LIBRARY
FACULTY OF FCOTRY
imiVERSITY Of TORONTO
MAR 2 5 iJ/0
Bulletin No 13. Dmiion of Fore.t
PLATE I.
LONGLEAF PlNE IPlNUS PALUSTRISI.
BULLETIN No. 13 (REVISED EDITION).
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIVISION OF FORESTRY.
THE
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D.
TOGETHER WITH
A DISCUSSION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR WOOD.
By FILIBERT ROTH.
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF B. E. FERNOW, CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY.
WASHINGTON:
OOVKKNMKNT PRINTING OFFICE.
IS!) 7.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. -
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, '-'"'
DIVISION OF FORESTRY,
Washington, D. (7., Nov.etiiber1 1, 1897.
SIR: I have tlie honor to submit herewith for publication a revised and enlarged edition of a
series of monographs on the live pines of economic importance in the Southern thiited States, a
result of many years' study by Dr. Charles Mohr, the well-known authority on the botany of the
Southern States and agent of the Division of Forestry.
The first draft of these monographs was prepared several years ago, but it was then found
that in order to make them fully satisfactory and useful to the practitioner much additional infor-
mation was needed, especially regarding the rate of growth and other sylvicultural as well as
technological questions. This information has been gradually accumulated as our facilities have
permitted. The extended investigations carried on in this division may be considered quite
exhaustive, at least in regard to the mechanical properties of the wood of these pines. An
interesting chapter on the wood structure by Mr. Filibert Both has been added, and a compar-
ative study of the economic, sylvicultural, and technical characteristics and value of the pines
under consideration — a resume, as it were, of the contents of the monographs — is to be found
in tlie introduction by the writer.
Advantage has been taken of the opportunity afforded by a call for a second edition to
carefully revise the text of the monographs and record in additional notes results of new investi-
gations.
During the early summer of 1897, Mr. Filibert Both made an exhaustive study of several
localities in the territory of the Southern Pines, and his observations, so far as they supplement
the excellent work of Dr. Mohr, are embodied in brief notes at the end of each monograph. Mr.
Roth has also contributed a short sketch of the Pond Pine, which was found to be of greater
economic importance than had been known.
The cordial reception which was accorded this bulletin, and the large demand which has
made this second edition necessary, are a source of great gratification to those interested in its
preparation, and show an increasing appreciation of the great economic value of our forest
resources on the part of the public.
The pineries of the South furnish now. or will in the near future, the most important staples
of our lumber industry. According as they are treated, carefully or wastefully, they will continue
for a longer or shorter time to be a wealth-producing resource of the South. To aid in securing a
true conception of the extent, condition, and value of this resource, and of the nature, development,
and characteristics (botanical, sylvicultural, and technological) of these pines, these monographs
have been written, with the hope of inducing rational forestry methods in their use and reproduction.
Respectfully,
B. E. FERNOW,
Chief of Division.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.
3
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction. By B. E. FERNOW u
Botanical diagnosis of the four principal pines occurring in the Southern States 12
Nomenclature of Southern pines 13
Characteristics of the wood of Southern pines 13
Mechanical properties 14
delation of strength to weight 14
Weight relations 15
Distribution of weight and strength throughout the tree 15
Effect of age 17
Range of values for weight and strength 18
Influence of locality 18
Influence of moisture 19
Weight and moisture •_>()
Shi ink age 20
Kffect of "boxing," or "bleeding" 21
Use of the wood 21
Rate of growth 22
Statistics and conclusions 23
The Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustrit Miller). By CHARLES MOHK, Ph. D 27
Introductory 29
Historical , 29
Geographical distribution 30
Characteristics of distribution in different regions 30
Timber regions — supply and production 31
The Atlantic pine region ; 31
The maritime pine belt of the eastern. Gulf region 36
The central pine belt of Alabama 41
The forests of Longleaf Pino in north Alabama 41
The region of Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi 44
Products •>. 46
Value and uses of the wood 46
Resinous products of the Lougleaf Pine 48
Products obtained from the leaves of Longleaf Pine 48
Nomenclature and classification 48
Botanical description and morphology 48
Root, stem, and branch system 49
Leaves and their modifications 49
Floral organs 51
Seeds 51
The wood 53
Growth and development 55
( Onilitions of development 60
Demands upon soil and climate 60
Associated species 61
Enemies 61
Exploitation , 61
Fires 62
Live stock 62
Storms 62
Fungi 63
Insects 63
5
6 CONTENTS.
The Longleaf Pine (I'inut paliistrit Miller). By CHARLES Monit, Ph. D. — Continued. r«ge.
Natural reproduction 64
Forest management 64
Com lii.sion 66
Appendix.— The naval store industry 67
Resin , or crude turpentine 67
Spirits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine 67
I; os in. or colophony - liK
Pine tar 68
Common pitch 6X
Historical remarks 68
Turpentine orcharding in the forests of Lougleaf Pine 69
Distillation 70
Cost of establishing a plant and working the crops 71
Effects of the production of naval stores upon the timber, the life of the tree, anil the conditions of
the forest 72
Longleaf Pine in highlands 73
Additional notes on Longleaf Piue. By FILIBERT ROTH 74
The Cuban Pine (Pinus helerophylla (Ell.) Sndw.). By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D 77
Introductory 79
Geographical distribution 79
Products 80
Resinous products 80
Classification and nomenclature 80
Description and morphological characters 81
Flowers 81
The wood 83
Progress of development 85
Requirements for development 88
Soil 88
Additional notes on Cuban Pine. By FILIBERT UOTII 89
The Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata Miller). By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D 91
Introductory 93
Historical 93
Geographical distribution 93
Characteristics of distribution in different regions 94
Products 99
Nomenclature and classification 99
Botanical description 101
Leaves 101
Flowers 101
Cones 103
Seed 103
The wood 103
Progress of development 104
Conditions of development 107
Soil and climate - 107
Relation to light .and associated species 108
Enemies 108
Forest management 110
Additional uotes on Shortleaf Pine. By FILIBERT ROTH Ill
The Loblolly Pine (Pinus ta-da Linn.). By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. I> 113
Introduction 115
Historical 115
Geographical distribution .and economic history 116
Products 119
Value and uses of the wood 119
Resinous products 120
Nomenclature and classification 121
Botanical descript ion and morphology 121
Root, stem, and branch system 121
Leaves 1-3
Floral organs 123
The wood 125
Progress of development 126
Rate of growth l-*6
CONTENTS. 7
The Loblolly Pino (Finns ta'da Linn.)- By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D.— Continued. Page.
Conditions of development - 129
Soil and climate 129
Relation to light and associated species 130
Enemies 130
Natural reproduction 131
Conclusion 132
Additional 'eotes on Loblolly Pine. By FILIBERT ROTH 133
The Spruce Pine (Pinus glabra Walt.). By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. I) 135
Introductory 137
Historical 137
Distribution 137
Economic importance 137
Botanical description 138
Progress of development 139
Enemies 140
Requirements of development 140
Notes on the structure of the wood of five Southern pines (Finns palustrin, helerophgUa, echinata, ta-da, and
ylabra). By FILIBERT ROTH 141
Sap andheartwood 143
Annual rings 144
Spring and summer wood 146
Grain of the wood 148
Minute anatomy 148
Observations on the Marsh or Pond Pine (I'inus eerolina). By FILIBF.RT ROTH 167
Distribution 169
Botanical description 170
Progress of development 170
Economic importance 171
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
Page.
Plate I. Longleaf Pine (Pinu* paluslri*) Frontispiece.
II. Fig. 1. — Lougleaf Piue forest in Louisiana Hats, virgin, scorched by fire, as usual; Fig. 2. —
Longleaf Pine forest after removal of merchantable timber 27
III. Map showing distribution of Longleaf Piue and Cuban Pine 30
IV. Pinux paluxtris, bud and leaf 50
V. 1'iniiK palnxtrix, male and female flowers 52
VI. Pinux jialnxtrix, cone and seed 52
VII. I'tHMi palitxtrix, seedlings and young plant 54
VIII. Turpentine orcharding in Louisiana 69
IX. Cuban pine flatwoods of Florida 77
X. /'in Kg helc)-oi>hylla, male ami female flowers 82
XI. /'i» «» hrtcrophylla, cone and seed ' 84
XII. Shortleaf Pine (Pinna echinata), forest grown specimens in Missouri 91
XIII. Suortleaf Pine (Plnns echinata), a roadside specimen in North Carolina 92
XIV. Map showing distribution of Shortleaf Pine 93
XV. Pimm echinata seedling; male and female flower, and leaf sections 100
XVI. /'»« Kg echinata cone, seed, and leaves 102
XVII. Loblolly Piue (Finn* ta-da) 113
XVIII. Map showing distribution of Loblolly Pine 116
XIX. Pinus tii'da, male flowers and leaves 122
XX. /'inns tii'da, female flowers, cone, and seed 124
XXI. Typical cross sections of Pinux ttuda, heterophylla, and glabra 154
XXII. Typical cross sections of Pinus palustris and echinata, and radial sections of Pinus palustris and
glabra 156
XXIII. Radial sections of Pimm echinata and heterophylla - 158
XXIV. Radial sections of /'in«g to-do and tangential sections of Pinus palustris and echinata 160
XXV. Tangential sections of Pinus to-da, heterophylla and glabra 162
XXVI. Tangential sections of Pinus echinata, heterophylla, and glabra, showing number and distribution
of pith rays and proportion of pith-ray cells 164
XXVII. Transverse resin ducts — tangential views Kit;
FIGURES.
Fig. 1. Diagram showing variation of weight with height of tree 16
2. Schematic section through stem of Longleaf Pine, showing variation of specific weight with height,
diameter, and age at 20 (aba), 60 (tied), 120 (ecee), and 200 (ffff) years 17
8. Diagram showing variation of compression strength with moisture 19
I. Diagram showing loss of water in kiln drying and reabsorption in air, shrinking and swelling 20
5. Diagram showing comparative progress of height growth in average trees 22
6. Diagram showing comparative progress of diameter growth in average trees 23
7. Diagram showing comparative progress of volume growth in average trees 24
8. Growth of Longleaf Pine in height, diameter, and volume 60
!l. Tools used in turpentine orcharding 70
10. Improved method of turpentine orcharding 71
11. Growth of Shortleaf Pine 107
12. Growth of Loblolly Pine 129
13. Variation of summerwood per cent from pith to bark 146
14. Variation of specific gravity with summerwood per cent and age of section 147
!.">. Variation of summerwood per cent with rate of growth (width of ring) 148
16. Schematic representation of coniferous wood structure 149
17. ( 'ell endings in pine 149
lx. ( IOSH section of normal and stunted growth 150
9
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
INTRODUCTION.
In ignorance of the uature and without appreciation of the economic value of their resources,
pioneers squander and destroy without regard to the future the riches they find. We have done
so in the United States and are continuing to do so although the pioneering stage should have
been passed, especially with our forest resources. We have exploited them as if they were mines,
instead of crops which can be harvested and reproduced continuously, and we have done so in a
most wasteful manner; nav^, we have by irrational methods of exploitation, no doubt due in part
to the necessities of a rapidly developing country, in many cases destroyed the conditions for
natural reproduction of the more valuable timber species. Fire and indiscriminate pasturing have
also assisted in the process of deterioration.
We are just beginning to realize that our timber supplies are not unlimited; that our
magnificent forest resources have been despoiled and need at least more consideration; that
sooner or later forestry will become, nay, is now, a necessity.
Forestry is the art of producing, managing, and harvesting wood crops. To be successful in
this art it is of course, necessary to understand the nature of the crop — to be acquainted with the
life history, the conditions of development required by each species of tree composing the crop.
Such knowledge can be in part, at least, derived from observations made in the natural forests,
and from these observations the manner in which the different species should be treated and rules
of management may be determined.
The time for the application of forestry — that is, rational methods of treating the wood crop —
has not, as many seem to suppose, couie only when the natural forest growths have been despoiled
and deteriorated. On the contrary, when the ax is for the first time applied, then is the time for
the application of forestry, for it is possible so to cut the original natural forest crop that it can
reproduce itself in a superior manner. The judicious and systematic use of the ax alone, in the
hands of the forester, will secure this result.
Hence these monographs on the life history of the Southern pines have been written primarily
to enable the owners of Southern pineries, who are now engaged iii exploiting them, to so modify
their treatment of the same as to insure continued reproduction instead of complete exhaustion,
which is threatened under present methods.
The pines are the most important timber trees of the world. They attain this importance
from a combination of properties. In the first place, they possess such qualities of strength and
elasticity, combined with comparatively light weight and ease of working, as to fit them specially
for use in construction which requires the largest amount of wood; next, they occur as forests in
the temperate zones, often to the exclusion of every other species, so that their exploitation is
ma;le easy and profitable; thirdly, they are readily reproduced and tolerably quick growers; and,
lastly, they occupy the poorest soils, producing valuable crops from the dry sands, and hence are
df the greatest value from the standpoint of national economy.
The Southern States abound in those sandy soils which are the home of the pine tribes and
were once covered with seemingly boundless forests of the same. There are still large areas
untouched, yet the greater portion of the primeval forest has not only been culled of its best
timber, but the repeated conflagrations which follow the lumbering, and, still more disastrously,
the turpentine gatherers' operations have destroyed not only the remainder of the original growth,
but the vegetable mold and the young aftergrowth, leaving thousands of square miles as blackened
wastes, devoid of usefulness, and reducing by so much the potential wealth of the South.
There are, in general, four belts of pine forest of different types recognizable, their boundaries
running in general direction somewhat parallel to the coast line: (1) The coast plain, or pine-barren
fiats, within the tidewater region, 10 to 30 miles wide, once occupied mainly by the most valuable
11
12
TIMHKK FIXES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
of Southern timbers, the Longleaf Pine, now being replaced by Cuban anil Loblolly Pines; (2) the
rolling pine hills, or pine barrens proper, with a width of 50 to 120 miles, the true home of the
Longleaf Pine, which occupies it almost by itself; (3) the belt of mixed growth of 20 to «JO miles in
width, in which the Longleaf Pine loses its predominance, the Shortleaf, the Loblolly, and the hard
woods associating and disputing territory with it; and (4) the Shortleaf Pine belt, where the
species predominates on the sandy soils, the Longleaf being entirely absent and the Loblolly only a
I'cclile competitor, hard woods being interspersed or occupying the better sites. Within the terri-
tory the species that occur occupy different situations. Thus the Cuban, which accompanies the
Longleaf. usually occupies the less well-drained situations, together with the Loblolly, which,
although it can accommodate itself to all soils, reaches its best development in the rich lowlands
and is specially well developed in the flat woods which border the coast marshes of eastern Texas,
where it associates with the Shortleaf Pine it also seeks the rnoister situation.
The Longleaf and Shortleaf pines are, in quantity and quality combined, the most important,
while the Loblolly or Oldfleld Piiie, as yet not fully appreciated, comes next, occupying large areas.
The Cuban Pine, usually known as Slash Pine — always cut and sold without distinction with the
Longleaf Pine — a tree of as line quality and of more rapid growth than the Longleaf Pine, is associ-
ated with the latter in the coast pine belt, scattered in single individuals or groups, but appears to
increase in greater proportion in the young growth, being by its manner of development in early
life better fitted to escape the dangers to which the aftergrowth is exposed.
Besides these four most important pines, the botanical distinctions of which appear in the
table below, there are a number of others of less significance. The White Pine (Piniix strvbuts) of
the North extends its reign along the higher mountain regions of North Carolina into Georgia,
forming a valuable timber tree, but of small extent. The Spruce Pine, to which a short chapter
is devoted in this Bulletin, develops into timber si/.e, but is found only in small quantities and
mostly scattered, and has therefore as yet not received attention in lumber markets; but its qual-
ities, and especially its forestal value, being a pine which endures shade, will probably be appre-
ciated in the future.
Since the publication of the first edition of this bulletin the Pond Pine has unexpectedly been
found to furnish not inconsiderable quantities of timber (see p. 169). The Scrub Pine (Pin MS
virginiana) furnishes only firewood.
BOTANICAL DIAGNOSIS OF THK FOUR PRINCIPAL, PINES OCCURRING IN THE SOITHKRN STATES.
Species.
Leaves
'inni- ]Hi[t/*fi-iy Miller.
Cones (open)
Scales
I'rirkles
Buds
Three in a bundle, 9 to 12 (exceptionally 14 to 15) inches long.
6 to 9 inches long, 4J to 5 inches in diameter
Seven-eighths to 1 ineh broad; tips much wrinkled; liuhi
chestnut brown: gray with age.
Very short, delicate, incurved
Three-fourths inch long, one-half inch in diameter. silver
white.
Species.
Leaves
Cones (oiten).
Scales
Prickles .
Buds ...
/Sim* erhinata Miller.
Tun :iml three in a bundle; Ig to 4 inches long; commonly
'JJ to 4 inches.
IJ to '1 inches long; 1J to 1J inches in di;nnetei-
!''ivt- sixt, Tilths to three-eighths (exceptionally ubout one-
half) inch broad; tips light yellow-brown.
Exceedingly short (one-tenth' inch) : delicate ; straight; dc
dined.
Three-eighths to one-half inch Ion - : alum t nnr-eigthth inch
in diameter; brownish.
fotarapftylla (Kll.) Sudw.
Two and three in a bundle: 7 to 12 (usually 9 to 10) in, hes
long.
4to6j (nsually4 to 5) inches lung: 3t"42 inches in diameter.
Eleven-sixteenths to seven -eighths inch broad: tips
wrinkled: <lerp russet brown : sliinv.
Very short ; .straight; declined.
About one-half inch long; one-fourth inch in diameter;
brownish.
7'i'nu* (arfo Linn.
Three in a bundle; 5 to 8 inches long.
2i to 4J inches long; l\ to 3 inches in diameter.
I In.-, right lis to three-fourths inch broad; tips smooth; dull
yellow-brown.
Short; stout at base.
One-half to three-t'otirths inch long: one-fourth inch in di-
ameter; brownish.
The greatest confusion exists with regard to the vernacular names of these pines, in conse-
quence of which information regarding them, given by the native population, must always be
carefully scrutinized to determine exactly to what species it refers. Even in the lumber market
and among wood consumers, engineers, architects, and carpenters the same confusion exists;
Longleaf and Cuban pines are never distinguished ; Shortleaf and Loblolly pines are mixed indis-
criminately, and often "Southern Pine," or "Yellow Southern Pine,1' satisfies the specification of
the architect and may come from any of the four species.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES.
13
To assist hi clearing this confusion the following synopsis of botanical and vernacular names
is here inserted :
NOMENCLATURE OF SOUTHERN PINES.
Botanical names
1'iiiHi palustrii Miller.
Pinut echinaia Miller.
Pinut tiff la Linn.
Pinut heterophylla, (Ell.)
Sy 11. : P. australig Michx.
Syn. : Pinut mitis Michx.
Syn. : I'inut ttzda var. te-
Sudw.
P. virginia.no, var.
nuifolia Aiton.
Syn.: Pinut taeda var. hete-
zchinata Du Roi.
rophylla Ell.
P. (»:<('t var. variabi-
P. elliotii Eugellu.
'
lit Alton.
1*. cubentis var. ter-
P. variabilis Lamh.
throcarpa Wright.
7*. rigida Porcher.
Best common names.
LONOLEAF PINE.
SHORTLEAF PINK.
LOBLOLLY PINE.
CUBAN PINE.
Local, market, and
Sonthern Yellow Pine.
Yellow Pine (N. C., Va.).
Slash Pine (Ya., N. C.), in
Slash Pine (Ga., Fla.).
lumbermen's names.
Southern Hard Pine.
Sliortleaved Yellow Pine.
part.
Swamp Pine (Fla. and Ala.),
Southern Heart Pine.
Shortleaved Pine.
Loblolly Fine (Gnlf region).
in part.
Southern Pitch Pine.
Virginia Yellow Pine (in
Oliltield Pine (GulC region).
Bastard Pine (Fla., Ala.).
Hard Pine (Miss., La.).
part).
Rosemary Pine (N. C., Va. I.
Meadow Pine(Fla., E. Miss),
Heart Pine (N. C. andSouth
North Carolina Yellow Pine
Shortleaved Pine (Va., N.
in part.
Atlantic).
(in part).
C., S. C.).
She Pitch Pine (Ga.).
Pitch Pine (Atlantic).
North Carolina Pine (in
Bull I'ine (Texas and Gnlf
Longleaved Yellow Pine
part).
region).
(Atlantic).
Carolina Pine (in part).
Virginia Pine.
Longleaved Pine (Atlantic).
Slash Pine (N. C., Va.), in
Sap I'ine (Va., N. C.).
Longleaved Pitch Pine (At-
part.
Meadow Pine (Flu.).
lantic).
Oldfield Pine (Ala., Miss.).
Cornstalk Pine (Va.).
Longatraw Pine (Atlantic).
Bull Pine (?).
Black Pine (Va.).
North Carolina Pitch Pine.
Sprnce Pine.
Foxtail Pi if (Va., Md.).
(It'orffia Yellow Pine.
Rosemary Pine (X. C.).
Indian Pii e (Va.. N.C.).
Georgia Pine.
Spruce 1'ii e (Va.), in part.
Georgia Heart Pine.
Bastard P ne (Va., N. C.).
Georgia Longleaved Pine.
Yellow Piie(Xo Ala.,N.C.).
Georgia Pitch Pine.
Swamp Pi le (Va., N. C.).
Florida Yellow Pine.
Longstraw Pine (Va., N.
Florida Pine.
C., Ark. ), in part.
Florida Longleaved Pine.
Texas Yellow Pine.
Texas Longleaved Pine.
While it is easy enough to recognize the species in the field by their botanical characters, it
is difficult and often impossible to distinguish them in the wood by mere macroscopic inspection
or examination with the magnifier and without the aid of the microscope, nor are the miscroscopic
features so far recognized sufficient for specific distinction.
Along-continued study of these woods by Mr. Filibert Both, of the Division of Forestry,
has not developed any characteristics which would be always reliable in distinguishing the species.
The best that can be done is to give a synopsis of characters, by which they differ generally when
larger quantities, as in the log or lumber pile, are under inspection.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES.
: features i>f the trood.
Xiirnt- of s|-
Lonirleaf I'in«'
u* paluttri* Miller).
Cuban Pine
(Pinus heterophylla (Kll.) Sudw.).
Spec itii1 gravity of \ Possible rail-it-
kiln-dried wood. 1 Most freqin-nt nmge
Weight, pounds per cubic font, kiln-dried
wood, average.
Character of grain seen in cross section
.51 to .90
.55 to .65
36
Fine and even ; annual rings quite uniformly
narrow,on largo logs averaging generally
20 to 25 ringa to the inch.
Color, general ;ippi-arance Even dark reddish-yellow to reddish-brown. .
Sap wood, proportion
Resin
Name of species.
->)periiir gnivity "t ( Possible range
kiln-dried wood. I Mont frequent range. --
Weight, pounds per cubic loot, kiln dried
wood, average.
Character of grain seen in cross section
Color, general appearance
Sap wood, proportion
Resin
Little; rarely over 2 to 3 im-he* of radius
Very abundant; parts often turning into
"light wood;" pitchy throughout.
.50 to .90
.55 to .70
37
Variable anil coarse; rings mostly wide,
averaging on larger logs 10 to 20 rings to the
inrli.
Dark straw color, with tinge of flesh color.
I -road, ;i to G inches.
Abundant, sometimes yielding more pitch.
than Longleaf ; ''bleeds1' freely, yielding
little scrape.
Shortleaf I'ine
(Pinus echinata Miller).
Lobolly Pine
(Pinus tceda Linn.).
.40 to .80
.45 to .55
30
Very variable; medium coarse; rings wide
near heart, followed by zone of narrow
rings; not less than 4 (mostly about 10 to
15) rings to the inch, but often very tine-
grained.
Whitish to reddish-brown
Commonly over 4 inches of radius
Moderately abundant, least pitchy ; only near
stamps, knots, and limbs.
.40 to .80
.45 to .55
31
Variable, mostly very coarse; 3 to 12 rings to
the inch, generally wider than in shortleaf.
Yellowish to reddish and orange brown.
Very variable, 3 to 6 inches of the radius.
Abundant; more than Shortleaf, less than
Longleaf and Cuban.
14
TIMIIKK HNE8 OK THK SOI TIIKU.N INITEU STATES.
It ia clear from tlie above diagnosis 1 hat Lougleaf Pine may be distinguished from Cuban Pine
by its finer grain and small amount of sapwood: also that both of these differ from the Shortlcal
and I/oblolly in their greater weight and tin- more resinous character of their wood, but tliat the
wood of the two last named species is rarely distinguishable beyond doubt.
Technically the wood of the pines (lifters about as follows: The wood of the Longleaf and Cuban
pines are about equal in strength, Longleaf excelling by its finer grain and smaller amount of
sapwood. The same comparison maybe made with regard to Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine. Being
much more variable, however, in weight and grain, exceptions to the general rule here art- very
numerous. Of the last-named species it may be said that the wood derived from more southern
localities is generally heavier and stronger than northern grown — a fact especially apparent in
the case of the Shortleaf Pine.
The extensive investigations carried on by the Division of Forestry during the last three to
lour years mainly on these pines permit us to give the following resumed of their mechanical
properties derived from not less than 20,001) tests and as many measurements and weighings.
We quote this information from Circular 12 of the division :
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.
In general the wood of all these pines is heavy for pine (31 to 40 pounds per cubic foot, when
dry), soft to moderately hard (hard for pine), requiring about 1,000 pounds per square inch to indent
one-twentieth inch : stiff", the modulus of elasticity being from 1,.~»00,000 upward; strong, requiring
from 7,000 pounds per square inch and upward to break in bending and over 5,000 pounds in
compression when yard-dry.
The values here given are averages based on a large number of tests from which only defective
pieces are excluded.
In all cases where the contrary is not stated the weight of the wood refers to kiln dried
material and the strength to wood containing 15 per cent moisture, which may be conceived as
just on the border of air-dried condition. The first table gives fairly well the range of strength of
commercial timber.
Average strength of Southern I'ine.
[Air-dry material (about 15 per cent moisture).]
Name.
Compression strength.
Bending strength.
Tensile strength per square inch.
1
1
i
V*
sa
I
M
c
Ut
Btt
Tin1.
690
688
With grain.
Across
grain
(3 per
cent
indenta-
tion), per
square
inch.
At rupture
, 3 Wi
modulus 2 ;,A, •
At elastic
limit
modulus
3 W,l
Elasticity
(stillness)
modulus
:: \v;.<
Relative
elastic
resili-
ence,
per
cubic
inch.
Average of all
validtests.
Average
forthe weakest
one-tenth
of all the tests.
Average of all
valid testa.
Average
forthe weakest
one tenth
of all the teats.
1! hi,''
per square
inch.
i A /,;/ '
per square
inch .
Absolute,
per
square
i.ich.
Rela-
tive.
Absolute,
per
square
inch.
Rela-
tive.
Absolute,
• per
square
inch.
Rela
five.
Absolute.
per
square
inch.
Rela-
tive.
Cuban Pine
l."ii-le:it Pine -
Loblolly Pine...
Shortleaf Pine..
Pounds.
7,850
6,f<50
6,500
5,900
100
87
83
75
Pounds.
6.500
5,650
5,350
4,800
100
87
82
74
Pounds.
1,050
1,060
990
940
Pounds.
11,950
10,900
10,100
9,230
100
91
84
77
Pounds.
8,750
8,800
8,100
7,000
100
101
92
80
Pounds.
9,450
8.500
8.150
7,200
Pounds.
2. 305. 000
1,890.000
1, 950, 000
1,600,000
Pounds.
2.5
2.3
2.25
2.05
Lbs.
14,300
15,200
14,400
13,400
RELATION OF STRENGTH TO WEIGHT.
Tlie intimate relation of strength and specific weight lias been well established by the experi-
ments. The average results obtained in connection with the tests themselves were as follows:
Cuban.
Longleaf.
Loblolly.
Sli.irtl.Mf.
100
91
84
77
100
94
82
77
WEIGHT RELATIONS.
15
Siiice, iu the determination of the specific gravity above given, wood of the same per cent of
moisture (as is the case in the values of strength) was not always involved, and also since the test
pieces, owing to size and shape, can not perfectly represent the wood of the entire stem, the
following results of a special inquiry into the weight of the wood represents probably more
accurately the weight and with it the strength relations of the four species.
WEIGHT RELATIONS.
[These data refer to the average specific, weight for all the wood of each tree, only trees of approximately the same age being involved.]
Cuban.
Longloaf.
Lobloll
Average age of trees years . .
171
6
127
22
187
14
0 63
0 61
0
39
38
33
100
97
84
(100)
(91)
(84
0.53
Shortleof.
131
10
0.51
32
81
(77)
* The values of strength refer to all tests, and therefore involve trees of wide range of age and consequently of quality, especially those
of Longleaf ; involve much wood of old trees, hence the relation of weight and strength appears less distinct.
From these results, although slightly at variance, we are justified in concluding that Cuban
and Longleaf Pine are nearly alike in strength and weight and excel Loblolly and Shortleaf by
about 20 per cent. Of these latter, contrary to common belief, the Loblolly is the heavier and
stronger.
The weakest material would differ from the average material in transverse strength by about
20 per cent, and in compression strength by about 30 to 35 per cent, except Cuban Pine, for which
the difference appears greater in transverse and smaller in compression strength. It must, of
course, not be overlooked that these figures are obtained from full-grown trees of the virgin forest,
that strength varies with physical conditions of the material, and that therefore an intelligent
inspection of the stick is always necessary before applying the values iu practice. They can only
represent the average conditions for a large amount of material.
DISTRIHTTION OF WEIGHT AND STRENGTH THROUGHOUT THE TREE.
IFeight and strength of wood at different heights in the tree.
Strength of Longleaf
Pine (pounds per
square inch).
Specific weight.
Mean of all
three
species
(relative
weight).
Relative
strength of
Longleaf
Pine (mean
of com-
pression
and
bending).
Bending
strength.
Compres-
sion
endwise
(with
grain).
Longleaf.
Loblolly.
Shortleaf.
58
150 (over)
22
127
14
113
12
131
48
56
Number of feet from stump :
.751
106
.705
100
.674
96
.624
89
.590
M
.560
80
.539
77
.528
75
.029
106
.595
100
.578
97
.534
90
.508
86
.491
83
.476
80
.470
79
.614
105
.585
100
.565
97
.523
SO
.496
85
.472
81
.455
78
.454
78
0
12,100
100
11,650
96
10,700
SS
10,100
u
9,500
79
9,000
76
8,600
71
7,350
100
7,200
M
6,800
9i
6,500
89
6,300
86
6,150
83
6,050
M
106
100
37
90
85
81
78
77
ion
97
no
80
82
79
76
10
20
30
40 ..
50
to
NOTB.— Relative values are indicated by italic figures.
16
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
In any one tree the wood is lighter and weaker as we pass from the base to the top. This is
i rut- of every tree and of all four species. The decrease in weight and strength is most pronounced
in the lirst I'O feet from the stump and grows smaller upward. (See fig. 1.)
49.6
43.4
37.2
31.0
24.8
10
20
30
Feet from Stump.
40
50
60
1. — Diagram showing variation of weight with height of t
This great difference in weight and strength between butt and top finds explanation in the
relative width of the summerwood. Since the specific weight of the dark summerwood band in
each ring is in thrifty growth from 0.90 to 1, while that of the springwood is only about 0.40, the
relative amount of summerwood furnishes altogether the most delicate and accurate measure of
the.se differences of weight as well as strength, and hence is the surest criterion for ocular inspection
of quality, especially since this relation is free from the disturbing influence of both resin and
moisture contents of the wood, so conspicuous in weight determinations.
The following figures show the distribution of the summerwood in a single tree of Longleaf
Pine, as an example of this relation :
In tl
In the
,<• 10
next
hiirk.
In the 10
rings Now.
100 to 110
from luirk.
Averaj:r tin-
entire tiisk.
Specific
weight.
J'er
ml
JVr cfnt.
!'• r cfiit.
50
II ;•(
25
38
59
15
''G
55
1
EFFECT OF AGE.
17
Logs from the top can usually be recognized by the larger percentage of sapwood and the
smaller proportion and more regular oiitlines of the bands of summerwood, which are more or less
wavy in the butt logs.
Both weight and strength vary in the different
parts of the same cross section from center to periph-
ery, and though the variations appear frequently
irregular in sftigle individuals, a definite law of rela-
tion is nevertheless discernible in large averages, and
once determined is readily observable in every tree.
A separate inquiry, avoiding the many variables
which enter into the mechanical tests, permits the fol-
lowing deductions for the wood of these pines, and
especially for Lougleaf ; the data referring to weight,
but by inference also to strength :
1. The variation is greatest in the butt log (the
heaviest part) and least in the top logs.
2. The variation in weight, hence also in strength,
from center to periphery depends on the rate of
growth, the heavier, stronger wood being formed dur-
ing the period of most rapid growth, lighter and
weaker wood in old age.
3. Aberrations from the normal growth, due to
unusual seasons and other disturbing causes, cloud
the uniformity of the law of variation, thus occasion-
ally leading to the formation of heavier, broad-ringed
wood in old, and lighter narrow-ringed wood in young
trees.
4. Slow-growing trees (with narrow rings) do not
make less heavy, nor heavier wood than thriftily
grown trees (with wide rings) of the same age. (See
fig. 2.)
EFFECT OF AGE.
The interior of the butt log, representing the
young sapling of less than fifteen or twenty years of
age, and the central portion of all logs containing
the pith and two to five rings adjoining, is always
light and weak.
The heaviest wood in Longleaf and Cuban Pine is
formed between the ages of fifteen and one hundred
and twenty years, with a specific weight of over 0.60
and a maximum of 0.66 to ().<!8, between the ages of
forty and sixty years. The wood formed at the age
of about one hundred years will have a specific
weight of 0.62 to 0.63, which is also the average
weight for the entire wood of old trees; the wood
formed after this age is lighter but does not fall below
O..~»0 up to the two hundredth year; the strength
varies in the same ratio.
In the shorter-lived Loblolly and Shortleaf the
period for the formation of the heaviest wood is
between the ages of fifteen and eighty, tbe average weight being then over 0.50, with a maximum
of 0.57 at the age of thirty to forty. The average weight for old trees (0.51 to 0.52) lies about
the seventy-fifth year, the weight then falling off to about 0.45 at the age of one hundred and
forty, and continuing to decrease to below 0.38, as the trees grow older.
7092— No. 13 2
soo
eoo
FIG. 2.— Schematic section through stem of Longleaf Pine,
showing variation of specific weight with height, diameter,
and age at twenty {aba), sixty (ded), oue hundred and twenty
(eeee), and two hundred (ffff) years.
18
TIMBKR PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
That these statements refer only to tho clear portions of each log, and arc variably affected
at rach whorl of knots (every 10 to 30 inches) according to their size, and also by the variable
amounts of resin !ii|> to 20 per cent of the dry weight), must be self-evident.
Sapwood is not necessarily weaker than heart wood, only usually the sapwood of the large-
si/ed trees we are now using is represented by the narrow-ringed outer part, which was formed
during the old-age period of growth, when naturally lighter and weaker wood is made; but the
wood formed during the more thrifty diameter growth of the first eighty to one hundred years —
sapwood 'at the time, changed into heartwood later — was even as sapwood the heaviest and
strongest.
RANGE OF VALUES FOR WEIGHT AND STRENGTH.
Although the range of values for the individual tree of any given species varies from butt to
top, and from center to periphery by 15 to 25 per cent, and occasionally more, the deviation from
average values from one individual to another is not usually as great as has been believed; thus,
of 56 trees of Lougleaf Pine, 42 trees varied in their average strength by less than 10 per cent
from the average of all 56.
The following table of weight (which is a direct and fair indication of strength), representing
all the wood of the stem and excluding knots and other defects, gives a more perfect idea of the
range of these values :
Range of specific weight tritli age (kiln-dried wood).
[To avoi<l fractions the valued are multiplied by 100.]
Cuban.
Longieaf.
Loblolly.
Shortleaf.
24
96
60
56
61
57
63
59
50
60 5
53
51
HI
62
53.4
55
Trffs twenty-five to lil'tv vcaisold
55
61
:. :
57
51
55
48
53
Though occasionally some very exceptional trees occur, especially in Loblolly and Shortleaf, the
range on the whole is generally within remarkably narrow limits, as appears from the following
table:
Range of specific weight in trees of the same age approximately ; averages for whole trees.
[Specific gravity multiplied by 100 to avoid fractions.]
Name.
Number
of trees.
Age,
years.
Single trees.
Lvtxtge.
Cuban Pine
{• I
13
10
12
150-200
50-100
100 150
56
1,1!
59
51
45
68
58
66
51
47
62
60
57
53
53
65
59
62
8
62.5
60.9
60.5
52. 8
50.8
Ii7
66
65
50
58
5.1
51
59
M
55
57
55
55
57
55
53
Cili
52
51
59
62
57
Loblolly Vine ."
125-150
100-150
Shortleaf Pine
60
53
....
From this table it would appear that single individuals of one species would approximate
single individuals of another species so closely that the weight distinction seems to fail, but in
large numbers, for instance carloads of material, the averages above given will prevail.
INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY.
In both the Cuban and Longieaf Pine the locality where grown appears to have but little
influence on weight or strength, and there is no reason to believe that the Lougleaf Pine from one
State is better than that from any other, since such variations as are claimed can be found on any
40-acre lot of timber in any State. But with Loblolly, and still more with Shortleaf, this seems not
to be the case. Being widely distributed over many localities different in soil and climate, the
growth of the Shortleaf Pine seems materially influenced by loc.atiVi. The wood from the Southern
Ooast and Gulf region andeveu Arkansas is generally heavier than the wood from localities farther
north. Very light and fine-grained wood is seldom met near the southern limit of the range, while
it is almost the rule in Missouri, where forms resembling the Norway Pine are by no means rare.
The Loblolly, occupying both wet and dry soils, varies accordingly.
INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON STRENGTH.
INFLUENCE OP MOISTURE.
This influence is among the most important, hence all tests have been made with due regard
to moisture contents. Seasoned wood is stronger than green and moist wood ; the difference between
green and seasoned wood may amount to 50 and even 100 per cent. The influence of seasoning
consists in (1) bringing by means of shrinkage about 10 per cent more fibers into the same square
inch of cross section than are contained in the wet wood; (2) shrinking the cell wall itself by about
50 per cent of its cross section and thus hardening it, just as a cowskiu becomes thinner and
harder by drying.
In the following tables and diagram this is fully illustrated; the values presented in these
tables and diagrams are based on large numbers of tests and are fairly safe for ordinary use. They
still require further revision, since the relations to density, etc., have had to be neglected in this
study.
Influence of moisture on strength.
Per
cent of
mois-
ture.
Average of all valid tests.
Kelative values.
Cuban.
Long-
leaf:
Lob-
lolly.
Short-
leaf.
Cuban.
Long-
Lob-
lolly.
Short-
leaf.
Aver-
age.
Bending strength:
3"3+
20
15
10
33+
20
15
10
33+
20
15
10
8,450
10. 050
11, 950
15,300
5.000
6.600
7,850
9,200
7,060
8.900
10, 900
14,000
4,450
5,450
6,850
9,200
7,370
8,650
10, 100
12, 400
4,170
5,350
6,500
8,650
6,900
8,170
9,230
11,000
4,160
5,100
5,900
7,000
100
118
142
181
100
132
157
184
100
125
149
182
100
116
142
182
100
122
154
206
100
119
148
194
100
117
138
168
100
128
156
206
100
122
147
187
100
118
134
160
100
122
142
168
100
120
138
164
100
117
139
173
100
126
152
191
100
122
146
182
Half dry
Crushing endwise:
Green
Half dry
Yard drv
Mean of both bending and r rush ing strength:
Half dry . . .
^ 4 S ff 78 9
Flo. 3 Diagram showing variation of compression strength with moisture.
It will be observed that the strength increases by about 50 per cent in ordinary good yard
seasoning, and that it can be increased about 30 per cent more by complete seasoning in kiln or
house.
Large timbers require several years before even the yard-seasoned condition is attained, but
2-inch and lighter material is generally not used with more than 15 per cent of moisture.
20
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
WEIGHT AND MOISTURE.
So far the weight of only the kiln-dry wood has been considered. In fresh as well as all yard
and air dried material there is contained a variable amount of water. Tin- amount of water
contained in fresh wood of these pines forms more than half the weight of the fresh sapwood, and
about one-fifth to one- fourth of the heartwood. In yard-dry wood it falls to about 1- to is per
cent, while in wood kept in well-ventilated, and especially in heated rooms it is about "> to 10
per cent, varying with size of piece, part of tree, species, temperature, and humidity of air.
Heated to 150° F. (65° C.), the wood loses all but about 1£ to 2 per cent of its moisture, and if the
temperature is raised to 175° P. there remains less than 1 per cent, the wood dried at I'll'0 F.
being assumed to be (though it is not really) perfectly dry. Of course, large pieces arc in practice
never left long enough exposed to become truly kiln dry, though in factories this state is often
approached.
As long as the water in the wood amounts to about 30 per cent or more of the dry weight of
the wood there is no shrinkage ' (the water coming from the cell lumen >, and the density or specific
gravity changes simply in direct proportion to the loss of water. When the moisture per cent
falls below about 30, the water comes from the cell wall, and the loss of water and weight is accom-
panied by a loss of volume, so
that both factors of the frac-
tion
Specific gravity = ™xM
volume
are affected, and the change
in the specific gravity no lon-
ger is simply proportional to
the loss of water or weight.
The loss of weight and vol-
ume, however, being unequal
and disproportionate, a marked
reduction of the specific grav-
ity takes place, amounting in
these pines to about 8 to 10 per
cent of the specific weight of
the dry wood.
SHRINKAGE.
The behavior of the wood of
the Southern pines in shrink-
age does not differ materially.
Generally the heavier wood
shrinks the most, and sapwood
shrinks about one- fourth more
than heartwood of the same specific weight. Very resinous pieces ("light wood") shrink much less
than other wood. In keeping with these general facts, the shrinkage of the wood of the upper
logs is usually 15 to 20 per cent less than that of the butt pieces and the shrinkage of the heavy
heartwood of old trees is greater than that of the lighter peripheral parts of the same, while tin-
shrinkage of the heavy wood of saplings is greatest of all. On the whole, the wood of these pines
shrinks about 10 per cent in its volume — 3 to 4 per cent along the radius, and 6 to 7 per cent along
the tangent or along the yearly rings.
After leaving the kiln the wood at once begins to absorb moisture and to swell. In an
experiment with short pieces of loblolly and shortleaf, representing ordinary flooring or siding
'In ordinary lumber and all large size material the exterior parts commonly dry so much sooner than the liulk
of the stick that checking often occurs though the moisture per cent of the whole stick is still far above 30.
AIIO/TV
FIG. 4.-
KIlftORr 'O 2O 7/ 334
-Diagram showing loss of water in kiln drying and reabsorption in air, shrinking anil
swelling.
USE OF THE WOOD.
21
sizes, these regained more than half the water and underwent over half the total swelling during
the first ten days after leaving the kiln (see fig. 4). Even in this less than air-dry wood the
changes in weight far excel the changes in volume (sum of radial and tangential swelling), and,
therefore, the specific gravity even at this low per cent of moisture was decreased by drying and
increased by subsequent absorption of moisture. Immersion and, still more readily, boiling cause
the wood to return to its original size, but temperatures even above the boiling point do not
prevent the wood from " working," or shrinking and swelling.
In fig. 4 are represented the results of experiments on the -rate of loss of water in the dry
kiln and the reabsorption of water in the air. The wood used was of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine
kept on a shelf in an ordinary room before and after kiln drying. The measurements were made
with caliper.
EFFECT OF "BOXING," OR "BLEEDING."
"Bleeding" pine trees for their resin, to which chiefly Lougleaf and Cuban Pine are subjected,
has generally been regarded as injurious to the timber. Both durability and strength, it was
claimed, were impaired by this process, and in the specifications of many architects and large con-
sumers, such as railway companies, "bled" timber was excluded. Since the utilization of resin is
one of the leading industries of the South, and since the process affects several millions of dollars'
worth of timber every year, a special investigation involving mechanical tests, physical and chem-
ical analyses of the wood of bled and unbled trees from the same locality were carried out by this
division. The results prove conclusively (1) that bled timber is as strong as uubled if of the same
weight; (2) that the weight and shrinkage of the wood is not affected by bleeding; (3) that bled
trees contain practically neither more nor less resin than unbled trees, the loss of resin referring
only to the sapwood, and therefore the durability is not affected by the bleeding process.
The following table shows the remarkable numerical si milarity between the average results
for three groups of trees, the higher values of the bled material being readily explained by the
difference in weight:
Lungleaf Pine.
Number of
teats.
Specific
weight of
teat piecea.
Bending
strength
per square
inch.
Compression
strength
per square
inch.
400
Per cent.
0.74
Pounds.
12,358
Pounds.
7, 166
390
79
12 961
7 813
535
.76
12 586
7,575
The amount of resin in the wood varies greatly, and trees growing side by side differ within
very wide limits. Sapwood contains but little resin (1 to 4 per cent), even in those trees in which
the heartwood contains abundance. In the heartwood the resin forms from 5 to 24 per cent of the
dry weight (of which about one-sixth is turpentine), and can not be removed by bleeding, so that
its quantity remains unaffected by the process.
Bled timber, then, is as useful for all purposes as unbled.
USE OF THE WOOD.
In its use the wood of all four species is much alike. The coarse grained, heavy, resinous
forms are especially suited for timbers and dimension stuff; while the fine grained wood, whatever
species it may belong to, is used for a great variety of purposes.
At present distinction is but rarely made in the species and in their use; all four species are
used much alike, although differentiation is very desirable on account of the difference in quality.
Formerly these pines, except for local use, were mostly cut or hewn into timbers, but especially
since the use of dry kilns has become general and the simple oil finish has displaced the unsightly
painting and "graining" of wood, Southern pine is cut into every form and grade of lumber.
Nevertheless, a large proportion of the total cut is still being sawed to order in sizes above 6
by 6 inches and lengths above 20 feet for timbers, for which the Longleaf and Cuban Pine furnish
ideal material. The resinous condition of these two pines make them also desirable for railway
tics of lasting quality.
22
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
Since the custom of painting and graining woodwork has given way to natural grain with oil
finish, the wood of these hard pines is becoming very popular for inside finish.
Kiln-drying is successfully practiced with all four species, but especially with the Shortleaf
and Loblolly pines which, if not artificially seasoned, are liable to "blue." The wood can be dried
without great injury at high temperatures.
BATE OF GROWTH.
The species naturally develop somewhat differently, according to the soil conditions in which
they occur. Without going into a detailed discussion, which will be found in the body of this
work under each species, a comparison of the rate of growth of the four species, based on a large
number of measurements, gave, for average trees and average conditions, the results shown in the
accompanying diagrams (figs. 5 to 7), which permit the determination of the rate of growth at
different periods of their life.
Flo. 5.— Diagram showing comparative progress of height growth in average trees.
From these it appears that the Cuban Pine is by far the most rapid grower, while the Longleaf
Pine, which usually grows associated with the former, is the slowest, Loblolly and Shortleaf
occupying a position between the two.
The Longleaf shows for the first five to seven years hardly any development in height and
begins then to grow rapidly and evenly to the fiftieth or seventieth year, and even after that
period, though the rate is somewhat diminished, progresses evenly and steadily, giving to the
height curve a smooth and persistent character.
The diameter growth shows the same even and persistent progress from the start, and the
volume growth also progresses evenly after the rapid height-growth rate is passed at seventy years.
The Cuban Pine ceases in its maximum rate of height growth at thirty years, starts with its
diameter growth at about the rate of the Loblolly, but after the twenty-fifth year leaves the latter
STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS.
23
behind for the next twenty-five to thirty years, then proceeds at about the same rate, but persisting
longer than the Loblolly. At the age of fifty years the Cuban Pine with 46 cubic feet has made
nearly twice the amount of the Loblolly and more than four times that of the Longleaf, bnt at one
hundred years the difference is reduced, being then 115, 90, and 55 cubic feet, respectively, for the
three species.
Both Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine reach their maximum growth sooner than the other two
species. While these still show a persistently ascending line at one hundred and twenty to one
hundred and forty years, the rate of growth in the Loblolly shows a decline after the one hundredth
year, and the Shortleaf has done its best by the eightieth year. These facts give indications as to
the rotation under which these various species may be managed.
Flo. 6. — Diagram showing comparative progress «f diameter growth in average trees.
As stated before, the growth of trees, especially in the virgin forest, is quite variable even for
the same species and same soil conditions; an average, therefore, like the one presented in the
diagrams, however perfect, could apply only when large numbers are considered. Thus there are
fast-growing trees of Longleaf and slow-growing of Cuban or Loblolly Pine. Yet the diagrams
will fairly well represent the average growth, with the possible exception of the Cuban Pine, for
which the number of measurements was too small to furnish reliable data.
STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS.
The greatest difficulty Dr. Mohr has found is in the statistical portions of his work. To deter-
mine the amounts of remaining timber supplies of the various species is almost an impossibility
without a very elaborate and laborious canvass, which, to be sure, it would appear our duty to
24
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
undertake, but for which the means at the disposal of the Division of Forestry have never been
siiiliciriit. Even the amount of annual consumption can only be approximated, partly because
the species are not always kept separate and partly because information is not always readily
given by the operators or shippers.
The statistics tor Longlcaf Pine can be more nearly approximated, for the majority of the mills
engaged in its exploit at ion cut hardly any other timber; moreover, its geographical limits are more
clearly defined, so that even the area of remaining supplies is not entirely beyond our ken.
When it comes to using such statistics tor a prognostication as regards available supplies,
another difficulty arises in the change of standards of material recognized as marketable and the
change of demand or use, and hence consumption, of any of the varieties. lint we can now safely
assume that the standard of size and quality, which was high when the census figures of 1880 were
I2O (fU£ ic
M
•0
T0_
7
10
{JO
Mb
ISO
FIG. 7. — Diagram showing comparative progress of volnme growth in averaffp tivrs.
estimated and hence made them appear below the truth, lias now sunk nearly to the lowest level,
any stick that can be placed on the mill down to 10-inch and 8 inch being fit material. There is
also no danger of any reduction in the cut for any reason except a temporary one due to such
general business depression as that experienced throughout the last two years. Increase of
consumption of Southern timber is bound to follow the imminent exhaustion of the pine supplies
of the North. And with the exception of Pacific Coast timbers, which, owing to their great
distance, have so far made but little competition in Kastern markets, no new undiscovered timber
resource will influence the cut of Southern pine.
Venturing on the basis of the meager data furnished in this publication to make a guess at
the probable supply and demand, we may with due reserve state that the amount of pine timber
ready for lumber manufacture standing in the South cau not be above i>r>0,0(H),<H>(i,000 feet, and
STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. 25
more likely will fall far below 200,000,000,000 feet, while the figure for present and lowest future
annual consumption may be approximated at near 7,000,000,000 feet, board measure.1
There is nobody who knows or can know the actual condition of supplies, and whoever has an
opinion on the subject will have to bring at least as good a basis or a better one for such opinion
than the data furnished in the following monographs.
There is no attempt to predict from the foregoing figures the absolute exhaustion of the pine
supplies of the South within forty or fifty years, although such a result would appear not unlikely.
Competition of other timbers, and substitutes for the use of wood (which, to be sure, never in the
history of the world have reduced wood consumption), and especially changes in present methods
of exploitation, may lengthen out supplies for a short time; or, if we begin rational forestry now,
these forests may be kept a source of continuous supplies, even though reduced.
Those who rely upon the spontaneous natural reproduction of these pines to fill the gaps made
in the virgin timber will do well to read the chapters on natural reproduction and the incidental
remarks regarding the conditions for renewal and the appearance of the aftergrowth; or, better,
tramp through the vast region of culled pine woods and observe what the basis of their reliance
is, as the writer of these monographs has done through forty years of his life. If, in addition,
they study the chapters on conditions of development, they will realize that the Longleaf Pine is
bound to disappear largely even in the, regions where it reigned supreme; that the Cuban Pine, no
despicable substitute, will take its place in the lower pine belt, if allowed to propagate at all; but
on large burnt areas the growth of scrubby oaks and brush will forever exclude this species which
eminently needs light. Loblolly and Shortleaf, better fitted for warfare with other species, will do
much in their respective habitats to recuperate, except in the mixed forest, where they are culled
and the hard woods are left to shade out the aftergrowth; or where the continuous conflagrations
have destroyed the mold and aftergrowth and given over the soil to scrubby brnshgrowth, which
for ages will either prevent the gradual return of the pines or impede their renewal and growth.
Considering that the timber on which we now rely and on which we base our standards comes from
trees usually from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years or more old, and that none of these
pines makes respectable timber in less than from sixty to one hundred and twenty-five years, the
necessity of timely attention to their renewal is further emphasized.
The owuers of timber land and the operators of mills are the only people who can improve
these conditions, and this by a more rational treatment of their property. If they can be made to
realize now that what they own and hold as a temporary speculation will, in a short time, when
supplies have visibly decreased, become a first-class investment, and, by its revenues, become a
greater source of wealth under competent management with a view to reproduction than that which
they have derived from it by the mere robbing of the old timber, they might take steps at least
against the unnecessary damage done to it by fire and cattle. Permanency and continuity of
ownership appear to be the first condition to insure such results, and therefore corporations which
are not of an ephemeral character and men of large wealth are most desirable forest owners.
The monographs here presented will, it is hoped, aid in this realization, and the information
regarding the conditions of development of the different species will furnish suggestions as to the
forest management which, modified according to local conditions and economic considerations, may
be employed to secure the perpetuity of the Southern pineries.
B. E. FERNOW.
WASHINGTON, D. C.. June 5, 1896.
1 The entire region within which these pines occur in merchantable condition comprises about 230,000 square miles
or, in round numbers, 147,000,000 acres; for land in farms, etc., 10,000,000 acres must be deducted, and allowing as much
as two-thirds of the remainder as representing pine lands (the other to hardwoods), we would have about 90,000,000
acres on which pine may occur. An average growth of 3,000 feet per acre, an extravagant figure when referred to
snch an area, would make the possible stand 270,000,000,000 feet, provided it was in virgin condition and not mostly
culled or cut.
Bulletin No 1 3. Divition of Forestry
PLATE
FIG. 1.— LONGLEAF PINE FOREST IN LOUISIANA FLATS. VIRGIN, SCORCHED BY FIRE AS USUAL.
FIG. 2. LONOLEAF PINE FOREST AFTER REMOVAL OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER.
THE LONGLEAF PINE.
(PINUS PALUSTRIS Miller.)
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
PRODUCTS AND USES.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.
DESCRIPTION OF WOOD.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT.
FOREST MANAGEMENT.
APPENDIX: THE NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY.
LONGLEAF PINE IN HIGHLANDS.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LONGLEAF PINE.
27
THK LONOLEAK PINE.
(Pinus palustris Miller.)
Synonyms: Finns paliutria Miller, Gard. Dict.,ed. 8, No. 14 (1768).
Pinus lutea Walter, Fl. Car.,237 (1788).
Pinus amtrdlis Michaux f., Hist. Arb. Ain.,i. 64, t. 6 (1810).
Pinus serotina Hort. Cf. Bon Jard. 976 (1837) ex Antoine, Conif.,23 (1840-'47), not Michx. (1803).
Finns Palmiensis Fr. Gard. ex Gordon, Pinetnm,ed. 1, Suppl.,63 (1862).
Pinus Palmieri Manetti ex Gord., 1. c. (1862).
LOCAL OR COMMON NAMES.
Longleaved Pine (Del., N. C., S. C., Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss.,
La., Tex.).
Southern Pine (N. C., Ala., Miss., La.).
Yellow Pine (Del., N. C., S. C., Ala., Fla., La., Tex.).
Turpentine Pine (N. C.).
Rosemary Piue (N. C.).
Brown Pine (Tenn.).
Hard Pine (Ala., Miss., La.).
Georgia Pine (Del.).
Fat Pine (Southern States).
Southern Yellow Pine (general).
Southern Hard Pine (general).
Southern Heart Pine (general;.
Southern Pitch Pine (general).
Heart Pine (N. C. and Southern Atlantic region).
28
Pitch Pine (Atlantic region).
Longleaved Yellow Pine (Atlantic region.)
Longleaved Pitch Pine (Atlantic region).
Long-straw Pine (Atlantic region).
North Carolina Pitch Pine (Va., N. C.).
Georgia Yellow Pine (Atlantic region).
Georgia Pine (general).
Georgia Heart Pine (general).
Georgia Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region).
Georgia Pitch Pine (Atlantic region).
Florida Yellow Pine (Atlantic region).
Florida Pine (Atlantic region).
Florida Lougleaved Pine (Atlantic region).
Texas Yellow Pine (Atlantic region).
Texas Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region).
THE LONGLEAF PINE.
By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D.
INTRODUCTORY.
The Longleaf Pine is the tree of widest distribution and of greatest commercial importance
in the Southern Atlantic forest region of eastern North America, covering, with scarcely any
interruption, areas to be measured by tens of thousands of square miles and furnishing useful
material.
The timber wealth of the forests of Longleaf Pine, much of which is still untouched, has given
rise to industries which involve the outlay of vast capital and an extensive employment of labor,
thus closely affecting the prosperity of a large part of the Southern States as well as the indus-
trial and commercial interests of the whole country.
