our Lord on this subj. 
quoted above, the Church seems to comprehend the 
true Christians of all countries and all ages, and to 
be, therefore, to a large extent invisible, for many 
included in it have passed into the unseen, and 
many more are yet unborn. In other places, as 
r.. Rm. i6. 23 , where Paul calls Gaius " mine host 
and of the whole C.," it seems to include all the 
members of the Christian body at any time visible 
on the earth. A third undeniable meaning is where 
it denotes a single Christian congregation, the most 
obvious indication of this being the frequent use of 
the word in the plural. Whether, between these 
two last-quoted meanings, it ever, when used in the 
singular, denotes jointly all the churches of a city 
or country, is a question in wh. more is involved 
than may at first meet the eye ; for the assumption 
that a number of congregations are spoken of as one 
C. is one of the favourite arguments of those who 
hold that in the NT. there is evidence of a central 
authority extending its power over a plurality of 
congregations. Congregationalists hold, on the 
contrary, that there is no indubitable proof of this, 



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their minds being led to favour this view, as they kings, instead of the kings for the people ; and, 
believe the single congregation to be not only the similarly, in theology, theories about the clergy? 
unit but the limit of ecclesiastical authority. While their places, powers, and privileges, have been built 
some Congregationalists, indeed, allow to neigh- up without refc. to either the plans of God or the 
bouring congregations a cert, amount of control, utilities of mankind. 

and ordain elders in the individual C., and all recog- Of like nature are the discussions on the subj. of 
nise an ordained ministry, the keener advocates of the C. usly. to be found in books of Catholic theo- 
the Congregationalist principle reject all interfer- logy. As a rule, these resolve themselves into the 
ence fm. without with either creed or practice, and specification of cert, marks of the true C., such as 
consider the congregation itself, in public meeting that it must be visible, undivided, holy, apostolic, 
assembled, to be competent for the functions usly. catholic, and infallible ; and then the question is 
handed over to office-bearers in other communions, raised, wh. of all the bodies professing to be the C. 
Organisation, in short, is reduced to a minimum, its of Christ exhibits these qualities. The argument is 
multiplication being regarded as an obstacle, in- managed as if the quest of the true C. were the one 
stead of a help, and as a waste of men and means, supreme concern of the human soul ; and, while all 
At the opposite extreme fm. this stands the Romish other bodies are depreciated, the most extravagant 
C., in wh. organisation reaches the maximum, claims are advanced on behalf of the C. of Rome, 
developing, fm. the Pope downwards, through But it is only on the ignorant that this style of as- 
numerous degrees into an extensive hierarchy. In sumption can tell. In the same way, if Protestants 
the Anglican C. likewise the organisation is toler- modestly hesitate to take to themselves the great 
ably elaborate, there being many officials of various promise about the gift of the keys of the kdm. of 
names. In this respect Presbyterianism conies in heaven, or wonder what the Saviour can have meant 
between Prelacy on the one hand and Congrega- by promising to mortals that what they bound 
tionalism on the other. It looks on two offices only on earth shd. be bound in heaven, and that what 
as essential those of elder and deacon but it they mt. loose on earth shd. be loosed in heaven, 
holds that congregations ought to be combined in Romanist interpreters have no hesitation in appro- 
cities, provinces, and countries, and ruled by an priating these words, in their crassest forms, for 
authority representative of the several parts. their C. and her officials ; but they forget that, 

Such are the three forms of organisation wh. have whatever binding and loosing may mean, there is 
historically manifested themselves ; and each of nothing more notorious than that in cases innumer- 
them has, at some time or other, not only been able, what the C. of Rome has bound and what it 
found in the Scrips, but believed to be of Divine has loosed cd. not have been ratified by any autho- 
obligation to the exclusion of every other form, rity that was wise, charitable, or just. 
This is still the position of the C. of Rome in regard The true way of arriving at satisfactory views on 
to its own organisation ; and many Anglicans hold this subj. is to inquire first for what purpose the C. 
at least the threefold order of bishops, elders, and exists, and then to ask what its functions must be, in 
deacons to be essential to the existence of a true C. order that this purpose may be best realised. 
In the greatest book on the subj., however, that has The purpose for wh. the C. exists is not difficult 
ever issued fm. this communion, Hooker s Eccle- to define ; for it is implied in the NT. name. The 
siastical Polity, the opposite view is taken that, Gr. word is derived fm. two others, the one of wh. 
while the organisation of the author s own C. can be means " out " and the other " call " ; and the C. 
defended as Scripl. and seemly, no stereotyped form exists for the purpose of calling out of the world a 
of organisation is essential to a Church s existence ; people to be the Lord s. It will be remembered 
and a view akin to this, as to their several denomina- how this idea was impressed on what the late Dean 
tions, will prob. be increasingly held by the wise. Stanley calls the first chapter in Church History 
As, three hundred yrs. ago, the Divine right of kings though it was not really the first the call of 
was devoutly believed in, and the members of a Abraham. In our Lord s farewell addresses and 
single family were supposed to have a claim to the high-priestly prayer, when the development of His 
crown derived directly fm. heaven, but we now C. was uppermost in His mind, the Twelve are 
know that there may be good government under spoken of as those chosen by Him out of the world ; 
difft. types of supreme authority, and that it is and no description of the new society of wh. He is the 
infinitely more vital that a nation shd. be well Founder is more characteristic than that in I P. 2. 9 : 
governed than that any particular dyn. shd. be kept " Ye are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, an 
upon the throne, so the first question about the C. holy nation, a peculiar people ; that ye shd. show 
is not what number or kind of officials it requires, forth the praises of Him who hath called you out of 
but what kind of service it is intended to render to darkness into His marvellous light." Christian hope 
God and to man. The old political philosophy may, indeed, anticipate a time when the limits of 
thought and spoke as if the people existed for the the C. of Christ will be identl. with those of the 

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human race ; but, even after that, there will be a 
separation, and the C. triumphant will consist of a 
multitude " redeemed fm. among men." The C. 
has to seek out those whom Jesus spoke of as given to 
Him by the Father ; so that her work is a continua 
tion of His own ; for He came to seek and to save 
that wh. was lost. The same work is, in Scrip., 
specially ascribed to the Holy Spirit, who may be 
said to take it up at the point at wh. the Son of God 
left it ; and few names ever given to the C. have 
been more felicitous than that of Dorner, when, in 
his great dogmatic work, he terms it " the kdm. of 
the Holy Ghost." 

This primary obj., then, for wh. the C. exists de 
termines its functions. Of these the first may be 
called Evangelisation. The very first duty of the C. 
is to make the Gospel known to those who are 
ignorant of it, or who are ignoring it as completely 
as if they were ignorant of it. The desire of the 
risen Saviour was the preaching of His name to all 
nations ; and those who, like Paul, went forth at 
once to do this were acting most in accordance with 
the mind of Christ. Sometimes, in the course of 
subsequent ages, the primacy of this function has 
been forgotten ; but, on the whole, the christian- 
isation of the heathen has paused but seldom for any 
length of time, and in our day, at all events, the 
missionary enthusiasm has so captured the imagina 
tion that multitudes of the young are dreaming of 
the conversion of the world in a single generation. 
Of course the successful accomplishment of this 
work implies a variety of means and methods, the 
science of wh. is part of the C. s responsibility. 
Foremost among methods is perhaps the transla 
tion and circulation of the Holy Scriptures ; and 
this is going on in hundreds of langs. 

Next to evangelisation comes what may be called 
Catechisation, or the instruction of the young. 
This might, indeed, be included amongst missionary 
methods ; but it is so important as to deserve men 
tion by itself. The training of catechumens was one 
of the most prominent features of early Christianity 
in its purest days, and it is equally prominent in 
mod. missionary enterprise. Catechisation, how 
ever, must always be one of the principal cares of 
the C. in its most organised form likewise ; and it 
includes the place of relg. both in day schools and 
Sunday schools. The name itself suggs. the com 
position of catechisms, in wh. the essence of the 
Scrips, is expressed in forms easily apprehensible by 
youthful minds ; and catechisms naturally expand 
into creeds, wh. may be employed for the same pur 
pose for the benefit of the more mature, though 
they serve other ends besides, to wh. refc. may be 
made further on. 

The Worship of God wd., no doubt, be placed by 
many first among the functions of the C. ; and, if 
here it is put in the third place, because it is for 



those who have been already evangelised and cate 
chised, this is with no intention of disparaging it. 
Public worship is not, indeed, an exclusively Chris 
tian act : it has belonged to all relgs. under the sun ; 
and this may be the reason why at this point 
Christianity has oftener relapsed into pagan prac 
tices than at any other. But the worship of Him 
who is a Spirit in spt. and in truth is one of the 
supreme functions of the C., and it requires vigilant 
cultivation. Prayer and praise are its most obvious 
elements ; but each of these involves the expendi 
ture of care and wisdom in the accumulation of 
materials and their artistic employment. The art 
of architecture has to be called into use by all de 
nominations wh. erect places of worship ; and all 
employ the other arts as well, more or less, whether 
or not they consciously and on principle apply art 
to the service of relg. But the most distinctive 
elements of Christian worship are the sacraments. 
These go back for their authority to Christ Him 
self ; and, although their importance has been often 
exaggerated in a manner for wh. there is no justifica 
tion either in the words of the Lord or the other 
refcs. to them in the NT., yet they will always be 
cherished by true members of the Ch., and it will 
always be one of the standing duties of the C. to 
determine how they may best be administered for 
edification. 

Preaching is a part of public worship, but it is 
such an important function of the C. as to deserve 
mention by itself. While the other parts of wor 
ship are directed towards those who have already 
been evangelised and catechised, preaching includes 
the evangelisation of those without as well as the 
edification of those within ; for amongst those who 
are outwardly within the C. there are multitudes in 
whom the Word of the kdm. has taken no indepen 
dent root ; and nothing cd. be either more untrue 
to the facts of the case or more detrimental to the 
best interests of the C. than to preach exclusively, as 
some have proposed, to those already evangelised. 
Preaching, though practised also in some other 
relgs., such as the Mohammedan, holds a unique 
place in Christian worship. It was the main 
feature of the ministry of both our Lord and the 
apostles, express attention being drawn in Scrip, to 
the precedence given to it before sacraments ; for 
" Jesus Himself baptized not, but His disciples," 
and St. Paul said : " Christ sent me not to baptize 
but to preach the gospel." Our religion is not solely 
or principally one of emotions it is founded on 
truth ; it believes in the power of conviction to 
form the char, and to produce action in harmony 
with itself ; and this is why the setting forth of the 
truth as it is in Jesus must always be the principal 
business of the C. in the world. 

Along with preaching goes Pastoration. Through 
preaching the flock as a whole is fed ; but the sheep 



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have likewise to be shepherded one by one, and 
special care has to be bestowed upon the wandering, 
the suffering, the sinning. Even the stern processes 
of discipline cannot be spared. Jesus mt. indeed 
be supposed, in the parable of the wheat and the 
tares, to forbid all exclusion ; but this impression is 
corrected by the only other passage, besides the one 
quoted at the commencement of this article, in wh. 
Jesus mentions the C. by name (Mw. i8. 15 18 ), and in 
the Epp. to the Corinthians the most unmistakable 
instructions are given for the application of disci 
pline to scandalous members of the C. The unre- 
buked presence of such within the Christian com 
munion is an offence to the earnest disciples of 
Christ ; where it is tolerated on a large scale there 
will always be a disposition to leave the C. and set 
up a purer communion ; and, though this may be 
called schism, the blame may lie not on the seceding 
but the remanent body. 

Such are the principal functions of the C. ; and 
the aim of them all is to call out of human society 
a peculiar people, to be justified and sanctified, till 
they are ready to be transferred to a better world, 
where they will reign as ks. and priests unto God 
for ever. But it is to be carefully noted that all 
these are functions of the C. itself, not of the clergy. 
The entire task rests upon the body as a whole, and 
on every member in particular. It is, however, poss. 
that, for the efficient fulfilment of this immense 
task, the C. may require functionaries, i.e. members 
to whom cert, portions of the work are specially en 
trusted, or who may be called on to give up their 
secular occupations and devote their whole time and 
strength to the service. The selection and conse 
cration of such may be designated Ordination ; and 
this is the last function of the C. to be specified. 
The C. has the power, derived fm. God, to ordain as 
many officials of as many kinds as she may require for 
the fulfilment of all her legitimate functions, under 
the guidance of the Scriptures. In the 6th chapter 
of Acts we have the fullest report in the NT. of the 
ordination of office-bearers ; and, in this case, these 
were elected by the members fm. among themselves, 
and then consecrated by prayer and the laying on 
of the apostles hands ; popular election by the 
membership being thus combined with the dignity 
of ordination by those already in office. Timothy 
wd. seem to have been designated for office by the 
prophets of the C. in wh. his ordination took place, 
and then to have been ordained by the elders with 
St. Paul at their head (i Tm. 4- u ; 2 Tm. I. 6 ). 
The essential principle is that office-bearers are 
fm. the C., wh. has the power of producing them 
through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Intelli 
gent members of the C. recognise that few objs. are 
more deserving of their solicitude than the training 
of those about to enter the ministry ; and they will 
often have on their lips the prayer enjoined by the 



Saviour Himself : " The harvest truly is plenteous, 
but the labourers are few ; pray ye, therefore, the 
Lord of the harvest, that He will send forth labourers 
into His harvest." 

If nothing is to be allowed to come between the C. 
and her work, still less must anything be allowed to 
come between her and her Lord. The Ch. is the 
bride of Christ, and Christ is the Head of the C. 
This implies not only that His virtue is in all the 
true members, but that His authority extends over 
all the C. s activities. Fm. Him she must take her 
instructions, allowing no rival authority to inter 
pose. This gives her the right to defend herself 
agst. officials of her own who, assuming to them 
selves the position of lords over God s heritage, at 
tempt to impose laws and observances of their own 
devising, in opposition to the prescriptions of the 
Word. The adult conscience, in such cases, is able 
and bound to ascertain the will of Christ for itself, 
and, having done so, to adhere to it. It has been by 
means of the same consciousness of loyalty to her 
living Lord that the C. has been able to resist the 
encroachments of the State ; for, when the com- 
mandsof the State have contradicted those of Christ, 
she has felt entitled to disobey them, in obedience 
to a previous responsibility. The relations of C. 
and State have, indeed, had a long and extraordinary 
hist. wh. is not yet complete. At first the State 
persecuted the C., forbidding its subjs. to worship 
God as the C. prescribed. Then, in the beginning 
of the fourth cent., under the reign of Constantine, 
the State adopted the C., showering upon it favours 
of every description. But these blandishments had 
to be dearly purchased, the Byzantine court assum 
ing to itself extensive rights of control ; and this 
continues to this day in the Eastern Church, where 
the Czar is virtually Pope. In the West there raged 
for cents, a mighty struggle between the officials of 
the C. and those of the State, as to wh. shd. have the 
upper hand. At the Reformation Protestantism 
received, in many quarters, the favour of princes, to 
whom on this act. was accorded far too much con 
trol in the Church s affairs, and under this incubus 
the continental churches are still groaning. But, in 
Great Britain and America, there has been a growth 
of freedom, wh. has passed through many phases, but 
still divides opinion too sharply to be discussed here. 
All earnest Christians, however, wd. claim the right 
to obey Christ rather than Caesar. 

JAMES STALKER. 

CILICIA, a stretch of country along the S.E. 
coast of Asia Minor ; the W. part, mountainous and 
rugged, known as " C. aspera," and the E., a rich and 
fertile plain, as " C. campestris." Its principal city, 
Tarsus, was the birthplace of Paul (Ac. 22. 3 , zj. 34 ). 
The name Khilakku, is found in Asyr. inscrs. of 
the gth cent. B.C., and still earlier Krk (Klk). 
Guthe (KB.} suggs. that C. is hidden in the mean- 



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ingless Heb. Helek (Ek. 27. n ), and wd. read " the 
men of Arvad and C." After the fall of the 
Seleucid empire the Rms. joined C. to the province 
of Syria, hence in NT. C. and Syria are closely as 
sociated (Ac. I5- 23 , &c.). Jews were numerous in C. 
in NT. times (Ac. 6. 9 , cp. Philo, Leg. ad Gaium, 36). 
Twice at least in later life Paul visited C. (Ac. 9. 30 , 

is- 41 )- 

CINNAMON, the inner bark of the Cinna- 
momum Zeylonicum, a species of laurel wh. grows to 
greatest perfection in SW. Ceylon. It was an in 
gredient in the holy oil (Ex. 3O. 23 ), was used as a 
perfume (Pr. J. 17 ), and is named as part of the mer 
chandise of Bab. (Rv. i8. 13 ). Oil of C. is obtained 
by boiling the fruit. C. was imported into Judea 
thro Arabia, and prob. also by the Phoenicians. It 
brought a high price in anct. times. 

CIRCUMCISION. Cutting away the foreskin 
is a practice anct. and widespread. It is found in 
places as far apart as Africa, the New Hebrides, and 
America. It prevailed very early in Egp., whence 
prob. it spread to Ethiopia and Pal. It is significant 
that Abraham s C. is placed after his visit to Egp. 
(Gn. ij. 10 , &c., P.). It seems to have been prac 
tised by Isr. s neighbours (Jr. 9- 25 ), the Phil, being an 
exception a point of reproach to them (i S. IJ. 36 , 
&c.). It is not easy to see exactly what weight at 
taches to the nar. in Jo. 5. 2ff - Sound policy wd. be 
agst. disabling the whole army by this operation, in 
face of a vigilant enemy. But it is clear that C. is 
regarded as removing that wh. exposed them to the 
reproach of the Egpns. (v. 9). Its omission by Moses 
is represented as bringing him into deadly peril 
(Ex. 4 . 24ff - P.). 

The age at wh. the rite was performed among 
other peoples shows it to be an initiation into the 
rights and privileges of manhood, as an adult 
member of the community. So it is among the 
Arabs to this day. In many cases it was an essential 
preliminary to marriage. 

In Isr. the rite is in form the same, but it takes a 
decidedly religious char., and is performed at an 
earlier age. The idea is not so much membership in 
the nation, as dedication to the nation s God and 
protector. The sooner, therefore, the dedication 
was accomplished the better. The choice of the 
8th day seems arbitrary (Lv. I2. 3 , &c.). But we 
may note that on the 8th day animals were deemed 
fit for offering (Ex. 22. 30 , &c.). Every male Isr., 
children of slaves born in the house, and strangers 
who desired to be identd. with the community had 
to be circumcised (Gn. \j. wfi - ; Ex. I2. 46ff -). 

During the persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes, C. 
was forbidden (i M. i. 48 ). While some proved unfaithful 
(v. 15), many mothers endured the extreme penalty for their 
fidelity (v. 60). 

In later times the name was given at the time of C. (Lk. 
i. 59 , 2. 21 ). At first the rite was performed with knives of 
flint or glass, wounds with wh. healed more easily than those 
made with bronze instruments. Steel is now universally 



employed. For practice of mod. Jews see Schechter, Studies 
in Judaism, 35 iff. 

The ideaotC. is spiritualised in such passages as Dt. io. 16 ; 
Rm. 2. -* , &c. C. becomes the symbol of willing obedience; 
uncircumcision, of obstinacy and rebellion agst. God. 

A section of the Apostolic Church wished to im 
pose C. on all converts to Christianity, maintaining 
that only thro Judaism, whose char, rite was C., 
cd. men enter the Christian Church. For the atti 
tude of Paul, and the final decision of the Apostolic 
Council, see Ac. l6. 3 , Rm. 4. 10 , Gal. 2. 3 , Ac. I5. 23ff - 

Lit. : Driver, Genesis, 189 ; Nowack, HA., i. 
l66ff. ; Wellhausen, Skizzen by index. 

CISTERN. In Pal., where the rainfall is con 
fined to a few months of the yr., and perennial 
springs are scarce, it has always been necessary to 
provide for the capture and storage of the rain 
water. Most houses of any pretensions have a 
cistern excavated below, in wh. the water is col 
lected fm. the roofs. On the hills, and occasionally 
by the wayside, Cs. are found, whence by rope and 
leather bucket water is drawn for flocks or for 
animals in a caravan. Very large Cs. are sometimes 
found in the cities, e.g. the " Great Sea " under the 
Temple area in Jrs., with a capacity of 3,000,000 
gallons. So also in such fortresses as Machaerus and 
Masada (Ant. XIV. xiv. 6 ; BJ. VII. viii. 3, VII. 
vi. 2), wh. enabled them to hold out agst. a siege. 
An example may be seen in the old castle above 
Banias, with steps down to the bottom for cleansing 
purposes. A fissure in the rock, or a crack in the 
cement, made the C. useless for water. Then it 
mt. be used as a prison (Gn. 37- 23 ; Jr. 38. 6 ), or for 
storage of grain. 

CITIES OF REFUGE. These were 6 in num 
ber, 3 on each side of Jordan. On the E., BEZER in 
the tribe of Reuben, RAMOTH-GILEAD in Gad, and 
GOLAN in the half tribe of Manasseh. On the W., 
HEBRON in Judah, SHECHEM in Ephraim, and 
KEDESH in Naphtali. Thither one mt. run who had 
slain a man unwittingly. If he eluded the AVENGER 
OF BLOOD, and reached the gate of the city, he was 
sure of asylum until the death of the High Priest, 
when he went forth without fear. The refuge, 
however, availed him nothing, if he were proved 
guilty of wilful murder (Nu. 35. 6 ; Dt. ig. 2 ; Jo. 

20. 2 ). 

CITIZEN. The word embodies an essentially 
Gr. idea corrspdg. to that of the autonomous city. 
Gr. C ship was very restricted ; Rm. was more 
generous in this respect ; still even Rm. C ship, till 
the time of Caracalla, was given sparingly. Rm. 
C ship conveyed great advantages to its possessor : 

(1) exemption fm. scourging and crucifixion ; 

(2) right of appeal to the Emperor. Paul in 
herited this rank ; his grandfr. may have been a 
Pompeian captive, manumitted in Rm. ; his descts. 
wd. be Cs. Paul took advantage of this on three 
occasions (Ac. i6. 37 , 22. 25 , 25. 11 ). It is used meta- 



IOO 



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Cle 



phorically (Eph. 2. 19 , " fellow-Cs. with the saints "); 
also in Php. \?~, where AV. has " let your conver 
sation be," the Gr. \\zspoliteuesthe, "act the citizen." 
To the Jews the Church was a " kingdom," basileia 
ton ouranou ; when it passed out of Jewry it be 
came an ekklesia a " city " ; this " city " was in 
heaven. 

CITY. The fear of common danger fm. ma 
rauding bands prob. first led men to build their 
houses together, and organise for mutual protection. 
The favourite positions were by a river, on the sea 
shore, or a spot easy of defence e.g. Jrs. The Cs. 
thus resulting were not all walled (Est. 9- 19 ), but 
natly. walls were the rule. These were often of 
great strength, pierced by gateways, the mighty 
doors in wh. were opened at sunrise, and closed at 
sunset (Rv. 2i. 25 ). Before the gate was a broad 
place where, in ordinary times, market was held, and 
justice was dispensed. Provision of a good water 
supply was of first importance. See CISTERN, CON 
DUIT. The streets (see STREET) were narrow and 
crooked, and, like those in the mod. East, often not 
in good repair (Is. io. 6 , &c.) ; while cleaning and 
lighting are new devices. Ideas of sanitation were 
elementary. Herod the Gt. did, however, build 
a system of sewers under the streets of Cacsarea 
(Ant. XV. ix. 6). Men of a particular trade were 
gathered in a street called by their name, e.g. 
" street of the bakers " (Jr. 37- 21 , &c.). In mod. 
oriental Cs. people of various faiths occupy separate 
quarters ; a Jew is not found in the Moslem qr., nor 
a Moslem in the Jewish. The C. was of old what it 
is still, a centre of learning (Is. 4J. 10 ), of luxury, and 
wickedness (Is. 5. llff -, 28. ; Na. 3- lff -). The more 
important were " mother Cs." (2 S. 2O. 19 ), each 
being the capital of a district ; the smaller towns 
and vills., being in some respects dependent on it, 
were called its " daughters " (Nu. 2I. 23 ; Heb., &c.). 
See Jw. En. j.r. ; Benzinger, HA., 1245. 

CITY OF DAVID. See JERUSALEM. 

CITY OF SALT, a city in Judah " in the wilder 
ness " (Jo. I5- 62 ), prob. idcnt. with Tell el-Milk, an 
important ruin, 14 miles E. of Beersheba. 

CITY OF WATERS, and CITY ROYAL. 
See RABBAH. 

CLAUDIA (2 Tm. 4. 21 ), a Rm. lady saluted by 
Paul. The fact that PUDENS is also saluted in the 
same v. has suggested the ingenious identn. of C. 
with the " Claudia Rufina " of Mart. xi. 53, who 
was w. of Aulus Pudens. She was dr. of the British 
k., Claudius Cogidubnus (Tacitus, Agric., 14). 

CLAUDIUS. The 4th Roman Emperor, ele 
vated to the throne by the soldiery on the murder of 
Caligula. C. reigned fm. A.D. 41 to A.D. 54. The 
rule of C. was synchronous with the principal part of 
the Apostle Paul s missionary labours. Wise and 
liberal measures characterised the administration of 
C. ; this was fortunate as coinciding with the in 



fancy of the Church. His edict expelling the Jews 
fm. Rm. brought AQUILA and PRISCILLA in con 
tact with Paul (Ac. iS. 2 ). With the prophecy of 
AGABUS, and its fulfilment in the reign of C., another 
point of contact is found between him and Chris 
tianity. Suetonius (Claud, xxv.) informs us that 
the occasion of the decree expelling the Jews fm. 
Rome was " that the Jews raised tumults because of 
Christ (impulsore Chresto)." In his private rela 
tions C. was unfortunate ; one needs only name his 
wives, Messalina and Agrippina, and his favourites, 
Pallas and Narcissus, to recognise this. He was 
poisoned by Agrippina to make way for her s. Nero. 




COIN OF CLAUDIUS NERO 

CLAUDIUS LYSIAS, the military tribune 
commanding the cohort stationed in Jrs. when Paul 
returned thither. C. L. had purchased Rm. citi 
zenship (Ac. 22. 28 ), and represents in his letter to 
Felix that he saved Paul because he was a Rm. 
(Ac. 2 3 . 2 ^. 

CLAY was used for bldg. in anct. Egp., Pal., and 
Mesopotamia, the sun-dried bricks being sufficiently 
durable in a climate where there was no frost to 
crumble them. On C. tablets, letters and records 
of various kinds were impressed. They were then 
baked in an oven. To these, preserved in the earth 
for thousands of yrs., we owe much of our kge. of 
the past. See POTTERY. Sometimes the name C. 
is applied to the trodden mud in the streets (Is. 
io. 6 , &c., homer, EV. " mire " ; Ps. i8. 42 , &c., fit, 
EV. " mire "), and to the sediment gathered in the 
bottom of a pond or well (Ps. 4O. 2 , &c., " miry C.). 
In Jn. 9_ 6 , C. is applied to earth moistened with 
spittle. 

CLEAN (Heb. tabor, bar, with the corresponding 
verbs taber, barar). It is characteristic of the Heb. 
mind that the first of these roots, and by far the most 
frequently used, never occurs but in a ceremonial or 
ethical sense. The 2nd is once used in the ordinary 
meaning (Pr. I4- 4 ), " Where no oxen are the crib is 
clean." The origin of the distinction cannot be 
determined with cert. As to " animals " used for 
food there may have been hygienic reasons ; but the 
pig is used for food freely by Christians in Syria 
without any observably bad effects. If it is sug 
gested that as pastoral nomads it was fm. their 
flocks and herds that the Israelites took the material 
for their feasts, and what was customary to them 
soon was regarded as alone suitable, why was the 



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camel excluded and the antelope included ? The 
distinction prob. arose through consecration, and 
consequent separation, involving a certain amount 
of arbitrariness. In regard to persons, see UN 
CLEAN, UNCLEAN NESS. 




CLEMENT, a Philippian believer saluted by 
Paul (Php. 4. 3 ). It has been suggd. that this was 
Clemens Romanus ; tho it has the support of 
tradition, it is merely a possibility. C. was a 
common name under the Flavians. 

CLEOPAS, CLEOPHAS. See BRETHREN OF 
THE LORD. 

CLOKE. See DRESS. 

CLOUD. Oct. till March is the usual time for 
Cs. in Pal. Em. Apl. till Sep. dew-Cs. often form 
in the morning, but disappear with rising day. A 



COCK. Although the word barburlm in I K. 4. 23 
tr. " fatted fowl " may be our domestic fowl, it is 
very doubtful, as no representation is to be found 
in Egyptian paintings ; there is no other possible 
reference in the OT. In the NT. they have be 
come common ; the crowing of the C. is a note of 
time, and the habits of a hen with her chickens 
offer our Lord an illustration (Mw. 2T t . yi , &c.). 
The refce. in I K. 4. 23 may be to ducks, which 
were well known in Egypt. 

COCKATRICE. See ADDER. 

COCK-CROWING. It is the habit of the cock 
to crow at intervals during the night ; as the diffc. 
in length of night between winter and summer is 
less in Pal., these crowings occur more regularly 
there. At midnight, and a short while before 
dawn, are the two Cs. of Scrip. (Mk. 14.3, &c.). 

COCKLE. The word bo shab occurs only in Jb. 
3 1. 40 . It is not a proper name, but denotes genly. 
evil-smelling, noxious plants. 




EGYPTIAN DUCKS. See COCK 



C. in the S.W. the direction called by the Arabs 
bab esh-slntta, " the rain gate " is still the herald of 
coming storm. The grateful shade and refresh 
ment afforded by the Cs. give them a prominent 
place in the thought and imagery of the Orient. 
" Cs. without rain " awaken hopes they cannot fulfil 
(Ju. 12 ; cp. Pr. 25. 14 ). Their transiency makes 
them fit images of what is fleeting (Jb. 7., &c.). 
The C. is the visible symbol of God s presence 
e.g. in the PILLAR OF C., wh. cast a shadow by day, 
and glowed with light in the darkness (Ex. 33- 9 , &c.). 
Cs. formed as it were the veil of the Divine Majesty 
on Sinai (Ex. I9- 16 , &c.). Cs. are the habitation of 
J". (Ps. 97 . 2 , &c.). Fm. the C. God speaks on the 
Mt. of Transfiguration (Mw. I7. 5 , &c.). A C. re 
ceived Jesus as He ascended (Ac. I. 9 ), and in the Cs. 
the Son of Man is to appear again (Mw. 24. 30 ). 

CNIDUS, a Dorian colony, and a city of impor 
tance in the anct. world, was situated on Cape 
Cario, at the S.W. extremity of Asia Minor. An 
island off the coast was joined to the mainland by a 
causeway, forming two excellent harbours. There 
were Jews here in the 2nd cent. B.C. (i M. iv 23 ). 
It was visited by Paul on his voyage to Rm. (Ac. 27. 7 ). 

COAL. The most common word is gaheleth (Gr. 
anthrax), wh. means " live embers." Less frequent 
is pebam, wh. seems to denote fuel prepared for the 
fire (Pr. 26. 21 ). Mineral C. is not found in Pal. The 
most usual fuel fm. of old has been charcoal, unless, 
perhaps, dried dung shd. be given the first place. 



COFFER (Hcb. argaz only in I S. 6. 8 - 11 - 15 ), a 
small box into wh. the Phil, lords put their golden 
offerings in returning the Ark. 

COIN. See MONEY. 

COLLEGE (Heb. mishncK). In 2 K. 22. 14 , AV., 
following Tg. Jn., trs. " college," RV. " second 
quarter " ; in Ne. 1 1 . 9 , EV. " second " ; in Zp. 1 . 10 , 
AV. " second," RV. " second quarter." Accdg. 
to Keil and Thenius we shd. tr. " Acra " : see 
Burney, Books of Kings, p. 357, and JERUSALEM. 

COLONY, used only once in NT. of PHILIPPI, 
wh. see. 

COLOSSE, a Phrygian city on the S. bank of the 
river Lycus, in the Rm. province of Asia. It is 
described by Herodotus (vii. 30), and Xcnophon 
(Anab. \. 26), as a " city of great size." Its pros 
perity was due to its flourishing weaving (wool) in 
dustry, and to its position on the great military and 
trade route fm. Ephesus to the Euphrates. Fm. 
Strabo (567, 568), we gather that C. was in his day 
overshadowed by the neighbouring Laodicea and 
Hierapolis. Paul hoped to visit C. (Phm. 22 ), but 
there is no evidence that he ever did, although he 
may have done so in the course of the journey re 
corded in Ac. i8. 23 (but cp. Col. I. 2 ). The church 
in C. prob. owed its origin to EPAPHRAS, and seems 
to have been closely related to those in LAODICEA 
and HIERAPOLIS ; all three being under the super 
intendence of Epaphras (Col. 4. 12 - 1S ). Michael be 
came the patron saint of C. It was related that he 



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Com 



interfered by a miracle to save the city fm. a 
threatened inundation, and opened the great gorge 
at Chonae (Ramsay, Ch. in Rm. Emp., 4561!.). C. is 
now represented by Chonae, a place with a mighty 
fortress, 3 miles S. of the anct. site. 

COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. The 
Canonicity and Pauline Authorship of C. was 
acknowledged or implied very early. In the 2nd 
cent. Justin Martyr repeatedly quotes the phrase, 
" the first-born of every creature ( of all creation, 
RV.)," in his dialogue with Trypho : this phrase is 
too striking to be dropped into accidentally, and too 
frequently quoted not to be regarded as authorita 
tive. C. was in the Canon of Marcion. Irenaeus 
quotes C. by name, and attributes it to Paul. Hip- 
polytus quotes frequently, and still more frequently 
Tertullian. Eusebius placed C. among the homo- 
logoumcna. It was necessary to Baur s theories of 
the development of doctrine to hold C. late, so he 
denied its authenticity because of the diffc. between 
its vocabulary and that of ROMANS, and alleged re 
ferences to Gnostic heresies. That the style of C. 
and of the other Epp. of the 1st imprisonment 
differs fm. that of Rm., I and 2 Cor., and Gal. may 
be admitted, but not more than happens in the case 
of other authors. Diffc. of circumstances, subj., 
and audience, furnish sufficient explanation. The 
authenticity of C. is now generally admitted. 

The place where C. was written is commonly 
believed to be ROME. Meyer, followed by Haupt, 
maintains that the imprisonment fm. wh. C. was 
written was endured in Caesarea, not Rome, because 
ONESIMUS, he thinks, wd. more naturally flee to 
Caesarea than to Rome, as if the communication 
between Rome and the provinces was not constant, 
while inter-provincial communication was inter 
mittent, and a runaway wd. naturally feel safer in 
the vast " colluvies " of Rome than in the com 
paratively small community of Caesarea. 

The occasion of C. is the appearance in the 
church at C. of a Judaeo-Gnostic heresy, prob. 
Essenism (Lightfoot, Colossians, pp. 71-1 1 1) ; asceti 
cism and worship of angels seem to have been its 
most marked features. 

Contents. After salutation,thanksgiving, prayer 
(i. 1 " 14 ), Paul dwells on the surpassing glory of Christ; 
declaring Him " the Image of the Invisible God," 
" the Creator of all things," " the Head of the 
Church," "the source of Redemption" (l. 15 29 ). 
Fm. this he proceeds to deduce arguments wh. 
ought to prevent the Colossians fm. being led away 
by " PHILOSOPHY " (so Essenism is called by Jos.) ; 
the conquest over all things wh. Christ had achieved 
in His death raised them above the necessity of the 
ascetic conquest of the body (2. 1 23 ). As there 
seem to have been symptoms of a reaction agst. 
Essenism, wh. tended to the opposite extreme, 
Paul warns the believers agst. excesses (3. 1 " 10 ). He 



then gives affectionate exhortations, urging mutual 
love and helpfulness because of their renewal in 
Christ (3- 11 " 17 ), and applies these principles to 
domestic relations (3. 18 -4. 6 ). He concludes with 
personal notes concerning Tychicus, who is convey 
ing the Epistle to C. ; Onesimus, the fugitive slave ; 
salutations fm. several saints with him ; and saluta 
tions to saints in Colosse. The resemblance be 
tween C. and Eph. is the result of composition in 
similar circumstances and in similar mental mood. 

