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THE J. PAUL GEITY MUSEUM LIBRARY
THE
TINMAN'S MANUAL
AND
BUILDER'S
AND
MECHANIC'S HANDBOOK,
DESIGNED FOR
Tinmen, Japanners, CopperBmitlis, Engineers, Mechanics, Builders, lilill-
wriglits. Smiths, Masons, Carpenters, Joiners, Slaters, Plasterers,
Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, Plumbers, Surveyors, Oraugers, &e., &c.; with
Compositions and Receipts for other useful and important purposes in
the Practical Arts.
By I. R. BUTTS,
Author of the " United States Bushiess Man's Law Cabinet," " Business Man's
Law Library ;" " Merchant's and Shipmaster's Manual and Shipbuild-
er's and Sailmaker's Assistant," &c., &c.
SECOKTID I3r>ITI03Sr.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY I. R. BUTTS & CO.
CORNER OF SCHOOL AND WASHINGTON STREET,
Over Ticliiior &; ^fields' Boolsstore.
1861.
7
Entered according to Act of Concpress, in the year 18C0, by I. R. Butts, in the
Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
IHi J. PAUL GETTY ONTHR
UBRAKY
PREFACE
The present work is offered to Tinmen, Builders, Mechanics, and
Engineers, as a useful manual of reference, and information.
The first part of the work containing Rules, Diageams and Tables,
will be found very useful to Tinmen.
Mr. Truesdell who has, for many years, used the Diagrams pre-
pared by him for this work, now offers them to the public with every
confidence.
The Receipts for Japans, Varnishes, Cements, ^c., were taken
from "Ure's Dictionary," " Cooley's Cyclopedia," " Muspratt's
Chemisti'y," and other valuable publications.
The sources from which most of the materials relating to Building,
Mechanics, and Engineering have been derived, are " Grier's
Mechanic's Calculator," "Templeton'a Workshop Companion,"
"The Engineer's and Contractor's Pocket-book," " Adcock's En-
gineer," "Smeaton's Builder's Companion," and "Lowndes's
Engineer's Handbook," which renders this portion of the work
deserving of the utmost confidence.
LETTER FROM L. W. TRUESDELL.
Mr. Butts, —
Dear Sir, — If I may be permitted to comment upon
the first part of your book, I would like to point out to Tinmen the
value of the Diagrams which, a few years ago, could not have been
purchased at any price ; but as they are now to be published, and
sold at a low price, I am confident they will be bought by every Tin-
4 PREFACE.
man, for I know, by experience, the perplexities to which they are
often subjected from the want of them.
With these Directions and Diagrams, the Tinman will be enabled
to cut a Right-Anglcd or Circular Elbow of any size, in a few min-
utes, and produce as perfect a mitre joint as can be made ; also,
patterns for Flaring vessels, of any size or flare. Envelopes for Cones,
Pyramid Cakes, Covers for Oval Dishes and Boilers, Funnel-shaped
Covers for Pails, Breasts for Cans, Lips for Measures of any size, &c.*
When about to make a copy from these diagrams the person should
proviile himself with a sheet of paper or tin-plate, and strictly follow
the directions given.
Suppose^ for example, that he is about to copy Fig. 1, the directions
are, first, from the centre C describe a circle AB. Having described
the circle AB, next, place the corner of the square on the centre C, and
draw the lines CD and CE ; then draw the chord DE.
When the Tinman has become familiar with the diagrams, he will
find them simple and convenient, and be better qualified to undertake
work of a difficult character. If an Elbow at right-angles, of ten or
fifteen inches diameter, should be reiiuirod, with the directions and
diagrams before him, he could cut it out in a few minutes ; and so
with a curved elbow of any diameter, a semicircle, or an ellipses-
shaped dish of any size. But without a rule or pattern it would be
a difficult and troublesome undertaking.
Having by experience proved the correctness and usefulness of
these Diagrams, I can confidently recommend them to all persons
engaged in the manufiicture of Tin Ware.
L. W. TRUESDELL.
OwEGO, N. Y. Sept. 23, 18G0.
EXTRACT OF A LETTER FROM A TINMAN.
Mr. Butts,—
Dear Sib, — "Your • Tinman^ s ManuctV strikes
me as being nearer what we want in our business, than anything I
have ever seen, — and I have examined every thing of the kind I have
been able to find. The best we have been able to do has been to jiick
up what ideas we could from works on Geometry and Building, and
work out what rules we could from them. I have often wondered
why some person did not umlertake just what you have done. This
work of yours supplies just the want that every thinking man who
works at the business has felt, even from liis first start ; and the want
is still more sensibly felt as he grows older, and finds how much there
is to learu."
' In Tinman's Diagrams the allowance for locks is always omiiied.
CONTENTS.
RULES AND DIAGRAMS FOR WORKERS IN TIN, SHEET
IRON AND COPPER.
Page.
Manufacture of Tin Plate 12
Quality of Tin Plate 14
CIRCLES.
To find the Circumference 'of any
Diameter 15
To find the Area of a Sector of a
Circle 15
Proportion of Circles to enable ma-
chinists to enlarge or reduce
wheels without changing their
motion 16
The Circle and its Sections 27
To find the centre of a Circle from
a pan of the Circumference 33
Diameters, Circumferences, and
Areas of Circles 41
CTUNDEKS.
To find the Contents in Gallons of
any Cylindrical Vessel 38
Tables giving the Content in Gal-
lons of Cylinders from 1 inch to
30 feet Diameter 42
Table giving the Content in Gal-
lons of Cans from 3 inches to 40
inches Diameter 45
BEVEL COVEES.
To describe Bevel Covers for Ves-
sels, or Breasts for Cans 25
To describe Bevel Covers for Ves-
sels, or Breasts for Cans, {another
mode) 32
To describe Covers for Pails 25
ELLIPSES OR OVALS.
To describe an Ellipse 17
Definition of an Oval, — note 17
To describe an Ellipse {another
mode) 18
To find the Circumference of an
Ellipse 19
To find the Area of an Ellipse 19
To describe an Oval Boiler Cover 26
To draw an Ellipse, the transverse
and conjugate Diameters being
given, i. e. the length and width 116
To draw an Ellipse by means of
two concentriccircles 117
1*
Page-
ELBOWS.