With the impending exhaustion of the pine forests of the North, the lumber interests of the
country are steadily tending to center in the South, attracted chiefly by the forests of Longleaf Pine.
The Old World, which has heretofore depended almost entirely upon the pine forests of Canada
and of the Northern United States for timber for heavy construction, is already importing a large
amount of hewn and sawn square timber and of lumber from the Southern pine forests. Most of
the lumber used for ordinary building purposes in the West Indies, on the coast of Mexico, and
in many of the States of South America is furnished by the mills situated in the Longleaf Pine
region. The unprecedented increase, during the last quarter of a century, of the population in
the timberless regions of the far West, as well as in the country at large, enormously augments
the drafts made upon these forests, threatening their eventual exhaustion and ultimate destruc-
tion unless measures are taken by which these supplies may be perpetuated. The solution of the
difficult problem of devising such measures can come only as a result of a study of the life history
of the Longleaf Pine, of the conditions required for its growth and best development, of the laws
regulating its distribution, and of the possibilities for its natural or artificial restoration.
HISTORICAL.
The economic importance of the Longleaf Pine was well recognized in early times. Bartram,1
in tlie year 1777, in his wanderings along the western shore of Mobile Bay, had his attention
attracted by three very large iron pots, or kettles, each with a capacity of several hundred gallons,
near the remains of an old fort or settlement, which he was informed were used for the purpose of
boiling down the tar to pitch, there being vast forests of pine in the vicinity of this place. " In
Carolina," this writer proceeds, "the inhabitants pursue a different method. When they are going
to make pitch they dig large holes in the ground, which they line with a thick coat of good clay,
into which they conduct a sufficient quantity of tar and set it on fire, suffering it to burn and
evaporate for some time, in order to convert it into pitch, and when cool, put it into barrels until
they have consumed all the tar and made a sufficient quantity of pitch for their purposes."
Humphrey Marshall, one of the earliest writers on North American forest trees,2 mentions
the Longleaf Pine under the name of the "largest three-leaved marsh pine, as accounted equal to
any for its resinous products." In North Carolina crude resin, tar, and pitch figured as important
and valuable exports during the later colonial times. During the period from 1766 to 1769, $130,000
1 Burtram's Travels through North and South Carolina. Philadelphia, 1791.
'' Humphry Marshall: "Arbustrum Aiiiericanum," or the American Grove. Philadelphia, 1785.
29
30 TIMBER PINES OP THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
worth of these stores were exported yearly ; among them were 88,11 1 barrels of crude resin, valued
at $11,244.85. F. A. Michaux, in his travels east of the Allegbany Mountains, speaking of the
low country of the Carolinas, says:1 "Seven-tenths is 'covered with pine of one species, Pinna
paluxtritt, which, as the soil is drier and lighter, grows loftier; these pines, encumbered with very
few branches and which split even, are preferred to other trees for building fences on plantations."
In his subsequent work Michaux gives for the first time an accurate and detailed account of the
products of this tree and their industrial and commercial importance, as well as of its distribution
and a description of its specific characters.2
NOTE. — In sketching the topographical features of those regions of tho Longleaf Pine forests, which did not come
under the personal observation of the writer, the pbysiographical descriptions of the Cotton States on the Atlantic
Coast and the Gnlf region published in Professor Hilgard's report on cotton production in the fifth and sixth
volumes of the Census of 1880 were freely drawn upon, and these reports were also consulted, together with Table VII,
in the statistics published in the census report on productions of agriculture in the computation of forest areas.
In the statements of the amount of Longleaf Pine standing in the several States in 1880 and of the cut during
the same year, the figures given in Prof. Charles S. Sargent's report, Vol. IX of the Tenth Census, were introduced,
and for those which relate to Alabama and Mississippi the writer is mostly responsible. No efforts have been spared
to arrive at a correct estimate of the total amount and value of square timber, lumber, and naval stores produced
during tho decade ending with the year 1890 and during the business year 1893, in order to place in a proper light
the economic importance of the tree and its bearings upon the industrial and commercial interests of the country,
and also to show the rapid increase of the industries depending dirrctly upon the resources of this tree. The state-
ments given are, however, of necessity only approximations falling below the limits of truth, as it was impossible to
ascertain with any degree of accuracy the quantities entering into home consumption. Thus a factor of no little
importance had to be neglected.
The thanks of the writer are due to the gentlemen who kindly assisted him by their prompt replies to his
inquiries in his search for information, and who in other ways have afforded him aid.
GEOGRAPHICAL, DISTRIBUTION.
The Longleaf Pine is principally confined to a belt about 125 miles in width in the lower
parts- of the Southern States which border upon the Atlantic and the Gulf shores. The northern
limit of the tree is found on the coast near the southern boundary of Virginia below Norfolk,
north latitude 36° 30'. From here the forests of the Longleaf Pine extend southward along the
coast region to Cape Canaveral, across the peninsula of Florida a short distance south of Tampa
Bay, westward along the Gulf Coast to the uplands which border upon the alluvial deposits of
the Mississippi. West of that river forests of this species continue to the Trinity liiver in Texus;
in that State its northern limit is found to reach hardly 32° north latitude, while in Louisiana and
Mississippi it extends hardly more than half a degree farther north, and in Alabama under 34° 30'
the tree is found to ascend the extreme southern spurs of the Appalachian chain to an altitude of
between 1, 500 and 2, 000 feet. Thus the area of the distribution of the Longleaf Pine extends from
76° to 96° west longitude and from 26° 30' to 36° 30' north latitude. (See PI. III.)
With reference to the distribution of this species as depending upon geological formation, it
may be said that its forests are chiefly confined to the sandy and gravelly deposits designated i>\
Professor Hilgard as the orange sand, or Lafayette strata of Post- Tertiary formation, which of late
isregarded as the most recent member of the Tertiary formation. These siliceous sands and pebbles,
which to such vast extent cover the lower part of the Southern States and form also more or less
the covering of the surface throughout the older Tertiary region, offer the physical conditions most
suitable to the growth of this tree.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS.
This great maritime pine belt east of the Mississippi lliver presents such differences in
topographical features and such diversity of physical and mechanical conditions of the soil as to
permit a distinction of three divisions going from the coast to the interior:
1. The coastal plain, or low pine barrens within the tide- water region, extends from the seashore
inland for a distance of from 10 to 30 miles and over. The forests of the Longleaf Pine which
surlii naturalisation des arbres forestiers <le 1'Anieriqne septentrionale, by F. A. Michaux. I'.-iri.-. i
2F. A. Michaux, Histoirc des Arbres forestiers de 1'Amer., Sept. Paris, 1810-1813. English translation, Phila-
delphia Edition, 1859, Vol. Ill, p. 106 et srq.
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
Plate III.
• '' " . - - -•-'- T ~
Is
Hii;'^
i
III « B <
MM! n
s a 3 s is
I l§Bl|
i 5 ' ~
TIMBER EEGIONS — SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 31
occupy the poorly drained grassy flats of the plain are very open, intersected by numerous inlets
of the sea and by brackish marshes. They are also interrupted by swamps densely covered with
Cypress.White Cedar, White and Bed Bay, Water Oak, Live Oak, Magnolia, Tupelo Gum, and Black
Gum and again by grassy savannas of greater or less extent. On the higher level, or what might
be called the first terrace, with its better drained and more loamy soil, the Longleaf Pine once
prevailed, but almost everywhere iu the coastal plain the original timber has been removed by
man and replaced by the Loblolly Pine and the Cuban Pine.
2. The rolling pine lands, pine hills, or pine barrens proper are the true home of the Long-
Leaf Pine. On the Atlantic Coast these uplands rise to hills over 600 feet in height, while in the
Gulf region they form broad, gentle undulations rarely exceeding an elevation of .'500 feet. Thus
spreading out in extensive table-lauds, these hills are covered exclusively with the forests of this
tree for many hundreds of square miles without interruption. Here it reigns supreme. The
monotony of the pine forests on these table-lands is unbroken.
3. The upper division, or region of mixed growth. With the appearance of the strata of the
Tertiary formation iu the upper part of the pine belt, the pure forests of the Longleaf Pine are con-
fined to the ridges capped by the drifted sands and pebbles and to the rocky heights of siliceous
chert, alternating with open woods of oak (principally Post Oak), which occupy the richer lauds of
the calcareous loams and marls. However, where these loams and marls, rich in plant food,
mingle with the drifted soils, we find again the Longleaf Pine, but associated with broad-leaved
trees and with the Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine. Here the Longleaf Pine attains a larger size and
the number of trees of maximum growth per acre is found almost double that on the lower
division.
TIMBER REGIONS — SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION.
The forests of Longleaf Pine can be conveniently discussed by referring to the following geo-
graphical and limited areas:
The Atlantic pine region;
The maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf States;
The central pine belt of Alabama;
The forests of Longleaf Pine of north Alabama (Coosa basin, etc.);
The regions of Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi River.
THE ATLANTIC PINE REGION.
The Atlantic pine region in its extent from the southern frontier of eastern Virginia to the
peninsula of Florida embraces the oldest and most populous States of the Longleaf Pine district,
and here the forests have suffered most severely by lumbering, the production of naval stores, and
clearing for purposes of agriculture.
Virginia. — The forests of the Longleaf Pine on the southeastern border of Virginia have almost
entirely disappeared, and are, to a great extent, replaced by a second growth of Loblolly Pine.
North Carolina. — In North Carolina the area over which this tree once prevailed may be
estimated at from 14,000 to 15,000 square miles, leaving out of calculation the coastal plain with its
extensive swamps, wide estuaries, and numerous inlets. From the northern frontier of the State
southward, some distance beyond the ISTense Eiver, in the agricultural district, the forest growth
on the level or but slightly undulating pine land is of a mixed character, the Longleaf species being
largely superseded by the Loblolly Pine, together with widely scattered Shortleaf Pine and decid-
uous trees — White Oak, Red Oak, Post Oak, Black Oak, and more rarely Mockernut and Pignut
Hickory, and Dogwood. In this section the lumbering interests are chiefly dependent upon the
Loblolly Pine (Pinm tceda), better known to the inhabitants as the Shortstraw, or Shortleaf Pine
(not to be confounded with the true Shortleaf Pine). The forests of Longleaf Pine begin at Bogue
Inlet, extend along the coast to the southern boundary of the State, and inland for a distance
varying between 50 and 135 miles.
The highly siliceous soil of these pine barrens offers but little inducement for its cultivation;
the inhabitants, therefore, from the earliest time of the settlement of the State have chiefly been
engaged in pursuits based on the products of the pine forests. Here the productiou of naval
32
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
stores was first carried cm; rosin, tar, and pitch figured in early colonial times among the most
important articles of export. In consequence, the forests of the Longleaf Pine have been, with but
slight exceptions, invaded by turpentine orcharding, and at the present time by far the greater
part of the timber standing has been tapped for its resin. The forests of the Lougleaf Pine in this
State cover the largest area in the basin of Cape Fear River, with Wilmington the main port of
export for their products. The export from this port had increased from 21,000,000 feet of lumber
in 1880, to nearly 40,000,000 annually, on tlie average, for the years 1S87 to 1891.
The forests of the Longleaf Pine on the banks of the Neuse River, in Johnston County and in
\Vayue County, are almost exhausted; less than 40 per cent of the timber sawn at (loldsboro
and Dover is Lougleaf Pine timber from that section, and is invariably bled. A considerable
number of the trees from the old turpentine orchards, with the excoriated surface of the trunk
("chip"') over 25 feet in length and bled again after a lapse of years, show that they have been
worked for their resin for twenty to twenty-four years in succession, and after a longer or shorter
period of rest have been subjected to the same treatment continually for the same number of years.
Such old martyrs of the turpentine orchard are unfit for lumber, but, impregnated as they are with
resin, are used for piling and for posts of great durability.
East of the Neuse River, from the upper part of Johnston County, in an almost southern
direction to Newbern, no Longleaf Pine has been observed. Single trees of the Shortleaf Pine
( I'inm echinata) have been found scattered among the growth of deciduous trees which cover the
ridges between the Trent and Neuse rivers, and isolated tracts of a few acres of the Longleaf species
are met with in the low flats of the same section, which were in 1894 almost exclusively occupied
by the Loblolly Pine.
As reported for the Tenth Census, the amount of Lougleaf Pine standing in North Carolina at
the beginning of the census year was estimated to be 5,220,000,000 feet, board measure. No reliable
information could be obtained as to the amount of timber cut since 1880, consequently no data are
at hand from which to compute the amount now standing. The cut for the year 1880 is given in
the census report at 108,400,000 feet, board measure. In 1890, eighteen mills were enumerated as
engaged in sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber, almost all situated in the basin of Cape Fear
River, with a daily aggregate capacity of 475,000 feet, board measure. Such capacity would point
to an annual cut of at least (55,000,000 feet, board measure.
Statement of the shipments of naral stores from ll'ilmint/loii, X. C.
[From J. L. Cantwell, secretary Wilmington Produce Exchange.]
Year.
Spirits of tur-
pentine.
Rosin.
Crude reain
or turpentine.
Tar.
1880 .
Caiks.
125, 585
Barrels.
663,967
llarrels.
-Barrel*.
1881
90 000
450 000
2 323
1882
88,376
425, 925
3,188
56. 113
1883
87,050
483,432
31, 98«
75,544
1884
78,978
434, 376
45,966
85, 230
1885
71, 145
310. 808
35,290
70, 530
1886
63,580
324,942
25,682
61 195
1887 .. ..
71, 912
381, 335
21, 572
68, 143
1888 .
63,437
246, 510
18, 171
63,163
1889 .
69.668
351, 827
19, 082
(i.V S:,li
1890
70, 289
385, 523
71,949
1891
67, 480
349,500
16,900
63.700
1892
59, 283
287, 200
15, 5(10
67,900
1893
58, 336
274, 80(1
15,500
70.500
1804
46, 036
189,900
9,900
45.500
Total
1 111 155
5, 560, 051
26). 020
86?, 323
$19, 000 000
$10, 000, 000
$391,500
$1. 100, 000
Total value, $30.500,000.
t of ttii/imenlH of lumber loforeign and domestic ports from II "ilinini/tou, \. C.
Year.
l'i « 1. Hoard
measure.
Year.
Feet, board
meaHUre.
Year.
1 V. t. board
measure.
1880
21 000 000
1885...
36, 000. (K'H
1890 . . .
40, 066, 000
1881
45 49g 480
1886
::'.! .100 000
1891
29, 580. 160
1882
40 291 146
1887
41,000, 000
1892
25,874.::.!!
1883
35 465 000
1888
36 680 000
1893
30, 595, 930
1884 .
30 000 000
1889
40,289 000
1894
35.3.1:1.41:!
TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION.
33
South Carolina. — The forests of Longleaf Piiie in this State follow more closely the coast line,
•with au extension inland averaging 100 miles. The lower parts of the pine belt, or the Savannah
region, is low and flat, rising but slowly above the brackish marshes and alluvial lands bordering
the sea. Traversed by eight large rivers with wide estuaries and bordered by extensive swamps
of Cypress, Magnolia, Ked and White Bay, Laurel Oak, etc., its area has been estimated to be 7,000
square miles, 4,500 square miles of which are occupied by swamp lands, including the grassy
marshes on th€ coast. In the low, perfectly level pine barrens, with a soil of tine, compacted,
almost impervious sand, covered with the Saw Palmetto, the Pond Pine, and a stunted growth of
the Cuban and Loblolly Pine, the Longleaf Pine is rarely seen, and always of dwarfed growth. In
the flat woods bordering the alluvial swamps, heavily timbered with Loblolly and Cuban Pine, the
Longleaf Pine makes its appearance more frequently, and finally prevails almost exclusively on
the broad, dry, sandy ridges, associated with the Barren or Turkey Oak (Quercus catesbai), stunted
Spanish Oak, and Upland Willow Oak (Qiiercux cinerea), trees of smaller size forming the under-
growth. The timber growth on these ridges is rather open and of good quality. As has been
observed near Itidgeland, in the counties of Beaufort and Hampton, the forests have to a large
extent given way to the plow, and along the railroads they have been destroyed by turpentine
orcharding. Upon 1 acre, representing fairly the original timber growth of the forests on these
ridges, 48 trees of a diameter of from 12 to 24 inches at breast high, with a height of from 50 to 110
feet, were found. Of these, 4 yielded sticks of clear timber averaging 45 feet in length with mean
diameter of 18 inches, equal to 2,000 feet, board measure, of first-class lumber. These trees varied
in age from 130 to 145 years; 8 trees yielded sticks of timber free from limbs 40 feet in length
with mean diameter of 17 inches, equal to 3,200 feet, board measure, age on the average 140 years;
12 trees yielded 35 feet length of clear timber with mean diameter of 16 inches, equal to 3,600
feet of merchantable lumber, age from 130 to 136 years; 8 trees averaged 12 inches mean diameter,
length of timber 30 feet, equal to 950 feet, board measure, age from 110 to 118 years; 4 trees
averaged 10 inches mean diameter, length of clear timber 24 feet, wood sappy throughout, yielding
201) feet of lumber, age from 80 to 85 years.
The total yield of merchantable lumber of this acre would be 9,950 feet, board measure, repre-
senting the average of the better quality of these timber lauds. As in the adjoining States, the
forests along the railroad lines for a wide distance have been subjected to turpentine orcharding,
and but a small percentage of the timber standing has escaped the ax of the "box" cutter. The
receipts of naval stores at Charleston during the ten years from 1880 to 1890 averaged annually
57,570 casks (50 gallons to a cask) of spirits of turpentine and 225,920 barrels of rosin, with the
largest receipts in 1880 of 60,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 259,940 barrels of rosin, and
the smallest of 40,253 casks of spirits in 1888, and 149,348 barrels of rosin in 1889.
Tabular xtatement of the xhipments of naval stores at Charleston, X. C.,from the beginning of 1SSO to the clone of the year 189-i.
[From the annual statements of the commerce of Charleston, S. C., published in the Charleston Courier.*]
Tear.
Spirits of
turpentine.
Rotbi.
Year.
Spirits of
tnrpentiue.
Rosin.
1880 ....
Ctttlcs.
60 000
Jltirrfls.
259 940
]889
f'ailn.
43 127
llamls.
149 348
1881
51 380
2:il, 417
1890
49. 232
217 865
1882
6ft 027
258 440
1891
35 414
Hi:; 816
1883
65 914
285 446
1892
25 969
127 262
1884
64, 207
264, 049
1893
22, 543
121 <>24
1885
44 120
218 971
1884
14 415
71 329
1880
40 375
171) (Ifi6
1887
52 549
171 154
Total
678 537
2 892 619
1888
40, 253
181,886
$11,874 397
$5,206 714
* The annual receipts on the average equal the exports.
The rolling pine hills bordering upon the flat woods, or swamps, reach elevations of 130 to
250 feet above the sea, with a width of from 20 to 40 miles, and, as on the pine ridges of the low
pine barrens mentioned before, the upland oaks form the sparse undergrowth in the forests of
Longleaf I'ine. Nearly one-third of the area (estimated at about 4,500 square miles) has been
opened to cultivation. These rolling pine lands rise on their northern borders abruptly to a
range of steep hills over 600 feet above sea level, covered with a rather scanty growth of Lougleaf
7092— No. 13 3
34
TIMHEK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
Pine among the Shortleaf Pine and flue upland oaks, the latter largely prevailing. < >n tin- south
and west these hills merge into an elevated plateau with a loose soil of coarse white sand. Here
the Longleaf Pine is found in its full perfection and furnishes timber of excellent quality.1 About
12 per cent of these pine-clad table-lauds are under cultivation, and about -2 per cent of the hills,
with their generous red soil, are covered with a mixed growth of pine and oak; both of these
divisions cover an area of not less than 4,000 square miles.1
The Longleaf Pine timber standing in South Carolina in the census year 1880 was estimated
at 5,31(5,000,000 feet, board measure,3 with an annual cut of 124,000,000 feet.
In 1890 forty mills sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber have been reported4 with an
aggregate daily capacity of about 510,000 feet, taken at the lowest figure. This would indicate
for that year a cut of 68,000,000 i'eet, board measure, which may also be considered the average
annual cut for the last fifteen years.
The exports of lumber from Charleston, the chief port, have since the year 1880 steadily
increased, the excess in 1890 over the amount in 1880 reaching over 400 per cent, as is exhibited
in the following statement :
Mutt mint of lumber exported from Charleston, S. I'., 1o foreign and domestic ports from thi' beginning of 1880 to the close
of 1S94.
[Includes considerable Loblolly and Shortleaf Finn.]
Year.
Feet, board
measure.
Year.
IVrt. board
meaxure.
1879 80
15 437 000
1887 88
45 °70 000
1880-KI
18 500, 000
1888-89
50 532 000
18-11 82
43 OUU Ot>0
1889 90
188 '-83
40 000 000
1890 91
01 ->l>6 827
188.1-84
35 589 0011
1891 92. ..
53 286 608
1884 85
30, 034 000
1X82 93
61 093 344
1885-86
26 800 000
1893-94
69 940 453
1880-87
32 672,000
Oeorgia. — The great pine State of the South, which has given to the Longleaf Pine the name of
Georgia Pine, by which this lumber is known the world over, embraces the largest of the Atlantic
pine forests. At a rough estimate, these cover over 19,000 square miles, including the narrow
strip of live-oak lands bordering the seashore. The flat woods and savannas of the coast plain are
from 10 to 15 miles wide. They are almost entirely stripped of their growth of Lougleaf Pine.
The upland pine forests, the pine barrens proper, or wire-grass region,6 embrace over 17,000
square miles. This region forms a vast plain, nearly level except on the north, covered exclusively
with Longleaf Pine. About 20 per cent of these lands have been cleared for cultivation.
Formerly the principal sites of the lumber industry were Darien, Brunswick, and Savannah.
The logs were rafted hundreds of miles down the Savannah, the Ogeechee, the Altamaha and its
large tributaries, the Oconee and Ocmulgee. A limited quantity is carried down the Flint and
Chattahoochee rivers to Apalachicola. The railroads, however, supply the mills now to the
largest extent.
The forests of these pine uplands are in quality, and originally in quantity, of their timber
resources equal to any found east of the Mississippi Kiver. The soil is a loose sand, underlaid by
a more or less sandy bufi'-colored or reddish loam. The almost level or gently undulating plain
becomes slightly broken along the water courses, and the forests of Longleaf Pine are interrupted
by wide, swampy bottoms which inclose the streams and are heavily timbered with the Loblolly
Pine, Cuban Pine, Laurel Oak, Water Oak, Magnolia, White and Red Bay, and Cypress. On
the better class of the pine-timber lands the amount of marketable timber found varies between
3,000 and 10,000 feet to the acre. The trees yielding lumber and square-sawn timber of the highest
1 Kirk Hammond, Census Report, Vol. VI, Cotton production of South Carolina.
'Hammond, 1 c.
:i Report of Tenth Census, Vol. IX.
4 Lumber Trade Directory, Northwestern Lumberman, Chicago, July, 1890.
5From the so-called wire-grass .IriHtidastricta, the most characteristic plant of the dry, sandy, pine barrens
from western Alabama to the Atlantic coast.
TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION.
35
grade were found to make sticks of from 40 to 45 feet long, perfectly clear of limb knots, and 18 to
22 inches mean diameter, giving from 450 to 750 feet of lumber, with the sapwood from 1£ to 2
inches wide.
The following measurements of trees from a small tract of forest untouched by the ax serve
as a fair average sample of its timber growth :
Xumber of tree.
Diameter,
breast high.
Mean
diameter.
Length of
timber.
Total
height.
Number of
rings.
1
Inches.
28
Inches.
22
Feet.
45
Feet.
93
250
2
22
18
40
106
240
3
19
15
10
96
150
4
18
15
40
93
138
21?
17i
tit
97
194
Along the numerous railroad lines and the navigable streams and their tributaries admitting
of the driving of logs, the forests have been completely stripped of their merchantable timber,
and the denuded areas to a considerable extent are at present under cultivation. The magnifi-
cent forests on the Altahama Eiver and between its tributaries, the Ocmulgee and Oconee rivers,
and als > on the Ogeechee Eiver, have been practically exhausted and are utterly devastated by
the tapping of the trees for turpentine. In fact, more than two-thirds of all the timber sawn at
present has been bled. The timber from the turpentine orchards, abandoned for years past, is
being rapidly removed to the mills, aud the vast areas occupied by them will, within a short time,
be almost completely denuded of the Longleaf Pine, its place being taken by scrubby oaks, dwarf
hickories, and Persimmon. The timber is transferred to the mills mostly by steam-equippad
tramroads, and the products of the turpentine distilleries in the remoter districts are hauled
to the highways of commerce by ox teams for distances of 12 miles and over.
Considering the removal for their timber of trees far below medium size and during the best
period of their growth, the destruction of still younger trees by turpentine orcharding, and ot
the young seedlings by fire, the prospect for the future of the lumber industry and the renewal
of the forests of Longleaf Pine in this region are gloomy. Many of the intelligent men practically
interested in the timber lands of this State aver that the exhaustion of the forests of the Longleaf
Pine is a question of but a short space of time, to be accomplished before another generation has
passed.
The amount of timber standing at the end of the census year 1880 had been computed at
16,778,000,000 feet, board measure, and the cut at 272,743,000 feet.
From the publication quoted, it appears that in the year 1890 there were 88 sawmills in opera-
tion in the great pine belt of Georgia, sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber. On the basis of
lowest figures cited, the daily cut at these establishments during that year would not fall short of
1,667,000 feet, indicating an animal cut of over 400,000,000 feet.
No statistical returns of the lumber trade previous to 1884 could be obtained at Savannah,
Darien, or Brunswick. The export from the first of these ports averaged about 73,000,000 feet,
board measure, a year, showing but slight fluctuation during the period beginning with 1884 to
the close of 1889, when in the subsequent two years the annual average increased to 118,000,000
feet, board measure. The exports from Darien and Brunswick, averaging 82,000,000 and
85,000,000 feet, respectively, for a similar period of time, show also but small differences from one
year to another. About 30,000,000 to 33,000,000 feet are rafted down the Flint and Chattahoochee
rivers, to be sawn at Apalachicola. With the spread of the sawmills along the railroad lines in
the upper part of the pine region, the shipments of lumber by rail to distant Northern markets
increased steadily, until in 1802 it was found that the production of Lougleaf Pine lumber shipped
by rail to Northern markets exceeded 60,000,000 feet.
36
TIMHKK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
Tahular ulaltmeat <if export* of lumber from Sarnnnnh. llarie.n, Hrunucick, and SI. Mary* i<> fi>rei<iu ami <l,ini<*ti<- i>,,rti
and shipment! by railroad la inland market! /com 1883-SJ to 1893-94.
Year.
Sa\annal>.
Darieii.
Brunswick.
St. Moryn.
Savannah
Railroad.
OtherwUr
liy rail.
Flint Riv.T.
Total.
1883-X4
Feet. B If.
82, 100,000
Frtt, R. M.
90,100,000
Fret. It. 31.
84, 700, 000
Pert, It. M.
8,500,000
Put, B. M.
Feel, R. 3f.
Feet, It. M.
Feel, B. M.
1884-85
Hi. 100, 000
72, 9(10, 00"
87, 500. 0011
8,500,000
1885-86
08, OOO, 000
83, nun, 000
80, 000, 000
1888-K7
68, 400. 000
90, 000. 000
88,000,000
1887-88
70, 4110. 000
90. 000. 000
88,000.000
1888-81
78, 100. 000
85,000,000
82,000 000
1889-90
128. BOO. 000
70, 000. 00 1
84. 000, 000
1RJX, 91
107, :ioo, ooo
80, 000, 000
80.000,000
1891-92
138, :tOO. TOO
85,000,000
80, 000, 000
50 000 000
16 900 000
33 000 000
40't '..MM) 000
116 100 II IH
85 000 000
80 000 000
50 000 000
16 000 000
1893-94
77, 400 000
85,000,000
80,000 000
50 000 000
Total
935, 800, 000
833, 000, 000
834,200,000
17, 000, 000
150, 000, 000
32, 900, 000
33 000 000
This makes a grand total for the ten years ended. 1804 of 2,836,000,000 feet, board measure,
with an aggregate value, at present export rates ($11 per 1,000 feet), of at least $31,196,000.
In the production of naval stores Georgia takes the lead. By the statements of the census
of 1870, only 3,208 casks of spirits of turpentine and 13,840 barrels of rosin, valued at $95,!i7<>,
were produced during that year in the State. In the course of the following ten years this
industry progressed steadily and rapidly. In 1888 exports from Savannah, at present the
greatest market in the world for these products, had increased to 168,000 casks of spirits of
turpentine and 654,000 barrels of rosin, of a total value of $3,880,000.
Statement of export* of naval stores from Savannah during the yearn 18SO-1S94.
Tear.
Spirits of
turpentine.
liosin.
Tear.
Spirits of
turpentine.
llo-ill.
1879-80
Catl-s.
46, 321
Barrel*.
• 221,421
1888-89
Catltt.
159, 931
Barrels.
577 990
1880-81
54 703
282 :186
1889 90
181 542
71(i 658
1881 82
77 059
309 834
1890 91
196 227
770 311
188'>-83
116,127
430, 548
1891
196, 166
758 448
1883-84
129 835
559 625
1892
234 086
873 678
1884-85
121 028
401 '.His
1893
277 617
1 03" 198
1885-86
106, 925
424. 490
1894
261 081
957 027
566 932
1887 88
His s::4
654, 286
Total
2, 475 297
9 637 830
Valued at $49,401, 031.
The highest prices for these stores in Savannah were obtained iu 1880, with $19.50 per cask of
50 gallons for spirits of turpentine and $2.25 per barrel of rosin of 280 pounds gross ; and the lowest
in 1887-88, with the price of spirits of turpentine at $14.25 per cask and $1.40 per barrel of rosin.
On dose scrutiny of the prices ruling at Wilmington, for the eleven years after 1880 the price of a
cask of spirits of turpentine averaged $18 and of a barrel of rosin $1.90, lowest grades of the latter
excluded.
Florida. — That part of the State between the Suwanee River and the Atlantic Coast, as far
south as St. Augustine, can be considered as part of the Atlantic pine region, and covers an area
of about 4,700 square miles. In the basin of the St. Johns River a large part of the land has
been devoted to the cultivation of the citrus fruits. The principal sites of the, manufacture of
lumber in this section of the State are Ellaville, in Madison County, on the Suwauee River, and
Jacksonville. The supplies once existing along the Cedar Keys and Fernandina Railroad are at
present well nigh exhausted. South of St. Augustine the Longleaf Tine is less common and in
general inferior in size. The timber on the extensive Hat woods to the Kverglades, covered with
the Saw Palmetto, is si tinted and the forests are very open, and in the more fertile soils Longleaf
Pine is largely replaced by Cuban Pine. In the central section of the peninsula, with its numerous
lakes, the Longleaf Pine is often associated with the Sand Pine (Pinus clausa), and hard woods
prevail on the upland hummock lauds.
mi: MAK1TIMK 1'IXK HKI.T OF TI1K KASTKRN GULF KERION.
From the banks of the Suwauee River to the uplands bordering the alluvial lands of the
Mississippi this pine belt, varying from 90 to 125 miles in width, covers an area roughly estimated
TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION.
37
at a little over 40,000 square miles. It presents no material differences from the Atlantic region,
of which it is a direct continuation, being similar to it in both soil and climate.
This eastern Gulf region is unsurpassed in the advantages it offers for the development of
the industries based on the products of the pine forests. Its genial climate throughout the year
permits the uninterrupted exploitation of its abundant resources of resinous products and of timber
of the best quality. The fine harbors and safe roadsteads on the Gulf Coast are reached by navi-
gable, rivers, winch, with their tributaries, cross the lower division in every direction, and give
r^ady and cheap transportation to its ports, while great railway lines afford easy communication
•with inland markets. This region thus presents inducements scarcely found elsewhere for the
investment of capital and labor in the development of the resources of its forests.
It is impossible to arrive at anything like an accurate estimate of the amount of timber
standing at present, or of the rate of its consumption, since in the returns of the annual lumber
product that needed for home consumption has not been included.
Western Florida. — Placing the eastern limit of that part of Florida to be considered as
belonging to the Gulf pine region at the lower course of the Suwanee Eiver, the area included
comprises about 7,200 square miles, exclusive of the swamps and marshes of the coast. The
forests of Lougleaf Pine form a narrow strip along the course of the Suwanee Eiver and along
the coast to the Appalachieola Kiver, covering about 1,280,000 acres. At their northern limit
they merge into the oak and hickory uplands of middle Florida. Along the coast they are sur-
rounded by marshes and swamps, rendering them difficult of access, consequently they have
remained untouched. The same may be said of the pine forests between the Appalachieola and
the Choctawhatchee rivers. These have been invaded to some extent along the banks of the
latter river to supply the small mills situated on the bay of the same name.
The pine lands of western Florida rise slowly above the coastal plain and form a vast expanse
of slightly undulating surface. Those surrounding Perdido, Pensacola, Blackwater, and Mary
St. Galves Bay, the oldest sites of active lumber industry in the Gulf region, were stripped of
their valuable timber more than thirty years ago, and since that time have been cut over again.
The largest tracts of finely timbered virgin forests of Longleaf Pine are found in the undulating
uplands from the Perdido and Escambia rivers along the Alabama State line to the banks of the
Choctawhatchee River. East of this river, in the same direction, where the younger Tertiary
strata make their appearance, Longleaf Pine becomes associated with hard woods, with southern
Spruce Pine added in the valleys. Since the opening of the Peusacola and Atlantic Eailroad
considerable quantities of sawn square timber find their way to Pensacola from these remoter
forests.
A large portion of the timber supplied to the mills along the coast having been derived from
Alabama, it is impossible to arrive at an exact estimate of the products of the forest of western
Florida.
Statement of export of hewn square timber, sawn square timber, and lumber to foreii/n and domestic ports from Pensacola,
Fla., from 1879-80 to 1892-93.
[From Hyer & Bro.'s annual circulars.]
Tear.
Square hewii
timber.
Square sawn
timing and
lumber.
Total.
Cubic feet.
2, 180. COO
Feet, li. M.
176.00(1 000
leet, H. M.
202 000 000
4 603 000
°09 998 000
6, 479. 850
164 305 000
230 000 000
2, 169, 0011
188, 100, 000
211 386 000
2 031.000
194 890 Duo
219 286 000
1,627,000
195, 576, 000
211 131 000
1885-86
1, 700, (100
215, 750, 600
228, 59(1, 000
, 0.18, 000
231,884,600
245 221 0(10
1887-88
, 283, QUO
238, 299, 400
253 699,000
, 574, 000
310 253 000
329 153 000
1889 90
, 367. 000
276, 587. 000
292, 991, 000
,530,133
254. 125 000
271 728 800
189192
, 488. 272
325.081.000
294 958 700
1892-93
, 449, 910
252, 808, 000
270, 208, 000
Total
:i 534 ;{,-,-' into
In tin- shipment of these products in 1SS.">, valued at (2,305,500, there were471 vessels engaged,
of 204.505 tons, of which 370 of 9.~>,!)±3 tons cleared for foreign ports.
38
TIMBER 1'IXES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
During these fourteen years the price of square timber ami lumber taken iu the aggregate
averaged about $12.50 per 1,000 feet, board measure. On this basis the value of the mill products
for these parts of the forests of Longleaf Pine amounted to $3,155,070 a year.
For the past forty years, during which the lauds of the peninsular part and in middle Florida
have passed mostly into possession of small proprietors, no naval stores have been produced
in this section. In western Florida, however, in proximity to the Louisville and Nashville and
Pensacola railroads, large areas have been subjected to the tapping of the trees, and the forests
close to these railroads having been exhausted, the products of the turpentine stills are hauled
for a distance often exceeding 10 miles and find their market mostly at Mobile.
Alabama. — Owing to the diversity in geological conditions and in topographical features
prevailing in this State, the distribution of the Longleaf Pine presents within its borders
peculiarities not found elsewhere. It appears in three separate regions — the maritime pine belt,
the central pine belt, and the pine forests of the Coosa Basin and other outlying forests in north
Alabama.
The coast pine belt extends from the Gulf shore inland for a distance of from 90 to 100 miles,
and has been estimated to cover about 13,750 square miles, or 8,800,000 acres, outside of the swamps
and flatwoods of the coast plain. The latter, perfectly level or rising in gentle swells above the
tidewater marshes, is almost completely stripped of its original timber growth. After its removal
the Longleaf Pine has largely been replaced by Cuban Pine.
The rolling pine uplands rise to a height of from 2(10 to 350 feet above the lowlands of the
coast. In the lower part of this pine belt, where the sandy and gravelly deposits of the latest
tertiary strata prevail, the Longleaf Pine forms pure forests, with the exception of the narrow
strips of hardwood timber bordering the water courses. This lower division covers about 4,250,000
acres. In the extent and quality of their timber resources these Longleaf Pine forests can be
considered equal to those found in the adjoining parts of Florida and in Mississippi, and
unsurpassed by those of the most favored sections of the Atlantic pine forest.
The following measurements of trees felled near Wallace, Escambia County, in collecting
the material for the United States timber tests, will serve to represent fairly the quality of the
merchantable timber in conformity with the standard in vogue at the mills in 1880, and the relation
of age to growth:
.\ffatiiremeiitH of fee 1ree».
Number of tree.
Diameter,
breast
high.
Total
height.
Kings on
Btump.
Diameter
below
crowD.
Mean diam-
eter of
timber.
Length of
timbertree
of limb-
knots.
1
India.
26
Feet.
106
216
Inches.
18
Inche*.
22
Feet.
50
2
19
111
189
14
16
60
3
16
111
183
12
14
45
4
18
113
106
15
17
50
5
19
118
182
13
16
50
13.6
111
103
14.5
17
51
At a lumber camp near Lumberton, in Washington County, 9 timber trees were measured
showing on the average a mean diameter of 17 inches, the clear sticks averaging 40 feet in
length.
Upon 1 acre, selected at random in the untouched forests north of Springhill, Mobile County,
very open and free from smaller trees or undergrowth, 16 trees were counted above 16 inches in
diameter at breast high, namely, 2 trees 23 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of
timber, 40 feet; 2 trees 20 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet;
12 trees 16 to 18 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 35 feet; which iu
the aggregate would yield about 5,000 feet, board measure.
Upon another acre plat of the same quarter section 64 trees above 12 inches in diameter at
breast high were found; of these 2 trees measured 20 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated
length of timber, 40 feet; 26 trees measured 17 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length
of timber, 36 feet; 36 trees measured 13 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of
timber, 24 feet.
TIMBER REGIONS SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION.
39
Upon a third plat exceptionally heavily timbered, 45 trees were counted, of which 5 trees
were 25 inches in diameter at breast high, the clear timber averaging 50 feet in length; 12 trees
22 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber 50 feet, and 28 trees 16 to 18 inches in
diameter, average length of timber estimated at 30 feet. Such a stand would indicate a yield of
merchantable timber of at least 15,000 feet, board measure, to the acre. All over this lower
division boggy tracts are frequently met with, in which the sour, black soil is covered with
sphagnum, or bog moss ; these support only a few scattered pines. On many of the steeper ridges
the soil is pure sand and the pine growth is small and inferior, being largely replaced by Barren
Oak, Sparkleberry, and the evergreen heather-like shrub Ceratiola ericoides.
In this lower division of the maritime pine belt the manufacture of lumber and the produc-
tion of naval stores is carried on most actively. These products h'nd their outlet chiefly at Mobile,
while more than one-third of the lumber exported from Pensacola (to the amount of at least 100,-
000,000 feet annually for the past few years) is also derived from this division. In the upper half
of the maiitime pine belt, with the appearance of the outcrops of limestones and limy marls of the
Lower Tertiary (Eocene) formation, the country becomes more "broken, with steeper hills and wider
valleys, and a change in tlie character of the flora takes place, particularly manifest in the nature
and distribution of the tree growth. In the fertile valleys and on the lower flanks of the hills
broad-leaved trees, mostly Post Oak, Black Oak, Mockernut, Bitternut, Pignut, and Magnolia
prevail, interspersed with Shortleaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, and Eed Cedar — the Longleaf Pine
occupying sporadic patches of drifted sands and pebbles. On the steep and frequently wide
ridges capped by these deposits, and on the rugged hills of the buhrstone and flinty cherts this
tree forms the principal growth, and is in the openings more or less associated with broad-leaved
trees. From this commingling of cone-bearing and deciduous trees and the alternations of pine
forest and oak woods, this upper division has been designated as the region of mixed growth,
which at a rough estimate can be said to cover about 5,000 square miles.
In the deep soil'of light loam and strong loamy sands the Lougleaf Pine attains a splendid
growth and the number of large trees on a given area is greater than found in the lower division.
The following measurements of 5 trees felled for test logs fairly represent the average dimensions
of the timber from these hills in the vicinity of Thomasville, Clarke County :
Measurements of Jive trees.
Number of tree.
Kili^H in
Btump.
Diameter
brejiHt
high.
Diameter
below
crown, or
tup end
ot'timber.
Mean
•liameter
ot timber.
Length
ot'timber.
Total
height of
tree.
16 .
202
Inche*.
20
Indies.
15
Inches.
18
r«*t.
45
Feet.
108
17
163
21
14
17
40
115
18
210
22
16
It
40
110
19
160
26
19
22
40
111
20
110
17
u
15
30
92
171
21.2
15 4
18 2
39
100 2
Many of the trees of larger size were found affected by wind-shake in the direction of the
rings of growth (ring-shake), in many instances impairing greatly the quality of the timber. The
forests on these hills are open, with a comparatively small number of young trees. Upon 1 acre
selected at random 46 trees were counted; of this number were found 4 trees of a diameter of 25
inches breast high, and the length of timber about 40 feet; 10 trees of a diameter of 22 inches
breast high, and the length of timber about 36 feet; 26 trees of a diameter of 18 inches breast
high, and the length of timber about 30 feet; 6 trees of a diameter of 15 inches breast high, and
the length of timber about 25 feet.
On the average each one of these trees would yield about 400 to 450 feet, board measure. On
another acre 44 trees were found differing in their average dimension but slightly from the above,
and indicating a yield between 18,000 and 19,000 feet of lumber to the acre. In this upper part of
the coast pine belt lumbering and turpentine orcharding have not developed to any great extent,
owing to its inaccessibility. However, where railroads traverse the section, the manufacture of
40
TIMBER I'INES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
lumber is carried on extensively, the output going to Northern markets. Much of the heavy hewn
timber that is exported from Mobile and Pensacola is furnished by this section.
In collecting the statistics on the lumbering interests in the maritime pine belt of Alabama
the information kindly furnished by firms engaged in the sawmill business or the lumber trade has
chiefly been relied upon. The annual production was arrived at by multiplying the average daily
output reported by 200, the assumed number of working days of the year. From these data it
appears that during the year 1893 the daily output of the 25 points reported from amounted in the
aggregate to about 768,000 feet, or to 192,000,000 feet, board measure, for the year. This figure can
be said to represent the average of the annual production for the past three years. To this amount,
at a low estimate, 85,000,000 feet of round timber are to be added, cut in Alabama and sawn in
western Florida, including the hewn square timber shipped from the State to Pensacola, thus
swelling the present annual production of lumber and square timber in the maritime pine belt of
Alabama to a total of about 277,000,000 feet, board measure. The statement of the annual exports
of these products from Mobile by water and by rail for the past fourteen years will aptly illustrate
the steady increase of the lumbering interests during this period.
Statement of efforts of square timber, lutcn and satrn, andof lumber shipped from Mobile to foreign and domestic port* from
the year 1879-80 to the end of the year 1894.
Year.
Siiuara
timl'er, hewn
and tsawn.
Lumber.
Total lumber
and square
timber.
Value.
1879-80
Cubic feet.
745 000
Feet,B.M.
13 572 000
feet, n. 31.
22 525 000
$280 825
1880-81
1 725 000
18 lr. 1 000
1881-82
1 fi74, 000
32 236 000
53 350 000
710 012
1882-83
1 652 804
26 753 843
46 588 000
582 000
1883-84
3 810 714
?> 251 000
801 699
1884-85
3 121 794
22 256 000
59 945 000
636 953
1885 86
2 973 206
21 435 500
56 580 000
1886-87
1 863 259
29 346 (100
60 7'*:i 000
641 215
1887 88
2 450 257
29 257 000
59 740 000
677 804
1888-89
:i, 049 440
48,284 000
100 000 urn
081 828
1889-90
3 811 987
52 879 000
111 650 810
1890-91
3 592 924
50 894> 000
122 000 000
415 000
1891 92 .. ..
5 072 088
Gl 8G5 895
141 793 700
695 000
1892 93
5 377.009
79,304 565
162, 666 700
590 900
1893-94
4 147 825
67 209 745
]"<] <i84 500
1 270 000
The first statement of the production of naval stores in Alabama is that reported to the census
of 1850, mentioned in that year as of a value of $17,800. In 1870 the production had increased
to 8,200 casks of spirits of turpentine and 53,175 barrels of rosin, valued at $280,203. In 1873 the
receipts in the market of Mobile had fully doubled, amounting to nearly 20,000 casks of spirits of
turpentine and to from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels of rosin, besides 1,000 barrels of tar and pitch,
of a total value of $750,000. The largest production was reached in 1875, when the receipts reached
a value of $1,200,000, up to the present only approximated in 1883 with 43,870 casks of spirits of
turpentine and 200,025 barrels of rosin, valued at $1,109,760. Since 1888 a steady decline in the
receipts of these products has taken place, due to the exhaustion of the supplies near the commer-
cial highways.
Table of ejrporls of naval stores from Mobile during the period of 18SO-1894.
Year.
1878-80.
l.-.-o SI .
l.-SI wj
1882-83.
1883-84.
1881-85.
1886 s>;
1886-87.
Spirits
turpen
tine.
i:..-in.
Total
value.
Year.
ro*i-».
2.V -M>
llarrelt.
158.482
170 616
1887-88
30. 937
43 870
172,438
200 125
1889-HO
1830-91
II. -01
41 713
210.572
200 688
1WH-92
l«i'j 113
38 733
175 817
1893 1)4
40 149
IH" nf.r,
Spirits
turpen-
tine.
INisin.
Total
value.
ra«t»
Rarrelt.
28. 72.-.
132.055
23 w>7
106 1''9
21 029
9 1, 906
21, WO
4L'i3S 690
22,172
S7.1IJH
458, 002
is in o
Ml. 120
355. ISO
2I.OU1
85.619
453.656
LONGLEAF PINE IN ALABAMA.
41
THE CENTRAL PINE BELT OF ALA1IAMA.
The middle portion of the State is crossed from its eastern boundary nearly to its western,
with a decided northern trend along the western border, by a belt of drifted loamy sands, pebbles,
and light loams covered in the eastern and central parts with an almost continuous forest of Long-
leaf Pine, interrupted only by strips of hard wood which occupy the bottom lands. In its eastern
extent the Longleaf Pine becomes associated with upland oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf Pine, the
Longleaf Pine being entirely replaced in the northern extension of this belt by the latter species.
This region of gravelly hills, as it is designated in the agricultural reports,1 is 200 miles in
length, 5 to 35 miles in width, and extends over about 2,000 square miles. In the sections where
the forest consists almost exclusively of Longleaf Pine the stand of timber is heavy and of fine
quality. Operators claim for these timber lands a yield of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet of merchantable
timber to the acre, excluding all trees under 12 inches diameter.
Ever since the opening of the great railroad lines leading to Northern markets the manufacture
of lumber in this central pine belt has been carried on with unabated activity. In 1880 not less
than 80,000,000 feet, board measure, were transported by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad
alone, mostly to the great Northwestern centers of commerce. In 1880 the production declined to
50,000,000 feet. At present most of the older mill sites have been abandoned and a few new ones
established in other localities. Colonel Wadsworth reports 12 mills in operation located along
the Louisville and Nashville Kailroad, with an output of a little over 40,000,000 feet a year on the
average of the past few years. To this is to be added the production of the few mills on the Mobile
and Birmingham Railroad, which will increase the present production in the central pine belt to
about 50,000,000 feet a year.
THE FORESTS OF LONGLEAF PINE IN NORTH ALABAMA.
Forests of Longleaf Pine prevail with more or less interruption in the basin of the Ooosa River,
principally on the beds of flinty pebbles and light, sandy loam which follow the upper course of
the river from the base of the Lookout Mountain range near Gadsden to a short distance beyond
the State line in Floyd County, Ga., where the Longleaf Pine finds its northern limit in about 34°
north latitude, at an elevation above the sea of about GOO feet. With the reappearance of the
above deposits south of Calhoun County the pine forests extend on the eastern side of the valley
south to Childersburg. On the isolated ridges of old Silurian sandstone (Potsdam), and the met-
amorphic region adjoining, the Longleaf Pine is scattered and stunted and ascends to an eleva-
tion of nearly 2,000 feet above the sea. In proximity to the mineral region the rugged hills and
mountain sides have been completely denuded, the pine having been cut for charcoal to supply the
blast furnaces. In the valleys the forests of Longleaf Pine are of average density and the timber
is considered of excellent quality, particularly in the northern part of the valley in Etowah and
Cherokee counties. On the lower hills the timber is less abundant and somewhat inferior in size.
The measurements of five trees felled in the hills near Renfroe, Talladega County, can be said to
fairly represent the average quality of this pine timber. The undergrowth in the open forest
covering the low ridges and the narrow valleys is dense, consisting of Blackjack, Spanish Oak,
Pignut, and Bitternut Hickory.
Meaxurrmenta of fire trees.
Number of tree.
Ring* on
stump.
Diiiini-tiT
hi rjisl bigtl.
Mean
diameter.
Lrujjth uf
timber.
Total
hfitflit of
trrc.s.
2:j7
136
Inchel.
17
Inches.
12
Feet.
50
Feet.
!)5
•':M
US
21
17
35
95
239
170
21
18
45
108
240
215
21
18
45
112
041
206
20
15
50
109
178
20
1C
45
104
'K. A. Smith: Agricultural Resources of Alabama, Vol. V. Reports of Geological Survey of Alabama.
42 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
The extinction of Longleaf Pine in the forests of north Alabama, as far as economic value is
concerned, appears to be certain. The dense undergrowth of deciduous trees suppresses completely
the second growth of the Longleaf Pine in the closed forest as well as in the openings. On the
mountain slopes a young pine is rarely seen, no tree being left to serve for the future dissemination
of the species, and this few seedlings sporadically springing up are invariably destroyed by the
firing of the herbage one year after another.
The output of the mills at Gadsden and the mills in Talladega County along the Birmingham
and Atlantic Railroad combined appears scarcely to exceed 50,000,000 feet, board measure, on the
average per year. A fine forest of Longleaf Pine is found in Walker County, strictly confined
within an isolated patch of silicious pebbles and sands, said to cover about 00,000 acres. Distant
about 10 miles from the nearest railroad this forest has been but slightly invaded, only to supply
a small local demand.
Summary xlatement of shipments of lumber and square timber from chief centers of production in Alabama iliiriny Hie year
1892.
Feet.l!. il.
Mobile exports to foreign ports, coastwise, ami shipments by rail1 143,800,000
Estimated cut in Alabama ami sawii in western Florida 85, 000, 000
Transported by rail, mostly to northern markets * 95, 200, 000
Central pine belt3 51,000,000
Coosa basin « 50,000,000
Total 425,000,000
Mississippi. — What has been said of the forests of the maritime pine belt in Alabama applies in
general to the same region in Mississippi. The coastal plain above the extensive grassy marshes
lining the seashore and the wide estuaries of the streams covers a larger area, being from 10 to 20
miles in width and embracing, at a rough estimate, about 728,000 acres of the 10,410 square miles
within the limits of the pine belt. The broad, scarcely perceptible swells, with a soil of sandy
loam and loamy sand, were originally well timbered, the widely spreading depressions with soil of
fine, compacted sand, poorly drained, bearing a sparse and interior timber growth. The timber
produced on these flat woods, or "pine meadows," as they are aptly called in the adjoining section
of Alabama, being of slow growth, is hard and of fine grain, frequently with the fibers of the younger
wood contorted and of varied tints of color. This so-called curled pine is susceptible of high finish
and is much appreciated for fine cabinet work. There is comparatively little valuable timber left
in this coastal plain. The remainder serves largely for the making of charcoal and cord wood for
the New Orleans market.
The rolling pine lands, rising suddenly above the plain, almost exclusively covered by the Long-
leaf Pine, cover (roughly estimated) about 7,712,000 acres. The western limits of these forests are
difficult to define, numerous outlying tracts being found to extend into or even beyond the region
of the loamy hills. The region of mixed growth, characterizing the upper division of t he maritime
pine belt in Alabama, enters the State in the shape of a triangle, with the base along the Alabama
State line from Bucatunna to Lauderdale and its apex near Brandon, in Bankin County. The
generous soil of the arable lands in this region is mostly under cultivation. The forests of Lougleaf
Pine covering the steep hills, rather remote from the high roads of commerce, have been as yet but
little exploited. About 12,000,000 feet, board measure, of lumber are shipped annually by tin-
way of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, mostly to Mobile, from this region of mixed growth.
From the information that could be obtained, it appears that the cut of Longleaf Pine timber
in this State on the average for the past three years reached between 422,000,000 and 425,000,000
feet. The chief center of the lumbering industry is located above the Pascagoula River, at Scran
ton and Mosspoint, where it has made great progress during the past thirteen or fourteen years.
In 1880,00,000,000 feet, board measure, were shipped to foreign and domestic ports, which in the
'Annual statement of commerce of Mobile. Mobile Register, September 1,1892. Compiled from returns made
to the Mobile Board of Trade.
s Production of mills south of Montgomery, etc.
3 Production of mills on Louisville and Nashville Railroad, north of Montgomery to Calera. by Colonel \Vads-
wortb.
'•Production of mills on Southern Railway, north of Selina to Stan ton, by M. Hanson.
LONGLEAF PINE FORESTS OF MISSISSIPPI.
43
year 1892 had increased to 127,000,000. Comparatively much larger increase is noticeable in
the shipments by rail to inland markets. By the reports courteously furnished by the auditor of
the Illinois Central Kailroad in Chicago, in 1880, 12,000,000 feet, board measure, reached Northern
markets by this line, which in 1888 had risen to 02,000,000, with a falling oft' in the succeeding
year to 52,000,000. In 1892 the shipments increased again to 78,240,000, and reached in 1893
181,424,000 feet, board measure.
With the opening of the New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad, in 1883, the lumbering
industry took an active start in the virgin pineries. In 1892 fourteen mills are on record, with a
daily capacity of not less than 400,000 feet; this amount corresponding fully to the actual output
for 1891 as well as 1892. According to Mr. Kich, of Richburg, in consequence of the depression
during the year 1893, the output was reduced about one-half.
The following table of partial data regarding annual shipments, made during the thirteen years
ending with 189.'?, from the chief centers of production shows clearly the constant increase of the
lumbering industry since the close of the year 1880:
Tabular statement of lumber shipped annually by water and by rail from the centers of production in Mississippi, 1S79-80,
1892-93.
Year.
Paacaffoula
River.
I'earl River
Basin.
New Orleans
and Northeast-
ern Railroad.
Illinois Cen-
tral Railroad.
1879-80
Feet, B. J/.
60 ""'' 000
Feet, Ji. Jr.
35 000 000
Feet, B. M.
Feet, B. M.
1883-84 . . ..
67 308 QUO
35 000 000
28 OiK) 000
18K4-£5
67, 839, 000
36* 000* 000
1885~8fi
30 000 000
1886-87
70, 000 000
40 000 000
1887 t&
1888-89
107 000 000
36 000 000
oS 000 000
1889 i»0
119 255 000
(a)
64 000* 000
1890 91
170, 000, 000
35,000 000
1891-92
127 002 000
36 000 000
78 240 000
1892 93
181 424 000
a From 60,000,000 to 90,000,000.
RECAPITULATION FOR 1891-92.
Pascag.iula River 127,000,000
Pearl Ki ver liasiu 36, 000, 000
Illinois Central Itailroad 78, 000. 000
New Orleann anil Northeastern Railroad 60,000,000
Mobile ami Ohio Uailroad 12, 000. 000
Other nuints 20,000, WC
Total :«3, 000, 000
From this amount are to be deducted about 18,000,000 feet of lumber received from Mobile to
complete cargoes, and 12,000,000 feet of timber cut on the western frontier of Alabama and finding
an outlet at Pascagoula by the Escatawpa River, leaving a round 300,000,001) feet, board measure,
for the cut in Mississippi in 1892, against 108,000,000, the cut reported to the census in 1880.
With the exhaustion of the forests along the Pascagonla and Escatawpa rivers and a few points
between these streams and the Pearl River, which had been accomplished before the beginning of
1880, the naval-store industry remained almost dormant in the State until it began to receive a
new start by the opening of the New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad. The production of the
distilleries along this road can be said to average about 15,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and
75.000 barrels of rosin annually since 1890, which are mostly disposed of in the New Orleans
market.
Kttxfern Luuixiana. — Forests of Longleaf Pine cover the upper part of eastern Louisiana to the
extent of about 3,880 square miles. Their western limit might be said to follow the Amite River,
but can not be clearly defined, since these forests toward the west pass gradually into the mixed
growth of Sliortleaf Pine, oaks, and hickories on the uplands which border the bottom lands of
the Mississippi River. Slightly undulating flat woods cover fully one fifth of the area, and, with
a somewhat loamy, porous soil, support a better timber growth than is generally found in the flat
pine barrens of the plain. Owing to their proximity to the coast, these forests have been exten-
sively invaded. The pine hills embrace about 1,619,200 acres. Their forests have remained almost
intact, their resources having been drawn upon only along the Illinois Central Railroad line and
the tributaries of the Pearl River.