Literature : for the scholar Lightfoot s is prob. 
still the best commentary. For more popular use 
Moule (Cam. Bib. for Schools) and Maclaren (E.vp. 
Bible) will be found of benefit. 

COLOUR. The Heb. lang. has many words for 
colours. First there are those that indicate the 
presence or absence of reflected light, white and 
black ; the Heb. for these is laban and shahor respec 
tively ; the verbal form qeddr is used for the latter as 
applied to " night." In Gr. leukos and melas are the 
most common words. To pass on to colours as 
more genly. understood ; beginning at the upper 
end of the spectrum we have " blue " (tekelcth), and 
its cognate " purple " ( argaman) ; in Ex. 24. 10 we 
have evidence of a sensitiveness to colour without 
the possession of a discriminating term, " like a 
sapphire stone as the body of heaven for clearness." 
There are two words for " yellow," yeraqraq, also 
trd. " greenish " (Lv. I3- 49 ), applied to " gold " (Ps. 
68. 13 ), and tz,ahob, applied to " hair " discoloured 
by leprosy. " Green " does not seem to have been 
discriminated fm. " yellow " ; yereq and yaraq, fm. 
the same root as the word for " yellow," is the term 
most common ; chloros is the NT. term, also trd. 
" pale " (Rv. 6. 8 ). When we reach the lower end of 
the spectrum Heb. is more prolific of terms : adorn, 
" red " genly., tho suggesting a " dull red " ; kar- 
mil, " crimson," connected with our " carmine " ; 
tola 1 , " scarlet," appears to be connected with 
tola ath, " a worm," Gr. kokkinos (Mw. 27. 28 ) ; 
shashar, " vermillion " (Ek. 23. 14 ) ; shamm, AV. 
" scarlet " (Is. I. 18 ). The symbolic use of colour we 
find in the TABERNACLE and in Is. I. 18 , but more 
elaborately in Zc. 6. 2> 3 ; and more elaborately still 
in Rv., tho indirectly, through the medium of 
precious stones ; " white " symbolises " purity " 
(RV. 7. 9 ), " scarlet " and " purple " symbolise 
" cruelty " and " luxury " (Rv. I7- 3 - 4 ). 

COMFORTER. See HOLY SPIRIT. 

COMING OF THE LORD, THE SECOND. 
Altho this phrase does not occur in Scrip., yet there 
is refc. (He. 9- 28 ) to the appearance of Christ " the 
second time without sin unto salvation." In the 
prophets the two appearances are not distinguished, 
but the refcs. to the Messiah s coming in lowliness, 
and to His coming in splendour, sugg. an expecta 
tion of more than one manifestation. This dis 
tinction is obliterated in apocalyptic Lit., but in the 



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preaching of the Lord it becomes prominent. In unions (Gn. 3O. 3 , &c. ; see Code of Hammurabi, 

His apocalyptic discourse (Mw. 25. ; Mk. 13.; Lk. 137, 183). But the numbers noted in later times 

21.) this "coming" is not distinguished fm. that (i K. n. 30 ; 2 Ch. II. 21 , &c.) are due to luxury and 

at the last judgment, but is intimately associated deterioration of char. 

with the destruction of Jrs. The children of the C. had equal rights with 

It has been a difficulty to some that there is no indication those of the legitimate w., as we learn fm. the case 

of a long interval between the first fulfilment, in the destruction of Jacob s sons. The C. was held equally inviolable 

of Jn, am tit jearmmin t e psyc o- w j tn t } le w ^ anc j outrage on her was resented with 

future was unveiled to the prophet in a vision a picture, in no less fervour (Gn. 35- 22 , 49- 4 ; Jg. If). ; 2 S. 3.% 

wh. what was in the foreground represented the immediate j^ 211TA 
future : that in the background the nv re remote. In lineal 
projection the near and the far wd. be in close juxtaposition ; 



the prophet in telling his vision wd. retain this juxtaposition. 
As the immediate future was necessarily conditioned by the 
remote, it cd. only be understood in the light of it. Our 
Lord as Prophet acts under prophetic conditions, hence the 
apparent mixture. 

The teaching of our Lord had another side : in 



CONDUIT (2 K. i8. 17 , &c.). There are in Pal. 
many remains of Cs., or aqueducts, by wh. thc 
water was brought fm. distant sources for domestic 
use or for irrigation. Thc C. mt. be a channel 
cut in the rock, or built of stones, cemented, and 
covered with flat stones. The ancients did not know 



the parables there is refc. to the Lord delaying His that water confined in a pipe will rise to the level of 

Coming (Mw. 2 4 . 48 , 25. 5 ; Lk. i8. 7 ). In the Epp. lts source - The C - therefore preserved a flight 

the Coming of Christ was expected during the life- ?1 P C fm - thc sourcc to the P omt of delivery ; so it 

time of believers then living, but this was condi- had to be carned round the flanks of thc hlll? > or 

tioned by the kge. that cert, signs wd. precede the thro them b >" a tunnel, and across the valleys on 



appearing of their Lord. At last, in 2 P. 3. 8 - 9 , the 
possibility is clearly recognised that a millennium 
mt. elapse before the blessed event occurred. 



arches of masonry. 

CONEY, a small animal resembling the rabbit in 
size and habits. Scientifically it is called Hyrax 
Syriacus, and is reckoned a pachyderm, i.e. of thc 



This expectation, altho. a mistaken one, conferred a great i , r-lrnlnnt inrl fhr 

economic benefit on the infant Church ; when surrounded S 
by foes that seemed mightier than themselves, the early be 
lievers were supported by the thought that their Lord wd. 
soon appear and discomfit all their enemies. As in course 



CONFESSION. In Scrip. C. has two meanings. 
(i) To acknowledge God as our God. This use is 



guilt, either to God or to our fellows. The former 
of these is the commonest, esp. in OT., e.g. Lv. 5_ 5 , 
" he shall C. that he hath sinned " ; Nu. 5. 7 , " they 
shall C. the sins that they have done " : in NT. 



suuu appear anu uiscomiu an men enemies. /^s 111 uuuibe /^i-pi -11 1-01 i 

of time the Church grew stronger, and was able to realise rarc m OT -> practically occurring only in Solomon s 

the lengthened period it wd. have to wait, the expectation of prayer at the Dedication of the Temple (i K. 8. 33 ; 

an immediate Coming became fainter. 2 C h _ fi 26^ confcss Thy Name, and turn fm. their 

In the Ape. the hope has become slightly dim- sin." In NT. it is more frequent (with the addi- 

mer than in the Epp., tho still the visions vouch- tion of C. of Christ), e.g. Mw. IO. 32 , " Whosoever 

safed to the Apostle are of "things that must shall C. me before men "; Jn. I2. 42 , " they did not 

shortly come to pass." In the |th Gospel the S. C. C. him lest they shd. be put out of the Synagogue " ; 

is revealed in its sptl. aspect, as fulfilled largely in Rm. io. 9 , " If thou shah confess with thy mouth 

the mission of the Comforter. For a fuller dis- the Lord Jesus." (2) An acknowledgment of 
cussion of the questions involved, see ESCHATOLOGY 
AND HOLY SPIRIT. 

COMMUNION. See FELLOWSHIP, LORD S 
SUPPER. 

CONCISION (Php. 3. 2 ). Circumcision cd. not I Jn. I. 9 , " If we C. our sins, He is faithful and 

have for the Gentiles the significance it had for the just to forgive us our sins." The second aspect of 

Jews. Paul therefore wd. not call it by the time- C. in relation to sin is found in Js. 5. 16 , " C. your 

honoured name (peritome), but by one wh. suggests faults one to another." There is no notice in 

a mere bodily mutilation (katatome). Scrip, of auricular confession to a functionary of 

CONCUBINE, Heb. filegcsk, cp. Gr. pollakis. the Church. 

In the Heb. social system the C. had a recognised CONGREGATION (Heb. l edab, qahal, Gr. 
place, and in cert, cases her rights were guarded by synagoge : other three Heb. words are trd. C. in 
law (Ex. 2l. 7ff - ; Dt. 2i. l0ff -), i.e. when she was of AV., but not in RV. : the most important is m(?ed, 
Heb. blood, or was a captive taken in war. To thc as applied to thc TABERNACLE), genly. the assembly 
foreign woman purchased as a slave, no rights were of the people of Isr. or of Judah, for political pur- 
secured ; and no Isr. might take as Cs. the drs. of poses. Fm. this it comes to mean the people who 
Canaan. The strong desire for many children, uni- had a right so to assemble. " One ordinance shall 
versal in the E., acts, for the presence and status of be for thc C. and the stranger " (Nu. I5- 15 ). In 
the C. Even legitimate ws., themselves barren, or Ac. I3- 43 , where alone it occurs in NT., C. means 
of limited fruitfulness, gave maids to their hs., those present in a " synagogue." See ASSEMBLY. 
claiming some interest in the offspring of such CONTAH. See JEIIOIACHIN. 

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CORINTH : THE CITADEL, ACROCORINTHUS 



CONVERSATION in EV. is generally = " con- Standing thus with a foot on either sea, C. found 
duct " (Heb. derek, Ps. 37- 14 , 5o. 23 , Gr. anastropbe, herself on the great highway of the world s com- 
Gal. I. 13 ; Eph. 4. 22 , &c.). Once (Phil. 3.2) it merce, and the wealth of E. and W. flowed into the 
stands in AV. for politeuma, "citizenship" so coffers of the Corinthian merchant princes. Capital 
RV. ; or " commonwealth " RVm. Tropos (He. 
I3. 5 ), may be well rendered with RVm., " turn of 
mind." 

CONVOCATION (Heb. miqra), an assembly of 
Isr. for religious purposes ; hence it always has the 
adj. " holy " ; e.g. Lv. 23. 8 , " The seventh day is 
an holy C." 

COPPER (Heb. nebosheth), usly. trd. BRASS. 

COR. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

CORAL (ntoiXn, ra moth, Jb. 28. 18 ; Ek. a;. 16 ) 
is formed of the hard skeletons of cert, polyps, de 
posited in the bed of the sea. It is doubtful if this 
tr. is correct, but no more prob. suggestion has been 
made. The red C. is found in the Mediterranean. 
It was greatly prized by the ancts. as an ornament, 
and was also used for amulets. 

CORBAN (Heb. qorban}, in Lv. and Nu. is used 
for " oblation " in payment of a vow. However 
rash the vow the stricter Rabbin wd. not allow 
any release fm. it ; hence if a man in a moment of 
irritation agst. his father or his mother declared 
" Qorban by whatsoever thou mightest be profited 
by me," he mt. not in any way assist them. 

Perhaps through the influence of Christianity, the strict 
ness of this was modified later when it infringed on filial 
duties. 

CORIANDER. Manna is twice compared with of the province of Achaia, she soon ranked in wealth 
C.-seed (Ex. l6. 31 ; Nu. II. 7 ). It is the Arb. kuz- and importance, second in Europe only to Rm. her- 
barah, a plant bearing aromatic seeds, used as a con- self. The citadel on the Acrocorinthus, S. of the 
diment, and in medicine as a carminative ; much city, rising 1800 ft. above the sea, together with 
cultivated in the S. of Europe, and in the East. her fortifications, rendered C. a position of great 
CORINTH. The anct. city of C. was destroyed strength. Altho no longer a purely Gr. city, C. 
by L. Mummius, who transported its artistic had charge of the Isthmian Games held in the 
treasures to Rm. in B.C. 146. A cent, later Julius Stadium beside the shrine of Poseidon on the isth- 
Caesar restored the city as a Rrn. colony. This is mus. The inhabitants included Italians, Greeks, 
the C. of the NT. It stood on the gulf of C., at and Asiatics. Gladiatorial displays were introduced, 
the S. end of the isthmus wh. joins the Pelopon- and foreign religions met with easy tolerance, 
nesus to the mainland. The harbour on the shore, To the influence of Asiatic superstitions, with their 

obscene ritual, we may perhaps trace the hideous 
social demoralisation, wh. gained for C. a name of 
infamy, and raised its revolting form even in the 
Christian Church (l Cor. 5.-). For the gospel 
campaign C. was a place of great strategic value, 
whence influences mt. radiate far and wide. Paul 
therefore spent in it no less than 18 months, labour 
ing to establish and build up a Christian community 
(Ac. l8. n ). Here he met Aquila and Priscilla, 
Lechaeum, was connected with the port of Cenchrea, driven fm. Rm. by the decree of Claudius, and with 
on the E. of the isthmus, by a ship tramway, on them he wrought at his trade of tent-making, 
wh. smaller vessels were taken over, thus avoiding Stirred up no doubt by his success, Crispus, a ruler 
the delay and expense of trans-shipment, and the of the synagogue, being among his converts, the Jews 
dangers of a voyage round Cape Malea. At a later rose agst. him. Their accusations were disregarded 
date Nero tried to cut thro the isthmus with a by GALLIC, and their antagonism seems to have 
canal, employing 6000 prisoners of war on the work, fallen out rather to the furtherance of the gospel. 

105 2 




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Cor 



To the Church there founded, the Epistles to the 
Corinthians were addressed. Poss. Paul again visited 
the city (Ac. 2O. 2 ). In post-apostolic times the 
Epistle of Clement was written to the Corinthians. 

C., altho still the seat of a bishop, has fallen on 
evil days. The splendid city of the past is repre 
sented now by a miserable vill. 

CORINTHIANS, FIRST EPISTLE TO THE, 
is one of the most important of the Pauline Epp., 
vying with ROMANS in eloquence and doctrinal sig 
nificance. Its value historically is much greater, as 
revealing the habits, modes of worship, and moral 



Their arguments need not delay us, as by equivalent argu 
ments one might outdo Hardouin and declare all classic Lit. , 
even Herodotus and Cicero, the composition of mediaeval 
monks. A good act. of this school of criticism is to be found 
in Dr. Dykes Shaw s The Pauline Epistles, pp. 67-84. 

Fm. internal evidence we learn that I C. was 
written A.D. 56 or 57. The Occasion of its writing 
appears to have been twofold : (i) Information as 
to internal condition of the Corinthian Church con 
veyed to Paul by members of the " house of Chloe " 
(i C. I. 11 ). Paul thus learned that there were 
among the Chrisiian community in Corinth, re 
ligious parties ; and immorality of various kinds. 




characteristics of the early Christians. CORINTH, 
to the Christian community of wh. this Ep. and 2 
C. were sent, was the commercial capital of Greece 
(see preceding article). Its situation, between two 
seas, attracted a large seafaring and commercial 
population fm. all quarters of the Mediterranean 
shores. While the city was notorious for its vice, it 
was to a great extent typically Gr., and therefore 
addicted to art and philosophy. Naturally there was 
a considerable Jewish population, through whom 
the Apostle gained an entrance to the rest of the 
inhabitants. During his stay of a year and a half 
Paul built up a Christian Church that was promi 
nent all thro the early cents. To this Church, 
during his stay in Ephesus, the Apostle Paul wrote 
the Ep. before us. The authenticity of I C. had 
never been doubted till the rise of the school of wh. 
Van Manen is the most typical representative. 



(a) Factions (i. 12 -4. 20 ). The polished rhetoric of 
Apollos attracted to him a number of believers who 
seemed to think their admiration of Apollos was in 
adequate if they did not slight Paul. There were 
the Judaisers, as yet not prominent, who called 
themselves by the name of Cephas. Then there was 
a party allied to them, those who claimed that in 
contradistinction to others who named themselves 
not by any subordinate teacher, they were the fol 
lowers of Christ Himself. These were of necessity 
Jewish Christians who poss. had seen our Lord in 
the flesh, or at all events had learned the substance 
of His personal teaching fm. those who had heard 
I lim. They are prob. referred to in 2 C. 3- 1 as those 
who had received " epistles of commendation " fm. 
the Jrs. Apostles. Last, there was the still predomi 
nant division, the partisans of the Apostle Paul. 
Assuming as cert, that they were one in essentials, he 



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shows the folly of faction ; he proceeds next to show 
the reason of the diffc. between his teaching and 
that of Apollos ; he came to Corinth determined to 
be simple (i C. 2. 2 ), and defends his decision. Not 
that he undervalued the gifts of Apollos. While he, 
Paul, planted, Apollos watered. Both had their 
place in the husbandry of God. In chap. 4. he 
offers a dignified rebuke to those who despised him. 
It is to be noted how small a space the Judaisers 
occupy in this epistle, compared with that 
given them in 2 C. or in Gal. (b~) Immorality 
(^. 21 -6. 20 ). This seems to have assumed three 
forms: Incest, Litigiousness, with its root Covetous- 
ness, and Sensuality. It is a Pauline characteristic 
to associate covetousness and sensuality, vices that 
we contrast ; see Rm. I. 29 ; Eph. 5. 3 . The nat. of 
Corinthian society explains the prominent vices of 
the Church there. As we know by mod. examples, 
seaport towns are prone to wallow in sensuality. 
Covetousness is the vice of a trading community, 
and the Greeks were notoriously litigious. Paul ex 
pected that the Church, the " ekklesia " of believers, 
wd. settle all civil disputes among themselves. The 
Church was to him the true state. (2) Answers to 
questions brought to the Apostle fm. the Corinthian 
Church by Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus ; 
and his answers seem rather to have followed the 
order of the questions, than the logical order wh. 
the connection of the subjs. wd. have suggested. 

(a) Marriage and Celibacy. His conclusion on this 
is, that neither is in itself the holier state, but that 
in the then condition of the Church, matters wd. be 
easier for individuals who were not married. A 
concrete case seems to be referred to (y. 36 " 40 ), where 
a member of the Corinthian Church had under his 
care, either as parent or guardian, young, marriage 
able women ; the Apostolic decision is, he is to be 
guided by circumstances and his own view of them. 

(b) Things offered to idols (chap. 8.). As idolatry 
permeated social life, and every feast was a sacrifice 
to some heathen deity, the position of the Christian 
member of a heathen household was one of extreme 
delicacy. The principle Paul lays down is the great 
Christian principle of love. Evidently some had 
maintained, what was logically true, that as an idol 
was nothing in the world, the fact that the viands 
had been offered to an idol was a matter of no im 
port ; hence it was needful to show that love is 
higher than logic, and that eating or not eating was 
decided by it. (c) The support of the ministry of the 
gospel (chap. 9.). This support was to be fm. the 
free-will offerings of the Church. He meets an 
objection that he foresees may be offered ; he himself 
did not receive any fee or reward. His answer is 
that he feels himself to stand in a peculiar position : 
what was incumbent on him was not incumbent on 
other ministers of the word, (d) The subj. taken 
up in chap. 10. is connected closely with that of 



chap. 8. the conduct of the believer in regard to 
idolatry. While to Paul the idol was nothing, the 
deity whom the idol represented he regarded not as 
a nonentity but as a devil. His argument wd. be 
none the less forcible if we take him as making use of 
the argumentum ad hominem ; his correspondents so 
believed; let them act accdgly.; over and above there 
was the motive of love wh. he had implied earlier in 
his discussionof the cognate subjectof "meatoffered 
to idols." (e) Public worship (chap. n.). The 
conduct and deportment of women in Church is the 
first point he touches on (ll. 1 16 ) ; Paul had to har 
monise the freedom that is in Christ Jesus with 
eastern ideas of propriety. In connection with the 
Lord s Supper, and the " Love Feast " with wh. it 
was so closely connected, he gives his nar. of the in 
stitution of the Ordinance. (/) In the section that 
follows (I2.-I4.) we find the Apostle s answer to 
questions about Sptl. Gifts, and incidentally of 
Church Government. Under this head comes the 
difficult subj. of the Gift of TONGUES, (g) Whether 
the Corinthians had inquired concerning the Re 
surrection is not clear, but at all events some of 
them had doubted its reality, and thus gave Paul 
occasion to collect the evidence of our Lord s 
Resurrection, and to deduce fm. that the gen. 
Resurrection (15.). (K) The concluding section, 
after reminding the Corinthians of the collection to 
be made for the " poor saints," proceeds to personal 
notes and salutations. The whole Epistle ends with 
" My love be with you all in Christ Jesus." 

CORINTHIANS, THE SECOND EPISTLE 
TO THE. This Ep. stands in close relation to the 
first ; it is its sequel. While the diffc. in date be 
tween them is but little, much has happened since 
I C. was written. When I C. was sent to Corinth, 
Paul was in Ephesus, intending to stay there some 
time ; but the uproar excited by Demetrius the 
silver-smith had caused him to leave, and go to 
Philippi. In Corinth, too, there had been changes ; 
many favourable. The incestuous person had been 
brought to repentance, the Corinthian Church had 
been moved to an increase of Christian zeal by 
I C. Some of the changes were unfortunate ; the 
Judaisers, esp. those of the Christ party, had become 
more numerous and pronounced in their opposition 
to Paul. One of the marked features of 2 C. is its 
autobiographical char.; manyimportant events inthe 
life of Paul are only thus known to us. As in the case 
of i C., the Pauline Authorship of 2 C. has been 
denied only by German professors with a reputation 
to make. Its integrity has been called in question, 
but on grounds wh. it is imposs. to regard as cogent ; 
the connection between the sections, chaps, i.-o,. 
and IO.-I3., is too close for them to have been pub 
lished as separate letters. There may have been an 
epistle sent by Paul to Corinth wh. has been lost, as 
there seems to have been a visit paid of wh. we have 



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no record save in the traces wh. we find in 2 C. 
Contents. After the salutation the Apostle 
" makes his peace," as it has been put, with the 
Corinthians (i. 5 -/. 16 ). He had said some severe, 
although necessary things ; now in tenderness of 
heart he begins to fear that he has been too severe ; 
so when they have repented, Paul appears eager 
almost to minimise their faults. In the course of 
this, after a passing refc. to the Judaisers with their 
Epp. of commendation, Paul proceeds to give an 
act. of his ministry as an Apostle, its methods and 
motives ; ending with a fervid appeal to those to 
whom he is writing (6.). In the following chap, he 
describes his own feelings in waiting for the coming 
of Titus, and his joy at the news he brought. Next 
(S.-o,.) he urges on the Corinthian believers the duty 
of contributing to the collection he was gathering 
for the saints in Jrs. 

It is to be observed that in regard to this collection Paul 
makes no appeal to the sympathies of his correspondents ; 
he says nothing cf the necessities of the saints in Jrs. ; he 
assumes that the duty cf this contribution \vd. be acknow 
ledged at once by all. The Christian republics recognised 
the church in Jrs. as their metropolis, it being to them what 
the " mother cities" were to the Gr. colonies ; so they owed 
a certain tribute to the Mother Church. The same idea is 
seen in the contributions wh. Jewish communities all over 
the world were then in the habit cf sending to Jrs. 

As his Apostleship had been assailed by the 
Judaisers (lo.-ia.), he gives an act. of his call to that 
office, and of the tokens of divine favour he had re 
ceived, ratifying this call ; his own sufferings being 
an evidence of how costly a thing it was to him to 
have accepted it. He concludes the Ep. with, an 
exhortation, to prepare them for his approaching 
visit. 

CORMORANT (Hcb. qa alk, also trd. PELICAN ; 
and shalak), an aquatic bird common in Pal. ; classi 
fied as unclean (Lv. n. 17 ; Dt. I4- 17 ). 

CORN, a gen. term applied to all cereals. 

CORNELIUS, a Rm. officer in Cacsarea (Ac. lo. 1 , 
&c.), prob. a native of Italy. He was friendly to the 
Jews (Ac. io. 22 ), and is described as " one who feared 
God." The prominence given to his case shows 
clearly that his baptism marks an important step in 
the hist, of Christianity. This is quite intelligible 
if we suppose that he was the first uncircumcised 
person to be received into the fellowship of the 
Church. 

Tradition says that he built a church in Caesarea, 
and, later, became Bishop of Scamandros, exercising 
miraculous gifts. 

CORNER-STONE. The first step in bldg. a 
house in Pal. is to dig four deep pits at the four 
corners of the area to be occupied by the house. In 
these is put either one large stone, or a mass of stones 
united with cement. Fm. the corner pits ditches 
are made, joining adjacent corners ; as these become 
gradually shallower in the middle and the individual 
stones are shaped like arch-stones, the foundation of 



each wall is really an arch. The consequence of this 
is that the whole weight of the superincumbent 
bldg. ultimately rests on the C.-S. 

CORNET. See Music. 

COS, an island off the SW. coast of Asia Minor, 
over agst. Cnidus and Halicarnassus. In its rela 
tions with the Jews it is referred to in I M. I5- 23 , 
Ant. XIV. vii. 2, x. 15 ; BJ. I. xxi. 11. A town of 
the same name stood on the NE. of the island, to 
wh. perhaps refce. is made in Ac. 2I. 1 . It is very 
fertile, and in anct. times was noted for its silk. 

COTTON, karpas, a foreign word in Est. I. 6 , 
EV. tr. " green." The marginal tr., " cotton," is 
prob. correct. Where " linen " appears, " C." may 
sometimes be intended. It was not always easy 
to distinguish the two materials. 

COUNCIL (gen. tr. of synedrion, "the Sanhed- 
rin "), the principal national council of the Jews. 
When the C. originated is not cert., but prob. some 
thing of the kind existed, at all events fm. the return 
fm. Bab. As to the constitution of the C. we have 
no reliable information. The High Priest appears 
to have been the president. Our Lord was tried 
before the C. ; as also were the Apostles STEPHEN, 
and the Apostle Paul. The acts, of the Sanhedrin 
in the Talmud are valueless. They were not com 
mitted to writing until the Sanhedrin had ceased to 
exist for half a millennium. 

COURT. See TEMPLE, HOUSE. 

COVENANT. The Heb. beritb may be derived 
fm. the stem bard, " to cut." This wd. accord 
with the view that originally Cs. were confirmed by 
a solemn ceremony wh. involved cutting of animal 
victims in pieces. The usl. phrase " to cut," kdrath, 
" a C." poss. refers to this practice. Another de 
rivation suggd. is fm. Asyr. birtu, a bond or fetter. 

Originally there were prob. three stages in the 
making of a C. between parties on equal footing: (i) 
terms were arranged ; (2) these were sworn to ; (3) 
the parties passed between the severed pieces of the 
slaughtered victim or victims, apparently invoking 
upon themselves the like fate, ?hd. they violate their 
oath. Fm. this last may have come the phrase of 
such common use, " God do so unto me and more 
also," prob. surviving in speech long after the cere 
mony was obsolete. 

Berlth is used of agreements between Isaac and 
Abimelech (Gn. 26. 28 ), Jacob and Laban (3i. 44ff -), 
&c., where the contracting parties, as equals, make 
mutually satisfactory terms. But we have also the 
Irrlth between God and men, where the latter are 
bound to accept and observe the terms imposed, if 
they are to enjoy the benefits promised : e.g. the Cs., 
(i) with Noah, its sign is the rainbow ; (2) with 



Abraham (Gn. 



J. 17., P.), confirmed by a 



weird and awful ceremony (l5. 10ff - ; c-p. Jr. 34- 18 ) : 
its sign is circumcision ; (3) with Moses for Isr. at 
Sinai, confirmed by sacrifice and sprinkling of blood 



108 



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Cre 



(Ex. 24. 3ff -). Acccig. to P. (3 1. 13 ), its sign is the 
Sabbath. The word so used passes by an easy 
transition to mean the Divine will toward man, 
expressed in ordinance and appointment. LXX 
almost invariably tr. berlth by diatheke, " appoint 
ment," not by suntheke, " contract." Jehoiada s C. 
with the captains, &c., was simply a duty imposed 
on them. C. becomes therefore a synonym for 
" law " in such phrases as " book of the C." (Ex. 24. , 
&c.), " ark of the C." (frequently). 

The conditions of the C. mt. be conceived as ful 
filled by outward observance. This led to their 
real, if not formal neglect, in times of declension. 
The prophets, penetrating to the deeper sptl. mean 
ing, did not hesitate to predict the making of a new 
C. with the people, wh. shd. rest not in outward 
rite and ceremony, but in inward conformity to 
the will of God (Jr. 3l. 31 ; Ek. 3/. 26 ). Hence the 
familiar distinction of old and new Cs. 

The NT. word is diatheke : AV. often tr. " testa 
ment" RV. gen. prefers " C." The phrase " blood 
of the C." in the institution of the Lord s Supper, 
makes this appear as the counterpart of the C. con 
firmed by bloody sacrifice. The influence of classi 
cal usage, in wh. diatheke **" last will " or " testa 
ment," may perhaps be traced in Gal. 3. 15> 17 ; He. 
9- 16 17 , passages of admitted difficulty. The pi. 
form in Rm. 9- 4 , &c., may, accdg. to a common Gr. 
idiom, be sing, in meaning ; or it may refer to the 
Cs. mentioned in the hist, of the patriarchs. 

COVENANT OF SALT (Nu. i8. 19 , &c.). To 
eat of a man s salt constitutes one of the most 
binding relationships in the E. Cases are known 
in wh. housebreakers, having accidentally tasted 
salt, have forthwith departed, leaving everything 
undisturbed. 

For full discussion, see Davidson, HDB., s.v. 

CRAFT, CRAFTSMEN. See HANDICRAFTS. 

CRANE (Heb. sus or sis, Is. 38. 14 ; Jr. 8. 7 , RV. 
" swallow," following LXX and Vlg.). Tristram 
(SDB.) trs. " swift " ; he holds deror as the only 
word for SWALLOW ; and agur he wd. tr. " crane " : 
but Dr. Post (HDB.) does not agree to this identn., 
as " the trumpeting of the crane " cd. not " be 
called twittering." It is difficult to see how birds 
so prominent were unnoticed in the Bible. 

CREATION. The act. of C. found in Gn. i. 1 - 
2. 3 (P.), wh. is followed by the more compendious 
act. (Gn. 2. 4 25 , J.), is, rapidly stated, as follows : 
God (Eloblni) began by creating the heaven and the 
earth. When the earth was created it was " with 
out form and void " (tohu wabobu), " darkness was 
on the abyss, and the Spirit of God brooded on the 
face of the waters," " and God said, Let there be 
light, and there was light." The division of light 
fm. darkness, of night fm. day, followed ; " then 
there was evening and there was morning ; one 
day." In the second day a firmament established a 



separation between waters above and waters be 
neath. On the third day the dry land appeared 
and plants were created. On the fourth day the 
heavenly bodies became visible. The fifth day saw 
the C. of marine animals and birds. The sixth day 
was occupied with the C. of the land animals and, 
finally, man. 

It is to be noted that the succession of events does 
not essentially differ fm. that presented to us by 
geology. The earth is shown us first as a mass of 
incandescent gas, gradually depositing in fluid lava, 
wh. in turn shows symptoms of solidifying on the 
surface ; while a covering of vapour hundreds of 
miles thick envelops it ; yet not so thick but that 
faintly light and darkness, night and day, are dis 
tinguishable : this is not unlike the tohu ivabohu 
of Gn. I. 2 . As the earth cools and solidifies the 
vaporous envelope is gradually lifted up fm. the face 
of the mass of the earth : there is a separating " fir 
mament " between the water that is being deposited 
on the cooling surface and that still suspended in 
vapour. The cloudy envelope gradually thinning 
becomes rent at times, and so the sun is seen during 
the day, and the moon and stars at night. The 
gradual cooling of the earth leads to the absorption 
of the water in the earth ; and its shrinking forms 
heights and depressions in wh. the water collects, 
and the dry land appears. The swarming forth of 
the fishes in the sea, and fm. them the birds, is quite 
in accordance with the geologic record, in wh. the 
earliest fossils are those of marine animals. The 
sixth day shows the evolution of land animals and 
man, wh. coincides with the function of the Tertiary 
period. After that there is the practical arrest of 
the work of C. ; " God rested on the seventh day 
fm. all the work wh. He had made." No careful 
reader can fail to be impressed with this as the lead 
ing feature ; that the whole process is an orderly 
evolution under one intelligent creative Will. 

It has been assumed by some that the Biblical 
act. has been derived fm. the Bab. C.-myth. This 
we may therefore briefly consider. 

" Before the heaven above was named, or the 
earth beneath, there were Apsu, Mummu (dcr mit- 
waltende Sohn und Erzeuger ; Weber, Lit. Bab. u. 
Asyr., p. 44), and Tiamat." When their " waters 
are mingled together " the gods are produced, first 
Lachmu and Lachamu, then Ashar and Kishar, and 
after an interval, Anu, Bel, and Ea, who produced 
among themselves the other gods. Apsu and 
Tiamat feel that their supremacy is threatened by 
these children of theirs, and so determine to de 
stroy them. But Ea, discovering their purpose, 
deals with Apsu and Mummu as Kronos, accdg. to 
the Gr. myth, dealt with his father Uranus. Tiamat 
now forms other beings to help her in wreaking 
vengeance on the gods she had already produced ; 
these new beings are dragons, fiery serpents, furious 



109 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cri 



does, men-scorpions. &C. Agst. these the gods arm Qabala we are told that Adam was 96 miles high and 94 miles 

i_i i- AT j i broad, and that he was androgynous. The Mohammedan 

themselves; after various expedients Marduk agrees tradition Blares A . s height to have been so great when 

to be the champion of the other gods provided they first created that had he stood up his head \vd. have reached 
are prepared to acknowledge him as Supreme. He 
encountered Tiamat and " cleft her like a. fish " 
(Driver, Archaeology and Authority, p. 12). One 

half of her he made into the heavens as to the the an g els werc called u P on to worship him; but Eblis 

- (Satan) refused to do so. Such are some of the myths of 

lower portion (Berosus), he made it into the earth, the creation of man. 



the seventh heaven. He had as yet no soul ; his soul had 
been made 1000 years before, and only unwillingly entered 
into the body. Then A. arose and his eyes were nearly 
blinded because his face was so near the throne of God. All 



The sixth tablet wh., it is supposed, contained an 
act. of the dry land, has not yet been recovered ; 
hence the statement of Berosus cannot be veri 
fied absolutely. Such is the C. story of Bab. ; it is 



Any one desiring more of this curious lore will 
find it in Baring-Gould s Legends of Old Testament 
Characters. 

CRESCENS, a companion of Paul, sent to 

difficult to see any resemblance between this and Galatia poss. to Gaul in Europe (2 Tm. 4. 10 ). 

the Biblical nar. ; there is certainly here no intel- Tradition says he founded churches in Vienne and 

ligent will fixing the place of every successive Mayence. 

phenomenon. CRETE is the large island now called Candia, 

Even Canon Driver, who holds the dependence of the l} i n g to the S. of Greece. The climate is healthy ; 

record in (in. on the Bab. Epos, admits that there are pro- the soil fruitful. Paul touched it on his voyage to 

found theological diffcs., but holds that these are counter- r> rp =; i i- r> 

balanced by -material resemblances." These resemblances Rm " Tt ** ma X lm P l Y an earller Y1Slt Rccent 

reduce themselves to two ; the world begins in "water" ; excavations show that C. played a great part in pre- 

and the first step in educing order is the separation of historic times. There are traces of Semitic settle- 
waters beneath fm. those above. V\ ith regard to the first ^ ^ , T , 

point ; the alleged resemblance is due to Dr. Driver s failure meim (w CAPIITOR, CHERETHITES). It was early 

to recognise that the "mingling of the waters" is a euphemism colonised by the Dorians. The CRETANS, or 

for sexual intercourse How Dr Driver sees any resemblance CRETANS (AV.), of Tt. I. 12 , were the native inhabi- 
in the second point it is difficult to comprehend. Marduk v "., . 

certainly places guardians at Tiamat s mouth that the waters tants, whose evil repute IS noted by Other anct. 

within her body may not gush out ; but that is a totally writers besides Epimenides, whose line is quoted 

difft. thing fm. separating into two portions waters wh. i -pi /". r \ n T j 

formed one mass. here - The CRETANS f Ac " 2 - were J ews resident 

If now the differences are considered these will be seen in the island. They were specially numerous in 

to be insurmountable. In the Bab. act. there is nothing Gortyna (i M. i;. 23 ). Cretan soldiers were famous 
parallel to the successive days each with its appropriate work , i v i r ^ 

wh. forms so characteristic and essential a feature in the as archers and slmgers, and were found as merce- 

Biblical nar. ; there is nothing cf the C. cf light by the naries in many great armies. C. was joined with 

words wh seemed so sublime to Longinus, "God said, Let Cyrene in a single province by Augustus, B.C. 27. 
there be light, and there was light. If we turn to the _ 6 .. r . -^ _ 6 

other side ; if the idem, of Tiamat and tehom (" the deep ") For recent discoveries, see Evans, Journal of 

be assumed, still there is no word in the Heb. act. of " the Hellenic Studies, xix. 1894 ; Archaeological Report of 

deep" supplying the material of the heaven and the earth, ,; -r . r +1 r J T o~~ ~a 

or of the gods bling produced fm. Tiamat-essential features the E SP n - Explorn. Fund, 1899-1900, FP . *-* 



of the Bab. mythus. These diffcs. cannot be regarded as 

theological as distinct fm. what Dr. Driver calls "material." 