To describe a Right Angled Elbow 20
To describe a Straight Elbow (old
method) 21
To describe a Curved Elbow 22
To describe a Straight Elbow
(another inode) 24
FLARING VESSELS.
To describe a Flaring Vessel Pat-
tern, a Set of Patterns for a Py-
raimd Cake, or an Envelope for
a Cone 28
To describe a Cone or Frustum.. . 29
To strike the Side of a Flaring
Vessel 31
To construct the Frustum of a Cone 34
To strike out a Cone or Frustum. . 35
To find the content of a Cone . . 35
To find the Angles of a Frustum of
an inverted Pyramid, such as a
Mill Hopper, &c 36
To find the content of the Frustum
of a Cone, such as a Coflee-pot,
Bowl, &c .' 36
MISCELLANEOUS.
To joint Lead Plates 23
Soldering for Lead, Zinc, Tin, and
Pewter 23
To joint Lead Pipes, 24
Soldermg for Copper 160
To describe a Lip to a Mea.sure. . 27
To describe a Cycloid, or Curve. . 30
To describe a Heart 30
Tinning Iron 31
A good Solder 33
Sector, for obtaining Angles 34
Sector, definition of. 34
Rule to find the Content in Gallons
of Frustums of Cones 37
Rule to find the Content in Gallons
of any Cylindrical Vessel 38
Table to ascertain ithe weight of
Pipes of various metals, and any
Diameter required 38
Table of Tin Plates, size and
weight per box 39
Table of Cans, quantity and qual-
ity of Tin required for 2J to 125
gallons 39
CONTENTS.
Page.
Weight of a cylindrical and cubic
inch, cubic foot and gallon ot
AValer 40
Decimal Equivalents to the frac-
tional parts of a Gallon or an Inch 40
Tables containing the Diamciers,
Circumferences and Areas of
Circles 42
Tables giving the Diameters and
Circumferences of Circles 1~1
Tables to ascertain the weight of
Lead Pipes 139
Capacity of Cans in Gallons from
3 inches to 40 inches in Diameter 45
New Tinning Process 40
rage.
Crj'slallizing Tin Plate, how per-
formed 46
Tinnir.g Vessels of Brass or Copper 46
Kustilien's .Metal for Tinning 46
Instruments used in Drawing. .. . 101
Composition of Britannia Metal for
Spouts, Registers, Spoons, &c. . 91
Composition of Britannia Melal for
Lamps, Pillars, Handles, and
Castings 92
Solder for Britannia "Ware 91
Lacker for Tin Plate 73 & 94
Solder, Tinman's 96
Definitions of Arithmetical Signs
used in this work 110
RECEIPTS FOR THE USE
BUILDERS,
JAPANNING AND VAUNISHINO.
Directions for Jai)anning
White Japan Grounds— Gum Copal
Black Grounds— Black Japan
Brunswick Black — Blue Japan
Grounds — Scarlet Japan — Yel-
low Grounds — Green Japan
Grounds
Orange Colored Grounds— Purple
Japan Grounds — Black Japan-
Japan Black for Leather — Trans-
parent Japan — Japanners' Copal
Varnish
Tortoise Shell Japan— Painting
Japan Work — Japanning Old
Tea-trays— Japan Finishing. . . .
TARNISHES — MISCELLANEOUS.
Substances employed for making
Varnishes
Choice of Linseed Oil
CIIIEF RESINS EMPLOYED IN
MAKING VARNISH.
Amber— Anime— Benzoin — Colo-
phony— Copal
Dammara— Llimi — Lac — Mastic —
Saiidarach
Turpenline — Alcoliol — Naphtlia
anil Meihylated Spirit of Wine-
Spirit Varnishes
Essence Varnishes— Oil Varnialica
— Lacker
VARNISHES.
Copnl Varnishes {six hinth)
Copal Varnishes {three hhnts) Cab-
inet Varniili— Table Varnish—
Coiniiion Table Varnish — Copal
Varnish for Inside Work
Copal Polish— While Spirit Var-
nisli— White Hard Spirit Var-
oibhes —While Vurnish
OP JAPANNERS, VARNISHERS,
MECHANICS, &c.
Soft Brilliant Varnish 62
Brown Hard Spirit Varnishes— To
prepare a Varnish for Coating
Metals — Varnish for Iron and
Steel, for Iron Work, Black for
Iron Work, Bronze for Statuary 63
Amber Varnishes, Black, Pale,
Hard— Black Varnish 64
Varnish for certain parts of Car-
riages, Coaches, Mahogany, for
Cabinet IMakers— Cement Var-
nish for water-tight Luting— The
Varnish of Watin for GiUk-d Ar-
ticles—Oak Varnish— Varnish
for Wood-work— Dark Varnish
for light AV^ood-work 65
Varnish for Instruments, for W'ood
Toys of Spa, for Furniture— To
French Polish 66
Furniture Polishes, Gloss, Cream,
Oils, Pastes— Etching Varnishes 67
Varnish for Engraving, Maps, to
fix Engravings or Lithographs on
Wood, I for Oil Paintings and
Lithograplis, lor Paintings and
Pictures- Milk of AVax 68
Crj-stal Varnishes, Italian — AVater
Varnish for Oil Paintings- Var-
nish for Paper-hangings, Book-
binders, Cordwork 69
Varnish for Printers — for Brick
walls— Mastic Varnishes j^lndia
Rublu-r Varnishes 70
Black Varnish for Harness— Boil-
ed Oil or Linseed Oil Varnish—
Dammar Varnish 71
Common Varnish — .Waterproof
Varnishes — Varnishes for Bal-
49
50
51
52
53
54
60
01
62
loons. Gas Bags, ic— Gold Var-
nisli — Wainscot Varnish for
House Painting and Japanning
LACKERS.
Gold Lacker— Red Spirit Lacker-
Pale Brass Lacker— Lacker for
72
CONTENTS.