44
TIMI1ER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATUS.
In 1890 seven sawmills were reported, with a daily capacity, in the aggregate, of about 120,000
Ict-t, board measure. It can safely be assumed that their annual output would not exceed 15,000,000
feet, board measure. The products of these mills find their market chiefly at New Orleans. In
former years a considerable quantity of naval stores was produced in St. Tammany Parish, while
at present only a few turpentine orchards are worked in the upper districts.
THE REGION OF LONGLEAF PINE WEST OF THK MISSISSIPPI.
The importance of the pine forests in the western Gulf region can not be overestimated,"
considering the development of the immense timberless area beyond their western limit. The
rapidly increasing population of the Western plains depends chiefly upon them for the supply of
the material needed to build up the homes of civilization.
The forests of the Longleaf Tine west of the Mississippi River, as in regions so far considered,
are geographically limited to the sands and gravels of the latest Tertiary formation. They
make their first appearance in Louisiana above the great alluvial plain in the uplands bordering
the valley of the Ouachita and follow its course for 50 miles, then extend west, skirting Lake
Catahoula and the alluvial lands of the Eed River. These pine forests to the north of this river
cover an area estimated at 1,625,000 acres, extending northward for a distance averaging 55
miles. Toward their northern limit the forests pass gradually into a mixed growth of deciduous
trees and Shortleaf Pine. In the center of this region the pine ridges alternate with tracts of
White Oak and Hickory. Tending toward the Red River, the pure forest of Longleaf Pine which
covers the undulating uplands is unbroken and has up to the present been but slightly invaded
by the ax. On the low hills of this northern division of the pine belt of northwestern Louisiana
the forests are somewhat open, and are composed of trees of the first order as regards their
dimensions, the well drained, warm, and deep soil of sandy loam being highly favorable to their
development. This fact is clearly shown in the following statement of the ages and dimensions of
six trees felled for test logs:
Measurements of six trees.
Xumber of tree.
Rings on
stump.
Diameter
breast high.
Diameter
below
crown.
Mean
diameter.
Length of
timber.
Total
height of
tree.
175
270
Inchei.
32
Inches.
22
Inchtt.
26
Feet.
48
Feet.
123
176
158
27
20
22
SO
127
177
155
22
18
It
50
122
178. .. . .....
170
20
15
16
40
117
179
165
17
13
14
35
118
180
112
16
40
97
171
a
17.6
19
44
117
Upon 1 acre 01' the same plat, with the timber standing rather above the average, 38 trees
were found. Of these there were 14 of 24 inches tMameter at breast high, estimated length of
timber, 45 feet; 6 of 19 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 9 of
17 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 35 feet; 9 of 13 inches diameter at
breast high, estimated length of timber, 30 feet.
In the opinion of experts, the average yield of 1 acre of these pine lands at a fair estimate is
not less than <i,00() feet, board measure.
According to the statements of Mr. Sues, at Levins Station, 5(5,000,000 feet, board measure,
were shipped, in 1892, from the mills of this section.
South of the Red River bottom, the forests of Longleaf Pine continue unbroken to the Sabine
River and south to the treeless savannas of the coast in Oalcasieu Parish, their eastern boundary
parallel with the eastern boundary of that parish. Houghly estimated, these forests cover an
area of about 2,608,000 acres. From the marshy lowlands of the coast to the upper tributaries
of the Calcasieu River, up to Hickory and Beckwith creeks, the country is poorly drained, almost
perfectly level, with a highly retentive and somewhat impervious clay subsoil. In consequence,
these pine flats are, for the greater part of the year, more or less covered with water. These
low, wet pine forests were stripped some years ago of all their merchantable timber, and only a
comparatively small number of trees of less than 12 inches in diameter were left standing. On
DISTRIBUTION OF LONGLEAF PINE IN LOUISIANA.
45
these abandoned timber lands a young pine is rarely seen, the seeds shed in the fall being apt
to rot in the water-soaked soil, or, if they happen to germinate, the seedlings are drowned during
the winter rains. On the lands rising gently above the flat woods, with the ridges still low and
wide and often more or less imperfectly drained, Longleaf Pine is found of an exceedingly fine
growth. The trees in the dense forest are tall and slender, and their timber is equaled only by
the timber of the same class growing in the valley of the Neches River, in Texas.
The folloWhig measurements of five trees felled for test logs in the forests in the upper part
of Calcasieu Parish, between Hickory and Beckwith creeks, will servo as a fair representation of
the timber growth on these low, broad ridges:
Measurements of fire trees.
Number of tree.
Kings on
stump.
Diameter
breast high.
Diameter
below
crown.
Mean
diameter.
Length of
timber.
Total
height of
tree.
201
196
Inches.
28
Inches.
23
Inches.
Feet.
50
Feet,
202
195
23
16
19
50
127
203
190
21
14
17
204
180
19
15
17
40
205..:
167
16
13
14
37
127
185
*>i
16
18
43
118
Upon 1 acre, selected on the back of a low swell which might be said to represent the average
of the timber standing, 44 trees in all were counted. Of these, .'> trees measured 25 inches
diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 6 trees measured 23
inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 19 trees
measured 18 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 40 feet;
14 trees measured 14 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at
36 feet, corresponding in the aggregate to somewhat over 15,000 feet, board measure.
On another acre considered first class, rather level laud, the soil fresh to wet throughout the
year, 72 trees were counted. Of this number, 14 were found 27 inches diameter at breast high,
with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 5 were found 24 inches diameter at breast high, with
an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 13 were found 23 inches diameter at breast high, with an
estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 8 were found 21 inches diameter at breast. high, with
an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 10 were found 20 inches diameter at breast high, with an
estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found 18 inches diameter at breast high, with
an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found 18 inches diameter at breast high, with an
estimated length of timber of 30 feet.
According to these figures the timber standing on this acre would amount to not less than
35,000 feet, board measure.
The chief site of the lumber industry of western Louisiana is at Lake Charles. According
to the information furnished by Mr. George Lock, of Lockport, La., the annual output of the
sawmills in the vicinity of Lake Charles for the years 1892 and 1893 averaged about 154,000,000
feet, board measure, all shipped West and Northwest. It can be assumed that over one-half of
the lumber sawn at Orange, in Texas, is cut on the eastern banks of the Sabine River, which
amount has to be credited to the cut of Louisiana.
Summary of the production of Longleaf Pine li-mber in the State of Louisiana in 1892.
Feet, B. M.
Parishes east of the Mississippi, about 25,000,000
Parishes north of the Red River 56,000,000
To the Sabine River, sawn at Lake Charles 154,000,000
Sawn at Orange, Tex., estimated 40,000,000
Total cut in Louisiana 275,000,000
Texas. — The forests of Longleaf Pine extend from the Sabine west to the Trinity River and
from the grassy savannas of the coast region north to the center of Sabine, San Augustine, and
46
TIMliER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
Angelina counties, and include au area of about 2,890,000 acres. In amount and quality of the
timber these forests are unsurpassed and are only equaled by the forest of the adjoining region
in Louisiana. Toward their southern borders the country, like the pine flats of southwestern
Louisiana, is perfectly level and poorly drained, with the soil water-soaked for a greater part of
the year. These flats have been almost completely stripped of their merchantable timber. North
of Nona the surface rises gradually above the water level in broad, low swells, and, being underlaid
by strata of stiff loams, is more or less deficient in drainage. The intervening wide flats are
frequently covered with a dense growth of large shrubs and small-sized trees, consisting of
various species of hawthorn (Cratcegus crun-galli, C. riridis, C. mollis, C. berberidifolia), the
Deciduous Holly (Ilex decidua), Dahoon Holly (Ilex caroiiniana), Privet (Adelia acuminata). plane
trees, and magnolias. These impenetrable thickets are common, and often cover many square
miles, like the so-called Big Thicket iu the lower part of Hardin County, said to be from 10 to 15
miles wide, either way. The growth of Longleaf Pine which covers the gentle, wide swells, is
dense, of flne proportions, and of remarkably rapid development. The average age of five trees
felled northwest of Nona, 15 to 25 inches in diameter, is but little over one hundred and fifty
years, as the following measurements show :
Mrunurt went* of Jive trees.
Number of tree.
Kings on
stump.
Diameter
breast bigh.
Mean
diameter.
Length of
timber.
Total
height of
tree.
138
240
Inches.
28
Inches.
20
Feet.
40
Feet.
110
189
208
•
19
50
101
190
105
18
16
50
III
191
113
21
18
45
110
192 .
94
10
12
40
107
Average
152
20
17
45
104
In this region, owing to the direct communication of several railroad lines with the great
centers of trade in the North and with the treeless plains of the far West, the manufacture of
lumber has made a wonderful progress during the past twelve years. In 1880 the cut of Longleaf
Pine in this State has been estimated at 66,450,000 feet. From information received from parties
engaged in the lumber business, the cut during the year 189L' can safely be estimated at 440,000,000
feet. The centers of lumber production are Orange and Beaumont, but a great amount is cut at
the mills along the several lines of railway passing through this region.
Output of Longleaf Pine lumber in Texas during the year 189%.
Feet, B. M.
Orange (inclusive of 40,000,000 of feet derived from Calcasien) 45,000,000
Beauraout 75, 000, 000
Sabiue Valley, Texas and Northern Railroad 157, 000, 000
Missouri, Kansas and Texas I 'ail road... 148.000, 000
Houston, Kausas and Texas Railroad 20, 000, 000
Total 440,000,000
For the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine in this region there is as little hope under their
present management as in the adjoining region in Louisiana. In this cold, wet soil the seeds lind
but a poor chance for germination, and the surviving plantlets soon succumb to the same cause.
In the pine flats seedlings are rarely observed among the tall broom sedge grasses (Andropogon)
which, under the influence of light and a damp soil, thrive luxuriantly in the flat woods denuded
of their timber growth, imparting to them the aspect of waving meadows or savannas.
PRODUCTS.
VALUE AND CSES OF THE WOOD.
The wood of the Longleaf Pine is hardly surpassed by any of our timber trees of economic
importance, and is practically unsurpassed by any member of its own order in the qualities which
are required for purposes of construction, thus taking the first place among its congeners.
VALUE AND USES OF THE WOOD. 47
The timber from the damp flat woods of the coastal plain east of the Mississippi River, with
a soil of almost pure, fine, closely compacted sand, is of slow growth and generally of the finest
grain, often exhibiting that irregularity known as "curly pine." In the perpetually damp to wet
soil of the pine flats in southwestern Louisiana and in Texas, with a deep retentive subsoil richer
in nutritive elements, causing a better and quicker development of the tree, the wood is of a more
open grain. Owing to the excellent qualities of the wood of Longleaf Pine, its use in the various
mechanical afts and industries is as extensive as it is manifold. Its greatest value rests in its
adaptability for heavy constructions — in naval architecture, for masts and spars; in civil engi-
neering, for the building of bridges, viaducts, trestlework, and for supports in the construction of
buildings. Large quantities of long and heavy sticks of square timber sawn or hewn for such
purposes are shipped to the British ports and to the dockyards of the European continent, with a
constantly increasing demand.
In the building of railroad cars, where great strength and elasticity is needed, the timber
of Longleaf Pine is preferred to any other. For this purpose sticks from 36 to 42 feet, 10 by 12
inches, are required, free from blemish.
Enormous quantities of the younger timber of this tree are cut every year to serve for cross-
ties, used by the railroads not only in the pine regions, but in other parts of the country. The
demand for these ties forms a constant and increasing draft upon the forest. The ties delivered
are, on the average, 8£ feet long, 9 inches wide, and 7 inches thick, and must be all heartwood and
free from blemish. The trees selected for this purpose are from 15 to 16 inches in diameter, and
preferably only the butt cuts are accepted. On an average 10 cross-ties are cut from 1 acre, each
tie representing a log which would make at least 75 superficial feet of lumber. Since such a tie,
ready for the roadbed, contains not more than 50 feet, board measure, it will be readily seen what
an enormous waste results from this practice.
On the damp, sandy tracts of the lower South, such ties will last five or six years, and 3,000
ties are needed for 1 mile of road. Hence, for the construction of the 3,240 miles of railroad
traversing the forest of Longleaf Pine east of the Mississippi . River, nearly 10,000,000 ties have
been required, which being renewed every six years involves an annual cut of 116,000,000 feet,
board measure, to which must be added the amount exported to other regions.
In the Southern States, the West Indies, many places on the coast of Mexico, and-Central and
South America the lumber of the Longleaf Pine forms the chief, if not the only, material in the
construction of houses. For similar purposes considerable quantities are of late years shipped to
ITorthern markets, East and West, replacing in many cases, at least in parts of the buildings, the
lumber of the White Pine, on account of its increasing scarcity. The fine-grained and "curly"
varieties of Longleaf Pine lumber, by their beauty and the high polish of which they are susceptible,
begin, of late years, to take a place among the higher-priced kinds of wood for ornamental inside
work.
The importance and value of Longleaf Pine lumber as a material for constructions can not be
better evideuced than by the fact that little less than 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure, or about
one-third of all the lumber manufactured in the South, is being exported from Southern ports annu-
ally to domestic and foreign ports, besides furnishing almost the only material used at home in che
construction of dwellings and all kinds of buildings. It also supplies material for furniture, as
well as fuel, both in the form of firewood and charcoal, and its exploitation affords the means of
subsistence to thousands.
fAi/htiroml. — Whenever the sapwood of the tree is laid bare copious exudation of resin takes
place and the surrounding wood becomes charged with it. Thus the wood of the trunks of the
trees tapped tor the extraction of their resin soon becomes charged with this along the scarified
surface, and, as with the evaporation of water from the dead wood, the resinification proceeds and
the wood increases in weight and durability. In low, damp places particularly this process takes
place more extensively. This resin-charged wood is termed lightwood. The lightwood timber, con-
sidered very durable when exposed to alternating conditions of moisture and dryness, is much
preferred for posts, etc. Being highly inflammable, it serves for torches and kindling, and hence
its name. Of late years a profitable industry has been started to utilize the resinous stumps of
.abandoned orchards as kindling material by cutting the same close to the ground and then, veneer
48 TIMBER PINES OP THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
fashion, into long, narrow strips three fourths of an inch thick, which are subsequently steamed
ami rolled in small bundles to make a convenient package for shipment. The knots, limbs, roots —
particularly "fat," i. e., highly charged with resin — are used in the making of tar.
Charcoal liurnint/. — Where a market is found the trees left standing, after the removal of the
larger timber fit for sawlogs, are burned for charcoal. This industry is carried on to a greater or
less extent in the mineral regions to supply the blast furnaces operated for the manufacture of
charcoal iron. Large areas of the forests of the Longleaf, covering the hills in north Alabama,
have been entirely denuded of their tree covering to meet the demands for such purpose.
Fui'l ralue. — The air-dry wood of the Longleaf Pine is much esteemed for fuel; containing but
a small percentage of ash — not over O.U5 per cent — with a small amount of water, and a dense and
close fiber, as indicated by its high specific gravity, its fuel value is necessarily high. Being also
easily inflammable, it is preferred where quick and intense heat is required, as, for instance, in
bakeries, brick kilns, potteries, etc., and in the raising of steam for stationary engines on steam-
boats and railroad locomotives throughout the pine region, where mineral coal can not be cheaply
obtained.
RESINOUS PRODUCTS OK THK LONGLEAK PINE.
It can safely be asserted that among the trees of the same order there is found no other
equally rich in resin. The manufacture of naval stores from the resin of the Longleaf Pine forms
one of the most widely developed industries in the pine forests of the coast pine belt of the South-
ern States, and is scarcely less important than the manufacture of its lumber. A full account
of these industries will be found in the accompanying appendix. Concerning the manufacture of
tar, pitch, tar oils, and other products of destructive distillation of the wood and of rosin oil, see
the Report of the Chief of Forestry, 1892, page 356, etc.
PRODUCTS OBTAINED PROM THE LEAVES OF LONGLEAF PINE.
The green leaves of the tree furnish by distillation an essential oil of balsamic odor closely
resembling spirits of turpentine. The so-called pine wool is made from their cellular tissue, being
treated with a strong alkaline solution at boiling heat, the remaining fiber being cleaned and
carded. This pine wool is used in upholstery, and is said to be of value as an antiseptic dressing
for wounds.' Of late years it is manufactured into various kinds of textile fabrics. One fabric
is a carpet which resembles cocoa matting somewhat, but is closely woven and is naturally of a
rich-brown color and very durable. This industry, only recently established, has already met
such success that the manufacturers have added twenty nine looms to their work.
NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION.
This tree was first described by Miller in the year 1768 under the name of Pinus palustris.
The younger Michaux substituted for it the more appropriate one of Finns <i nut rails, under which
name it was described by succeeding writers and generally known to botanists of recent date.
To satisfy the law of priority, the name given by Michaux h;is recently been dropped and the old
one reinstated, in the Catalogue of North American Forest Trees,1 published in the ninth volume
of the census reports of 1880. (See vernacular nomenclature in introduction.)
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AKD MORPHOLOGY.
Leaves three, in a long light-colored sheath ; commonly from 9 to 13 (sometimes 14 to 15) inches long; of a bright
green color and closely set in brush-like clusters at the ends of the stout branches. Cones large, dark tan colored, ti to
sometimes 8 inches long and 2 to J.l inches in diameter when closed, 5 to ti inches when open; scales about 2 inches
long and one-half to 1 inch wide — rather uniform in width — somewhat thickened at the ends, and bearing a rather
delicate incurved prickle; seed large, slightly triangular, three-eighths to seven-sixteenths of an inch long and one-
fourth of an inch wide; often with two or three longitudinal ridges on one face; whitish, with few or abundant
brown specks; wing 1^ to 2 inches long and of a glossy brownish to deep purple-brown color.
The most conspicuous and distinguishing feature of this species is the silvery thick terminal
bud, or rather the bud-like clusters of the young leaves inclosed in their finely fringed subtending
scales. Its branches are rough, covered with the bases of the imbricated leaf scales, the elongated
silvery fringes having fallen off.
1 A catalogue of North American Forest Trees, exclusive of Mexico, by C. S. Sargent.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. 49
ROOT, STEM, AND BRANCH SYSTEM.
The Longleaf Pine attains a height averaging 100 feet, rarely exceeding 110 feet, with a
diameter breast high, when fully grown, varying between 20 and 36 inches, rarely more. The
tall, straight, very gradually tapering trunk arises from a massive taproot which, in favorable
situations, penetrates the soil to a depth of from 12 to 15 feet, and sometimes much more. It
has several stout, comparatively short lateral roots, which assist the tree in its hold by slant-
ing deeply into the ground, and some of greater length are placed more or less near the surface.
Its crown is open and elongated, of irregular shape, about one-half to one-third of its height.
The stout limbs are rarely over 20 feet in length, twisted and gnarled and sparingly branched.
The trunk is covered with a reddish-brown bark, one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch thick,
furrowed throughout its full length, crossed horizontally by deep fissures, and scaling off in thin,
bluish, almost transparent rhombic flakes.
LEAVES AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS.
Like all the pines, this species produces during various stages of its growth seven different
modifications of leaves as recognized by botanists, all more or less specific in character :
(1) Cotyledouary, or seed leaves (first leaves of the embryo), which soon wither and disappear
(PI. VII, a, b). (2) Primary leaves succeeding the former immediately on the main axis (PI. VII, c),
which either wither or later on are transformed into, or succeeded by, more or less permanent
bracts or scales covering the branches (PI. V, a). (3) The secondary or foliage leaves rising from
the buds produced in the axils of the primary leaves or of the scales by which they are represented
(PI. VII, d), forming the permanent foliage of the tree, with three leaves in one sheath. (4) The
bud scales forming the sheaths of the foliage leaves (PI. IV, b, c, d) at base. (5) Involucral bracts
of the male flower (PI. V, /). (6) Involucral scales of the female inflorescence (ament) (PI. V, <•).
(7) The bracts which support the carpellary scale bearing the seed (PI. V, h).1
The primary leaves, which succeed the cotyledons on the primary axis, are in form and structure
true leaves. They are softer than the final foliage leaves, have a broad base, are rounded on the
dorsal side and not channeled, the whitish transparent margins being finely but distinctly den-
ticulate. It is rare that secondary leaves proceed from the axils of these chlorophyll-bearing
primary leaves. With the more frequent appearance of the ordinary leaves, these primary leaves
wither and henceforth appear as triangular scale-like coriaceous persistent bracts, with broad,
hyaline, long-fringed edges, in the axils of which the undeveloped branchlets are produced bearing
the secondary or foliage leaves.
The chlorophyll-bearing primary leaves exhibit a simple structure. The fibro-vascular bundle
is single, embedded in a wider ring of large cells free from chlorophyll, and the resinous ducts fewer
in number, one, or rarely more than two, being irregularly situated in the chlorophyll-bearing
parenchymatous tissues, and mostly external, i. e., close to the thick epidermis. But few of these
leaves are formed after the appearance of the foliage leaves, and a few of them persist throughout
the first season.* The cataphyllary leaves forming the sheath of the foliage leaves are in this
species composed of eight successive pairs of bud scales; those of the first pair are blunt, flat,
deeply concave and coriaceous, with sharp edges; the others are more membranaceous and with
fringed edges, the closely interwoven edges entwining the base of the fascicle. In the secondary
leaves the very numerous stomata form, on both sides, regular longitudinal rows. Parallel with
these, at regular distances between them and embedded in the parenchymatous tissue, are found
bundles of numerous, elongated, thick-walled cells, the so-called hypoderrnal or strengthening cells.
The resin ducts, not over five in number, described by Engelmana as internal, have been found in
the specimen examined rather parenchymatous, invariably so on the dorsal side.
Three of the secondary or true foliage leaves are united into one bundle, inclosed at the base
by a persistent sheath from one-half inch to an inch in length, formed by the bud scales or
catiiphyllary leaves. On the older trees the leaves are rarely over 8 inches in length, but during
the periods of most active growth they are found 12 to 18 inches long. They are finely serrulate,
rounded on the back, channeled, and obtusely triangular in cross section.
1 George Engelmanii : Revision of the Genus Finns. Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, 1882.
JEngelmann: Revision of fienus Pinus. Trans. St. Louis Academy of Science, 1882, p. 5.
7092— No. 13 4
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.
Fig. a, branch showing the terminal spring shoot of the season with characteristic, large silvery white winter
bud ; the bundles of leaves arise from the axils of the leaf-bracts of the last two seasons, the iirst leaves of the second
year already shed ; t>, detached bundle of mature leaves with sheath ; c, d, scales of the sheath, magnified three and
nine times; e, transverse section through base of leaf bundle showing imbrication of sheath scales, magnified 30
diameters; /, transverse section of an immature leaf, magnified 30 diameters; g, transverse section of a mature leaf,
magnified 45 diameters, showing the microscopic structure (as pointed out for P. erliinata,f,f); A, longitudinal sec-
tion of the dorsal side of a mature leaf showing two rows of stomata and the serrated edge, magnified 45 diameters.
50
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE IV.
PlNUS PALUSTRIS: BUD AND LEAF.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. 51
Owing to the shedding of the older leaves at the end of the second year and to the short
animal growth of the axis, the leaves on the older trees are conspicuously crowded into dense
tufts or tassels on the tips of the brauchlets.
The high development of the organs of transpiration, as shown by the immense number of
breathing cells, clearly indicates that forests of the Longleaf Pine, and in fact of most evergreens,
are not less important than forests of deciduous trees in influencing atmospheric conditions,
particularly when io is considered that in the former, clothed with perpetual foliage, this function
sutlers but little interruption of its activity.
FLORAL ORGANS.
The male and female flowers are sometimes found on the same branch; they are, however,
more frequently situated on different branches, the male flowers mostly on the lower (PI. V, 6).
The male flowers consist of a slender axis, the staminodial column, around which the numerous
naked anthers are densely crowded, forming a cylindrical catkin-like flower from 2 to 2£ inches
and over in length, surrounded at the base by a calyx-like involucre consisting of twelve ovate
somewhat leathery bracts, of which the lowest pair or exterior ones are laterally compressed,
strongly keeled, and much smaller. The connective of the dark-rose purple anthers spreads out
in a semiorbicular denticulate crest; a number of these male flowers are crowded around the
base of this year's shoot, forming a dense whorl. After the discharge of the pollen the withered
flowers remain for several months on the tree. The pollen remaining for a long time suspended
in the air is often wafted to widely distant localities. In the latitude of Mobile its discharge
takes place during or shortly after the second week of March.
The female flowers (see PI. V, «) are united in a subtermiual oval, erect, short- stalked catkin,
which is also surrounded by an involucre, the bracts being more numerous, longer, more acuminate,
and membranaceous than those of the male flower.
The carpellary scales bearing ovules are oblong oval, tipped with a strong reflexed point, and
are almost hidden by the thin flat scales by which they are subtended, which, however, they soon
surpass in size. During the first year the young cones make but slow progress in their growth.
On the opening of the second season they are scarcely over an inch long; during the summer they
increase rapidly and reach their full size during the latter part of the fall. The cones are placed
horizontally on the branches below the terminal bud (subtermiual), sessile, slender, conical \>ith a
slight curve and from C to 8 inches long; of a dull tan color; the thick scales are light to dark
chestnut brown on the inside, 2 inches or slightly over in length, and bear on tlieir exposed end,
or apophysis, a small but prominent tubercle armed with a short recurved prickle (see PI. VI).
Plate VI exhibits truly and fully tlie open cone and especially the fine markings on the apophysis
of the scale. The cones are shed in the latter part of the winter of the second year, rarely
remaining to the following spring. On breaking from the branches they leave the lowest rows of
the scales behind.
SEEDS.
The seeds are strongly convex, oblong, oval, less than a half inch long, and surrounded by the
long oblique wing (see PI. VI). The shell is whitish, at the front face marked by three promi-
nent ridges, flat, smooth, and darkly spotted on the posterior side. It incloses an oily kernel,
covered by a white seed coat; rich in nutritious matter and palatable, the seeds furnish in fruitful
years an abundance of mast. They are shed before the fall of the cone during dry weather, most
abundantly during the latter part of the fall (end of October or November the best time for their
collection , and in a lesser degree during the winter. They germinate easily after reaching
maturity, and it often happens, in wet, sultry weather, that they begin to sprout before leaving
the cone, in which event the whole crop is destroyed. This, together with the killing of the flowers
by late frosts, seems to be one of the, main causes of failure of the seed crop so frequently observed.
From the behavior of the seed .just mentioned and from its oleaginous character it is to be inferred
that the period of time during which the seeds retain the power of germination under ordinary
circumstances is but a short one, but as a matter of fact seeds a little over a year old have been
known to germinate.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES V AND VI.
PLATE V. Pig. a, branch with two female amenta (second week of March), at the end of terminal young sli
of the season densely covered with fimbriate silvery bract subtending the leaf buds which are still hidden in their
axils : below are two immature cones of one season's growth and mature closed cone of two seasons' growth (< ictober) ;
b, branch with the male inflorescence, the leaves cut away to show the dense cluster of male flowers which closely
surround the apex of the yonng shoot; e, female amriit with basal scales forming the calyx-like involucre; (I, d, il,
carpellary or seed-bearing scales of female flowers more advanced, lateral, ventral, and dorsal views — magnified .",
diameters; e. detached male flower with basal involucral scales, before opening (dehiscence) ; /, male flower, after
discharge of the pollen; g, three detached anthers, lower sides showing longitudinal slits of the pollen sacs just
opening; lateral view of an effete anther; another seen from upper side showing the transverse semilunar crest —
all magnified 5 diameters; h, detached female flower seen from above ; the cuspidate carpellary, or seed scale, bears
two strongly bifid naked ovules at its base ; i, female flower viewed from below, dorsal side ; the bract almost covers
the carpellary scale, leaving only the tip of the latter and the cnsps of the ovules visible; magnified 5 diameters.
PLATK VI. Fig. a, mature open cone, after shedding seed; 6, cone scale seen from lower or dorsal side showing
the apophysis with low umbo and small, weak prickle; c, cone scale seen from upper or ventral side with seed in
place; tl, seed, upper side; «, seed detached from c, lower side; /, seed detached from wing, upper side, and ij the
Bame seen from lower side.
52
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE V.
PlNUS PALUSTRIS: MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS.
Bulletin No. 1 3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE VI.
PlNUS PALUSTRIS: CONE AND SEED.
DESCRIPTION OF WOOD. 53
THE WOOD.1
The wood of the Longleaf Pine is heavier and stronger than that of any other pine offered in
the market. The average weight of the kiln-dry wood is about 38 pounds, that of the lumber where
the outer lighter portion of the log is largely cut away about 40 pounds, per cubic foot. The
kiln dry wood of the butt weighs about 45 pounds per cubic foot; that of a log 50 to 60 feet from
the ground only about 33 pounds, a decrease of weight (and with it of strength) of about 25 per
cent. Similarly the wood of inner portions of a log are 15 to 20 per cent heavier than those of the
outer portions; or, in other words, the wood laid on when the tree is young is heavier than that
laid on when it is old, quite contrary to the common belief which seems to associate the light
sapwood color of the young sapling with inferior material. The wood shrinks about 10 per cent of
its volume in drying, about 6 to 7 per cent along the rings (tangentially) and 3 to 4 per cent along
the radius; seasons easily and without great injury. As in other pines, the greatest amount of
water is contained in the sapwood, varying from 30 to 50 per cent of the weight of the fresh wood,
while the heartwood contains but about 20 per cent.
In its stiffness and strength the wood is remarkable. The average of a great number of tests
indicates for the dry wood of Longleaf Pine an elasticity of 1,540,000 pounds per square inch;
strength in cross breaking, 10,900 pounds per square inch ; strength in compression, 6,850 pounds
per square inch; strength in tension, 15,200 pounds per square inch; strength in shearing, 706
pounds per square inch.
In its structure the wood of the Longleaf Pine resembles that of the other Southern pines.
Sapwood and heartwood are well defined; on the fresh cross section the former is light yellowish
white, the latter a yellowish brown ; drops of limpid resin ooze from every resin duct in the sap-
wood, the surface of the heartwood remains dry (exceptions only in "lightwood"). The sapwood
contains much more water, but is far less resinous than the heartwood. This latter contains 5 to
10 per cent of resin (1 part turpentine to 15 to 20 parts resin), while in the former the resin
rarely exceeds 2 per cent. If not kiln-dried, fresh sapwood rapidly "blues" on exposure; heart-
wood does not, and in general excels the sapwood in durability. On drying, the sapwood shrinks
more than the heartwood of the same weight. Contrary to common belief, the wood substance, or
cell wall, is not increased in the change from sapwood to heartwood, the walls do not grow thicker,
the cavities of the cells do not fill up with foreign matter, nor does the strength of the wood seem
to be increased by the change. In general the width of the sapwood is greatest in young and
thrifty trees, grows smaller in old and stunted trees, is greatest in the lower parts of the stem and
smaller in the top and branches. In old logs the sapwood is made up of from 70 to 100 rings,
showing that the wood of any one ring remains in older trees seventy to one hundred years in the
sapwood condition before it changes to heartwood. In young trees this period is much shorter,
twenty-five to forty years commonly sufficing for thrifty trees at the age of sixty to seventy years,
but in stunted individuals it is materially prolonged. The share of the sapwood in the total volume
of the stem is always considerable; even in typical old trees of this species it forms 40 per cent
and more, while thrifty stems under one hundred years are practically all sapwood.
The annual, or yearly, rings are clearly defined ; they are widest near the pith and grow rather
uniformly narrower toward the bark. In the inner part a width of one-twelfth of an inch is quite
common ; the rings near the bark of old logs usually measure less than one twenty fifth of an inch,
often scarcely one fiftieth of an inch. For old trees the average widtli for the entire stem may be
set at about one twentieth to one-twenty-fifth of an inch. Each ring consists of two well-marked
parts, an inner, softer, whiter part, the springwood, and an outer, harder, and darker portion, the
.summerwood, so called because formed during the latter part of the growing season.
The amount of the summerwood in each ring differs in different parts of the tree. It forms
about 45 per cent of the volume of all the wood of the stump, and only about 24 per cent of the
wood 60 feet from the butt. It is greater in the heavy inner part of an old log than in the lighter
outer portion*, and being of a darker color furnishes a convenient means of distinguishing heavy
wood. In its finer anatomy (histology) the wood resembles that of the other pines of the fa-da
group. (For the details of structure see the comparative study by Mr. Roth appended to these
monographs.)
'This st:itfini-nt is furnished by Mr. Filiburt Koth, in charge of timber investigations in the Division of Forestry.
EXPLANATION OP PLATE VII.
[Figures natural size, except where otherwise noted.]
Fig. a, germinating seed; b, young seedling (early spring) with the 8 cotyledons just unfolded; c, seedling a
few weeks older, showing central cluster of primary leaves just unfolding; d, seedling at the end of the first or
beginning of the second season, showing bundles of true foliage (secondary) leaves succeeding the primary leaves
which have disappeared ; e, young tree, 3 to 4 years old, with characteristic large root system ; one-third natural size.
54
Bulletin No. 1 3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE VII.
PlNUS PALUSTRIS: SEEDLINGS AND YOUNG PLANT.
PERIOD OF EARLY GROWTH. 55
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.
In a fruitful year, before the close of the season, the seeds are readily shed, a dry and sunny-
state of the atmosphere favoring the fall of the seed ; the seedlings are found to come up abun-
dantly in every opening of the forest where the rays of the sun strike the dry ground. The lower
(hypocotyledwnary) part of the axis of the plantlet is close to the ground, with eight to ten erect
cotyledons from 1 to 1£ inches in length, their tips inclosed in the shell of the seed, with the long
wing persistent and borne banner-like at the top of the plantlet (PL VII, a). The elongation
of the ascending axis proceeds slowly, growth in length being retarded until a certain thickness
has been attained, resembling in this respect the growth of the stem of endogenous trees.
Upon examination of a seedling in the latter part of April the cotyledons had disappeared
and the caulicle was found to be from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch long, its length not
exceeding its diameter, hidden by a dense tuft of the needle-shaped primary lea'ves, which closely
invest the terminal bud. At this stage a few fascicles of secondary leaves are already showing
themselves, still inclosed in their sheaths.
During the first three or four years its energy of growth is mainly expended upon the
development of its powerful root system (see PL VII, e). Before the first spring season has
passed, the stout spindle shaped taproot of the seedling is found to be over 3 inches in length and
provided with several fine lateral rootlets, sometimes nearly as long as the main root.
With the opening of June the primary leaves covering the axis are nearly all withered, only
a few remaining to the end of the season. With the development of the suppressed secondary
axes from which the foliage leaves proceed, the primary leaves are reduced to chaffy fimbriate
bracts. Only few of these primary leaves retain the needle-shaped form and green color, namely,
those from which no leaf-bearing branchlets were developed. During the first season many of the
fascicles of the foliage leaves contain only two leaves, and sheaths inclosing only one leaf are
frequently observed.
By the curl of the first year the stem of the plantlet is rarely over three-fourths of 4111 inch in
length, the main root having attained a length of from 8 to 10 inches.
Having reached the end of the second year the taproot is found from 2 to 3 feet in length, the stem
scarcely 1£ inches long, with an increase of diameter hardly perceptible. The conical termination
of the .spring shoot is now densely covered with the delicately fringed bracts inclosing the buds of
the foliage leaves, which impart to it the appearance of a silvery white tuft, by which this species
is recognized at first sight.
During the following two years the growth proceeds but slowly, the length by the end of the
fourth year averaging not more than 5 inches with a thickness of three-fourths to seven-eighths
of an inch. During the same time the taproot is lound to gain constaiitly both in thickness and
length (see PL VII, e). A few single branches now make their appearance on the main axis.
The increase of growth from one season to another up to the seventh or eighth year is difficult to
follow, since the difference in the appearance of the spring and summer wood cells in the spongy
wood of young trees is hardly perceptible, and the rings of annual growth, even as seen in cro^>s
sections prepared for microscopical examination, are mostly too indistinct to afford a safe criterion
of their age. As far as could be observed the growth proceeds equally slowly during the fifth and
sixth years, the plant at the end of that period being from 5 to 7 or 7£ inches in length.
Stage of rapid growth. — With its seventh year the tree may be said to enter on its most
vigorous growth. Henceforth the stem (primary axis) increases rapidly in length, and the
development of branches (lateral axes) proceeds at an equal rate in regular whorls, to which the
symmetry of the tree in that stage of its development is due. During the seventh year, generally,
the tree doubles its length, and during a number of successive years the rate of growth in that
direction varies between 10 and 20 inches annually, as is clearly shown by the length of the
internodes separating the whorls. As the branches increase in length they produce, in the same
order mostly, two opposite secondary branches. With the rapid expansion of the leaf surface,
the formation of wood keeps pace. The rate of growth in diameter, as well as in height, during
this period, is of course variable according to differences in the physical condition of the soil
as well as in the available amount of plant food and moisture it contains, and no less upon
differences in temperature and of exposure to light and air. These variations are clearly shown
56 TIMIIKR PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
in the annexed tables, exhibiting the rate of growth of the tree during its most active stage.
\\ itli the increasing accretion of wood the annual rings become sharply denned, leaving no doubt
as to the age of the tree.
To make sure as to the relation between the annual rings and the age of the tree, the age of
second growth was ascertained by close inquiries directed to settlers who knew the time that had
elapsed since this second growth made its appearance in the abandoned fields or in the forest.
In every instance it was found that the number of rings accorded closely with the information
elicited.
To ascertain the difference in rate of growth and quality of wood between trees grown upon
ground once turned by the plow and those sprung up in the original forest on the same soil,
several trees of nearly the same size were felled in what clearly appeared to be the remnant of
virgin forest, and in a grove grown up in a field abandoned years ago.1 It was made evident
that trees in the original forest required almost double the length of time to attain the same
dimension.
A field covered with saplings quite uniform in growth and known to have been thrown out of
cultivation during the years 18G3 and 1804 afforded a good opportunity for these investigations.
A number of trees, varying in diameter between 104 and 11 inches, and in height between 45 and
50 feet, showed from 30 to 35 rings of growth. The length of the spring shoots on the main stem
of these trees was found (June 8) to be from 21 to 24 inches.
In another fine grove, covering a field which was known to have been cultivated for the last
time during the years 1835 and 1830, a number of trees were cut down for measurement. The
number of rings was found not to exceed 48. These trees also showed great uniformity in size,
measuring near the base Hi to 12 inches in diameter and from 08 to 72 feet in height. The wood
was sappy throughout and useless, except for fuel and for making charcoal. For this purpose
the land is rented at $4 to $5 per acre. In this grove, ranking as best pine-woods land, the soil
of which was nearly level, well drained, and with a light, loamy subsoil, 110 trees of the above
dimensions were counted on 1 acre.
Among the trees taken from the forest for determining the difference between forest growth
and field trees, one measuring 12 inches in diameter and 70 feet in height showed 85 rings of
annual growth, with 9i inches of heartwood. Two others, 14 and 15 inches in diameter and 70
and 71 feet high, showed 00 rings each. The shoots of the year (June 8) on the primary and
lateral axes of these trees were found to be but little over 1 inch in length.
In a tliird grove, upon poor, sandy, undulating ground, a number of trees below' medium size
were found cut down to serve for posts and logs. In 25 of these trees the diameter varied between
73 and 8 inches, with a nearly uniform height of GO to G2 feet, the first lin b being 18 to 20 feet above
the ground. The number of rings varied between 48 and 50. The forests in the same vicinity were
stripped of their more valuable timber a number of years before. The largest trees of the original
forest growth remaining were from 12 to 15 inches in diameter. Several were brought down for
measurement and found to be 73 feet in height by 14 inches in diameter, with 120 rings and 9 inches
of heartwood; 73 feet in height by 13 inches in diameter, with 94 rings and 0 inches of heartwood;
and 89 feet in height by 14 inches in diameter, .with 107 rings and 8 inches of heartwood.
When the tree has reached its second decade it begins to produce flowers and fruit. Having
during the course of the following ten to fifteen years reached a length of from 40 to 45 feet, with
the main stem clear of limbs, the growth of branches does not proceed with the same regularity:
consequently, they are no longer arranged in regular whorls, but appear irregularly, and thus the
symmetry of the tree is lost.
1 dn the rolling pine uplands near Spring Hill, Moliili* County.
PERIOD OF RAPID GROWTH.
TABLE I.— Measurements of young trees of Longleaf Pine.
57
Number
of trees.
Num-
ber of
rings.
Diame
ter
breast
high.
Height.
Remarks.
To
crown
Total.
Locality.
1
8
9
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
13
12
13
13
13
13
14
15
16
18
19
20
20
21
21
25
22
20
21
25
25
26
36
39
40
40
43
43
43
48
52
48
55
71
78
80
87
95
105
105
Inches
3
2
2
52*
2
?
?
4
2}
P
4
?
2
2
6
10
10
10
11
2
4
6
7
4
6
4
4
6
8
6
6
4
8
8
11
8
5
6
6
8
7
8
.s
Feet.
Feet.
1%
^
Bf,
Opening in forest ; pasture protected from fire.
Do.
Old field; last time plowed in 1874.
In the midst of forest.
Opening in forest.
Deep forest.
Old field.
Open forest.
Pasture in forest; ground never turned.
Old clearing ; turned ground.
Do.
Opening in forest; sandy uplands.
Do.
Wood pasture.
Old field.
Opening in forest; hills.
Opening in forest ; dry uplands.
Field abandoned in 1872.
Inclosed forest; hills; under cover.
Flat, damp; opening in forest ; exposure free.
Do.
Light swell in open forest; exposure free.
Old field; deep soil; abandoned in 1864 ; from one open grove.
Do!
Old field ; poor, broken ground.
Virgin forest; undercover.
Virgin forest ; in opening; free.
Open forest; sandy uplands ; free.
Flat, damp, dense forest iu opening; exposure free.
Do.
Do.
Flat, damp ; open forest.
Do.
Do.
Boundary field ; open.
Flat, damp; open forest.
Dense oak opening ; oppressed.
In open forest.
Old pasture, on poor broken ground.
6 trees from grove of old pasture; yield, sticks and posts for fencing
and building; averaging 20 feet in length.
Grove with 115 to 120 trees to the acre; on field abandoned in 1835
and rented to charcoal burners.
31d pasture.
Old turpentine orchard; bled; exposed for over 20 years one season
after another, to fire.
Under cover of forest.
Old turpentine orchard; bled and scorched, exhibiting the effect of
bleeding and repeated burning of the woods by their retarded
growth.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
2
do
4
do
do
18
5
5
10™
11
23
17
16
22
15
14
24
15
19
20
24
35
16
23
20
47
49
45
50
50
21
29
28
47
44
44
35
35
50
60
55
47
56
60
61
73
58
40
62
52
59
58
56
59
Levins Station, La.
Springhill, Ala
do
6
319
7
6
Ridgeland, S. C
do
19
8
9
Levins Station, La.
... do
320
318
9
8
Ridgeland, S. C ....
do
Springhill, Ala
do
9
10
248
317.
8
7
Thomas ville, Ala .
Ridgeland, S. 0 ....
Springhill, Ala
Thoiuasville, Ala . .
Nona, Tex
11
260 .
8
16
12
18
199
• 194
do
do
13
Springhill, Ala
do
do
do
Thomas ville, Ala . .
do
Ridgeland, S. C ....
14
15
259
11
14
10
24
20
17
15
17
21
17
33
28
34
246
316
195
194
196
do
209
210
Ryansville, C a 1 c a •
sieii Parish, La.
do ....
208
315
do
Ridgeland, S. C
Rvaus ville, La
207
256
258
Thomasville, Ala . . .
do
17-21
Springhill, Ala
22-25
•JJ</
....do
....do
Chunchula, Ala
Thomasville, Ala . . .
Chunchula, Ala
....do...
--..do
....do
....do
7L':i
2:.:. .
47
23o
24a ..
25n
26
27
Stage of slotc growth.— Rapid as is the increase iu length of the primary axis or trunk, amount-
ing during the first half century, in the average, to 14 or 15 inches annually, the rate is subse-
quently greatly diminished, averaging from the fiftieth to about the one hundred and fifteenth
year but from 4 to 5 inches, and from this time to the age of two hundred and fifty years only 1£
—that is, at a relative rate of 10, 3, and 1 in the three successive periods. The decrease in
the accretion of wood corresponds with the reduction in the growth of the branches and conse-
quent reduction of foliage. From what has been said, it is seen that the Longleaf Pine attains
f growth, with the best qualities of its timber, at an age of from one hundred and eighty
to two hundred years. After having passed the second century the trees are found frequently to
be wind shaken and otherwise defective. The deterioration of the weather-beaten crown lessens
itiility of the tree, and the soil, under prevailing conditions, becomes less and less favorable.
In consequence, the trees become liable to disease and mostly fall prey to the attacks of parasitic
fungi (red heart). Instances of trees which have reached the maximum age of two hundred and
seventy-five or three hundred years are exceptional.
In order to ascertain the age required to furnish merchantable timber of first quality, nieas
urcmeuts were made of a number of logs in a log camp in the rolling pine uplands of the lower
division of the coastal pine belt near Lumberton, Washington County, Ala. From the results
obtained it appears that in this section of the eastern Gulf region, at the lowest figure, one hundred
and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five years are requisite to produce logs of the dimensions at
present cut at the- sawmills. •
58
TIMBEK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
TABLK II.— itea»*remmt» of Lonyleaf P\*e— period of ilotcrr ijroirth from one hundred lo two hundred years.
Number of tree.
1
*
1
I
105
110
106
105
110
112
113
114
115
115
116
116
118
123
125
133
135
145
145
140
155
155
160
165
167
170
170
180
182
183
189
190
Diameter, clear wood. 1
Height
Diameter below crown.
Sap on radius.
Increase in diam-
eter for each
successive half
century, in
inches.
Number of years re-
quired for every inch
of wood for each sue-
oeasive half century .
Locality.
Remarks.
Of timber to flnt
limb.
i
1
2
t
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
190
20
70
13
180
191
313
9
200
67
253
21
23
251
237
252
309
312
177
24
19
238
205
239
178
204
4
5
6
203
In.
19
17
9
14
14
15
20
12
12
17
11IJ
13
15
17
18
18
17
19
22
20
23
18
24
21
16
21
21
19
19
16
19
21
K.
62
36
88
40
45
50
53
30
38
70
46
48
45
40
61
44
54
49
62
63
63
65
43
35
84
50
62
56
70
53
57
58
Ft.
113
92
85
85
78
97
110
83
83
%
81
87
84
84
102
93
95
96
102
99
122
98
111
97
125
108
117
102
113
111
111
117
In.
11
In.
4
Flat; soil, deep sandy loam, damp: vir-
gin forest close; exposure free.
Gently rolling, pine upland, close; vir-
gin forest; slightly under cover and
oppressed.
Boml timber; abandoned for five years;
dry pine, rolling pine forest; exposure
free.
Open forest ; exposure free.
Do.
Do.
Flat woods ; closed forest ; damp, etc.
Clearing in forest; soil dry, sandy.
Rolling pine lands; dry, sandy.
Flat woods : suildamp ; crown oppressed.
Rolling pine woods; dry, sandy.
Bored; dry uplands; open forest; par-
tially free.
Gently rolling uplands, dry; open for-
est; exposure free.
Do.
Exposed slope; open forest; soil, loamy
sand ; exposure free.
Open forest: dry, sandy; exposure free.
Rocky hillside ; dry subsoil, loam ; expo-
sure Cn-c.
Rocky hillside; drv subsoil, loam ; par-
tially free.
Gently undulating open forest; loamy
sand; exposure frr«.
Open pine forest; sandy loam, dry;
exposure free.
Do.
Open pine forest ; loamy Hand, dry ; ex-
posure free.
Close forest; deep sandy loam; expo-
sure free.
Rocky hillside; forest open; dry; expo-
sure free.
Flat woods, damp ; close forest ; expo-
sure tree.
Do.
Rolling open forest; saudyloani; expo-
sure free.
Rolling pine woods: deep sandy loam;
partially free.
Rolling pine woods; deep sandy loam;
slightly oppressed.
Rolling pine woods; deep sandy loam;
partially free.
Rolling pine woods; deep sandy loam;
partiauy under cover.
Flat woods; loamy, damp; free.
....
....
....
...
...
Wallace, Ala
Wilson, Ala
•i
11 i
?1
Chnnchnla, Ala. . .
4
&i
11
15
Levins Station, La.
Nona, Tex
*4
"s"
"5J
"4
....
...
"9.T
ii.'i'
Ridgeland, S. C ...
rh inn-lull;!. Ala...
Nona, Tex
U
B
9.7
10
...
Chunchula, Ala...
11
2J
24
?
3
7 7
7.8
Chunchnla, Ala...
Springhill,Ala....
Eastman, Ga
5.5
9.1
13
10
14
2*
Benfroe, Ala
do
(I
Eidgeland, S. C
do
''»
16
Levins Station, La.
Springliill, Ala
Wallace, Ala
6
5}
s*
8.3
8.7
9.1
15
8
14
13
11
2
Kyansville, Calca-
sieu Parish, La.
do
Levins Station ,
Itapides Parish,
La.
Wallace, Ala
do
....
....
....
...
. do
do
11
Ryansville, Calca-
sieu Pariah, La.
PERIOD OP SLOW GROWTH.
59
TABLE III. — Measurements of Longleaf Pine — period of slowest growth from two hundred to two hundred and sixty-six years.
Number of tree.
Number of rings.
Diameter, clear wood.
Height.
Diameter below crown.
Sap on radiua.
Increase in diam-
eter for every
half century, in
inches.
Number of years required
for every inch of wood
for each successive half
century.
Locality.
Remarks.
Length of timber.
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
202
5
16
241
189
18
240
5
61
60
249
250
188
200
218
202
206
209
210
215
210
215
BO
2^5
245
240
250
248
263
264
264
266
In.
•a
26
29
21
22
22
21
•
26
21
a
27
25
23
M
IT,
H
H
M
Ft.
60
55
5C
54
61
50
50
5j
64
45
41
49
52
46
40
50
45
52
Ft.
127
106
108
109
101
110
112
106
120
117
108
106
110
102
101
103
102
103
In.
14
In.
3J
Kyansville, Calca-
sieu Parish, La.
Flat woods ; damp soil ; sandy, cold
loam ; exposure free.
Gently undulating; forest dense;
exposure free.
Gently undulating; dense forest;
loamy sand ; exposure free.
Rocky hills ; open forest ; exposure
free.
Level, dense forest; damp; expo-
sure free.
Rocky hills; forest open; under-
growth dense; exposure free.
Undulating table-land; forest
dense; loamy sand; exposure
somewhat oppressed.
Undulating table-land; dense for-
est; exposure free.
Undulating table land ; open forest ;
exposure free ; timber bled .
Do.
Undulating table-land ; open forest ;
loamy sand; exposure free.
Do.
Level, damp; forest dense; some-
what oppressed.
Rolling uplands; forest open; free.'
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
do
14
12
3
1J
1*»
Wallace Ala
do
Wilson Ala
do
15
21
17
16
15
31
,1
?
?
do
8
8J
?
H H
2
U
6.3
5.7
9.5
8.3
13.3
11.1
18
14.3
25
33
Lumberton, Ala ..
...do ...
do
20
18
?t 9
8 5J
1! !*
5} :ij
3
?
6. 6 5. 7
6. 6 5. 7
12.6
12.6
8.7
15.5
16.0
15.5
16.6
12.6
25
do
do
do
The following table and diagram (fig. 8) present the average results of a detailed study of over
sixty trees collected iu different localities. Since only the part of the stem from stump upward is
represented, the seedling period of slow growth finds no expression. It will be observed that the
growth in height is a maximum between the age of ten and thirty years, amounting to 14 feet for
each decade; that it is but half of this at sixty and little over one- third at the age of one hundred
years. As plainly indicated in the fine, uniform grain of the wood, the growth in diameter is
remarkably uniform until the tree reaches the age of about one hundred years. From this on it
decreases rapidly and is scarcely more than one-fourth as great at one hundred and eighty as it
is at one hundred. The rate of growth in volume increases steadily up to the one hundredth year,
reaching a maximum of over 1.2 cubic feet per year, but decreases, though very slowly, from that
time forward, being only about one-half cubic foot per year when the tree reaches the age of one
hundred and eighty years.
Rate of growth of Longleaf Pine.
Diam-
Length
of tim-
Volume.
Periodical accretion.
with
bark
(breast
with
upper
diaroe-
Height
of tree.
Tree.
Log.
Decade.
Diame-
Height
Area of
cross sec-
Volume.
Average
annual
accretion.
Current
accretion.
high).
terof-6
tions.
in- M. *.
Inrhr*.
Feet.
Feet.
Ou./eet.
Ou.feet.
Inchet.
Feet.
Sq.foot.
Cu. feet.
Cu. feet.
Cu. feet.
2.0
9
0.12
First
1.4
9
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.01
3.8
23
1.20 1
Second
1.8
14
.04
1.08
.06
.11
5 5
37
3 35
Third
1.6
14
.07
2.15
.11
.21
7 0
16
48
7 06
5 61
1.2
11
.08
3.71
.18
.37
10 75
9 30
Fifth .. ..
1 2
8
.08
3 69
21
37
62
15 26
13 99
Sixth
1.4
6
.12
4.51
.25
.4ft
24 16
23 11
1 6
5
17
8 90
35
89
72
33 18
32 27
Eighth
1.6
5
.19
9.02
41
.90
14 5
56
76
43 57
42 66
Ninth
1.2
4
.16
10.39
.48
1.04
55 85
54 94
1 1
4
.17
12.28
.56
1.23
75 87
1 8
7
30
21 02
64
1 05
19.5
72
93
96.44
95^49
Thirteenth and fourteenth...
1.6
6
.29
19.62
.69
.98
20.5
80
98
112.30
111.50 Fifteenth and sixteenth
.8
5
.16
15.86
.70
.79
21.3
*5
10)
122. 00
121.20
Seventeenth and eighteenth . .
.75
5
.12
10.70
.67
.53
60
HEIGHT
IN FEET.
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
^3Bf5.5'-7.0-f8.l-t9.6-f-ll.5-f-l3.0--J-l4.5--t--l6.0-- - 18.0--*--
---f --20.5- - *- - 21.3-
DIAMETERS.
IN INCHES.
Flo. 8 — Growth of Longleaf Pine: Height, diameter, and cubic content** of average trera at 10, 20, etc., years of age.
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT.
Demands upon soil and climate. — In its demands upon the soil this pine is to be counted among
the most frugal as far as mineral constituents, which are considered as plant food, are concerned,
if only the mechanical conditions which influence favorable soil moisture are not wanting. It
thrives best on a light siliceous soil, loamy sand or pebbles or light sandy loam, with a slightly
clayey subsoil sufficiently porous to insure at least a partial uuderdrainage and to permit unim-
peded development of the long taproot. Whenever the tree meets an obstacle to the development
of this root it remains more or less stunted.
The luxuriance of the growth and increase in si/e of the timber, however, is greatly influ-
enced by the quantity of clay present, particularly in the deep subsoil, which improves mechanical
and moisture conditions. This is strikingly exhibited in the timber of the level pine flats west of
the Mississippi River, although the surface drainage is almost wanting and the underdraiuage
through the loamy strata slow, so that the surface of the soil remains damp or water-soaked for
the greater part of the year; the stand of timber of first-class dimensions exceeds considerably
that of the rolling pine uplands on the Atlantic slope and the lower part of the pine belt in the
Kastern Gulf region, which are poorer in clay. Evidently, although the underdrainagc is less
perfect, the moisture conditions during the dry season of the year, the time of most active growth,
must be most favorable. The same fact is apparent in the upper part of the coast pine belt in
Alabama and Mississippi, where upon the same area, with a smaller number of trees, the crop of
timber may be considered almost twice as heavy as that found on the pine barrens proper farther
south. On the soil of fine, closely compacted sand, entirely deficient in drainage as found in the
so-called pine meadows along the coast of western Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi, as well as
on the siliceous rocky ridges of central and northern Alabama, the tree is so stunted as to be of
little or no value for its timber.
"It is neither temperature alone, nor rainfall and moisture conditions of the atmosphere alone,
that influence tree growth, but the relation of these two climatic factors, which determines the
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. 61
amount of transpiration to be performed by the foliage, and again with most species we must place
this transpiration movement into relation with available soil moisture, in order to determine what
the requirements and the most suitable habitat of the species are" (B. E. Fernow). Hence we find
that east of the Mississippi River the Longleaf Pine occurs in greatest frequency along the isotherm
of 60° F. ranging to the 34° north latitude, while west of the Mississippi it follows a line between
the isotherms of 63° and 64° F. and is scarcely found north of the thirty- second parallel of north
latitude. Witfrin this area of its distribution it is exposed to wide variation of temperature and
moisture conditions.
Under the influence of the vapor-laden breezes from the Mexican Gulf and an evenly distributed
rainfall ranging from 42 to 63 inches during the year, the Longleaf Pine appears of the same thrift
and vigor of growth iu the interior of Alabama under 34° to 35° north latitude, with the ther-
mometer falling as low as 4° F. ( — 16° C.) and a range of temperature of 93° (at Tuscaloosa), as it
is found in the subtropical belt of the coast with a maximum temperature of 105° F. (40° 0.) and a
range of temperature of 94°; west of the Mississippi Eiver, beyond longitude 97° and above
latitude 32°, although the temperature reaches rarely a minimum of 15°, the diminished humidity
of the atmosphere and lesser rainfall, particularly during the warmer season, account for its
absence. There can be no doubt that the greater exposure to the violence of the sudden gusts of
dry and cold wind known in Texas as "dry northers" exercises also no small influence in limiting
the Longleaf Pine.