But the theological elements are essential to both narratives. . ,, , T , -,,, 

Even the verbal ident. of Tiamat with tehom of wh. Dr. J ud g es U D - 3 1 - ) 



. Fund, 

CRIMES AND PENALTIES, (i) CRIMES. C. 
material." j s defined as " an iniquity to be punished by the 

It is a deed agst. either God 

Driver makes so much, wd. really prove the Bab. derivative or man wh. exposes one to legal penalties. Such 
due to the corruption of Language. th f o ll ow i ni , ._ 

Dr. Driver is compelled to fall back en the alleged resem- * 

blance between the Bab. deluge myth and the scripl. act. of Adultery, unfaithfulness to marriage vows (Ex. 
the flood, as making for the probability that the story of C. 2O. 14 , &c.), mt. be punished by death (Lv. 2O. 10 ; 
is borrowed also; but the one mt. be derived fm. Bab. T o ">\ ^ 1 ^- /T?I ~ z^\ i ^ u j- 

without the other being so. See FLOOD. It is needless Jn ; 8. 5 ), mutilation (Ek. 23. 25 ), or, later, by divorce, 
to claim greater antiquity fcr the Bab. myth; because the It is used as a fig. of unfaithfulness to God (Jr. 3. 14 , 
tablets containing the C. story were found in the library of &c \ Blasphemy (Lv. 24. loff - ; Nu. IS- 30 ). Breach 
Asshurbampal (H.C. 668-626), therefore later than the dates _ ^:aff\ -v n? e \ 

commonly assigned to J. or E., the sources of the second Of Trust (1/v. 6.- n -). Bribery (Lx. 23., &C.). 
C. nar. The Heb. nar. seems to us much nearer the source ; Debt (Mw. 5- 26 )- Divination (Dt. l8. 10 ). Drun- 

beregL S dTas C prcT raSSt theCOmpleXi ^ kenness (Is. 2 8. lff -, &c.). Failure or neglect to 

observe any Divine requirement. Falsehood or 

The tablet in the Bab. Creation Epos wh. prob. Deception, very common Oriental vices (Lv. I 9 . n ; 

contained the act. of the Creation of Man has not Ps _ 62 4 . , j n> I-6? &c )_ False swea ring (Ex. 

yet been recovered. 2O i^ eS p_ agst> the i nnocent (Ex. 23. ; Pr. 6. 17 ). 

The Tg. Jrs. tell that " The Lord God created man in two Fornication, including all unlawful commerce be- 

stages ; He took dust fm Mt. Moriah the place of the Sane- tween unmarr ied persons. Prostitution was pro- 

tuary, and fin. the four winds of the world, and mixed fm. all , ., . J/T 901^ 17 o\ T? c. t 

the waters of the world, and created him black, white, and Hlblted (Lv. I9/ a ; Dt. 23/ , &c.). I 1 . IS a fig. ot 

red, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of Life." The idolatry (Jr. 3. 8 , &C.), and of the infamies of Bab. 

Mohammedan myth asserts that the four angels were em- rRv T , 8 . ^ r > This formed part of heathen 



nart 
loyed to gather the dust, and instead of the dust fm. Mt. . - -- . 

oriah it is dust from Mecca that is taken first. In the religious ceremonies (Gn. 38/ 1 , RVm. ; Ho. 



110 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cri 



Homicide, or accidental taking of human life (Ex. 
22. 2 ; Nu. 35- 22 ) The owner was responsible for 
the deeds of his cattle (Ex. 2i. 28 ). Incest, carnal 
intercourse between persons within the prohibited 
degrees of consanguinity (Lv. i8. 6ff -). Injuries to 
the person (Ex. 2i. 18ff - ; Lv. 2+. 19ff - ; Dt. 25. llff -). 
Irreverence to, or ill-treatment of parents 
(Ex.20. 12 , 2I. 15 - 17 ; Lv. 20. 9 ; Dt. 2l. 18ff -, &c.). 
Man stealing (Dt. 2-f. 7 ). Murder, taking human 
life of set purpose, as the outcome of hatred (Dt. 
I9- 11 , &c.), whether by violence or treachery (2 S. 



22. 19 , &c.). Usury mt. be taken fm. a foreigner, 
not fm. a br. Isr. (Ex. 22. 25 ; Dt. 2^. 20 ). 

(2) PENALTIES. Under this head we must take 
act. of suffering inflicted by arbitrary power, as well 
as of pains inflicted by law on wrong-doers. Banish 
ment : not prescribed by Mosaic law, but a common 
Rm. penalty (Rv. I. 9 ). Some offenders thought it 
wise to banish themselves (2 S. ij. 37 ; I K. n. 40 
&c.). Beating (He. 1 1. 35 , RVm. ; cp. 2 M. 6. 19 , &c.)! 
Beheading : practised by foreign people, but not a 
Mosaic penalty. Prob. thus the chief baker died 




CHART OF SOUTH COAST OF CRETE 



4. 5ff - ; Jr. 41. 2 , &c.). Life for life was the law (Nu. 
35- 16 21 > &c.). If an animal known to be vicious 
killed a man, its owner was judged guilty (Ex. 2i. 29 ). 
Rape (Dt. 22. 25 ). Removing Landmarks (Dt. 
I9- 14 ). Reviling of Rulers, God s representatives 
(Ex. 22. 28 , &c.). Robbery (Ex. 22. 2 , &c.). Sabbath- 
breaking. Seduction. One who enticed an un- 
betrothed maid was bound to marry her unless her 
fr. objected, and in any case to pay the usual dowry 
(Ex. 22. 16ff -). Dt. 22. 28 leaves no option. A bond 
maid was scourged, and her betrayer fined, besides 
having to make a trespass offering (Lv. I9. 20ff -). 
Slander (Ex. 23.!; Ps. is. 3 ). Sodomy (Gn. i3- 13 ; 
Lv. i8. 22 ; Dt. 23. 17 , &c.). Stealing (Ex. 22. 1 ) ; 
but the offence mt. be modified by necessity (Pr. 
6. 30 ). Uncleanness (Gn. 38. 9f - ; Lv. i5. lff -, i8. 19 , 
2O. 18 ). Unnatural vice, a capital offence (Ex. 



(Gn. 4O. 19 ), his body being afterwards hung up. 
Thus perished the Baptist (Mw. I4- 8 ), and the 
Apostle James (Ac. I2. 2 ; cp. Rv. 2O. 4 ). In other 
cases the head may have been cut off after death 
(2 K. lo. 6ff - ; 2 S. 2o. 21ff- ). Blinding : sanctioned in 
Isr. only in retaliation (Ex. 2i. 24 ), but much prac 
tised by foreign nations (Jg. i6. 21 ; 2 K. 25. , &c.). 
Branding : forbidden by Moses (Lv. ig. 28 ), but 
slaves seem to have been branded to prove ownership 
(Is. 44. 5 , RVm. ; Gal. 6. 17 ). Burning : the punish 
ment suggd. for Tamar (Gn. 38. 24 ) ; prescribed 
for cert, forms of unchastity (Lv. 2o. 14 ) ; practised 
by the Phil. (Jg. I4- 15 ). In Bab. the furnace 
was used for execution (Jr. 29- 22 ; Dn. 3 ; cp. Is. 
43- 2 ). Crucifixion : see CROSS. Cutting asunder : 
the doom threatened to the astrologers, &c. (Dn. 
2. 5 , 3. 29 ; cp. Mw. 24. 51 , &c.). Cutting off fm. the 



Hi 



Cri 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cro 



people : this seems to indicate the death penalty, 
but not the mode of its infliction (Gn. ly. 14 , &c.). 
It mt. poss. mean excommunication. Drowning 
is alluded to in Mvv. 8. 6 , &c. ; cp. Ant. XIV. xv. 10. 
Exposure to wild beasts : practised by many anct. 
peoples (Dn. 6. ; Mi. .f. 13 ), alluded to I Cor. I5- 32 , 
&c. Fines : imposed by judges for injuries not re 
sulting in permanent disablement (Ex. 2I. 22 ), and 
in certain cases of manslaughter, " for redemption 
of his life" (v. 30) ; but never for murder (Nu. 
35. 31f -). If his ox killed a slave, a man was fined 30 
shekels of silver (cp. Dt. 22. 19 - 29 ). Flaying: referred 
to Mi. 3. 2f - ; practised by the Asyrs. and Persians. 
Hanging : in our sense not an Isr. penalty, but 
Ahithophel and Judas thus committed suicide (2 S. 
I/. 23 ; M\v. 27. 5 ). In Scrip. H. means impalement, 
the dead body being pierced and raised aloft on a 
pointed stake (i S. 3i. 10 ; 2 S. 4- 12 , 2i. I2f -). One 
thus exposed was reckoned accursed (Dt. 2i. 23 ; 
cp. Gal. 3. 13 ). The " gallows " of Est. 2. 23 , &c., 
was prob. the stake. Imprisonment : a common 
practice. It mt. itself be the penalty, e.g. that of 
the Baptist (Mw. 4. 12 ), and Barabbas (Lk. 23. 19 ). 
The accused were thus held for trial (Gn. 39. 20f - ; 
Ac. 4. 3 , &c.), and the condemned for execution (Ac. 
I2. 4 ). It mt. be aggravated by toil (Jg. l6. 21 ), beat 
ing (Jr. 3J. 15 ), torments (Mw. l8. 30 - 34 ), reduction 
of food (i K. 22. 27 ), stocks (Ac. l6. 24 ), and chains 
(Ps. IO5- 18 , &c.). Jeremiah was imprisoned for his 
safety (3J. 21 ). See PRISON. Mutilation: sanc 
tioned only in retaliation, but inflicted at times, 
e.g. on Adonibezek (Jg. i. 6f -). The revolting 
cruelties of Antiochus Epiphanes (2 M. 7. lff ) ac 
corded with Asyr. practice. The custom of cutting 
off the hands of thieves may be alluded to in Jesus 
counsel of self-mutilation rather than evil-doing 
(Mw. 5. 30 , &c.). Plucking off the hair (\c. 1 3. 25 ; 
cp. Is. 5O. 6 ) mt. cause great suffering (2 M. 7."), and 
was always deep indignity. See HAIR. Precipi 
tation : inflicted on the Edomites (2 Ch. 2v 12 ; 
cp. 2 M. 6. 10 ) ; prob. meant by " dashing in pieces " 
(2 K. 8. 12 ; Ho. lo. 14 ). The Na/.arcnes sought 
thus to kill Jesus (Lk. 4. 29 ) : see Stoning. Restitu 
tion. The offender was bound to make good to 
the injured any loss resulting fm. his crime, with 
cert, additions as penalty. An ox stolen and killed 
or sold shd. be restored fivefold, a sheep fourfold : 
if found alive in the thief s possession, double. 
Loss of crop caused by a strayed animal, or by fire 
thro negligence, shd. be made good. Aught held 
in trust lost by theft or negligence shd. be restored 
double (Ex. 22. lff -) ; and in the matter of a deposit, 
a fifth part was added (Lv. 6. 2ff -). If a Rm. jailer 
lost his prisoner, he was liable to the penalty for the 
crime of wh. the latter was accused (Ac. I2. 19 , i6. 27 ). 
Retaliation. The law, " eye for eye," &c. (Ex. 
2 1. 24 , &c.), rests on the principle that injury is 
avenged by equal injury to the aggressor. But as 



the loss of a hand mt. be greater, e.g. to an engraver 
than to a singer, prob. it mt. be avoided by a money 
payment, regulated by the judges (Ex. 21. 22 ). The 
false accuser incurred the penalty of the crime he 
alleged (Dt. i9. 16ff -). Sawing asunder (He. n. 37 ). 
David subjected the people of Rabbah to " saws," 
and other instruments of torture (2 S. I2. 31 ). Justin 
Martyr (Dialogue icitb Trvpbo) says that Isaiah died 
in this way. Scorpions, chastising with : prob. 
the use of whips into the lashes of wh. pointed 
pieces of metal had been twisted (i K. I2. 11 ). 
Slavery. A bankrupt, and a thief who cd. not make 
restitution, mt., with w r . and children, be sold 
as slaves (Ex. 22. 3 ; 2 K. 4.*, &c.), but no Isr. mt. 
be held in permanent bondage (Lv. 25. 39ff -). See 
SLAVE. Slaying by spear, dart, or sword: a 
common form of execution (Ex. I9- 13 ; Nu. 25. 7f - ; 
I K. 2. 25 ; He. II. 37 , I2. 20 , &c.). Stocks, suffered 
by Hanani (2 Ch. i6. 10 , RVm.) and Jeremiah (2O. 2 ): 
a wooden engine with five holes, in wh. were placed 
the neck, arms, and legs of the victim. One form 
received the feet only (Ac. l6. 24 ). Stoning: a 
death penalty incurred, e.g. by adultery (Lv. 2O. 10 ; 
Dt. 22. 21 - 24 ), blasphemy (Lv. 24. 10fl -)> idolatry (Dt. 
I3- 10 ). The culprit was precipitated fm. a height ; 
if this did not kill him, stones were cast at him. 
The witnesses cast the first stones (Dt. 17. 7 ). 
Strangling : not used by Jews till post-biblical 
times. Stripes, as a penalty, were limited to 40. 
Not the punishment, but the excess, was felt to 
be degrading (Dt. 25- 3 ). It was inflicted with a 
scourge of three thongs, 13 strokes of wh. made 39 
stripes, thus keeping safely within the prescribed 
limit (2 Cor. II. 24 ). It was incurred by a man and 
a bondmaid having illegal intercourse (Lv. I9. 20 ), a 
man slandering his w. (Dt. 22. 18 ), a debtor (Mw. 
i8. 34 ), &c. The culprit, stretched on the ground, or 
bound to a pillar, received it on his naked back. 
Females sat in a stooping posture. See SCOURGING. 

The disgrace and ignominy of cert, penalties were 
deepened, e.g. by leaving the dead bodies exposed to the 
dogs and birds of prey (i K. 14. n ; Ps. 79. "), cutting off 
the head (i S. 17. s7 , &c.), burning (Jo. y. 15 , c.j, or hanging 
the body aloft (2 S. 4. ] -, cVc. ). 

Many disasters befalling the people were regarded as 
penalties inflicted by God because of unfaithfulness: e.g. 
drought (Dt. n. 17 ), famine (Lv. 26.*, &c. ), plague and 
pestilence (Ek. 6. 11 ), defeat and captivity. Any great 
national calamity was referred to the displeasure of God. 

See Nowack, HA. i. 3271?. ; Poucher, IIDB. j.c-. 

CRIMSON. See COLOUR. 

CRISPL S, the chief ruler of the synagogue in 
Corinth, converted and baptized by Paul (Ac. l8. 8 ; 
i Cor. i. 14 ). 

CROSS, CRUCIFIXION. The C. as an instru 
ment of execution is found among many anct. 
peoples. We have here to do with its use under the 
Rms. The name, stcjiiros, may mean a stake, but it 
is also the equivalent of the Lat. crux. This con 
sisted of an upright post, with a cross-beam at the 



112 



Cro 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cup 



top ; or the top mt. project above the beam. The 
latter seems to have been the form of the C. of 
Jesus (Mw. 2J?~, &c.), the superscription being 
nailed over the crucified. It was customary to 
scourge the condemned man itself a terrific pun 
ishment and to make him carry the cross-beam to 
the place of execution, where it was attached to the 
upright. The victim was stripped naked, set astride 
a piece of wood wh. projected fm. the stake the 
sedile his hands nailed to the cross-beam (some 
times the feet also were nailed to the post), and 
there he was left to die ; the sedile supporting the 
weight, lest the hands shd. tear and the body fall 
forward. The feet were usly. almost touching the 
ground. Death came thro excruciating agonies wh. 
mt. last for days. To the pain of inflamed wounds, 
and tortured limbs, in the fierce sun of Syria, there 
were added burning thirst and fever, often ending 
in wild delirium. The bodies of the crucified were 
commonly left to the dogs and vultures. Fm. the 
time of Augustus, however, the relatives of one con 
demned in a civil court mt. have the body if they 
begged it. The clothes were the perquisite of the 
executioners. 

The ignominy of C. for the Jews was intensified by the 
fact that it was a foreign mode of execution, introduced by 
their conquerors, among whom no death was reckoned more 
shameful and degrading, it being at first employed only in the 
case of slaves. The extent to wh. C. was carried by Rm. 
authorities is appalling, wood for crosses and space to erect 
them alike failing unJer Titus (Ant. XVII. x. 10 ; XX. v. 
2 ; BJ. II. xii. 6 ; II. xiii. 2 ; V. xi. i). 

The Jews did not practise C., but it was crmmon to hang 
up the dead bodies of criminals (Dt. ai. 22 ; 2 S. 4- 12 ), and 
bodies thus exposed were accursed. The crucified were 
reckoned under this curse, as in the striking passage of Paul 
(Gal. 3.12,. 

The carrying of the cross-beam furnished the fig. used of 
those who face trouble and distress for Christ s sake to take 
up their C. (Mw. i6. 24 , &c.). The C., as the instrument by 
wh. Christ died, became the symlwl of the saving work com 
pleted by His death (i Cor. i. 1 * ; Gal. 6.^., &c.). Thus 
the instrument of reproach and ignominy has been trans 
figured, and charged with holy and blessed significance. 

CROWN, DIADEM. The C. (Heb. zer) of 
Ex. 25., 30., 37. is a rim or moulding. It was prob. 
a decorative golden wreath. Nezer (lit. " consecra 
tion ") is the ornament on the high-priest s mitre 
(Ex. 29. 6 ; Lv. 8. 9 ), as well as that worn by the 
monarch (2 S. I. 10 ; 2 K. II. 12 ). Atarah, " a band 
round the head," is the C. of the k. of Kabbah (2 S. 
I2. 30 , &c.), made of gold, and flashing with precious 
stones, wh. became the C. of David (cp. Est. 8. 15 ). 
It is frequently used figuratively of dignity, honour, 
and riches. Kether (Est. I. 11 , &c.) is the peak of the 
Persian turban ; the jewelled tiara. Diadem in 
OT. stands for mitznepbeth (Ek. 2 1. 26 , RV. "mitre"), 
tzanoph, or tzamph (Is. 62. 3 ; Jb. 29. 14 , RVm. 
" turban "), and tzipblrah (Is. 28. 5 ). A diadem is 
in its origin nothing more than a fillet to confine 
hair that is worn long (#S. 2 , 483). The Persian 
symbol of royalty was a broad fillet of silk, blue 
and white, worn round the head, and tied behind 



(Xenophon, Cyr. viii. 3, 13). It mt. be studded 
with jewels. Adopted by Alexander the Gt. it 
became the symbol of royalty among the Greeks. 

In the NT. diadema is the emblem of sovereign 
power (Rv. I2. 3 , 13.!, ig. 12 ). Stephanos, the wreath 
or chaplet won in the games (i Cor. 9- 25 ), and the 
reward of fidelity (2 Tm. 4- 8 ; Rv. 2. 10 , &c.), is the 
emblem of victory or achievement. It was the 
" crown " of thorns placed in cruel mockery upon 
the head of Christ (Mw. 27. 29 , &c.). 




DIADEM 



CRYSTAL (Heb. zekuklth, qcrah}, the first sup 
posed by Tristam (SDB.} to be " GLASS " and the 
second " rock-crystal." There are no data on wh. 
to decide. 

CUB, AV. CHUB. The Heb. kub is prob. a 
scribal error for lab, " Lybia " (Ek. 3o. 5 ) : so LXX. 

CUBIT. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

CUCKOW (Heb. sbabapb, Lv. II. 16 ; Dt. I 4 . 15 , 
RV. " sea-mew "), an unclean bird wh. cannot be 
cert, identd. ; supposed to be the petrel (Tris 
tram, SDB). 

CUCUMBER. The word qisbsbu tm is found 
only in Nu. II. 5 . It prob. corrsps. to Arb. qitbthd, 
a C. long and thin, with hairy, green rind, largely 
grown in the E. Another kind, the Arb. kbiydr, is 
more appreciated for its succulence and flavour. 
But for its cultivation water is necessary, while the 
qitbtbd can almost bid drought defiance. Miqshdb 
(Is. i .) is " the place of Cs." The " lodge " is the 
frail shelter of wattled branches in wh. the watcher 
sits to guard the crop. 

CUMMIN (Heb. kammon, Arb. kammuti) is an 
umbelliferous plant, prob. indigenous to Pal., bear 
ing small delicate seeds, wh. wd. be crushed by 
threshing in the ordinary way ; the rod is still used 
to beat them out (Is. 28. 25 2 "). It is a common con 
diment, and has also cert, medicinal uses. It was 
one of the plants subj. to tithe (Mw. 23- 23 ). 

CUP (Heb. kos, Arb. kds) is the name of various 
forms of drinking vessels. CabTa (Gn. 44- 2 ) is 
Joseph s silver divining C., prob. larger than the kof. 
The word is trd. " bowl " in Ex. 25. 31 , &c. Qesa- 



Cup 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cyp 




CUP (Assyrian) 



1 oth (l Ch. 28. 1T ). In Xu. 4.", AV. trs. "covers," as a slave ; there are many in Pal. at the present 

RV. "cups"; in Ex. 25. 29 , 37. 16 ,AV. trs. " covers," time. (4) As C. was the fr. of NIMROD, and, as 

RV. " flagons." \iggan mentioned above, the second river of PARADISE 

(Is. 22. 24 ). In Ex. 24_ 26 , " compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia " (Gn. 

EV. tr. " bason," and in 2. 13 ), it wd. seem that there was a C. in southern 

SS. 7- 2 " goblet." The Bab. It is prob. that the Kasksbu, " the Cossaeans," 

NT. poterion corrsps. to are intended. Cushan, in Hb. 3.", is regarded 

Heb. kos. as a lengthened form of C. : fm. the mention of 

In Scrip], metaphor, C. stands for the experience of life Midian in the parallel clause it has been argued 

wh. a man receives fm. God (Ps. n. 8 , &c. ; cp. Mw. so. 22 , that this was an Arabian C. 
&c.). As one drinks what is handed to him by the C.- /~T T C T_T A x- u TCTLJ A -mj A TT\ T i r TV T 

bearer, so one takes what is given by God. CUSHAX-RISHATHAIM, a k. of MESOPO- 

CUP-BEARER. The " butler," masbqeb (Gn. TAMIA who oppressed Isr. (Jg. 3 . 8 ) ; not yet identd. 
40.*), is lit. "C. -bearer" (i K. Jo.*; 2 Ch. 9.*! CUSTOM ( Mw 7- tt , *V. "toll"; Rm i 3 .J, 

Ne. i. 11 ). The duty of this official was to protect an ** valorem tax upon goods, collected by the 

the k. agst. poison. His position was often one of PUBLICANS. In Galilee and Peraca it went to the 

intimate confidence. Frequently C.-bs. were tetrarchs, m Judea to the Rms. 
eunuchs (Ant. XVI. viii. l). CUTH, CUTHAH. One of the cities whence 

CURSE. The ideas connected with a C. are colonists were brought to N. Isr., hence thc mhabi- 

gen. the same everywhere. Here we need only tants . of SAMARIA are called by the Tim. Cuthaeans. 

note a point connected with thc use of the word C 1S ldentd - Wlth *># Ibrahim (Kuti of the mscrs.), 

herem, wh. AV. trs. now " a devoted thing " (Lv. to th e NE. of Bab. ; remains of a temple to NERGAL 

root idea is that of separation. Whatever is herem Dt - H- 1 )- The P hrase " for the dcad " connects 

is removed irrevocably fm. all ordinary uses ; and the custom Prohibited with the practice of self- 

this either (a) that it may be devoted absolutely to mutilation in mourning for the dead, common 

God, for the purposes of the sanctuary, and to amon g man 7 dl ^rse and widely scattered peoples, 

supply the wants of the priests (Lv. 2 7 . 28f -), or Association with heathen rites wd lead to its being 

(b) that it may be utterly destroyed (I K. 2O. 42 ,&c.). forbidden, but in spite of the prohibition there are 

The latter sense is the more usual. To curse is to indications of its survival to a late time (Jr. l6. ; 

devote to irremediable ruin. The fear of a C. is c f- Ho - 9- 4 )- The original meaning seems to per- 

still strong in the Oriental heart. It will blanch the sist amon g cert - rude peoples where the blood is 

cheek of even the intelligent and educated man, a PP lled to the dcad bod > fm " wh m turn a P lece 1S 

who is emancipated fm. most superstitions. Among taken and ke Pt or even eaten The obj clearly is 

the Moslems, to " curse the prophet " is a capital " to make an enduring covenant with the dead 

offence (RS. Z 323). Such a custom was intolerable among 

CURTAIN (Heb. yttfotb). Tents in the E. are those who wcre " a P e P le ho1 ^ unt thc L rd " 

usly. made of lengths of goat s-hair cloth sewn to- ( Dt - T 4- 2 )- In this light it appears in the nar. of the 

gether. The various lengths of such that went to dramatic scene on Carmel (i K. i8. 28 ). 
the formation of the TABERNACLE are called Cs. Marks Panted on the body were also forbidden 

The " hanging " in front of the Holy Place (mfrdK) ( Lv - I 9- 28 ) Apparently because of their heathen 

is once called C. (Xu. 3 . 2 <5). See HANGING. associations. In origin, Robertson Smith thinks 

CUSH. (i) The first named of the sons of HAM ( RS ? 334, ) they may be nothing more than the 

(Gn 10 fi ) permanent scars of punctures made to draw blood 

, for a ceremony of self-dedication to the deity. It is 

Though it does not appear in AV. , in RV. as in Heb. and . . . . / 111 i r i L 

AVm., in Gn. a." we haveC. instead of Ethiopia; in every evidently the tattoo marks developed fm. this that 

case where ETHIOPIA in OT. occurs, the Heb. has C. are prohibited, the mark being the sign that the 

(2) The general reference of C. (and Ethiopia) is worshipper belonged to the god. The practice is 

to a powerful kdm. established S. of Egp. identd. alluded to in Is. 44. 5 (RVm.), and Gal. 6. 17 . See for 

with mod. Nubia and Abyssinia. In hieroglyphic discussion and Lit., Robertson Smith, Kinship and 

the name appears as Kesh. TIRHAKAH (Is. 37. 9 ), k. Marriage in Early Arabia?- 2i2ff. 
of C. (Ethiopia), threatened SENNACHERIB ; several CYMBAL. See Music. 

dynasties fm. Ethiopia secured the supremacy in CYPRESS, Heb. tirxdb (Is. 44- 14 ). It is imposs. 

F-gP- (3) I* 1 the title to Ps. 7. there is mention of to say what tree is intended. It mt. be the beech, 

C., a Benjamite ; nothing is known of him it may the holm-oak, or the juniper. It is safest, with Dr 

have been a nickname. In 2 S. i8. 21 , a runner is Post, to trlt. and call it the " tirzah." 
mentioned called Cushi, " Ethiopian " ; not impos- CYPRUS, an island in the Levant, c. 60 miles off 

sibly he may have been a Nubian brought fm. Egp. the Syr. coast, and 40 miles S. of Cilicia. It is 120 

114 



Cyr 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Cyr 



miles in length, and its greatest breadth is 60 miles. 
Two mountain ranges run parallel fm. E. to W., 
forming the N. and S. boundaries of a spacious and 
fertile plain. The highest peak of the S. range is Mt. 
Troodos, 6406 ft. The forests for wh. C. was noted 
in anct. times have largely disappeared, and the rain 
fall is far short of requirements. Recently, under 
British influence, trees have been protected, and ex 
tensive irrigation works have been carried out. The 
olive, vine, and palm grow luxuriantly. Grain, 
fruit, silk, and leather are among its exports. 

The obj. of a long dispute between the Persians 



the Gt. it was under the Ptolemies. Falling into the 
hands of the Rms. B.C. 96, it became a province 
B.C. 75, and was joined to Crete B.C. 67. There 
were many Jews in C. Ptolemy I. introduced great 
numbers, believing that their presence made for 
general prosperity (Ant. XIV. vii. 2). Of this city 
was Simon (Mw. 27. 32 ). Jews fm. C. were in Jrs. at 
Pentecost, and had share in a synagogue (Ac. 2. 10 , 
6. 9 ). Preachers fm. C. laboured in Antioch, of 
whom was Lucius (Ac. II. 20 , I3- 1 ), afterwards, 
accdg. to tradition, first bishop of C. 
CYRENIUS. See QUIRINIUS. 




and the Greeks, at the death of Alexander the Gt. 
it passed with Egp. to Ptolemy, B.C. 306 ; falling to 
Rm. B.C. 57. After the battle of Actium it became 
an imperial province : but in B.C. 22 Augustus re 
stored it to the Senate, and the governor (Ac. 13.^; 
cp. l8. 12 , I9. 38 ) is rightly called anthupatos, "pro 
consul." 

Christianity was introduced by fugitives fm. the 
persecution in Jrs. (Ac. 1 1. 19 ). It was the birth 
place of BARNABAS and MNASON. Paul visited the 
island in company with Barnabas and John Mark 
(Ac. I3. 4f- ), and the latter two afterwards returned 
to C. (is. 39 ) 

C. was known in OT. as Chittim. 

CYRENE, a Gr. colony founded B.C. 624, the 
chief city of Cyrenaica (mod. Barca), the fruitful 
district on the shore W. of Egp. After Alexander 



CYRUS (Heb. Koresb t Persian Kurush, Bab. 
Kuras, Susian Kuras). A popular etymology, 
quoted by Plutarch fm. Ctesias, derived the name 
fm. a Persian word signifying " the sun " (mod. 
Pers. Khor). This, however, is philologically im- 
poss., and the name was prob. of Elamite origin, like 
that of the river Cyrus. Accdg. to Strabo (xv. p. 
729) the original name was Agradatcs. Various 
legends grew up about the childhood of Cyrus and 
his conquest of Media, some of wh. are reported by 
the Gr. writers. Herodotus made him the grand 
son of Astyages of Media, whose dr., Mandane, was 
married to a Persian noble, and who, in consequence 
of a dream, ordered Harpagus to put him to death. 
Harpagus, however, gave the child to a herdsman 
who adopted him. In time the royal origin of 
Cyrus was discovered, and he was acknowledged by 



Dab 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dam 



his grandfr., who punished Harpagus by serving up 
his own s. to him at a banquet. In revenge Har 
pagus urged Cyrus to rebel agst. the Medes, and in a 
critical battle went over to the Persians, who cap 
tured Astyages and put an end to his kdm. 

Accdg. to Ctesias, Cyrus was a Alardian bandit, 
not related to Astyages, who, after the overthrow of 
the Medes, treated Astyages like a fr. and married his 
dr. Amytis. Xenophon invented a s. and successor 
of Astyages, called Cyaxares, whom he made the 
uncle of Cyrus, the Persian k. having been brought 
up at the Median court, and afterwards conquer 
ing the Armenians and Chaldeans as general of 
Cyaxares, who left his kdm. to him. 

The cuneiform inscr. of Nabonidos, the last Bab. 
k., and of Cyrus himself, have given us the true hist, 
of events. Cyrus calls himself k. of Ansan or Anzan, 
in Elam, and great-grandson of the Acha^menid 
Persian, Teispes, who was also the ancestor of 
Darius. 

In B.C. 1549 Astyages attacked Cyrus, who was 
already k. of Ansan, but his army revolted agst. him 
and handed him over to his enemy. Cyrus there 
upon marched to Ecbatana, the Median capital, 
took possession of the treasures of Astyages, and be 
came head of the Median empire. Three yrs. later 
he assumed the title of k. of Persia, and the over 
throw of Crossus of Lydia soon afterwards placed 
Asia Minor and the Gr. cities on its coast in his 
hands. In B.C. ^38 he was ready to invade Bab. 
A battle fought near Opis in Tammuz or June, 
decided the fate of the Babn. army, wh. was com 
manded by Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidos. Sip- 
para surrendered on the I4th of the month, and two 
days later Gobryas, governor of Kurdistan, entered 
Bab. with a portion of the invading forces " without 
fighting or battle." Nabonidos was captured and 



imprisoned there. On the 3rd of Marchesvan or 
October, Cyrus himself came to Bab. and proclaimed 
a gen. amnesty. Eight days later " the son " of 
Nabonidos died, and there was mourning for him 
throughout the country, after wh. Cambyses, the 
s. of Cyrus, offered gifts and made sacrifices to 
Merodach on his fr. s account. The Gr. stories of 
the dissipation of the waters of the river Gyndes and 
of the long siege of Bab. were all fictions. Cyrus 
had been assisted in his campaign by a disaffected 
party in Bab. itself ; after his conquest, therefore, 
he posed as the faithful worshipper and agent of 
Bel-Merodach, who had employed him to punish 
the godless Nabonidos. Nabonidos had been a 
usurper, and had created discontent by attempt 
ing to centralise Babylonian worship in Bab. ; the 
Babylonian priests, accdly., professed to see in Cyrus 
the rightful successor of the anct. ks. In further 
ance of his policy of conciliation he now allowed the 
exiled populations in Babylonia to return to their 
homes with the images of their gods. The Jews, 
who had no images, took with them their sacred 
vessels (Ez. I. 7 ). 

The conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus was followed 
by the extension of his empire to the E. In the last 
yr. of his reign Cambyses was associated with him on 
the throne. Accdg. to Herodotus he met his death 
in battle with Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae, 
beyond the Araxes (B.C. ^29) ; accdg. to Ctesias it 
was in war with the Derbices. The inscrs. show 
him to have been a ruler of great military genius, 
tactful and conciliatory in policy, and a polytheist 
rather than a Zoroastrian in religion. 

Lit. : Records of the Past, new series, pp. 143-75, 
Bagster, 1891 ; Floigl, Cyrus und Herodot, 1881 ; 
Prasek, Medien und das Haus des Kyaxares, Berlin, 
1890. A. H. SAYCE. 



D 



DABBASHETH, RY. DABBESHETH (Jo. 
19. n ), prob. the mod. Dabsbeh, a ruin E. of Acre. 

DABERATH, on the boundary of Issachar and 
Zebulun (Jo. I9- 12 ), given by Issachar to the Ger- 
shonites (Jo. 2 1. 28 ; I Ch. 6. 72 ), prob. = Dcluriyeh, a 
small village with ruins at the N.W, foot of Tabor 
(cp. Jos. Fit. 62 BJ. II. xxi. 3). 

DAGGER. See WEAPONS. 

DAGON, a Phil, deity, formerly taken to be the 
" fish-god." Prof. Savce (SDB.) has shown, by the 
offerings sent to J". (i S. 6. 5 ), that he was an agri 
cultural deity, and connects the name, not with dag, 
" a fish," but with dagan, " corn." Prof. Beecher 
concurs (HDB.). Konig (Jzv. En.) and Seigfried 
(KB.) think D. = Ea (also Odakon), the Asyr. god 
of the waters. Final decision must await further 
discoveries. 



Wdlhausen (Text d. Buck. Sam. p. 50), thinks J at the 
end of Dagon in the last clause of i S. 5. 4 is due to the 3 
beginning the next word; so the clause shd. read "only 
his iish was left to him." This ingenious suggestion is 
without support fin. the VV. : all imply n word dropped 
out. 

DALE, THE KING S, where the k. of Sodom 
met Abraham (Gn. I4. 1T ), and Absalom erected his 
pillar (2 S. IS. 18 ), two furlongs fm. Jrs. (Ant. VII. 
x. 3), prob. in the valley near EN-ROCEL. 

DALMANUTHA. See MAGDALA. 

DALMATIA, whither Titus went (2 Tm. 4.1), 
on the E. shore of the Adriatic ; originally the name 
of the S. part, but later applied to the whole pro 
vince of Illyricum. 

DAMARIS, a female convert of Paul in Athens 
(Ac. ij. 34 ), whom Chrysostom conjectured to be 
the wife of Dionysius. 