Page.
Tin — Lacker Varnish — Deep
Gold Colored Lacker — Lackers
for Pictures, IMetal, Wood, or
Leather 73
CEMENTS.
Armenian, or Diamond Cement. . 74
Cements for mending- Glass Ware 74
Cement for Slone-vvare— Iron-Rust
Cement — for making- Architectu-
ral Ornaments — Varley's Mastic
— Electrical and Chemical Appa-
ratus Cement 75
Cements for Iron Tubes, Boilers,
Ivory, Mother of Pearl, Holes in
Castings, Coppersmiths and En-
gineers, Plumbers, Bottle- corks,
China and Leather 76
Cements for Marble, Marble--work-
ers, Coppersmiths, Glass, mend-
ing Iron Pots and Pans, Cisterns
and Casks 77
Cements for mending Fractured
Bodies of all kinds, for Cracks in
"Wood, joining Metals and Wood,
for fastening Brass to Glass Ves-
sels, Blades, and Files — Gas-Fit-
ter's Cement— Cement Paint. ... 78
builders' cemexts.
Cements for Terraces, Roofs, Re-
servoirs, Fronts of Houses, &c.. . 79
Cements for Brick Walls, Seams,
and Tile roofs SO
Coarse Sluff. SO
Parker's Cement— Hamelein's Ce-
ment— Plaster in imitation of
Marble — Scagliola 81
Maliha, or Greek Mastic — Fine
Stuff— Stucco for Inside Walls 82
Higgins's Stucco — Gauge Stuff-
Page.
Composition — Foundations of
Buildings 83
Concrete Floors — Fite-proof Com-
position 84
RECEIPTS.
To Polish Wainscot and Mahoga-
any — Imitation of Mahogany —
Furniture Varnish — To make
Glass and Stone Paper 85
Whitewash — Paint for Coating
AVire "Work — To Bleach Sponge
— Lac Varnish for Vines— Razor
Paste — Leather Varnish — To
keep Tires Tight on Wheels 86
To Cut Glass — Prepared Liquid
Glue — Marine Glue — Paste for
Envelopes — Dextrine, or British
Gum — Gum Mucilage 87
Flour Paste — Sealing Wax for
Fruit Cans— Fusible Metal— Me-
tallic Cement 83
Artificial Gold — Or-mulo — Blanch-
ed Copper — Browning Gun Bar-
rels— Silvering Powder for Coat-
ing Copper 89
Alloys for Journal Boxes — Bells
of Clocks — Tools — Cymbals and
Gongs — Solder for Steel Joints —
Files — To prevent Tools from
Rusting — Axle-Grease- to Gal-
vanize—Soft Gold Solder 90
RECEIPTS AND COMPOSITIONS.
Nearly 200 Compositions for Me-
chanists, Iron and Brass Found-
ers, Turners, Tinmen, Copper-
smiths, Dentists, Finishers of
Brass, German Silver, Britan-
nia, and other useful purposes in
the Practical Arts 91
MECHANICAL DEAWING.
Instruments used in Drawing 101 I Mechanical Drawing and Perspec-
The Sector' 103 live
105
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Definition of Arithmetical Signs. . 110
PROBLEMS.
To find the Circumference of a Di-
ameter 15
To find the area of a Sector 15
To find the Proportion of Circles
by which to enlarge or reduce
Wheels without changing their
motion 16
To find the various and proper Di-
mensions of Materials whereby
to construct Hipped Roofs,&c.. . 36
To find the Centre of a Circle from
a part of the Circumference 33
The Circle and its Sections 27
Sector, for obtaining Angles 34
To inscribe an Equilateral Trian-
gle within a given Circle Ill
Within a given Circle to inscribe a
Square 112
Within a given Circle to inscribe a
regular Pentagon 112
Within a given Circle to describe
a regular Hexagon 113
To cut off the Corners of a given
8
CONTENTS.
Page.
Square, so as to form a regular
Octagon 113
To divide a given Line into any
Number of Parts, which Parts
shall be in the same Proportion
to each other as the Parts of
some other given line, whether
those parts are equal or unequal 114
On a given Line to draw a Poly-
gon of any Number of Sides, so
that that Line shall be one side
of a Polygon 114
OF DRAWIXG CUEVED LINES.
To draw an Ellipse with the Rule
and Compasses, the transverse
and conjugate Diameters being
given ; i. c. the length and width IIG
To draw an Ellipse by means of
Page,
two Concentric Circles - 116
To draw an Ellipse of any length
and width ■ % 18
To find the Circumference &. Area
of an Ellipse 19
Other methods for describing an
Ellipse 117
To find the Centre and the two
Axes of an Ellipse 118
To draw a flat Arch by the inter-
section of Lines, liaving the
Opening and Spring or Rise
given 119
To find the Form or Curvature of
a raking Moulding that shall
unite correctly with a level one 119
To find the Form or Curvature of
the Return in aji open or broken
Pediment 120
EPITOME OF MENSURATION.
Ofthe Circle, Cylinder, Sphere,
Zone, &c
Of the Square, Rectangle, Cube
Surfaces and solidities of Bodies
Of Triangles, Polygons, &c
Of Ellipses, Cones, Frustums, &c.
INSTKUMEJfTAL AEITHMETIC.
Utility ofthe Slide Rule •
Numeration
123
123
124
124
125
125
126
To Multiply Numbers by the Rule 126
To divide Numbers upon the Rule 126
Proporlion or Rule of Three Direct 127
Square &. Cube Roots of Numbers 127
Rule of Three Inverse 127
Mensuration of Surface 128
Mensuration of Solidity and Ca-
pacity 129
Power of Steam Engines 130
OfEngme Boilers 130
RULES AND TABLES FOR ARTIFICERS AND ENGINEERS.