ASSOCIATED SI'KCIKS.
The Longleaf Pine is eminently a gregarious tree, covering areas of wide extent, to the almost
complete exclusion of any other species. In the flat woods of the coastal plain, particularly near
its northern limit on the Atlantic Slope, it is not infrequently associated with the Loblolly Pine;
farther south and along the Gulf Coast to the Mississippi River, more or less frequently with this
tree and the Cuban Pine. In the upper part of the maritime pine belt it not rarely occurs together
with the Shortleaf Pine and the Loblolly Pine intermixed with the deciduous trees of the uplands,
viz, the Black Oak, Spanish Oak, Black-jack, Bitternut, Mockernut Hickories, and Black Gum.
It will be apparent, from what has been said regarding the demands for light, that the asso-
ciated species must be either slower growers or later coiners, if the Longleaf Pine is to survive in
the mixture. As has been pointed out elsewhere, with the culling of the Longleaf Pine from the
mixed growths it must soon cease to play a part in them, since its renewal under the shade of
the remaining associates is impossible.
ENEMIES.
The greatest danger threatening the existence of the forests of Longleaf Pine must be ascribed
to the agency of man, since their destruction is caiised chiefly by the reckless manner in which
they are depleted without heed to recuperation. The right of ownership has been generally
acquired on such low terms that since no value has been attached to the land without the
timber, despoliation has been carried on with no other object than the quickest return of
momentary profits.
EXPLOITATION.
Such management could not but entail tremendous waste, a large percentage of the body of
the trees felled being left on the ground to rot or to serve as fuel for the conflagrations which scour
these woods almost every year. Infinitely greater than the injuries inflicted upon the forest by
tin' logger and by getting out cross-ties and hewn square timber, which consist chiefly in the
accumulation of combustible waste, are those caused by the production of naval stores. When
the fact is considered that the production of the 40,000 barrels of spirits of turpentine, which on
an average during the latter half of this decade annually reached the market of Mobile alone,
implies the devastation of about 70,000 acres of virgin forest, the destruction caused by this
industry appears in its full enormity. Under the management of the turpentine orchards
prevailing at present, trees of such small size are tapped that they are unable to resist the force
of the winds, and in a few years are inevitably prostrated, while the larger trees, weakened by the
severe gashes on almost every side, become largely wind shaken, and the timber after a longer
lapse of time loses much in value.
62 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
While a judicious tapping is not only justified, but demanded, by au economic system of
exploitation, the prevailing methods of orcharding are unnecessarily destructive.
The tapping of sapling timber not yet ripe for the saw, and the destructive fires started in
connection with this industry, annihilating all young growth, prevent any renewal of the forest,
while the working of large bodies of timber years before milling facilities are available leads often
to 20 per cent and more of loss in both quality and quantity of the merchantable product.
FIRES.
The greatest injury to which the pine forests are subject in consequence of turpentine
orcharding arises from the fires which are started every spring for the purpose of getting rid of
the combustible matter raked from around the tapped trees in order to protect them from accidental
conflagrations while they are worked. These forest fires, spreading far beyond their intended
limits, destroy entirely the youngest progeny of the pines, stunt the growth of the more advanced
trees, and cause the ruin of a large number of older ones in the abandoned turpentine orchards.
Burning deeply into the gashes and other exposed surfaces of the tapped trees, these fires hasten
their prostration by the gales. Moreover, the fire causes cracks in the surfaces laid bare by the
ax and the puller and occasions greater exposure to atmospheric action, thus inducing more or less
rapid decay. A test, made by sawing through twenty-two logs taken at random from a turpentine
orchard after it had been abandoned for a period of sixteen to eighteen years, showed that about
one-half of the timber was partially decayed and shaky.
Besides the production of naval stores as a cause of forest fires, there is another scarcely less
potent. This is the practice prevailing among the settlers of burning the woods upon the approach
of every spring in order to hasten the growth of grass for their famished stock. Fires are also
frequently started through the carelessness of loggers and hunters, in the preparation of the ground
for tillage, and by sparks from locomotives. These fires, occurring at least once during every
year, cause the total destruction of the young growth of the Longleaf Pine. The danger to this
species is much greater than to any other Southern tree, because of the greater length of time it
requires to reach a size at which it can ofl'er some resistance to fire. In the open forests of Longleaf
Pine the fires are not so destructive to the larger timber as in the dense forests of coniferous
trees farther north, trees of larger size being, with some exceptions, but slightly, if at all, directly
damaged.
Another serious damage, however, resulting from the frequent recurrence of fires is the
destruction of all vegetable matter in the soil. Deprived of the mulching needed for the retention
of moisture, the naturally porous and dry soil, now rendered absolutely arid and barren, is uo longer
capable of supporting any larger tree growth or other useful vegetation.
LIVE STOCK.
Of no less danger to the existence of the forests of Longleaf Pine is the injury caused by live
stock. This agency, slow in its action, is sure to lead to their destruction unless restricted to some
extent. Besides the damage due to the trampling down and mutilation of the young growth by
herds of cattle roaming through the woods, the smaller domestic animals — goats and sheep — eat
the tufts of the tender foliage of the seedlings, while hogs are seen digging up and chewing the
spongy and tender roots of the young plants. As a further agency in the way of the renewal of
this species, the destruction of the mature cones might be mentioned, caused principally by the
squirrels, which peel off the scales clean to the core in search of the sweet, nutritious seed.
8TORM8.
Full-grown trees are frequently uprooted by the hurricanes which from time to time pass
through the pine belt. Those having the taproot shortened by impenetrable layers of indurated
clay interposed in the subsoil at varying depths are invariably the first victims of the high winds.
In trees grown in such places the taproot is found with a tumid and round base as smooth as if
polished.
ENEMIES. 63
FUNGI.
Frequently fall-grown trees are found to show signs of rapid decay. These are recognized by
the gradual dying of the smaller limbs and their falling off, in consequence of the rotting of the
wood surrounding their base; and after having been cast off a hole or diseased spot remains in
the trunk, which is infested by a large fungus of the genus Polyporus (punk holes, punk stools).
The heartwoo*! of such trees is of a reddish color, soft, sappy, and full of small channels, caused
by the breaking down of the walls of the wood cells, filled with the mycelium, the so-called spawn
of the fungus, the threads of which also penetrate the medullary rays. Such punky or red-heart
timber is found mostly on the ridges in the poorest soil. Apparently superannuated trees are most
frequently found afflicted with this rot.
INSECTS.
The Longleaf Pine, throughout its existence, is exposed to the danger of destruction by the
ravages of insects, hosts of which, belonging to various orders, are found to infest it from the
earliest stages of its development. Upon the tufts of the tender primary leaves of the seedling
are often found feeding large numbers of a yellow, black-striped caterpillar, the larvae of a species
of sawfly (Lophyrus).
The cambium of trees felled in the latter part of the summer is soon found swarming witli the
larval brood of bark beetles, which after a short time infest the trees growing near by, causing, as
has been again and again observed, the death particularly of the trees of younger growth over
extensive areas. Hence the necessity of stopping the practice of felling trees during the summer
season. According to information kindly furnished by Mr. Schwarz, of the Entomological Division
of the United States Department of Agriculture, most if not all the species of the bark beetles
of the family Tomiddm have more thanoneannual generation, and in the Southern States they have,
in all probability, three. The summer generation develops in a very short time, possibly within
four or live weeks, and the perfect beetles issuing from the trees felled in August will in Septem-
ber attack the healthy trees near by for want of more suitable food. The ravages spoken of by
Michaux refer, no doubt, to these species of Tomicidce beetles which enter the solid wood of trees,
e. g., Gnutliotrichua materiarius and Xyleborm pubescens. The galleries of these timber beetles
or allied species are found to penetrate the wood to the heart. The grating noise made by the
larvae of the large ceramboid beetle, the Monohammm, while engaged in its work of destruction
frequently strikes the ear in the forest. That there is a large number of species belonging to
different orders preying on the Longleaf Pine and more or less destructive to the life of this tree is
apparent from the following communication from Mr. Schwarz:
The number of insects to be found on the Longleaf Pine is very large and comprises species of most orders, but
a complete list of them has never been published and the habits of most of them have never been carefully studied.
Only those which are really injurious to the tree need to be considered.
Order Hymenoptera: Several species of sawflies (Tenthredinidce) , occasionally very injurious to the younger tress,
the larvio defoliating the branches. The species thus far observed are Lophyrus abbotii, Leach ; Lophyrus lecontei,
Fitch, and three or four less common species.
Order Coleoptera: Round-headed borers (larvae of Cerambycida) affect the trees similarly to the Buprestidce,
but their burrows are always cylindrical, and some species bore only under the bark. The most abundant and
destructive is Monohammus tititlator, Fabr.. but there are many other species, of which the following is a partial list:
Kcaphlnui spharicollif, Lee. ; Asemum moestum, Hald. ; Cnocephalus nubitim, Lee. ; Eiipogonius tomentosus, Hald. ; Acantho-
einiin nodosim, Fabr. In the family Curciilionidir, the worst enemy of the pine tree in the more Northern States,
Pisnoden utrobi is rare in the region of the Longleaf Pine, but another species, Pachylobius picivorus, Germ., the larvae
of which bore under the bark, is quite common and greatly injurious to the Longleaf Pine. Of its more dangerous
enemies the Scolytid beetles, which mostly bore their galleries under the bark, only a few species entering the solid
wood, the following are known to infest Pinus palnntrin: PUi/ophlhuriinpiilicariuH, Zim.; P. nnnectens, Lee. ; Tomicus
caU'njraii1mx,C,er.; T. anilsut, Eich. ; T. cacographus. Lee.; Crypturgus atomun, Lee.; Dendroctonus terebrans, Oliv. ;
D.frontalis, Zim.; Hi/lastes porcidus, Er. ; H. enlix, Chap.
The few species entering the solid wood are Platypus quadriAentatuH, Oliv. ; Gnathotrichus maieriarius, Fitch, and
XyleboruH pnbeacenx, /im. Most of these Scolytidse are extremely numerous in specimens, and although they usually
infest rnjured or diseased trees, yet in cases of excessive multiplication or for want of proper food they often attack
healthy trees, which within one or two years succumb to their attacks.
64 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
NATURAL REPRODUCTION.
Certain peculiarities inherent to this species form a series of obstacles in the way of its
spontaneous reproduction. These are, first, the rare occurrence of seasons of abundant crops of
seed, and, second, its slow growth during the earliest part of its development, rendering the
young offspring of this pine liable to be suppressed by competing species of quicker growth. To
these causes is to be further added its dependence upon the influence of direct sunlight, which is
required for its germination as well as during the subsequent stages of its growth to maturity,
and the sensitiveness of the seeds and seedlings to moisture; placed in a wet, undrained soil, the
germinating power of the first is destroyed and the latter will perish on exposure to the same
conditions. A study of the young growth of the Longleaf Pine over the different regions of its
habitat leads unavoidably to the conclusion that the chances for the reproduction of its forests
left to the ordinary course of nature, are quite limited, even if the adverse conditions arising
from human agencies are left out of consideration. On the lowlands of the Atlantic Coast toward
its northern limit this pine is almost invariably replaced by the Loblolly Pine, while farther south
and in the coastal plain of the Gulf States east of the Mississippi River, after its removal, it is
replaced partly by the Loblolly Pine and largely by the Cuban Pine. On the wide expanse of
uplands rising above the coastal plain with their broad ridges of a soil of sandy loam, the young
trees of the Longleaf Pine are met with in every stage of growth. Attaining, however, during the
first five or six years scarcely a greater height than the surrounding herbage, the seedlings are
irredeemably ruined by the various destructive agencies to which they are exposed. On land liable
to repeated conflagrations, a scrubby growth, chiefly of barren oak and other upland oaks already
mentioned, takes possession and excludes by its shade the pine. If upon the rolling pine lauds or
dry pine barrens the removal of most of the original tree covering is followed by a succession of
barren years, the ground will surely be invaded by the hard-wood trees mentioned, which will retain
possession. Under the shade of these trees the Longleaf Pine can never again find a home. In the
stronger soil of the upper division of the maritime pine belt, the region of mixed growth, where the
seedlings of the Lougleaf Pine spring up simultaneously with the hard wood trees and the seedlings
of the Shortleaf Pine, these latter will eventually gain the supremacy and suppress those of the
Longleaf Pine; consequently the latter is seldom observed in mixed forests of second growth. In
the flat woods, particularly in the pine flats of southwestern Louisiana and Texas, with a soil
water-soaked during the winter and spring, the offspring of the Longleaf Pine is still more rarely
met with for the reasons stated. From these facts it is evident that, owing to natural causes,
combined with the unrestricted sway of the influences leading to its destruction by human agency,
the offspring of the Longleaf Pine is rarely seen to occupy the place of the parent tree, even in the
region most favorable to its natural renewal, and that final extinction of the forests of the Lougleaf
Pine is inevitable unless proper forest management is applied.
FOREST MANAGEMENT.
The time for the acquisition of timber lauds or of the right of working them for their products
at prices far below what could be considered as an adequate return for their instrinsic value has
well-nigh passed away. The opportunities which existed during the last twenty-five years for
acquiring Longleaf Pine lauds, which were open to purchase by the hundreds of thousands of acres
have now in a great measure ceased to exist. The greater part of this kind of property has passed
into the possession of capitalists, and the rest will soon be similarly controlled. Under this new
order of things the price of these timber lands is gradually approaching figures more in proportion
to their true value. The depredations committed uublushingly on the public lands, and on the
lands of railroad corporations and private owners, are rendered less easy every year under a mutual
protection of interest. Reckless waste and devastation, heedless of the interests of the future,
are giving way to a more economical management of the timber resources in the logging camp and
in the mill. No measures have been attempted to maintain these resources by sparing the younger
timber in its best stage of growth from the ax, or to provide in any other way for the protection
and preservation of the younger growth.
FOREST MANAGEMENT. 65
What has been said of the geographical distribution of this tree and its demands upon climate,
soil, and exposure demonstrates that east of the Mississippi River it can be successfully grown all
over the maritime plain of the Southern States (Austro-riparian zone) and in the interior of Ala-
bama, through a large region of the Carolinian and the southern extension of the Appalachian
zone to an elevation above the sea falling little short of 2,000 feet. And the sandy soils of this
region, largely too poor for agricultural use, are par excellence Longleaf Pine lands. In the renewal
of the forest* of Longleaf Pine, upon areas denuded, the fact must be borne in mind that to
produce timber which is under present conditions considered of fair merchantable quality a period
of not less than one hundred and fifty years is required, and that to produce timber of the dimen-
sions, clearness, and durability for which it is held in such high esteem the slow growth under
the severe and hardening conditions involved in the struggle for light in the crowded forests is
necessary. Hence, economic reasons would point to the maintenance and conservative manage-
ment of the existing forests of Longleaf Pine and their renewal by natural reproduction, and
preferably by the method of selection which under the present conditions appears the most practi-
cable, involving chiefly methods of protection.
By this method all or most of the mature trees, corresponding in their proportions to the most
desirable quality of timber, are cut and the rest left to grow till they reach similar dimensions, to
be in their turn replaced by the second growth, which in the openings from time to time springs
up. In fact, this method was followed in the earlier days of the timber industry in the several
regions of the Longleaf Pine, where the forests were being culled for the best sizes at intervals
of from fifteen to thirty years. But owing to the exhaustion of the mature pine from forests
within reach of railroad lines and water courses, which necessitates great outlays of capital
for constructing tramroads or waterways, the original practice of selection has been abandoned,
no tree being spared at present that will make a stick of timber, however small, as long as
it finds a sale in the market. Care should of course be taken to leave always enough seed
trees evenly distributed, and the chief care is to be directed to the protection of the seedlings
and other young growth from the destructive agencies mentioned — fire, cattle, and the encroach-
ment of invading species. A forest under such management would necessarily present a great
diversity in the growth of the trees, and the length of time between one cutting and the next
would be equally variable. It must be remarked that the demand of this species for the unhin-
dered access of direct sunlight during the time of germination and successive stages of growth
might prove a serious obstacle to the continued success of this method of selection ; and the "group
method." as described in the report of the chief of the Division of Forestry for 1894, might be sub-
stituted with advantage. Where it is desired to reestablish the growth of Lougleaf Pine upon
denuded areas, the ground must be cleared of every obstacle in the way of free access of the rays
of the sun before the sowing. Owing to the ease with which the seeds germinate and the seed-
lings take root in the ground, but slight preparation of the same would be required, and there
would be no difficulty in procuring a good stand. If transplanting is to be resorted to, the seed-
lings should be taken up during the fall or winter succeeding the first season of their growth,
before the further development of the rapidly growing taproot, the precaution always being taken
to prevent any injury to the rootlets and their drying out before their transfer to the ground.
Hince the trees clear themselves easily of branches, the stand in the plantation in the earlier
stages does not need to be as dense as with other species. In order to secure improvement and
permanency of favorable soil conditions, the litter from the shedding of the leaves and gradual
decay of herbage should be left undisturbed on the ground.
There can be hardly any doubt that the introduction of other shady species would greatly
assist in improving soil conditions and producing more rapid development of the pine. Care
would have, to be taken to bring in these species later, say between fifteen and twenty years, when
the pine has begun to make its rapid height growth and can escape the shade of its neighbors.
For the present, however, the economic conditions are hardly yet ripe for any artificial
reforestation, but the great importance of this valuable forest resource to the industrial and
commercial development and prosperity of the people living within its limits should be apparent
enough to keep them at least from preventing its natural reproduction. The growth of the young
timber after the first few years is rapid enough, as may be seen from the table on page 57, and
7092— No. 13 5
66 TIMHER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
aft IT fifteen or twenty years, when the trees have reached a diameter of 12 inches, they can be
tapped for resin and will give a continuous revenue. Under careful management, and by tapping
only the trees which should be removed in thinnings to make light for the rest, this revenue can
be obtained without in any way impairing the final harvest value.
CONCLUSION.
From the southern frontier of Virginia, throughout the lower part of the Southern States, to
the limits of high and compact forest growth west of the Mississippi River, spread over an area of
from 90,000 to 100,000 square miles, the forests of the Longleaf Pine still present a stupendous tim-
ber wealth. Yet, if we deduct the farm lands, and consider that large areas have been culled or
entirely denuded of the original growth, we may estimate that the amount of timber standing can
at best not exceed 100,000,000,000 feet, and is probably much less, while the cut, which at present
does not fall short of 3,700,000,000 feet, board measure, is bound, as the Northern pine is giving
out, to increase at even greater rate than in the past. Under such a strain, outstripping by far
the possibilities of their reproduction, the exhaustion of the resources of these forests within the
near future is inevitable, and if the devastation under present management by the naval store
industry and the destruction caused by fire and domestic animals is continued their extermi-
nation as far as practical purposes are concerned must be regarded as equally certain.
APPENDIX.
THE NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY.
/•
The resinous product of the Longleaf Pine furnishes the raw material for the production of
naval stores, one of the most important industries iu connection with the resources of the
American forests. At present the bulk of these stores used in the world is derived from the
forests of Longleaf Pine, and hence this industry is almost entirely confined to the coast pine belt
of the Southern States, the proportion contributed by France, Austria, and other countries being
insignificant.
For the year 1892 the foreign export of spirits of turpentine alone amounted to over 260,000
casks and the total production exceeded 350,000 casks. To produce this amount of spirits at least
2,500,000 acres must have been in orchard, and since over one-third of the total production is
furnished by orchards being worked for the first year, over 800,000 acres of virgin forest must be
attacked annually to supply present demands.
Under the name of naval stores are comprised the products derived directly or indirectly from
the resinous exudation of cone-bearing trees, mostly pines, including tar, the product of the
destructive distillation of the wood of pines highly charged with resinous matter. The name is
undoubtedly derived from their extensive consumption in the shipyards and on board of vessels.
These products are: 1
UF.SI.N, OR CRUDE TURPENTINE.
The resin of the Longleaf Pine recently exuded is almost colorless, or of a pale straw color, of
the consistency of honey, having a terebinthinous odor and taste, and like all substances of the
same class is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and spirits of turpentine. It con-
sists of a volatile oil and a solid resin held in solution partially suspended in the former. The best
quality is obtained during the first year the tree is worked, known as "virgin dip" or "soft white
gum," which is almost colorless and contains the largest quantity of volatile oil. In the following
year it is of a deeper yellowish color, the "yellow dip," which with each succeeding year becomes
darker iu color, more viscid, and poorer in volatile oil.1
Toward the close of the season the resin becomes hardened under the influence of a cooler
temjierature and the partial evaporation of its volatile constituents. This solidified resin, of
whitish to yellowish color, called hard gum or scrape, contains only half of the quantity of the
spirits of turpentine obtained from the dip or soft gum. By the distillation of the crude turpen-
tine the naval stores of most importance to trade are obtained.
SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE, OR OIL OF TURPENTINE.
.Spirits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine, is the volatile constituent of the resin. This liquid
when freshly prepared is colorless, of a peculiar odor and taste, of a density varying between
0.85 and 0.87, volatile at ordinary tern peratu res, boiling between 304° and 320° F. It turns polar-
ized light to the right, a characteristic feature of the American spirits of turpentine, most of the
spirits from other sources polarizing the light to the left. In its pure state this volatile oil is free
from oxygen, being a hydrocarbon of the composition of C|0Hi6. It is highly inflammable and
'It is still an open question whether tli is deterioration is necessary or only owing to faulty manipulation.
Experiments to settle this question are now in progress in the Forestry Division.
67
68 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
burns with a sooty flame. It is a good solvent for many resins, wax, fats, caoutchouc, sulphur,
and phosphorus, and is used in the arts and industries for the preparation of varnishes, in paints,
the rubber industry, etc. Before the introduction of kerosene oil it was used extensively for an
illuminator; it is also used in medicine internally and externally and often as an adulterant of
various essential oils.
ROSIN, OK COLOPHONY.
The solid constituent of the crude turpentine which forms the residue remaining after its dis-
tillation. It is of different degrees of heaviness, according to the quantities of volatile oil retained
alter distillation, is brittle, easily powdered, of a glassy luster, and of the specific gravity of 1.07,
almost without taste, of a faint terebinthiuous odor. It becomes soft at about 170° F., melts
between 1!)4° and 212° F., and is soluble in the same solvents as crude resin. According to the
nature of the crude turpentine, depending upon the number of seasons the trees have been worked,
it shows different properties in regard to the transmission of light, and in color. It is either
perfectly transparent, translucent, or almost opaque; almost colorless, or a pale straw color to
golden yellow, reddish yellow, through all shades to dark brown and almost black. The market
value of this article is entirely regulated by these properties. In the American market the
following grades are distinguished: WW (Water White) and WG (Window (llass), the lightest
and highest priced grades, obtained from the "virgin dip;" N (Extra Pale), M (Pale), Iv (Low
Pale), I (Good No. 1), H (No. 1), F (Good No. 2), E (No. U), D (Good Strain), 0 (Strain;, B
(Common Strain), and A (Black).
PINK TAR.
This is not exactly a by-product of the turpentine orchard, but is produced by the destructive
distillation of the wood itself. It is chiefly produced in Xorth Carolina, where this industry has
been carried on since the earliest colonial times. Small quantities are produced in other sections
of the Southern pine belt, mostly for home consumption. Perfectly dry wood of the Longleaf Pine.
dead limbs and trunks seasoned on the stump, from which the sapwood has rotted, are cut in
suitable billets, piled into a conical stack, in a circular pit, lined with clay, the center communi-
cating by a depressed channel with a receptacle — a hole in the ground — at a distance of 3 to 4
feet from the pile. The pile is covered with sod and earth, and otherwise treated and managed
like a charcoal pit, being fired from apertures at the base, giving only enough draft to maintain
slow smoldering combustion. After the ninth day (he tar begins to flow and continues for several
weeks. It is dipped from the pit into barrels of 3-0 pounds, the standard weight. One cord of
dry " fat" or " liglitwood " furnishes from 40 to 50 gallons of tar. The price of pine tar is quoted
as low as $1.05 a barrel. Since considerable quantities of tar are produced incidentally in the
destructive distillation of wood in iron retorts for charcoal and other products, the price has
been greatly depressed.
COMMON PITCH.
The best quality is obtained by boiling down tar until it has lost about one-third or more of
its weight. The naval pitch of commerce has more or less rosin of the lowest grade added to it.
Pitch is also obtained as the residue remaining from the dry distillation of rosin for rosin oil.
HISTORICAL REMARKS.
The tapping of the trees for the crude turpentine and the manufacture of tar and pitch was
first resorted to by the earliest settlers of North Carolina, and in later colonial times these products
furnished the largest part of the exports of the colony. In the three years from 1768 to 1770
the exports of crude turpentine, tar, and pitch represented on the average for each year a value of
(1215,000 of our present currency. Most of the crude turpentine was shipped to England. Later
the distillation of spirits of turpentine was carried on in clumsy iron retorts in North Carolina
and in Northern cities. The introduction of the copper still in 1834 resulted in a largely
increased yield of spirits of turpentine, and the industry received a great impetus. With the new
demand for spirits of turpentine in the manufacture of rubber goods, and its increased use as an
illuminator, the number of stills increased greatly, and turpentine orcharding was rapidly
extended south and west beyond its original limit. The large consumption of spirits of turpentine
Bulletin No 1 3. Oivoion of Foiesti)
PLATE VIM.
HISTORICAL REMARKS. 69
caused such an increase in its production tliat the residuary product, rosin, became largely in
excess of the demand, and, in consequence, much depreciated. This reduction of profits in the
business caused the transfer of the stills from the leading markets to the source of the raw
material, the forest. From that time, 1844, dates the great progress made in the extension of this
industry. Up to that time more than half of the crude turpentine was distilled in North Carolina,
but thenceforth the industry spread into the States of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and the
Gulf States to-flie Mississippi River.
At the close of the war the demand for spirits of turpentine was not so great as before,
petroleum products of several kinds having been found to take its place not only for illuminating,
but also for other purposes. With the general extension of arts and manufactures all over the
world, there has since been an increasing demand for spirits of turpentine and rosin. The exports
of these articles in the year 1890 amounted to $8,135,339 in value.
TURPENTINE ORCHARDING IX THE FORK8TS OP LONGLKAF PINK.
In the establishment of a turpentine orchard and a still, two points must be considered,
namely, proper facilities of transportation to shipping points and a sufficient supply of water for
the condenser connected with the still. The copper stills generally in use have a capacity of about
800 gallons, or a charge of 20 to 25 barrels of crude turpentine. For such a still to be charged
twice in twenty-four hours during the working season, 4,000 acres of pine land of a good average
stand of timber are required. This a:-ea is divided into twenty parcels each of 10,000 boxes, as the
receptacles are called, which are cut into the tree to receive the exuding resin. Such a parcel is
termed a crop, constituting the allotment to one laborer for the task of chipping. The work in a
turpentine orchard is started in the earlier part of the winter witii the cutting of the boxes. Until
some years past no trees were boxed of a diameter less than 14 inches; of late, however, saplings
under 10 inches in diameter are boxed. Trees of full growth, according to their circumference,
receive from two to four boxes, so that the 10,000 boxes are distributed among 4,000 to 5,000 trees
on an area of 200 acres.
The boxes are cut (see PL VIII) from 8 to 12 inches above the base of the tree, 7 inches deep
and slanting from the outside to the interior, with an angle of about 35°. In the adult trees they
are 14 inches in greatest diameter and 4 inches in greatest width, of a capacity of about 3 pints.
The cut above this reservoir forms a gash of the same depth and about 7 inches of greatest height.
In the meantime the ground is laid bare around the tree for a distance of 2.J to 3 feet, and all com-
bustible material loose on the ground is raked in heaps to be burned, in order to protect the trees
against danger of catching fire during the conflagrations which are frequently started in the pine
forests by design or carelessness. The employment of fire for the protection of the turpentine
orchard against the same destructive agency necessarily involves the total destruction of the
smaller tree growth, and if left to spread without control beyond the proper limit, often carries
ruin to the adjoining forests.
During the first days of spring the turpentine begins to flow and chipping is begun, as the
work of scarification is termed, by which the surface of the tree above the box is laid bare beyond
the youngest layers of the wood to a depth of about an inch from the outside of the bark. The
removal of the bark and of the outermost layers of the wood — the "chipping" or "hacking" — is
done with a peculiar tool, the "hacker" (fig. 9, e, /), a strong knife with a curved edge, fastened
to the end of a handle bearing on its lower end an iron ball about 4 pounds in weight, to give
increased force to the stroke inflicted on the tree, and thus to lighten the labor of chipping. As
soon as the scarified surface ceases to discharge turpentine freely, fresh incisions are made with
the hacker. The chipping is repeated every week from March to October or November, extending
generally over thirty-two weeks, and the height of the chip is increased about 1£ to 2 inches every
month. The resin accumulated in the boxes is dipped into a pail by a flat trowel-shaped dipper
(fig. !»,/<) and then transferred to a barrel for transportation to the still. In the first season from
six to eight dippings are made. The 10,000 boxes yield at each dip 40 barrels of "dip" or " soft
gum," as it is reckoned in Alabama, to be of 240 pounds net weight. The flow is most copious
during the height of the summer (July and August), diminishes with the advent of the cooler
season, and ceases in October or November. As soon as the exudation of the resin is arrested and
TI.MHKU PINKS OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
tlit' n-sin begins t<> harden under the influence of a lower temperature it is carefully scraped from
the scarified surface and the boxes with a narrow, keen-edged knife attached to a long wooden
handle (fig. !), ft, <•). In the first season the average yield of dip amounts to 280 barrels and
of the hard gum or scrape to 70 barrels. The first yields 6£ gallons spirits of turpentine to the
barrel of 240 pounds net, and the latter 31 pounds to the barrel, resulting in the production of
2,100 gallons spirits of turpentine and 260 pounds of rosin of higher and highest grades. The
dippings of the first season are called "virgin dip,'' from which the finest quality of rosin is obtained,
graded in the market as Water White (WW) and Window Glass (WG). In the second year from
live to six dippings are made, the crop averaging 225 barrels of soft turpentine and 120 barrels of
scrape, making altogether about 1,000 gallons spirits of turpentine.
The rosin, of which about 200 barrels are produced, is of a lighter or deeper amber color, and
perfectly transparent, of medium quality graded as I, H, and G. In the third and fourth years
the number of dippings is reduced to three. With the flow over a more extended surface, the
turpentine thickens under prolonged exposure to the air and loses some of its volatile oil, partly
by evaporation and partly by oxidation. In the third season the dip amounts to about 120
Flo. 9.— Tools used in turpentine orcharding: o, dipper; b, pusher; c, open puller; it, < losnl puller; e,/, hacker (front and rear view).
barrels and the scrape to about 100 barrels, yielding about 1,100 gallons spirits of turpentine and
100 barrels of rosin of a more or less dark color, less transparent, and graded as F, E, and 1).
In the fourth and last year three dippings of a somewhat smaller quantity of soft turpentine
than that obtained the season before and 100 barrels of scrape are obtained, with a yield scarcely
realizing ."500 gallons of spirits of turpentine and 100 barrels of rosin of lowest quality, classed as
' . 1>, and A. After the fourth year the turpentine orchard is generally abandoned. Owing to the
reduction in quantity and quality of the raw product, it is not considered profitable by the larger
operators to work the trees for a longer time. It is only in North Carolina that the smaller
landowners work their trees for ten or more successive seasons, protect the trees against fire, and
after giving them rest for a series of years, apply new boxes on spaces left between the old chips —
"reboxing."
DISTILLATION.
The process of distillation is carried on in the ordinary way, and requires care and experience
to obtain largest quantities of rosin of highest grade and to guard against overheating. After
heating the still, somewhat above the melting of the crude turpentine, a small stream of tepid
water from the top of the condenser IB conducted into the still and allowed to run until the end
of the process. A large quantity of water runs over with the spirits of turpentine, which is
IMPROVED METHOD OF ORCHARDING.
71
collected in a barrel, where it separates from the water and is then immediately transferred into
barrels. After the oil has ceased to run freely the heating of the still and the influx of water has
to be carefully regulated. After all the spirits of turpentine has been distilled over, the fire is
removed and the contents of the still are drawn off by a tap connected with the bottom. This
residuum, molten rosin, is at first allowed to run through a wire cloth and is immediately strained
again through^coarse cotton cloth or cotton batting, made for the purpose, into a large trough,
from which it is ladled into barrels. The legal standard weight of the commercial package is
uso pounds gross. A turpentine distillery on the basis of twenty crops produces on the average
during the four years that the boxes are worked 2,400 casks or 120,000 gallons of spirits of
turpentine and about 12,000 barrels of rosin or 2,800,000 pounds, the lowest grades, B and A,
excluded, a total value of about $60,000 at average prices. The prices of spirits vary at present
from 28 to 40 cents a gallon, even through the same season, according to supply and demand in
the market. The average quotations on December 30, 1892, at Wilmington were 28 cents for
spirits and $1.91 for a barrel of rosin down to grade C.
COST OF ESTABLISHING A PLANT AND WORKING THE CROPS.
Timber lands with the privilege of boxing the timber for a term of four years are rented at the
rate of $50 per crop of 10,000 boxes, or 200 acres. The establishment of a plant for the working of
twenty crops, or 4,000 acres of timber land, requires an
investment of about $5,000, including the buildings, stills,
machinery tor pumping water, tools, and teams. Accord-
ing to the statements of an experienced operator, the cost
of working the trees of one crop during the four years,
which is mostly done by the job — that is, the making and
cornering of the boxes, inspecting the same, raking
around the trees, chipping, dipping, scraping, hauling the
crude turpentine to the still, including cost of barrels for
spiiits of turpentine, and for the rosin and superintending
the crop — amounts to about $2,300 per crop, or $46,000 for
the twenty crops. If to this amount the interest, (> per
cent per annum, on the capital invested and the deprecia-
tion in the value of the plant during the four years is
added, with some other incidental expenses (taxes, etc.),
the cost of the production of the 120,000 gallons of spirits
of turpentine and 12,000 barrels of merchantable rosin,
foots up to not less than $50,000.
A method of improving on the present practice by
employing an earthen pot instead of the injurious "box"
has been patented and practically introduced by J. C.
Schiller, of West Lake, La. The arrangement is repre- FIO. io.-improved method of turpentine orcharding.
sented in fig. 10, its main feature being an earthen pot
which can be moved as the scar is lengthened, thus reducing the distance over which the resin
has to flow, and with this the amount of volatilization and loss of spirits of turpentine. The
method resembles that employed in France (see Report of Chief of Forestry, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1892, page 347), and, though its general application in this country is
not vet secured, it is certainly a step in the right direction.
Mr. Schuler admits that the first cost for providing the cups, putting them up, and removing
them the second season raises the expense of working a crop of 10,000 cups for two seasons to $400,
against $190 for cutting 10,000 boxes expended under the old system in working one crop for two
seasons, all other expenses connected with the work being considered equal'. On the other hand,
Schuler claims that the difference is vastly overbalanced by the increased yield of crude turpentine
obtained by his cup method, amounting for one crop worked two years to 195 barrels, at $3.50 per
barrel; after deducting the extra expense involved by his method, this would leave a net balance
of $410 per crop in favor of the cu[> system. He also claims that this amount is still further
augmented if the larger quantity of spirits of turpentine and the higher quality of resin obtained
72 TIM HER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
from the dippings under his system are taken into account. On the first point he says that fully
one-eighth of the crude turpentine brought to the still from the boxes consists of chips, sand, and
other foreign matter, contaminations from which the product of the cups is entirely free. On the
second point he refers to the high grades of rosin resulting from the distillation of the crude
turpentine from the cups, which almost entirely classes with the highest and higher grades.
EFFECTS OK THB PRODUCTION OK NAVAI. STORES UPON THE Tl.MBKH, TIIK MKK OK TIIK TKKK, AND Till, CONDITIONS
OK THE FOKEST.
In the present management of the turpentine orchards in the Southern pine forests a great
deal of crude turpentine is wasted, much of the valuable spirits of turpentine is lost by volatilization
in passing over the long chip face on its way to the box, and much of the resin is lowered in its
grade and value by oxidation consequent to exposure and by admixture of foreign substances —
bark, coal, dust, etc.
Concerning the effect of the tapping of the trees upon the timber, there exists no reason on
physiological or anatomical grounds for considering it injurious, and the opinion held by many.
that the qualities of timber are impaired by bleeding, finds no support when it is considered that
the heart wood remains unaffected. The resinous contents of the heartwood being solidified and
the formation of the resin taking place only in the newly formed wood, the heartwood can not
participate in the flow of the resin, the discharge being necessarily confined to the sapwood.
This fact has been fully substantiated by the work of the Division of Forestry, by which it has not
only been shown that the strength of the heartwood, the most important if not the only part of the
tree used lor lumber, has in no wise been diminished, but also that the durability of the timber, as
far as it depends upon its resinous contents, can not be impaired by bleeding. It is only in that part
of the butt log around the chip that the quality of the timber becomes somewhat impaired — flu-
wood becoming highly charged with resin is rendered more brittle and harder to work, with a ten-
dency to gum up the tools. Indirectly, however, a considerable proportion of the boxed timber
becomes damaged if not utilized shortly after having been bled. It is often left standing for a
number of years, exposed to various destructive agencies, such as insects and fire, followed by
parasitic fungoid growth. Large Capricorn beetles bore their way through the callus surrounding
the chip and through and beyond the sapwood. Through the innumerable fissures which arc
caused by fires, air and wa'er charged with the spores of parasitic fungi find entrance to the body
of the tree, causing disease and decay. The damage from these causes increases every year, so that
from them alone the timber from a turpentine orchard abandoned for a dozen years was found
damaged to the extent of fully 20 per cent. Although the loss of its resin by bleeding results
physiologically in no direct injury to the tree, the wound inflicted by tapping, like any other wound,
interferes with its healthy growth and, particularly in the case of trees of smaller size, causes their
early decay. While the exuded resin covering the excoriated surface of the tree acts as an efficient
antiseptic, affording a firm protection against the access of the spores of fungi, it endangers the
life of the tree, if exposed to fire, by its greater inflammability, the heat produced by its flame
being capable of killing the trees outright. Under the crude and inconsiderate manner of cutting
the boxes, all of the trees of smaller size and many of the larger trees are blown down, and a
considerable number of those remaining with their excoriated surfaces out of proportion to the
recuperative power of the trees are doomed to perish sooner or later in consequence of such
treatment.
These injuries inflicted upon the individual trees, in connection with the fires started with the
opening of the season one year after another, cause such damage to the forests as to effect finally
their total destruction. Fire being allowed to sweep over large areas, its force increased in the
turpentine orchards by the exposed resinous surfaces of the trees, and by trees blown down and
the debris covering the ground, an immense amount of timber is destroyed. Trees which have not
been killed outright by the fire, or have altogether escaped the danger, are doomed to speedy
destruction by bark beetles and pine borers, which find a breeding place in the living trees
prostrated by the winds during the summer, the broods of which rapidly infest the standing trees,
which invariably succumb to the pest the same season. In consequence, the forests invaded by
turpentine orcharding present, in live or six years after they have been abandoned, a picture of
ruin and desolation painful to behold, and in view of the destruction of the seedlings and the
younger growth all hope of the restoration of these magnificent forests is excluded.
LONGLEAF PINE IN HIGHLANDS. 73
LONGLEAF PINE IN HIGHLANDS.
Under date of August 5, 1896, Dr. Mohr sends the following interesting note descriptive of a
tract of Longleaf Pine grown at the remarkable altitude of 2,000 feet:
In my investigations of the flora of the region of greatest elevation in Alabama I was surprised to find the
Longieaf I'ine, which forms the greater part of the tree growth on the flanks of the mountains in the region of the
State, to iiseeu«f)to a height of 1,600 to 1,700 feet above the sea — (Chenawhaw Mountain, Clay County, 2,400 feet).
Whereas I found the tree to disappear at an elevation of about 1,500 feet on the Blue Mountain or Talladega Mountain
Range about Chandler's Spring, Talladega County, and on the isolated ridges of the Alpine Mountains in the same
county (in 1X93), Prof. E. S. Smith and Mr. Brewer, assistant geologist, found at points of the same mountain range,
5 or 6 miles farther to the south, the Longleaf Pine at an elevation little short of 2,000 feet.
From my observations in former years I was convinced that the pine forests of the metamoqihic regions of Ala-
bama deserved no mention among the timber resources of the State, however valuable they might be as a resource
for fuel in connection with the mineral resources of these parts of the State. I was not a little surprised to hear, on
my trip of last week, of a sawmill with a daily output of from 65,000 to 70,000 feet of lumber of Longleaf Tine, situated
in the lower part of Clay County, at the outskirts of the geological formation mentioned. Yesterday morning I visited
the pine forests from which the supplies of this large and well-conducted establishment, at Hollins, on the Georgia
1'ac itic Railroad, are drawn. There I found the foothills and narrow valleys between them, at an elevation of from
1,400 to 1,500 feet, covered with a truly magnificent forest of I'inus paUisiris, yielding to the acre as much merchant-
able timber as the best class of pine lands in the coast pine belt from Alabama to Texas. The trees are tall; some
of them measured on the ground were found from 110 to 118 feet total height, with the crown 60 feet above the
ground, and the shaft clear of heart and limb for almost the whole of that length; two cuts of 20 feet each above
the stump are generally free from blemish. The surface soil appeared as arid and poor as that found on the steep
declivities of the main ranges. Its pine timber growth was to me indeed an enigma, which, however, soon found its
solution by examining in a deep cut the subsoil condition ; the decomposed dioritic schist, forming a kind of soft marl
for a great depth, offered no obstacle to the long taproot of the pine. These hills extend for a length of about 6
miles in a northeasterly direction, by a width scarcely exceeding 2 miles. I conld not learn that any other locality
is found in the same geological formation of an equal extent with the same conditions of the timber growth.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LONGLEAF PINE.
By FIUBERT ROTH.
(September 1, 1897.)
Though this species is well recognized wherever it grows, and receives almost universally the
name of Longleaf or Lougstraw Pine, the two terms "Yellow Pine" and "Pitch Pine" are often
confusing. Unfortunately these names are most common at the points of manufacture and with
men who know but little about the trees themselves. Wherever used knowingly the term "Yellow
Pine" refers to very old slow grown trees of Longleaf, with a very fine, smooth bark, extremely line
grain (narrow rings), and with very narrow sapwood (1 inch or less). The term "Pitch Pine," on
the other hand, refers to younger trees, of more rapid growth, wider sap, and consequently with
more pitch or resin. It is self-evident from this that, as these trees grow older, intermediate
forms occur to which one man gives one name, the next man another.
In its distribution the Longleaf presents some very interesting features. In North Carolina,
on the north side of the Albemarle Sound, this tree is frequently wanting over large tracts, and then
again covers several hundred acres almost to the exclusion of other pines. Along the western
coast of Florida it goes as far south as Fort Myers, on the Caloosahatchee riiver, comes right up to
the salt marshes or bluffs, with but a slight fringing of Cuban and Pond Pine, except in the few cases
where large hammock swamps like the Gulf Hammock and Chessahowitzka Swamp occupy the
space between pinery and ocean. In Texas the Longleaf is rather sharply limited, and the
transition is very abrupt from Longleaf Pine forest into a pinery of Loblolly and Shortleaf mixed
with hard woods.
As mentioned in the monograph, the dimensions to which the tree grows do not vary greatly
in different sections from East to West. There are just as fine trees in North Carolina as occur in
Georgia or in Louisiana and Texas. An exception to this occurs in the case of the extremely
barren, dry sands of Florida, where this tree commonly attains a height of scarcely GO feet, with
about 25 to 35 feet of log timber. Frequently thousands of trees are seen on a section with a. total
height of less than 50 feet, and the top flattened, resembling more that of river-bank cypress than
pine. In justice to this pine, however, it must be said that what it lacks in size it fully makes up
in quality, for there is no finer-grained, heavier, and stronger pine in the market than is cut on
these pine sand barrens of Florida. Strange to say, even on these dry and barren sands the
development or the growth of the young tree is most astonishing. Leaders (end shoots) of over
24 inches in length on trees (! to 15 feet high are common, and the increase in diameter is fully
in keeping with this rapid upward growth.
In the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida there are springing up multitudes of groves of young
Lougleaf Pines, and all stages may be seen, from the seedling, resembling much more a large
bunch of coarse grass than a pine, and the sapling with its straight, stiff, few-limbed but never
bush-like form, to the pole size, 40 to CO feet high and 8 inches in diameter, with its small crown
and a shaft well cleaned of branches whether grown in the open or in the midst of a thicket.
Unfortunately, many of these fine young groves fall victims to the universal bleeding for tur-
pentine, followed by tire, which, however, in many localities is now recognized by the prudent
residents as fast becoming a curse to the community, not only by destroying a valuable source
of revenue, but by alienating people from their legitimate business of farming. Turpentine
orcharding is still continued everywhere in the pinery of North Carolina along and west of the
Wilmington and WHdon Railroad. Thus far the very narrow sapwood, promising but a small
yield and frequently leading to -'dry faces,'' i. e., a drying up of that portion of the tree, seems to
71
LONGLEAF PINE. 7f)
have held back the industry from the slowly grown pines of Florida. Some operators, however,
claim that the long season more than makes up for this defect. To what extent this is correct
remains to be seen. In Louisiana and Texas bleeding is not carried on even to the extent to
which it is commendable. How long trees of this species can withstand bleeding and its effects
is well illustrated by old trees in Bertie County, N. C., which were bled fully eighty years ago,
and much injured by fire which ate into the box and "face." These trees are generally sound,
have good crowns, and show a fair growth for trees of their size and age. Owing to peculiarities
of the market, the butt cut of these logs is usually rejected, and therefore left in the woods.
Longleaf Pine is still largely cut into timber, i. e., pieces thicker than 4 inches; much is sawn
to order, the entire trunk, therefore, being generally cut into one or two lengths in logging.
Special sizes, and also boards of great length and odd widths, are manufactured in great quanti-
ties for export. The bulk of Longleaf is still cut with circular saws and is not dried in kilns,
though both band saw and dry kiln have been and are used successfully.
Among the diseases to which this tree is subject, the disease of the cones, recently discovered
and studied by Dr. W. T. Swingle, deserves attention. The cones are attacked during the first
year of their existence, and instead of attaining only about 1 inch in size, they swell up to the size
of a second-year cone (3 inches and more), and take on a bright orange color. Only cones of
this species and of Pinus heterophylla have so far been found affected.
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE IX.
o
THE CUBAN PINE.
(PINUS HETEROPHYLLA (ELL.) Sudw.)
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
PRODUCTS.
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.
DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOGK AL CHARACTERS.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
liKoUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON CUBAN PINE.
77
THE CUBAN PINK.
(Finns hetcrophylla (Ell.) Sudw.)
Synonyms: Pinut Tatda var. heteroph ylla Elliott, Sk., ii, 636 (1824).
Finns Ctibettsis Grisebach, in Mem. Am. Acad., viii, pt. 2, 530 (1863), not Hort. ex Gord. (1858).
Pinna Cubensis var. terthrocarpa Wright in Grisebach, Cat. PI. Cuben., 217 (1866).
I'inus Elliottii Engeluiann ex Vasey, Cat. Forest Trees, 30; in Rep. Com. Ag. 1875, 178 (1876).
Pinna Elliottii Engelmann, in Trans. St. Louis Acad., iv., 186, t. 1, 2, 3 (1879).
Pinut heterophylta (Ell.) Sudworth, in Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl., XX, 45 (1893).
COMMON OR LOCAL NAMES.
Slash Pine (Ala., Miss., Ga., Fla.). Pitch Pine (Fla.).
Swamp Pine (Fla., Miss., Ala.), in part. She Pitch Pine (Ga.).
Bastard Pine (Ala. lumbermen, Fla.). She Pinr (Ga. and Fla.).
Meadow Pine (Fla., E. Miss.), in part. Spruce Pine (So. Ala.).
78
THE CUBAN PINE.
By CHARLES MOHK, Ph. D.
INTRODUCTORY.
Confined within narrow limits along the coast of the extreme Southern States east of the
Mississippi Eiver, little known and mostly confounded with its allied species, the value of the Cuban
Piue has been scarcely recognized. A closer investigation of the properties of its wood, of its life
history, and of the part it plays among the forest growth soon discloses its economic importance.
Convinced that to meet proper appreciation the merits possessed by this pine need only to be
made more generally known, their consideration in this place among the biological investigations
of the more important timber trees of the coniferous order will explain itself.
This tree was not known to the earlier American botanists. Elliott first1 took notice of it as
a distinct form, and he regarded it as a variety of the Loblolly Pine. It remained still practically
unknown as a separate species for another half century, until near the beginning of the past decade,
when it was again brought to the notice of botanists by Dr. Mellichamp, of Bluffton, S. C.; Dr.
Engelmann exhibited clearly its specific characters, and for the first time directed attention
to the economic value of this pine by discussing the development of the tree and the qualities of
its timber.2 On account of the coarser grain of its wood and the large amount of sapwood, this
timber was held to be of little value, and the tree received little or no attention by the lumberman.
It is only very lately, especially since kiln-drying has become more general, that its value is being
recognized and appreciated, and under the name of "Slash Pine" it is cut and sold without
discrimination with the Longleaf Pine, with which it is usually associated.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
The Cuban Piue is a tree of the coast region in the subtropical region of North America east of
the Mississippi River, and also of the neighboring tropics, being found in Honduras and Cuba
(see PI. III). In the United States the tree is confined to the eastern belt of the Austro-riparian
or Louisianiau life zone of American biologists, from 33° north latitude in South Carolina along
the coast to the extremity of the peninsula of Florida. Toward the west the tree extends
along the coast of the Gulf to the Pearl River Valley. It is principally restricted to the coast
plain, but on the Gulf Coast and along the water courses it extends inland to a distance of fully
60 miles from the sea. On the Atlantic Coast it penetrates the interior nearly to the limit of the
coast pine belt, as has been observed in Georgia iu the valley of the Ocmulgee River, over 100
miles distant from tide water. Groves of the Cuban Pine skirt the low shores of the numerous
inlets and estuaries of these coasts, and cover the outlying islands. More or less associated with
the Loblolly arid the Longleaf Pine, it forms a pan of the timber growth of the open pine forests
which iu unbroken monotony cover the flats for long distances. It is only in the lower part of
Florida, where the tree extends from the Atlantic across to the Gulf of Mexico, south of Cape
Canaveral and Biscayne Bay, that, as the only pine there, the Cuban Pine forms forests by itself.
Toward the interior it occurs scattered among the varied growth of broad-leafed evergreens and
cone-bearing trees which cover the swamps along the streams. Since it is invariably cut and sold
1 Elliott, Sketches of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia, Vol. II, page 263, 1824.'
•' Kngelmami: Revision of the genns 1'inus and description of Pinus elliottii. Transactions St. Louis Acad. Sci.,
Vol. IV, 186,1879.
79
g() TIMHEK PINES OK THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
without distinction, no figures can be given of its annual consumption, nor is it possible to form
even an approximate- estimate of the standing supplies. The old timber goes, of course, as fast
us that of the Longleaf Pine, but in its reproduction it outstrips the latter. Wherever in the
coast plain the original growth of the Longleaf Pine has been removed, the ( 'ubau Pine takes, in a
great measure, possession of the ground, in some localities associated with the Loblolly Tine.
Young forests in every stage of growth are seen covering tracts of greater or lesser extent,
promising important supplies of resinous products, timber, and fuel.
PRODUCTS.
As a timber tree the Cuban Pine is little inferior to the Longleaf Pine. It furnishes sticks of
large dimensions free from blemish, rivaling in that respect that superior variety of the Loblolly
Pine called llosemary Pine, and there is no doubt that it was often confounded with this tree in
the shipments of masts and long spars made in former years from the southern Atlantic and eastern
(inlf ports. In the lumber mills on the Atlantic Coast the timber of this tree is indiscriminately
sawn and shipped with that of the Lougleaf Pine.
It remains yet to be proved whether the coarser structure of the wood of the Cuban Pine
would render it less durable. It is certain, however, that this very cause, which might interfere
with its resistance to atmospheric influences or to contact with the soil, will be found an advantage
if the preservation of the timber is to be secured by its impregnation with antiseptic solutions,
more open structure permitting readier infiltration.
Resinous products. — This pine abounds in resinous matter. The oleoresin, resin, or crude
turpentine, when freshly exuded, is perfectly limpid, of honey-yellow color, less viscid than the
resinous product of the Longleaf Pine, and to all appearances richer in volatile oil or spirits of
turpentine, judging by the smaller amount of hard gum or scrape formed on the tree. A sample of
the dip of the first year from South Carolina was to all appearance exposed for a short time in the
box to atmospheric influences. Examined by Prof. E. Kremers, University of Wisconsin, the resin
showed an emulsion-like appearance and separated upon standing into heavier granules and into a
lighter, transparent, yellowish liquid. Its specific gravity at20°C. was found 1.0253. D =32.423°
(determined in 16.26 per cent alcoholic solution). Distilled with water, the sample yielded 16 per
cent of oil of the specific gravity 0.865 (20° C.). D=9.620.
In view of the rapid destruction of the forests of Lougleaf Pine, the principal source of resin,
the future importance of the Cuban Pine in the production of naval stores becomes at once
apparent, especially when it is considered that it reproduces itself so much more readily. Even
now, on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, a large proportion of resinous products is derived
from the young growth of this pine, which, after the removal of the original timber growth, took
possession of the ground. It is claimed by the turpentine gatherers in these States that at an age
of from thirty to forty years the trees are sufficiently large for tapping with advantage, and that
protected against fire a spontaneous renewal takes place, and after a period of forty years the new
crop is ready for profitable exploitation.
In Washington County, Ala., on the more or less extensive flats that intervene between the
low ridges covered with Lougleaf Pine, the Cuban Pine furnishes considerable supplies of crude
turpentine of superior quality. In this section the tree is known under the name of Spruce Pine,
a misnomer, leading to its confusion with an entirely different tree, the true Southern Spruce Pine
(Pinun ylabru).
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.
rhnix hi'li rojili i/l lii is closely allied to the Longleaf Pine, forming with this and two other species
inhabiting the nearest tropical regions — Cuba and Mexico —under the subgenus pinaster, a natural
group of trees with heavy resinous wood, rigid long leaves from two to five in a sheath, and
subtcrminalor lateral, horizontal or reflexed cones, designated by Engleuiann as the group of the
Kuaustrales, or longleaf pines. First distinguished by Elliott as Pimm liriln var. hrtrrophylln and
remaining subsequently unknown for more than fifty years, the specific characters of this pine were
first reeogni/cdand fully described by Dr. Engelmann, who in honor of its discoverer distinguished
the tree under the name of Pinus elliottii, finding himself soon afterwards convinced of the identity
HOTANICAL DESCRIPTION CUBAN PINE. 81
of his species with Pinus uubenais of Crrisebach. Recently these various forms were found to be
the same as Elliott's, to which they have been referred with his varietal name lieterophylla raised
to specific rauk. The tree is little known among the inhabitants of the region of its growth; it is
generally regarded as a mere variety or bastard form of the Longleaf or the Loblolly Pine. In
Florida, where best known, it is distinguished as the Slash Pine, or Swamp Pine; and in the flat
woods along the seashore in Alabama and Mississippi as Meadow Pine. In a few localities in
Alabama it is erroneously called Spruce Pine.
DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS.
The leaves, two or three in a bundle, are surrounded by a smooth sheath from one-half to
nearly an inch in length, which, close and smooth during the first season, become loose and
shriveled in the second year (PI. X, d). The leaves are from 8 to 12, mostly 9 inches in length
and three-fourths of a line wide, glossy, of a deep green color and closely serrulate with a short,
rigid point, rounded on the back, the binary leaves deeply concave and the ternate bluntly keeled.
They arise from the axils of fringed deciduous bracts, are densely crowded toward the end of the
branches, and are shed by the close of the second season. Bundles with two leaves are most
frequently observed in younger trees and almost invariably on the fertile branchlets.
The resin ducts are internal, variable in size, and in number from four to six and over, close to
the thin-walled bundle sheaths, which inclose two closely approximate fibrovascular bundles, often
coalescing. The fibrovascular region, like the ducts, shows no hypodermal or strengthening cells.
The hypodermal cells underlying the epidermis are as large as the epidermal cells, in the angles
of one or several layers.
Flotrerx. — The catkin-like male flowers (PL X, a, b), from 1£ to 2 inches long, are of dark
purple (royal purple) color, supported on a short stalk and surrounded by about a dozen involucral
coriaceous bracts, of which the lowest pair is strongly keeled (PL X, b, slightly magnified), the
others being oblong with fringed edges. From ten to twenty of these cylindrical flowers are crowded
in dense clusters below the apex of the youngest shoots, and are shed almost immediately after the
discharge of their abundant pollen. The anthers are crowned with a purplish crescent-shaped
denticulate crest. The female flowers form an oval, pink-colored ament borne on a stalk, from one-
half to 1 inch in length, which singly, more frequently several in number, are produced close to
the terminal bud of the shoot of tht season (PL X, d). First erect, they are, at the lapse of a
month, horizontally reflected, the shoot bearingthem increasing rapidly in length during the same
time, long before the unfolding of its leaf buds. The involucral scales or bracts which surround
the female catkin are more numerous, narrower, longer, and more membranaceous than those form-
ing the involucre of the male flowers. The carpellary scales are round with a slender, erect tip,
their lower half covered by the broad retuse bract.