Dam 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dam 



DAMASCUS (Gn. I4- 15 , &c.). The mod. city she fell at times into the hands of the Ptolemies, 

stands in a position of great charm and beauty, Aretas, k. of Arabia, in B.C. 85, with the good-will of 

under the shadow of Anti-Lebanon, on the N. edge the people, entered the city and assumed control 

of the rich and fertile plain wh. is watered by the (Ant. XIII. xv. 2). In B.C. 65 it was taken by 

river Barada, " the cool," the anct. ABANA. The Metellus, and passed under the power of Rm. At 



~ i 




DAMASCUS: FROM TOWER OF GREAT MOSQUE 

city is girt around by the embowering greenery the time of Saul s conversion (Ac. 9. 2ff -), the city 
of her famous orchards, and by her marvellously was governed by a representative of Aretas, the 
fruitful gardens, through wh. the sweet waters of Nabataean k., to whom Caligula seems to have 
the Abana are carried in multitudinous channels, granted it (2 Cor. II. 32 ). There must have been 
The plain, dotted with groves of olive and fruit a large Jewish colony, as no fewer than 10,000 
trees, supports a peasant population of about 50,000. perished in one popular uprising (BJ. II. xx. 2). 
The inhabitants of D. number at least 150,000. A Pliny reckons D. to the Decapoiis (NH. v. 6). A 
railway now climbs Alt. Lebanon, and, descending lon< hist, of strange vicissitudes leaves D. still the 
into the Beqa , runs down with the river to D. The 
line is continued to the S., along the great pilgrim 
age route, and is designed in the end to reach Mecca. 
A branch, crossing the Jordan below the Sea of 
Galilee, and ascending the Vale of Jezreel past 
Bethshan, connects D. with Haifa, at the base of 
Carmel. The old-world city is now lit by elec 
tricity, and the whizz of the electric car is heard 
in her streets. 

The city is named in the Egpn. hists. of Thothmes 
III., B.C. 1501-1447 (timasqii), and in those of 
Ramses II., B.C. 1292-1225 (tirumasqi). To possess 
such a position wd. be an obj. of ambition between 
the Egpns. and Hittites in these far-off times. 
Accdg. to Moslem tradition, Eliezer founded the 
city, and Abraham reigned there for a time (cp. 
Ant. I. vii. 2). By the beginning of the I2th cent, 
the Syrs. were in possession. Their defeat by 
David is recorded in 2 S. 8. In his time Rezon, s. 
of Eliada, laid the foundations of the Syr. empire, 
wh. was destined to make much trouble for Isr., 
until its overthrow by Asyr., B.C. 732. Their re 
lations, however, were often friendly ; commercial 
exchanges promoted their mutual interests (l K. 
I9 .i5fl. } 20- 34 . 2 K. 5., 8. 7ff -)- Ahaz found here the chief . - n g possessinp , perhaps, more than 
altar on wh. he remodelled that at Jrs. (2 K. i6. 10ff -)- ;mv othe r the mysterious spell of the Orient. 
With its conquest by Tiglath-pileser III., B.C. 732, ^ ^^ ^^ (a K s 18) was ch;lngl , d by T heo- 
the importance of D. waned (cp. Is. 8. 4 , I7- 1 , &c.). dosius into a Christian church. Subsequently it U-canie a 
In the Gr. period her rank of first city in Syr. was Moslem mosque, where, accdg to > 

, / , i i M A u *k head of John the. B.iptist. accdg. to Christian tradn. the 

surrendered to the newly-built Antioch on the ^^ of y ohn ]). imasce nus, lies buriet . Over the S. gate- 
Orontes. During the troubled yrs. that followed, way stands in Gr. the text "Thy kdm., O Christ, is an 

117 





ANCIENT WALL OF DAMASCUS. WHERE ST. PAUL WAS LET 
DOWN IN A BASKET 



Dan 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dan 



everlasting Kdm., and Thy dominion endureth for all 
generations." The "Street called Straight " is the mod. 
Derb el-mustaqtm, running due E. and W. The alleged 
houses of Ananias and of Judas, the spot where Paul escaped 
fm. the city, and the site of the house of Naaman, are all 
, t: hown witli a confidence wh. there is not much to justify. 




MOSLEM PILGRIMAGE (KL HAJJ) SETTING OUT FROM DAMASCUS 

Outside the E. g.Ue is the tomb of St. George, the porter 
who paid with his life for the assistance rendered to Paul. 

The great highways "between X. and S. , E. and W., 
along wh. flowed the commerce and marched the armies of 
the anct. world, lay through the heart of the city. Resting 
in the midst of a beautiful oasis, en the edge of the change 
less desert, surrounded by desert hills, she formed the 
natural harbour, whither steered the argosies fin. the sea of 
sand, bearing the treasures of the E. ; \\hencc again the 
sombre mariner j set forth on their dreary vcyage homeward. 
Herein we have the secret of her perennial greatness. A 
strong position she never was, and often has she bent be 
neath the stroke of the conqueror, becoming a servant to 
task work. Hut ever as the tides of war rolled back, she 
has arisen again, fresh and vigorous as of yore. She has 
been the meeting-place and mart of the nations, and as she 
has been of use to all, alike to the desert nomad and to the 
more settled peoples, so the necessities of all have conspired 
to perpetuate her prosperity." See Hastings, DB. s.v. 

DAN and Naphtali were sons of Bilhah, Rachel s 
maid (Gn. 30. 6 ). They come next in order after 
the first four sons of Leah. " Dan " may be con 
tracted fm. some Divine name such as Abidan (Nu. 
I. 11 ). Nothing is recorded of his personal hist., 
and the tribe seems to have played quite a subordi 
nate part. Only one clan is named, that of Hushim 
(Gn. 46. 23 ), or Shuham (Nu. 26. 42 ). We cannot fix 
the boundaries of the portion of D. (Jo. 19.). It lay 
S.W. of Ephraim, with Benjamin on the E., and 
Judah on the S.E. and S. It included the low hills 
and the plain, apparently reaching to Jaffa (Jo. ig. 46 ). 
Cert, cities given to D. in Jo. 19. are in Jo. 15. given 
to Judah. " The Amorites forced the children of 
I), into the mountain " (Jg. I. 34 ), but in $. 16 they 
still appear on the coast. The district proved too 
small for them. An expedition of 600 men set out 
for the N., taking with them the idol and priest of 



concern the southern territory. The settlement in 
the N. grew in importance, and was regarded, along 
with Abel, as a strong conservator of true Israelite 
customs (2 S. 20. 18 LXX). In Gn. 49- 16 and Dt. 
33- 22 , D. is described as something of a freebooter, 
who joins cunning to his dashing bravery. Maha- 
neh-dan, " the camp of Dan," is placed behind 
Kirjath-jearim in Jg. l8. 12 , between Zorah and 
Eshtaol in I3- 25 . For the numbers assigned to D. 
see NUMBERS. 

DAN, the anct. Laish (Leshem, Jo. I9- 47 ), ap 
parently an outlying settlement of Tyre, captured 
by Dan (Jg. 1 8.), is possibly Dan-jaan of 2 S. 24. 6 . 
It lay " nc^r Mt. Lebanon and the fountains of the 
lesser Jordan " (Ant. V. iii. I, VIII. viii. 4). OEJ. 
places it 4 Rm. miles fm. Paneas, on the way to 
Tyre. This clearly points to Tell el Qddy Qady 
being the Arb. equivalent of Heb. Dan a mound in 
the plain W. of Banias, with ruins on the S. side. 
Two springs rise at its base, that on the W. being 
the largest source of the Jordan. The two unite 
their waters in Nabr el Ledddn, wh., 5 miles lower, 
joins the streams fm. Hasbeiyeh and Banias, to form 
the Jordan. The mound is the crater of an extinct 
volcano, and rises some 80 ft. fm. the midst of a 
thicket of bushes. The worship of Micah s idol 




TELL EL QADY, 



FOUNTAIN OF THE JORDA> 

Micah the Ephraimite, captured the town of Laish was here maintained all the time that the house of 
" in the valley that lieth by Beth Rchob," and God was in Shiloh " (Jg. l8. 31 ). When Jeroboam 
settled there (Jg. 1 8.). Samson was the one great set up the golden calf, the descendants of Micah s 
man produced by D., and the stories of his exploits priest seem to have secured the priesthood (Jg. 

118 



Dan 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dan 



l8. 30f - ; I K. 1 2. 29 - 30 ), wh. they held till the invasion 
of Tiglath-pileser (z K. I5- 29 ). D. was taken by 
Benhadad (i K. I5- 20 ), restored to Ahab (zo. 34 ), and 
was doubtless included in the kdm. of Jeroboam II. 

D. marked the N. boundary of Isr. (Jg. 2O. 1 , &c.), 
and of Gilead (Dt. 34- 1 ). Hither Abraham pursued 
the army of Chedorlaomer. 

DANCE. Among the anct. Isrs. occasions of joy 
were celebrated with song and D., esp. by the 
women, e.g. the great deliverance at the Red Sea 
(Ex. I5- 20 ), the warriors home-coming (Jg. n. 34 ; 
I S. iS. 6 ), harvest and vintage (Jg. 2i. 21 ). The D. 
had also its place in worship (Ps. I49- 3 , ISO. 4 , &c.). 
In these cases the word used is mahol, wh. signifies 
the rhythmic movement of a company, keeping time 



hostages in the Bab. court. Their names being 
changed, D. was called Belshazzar, modified by the 
Massoretes into Belteshazzar. As they were prob. 
c. 1 8 yrs. old, the close of their novitiate of 3 yrs. 
finds them in early manhood. Nebuchadnezzar, in 
his 2nd or 3rd yr., has a dream, and requires his 
astrologers to reveal at once the dream and its inter 
pretation. This he believes they can do, and, attri 
buting their failure to treason, orders the execution 
of them all. Even students of astrology like D. and 
his friends are involved. In answer to prayer, the 
dream and its interpretation are revealed to D., so 
that he alone passes the k. s test, and receives high 
honour, his friends also being promoted to positions 
of trust. D. likewise interprets a second dream of 




ANCIENT EGYPTIANS DANCING 



to the beat of tambourines. Men also danced, as 
David before the ark (2 S. 6. 14 ), but fm. his wife s 
taunt, we may infer that this was common only 
among the humbler classes (6. 20 ). In such religious 
processions, men and women seem to have marched 
together (Ps. 68. 25 ). In their excitement they 
leaped, pazaz, (2 S. 6. 16 ), skipped, ragad(l Ch. I5- 29 ), 
and wheeled round, karar (2 S. 6. 14 ). The single 
dancer does not appear in OT., nor men and women 
dancing in couples. Gr. influence is seen in such a 
performance as that of the dr. of Herodias (Mw. 
i.f. 6 , &c.). This form of entertainment still per 
sists in the E. ; its attraction consists, unhappily, 
in its immodesty. 

DANIEL ("God is my judge," or "Divine 
judge "). (i) Second s. of David (I Ch. 3. 1 ), born 
in Hebron (see CHILEAB). (2) A priest of the time 
of Ezra (8. 2 ; Ne. io. 6 ). (3) The fourth of the 
" Greater Prophets." At Nebuchadnezzar s desire, 
Ashpcnaz (Abiesdri LXX), " the master of the 
eunuchs," chose D., prob. of the " seed royal," with 
Hananiah, Azariah, and Mishael, to be reared as 



the k. (see following art.). Under Nabunahid D. is 
no longer at the head of the astrologers. He has to 
be specially summoned to Belshazzar s feast. Me 
interprets the mysterious inscr. and is raised to the 
third place in the kdm. Darius (Gobryas) the 
Mede makes him one of the three Presidents. The 
envy of his associates in the government leads to his 
being thrown to the lions, fm. whom, to the joy of 
Darius and the discomfiture of his foes, he is de 
livered. His visions are considered in the next art. 
When Cyrus issued his decree D. was over 80, too 
old to go with the first contingent of returning 
exiles. Mohammedan tradition makes him gover 
nor of Syria. 

DANIEL, THE BOOK OF, is the earliest 
Apocalypse. The authenticity of no bk. in OT. 
has been more persistently assailed. 

Text. The MT. in our Heb. Bibles differs 
markedly fm. that behind the LXX (Chigi), and 
considerably also fm. that implied in Thd., Psh., 
and Vlg. As D. was not a bk. regularly read in the 
synagogue, its text was not guarded by uniformly 



Dan 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dan 



diffused kge., as was that of the Torah, fm. mistakes 
of scribes. Moreover, Apes, were esp. liable to in 
terpolation. There are traces of modification to 
adapt the text to its readers, esp. in the Aram., 
\vh., originally Eastern, was changed into Western : 
a few Eastern forms survive, showing what the 
original was. The same process is seen in the Heb., 
e.g. in I. 12 we have the consonantally common form 
zero lm, " pube " : in v. 1 6 it is replaced by the late 
form zer oiurn, a word already familiar to the scribe. 
In a frequently copied writing the presence of 
antique words proves its antiquity, while the pre 
sence of recent words proves only carelessness in the 
scribe. There was no motive to cultivate an an 
tique style ; men had not yet thought of the 
chronology of style ; the writer of EC., although he 
wished men to think Solomon the author, did not 
feel bound to avoid the short rel., or to make gen. 
use of the vav con-rersive. 

Language. D. shares with E/.., and to a small 
extent Jr., the peculiarity of being written in two 
langs., Heb. and Aram. : chaps. 2^-J., about i of 
the whole is Aram., the rest is Heb. In the few 
cases of works published in two langs., the reason for 
introducing a second is usually quite obvious. In 
histl. works, documents are sometimes quoted in 
their original form ; so also authorities for state 
ments in scientific or philosophical writings. But 
in D. we have not to do with quotations ; another 
explanation must be found. Keil and others think 
that in the Aram, portion we have the development 
of the world-power over agst. the kdm. of God, and 
in the Heb. that of the kdm. of God over agst. the 
world-power. Merx s theory is that in the Aram, 
the unlearned Jews were addressed ; in the Heb. 
the learned. Eichhorn thinks the diffc. of lang. 
implies a diffc. of author. All these assume that 
D. is not one bk. Lenormant s view, very genly. 
adopted, is that the Heb. part of D., lost during the 
Antiochian persecutions, was supplied fm. a Tg. wh. 
survived. It is difficult, on this theory, to under 
stand why there is no trace of any Tg. of the rest of 
D. If, as we think, D. was originally issued in 
separate tracts, it may well be imposs. now to assign 
the reasons why an author, to whom Aram, and Heb. 
were equally familiar, chose Aram, for one tract 
and Heb. for another. 

The Aram, of D. as represented by MT. is Chakk-e, i.e. 
Western Aram. There arc many evidences that it was 

originally Eastern : e.g. the Mandrean use of ^5 preformath<e not Asyr.), like those on wh. the Creation Epic 
instead of > in the impf. of the substv. verb, and the use of . j !_. j * U -U Tr, -- 

^ compensative, ^dagesh forte: Eastern grammatical forms in was stamped, are not related to each other. First, 

the A"M#, cccidentalised in the Qri : words found in Eastern certain hostages (among whom IS Daniel), are 

Aram. wh. not even the influence of D. has been able to selected to be educated in the Bab. court, accdg. to 
brins? into Western use. Cert, confusions in the text and mis- . . . . , XT . , ,-p, 

takes in trn. imply Eastern peculiarities in the exemplar before the practice of the ks. of JNmeveh. 

the copyist or translator. In many [joints, the Aram, of D. tion tells of Nebuchadnezzar s dream, the failure of 

resembles grammatically that of the Sinjirli inscrs : eg. h astro logers, and the success of D. (see preceding 
Haphel instead of Aphel ; the use of J-fl JV , the -ign of the 5 > , v \ , r . , 

, art.V In his 1 8th yr. (Thd. and LXX.) the k. makes 

ace., only to support the oblique case of a ] re noun ; the / . , \ 11 ic 1 V 

performative in the impf. ; besides a gen. lexical similarity, a golden image, wh. he requires all Omcials in niS 

120 



The main points of diffc. are the use in D. of di instead of zl 
for the rel., and ar a for arqa , " earth," " land." These 
represent scribal changes, to harmonise the written with the 
spoken lang. ; just as in Pal. Arabic q becomes even further 
attenuated into hamza, and dh becomes z. The Heb. cf D. 
resembles that of Ez. , Ne., and Ch. among the histl. bks., 
and of Ek. and Zc. among the Prophets. It contrasts \\ith 
the Heb. of EC., wh. uses the short rel., and sparingly the 
vav conversing. Aram, words in the Heb. part do net 
prove lateness in the work cf < ne whose conversation and 
correspondence wd. be mainly Aram. 

Structure and Contents. D. consists of two 
nearly equal portions : the first deals with incidents, 
the second with visions. It is a further peculiarity 
that while most of the incidents are narrated in 
Aram, and most of the visions in Heb., the intro 
duction to the incidents is in Heb., and the first 
vision is in Aram. Moreover, each incident and 
each vision is marked off by a distinct, genly. dated, 
beginning and ending ; all suggesting that each was 
published as a separate tract. This view is con 
firmed by the two recensions we possess of D., wh. 
treat the nars., esp. of the incidents, individually. 
Neither recension shows one chartc. throughout. 
In relating one incident, the Egpn., as seen in LXX, 
is pleonastic, the Palestinian condensed ; in relating 
another this is reversed. The tractates had evi 
dently been current separately, one set in Egp., 
another in Pal. The two series, of incidents and of 
visions, are arranged chronologically. Prob. while 
the several tracts were still circulating, a collection 
of them was made, wh. forms our bk. of D. ; but 
meanwhile copyists were modifying indiA idual ele 
ments, and these changes were introduced, one set 
into the Egyptian, the other into the Palestinian 
recension. In the 1st chap, there are indications 
of trn. fm. Aram. 

On the above hypothesis D. is not an artistic 
unity. The contents of the separate tracts, pub 
lished, prob. on clay tablets (in Heb. and Aram., 




XEBUCHADKEZZAK 
From \. Jeremias Das A.T. im Lichle i/cs Allen Orients- 



Dan 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dan 



empire to worship ; D. s three companions refuse, 
and are cast into the fiery furnace : their miraculous 
deliverance secures that ]". shd. be recognised as 
" a great god," dishonour to whom involves severe 
punishment. In this D. does not appear. Then 
comes the 2nd dream of Nebuchadnezzar, of the 
great tree that was cut down. D. is at once sum 
moned (LXX), and with much sorrow foretells 
approaching disaster becoming mad, the k. is to 
be driven forth fm. men. Belshazzar, s. of Nabuna- 
hid, makes a great feast, his guests drinking fm. the 
sacred vessels fm. the Temple at Jrs. : D. alone can 
interpret a mysterious inscr. wh. appears on the 
wall, and shows that it portends the overthrow of 
the Bab. Empire ; he is raised to the third place in 
the kdm. On the overthrow of Belshazzar, Darius 
the Mede " receives the kdm.," and makes D. one of 
his three councillors. His envious associates con 
spiring agst. him, he is cast into the den of lions 
(see preceding art.). With this ends the series of six 
incidents. The first vision, the four beasts coming 
out of the sea, is dated the first yr. of Belshazzar ; 
the next, in his third yr., describes the conflict of 
the Persian ram with the Grecian he-goat. The 
third vision, of the 70 weeks, is dated the first yr. 
of Darius ; the fourth, in the third yr. of Cyrus, k. 
of Persia, describes the " man clothed in linen." 
Chap. II. is an interpolation, describing the con 
flicts of the ks. of the N. and of the S. It may be 
the interpretation put on a lost vision of D. In 
chap. 12. the man clothed in white linen declares 
the end of the vision. 

The Purpose of the bk. prob. was, by telling of 
God s dealings with D. and his friends, to show how 
He preserved His people s faith, even when they 
dwelt among the heathen, and to indicate by 
visions what wd. come to pass, " that when it had 
come to pass they mt. believe." The original 
writer, and the later collector and editor, acting 
under inspiration, need not have been clearly con 
scious of the final purpose. They were " holy men 
of God, who spake as they were moved." 

Some hold that the bk. of D. is not a hist., hut a work 
of imagination a parable designed to rouse the Jews to 
armed rebellion agst. the oppressor Epiphanes. In this idea 
there is nothing necessarily repugnant to inspiration. Our 
Lord s parables wd. be equally replete with sptl. meaning, 
whether or not they dealt with actual events. But a re 
ligious novel must conform to the nat. laws of such a com 
position. This D. does not do: it is not a self-complete 
whole : its parts are only externally united, and even at times 
appear discrepant: e.g. i. 5 cp. 2. 1 , i. 21 cp. io. ] . If it is 
a novel some things call for explanation : e.g. D s. absence 
when his companions are called to worship the golden image : 
D. does nothing to facilitate the return of his people fm. 
exile, nor does he pin them when numbers do return. These 
things make it difficult to take D. as a work of imagination. 
If it is a picture of a Jeuish saint in a heathen court, they 
are inexplicable: in a hist, written immediately after the 
events, no explanation was required. 

Again, the bk. does not suit the alleged purpose. It 
records no case of deliverance resulting fm. active resistance : 
in the stories of the Lions Den and the Fiery Furnace, re 



sistance is purely passive. We may see the nat. outcome of 
this teaching in the retreat of cert. Jews to the wilderness, 
and their slaughter by the soldiers of Antiochus (i M. 
2. 29ff -). Mattathias and his followers, on the contrary, b3- 
lieved that only by active resistance to the utmost of their 
might could life and faith bs preserved. A story modelled 
on the exploits of Samson wd. have served the alleged pur 
pose better than the canonical Bk. of D. Those who assert 
that Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, and Darius are intended 
to be portraits of Epiphanes, must have singular ideas cf 
portraiture : yet that is a necessary part of the case. The 
tendency in writing a novel with a purpose the nearlv 
irresistible tendency is to overdrive the moral. In D. the 
moral is impenetrably concealed : yet it was meant for a 
popular audience. 

It cannot be said that the bk. is written up to 
either possible sense of the name of the reputed 
author, " God is my Judge " or " Divine Judge." 
The Lions Den incident alone mt. be construed as 
showing God as the hero s Judge. Nothing in the 
canonical bk. refers to the second meaning. The 
Apocryphal additions, Su. and Bel., show what 
Jewish imagination cd. do in creating a Divine 
Judge. There are, indeed, references to D. in the 
bk. of his contemporary Ezekiel (i4- 14 20 , 2S. 3 ), but 
the characteristics there assigned to D. are not pro 
minent in the bk. We may therefore reasonably 
assume that the bk. of D. is a nar. of facts. 

Date and Authenticity. We shall consider 
first, External Evidences ; second, Internal Evi 
dences ; third, Objections. 

(i) External Evidences. These are indications in 
Lit. or Hist, of acquaintance with the bk. or its con 
tents. Mattathias (i M. 2. 59f -) refers to the deliver 
ance of "the three" fm. the fiery furnace, and of 
D. fm. the " den of lions." Some (Schurer, HJP., 
II. iii. 8) date I M. after B.C. 105, when John Hyr- 
canus died; others (Abrahams, Jtv. En.), B.C. 135. 
We may take B.C. 100 as the latest prob. date. There 
is distinct reference to D. in En., in the Bk. of 
Similitudes, B.C. 200 (see ENOCH). There is a still 
earlier reference in the Prophecy of Baruch, c. B.C. 
300, i. 11 . " Nabuchadonosor,k. of Bab.," and " Bal- 
thasar his s." are mentioned. The rest of the bk. to 
the end of chap. 3. is mainly an expansion of the 
prayer in Dn. 9. We may note the resemblance of 
Nehemiah s prayer (Ne. 9.) to that of D., and of the 
"four horns "of Zc. to those of the "Grecian Goat." 
Further, if D. were not a man such as is portrayed 
in this bk., Ek. cd. not have placed him on a level 
with Noah and Job ; nor wd. Tyrus be accused of 
arrogance in thinking itself wiser than D. In 
judging the force of this we must remember the 
paucity of contemporary or approximately contem 
porary Lit. yet with all the Lit. of the Augustan 
age, the evidence that Virgil wrote the /Encid is 
not so strong as this. 

Again, only by some such events as are recorded 
in D. can we account for the hist, of the Jews after 
the exile. Before the Captivity they were prone to 
idolatry. In the opinion of the time, the capture 
of J". s city, the burning of JVs temple, and the re- 



121 



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Dan 



moval of J Vs people by those of Bel-Marduk, wd. 
be taken as showing J Vs inferiority to the gods of 
Bab. In Bab. the Jews were in the midst of 
heathen, ready, we may be sure, to wile them away. 
They were deprived of sacrifice, a familiar element 
in the worship of J"., the only element in the minds 
of many of themselves and of all their heathen 
neighbours. It was not thought wrong to worship 
the " god of the land " where one sojourned. 
David took his banishment as consignment to the 
service of " other gods." Every external influence 
made for the total abandonment of the worship of 
J". Prophets of J". indeed had declared that 
disaster wd. follow apostasy fm. the God of their 
fathers, and when disasters came, mt. appeal to 
these predictions. From Jr., however, we learn that 
the conduct of cert, prophets in Bab. tended to dis 
credit the whole order, and therefore their inter 
pretation of events. Another explanation of the 
national disasters was also current (Jr. 44. 16ff- ) ; they 
were caused, not by Manasseh s apostasy, but by 
Josiah s reformation. Everything tended to an 
apostasy as complete as that of the captives fm. the 
N. Kdm. Yet the advent of Cyrus finds them 
fanatical monotheists, worshipping ]" . alone. Only 
such events as the deliverance of the three Heb. 
youths, and of D., cd. explain this change of mental 
attitude. 

Cyrus singled out the Jews for special treatment ; 
the gods of other peoples were sent back to their re 
spective countries ; the Jews alone were restored to 
their own land. Religious sympathy mt. explain 
this favour, if Cyrus were a monotheist, wh. is 
doubtful. If, however, he learned fm. D. what J". 
had done for His people, he mt. regard the God of 
the Jews as a great and terrible God, whom it mt. 
be well to propitiate. 

(2) Internal Evidences. The bk. is ascribedto D., 
who,but for it, wd. be an inconspicuous person. His 
mention by Ek. wd. tend to place him among the 
anct. patriarchs of the race. The statements in D. 
answer to facts now known, wh. had been forgotten 
as early as the Gr. period. The author knows of 
Belshazzar. Josephus, with Berosus before him, 
knew not that Nabunahid had a s. so named, and 
presumes Belshazzar to be another name of Nabu 
nahid himself. 

That Belshr. calls Nebuchadr. fr. , does not prove the 
author s ignorance, for his acquaintce. with Jr. must be 
assumed ; and there (S2. :il ) Evilmerodach is the immediate 
successor and presumably the s. of Nebuchadr. This is 
proved by the contract tablets. In Asyr. usage, the suc 
cessor of a famous man was regarded as his s. Shalmaneser 
II. calls Jehu the s. of Omri. This was not due to ignor 
ance; Asyr. monarchs had ample means of information 
regarding their subject allies (2 K. i8.~). Hence in this 
sense Bekhr. was the s. of Nebuchadr. 

The writer says nothing of a siege of Bab. Hero 
dotus and Xenophon, who had special advantages 
for knowing Persian affairs, tell of a siege, and the 



turning aside of the waters of the Euphrates, so that 
the Persians entered by the river bed. These his 
torians differ so widely as to the hist, of Cyrus, that 
agreement here might almost seem proof of accu 
racy. Yet inscrs. by Cyrus prove that Bab. was 
betrayed to the Persians without a siege. How did 
the writer of D. escape the snare into wh. Josephus 
fell ? 

In D. persons are designated by symbols, intelli 
gible in the Bab. or early Persian period, wh. wd. 
not be understood in the Gr. period. In the vision 
of the " Ram " and the " He-goat," Alexr. the Gt. 
appears as a one-horned he-goat, Persia, the power 
he overthrows, being a two-horned ram ; yet Alexr. 
chose to declare himself the s. of Jupiter Ammon, 
and, on his coins, assumes the two ram s horns. All 
through the hither East this was known as the cog 
nisance of Alexr. Mohammed, in the Qur an, calls 
him Iskander dhu l-Qarnain, " Alexr. of the two 
horns." After the conquest of Egp., when he as 
sumed this symbol, to designate him as a goat and to 
transfer to Persia his own chosen symbol, the two- 
horned ram, wd. be unintelligible. 

We can more easily follow the action of Meltzar 
with regard to the Heb. youths, if they sat in 
messes of four, accdg. to Asyr. custom, than if they 
reclined like the Greeks, on couches, in groups of 
nine or twelve ; as in the former case the pecu 
liarity of the food they ate wd. not be noticed, 
whereas it cd. not escape notice in the latter. 
Authors in anct. days did not aim at antiquarian 
accuracy ; they transferred with careless freedom 
their own customs to other times and countries. 

The writer leaves unexplained matters wh. to contem 
poraries required no explanation, but wh. mt. prove enigmas 
to a subsequent age. He knew Jr., and therefore knew 
that Evilmerodach was Nebuchadr. s successor and s. 
Why then, it is asked, does he make Belshazzar call 
Nebuchadr. his fr. ? Contemporaries did not need to be 
told in what sense Belshr. was Nebuchadr. s s. If D. had 
been a fiction, written for men presumably familiar with Jr. 
and 2 K., the author wd. have been bound to explain why 
he gave Nebuchadr. a s. and successor difft. fm. the one 
mentioned in these accredited histories. 

Why, it is often asked, did D. not return to Pal., under 
the decree of Cyrus? If D. is a contemporary nar., the 
reasons may have been too obvious to require mention. If 
it were written long after, silence is inexplicable. So to 
contemporaries, explanation of D s. absence fm. the trial of 
his three friends wd. have been superfluous. 

Darius the Mede in the nar. has long been a diffi 
culty. Josephus idents. him with the 2nd Cyaxares, 
s. of Astyages, uncle of Cyrus, mentioned only in 
Xenophon s Cyroptzdia. But if the writer of D. 
borrowed fm. Xenophon, why did he change the 
name to Darius ? The author of Bel naively as 
signs the role of Darius in the story of the lions den 
to Cyrus. Why did the writer of D. not explain 
who " Darius the Mede " was ? This is intelligible 
if, as Dr. Pinches thinks, DARIUS stands for Gobryas 
scribes who knew of Darius but not of Gobaru 
having changed the unknown into the well-known. 



Dan 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dan 



Dara (Darius) is to this day in the E. a name 
suggestive of magnificence, showing how deeply 
the imagination of the E. was impressed by the 
monarchs of that name. 

The writer s geographical kge. suits the period of 
D. The writer of Esther knows of India in the E., 
and the writer of I M. knows of Rm. in the W. 
The writer of D. knows only of Javan and Chittim 
(Asia Minor and Cyprus) in the W., and Media and 
Persia in the E. His kge. in other directions suits 
the traditional D. He knows of Jr., the law of 
Moses, and Solomon s prayer ; but not of the later 
bks. E?.., Ne., Est., Hg., Zc., and Ml. These 
reasons appear to us convincing, but others mt. be 
adduced. 

As to date, we must choose either the traditional 
date, making the writer approximately contempo 
rary with the events ; or the critical, i.e. the Macca- 
baean period. The latter is impossible. In the 
Maccabaean period great importance is attached 
to the ceremonial law, circumcision, avoidance of 
swine s flesh, observance of feasts, &c. In D. cir 
cumcision is not mentioned ; nor is swine s flesh, 
although it mt. have been effectively introduced as 
rejected by the four hostages. Feasts are disre 
garded ; D. fasts over the feast of the Passover 
(lo. 3f -). The date of his fasting is mentioned, but 
not its coincidence with the Passover. The Law of 
Moses is referred to, but the bk. of the law enjoys no 
special reverence ; whereas in Maccabasan times, 
the Greek attempt to destroy them had lent to 
copies of the law a peculiar sanctity. Further, 
D. s mental attitude to Nebuchadr. is very difft. 
fm. that of the Jews to Antiochus, as revealed in the 
bks. of the Maccabees. D. accepts the quasi wor 
ship offered by the k., a thing repugnant to the 
pious Jew of later times (Ac. I4. 11 18 ). 

(3) Objections. These all aim to prove that D. 
was written, not by a contemporary of the alleged 
events, but by a Maccabaean author. It is con 
tended that D. s position among the Kethublm, not 
the Prophets, is proof of lateness. This assumes : 
(a) That the Jews judged as late the bks. placed in 
the third division of their Canon ; a view refuted 
by a simple study of the reputed authors, (b) That 
they always placed D. there ; contrary to the 
evidence of LXX, Josephus, Melito, Psh., and NT. 
(Mw. 24. 15 ; Mk. I3. 14 ). The real question is, 
What led the Rabbis of Jerome s time to remove D. 
fm. the Prophets to the Hagiographa ? It was done 
on literary grounds. Lamentations, attributed to 
Jr., is placed among the " writings." If the Jews 
thought canonical any writing by a prophet origi 
nating before the death of Artaxerxes Longimanus 
(Jos. cont. Ap. i. 8),* we cd. at once claim for D. a 



* With Jos. the Kfthiibim consist of only four bks., wh. 
"contain hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of 
human life." 



date in the early Persian period. Josephus prin 
ciple most easily explains the exclusion of Sr. fm. 
the Canon, and the inclusion of Est., the inclusion 
of SS., and exclusion of Ws. 

Certain anachronisms are alleged in D. Nebuchadnezzar 
is said to have captured Jrs. in the third yr. of Jehoiakim, 
whereas the firstof Nebuchadnezzar coincided with the fourth 
of Jehoiakim. Hut the fourth yr. in Jewish wd. be the third 
in Bab. reckoning. Fm. Berosus act. Nebuchadnezzar must 
have taken Jrs. before he ascended the throne. Again, 
the Chaldeans are represented as magicians, a meaning 
attached to that term first in Rm. times. If this reading 
were right, D. must be dated after the capture of Jrs. 
by Titus ! A correction of the text is clearly necessary. 
The text of the LXX does not make the Chaldeans a class 
of magicians. 

It is said (Dn. 4. 8 ) that D. was named " Belte- 
shazzar, accdg. to the name of my god." This is 
held to prove the writer s ignorance of Asyr., as 
Belteshazzar has no connection with Bel. But in 
all the VV., the Bab. name of D. is " Belshazzar." 
The change was evidently made that a Heb. prophet 
mt. not appear with the name of a heathen god 
(cp. Jg. l8. 30 ). For objections based on the names 
of musical instruments (Dn. 3.), see DULCIMER, 
PSALTERY, SACKBUT. Most other difficulties, prop, 
understood, really support our conclusion, that D. 
is essentially authentic. 

Interpretation. This concerns the view to be 
taken of the Four Monarchies, and the Seventy 
Weeks, (a) The Four Monarchies. Taking the 
image Nebuchadr. saw, and the Four Beasts of D. 
(Dn. 2., 7.), what kdm. is intended by the Fourth ? 
The traditional view places, first, the Bab. ; 
second, the Medo-Persian ; third, the Greek ; and 
fourth, the Roman. The gen. Critical view places, 
first, the Bab. ; second, the Median ; third, the 
Persian ; and fourth, the Greek ; thus splitting the 
Medo-Persian. But the writer seems almost to 
have taken pains to make this splitting impossible. 
By the " two arms " of the dream statue and the 
beast " that raised itself up on one side " he clearly 
presents the Empire as one, with two dominant 
but kindred races, that wh. last attains prominence 
becoming supreme. Of an empire ruled by two 
kindred peoples, what symbol cd. be clearer than 
that of the ram, wh. had " two horns, and the horns 
were high, but one was higher than the other, and 
the higher came up last " ? Again, Darius Hys- 
taspis is called " k. of the Persians and the Medes " 
in I M. I. 1 . Even if the Critical date of D. were 
accepted, a view wh. contradicts that of the author, 
and those prevalent among the Jews in the Macca- 
basan period, can hardly be correct. 

Another Critical expedient to escape the tradi 
tional view is to distinguish the personal empire of 
Alexr. fm. that of his successors, esp. the Seleucidac. 
But the writer (Dn. 9.), and the Maccabaean Jews 
(l M. I. 1 , 6. 2 ), regarded the whole reign of the 
Greeks as one. 