Measurement of Bricklayer's work 132
Table to find the number of Bricks
in any given Wall 133
Measurement of AVells 4. Cisterns 133
Measurement of Mason's AV'ork.. 133
Measurement of Carpenter's and
Joiner's AVork 134
Table of different sized Nails to alb 135
Table of different sized Sashes, &c 13G
Measurement of Slater's AVork.. . 136
Table of American Slates 136
Table of Imported Slates 137
Measurement of Plasterer's AVork 137
Measurement of Paver's AVork. . . . 137
Measurement of Painter's AVork... 137
Measurement of Glazier's AVork. . 138
Table of Size and Number of
Lights to the 100 Square Feet... 138
Measurement of Plumber's AVork 138
Table ol Sizes and Weight of Pa-
tent Lead Pipe 139
Table of Boston Lead Pipe 139
Table of Comparative Strength and
Weight of Ropes and Chains... 139
8TUENGTU OF MATERIALS.
Dcfinilinn* 140
Table of Tenacities, Resistance to
Compression, &c,, of various
Bodies 140
Resistance to Lateral Pressure. . . 140
Table of Practical Data 141
To find the dimensions of a beam
of Timber to sustain a given
AVeight 141
To determine the absolute strength
of a Rectangular Beam of Tim-
ber 141
To determine the dimensions of a
Beam with a given degree of de-
flection 142
Cast-iron Beams of strongest sec-
lion 142
Of Wooden Beams, Trussed 142
Absolute Strength of Cast-iron
Beams 142
Dimensions for Cast-iron Beams.. 143
To find the AVeight of a Cast-iron
Beam- 143
Resistance to flexure by vertical
pressure 143
To determine the dimensions for a
Column of Timber 144
Resistance of Bodies to Twisting 144
Relative strength of Metals to re-
sist Torsion 144
CONTENTS.
Page.
Breaking strength of a Bar of
Wioughl Iron 145
Lateral strength of Wrought Iron
as compared with Cast-iron 145
Load on Bridges, Floors, Roofs,
and Beams 145
Strength of Beams, Bar of Wood,
Stoiie, Metal, Ropes, Tubes, or
Hollow Cylinders 146
Models proportioned to Machines 14G
Metals arranged according to their
Strength...". 147
Woods arranged according to do. 147
Strength of Cords, &c 147
Strength ofReclaugular and Round
Timber 148
Table of the Cohesive Power of
Bars of .Metal 148
Relative Strength of Cast and Mal-
leable Iron 148
STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
Solid, Rectangular, Rovnd, Hollow 149
To find the breaking Weight in lbs. 149
To find the proper Size for any giv-
en purpose 150
Strength of Cast-iron with Feath-
ers or Flanges 150
Wrought Iron Beams and Girders 151
Hollow Girders 152
To find the Strength of a Round
Girder- 152
To find the Strength of any Beam 152
SOLID COLUMNS.
To find the Strength of any Wro't
Iron Column with Square ends 153
To find the Strength of Round Col-
umns exceeding 25 diameters in
Length 154
Tables of Powers for the Diame-
ters and Lengths of Columns. . . 154
HOLLOW COLUMNS.
Square Columns of Plate Iron riv-
etted 155
To find the Strength of any Hol-
low Wrought Iron Column .... 355
Round Columns of Plate Iron .... 156
CKANE.
To find the Strain on the Post. . .
150
COLD WATER PUMP.
To find tne proper Size, under any
circumstances, capable of sup-
plying t-\vice the quantity ordina-
rily used in injection 156
FANS.
Velocity of Fans 157
The best Velocity of Circumfer-
ence for different Densities..,, 157
Page.
To find the Horse Power required
for any Fan 157
To find ihe Density to be attained
with any given Fan 157
To find Ihe Quantity of Air that
\vill be delivered by any Fan,
the Density being known 158
FRICTION.
From Mr. Rennie's Experiments.. 158
CENTRIFUGAIi FORCE
In terms of Weight
158
PEDEST.'VI, AND BRACKET.
Thickness of cover, diameter, dis-
tance, solid metal, &c 159
TEMPERING.
For Lancets, Razors, Penknives,
Scissors, Hatchets, Saws, Chis-
els, Springs, &c 159
CASE HARDENING
Articles, how Case Hardened. . . . 159
To Case Harden Cast Iron 160
HEAT.
Effects of Heat on Metals, &c., at
certain Temperatures 160
SOLDERING.
For Joints, Copper, Iron and Brass 160
BORING.
The best speed for boring Iron,
drilling, and turning 161
BRASS.
Compositions of Brass 161
Brass Castings, mode of Casting.. 161
ROPE.
To find the Breaking Weight of
Tarred Hemp Rope 162
To find the AVeight per Fathom of
Rope or Tarred Cordage 163
To find the "Weight per Fathom of
Tarred Hawser or Manilla Rope 163
To find the AVeisht per Fathom of
Hawser laid Manilla 163
WEIGHT OF CASTINGS.
To find the Weight of any Casting 163
To find the AVeighl from the Areas 163
To find the AVeight in cwts 163
AVeight of Boiler Plates 163
To find the Weight of Boiler Plates 164
CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION.
AVhen Time is not taken into Ac-
count 164
10
CONTENTS.
Page.
To find the number of Revolutions
of the lasl lo one of llie first, in a
train of Wheels and Pinions. . . . 164
When Time must be regarded. . . . 165
The distance between the Centres
and Velocities of two AVheels be-
ing given, to find their Diameters 165
To determine the Proportion of
Wheels for Screw-cutting by a
Lathe 166
Table of Change AVheels for Screw
cutting; the leading Screw be-
ing half inch pitch, or contain-
ing 2 threads in an inch 167
Table by which to determine the
Number of Teeth, or Pitch of
Small Wheels, or what is called
the Manchester Principle 167
Strength of the Teeth of Cast Iron
Wheels at a given Velocity 163
WHEELS A>T> GUDGEONS.
To find size of Teeth necessary to
transmit a given Horse Power. . 163
To find the Horse Power that any
Wheel will transmit 169
Page.
To find the multiplying Number for
any Wheel 169
To find the Size of Teeth to carry
a given Load in lbs 169
■WATEE.