A tree discovered by Dr. Mellichamps near Bluflton, S. 0., showed the remarkable anomaly
of producing androgynous flowers regularly every season. In most of the specimens examined
every one of the male flowers clustering around the base of the terminal bud of the very young
shoot had the upper part of the floral axis covered with female flowers, appearing like a distinct
inflorescence superimposed upon the staminodial column, occupying generally one third of its
height. In one of the flowers they were seen to extend near to its base. In a single instance it
was observed that the female flowers extended on one side of the staminodial column in a narrow-
streak among the stamens.
In a specimen from the same locality the terminal shoot of the season, exceeding in length the
male flowers by which its base was surrounded, was bearing a normal subterminal female ament.
The short-stalked cones are ovate or conical, rather obtuse, horizontally reflexed, from 4 to 5 inches
long, about 2£ inches greatest width, of glossy leather-brown or hazel color (PL XI, a and b);
8c;iles about 2 inches long averaging five-eighths of an inch in width, somewhat flexible, the
prominent ridge of the pyramidal striated umbo with a short, mostly straight, strong prickle
(PL XI, c and d). By the end of the first season the conelets are scarcely an inch long (PL X, d).
Before the close of the summer of the succeeding year, the cones have reached their full size,
maturing during the month of October. In the ripe cones, already described, the apophyses of
the scales in the lower rows are almost pointless, becoming on the upper strongly mucrouate.
The cones remain on the tree until the approach of the next summer, leaving on their separation
the lowest rows of the scales behind.
7092— No. 13 G
EXPLANATION OK PLATK X.
^Figures natural size, except when? otherwise noted.]
Fig. a, branch with youn;4; shoot of the season bearing a cluster of male flowers; b, male llower detachi'd
showing basal involucral bracts, magnified three diameters; c, branch bearing three snbterminal female flowers;
d, (I, characteristically reflexed immature cones of one season's growth.
82
Bulletin No. '3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE X.
PINUS HETEROPHYLLA: MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS.
WOOD OF CUBAN PINE. 83
The triangular black roughish seeds 2£ to a little over 3 Hues long, with a few faint ridges;
the brown, obtuse, and somewhat oblique wing (PL XI, e,/, g) about 1 inch in length is deciduous
in germination. This species at all stages of growth can be distinguished from the Loblolly Pine
by the deep-green foliage, the glaucous hue of the young, tender shoots, and varying number of
leaves in a bundle — from the Lougleaf Pine by the thinner, almost smooth, terminal buds, and in
the adult state, from both of these species, with which it is found frequently associated, by its
cones.
THE WOOD.
As in the Loblolly, the sapwood is wide in the young trees, measuring usually about 4 inches
and forming in thrifty trees fifty to seventy years old about 80 per cent of the total volume. As
the trees grow older, however, this preponderance of sapwood ceases, and in trees one hundred
and fifty to two hundred years old only 35 to 50 per cent of the total volume of the trunk was found
to be composed of sapwood. As in the case of the pines already mentioned, the change from sap-
wood to heartwood begins when the tree (or disk) is about twenty-five to thirty years old, and the
process is retarded as the tree (or disk) grows older, so that when any one disk is sixty years old
the sapwood contains about forty rings, and reaches eighty rings or more by the time the tree (or
disk) is two hundred years of age. As a consequence the sapwood of the disks of the main part
of" the trunk in old trees is formed of nearly the same number of rings, and only near the top a
marked diminution appears, while in a tree sixty years old the sapwood of the stump may have
forty rings and that of a disk 40 feet from the ground only twenty-five rings. As in other pines,
the width of the sapwood is quite variable and is always greatest in young and thrifty trees.
When green the wood of this species is too heavy to float well; its weight varies chiefly with
the amount of sapwood, and is therefore greatest in sapling timber. The sapwood itself is
frequently heavier than water, and where the water in the sapwood and a large amount of
resin in the heartwood combine, the weight of the entire disk frequently approaches 60 pounds to
the cubic foot.
Kiln-dried, the wood of trees one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old was found on an
average to weigh about 39 pounds per cubic foot, thus excelling in weight even the valuable Long-
leaf Pine. The wood of very young trees is decidedly lighter, as is also that of very old trees,
the heaviest wood being formed during the age of thriftiest growth or between the twentieth and
eightieth year. The presence of resin in the heartwood, as conspicuous in this species as in Long-
leaf Pine, materially adds to the weight of the wood, so that the heartwood of old trees is invari-
ably heavier than the same wood had been while in a sapwood condition. As in other pines, the
butt is heaviest and the top log lightest; thus in trees over one hundred and fifty years of age the
wood at the butt weighs 44 pounds per cubic foot, 37 pounds at 38 feet, and only 32 pounds at 00
feet from the stump, a difference amounting to over 25 per cent. This difference is greatest in the
young sapling and is remarkably uniform for all adult trees examined.
In strength, as in weight, the wood of Cuban Pine excels. The following figures represent the
general average of a long series of experiments on wood especially collected:
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Mo.lnlns of elasticity 2,300,000
Transverse strength 11,900
Compression cud wise 7, 850
Shearing 680
Tension 14,300
The average weight of the pieces tested was 40 pounds per cubic foot, the outer lighter part
of the old trees having largely been cut away in shaping the pieces, so that only heavy wood had
been tested. The above figures require, therefore, a reduction of about 20 per cent to represent
the true average strength of all the wood of entire trees.
The amount of water contained in the fresh wood depends on the proportion of sapwood. In
this latter it forms about 00 per cent of the weight of fresh wood; in the heartwood only about 20
per cent. Accordingly, fresh logs of trees seventy years old have about 45 per cent, logs of i ires
over one hundred and fifty years old only about 30 per cent of water. The wood dries easik and
without great injury, even if seasoned in the dry kiln.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.
Fig. a, section of a branch bearing a mature closed cone (October); T>, mature open cone after shedding seed;
c, c, c, tips of cone scales showing variation in form of apophysis and stout prickle ; </, cone scale, outer or dorsal side ;
«, inner or ventral side of cone scale with seed in place; /, seed with wing detached; g, seed and wing intact.
84
Bulletin No. 1 3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XI.
, SC.
PlNUS HETEROPHYLLA: CONE AND SEED.
DEVELOPMENT OF CUBAN PINE. 85
The shrinkage during drying is very considerable for sapwood, and therefore all young timber,
but is not as great for old timber as might be expected on account of the great weight of the
wood. Young timber shrinks from 12 to 13 per cent of its volume, the wood of old trees (over one
hundred and fifty years) only about. 11 per cent, aud in all trees the amount of shrinkage is
greatest in the heaviest disk of the butt and decreases upward very much in proportion of the
decrease in weight.
In its structure the wood resembles that of the Loblolly in every respect. Summerwood
and springwood are sharply defined, giving rise to alternating bands of light-colored, soft and
dark colored hard bands of wood conspicuous in every section. For details of structure see the
comparative study by Mr. Both appended to these monographs.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
This is the earliest flowering of the Southern pines. The buds of the male flowers make their
appearance in the early part of December, and the flowers open during the last days of January
and during the first week of February. This species produces abundant crops of cones every year,
almost without failure; they ripen in the fall of the second year; the seeds are discharged through
the winter of the second year until spring. Germinating easily, their seedlings are found to come
up copiously from early in the spring to the beginning of the summer in old fields and on every
opening in the vicinity of the parent trees, wherever the rays of the sun reach the ground. The
plantlets bear six to seven seed leaves (cotyledons). As soon as these have fairly expanded the
terminal bud develops rapidly, and the first internode of the stem, increasing quickly in length, is
densely covered with the soft, narrow, linear, pointed, primary leaves, which are fully an inch long.
Before the end of the second mouth, in the axils of some of the leaves, the undeveloped branchlets,
bearing the fascicle of the foliage leaves, make their appearance. With the further development
of the foliage leaves, increasing in number during the growing season, the primary leaves wither
away. By the close of the first season the plantlets are from 8 to 9 inches high, with a very
slender taproot and many lateral rootlets near its upper end. After the beginning of the second
season but few of the primary leaves are found to support the buds of the foliage leaves. The
tendency to the production of secondary axes becomes manifest by the appearance of a single
branchlet; on having reached the end of their second year the plants are from 12 to 15 inches high,
with a taproot not more than 4 inches long; at the end of their third year they average little less
than 2 feet in height, with the taproot 6 inches long — the laterals being much longer. The crown
from this period develops in regular whorls for a long succession of years.
The Cuban Pine, in its rate of growth and when fully grown, equals in its dimensions the
Lougleaf Pine. The taproot, less powerful than in its allies, is assisted by mighty lateral roots
running near the surface of the ground to support the tall, sturdy trunk, rising to a height of 110
or 115 feet, with a diameter of 2£, not unfrequently exceeding 3, feet, clear of limbs for a height of
from 60 to 70 feet above the ground. The heavy limbs are horizontally spreading, from 22 to 24
feet at their greatest length, somewhat irregularly disposed;' they form in the trees of full growth
a rather dense crown of rounded outline. Trees of the dimensions mentioned, having passed the
fullness of their growth, are found to be from one hundred to one hundred and forty years old,
according to the surrounding conditions. The thick bark is of a clear, reddish color, laminated,
and exfoliating in thin, broad, purplish flakes.
Seedlings of the Longleaf Pine, which those of the Cuban Pine somewhat resemble, can be
readily distinguished at this period by the disproportion of height and diameter and absence of
branch growth in the former. The rate of growth differs, of course, according to the conditions
of soil and exposure.
Saplings showing five rings of annual growth were found from 4£ to nearly 6 feet in height,
with a diameter of from three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch; between the age of from ten
to twelve years the trees measure from 10 to 18 feet in height, with the stem clear for over half
its length — even when grown in the open — aud from 2 up to 4 inches in diameter. From this
stage on the rate of growth proceeds most rapidly. At eighteen and twenty years heights of 40
to 50 feet and over, and diameters from 9 to 10 inches across the stump, cut close to the ground,
are attained.
86
TIMBER PINES OK THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
The trees of the extensive groves of Cuban Pine in the vicinity of Mobile upon the loamy
lands of the coast plain, which have sprung up since 1804, when these lands were completely
stripped of all arboreal growth, average at present between 50 and (SO feet in height by a diameter
of from 14 to Hi inches breast high. Trees of second growth, forming open groves on lands of
similar character, and also more or less deficient in drainage, forty-five to sixty-five years old,
measure from 65 to 85 feet in height and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter breast high.
At the edge of a heavily wooded swamp, in a perpetually wet, sandy, and mucky soil and
skirted by large Longleaf Pines occupying the steep slope rising from the bottom, a tree measur-
ing 114 feet in height, with a diameter of 24 inches breast high, the trunk clear of limbs for a
length of fully GO feet, showed one hundred and tbirty-five rings of annual growth. Another
tree felled deeper in the same swamp, of lank growth, with a poorly developed crown, rising to
a height of 88 feet and towering above the dense growth of black gums, swamp maples, and white
bays, was found to measure only 15£ inches in diameter, with almost the same number of annual
rings. Trees of second growth which have sprung up in clearings with a drier surface soil under-
laid by a clayey substratum, with free exposure to sunlight and air, reach in little over half the
time the full size of those produced in the forest-covered swamps.
TABLE I. — Growth of Cuban Pine during first xtaytn of life, from four to twenty years.
No. of tree.
Rings
in
stump.
Diameter.
Height.
Locality.
Remarks.
Breast
high.
Across
stamp.
Total.
To first
limb.
Crown.
1
4
5
5
6
8
9
0
g
Inches.
1
?
2
Inehei.
Feet.
I
<*i
I?4
19
18
18
26
28
19
29
27
37
31
36
46
46
38
50
47
37
53
Feet.
Feet.
Nos. 1 to 5, near Whistler, Ala.
Wet, .-;ind\ . flat soil very poor; open thickets in
the clearing of the forest.
Exposure partially free; suppressed soil ; slushy.
Old field ; soil fresh ; from midst of dense grove.
Open edge of swamp, somewhat suppressed.
Partially free; edge of swamp.
Open grove of saplings; soil fresh ; old field.
Grove of young trees; crown covered partially by
large pines ; soil conditions, best.
Old field.
Midst of dense thicket; in the shade; suppressed:
soil conditions, best.
Do.
Exposure free; old field; soil black, mucky.
In the shade of large pines.
Do.
Swamp soil; slushy; suppressed.
Exposure free; soil fresh, good.
Under cover of large pines ; soil conditions, good.
Do.
Free exposure.
•j
3
4
5
236
3
10
10
8
7
13
14
13
7
9
10
11
13
14
16
Whistler Ala
296
Ridgeland, S. C
295
235
10
11
11
12
13
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
18
21
2
B,
3J
6
4
8J
9
6
8
?
9
10J
Whistler Ala
223
4
4J
do
284
Ridgelaud, S. C
Mobile, Ala
Ridgeland, S. C
6
291
292
<i
7
Mobile, Ala
do
8
262
7
18
27
26
19
Kidgeland, S. C
Mobile Ala
g
10
do
212
3
15
20
13
Ridgeland, S. C
do
Mobile Ala
231
11
12
14
27
23
26
do
do
13
DEVELOPMENT OF CUBAN PINE. 87
TABLE II.— Growth of Cuban Pine during middle and last stages of life, from forty to one hundred and forty-five yearn.
No. of tree.
Rings
m
stump.
Diameter.
Height.
Locality.
Remarks.
Breast
high.
Across
stump.
Below
crown.
Mean.
Total
height.
Length
to
crown,
clear.
Length
of
crown.
1
40
43
51
52
55
55
56
M
70
87
101
110
110
126
133
127
132
145
145
Inches.
14J
12
12J
17
19
20
20
16
21
20
24
22
20
26
24
20
22
26
12i
India.
Inches.
Inches.
Feet.
60
66
87
83
74
82
79
90
83
85
98
90
113
130
118
104
119
116
67
Feet.
39
34
51
50
40
50
47
59
41
Feet.
24
32
Midst of grove, crowded ; damp, sandy
loam; clay subsoil; surface flat.
Exposure free; edge of swamp; soil per-
petually damp.
Edge swamp; soil freah to damp; growth
lank; sap, 5 inches.
Edge of grove.
Exposure free; springy hillside; soil
coarse, sandy, and gravelly.
Exposure free ; open grove.
Do.
Low pine flat, open; soil moist and black,
sour.
Exposure free; soil moist and black, sour.
Springhill edge of swamp; damp, sandy.
Exposure free; near border of swamp;
pine flat, badly drained.
Springhill rich hummock, perpetually
damp; magnolia, red bay, spruoe,gum;
Census 1880.
Exposure free ; edge of swamp ; soil fresh ;
stick perfectly clear for 52 feet ; sap, 2J
inches.
Timber perfect for 60 feet.
Exposure free; somewhat suppressed by
longleaf pine; edge of swamp.
Exposure free ; lank, tall ; red heart above
54 feet.
Base of hili; a fine-looking tree; timber
clear for 50 feet.
Swamp always slushy; free from knots
for over 65 feet.
Of suppressed growth; in middle of
swamp; soil pure sand, mostly covered
with water.
290
Ridgelaml, S. C . . .
Whistler, Ala
Mobile, Ala
Stockton, Baldwin
County, Ala.
Mobile Ala
230
2...
171
36
3
4
25
24
13J
19
32
32
31
42
5
do
Ridgeland, S.C....
do
289
288
6
28«
48
60
71
78
60
80
73
73
21
50
30
42
52
58
24
Ridgeland, S.C....
7
227
Whistler, Ala
do
225...
8
25
l<i
nj
do
do
do
22«
228
229
do
9
71
do
1
From Table III the rapid growth of this species is quite apparent. It will be observed that
good trees are about 20 feet high at ten, 45 feet at twenty, and over 80 feet high at fifty years
of age, when the rapid rate of upward growth comes to a stop. It appears, also, that the greatest
mass of wood for any decade is formed atthe early age of fifty, the growth in volume being nearly
15 cubic feet for these ten years, and that at ninety the growth in volume is only about two-thirds
of the maximum ; that at one hundred years the average annual growth nearly equals the current
growth, thus indicating that the age of proper exploitation has been reached, i. e., that now the
tree is ripe for the ax, as far as profitable growth, represented in volume accretion, is concerned.
TABLE III. — Growth of Cuban Pine.
Age.
l)i:iiui-tcr
with bark
(breast
high).
Length
of log
with
upper
diameter
of 5
inches.
Height
of tree.
Volume.
Periodical growth for each decade.
Average
annual
accretion.
Current
accretion.
Tree.
Log up to
5 inches
diameter.
Decade.
Diam-
eter.
Height.
Area of
cross
section.
Volume.
10.
20.
30.
40.
M.
60.
70.
80.
90.
loo
110
120
Incha.
2.9
5.9
9.3
12.3
14.8
16.0
17.6
18.8
20.0
21.4
22.4
23.4
Feet.
Feet.
20
45
66
75
83
89
93
98
99
101
103
105
Cubic feet.
0.50
4.24
14.95
29.70
47.01
59.65
72.25
84.05
95.03
105. 97
US. 58
125. 18
Cvtic/cet.
Incha.
2.1
2.6
3.0
2.6
2.5
1.2
Feet.
20
25
21
9
8
6
4
3
3
2
2
2
Sq.fett.
0.02
.10
.20
.26
.31
.18
.19
.21
.22
.20
.20
.25
Cubicfeet.
0.50
3.74
10.71
14.75
17.31
12.64
12.60
11.80
10.98
10.94
9.61
9.60
Cub. feet.
0.05
.21
.50
.74
.94
.99
1.03
1.05
1.05
1.06
1.05
1.04
Cub. feet.
0.05
.37
.07
.47
.73
.26
.26
.18
.10
.09
.96
.96
5
24
40
50
60
69
76
83
90
96
100
2.44
13.06
29.23
45.53
58.35
71.17
83.15
94.31
105. 48
115.27
124.96
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth
Eighth
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
Kintli
Tenth
Eleventh
Twelfth
88 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT.
Soil. For its best development the Cuban Pine requires a light, sandy, but constantly damp
soil, which is attained where the sandy surface is underlaid by a loamy subsoil retentive of
moisture but sufficiently loose to give the roots unhindered access. Such conditions are found on
the lands rising above the perpetually wet swamps. On the flats, with a soil of fine, compact
sand, devoid of all drainage and underlaid by a hardpan, where nothing but the Saw Palmetto
appears to thrive, the tree remains of low, stunted growth, scarcely ever reaching medium si/.c.
In the depth of the swamp, with the soil wet and slushy throughout the year, where the tree is
commonly met with, closely surrounded by White Bay, Red Bay, Black Gum, Titi, and White
Cedar towering high above it, it is of slow growth and frequently affected by red heart or red rot,
particularly near its northern limit. It is never found in alluvial bottoms, and eschews the dry,
pine-barren hills, requiring a moderate but sure and even supply of soil moisture.
Climate. — The range of its distribution coincides with the area of greatest rainfall in the
Southern States, which, evenly distributed through all seasons, amounts for the year, in the moan,
to (JO and 64 inches.
The Cuban Pine demands a warm climate, free from excesses in the range of temperature, as
is afforded by the vicinity of the sea. It is found in greatest abundance and most perfect within
the isothermal lines of 64° and 68° F., with a minimum of but a few degrees below the free/ing
point. The tree, as observed at Mobile, has escaped uninjured the severe and unprecedented
long spell of ice and snow during the latter part of January and first week of February, is'.O.
when the thermometer fell as low as 11° F., the flowers unfolding unimpaired by frost during the
succeeding first days of milder weather.
In its dependence on light it is less exacting than either the Longleaf Pine or the Loblolly
Pine. It appears to thrive, from the earliest stage of its development, as well when partially
shaded as in the open, in this respect resembling the Southern Spruce Pine. It is due to these
facts, combined with the rapid progress of its growth from the earliest stage, that the Cuban
Pine is gaining the upper hand over the offspring of the light-requiring Longleaf Pine, which, on
the damp soil of the coast plain, is soon outstripped and finally almost completely suppressed by
the seedlings of this tree.
In the inherent capacity for natural reproduction, or in the advantages for the renewal of its
forests by man, the Cuban Pine is not surpassed by any other of the species with which it is found
associated. This tree commends itself strongly to the tree planter in the coast plain of the lower
South. Producing seeds in abundance regularly and with certainty, being less exacting in its
demands for direct sunlight, and hence successfully resisting the encroachment of competing
species, being less liable to succumb to the destructive agencies of fire ou account of its more
rapid development in early life, it has greater promise of success than the others. If to this is
added the rapid rate of growth, the great value of its timber, being equal to the Longleaf, if not
superior, and the abundant yield of its valuable resinous product, it becomes evident that in the
reforestation of the low pine lands of the Southern coast region the Cuban Pine is to be preferred
to any other, not only within its original boundaries, but as far beyond its range of natural
distribution as the climatic requirements of the tree will permit.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON CUBAN PINE.
By FILIBERT ROTH.
(September 1, 1897.)
This tree, like the Longleaf, seems very generally known among woodmen wherever it occurs
in abundance, and it is usually designated as " Slash Pine." Like Pond Pine, the Cuban 1'iue
occurs mixed with other pines, but never seems to form large forests by itself in the districts
visited. Along streams and swamps, and also along the ocean shore, it usually forms a fringe
varying from a few to several hundred yards in width. In southern South Carolina and Georgia
this tret- disputes territory with the Loblolly, but in Florida it is found either with Pond Pine
or alone covering the wet flats. More than any other pine the Cuban Pine enters the real wet
swamps, being found in cypress ponds and even in the wettest portions of the constantly water-
covered Oketinokee Swamp. Like the Pond Pine, it is not found in rich bottoms and hammocks.
Along the coast of Georgia and the eastern half of Florida the Cuban Pine forms about 15 per
cent of all pine; it is also quite abundant in the low flat woods between the Siiwane and the
Ap'alachicola, where it forms about the same proportion; but in all other parts of the Gulf pinery
where it occurs the tree is too scattering to be of any great consequence.
The size of the Cuban Pine depends on locality or station, and while practically as well
developed in South Carolina as in Alabama it is very much inferior in the barren flats of a large
part of Florida. Here this tree, like the Longleaf of this section, is short-bodied, 50 to 70 feet
high, and furnishes a log 25 to 40 feet in length. But, like Longleaf, Cuban Pine in these localities
is of a very superior quality, fine ringed, with little sap, of uniform weight and strength, and much
of this timber could not be distinguished by the best of experts from high-grade Longleaf timber.
This fact is well recognized, and Cuban Pine is logged with Longleaf without distinction. In
manner and rate of growth the Cuban Pine of southern Georgia and of Florida resembles Longleaf
in several respects. Its growth while young is extremely rapid both in height and thickness,
leaders of 24 to 30 inches being not uncommon. Like the Longleaf, though to a less extent, this
tree cleans itself even without crowding, and makes fine, clean-shafted, short-crowned poles in
very open stands. This is much more the case on very poor soils or localities where the tree
never reaches large dimensions.
89
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forwtry.
PLATE XII.
SHORTLEAF PINE (PiNus ECHINATA), FOREST-GROWN SPECIMENS IN MISSOURI.
THE SHORTLEAF PINE.
(PINUS ECHINATA Miller.)
ECONOMIC HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.
DESCRIPTION OF WOOD.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT.
FOREST MANAGEMENT.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON SHORTLEAF PINE.
91
THE SHORTLKA.R PINK.
(Finns rrliinala Miller.)
Synonyms: Pinna re.ltinata Miller, Gard. Diet., ed.8, No. 12 (1768).
1'iniin I'ii-i/hiiana var. rcliinata Du Roi, Harbk., ii, 38 (1772).
1'inus To-day rariabili* Alton, Hort. Kew., ed. 1, iii, 368 (1789).
»ii/i« Midi.iux, !•'!. Hor. Am., ii, 204 (1803).
rai-iabilis Lambert, Finns, cd. 1, i, 22, t. 15 (1803).
/'inns Iloylcana Jamiesou ex Lindlcy, in Journ. Hort. Soc., ix, 52 (1855).
1'inns intermedia Fischer ex Gordon, Piuetum, ed. 1, 170 (1858), not Du Roi (1772).
Finns rigida Porchcr, Resources S. States, 504 (1863), not Miller (1768).
Pimm lutca Loddiges ex Gordon, Pinetum, ed. 1, 170 (1858), riot Walter (1788).
I'iinix Koi/Ifi Lindlcy ex Gord., 1. c. (1858).
COMMON OK LOCAL NAMES.
Yellow Pine (N. Y., X. J., Pa., Del., Va.. X. ('., Ala., Miss.; Shortleaved Yellow Pine.
La., Ark., Mo., 111., Ind., Kims, (scarce), Ohio). Yellow Pine (N. C., Va. ; Eng. lit.).
Shortleaved Pine (N. C., S. C., Giv., Ala., Miss., Fla., La., Virginia Yellow Pine (Va., in part).
Tex., Ark.). North Carolina Yellow Pine (N. C., Va., in part).
Spruce Pine (Del., Miss., Ark.). North Carolina Pine, (N. C., Va., in part).
Hull Pine (Va.). Carolina Pine (N. C., Va., in part).
Short Sehat Pine (Del.). Slash Pine (N. C., Va., in part).
Pitch Pine (Mo.). Oldticl.l Pine (Ala., Miss.).
Poor Pine (Fla.).
92
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XIII.
SHORTLEAF PINE <PINUS ECHINATA), A ROADSIDE SPECIMEN IN NORTH CAROLINA.
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
Plate XIV.
\v«t
' * *< * Ml! U
4i5 -H'HAi:*
H £•« 6**" ^ «^«
1 1 m
THE SHORTLEAF PINE.
By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D.
INTRODUCTORY.
Among the timber trees of the Atlantic forest region the Shortleaf Pine ranks with the first
of those noted for their economic importance. Equally abundant, distributed over a wider area,
and in the quality of its wood but little inferior, it takes its place next to the Longleaf Pine.
When maintenance of forest and production of timber under a rational system of forestry is
to become the rule, this species above all others of southerly distribution will claim attention,
for it can be safely asserted that of the coniferous trees adapted to the climatic conditions of
the Southern Atlantic forest, no other can be found of better promise for the production of
valuable timber in the shortest time.
HISTORICAL.
The Shortleaf Pine, besides furnishing- to the colonists the supplies of pine timber required
for the construction of their dwellings, formed in early colonial times an article of export to the
mother country and the West Indies. Michaux, the younger, writing in the first years of this
century, speaks of this timber tree as becoming scarce near the ports. It seems that the specific
characters of this tree were but imperfectly understood by the earlier investigators of our silva.
They were first accurately defined by Michaux, the father, who described this tree in his Flora
Americana Borealis II, 204 (1803), under the name of Pinus mitis. A still more detailed descrip-
tion was soon afterwards given by Michaux, tlie son, in his work on American forest trees (Hist.
Arb. Amer., 1, 52, t. 3, 1810), with a full account of its value as a timber tree, the qualities and
uses of its wood, and all that was known in those days of its place in the forest. Besides the
account given of the tree by the Rev. M. A. Curtis, of North Carolina, in his "Trees of North
Carolina," little has been added to our knowledge of this pine until the publication in Professor
Sargent's Report on the Forests of North America,1 of the results of the investigation which the
writer had carried on in the Gulf States,8 and Professor Harvey in Arkansas.3
For valuable information on the occurrence of this pine on the Atlantic Coast and west of the
Alleghany Mountains, the writer is indebted to the kindness of correspondents active in the field
of botany. In regard to the area over which this species is found distributed in the Southern
States, the information contained in the physiographic descriptions of the several counties of the
cotton States, in Professor Hilgard's report on cotton production,4 were chiefly relied upon.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
The Shortleaf Pine is widely distributed from the Atlantic Seaboard to the treeless plains of the
Indian Territory under 95° west longitude over 23£° from east to west and 10° from south to north,
namely, from 31° north latitude to Long Island, New York, or 41° north latitude along the Atlantic
Coast, while in the interior it only reaches to 39° in western Virginia. According to F. A. Michaux,
the Shortleaf Pine extended originally as far north as Albany, N. Y. The tree is at present not
known iii New York outside of Staten Island, and its existence even in Pennsylvania is considered
1 Forest Trees of North America, Tenth Census U. S., IX, 1884. By C. S. Sargent.
"C. Mohr: "Forest Trees of the Gulf Region" (Am. Jour. Forestry, Vol. I, 1883).
'"Forest Trees of Arkansas." (Harvey: Am. Jour, of For., Vol. I.)
••Hilgard: Tenth Census Report, Vols. V and VI.
93
94 TIMBER PINES OP THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
at present doubtful. Its northern limit west of the Alleghanics can be described by a line drawn
from the lower part of Wood County, in West Virginia, to Menifee County, eastern Kentucky.
Beyond tin- wide gap covered by the deciduous forests of the lower Ohio Valley and the flood
plain of the Mississippi the tree appears on the southeastern spur of the Ozark Hills in Cape
(iirardeau County, Mo., latitude 37° 30', and on the opposite side of the river on the bluffs in
Union and Jackson counties, 111., the line dropping gradually half a degree southward to the
western limit of its range. (PI. XIV.)
The Shortleaf Pine is a tree of the plain and the foothills, in the South rarely ascending to an
elevation over 2,500 feet, and at its northern confines not over 1,000 feet (in the Ozark Hills). East
of the Mississippi Eiver the tree appears sparsely scattered among the hard-wood trees ; along the
border of the Carolinian and within the Austro-ripariau zone it becomes more frequent, and often
the predominating tree. West of the Mississippi Eiver the Shortleaf Pine finds its region of
greatest profusion, forming forests of vast extent on the uplands of the undulating plain and the
table-lands of the hill country, which in their timber wealth and economic importance rival the
great lumbering regions farther south.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS.
On the Atlantic Coast, from southern New York to Virginia, judging from the statements
of earlier writers, this tree must have formed originally a considerable part of the forests of
coniferous evergreens covering the belt of light silicious soils of the Tertiary strata. A. Michaux
mentions this species "as not found beyond certain districts in Connecticut, it being multiplied in
the lower part of New Jersey, and still more on the eastern shore of Maryland and the lower part
of Virginia." From the remarks of this writer on the extensive use of the timber of the Yellow
Pine (Shortleaf) it appears that at the time of his writing — the beginning of this century — it must
have been quite abundant in those parts.
This appears clearly by his statement that "in the Northern and Middle States (of the Atlan-
tic Seaboard) and in Virginia, where, to a distance of 150 miles from the sea, all houses are built
of wood, the floors, casings of doors, wainscots, and sashes are made of this species, as being
more solid and lasting than any other indigenous wood. In the upper part of the Carolinas the
houses are constructed wholly of Yellow Pine, and are covered with it." Further on we learn
that immense quantities were used in the dockyards of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore,
and that Yellow Pine lumber formed a considerable part of the exports to Great Britain and
the West Indies. Since that time this tree has in the region mentioned not only long ceased to
be a source of timber, but has generally become quite scarce. According to the information of
Dr. N. L. Britton, "it grows on the coast of New York naturally only on Staten Island, and
only about twenty-five trees are to be found in Richmond County. It is fairly abundant in the
portion of New Jersey from the Baritan Biver to Delaware Bay, forming forests, on a tract not
more than 8 miles, and it is also found in Delaware on the same formation outcrop of Green Sand."
With the appearance of the Longleaf Pine south of Virginia the Shortleaf Pine recedes from
the coast and is found chiefly in the upper (interior) part of the Southern coast pine belt, scattered
among the mixed growth of coniferous and deciduous trees. Above the upper limit of the Longleaf
Pine belt the Shortleaf Pine extends, in the Southern Atlantic States, throughout the interior to
the lower ranges of the mountain region.
West of the Alleghany Mountains, in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, it occurs only
widely scattered, and hence is practically of no importance to the lumbering industry.
In North Carolina the Shortleaf Pine is found from the coast to the mountains, though in the
lower districts enters more rarely into the composition of the upland forests. According to Hale's
report on the woods of North Carolina the tree is found in the majority of counties of the State,
but is most abundant in the middle district, where, with upland oaks and hickories, it is the
prevailing tree. It is found about Asheville, at an altitude of 2,500 feet. The Shortleaf Pine used
to form 25 per cent or more of the forest growth in many places, but such areas are not now
frequent anywhere. In the latest report on the forests of North Carolina1 it is stated that there
1 W. W. Ashe : The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Resources of Eastern North Carolina. Bulletin 5, Geol.
Survey, N. C., 1894, page 41.
DISTRIBUTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE.
95
are possibly 300,000,000 feet, board measure, Shortleaf Pine standing in the counties bordering the
oak uplands in the eastern part of the State.
In South Carolina this pine is similarly distributed sparingly in the coast region and more
frequent in the midland country to the lower mountain ranges.
In Georgia, in the lower part of the coast pine belt, the Shortleaf Pine is rarely met with. On
the sandhills in the center of the State, forming the northern border of the pine belt, it occurs
mixed with the Longleaf Pine among the inferior hard- wood timber. In the region of crystalline
rocks, which embraces the more or less mountainous upper half of the State, covering over 19,000
square miles, with an elevation of not over 2,500 feet, this tree is most frequent, in many parts
predominating.
In the three States last named the Shortleaf Pine was originally most abundant in the regions
now most densely populated, and hence their supplies of timber are more or less exhausted, most
of the so-called North Carolina Pine sent to market being Loblolly Pine. Young forests, however,
of this tree are seen everywhere on the hills and mountain slopes, where the original timber
growth has been removed, and on the worn-out lands abandoned by the cultivator.
In Florida the Shortleaf Pine is confined to the uplands along the northern border of the
State, scattered among the Longleaf Pine and hard- wood trees. In the northwestern part, it
approaches the seashore within a distance of from 25 to 30 miles on the isolated patches of red
loam lands, where, together with the Longleaf Pine, it is associated with the Southern Spruce
Pine (Finns (jlabra).
In Alabama and Mississippi the Shortleaf Pine is rarely seen in the lower part of the coast
pine belt, but forms a more or less conspicuous part of the forest covering of the uplands in the
central and upper sections, and sometimes predominates to such an extent over the hard woods as
to impart to the woodlands the somber aspect of a pure pine forest. In the region of crystalline
rocks, with its arid ranges in Alabama, covering an area a little over 3,000 square miles, between
the Coosa lliver and the southern tributaries of the Tallapoosa, the tree is less frequent than in
the region of the same formation in Georgia, the Longleaf here taking its place. In the northern
part of Alabama, on the table-land of the Warrior coal field over an area of fully 5,000 square
miles, mostly in forest, the Shortleaf Pine forms a more prominent feature of the growth. This is
the case particularly in the eastern part of this area, where the tree occupies mostly the summits
and steep declines with a thin, dry soil, while in the deeper and moister soils the Loblolly Pine
takes its place. In Cullman County, altitude 800 feet, where numerous acre measurements have
been made, rarely over 2,000 feet, board measure, of this timber have been found upon one acre,
and it can safely be said that in the localities where it is more frequently met with the average
stand does not exceed 1,500 feet to the acre on this table-land. The supplies of Shortleaf Pine
timber are rapidly diminishing before the demands of a rapidly increasing population and of the
adjacent centers of the mining industry, and their total exhaustion is sure to be eifected within a
short time.
Wherever the original timber growth has been removed on these uplands the young growth
of the Shortleaf Pine is rapidly spreading and predominates over the deciduous trees. The timber
trees of full growth average on these table-lands about 22 inches in diameter breast high and 95
feet in height, furnishing clear sticks of from 35 to 45 feet in length. Such trees have been found
with from 90 to 135 rings of annual growth on the stump.
Four trees felled in the vicinity of Cullman showed the following dimensions:
Measurements of four trees.
Diameter
breaathigh.
Length of
timber.
ll.-ijrlit of
tree.
Ringa on
stump.
Incheg.
Feet.
Feet.
22
42
101
109
21
41
75
111
20
40
87
132
24
45
92
120
On the gravelly hills of the northern extension of the central pine belt in Alabama the
Shortleaf Pine becomes frequently the predominating tree in the forest of oak and hickory. In
Lamar County, Ala., and in northeastern Mississippi it forms forests which in the latter State give
96
TIMBEK PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
rise to a considerable lumbering industry. These forests are, however, rapidly decimated along
the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, where the products of the mill find ready market
throughout north Mississippi and at Memphis. Through the northern half of Mississippi, on the
divide which separates the waters flowing into the Mississippi River from those of the Tornbigbee,
extends a region of undulating uplands of oak, hickory, and Shortleaf Pine over an area little
short of 5,000 square miles; on this long, narrow belt the Shortleaf Pine can be said to form 12 to
15 per cent of the tree covering. These forests furnish an ample supply of pine lumber for local
demands. It appears, however, that in tho eastern Gulf States generally the existing supplies of
Shortleaf Pine are scarcely sufficient to cover home demand. On these uplands the Shortleaf Pine
takes rapid possession of the openings in the forest and the old fields. Here, as has been
elsewhere observed in the central and northern parts of these States, this tree can truly be
considered the timber tree of the future. Since it is rarely found in compact bodies, but associated
with other trees widely scattered, any attempt at an estimate of the amount of the timber standing
in these States must appear futile. The amount of timber cut can also hardly be approximated,
since it forms only a part of the cut of the mills in these States.
West of the Mississippi River, north of the region of the Longleaf Pine, the Shortleaf Pine
is found most abundant and in fullest perfection. It is in these Western forests that tho Short-
leaf Pine finds its best development, and forms pure forests, extending over many hundreds of
square miles with but little interruption. The forests of Shortleaf Pine in northwestern Louisiana,
Arkansas, southern Missouri, and northeastern Texas are scarcely surpassed in their timber wealth.
The Tenth Census estimates the amount of merchantable timber of Shortleaf Pine standing in
1880 in these Western forests at 87,000,000,000 feet, board measure, exclusive of the forests in
southern Missouri and the Indian Territory.
In Louisiana the Shortleaf Pine is unequally distributed over the uplands north of the Longleaf
Pine region between the Ouachita River and the eastern boundary of Texas, embracing an area of
a little over 8,000 square miles. Along the northern extent of the Louisiana and Texas State line
this pine forms pure forests, and also prevails in many localities on the upland along the border of
Arkansas. The resources of pine timber in these mixed forests of oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf
Pine, removed as they are from the highways of traffic, have been but slightly drawn upon.
In Arkansas, in the hilly and mountainous region on both sides of the Arkansas River, over
19,000 square miles in extent, the Shortleaf Pine forms a large part of the tree covering of the
siliceous rocky soil and frequently extensive forests on the wide table-lands. On the uplands of
yellow loam south of the hills the tree predominates, especially on the low ridges of gravel and,
loam, the hard woods encroaching where the soil conditions become more favorable.
The low ridges rising above the Loblolly Pine forests of the flood plain of the Ouachita and Little
Missouri rivers are covered with open forests almost exclusively of Shortleaf Pine, interspersed
with a few White Oaks, Post and Spanish Oaks, rarely above medium size. In the vicinity of
Gurdon, in Clark County, upon one acre representing average conditions, 22 Shortleaf Pines
have been counted from 12 to 25 inches in diameter, with no pines of smaller growth among the
scattered undergrowth of dogwood, huckleberries, scrubby oaks, Black Gum, and hickories. Of
this number, 8 trees measured from 21 to 25 inches; 6 trees from 18 to 20 inches; C trees from
15 to 17 inches and 2 trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter breast high, indicating a stand per acre of
about 6,000 feet, board measure.
Five trees, representing the average timber growth of the forest selected for timber tests, were
found of the following dimensions:
Measurements of five trees.
Diameter
breast high.
Length of
timber.
Height of
tree.
Rings on
stump.
Sapwood.
Inches.
Feet.
Feet.
Inehei.
20
60
110
120
2J
24
47
106
132
2J
19
40
109
102
3
18
36
95
120
3
25
4.-,
117
143
3
On the arid hills of flinty sandstone the trees are of inferior growth, as observed in Hot Springs
County, in the vicinity of Malvern. On their steep slopes the pines are rarely found to exceed 18
DISTRIBUTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE.
inches in diameter breast high and 75 feet in height, clear of limb for the length of about 35 feet.
In a number of trees from 120 to 125 rings were counted on the stump. The wood produced on
these hills is of a lighter color, less resinous, and of a fine grain. Specimens of finished lumber
from such timber resemble somewhat that of the White Pine. The hard-wood trees, mostly
Spanish Oak and Post Oak, scattered beneath ths pines, are scrubby and of no value for their
timber.
Along the railroad lines the forests have become exhausted for a distance of from 5 to 10 miles
on either side, and the timber from the virgin forests is conveyed to the mills on steam tramroads.
It appears that of late years about 550,000,000 to 560,000,000 feet, board measure, of pine timber
are sawn annually in Arkansas south of the Arkansas River. In this amount the Loblolly Pine
lumber is included, which is indiscriminately sawn and put with the Shortleaf Pine on the market
as Arkansas Yellow Pine. The bulk of the product of the sawmills in this section is shipped by
rail to the markets of the Northwest.
In the northern part of Texas, east of the prairie region, from the Red River Valley to
the northern border of the Longleaf Pine region (under latitude 32° IS.), extends an area of
oak, hickory, and Shortleaf Pine uplands, stated in the agricultural report as covering 35,000
square miles. In the southern extent of this area the districts where the Shortleaf Pine prevails
are popularly known as the "Pineries." North of the Sabine River, from Longview through Cass
and Bowie counties, the Shortleaf Pine forms compact forests over many hundreds of square miles.
Near Bevins, in Cass County, where the pine forests were more closely investigated, the moderately
dense timber growth covers the undulating country down to the lowlands of the Red River in
Louisiana. The sandy gray loam forming the rather compact soil of the surface is underlaid
by laminated stiff clayey marls, which at the depth of about 4 feet become quite impervious
to water. Blackjack, Spanish Oak, and Post Oak of stunted growth are scattered beneath the
pine. The pine appears to be of slower growth ; trees of full size — that is, from 20 to 24 inches
in diameter — were found to have reached an age of from 195 to 210 years. The upper part of
the timber of such old trees is frequently affected by rot, a defect undoubtedly to be ascribed
to the cold, impervious subsoil.
From 6,000 to 7,000 feet of merchantable timber are claimed as an average stand for these
timber lands. Every tree above 10 inches in diameter at breast height is cut for the mills. After
the removal of the pine the hard woods gain rapidly in the rate of their growth, soon shading the
ground completely. Young pines are rarely seen in the natural openings, the seedlings being too
frequently destroyed by fire. In the clearings, where the original tree growth has been completely
removed and the pine takes quick possession of the ground, the second growth, if not killed
outright by the fires which again and again devour the surrounding tall weeds and broom grasses,
becomes too severely injured to be of any promise.
Four trees, selected as representing fairly the average merchantable timber of the Shortleaf
Pine forests of northeastern Texas, showed the following record :
Measurements of four trees.
Diameter
breasthigh.
Length of
timber.
Height of
tree.
RiugH in
stump.
Sapwood
on stump.
Inches.
Feet.
Feet.
Inches.
24
36
120
105
3
23
40
109
205
3
18
17
45
42
95
94
102
102
3
The forests of Shortleaf Pine near Longview, which was in 1880 thesite of a most active lumber
industry, have been nearly exhausted, and with diminished supplies along the New Orleans and
I 'iici tic Railway the business has greatly declined. The annual output of the 30 mills situated
along this road, and its branch from Carthage to Panola, does not at present in the aggregate
exceed 70,000,000 feet, board measure. From the information obtained in 1892 it appears that in
1891-92, 200,000,000 feet, board measure, were handled in Texarkana, the product of the mills at
that place and immediate vicinity, and also that the shipments of the mills south of the Red
River in the same year reached about 105,000,000 feet, board measure.
7092— No. i.'i 7
98
TIMHEIi PINES OF THE SOUTIIEItN UNITED STATES.
In Missouri the rugged liills and tablelands of the southern slope of the Ozark Mountains,
rising to an elevation of Iroin SOO to l.(K)i) feet, are covered with forests of Short leaf Pine, which,
roughly estimated, extend over little more than 3.000,000 acres. In the counties bordering on the
Arkansas State line (Terry. O/ark, and Douglas counties) the pine is said to yield on the average
not over 2,000 feet of timber to the acre. The forests in the basin of the Current and Black rivers
sire heavily timbered, as observed at Grandin. The density of the timber growth varies, however,
on these broken lands with the soil conditions, a fact demonstrated by actual measurements on
several plats, upon which the amount per acre varied from ,'5,000 to lf»,000 feet of timber. After
years of experience, the average yield of the timber lands of the Grandin Lumber and Mining
Company is estimated at 6.000 feet of merchantable timber to the acre, including trees of 10 inches
in diameter.
The trees felled to serve as material for the United States timber tests, and fairly representing
the average timber growth, showed the following record:
of Jive trees.
Diameter
breast high.
Length of
timber.
Height of
tree.
Kings on
stump. a
Inehn.
Fett.
Feet.
31
40
103
174
20
50
99
150
17
35
n
140
22
40
88
180
24
50
109
218
aSapwood oil radius of stump averaging 2J inches.
The timber from these most northern of the forests of Shortleaf Pine is remarkably free from
resin, of a fine, close grain, almost white, and claimed to be lighter and softer than the timber grown
farther south, and like the timber occasionally found on the dry, rocky hills in Hot Spring County,
Ark., resembling the wood of the White Pine. In these forests the fine tall pines tower high above
the stunted Scarlet, Black, and White Oaks and hickories, but the growth of these hard woods
almost completely overpowers the second growth of pine.
In close connection with the great markets of the North, and nearest to the timberless region
of the Northwest, the manufacture of lumber in this region is fully developed. According to
information received at Grandiu, the output of the mills located along the Current River Valley
Railroad, the Irou Mountain Railway, the Kansas City, Fort Scott and Memphis Railroad, and the
Cape Girardeau and Southwestern road amounted for the year 1891-92 to fully 300,000,000 feet,
board measure. At such rates the depletion of the timber wealth of this forest is to be expected
before another generation has passed away.
Under the existing method of exploitation, which involves the almost total destruction of the
smaller timber growth, nothing remains to be depended upon for the future. Considering the
difficulties in the way of their natural renewal, there is no hope left for their restoration on these
knolls. The dense undergrowth and brush of deciduous trees and shrubs which completely shade
the soil, the rocky surface being hidden by an abundant and inflammable leaf covering, deprives
the pine of every possibility of reproduction by natural seeding, even if the seedlings could escape
destruction by fire.
According to the census of 1880,1 extensive bodies of Shortleaf Pine timber exist in the
eastern part of the Indian Territory. It occurs mixed among the hard woods on the higher ridges
of the timber belt in the Choctaw Nation, 60 miles in length, and considerable bodies of Shortleaf
1'ine timber in belts of from 10 to 30 miles in length and 2 to 4 miles wide are found on the tributaries
of Grand River in the Cherokee Nation, and in a large body of timber extending for 25 miles west
of Ream this tree appears to reach its western limit.
The great importance of the forests of Shortleaf Pine to the industrial and commercial interests
of the country west of the Mississippi River, and to the development of the adjacent timberless
States and Territories, is forcibly exhibited by the enormous production of lumber for the past ten
years. During the year 1891-92 at a low estimate not less than 1,270,000,000 feet, board measure,
1 Report of Tenth Census, vol. 9, 1884.
NOMENCLATURE OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 99
Lave been shipped from points in Texas, Arkansas, and southern Missouri to Northern markets.
This amount may be swelled by the production east of the Mississippi to round numbers of
1,500,000,000 feet, board measure.
As stated before, an estimate of the timber of this species standing is impossible on account
of its scattered distribution and prevalent occurrence in mixed growths. But considering the
extent of the areas within which it occurs and the average cut on the same, or comparing with the
amounts of Longleaf Pine, which on account of the compact bodies in which it occurs, can be more
readily approximated, it is safe to assume that very much less than 100,000,000,000 feet remain
available, while the cut can be roughly estimated at 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure.
PRODUCTS.
Among the coniferous trees of eastern North America the Shortleaf Pine stands next to
the Longleaf Pine in importance to the lumber industry and in the value of its timber. Freer
from resinous matter, softer, more easily worked, not less susceptible of a good finish, the
lumber of the Shortleaf Pine is often preferred by the cabinetmaker and the house carpenter to
that of the Longleaf Pine. Less tenacious, and of less power of resistance under strain, it is
principally used for the lighter framework in buildings, for weatherboardiug, flooring, ceiling,
wainscoting, cases for windows and doors, for frames and sashes of all kinds, and for shingles.
Most of the dwellings located within the districts where this tree prevails are built almost entirely
of Shortleaf Pine lumber, which bears ample testimony to its wide' usefulness. It is also
extensively employed in car building, for cross-ties, and in the manufacture of furniture.
NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION.
This species, like all of the same genus of a decidedly Southern distribution in the Atlantic
forest, belongs to the section Pinaster as defined by Engelmann, with cones of tough, woody scales
their exposed ends thickened by an umbonate swelling (apophysis), which is armed with a weaker
or stronger deciduous or persistent prickle or mucro. It was first described by Miller in the year
17<>s as Pinus echinata,1 and under that name recognized by the earliest writers on North American
forest trees;2 it was subsequently named by an obscure writer Firm* nrginiana var. echinata,
Du Boi.3 Michaux described this tree in his North American Flora4 under the name of Pinm
mitis, which received general recognition and by which it is known to botanists to the present
day. Pinus vnriabilis, the name under which it was described at about the same time by Lam-
bert,5 was adopted by Wildenow, and following that author by Pursh, Nuttall, Elliott, and a few
others of the writers on the botany of this country. In following strictly the rule of priority, at
present most strongly advocated as the only measure to avoid further the confusion arising from
an endless number of synonyms, Pinus mitis, the name under which it is generally known, will
have to be abandoned, and the more obscure one, Pinus echinata, under which this species was
first published, restored.
( 1 reat confusion is caused by the various appellations this tree has received in the English ver-
nacular, being indiscriminately called Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine, and Spruce Pine, although most
widely known under the first of these names, and in the markets it is now somewhat doubtfully
established under the name of Yellow Pine. In the States of the lower South it is frequently
confounded with the Loblolly Pine, as the timber of the two is often, if not mostly, mixed. M. A.
< Hi tis, in his "Trees of North Carolina," selected for this tree the name of Yellow Pine, strongly
recommending its general adoption in order to introduce greater uniformity in the designations of
our forest trees. Unfortunately the same name is in many of the Southern lumbering districts
bcstort'ed upon the Longleaf Pine, particularly when the timber is spoken of. It is often quite
impossible to determine to which of the two species the timber is to be referred when under that
name it is quoted in the reports of the lumber markets.
1 Miller, Card. Dictionary, 8th ed., London, 1768.
2 MarHball, Arliiistriiin Aincricanum: Philadelphia, 1785.
3 Du Koi, Harb. Banmz. Nordam. 1771-72.
4 A. Michaux, Flora Boreali-Americaua. Paris, 1803.
6 Lambert, Description of the Genus Pinus: (ed.) 1803 and (ed.) 1824.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
[Figures natural size, except where otherwise noted.]
Fig. a, branch from a lower limb bearing male inflorescence with flowers in a dense cluster (first week of April,
southern Alabama); 6, c, branch with two subterminalaments of female flowers below which are two immature coix-.s
of one season's growth; <l, detached male flower showing basal involucral scales, magnified 3 diameters; e, germi-
nating seed (February); /, same seedling one month later (March) with 7 cotyledons in the midst of which tbe
terminal bud shows the primary leaves appearing; g, seedling about tbe close of the first season with terminal
cluster of true (secondary) leaves, below which are seen the withered primary leaves; It, i, transverse section through
base of two and three leafed leaf bundle, magnified 50 diameters, showing outer small hypodermal cells, the stomata
appearing as marginal white spots; next a broad band of large in-walled parencliymatous cells bearing chlorophyll,
within which, at the angles of the leaf, resin ducts appear as largo openings; the dark areas in the center are fibre-
vascular bundles surrounded by a single row of thin-walled cells (bundle sheath).
100
Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XV.
PINUS ECHINATA: SEEDLING, MALE AND FEMALE FLOWER, AND LEAF SECTIONS.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 101
Under the iiame of Spruce Pine, in the extreme Southern districts, it is invariably confounded
with the true Southern Spruce Pine (Pinus glabra), the species which in several points it closely
resembles and to which it is most closely related.
BOTANICAL, DESCRIPTION.
Leaves mostly 2 (sometimes 3) in a short sheath, 3 to 5 inches long; cones 1£ to 2 inches Ion?,
oval or somewhat conical; scales with a short, tender, straight, and finally incurved prickle, light
brown. Seeds rather small, two-fifths of an inch long, by one-tenth to one-eighth of an inch wide,
with dark, scattered or confluent specks; the wings are reddish brown and about one-half of an inch
long. The young shoots are of a glaucous violet color. The bark of mature trees is rather thick
and broken up in squarish plates. The different general appearance of the tree will almost always
serve to quickly distinguish it from the closely related Scrub Pine (Pinus virginiana) which is
distinguished by its shorter and more rigid leaves. Any doubt can be removed by trying the
twigs; those of the Scrub Pine are tough while those of the Shortleaf Pine snap oft' readily. The
bark is of a light reddish brown color, and on the lower part of the trunk in full-grown trees
three-fourths to fully one inch thick crossed by deep furrows, and flaky.
The limbs are arranged in more or less regular whorls, under full exposure, forming a crown
with the outline of a truncated pyramid, by which the tree can be recognized from a distance and
distinguished from kindred species with which it happens to be associated. The oldest and stout-
est limbs are rarely over 20 to 25 feet in length, and are somewhat drooping.
It is indeed a beautiful tree, with its stately, gently tapering trunk and its finely shaped full
crown clothed in an abundance of foliage, bearing the stamp of thrifty and vigorous growth.
Leave*. — The secondary or foliage leaves are found mostly 2 in a sheath, and on shoots of vig-
orous growth often 3 are found in a bundle; occasionally whole trees are seen with 3 leaves in a
sheath and in some rare instances on young trees even 4 have been counted (PI. XVI, g, li). The
leaves vary from 3 to 4 inches and a little over in length ; they are slender, about one-eighteenth
of an inch wide, strongly concave, slightly twisted, faintly serrulate, and abruptly sharp pointed,
while young of a yellowish and later on of a deeper green color. In the cross section (PI. XV, h, i)
they present a semicircular outline; examined under the microscope they show on both sides about
ten rows of minute stomata (breathing pores) the small epidermal cells underlaid by a single layer
of rather thin-walled hypodermal or strengthening cells; in the specimens examined from 3 to 4
peripheral resin ducts were found, the bundle sheath consisting of a single row of cells. The sheath
invests the. leaves closely and rarely exceeds at any stages of growth three-sixteenths of an inch;
the leaves are shed during the latter part of their second year.
The bract-like scales (PL XV, b. c.), modified primary leaves, which densely cover the young
shoots and in the axils of which the foliage leaves are produced, are while young of a grayish color,
closely appressed, lanceolate, acuminate, and fringed; with the subsequent development of the
foliage leaves and the increase of the shoot in length, their tips become dried and are cast oft'.
As the tender shoots become hardened they assume a glaucous purplish color.
Flowers. — The flower buds make their appearance during the latter part of the winter and
begin, in stations of southern latitudes, to open near the end of March (Baldwin County, Ala.,
March 26), and farther north from three to four weeks later (Cullmau, Ala,, April 28). The stami-
nate flowers are closely sessile, to the number of fifteen to twenty surrounding the terminal bud
(PL XV, «), which at the time has scarcely grown to the length of an eighth of an inch. The
staminal column, of a pale purplish color, does not exceed three-fourths of an inch in length,
is less than one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and is surrounded by eight or nine decussate
scales, those of the first pair being strongly keeled and scarcely half the size of the others (PL
X V, d). The crest of the anthers is nearly circular and slightly denticulate. The male flowers
are shed immediately after the discharge of the pollen. The female flowers are united in an
oblong, obtuse, short-stalked catkin of a delicate rose-pink color, about one-fourth of an inch in
length. They are rarely single, but mostly from two to four, produced closely below the apex of
the youngest shoot (PL XV, b). The stipe of the catkin, not over three-eighths of an inch in
length, is invested by twenty to twenty-four hyaline lanceolate, pointed, involucral scales, those
immediately surrounding the flowers being widely spreading. The bracts subtending the carpellary
scales cover the latter to the base of their long, subulate, erect tips.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.
1
Fig. a, branch with mature closed cones (October of second season); It, mature cone; c, cone scale, outer or
dorsal view showing apophysis; </, ventral view of the same with seed in place; e, seed detached from wing; /, seed
with wing intact; g, leaf forms, two and three leafed bundles.
102
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry,
PLATE XVI.
PlNUS ECHINATA: CONE, SEED, AND LEAVES.
DESCRIPTION OF WOOD OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 103
After fertilization has taken place the shoots bearing the fertile flowers increase rapidly in
length. Fertile catkins are frequently found on the older branches, produced on branchlets from
adventitious buds. The tree begins to produce flowers when from ten to twelve years old, according
to exposure; male flowers have been observed one or two seasons earlier.
Cones.— Every season cones are produced in great abundance. The conelets of the first year,
borne on a short, horizontal stalk, are oval in shape, scarcely one-half an inch in length, the
squarrose tips of the scales giving them the echinate appearance from which the botanical name
first given to this species was undoubtedly derived (PI. XV, c).