123 



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Dar 



The main obstacles to the acceptance of thetradi- 
tional view are a priori ideas of the nat. of prophecy. 
There is no proof that the prophet must only speak 
what primarily appealed to his immediate audience ; 
and we cannot discard the predictive element in 
prophecy, the purpose of wh. was stated by Jesus 
(Jn. I3- 19 , I4- 29 ). It must indeed be in terms con 
veying some definite ideas to the hearers ; but un 
less predictive prophecy is denied, there is no valid 
objection to idcntg. the Fourth Alonarchy withRm. 

Corruption of the text as shown in various rdgs. 
of the VV., e?p. the LXX, makes it harder to inter 
pret the prophecy of the Seventy Weeks. The 
Critics assume that " the going forth of the com 
mandment to restore and to build Jrs." (Dn. (). 25 ) 
is Jr. s prophecy of its destruction ; at least the cal 
culations usly. start fm. B.C. 586. That daberT shd. 
mean " prophecy of " is unexampled. The nat. 
and traditional meaning, " commandment," " de 
cree," agrees with the universal rendering of yatza 
dabar (Dn. 9- 23 ), " the comdt. went forth." The 
"weeks" are generally regarded as "weeks of yrs."; 
70 weeks = 490 yrs. As Cyrus decree, permitting 
the return and rebuilding of the Temple, said 
nothing of rebuilding the city, we must come down 
to the decrees of Artaxerxes 8th and 2Oth yrs. 
(B.C. 457 and B.C. 445 respectively) ; the latter dis 
tinctly commanding the rebuilding of the walls ; 
this wd. bring the times into relatively close agree 
ment. We must remember that prophetic times 
are not measured with astronomical accuracy. 
Jr. s " 70 yrs." of captivity are represented by 59, 
if we count fm. the carrying away of Jeconiah, 
B.C. 597, to Cyrus decree, B.C. 538 ; by 66, if we 
start fm. Jehoiakim s submission to Nebuchadr. 
The problem also, as we have seen, is complicated 
by corruption of the text. 

All Versions of value for the text of D. are earlier 
than the 6th cent. : (a) LXX, preserved in the 
Chigi MS., fm. a text differing much fm. MT., 
sometimes modified to suit Thd., c. B.C. I ^o. 
(Z<) Theodotion, representing the Pal. text of 
Origen s time, (c] Peshitta, Syr., c. A.n. 120; 
nearer MT. than Thd. (d) The Vulgate (Jerome), 
genly. agreeing with MT. There is also the Coptic 
trn. fm. Thd., interesting for an additional nth 
chap., and Paulus Tellensis trn. fm. LXX. 

All commentaries written before the Asyr. and 
Bab. discoveries are valueless, (a) Taking the Con 
servative view : Pusey, Lccts. on D. ; Keil, Daniel 
(tr. Clark, Ednr.) ; /Cockier, Daniel (Lange s 
Bibelwerk, tr. Clark) ; Fuller, Daniel (Speaker s C.) ; 
Lcnormant, La Divination ; Thomson, Darnel 
(Pulpit C.) ; Wright, /). and bis Prophecies, D. and 
bis Critics. () Taking the Critical view : the 
Comm. of Meinhold ; Bevan, Bk. of D. ; Marti ; 
Behrman ; Driver (Cambridge Com. ). 

DAX-JAAX (2 S. 24. 6 ). The text is corrupt. 



See 



vill. 



Klostermann suggs. a rdg. " Dan and Ijon." 
DAN. 

DANNATI (Jo. I5. 49 ), prob. = Idbnah y a 
S.W. of Hebron. 

DARIC. See MONEY. 

DARIUS, (i) "The Median" (Dn. q 
There are several suggestions as to who this 
(a) Cyaxares II., uncle of Cyrus, _ 
only known fm. Xenophon s 
romance, the Cyropfsdia. The 
circumstances wd. suit, but there 
is considerable doubt of his his 
toric existence. (Z>) Astyages. 
Although both Herodotus and 
Ctesias tell us that Cyrus treated 
him with mildness, they have no 
hint that he made him governor 
of Babylon, (c} Cyrus. In the 
Apocryphal Add. to Dn., " Bel 
and the Dragon," Cyrus casts 
Daniel into the Lions Den ; 
the age and char, do not suit. 
(d) Gobryas (Gobaru). This is the sugg. of Dr. 
Pinches ; on the whole it seems the most prob. 
ident. We know that he was appointed governor 
of Babylon, and that he appointed under-governors. 
That he is called D. is probably due to a scribal 
blunder. (2) D. Hystaspis ; the Persian k. under 




DARIUS 




TOMB OF DARIUS HYSTASPIS 

whom Zerubbabel returned to Palestine. He had 
ascended the throne on the death of the usurper 
Smerdis ; he organised the Persian Empire and 
made the first Persian attempt to conquer Greece. 



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(3) D. the Persian (Ne. I2. 22 ), prob. Codomannus, 
who was overthrown by Alexr. the Gt. 

DART. See ARMS. 

DATHAN AND ABIRAM (Nu. I6. 1 ) were 
Reubenites associated with Korah in rebellion agst. 
Moses. D. and A. are genly. named with Korah, 
but prob. their rebellion had a political, not 
like Korah s, a sacerdotal reference ; the place of 
Reuben, Jacob s first-born, being usurped by Judah 
and Ephraim. 

DAUGHTER (Heb. bath] is in Scrip, any female 
desct. (Gn. 24. 48 , &c.) ; in the pi., the women of a 
nation (Gn. ay. 46 , &c.). The D. of any art, e.g. 
music, is a female devoted to it (Ec. I2. 4 ). Some 
times D. stands for a city (Is. 52. 2 ), for town or vill. 
depending on a " mother city " (Nu. 2I. 25 , Heb.). 
See FAMILY. 

DAVID (" beloved "), youngest s. of Jesse, who 
was apparently a well-to-do farmer in Bethlehem. 
No mention is made of his mr. His fr. was already 
an old man in the days of Saul (l S. IJ. 12 ). The 
family consisted of 8 sons and 2 drs. (i S. i6. lof -, 
ij. 12 ; 2 S. I/. 25 in this last verse for " Nahash," 
read " Jesse "). D. s sr., ZERUIAH, was mr. of JOAB, 
ABISHAI, and ASAHEL ; and ABIGAIL was mr. of the 
unfortunate AMASA. These four nephews of D. 
became soldiers of ability and distinction, playing no 
mean part in a time wh. was rich in heroic men. 

Of D. s parents almost nothing is known (see 
JESSE). His fr. s ancestry is of course given in the 
genealogies ; and Jewish tradition says that Jesse 
was a weaver of sacred carpets, who also farmed cert, 
lands near Bethlehem (Tg.Jn. on ^ S. 2i. 19 ). When 
first mentioned D. was occupied guarding his fr. s 
sheep ; a task often performed by the younger 
members of the family (l S. i6. u ). He is described 
as " ruddy, and withal of a beautiful countenance, 
and goodly to look upon." It is not clear that 
D. or his relatives understood the significance of 
Samuel s anointing. That it signified a cert, pre 
ference they cd. not doubt. This may have some 
what qualified brotherly relationships. Eliab s 
speech (l S. IJ. 28 ) wd. hardly have been addressed 
to one whom he knew as the destined k. of Isr. It is 
appropriate enough as the expression of a jealous 
heart. But fm. the day of anointing we read that 
" the Spt. of the Lord came mightily upon D." 

With the material at our disposal it is impossible 
to construct a continuous and self-consistent nar. of 
D. s early yrs. 

To explain the apparent discrepancies several expedients 
have been tried. The simplest is to assume that we have 
here bits of separate and independent accounts, thrown 
together by the hand of a scribe. If this is so he seems 
to have done the work rather clumsily, with a strange 
lack of intelligence, leaving very obvious difficulties to 
puzzle his readers. Not that all difficulties of wh. mod. 
scholars write have any real existence. In such a com 
pressed nar. we need not be surprised to find that the youth 
of the earlier verses in a chapter is the valiant soldier of the 



later. But it is staggering to learn that the skilful harper of 
chap. 16. , whose music charms away the evil spirit fm. the 
k. the mighty man of valour, beloved of Saul, and made 
the royal armcur-bearer is the youth of chap. 17. .apparently 
with< ut experience of war, unknown to the k., and even to 
Abner : strange surely if he had been the k. s armour-bearer. 
The statement that " D. went to and fro fm. Saul to feed 
his fr. s sheep at Bethlehem," is regarded as a harmonistic 
insertion (17. 15 ). 

This theory takes the incidents that resemble each other 
as " doublets," i.e. independent versions of the same events : 
e.g. i S. iS.W-and 19.%. ; i S. io. loff - and ig.^f. 

The difficulties are not of modern clihct very. Prof. 
Robertson Smith thcught that LXX. B. preserved the 
original text (OTJ C. l i25ff.). Itomitsvv. 12-31,41,50,55-58 
of chap. i7.,andvv. 1-5 of chap. 18. A continuous and self- 
consistent nar. is thus secured : but the process suspiciously 
resembles an effort to get over c ifficulties by ignoring them : 
and critical opinion inclines to regard this simply as an 
early attempt to harmonise chaps. 16. and 17. 

We must remember that the records are extremely scanty. 
In the light cf ampler information no longer available, what 
seem to us discrepancies in the statements made, may have 
had no existence for the writer. 

The youthful shepherd found time in the leisure 
of his days on the uplands to make himself master 
of the harp ; an accomplishment turned to act., as 
we have seen, in soothing the paroxysms of the 
insane k. This secured for D. his introduction to 
the court : and here his wisdom and discretion, not 
less than his gifts, won for him a position of dignity 
and trust (i S. i6. 14ff -)- 

The engrossments of a war with the Phil., who 
invaded the country, seem to have roused afresh the 
better nat. of the k., and D. was free for a longer 
period to return to his work at home. His elder 
brs. were at the war, where, one feels, Saul s 
armour-bearer ought to have been. But we do 
not know the terms of the relationship between the 
young soldier and the monarch. 

The two armies lay over agst. each other in the 
Vale of ELAH. Goliath of Gath, the giant cham 
pion of the Phil., struck terror into the heart of Isr., 
and daily, with insulting challenges, cast reproach 
on Isr. s God. D., whom his fr. had sent with pro- 
vi?ion for his brs., heard the loud boasting of the 
Phil., accepted his challenge, and, rejecting Saul s 
armour as untried, with the clear eye and steady 
hand of the shepherd, and the shepherd s simple 
sling and stone, vanquished the braggart, carry 
ing away the giant s head in triumph. The dis 
heartened Phil, fled before pursuing Isr. to the gates 
of Ekron. 

D. s victory carried the right to marriage with 
the k. s dr. (i S. IJ. 25 ). Saul, recognising his value, 
attached him permanently to his person ; and 
between D. and Jonathan, the k. s son, an affec 
tion sprang up wh. was as strong and tender as it 
was romantic and beautiful. 

When the stir and excitement of war were over, 
Saul s darker moods began to return, and the chival 
rous monarch becomes the jealous and truculent 
despot. The women welcomed the army returning 
fm. the battle, and in their songs gave due meed 



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of praise to the brave young soldier whose heroic 
venture had brought deliverance to Isr. 

" Saul hath slain his thousands, 
And David his ten thousands." 

This was beyond what the proud spt. of the k. cd. 
brook. " What can he have more but the kdm. ? " 
And so the tree was planted wh. was destined to 
bear such bitter fruit. 

Distrust and hatred of D. brought a new ele 
ment of disturbance into the distressed mind of the 
k., inducing attacks of fren/y no longer subj. to the 
influence of music. Twice he sought to kill the 
minstrel with his javelin. Failure convinced him 
that D. in some way was under divine protection, 
and filled his heart with fear. His supposed foe was 
therefore removed fm. the royal presence and given 
a command in the army, where he won golden 
opinions fm. all. Saul, observing, " stood in awe 
of him." 

Saul then offered D. the hand of his dr. Merab, 
to wh. he was already entitled, on condition that 
" thou be valiant for me, and fight the Lord s 
battles " ; in the hope that Phil, spears mt. succeed 
where his own had failed. But, fickle in purpose as 
erring in aim, he soon gave Merab to another. 

Michal, Saul s younger dr., loved the gallant and 
popular young captain. Saul heard of this with 
pleasure, and schemed to make it a means of getting 
rid of D. The latter was nothing loth to become 
the k. s s.-in-law. As a poor man he was delighted 
to learn that to provide the dowry required he had 
but to slaughter IOO Phil. Saul s treacherous plot 
miscarried : the dowry was provided twice over : 
Michal became the w. of D. " Saul was yet the 
more afraid of D.," but also, apparently, yet the 
more his enemy. 

Jonathan refused to be D. s executioner, and per 
suaded his fr. for a time to relent. But a new 
victory won by D., bringing, doubtless, a fresh ac 
cess of popularity, roused the evil passion again, and, 
failing once more to transfix his victim, he sent his 
guards to D. s house to despatch him. Michal con 
trived her h. s escape, and he fled to Samuel, in 
Ramah. Company after company sent by Saul, 
and finally the k. himself, finding D. there with 
Samuel and the prophets, were overwhelmed by the 
Spt. of God and themselves prophesied. Thus pro 
tected, D. fled once more ; and having learned, by 
signs agreed upon with Jonathan, that Saul s wrath 
was implacable, sought thenceforward to avoid 
personal contact with the k. Kindness shown to 
the fugitive by the priests at NOB brought dire 
vengeance upon them (see DOEG). Thence D. 
took the sword of Goliath. Girded with this 
weapon, his visit to Gath looks like foolhardiness. 
Of course he was recognised, and his preservation 
was due to his own ready wit, and skill in simulating 
madness. 



Retiring to the cave of ADULLAM, his retreat 
became a gathering-place for the distressed, debtors, 
and discontented, and soon he found himself at the 
head of about 400 men. Provision for his parents 
safety was made in Moab ; an arrangement doubt 
less facilitated by the kindly relations of a past 
generation (Ru. I. 1 , &c.). 

At the instance of the prophet Gad, D. went up 
to the forest of HARETH, where he was joined by 
Abiathar, the sole survivor of the massacre of the 
priests at Nob. D. then turned his arms agst. the 
Phil., who had attacked KEILAH. Inquiring of God 
by means of the cphod Abiathar had brought, he 
learned that the men of Kcilah, the city he had 
rescued, were ready to hand him over to Saul. He 
therefore departed with his followers, numbering 
now about 600, and " remained in a mountain in 
the wilderness of ZIPH." Here he was encouraged 
by an interview with Jonathan ; but the Ziphites 
sought to betray him to Saul, and he narrowly 
escaped capture in the wilderness of MAON, at " the 
rock of escape," Saul being called away at a critical 
moment to meet a raid of the Phil. 

These two instances of loyalty to Saul illustrate 
the hold wh. that great k. still had upon his people s 
hearts, despite the darkness and oppression of these 
days. 

D. then took refuge in the fastnesses around EN- 
GEDI. There Saul inadvertently fell into his power. 
D. s forbearance and chivalry appealed to what of 
good was still in the distracted monarch, who with 
tears confessed his wickedness, and his conviction 
that D. wd. " surely be k." Having extracted fm. 
D. an oath of kindness to his seed when he shd. 
come to the throne, Saul went home (l S. 24.). 

A function of great value was performed by D. 
and his men to the flockmasters in the wide pastures 
of the wilderness, in protecting their property agst. 
marauders. This service was gladly acknowledged 
by gifts of food, &c. Such acknowledgment NABAL 
of CAR MEL churlishly refused, and owed his preser 
vation to the tact and skill of his beautiful w. 
ABIGAIL. And on the death of Nabal, Abigail 
became the w. of D. He also married AHINOAM of 
Jezreel. Meantime Saul had given D. s w. Michal 
to Phalli (i 8.25.). 

Returning to the pursuit of D., guided by the 
Ziphites, Saul once more fell into D. s power, and 
again D. s forbearance melted for the time the k. s 
heart (26.). But D., despairing of safety in the 
land of Isr., betook himself to Achish, k. of Gath, 
who assigned the town of Ziklag to D. and his 600 
men. Here they remained a yr. and four months. 
Raids upon the Geshurites and others were reported 
to Achish as attacks upon Judah, &c. He therefore 
thought an irreparable breach had been made 
between the refugees and their own people (27.). 

We can only conjecture D. s purpose in agreeing 



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to march with the Phil, to war agst. Isr. If he 
assisted the Phil., clearly he must resign all hope of 
the crown of Isr. He may have intended, as the 
lords of the Phil, thought, to fall away to Saul when 
the battle opened. In any case the suspicions of 
these men delivered him fm. an awkward situation. 
Despite the confidence of Achish, D. and his men 
were sent back (29.). In their absence the Amale- 
kites had raided and burnt Ziklag, carrying off all 
the women and children. A swift pursuit, a sudden 
and unexpected attack, and that raid was avenged. 
Women, children, and all their property were re 
covered. A timely gift of the spoil taken fm. the 
Amalekites, to the elders in various cities of Judah, 
wd. pave the way for the return of the exile (30). 

Two days later came the news of Isr. s crushing 
defeat, and the death of Saul and his sons. An 
Amalekite, who brought to D. the k. s crown and 
bracelet, claiming to have slain Saul, was at once 
ordered to execution. D. and his men were cast in 
great grief, and his personal sorrow over Saul and 
Jonathan found expression in the most pathetic and 
beautiful of the world s elegies (2 S. I.). 

D. s reputation no doubt preceded him on his 
return to HEBRON, and there he was chosen, appa 
rently with unanimity, k. of Judah, remaining prob. 
a vassal of the Phil. ABNER had meantime set up 
ISHBOSHETH as k. over Isr. in MAHANAIM. The 
troops of the rival monarchs met at Gibeon, under 
Joab and Abner, when the latter was beaten ; and 
in the war wh. ensued, the supremacy of D. was 
gradually asserted (2 S. 2., 3. 1 ). 

As a mark of his growing dignity D. increased his 
harim, and six sons were born to him in Hebron. 

Abner does not seem to have been a good 
champion of a failing cause. A reproach fm. Ish- 
bosheth decided him to cast in his lot with D., and 
his weak master was not in a position to resist him. 
Michal was restored at D. s desire. The presence of 
Saul s dr. in his hanm mt. strengthen the apparent 
legitimacy of his claims. Abner came to an under 
standing with D. and proceeded with arrangements 
for the transfer of the kdm., when he was treache 
rously entrapped and murdered by Joab : doubtless 
fm. fear lest Abner s influence with D. shd. eclipse 
his own, altho the ostensible motive was revenge 
for AsahePs death. D. s grief was deep and sincere ; 
but he cd. venture no more than to curse the man 
who had done the foul deed. He had already 
found one thorn in the crown he wore (3.). 

Ishbosheth was murdered by the two sons of 
Rimmon, who brought his head to D., and received 
the reward they merited. Ishbosheth s head was 
buried in the grave of Abner (4.). 

It was now recognised that D. was the only 
possible k. of Isr., and the tribes, assembling at 
Hebron, practically gave effect to a foregone con 
clusion by electing him. Then, doubtless, allegiance 



to the Phil, was renounced. The choice of a 
capital more central and easier of defence than 
Hebron was clearly necessary. The city JEBUS ad 
mirably met these conditions. The stronghold 
called Zion was taken by storm, and there arose the 
fortifications of the City of David (see JERUSALEM), 
and the workmen of Tynan Hiram built a palace for 
the k. D. also still further enlarged his harlm. 

The Phil. cd. not view with complacency the ad 
vancement of their erewhile vassal. They invaded 
the country apparently before his fortifications were 
complete, and he retired to " the hold " prob. 
Adullam (l S. 22. 4 ). To this time must be assigned 
the incident recorded in 2 S. 23. 14ff - Acting under 
Divine direction he twice defeated the enemy with 
great slaughter (2 S. 5.). 

D. s next step was to bring up the ARK fm. Kir- 
jath-jearim to Jrs. Progress was interrupted by the 
tragedy at the threshing-floor of Nachon, and the 
Ark was left for a time in the house of OBED-EDOM. 
The blessing it brought there encouraged the k. to 
complete his task, and place it in the tent he had 
pitched for it in Jrs. What seemed to Michal his 
extravagant enthusiasm on this occasion provoked 
her contempt, for wh. she fell into the k. s dis 
favour (6.). 

The duties assigned to the Levites in the re 
organised service are indicated in I Ch. 15., 16.. 
where D. s psalm of thanksgiving is preserved 
(i6. 7 - 36 ). 

While his purpose was reckoned to him for 
righteousness, D. was not permitted to build a 
temple for the Ark. The reason is explicitly stated 
in I Ch. 22. 8 . But great blessing was promised to 
him and to his house, and he was urged to prepare 
materials for the temple to be built by his s. This 
he did, in great abundance (l Ch. 22. 2 5 , &c.). 

Kindly memory of old friendship led D. to make 
generous provision for Jonathan s son, MEPHIBO- 
SHETH. A long-standing blood-feud between the 
house of Saul and the Gibeonites was settled by 
handing over to the latter two of that monarch s 
sons by RIZPAH, and five sons of his dr. Alcrab a 
striking illustration of the recognised solidarity of 
the KIN. D. also brought the bones of Saul and 
Jonathan fm. Jabesh-gilcad, and laid them in the 
sepulchre of Kish (2 S. 2 1. 1 14 ). 

The Phil, were completely subdued, D. taking 
" the bridle of the mother city fm. them." The 
Moabites shared a similar fate, becoming tributary. 
D. also defeated Hadadezer (or Hadarezer), k. of 
Zobah, and his allies of Damascus, carrying away 
rich booty. Garrisons were placed in the territory 
of Damascus, ard its people brought tribute. Toi, 
k. of Hamath, thankful for deliverance fm. Hadad- 
czer, sent his s. with generous gifts to D. The 
spoils of this campaign, together with those taken 
fm. the other peoples whom he had conquered, D. 



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dedicated to J". A great victory was gained over 
the Aramaeans in the Valley of Salt (2 S. 8. 1 13 ). The 
Edomites also were brought low, Joab remaining in 
Edom for six months to complete its subjugation 
(8. 14 ; I K. il. 14ff -). This opened for Isr. the ap 
proach to the Red Sea. 

Hanun of Ammon grossly insulted the messengers 
sent by D. with a message of sympathy on the death 
of his fr. This cd. have but one result war. The 
army of Isr. under Joab and Abishai defeated the 
Ammonites and such allies as they were able to 
gather. The Ammonites retired within the walls 
of Rabba. Hadadezer made a rally in the far north, 
but was decisively overthrown by D. at HELAM : 
Shobach, the captain of his host, being among the 
slain (10.). 

Rabbah was now closely besieged under the direc 
tion of Joab. D., remaining in Jrs., fell under the 
spell of BATHSHEBA, and incurred the infamy of 
Uriah s treacherous murder. Bathsheba became 
D. s w., and bare him a s. who, as a mark of God s 
displeasure, was not permitted to live. Her second 
s., Solomon, was destined to be D. s successor 

(II. -IZ. 25 ). 

Rabbah was finally taken, and the crown of Mai- 
cam * poss. an idol was placed on D. s head. 
The inhabitants, if not tortured, were at least 
humiliated. Sec HARROW. 

After his great sin D. s life was shadowed by 
many trials, arising fm. his own family circle. 
Amnon s dastardly outrage, and Absalom s grimly 
waited-for revenge, must have burdened the royal 
heart. ABSALOM, whom he loved, must needs de 
part fm. his fr. s presence, inflicting thus a double 
bereavement. That prince used the opportunities 
brought by restoration and reconciliation to con 
spire agst. the k. who loved him all too well. So 
strong was the support given to Absalom s unex 
pected rising that the aged D. fled, amid the jeers 
and insults of ungenerous foes, to MAHANAIM. 
AHITHOPHEL S wise counsel having been thwarted 
by the crafty Hushai, time was found for assembling 
the army wh. overwhelmed the prince s troops in 
the forest of Ephraim. Absalom s death ended the 
rebellion ; but it also broke his fr. s heart. D. s 
unrestrained grief for his s. depressed the spirits of 
his followers, and but for Joab s rough but timely 
and kind remonstrance, it mt. yet have gone hard 
with him. 

For the anarchy prevailing in Isr. as a result of 
the rebellion, the only cure was the return of the k. 
Judah was the first to welcome him. The men of 
Benjamin also came, with Shimei, whom D. forgave. 
He then rewarded such as had shown him kindness 



* In Heb. only the vowels distinguish between " their 
king" and " their Molech." The crown worn by their king 
may have been called " the crown of tht-ir Molech," as that 
of Hungary was called " the crown of St. Stephen." 



in the day of his sore adversity. The other tribes, 
however, professed offence because Judah had fore 
stalled them in bringing back the k., and Sheba, s. of 
Bichri, a Benjamite, summoned them to a fresh 
rising agst. D. and Judah. D. had not forgiven 
Joab, whose hand had slain the rebel prince. 
Amasa, therefore, was sent to gather the men of 
Judah within three days for the conflict. Amasa 
delayed, and D., fearing lest Sheba shd. have time 
to strengthen his position, despatched the men who 
were with him under Abishai to pursue him. Joab, 
of course, was in the company. At Gibeon they 
met Amasa, and Joab, who cd. brook no rival, here 
covered his name with still deeper infamy by the 
treacherous murder of his cousin. Then, assuming 
command, he stamped out the revolt with his usual 
skill and promptitude (2 S. 20.). 

A psalm, attributed to D. in the day that the Lord 
delivered him fm. the hand of all his enemies, is pre 
served in chap. 22. In chap. 23. a short psalm 
(vv. 1-7), also attributed to D., introduces an act. 
of D. s mighty men and their exploits. 

Two lists are given of D. s administrative officers 
(8. 16 18 , 2o. 23ff> ), with slight variations. The latter 
may be taken as the fuller, poss. the original. Joab 
is commander-in-chief of the army ; Benaiah is 
captain of the guard ; Adoram has charge of the 
" levy," or " forced labour," always a feature of 
Eastern despotism ; Jehoshaphat was the mazklr : 
this has been understood as " recorder " or " anna 
list " ; more prob. he was the counsellor who kept 
the k. informed as to the course of public affairs ; 
Zadok and Abiathar the companion of D. s exile 
were over the priests, evidently holding their ap 
pointment fm. the k. In the first list some priestly 
function appears to be assigned to D. s sons ; in 
the second, their place is taken by Ira, the Jairite. 

D. s bodyguard consisted of foreigners ; CHERE- 
THITES, prob. ident. with Phil., and PELETHITES, not 
identd. I Ch. 27. gives an act. of the army as 
organised by D., the warriops of the different tribes 
going out for exercise in a fixed rotation, so that 
there were always 24,000 men under arms. Six 
officers were entrusted with the management of the 
k. s property ; and the names are given of those who 
formed the royal council. Levites were appointed 
for the administration of justice (i Ch. 23- 4 ). 
Elaborate arrangements were made for the conduct 
of the services of the Sanctuary (l Ch. 23.!?.). 
The chronicler s act. of the great k. s work, although 
written much later, was doubtless derived fm. 
reliable sources. 

Anything in the nat. of a census or registration 
has always been regarded with suspicion in the East, 
as furnishing rulers with an instrument for fresh ex 
tortion or oppression. That proposed by D. en 
countered a storm of opposition. Sorely agst. their 
will, Joab and his officers had to carry it out. This 



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distasteful work, in wh. the numbering of Levi and them. But the case is not proved ; and we must 
Benjamin was omitted, occupied 9 months and 20 remember that there was a fierce strain in D. s 
days : the men of war in Isr. were reported as blood ; while both Joab and Shimei had richly 
800,000, those of Judah 500,000. The Chronicler deserved their fate. 

gives 1,000,000 and 470,000 respectively (2 S. 2^.. in - ; The complexity of D. s char, makes any fair and 
I Ch. 2i. lff -). God s displeasure at this impious adequate estimate difficult, if not impossible. In 
enterprise brought a pestilence by wh. 70,000 men some respects he seems almost the combination 
perished, and the very existence of Jrs. was im- of opposites. He is highly spiritual, and grossly 
perilled. The penitent k. bought the threshing- sensual. Now he is impulsive and generous ; 
floor of Araunah, where the angel of destruction had again he is a man of calculating duplicity. He can 
paused, and offered sacrifice there, whereby " the show a fine chivalrous regard for what is good even 
Lord was entreated for the land, and the plague was in his enemies, restraining his hand when he has 
stayed fm. Isr." (2 S. 24. ; I Ch. 21.). them in his power ; but at other times the ferocity 

Coverings were not sufficient to warm the spent of his Semitic nature flashes forth in his treatment 
frame of the aged k., so the young Shunammite, of fallen foes. 

Abishag, was brought to " cherish " the old man. It is usual to say that D. must be tried by the 
f. standards of his own time. This is true. Compared 

with the monarchs who ruled the nations around 
him, D. might come out well. But the influence of 
his age will not act. for everything. In one matter 
his great predecessor set him an example he wd. 
have done well to follow (i S. I4- 50 ). 

Others defend D. on the ground that if he was a 
great sinner, he was also great in repentance. No 
doubt it is well that wicked men shd. repent of the 
evil they have done ; but no bitterest penitential 
tears will bring back to sweet life the murdered 
victim of unholy passion.* 

D. was a man of many accomplishments. He was 
a skilful musician. His name attached to the hymn- 
book of the OT. Church attests his mastery of tune 
ful verse (see PSALMS). He was a brave and capable 
soldier, possessing the magnetic charm wh. wins the 
affections of men, and inspires them to go through 
This time of his fr. s weakness ADONIJAH chose to fire and water for their leader. How far D. gave 
have himself declared D. s successor. Joined by Saul occasion for his suspicion that he was aiming at 
many who had hitherto stood by D. through all the throne, we cannot now tell ; but clearly fm. an 
changes, his venture seemed hopeful. But he had early time he regarded himself as that monarch s 
failed to reckon with Nathan, and, above all, with destined successor. When the opportunity came 
BATHSHEBA, whose influence over the k. seems to he proved himself fully equal to the dignities and 
have been unimpaired ; and with the anointing and responsibilities of the kdm. All hostile enterprises 
proclamation of Solomon, Bathsheba s s., by D. s went down before his victorious arms, and under 
order, the cause of Adonijah collapsed. him the dominion of Isr. reached its widest limits. 

The Chronicler tells of a great convocation ad- Dwelling in security, the nation was knit together, 
dressed by D. when he gave his parting charge to a people strong and free, bound in the ties of grati- 
Solomon, directing him as to the bldg. of the tude and affection to their deliverer. The unstable 
Temple. By exhibition of the treasures, &c., wh. throne inherited fm. Saul, he bequeathed to his s. 
he had provided for this purpose, he roused the established on a broad and enduring base, 
liberality of the tribes, who willingly brought of The troubles that darkened D. s later yrs. sprang 
their substance, to the great joy of the old k., who fm. the bosom of his own family. Engrossment 
blessed the Lord, and prayed for blessing upon his s. with the affairs of state may be pleaded as his ex- 
and his people. The solemnities of the day con- cuse for neglect to train aright his children (cp. 
eluded with a great sacrifice (l Ch. 29.). 2 S. 13.). He seems to have been something of a 

The last scene as depicted in I K. 2. opens with doting father (2 S. I4- 1 ; I K. I. 6 ). Some sense of 
appropriate counsels to Solomon, but is unlovely in 

its close. Many critics think there are reasons for * Margoliouth (New Lines <?/ Defence] points out that 
, 7 , . . ( , ( ,. while Bathsheba wd. have been stoned had Uriah returned 

rejecting the authenticity of this part of the nar. Dayid wd have escaped To give Uria h a warrior s death 
For sake of D. s reputation one wd. fain agree with was, he thinks, the bad best that cd. be done. 

129 E 




TRADITIONAL TOMB OF DAVID 



Day 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Deb 



his own failing may have lent poignancy to the k. s 
grief over the fate of his wayward s. (2 S. iS. 33 ). 

With the exception of his s. Solomon, no k. so 
impressed the imagination of later ages with the 




Photo, PEF. T RIUMPHAL ARCH, JERASH. See DECAPOLIS 

greatness and splendour of his power ; and in suc 
ceeding times the mightiest hopes of his people 
gathered round his name (Ek. 34- 23f - ; Ho. 3. 5 ). 
By no nobler title than " son of D." can the Jewish 
populace greet him whom for the time they are 
ready to acknowledge as their Messiah (Mw. 2i. 9 ). 

D. was crowned in Hebron when 30 yrs. of age. 
There he reigned 7^ yrs. For the next 32^ yrs. his 
capital was Jrs. His reign prob. extended fm. 
B.C. 1013 to B.C. 973. 

Lit. : Smith, Intern. Crit. Com., Samuel ; Ewald, 
Hist, of Isr., Eng. tr. iii. 541!. ; Dieulafoy, David 
the King ; Deane, David : bis Life and Times. 

DAY (Heb. yoni). The term is used for (i) The 
24 hrs. that make a complete day (Gn. I. 5 , &c.). 
(2) The hrs. of light, as contrasted with " night," 
the time of darkness (Ps. 1 2 1. 6 ). (3) The time in 
which anything occurs, e.g. the D. of calamity 
(2 S. 22. 19 ). (4) In the pi. it indicates a period, 
e.g. " the days of Herod the k. (Mw. 2. 1 ). It stands 
in the Heb. title of the bks. of Chronicles " The 
words (deeds) of the Days." 

DAY S JOURNEY (Gn. 3 i. 23 ; Ex. 3. 18 , &c.). 
A day on the road means seven or eight hrs. in the 
E. Speed varies with the condition of the ground, 
of the animals, and of the travellers ; but on an 
average, 20 to 25 miles may be taken as a D.-J. 

DAYSMAN. See MEDIATOR. 

DEACON, DEACONESS. The Gr. words 
diakonein, diakonia, diakonos, refer to service 
generally, so that the Apostle Paul finds it poss. to 
describe Christ as a " deacon of the Circumcision " 
(Rm. I5- 8 ). Those who serve the guests are deacons 
(Jn. 2. 5 ). The seven were chosen (Ac. 6. lf -), to 
" serve," diakonein, tables, that the Apostles mt. be 
free for the " service," diakonia, of the word. As a 



technical term applied to one holding office in the 
church, diakonos appears in Php. I. 1 ; I Tm. 3_ 8f - 
These officials are prob. indicated by the " helps " 
of I Cor. I2. 28 . Fitness for the position implied 
what is now regarded as the char, of a Christian 
gentleman (l Tm. 3- 8ff -). The " women " in this 
last passage are not the deacons wives (AV.), but 
evidently women (DEACONESSES), set apart for 
similar functions (cp. Rm. I6. 1 ). Their service wd. 
consist largely in attending to the poor. In view of 
the seclusion of women in the E., the help of 
females in this work wd. be necessary. 

DEAD SEA. See SALT SEA. 

DEATH. See ESCHATOLOGY. 

DEBIR (Heb. " back part " or " inmost recess," 
so applied to the Holy of Holies, in I K. 6. 5 ). 
(l) A town, called also Kiriath-sepher, " book 
town" (Jo. I 1 ;. 15 ), and Kiriath-sannah, "town of 
instruction " (Jo. I5- 49 ). Fm. a refc. in the Egpn. 
papyrus, "Travels of a Mohar " (B.C. 1300), it 
appears that the name was K.-sopher, " scribe s 
town," not K.-sepher. Owing prob. to some con 
fusion in the text, it is described as taken by Joshua 
(I0. 38f -), and again by Othniel (l5. 15f - ; Jg. I. llff -). 
It was in the mountain of Judah, not far fm. Heb 
ron ; but no satisfactory identn. has been proposed. 
Guthe suggs. ed Dahenyeh, SW. of Hebron. It 
was given to the priests (Jo. 21. 15 ). Fm. the anct. 
name, " book town " or " scribe s town," it is 
reasonable to expect that, when it is idcntd., some 
remains of old-world Lit., clay tablets, or such like 
may be found here. (2) On the border of Judah 
and Benj. (Jo. I5- 7 ). There may be an echo of the 
name in Tugbghat ed-Dabr, on the way fm. Jrs. to 
Jericho. (3) Not far fm. Mahanaim (Jo. I3- 26 ). If 




GENERAL VIEW OF JERASH. See DECAPOLIS 
the rdg. Lideblr is correct, it is prob. = Lodebar 

(2 S. 9 4, I 7 . 2 ). 