To find the Quantity of Water that
will be discharged through an
Orifice, or Pipe, in the side or
bottom of a Vessel 169
To find the size of Hole necessary
lo discharge a given Quantity of
Water under a given Head 170
To find the Height necessary to
discharge a "fiven Quantity thro'
a given Orifice 170
The Velocity of AVater issuing
from an Orifice in the side or bot-
tom of a Vessel ascertained.... 170
To find the Quantity of AVater that
will run through any Orifice, the
top of which IS level with the
Surface of AA'ater, as over a
Sluice or Dam 170
To find the Time in which a Vessel
will empty itself through a given
Orifice 170
MECHANICAL TABLES FOR THE USE OF OPERATIVE
SmiHS, MILLWRIGHTS, AND ENGINEERS.
Tables of the Diameters and Cir-
cumferences of Circles 171
Observations on do 177
Circumferences of Angled Iron
Hoops — outside 179
Circumferences of Angled Iron
Hoops— inside 180
Observations on the above Tables 181
Tables of the AVeight of 100 lbs. of
Ship Spikes, Hatch Nails, Hook
Heads, Dock Nails, IJoat Spikes,
Railroad Spikes &. Horse Shoes 182
Coppers, dimensions and weight of 183
Copper Tubing, weight of 183
Brass, Copper, Steel and Lead,
weight of a Fool from .\ to 3 inch-
es Round or Square Ift3
Flat Cast Iron, weight of a Fool.. . 181
Cast Iron, AVeight of a Superficial
Foot, from | to 2 inches thick. . 181
Table giving the AVeight of Cast
Iron, Copper, Brass, and Lead
Balls, from 1 to 12 inch diameter 184
Cast Iron, weight of a Fool in
lenglli of .'Square and Round. . . . 185
Rtcel, weight of a Foot of Flat. . . . lt-5
Parallel Angle Iron, of equal sides 180
Parallel Angle Iron, unequal sides 186
Taper Angle Iron, of equal sides. . 186
Parallel T Iron, unequal width and
depth 187
Parallel T Iron, of equal depth and
width 187
Taper T Iron 187
Tableof AA'cighlof Sash Iron 188
Table of AVeight of Rails, top and
bottom Tables 188
Table of AA''eight of Temporary do. 188
Tables showing the AVeight of a
lineal Foot of Malleable Reclan-
pular, or Flat Iron, from ,V lo 3
mches in thickness 189
ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM.
Table of the Elastic Properties of
Steam and corresponding tempe-
rature of Water 194
Production it Properties of Steam 195
Table of the Elastic Force of Steam
the Pressure of the Atinospherc
not being included 195
Table of the Consumption of Coal
per hour in Steamers 196
Evaporative Power of Coal 196
GAUGER'S RULES AND TABLES.
To Gauge Conks, U. Stales Gallons 201
To Gauge Casks, Imperial Galloiiri 202
To Ullage, or fiii<l the contents of
Casks partly filled 203
Tables of the Comparnlive Value
of Imperial and riiiled Slates
Measures 20.3
Miscellaneous Tables 204
RULES WITH DIAGRAMS
FOR WORKERS IN
TIN, SHEET IRON AND COPPER,
AND
TABLES GIVING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES,
AND AREAS OF CIRCLES,
AND
THE CONTENTS OF EACH IN GALLONS.
MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE.
" The different processes of the manufacture of tin plate may be de-
scribed most properly in seven distinct stages. The first begins with
the bars of iron which form the plate ; the last terminates with an
account of the process of tinning their surface. The description is
somewhat technical ; but a glance at the following heads will enable
the reader to comprehend the whole process : —
"1. Rolling is the first and most important point requisite to the
production of the lattcn, or plates of iron, previous to the operation
of tinning them. For this purpose the finest quality of charcoal iron
is invariably employed, which, in its commercial state, generally
consists of long flat bars. These are cut into small squares averaging
one-half an inch in thickness, which are heated repeatedly in a fur-
nace, and arc repeatedly passing through iron rollers. A convenient
degree of thinness having been obtained, the now extended plates are
"doubled up," heated, rolled, opened-out, heated and rolled again,
until, at length, the standard thickness of the plate has been reached.
" 2. Shearing.— X pair of massive shears worked by machinery, is
now applied to the rugged edges of this lamellar formation of iron-
plate. It is cut into oblong squares, 14 inches by 10, and presents the
appearance of a single plate of iron, beautifully smooth on its surface.
A juvenile with a knife soon destroys the appearance, however, and
eight plates are produced from the slightly coherent mass.
" 3. Scaling. — This process consists in freeing the iron surface from
its oxyd and scoriae. After an application of sulphuric acid, a number
of plates, to the extent, we shall say, of GOO or 800, are packed in a
cast-iron box, which is exposed for some hours to the heat of a furnace.
On being opened the plates arc found to have acquired a bright blue
steel tint, and to be free from surface impurities.
" 4. Cold Rolling.— It is impossible that the plates could pass
through the last fiery ordeal without becoming disfigured. Tiie cold
rolling process corrects this. Each plate is separately passed through
a pair of hard polished rollers, screwed tightly together. Not only do
the plates acquire from this operation a high degree of smoothness
MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATES. 13
and regularity, but they likewise acquire the peculiar elasticity of
hammered metal. One man will cold roll 225,000 plates in a week,
and each of them is, on an average, three times passed through the
rollers.
" 5. Annealing. — This process is also a modern improvement on the
manufacture : 600 plates are again packed into cast iron boxes and
exposed to the furnace. There is this difference in the present pro-
cess from that of scaling — that the boxes must be preserved air-tight,
otherwise the contained plates would inevitably weld together and
produce a solid mass. The infinitessimal portion of confined air
prevents this.
" 6. Pickling. — The plates are again consigned to a bath of diluted
acid, till the surface becomes uniformly bright and clean. Some
nice manipulation belongs to this process. Each plate is, on its re-
moval from the acid, subjected to a rigid scrutiny by women, whose
vocation it is to detect any remaining impurity, and scour it from
the surface. These multifarious operations, it will be seen, are all
preliminary to the last, and the most important of all — that of tinning.
Theoretically simple, this process is practically difficult ; and to do
it full justice would carry us beyond our limits. We shall however,
mention the principal features.