Fully matured by the end of the second year, the cones are nearly sessile, oval, of dull or
leather brown color, li to rarely 2 inches long, and when open, nearly as wide; they are frequently
smooth (PI. XVI, a, ft). The scales are hard, with a slightly swelled apophysis, devoid of or armed
with the weak, more or less deciduous prickle (PI. XVI c, d). The cones open early in the fall, and
remain, after the discharge of their seeds, for several years on the branches. In consequence,
the older trees are covered with them through all seasons.
Seed. — The Shortleaf Pine produces seeds in greatest abundance; its crops seem never to fail.
The seeds are small, triangular, three sixteenths of an inch long by one-eighth of an inch wide, the
hard, roughish testa marked with three indistinct ridges and more or less with confluent specks;
the wing is of a light, reddish brown, half an inch in length and deciduous during germination
(PI. XV, e,f). The seeds retain their vitality lor several years; fresh, they will germinate in from
ten to fifteen days. The number of seeds to the ounce is about 5,000; wafted by the wind over
wide distances and germinating early during the first days of spring, their offspring are found to
take possession of every opening in the forest and of the old fields in localities lavorable to their
growth.
THE WOOD.
The wood of Shortleaf Pine resembles that of the Loblolly in almost every respect. The
sapwood is clearly defined, being quite broad, and even in' very old trees forms fully one half of the
total volume of the trunk. In thirteen trees one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old, the
average widtli of sapwood was found to be about -4 inches, while even in trees over one hundred
and fifty years old its average width was 3 inches. In the former case, the sapwood formed 65 to
70 per cent of the volume of the logs; in the latter, 50 to 55 per cent, while in a set of trees fifty
to one hundred years old it formed fully 80 per cent of all the wood. The change from sapwood to
hardwood proceeds much as in Loblolly Pine. It begins when the tree (or any disk) is about
twenty-five to thirty years old, and is retarded more and more with age, so that in old trees as
many as eighty or even one hundred rings are counted in the sapwood, while in young and thrifty
trees not more than thirty to forty may occur.
In keeping with the large amount of sapwood, the weight of green Shortleaf Pine is rather
great, varying, for entire logs, from 45 to 55 pounds per cubic foot, commonly approaching CO pounds
in the largely water filled outer portions of the sapwood.
When kiln-dried, the wood of trees one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old weighs
on the average about 32 pounds per cubic foot. As in other pines, the butt is 15 to 20 per cent
heavier than the top, and the wood of the inner forty to fifty rings excels in weight and strength
the wood of the outer parts of old logs. As was stated for Loblolly, the sapwood may be light,
heavy, weak, or strong, according to the age of the tree from which it is obtained. As might be
expected from the great range of distribution of this tree, its wood, like that of Loblolly, varies
within very wide limits. Specimens from Missouri (near its northern limits) are generally lighter
mid less resinous than those from farther south, and frequently resemble the wood of the Norway
Pine, while many select specimens from the Gulf and South Atlantic States rival in weight and
strength the best grades of Longleaf Pine. In its strength, as in its weight, the Shortleaf follows
Loblolly Pine.
The average of a large series of tests furnishes the following average values for dry pieces of
this species:
H)8. |>< i H<|. inch.
Modulus of elasticity 1, (!00, 000
Transverse strength it, 1'liO
Compression endwise : 5, 900
Shearing along the liber 688
1()4 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
As the average weight of this series was :{s pounds per cubic foot, or about 16 per cent heavier
than the average weight involving all parts of all the trees, these figures should be reduced by
that per cent to represent the true average for the wood of the species.
In drying, 100 pounds of wood lose from 40 to 50 pounds of water, the bulk of which conn •>
from the sapwood, which contains 60 per cent and more, while the heartwood, like that of most
pines, contains about 25 per cent.
The shrinkage in volume consequent on drying amounts to about 11 per cent. It is about !'•>
per cent in the wood of the butt and about 10 per cent in that of the upper logs, varying in this
respect directly as the weight of the dry wood. Of the 11 per cent, about 8 per cent fall to the
tangent or occur along the rings and 3 to 5 per cent along the radius.
The structure of the wood of Shortleaf Pine is essentially the same as that of Loblolly. Sum-
merwood and springwood are sharply denned. The proportion of the former to the wood on the
whole varies, as in Loblolly, in the same manner as the weight of the wood, being greater in the
butt than top, greater in the wood of the inner rings than in the wood farther out, and greatly
reduced in all cases where the growth of the tree is suddenly retarded by unfavorable seasons,
but is otherwise quite independent of the width of the rings.
For details of structure, consult the comparative study of Mr. Roth, appended to these
monographs.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
The seeds begin to swell and to germinate in the early days of spring. In Mobile County, on
the end of the first week of March, the plantlets had their cotyledons fully unfolded, which were
found to vary from six to seven in number, with the lower (hypocotyledonary) part of the axis from
14 to 2 inches long, the rootlets being somewhat less in length (PI. XV, e, g). The development
of the upper part of the axis (caulicle) from the terminal budlet and of the primary auerose leaves
proceeds now rapidly. These primary leaves succeeding the cotyledons are stiff and spreading,
about three-fourths of an inch long and covering the stem densely (PI. XV, g), remain during the
first season, withering from below during the warmer part of the season. By the close of the first
season the caulicle or first shoot has attained a length of from 3 to 4 inches. On the shoot of
the second season (rarely before) the secondary leaves, which constitute the foliage, make their
appearance from the undeveloped brauchlets in the axis of the primary leaves (PI. XV, g). At
the end of the second year the plants are 7 to 8 inches high, with a taproot 2 to 3 inches
long. During this season adventitious buds appear at the collar of the stem, which bring forth
vigorous sprouts, particularly if the stem has sustained the slightest injury. These shoots are
covered with primary leaves, which are retained for one season. They are apt to form strong
branches before the tree has reached its fourth or fifth year; such branches, which are produced
profusely from the stumps of larger trees, scarcely survive another season. It is rarely that
branches are produced in the second year, the first branches appearing generally in the third
season in whorls of three to four. In the third year foliage leaves alone are produced in the axils
of scales with their bases close to the stem. At the close of the third year the plants are from 12
to 18 inches high. Now the development of the root system advances rapidly, the taproot being
by this time about 8 or 10 inches long, with strong lateral roots often double that length. I>;ith
taproot and lateral roots are finally vigorously developed, penetrating deep into the ground, so
that trees of this species are rarely blown down by winds. At the end of the fourth year the
plants are from 2 to 3 feet high, with the stem at best from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an
inch thick.
The branches of the whorls begin now in their turn to develop branchlets in whorls of secondary
order. The development of the primary axis and its branch system proceeds henceforth in the
regular acropetal order. As in all pines, the shoot of the main axis takes the lead in rapidity and
vigor of growth. By a number of measurements made at Cullman, north Alabama, of trees from
the openings in the forest, as well as from clearings, it was found that by the end of the fifth year
they had attained a height varying between 3 and f> feet, rarely over, the stem being from five-eight hs
to seven eighths of an inch in thickness; by the end of the sixth year, from 6 to 9 feet high and
from one halt to 2 inches in diameter; and at the tenth year, from 10 to 16 feet high and from 2
EARLY GROWTH OF SHORTLEAF PINE.
105
to 2i inches in diameter. At the age of fifteen to twenty years, with a total height of from 20 to 30
feet and a diameter breast high of 4 to 5 inches, the crown of the tree occupies from one-half to
five-eighths of its height. Henceforth throughout the period of quickest growth its rate is greatly
influenced by conditions of light and soil. At the age of fifty years the height of the trees varies
between 40 and GO feet and the diameter breast high between 10 and 14 inches. About this age,
or perhaps a short time before, the height growth begins to decline and the branches become
somewhat redlining below and spreading toward the top, and consequently the head of the tree
becomes more rounded in outline. Between the ages of sixty and seventy years the trees are from
50 to 70 feet high and from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, with the trunk clear of limbs for 30 to
rarely over 40 feet. From this period on the growth proceeds at a slower rate. On reaching its
one hundredth year the tree has attained a height between 90 and 95 feet and a diameter of
from 16 to 19 inches at most. Having now passed its period of vigorous life, the growth is
henceforth insignificant. Between the ages of one hundred and twenty and one hundred and
thirty years trees were found 90 to 110 feet high and from 18 to i!4 inches in diameter. The oldest
tree encountered in the measurements, with two hundred and eight rings of annual growth in
the stump, scarcely exceeded 109 feet in height and measured 24 inches in diameter. The largest
tree felled was 117 feet high and 25 inches in diameter, with one hundred and forty-three rings in
the stump. Occasionally trees are found of a diameter exceeding 3 feet, but such are exceptional.
TABLE 1.— Growth, of Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata), from eight to fifty years.
Number of
tree.
Rings
in
stump.
Diame-
ter at
breast
high.
Height
to
first
limb.
Total
height.
Locality.
Remarks.
1
8
8
9
10
10
12
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
15
15
18
19
19
20
19
22
27
24
25
41
Inchet.
2
I
?
3
2
2
P
4
4
4
6
?
?
11
Feet.
6
Feet.
11
11
11
17
11
11
11
20
16
19
16
17
20
24
20
36
37
20
26
25J
25
25J
33
34
70
Cullman, Ala
Clearing made in 1879 for pasture in dense pine thicket.
Do.
Do.
Rocky hillside, border of thicket.
Rocky hillside in dense thicket of vigorous growth ; youngest shoot,
19 inches.
Exposure free in opening of forest.
Rocky table-land; opening in forest.
Border of thicket; freely exposed.
Rocky table-land; partially exposed; in forest.
Exposed ; border of woods.
Do.
In midst of thicket; old clearing.
Old pasture, cleared in 1879; most vigorous growth; young shoot 19
inches.
Do.
Rocky hills; open forest.
Open forest.
Exposure free ; open grove of second growth.
Oppressed in forest opening by oak scrub.
Rocky ; open woods.
Open grove; closely oppressed.
Open grove of second growth.
Do.
Do.
Partially free; in forest.
Free ; old field.
2
3
do
4
do
5
... do
173.
7
7
Bivina Tex
138
9
137
6
10
«
5
. do
7
do
10
do
g
12
10
15
22
10
14
if
ff
15
51
do
136
171
159
(iurdon, Ark
135
134
do
161
160
. do
157
do
do
Bivins, Tex
138
170
155 .
106 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
TAIII.K ll.—lirotrth of Shortleaf Vine during stage of rigorout growth, from fifty to one hundred and twenty yeart.
Number of
tree.
Ring*
in
stump.
[>ian
\i
breast
high.
•:.i -
Below
crown.
Height
to tirnl
limbor
crown.
Total
height,
Length
of
timlK-r.
Locality.
!;. iiiurkn.
IN
62
68
60
73
102
102
102
105
109
111
114
116
Incka.
*i
J
12
161
18
19
15
22
21
17
22
Incha.
feel.
22
20
45
38
8
38
U
42
41
46
45
Fat.
46
50
81
80
94
95
109
64J
101
74
93
93
Feet.
Bivinis Tex
do
In forest: soil cold, underdrainage deficient; ex-
posure free.
Kxposnre free; opening in forest,
i 'oust line : loamy sand, with Cuban Pine ; exposure
free.
Ojirnin^ ill t'm-est : exposure partially free.
Oppressed.
KxjNisure free; open forest.
1'iirtially free on gravelly ridge.
Exposure partially free; open forest; dry hill;
sandy, gravelly loam.
Exposure free; gravelly loam.
Oppressed on all sides ; red heart above 36 feet.
Exposure free; open forest; rocky, and sandy
loam.
168
167
Baldwin County, Ala.,
nearTensttw Kiver.
Bivins, Tex
32
165
do
164.
do
152
38
30
40
31
do
do ..
li;i;
46
42
Bivins, Tex
1
19J
TABLE III. — Growth of Shortleaf Pine during stage of slow growth, latest stage of life.
Number of
of tree.
Kings
in
stump.
Diameter—
Height
to first
limbor
crown.
Total
height.
Length
of mer-
chant-
able
timber.
Locality.
Remarks.
At
breas t
high.
Below
crown.
150...
120
120
120
132
132
140
143
150
174
180
195
204
218
Inches.
24
20
20
24
20
17
25
20
31
22
24
23
25
Inches.
Feet.
45
73
47
47
42
39
46
50
46
42
37
61
55
Feet.
92
110
95
106
87
92
117
100
102
91
119
108
110
Feet.
42
60
45
43
40
38
45
50
40
40
37
40
50
CnUtnan, Ala
Open forest ; bills : soil, sandy clay : exposure free.
Open forest; gentle declivity; gravelly clay.
Do.
Do.
Open forest; clay hill; exposure free.
Exposure free ; rocky table-land.
Exposure free; gravelly hillside.
Kockv table-land. : exposure free.
D'o.
Rocky table-land; exposure partially free; slightly
suppressed.
ColdKoil: exposure free.
Cold soil; exposure free ; afl'ected above 40 IV. t with
red heart.
Exjiosure free; soil loamy; deep.
13
153
do
do
<'ii Minim. Ala
150o
19
129
12
20J
154
Gurdon, Ark
128
127
do
130
do
162...
Bivins, Tex
163
do
131
22
From the general table (No. IV) and the corresponding diagram it seems that in the average
the tree at twenty is about 30 feet high, reaches 50 feet at the age of forty, and that its growth in
height is in the main finished at the early age of 70. In keeping with this, the growth in
diameter is quite rapid during the first fifty years, continues at a moderate pace up to 80, when
the age of slow growth is entered.
RATE OF GROWTH OF SHORTLEAF PINE.
TABLE IV.— Bate of growth of Shortleaf I'int:
107
Age.
Diameter
with bark
(breast
high).
Length
of log
with up-
per diiuii-
eter of 5
inches.
Total
height of
tree.
Volume.
Periodical growth by decades.
Average
annual
accretion.
Current
accretion.
Tree.
Log up to
5 inches
diam-
eter.
Decade.
Diam-
eter.
Height.
Area of
cross
section.
Volume.
10
21)
30
40
50
CO
70
80
100
Inchf*.
'.{ 0
'feet.
Feet.
11
27
41
51
60
67
71
75
78
81
Cu./t.
0.32
2.21
7.55
14.06
22. 18
31. 97
48. M
56.54
62.53
07.68
C-u.fl.
12^98
21. IH
31.10
43.32
55. 91
61.89
67.05
First
Second
Third
Inches.
2.2
2.3
" 2
Feet.
11
16
14
10
9
7
4
4
3
3
AV/./t.
0.03
.07
.14
.13
.17
.21
.21
.23
.10
.07
"o. 32
1.89
5.34
6.51
8.12
9.79
11.19
12.58
5.99
5.15
On. ft.
0.03
.11
.25
.35
.44
.53
. .62
.70
.69
.68
Cu.ft.
0.03
.19
.53
.65
.81
.98
1.20
.'60
.51
5.2
7.4
9.3
11.0
12.7
14.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
15
26
38
4M
56
61
64
67
Fourth
1.6
1.0
1.6
1.6
1.5
.6
.5
Fifth
Sixth
Eighth
Ninth
Tenth
HEIGHT
IN FEET.
•-*-- 145-4— 16.0— r"— l6.5---f--l7.0--->;
DIAMETERS
IN INCHES.
Flo. 11. — ( Jrnwtli of Sbortleaf Pine: Height, diameter, and c-nhic rnn tents of average trees at 10, 20, etc., years of age.
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT.
mid climate. — The Shortleaf Piue prefers a well-drained, light sandy or gravelly clay soil
or warm loam, even if deficient in the elements of plant food. Soils of this character which are
found widely prevailing over the undulating or broken uplands, if only of sufficient depth, will
produce this tree in greatest perfection. It avoids the strongly calcareous and the rich alluvial
.soils, as well as purely silicions, being dependent on the presence of a certain amount of clay by
which the mechanical condition of the soil is improved, rendering it more compact and more
108 TlMKKli PINES OF THE SOUTHKKN UNITED STATES.
retentive of moisture. That a purely sandy and highly porous soil is not favorable to this tree
is shown by the stunted growth of the waifs sometimes found in the openings of the forests of
Longleaf Pint- on the sandy, arid uplands in the lower part of the coast pine belt.
Distributed in its range over 10 degrees of latitude and exposed to wide differences of
temperature, it shows almost the same thrift of growth near its northern limits under the isotherm
of />()- F., and in regions where the thermometer falls to near 20° below zero, as in lower latitudes
witli a mean annual temperature of 64° F. It can, therefore, endure a considerable range of
temperature.
The conditions of atmospheric moisture evidently exercise a much more decided influence
over its distribution, and, without doubt, upon its individual development. The tree is found in
greatest abundance and of best growth where, within the limits of its distribution, the annual
rainfall varies between 48 to 52 inches, it is less frequent in the districts where the precipitation
exceeds 56 inches, still scarcer where the annual rainfall averages below 44 inches, and entirely
wanting where this is less than 40 inches. Hence it is found best developed in the upper part of
the Gulf States and west of the Mississippi Kiver in adjacent northern districts from the interior
of Georgia to northeastern Texas, where the most favorable conditions in regard to atmospheric
precipitation prevail. The tree seems to avoid the humid air of the coast along the Gulf, as well
as along the seashore of the (Southern Atlantic States, nor does it ascend the mountains in these
States above an altitude of 2,500 feet.
RELATION TO LIGHT AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES.
The Shortleaf Pine, like most pines, is a light needing species, being, however, less sensitive
to. a deficiency in this direction than the Longleaf and Cuban pines, which latter succumb in
competition with the Shortleaf Pine. Originally the Shortleaf Pine is found more or less asso-
ciated with various oaks (Spanish Oak, Blackjack, Scarlet Oak, Post Oak, and Black Oak), the
Mockernut and the Pignut Hickory, and more rarely with the Chestnut, the Mountain Oak, and
the Scrub Pine. All of these species prefer the warm, lighter soils of the uplands. These
companions of the Shortleaf Pine are joined in the lower Southern States by the Loblolly and
Longleaf Pine. Wherever in these upland forests an opening is made the Shortleaf Pine gains
over its associates, finding its only successful rival in the Loblolly Pine. It is in the Southern
States proverbial that in the upland forests "the pine is crowding out the hard- wood timber,"
a fact early observed. The displacement is effected either gradually in the course of time, or
instantly when the removal of the original timber growth has been sudden. In the upper part
of the maritime pine belt, where it is associated with the Longleaf Pine, the latter is sure to be
replaced by the Shortleaf species, often joined in the course of such invasion by the Loblolly Pine.
ENEMIES.
Little is known of the fungoid parasites and of the insects endangering the life of the
Shortleaf Pine. From my own observation, it seems that this tree is less affected by the former
than the other pines of the same region. In the lumbering districts of Alabama a disease called
redheart or redrot, caused by the mycelium of a large species of Polyporns, which is so highly
destructive to the Longleaf Pine, is in this species almost unknown. In northeastern Texas this
disease was found to affect the superannuated timber trees, which were over two hundred years
old. According to A. S. Packard ' the hosts of insects affecting this pine seriously are scarcely less
in number than those infesting the Longleaf Pine; its enemies belong to the same or very nearly
related kinds. Among the borers the Monnluimmuit cunfiixor and other species of the same genus
dig burrows in the timber to the heart; the larva' of numerous Kui>r<-xtiil<r. (^niinbycidce, and
t'urr>ili<>ni(l(t' burrow under the bark, and the Tomicm oalUgraphvi, cacuyraphiis, ccelatus, and
other species of Scolytidw, at certain seasons are in immense numbers carrying on their work
of destruction in the cambium layer, leaving in wonderful delineation on the inside of the bark
the marks of their pernicious activity and causing the speedy death of the tree.
Mr. E. A. Sch war/, of the Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, remarks in this
connection that of more than usual interest is the remarkable and disastrous invasion of one of
1 A. S. Packard: Insects injurious to forest and shade trees.
ENEMIES OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 109
these bark-boring Scolytid beetles (Dendroctonuxfrontalis), which in former years was universally
considered a rare species. This invasion started in 18S8 from the mountainous regions of West
Virginia and within four years spread throughout the Alleghany Mountains and adjacent lowlands
from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas. The amount of damage caused by this beetle within that time
to the Shortleaf Pine and other pine trees has been enormous. A contagious disease, probably of
a fungoid character, terminated in 1892 this invasion just as suddenly as it had commenced, and
in 1893 not a single living beetle could be found throughout the infested region. The white froth
hiding the larva of a tree jumper (Aphrophora parallela) is very common on the summits of the
twigs, the larva; of the sawflies are seen at the same season to feed on the tender, young foliage,
which is also infested by a small white Gelechia depositing its eggs on the leaves, the larvse boring
into them to provide shelter for their pupse; and according to Mr. Schwarz the leaves of the
Shortleaf Pine are frequently found completely covered by a scale insect (Mytiinapix pinifolia-),
causing what is termed in New England the "white malady" of the pine. Of the flat-headed
borers, larvse of the Buprestidce, the most injurious species are Chrysobothrix dentipes (Germ.),
Chalcophora virginiensis (Drury); less common, Ghalcophora yeoryiana (Lee;.) and Buprestis lineata
Fab.
Exposed to the same dangers of destruction by forest lires and by live stock of every kind,
which threaten the Longleaf species with extermination, the chances of this pine to resist them
and to escape such eventually are more favorable in consequence of the greater facilities for its
reproduction and of its rapidity of growth during the earliest stages of its existence.
The pernicious influences of the first of these agencies is, however, painfully visible near the
settlements where the forest is exposed to its effects one season after another. In such localities
the pines are of stunted growth; in the middle stage — their very prime of life — they exhibit signs
of decay and early death. But few of the younger trees exposed to fire were found on close
examination to be free from defects and marks of impending disease.
Confined to the gentle slopes of the low hill country, to rolling uplands, and to broad table-lands,
this tree is scarcely exposed to destruction by torrents and Hoods. Unsought for its resinous
juices, it is not subjected to the wholesale destruction caused by the prevalent methods employed
in the manufacture of naval stores. No other timber tree found in the southern portion of the
Atlantic forest region is more easy of natural reproduction than this species throughout the wide
range of its distribution. This is readily accounted for by its great fecundity, the seeds produced
in great abundance almost without failure every year being profusely spread far and wide, and
germinating easily wherever the proper soil and a chance is offered for their reception. By their
thrifty growth the seedlings soon gain the upper hand over the contemporary growth of other
species.
Throughout the interior of the Atlantic and the Gulf States tracts of upland, originally covered
with fine oak forests, which had been cleared for cultivation and but little over half a century ago
abandoned, are found at present occupied by the Shortleaf Pine, forming dense groves of trees
t!5 feet and over in height, with a diameter of 10 to 12 inches, standing 18 to HO feet apart, with no
undergrowth whatever.1 Such young forests, met with in every stage of growth, afford highly
instructive lessons of the ways taken by nature in the spontaneous restoration of the forest. In
such spontaneous growths of the Shortleaf Pine the saplings form from the first mostly dense
thickets. Before having arrived at their tenth year the work of thinning has actively begun by
the death and speedy decay of the weakest. Thus favored by the access of light and air, the
surviving trees shoot rapidly upward, the most aspiring individuals spreading out their crown,
overshadowing those lagging behind, which being thus cut off from the influences above all others
required for their existence, one after another die. Before the trees have reached the middle stage
of their growth the stand of timber in the young forest appears to be firmly established, and
during the following period, embracing less than half a century, they have attained the fullness
of their growth, furnishing timber fully matured and of the dimensions and quality required by
the present standard. Unchecked by destructive influences the rotation of a crop of timber of the
Shortleaf Pine produced without the interference or assistance of man, can be said to be accom-
plished within a period of from eighty- five to ninety-five years.
'Charles Mohr: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Forestry Congress, Boston, Sep-
tember, 1885.
110 TIMBEB PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
FOREST MANAGEMENT.
From the place this species is taking amoug the secoutl growth it can be safely predicted that
it is destined to be the timber tree of the future, as far as the Southern States of the Atlantic
forest region north of the Longleaf Pine belt are concerned. It is upon this tree that in this
section succeeding generations will have to depend for their supplies of pine timber of .superior
quality, and in which the nearest substitute is to be found for the supplies furnished at present
by the Lougleaf Tine. That the resources of the latter under the increasing strain to which it
is subjected will be completely exhausted before its restoration can be effected is too evident to
admit of any doubt.
Amoug the timber trees of the coniferous order found in the Atlantic forests, there is, then,
scarcely a species presenting stronger claims to the attention of the forester than the Shortleaf
1'ine. As far as its demands upon climate and soil are concerned, it is capable of successfully
establishing itself over the immense territory reaching from 30° to 38° north latitude and from
tlie Atlantic Slope to the treeless plains of the West; embracing within these limits areas of wide
extent, with all the conditions required for the best development of this species, and in great
measure adapted to nothing better than the growth of timber. Of not less importance than its
value as a timber tree are its facilities Cor natural renewal, resulting from the abundant crops of
seed produced almost without failure every year and its aggressive behavior toward competing
species in the successful struggle for the possession of the soil.
From a closer observation of the young forests of spontaneous growth at different stages, it is
apparent that in the establishment and rearing of a forest of Shortleaf Pine, where mother trees
exist, nature requires comparatively little assistance from the hands of the forester, and that the
efforts of the latter will be chiefly confined to measures of protection against destruction by
fire and against the injuries caused by inroads of live stock during the earlier stages of growth.
That by thinning out, practiced after the first to the middle or end of the third decade, the forest
growth would be benefited, there can be but little doubt. To what extent, by such interference,
the product ion of merchantable timber can be promoted and in quantity and quality improved at
the least cost remains a matter of future experiment. In the total absence of facts, based on
experiment, no suggestions can be offered on these points other than such as can be deduced from
the natural requirements of this species, as already discussed.
In conclusion, it can be safely asserted that the Shortleaf Pine is destined to take a prominent
place in the forest management of the future throughout the regions favorable to its growth, not
only on account of its economic value in the natural forest, but also in holding out better pros-
pects to the forest planter for the production of timber of higher quality in the shortest time
than any tree of the same order in the Southern Atlantic forest region. That the methods of a
rational forest management will have to be resorted to at no distant time can with certainty be
predicted, although the timber wealth existing at present in the vast territory of its growth inny
appear enormous.
Of great importance in the reforestation of large areas, thjs tree is of no less significance to
the farmer who is aware of the advantages resulting from the restoration of the tree-covering on
his denuded uplands, either originally unfit for profitable tillage or thrown out of cultivation utter
their exhaustion. By the facility of its natural renewal the Shortleaf Pine affords within a short time
a firm protection to the light soil, preventing it from being carried away by wind and rain, providing
a shelter for the crops and for insectivorous birds, a lasting income of increasing supplies of timber
and fuel on lands that yield no other profit whatever, and to the lands abandoned after their
exhaustion a chance for their recuperation while resting under the cover of its shade.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON SHORTLEAF PINE.
By FILIBBBT ROTH.
(September 1, 1897.)
As might be expected from its wide and extremely irregular distribution, this tree receives
many names and in many localities is little or not known even to otherwise quite well-informed
woodmen. Thus in an entire county of South Carolina, where the tree occurs but sparsely, not a
single man was met who recognized this species. Among the many appellations the name "Rose-
mary" deserves mention, having wide and varied application and having led to considerable
controversy and much confusion. Apparently this name originated in the North Carolina1 pinery,
where even to-day this tree, though by no means abundant, is well known to all woodmen. In the
country about the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds all woodmen interviewed invariably knew it
and consistently called it Rosemary Pine. In the towns and by manufacturers in this district and
also in the coast pine belt farther south the tree is generally not known at all, but the word
"Rosemary" is nevertheless in common use, and Rosemary Pine timber held in especial regard.
Questioning many of the experienced manufacturers, it was found that Rosemary Pine in the market
towns refers not to a particular species but to large select fine-grained timbers of any pine except
Longleaf, and was formerly a much-desired article for ship planking, etc., being less resinous,
softer, and claimed to be less prone to shrink and swell than the wood of Longleaf Pine.
As mentioned in the monograph, Shortleaf Pine occurs only scatteringly in the great pinery of
.North Carolina and southern Virginia, and forms probably not as much as 1 per cent of the total
cut of the North Carolina pine on the market. In Texas, where this species is generally called
Shortleaf Pine, it was seen as far west as Houston, mingling in small quantities and small sizes
with the Loblolly. Going in a northeastern direction, it becomes more and more abundant, being
the predominant tree east of the Neches River and north of the Longleaf Pine district.
The Shortleaf Pine remains generally undersized in the coast pine belts, where fair-sized spec-
imens are rarely met. In its proper home, in eastern Texas and Arkansas, it attains fair dimen-
sions, generally 70 to 90 feet high and less than 30 inches diameter. Its growth, though occasionally
quite rapid, seems usually much slower than that of Loblolly, a fact especially true of the regions
where it is most abundant. In hundreds of groves the leaders of small saplings were found com-
monly less than 12 inches long, thus remaining much behind the other Southern pines in this
respect. More even than Loblolly, the Shortleaf requires a close stand to induce cleaning of
limbs.
The phenomenon of sprouting was well illustrated all along the Houston, East and West
Texas and also the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern railways as far north as Iron Moun-
tain, Mo., where hundreds of acres of the right of way were covered with the bushy clusters of
vigorous sprouts, 10 to 30 from one stump.
Like Pond Pine, the Shortleaf is sometimes bled for turpentine. One tree was seen with
two boxes which had been worked for at least ten years and then abandoned, and two new boxes
worked for the second season this year (18!>7).
1 Probably suggested by the small rosemary bead-like coues clustered iu great abundance on old trees.
Ill
Bulletin No. 13, Divxion of FcxMtry.
PLATE XVII
LOBLOLLY PINE IPINUS T/EDA).
THE LOBLOLLY PINE.
(PINUS TvEDA Linn.)
HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION.
PRODUCTS.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.
DESCRIPTION OP WOOD.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT.
REPRODUCTION.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LOBLOLLY PINE.
113
7(M»i'— No. 13 8
THE LOBLOLLY PINE.
(PinuK liutia Linn.)
Synonyms: Pinna Tceda Linnscns, Spec. PI., ed. 1, ii, 1000, excl. habitat "Canada paludosis" (1753).
Pinna Ttrda a tenuifolia Alton, Hort. Kew., ed. 1, iii, 368 (1789).
Finns Ta'ila Rafinesque, Flor. Ludovic., 162 (1817), nomen niidtim.
COMMON OR LOCAL NAMES.
Loblolly Pine (Del., Va., N. C., S. C., Ga., Ala.,
Fla.. Miss.. La,. T<>x., Ark.).
Oldfield Pine (Del., Va., N. C., S. C., Ga., Ala., Fla.,
M ISM.. La., Tex., Ark.).
Torch Pine (Eng.lit.).
Rosemary Pine (Va,, N. C.).
Slash Pine ( Va., N. C., in part).
Long Schat Pine (Del.).
Long Shucks (Md., Va.).
Black Slash Pine (S. C.).
Frankincense Pine (lit.).
Shortleaf Pine (Va., N. C., S. C., La.).
Bull Pine (Tex. and Gulf region).
114
Virginia Pine.
Sap Pine (Va.,N. C.).
Meadow Pine (Fla.).
Cornstalk Pine (Va.).
Black Pine (Va.).
Foxtail Pine (Va., Md.).
Indian Pine (Va.,N.C.).
Spruce Pine (Va., in part).
Bastard Pino (Va., N.C.).
Yellow Pine (N. Ala., N. C.).
Swamp Pine (Va,, N. C.).
Longstraw Pine (Va., N. C., in part).
THE LOBLOLLY PINK.
By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D.
INTRODUCTION.
Among the trees remarkable for the part they take in the spontaneous renewal of the forests
in the Southern Atlantic region after the destructive interference by man, the Loblolly Pine is most
prominent. This readiness to occupy the ground lends to it a, special economic significance in
forest growth, aside from its value as a source of timber and as an abundant source of fuel.
There can be no doubt that in the future management of the forests of the lower Southern States
the Loblolly Pine will be assigned a highly important place. This view is confirmed by the fact
that in the older of the States within the limits of its distribution, where the original timber
growth has suffered greatest reduction, as in North Carolina, the second growth of this tree is
largely depended upon to furnish the timber supply for the existing lumbering industry.
Although known to have contributed to the necessities of the earliest settlers of these coasts,
and forming at present a large part of the lumber supplies reaching the markets east and west of
the Mississippi River, the merits of the Loblolly Pine and its economic bearings are generally but
little understood, wide differences of opinion about its value as a timber tree prevailing. Such
diversity of opinion is in itself a sufficient reason for a fuller investigation of its life history.
In the preparation of this monograph the writings of F. A. Michaux1 and Rev. M. A. Curtis2
and the report of the Tenth Census3 have been consulted. To Prof. Lester Ward and Mr. Canby
thanks are due for valuable information on the distribution of the Loblolly Pine toward its
northern limits. Much information of practical value was elicited by the Division of Forestry
from numerous manufacturers of and dealers in lumber in the lower part of Virginia and in North
Carolina, which has been largely quoted.
HISTORICAL.
The Loblolly Pine was recognized as a timber tree of value by the earliest settlers of lower
Virginia and North Carolina. Its timber was largely used in the construction of their dwellings.
Michaux states that three fourths of the houses in lower Virginia were built of Loblolly Pine, and
that its mighty trunks, furnishing shafts of clear timber of largest size, were in early days held
in high esteem for masts by the navies of the world. The distinctive characters of the tree were
clearly understood by the earliest writers on North American botany. F. A. Michaux defined
the northern limits of the tree and its distribution in the southern Atlantic States, and first
pointed to its economic value. The Rev. M. A. Cuitis gives an account of its distribution in
\orth Carolina and recognized the form distinguished in that State as Slash Pine or Rosemary
Pine. Investigations of the forest growth by the writer, under the direction of Prof. Charles
8. Sargent, for the Tenth Census, and later investigations made in the transmississippi region,
under the direction of the Division of Forestry, have led to a more accurate knowledge of the
1 Michaux, F. A. The North American Silva. Philadelphia, 1856.
2 Curtis, M. A. The Timber Trees of North Carolina. Geol. and Natural History Survey of North Carolina.
Part III, Hotany. Raleigh, 1860.
3 Volume 9 of the Tenth Census. Charles S. Sargent.
115
TINKER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
distribution <>f this tree in the Southwestern States, to the establishment of its western ami
iKirtliern boundary lines, and to a more general appreciation of its economic importance in its
eastern and western range.
HKOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC HISTORY.
The Loblolly Tine extends from the Delaware and Maryland peninsula through lower Virginia
to Cape Malabar, in Florida, and all over the Gulf States and southern Arkansas to the Colorado
River in Texas (see PI. XVIII). The northern limit of the Loblolly Pine can be described by a
line drawn from the lower part of Newcastle County, Del., through the District of Columbia, to
Petersburg, Va., thence toward middle North Carolina, following in its western course nearly the
thirty fifth degree of north latitude to the southern boundary of Tennessee, through southern
Arkansas to the southeastern confines of the Indian Territory. Its most western station is an
isolated tract of small extent near Bastrop, Tex., the sole and last representative of the Atlantic;
pines in the Southwest.
Michaux the younger established the northern limit of the Loblolly Pine near Fredericks-
burg, Va., between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers; M. A. Curtis placed it in or dose
to the District of Columbia. Its occurrence in the District was, however, considered doubtful, or
merely accidental, until in 1888 it was confirmed by Dr. George Vasey, who discovered a group of
fullgrown trees in the woods near the Reform School. Mr. William Canby states that he "found
in the lower part of Newcastle County, Del., a good many Loblolly Pines, and from the point
mentioned it becomes more and more plentiful and widespread in the Delaware-Maryland
peninsula."
On the Atlantic Slope, near its northern limit, the Loblolly Pine occurs most frequently in the
flat lands of the tidewater districts, forming rarely continuous forests, more frequently less com-
pact bodies of timber, associated with the Shortleaf Pine, oaks, and other hard-wood trees.
In Virginia this tree is not found beyond the northern limit of the Tertiary strata of the coast
region, and is not met with west of Petersburg and Richmond.
In the lower part of this State, as in North Carolina, the Loblolly Pine was formerly found in
great perfection and abundance — broad forest belts of Loblolly alternating with forests of Shortleaf
in Michaux's time. The original forests have, however, i;i a great measure, disappeared, and their
progeny, of second or third growth, is now depended upon as the principal source of lumber.
On the lands exhausted by the earlier planters, and which have been abandoned for several
generations, the timber of this Sap Pine, or Oldfield Pine, has in many localities attained dimensions
and a degree of maturity fitting it for all purposes for which timber of the original growth is
employed. This important fact is confirmed by parties engaged in the lumber business in south-
eastern Virginia and in eastern North Carolina.
From information received it is evident that in these parts the second growth of Loblolly Pine
is chiefly depended upon for the manufacture of lumber, and it is now ascertained that the
Shortleaf Pine contributes but a small part of the timber supply. Both of these trees an- known
by the inhabitants as Shortleaf, or Shortstraw, Pine, and their timber is sawn indiscriminately ; the
proportions of the lumber of either reaching the markets can therefore not be determined. Mr.
Joseph Allard, jr., of Richmond, reports that most of the Virginia Pine is Loblolly Pine, and that
every fifty years will produce trees large enough for sawlogs, three to each tree, averaging I(i feet
in length. Mr. Sparrow, of Brooke, Stafford County, states that the pine of this county, and in
Caroline County, is almost entirely of the Oldfield Pino (Loblolly Pine), and that in the latter from
thirty to forty sawmills are cutting this pine. Messrs. J. E. and Edward Rogers, from Suffolk
County, each remark that "large quantities of lumber are manufactured from Oldfield Pine, which
is fast taking the place of Yellow Pine (Finns eehinata), the latter having been used up by the
sawmills in this section." The young timber is, according to the same accounts, cut into joists,
uprights, and other square stuff for framing; the best quality is selected for flooring, ceiling, and
other inside finish, the lumber being sold under the name of Virginia Pine in the markets of
Washington, Baltimore, and Philadelphia.
On the coast of southern Virginia the Loblolly Pine forms about 75 per cent of the timber
standing. According to all accounts the original growth is rapidly disappearing, but the exceed-
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
Plat. XVIII.
DISTRIBUTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 117
ingly large area of exhausted lauds abandoned in that section by the cultivators during a long
period of time has been taken entire possession of by this tree.
In. North Carolina the Loblolly is the predominating tree throughout the eastern coast plain arid
in the lower part of the State, where it forms extensive forests, more or less frequently interspersed
with Longleaf Pine. South of Cape Fear River, however, the latter prevails almost exclusively.
In the extensive region watered by numerous streams flowing into Albemarle and Pamlico
sounds, in the rich, moist soil of the wide swamps above tide water, the Loblolly reaches its best
development, attaining dimensions which place this tree among the timber trees of first order.
The primeval forests of this pine have, however, almost completely disappeared in this region,
and with them the gigantic trees of this species known in the market as Rosemary Pine, once so
highly prized and eagerly sought in shipbuilding. Farther south, in the low pine barrens, this
tree is largely superseded by the Longleaf Pine, and is principally confined to the borders of the
swamps and to the bottoms along the water courses. Throughout the lower part of the coast pine
belt, after the removal of the original timber growth, the progeny of the Loblolly Pine immediately
takes possession of every opening, and particularly of the fields thrown out of cultivation.
'' The principal kiuds of Loblolly recognized by the lumbermen under distinct names are:
" 1. Rosemary Pine, the best kind from the trees of best development, of a fine grain but heavy,
hard, durable, with but a small proportion of sapwood. At present scarcely known by name at
the mills in the section where half a century ago it abounded.
" 2. Swamp or Slash Pine, of a coarser grain, with about one-half of the diameter of the tree in
sapwood. This kind comprises most of the timber of original growth, and the oldest and best
matured second growth.
"3. Oldfield Pine, by the rapidity of its growth, is very coarse-grained and for the greater part
sap, scarcely one-fourth of the diameter being heart. At present the principal source of the timber
supplies in the coast region."1
At the sawmills at Goldsboro, close to the border of the Longleaf Pine region, over 50 per cent
of the lumber sawn is Loblolly Pine. On a trip through the forests between the Neuse and Trent
rivers it was observed that the Loblolly Pine forms over two-thirds of the tree covering, almost
entirely of second growth, of dimensions to furnish sawlogs of from 10 to 18 inches mean diameter
by a length of from 15 to 30 feet. The sandy swells and knolls rising above the flats originally
covered with the Longleaf Pine are not infrequently occupied by a young growth of Loblolly. The
mills at Newbern and vicinity are almost solely depending for their lumber supplies upon these
forests of second growth. The same conditions are prevailing in Duplin and in Pender County,
by the reports of operators. Mr. C. C. Williams, at Teacheys, in Duplin County, states that 66
per cent of the timber sawn is Loblolly Pine, mostly of second growth, furnishing timber for
creosoting and lumber for building purposes.
Mr. Bauman, at Burgaw, reports that the Oldfield Pine (Loblolly of second growth) is coming
more and more into use every year, and the demand for this kind of lumber is greatly increasing.
In a number of the Newbern journals of 1891 it is stated that over 60,000,000 feet of lumber,
board measure, were produced in 1801 by the mills of that place and the vicinity. In the bulletin
quoted the output of the nine mills in operation during 1893 is given at 38,000,000 feet, board meas-
ure. The timber delivered at the mills sells for about $5 per 1,000 feet, and the price of rough
lumber averages $12.
In the latest report on the forests of North Carolina the acreage of the Loblolly Pine, including
the land covered with the second growth, and where the Loblolly Pine is taking the place of the
Longleaf Pine, is stated as exceeding 4,000,000 acres. The standing merchantable timber can be
said to cover 1,150,000 acres. Allowing 4,000 feet, board measure, to the acre, this will make
4,600,000,000 feet of standing Loblolly Pine in 1893. The total cut of Loblolly Pine for the same
year has been reported at 200,000,000 feet, board measure.2
In South Carolina and Georgia the Loblolly Pine is confined all over the coast pine belt to the
more or less swampy borders of the pine barrens scattered among the broad-leaf evergreens and
I The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Products of Eastern North Carolina. W. W. Ashe, p. 41, Bull. 5, N. C.
Geol. Survey.
II W. W. Aohe, Bulletin No. 5, North Carolina (Jeol. Survey, Raleigh, 1894, p. 41.
118
TIMBER PINES OF THE 8OUTHEEN UNITED STATES.
deciduous trees peeuliiir to these latitudes — tlie Magnolia, Sweet and Red Bay, Black Guin, and
Titi. associated with the Cuban Pine. The timber of the Loblolly Pine produced in these swamps
is of good quality, but with the sapwood from 4 to 5 inches on a radius of from 8 to lli inches. It
has been noticed that among the original tree-covering Loblolly Pines above 2 feet in diameter
were frequently found affected with dry or red rot.
On the dry rolling pine uplands of these States to the foot of the mountain ranges, rising to an
elevation of 800 to l.noo feet above sea level, as well as of the Gulf States east of the Mississippi,
t his pine is found more or less dispersed among the hard-wood timber, but is considered of no value
except for fuel ; the trees branch a short distance above the ground and the timber is too knotty to
bt- lit for lumber.
Five trees from the damp, flat pine barrens bordering upon the swamps, felled for test logs in
Hampton County, 8. C.. showed the following dimensions:
Mnmiiremrntg of fire trees.
Number of
rings on
atump.
Diameter
at breast
high.
Height
of tree.
Length of
timber.
Diameter
below
crown.
Sapwood
on radius
of butt.
10:1
103
80
95
Ineha.
26
22
17
19
Feet.
118
118
103
112
Feet.
55
70
86
53
Inchei.
17
14
13
14
Inches.
5»
i
63
14
90
54
9
3
In peninsular Florida the Loblolly Pine is more rarely found, its place in the old fields being
taken either by Cuban Pine or Longleaf Pine.
In the eastern Gulf States throughout the coast pine belt the Loblolly Pine is scattered along
the swamps bordering the water courses. Until of late years it has been cut only on special orders
for low-priced stuff intended for temporary purposes. As an instance, the fact may be cited that
the millions of feet of square sawn timber and of lumber required for the buildings of the New
Orleans World's Exposition were mostly Loblolly Pine, sawn at Pearlington, Miss. Since the
introduction of the dry-kiln it is extensively used for flooring and inside finish. In the fresh, deep
soil of light loam of the coast plain and the valleys in the upper part of the pine belt — the region
of mixed growth — this tree is found in great perfection. In these districts it furnishes clear sticks
of from 50 to CO feet and over in length. A considerable proportion of the long and heavy sticks of
hewn timber reaching the Mobile market for export as "pitch pine" coming from the upper
division of the coast pine belt in Alabama are Loblolly Pine. The timber of the Loblolly Pine from
the table-lands of north Alabama is of excellent quality, with but a small proportion of sapwood
from 2 to 3 inches on a radius of from 10 to 12 inches, heavy, of a fine close grain and hence of
greater durability and strength. The lumber from that region finds a ready market, being used
for all the purposes of the house carpenter, and is indiscriminately sold with the product of the
Shortleaf Pine.
On the table-lauds of the Warrior coal field the Loblolly Pine is better developed than in any
other part of this or the adjoining State of Mississippi. If not found in compact forests of any
considerable expanse, it forms bodies of heavy timber covering the flat and badly drained tracts,
from a few to many acres in extent, associated with the hard wood growth peculiar to a moist soil.
It might be said that about one-half of the pine timber growth of these highlands consists of the
Loblolly Pine.
The following measurements have been taken of trees felled in Cullmau County, Ala., from
heavily timbered land several acres in extent:
Measurement* of four trees.
Rings on
stump.
Diameter
breast Ligh.
Height of
tree.
Length of
timber.
Inchef,
Feet.
Feet.
78
21
101
41
156
21
loa
40
100
tt
104
45
137
111
JWi
57
DISTRIBUTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE.
119
In Louisiana, west of the Mississippi bottom, the Loblolly Pine is found frequently scattered
in the level woods bordering upon the grassy marshes of the coast. North of the region of the
Longleaf Pine on the pine flats with a poor, sandy, undrained soil, between Lake Beaudeau and
Bayou Dauchitt, extending to the Arkansas State line, this species forms the principal tree
covering. The tree is cut only for local consumption in the absence of means of transportation.
In Arkansas heavily timbered forests of Loblolly Pine cover the flat woods in the southeastern
part of the State and the region of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary formation. The lower levels in
the rolling uplands are covered with heavily timbered forests of the Loblolly Pine. It forms in this
State an important factor in the manufacture of lumber. From observations made in the logging
camps in connection with the principal points of production along the St. Louis and Iron Mountain
Railroad south of Gurdon and on the St. Louis and Southwestern Railroad it can be safely assumed
that about one-half of the lumber cut and shipped as "Yellow Pine" to Northern markets from
southwestern Arkansas is Loblolly Pine, the other half being Shortleaf. The flood plain of the Little
Missouri River and the Ouachita River is covered with extensive forests of this tree. The deep
soil, a stiff sandy loam, flooded after every rainfall, produces a heavy and finely developed timber
growth. Upon one acre, representing fairly the average of the merchantable timber standing, 30
trees were counted of from 12 to 48 inches in diameter at breast high ; of this number were found :
One tree 48 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 40 feet; one tree 36
inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; three trees 30 inches in
diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; seven trees 23 inches in diameter
at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; three trees 15 inches in diameter at breast
high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; fifteen trees 12 to 15 inches in diameter at breast high,
length of timber estimated at 24 feet.
Measurements of four trees.
Kings on
stnmp.
Diameter
at breast
high.
Height of
tree.
Diameter
below
crowo.
Length of
timber.
Indict.
Feet.
Inches.
Feet.
85
17
85
12
47
150
21
105
14
58
83
20
96
12
37
110
22
109
12
68
The timber of these trees was almost free of any defects; sap from 3 to 4 inches on radius.
In Texas this species is distributed in greater or less abundance to the south and southwest
of the Shortleaf Pine region over an area exceeding 6,800 square miles. There is even less basis
for statistical statements regarding timber standing at present and consumption than for the
Shortleaf Pine, since it is not even recognized as a particular species, and always cut together
with the latter, especially between the Trinity and the Brazos rivers. No data have lately been
obtained of the annual production of Inmber derived from the Loblolly Pine forests in this State,
but in the light of the statements of the Tenth Census1 it must contribute largely to the timber
supplies of this State. According to this authority, the merchantable timber of Loblolly standing
in 1880 was estimated at 20,907,000,000 feet, board measure, and the cut for the same year at
i ; 1.500,000 feet, board measure.
PRODUCTS.
VALUE AND USES OF THE WOOD.
Considered solely as the source of furnishing an abundant and cheap material for purposes
where strength and durability are not the first considerations, the Loblolly Pine is entitled to
take its place among the timber trees of the greatest importance. The average tree of full growth,
as it is generally found in the original forest on a poorer soil, furnishes timber with a fair proportion
of heartwoocl, with sticks of from 30 to 50 feet and over in length, free from blemish, and generally
in no way inferior to the timber of the Shortleaf and sometimes even of the Lougleaf Pine. In
fact, the selected lumber of Loblolly classes with the latter in many of the markets for the same
' Charles S. Sargent, report of Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 541. 1884.
120 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
uses by the house carpenter, while the inferior grades are largely consumed for secondary
purposes. Of late years the value of the lumber even of lower grades has been much enhanced
by the process of kiln-drying, now universally introduced into the mills. After the removal of
the water from the sapwood by exposure to a current of heated air, the lumber loses its proneness
to get discolored or to "blue" by the rapid development of the mycelium of a fungus and greatly
gains in its capability of a good finish, as well as in durability, and is thus rendered suitable for
many purposes for which, without such treatment, it would be rejected.
The consumption of Loblolly Pine lumber is constantly on the increase in the markets of the
North, as the lumber of the White Pine becomes scarce and more expensive. The sappy timber of
second growth is every year coming more in demand, especially in foreign markets, where this
cheap timber is rendered durable by creosoting. In the, highest state of perfection, which is only
attained in the regions most favorable to its development, no other pine was deemed of higher
value or was more eagerly sought after for masts and other heavy spars of ships. Before the
use of iron in naval construction for these purposes, the Loblolly Pine timber of largest size was
eagerly contracted for in all the Southern ports by every one of the maritime powers of Europe.
In consequence, the trees which could furnish timber of the dimensions and qualities required for
such purposes have become exceedingly scarce, and can be said to have almost entirely disappeared.
The Eev. M. A. Curtis, in his account of the Loblolly Pine,1 quotes the following statement on
the habitat and the dimensions of this tree, from the pen of Mr. E. Ruffin, of Virginia, which,
illustrating a feature of the life of the Southern forest forever past, I can not refrain from intro-
ducing here:
This (Slash Pine) tree grows only on low, moist lands, and is the better for timber and grows larger in proportion
to the richness of the land. Among other gigantic forest trees on the rich 'and wet Roanoke swamps, mostly of oak,
poplar, gum, etc., the few pines which yet remain tower above all others; I have visited several standing trees and
stumps of others which have been cut down and which measured 5 feet in diameter, and were supposed to have been
from 150 to 170 feet high.
In evidence of the dimensions of the trees, the writer gives the sizes of the squared sticks cut
in Bertie County, made into a raft, and shipped in 1850 by way of the Dismal Swamp Canal to New
York. These sticks varied from 50 to 86 feet in length by a mean diameter of from 26 to 31 inches,
containing from 347 to 537 cubic feet each. Remarking further:
All of these sticks are nearly all heartwood; thence it follows that the proportion of heartwood must have
been very large, the timber must have been resinous or it would not be good, and it must be durable or it would not
serve for masts and other long spars for ships exposed to the alternations of wetting and drying, and for which only
the best materials are permitted to be used.
The inferior growth of the Loblolly Pine furnishes vast supplies of cordwood. Immense
quantities are shipped from the coast of Virginia and North Carolina to the large cities on the
Atlantic seaboard. It is chiefly used where a brisk flame with a quick heat is required, viz, in
bakeries, brickkilns, and the kilns of potteries. In its fuel value, the wood of this tree ranks with
the better class of resinous trees. Large quantities of the wood are also used for the burning of
charcoal.
RESINOUS PRODUCTS.
Regarding the production of resinous products from this pine there has existed a wide
divergence of statements. A. F. Michaux states that this tree affords turpentine in abundance,
but of a less fluidity than that of the Lougleaf Pine, and suggests that as it contains more sapwood
a deeper incision would yield alarger product. Rev. M. A. Curtis follows Michaux in this statement ,
and the writer, relying upon the information from operators in south Alabama, was also led into
the error of supposing this tree to yield an abundance of resin for distilling, similar to the free
flowing resin of the Cuban Pine, and published a statement to the eft'ect that this tree was tapped
wherever found. A trial box made at the request of the writer seemed to confirm the opinion as
to the character of the resin. It appears now, however, that the tree boxed (not inspected by the
writer) could not have been a Loblolly, for lately a number of true Loblolly Pines, tapped accident-
ally in a turpentine orchard, were found in Washington County, Ala., and showed that the resin
M. A. Curtis: Trees and Shrubs of North Carolina, Raleigh, I860, p. 23.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 121
of this pine does not flow freely and hardens so rapidly on exposure that it can not be profitably
worked. An experienced operator at the place confirmed this to be the experience everywhere
with this kind of pine. The statements regarding the use of this tree for its resinous product can
therefore only be explained by a confusion of names applied to the different pines, and it was
most likely the Cuban Pine to which the operators referred. (See additional notes on p. 133.)
In a report lately published by the State geologist of North Carolina the remark is made: " It
is said that the crude turpentine of the Loblolly Pine has so much water in it that it yields only
a poor spirits of turpentine."1 This, to be sure, is a misconception; but the statement confirms
the fact that this species is not tapped for its resin, which had also been observed by the writer a
short time previously in the Loblolly Pine forests of North Carolina as well as South Carolina and
Georgia.
From an extensive series of analyses of the resin of fresh specimens of both Longleaf and Loblolly
Pine collected in Georgia and South Carolina, it appears that the wood of Loblolly contains but
little less resin than that of Longleaf; that the distribution of resin in the log is practically the
same, and, what seems most remarkable, that the composition of the resin, as far as the relation
of spirits of turpentine and rosin is concerned, is nearly the same (being quite variable in both), so
that the absence of free " bleeding " or abundant resin exudation can not be due to a lack of liquid
oil, but must be caused by other physiological peculiarities.
NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION.
The Loblolly and half a dozen other species, mostly Pacific and Mexican,2 form a natural group
of timber trees included in Eugleinaun's Eutcedte, which might fitly be designated as the group
" torch pines," and can be characterized as embracing trees, mostly of larger size, with more or
less resinous, coarse grained wood, long leaves by threes in a fascicle, and with lateral cones pro-
vided with thick, woody scales bearing a stout, sharp prickle. The distinctive characters of this
species have been early recognized by Plukeuet, one of the earliest writers on American plants3
and Linmpus described the tree under the name of Pinus ta'da4 which was adopted subsequently
by all botanists. The name given to this pine by Linnaeus in 1753 has never been changed. In
1789 Aiton established a variety, 1'. tceda a tenuifolia (Hort. Kew., Ill, 368), which, however, has
not received recognition.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOGY.
Leaves three in the close, elongated sheath, 6 to 9 inches long, slender, stiff, rigidly pointed, chcinneled, and
strongly keeled on the upper side, of a pale green color ; cones nearly sessile, single, iu twos or threes, roundish-ovate
or ovate-oblong, about 3 inches long, with the scales hard and woody, the pyramidal apophysis with a strong,
recurved prickle ; seeds small, their wing an inch or over long.
This species is easily distinguished from its most frequent associates — the Longleaf and Short-
leaf pine — by its slightly glaucous foliage at all seasons; by its more slender and almost smooth
terminal buds from the former; and from the latter by the more robust shoots and buds; and
from both the species named, and also from the Cuban Pine, by its characteristic cones.
HOOT, STEM, AND BRANCH SYSTEM.
The stout taproot of this pine is assisted by powerful laterals which divide into numerous
branches and descend into the soil, usually at a short distance from the trunk; but where a hard,
compact subsoil is encountered they are often seen to run for a greater or less distance near the
surface. In the localities most favorable to its growth, the massive trunk of the Loblolly Pine is in
its dimensions not surpassed by any other pine of the Atlantic forest region. In such cases the
tree attains a height of 120 to 150 feet and over, with a diameter of from 4 to 5 feet breast high,
and with the trunk clear of limbs for a length of from 60 to 80 feet.
1 The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Products of Eastern North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe. I lul InJ n 5 of the
Geological Survey of North Carolina, 18!i.~>.
'Eiigelmann, Revision of the Genus Pinus. Transactions of the Academy of Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, p.
177. ixxf,.
"Plukenet: Almagestura botanicum. London, 1696.
<Linn;i'iix: Species Plautarum, p. 1000. 1753.
17433— No. J3 8
EXPLANATION OF PLATK XIX.
[Figures natural size, except when otherwise- noted.]
Fig. a, branch bearing male inflorescence; 6, young fascicle of leaves (spring); c, d, forms of mature leaves; e.
transverse section of leaf bundle showing structural characters of the leaf (as explained Cor Pinux echinata) f, f;
magnified '20 diameters.
122
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XIX.
PINUS T/EDA: MALE FLOWERS AND LEAVES.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 123
Such trees, however, have at no time been plentiful and at present are rarely met. In its
average growth the diameter of the trunk, breast high, measures from 20 to 24 inches, and the
> to 110 feet. In wet places, somewhat distended at its base, the trunk tapers very
radually to the crown, which covers from one-third to one half of its height. The lowest limbs
e horizontally spreading, and toward the upper part of the tree they become gradually more erect
hmbs are rarely found over 20 feet in length. The primary branches dividing in a
ilar order ot ramification into numerous branches and branchlets, the crown becomes full and
compact toward the top. The bark of the full grown tree is, in the lower part of trunk, from 1 to
H inches thick, generally rough, of a grayish color, becoming smoother, flaky, and reddish brown
as the tree grows older.