DEBORAH, (i) The nurse of Rebecca, who 
died on Jacob s return fm. Mesopotamia and was 
buried under the " terebinth of weeping " near 
Bethel (Gn. 35. 8 ). (2) The prophetess, w. of 
Lapidoth. A prose version of her exploits is given 
in Jg. 4., and a poetical in Jg. 5. She dwelt under 



130 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ded 



for the purposes of self-defence and commerce, 
under the Governor of Syr. To each city was at 
tached the district immediately around it, and they 
were independent of the tetrarchy or province in 
wh. they were situated. The number of cities in 
the league changed, but the name D. was retained. 
Ptolemy names 1 8. All were on the E. of Jordan 
except Scythopolis. 



her palm " between Ramah and Bethel." She 
stirred up Barak to lead the N. tribes agst. Sisera, the 
captain of Jabin s forces. She accompanied the 
army on its victorious enterprise. There is no con 
vincing reason why she shd. not be regarded along 
with Barak, as the authoress of the song commemo 
rating the triumph. Attention has been called to 
the resemblance between lappldoth, " flames," and 
Baraq, " lightning," but it does not 
follow that these were names of the 
same man. 

DEBT. With the idea of pro 
perty, of wh. some of the higher 
animals seem to have the rudi 
ments, is bound up that of borrow 
ing and lending. At first men 
would accommodate each other 
with individual objects, such as 
weapons, implements, or animals ; 
but in time the notion of a medium 
of exchange was evolved, and this 
came to be used in such trans 
actions. Very early, grain seems 
to have served this purpose among 
agricultural peoples. With money 
came the idea of interest. From 
the laws of Hammurabi we learn 
that interest was expected on loans 
of grain. The Mosaic law seems to 
contemplate only loans of money. 
When a loan was obtained the 
borrower gave a pledge to his 
creditor (Dt. 24. 10 ) ; but not every 
object might be given as a pledge 
(v. 6, &c.). A frequent form of 
oppression was the retention of the 
pledge after the debt was paid (Ek. 
i8. 7 " 16 ). In the ancient as in the 
mod. East, men had often to borrow 
in order to pay their taxes (Ne. 5. 4 ). 
In the days of Nehemiah interest 
was exacted at the rate of I per 
cent, per month the rate at wh. 
the Fcllahfn in Pal. borrow now. 
The interest contemplated by the 

code of Hammurabi, on the lowest estimate, is nearly The inhabitants were mainly Greek, and their relations 
.1 , i i i_ i with the Tews were uniformly hostile, ine rums of temples, 

three times as much : on the higher, nearly 30 times theatres> J and other public buildings in Jerash, Qanawat. 




CARVED DOORWAY, QANAWAT 



as much. With interest on such a scale indebtedness 

wd. rapidly increase; and all hope of repayment wd. 

, * } . . , i * i i! Fi v 

tend to vanish. 1 o secure his rights, the creditor 



Gadara, &c. , bear witness to the greatness and splendour of 
< hese cities They were centres of Hellenic culture 
but two of the cities named by Pliny ( A .//. v. 18) can still 
^ identified: GADARA, Scythopolis = Behdn. Hippos= 

mt. sell the debtor or his family into slavery (2 K.A. 1 ; Susieh, E. of the Sea of Galilee, DAMASCUS, Canatha^ 
A/T o 9*\ T-I T i f i_-jj i Oanawdt on Jebel ed-Druze, Fella =K hirf ,-t / ,//;//. on the 

Mw. i8. 25 ). The Isr. were strictly forbidden to take fe dgfof the Jordan Valley, GKR ASA=/,A, and Phila- 
mterest of their brethren (Ex. 22. 25 ; Dt. 23- 19 ). (Mph\^. = ammdnsee RABBAH. Dium and Raphana are 
DECALOGUE. See TEN COMMANDMENTS. unidentd. 

DECAPOLIS (Mw. 4. 25 , &c., Ant. XIV. iv. 4 ; DEDAN appears, in Gn. io. 7 , as grandson of 
BJ. III. ix. 7). This consisted of cities, originally Cush, and in 25 3 as a desct. of Abraham, by 
ten in number, to wh. Pompey granted cert, privi- Keturah. The reference is doubtless to Arabian 
leges and immunities, constituting a confederacy tribe or tribes of whom D. was the reputed ancestor. 



Ded 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Deu 



With the Dedanites Isr. seems to have been in close 
commercial relations (Is. 21. 13 ; Jr. 25. 23 ; Ek. zy. 20 ). 
They may have occupied the country to the S. of 
Edom (Glazer, ii. 392!?.). Poss. they are men 
tioned in line 31 of the Aloabite Stone Inscr. 

In Ek. 27. 15 , LXX gives Rodoi (Heb. Rodanlm), an easy 
change of "] into "|. The commodities there mentioned 
were no doubt familiar articles of trade with the merchant 
men of Rhodes. 

DEDICATION, THE FEAST OF, commemo 
rated the reconsecration of the altar of burnt- 
offering by Judas Maccabasus, on the 25th of 
Chisleu, B.C. 167, after its pollution by Antiochus 
Epiphanes. It lasted eight days. The time being near 
the winter solstice, Jesus natly. sought protection 
fm. the cold winds of the mountains in Solomon s 
porch (Jn. io. 22 ). The customs of the feast re 
sembled those of the Feast of Tabernacles (2 M. 
io. 6 ), by wh. name it appears in 2 M. I. 9 . The 
Jews mt. celebrate this feast anywhere, not requir 
ing to go up to Jrs. Every house was illuminated, 
and it was called the Feast of Lights (Ant. XII. 
vii. 7). Poss. this suggested to Jesus the claim, " I 
am the light of the world " (Jn. 9. 5 ). 

DEEP, THE (Heb. tebum ; Gr. abussos). The 
primitive Semitic idea of a vast mass of water on wh. 
the world floated (Gn. I. 2 , 7.", 49_ 25 ; Ex. I5. 5 , &c.). 
It assumed the mythological form " Tiamat " in 
the Babylonian Epic of the CREATION. In NT. it 
signifies the abode of the Dead (Rm. io. 7 ). In Rv. 
9- 1 , &c., it is rendered " bottomless pit." 

DEER. See FALLOW-DEER. 

DEGREES. See DIAL. 

DEGREES, SONGS OF. See PSALMS. 

DELILAH. Samson s Philistine mistress, who 
treacherously wrought his undoing (Jg. i6. 4ff -). 

DEMAS (a contraction of Demetrius), prob. a 
native of Thessalonica (Col. 4. 14 ; Phm. 24 ). He 
left Paul during his second imprisonment in cir 
cumstances wh. the Apostle regarded as unworthy 
(2Tm. 4 . 10 ). 

DEMETRIUS. (i) A silversmith in Ephesus, 
who made and sold silver miniatures of the famous 
Temple of Diana. The results of Paul s labours in 
terfering with his business, he raised an uproar agst. 
him, with the assistance of his fellow-craftsmen 
(Ac. ig. 24 ). (2) A Christian named in 3 Jn. v. 12. 

DEN. (i) The dwelling-place of wild beasts, 
esp. of lions (Ps. io. 9 ; Am. 3_ 4 ; Na. 2. 12 ). (2) The 
hiding-place of robbers (Jr. 7- 11 ). The limestone 
cliffs of Pal. have, fm. old time, furnished ample 
shelter for outlaw and robber, in their numerous 
caves. (3) A place in wh. Asyr. and Bab. monarchs 
kept lions (Dn. 6. ). 

DENARIUS. See MONEY. 

DEPUTY (Heb. nitztzab). (i) A vicegerent in 
Edom (i K. 22. 47 ). The absence of the k. may be 
stated to explain the ease of Jehoshaphat s com 



munications with Ezion-geber. (2) A governor 
(Heb. -pehah) under the Satrap in the Persian 
Empire (Est. 8. 9 ). (3) The governor of a Sena 
torial province under Rm. (Ac. 13. 7 , i8. 12 , ig. 38 , 
RV. " proconsul "). See ROMAN EMPIRE. 

DERBE, a city in Lycaonia (Ac. 14. 6 ), the for 
tress of the robber Antipater (Strabo, p. 569), taken 
by k. Amyntas of Galatia, B.C. 27, at whose death, 
two yrs. later, it fell to the Rms. It became (A. p. 41) 
the frontier city of the Rm. province of Galatia, 
and received the name of Claudio-Derbe. The 
people still used the Lycaonian speech when Paul 
visited the district (Ac. 14. n ). The site is not 
identd. with cert. Ramsay conjectures Gude- 
lissen, a large mound, with remains of great an 
tiquity, c. three miles NW. of Zosta, c. 120 miles 
SE. of Antioch (Hist. Gcog. of Asia Minor, 336f. ; 
The Ch. in the Rm. Emp., 541!.). 

DESERT. See WILDERNESS. 

DESIRE (Heb. ablyyonab), is lit. " the caper- 
berry," the bud of a shrub common in Pal., an 
aphrodisiac. The strongly flavoured young berries 
are preserved in pickle as a relish. The idea in the 
text (Ec. I2. 5 ) seems to be that even the caper- 
berry shall fail to excite desire. 

DESTRUCTION, CITY OF. See IR-HA- 

HERES. 

DETESTABLE THINGS. See ABOMINATION. 

DEUTERONOMY. The bk. of Deuteronomy 
forms the conclusion of the fivefold collection 
known in the OT. Canon by the name of the Pen 
tateuch or Torah. The name, Deuteronomium, 
taken over fm. the Gr., is the word used by the 
translators in T-7. 18 , " a copy of this law," wh. they 
took in the sense of repetition, or second giving of 
the Law. In the Heb. Bible, however, the bk. is 
simply indicated, as are the other bks. of the Pnt., by 
the opening expression : " These are the words," 
or, more briefly, "Words." As a component part 
of the Pnt. it follows the thread of hist, that runs 
through the whole, opening with the situation im 
plied at the end of the bk. of Nu., and closing with 
the death of Moses. Yet a comparison with the 
three preceding bks. shows at once that it is not a 
literary continuation of these, but forms an indepen 
dent and self-contained work. The bk. in its open 
ing verses purports to give an act. of " words " or 
addresses delivered by Moses beyond Jordan before 
the Israelites crossed to take possession of Canaan. 
Fm. the first verse it mt. be inferred that there is to 
follow a recapitulation of various addresses given at 
various times and at various places on the wilderness 
journey ; but vv. 3-5 give the place, the land of 
Moab, and the time, the fortieth yr. fm. the 
Exodus, at wh. the sxicceeding addresses were de 
livered. And it is to be noted that the expression in 
v. 5, " began Moses to declare this law," does not 
mean that he then for the first time gave forth the 



132 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Deu 



Law as a new thing, but rather that he "set himself 
to expound " it. And in the sequel this is the char 
acteristic of the laws, that they are put forth in a 
homiletical manner and with a practical enforce 
ment. The thought is present throughout that the 
aged leader s work is done, and that a new era in the 
people s hist, is about to begin. But, though the 
bk. is a unity, in the sense that the situation and tone 
are the same throughout, and the style unusually 
uniform, yet the disposition of the matter is not 
such as we look for in a composition coming fm. one 
hand at one sitting. One large section in the middle 
of thebk., embracing chaps. 1 2. -26., and constituting 
what may be called the Deuteronomic Code, is so 
homogeneous that its essential unity may be taken 
for granted. But it is preceded and followed by 
chaps, wh. have more or less a detached or frag 
mentary char. It wd. be precarious and prob. mis 
leading to judge anct. Oriental productions by mod. 
literary standards. The statements of the bk. itself 
(3i. 9 - 22 26 ) do not warrant us to say that it pro 
fesses, in its present form, to come fm. the hand of 
Moses. Accdgly., in the absence of direct informa 
tion on the subject, we are left to speculation as 
to the manner in wh. any addresses and written 
materials of Moses may have been preserved, handed 
down, and embodied in the bk. wh. lies before us. 
On the one hand, it mt. be supposed that the 
" Code " was the original part of the bk., composed 
as a compend of the constitution under wh. the 
nation was to be consolidated and guided, and that 
the addresses wh. precede and follow, with the his 
torical notes, were subsequently added as a frame 
work or setting to the laws. On the other hand, we 
mt. suppose the addresses to have been the primary 
matter the dying leader, solicitous for the future 
welfare of his people, insisting on the fundamental 
principles on wh. their national calling was based 
and the laws, perhaps expanded in detail by a later 
writer, to have been expounded on those principles 
in their practical refc. to the life on wh. they were 
about to enter. It wd. seem that the writer of the 
bk., or the editor through whose hands it has come 
to us, took the latter view fm. the manner in wh. the 
person of Moses and the situation of the time are 
put in the forefront, and the tone that pervades the 
legal part as expounded by the legislator. This 
much is plain : that the stress of the bk. is laid, not 
so much on the inculcation of this or that law, or of 
the law genly., as on the enforcement of the duty 
of fidelity to the Covenant of God, and warning 
agst. the contamination of heathen worship. 

The date and mode of composition of the bk. of 
Deut. have been among the most keenly debated 
questions of criticism. Canon Driver states the 
question (Intern. Crit. Com., p. xii) as follows : 
" As a work of the Mosaic age, Deut., I must own, 
though intelligible, if it stood perfectly alone, i.e. if 



the hist, of Isr. had been other than it was, does not 
seem to me to be intelligible, when viewed in the 
light shed upon it by other parts of the OT." 
Others mt. be disposed to express the matter 
differently and say that, as a work of the Mosaic age, 
the bk. is intelligible, provided that the hist, of Isr. 
is taken as it is represented by the Biblical his 
torians, and not as reconstructed on the basis of 
modern theories. Be that as it may, it is a fact 
that, in the prevailing school of Criticism, the com 
position of the bk. is relegated to a period far pos 
terior to the Mosaic age ; and this is accounted one 
of the most incontestable, as it is one of the most 
far-reaching, conclusions of Criticism. It may be 
well, therefore, in the first place, to look at the bk. 
as " if it stood perfectly alone," i.e. apart fm. any 
preconceived or pre-established scheme of hist., 
and thereafter to consider the arguments by wh. 
its actual date is claimed to be determined. 

The situation assumed by the writer of the bk. is 
plain. The people are encamped in the plains of 
Moab, ready to go in to possess the land. There is 
a pause of forty days, and the aged leader, who 
knows that he is not to cross the Jordan, takes 
occasion to deliver a series of solemn addresses, in 
wh. he recounts the leading events of the past 
wilderness journey, anticipates the vicissitudes of 
the future, and for the present gives such admoni 
tions, warnings, and encouragements as seem fitting. 
He dwells particularly on the fact that God had 
made with them a covenant at Horeb, and insists 
on the duty wh. it implied. As to the future, he 
speaks both of the immediate task that lay before 
them, with its temptations, and also of the possi 
bilities of the more distant time, when they shd. 
have exchanged their wandering life for that of 
a settled agricultural people, and when different 
social and national conditions shd. prevail. With 
all this in view, he recapitulates and sums up the 
statutes and ordinances wh., by Divine authority, he 
had communicated to them, forming a fairly com 
prehensive code for guidance in the life on wh. they 
were about to enter. The code is not all-em 
bracing : although sacrifice and ceremony are pre 
sumed and prescribed, details of the ritual are 
omitted, it being taken for granted that the priests 
are instructed and able to give instructions on such 
matters (24. 8 , 26. 3 , &c.). One point, however, in 
regard to the worship is emphasised. When the 
people shd. have rest fm. all their enemies round 
about so that they shd. dwell in safety (i2. 10 ), the 
Lord wd. choose a place out of all their tribes to put 
His name there (l2. 5 - " 18 - 21 - 26 ), and thither they 
shd. bring their burnt-offerings and sacrifices, and 
tithes and heave-offerings, and vows and freewill 
offerings and firstlings (i2. 6 ). A concession, how 
ever, is made (vv. 20-25) ; when their territory shd. 
be enlarged, and the place wh. God shd. choose wd. 



133 



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Deu 



be too far distant, they \vd. be permitted to kill and 
eat of the herd and the flock, just as they wd. eat of 
the gazelle and the hart. That more is meant here 
than ordinary eating of food is implied in the men 
tion of the distant sanctuary ; for, had it been 
ordinary food, it did not matter whether the place 
were near or far. Moreover, a restriction follows 
(vv. a6f.) in regard to " holy things " wh. must only 
be eaten at the central sanctuary. But the im 
mediate and pressing duty was to destroy all the 
" places " at wh. the heathen inhabitants of Canaan 
practised their worship, to break down their altars 
and dash in pieces their pillars, and burn their 
Asherim with fire, hew down the graven images of 
their gods and destroy their names out of " that 
place " (12.-- 3 ). And here it is remarkable that the 
term baaulb, bamoth, " high place," wh. occurs so 
frequently in the subsequent hist., is not employed, 
but only the gen. word " place," magom, wh. has 
survived in the mod. maqam. 

In all thi?, one wd. say, the writer, whoever he is, 
keeps faithfully to the assumed situation ; and, if 
he is long posterior to Moses, he has imagined very 
vividly the circumstances of speaker and hearers, 
without betraying himself by anachronisms such as 
mt. have been expected in a late writer. In point 
of fact, it is not fm. internal features of the bk. itself, 
but mainly fm. a comparison with other OT. bks. 
that the main arguments are drawn for the late 
origin of Dcut. ; and they form an important part 
of the wider question of the origin of the PENTA 
TEUCH. First of all, on a comparison of the legis 
lative elements of the Pnt., it is maintained that 
three different statements of the law as to the place 
of worship are discoverable. Whereas in the por 
tions known as JE. sacrifice mt. be offered anywhere 
(Ex. 2O. 24 ), Deut., as we have seen, restricts it to 
a central sanctuary, and the legal system of the 
Priestly Code (PC.) is based on the idea that wor 
ship at a central sanctuary is the sole and customary 
practice. These are assumed to mark three stages 
in the historical evolution of the law on the subject, 
from a more free to a more restricted practice. 

Turning then to the historical bks. for informa 
tion as to the actual practice, the critics point out 
that, in the earlier period of the hist., and even after 
the Temple was built, sacrifice was offered at various 
places even by the most pious of the nation ; that 
not till the time of Josiah were the high places 
abolished and worship concentrated at Jrs. ; and 
that after the exile the restored Temple was the 
sole place of sacrificial worship. The conclusion is 
that the Code of Deut. was not in existence till 
about the time of Josiah, just as the Code of P. 
was not promulgated till the return fm. the Exile. 
To explain how the bk. came to be composed in this 
form at so late a time, it is supposed that some per 
son or persons, grieving over the apostasy of the 



times, and esp. the existence of the high places, 
drew up a code or programme of what they believed 
to be the ideal of the national religion and worship, 
with the obj. of effecting a reform and providing an 
authoritative guide for the reformed State. Though 
not the work of Moses it was conceived in the spt. 
of the Mosaic legislation, and was such as Moses, 
had he been alive at the time, mt. have put forth ; 
and, in order to give it authority, it was put into the 
mouth of Moses, and furnished with a historical and 
hortatory setting befitting the situation of Moses 
at the close of his life. The bk. may have been 
written in the troublous times of the reign of 
Manasseh (2 K. 21.), and may have been hidden in 
the Temple ; or it may have been composed in the 
earlier yrs. of Josiah, when the reforming party saw 
the prospect of their hopes being accomplished. 
In any case it was the bk. of the Law discovered in 
the Temple in the i8th yr. of Josiah s reign (2 K. 
22. 8 ), and intimately connected with the reform. 

This act. of the origin of the bk., " if it stood 
perfectly alone," has strong attractions at the pre 
sent time, as professing to explain by a regular pro 
cess of development certain apparent discrepancies 
in the laws and certain apparent difficulties in 
the hist. It may be questioned, however, whether 
it gives a fair estimate of these difficulties, and 
whether it does not raise other difficulties wh., to 
some minds, are at least as serious as those wh. it 
professes to remove. It must not be forgotten 
that the glaring primary fact in the hist, of Isr. is 
not the neglect or violation of the law of centralised 
worship, but the more heinous offence of forsaking 
their Covenant God and going after other gods. 
This was the root of the worship at the high places, 
wh. was condemned by prophets long before the 
time of Josiah. As to the offering of sacrifices by 
good men elsewhere than at the central sanctuary, 
it is to be remembered that the law of JE. did not 
legalise all places indifferently (Ex. 2O. 24 ), and pre 
sumed worship at a central sanctuary (23. 14 " 17 ) ; 
that there is no record of good men frequenting the 
popular local sanctuaries, and that the code of Deut. 
itself, as we have seen, made provision for sacrifice 
at a distance fm. the sanctuary. 

But the most serious difficulties are encountered 
in the act. that is given of the composition of the bk. 
There is nothing in Deut. itself to betray a late 
writer, nor is there the least indication that any one 
in the time of Josiah had a suspicion that the bk. 
found in the Temple was not anct. and authorita 
tive. And, when it is asserted that the writer set 
himself to compose a work in the " spirit " of Moses, 
it is pertinent to ask how he came to know the 
Mosaic legislation, if nothing hitherto existed be 
yond the law of JE., composed, as is alleged, long 
after the time of Moses. Or, if he did write in the 
spirit of the Mosaic legislation, he must have under- 



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stood the law of JE. to point to, or to be consistent 
with, worship at a central sanctuary. In fact, 
before the time of Samuel we find Shiloh regarded 
as a central sanctuary ; it cannot be maintained 
that the Temple, when once erected, was on a level 
with the local high places ; and Hezekiah, before 
the time at wh. Deut. is said to have been written, 
attempted to do what Josiah more effectually accom 
plished (2 K. l8. 4 ). Moreover, this so-called late 
writer not only writes in the " spirit " of Moses, but 
introduces details of hist, and law wh., though quite 
apposite in the time and situation of Moses, have 
neither point nor application for the time of Josiah, 
apparently forgetting the primary obj. with wh. he 
sat down to write the bk. When all is said in favour 
of the late writer, an uneasy feeling remains that he 
is either too clever a romancer for the time, or that 
he is setting down what he knows will mislead his 
readers ; and either supposition is hard to reconcile 
with the earnest, spiritual tone wh. pervades the bk. 
It is highly desirable, and surely it is not impossible, 
to give some act. of the origin of the bk. consistent 
with belief in the good faith and honesty of the 
writer. Is it not highly prob. that Moses, who 
had led his people for forty yrs., shd. have coun 
selled and warned them as his end approached, and 
is it likely that any words he uttered in such cir 
cumstances shd. have been allowed to pass im 
mediately into utter oblivion ? We are told that 
" Isr. served the Lord all the days of Joshua and all 
the days of the elders that outlived Joshua " (Jo. 
2.J.. 31 ). Such a period, resembling the Apostolic and 
post-Apostolic periods of the Christian Church to 
wh. we owe so much relating to the origins of 
Christianity, wd. be a time in wh. the words of the 
lawgiver, as well as " the work of the Lord that He 
had wrought for Isr.," wd. be preserved by a pious 
tradition ; and, though the times that followed 
were marked by apostasy and decline, there was not 
wanting a line of prophetic men who cherished and 
kept alive the principles of the Mosaic relg. The 
earliest writing prophets regard themselves as the 
continuators of the true national relg., and Hosea in 
so many respects resembles Deut. that Prof. Driver 
says, " In a special degree the author of Deut. is the 
spiritual heir of Hosea " (Deut. p. xxvii). May it 
not be the other way, that Hosea, a " prophet like 
unto " Moses, is only repeating and emphasising the 
teaching of the great leader ? (cp. Dt. l8. 5 with 
Ho. I2. 13 ). And, whereas critical writers find it 
necessary to postulate a Deuteronomic " school " 
of writers, who not only adopted the tone and style 
of Deut., but set themselves to revise and retouch 
older documents in the Deuteronomic " spirit," 
may it not be the case that these touches in earlier 
bks. are the echoes of the Deut. of the Mosaic age, 
and that Moses himself is the father of all the 
Deuteronomists ? Certain it is that Mosaic author 



ship is claimed for this bk. in a much more explicit 
manner than for any other book of the Pentateuch. 

JAMES ROBERTSON. 

DEVIL. See SATAN. 

DEW. During the dry season in Pal., when 
water is scanty, much of the vegetation owes its life 
to the dew. The west winds at evening are heavy 
with moisture fm. the sea, wh. settles in refreshing 
D. by night, and at sunrise covers plain and moun 
tain-side with white drapery of cloud disappearing 
with the heat of day. 
For the country it is 
impossible to exag 
gerate the import 
ance of D. (Gn. 
27. 28 , &c.; 2 S. I. 21 , 
&c.). 

DIADEM. See 
CROWN. 

DIAL( 2 K.2o. 11 ; 
Is. 38. 8 ), "the D. 
of AHAZ" (AVm. 
" degrees," RVm. 
" steps "). A D. is 
a device to tell the 
hour of the day by 
the length or direc 
tion of the shadow 
of some object. 
Herodotus (ii. 109) 
credits the Baby 
lonians with thij 
invention. As the 
civilisation of Asyr. 
and Bab. was really 
one, Ahaz may have 
learned the use of 
the D. fm. the Asyrs. 
in his intercourse 
withTiglath-pileser. 
As there have as yet 
been found no speci 
mens of D. we can only conjecture the appearance 
of " the D. of Ahaz." The most plausible suggn. 
is that it consisted of an obelisk set upon a pedestal 
of steps ; after mid-day the lengthening shadow wd. 
descend more and more " steps." We do not know 
the space of time indicated by " a step." 

DIAMOND (Heb. yahalem, LXX iaspis, Vlg. 
jaspis). A precious stone, third in the second row 
on the high-priest s breastplate (Ex. 28. 18 ), sup 
posed to be the " onyx." 

DIANA OF THE EPHESIANS. The Romans 

identd. their goddess of the woods, D., with Artf- 
mis. Even the Hellenic deity appears to have 
united several different divinities ; the slim, beau 
tiful huntress has but little in common with the 
polymastic monstrosity worshipped in Ephesus. 




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The Asiatic goddess was really a deification of all- 
sustaining Earth ; hence the many breasts with wh. 
she was endowed. The image of D. was declared 
to have come down fm. heaven (diopetes) ; a state 
ment wh. suggs. an aerolite. This is negatived by 
the fact that it was made of wood, prob. ebony 
(Pliny, NH. xvi. 40). 

The Ephesian temple of D. was regarded as one of the 
wonders of the world; it was 425 ft. long and 220 broad, 
and had 127 pillars of the Ionic order. . . . Pausanias in 
forms us that D. more than the other gods was privately 
worshipped (Paus. IV. 31. 6) : this explains the trade in 
" silver shrines " (Ac. ig.- 4 ). He mentions that the worship 
of the Ephesian D. was common in the Peloponnesus. It is 
more curious than important that the priests of D. were 
called " Essenes. " 

DIBLAH, poss. an error for RIBLAH (Ek. 6. 14 ), or 
it may be ident. with DM in Upper Galilee, S. of 
Tibnln. 

DIBON. (i) A city in Moab, taken by Sihon 
(Nu. 2l. 26ff -), captured later by Isr. and assigned 
to Gad ; thence called D.-Gad (32. 34 , 33- 45 ), but 
reckoned to Reuben (Jo. I3- 17 , P.). From the 
Moabite Stone we learn that D. had passed into 
Mesha s hands ; and in Jr. 48. 18> 22 it appears as a 
Moabite city. In Is. I5. 9 it is called " Dimon." 
It is represented by the mod. Dlbdn, a little to the 
N. of the Arnon, on the Rm. road, with ruins of 
anct. tower, walls, cistern, &c. (2) A town occu 
pied by the Jews after the exile (Ne. II. 25 ), perhaps 
= Dimonah, in the S. of Judah (Jo. I5- 22 ). 

DIDYMUS. Se? THOMAS. 

DIKLAH (Heb. Diqlati), s. of Joktan (Gn. io. 27 ). 
The tribe designated cannot be identd. In Aram. 
the Tigris is Diglath. The territory of the tribe 
may have been near that river, wh. may have given 
them their name. 

DIMON, DIMONAH. See DIBON. 

DINAH, dr. of Jacob and Leah, whose seduction 
by Shechem, s. of Hamor, was so treacherously and 
terribly avenged by her brs. (Gn. 3O. 21 , 34.), to the 
grief and indignation of Jacob (34. 30 , 49. 5ff -). See 
SIMEON, LEVI. 

DINNER. See FOOD. 

DIONYSIUS, a member of the council of Areo 
pagus, converted by Paul (Ac. I/. 34 ). Accdg. to 
Eusebius (HE. iii. 4, io), he became bishop of 
Athens, where he is said to have suffered under 
Domitian (Niceph., HE. iii. li). Others say he 
was beheaded in Paris, at Montmartre, " Martyr s 
Mount," c. A.D. 9^ ; hence the claim that he is 
St. Denys, the patron saint of France. Voluminous 
writings, dealing with angelology, &c., were pub 
lished under the name of D. in the fifth cent. 

DISCIPLE. In classical Gr. mathetes meant the 
" pupil " of a philosopher, i.e. didaskalos, or teacher. 
In NT. it is applied to the followers of John the 
Baptist (Mw. 9- 14 , &c.), and to the Pharisees, as Ds. 
of Moses (Jn. 9- 28 ) ; but in the Gospels esp. to the 
chosen twelve (Mw. IO. 1 , &c.), who were always 



with Jesus. Elsewhere it occurs only in Ac., and 
there it denoted a believer in Jesus (I6. 1 , &c.). 
Once the fem. form appears, mathetria, of Tabitha 

(9- 36 ). 

DISEASES AND REMEDIES. Disease meets 
us very frequently in the Bible, and in many difft. 
aspects. It occurs among the incidents recorded as 
biography and hist, are unrolled before us ; it is the 
motive prompting many enactments of sanitary 
legislation ; it is the subj. of warnings and threaten- 
ings to the chosen people by their prophets ; it is 
the background of much deep sptl. experience ; it 
is the field where, even by the prophets of the old 
dispensation, but much more by our Lord and His 
Apostles, God s power over the forces of nat. is 
made manifest. The outstanding fact with regard 
to the attitude of the Scriptl. writers to disease, in 
hist, no less than in miracle, is the way in wh. they 
lose sight of secondary causes, and attribute both 
diseases and their cures directly to God s hand 
(e.g. Ex. I5. 26 ; Dt. 28. 27 29 , 32. 39 ; Ps. 3O. 2 , IO3. 3 ). 
One of the most striking illustrations of this point of 
view occurs in 2 Ch. i6. 12 , where we are told that 
Asa " in his disease sought not to the Lord but to 
the physicians " : an antithesis wh. suggts. an atti 
tude towards the healing art not unlike that of the 
" Peculiar People " at the present day. 

A directly contrary estimate of the physician and 
his efforts appears in the Apcr. (Sr. 38. 1 " 15 ), where 
he is so praised that some have supposed that the 
writer must himself have been a physician. Here 
it is fully recognised that the physician and his 
remedies are special gifts fm. God : " Then give 
place to the physician, for God hath created him 
. . . for they shall also pray unto the Lord that He 
would prosper that wh. they give for ease and 
remedy to prolong life." 

A very difft. view of disease was held by most other anct. 
nations. The Babs. esp. seem to have had their lives made 
a burden to them by the many evil spts. whom they believed 
to be waiting at every turn to do them hurt. We need go 
no further than the Apcr. (Tobit) for a striking example of 
superstitious belief in evil spts., and in magical remedies for 
their discomfiture. The OT. writers, do, indeed, in rare 
instances attribute disease to evil spts. ; but even then the 
powers of evil are regarded as under God s control (i S. 
i6. u ; Jb. 2.4,6,7). 

Disease is in the OT. very genly. regarded as a 
direct punishment for sin (e.g. Dt. 28. 21f -, &c. ; 
I S. 5. ; 28. 24. ; Ps. I07. 17f - ; Jr. 24. 10 ). How 
strongly this view was held in the time of our Lord 
we learn in Jn. 9. 2 , where the disciples assume as a 
matter of course that sin must be the cause of the 
blind man s affliction. Christ shows them that 
God sends disease for other ends than the infliction 
of punishment. 

In Is. 38. 10 20 , we have Hezekiah s psalm of 
thanksgiving " when he had been sick, and was re 
covered of his sickness." It is natl. that such crises 
in men s lives shd. stir them to the depths, and that 



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their gratitude for life restored shd. find expression. 
In many of the Psalms we meet with such vivid 
descriptions of physical distress that we cannot but 
regard them as the record of bodily disease, though 
they are usly. linked with the expression of mental 
suffering, either fm. the sense of sin or fm. the 
malignant enmity of foes (see Pss. 6., 22., 38., 39., 
!O2.,n6.). The most graphic and detailedrecord of 
the Psalmist s disease is given in Ps. 102. (see leloiv) ; 
and it is in this Psalm also that the contrast is most 
striking between the depression and misery of sick 
ness and the exaltation and rapture in the contem 
plation of the Lord, the Healer. Disease and its 
cure are described in Ps. loj. 17 22 as one of the great 
experiences of human life ; here, however, the 
Psalmist is not the sufferer but the onlooker. 

Of very special interest and importance are the 
diseases healed by our Lord. At the present day 
almost all the critics of the NT. are agreed that it is 
imposs. to separate the teaching of Christ fm. the 
cures He wrought. Those who do not believe in 
His supernatural origin or power maintain that the 
cures were of the same nat. as those met with at the 
present day, where a strong mental impression on 
the sufferer is effectual in at once removing the 
disease. Such cures all occur in what are known as 
functional diseases of the nervous system, that is 
diseases where no permanent change has occurred in 
the structure of the parts affected. They consti 
tute a small proportion even of diseases affecting 
the nervous system ; and a very small fraction of the 
whole number of cases of disease. The whole tenor 
of the Gospel nars. indicates that Christ did not 
" select His cases " ; an appeal to Him for relief 
was always responded to ; His method was appli 
cable to " all manner of sickness and all manner of 
disease." 

Further, such cases are almost always young, and 
in the great majority of instances of the female sex. 
In no single case cured by Christ with regard to wh. 
any details are given can this view of the disease be 
regarded as a natl. explanation of the circumstances 
recorded. Severe idiocy or insanity, a " withered 
hand," congenital blindness, an " issue of blood " 
(dysentery) of twelve yrs. duration, are not the 
diseases that are curable by means of a strong 
mental impression, so far as mod. experience can 
guide us. If Christ s power over disease had been 
no more than this, the record of its exercise wd. 
surely have included a proportion of cases wh. we 
cd. recognise as belonging to the class that is curable 
in this way. If it be admitted that the nars. are 
founded on real cures, these must have been of such 
a nat. as quite transcends any mod. experience of 
the treatment of disease (see Dr. Kyle s art., Hibbert 
Journ., vol. v., Apr. 1907). 

Some of the diseases we may consider in groups : 
I. Leprosy ; 2. Epidemic Diseases ; 3. Fevers ; 



4. Paralysis; 5. Blindness; 6. Demonic Posses 
sion. Individual cases of interest wh. do not fall 
into these groups will be discussed afterwards. 

Leprosy. This subj. is treated in such detail 
in Lv. 13. and 14. that we mt. hope to be able to 
recognise with certy. unattainable in the case of 
other maladies, what the disease is to wh. the 
descriptions and regulations apply. It is genly. 
assumed that it is the terrible disease familiar to 
us under the name of leprosy. In this country, 
happily, it is no longer to be met with, except in 
occasional imported cases ; but in the Middle Ages 
it was very prevalent, and we hear much of it still 
in foreign lands Norway, Syria, India, China and 
the Sandwich Islands among others. The hope 
lessness with wh. it is regarded, the terrible dis 
figurements and mutilations to wh. it leads, and 
the dread wh. its victims inspire, have impressed 
the imagination of the world. 

There has been much confusion with regard to 
its nomenclature. Our name is directly derived 
fm. the Gr. word lepra, wh. occurs in the NT. and 
is rendered " leprosy " in our W., and is also con 
sistently used in LXX to represent the Heb. word 
tsara atb, trd. " leprosy " in EV. There is no 
reason to doubt that the Gr. and Heb. terms really 
corrspded. Now we know that the term lepra was 
used by the Gr. physicians not for what we know as 
L., but for cert, forms of scaly eruption of the skin, 
diseases disfiguring, no doubt, but not seriously 
affecting the general health. The most character 
istic of these is now known in English as psoriasis. 
St. Luke was well acquainted with the Gr. nomen 
clature, and in all probty. used the term in the same 
sense as other physicians of the day. It is doubtful 
whether what we call L. was known to the earlier 
Gr. physicians : later, when they did become ac 
quainted with it, they genly. designated it elephan 
tiasis, never lepra, though among them also there 
was some confusion of names. The earliest known 
use of the word lepra to designate " true leprosy " 
occurs in a medical work of about the tenth cent. 
The evidence of nomenclature, therefore, is agst. 
the disease spoken of in the Bible being that wh. we 
now call L. 