" 7. Tinning. — A rectangular cast iron bath, heated from below,
and calculated to contain 200 or 300 sheets, and about a tun of pure
block tin, is now put in request. A stratum of pyreiimatic fat floats
upon its surface. Close to the side of this tin pot stands another re-
ceptacle, which is filled with melted grease, and contains the prepared
plates. On the other side is an empty pot, with a. grating ; and last
of all there is yet another pot, containing a small stratum of melted
tin. Let us follow the progress of a single plate. A functionary
known as the " washerman," armed with tongs and a hempen brush,
withdraws the plate from the bath of tin wherein it has been soaking ;
and, with a degree of dexterity only to be acquired by long practice,
sweeps one side of the plate clean, and then reversing it, repeats the
operation. In an instant it is again submerged in the liquid tin, and
is then as quickly transferred to the liquid gi-ease. The peculiar use
of the hot grease consists in the property it possesses of equalizing
the distribution of the tin, of retaining the superfluous metal, and of
spreading the remainder equally on the surface of the iron. Still
there is left on the plate what we may term a salvage ; and this is
2
14 MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATES.
finally removed by means of the last tin pot, which just contains the
necessary quantity of fluid metal to melt it off — a smart blow being
given at the same moment to assist the disengagement. The " list-
mark," may be observed upon every tin plate without exception.
We may add here, that an expert washerman will finish GOOD metal-
lic plates in twelve hours, notwithstanding that each plate is twice
washed on both sides, and twice dipped into the melted tin. After
some intermediate operations — for we need not continue the consec-
utive description — the plates are sent to the final operation of clean-
ing. For this purpose they are rubbed with bi-an, and dusted upon
tables ; after which they present the beautiful silvery appearance so
characteristic of the best English tin plate. Last of all they reach
an individual called the " sorter," who subjects every plate to a
strict examination, rejects those which are found to be defective, and
sends those which are approved to be packed, 300 at a time, in the
rough wooden boxes, with the cabalistic signs with which the most of
us have been familiar since the days of our adventures in the back-
shop of the tinsmith." — [From the Builder.']
QUALITY OF TIN PLATE.
The tests for tin plates are ductility, strength, and color ; and to
possess these, the iron used must be of the best quality, and all the
process be conducted with care and skill. The following conditions
are inserted in some specifications, and will serve to indicate the
strength and ductility of first-class tin plates : —
1st, They must bear cutting into strips of a width equal to ten
times the thickness of the plate, both with and across the fibre, with-
out splitting ; tlie strips must bear, while hut, licing bent upon a
mouhl, to a sweep ecjual to four times the width of tlie strip.
2nd, While cold, the plates must bear bending in a heading ma-
chine, in such a manner as to form a cylinder, the diameter of which
shall at most be C(iual to sixty times the thickness of the plate. In
these tests, the plate must show neither flaw nor crack of any kind.
#xir1[muiiti0M of giagi'itmsi.
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF ANY DIAMETER.
CDrawn for this work by L. W. Tbuesdell, Timnan, Owego, N. Y.]
Fig. 1.
From the centre C describe a circle AB, having the required diam-
eter ; then place the corner of the square at the centre C, and draw
the lines CD and CE ; then draw the chord DE : three times the diam-
eter added to the distance from the middle of the chord DFE to the
middle of the subtending arc DGE, will be the circumference sought.
TO FIND THE AREA OF THE SECTOR OF A CIRCLE.
Rule. Multiply the length of the arc DGE by its radius DC,
and half the product is the area.
The length of the arc DGE equal 9^ feet, and the radii CD, CE,
equal 7 feet required the area.
9-5x7 = 66-5 -^ 2 = 33-25 the area.
16
PROPORTION OF CIRCLES.
PROPORTION OF CIRCLES.
[Drawn for this work by L. W. Teuksdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.
Fig. 2.
To enable machinists to enlarge or reduce machinery wheels with-
out changing their respective motion.
First, describe two circles AB and CD the size of the largest wheels
which you wish to change to a large or small machine, with the
centre P of the smaller circle CD on the circumference of the large
one AB ; then draw two lines LM and NO tangent to the circles AB
and CD, and a line IK passing through their centres P and R ; then
if you wish to reduce the machine, describe a circle the size you wish
to reduce it to ; if one-half, for example, have the centre Q one-half
TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE.
17
the distance from R to S and describe the circle EF, and on its cir-
cumference T as a centre, describe a circle GH, allowing their cir-
cumferences to touch the tangent lines LM and NO, •which ■will make
the circle EF one-half the size of the circle AB, and GH one-half the'
size of CD ; therefore EF and GH are in the same proportion to each,
other as AB and CD.
If you wish to reduce one-third, have the centre Q one-third the
distance from E, to S ; if one-fourth have the centre Q one-fourth the
distance from R to S, and so on. This calculation may be applied
beyond the centre R for enlarging machine wheels, which will enable
you to make the alteration without changing their respective motion.,
TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE, ok OVAL.
[Simple MethodO
Fig. 3.
At a given distance, equal to the required eccentricity of the ellipse,
place two pins, A and B, and pass a string, ACB, round them ;
keep the string stretched by a pencil or tracer, C, and move the pencil
along, keeping the string all the while equally tense, then will the
ellipse CGLFH be described. A and B are the foci of the ellipse,
D the centre, DA or DB the eccentricity, EF the principal axis or
longer diameter, G H the shorter diameter, and if from any point L in
the curve a line be drawn perpendicular to the axis, then will LK
be an ordinate to the axis corresponding to the point L, and the parts
of the axis EK, KF into which LK divides it are said to be the ab-
scissae corresponding to that ordinate.
NOTE. — Oval. A curve line, the two diameters of which are of unequal
lengrth, and is allied in form to the ellipse. An ellipse is that figure which is
produced by cutting a cone or cylinder in a direction oblique to its axis, and
passing through its sides. An oval may be formed by joining different seg-
ments of circles, so that their meeting shall not be perceived, but form a contin-
uous curve line. All ellipses are ovals, but all ovals are not ellipses; for the
Term oval may be applied to all egg-shaped figures, those which are broader at
one end than the other, as well as those whose ends are equally curved.