LEAVES.
The leaves are united, to the number of three, in a smooth, close sheath, which in the young
foliage is about 1 inch long and in the next season scarcely half that length. (PI. XIX, c, I, d.)
In the bushy growth of less than ten years the leaves are scarcely 5 inches in length, resem-
bling closely the foliage of the Shortleaf Pine of equal age. Prof. L. Ward notes this resemblance
as a singular fact, which, as he very pointedly remarks, has the effect of obscuring the gradual
appearance of this species among the young growth of the Shortleaf Pine.1 In the following
years the leaves are from 7 to 9 inches long, less densely crowded ou the slender branches than in
the Longleaf and Cuban Pine; the foliage is of a more open spray, and persisting to the third year.
The leaves are stiff, slightly twisted, roughish ou the finely serrulated edges and the prominent
midrib, channeled ou the upper side, abruptly tipped by a rigid, sharp point (PI. XIX, c, rf), and
of a pale green color. They are scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch wide, about half as thick, and
present in the cross section ou the dorsal side a convex and on the ventral side a strongly trian-
gular outline. Examined under the microscope they show on both surfaces from 10 to 12 rows
of rather large breathing pores (stomata), alternating with rows of numerous hypodermal or
strengthening cells, in several layers. The cells of the bundle sheath are thin walled; the fibro-
vascular bundles are, ou their ventral side, surrounded by a single row of small strengthening
cells. The rather large resinous ducts, from :i to 5 in number, are peripheral, and placed irregu-
larly mostly about the angles (PI. XIX, e) ; sometimes smaller ducts are observed close to the
buudle sheath.
FLORAL ORGANS.
The staminate flowers are crowded, from 18 to 20 in number, below the apex of the youngest
shoot. (PI. XIX, a.) They are from three-fourths to one inch long, of sulphur-yellow color, and
surrounded at the base by from 8 to 10 ovate to lanceolate, leathery, involucral scales; the
lowest pair is much shorter than the others and strongly keeled; those of the uppermost row are
longest, narrow, lanceolate, and reflexed. The anthers are crowned with an erect orbicular crest.
After the discharge of the pollen the flowers are gradually shed. The pistillate flowers form an
oblong, erect catkiu, borne ou a short stalk, singly, in pairs, sometimes 3 to 4, below the apex
of the shoot (PI. XX, a) of the season, which by the time of blooming has already reached a
length of several inches and is covered with the well-advanced leaf buds. Including their stipe,
the female aments are about one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, surrounded by from 15 to
20 involucral scales similar to those of the staminate flower. The carpellary scales are ovate,
lanceolate, tapering to a sharp, erect, and somewhat reflexed and twisted point. The small bracts
subtending the scales are orbicular, scarcely covering their base.
The flowers open, in the coast region of the lower Southern States, about the second week of
.March i Mobile, Ala., March 15 to 20), and in the interior from four to five weeks later (Cullman,
Ala., April 25).
Immediately after pollination the female catkins increase rapidly in size; before ten days have
passed the carpellary scales have doubled in size, and their tips become stiffly erect, the bracts
having remained stationary in their growth, and the fertile shoots having grown to the length of
8 inches and over. This period passed, the growth of the conelets during the rest of the season
Jin 'i-ccils very slowly.
' L. Ward : Botauiital Ga/ette, February, 1886.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.
Fig. a, brunch bearing two sul>terminal aments of female flowers Jit end of shoot of the season; 6, immature
cone of one season's growth; c, mature closed cone of two seasons' growth; il, mature open rone alter shedding
seed; e, cone scale, outer or dorsal side, showing the broad umbonate apophysU end with its sharp transverse
ridges and the stout rerlexed prickle; /, inner or ventral view of the same with the seed in place; g, seed and wing
detached.
124
Bulletin No. 1 3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XX.
PINUS T/EDA: FEMALE FLOWERS, CONE, AND SEED.
DESCRIPTION OF THE WOOD OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 125
At the beginning of the second season the immature cones are scarcely one-half inch wide and
less than an inch long (PL XX, &), and from that time on increase in size and by the following
October have reached their maturity. The ripe cones are lateral, almost sessile, broadly conical or
ovate in shape, rarely over 3 inches in length (PL XX, c, d), when fully opened H to 2 inches wide,
and of a light wood-brown color. The pyramidal, swelled, exposed ends (apophyses) of the hard,
woody scales with a sharp transversal ridge are armed with a stout, straight, or slightly reflexed
prickle. (PL XX, e.) Having reached their maturity, the cones open slowly, the seeds being grad-
ually discharged during the fall and winter seasons. The cones are apt to remain on the tree till
the end of another year, and when they finally separate from the branch by the breaking loose of
their very short stalk, leave none of their basal scales behind. The seeds are irregularly truncate
or rhomboid in outline, inflated, sharp-edged, with two to three more or less distinct ridges, rough-
ish, dark brown to almost black, and surrounded to the base by the narrow border of their delicate
wing (PL XX, g,f), which is over an inch long and from one-fourth to one-eighth of an inch wide.
THE WOOD.
Among the pines of the southern Atlantic forests noted for their economic importance the
Loblolly is held least in value as a timber tree. This opinion is chiefly founded on the lesser
durability of its wood, being more speedily given to decay under the combined influences of
dampness and air, and also on the supposition of its being of less strength than the other pine
timbers. There is scarcely a timber tree existing that shows wider differences in the quality
and value of the timber. This is strikingly demonstrated when the timber of a tree of full
average growth, grown on land broken by the plow, is compared with the timber of a tree in its
highest perfection taken from the primeval forest. In the former case the wood is coarsegrained,
sappy, and quick to decay. In the latter it is finer grained, resinous, has less sapwood, and
approaches the timber of the Longleaf Pine.
In general, the well-marked, lighter-colored sapwood is quite broad, and usually about 4 inches,
frequently 6 inches and more. It is wider in young, thrifty trees, narrower in old and stunted or
slow grown timber; forms about CO to 70 per cent of the total volume of stems over one hundred
years of age, and 80 to 90 per cent of trees sixty to one hundred years old. The formation of
heartwood does not begin before the age of twenty-five, the process being retarded as the tree, or
better the particular part of the stem, grows older, so that while the innermost sapwood in a log
or disk with twenty-six rings is twenty-five years old, the innermost sap ring is thirty-five years
old when the log attains the age of forty-five; it is forty-five years old when the log is sixty-five,
and about seventy or even more years old when the log reaches the age of one hundred and fifty
or two hundred. It follows that the sapwood is formed of fewer rings in young trees and in the
upper part of older stems, but owing to the greater rapidity of growth in these parts the width of
the sapwood does not always follow this same law. Since neither width of the ring, nor that of
the denser summerwood, the thickness of the cell walls, nor any other important structural feature
is changed when the wood of any ring changes from sap to heart wood, the prevalent notions
of sapwood being necessarily either coarse or fine grained, light, and weak, are erroneous. The
sapwood of a young, well-grown tree is coarse-grained, heavy, and strong; that of an old tree is
fine grained, light, and.weak. Since durability on exposure is not to be expected of the sapwood
of any pine, the prejudices against the sapwood, and therefore all young timber of this particular
kind, are unwarranted. With proper treatment, it will serve all purposes for which any pine wood
of its grain and weight can be employed in finishing.
Owing to the great amount of water-soaked sapwood the weight of green Loblolly timber is
very great, varying chiefly between 50 and 55 pounds to the cubic foot, with the sapwood com-
monly approaching CO pounds to the cubic foot. Kiln-dried, the wood of the entire trunk of trees
one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old weighs about 33 pounds per cubic foot. In such
trees the wood of the log 50 feet from the ground is about 20 per cent lighter (and weaker) than
that of the butt log, and the wood next to the bark in the butt log is 15 to 20 per cent lighter than
the wood of the inner fifty to sixty rings.
In strength the wood of the Loblolly varies chiefly with weight (the same degree of seasoning
always presumed), and keeping this in mind, compares favorably with that of any other conifer.
126 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
For well-seasoned wood, the following figures represent the average of hundreds of tests on
specimens specially collected for this purpose:
Ltw.ptrsq.iaeh.
Modulus of elasticity 1,950,000
Transverse strength .*. 10, 100
Compression endwise 6,500
Shearing with the fiber 690
Since the average weight of the test pieces was 40 pounds per cubic foot, being heavier than
the average weight of the wood, these figures must be taken about one-sixth lower than given
above to represent the true average for the wood of the species.
Like the wood of most conifers, that of Loblolly dries easily and rapidly. In doing so the
green lumber loses a large amount of water, dependent chiefly on the proportion of sapwood.
Though quite variable, the water in fresh sapwood commonly forms 50 to 60 percent of the weight,
while in heartwood it little exceeds 25 per cent.
The shrinkage consequent on drying amounts to 11 to 12 per cent of the volume; is greater in
the lumber of the butt than in that from the top logs, varying in this respect from 13 per cent at
the butt to about 10 per cent in the top, a difference which appears due to the difference in the
weight of the wood of the different sections. As in other pine, about two-thirds, or 7 to s per
cent, of this shrinkage falls to the tangent (i. e., is along the rings) and about 4 to 5 per cent to
the radius.
For kiln-drying the wood may be taken fresh from the saw and behaves extremely well, suffering
no great injury, a fact which has greatly enhanced its value by facilitating its exploitation.
For the details of wood structure, consult the comparative study by Mr. Roth appended to
these monographs.
PROGEESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
The crops of seed are produced quite abundantly every year and copiously dispersed over the
vicinity of the mother trees by the wind; the offspring quickly takes possession of old fields and
clearings in the forest.
The seeds germinate in the early spring. The ends of the cotyledons remain for a short time
after germination inclosed in the endosperm. The number of the germinal leaves (cotyledons) is
mostly six, rarely seven. At the time of the unfolding of the cotyledons the lower (hypocotyle-
douary) part of the axis of the plant is about 1 inch in length. The rootlets are half that length,
and are provided with several acropetal secondary rootlets. The caulicle grows rapidly, and is
soon covered with the stiff, needle shaped, and strongly serrulated primary leaves. Before the
spring season has passed the bundles of secondary or foliage leaves make their appearance in
the axils of the former. At the close of the summer season the plautlet has attained a height of
from C to 8 inches, the upper part of the stem covered with foliage leaves, the acerose primary
leaves of the lower part having completely withered. In examining a large number of young
plants never less than three leaves in a bundle have been found during this or any subsequent
stage of the growth. With the second year the primary leaves have all become reduced to the
ordinary form of the leaf bract — lanceolate, acuminate, with fimbriate white hyaline edges and tips.
In all the specimens examined it was found that the growth of the main axis proceeded less
rapidly during the second season, but produced a regular whorl of from three to four lateral axes.
At the close of the second yejvr the main stem rarely exceeds 10 inches in height.
At the end of their third year the plants are from 18 to 20 inches high, the stem bein.u from
one-fourth to five-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. The branches, forming regular whorls, are
erect and produce in their turn whorls of secondary order. The root system shows a correspond-
ing increase, the taproot being from 6 to 18 inches long, with numerous stout lateral roots.
BATE OF GROWTH.
With the fourth year the Loblolly Pine enters seemingly upon the period of quickest growth.
As ascertained by many measurements, the trees at the end of their fourth year average .'? feet in
height and from one half to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, and at the end of the fifth year
measure nearly 5 feet and from 1 to 1J inches in diameter. At the beginning of the seventh year
EARLY GROWTH OF LOBLOLLY PINE.
127
the tree attains a height of 10 feet, and with the close of the first decade trees are found 12 to 16
feet high and from 2J to 3 inches in diameter. Some trees begin to mature their first cones by the
tenth year.
The above measurements were made in 1890 in the vicinity of Cullman, Ala., on trees taken
indiscriminately from the midst and near the border of a dense pine thicket covering a field plowed
for the last time in 1882, and from an adjoining opening in the forest protected from fire and but
rarely used for pasture.
According to a number of measurements made of trees in the southern Atlantic States, the
Gulf region, and southern Arkansas, the Loblolly Pine reaches at the tenth year, on the average,
a height of 20 feet, doubling this height during the succeeding decade. During this period of
quickest growth the increase in height proceeds at the rate of 2 feet per annum, and trees twenty
years old average 4£ inches in diameter breast high. At the age of fifty years the trees are from
65 to 75 feet in height (average about 70 feet) and 15 inches in diameter breast high. The annual
increase for this period of thirty years is about 1 foot in height and 0.35 inch in diameter. From
numerous observations it appears that the Loblolly Pine attains the fullness of its growth at the
age of one hundred years, with a height, on the average, of 110 feet and a diameter breast high
of 2 feet, the length of merchantable timber varying between 50 and 60 feet. The annual rate of
height growth during the second half century is about eight-tenths of a foot, and the diameter
growth eighteen one-hundredths of an inch. Henceforth the growth in height remains almost
stationary. A dozen trees from one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old were found to
vary from 99 to 125 feet in height, with a length of trunk free from limbs of from 60 to 68 feet and
from 19 to 27 inches in diameter at breast height.
From the annexed tabulated records of growth it becomes evident that under similar conditions
of soil and exposure the rate of increase for the various stages of growth show but slight differences
in localities widely distant from each other.
TABLE I. — Growth from five to fifty years.
No. of tree.
No. of
rings.
Diameter
(breastbigh).
Height to
first limb.
Total
height.
Locality.
Kemarka.
1
5
Inches.
1
Feet.
Feet.
6,«,
Cullman, Ala . . .
Clearing made for pasture iu 1879 ; dense pine thicket.
2
5
1
4
do
Do.
3
6
2
10
do
Do.
4
6
11
7
do
Do.
5
6
lj
8A
Whistler. Ala...
Edge of swampy hummock.
0
7
2j
10"
Cullman, Ala . . .
Clearing, dense pine thicket.
7
7
•
12
...do
Do.
9
2
ISA
. do
Do.
9
9
2J
12A
...do
Do.
10
10
2}
is"
do
Do.
11
2
g
23
...do
Do.
12
12
38
20
do
Do.
12
Si
TJL
24
do
Do.
223
12
2*
V,
21
Whistler, Ala.
Edge of hummock.
189
13
2*
13
19
Gurdon, Ark.
Open forest ; exposure free.
271
13
24
13
20
Eastman, Ga.
Do.
222
14
?
10
25
Whistler, Ala
Edge of hummock ; slightly oppressed ; partially covered.
148
14
2i
8
21
Eastman, Ga.
Opening in forest; under cover; fresh soil.
272
14
2*
7
21
Gurdon, Ark.
Opening in forest; exposure free; damp soil.
221
15
4
12
35
Whistler, Ala
On gentle decline ; opening in forest ; soil fresh.
222
16
6
13
30
do
Do.
17
6
16
39
do
Natural opening near swamp ; soil damp.
220
18
6
17
43
do
Do.
20
4
28
33
do
Oppressed.
270 . ..
21
4
22
45
Eastman, Ga. . . .
Natural opening in forest ; under cover.
146
26
M
28
33
Gurdon, Ark
Natural opening in forest ; exposure free.
209
22
a
32
43
Eastman, Ga
X;itnr;il opening in forest; suppressed.
287
22
8*
25
55
do
Old field; fresh, deep loam; free.
268
24
6
17
39
do
Old field; oppressed.
187
24
4J
30
47
Gurdon, Ark
In open forest; exposure free.
32
6
38
55
do
Open forest ; exposure free.
145
32
6
36
56
do
Do.
266. . . ..
35
12
51
77
Eastman, Ga
Old field ; deep, rich loam ; fresh, young forest trees of similar
143
48
16
30
66
Gurdon, Ark
size.
Open forest; soil damp.
14
44
15
33
68
Stockton, Ala...
Flat near banks of Tensas River; open forest; exposure free;
March 16, 1888, just past flowering.
128 TIMUER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
TAIII.K II. — (Iroirlh of Loblolly I'itte (1'inut In'dn ) from fifty to one hundred ami _fifli/-xijc yeari.
1
l,:im.-t.-r
Ili'ijlht
Ho. of tree.
Rlngn
in
•tamp.
r.li-.iat
high.
AcroM
•tump.
Below
crown.
limb
(IfllL'tll
of tim-
ber).
ToUl
height,
Locality.
Habitat, and other remarks.
300
63
hiflir*.
14
liiffift.
131
India.
'•'S
feet.
54
fret.
90
Kidgeland, S. (.;...
Low pine barrens, edge of hummock, soil damp, ex-
70
16
HIS
91
57
86
Ea*tmau, Ga
posure free.
Old tielil, abandoned one hundred years ago; typical
261
73
22
50
64
do
for oldest second growth.
Close to edge of swamp; open forest ; soil wet; expo-
30/>
74
12
10}
«i
35
80
Ridceiand, S. C. .
sure free ; sapwood 4J inches.
< 'lust- to i il^n ol' swamp; soniewbat suppressed.
24
80
21
184
41
101
Cullraun, Ala... .
Swampy swale; oi>en forest; exposure free.
gfc9
80
18
16i
91
66
103
Kidgelaod, S. C. .
Swampy hummock ; exposuri- partially free.
141
83
20
20
id
37
96
Gurdon, Ark... .
Low, wet. piny woods: exposure partially free.
1J9
85
17
15i
12
47
88
do
Low, wet, piny woods; exposure free.
87
21
40
105
Whistler, Ala . . .
90
22
46
104
300
95
19
191
12
53
112
Kidgeland, S. C. .
Edge of swamp; slightly oppressed; sapwood 5 inches.
100
27
26}
18J
56
118
....§0.....
216
101
23
24
18
51
111
Whistler, Ala
free ; sapwood 51 inches.
Open forest, on slight decline; soil drained; fresh;
142
110
22
22
12
68
109
Gnrdon, Ark ... .
exposure free : sapwood 4J inches.
Low, rather dense forest; wet; exposure free.
262
117
22
21J
69
116
Eastman, Ga
Edge of swamp; soil damp; partially suppressed.
215
118
19
63
125
Whistler, Ala. .. .
Slight dei-livity; soil well drained; suppressed.
263
120
22
22J
68
99
2i4
128
23
59
109
Whistler, Ala. .. .
Open forest ; soil fresn ; exposure free.
27
137
19
57
115
213
142
27
286
54
103
do
140
160
21
23
15}
58
108
Gurdon, Ark
Flat, wet, rather dense forest ; exposure free ; slightly
25
156
24
251
39
103
Cullman, Ala
oppressed on the sides.
From Table III and the corresponding diagram, based upon a considerable number of trees, it
appears that the Loblolly Pine is nearly 40 feet high when twenty years old ; that the length of the
merchantable timber (60 feet) is attained at the age of forty; that this shaft has a basal diameter
of 20 inches at the age of one hundred years, and that the age of thrifty growth is practically at
an end when the tree is one hundred and ten years old. Comparing this table with those for
Longleaf and Short-leaf pines, the excellence of the Loblolly becomes apparent.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE.
129
TABLE III. — Rate of growth of Loblolly Pine.
Age.
with tiark
(breast
5 inches.
Total
height of
tree.
Volume.
Periodical accretion or growth per decade.
Average
annual
accretion.
Curreut
accretion.
Tree.
Log up to
5 inches
diameter.
Decade.
Diameter.
Height.
Area of
cross sec-
tion.
Volume.
Trt.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Inches.
3.4
5.6
7.8
10.0
11.8
13.3
15.5
17.1
18.7
19.5
20.2
20.7
Feet.
Feet.
18
37
50
61
70
78
85
90
95
98
100
102
Cu. ft.
0.60
3.05
8.72
16.63
25.30
35.65
49.02
62.44
78.02
89.41
96.00
102. 00
Cu. ft.
First
Inchet.
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.1
.9
.8
.5
Feet.
18
19
13
11
9
8
7
5
5
3
2
2
Su.feet.
0.03
.08
.14
.17
.19
.19
.21
.21
.19
.16
.13
.10
Cu. ft.
0.60
2.45
5.67
7.91
8.67
10.35
13.37
13.42
15.58
11.39
6.59
6.00
Cu. ft.
0.06
.14
.29
.41
.57
.59
.70
.78
.87
.89
.87
.85
Cu. ft.
0.06
.24
.57
.79
.87
1.03
1.33
1.34
1.56
1.14
.66
.60
"'7.'49'
15.45
24.12
34.47
47.88
61.44
77.16
88.59
95.23
101. 23
Second
Third
23
35
44
52
60
68
76
80
83
. 85
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth
Eighth
Tenth
Twelfth
HEIGHT
IN FEET.
34^5 6r-78-HOO-t-M.8--*--l 3.3-f- 15.5— *~I7.I~4" I8.7--X — 19.5— *— 20.2—-*- • -20.7- —>.
DIAMETERS
IN INCHES.
FIG. 12.— Growth of Loblolly Pine : Height, diameter, and cubic contents of average trees at 10, 20, etc., years of age.
CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT.
SOIL ANL> CXIMAiE.
The Loblolly Pine prefers a moist, cool, sandy or light loamy soil, which, if not always moist,
should have a greater retentiveuess for moisture than is required by most of the other upland
pines. It reaches its greatest perfection in the perpetually moist or fresh forest lands, with a soil
of a sandy loam, rich in vegetable mold — the accumulation of ages — which border the swamps
of the coast region. The tree is not found on the porous, highly siliceous soils of the more
elevated uplands, where the Longleaf Pine almost exclusively prevails; it also avoids heavy clay
and calcareous soils of the uplands and the alluvial lands.
The Loblolly Pine is a tree of austral regions confined to the humid belt of the Austro-riparian
or Louisiana zone and the lower border of the Carolinian life zone, which, on the Atlantic Coast,
7092— No. 13 9
130 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
follows quite closely the isothermal line of 56° F. ; westward, in the direction of the Gulf Coast,
the isothermal line of (50°. The mean temperature of the winter along the northern limit is about
45°, with the lowest temperature only occasionally falling below 10° F. This tree approaches
the Appalachian zone only under the influence of a peninsular clime between the Delaware and
Chesapeake bays.
The Loblolly appears to be indifferent to the wide differences in the amount of atmospheric
precipitation existing within the vast range of its distribution. Extending from Florida (isotherm,
74°) to the 39° of north latitude on the Atlantic Coast (isotherm, 56°), it is found of equal thrift
on the Gulf shore, with its damp air and annual rainfall exceeding 64 inches, and in the flat woods
of Texas, where the mean annual precipitation is only one-half that amount, with a mean of 6
inches during the winter months. In fact, the Loblolly Pine is found most frequently and is more
widely distributed in the districts of lesser precipitation. It is certainly more dependent on the
supplies of soil moisture than upon atmospheric humidity.
RELATION TO LIGHT AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES.
This species is less exacting in its demands for direct sunlight than the kindred species within
its range. To this relation may be ascribed the success which it achieves in the struggle for the
possession of the soil with the Shortleaf Pine. Observing this contest as it is going on between
the competing species in the forest, the conditions of the soil being equally favorable, the Loblolly
Pine, under the cover of shade, outstrips the Shortleaf Pine under the same conditions; and, on
the other hand, where the sunlight has had unhindered access, it gives way to its competitor,
being then subjected to the disadvantage resulting from a speedier desiccation of the soil.
Through such influences it is that, under conditions seemingly equally favorable to either one of
these pines, now the one and now the other is found to predominate.
In the deep forests covering the rich swampy lands of the coast regions, the Loblolly Pine
forms comparatively a small part of the rich and varied growth consisting chiefly of deciduous
trees, Black Gum, Sweet or Bed Gum, Water Oak, and Mockernut, to which in the lower South the
Magnolia, Sweet Bay, Eed Bay, and Cuban Pine are to be added. Although requiring less sunlight
than most pines, in the gloomy impenetrable shade of these dense forests the progeny of the
Loblolly Pine has no future, especially as these lauds once cleared are devoted to tillage, being of
great agricultural value.
On the lands of a poorer, more exposed soil in the maritime plain of the southern Atlantic
States, in Virginia and North Carolina, and in southwestern Texas, this pine forms more or less
compact forests. In these forests the tree is always succeeded by its own progeny, either in the
course of nature or after the artificial removal of the original forest growth. On the coast of
Georgia, in Florida, and in the coast plain of the eastern Gulf States, the Loblolly Pine is scattered
among the Cuban and the Longleaf Pine; there its second growth meets a formidable competitor
in the first named of these species. In the flat woods, deprived of drainage, the Cuban Pine is
always found to vastly outnumber the Loblolly among the young forest growth. In the upper part
of the great maritime pine belt the Loblolly Pine is frequently found among the mixed growth of
Magnolia, Spanish, Red, Post, and Blackjack oaks, Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, Shortleaf
Pine, and Southern Spruce Pine. Throughout this region the tree takes almost undisputed
possession of the old fields.
In the interior, on the uplands of oaks and Shortleaf Pine, the Loblolly is sure to gain the
upper hand and to retain its hold among the young forest growth, giving way to its most aggressive
competitor, the Shortleaf Pine, only when under the disadvantage of a greater exposure and a
greater lack of moisture in the soil.
ENEMIES.
Principally confined to low, damp localities, not easily liable to invasion by the frequent
conflagrations which scour the Southern pine forests, the Loblolly Pine suffers less from destruction
by fire than any other species. In virtue of the inherent facilities for its natural renewal resulting
from its fecundity and from the rapidity of its development from the earliest stages of growth,
any damages inflicted by that agency are more easily repaired. The same causes afford it also
ENEMIES OP LOBLOLLY PINE. 131
greater protection against incursions of live stock. As also observed in the Shortleaf Pine, the
rapidly growing seedlings form, after a few years, thickets of such density as to be avoided by
the larger quadrupeds, and by the time such thickets, in the course of natural thinning out
have become more open, the trees have reached dimensions which place them beyond the danger
of being tramped down or otherwise injured by live stock. The rapid spread and thrift of the
second growth, unprotected and uncared for, observed everywhere within the range of the
distribution of tlris pine, are witnesses to its greater immunity from such dangers.
Owing to the large amount of sapwood, the timber of the Loblolly is more liable to the attacks
of fungi and to the ravages of insects. The mycelium (spawn) of large polyporous fungi is found
frequently infesting the woody tissue of the living tree, the hyphae (filaments) of the spawn
destroying the walls of the wood cells, causing the wood to assume a reddish color and rendering
it brittle in the same way as is observed in the living Longleaf Pine timber affected with the disease
called "red heart." It seems that the destruction caused by this disease in the Loblolly Pine is
from the start more rapid in consequence of the larger proportions of sapwood, and perhaps also
on account of the broader bands of soft springwood naturally accompanying wood of rapid growth.
In a piece of wood examined in north Alabama, the filaments of the spawn of one of these
fungi crossing each other in every direction were found to form a dense film interposed between
the spring and summer wood, causing its easy separation in the direction of the concentric rings,
and, as the destruction of the wood proceeds, forming finally a compact layer of the nature of
amadou, or tinder. In the longitudinal section the rays were found full of cavities, caused by the
breaking down of the cell walls, and these cavities were filled with the white film of these
filaments, which similarly affected the adjoining tracheids of the resinous summerwood.
The felled timber left on the ground is soon infested by a host of fungi of the genera
Agaricus, Trametes, Lentinus, Polyporus, and others, the nearer identification of which has not
been undertaken.
From the very limited observations that have been made it clearly appears that this pine
suffers equally as much, if not more than the other pines of Southern growth from insect enemies
of various kinds. The larvae of the same Capricorn beetles ( Cerambycidce) burrow in the body of
the timber. Those of the round-headed borers (Chalcophora) dig their channels in the sapwood,
as is indicated by the occurrence of several species of jumping beetles (Buprestidte) which are
found clinging to the leaves and branches of this tree. The most fatal injury it sustains is caused
by the bark borers (Tomicidce); this pest particularly affecting the trees during the formation of
the last cambium layer in the later summer months. Trees felled in August are immediately
infested by multitudes of these destroyers. Favored by a high temperature and an abundance
of nourishment, several generations of them succeed each other before the close of the season,
the countless broods soon infesting every tree in the vicinity and carrying their work of destruc-
tion over the full expanse of the young forest growth. Under this affliction the forests often
present, by their drooping rusty-colored foliage, a sad picture of disease and decay. Weevils
(CurciiUonidce) deposit their eggs in the youngest tender shoots; the larvae which hatch from
them eat their way into these shoots, causing their decay, and thus destroy the symmetry of the
tree and impair the usefulness of the resulting timber. Other species of the same family puncture
the older branches, lay their eggs in the exuded resin, their larvae injuring the tree in a similar
way. The larvaa of spittle insects injure the terminal buds, which are also found infested by the
larvse of Pitch-moths (Retinice), causing them to wither. The foliage seems to be less frequently
attacked by sawflies (Lophyrus) than the tender young leaves of the Longleaf Pine, as by the
rapidity of their growth the young leaves sooner harden, and are therefore less relished by these
depredators. The evidences of the work of the pine-leaf miners (caterpillar of Gelechia) have
been freequently observed in Alabama, and everywhere are seen the deformities caused by gall
flies and scale insects.
NATURAL REPRODUCTION.
If the Shortleaf Pine has been spoken of emphatically as the future timber tree of the light
rolling uplands of the interior, the Loblolly Pine might be fitly designated as the timber tree of
greatest promise in a large part of the coast plain from the middle Atlantic States to the limits of
compact forest growth beyond the Mississippi River. The promptness with which it colonizes the
132 TIMBER PINES OP THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
old fields and other clearings, and the tenacity with which it retains from one generation to another
the ground once taken possession of, clearly point to the important part this tree is to take when the
ruthless stripping of timber lands practiced at present gives place to the management of the forests
under a system of fostering care, tending to their future maintenance and to the disposal of their
resources on the principle of true economy with an eye to the future welfare of the country.
No timber tree will be found better adapted for forest planting in the southern part of the
Atlantic forest division. It is only in the narrow belt of flat woods along the shores of Florida,
Georgia, and the eastern Gulf region that it is likely to find its superior in the Cuban Pine (Pinm
heterophylla).
Besides the advantages of adaptability to varied soil and climate, it excels in rapidity of
growth during the earliest stages, and the copious production of seeds, which, almost without fail,
are plentifully distributed every year over the vicinity of the parent trees. As an evidence of the
facility with which the reproduction of a compact forest by this pine is effected, it is only necessary
to point out the spontaneous groves near the settlements, representing, as they do, every stage of
development.
In the coast region the second growth, if not interfered with under proper soil conditions,
yields in fifty to sixty years timber of dimensions rendering it fit to be sawn into lumber well
adapted for various uses, as already mentioned.
CONCLUSION.
In this attempt at a sketch of the life history of this tree, the object was constantly kept in
view of placing its value among the products of the Southern forests in the proper light. From
the consideration of the structure of the wood and its physical properties it clearly appears that
although inferior to the wood of the Longleaf and Cuban pines, the timber of this species fully
equals that of Shortleaf Pine, and that the present practice of treating them as equivalent seems
therefore justified.
As an abundant and cheap source of timber of inferior grades, and especially when the
rapidity of its growth is considered, the Loblolly Pine is of no less economic importance than the
other timber trees of the same section. At present held in low esteem in the great lumbering
districts of the lower South, where the supplies of the superior timber of the Longleaf Pine still
abound and receive the preference, the value of the timber of the Loblolly Pine is quickly recog-
nized in other districts which, but a short while ago boasting of similar resources, are now stripped
of them. Its physiological peculiarities make it an important factor in the future forestry of this
section. Its propagation is successful over a vast expanse in the southern section of the Atlantic
forest region, and by its productive capacities, mode of development, and behavior toward com-
peting species in the struggle for existence, the Loblolly Pine possesses great advantages for its
natural and artificial renewal, adapting it particularly for the restoration of the forests on the
lowlands of the maritime region.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON LOBLOLLY PINE.
By FILIBBRT ROTH.
(September 1, 1897.)
Where Loblolly is the great timber tree of the woods, and often by itself covers many miles of
land, in the northeast part of North Carolina, this tree is universally known as "Shortleaf Piue."
Many people employ special names for young growth or saplings of unusual development, espe-
cially where the connection between the mature tree and the sapling is not quite clear to them.
In Florida the tree is often little known, and is usually grouped with Pond Pine as "Loblolly." In
Texas the name "Bastard" pine is frequently employed, implying a belief that this is a hybrid
between the Longleaf and Shortleaf pines.
In the large forests of North Carolina, east of the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad, where
this tree seems at its best, and where it furnishes 80 to 85 per cent of the North Carolina pine of the
market, it is always a fast grower and a heavy bearer. At its southern limits in the peninsula of
Florida the species occurs only in hammock lands and similar sites, where it nevertheless still
makes large trees.
Saplings 10 to 15 feet high along the edges of clearings are often laden with cones and rapidly
seed the open ground for many rods about. In this old-settled region, where the danger from
fire is limited, dense groves of saplings are met on every hand and millions of feet of lumber are
to-day cut from land where the corn rows are still apparent. It is probably fair to say that the
average lumber-size tree of this region is not over one hundred and twenty-five years old, and
thousands of them are less than eighty years. Numerous tracts are now cut for the second time
in thirty years, a fact which has misled many men to enunciate the absurd statement that this
pine required only fifteen to thirty years to grow to merchantable size. Generally the logging is
not clean, and in most cases a fine lot of pole trees is left 8 to 12 inches in diameter, requiring
only a further increase of 4 to 8 inches to become of lumber size.
In the North Carolina district (including southeast Virginia) this pine is distinctly a "sap
pine," more than 70 per cent of the wood being sapwood. In logging the stem is cut into standard
sizes, the top is entirely rejected, and the logs are rafted or else hauled to the mill by railway. It is
usually sawn with band saws, almost exclusively into boards li inches or less, and at once dried
in dry kilns at temperatures of 160° to 180° F. Equipment and method as well as the product
turned out by the larger establishments of this district are unexcelled in the manufacture of
lumber in this country.
Close to the principal markets, on cheap land, and stocked with the fastest-growing and best
reproducing pine in this country, these forests have a very bright future. With a reasonable
amount of care, well-paying pine forests, yielding 30,000 to 50,000 feet of good pine per acre in
one hundred years may be established here.
133
THE SPRUCE PINE.
(PINUS GLABRA Walt.)
HISTORICAL.
DISTRIBUTION.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
ENEMIES.
EEQUIREMENTS OP DEVELOPMENT.
135
THE SPRUCE
(Pimm glabra Walt.)
Synonyms: Pinus <,l<ibra Walter, Fl. Caroliniana, 237 (1788).
Pinus mitit ft ? paupera Wood, Cl. Book, 660 (1869).
COMMON OR LOCAL NAMES
136
THE SPRUCE PINE.
By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D.
INTRODUCTORY.
The Spruce Pine is the least common of the pines found in the lower Southern States. The
tree is frequently confounded by the inhabitants with the Shortleaf Pine, to which it is closely
related. Its vernacular names are, in different sections of its range, applied to several other pines ;
in Florida to the Sand Pine (Finns clausa), in north Alabama to the Scrub Pine (Pinus virginiana},
and in the southern part of this State even to the Cuban Pine. Although never forming extensive
bodies of timber, being for the most part widely scattered among the broadleaf evergreens and
de< iduous trees with which it is associated, aud in. the quality of its wood of low rank, this little
known tree has been given a place here among the monographs of the timber pines of the South
Atlantic forest region in order to dispel for the future its confusion with some of these trees, and
at the same time to attract the attention of the tree planter to it as the only one of its kind which
thrives and propagates in the shade, keeping its ground closely surrounded by the luxuriant and
varied tree growth with which it is associated, and soon outstripping the same by the rapidity of
its growth. Considering that ajnong all others of its kind in the same region it attains the fullness
of its growth in the shortest time, with dimensions which render it valuable for many of the pur-
POMJS for which the softer and lighter kinds of timber are used, its economic importance can not
be ignored.
HISTORICAL.
The Spruce Pine was first recognized as a distinct species and described as Pinus glabra by
Walter, in his Flora Caroliniana in 1788, having since that time been known under this name
by the botanists. Hidden in the remote semiswampy dense forests, it escaped the attention of
later botanists. Neither the Michauxs, father and son, nor Nuttall were aware of its existence.
It was unknown for fully three-fourths of a century until rediscovered by Professor Eavenel in
the swamps of Berkeley County, S. C. Ten years later the tree was described in Chapman's Flora,
1800. It was recognized by Professor Hilgard in the Pearl River Valley, Mississippi. In 1880 its
distribution was traced by the writer through tire Gulf region to its western limit in the eastern
parishes of Louisiana.
DISTRIBUTION.
The Spruce Pine is a tree of the southeastern Atlantic forest, confined to the subtropical
region or the Louisianian zone of American botanists, within that part of the coastal plain of the
southern Atlantic and the Gulf States embraced between the thirty-first and thirty-third degrees
of north latitude; from South Carolina through middle and north western Florida to Louisiana,
with its western limit between the Pearl and Mississippi rivers. This tree is mostly found single
or in groups on the low terraces with a fresh or damp soil rich in humus, rising above the swamps
subject to frequent overflow. It is seldom seen to form compact bodies of timber; such have only
been observed between the Chattahoochee and Choctawhatchee rivers, in northwestern Florida,
where, to all appearances, this tree finds its best development on isolated tracts of fertile red loam
lands.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
Nowhere forming pure forests of any extent, this pine is of little importance to the lumbering
interests of the present, and its timber has never become an article of commerce. Although the
timber is of inferior quality, it furnishes lumber of dimensions equaling the best of our timber
137
l;;s TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
pines. It is light, soft, easily worked, and capable of good finish, and is without doubt fit for
many uses of the house carpenter and cabinetmaker in the manufacture of furniture and other
purposes. Owing to the large percentage of ash and smaller quantity of resinous matter, the
actual fuel value of the wood of the Spruce Pine is lower than that of the other Southern pines;
for its resinous product the tree is considered of no value, since the resin does not run when it
is tapped.1
In its wood the Spruce Pine resembles Loblolly. The sapwood is wide, and even in trees
seventy-five to eighty years old it forms more than three-fourths of all the wood. The change
from sap to heart wood begins as early as in the pines mentioned, and as in these is retarded with
age and also with any suppression of growth, so that in stunted young trees the change begins
later, and the sapwood of these, as well as old trees, is always composed of a greater number of
rings. While green, the wood is very heavy, weighing 45 to 50 pounds per cubic foot, varying in
this respect chiefly with the proportion of sapwood. When kiln-dried, the wood weighs about 27
pounds to the cubic foot; it is heavier at the butt, weighing about 31 pounds to the cubic foot,
and lightest near the top, where its weight falls as low as 25 pounds to the cubic foot. As in
other pines, the heaviest wood is produced by young trees. The amount of water contained in the
fresh wood is quite variable — very great in the sapwood, and consequently in young timber— but
falls little below 50 per cent of the weight of green timber on the whole. Its behavior in drying
is the same as in light grades of Loblolly; it dries rapidly and without much injury, shrinkiugj
during this process, by about 10 per cent of its volume.
The strength of this wood is, as in other conifers, closely related to its weight. Accordingly,
the Spruce Pine is inferior to both Shortleaf and Loblolly.
From careful experiment it appears that its —
Lbs. per sq. inch.
Modulus of elasticity is about 900,000
Transverse strength : 6, 000
Compression endwise 4, 000
In its structure the wood resembles too closely that of the Loblolly to enable as yet any
identification on this feature, and the description for the wood of the Loblolly answers perfectly for
the product of this species. As in Loblolly and other hard pines, suinmerwood and springwood
are always well defined, the summerwood forming from 15 up to 40 per cent of the total volume*
differing in this respect from the White Pine which it has been claimed to resemble. Thus while
decidedly softer on the whole than Loblolly it is by no means to be expected that the Spruce Pine
can hope to serve as a general substitute for the true White Pine.
BOTANICAL, DESCRIPTION.
Leaves invariably in pairs, with short and close sheath ; soft, slender, 1 £ to 3 inches long,
twisted; cones short-stalked, horizontal or reflexed, the cone scales with a flat apophysis, the
depressed umbo unarmed or with a minute weak erect prickle.
The Spruce Pine is readily distinguished by the close bark of its trunk which in the crown and
the limbs is perfectly smooth and of a light gray color; in foliage and in cones it resembles most
closely the Sand Pine (Pinus clausa) of the coast region of Florida and the eastern Gulf States,
winch however is distinguished by the more prominent apophysis of the cone scales, armed with a
short, stout, reflexed prickle. The Shorlleaf Pine, to which it is next related, is distinguished by
the same characters and further by the fascicles of two and three leaves and the rigid young shoots
of the season covered with slender, long, loosely fimbriated bud scales.
The leaves are concave, faintly serrulate, short pointed, and are shed during the latter part
of the second season or the beginning of the third.
In the details of their structure they differ little from the leaves of the Shortleaf Pine; the
rows of breathing pores (stomata) are numerous on both surfaces; the strengthening cells of the
cortical tissue are smaller and less numerous; the resin ducts, two or three, are parenchyma-
tous, the cells of the bundle sheath thin walled. The two tibro- vascular bundles distant and
without strengthening cells.
1 Ravenel : Proceed, of Elliott Society, Charleston, 1, 52.
GROWTH OF SPRUCE PINE.
139
The male flowers are lateral, sessile, and about one-half to three-fourths of an inch long*
slender, surrounded by five to six pairs of short ovate, rather obtuse stiff scales, with a narrow,
membranaceous lacerated border. The crest of the anther is elliptical, with fine denticulatious.
The small female aments are mostly single, short stalked, the carpellary scales lance-shaped with
slender tips and subtended by the short infertile bract.
The cones are mostly single witli a short stalk and of various shapes on the same tree, from
round to oblong ovate or more or less cone-shaped, from 1£ to 2 inches long, and, on the opening
of the scales from three-fourths to one inch wide, of a light tawny color. The scales are softer
and more flexible than in the Shortleaf Pine, the apophysis broader, with the nmbo depressed,
unarmed, or with a minute, weak, erect, and deciduous prickle, the ridge faint, hazel-brown on
the inside. The somewhat triangular roughish seeds, black with brown specks, about three-
sixteenths of an inch loug and one-eighth inch wide, separating easily from the wing which is
little over one-half inch long and surrounds the seed to the base.
PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
The Spruce Pine begins to flower and to produce perfect seeds at an age of twelve to fifteen
years, in greatest abundance between twenty and forty years; the flowers appear during the
earliest part of March; shortly after pollination the female aments assume a horizontal position,
and finally become more or less reflected. At the end of the first season the conelets are of the
size of a large pea. The cones mature in the second year in the month of September; the seeds
are freely shed early in the fall. They germinate during the fall and early in the coming spring;
the plantlets, with eight to ten slender, soft cotyledons, are over an inch long. The terminal bud
develops rapidly, densely covered with the slender, soft primary leaves which are sharp pointed
and frequently over an inch in length. Early in April seedlings are found over one-half toot long,
later in the season fascicles of the foliage leaves appear in the axils of the upper primary leaves,
when the lower wither and disappear near the end of the season. At this stage the seedlings are
generally a foot high with the root system less developed than in its kindred species at the same
age ; the taproot scarcely 2 inches in length with a few short lateral roots.
With the twentieth year the trees are generally from 30 to 35 feet high and 4 to 4£ inches in
diameter, the stem clear of limbs for the length of about 12 feet. They attain their full growth
at an age of from sixty to seventy-five years.
The trees for the United States timber tests from the border of the swamps on the banks of
the Tensaw Kiver in Baldwin County, Ala., showed the following dimensions and age:
Measurements of five trees.
No. of tree.
Rings on
stump.
Diameter
breast high.
Length of
timber.
Height of
tree.
Sap on
radius.
458
459
78
63
46
Inchet.
22
17
15
Feet.
45
56
40
Feet.
120
96
85
3
All sap.
460
401
75
83
22
23
57
60
99
116
5
5
From these figures it appears that the two trees forty-six and fifty-three (average forty-nine)
years old have an average volume of 63 cubic feet and grew at the rate of about 1.3 cubic feet,
while the three trees seventy-five to eighty-three (average seventy-eight) years old have an
average volume of about 152 cubic feet and an average yearly growth of about 2 cubic feet. The
following represents a typical case :
Growth of Spruce Pine.
Kings on
stump, a
Height of
tree.
Diameter
without
bark.
Volume of
wood.
Average yearly growth in —
Height.
Diameter.
Volume.
Feet.
Inches.
Cubic ft.
Feet.
Inches.
Cvtrieft.
10
37
5
2.5
3.7
0.5
0.2
20
51
8.5
9.5
1.4
.3
.7
30
67
12
26
1.6
.3
1.6
45
84
15
51
1.1
.2
1.6
a For age of tree add about three years.
140 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
The Spruce Pine attains a height of from 85 to 110 feet and over; the trunk is clear of limbs
for a length of from 45 to 60 feet, and it is from -' to 2£ feet in diameter breast high, seldom
exceeding 3 feet. The largest trees observed were about 120 feet in height by a girth of fully 10
feet breast high.
The taproot appears to be less strongly developed than in the Shortleaf, the lower lateral roots
run for a short distance close to the surface before penetrating the ground; the bark is close, with
deep, narrow furrows, separating in narrow thin scales and of a, reddish-brown color. The limbs
are horizontal, dividing in rectangular spreading branches and branchlets. The leaves also
become in the latter part of the season widely spreading, the density of the foliage being reen-
forced by the leaves of the short brauchlets produced on the older branches from adventitious
buds. To this spreading Uabit of the ultimate division of the branches and of the leaves is due
the peculiar spray of the foliage, similar to that of the true cedars.
ENEMIES.
No observations have been made of the injuries inflicted upon this tree by insects. Trees,
after having passed the period of full growth, at the age of about 100 years are very frequently
affected with decay in the stump and with redheart in the top. In the damp hummock lands the
tree is rarely touched by fire. Where the underbrush and the vegetable matter of the soil covering
has been destroyed by repeated conflagrations, however, the trees begin to sicken and soon die.
REQUIREMENTS OF DEVELOPMENT.
The Spruce Pine requires the warm climate of the subtropical zone, with a mean annual
temperature of about 66° F. and a mean temperature of 49° F. in the winter months (in central
Alabama the thermometer falls sometimes to an extreme of 5° F.), and the humid atmosphere of
the coastal plain, with a mean annual rainfall of 54 inches, evenly distributed throughout the year.
This tree will endure, during the early stages of its growth, more shade than any other of the
pines of the Atlantic forest region, perhaps the White Pine (Pinus strobus) excepted. Retarded
in its growth under severe oppression, it will finally force its way through its close surroundings,
and liaving gained a freer access to light, it pushes its crown rapidly above the broad leaved
evergreens and deciduous trees which luxuriate on the same ground. It demands a loosd soil,
rich in huums, fresh to moist but not wet, with a deep porous subsoil, which in these lands is
frequently a light, sandy loam.
The Spruce Pine is never found in the forest of the alluvial bottoms with their heavy soil, sub-
ject to frequent overflow, nor in the dry, sandy pine forests. Where it finds the soil conditions
most favorable to its growth, Magnolias, Cucumber trees, Sweet Gum, Mockernut Hickory, and
Beech are found of greatest thrift, not infrequently associated with the Shortleaf and the Loblolly
pines. The undergrowth on such lands is luxuriant, consisting of Dogwood, Holly, Summer Haw,
and a variety of shrubs, Bush Huckleberries (Vaccinium rirgatnm), Farkleberries (V. arboreum),
Storax Bushes (Styrax grandifolium), Cornels (Cornus xericea), and Blue Palmetto, forming dense
brush interlaced by numerous woody climbers ( Vitis, Ampelopsis, Wistaria).
As has been observed in northwestern Florida, where it finds the proper soil conditions, the
second growth of this pine soon occupies the clearings made in the original forest. Tracts of young
forests of much promise have been met with between the Ohoctawhatchee and Chattahoochee
rivers. The hammock land, forming the home of the Spruce Pine, being with the increase of the
population rapidly claimed for cultivation, this beautiful pine will soon be solely confined to the
most remote and inaccessible localities. Being the only really soft pine of the Southern States,
and having by its shade endurance a peculiar forest value, this tree will probably form an
important part in the future, when forestry has become an established business.
NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOOD OF FIVE SOUTHERN PINES.
(Pimm }>alnstrii, lietcroplii/llu, rchiitata, to da, ylubra.)
SAP AND HEARTWOOD.
ANNUAL RINGS.
SPRING AND SUMMER WOOD.
GRAIN OP THE WOOD.
MINUTE ANATOMY.
141
NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOOD OF FIVE SOUTHERN PINES.
(Pinus palusiris, heterophylla, echinata, taeda, glabra.)
By FILIBERT ROTH,
In charge of Timber Physics, Division of Forestry.
The wood of these pines is so much alike in appearance and even in minute structure that it
can be discussed largely without distinction of species. The distinctions, as far as there are any,
have been pointed out in the introduction. Here it is proposed to give in more detail the char-
acteristics of the wood structure.
SAP AND HEARTWOOD.
All five species have a distinct sap and heartwood, the sap being light yellow to whitish, the
heart yellowish to reddish or orange brown. The line of demarcation between the two is well
defined, without any visible transition stage. The location of this line does not as a rule coincide
with the line of any annual ring, so that the wood of the same year's growth may be sap on one
side of the tree and heart on the other. The difference in this condition may amount to ten or
twenty rings, which on one side of the same section will be heart, on the other side sap.
There is considerable variation in the relative width of the two zones as well as the number
f
of rings involved in either and also in the age at which the transition from sap to heartwood
begins. This age was rarely found to be below twenty years; as a rule the transformation begins
in young trees when the particular section of the tree is between twenty and twenty-five vears old,
but the progress of heart formation does not keep pace with the annual growth, being more and
more retarded as the tree grows older, so that while in a section twenty-five years old twenty-two
rings may be sapwood, at thirty-five years the sapwood will comprise only thirty rings ; at forty-five
years, forty rings; at eighty years, fifty rings; and in sections two hundred years old the outer
eighty to one hundred rings will still be sap. A young tree of Longleaf Pine (No. 22) was, for
instance, found to show the following relations :
Section.
Height
from
stump.
Age of
section.
Hinge of
sap.
Feet.
Yean.
dumber.
m. ...
6
M
40
IV. ...
14
38
33
vn. ...
22
30
27
IX. ...
80
24
23
XII. ...
42
18
17
The change from sap to heart wood begins earlier in young trees than in the younger portions
of older trees; in these latter, sections thirty-six and forty years old are quite commonly found
still entirely made up of sapwood, while in young trees, as stated above, the change begins before
the age of thirty years.
The progress of the transformation is somewhat influenced by the rate of growth; it is slower
in slow-growing trees and usually also on the slower-growing radius, i. e., there are more rings of
143
144 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
sapwood. The width of the sapwood, on the other hand, stands in relation to the rate of growth
in an opposite manner; it is wider in young and thrifty than in old and stunted trees, and widest
along the greatest radius of any section ; similarly, it is wider in the faster-growing Loblolly, Cuban,
and Spruce pines than in the slow-growing Longleaf.
Besides being of a lighter color the sapwood differs from the heartwood in several respects.
Its resin is limpid and oozes out of the pores or resin ducts of any fresh cut; that of the heartwood
does not flow, except in rare cases, from saturated pieces or "light wood." The sapwood contains
much less resin — both rosin and turpentine — than the heart wood. Thus in a section of Longleaf
the sapwood contained only 0.2 per cent of turpentine and 1 per cent of rosin, while the heart
contained from 2 to 4 per cent of turpentine and 12 to 24 per cent of rosin, and though this is an
extreme case the heart generally has three to five times as much resinous matter as the sap. The
fresh sapwood contains three to five times as much free water as the heartwood and is, even when
seasoned, more hygroscopic and subject to relatively greater shrinkage than the heart. This
capacity for taking up water readily is probably one of the reasons why sapwood decays more
readily. In addition, the parenchyma cells of the medullary rays and resin ducts (see further on)
contain, at least in the outer parts of the sapwood, living protoplasm and reserve food materials
which are readily seized upon by fungi which cause "bluing" and decay. Such living tissue does
not exist in the heartwood. The heartwood in old logs generally is heavier than the sapwood.
This is not due to any later thickening or growth of its cell walls, after their original formation,
but is due chiefly to two causes:
1. The heartwood of old logs was formed when the tree was younger, and made, naturally,
heavier wood.
2. The accumulation of resin in the heart already referred to increases often very considerably
the weight of the heartwood.
In the same way the sapwood of old logs, such as supply the sawmills, is weaker than the
heartwood of the same logs, but this is not because the wood is in the sapwood condition, but
because it is lighter and its summerwood per cent smaller, being, as stated before, the product of
old age when heavy and strong wood is no longer formed. Chemically the wood substance of
sapwood is practically like that of heartwood ; the coloring substances which permeate the cell
walls in heartwood appear to be infiltrations, i. e., deposited in the walls from solutions; they are
insignificant in amount, and their true nature, especially the processes leading to their formation,
are not yet fully understood. The most modern views which consider these coloring bodies or
heartwood substances as products of oxidation of tannin still require confirmation.
ANNUAL RINGS.
The layers of growth, known and appearing on any cross section as annual rings, show very
distinctly in the wood of these pines. In a section 8 or 10 feet from the ground the rings are
widest at the center, of considerable width for the first thirty to fifty rings, the period of most rapid
growth in height; then they grow more and more narrow toward the periphery. In the last sixty
to one hundred rings of very old logs the decrease is very small, the rings remaining practically of
the same width. The same year's growth is usually wider in the upper part of the stem, both in
young and old trees, but the average width of the rings is naturally greater in the upper part only
of young trees; in old and also in stunted trees it is smaller, since in these the upper portions do
not share in the more rapid growth of the early years.
Rings over half an inch wide are frequently seen in Loblolly and occur in Spruce Pine; rings
one-fourth of an inch in width occur in very thrifty saplings of all five species, but the average
width of the rings for sapling timber is usually less than one-fourth of an inch, commonly one-eighth.
In trees over one hundred years old it drops to one-twelfth of an inch and even below. The average
width of the rings is normally smallest in Longleaf Pine, being one- twenty-fifth of an inch and less.
(See also tables and diagrams of rate of growth in the introduction, as well as in the several
monographs.)
The influence of orientation on the width of the rings is completely obscured by other, more
potent influences, so that sometimes the radius on the north side, other times that of some other
ANNUAL RINGS. 145
side, is the greatest; and it is a common observation to see this relation vary within wide limits,
even in the trunk of the same tree.
Stunted trees of Longleaf Pine over one hundred years old with an average width of ring of
one-fiftieth of an inch are frequently met with in old timber; of the other species no such trees
•were observed. The decrease of the width of the rings from center to periphery is never perfectly
uniform. ~Sot only do consecutive rings differ within considerable limits, but frequently zones of
narrower rings, including thirty or more years' growth, disturb the general regularity. Where
these zones consist of very narrow rings, one-fiftieth of an inch or less, the wood is of distinctly
lighter color and weight. Since the value of this class of wood depends not only on its strength
and stiffness but also on the fineness of its rings (grain), in so far as the grain influences both the
appearance and the ease of shaping as well as other mechanical properties, the width of the annual
ring is of great importance, from a technical point of view, the finer-ringed (grained) wood of the
same weight always deserving and mostly receiving preference.
The rings of the limbs are narrower than the corresponding rings of the stem. Moreover,
they are usually of different widths on the upper and lower side of the same branch, those of the
latter excelling in width those of the former. Frequently the wider lower part of a ring of a branch
appears like a "lune" on the cross section, quite wide (one-eighth of an inch and more) in its lower
median part, and scarcely visible, often entirely fading out, on the upper side. This difference is com-
mon ly accentuated by the appearance of the wood itself. In the upper part the wood of the ring is
normal and light colored, owing to a very small suminerwood per cent; on the lower wide part,
the " lune," the wood is commonly of reddish color, either even throughout the entire width of the
ring, or else in several varicolored bands, which give the appearance of two or more separate
ill-defined rings. Sometimes the earliest formed springwood is included in this unusual colora-
tion, at other times only the median portion of the ring. This " red wood," as it has been termed
by the French and German writers, is composed of very thick walled cells and increases markedly
the weight of the wood, so that the wood of the side containing it is usually much the heaviest.
It is of interest that the several " lune's " in any cross section occur rarely, if ever, exactly one
above the other, but commonly the radius passing through the middle of one "lune" makes an
angle of liO to 40 degrees with the radius passing through the middle of another "lune." Often
successive " lunes " show considerable deviation in position and commonly differ in width or degree
of development. Accepting the most recent explanation of this phenomenon as expressed by
Hartig and Cieslar,1 it would appear that the formation of these broad "lunes" of especially
strong cells is due to pressure-stimulus on the growing cambium, caused by the weight of the limb
and its peculiar position, increased at .all times by movements of the limb due to the wind. More-
over it seems that the formation of one well developed "lune" relieves for a time the pressure,
and with it the necessity for a repetition of this formation. These "lunes" are most conspicuous
in the limbs of these pines near the trunk, and disappear at variable distances from the trunk and
with them disappears the eccentricity and the difference in appearance and weight of the wood
of the limbs. Immediately at the junction of limb and stem the pressure is constant, and the
result is the formation of almost uniformly thick-walled tissue in all parts of the ring, giving to
the " knot" its great weight and hardness.
Lunes similar to those of the limb are frequently observed in the stems of small trees;
wherever this has been noted it was found on the underside of a leaning or curved portion.2
Occasionally such a "lune" extends for 12 and more feet up and down.