Let us look now at the refcs. to the disease in the 
Bible. In Lv. 13., 14. no mention is made of any 
sign or symptom of the disease except its effect on 
the skin and the hair ; no allusion is made to the 
grave constitutional enfeeblement, the loss of eye 
sight, and the mutilations to wh. it so often leads. 
A variety of appearances in the skin and the hair 
in difft. parts of the body are described, and direc 
tions are given wh. are to be regarded as unclean and 
wh. as clean. Some of these corrspd. with appear 
ances to be met with in L. ; some are difficult to 
reconcile with the features of that disease. In 
doubtful cases a quarantine of one or two weeks is 



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enjoined, with re-examination. The course of L. 
as it is met with at the present day is so extremely 
slow that this period cd. not be expected to produce 
any recognisable change in the features of the 
disease. One extremely curious enactment (Lv. 
I3. 12f -) is difficult to explain on any hypothesis, im- 
poss. if the disease were the L. we know, namely, 
that if a person were leprous all over, he was dean. 

The description in the same chapters of L. of 
garments (i3. 47ff -) and of bldgs. (I4. 33 53 ), increases 
the probty. that the term tsara ath was applied to 
a variety of appearances with a superficial resem 
blance, rather than to the manifestations of one 
disease. Nothing is known, however, as to the 
nat. of this L. of inanimate objs. 

In the other Biblical refcs. to the disease we have 
(with one exception) no suggn, that any one dies 
of it, is disabled by it, is deprived of sight or limb ; 
no one is prevented doing anything he wishes to do, 
or that any one else is able to do, except ceremonially 
(e.g. Naaman, who, though a leper, discharged the 
onerous duties of a commander-in-chief, 2 K. 5. 1 ). 

In three passages one chartc. of the disease is 
prominent, namely, its white appearance, wh. in 
each of them is compared to snow (Moses, Ex. 4. 6 ; 
Miriam, Nu. I2. 10 ; Gehazi, 2 K. 5- 27 ). There are 
cert, forms and stages of true L. in wh. the colour 
of the affected part is somewhat paler than natural ; 
but the common and prominent change of colour is 
in the opposite direction, and there is no known 
form of the disease that cd. be described as " white 
as snow." This comparison mt. quite well apply 
to some cases of psoriasis ; and also to some other 
diseases, especially the condition known as leuco- 
derma, esp. as they are met with in the darker races. 
In leucoderma the only discoverable change is the 
loss of colour in the skin and hair of the part affected. 

The one passage wh. points to a more serious 
view of the malady is Nu. I2. 12 , where Aaron s 
prayer for Miriam (" Let her not be as one dead, of 
whom the flesh is half consumed when he comes out 
of his mother s womb ") cert, suggs. an ulcerative 
and destructive form of disease. (With regard to 
Jb. 30. 17 RVm., see below, in discussion of Job s 
disease.) 

\\ e have no independent evidence of the exist 
ence of true L. in Pal. in Bible times. The earliest 
classical writers who refer to it agree in regarding 
Egp. as the home of the disease, and allusions to it 
are believed to have been found in early Egpn. 
papyri. It is thus quite likely that the Isrs. may 
have known the disease in Egp. ; and poss. that they 
may have carried it with them to Pal. As we have 
seen, it cannot be clearly recognised in the Biblical 
records. 

The absence of any mention of L. by any of the 
prophets supports the idea that its importance was 
largely ceremonial. It is nowhere spoken of in the 



Bible as a type of sin, in the way so familiar in mod. 
theological writings. Even the Early Fathers use 
it much more as a type of heresy than of sin in the 
ordinary sense : the mod. view seems to have de 
veloped during the Middle Ages, when true L. was 
very prevalent in Europe. 

It seems prob., then, that the words trd. " lep 
rosy " (Heb. tsara ath, Gr. lepra) were used, not of 
what we wd. call one disease, but of a group or 
family of diseases, of wh. the most striking feature 
was a skin eruption. True, L. may poss. have been 
one of them. One at least of these forms of disease 
was prob. regarded as infectious, and the preven 
tion of its communication to others was the original 
reason for the regulations in Lv. Such a provision 
as that in I3. 12- makes it imposs. to believe that the 
regulations were entirely directed agst. infection. 
A consideration of all the evidence makes it prob. 
that the importance of the disease was to a large 
extent due to ceremonial considerations, the mean 
ing of wh. is very obscure to us now (see Sir J. 
Risdon Bennett, The Diseases of the Bible). 

Epidemic Diseases. Numerous severe and fatal 
pestilences are recorded in the Bible : the fifth 
of the plagues of Egp. (Ex. 9- 1 " 7 ) was a deadly 
disease, affecting the domestic animals ; the last a 
mysterious death of the firstborn. The sins of the 
Children of Isr. in the wilderness (Nu. II. 33 , I4- 37 , 
i6. 46 ), of the Phil, (i S. 5.), of David (2 S. 2 4 . 13 - 16 ), 
of Sennacherib (2 K. ig. 35 ), were punished by such 
visitations. In the prophetic bks. plague and pesti 
lence are frequently foretold as punishments for sin 
(e.g. Dt. 28. 21 - 58 62 ; Jr. I 4 . 12 , &c. ; Ek. 5. 12 , &c. ; 
Zc. I-).. 12 - 15 - 18 ; Rv. l6. 2f> ). With regard to most 
of these pestilences no details are given to indicate 
the nat. of the disease. At difft. times most of the 
acute epidemic diseases with wh. we are acquainted 
have been very fatal; bubonic plague, cholera, 
typhus fever, smallpox, measles, diphtheria, and 
many others : how many may have been prevalent 
in Bible times it is imposs. to tell. The nar. in 
Nu. II. 33 suggs. a direct causal connection between 
the quails and the pestilence ; the flesh of the birds 
may have been poisonous because they had been 
feeding on some deleterious plant ; or the insanitary 
conditions caused by so much decomposing flesh 
may have lighted some epidemic disease into un 
wonted virulence. 

Bubonic Plague. There is one of the pesti 
lences, however, wh. we may with some confi 
dence ident. The most fatal and terrible epidemic 
known to hist, was the " Black Death," wh. in about 
three yrs. in the I 4 th cent, of our era killed at 
least one-fourth of the population of Europe, and 
shook the framework of society to its foundations. 
It was a peculiarly virulent form of the bubonic 
plague, the plague par excellence, wh. has been re 
sponsible for many epidemics in past cents., and in 



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our own times (since 1894) has reappeared in force 
in China, India, and elsewhere, and has even re 
visited our own shores after more than 200 yrs. 
absence. It is a disease primarily affecting rats and 
mice ; and in India it was known cents, before our 
era that its appearance among rats was the prelude 
to a human epidemic. Quite recently the meaning 
of this sequence has been explained, for it has been 
shown that the carrier of the infection is almost 
always one of the species of fleas that infest the rat. 
This creature leaves its host, when he dies, for some 
other animal or for a human being, carries the 
disease germs in its body, and inoculates its new 
host with them. 

Bubonic plague is the only acute and fatal epi 
demic wh. is commonly characterised by the pre 
sence of tumours ; these are always met with except 
in the most virulent and rapidly fatal cases. In 
I 8.5., 6. we have an act. of an epidemic attended by 
tumours (5- 6 9 , RV.) specially noted in the milder 
cases of the disease (5- 12 ), and closely associated 
with mice (6. 4 - 5 ) or rats ; the two are not dis 
tinguishable in the anct. tongues. It seems imposs. 
to avoid the conclusion that this was the same 
bubonic plague that we know to-day. 

This identn. gives a new meaning to the epidemic 
at Bethshemesh (i S. 6. 19 ). The coverings of the Ark, 
particularly the "badger-skins" (Nu. 4. 5 6 ), wd. 
form an admirable retreat for the fleas fm. the dead 
plague-rats in the Temple which were harbouring 
the disease. Those who looked into the Ark must 
have disturbed these coverings, and would attract 
the fleas, and fall victims to the plague. The 
spread of the epidemic without human intercourse 
fm. Ekron to the Israelites is thus easily and natu 
rally explained. 

An interesting parallel has been suggd. with regard to the 
pestilence in Sennacherib s army, \vh. made him abandon 
his expedition (2 K. 19.). Herodotus gives an Egpn. story of 
the same invasion, in wh. its abandonment is attributed to 
" mice of the fields, wh. ate up their quivers and their bows 
and the handles of their shields, so that being without de 
fence of arms great numbers fell." Here, again, we have a 
fatal disease brought into connection with mice (or rats) ; 
it seems at least poss. that this too may have been bubonic 
plague of a very virulent char. 

The Plague of the Fiery Serpents. A curious 
suggn. has been made that the serpents fm. wh. 
the children of Isr. suffered (Nu. 2i. 4 9 ) were 
really Guinea-worms. This parasite, a kind of 
worm, occurs in various tropical countries, and has 
been known since before the Christian era to be 
prevalent in the neighbourhood of the Red Sea. It 
gains entrance to the body in drinking-water, de 
velops to a length ranging up to three feet, and 
finds its way to the feet or legs, where it penetrates 
the skin and discharges its young externally. It 
sometimes causes much pain and inflammation, and 
if the person suffering fm. it be in a debilitated con 
dition, may even prove fatal. The anct. Gr. name 



for the parasite, " little dragon " (Spa 
suggs. that it was regarded as a sort of serpent ; the 
epithet fiery may very well refer to the inflamma 
tion produced by its presence. This view of the 
passage, while it appears at first sight far-fetched, is 
yet a poss. explanation of the events recorded. 

Fevers. The word occurs in the AV. of the 
OT. only in Dt. 28. 22 ; but the feverish state must 
have been common and familiar. In Ps. 102. the 
features of it may be clearly recognised ; the heat 
(v. 3), the loss of appetite (v. 4), the dry mouth 
(v. 9), the pain and distress (vv. 5, 9), the depression 
(vv. 6, 8), the wasting (v. n), the weakness (v. 23), 
all point to some severe febrile illness. Those who 
have suffered fm. ague in the E., where it is very 
common, say that the description may well apply 
to that disease. 

In the NT. we have " a great fever " (the Gr. 
technical term) used of the illness fm. wh. Simon s 
w. s mr. suffered when Jesus healed her (Lk. 4- 38 ) ; 
the nobleman s s. whom He healed (Jn. 4. 46ff -), also 
suffered fm. fever (v. 52) ; and in Ac. 28. 8 , RV., we 
read that Publius fr. was healed by Paul of " fever 
and dysentery," again a Gr. technical term. 

Paralysis or Palsy. Loss of power due to 
disease, temporary or permanent, of some part of 
the nervous system, is of many forms : it may be 
rapidly fatal, or it may not tend at all to the 
shortening of life. The centurion s servant (Mw. 
8. 6 ; Lk. J.~}, who was "grievously tormented," 
and " ready to die," was prob. suffering fm. an 
acute and progressive form of palsy ; /Eneas (Ac. 
9- 33 ), and prob. the man brought to Christ at 
Capernaum " borne of four " (Mk.2. 3 ), were chronic 
but severe cases. The man " whose right hand was 
withered" (Mw. I2. 10 ; Mk. 3. 1 ; Lk. 6. 6 ) had 
prob. suffered fm. " infantile paralysis," wh. may 
leave one or more limbs shrunken and useless with 
out detriment to the genl. health. We have a gcnl 
refce. to the healing of sufferers fm. palsy in Mw. 
4- 24 ; and again in Ac. 8. 7 . 

In the OT., Mephibosheth, who was " lame on 
both his feet " as the result of a fall at the age of 
five, prob. suffered fm. disease of the spine, with 
deformity and partial paralysis of the lower limbs 

(2 S. 4 . 4 , 9 .). 

Jeroboam (l K. I3- 4 " 6 ) was struck suddenly with 
paralysis of the arm, wh. is said to have " dried up," 
and was healed on the intercession of the prophet. 
Such a sudden withering of a limb as is suggd. by the 
nar. does not corrsp. to any known disease. If the 
expression is merely a fig. one, to emphasise the loss 
of power, the disease may have been the curious 
condition known as catalepsy, where a limb remains 
rigid in the position in wh. it happens to be placed, 
and cannot be moved by the exercise of the will. 

Blindness. Diseases of the eyes are extremely 
common in the E. at the present day ; and fm. the 



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frequent refcs. to blindness in the OT., and the 
number restored to sight by our Lord (Mw. II. 5 ; 
Lk. j. 21 , besides individual cases), we may be sure 
that they were so also in anct. times. In no case 
mentioned in the Bible can we be sure what form of 
disease was the cause of the blindness. The dim 
ness of age referred to in Gn. 2j. 1 , 48. 10 ; I S. 3- 2 ; 
EC. I2. 3 , is usly. due to cataract. 

Demonic Possession. The belief in the direct 
causation of disease of many kinds by evil spts. 
was deep-rooted among the Jews in our Lord s 
time, as is clear fm. Rabbinical lit. An exami 
nation of the nars. regarding demoniacs in the 
NT. shows that the term is used in a much more 
limited sense. The demoniac in the synagogue at 
Capernaum (Mk. 1 . 23 26 ; Lk. 4. 33 35 ) was excited, 
aggressive, without self-control ; he fell down (Lk.) 
with a loud cry and violent movements (Mk.). At 
the present day his malady wd. be described as 
epileptic insanity one of the most dangerous and 
uncontrollable forms of mental disorder. The 
Gadarene demoniac (Mk. 5. 1 17 ; Lk. 8. 26 37 ), or 
demoniacs (Mw. S. 28 " 34 ), were dead to all social in 
stincts and restraints ; restless, noisy, violent, prone 
to inflict injuries upon themselves, and dangerous 
to others. Their disease wd. now be called acute 
mania. 

In both these nars. one of the most remarkable 
features is the way in wh. the demoniacs bear testi 
mony to Christ s mission, and the way in wh. Christ 
instantly silences that testimony. To this further 
refc. must be made. 

The demoniac boy (Mw. i;. 14 20 ; Mk. g. 14 29 ; 
Lk. 9. 37 43 ) had been affected fm. infancy, was dumb, 
and suffered fm. severe epileptic fits, whose symp 
toms (the cry, the fall, the foaming mouth, the 
grinding teeth, the convulsive movements followed 
by stillness with deep unconsciousness) are faithfully 
narrated. This boy wd. now be called an epileptic 
idiot. 

In the Acts of the Apostles we read of a " damsel 
possessed with a spirit of divination " wh. " came 
out " at the bidding of the Apostle Paul (Ac. 
i6. 16 " 18 ) ; she appears to have been harmlessly and 
mildly demented ; and of the man at Ephesus " in 
whom was the evil spt.," who turned upon and 
routed the " seven sons of one Sceva, a Jew," when 
they tried to exorcise the demon in the name of 
Jesus (Ac. ig. 13 16 ), he must have been a dan 
gerous lunatic. 

The dr. of the Syro-phcenician woman (Mw. 
I5. 21 28 , &c.), the dumb demoniac (Mw. g. 32 34 , &c.), 
and the blind and dumb demoniac (Mw. I2. 22 24 , 
&c.), were prob. suffering fm. congenital mental 
defect, and wd. now be called idiots or imbeciles. 

The other refcs. to demoniacs in the Gospels and 
the Acts furnish no particulars wh. enable us to 
ident. the form of disease ; but we may safely 



assume that in all it was a disorder severely disturb 
ing the minds of the sufferers. One feature of the 
cures stands out prominently ; other demoniacs, 
like those of Capernaum and Gadara, bore witness to 
Christ s Messiahship, and were also at once silenced 
by Christ (Mk. i. 34 , 3. nf - ; Lk. 4_ 41 ). This consis 
tent testimony of the demoniacs to Christ s mission 
is no less remarkable than His response to it. How 
differently He receives such a confession fm. His 
disciples! (Mw. I4. 33 , I6. 15 17 ; Jn. I. 49 ). The 
other features of demonic possession, so far as they 
are recorded, may be explained by various forms of 
mental disorder with wh. we are familiar to-day. 
A repeated and distinct proclamation of Christ s 
office and authority by such witnesses is so surprising, 
so unlike what we shd. expect of the insane, that it 
seems to demand some further explanation. May 
we conclude with Alexander (Demonic Possession) 
that it was a deliberate attempt to frustrate 
Christ s mission by its premature proclamation, and 
that it was " due to demonic inspiration " ? 

Some of the individual cases of disease may be 
shortly considered. 

(1) Saul. The disease wh. afflicted his later yrs. 
wd. now undoubtedly be called melancholia, or 
severe mental depression. The outbursts of homi 
cidal impulse (i S. l8. lof -, &c.) may poss. indicate 
an epileptic element in addition to the melancholia. 
The soothing influence of music and of cheerful 
companionship was for some time effectual in 
keeping his disorder in check. 

(2) The Shunammite s Son (2 K. 4. 18 37 ). The 
disease of wh. the boy died was prob. either sun 
stroke or very acute meningitis. 

(3) Jeboram (2 Ch. 2I. 14 19 ). The features of 
the disease corrsp. to those of a severe chronic 
dysentery, prob. succeeding an acute epidemic of 
the disease (v. 14). 

(4) Hezekiab (2 K. 2O. 1 7 ; 2 Ch. 32. 24 ; Is. 38.). 
The only definite indication we have of the nat. 
of the disease is that given us by the prophet Isaiah 
when he said : " Let them take a lump of figs and 
lay it for a plaister upon the boil and he shall re 
cover." The severity of the disease, and its almost 
fatal issue, show that it cannot have been an ordi 
nary boil. By some it has been supposed to be a 
case of bubonic plague, and connected with the 
pestilence wh. routed Sennacherib s army (vid. 
supra). A carbuncle, a disease similar to a boil but 
much more severe, and not unfrequently fatal, 
seems to corrsp. better with the facts given to us ; 
it is usually a single swelling, as Hezekiah s appears 
to have been, whereas in plague there arc almost 
always several distinct tumours. The local treat 
ment, by means of a poultice, is not unlike what 
mt. be used to-day. 

(5) Job. Prominence is given to the skin erup 
tion (2. 7 , 7. 5 , 3O. 30 ) : the use of the " potsherd " 



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(z. 8 ) prob. indicates either intense irritation, or 
much scaly exudation in connection with it. It 
greatly changed his appearance, and made him 
loathsome to look upon (2. 12 , y. 5 RVm., I9. 17 
RVm. 2 ). There are many indications, however, that 
it was not merely a skin disease, but affected deeper 
parts (2. 5 , ig. 20 , 3O. 17 ) ; there was emaciation (i6. 8 , 
17. ^ ; sleeplessness (j. 31 -), and fearful dreams (v. 
14) ; depression and hopelessness (3., &c.). There 
is an anct. belief that Job s disease was true leprosy ; 
this wd. corrsp. to many of its features. The RVm. 
of chap. 3O. 17 , " my bones drop away fm. me," is 
much more appropriate to leprosy than to any 
other disease. This is, however, too doubtful a 
foundation to establish the conclusion, esp. as the 
Heb. text is here uncertain. 

(6) Nebuchadnezzar (Dn. 4.) suffered fm. the 
variety of insanity known as lycanthropy, in wh. the 
sufferer believes himself to be one of the lower 
animals ; for he appears to have imagined himself 
an ox. His being " driven fm. men " (v. 33) may 
indicate that he was violent and dangerous. 

(7) Herod Agri-p-pa I. (Ac. I2. 23 ). The same 
event is recorded by Josephus,whodoes not mention 
worms, but says that Herod was seized by sudden 
and violent pain in the belly, wh. lasted for five days 
before he died. The two nars. together make it 
prob. that intestinal worms led to perforation of 
the bowel and peritonitis (or inflammation of the 
coating of the bowels). This is an intensely painful 
form of disease ; but consciousness is usly. retained 
till very near the end, as fm. Josephus act. seems to 
have been the case here. 

Remedies. The refcs. to those who prepared 
and administered remedies in the OT. are few. 
We are told of the physicians in Egp. who did the 
work of embalming bodies (Gn. 5O. 2 ). Jb. I3- 4 
and Jr. 8. 22 both make refc. to the calling of the 
physician. Asa s employment of physicians has 
already been referred to. Fm. Ex. 2 1. 19 we may 
infer that the healer of injuries received a reward for 
his work. " The art of the apothecary " is men 
tioned in Ex. 3O. 25> 35 , 37. 29 ; and one of his pro 
ducts in EC. lo. 1 ; but he was rather a perfumer 
(as in RV.) than an apothecary as we understand 
the word. In almost all the passages where oint 
ment is mentioned, it is used as a perfume and a 
luxury, not as a curative application. The only 
exception is in Is. I. 6 . 

In our Lord s time physicians seem to have been 
more familiar figs, in society, as we may infer fm. 
the currency of the proverb, " Physician, heal thy 
self" (Lk. 4 > 23 ), and the "manyphysicians" who had 
treated the woman with dysentery (Mk. 5- 26 ). The 
only one who is known to us by name is Luke 
(Col. 4 .i4). 

Of drugs or other methods of treatment in use 
we have very scanty record. The mandrake (Gn. 



30. 14 16 ), the balm of Gilead (not certainly identd. 
Jr. 8. 22 , 46. 11 ), and perhaps the caper-berry (Ec. 
I2. 5 RV.), are the only individual drugs specified. 
No doubt the spices wh. are frequently mentioned 
were used not only as perfumes and condiments, 
but for medicinal purposes also. 

Of external applications we read in Is. I. 6 (dress 
ing and ointment), 38. 21 (fig poultice) ; Lk. io. 34 
(dressing, oil and wine). We have also a refc. to 
the treatment of a broken limb in Ek. 3o. 21 , where it 
is clear that the importance of fixing the injured 
part in order to effect reunion of the broken bone 
was well known. 

Our Lord s miraculous cures were often wrought 
" with a word " (Mw. 8. 16 RV., 15.22-28 . j n ^46-53^ 
&c.), but perhaps more often He laid His hands 
on the sick (Mk. 6. 5 ; Lk. 4. 40 , &c.), or other 
wise touched them (Mk. I. 31 - 41 , &c.), and the 
popular belief in the virtue of contact was very 
strong (Mk. 6. 56 ). On three occasions we are told 
that He also used saliva (Mk. 7. 33 , S. 23 ; Jn. g. 6 ) : in 
the last instance earth in addition ; perhaps it was 
for this reason that He directed the man to wash in 
the Pool of Siloam. 

In the cures recorded in the Acts of the Apostles 
there is a similar variety. Contact by laying on of 
the hands or otherwise is mentioned in some cases, 
not in others. In chap. iq. nt - we read that gar 
ments wh. had been touched by Paul were the 
means by wh. cures were wrought ; and fm. chap. 
5. 15 we learn that the shadow of Peter was regarded 
as possessing the same virtue. R. A. LUNDIE. 

DISPERSION. See ISRAEL. 

DISTAFF. See SPINNING. 

DIVINATION. This may be explained as the 
pretended art of obtaining a kge. of the secret 
counsels of the gods, esp. with regard to the future, 
by means of signs and omens ; and also in many 
cases as the means of counteracting destined evils 
by the use of spells and charms ; and, by similar 
methods, of bringing evil upon others. Egp. and 
Bab. were to the anct. world the original sources of 
all such kge. and practice, and in each of these there 
was a considerable development, though fm. difft. 
bases and in difft. lines. In Egp. the start was fm. 
the idea of the divine unity. Then came the per 
sonification of the divine powers in a hierarchy of 
sptl. beings to wh. man by prop, means mt. ap 
proach, and wh. by suitable rites he cd. control. 
In Chaldea, on the other hand, the beginning was 
that idea of superstitious naturalism or fetichism wh. 
peoples all nature with spts. in man s image, and to 
wh. worship, consisting of enchantments and con 
jurations, must be paid. In the end, however, little 
diffc. existed between the methods practised in Egp. 
and Bab., and in each case the result was the same ; 
the priests got into their hands all the functions of 
communication with the unseen world, they be- 



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came sorcerers, and as superstition magnified the 
powers to wh. they made pretensions, they soon 
attained a despotic pre-eminence over the people, 
whom they bound in the bonds of superstitious 
fear. All the ks. of Bab. consulted diviners and 
awaited omens. The records of Sargon I. tell of 
these consultations, and at the head of each para 
graph in his hist, we find the omen for the day. In 
Egp. the bks. of magic belonged to the king, and 
were used by the priests of the sacred college, who 
were called when their assistance was thought 
needful. Amongst the Hebs. we do not find any 
trace of an original development. Whatever they 
possessed or used of magic art they either brought 
with them as part of the original family inheritance 
fm. Bab., or borrowed fm. the Egpns. and the Cans., 
who also were given to all kinds of D. and necro- 
mancy (Dt. iS. 11 ). The power and wealth that 
such pretensions brought soon attracted those who 
were desirous of such things, and thus we find that 
fm. very early times there were societies or guilds of 
the " initiated," who were known by various names. 
These are sometimes merely of gen. import, telling 
only of the kge. or wisdom of those who bear them, 
at other times they are an index to the pretended 
sources of sptl. illumination or to the methods of 
the soothsayer. 

Among the general class distinctions we find that 
of cbacbatnlm both in Egp. and Bab. (Ex. y. 11 ; Dn. 
5- 11 ). This word means wise men, a name wh. 
simply designated their superior learning, but with 
wh. vulgar superstition associated a supernatural 
power, wh. these men seem to have been ready 
enough to admit. Of a similar import is the word 
yiddc omrn (Lv. TQ. 31 , 20. 6 ), wh. means the knowing 
ones or wizards, and wh. seem to be used to indi 
cate all who by some means or other could reveal 
the future. The qosemlm (Dt. l8. 14 ) also, though, 
in the stricter sense, they may have belonged to the 
class of astrologers or magi, and although their 
name is connected with " cutting," either in the 
sense of " decreeing " fm. their observations, or fm. 
the practice of cutting their bodies (i K. i8. 28 ), gave 
general name to the practice of D. as we find in 
I S. 28. 8 . The cbartiimlm mentioned in both Egp. 
and Chaldea (Ex. y. 11 ; Dn. I. 20 ) were originally 
the sacred scribes and priests of Egp. Their 
name has been variously derived fm. the Egpn. for 
" wonder-workers " or " bearers of sacred spells," 
and fm. the Semitic for " a pen." They were in 
the way of getting greater learning than those 
around them, and were not slow in using it for their 
own advantage and credit. Jannes and Jambres 
(2 Tm. 3- 8 ) prob. belonged to this class, as each of 
their names is compounded with the Egpn. for 
" scribe." As a rule the working of the charm or 
spell was understood to depend on the pronouncing 
of certain formulae, and to those who acted this part 



the name of kasbsbapblm or mekasbsbapblm was 
given (Ex. j. n ; Dt. i8. 10 ). The word is connected 
with praying and liturgical worship, and doubtless 
to those who were responsible for this we owe the 
multitude of hymns and spells that have been dug 
up in Egp. and Bab. It appears that women were 
admitted into this guild (Ex. 22. 18 ). Every rela 
tionship to the mysterious was valuable to the sor 
cerer, and as serpents were worshipped in a great 
part of the anct. world, and as ability to control 
them was an indisputable proof of Divine power, 
there arose guilds of enchanters or meiiacbcshlm 
(2 K. ly. 17 , 21. 6 ; Ps. 58. 5 ), who were able to render 
them harmless and obedient. This was chiefly 
done by the power of music, and prob. also by the 
use of some hereditarily acquired secret. A similar 
influence was exercised over scorpions. The obser 
vation of the heavens was a frequently sought guide, 
and various sects of astrologers interpreted its 
signs. In Isaiah (47. 13 ) we read of " observers of 
the heavens," " star gazers," and " prognosticators 
fm. the new moons," and this class included the 
NT. magi (Mw. 2. 1 ). They watched the con 
junctions and oppositions of the stars, their posi 
tions in rising, at the zenith, and when setting, and 
so cast horoscopes. Bab. esp. was devoted to such, 
and among the tablets fm. Bab. there is a set of 
seventy dated B.C. 1600, giving good and bad pre 
sages, and the ruling body in the heavens for every 
day in the yr. Prob. with the astrologers we ought 
to class the me omm (z K. 21. 6 ; Mi. ^. 12 ), though 
the name has been variously interpreted. AV. 
regards them as " observers of times," auspicious 
for travel, trade, &c. Some derive the word fm. 
anan, to cover, and so connect them with " covert 
or hidden " arts, or, to cloud over ; and so make 
them soothsayers who predicted times fm. obser 
vation of the clouds ; while others again connect it 
with the eye, Ww, so that they become " fascinators 
with the eye," or have a connection with the " evil 
eye " in wh. there was a universal belief in these 
days (Dt. 15.; Mw. 2O. 15 ). LXX is inclined to 
regard them as " observers of words," and that this 
was also a means of D. we can see in Gn. Z-j.. 1 1 ; 
i S. I4. 9 10 ; I K. 20. 33 . 

Observations of various other kinds were made to 
obtain guidance in action. In Ezekiel (zi. 21 ) we 
have an example of belomancy, or D. with arrows.* 
Jerome explains this as the drawing of an arrow fm. 
a quiverful, each of wh. had the name of a city 
written upon it. Not unlike this was rabdomancy, 
or D. by rods (Ho. 4- 12 ). It was an appeal to Allat, 
who was the " lady of the rod," and in practice 
short pieces of stick with the bark on the one side, 
and bare on the other, were used. They were 
thrown in the same way as dice, and the turning up 



* See illustration AsxAi PF.R, where the king holds the 
divining arrow in his hand. 



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of the white side was considered a good omen. In 
much the same manner the Arab to-day writes 
upon sticks " God bids," and " God forbids," and 
draws. We have also D. by cups (Gn. 44- 5 ), a 
system still in use amongst the Arabs. The " in 
itiated," by means of the radiation of the light on 
the water in the cup, is enabled to see in it, and 
to describe the actual scene regarding wh. kge. is 
sought. In sacrifices too the liver was examined 
(Ek. 2 1. 21 ; Heb.), and success or failure determined 
accdg. to its healthy or unhealthy condition. The 
consultation of oracles (2 K. i. 2 ; Is. 4i. 21 24 , 44. ) 
and teraphim (i S. I5- 23 ; Ek. 2 1. 21 ; Zc. io. 2 ) may 
have been carried through in any or all of these 
ways. Dreams also were sought (i S. 28. 6 ), and 
their interpretation was a subject of systematic 
study (Dt. I3- 2 " 3 ; Jg. 7- 13 ). 

Very much akin to the consultation of the spts. of 
nature or of minor deities, but still very different, 
was the conjuring of the spts. of the dead or necro 
mancy, commonly designated the " having of 
familiar spts." The Heb. word, obh, originally 
meant a skin bottle (Jb. 32. 19 ), wh. cd. be inflated 
by the wind. It was transferred to such magicians 
as were supposed to be controlled by some " sptl. 
afflatus " (Lv. 20. 6 ), and thence to the spts. them 
selves, whose presence was the supposed cause of 
inspiration. In OT. we are told that they " chirped 
and muttered " (Is. 8. 19 ), and in NT. they are 
named " spts. of Python " (Ac. l6. 16 ), fm. wh. we 
understand that they spoke with a deep or sup 
pressed voice, and so we may infer that a good deal 
of their power depended on ventriloquism. The 
" Witch of Endor " is named " the mistress of a spt. 
by wh. the dead are conjured " (i S. 28. 7 ), and her 
case is the only one in OT. in wh. we see anything 
of the art in operation. 

The NT. shows us that this superstition still 
existed among the Jewish people in the time of 
Christ (Lk. II. 19 ) ; and elsewhere in the Rm. world, 
in view of the prevailing scepticism toward the 
Greco-Roman pantheon, it was natural that light 
shd. be sought where it professed to shine. Simon 
Magus (Ac. 8. 9 11 ) was thus enabled to carry on a 
lucrative trade; so was Elymas the sorcerer (Ac. 
I3- 6 " 8 ), and other Jews (Ac. ig. 13 ). To the extent 
of the practice we have ample testimony in the 
statement of the value of the bks. of D. belonging to 
one community (Ac. ig. 19 ). 

The amount of reality behind the pretensions of the magi 
cian has been variously estimated. The synagogue and the 
early Church regarded such powers as real and attributed 
them to infernal or satanic agency, and advocates of this 
view have in modern times brought forward as proof of it 
the confessions of converted Esquimaux and Indians, who 
declared that they had acted under the control of a super 
natural power with wh. they lost contact on conversion. A 
contrary view is that it is altogether trickery and fraud on 
the one hand, and superstition and excessive credulity on 
the other. To us it seems, however, that while in the main 
issue revelation fm. the unseen world all is fraud and 



imposture, the sorcerer did use and manifest powers with 
wh. the people were unacquainted. We have mentioned 
ventriloquism, and we receive confirmation of its use fm. 
stories of speaking statues, while there was doubtless also a 
kge. of mesmerism, telepathy, and allied forces, wh. science 
is once again revealing, and wh., but for the spread of edu 
cation, wd. be as incomprehensible no\\ as in former clays. 

Considering the part played by these agencies in the 
Semitic world, the manner of their treatment by the Bible 
is remarkable. Never once are they treated as powers that 
have in them any reality that is to be feared. In this it 
stands in striking contrast to all other holy books. The 
hymns of Bab. and Egp. are all prayers agst. magical 
powers. The Kor an treats charms and incantations as 
having power to produce evil consequences ; while the books 
of rabbinical Judaism are saturated with this superstition. 
They teach that hurtful demons may be seen ; that life, 
children, wealth, and wisdom depend en the stars ; that 
change of name may alter one s fate (Gn. i7. 5 - t >) ; that 
amulets are efficacious agst. scorpions and serpent bites, 
agst. bleeding at the nose, and a mad dcg. Yet in the 
whole Bible there is not a single prayer for protection agst. 
the powers of sorcery. So far as life and action are con 
cerned, its teaching is that the results of these things are 
illusive. When we study the mcst tangible cf all examples 
that at Endor we see this. The witch at the best mani 
festly depended on skilled acting, and Saul was expected to 
see nothing with his own eyes. Something unusual, however, 
did occur unusual even to the woman for that the raising 
of Samuel was something of a kind she had never before ac 
complished, we can see by her consternation, wh. was even 
greater than that of Saul (i S. 28. 12 ). Her power came far 
short of that night s results. But though to the authors of 
the Bible the pretensions of sorcery are baseless, they un 
hesitatingly condemn its practices (Ex. 22. 18 ; Is. 6$. 4 ; Ek. 
13. 7 ; Gal. 5.2 ; Rv. g.- 1 ) ; and prophet and king in Isr. 
were expected to stamp it out. In Egp. equally hard things 
were said about it, as e.g. that it was " a villainy worthy of 
death " ; but there the offence was agst. Pharach and the 
interests of the privileged class. In Isr. the offence was agst. 
God. Witchcraft was rebellion (i S. 15. ^} as being an 
appeal to a supposed power alien to God, a false system of 
ascertaining the Divine counsels, an abandonment of the true 
oracle wh. was open to faithful Isr. (Jg. i. f. ; 2 S. 2. 1 ; Ps. 
28. 2 ) but closed to the unfaithful (i S. 28. 6 ). It was allied to 
idolatry, and consequently death was the penally on all who 
professed the use of sorcery. Such men were not only the 
most shameless and unscrupulous of impostors and deceivers, 
but for their own material interests they were antagonistic 
to all truth, and besides, the crimes that were perpetrated 
in all lands on account of their teaching and influence 
justified the extreme penalty. 

W. M. CHRISTIE. 

DIVORCE. See MARRIAGE. 

DIZAHAB (Dt. i. 1 ). Burckhardt (Syria, 1822) 
and others have suggested Mina edh-Dhahab, be 
tween Ras Muhammad and Aqaba : but cert. 
identn. is imposs. 

DODANIM (Gn. io. 4 ), s. of Javan. Instead of 
D. the Sam. and the LXX read Rodanim and 
Rodioi respectively ; although the change is easy 
in the square character, it is not so in the Sam., but 
is easiest of all in the " angular script." wh. pre 
ceded it. The reading of the LXX is preferable 
on diplomatic grounds. The Rhodians, moreover, 
as great traders, wd. early be known in Pal. 