2*
18
TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE.
TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE.
[Drawn for this work by L.W.Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N.T.]
O 1" i g i 11 a. 1 .
Fig. 4.
To describe an ellipse of any length and width, and by it to describe
a pattern for the sides of a vessel of any flare.
First draw an indefinite line DE perpendicular to the line AB, and
from C, the point of intersection, as a centre, describe a circle FO,
having the diameter equal to the length of the ellipse ; from the
TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 19
same centre C describe a circle HJ equal to the -widtli ; then describe
the end circles LK' and LK, as much less than the width as the width
is less than the length ; then draw the lines MN and MN tangent to
the circles K'L, HJ and KL ; from the middle of the line MN at 0 erect
a perpendicular produced until it intersects the indefinite line DE ;
fi'om the point of intersection P as a centre, describe the arc K'HK,
and with the same sweep of the dividers mark the point R on the line
DE ; from the point R draw the lines RU and RV through the points
K' and K where the arc K'HK touches the end circles K'L and KL ;
then place one foot of the dividers on the point R and span them to
the point H, and describe the arc Q'HQ, which will be equal in length
to the arc K'HK ; from the same centre R describe the arc UWV the
width of the pattern ; then span the dividers the diameter of the end
circle KL ; place one foot of the dividers on the line RV, at point Q,
and the other at Y as a centre, describe the arc QT the length of
the curve line KG, and with the same sweep of the dividers describe
the arc T'Q' from tlie centre Y' on the line RU ; then span the dividers
from Y' to U, and from Y' as a centre, describe the arc UX, and from
Y as a centre, deswibe the arc VX, which completes the description of
the pattern.
The more flare you wish the pattern to have, the nearer the centre
point R must be to H ; and the less flare, the further the centre point
R must be from H ; in the same proportion as you move the centre
R towards, or from H, you must move the centre Y towards, or from
Q, or which would be the same as spanning the dividers less, or greater,
than the diameter of the end circle KL.
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF AN ELLIPSE.
Rule. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, and
the product will be the circumference.
Example. — Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter
diameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 5,
multiplied by 3'1416 equal 15-7080 inches circumference.
TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE.
Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, and
by •7854, and the product will be the area.
Example. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diameter
is 6 inches and shcrter diameter 4 inches?
6 X 4 X -7854 = 18-8496, the area.
20
TO DESCRIBE A RIGHT ANGLED ELBOW.
TO DESCRIBE A RIGHT ANGLED ELBOW.
[Drawn for this work by L. AY. Truesdell, Tiuman, Owcgo, N. Y.]
Origin O/l .
Fig. 5.
First construct a rectangle ADEB equal in width to the diameter
of the elbow, and tlie length equal to the circumference; tlicn from
the point J, the middle of the line AB, draw the line .III, and from
the point F, the middle of tiie line AD, draw the line FG ; from tlio
point J draw two diagonal lines JD and JE ; then span the dividers
80 as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, viz.
J, L, 0, T, 0, V, E ; from the point L erect a perpendicular, pro-
duced to tlie line .III ; from the point of contact M, as a centre,
describe the arc NJO for the top of the elbow, and from the points
TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW.
21
M' and M' as centres, with the same sweep of the dividers, describe
the arcs NO and NO ; then draw an indefinite straight line PQ tan-
gent to the arcs NO and NJ, having the points of contact at S and
S ; on this tangent line erect a perpendicular passing through the
point N produced until it intersects the line BE produced ; then place
one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection R and span them
over the dotted line to the point T, and with the dividers thus spanned
describe the arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS ; these arcs and the arcs NO,
NJO, and ON will be the right angled elbow required.
TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW.
[Old Method.:
Fig. 6.
Mark out the length and depth of the elbow, ABCD ; draw a semi-
circle at each end, as from AB and CD ; divide each semicircle
into eight parts ; draw horizontal lines as shown from 1 to 1, 2
to 2, &c. ; divide the circumference or length, ACBD, into sixteen
equal parts, and draw perpendicular lines as in figure ; draw a line
from a to h and from 6 to c, and on the opposite side from c? to e
and e to/,- for the top sweep set the dividers on /"ouriA line from
top and sweep two of the spaces ; the same at the corner ; on
space for the remaining sweeps set the dividers so to intersect in
the three corners of the spaces marked X. The seams must be
added to drawing.
22
TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW.
TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW.
[Drawn for this work by L. W. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owcgo, N. T.]
Ox-iginal.
Fig. 7.
;' !
/
/
/X
5
\
A^
\ ,
y^\\
•.-
^^
-^\\^
V
/^\^
c
■ \
X
"■••
Fia, 8.
1 \ >i:
TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW. 23
Describe two circles TJX and V'S, the curves desired for the elbow,
having the distance from U to V equal to the diameter ; then divide
the circle V, W, R and S, into as many sections as desired ; then
construct a rectangle, Fig. 8, ADEB, the width equal to the -width of
one section V'W, Fig. 7, and the length equal to the circumference of
the elbow ; then span the dividers from the point R to the point P at
the dotted line. Fig. 7, and with the dividers thus spanned mark the
points FF' Fig. 8, from points A and D, and draw the lines FG and
F'G' ; from point I draw the two diagonal lines IF and IG, span the
dividers so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts,
viz. I, L,/0, T, 0, V, G ; from the point L erect a perpendicular
line produced until it intersects the line IH produced ; from the
point of intersection M, as a centre, describe the arc NIO for the top
of the elbow ; with the same sweep ol the dividers describe the arcs NO
and NO ; then draw an indefinite straight line PQ tangent to the
arcs NO and NI, having the points of contact at S and S ; on this
tangent line erect a perpendicular line passing through the point N •
(same as in Fig. 5), produced until it intersects the line BE pro-
duced ; then place one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection
and span them over the dotted line to the point T, (same as in Fig. 5),
and with the dividers spanned describe the arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS ;
these arcs and the arcs NO, NIO and ON, will be one side of the
section, and by the same rule the other side of the section may be
described at the same time, which will be a pattern to cut the other
sections by.