Quite distinct from this modification of the annual ring is another modification frequently seen,
especially in young trees, giving rise to so-called " false" rings. It consists in the appearance of
one or more, rarely two, dark-colored lines, which precede the true summerwood band of the ring.
These lines, resembling the summerwood in color and composed like it of thick-walled cells, follow
the true springwood of the year and are separated from the summerwood and from each other
(if there are more than one), by a light-colored line resembling springwood. While occasionally
this is somewhat misleading in counting the rings, a moderate magnification usually suffices to
'A. Cieslar, "Rotholz d. Fichte," Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen 1896, p. 149, and Robert Hartig "Das Rothholz
der Fichte " in Forstlich-naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, 1896, p. 165.
2Ci-slar produced them at will i>y bending yonng spruce saplings.
7092— No. 13 10
146
IIMIIKK 1MNKS OK THE SOUTHERN TNITED STATES.
distinguish tin- real diameter of the tissues, as described later on. A more serious dillieulty
arises in very old, slowly growing trees, where the ring sometimes is represented by only one to
three cells (see fig. !•"*) and occasionally disappears, i. e., is entirely wanting in some parts of the
cross section, (ienerally these cases, due to various causes, are too rare to seriously interfere in
the establishment of the age of a tree.
SPRING AND SUMMER WOOD.
The dilVereiice between spring and summer wood is strongly marked in these pines, the
transition from the former to the latter being normally abrupt and giving to the annual ring the
appearance of two sharply defined bands. (See tigs. J.'! and 1815.) In wide rings the transition is
sometimes gradual. The springwood is light colored, has a specific gravity of about 0.40. and thus
weighs somewhat less than half as much as the darker sumnierwood, with a specific gravity of
about O.'.IO to 1.0."), so that the weight and with it the strength of the wood is greater, the larger
the amount of stimmerwood. (See diagram, fig. 14.)
t-LAST 50-4- 2i0 50 RINGS.-i- 3?S 50 RINGS. f 4™ 50 RINGS. ^CENTRAL 28 RINGS)!
'RINGS OR 50
|YRS GROWTH'
iSUMMER WOOD.1 SUMMER WOOD. I
22%. 30%. |
SUMMER WOOD.
45%.
SUMMER WOOD.
527.. •
SUMMER WOOD.
167..
Flo. 13. — Variation of Buninicrwood per cent from pith to bark.
The absolute width of the sumnierwood varies generally with the width of the ring (see
diagram, fig. 15), i. e., the wider the ring the wider the sumnierwood band. It decreases in a cross
section of an old log from near the pith to the periphery, and in the same layer, from the •stump
to the toj> of the tree. Where the growth of the stein is very eccentric, the wood along the greater
radius has the greatest proportion of summerwood; thus, in a disk of Longleaf, for instance, then-
is on the north side a radius of 15i> mm. with 27 per cent summerwood; on the south side a radius
of 08 mm. and a summerwood per cent of only -'() per cent. In the stump section the great
irregularity in the contour of the rings is accompanied by a corresponding irregularity in the
outline of the summerwood.
The summerwood generally forms less than half of the total volume of the whole log (see fig.
13); it forms ;v greater part of the coarse grained wood which was gr>wn while the tree was young
than in the line-ringed outer parts of the log, grown in the old age period. It ;ilso forms a greater
part in the volume of the butt than of the top log, and thus fully explains the well known difference
in the weight, strength, and value of the various parts of the tree. The following table serves to
illustrate this point. The numbers in each line refer to the average values for the same ten annual
layers through three sections of the tree at varying height. The figures in itxlicx below refer to
specific gravity for the same layer. The values for specific gravity were calculated on the basis of
SPRING AND SUMMER WOOD.
147
allowing a specific gravity of 0.40 for spriugwood and 0.90 for summerwood, the values for the
entire disks as actually observed being given below:
Summerwood per cent and specific gravity in various parts of a tree of Longleaf Pine.
1
11
21
81
41
51
61
71
81
01
101
111
1?,1
1,11
141
T51
1B1
171
181
101
i>01
211
m,\
W1
Aver*
Ringn from periphery.
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
age
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
00
100
110
120
130
140
150
1BO
170
180
100
200
210
220
2:10
236
total.
Section 1, 3 feet from ground .
39
44
40
42
38
35
45
32
44
66
43
43
52
56
48
46
48
43
47
47
52
45
42
»!.-,
45
.,1.9
et
.«>•
./;;
.!>»
.a?
.ft
,/W
M
.7,1
«r
61
fifi
m
K4
«,1
K4
K1
S3
iw
M
fi*
fif
47
.655
Section IV, 35 feet from
?6
?.i
?T
34
*R
?4
'6
?•)
15
49
11
11
41
11
40
11
34
11
11
31
•>•>
&8
29
an
HI
M
57
'i4
fit,
UK
I*
S7
M
U
W
fir
fi7
GO
IS
.57
56
Iff
11
5i
.( :
545
Section VII, 70 feet from
?1
16
17
18
18
?0
16
?fl
18
'6
?l
'•1
19
19
??
16
1R
<•'
18
HI
4S
•W
41
41
V
4K
w
49
fit
w
1*
41
4<>
sr
4.4
41
41
450
a Six rings next to pith. & Two rings. cOnering.
The observed values of specific gravity for the three sections are 0.700, 0.560, and 0.490, respectively.
It will be noticed that the greatest difference between the calculated and the actual value of
specific gravity occurs in the section at the stump. This is fully accounted for by the fact that
large amounts of resin, not considered in the values of summerwood per cent, always occur in
this portion, adding from 5 to 20 per cent to the weight of the wood.
100
Decades of Rings from periphery
FIG. 14 — Variation of specific gravity with summerwood per cent and age of section in Longleaf Pine, the solid lines referring to a section
3 feet from the ground, the dotted lines to one 14 feet from the ground. (Specific gravity as actually observed on pieces of 1 inch radial
extent.)
In stunted tre"es the summerwood forms nearly as great a per cent of the total volume for
the whole tree as in thrifty trees of the same age, but in the stunted growth, or extremely narrow
ringed portion of otherwise normal trees, the per cent of summerwood is markedly decreased, a
feature which becomes conspicuous in the lighter color of the wood of such portions. (See
diagram, fig. 15.) Where, on the other hand, the rate of growth in an old tree is suddenly
increased by the accessibility of more light, for instance, the summerwood per cent also is
disproportionately increased, but this disproportion appears to be more transient, i.e., a decrease
in the summerwood per cent sets in sooner than for the rate of growth or the width of the rings.
(8ee fig. 15.) In some of the rapidly grown Loblolly and Spruce Pine the summerwood forms but
;i small part of the first ten to twenty years' growth, and in all cases the first few rings about the
pith have but little summerwood. In general, the summerwood per cent varies in the several
species as well as in the individual with the weight of the wood, which is least in the Spruce Pine,
greatest in Cuban and Longleaf Pine, and stands between these in Loblolly and Shortleaf. It
furnishes a very useful criterion to distinguish between these groups and especially to select
strong timber.
148
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
Iii the limb the smmnerwood is most abundant in the knot (all wood practically partaking
of the character of snmnitTwood, at least as far as the thickness of cell walls is concerned) and
in the part next to the stem, decreasing with the distance from the trunk. As might be expected,
it also forms a larger per cent of the wood of the underside of limbs and the concave portions of
bent trunks.
S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Decades of Rings Trom, periphery
FIG. 15 Variation of summerwood per cent with rote of growth (width of ring), in tree No. 3, Longleaf Pine.
KOTK Only the heavy line represents nuinmerwood per cent; the others indicate the actual width of the rings (upper pair) and of th«
hand of summerwood (lower pair).
GRAIN OF THE WOOD.
Though usually quite straight grained, the wood of these species is by no means always so.
Spiral growth leading to " cross-grained " lumber occurs frequently, is usually more pronounced
in the basal portions of the tree, and commonly varies from pith to bark in the same log. Wavy
grain resembling that of the maple (curly maple) has not been observed, but an irregular wavy
grain, due to the fact that the surface of the trunk for many years is covered with small, low
eminences, 1 to a few inches across, is frequently seen, especially in Longleaf Pine, and leads to
remarkably pretty patterns. Unfortunately the contrast of spring and summer wood being so
very pronounced, the figures are somewhat obtrusive and, therefore, not fully appreciated.
MINUTE ANATOMY.
The minute structure or histology of the wood of the five species under consideration is that
ot a group whose position in a general classification of the wood of pines is indicated in the follow,
ing scheme, suggested by Dr. J. Schroeder, and more completely by Dr. H. Mayr,1 in which they
appear as part of group 2 of Section I.
1 Dr. J. Schroeder, Holz der Coniferen, Dresden, 1872, p. 65; Dr. H. Mayr, Waldungen von Nordarnerika, Mtin-
chen, 1890, p. 426.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE.
149
Section I. Walls of the trachcids of the pith ray with dentate projections.
a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray. — Group 1.
Represented in this country by P. resinosa.
i. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid on the walls of the cells of the pith ray. — Group 2. 1'. tcvda,
palustris, etc., including most of our "hardr and "yellow"
pines.
Section II. War of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate
projections.
a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of
each cell of the pith ray.— Group 3. P. strobits, lambertiaiia,
and other true white pines.
b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the
pith ray. — Group 4. P. parryaiia, anW other nut pines, includ-
ing also P. balfouriana.
The general features of structure of coniferous woods
are represented in the accompanying cut (fig, 16).
The structural elements, as in all pine, are few and
simple and consist of («) tracheids, the common wood
fibers, forming over 90 per cent of the volume; (b) medul-
lary or pith rays, minute cell aggregates composed of two
kinds of cells, scarcely visible without magnifier and then
only on the radial section, yet forming about 7 to 8 per
cent of the volume and weight of the wood in these spe-
FlG "-**«»•«« representation of coniferous
structure: wood of spruce — 1, natural size; 2, small
part of one ring magnified 100 times. The vertical
tubes are wood fibers, in this case all "tracheids,"
in, medullary or pith my; n, transverse tracheids of
pith ray ; a, &, and c, bordered pits of the tracheidx
more enlarged.
the middle
cies; (c) resin ducts, small passages of irregular length
surrounded by resin- secreting cells, scattered through the
wood, but forming two more or less connected systems,
one running in the direction of the fibers, the other at
right angles to the first, the individual ducts of the latter system always occupyin
portion of medullary rays (see PL XXVII).
The tracheids, or common wood fibers, are alike in all five species, and resemble those of
other pines; they are slender tubes, 4.5 to 6 mm. (about one-
fourth inch) long, forty to one hundred times as long as
thick, usually hexagonal in cross section, with sharp or more
or less rounded outlines (see PL XXI), flattened in tangen-
tial direction at both ends (see PL XXI, A/), the diameter
in radial direction being 45 to 55 yu (about 0.002 inch) in the
springwood, and about half that, or 21 to 25 /<, in the sum-
nierwood, and in tangential direction about 40 /< on the average
in their middle. They are arranged in regular radial rows
(see PL XXI), which are continuous through an indefinite
number of rings, but the number of rows increasing every
year to accommodate the increasing circumference of the
growing stem. (See PL XXI, C c.) The fibers of the same
row are practically conterminous, i. e., they all have about
the same length, though at their ends they are often bent,
slightly distorted, and usually separated (see PL XXI, B c;
also fig. 17), their neighbors filling out the interspaces. There
js no constant difference in the dimensions of these fibers
in the different species here considered. In every tree the
libers are shortest and smallest near the pith of any section, rapidly increasing in size from the
pith outward, and reaching their full size in about the tenth to twentieth ring from the pith.
To illustrate: In a section of Lougleaf Pine, 10 feet from the ground, the diameter of tracheids
in radial direction is in /<=0.001 mm:
17.— (Jell endings in pine.
IfiO
TIMHEK PINES OK THE SOUT1IEKN UNITKU STATES.
Number of
ring* iron,
center.
Spring-
W4KM1.
Siiilimrr-
wood.
An Nfl
M
p
p
1
24
15
24
2
34
2:!
32
3
45
N
40
4
43
26
36
7
50
26
38
10
52
28
36
24-33
.VJ 28
36
44-53
52
27
37
As usual in conifers, the tracheids are largest in the roots aiid smallest in the limbs. In these
pines, especially in Lougleaf Pine, they are larger in well-grown wood than in that of extremely
stunted trees, though very narrow rings in otherwise uormal trees do not share this diminutive size
of the tracheid. (See fig. 18, A and B, where a few very narrow rings are made up of elements of
normal size.)
A
Flo. 18.-Crt>88 section of normal nnd stunli .1 growth in Lmigleaf Pin.-.
The following average figures illustrate the difference bttween wood from very stunted trees
and that of normal trees in Longleaf Pine, of which we give an average from an extensive series
examined :
Kadial ilmin-
Number of
tree.
Age.
AVITIIKI-
wiiltliofring.
i-trr "f Ini-
oheiils in
nprlDirwiiod
Character of
tree.
^=0.001 i
MUKmtteri.
4
S6
0.4-0.5
31-38
Stunted.
5
60
.4
30-36
1)0.
6
70
.4
:;.i :w
Do.
7
68
2.0
62
Normal.
DESCRIPTION OF WOODY TISSUES. 151
As soon as the average width of the annual rings gets above 0.5 mm. the dimensions of the
elements approach the normal. Thus, in trees Nos. 1 and 2, with average width of annual rings
0.5 to 0.6 nun., the average diameter of the tracheids in radial direction is 35 to 48 p.
Normally, the diameter in radial direction is greatest in the first-formed or inner part of any
ring, and decreases even before the summerwood is reached. In narrow rings with an abrupt
beginning of "-the summerwood, so common in these Southern pines, tlie diameter is quite con-
stant throughout the spriugwood, but changes, together with the thickness of the wall, quite
suddenly with the beginning of the summerwood, thus adding to the sharpness of the outlines of
the two parts. (See I'l. XXI; also fig. 18, B.) In nearly all sections there is an additional marked
decrease in radial diameter in the last 3 to 5 cells of each row, which helps to emphasize the limits
of the ring. In the so-called "false" rings, mentioned before, the cells of the false summerwood
part resemble those of the normal summerwood. The recognition of the false ring as such rests
upon the difference in shape and dimensions of the last cell rows in comparison with those adjoin-
ing. In the true summerwood the last cells are much flattened, with small lumen and somewhat
reduced walls making a sharp definition toward the springwood of the next ring, which is still
further accentuated by the wide lumen and thin wall of the cells of the latter. In the "false"
summerwood, on the contrary, the end cells are not flattened, and the cells of the light-colored
adjoining zone of wood have but a moderately wide lumen and comparatively thick walls.
The fact that the outline is less regular and commonly incomplete — i. e., it does not extend
ar Mind the entire section — also aids in recognizing the false rings. In the "lunes" of both limb
and stem referred to above the fibers are smaller, more rounded in cross section, and commonly
exhibit conspicuous intercellular spaces between them. The walls of these are often much thicker
than those of the summerwood of the same ring at this point. Since the radial diameter of the
fibers of the snnunei wood is only about half as great as that of the springwood. it is clear that
the number of fibers of the summerwood forms a much greater per cent of the total number of
fibers than is indicated in the per cent of summerwood given above and based upon its relative
width. Thus, in wood having 50 per cent of summerwood there are, in number, twice as many
tiacheids in the summerwood as in the springwood.
The walls of the cells are generally about 3 to 3£ /u thick in the springwood, while in the
summerwood they are G to 7 /.i thick on the tangential side and 8 to 11 n thick on the radial side
of the fiber. Generally it may be said that the thickness varies inversely as the extent of
the wall, i. e., the greater any diameter the thinner the walls parallel to this diameter, which
gives the impression that each cell is furnished an equal quantum of material out of which
to construct its house and had the tendency of giving an equal amount to each of its four or
six sides.
Generally the absolute width of the ring does not alfect the thickness of the cell walls, the
fibers of wide rings having no thicker walls than those of narrow rings; but when the growth of
a tree is unusually suppressed, so that the rings are less than 0.5 mm. (0.02 inch) wide and each
row consists of only a few fibers, the walls of the fibers of the summerwood, like those of the last-
formed 2 or 3 fibers of normal rings, are thinner, so that in these cases the wood is lighter in
color and weight not only because there is relatively less summerwood, but also because the
fibers of this summeiwood have thinner walls. (See fig. 18, A and B.) In very stunted trees,
where the rings are all very narrow, the reduced thickness of the walls is counterbalanced by
the smaller size of the cells.
All tracheids communicate with each other by means of the characteristic "bordered" pits.
the structure of which is shown in fig. 10. These pits occur only on the radial walls of the fibers,
They are most abundant near the ends of each fiber, fewest in the middle, form broken rows,
single or occasionally double. (PI. XXIII, 0.) As in other pines the pits of the summerwood differ
in appearance from those of the springwood. In the latter the pit appears in the cell lumen
(radial view) as, a perforated saucer-like eminence; in the former as a mere cleft, elongated in the
direction of the longer axis of the fiber. (See PI. XXI, B, d and e; PI. XXIV, D, d and E, a.) In
both the essential part ot the pit is similar, a circular or oval cavity resembling a double convex
lens, with a thin membrane dividing it into two equal plano-convex parts. (This membrane is
shown only in the drawings, PI. XXIV, D and E.) In keeping with the small radial diameter of
TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
the fibers of the summerwood, these pits are much smaller in the summerwood than springwood,
and usually are very much fewer in number.
The simple pits are in sets and occur only at the points where the fiber touches the cells
of a medullary ray. (See fig. 17, also PI. XXIV, K, sp., and other figures of this plate and
PI. XXV.) Above and below these simple pits occur very small bordered pits, communicating
with those of the short transverse fibers or tracheids which form part of all medullary rays.
(See PI. XXII, D. b. p.)
As in all pines, the medullary or pith rays are of two kinds, the one small, 1 cell wide, and
1 to 10— in large averages 5 to 7 — cells high; the other large, and each containing in the middle
part a transverse resin duct. (See Pis. XXII, XXIII, XXV, and XXVII.) Of the former there,
occur about 21 to 27 on each square millimeter (about 15,000 per square inch) of tangential
section. The second class are much less abundant and scattered very irregularly, so that
sometimes areas of several square millimeters are found without any of these rays. Generally
about one of these rays occurs to every 1.5 or 2 square millimeters, or about 300 to 400 per square
inch of tangential section. In all rays the cell rows forming the upper and lower edge (see
PI. XXIII) are composed of short fibers or tracheids (transverse tracheids), while the inner rows
contain only parenchyma cells. Occasionally small rays occur which are composed of tracheids
only. (See PI. XXII, C.) Frequently the rows of parenchyma are separated by one, rarely by two,
series of tracheids (see PI. XXIV, D, and PI. XXV, D), giving rise to "double" or "triple" ra vs.
The number of cell rows in each medullary or pith ray varies from 2 to 10, on an average from
5 to 7, and of these the rows of tracheids or fibers form more than half. (See PL XXVI, where
the outer cells or tracheids are marked with dots.)
The tracheids of the rays have thick walls covered with point-ami bar like projections, the
boldest of which are on the upper and lower walls and surround the bordered pits. (See Pis. XXII
and XXIII.) These short tracheids communicate with the common wood fibers, with each other,
as well as with the parenchyma cells, by means of small bordered pits, which in this last case are
bordered on one side (side of the tracheid) and simple on the other (half-bordered pits). The
parenchyma cells occupying the inner rows of each ray communicate in the springwood part of
the ring with each neighboring tracheid by 3 to G, commonly 4 to 5, simple elliptical pits, in the
summerwood by a single narrow, elongated slit-like pit (see Pis. XXII and XXIII), and with each
other by small, irregular, scattered simple pits.
The walls of these cells are generally smooth, but local thickenings, especially on the upper
and lower walls and surrounding the pits, occur quite frequently, though not regularly.
The parenchyma cells of the rays are usually somewhat broader and higher than the fibers,
the average height for both being about 21 to 27 //, the average width about 20 //, while the length
of each cell and fiber, greater in springwood and least in the summerwood, is from two to ten times
as great as the height. Assuming 25 /.i and 20 /i to represent the average height and width, and
allowing 25 rays of 6 cell rows each to each square millimeter of tangential section, then the rays
form about 7.5 per cent of the total volume and weight of the wood of these species. An attempt
to utilize for purposes of identification the difference in the number, size, and distribution of
these rays, or the proportion between the number of rows of tracheids and those of parenchyma
cells, as was done by Dr. J. Schroeder,1 has not been successful, and appears of little promise.
The large rays with transverse resin ducts resemble the smaller rays described. On PL XXV
at A such a ray is seen both in radial and tangential section. Series of transverse tracheids
occupy the upper and lower edge, but the interior, unlike that of common rays, is several
cells wide, and contains an open duct in its widest portion. (See PL XXVII, r. d.) This duct
is commonly more or less filled with resin (see PL XXVII, E); it is surrounded by thin walled
secreting cells, and, in the heart wood, often divided or filled up by thylosis, i. e., by very thin
walled, much pufl'ed out cells, growing out of the surrounding secreting cells before the latter
perish.
The walls of the secreting cells are quite thin, those of the remainder of the parenchyma
vary to some extent in the different species. In the Longleaf and Loblolly Pines the walls of the
parenchyma composing the principal part of the ray are generally quite thick (see PL XXVII, A-E),
1 Dr. Julius Schroeder, Das Holz tier Conifereii, Dresden, 1872.
RESIN DUCTS. 153
thicker than those of the cells of ordinary rays, and especially thickened near the simple pits by
which these cells communicate with each other. In Cuban and Shortleaf this thickening is much
less conspicuous, and absent entirely in many cases (see PL XXV, A), while in the Spruce Pine it
seems wanting altogether.
These ducts exist even in the very first ring (next to the pith), are smaller and more numerous
near center, butt have essentially the same structure in the wood of the fifth and later years.
The tracheids of the pith rays are wanting next to the pith, but occur in all rays in the outer
part of even the first ring. The rays in this ring are generally lower, composed of fewer cell rows,
but the cells are larger than in the rest of the wood.
Both shape and size of these medullary rays are very variable; an average of about 0.4 mm.
for the height of the ray and 60 n for the width at the resin duct was observed. An attempt to
utilize the shape, especially the appearance of the two edges, as a means of separating the wood
of these species has so far failed entirely.
The large resin ducts running lengthwise in the wood or parallel to the common wood fibers
are much larger than the transverse ducts, measuring, inclusive of the secretive cells, on an
average about 0.2 mm. (0.008 inch) on their smaller radial diameter and about 0.3 mm. on the
tangential. (See PI. XXI, A, r. d.) They are usually situated in the suminerwood of each ring,
often in narrow rings, causing an irregular outline. They are smaller and more numerous near
the pith, here usually forming several series in one annual ring, more numerous in wide rings
than in narrow ones, but their number per square inch of cross section as well as their dimensions
appear to be independent of the width of the rings. In their structure they resemble those of
other pines. They are surrounded by thin-walled resin-secreting parenchyma, part of which
often appears as if not directly connected with the duct. (See PL XXI, A.) In many cases all
the tissue between two neighboring ducts is of this parenchyma. Longitudinal and transverse
ducts frequently meet and thus form a continuous network of, ducts throughout the wood.
PLATE XXI.— CROSS SECTIONS.
A, PINUS T.EDA, 1f-. r. d., resin dnct; ». c., secreting cells; m. »'., medullary rays; a, section of transverse trarhrid of
ray ; 6, the ray leaves the plain of the section at this point, small parts of it reappearing further on ; c, simple
pits connecting parenchyma cells of the ray; d-e, part of a row of tracheids formed during one season;
/, flattened terminal part of a tracheid.
K, PINUS HETEROPHYI.LA, i?a. »p. TO., springwood; mi. «>., summerwood ; a-b, part of a row of traclieids forim-d
during one season; c, terminal parts of tracheids; d, bordered pit in spriugwood; e, same in summerwood;
other letters as in A.
C, Pixus GLABRA, i^a. c, row of tracheids doubled; other letters as in B.
Originals, all *?".
164
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XXI.
m.r
TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF PINUS T/EDA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND QLABRA.
PLATE XXII.
A, I'INOS ECHINATA. Cross section of two rings; sp. «>., springwood; »«. w., suramerwood. .
/(, Pisus TALUSTRIS. Cross section of a very narrow ring. Of the two medullary rays one is cut through a n>w of
parenchyma, the other through a row of tracheids.
C and I), Piwrs GLABRA. Radial sections ; m. r., medullary rays ; tr., tracheids of the medullary rays ; p., parenchyma
of the same; «. p., simple pits leading from the parenchyma to the neighboring tracheids or common fibers
c. tr.; b.p., bordered pit. The ray at C is made up of tracheids only.
K, PINUS PALUSTRIS. Radial section; lettering as in D.
Originals magnified: A, a?s, the rest *fa; illustrations : A, ^, the rest ^f^.
156
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry,
PLATE XXII.
8U.W. *•
TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND ECHINATA, AND RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND QLABRA.
PLATE XXIII.— RADIAL SECTIONS.
A and R, PINUS KCHIXATA. m. r., medullary rays; p., parenchyma of s:im»; Jr., transv.-rse tracheids of rays; ». />.,
simple ]>its: 6. p., bordered pits; c. ir , common tracheids.
C, PINTS IIKTEUOPHYLLA. su. to., sumiiierwood ; other letters as in .1.
Originals magnified *fa; illustrations, , .
158
Bulletin No. 1 3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XXIII.
©
©
0
B
©
©
©
r
c.tr.
-m.r.
ti.p. c.tr.
IOC fl '
~<b.p.
RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS ECHINATA AND HETEROPHYLUA.
PLATE XXIV.— RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL SECTIONS.
A and B, PINUS TA;DA. Radial sections; m. r., medullary rays; (?•., tracheids; p., ]>arencbyiua of the rays; s. p.,
simple pit; b. ]i., bordered pit; c. (/•., common tracheids.
C-E, tangential sections.
'', Pixrs I'Ai.usTRls. Left-hand part in spriugwood, right-hand portion in sunimerwood.
D-K, Pixus KCHINATA. 7), Section in spriugwood; a-c, medullary rays; a, a small ray composed of tracheids only;
c, a "triple" ray; d, bordered pit showing the membrane in place. E, Section in summerwood; «. bordi-rrd
pit, other letters as in A and 11.
Magnification of originals, ^P; of illustrations: A and B, *$">; C-E, a?Q.
160
Bulletin No. 1 3, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XXIV.
rmr.
rio-4
D
RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS T/EDA AND TANQENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND ECHINATA.
7092— No. 13
PLATK XXV.
A, I'INUS IIETEBOPHYLLA. Radial and taugential sections of a transverse resin duct; r. d., resin duct; »«. r., medul-
lary ray; tr,, tracheids of the medullary ray; p., parenchyma cells of the same; r. tr., common tracheids or
wood fibers.
B-(T, PINUS GLADRA. H, tangential section of a transverse resin duct and parts of three fibers; l>. p., bordered pit;
other letters as above; C-G, tangential sections of medullary rays, of which K is made up of tracheids only,
•while D is a " triple " ray.
H, PlNL'S T/EDA. Tangential sections of medullary rays in spring and summer wood.
Original magnified 500 times, illustrations about af°.
162
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
c.tr.
PLATE XXV.
G
E
m.r.\
-p.
-tr.
B
TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS T/EDA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND QLABRA.
PLATE XXVI.— TANGENTIAL SECTIONS.
A-C and F, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA. D, PINUS ECUINATA. E, PINUS GLABKA.
A--C, sections of medullary rays; tr., tracheids; p., parenchyma; C is a "double" ray.
In D-F, histological details are omitted; they are camera drawings showing number and distribution of medullary
rays, and also the proportion of the tracheids to parenchyma in each ray, the former being indicated by dots;
r. d., transverse resin ducts; TO. r., medullary rays.
Magnification of originals: .4-C, 4?Q; D-F,11?; of illustrations: A-C, *?»; D-F, *,*.
164
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XXVI.
D
r.d.~
r.d
6:,
E
m.r:
-m.r.
-r.d
F
TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS ECHINATA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND QLABRA, SHOWING NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF
PITH RAYS AND PROPORTION OF PITH-RAY CELLS.
PLATE XXVII.— TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF TRANSVERSE RESIN DUCTS.
A-f, I'INUS T.EDA. D and E, P. PALUSTKIS. F, P. KOHINATA. G, P. HETBROPHYJJ^. r. d., resiu ducts; tr., trans-
verse tracheids; p., parenchyma.
Magnification of originals, 5?fi; of illustrations, i?a.
166
Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry.
PLATE XXVII.
E
A
WScHOLL
TRANSVERSE RESIN DUCTS-TANGENTIAL VIEWS.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MARSH OR POND PINE.
(Pinus serotina.)
DISTRIBUTION.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION.
PROGRESS OP DEVELOPMENT.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
167
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MARSH OR POND PINE.
(Pinus aerotina.)'
By FLLIBERT KOTU.
DISTRIBUTION.
The Marsh Pine of the North Carolina woodman, or Pond Pine of botanists, is a common tree
of the pinery along the Atlantic Coast from the Albeiuarle Sound in North Carolina lo the head
of St. Johns River in Florida, and occurs also on the west side of the peninsula of Florida and
along the Gulf nearly as far west as Pensacola. In passing on a train through the Atlantic; Coast
pinery this tree is rarely more than ten minutes out of sight, and generally forms small groves,
or occurs mixed with other pines, sometimes over areas of many miles.
In North Carolina, especially in the country about the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, this
tree is associated with and grows to the same dimensions as the Loblolly (Pinus taida), here
known as Shortleaf Pine; is cut and sold indiscriminately with this latter, and famishes about
10 to 1.1 per cent of the lumber known in the market as North Carolina pine, most of which is cut
in this region. From Newbern south to the State line this tree occupies the low "sags," often
alone or with Loblolly, and forms a conspicuous admixture of the open, scrubby, and much-culled
Longleaf Pine woods which cover the vast flats along the railway. In the pinery along the coast
of South Carolina, Georgia, and the east half of the peninsula of Florida the Pond Pine occupies
all low flats, in South Carolina largely with Loblolly, and in Georgia and Florida mostly with
Cuban Pine. It also forms part of the forests along the shore, also covering many of the islands.
Along the west coast of Florida it is not so common, and like Cuban Pine is wanting in many
places apparently well suited to its growth. From Ocala and Dunnellon up to Live Oak the tree is
rarely seen, is more common in the flats east of Tallahassee, and still more so between this place
and Carabelle, where it accompanies Cuban Pine. West of the Apalachicola few trees were seen,
and nearing Pensacola the species disappeared entirely.
In North Carolina the tree is well known to woodmen, and is distinguished as "Marsh Pine,"
occasionally as "Meadow Pine;" but in the towns and to the manufacturers it seems generally
unknown, and its logs are never recognized. In South Carolina and Georgia the tree, as far as
observed, is not well known, and when distinguished at all bears the name of " Spruce Pine," a term
which, like "Bull Pine," "Bastard Pine," etc., is commonly resorted to to hide ignorance in the
premises. In Florida, south of Jacksonville, where the little Sand Pine (Finns clausa) generally, con-
sistently, and appropriately receives the name of Spruce Pine, the Pond Pine is not distinguished
from Loblolly, both passing under this latter name. Where it grows with Loblolly, as in the forests
of North Carolina and along the coast, the Pond Pine looks very much like Loblolly. The old trees
attain tlie same height and thickness, the crown, bark, and even the foliage are much alike, and
the only striking difference is in the cones. Young trees of Pond Pine are not distinguished
from Loblolly even by observing woodmen, and as long as no cones are borne the distinction is
not easy. But besides the numerous very persistent cones, of which many stay firmly closed for
several seasons, the peculiarity of branching out from the stem greatly assists in recognizing this
tree in the woods. These sprout-like shoots or branches often cover the trunk for almost its
entire length in a manner often seen in Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) and also in the true Shortleaf
Pine (F'inux whinafti). In old, stunted timber, the crown, largely in consequence of this branching,
'These observations were made during uu extensive trip through the South in the spring of 1897.
169
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MARSH OR POND PINE.
(Pinus aerotina.)'
By FlLIBERT liOTH.
DISTRIBUTION.
The Marsh Pine of the North Carolina woodman, or Poud Pine of botanists, is a common tree
of the pinery along the Atlantic Coast from the Albemarle Sound in North Carolina to the head
of St. Johns River in Florida, and occurs also on the west side of the peninsula of Florida and
along the Gnlf nearly as far west as Pensacola. In passing- on a train through the Atlantic Coast
pinery this tree is rarely more than ten minutes out of sight, and generally forms small groves,
or occurs mixed with other pines, sometimes over areas of many miles.
In North Carolina, especially in the country about the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, this
tree is associated with and grows to the same dimensions as the Loblolly (Pinus t<cda), here
known as Shortleaf Pine; is cut and sold indiscriminately with this latter, and furnishes about
10 to 15 per cent of the lumber known in the market as North Carolina pine, most of which is cut
in this region. From Newbern south to the State line this tree occupies the low "sags," often
alone or with Loblolly, and forms a conspicuous admixture of the open, scrubby, and much-culled
Longleaf Pine woods which cover the vast flats along the railway. In the pinery along the coast
of South Carolina, Georgia, and the east half of the peninsula of Florida the Pond Pine occupies
all low flats, in South Carolina largely with Loblolly, and in Georgia and Florida mostly with
Cuban Pine. It also forms part of the forests along the shore, also covering many of the islands.
Along the west coast of Florida it is not so common, and like Cuban Pine is wanting in many
places apparently well suited to its growth. From Ocala and Dunnellon up to Live Oak the tree is
rarely seen, is more common in the flats east of Tallahassee, and still more so between this place
and Carabelle, where it accompanies Cuban Pine. West of the Apalachicola few trees were seen,
and nearing Pensacola the species disappeared entirely.
In North Carolina the tree is well known to woodmen, and is distinguished as "Marsh Pine,"
occasionally as "Meadow Pine;" but in the towns and to the manufacturers it seems generally
unknown, and its logs are never recognized. In South Carolina and Georgia the tree, as far as
observed, is not well known, and when distinguished at all bears the name of "Spruce Pine," a term
which, like "Bull Pine," "Bastard Pine," etc., is commonly resorted to to hide ignorance in the
premises. In Florida, south of Jacksonville, where the little Sand Pine (Pinus clausa] generally, con-
sistently, and appropriately receives the name of Spruce Pine, the Pond Pine is not distinguished
from Loblolly, both passing under this latter name. Where it grows witli Loblolly, as in the forests
of Xorth Carolina and along the coast, the Pond Pine looks very much like Loblolly. The old trees
attain the same height and thickness, the crown, bark, and even the foliage are much alike, and
the only striking difference is in the cones. Young trees of Pond Pine are not distinguished
from Loblolly even by observing woodmen, and as long as no cones are borne the distinction is
not easy. But besides the numerous very persistent cones, of which many stay firmly closed for
several seasons, the peculiarity of branching out from the stem greatly assists in recognizing this
tree in the woods. These sprout-like shoots or branches often cover the trunk for almost its
entire length in a manner often seen in Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) and also in the true Shortleaf
Pine (Pinux cclunata). In old, stunted timber, the crown, largely in consequence of this branching,
'These observations were made duriug au oxteusivc trip through the South iu the spring of 1897.
169
170 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES.
is much modified in shape; becomes elongated, often interrupted, and "straggly." In general, the
identification is not difficult where it involves merely a separation of this pine from its common
associates.
BOTANICAL, DESCRIPTION.
Botanically, the Pond Pine is described by Mr. Sud worth as follows:
Leaves three in a sheath and commonly 6£ to 7£ (exceptionally 8 to 10) inches long. Cones
very persistent, often remaining on the branches four to six or more years. Fresh, mature ones
are a rich russet-brown, but with exposure they become ashy gray. Many cones remain
permanently closed (serotinous) after maturing, while others open freely. Closed cones ovate or
sometimes rather sharply conical, 2 to 3 inches long and 1£ to If inches in diameter. Open cones
with strongly reflexed scale and very characteristic in their low, broadly pyramidal outline, the
breadth of the cone usually equaling (sometimes exceeding) the height. Seeds small, with a
narrow, tawny wing (about -fa inch wide and three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch long);
black or black-brown, with rough and turbercled surface, and two to three indistinct longitudinal
ridges.
PEOGEESS OF DEVELOPMENT.
In its manner of growth the Pond Pine resembles Loblolly in every respect. Like that
species, it is quite bushy when young; shoots up rapidly; makes fine poles; clears itself well if
crowded; forms an ample, usually elongated crown of medium size; and branches with numerous
rather fine twigs. Even when stunted it rarely takes on the flat-topped form so often met in
scrubby Longleaf woods.
The following examples illustrate its rate of growth :
An abandoned field in Georgetown County, S. C., a few miles from the salt marshes, was
covered with Loblolly and Pond Pine. Both grew with equal thrift, but on account of too open
a stand formed rather large-crowned, short-bodied timber. The best tree of Pond Pine measured
28 and 30 inches diameter on the stump 2 feet from the ground and had 62 rings, indicating for
this tree an age of only about sixty-five years. Most of the trees measured over 12, more than
half of them over 15 inches diameter, while their ages were generally under sixty years. In
Bertie County, N. 0., numerous trees were observed one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred
apd fifty years old, 20 to 30 inches diameter, and 90 to 110 feet high, furnishing three to four logs
per tree.
In keeping with this rapid growth, the sapwood is wide and, as in Loblolly of the same
localities, forms usually over 60 per cent of the volume of the merchantable logs. This accounts
for the fact that, outside of North Carolina and a few places of South Carolina where this tree is
cut into boards, the wood of Pond Pine shares the general prejudice against "Sap Pine," common
throughout the lower South.
Pond Pine is often claimed to be more defective than Loblolly; but as far as this could be
ascertained the difference is not great, and compared with White Pine, for instance, both must be
pronounced very sound timber.
The Pond Pine reproduces itself quite readily and, like Loblolly, eagerly seizes on abandoned
fields, wherever sufficient soil moisture exists. Though the older trees are commonly loaded with
cones and thereby make the impression of luxuriant seed production, it is doubtful if this pine
equals Loblolly in this respect. As far as observed the young trees are slower to bear, and entire
groves of saplings 10 to 15 feet high are often without fruit.
In this connection it is of interest that this pine not only sends out vigorous and persistent
shoots from the older parts of its trunk while standing, but that even logs if left on the ground
continue to sprout, 5 to 10 shoots often breaking through the bark on a space of a few square
inches, and still mor,e that the stumps of small trees (1 to 2 inches diameter), whether cut or
burned, send out 20 to 30 vigorous shoots during one season. Generally one or two of these take
the lead and the rest die off. Whether these surviving shoots ever grow into trees of any size is
not known, the tallest trees of which this origin could be clearly demonstrated being only about
15 feet high.
MARSH OR POND. PINE. 171
In its station or habitat the Pond Piue is at present limited to the low, wet, sandy flats; it is
not met on dry, sandy, rolling' pine lands, nor does it, like Loblolly, take to the rich river bottoms
and hammocks or the fertile red-clay lands. Its name is misleading, in so far as it does not, like
the Cuban Pine, go right into the water or ponds. On constantly overflowed tracts, like the
Okefluokee, or ttje interior of cypress ponds, the Pond Pine is not found. As to its associations, the
Pond Pine is quite independent. Generally it occurs only with other pines, particularly Loblolly
in the northern part of its range and Cuban Pine farther south ; but, as stated before, it is found
with Longleaf on the vast flats of southern North Carolina and also mixed with hard woods, as in
eastern North Carolina. It is rarely alone and no large forests of Pond Pine seem to occur. In
Georgia and eastern Florida it is the common associate of Cuban Pine, where this latter forms the
narrow fringe of river swamps and hammocks, separating often by only a few rods the Longleaf
from the cypress and hard woods of these tracts.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
In former years this tree, like Loblolly and Shortleaf, was not bled for turpentine, but of late
the scarcity of Longleaf Pine has induced the people of South Carolina and other States to extend
their operations even to these less-remunerative species. The yield from Pond Pine is fair both
in quantity and quality, but requires more labor, the " streak " or wound requiring renewal at least
twice a week. Operators claim that the tree does not bleed as long during the same season as
the Longleaf, nor does it endure the operation for as many seasons. On this latter point, however,
observations are as yet not sufficient to warrant generalizations. With its ready reproduction,
rapid growth into good lumber-size trees, and its ability to occupy poorly drained, otherwise almost
valueless lands, the Pond Pine deserves attention in all future forest operations of its region.
INDEX.
Page.
Age, effect on pine wood 17
Alabama central pine belt, description 41
Longleaf Pine forests, description 38
north, Longleaf Pine forests, description 41
shipments of timber and lumber in 1892 42
Anatomy, minute, of pine wood 148
Annual rings of wood, description 144
false 151
Atlantic pine region, description 31
Bleeding, effect 21,72
Botanical description and morphology of Cuban Pine 81
Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Pine -18
of Shortleaf Pine 101
Spruce Pine 13ti
diagnosis of Principal Southern pines 12
names of pines, li»t Ill
Boxing, effect 21
Branch, root, and stem system of Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Piae 49
Brunswick, Ga., exports of lumber for years 1884-1894 30
Tfntral pine belt of Alabama, description 41
Character of wood of Southern pines compared 13
Characteristics of distribution in different regions of Shortleaf
Pine.
Charcoal burning, use of Longleaf Pine 48
Charleston, S. C., lumber trade, 1880-1894 34
number of barrels and total value of rosin
shipped, 1880-1894 33
casks and total value of spirits
turpentine shipped, 1880-1894.. 33
trade in naval stores, 1880-1894 33
Classification and nomenclature of Cuban Pine 80
Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Pine 48
Shortleaf Pine 99
of rosin, or colophony 68
Climate and soil, effect on development of Longleaf Pine 60
required by Loblolly Pine 12
Shortleaf Piue 101
Spruce Pine 140
suitable to growth of Cuban Pine 88
Colophony, or rosin, descriptive classification 68
Crude turpentine, amount shipped from Wilmington, N. C.,
with total value, 1880-1894 32
Cuban Pine, article by Charles Mohr 77
characteristics of wood 83
classification and nomenclature 80
conditions required for development 88
description and morphological characters 81
of flowers 81
economic importance 79
geographical distribution 89
growth by decades for 120 years 87
from 4 to 20 years 86
notes on, additional, by Filibert Roth 89
progress of development 85
products 80
rate of growth 85
from 40 to 145 years 87
requirements of , 88
n-M nous products 80
synonyms, scientific and common 13,78
Cubic contents of Longleaf Pine, by decades 60
Darien, Ga., export of lumber, 1884-1894 36
Page.
Distillation of turpentine, methods 70
Enemies of Loblolly Pine, remarks 130
Lougleaf Piue, remarks 61
Shortleaf Piue, remarks 108
Spruce Pine, remarks 140
Exploitation methods, injurious, iu Longleaf Pine forests 61
Exports of lumber from Savannah, Brunswick, Darien, and St.
Marys, 1884-1894 36
spirits turpentine and rosiu from Mobile, 1880-1894. 40
timber and lumber from Pensacola, 1880-1893 37
Mobile, Ala , amount and
value, 1880-1894 40
False rings 151
Fornow, B. E., introduction to bulletin 11
Fire, injury in Longleaf I'ine forests 62
Florida, eastern, Longleaf Pine belt 36
western, Longlenf Pine forests, description 37
Flowers of Cuban I'ine, description 81
Loblolly Pine, description 123
Shortleaf Pine, description 101
Lougleaf Pine, description 51
Forestry, description 11
time for the application 11
Forests, effect of production of naval stores 72
Loblolly Pine, natural reproduction 131
Longleaf Pine, in Alabama, description 41
Georgia, description 34
Louisiana, description 43
Mississippi, description ' 42
Texas, description 45
injurious methods of exploitation 61
injury from fire 62
livestock 62
management 64
natural reproduction 64
turpentine orcharding 69
Shortleaf Pine, management 110
Fuel value of Longleaf Pine wood 48
Fungi injurious to Longleaf Pine 63
Georgia forests of Longleaf Pine, description 34
shipments of lumber, 1884-1894 36
statistics of Longleaf Pine 35
Grain of the pine woods, remarks 148
Growth, rate compared 22
Gulf region, eastern, maritime pine belt, description 36
Heart and sap wood, general remarks 143
Height of Lougleaf Pine, by decades 60
History, economic, of Loblolly Pine 116
of Longleaf Pine 29
of naval-stores industry 68
the use of Loblolly Pine 115
Shortleaf Pine 93
Insects injurious to Longleaf Pine trees 63
Leaves of Loblolly Pine, description 123
Lougleaf Pine and their modifications 49
Shortleaf Pine, description 101
Leaf products of Longleaf Pine 48
Light, relation to Loblolly Pine and associated species 130
Shortleaf Pine and associated species 108
Lightwood, formation and uses 47
Live-stock injury to Longleaf Pine forests 62
Loblolly Pine, article by Charles Mohr 113
associatid species and relation to light 130
botanical description 120
173
174
INDEX.
Page.
Loblolly Pine, conditions of development 1-9
description of flowers and leaves 128
wood 125
economic Importance 116
enemies 1 30
geographical distribution and economic history. 114
growth, by decades, to 120 years 129
from 5 to 50 years 127
50to 156 years 128
height, diameter, and cubic contents, bydecades. 129
history of its use — 115
leaves, description 123
measurements of trees from different regions. 118, 119
nomenclature and classification 121
notes on, additional, by Filibert Roth 133
products - 119
progress of development 126
rate of growth 126
reproduction, natural 131
resinous products 120
root, stem, and branch system 121
soil and climate required 129
synonyms, scientific and common 113,114
uses and value of wood 119
Locality, influence on value of pines 18
Longleaf Pine, article by Charles Mohr 29
associated^ pecies 61
belt of eastern Florida, description 36
blown down by storms 62
botanical description and morphology 48, 121
conditions of development 60
cubic contents, by decades 60
demands upon soil and climate 60
economic importance 29
effects of naval-stores industry 72
enemies 61
estimate of timber standing 66
flowers, description 51
forests injured by fire and live stock 62
injurious methods of exploitation 61
management 64
natural production 64-131
of Alabama, description 38,41
eastern Louisiana, description 43
Georgia, description 34
Mississippi, description 42
North Carolina, description 31
South Carolina, description — 33
Texas, description 45
western Florida, description 37
western Louisiana, description 44
geographical distribution 30
growth and development . • 65
rate of growth, by decades 59
stage of rapid growth 55
stage of slow growth 57
height, diameter, and cubiccontents, bydecades. 60
injured by fungi (Polyporu*) 63
insects injurious 63
leaf products 48
leaves and their modification 49
lumber produced in Louisiana in 1892 45
Texas in 1892 46
measurements of trees 38, 39, 41, 44, 45, 46
from 100 to 200 years old. 59
200 to 266 years old. 58
youngtrees 57
nomenclature and classification 48
notes on, additional, by Filibert Roth 74
products 46
rate of growth 59,60
region west of the Mississippi, description 44
reproduction, natural 64
resinous products 48
root, stem, and branch system 49
scientific and common synonyms 13, 28
seeds, description 51
Longleaf Pine, statistics of Georgia 65
statistics of Mississippi 42
South Carolina 33
summerwood, per cent, and specific gravity in
various parts of trees 147
turpentine orcharding in forests 69
variation of specific gravity with snmmerwood
and percent and age of section 147
wood, description 53
fuel value 48
nses and value 46
Louisiana, eastern Longleaf Pine forests, description 43
Longleaf Pine lumber, production in 1892 45
Low pine barrens, description 30
Lumber, Longleaf Pine, production in Louisiana in 1892 45
Texas In 1892 46
shipments from Alabama in 1892 42
Mississippi in 1879-80 and 1883-1893. . 43
Mobilein 1880-1894 40
Pensacola in 1880-1893 37
Savannah, Brunswick, Darien, and St .
Marys, 1884-1894 36
shipped to foreign and domestic ports from Charleston,
S. C., 1880-1894 34
shipped to foreign and domestic ports from Wilming-
ton, N. C., 1880-1894 32
Maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf region, description 36
Marsh Pine 16*
Measurements of Loblolly Pine, by decades 129
from different regions 118,119
Loilgleaf Pine trees 38,39,41,44,45,46
from 100 to 200 years old. 68
200 to 266 years old . 59
Shortleaf Pine trees at different ages 106
of different regions 89-98
Spruce Pine trees at different ages 139
trees from virgin forests 35
yonug Lougleaf Pine trees 57
Mechanical properties of wood of Southern pines compared 14
Medullary rays 149-154
Mississippi Longleaf Pine forests, description 42
lumber shipments, 1879-80 and 1883-1893 43
statistics, 1891-92 43
statistics of Longleaf Pine 42
Mobile, casks of spirits of turpentine exported, 1880-1894 40
exports of naval stores, 1880-1894 40
rosin in barrels, 1880-1894 40
timber and lumber, 1880-1894 40
Mohr, Charles, article on Cuban Pine (Pinus keterophylla) 73
Loblolly Pine (Pinus t&da) 113
Longleaf Pine (Pinut palustrii) 27
Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata) 91
Spruce Pine (PiniM glabra} 135
Moisture and weight of pines 20
inflnenceon strength of pine 19
Morphology and botanical description of Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Pine 48
of Cuban Pine 81
Naval stores, definition 07
effects of production upon the timber and life of
tree and the conditions of forests 72
exports from Charleston, S. C., ^880-1894 33
Mobile, Ala., 1880-1894 40
Savanuah, Ga., 1880-1894 36
Wilmington, N. C., and total value,
18PO-1894 :i J
history of the industry 68
statistics 67
Nomenclature and classification of Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Pino 48
Shortleaf Pine 99
of Cuban Pine 80
Southern pines 13
North Carolina Longleaf Pine forests, description 31
Orcharding turpentine in forests of Longleaf Pine 69
improved methods 71
Orchards, turpentine, cost of establishing a plant for working. 69
INDEX.
175
Page.
Orchards, tnrpentine, tools nsed 70
Pensacola, Fla., exports of timber and lumber, 1880-1893 37
Pine barrens proper 31
belt, central, of Alabama 41
belts of the South, description 11
Cuban. (See Cohan Fine.)
diagnostic feature of the wood 13
distribution of strength and weight throughout the tree. 16
effect of age on wood 17
t'on-st* in Virginia, description 31
grain of woods, remarks 148
iudtience of locality on value 18
Loblolly. (See Loblolly Pine.)
Longleaf. (See Longleaf Pine.)
minute anatomy of wood 148
range of value for weight and strength 18
relation of strength to weight 14
Scrub, only valuable for firewood 12
Sbortleaf. (See Shortleaf Pine.)
Spruce. (See Spruce Pine.)
tar, methods of production 68
timber, estimated annual consumption 24
estimate of quantity 24
statistics 23
use of the wood 21
weight and moisture 20
weight and strength of wood at different heights in the
tree 15
relations 15
White, habitat 12
Pines, best common names 13
botanical names 13
loral common names 13
mechanical properties 14
inoxt important timber of the world 11
notes on the structure of the wood of the five Southern,
article by Filibert Roth 141
remarks on shrinkage 20
Southern, nomenclature 13
wood characteristics 13
statistics 23
Pint/* fchinata, article by Charles Mohr 91
•ynonyms, scientific and common 92
glabra, article by Charles Mohr (tee Spruce Pine) 135
synonyms, scientific and common 136
hettropht/Ua, article by Charles Mohr (nee Cuban Pine) . . 77
botanical diagnosis 12
synonyms, scientific and common 13,78
paluitrit, article by Charles Mohr (tte Longleaf Pine) ... 27
botanical diagnosis 12
synonyms, scientific and common 13, 28
trrotina, observations on, by Filihert Roth 189
ttrobvt, habitat 12
tada, article by Charles Mohr 113
botanical diagnosis i 12
common names and synonyms 13, 113
Pitch, common, how obtained 68
Pond Pine 189
Resin ducts 153
Resin from Longleaf Pine, description and composition 67
Resinous products of Cuban Pine 80
Loblolly Pine 120
Longleaf Pine 48
Mings, annual, description 144
false 151
Root, stem, and branch system of Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Pine 49
Rosin or colophony, description and classification 68
exported from Charleston, S. ' '., in barrels, and total
value, 1880-1 894 33
Mobile, Ala., in barrels, 1880-1894 34
Savannah, Ga., in barrels, 1880-1884 36
Wilmington, .V. <:., and total value,
1880-1894 32
Roth, Filibert, article on the structure of the wood of five
Southern pines 141
Page.
Roth, Filibert, additional notes on Cuban Pine 89
Loblolly Pine 133
Longleaf Pine 74
Shortleaf Pine Ill
observations on the Marsh or Pond Pine (Pinut
serotina} 169
Sap and heart wood, remarks 143
Savannah, Ga., amount of naval stores exported, 1880-1894 36
exports of lumber, 1884-1894 36
number of barrels of rosin exported, 1880-1894. 36
number of casks of spirits tnrpentine exported,
1880-1894 36
Shortleaf Pine, article by Charles Mohr 91
botanical description 101
characteristics of descriptions in different re-
gions 94
climate and soil suitable 107
conditions of development 107
crowding out other species 108
description of flowers and leaves 101
characteristics of wood 103
economic importance 63
enemies 108
forest management 110
geographical distribution 93
growth after 120 years 106
from 8 to 50 years 105
50 to 120 years 108
height, diameter, and onbic contents of average
trees at various ages 106
history of its use 93
measurement of trees of different regions 98
nomenclature and classification *. 99
notes on, additional, by Filibert Roth Ill
products 99
progress of development 104
rate of growth during different periods of life. . 107
relation to light and associated species 108
requirements as to light 108
shrinkage of wood 19
synonyms, scientific and common 13
Soil and climate, demands by Longleaf Pine 60
required by Loblolly Pine 129
Spruce pine '. 140
suitable to Shortleaf Pine 107
required for development of Cuban Pine 88
Sonth Carolina Longleaf Pine forests, description 33
statistics of Longleaf Pine 33
Southern pines, nomenclature 13
wood characteristics ...... 13
Spring and summer wood, difference 146
Spruce Pine, article by Charles Mohr 135
botanical description 138
climate and soil required 140
distribution 137
economic importance 137
enemies 140
growth (height, diameter, and cubic contents) at
different ages 139
history 137
progress of development 139
requirements of development 140
statistics of supply and production 23
synonyms, scientific and common 136
Stem, root, and branch system of Loblolly Pine 121
Longleaf Pine 49
St. Marys, Ga., exports of lumber, 1884-1894 36
Storms, injurious to Longleaf Pine forests 62
Strength of wood of Southern pines 14
Summer and spring wood, difference 146
Summerwood, per cent, and age of section in Longleaf Pine 147
specific gravity of various parts
of Longleaf Pine 147
variation, per cent, from pith to bark 146
with rat* of growth in
Longleaf Pine tree 148
176
INDKX.
Synonyms, scientific and common, of Cuban Pine (Piniu hettro-
Pine (Pinut
line (Pinui
) ...............
(I'inut
Page.
-
78
Loblolly
imlin
Longleaf
114
28
Shortlcaf Pine
rchinata) ............... 92
Spruce |iine (1'inutglalra) 136
Tar. amount shipped from Wilmington, N. C., 1880-1894 ........ 32
Tar. pine, methods of production ............................... 68
Trias forest* of Longleaf Pine, description ................... 45
ImiilK'rpnHluction from Longleaf Pine ................ 46
Timber. rtterts ol' production of naval stores on the timber, life
of the tree, and the conditions of the forests ........ 72
estimate of Longleaf Pints standing ................... 66
exported from Pensacola, Fla., 1880-1893 ............... 37
exports from Mobile, Ala., 1880-1894 ................... 40
regions, supply and production ........................ 31
shipment:* from Alabama, 1892 ......................... 42
Tools nscd in turpentine orcharding ........................... 70
Ti a< -Ill-ids ...................................................... 149
Turpentine, cost of establishing a plant for working an orchard. 71
crude (or resin) from Longleaf Pine, composition. 67
oil. (See Spirits.)
methods of distillation ............................ 70
orchard, cost of establishing a plant for working. . 69
orcharding, an improved method ...* ............... 71
injury to trees and forests ............ 72
in the furr.-ts ol Longlcaf Pine ....... 69
tools . ................................. 70
spirits, amount shipped from Wilmington, N. C.,
and total value, 1880-1894 ................ 32
Turpentine, spirits, number of casks shipped, and total value
from Cliarl. -I..H.S r., r880-1884 33
mimherof casksshippcd from Mobile. Ala..
1880-1894 36
or oil, chemical composition 67
Virginia pine forests 31
We i;> h t and strength of wood 14
Wilmington, N. C.. shipments of lumber to foreign and il
tic ports, 1880-1894 32
t radr i n naval stores, 1880-1894 :i2
Wood, diagnostic features of pine 13
effect of age 17
grain of 148
of Cuban Pine, characteristics 83
Loblolly Pine, characteristics 125
description 53
use and value 119
Longleaf Pine, clmractcristics 53
fuel value 48
minute anatomy of 148
pine, remarks on grain 148
Shortleaf Pine, character!*! ic» 103
Southern pines, characteristics 13
mechanical properties 14
relation of strength to weight 14
influence of locality 18
moisture 19
shrinkage 20
the five Southern pines, article by Filibert Koth 143
sap and heart, remarks 143
spring and summer, difference 146
weight and strength at different heights in tree 15
3D
397
P55K6
1897
llohr, Charles Theodore
The timber pines of the
southern United States
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