DODO, (i) Fr. of Eleazar, one of David s 
" mighty men " (2 S. 23. 9 ). (2) Fr. of Elhanan, 
another of David s worthies (2 S. 23- 24 ). (3) Fr. of 
Tola, the judge who succeeded Abimclech (Jg. io. 1 ). 

The first of these ought to be read " DODAI " ; so LXX 
and Jos. 



143 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dra 




DOEG (l S. 21. 7 , 22. 9ff -), an Edomite, chief of (i K. 4- 11 ). The town played some part in later 
Saul s herdsmen Gratz reads haratzim, " runners," Jewish hist. (Ant. XIII. vii. if.; xii. 2; XIV. 
for karo^m, " herdsmen " who told Saul of iv. 4 ; XIX. vi. 3). 

David s kindly entertainment by the priests at DORCAS is the LXX equivalent of Heb. Tzeb t, 
Nob ; and finally, when the guards shrank fm. the Aram. Tatitha, " a roe " or " gazelle " (Dt. I2. 15 , 
sacrilegious crime, executed Saul s impious order, &c.). It occurs as a personal name (Ac. 9.). D. was 
slaughtering the priests and all connected with evidently a woman of means, who added value to the 
them, gifts of her charity by personal labour. Her raising 

DOG. The neighbours of Isr. on the SW. and fm. the dead was an illustration of the miraculous 
NE., the Egpns. and Asyrns., made use of the D. in power granted to Peter. Her memory and influ- 
hunting. Josephus (Ant. IV. viii. 9) assumes that ence are perpetuated in the Christian Church by 
the D. was employed in Isr. fm. early times, both in numerous " Dorcas " societies. Locally her name 
hunting and in guarding the sheep. The only is commemorated by an institution in Jaffa, called 
notice of this in Scrip, is in Jb. 3O. 1 . The gen. by her Aram, name, the "Tabitha School," for the 
attitude of the Jew to the D. was one of contempt education and care of poor girls. 
(Ex. 22. 31 ; Dt. 23. 18 ; EC. 9.*). They, however, DOTHAN (Gn. 3;. 17 ; 2 K. 6. 13 ). About five 
performed a function of the greatest value, as they miles SW. of Jemn,on the side of an anct. highway 
do to this day in Eastern cities, devouring refuse fm. Esdraelon to the coast, lies the mod. Tell Dothan, 

a considerable mound with ruins, cisterns, and a 
spring. The plain and neighbouring slopes fur 
nish excellent pasture. This is prob. the scene of 
Joseph s sale, and of Elisha s marvellous preservation 
fm. the Syr. 

DOVE. The D. is one of the most plentiful 
wild birds of Pal. There are several species, all 
known to the Arb. as Hamam. Wady Hamam, 
"valley of doves," is a common name, where, in the 
caves, doves are specially numerous (Jr. 48. 28 ). It 
appears early in Scrip. (Gn. 8. 8 ), and is the only 
bird specified for sacrifice (Lv. I4- 21 ). It is used as 
a term of endearment (SS. 2. 12 ) ; and as a type of 
harmlessness (Mw. lo. 16 ) ; but also of silliness (Ho. 

TYPES OF EGYPTIAN Docs us T r i n- i 111 

7. ). Its powers of long flight were well known 

thrown into the streets, wh., but for their scaveng- (Ps. 55. 6 ; Ho. ii. n ). Tame doves are taught to 

ing, mt. breed a pestilence (2 K. g. 10 - 36 ). The fly into the air at a given signal, and after circling 

three breeds of D. in Pal. to-day are the Kurdish, there, to alight upon their master s head, shoulder, 

shaped like the collie, but with reddish hair ; a or hand. This may have suggd. to the Evangelists 

larger D. resembling the mastiff ; and the street, the beautiful comparison of the descent of the Holy 

or pariah D., smaller than either. The howling of Ghost upon Jesus head to that of a D. (Jn. I. 32 , &c.). 

these last, in the streets after nightfall, is often What was meant by Doves dung it is impossible 

dismal in the extreme (Ps. 59. G - 14 ). now to say (2 K. 6. 25 ). Prob. it denoted some kind 

Children in the East often make pets of the of seed. There is no known instance of lit. Doves 

little dogs, even taking them into the houses of their dung being eaten, even in famine, 

parents, so that they may well eat of the crumbs DOW T RY. See MARRIAGE. 

falling fm. the table (Mk. 7. 27f % where the Gr. DRAGON is the Eng. equivalent in AV. of 

word is kunaria, "little dogs"). Soon, however, several Heb. words and one Gr. (i) Tanmm, fern, 

they outgrow this kindness, and must resume their tannotb, pi. of tan (Is. I3. 22 , &c.), the name of 

life on the streets. an animal that howls in waste places. RV. trs. 

DOR, a city founded by the Phoenicians (Jos. " jackals." More prob. " wolves " are intended. 

Fit. 8 ; Contra Ap. ii. lo), conquered by Joshua (2) Tanmm, in Ek. 29.2, 32?, is perhaps a mistake 

(ll. 2 , I2. 23 ), assigned to Manasseh in the territory for tannin, as evidently the Egpn. crocodile is meant, 

of Issachar (i/. 11 , Ant. V. i. 22, the W. boundary (3) Tannin, pi. tanmnlm (Gn. I. 21 , AV. " whales," 

of Manasseh). The city is distinguished fm. the RV. " sea-monsters "; Is. 2J. 1 , &c.). W T hile genly. 

naphoth, " heights " of D. (Jo. II. 2 , I2. 23 ). These it seems to denote some monster of the deep, it 

were prob. the W. and SW. slopes of Carmel, D. is also used of serpents (Ex. y. 9 , &c.). (4) Gr. 

being represented by the ruin Tantura, on the Drakon, the monstrosity of Rv. 1 2. 3 , &c., shaped like 

adjoining coast. The inhabitants held out agst. a serpent (zo. 2 ), is prob. a development from the 

Manasseh (ij. 11 ), but were tributary to Solomon serpent of Gn. 3.!, &c. 

144 




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Dre 



DRAGON WELL. See EN-ROGEL. 

DRAM, a weight, and then a coin, approxi 
mately worth i (Ez. 2. 69 ; Ne. 7. 70ff -, RV. 
" Dark ") See MONEY. 

DREAMS. Accdg. to the view clearly assumed 
throughout Scrip., that no region or condition of 
human consciousness is beyond the influence of the 
Spirit of God, the Hebs. believed that intimations 
of the Divine will mt. come to men in dreams (Gn. 
2O. 3 , 28. 12 ; Mw. I. 20 , &c.). Certain dreamers are 
indeed condemned, not, however, because of their 
dreams, but because they are false prophets (Dt. 
I 3- 2ff- ; J r - 23. 25ff -). It is consonant with the 
Scripl. conception of the dignity of man, that 
greater importance is attached to the conscious 
operation of the human faculties. It is almost ex 
clusively in the earlier times that Ds. are used as the 
medium of revelation (Gn. i$. 1 , &c.). In NT. 
they are used only to give direction in circumstances 
of difficulty or peril (Mw. 2. 13 ; Ac. i8. 9 , &c.). 
While the " interpretation of Ds. belongs to God," 
the bulk of the Ds. recorded in OT. were granted to 
men beyond the pale of Isr., e.g. to Abimelech (Gn. 
2O. 3 ), to Laban (3i. 24 ), to the chief butler and baker 
(40. 5 ), to Pharaoh (4i. lff -), to the Midianites (Jg. 
7- 13 ), and to Nebuchadnezzar (Dn. 2. 1 ) ; and in NT. 
to the Magi (Mw. 2. 12 ), and to Pilate s w. (27- 19 ). 
The experience recorded of Jacob at Bethel, and of 
Solomon at Gibeon (Gn. 28." llff -, cp. Ho. I2. 4 ; I K. 
3. 5ff -), may indicate an expectation, that to one 
sleeping in his sanctuary special revelations mt. be 
made by the deity. While Ds. are recognised as a 
meansfor Divine communication with men, we have 
also a rational suggn. of their cause : " a D. cometh 
through the multitude of business " (Ec. 5. 3 ). To 
this day much importance is attached to Ds. in the 
E. Mohammed is reported to have given rules for 
behaviour after good and bad Ds. He declares 
that the truest dream is the one you have about 
daybreak (Mishkat, XXI. c. 4). 

DRESS, (i) Material. The first record of the 
use of clothing tells us it was made of the skins of 
animals (Gn. 3- 21 ), and till the present day such has 
remained common among the poorer classes. In 
Syr. we see the fellahln with sleeved jackets made of 
skins, the hair or wool being on the inner side. 
Weaving was early introduced. The use of tents 
(Gn. 4.2) implies this, and the most convenient 
material was hair-cloth, of wh. there is also early 
mention (Ex. 26. 7 , 35. 6 ). As used by the Arabs 
to-day it is mostly of black goats hair, waterproof, 
and almost indestructible. The sack-cloth of wh. 
we read so often (Is. 2O. 2 , &c.) was of this coarse, 
black material. A finer brown cloth was made of 
camels hair, and it seems that the ordinary mantle 
of the prophet the addereth was of this (2 K. I . H ; 
Zc. I3. 4 ; Mw. 3. 4 ). Wool was also used fm. early 
times, and flocks of sheep were kept by the patriarchs 



for its production (Gn. 38. 12 ). It was woven into 
cloth and made intogarments (Lv. 1 3.*" ; Dt. 22. 11 ). 
Linen and cotton were known in Egp., and were 
used by the Isrs. fm. the time of the Exodus (i Ch. 
4. 21 ; Ex. 28. 4ff -). Mixtures of flax and wool, 
shatnez, were forbidden (Dt. 22. n ). The intro 
duction of silk was late (Rv. l8. 12 ). 

(2) Colour, Egpn. taste, as we know from the 
monuments, was toward simplicity in colouring, 
and the garments of that country are mostly white. 
The Cans., on the contrary, were fond of brilliant 
colours and gaudy combinations. Long before the 
Exodus we find Semites, represented on I2th dyn. 
monuments at Thebes, clad in patchwork of various 
colours, and amongst them a Syrn. ambassador clad 
in alternate stripes of blue and red. The Hebs., by 
the way they speak of purple, scarlet, violet, and 
blue, show us that, like the Cans., they mostly ap 
preciated what was gorgeous and brilliant. The 
art of dyeing was known to the patriarchs (Gn. 
38. 28 ), and cloth was woven of coloured (Ex. 35- 25 ) 
and even of gold (Ex. 28. 6 ) threads. Embroidery 
was greatly prized (Jg. 5- 30 ), and, as used by persons 
of rank, was of gold (Ps. 45 , 13 ). It was a special pro 
duct of Tyre (Ek. l6. 13 ), but neighbouring peoples 
also knew the art. Purple (Pr. 3i. 22 ; Lk. i6. 19 ) and 
scarlet (2 S. I. 24 ) were worn by people of wealth, but 
in the use of these the adjoining peoples seem to 
have been more lavish than the Isrs. (Ek. 23. 6 , 27. ; 
Est. 8. 15 ). Gorgeous garments of foreign manu 
facture were among the imports to Pal. (Jo. 7> 21 ; 
Zp. I. 8 ). The poor had to be content with cloth 
ing of more sober appearance. Indigo is used at 
Magdala to-day, and that town was famous for its 
dyeworks in our Lord s days. Fm. this and several 
Talmudic references we shd. judge that the blue 
and white striped cloth of mod. Galilee was very 
common in the first cent. 

(3) Articles. The clothing of the Hebs. differed 
very little in form fm. that of the Beduin and 
fellabln of to-day, and can best be understood fm. a 
study of theirs. The kuttoneth (Gr. chiton} or coat 
was the inner garment, and it corrsps. to the tkaub 
of the Arab. It is commonly made of cotton stuff, 
by folding the length of the material in two, sewing 
it down the sides, and leaving openings for the head 
and for attaching the sleeves wh. sometimes reach 
the knee ; though on pictures of Jewish prisoners on 
Asyr. monuments it has very short sleeves. Some 
times the opening at the neck and the front of the 
skirt are ornamented with coloured needlework. 
By a cord or a girdle of leather or linen the thaub is 
bound round the waist. A very fine dress of this 
kind was the kuttoneth pasflm, wh. reached the 
wrists and the ankles. It was the dress of princesses 
(2 S. I3. 18ff -), and was the coat wh. Joseph s brethren 
envied him ; as it meant that to him, as the eldest 
son of Rachel the beloved wife, had been given the 



145 



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TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dre 



right and badge of primogeniture. It is doubtful 
if the tr. " of many colours " is correct. Even if it 
were, the meaning wd. be the same. It has always 
been the custom of the sheikh, in virtue of his rank, 
to wear a garment of many coloured stripes. The 
simlah (Gr. himatioii) or cloak was worn above the 
kuttonetb, but of its form we have no evidence fm. 
the OT. In its uses it corrsps. to the Arb. abdyeb. 
This is made of coarse, almost untearable woollen 
cloth, often of brown and white stripes. It is made 
by sewing together two pieces of the material three 
cubits (zyin.) long and onecubit wide, doubling over 
each end about 1 8 in. and sewing along the top. 
Openings are then made to allow the arms to pass 
through, and the hems are all overedged, while the 
neck and front are sometimes ornamented with 
needlework. The strength and the form made it 
a useful article for carrying all sorts of things (Ex. 
I2. 34 ; Jg. 8. 25 ; I S. 21. ). It was a protection 
by day agst. rain and heat, and by night agst. the 
cold as a bedcover, for wh. reason it was not 
allowed to be kept as a pledge after sunset (Ex. 
22. 2ti ; Dt. 24. 12ft -). The most primitive form of 
head-dress known among the Arabs is a single cord 
to bind the hair. The Syrian ambassador on the 
Egpn. monument appears thus, so it is not unlikely 
this was also an early Heb. custom (cp. I K. 2O. 31 ). 
But as it formed no protection, the adoption of the 
kaffiyeh was natl. It is made of a square of cloth 
folded corner-wise, and, laid on the head over a 
small felt or knitted skullcap, is bound to the head 
by the cord or l agdl. One of its corners thus pro 
tects the neck, while the other two are drawn round 
under the chin and thrown over the shoulders. On 
the feet sandals were worn. The na al consisted of 
a sole of wood or leather attached to the foot by 
thongs or straps the serokb of Gn. I.J.. 23 ; Is. i;. 27 . 
Even the very poor possessed them (Am. 2. 6 , 8. 6 ), 
and, as a token of respect, they were removed on 
entering a house or sanctuary (Ex. 3.% I2. 11 ). These 
articles form the costume of the nomad to-day, 
and there is no reason for believing the Isr. dressed 
otherwise before the conquest of Can. 

With settled life, however, changes had to come. 
The simlah wd. be felt to be a bulky and incon 
venient costume for the home, and so among the 
peasantry its proportions were reduced to the size 
and form of a jacket, reaching almost to the knees, 
and having sleeves half-way down to the elbows. 
Among the upper classes the simlah retained its 
place as the outdoor cloak ; but they introduced 
another article of D. the me l 7l, mantle wh. 
was worn over the kuttoneth, and wh. corrsps. to the 
Gbumbdz as now worn in Pal. It is of much finer 
cloth than the simldb and difft. in shape ; resem 
bling a closely fitting dressing-gown. When it is 
worn, the tbmtb or kuttoneth consists of plain cotton 
or linen, and is designated the qamls. 



The me f il is mentioned in the OT. as worn by ks. 
(i S. 24. 4 ), prophets (i S. 28. 14 ), chiefs (Jb. i. 20 ), and 
young men (i S. 2. 1!) ). Round the waist above the 
well, the girdle, bagor, was now worn. It some 
times consists of a linen or cotton shawl folded up 
and wound around the body, but oftener it is a 
strong woven band not unlike a saddle girth and 
ending with an ornamental fringe or tassel. It 
allows the upper part of the -we ll to be used as a 
pocket ; the writer s outfit is carried between it 
and the body, and a fold within it forms a very safe 
purse (cp. Mw. IO. 9 , zone). The head-dress also 
suffered change. The kaffiyeh was folded in a long 
strip and wound round the felt cap forming a 
tzmiipb (Is. 3. 23 , 62. 3 ), Arab. Liffeh, or turban, and 
the cord was laid aside. Fm. the Jrs. Tim. we 
learn that all turbans were white. Further change 
does not seem to have taken place in the clothing of 
the men except in the adorning of these articles, 
and in the imitating the magnificence of foreigners. 
In references to the further East, however, we find 
the names of other garments worn there by Isrs., and 
they deserve attention. The sarbaltn, "hosen" (Dn. 
3- 21 ), are also mentioned by Herodotus (i. 195), and 
are without doubt the sirival of mod. Syr. These 
are loose trousers made of a sack of cloth and having 
openings at the lower corners for the feet to pass 
through. They are gathered round the waist by a 
draw-cord. The pattlsh, worn with the sarballn, 
must have been the short jacket or vest that is worn 
with the sir-zeal. The karbeld is explained by the 
Asyr. karballatn, as a head-dress, hat, or helmet. 
The takhrikh (Est. 8. 15 ) seems to be a general term 
for the inner garments of fine linen. Other words 
of general import are met in the OT. wh. have 
sometimes been mistaken for the names of particular 
garments. Beged seems to be of this nat. It is 
used equally for gorgeous (i K. 22. 10 ) and for filthy 
clothing (Is. 64. 6 ). It even includes the girdle and 
the turban (Ex. 28. 4 ). Kesutb is used when cover 
ing or protection is mainly thought of (Ex. 22. 26 ; 
Jb. 26., 3 1. 19 ) ; lebush, wh. is chiefly poetical, 
is used in prose of the warrior s cloak (2 S. 20. 8 ) 
and the priest s vestments (2 K. io. 22 ). Sacfin, wh. 
means linen, seems to have been the same as the 
kuttoneth (Jg. I4- 12 ; Is. 3- 23 ), and was prob. just 
another designation for that garment (cp. Mk. 14. 51 ). 
The simlab, though meaning particularly the cloak, 
is also used occasionally for clothing generally (Gn. 
35- 2 ; Ex. 3. 22 ; Dt. io. 18 ), as is also its Gr. equiva 
lent bimntion, in the NT. Other NT. articles are 
the cblamys, the military cloak introduced by the 
Rm. Emperors and worn by the soldiery (Mw. 27. 28 ), 
and the Rm. parmda (Gr. phailones), a long travel 
ling cloak (2 Tm. 4. 13 ), with only one opening for 
the head, and a hood to protect agst. the weather. 

The priests in connection with their official 
duties wore a particular adaptation of the ordinary 



Dri 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Dul 



D. It consisted of short drawers (mikhnasayim), 
extending fm. the waist to the upper thighs, and a 
kuttoneth, reaching to the feet, both of white linen. 
The girdle (abnef) was woven with coloured flowers. 
The turban (might? ah") was goblet-shaped. The 
High Priest s clothing was much adorned with em 
broidered work and colours, and he wore, above a 
gorgeous me ll, the ephod and breastplate. His 
turban (mifznepheth) was difft. in form fm. that of 
the common priests. Heb. women wore the kut 
toneth, the simlah, and the tzaniph (SS. 5- 3 ; Ru. 3. ; 
Is. 3/ 23 ), just as the men did, but there was some 
diff., and one was forbidden to wear the garments of 
the other sex (Dt. 22. 5 ). When the me f 7l was intro 
duced the same diffc. may have existed as we find 
to-day. That of the men is open down the front, 
but the woman s ghumbaz is sewed fm. the breast 
downward. The distinguishing feature, however, 
of the woman s D. was the veil. In the days of the 
ks. the Heb. woman was greatly given to luxury in 
D., and many new names of articles of adornment 
are met with. The contents of a lady s wardrobe 
may be seen in Is. 3. 18 24 . Much disputation 
has taken place over the various articles of D. and 
jewellery, but on the whole RV. may be trusted. 

Stores of clothing were a characteristic of vealth (Jb. 27. 36 ; 
Mw. 6. 19 ; Js. 5. 2 ), and the presentation ot" rcbes was a way 
of showing honour (Gn. 4s. 22 ; 2 K. s. 5 ). The giving of the 
best robe meant special distinction (Lk. I5- 22 ). When given 
in token of office , investiture was also implied (Gn. 41. ^j Is. 
22. 21 ; Est. 8. 15 ), and the taking of them away meant dis 
missal (2 M. 4- 38 ). 

The simlah was natly. thrown off (Mk. io. 50 ; Jn. 13. 4 ; 
Ac. y. 58 ) or left in the house close by (Mw. 24. 18 ), \\hen 
active work was to be done. For the purposes of running 
the me il was girded, i.e. the ends were drawn up and within 
the girdle (i K. i8. 4li ; 2 K. 4. 29 , g. 1 ). Grief and indignation 
were shown by rending the garments ( Jb. i. 20 ; Mw. 26.>), 
renunciation by shaking them (Ne. 5.i :! ; Ac. i8. 6 ), loyalty 
and joyful submission by spreading them cut before another 
(2 K. 9. 1:t ), and reverent awe and sorrow by wrapping them 
round the head (2 S. is. 30 ; i K. ig. 33 ). One dressed in 
the kuttoneth alone was said to be naked (Is. 20.-). 

We can now understand the division of our Lord s 
clothing among the quaternion of soldiers at the 
cross. The five parts, four of wh. the soldiers took 
without dispute, were the sandals, the head-D., the 
kuttoneth, the me ll, and the simlah. There still re 
mains a doubt over wh. part the lots were cast. 
John names it chiton, but although that was origi 
nally the kuttoneth, it seems to us that when the 
word came back to Pal. in Greek it meant another 
garment wh., judging fm. its contrast with the 
himation (Mw. 5- 40 ), we shd. infer to be the me ll. 

DRINK. See FOOD. W M " C RISTIE - 

DRINK, STRONG. See DRUNKENNESS. 

DROMEDARY, a light, swift, riding camel (Heb. 
beker, rekesh, I K. 4 28 ; Jr. 2.23, &c.), bearing the 
same relation to the carrying camel as the riding 
horse to the dray horse. 

DROPSY. &r DISEASES. 

DROSS, the impurities extracted in the process 



of refining metals, esp. silver (Is. I. 25 ; Pr. 25. 4 ). 
It is used figly. for the wicked and degraded (Ps. 
II9. 119 ; Ek. 22. 19 , &c.). 

DROUGHT represents various Heb. words, all 
referring to the effects produced by heat in the 
absence of rain. All vegetation in Pal. is dependent 
on the rainfall. W r hen it is exceptionally late or 
scanty, the crops are light ; when it fails, the earth 
is baked hard in the fierce heat, and famine stares 
the husbandman in the face. In the late summer 
all but the more important streams are dried up, 
and then the traveller may often know what is 
meant by " the D. of summer " (Ps. 32. 4 ). 

DRUNKENNESS is the condition resulting fm. 
excessive indulgence in Strong Drink. Of the 
words used in OT. the most important is shakar, 
" to be drunken," fm. wh. we have the noun shekfir, 
" strong," i.e. " intoxicating liquor." The NT. 
word is methito, " to be softened " or " soaked with 
drink." For the various kinds of drink, see FOOD. 
W 7 e need not specify the mental and physical effects 
of D. noted in Scrip. These are the same every 
where. We only observe that while these were fully 
understood, and their debasing influence appreci 
ated, so that D. is condemned in the most em 
phatic manner (Is. 28. 1 ; I Cor. 6. 10 , &c.), there is 
no general prohibition of the use of intoxicants. 
On the other hand their moderate and medicinal 
use seems to be commended (Ps. ic>4. 15 ; I Tm. 3.*, 
5. 23 ). Abstinence, however, was imposed upon the 
priest in view of his service in the sanctuary (Lv. 
io. 9 ), and upon the Nazirite during the period of 
his vow (Nu. 6. 3 , &c.) ; fm. wh. it may be inferred 
that higher efficiency of mind and body was thus 
secured. It must be remembered also, that in 
anct. times, not many cd. afford to drink intoxicants. 
The cheap processes by wh. alcoholic liquors are 
now produced, bringing them within reach of the 
poorest, have introduced a new phase of the pro 
blem. The personal practice of the Christian must 
be determined in accdce. with the principle stated 
by Paul (i Cor. 8. 13 ). See WINE. 

DRUSILLA, third and youngest dr. of Agrippa I. 
She married, A.D. 53, Aziz, k. of Emesa, who con 
sented to be circumcised, Epiphanes, s. of Autia- 
chus, k. of Commagene, to whom she had been 
betrothed, having resigned her rather than submit 
to this rite. Felix, attracted by her great beauty, 
employed one Simon poss. Magus a professed 
magician, who persuaded her to leave Aziz ; where 
upon she was married to Felix, to whom she bore 
a s. When she accompanied Felix to the court 
where Paul was on trial, she was only 18. Nothing 
further is known of her hist. (Ant. XIX. ix. I ; XX. 
vii. 2 ; Ac. 24. 24 ). 

DULCIMER (Dn. 3.*. 10 - 1S ), tr. of Heb. [ktKb] 
siimponiya, v. io siponiya ; Psh. tziphoniya ; RV. 
" bagpipe." 



Dum 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Ear 



It seems as if this were a loan word fm. the Greek ; cer 
tainly there is a Gr. word almost identical with this wh. 
means" concert," "harmony." Its place in the text is doubt 
ful ; it is omitted fm. the lis t in v. 7, in the kthb in v. 10 its 
place is taken by slponia, another word altogether; it only 
appears once in Thd. If it is in the text the form of the 
word has to be considered. The word tziphoniya in the 
Psh. cd. not have been derived fm. sumponiya ; it is more 
okmsiponiya ; though even in regard to the latter, it wd. more 
naturally be derived fm. tziphoniya than vice versa. There 
is a Gr. word siphonia wh. , however, has no musical meaning. 
If it means anything it is " a little fire-engine." When the 
Gr. word sumphonia occurs in the NT., as it does in 
Lk. is. 25 , Psh. does not render tziphoiiiya, but zemora, 
" singing," showing that the Gr. sumphonia was not regarded 
as meaning the same as the Aramaic word wh. is so like it. 
It cd. be no objection to the first consonant, for crv^poAa is 
transferred (Ws. 2. 9 ). Further, the Gr. word dees not mean 
"a musical instrument," but a concert of singers (Polyb. 
xxvi. 10. ; Plato, Sym. 187). It appears to be a case of verbal 
assimilation. 

DUMAH. (i) A city in the mountain of Judah 
(Jo. 15. 52 ), prob. Domeh, a considerable ruin, with 
rock tombs, cisterns, &c., about 13 miles SE. of Beit 
Jibrin. (2) A s. of Ishmael (Gn. 25. 14 ; I Ch. I. 30 ), 
prob. representing a locality in Arabia. The most 
likely identn. is with Dammat el-Jandal, now known 
as el-Jauf (see Doughty, Arabia Deserta, by index). 
Some have thought that the oracle, Is. 21. n , refers 
to this D. Poss. Idumea (LXX) may be intended. 

DUNG. In the absence of wood, the D. of 
camels and other animals is often used as fuel. 
Cows D. mingled with straw, and plastered on the 
rough walls to dry for fuel, is a common sight in the 
E. For regulations as to cleanliness, see Dt. 23. 10ff - ; 
Ex. 29. 14 ; Lv. 4. llf - ; Nu. ig. 5 . For the use of D. 
as expressing contempt, see 2 K. g. 37 ; Jr. g? z ; 
Zp. I. 17 ; Ml. 2. 3 ; Php. 3. 8 , &c. 

DUNGEON. See PRISON. 

DUNG GATE. See JERUSALEM. 



DURA, the plain, or district, near Bab., where 
Nebuchadnezzar set up the golden image (Dn. 3. 1 ). 
The name is poss. related to the Bab. Jura, " a wall." 
The most prob. site appears to be that suggd. by 
Oppert (Exped. en Mesop. i. 238), to the SE. of Bab., 
where, near a mound called " Duair," he found the 
base of a great statue. 

DUST is a very common cause of discomfort in 
Pal. The limestone rock is easily worn, and in the 
drought and heat of summer the fine D. is very 
searching; esp. does it fret the feet of the traveller. 
This makes washing peculiarly refreshing. For the 
Jews, the D. of heathen countries was unclean. 
Figly. anything that stuck to one was called D. ; 
e.g. " the dust of an evil tongue " (LTJ. i. 644). 
To shake the D. off feet or garments indicates entire 
separation. 

DWARF (Heb. daq., " thin," " shrunk," " with 
ered "). The term indicated some physical defect, 
on account of wh. a priest mt. not " approach to 
offer the bread of his God " (Lv. 21. 20 ). Many ren 
derings have been suggd., " blear-eyed " (Vlg.), 
" short-sighted," " freckled " (LXX, epbelos), &c. 
The lit. meaning, "withered," mt. suit as well as any. 

DYEING. Although the process of D. is never 
mentioned in Scrip., yet the result is referred to 
(Ex. 25. 5 ; Is. 63.! ; Ek. 23. 15 ). It was practised in 
Egp. and prob. in Asyr. In Classical antiquity 
Phoenicia was regarded as the centre of this in 
dustry. This is confirmed by huge mounds of 
fragments of the shells of the murex beside TYRE 
and SIDON ; but although there are frequent refcs. 
to the cities of Phoenicia in Scrip., there is no notice 
of D. in connection with them. See COLOURS, 
DRESS, HANDICRAFTS. 



E 



EAGLE (Heb. nesher, Gr. aetos). Like the Arb. 
nisr, the Heb. term denotes several birds of prey. 
Prob. the griffon vulture is most frequently in 
tended. It has no true feathers on head and neck ; 
hence the phrase, " enlarge thy baldness as the E." 
(Mi. I. 16 ). This bird abounds in Pal., making its 
nest in the lofty cliffs that overhang the valleys 
(Jr. 49. 16 ). It is noted for the telescopic range of 
its eyesight (Jb. 39- 29 ). It spies the fallen animal 
from immense distances, and its flight seems to be 
watched by many other birds that follow to feast 
upon the carrion (Mw. 24. 28 ). It attracted the eye 
of the prophet as it soared in graceful circles far into 
the sunny sky (Is. 4O. 31 ). Its speed on the wing is 
often referred to (Dt. 28. 49 ; Jr. 4. 13 , &c.), and in 
Ek. 17. it is the symbol of power. There is an allu 
sion in Ps. 103. 5 to the ancient belief that, by some 
means, the eagle was able to renew its youth. In 
the Middle Ages it was believed that every ten yrs. 



the E. beat its way upward high into the sun, whence, 
plunging into the sea, its old feathers were shed, 
and, new plumage appearing, it rejoiced again in the 
strength of youth. There is, of course, no ground 
for this superstition. 

There are also found in Pal. the Lammergeier (ossifrage), 
the greater spotted eagle, the tawny eagle, the golden eagle, 
the imperial eagle, and the short-toed eagle. This last feeds 
entirely on reptiles, lizards, snakes, &c., and migrates in the 
season when snakes hibernate. 

EAR, the organ of hearing, associated in Heb., as 
in many langs., with the idea of obedience. To 
" incline the E." is to give attention, " to hearken " 
is often = to obey. The tip of the priest s E. was 
touched with blood at his consecration (Lv. 8. 23f> ), 
also that of the cleansed leper (i4- 14 , &c.). An awl 
put through a slave s E. into the door-post signified 
for him perpetual servitude (Ex. 2i. 6 ). Ear-rings 
have always been a favourite female ornament in 
the East (Gn. 24> 22 , AV. ; Ex. 32.2, &c.). They 



148 



Ear 



TEMPLE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE 



Eba 



form part of every young bride s outfit, and arc 
frequently valued as amulets. They are seldom 
now worn by men (Jg. 8. 24 ). 




EAR-RINGS 



EARNEST (2 Cor. 1.22, 5.8 ; Eph. i. 14 ), Gr. 
arrabon, mod. Arb. ra bon. This is some part of 
the price, or wage for service, agreed upon, given 
when the bargain is made, as a pledge of mutual 
obligation to fulfil the terms. What the Christian 
enjoys here of God s goodness is a foretaste, or E., 
of his inheritance. 

EARTH stands in EV. for several Heb. and Gr. 
words, (i) Adamdh, the soil worked by the hus 
bandman (Gn. 2. 5 ), used also for land or country 
(Gn. 47. 19 ; Is. 19." ; Zc. 2. 12 ), and for the whole 
earth (Gn. I2. 3 , 28. 14 ). (2) Eretz, earth as 
opposed to heaven (Gn. I. 1 ), as opposed to the sea 
(i. 20 ). This is the usual word for country (ig. 28 , 
&c.), but it occurs also for the whole earth (Gn. 
l8. 18 , &c.). (3) In i S. 2. 8 , &c., tebel is a synonym 
for eretz. Like eretz (Gn. I. 28 , &c.) it may denote 
the whole inhabited earth, and so is prop, equiva 
lent to the Gr. oikoumene (Mw. 2^.. u , &c. ; cp. 
Lk. 2 1. 26 ). This meaning also attaches to Gr. ge 
(Mw. 5. 5 ; Rm. 9- 17 , &c.). It is used as equivalent 
to adamab (Mw. I3. 5 , &c.), and to eretz (Mw. 
24- 35 , &c.). 

EARTHQUAKE. Although in recent geologic 
times there have been no active volcanoes in Pal., 
earthquakes often occur, and are sometimes of great 
severity. On the 1st of Jan. 1837, tne ^ty f Safed 
in Galilee was reduced to a heap of ruins by an E. 
That only the more remarkable earthquakes are re 
corded, two only being mentioned in the historical 
bks. (i S. I4. 15 ; I K. I9- 11 ), may be due to the very 
frequency of the phenomenon. The giving of the 
law on Sinai was accompanied by an E. (Ex. ig. 18 ). 
Korah and his company perished by means of an E., 
when the ground opened and swallowed them up 
(Nu. l6. 31f - ; Ant. IV. iii. 3). The E. in the reign 
of Uzziah must have been terrible (Am. I. 1 ; Zc. 
I4- 5 ). Josephus tells of an E. in the reign of Herod 
wh. wrought great and widespread destruction 
(Ant. XV. v. 2). Matthew reports an E. at the 
time of the Crucifixion in Jrs. (27. 51 ). An E. sig 
nalised the deliverance of Paul and Silas fm. bonds 
in the jail at Philippi. The E. is prominent among 
the causes of calamity spoken of in the latter days 
(Mw. 24. , &c.), and fm. the terror it inspires it 
natly. plays a large part in the visions of the Apo 
calypse (Rv. 6. 12 , &c.). 



EAST, CHILDREN OF THE (Jg. 6. 3 , &c.), de 
notes genly. the peoples dwelling to the E. of Pal., 
esp. the nomads in the Syr. desert and Arabia. 

EAST SEA, EASTERN SEA. See SEAS. 

EASTER (Ac. I2. 4 , AV.) = PASSOVER. 

EBAL. (i) (i Ch. 1 , 22 ), or Obal (Gn. io. 28 ), s. of 
Joktan, prob. representing some S. Arabian people 
or district. (2) (Gn. 36. 23 ; I Ch. l. 40 ),s.of Shobal. 

EBAL. The twin summits in central Pal., seen 
on all sides fm. afar, Mts. Ebal and Gerizim, rise N. 
and S. of the deep, narrow vale wh., running E. and 
W., cuts Mt. Ephraim in two. In the bottom of 
the vale lies the city of Nablus, the anct. Shechcm. 
The slopes of E. on the N. rise through fruitful 
gardens, shady orchards, and olives to steep, rocky 
terraces, sprinkled with thorny scrub, over wh. the 
ascent is painful, to the wide back of the mountain. 
The highest point is to the W., 3077 ft. above the 
sea, 1402 ft. above Nablus, more than 200 ft. higher 
than Gerizim. On the summit are the ruins of an 
anct. fortress, with mighty walls. To the E. is a 
ruin called Khirbet kaiiiseh, " church ruin." A 
Moslem Wely near the top is reputed to cover the 
skull of John the Baptist. The view ranges fm. 
Hermon and the S. buttresses of Mt. Lebanon in 
the N., to Jrs. and the Dead Sea in the S., with 
Bashan, Gilead, and Moab on the E., and the long 
line of the seashore to Carmel in the W. 

E. appears in the dramatic picture of Jo. S. 33 ^, 
when Moses instructions (Dt. 27. llff -) were carried 
out. The ark, with priests and Levites, was in the 
midst, the tribes