SOLDERING.
^ For Lead the solder is 1 part tin, 1 to 2 of lead; — for Tin 1 to
2 parts tin to 1 of lead ; — for Zinc 1 part tin to 1 to 2 of lead ; —
for Pewter 1 part tm to 1 of lead, and 1 to 2 parts of bismuth.
The surfaces to be joined are made perfectly clean and smooth, and
then covered with sal-ammoniac, or resin, or both ; the solder is then
applied, being melted in, and smoothed over by the soldering iron.
To Joint Lead Plates. — The joints of lead plates for some purposes
are made as follows : — The edges are brought together, hammered
down into a sort of channel cut out of wood, and secured with a few
tacks. The hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed over
with candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the
surface being afterwards smoothed with a red-hot plumber's iron.
24
TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW.
TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW.
[Another Method for describing a Straight Elbow.]
Figs. 9 & 10.
Fig. 10. FiQ- 9-
/
■^^
e.
d
r
/
\
C
I
/
\
&
a
y
N>
a
Fig. 9. — Draw a profile of half of the elbow -wanted, and mark
a semicircle on the line representing the diameter, divide the Bemi,
circle into six eqiial parts, draw perpendicular lines from each divi-
sion on the circle to the angle line as on figure.
Fig. 10. Draw the circumference and depth of elbow wanted,
and divide into twelve equal parts, mark the height of perpendic-
ular lines of Fig. 9 on Fig. 10 a 6 c &c. ; set your dividers the
same as for the semicircle and sweep from e to e intersecting with f
and the same from a to the corner, then set the dividers one-third
the circumference and sweep from e to i each side, and from a to 6
each side at bottom ; then set your dividers three-fourths of the cir-
cumference and sweep from c to d each side on top, and from c to
b at bottom, and you obtain a more correct pattern than is gen-
erally used. Allow for the lap or seam outside of your drawing,
and lay out the elbow deep enough to put together by swedge or
machine. Be careful in dividing and marking out, and the large
end will be true without trimmiug. The seams must be added to
drawing.
To Joint Lead Pi/)es.— Widen out the end of one pipe with a taper
■wood drift, and scrape it clean inside ; scrape the end of the other pipe
outside a little taijcrcd, and insert it in the former : then solder it with
common lead solder as before described ; or if required to be strong,
rub a little tallow over, and cover the joint with a ball of melted
lead, liolding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bed-tick) on the under
side ; and smoothing over witli it and the plumber's iron.
TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS.
25
TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVEES FOR VESSELS, OR
BREASTS FOR CANS.
[Dra\rn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owcgo, N. T.]
Fig. 11.
From 0 as a centre, describe a circle DE larger than the vessel ;
and from C as a centre, describe a circle AB the size of the vessel, then
with the dividers the same as you described the circle the size of the
vessel, apply them six times on the circumference of the circle larger
than the vessel ; for can-breasts describe the circle FG the size you
wish for the opening of the breast.
TO DESCRIBE PITCHED COVERS FOR PAILS, &c.
Fig. 12.
To cut for pitched covers, draw a circle one inch larger than the
hoop is in diameter after burring, then draw a line from the centre to
^ 3
26
OVAL BOILER COVER.
the circumference as in the figure, and one inch from the centre and
connecting with this line draw two more lines the ends of which sh.all
be one inch on either side of the line first drawn, and then cut out
the piece.
TO DESCRIBE AN OVAL BOILER COVER.
[Drawn for this vork by L. W. Teuesdell, Tinman, Owcgo, N. Y.]
Fig. 13.
From C as a centre, descrihe a circle whose diameter will he equal
to tlic width of the boiler outside of the wire, and draw the line AB
perpendicular to the line EF, having it pass through the point D, which
is one-half of the length of the boiler ; tlicn mark the point J one
quarter of an inch or more as you wish, for the pitch of the cover, and
apply tlie corner of the scjuare on tlie line AB, allowing the blade to
fall on the circle at II, and the tongue at the point .T ; tlien draw the
lines IIB, B.I, CA and AJ, which completes the description.
TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE.
27
TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE.
[Drawn for this work by L. "W. Telesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.]
Orig'liial.
Fig. 14.
Let the circle AB represent the size of the measure ; span the divi-
ders from K to F three-quarters of the diameter ; describe the semi-
circle DKE ; move the dividers to G the width of the lip required, and
describe the semicircle KPJ, which will be the lip sought.
THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS.
1. The Areas of Circles are to each other as the squares of their
diameters ; any circle twice the diameter of another contains four
times the area of the other.
2. The Radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre
to the circumference.
3. The Diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the
centre, and terminated both ways at the circumference.
4. A Chord is a straight line joining any two points of the circum-
ference.
5. An Arc is any part of the circumference.
6. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter.
7. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord.
8. A Sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii.
28
FLARING VESSEL.
TO DESCRIBE A FLARING VESSEL PATTERN, A SET OF
PATTERNS FOR A PYRAMID CAKE, OR AN
ENVELOPE FOR A CONE.
[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. T.]
Oi-igirxal.
Fig. 15.
s ^— f-^ n
From a point G as a centre, describe a circle AB equal to the large
circumference ; with the point F as a centre, the depth of the vessel,
describe a circle DE equal to the small circumference ; then draw the
lines Gil and KS tangent to the circles AB and DE ; from the point
of intersection 0 as a centre, describe the arcs ACB and DFE ; then
ADKB will be the size of the vessel, and three such pieces will bo an
envelope for it, and AJBTFU the altitude ; then by dividing the sector
TO DESCRIBE THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 29
SOH into sections AB, DE, PQ, and WX, you will have a set of
patterns for a pyramid cake ; and the sector AOB will be one-third of
an envelope for a cone.
In allowing for locks, you must draw the lines parallel to the radii,
as represented in the diagram by dotted lines, which will bring the
vessel true across the top and bottom.
TO DESCRIBE A CONE OR FRUSTUM.
Fig. 16.
D
c.''' \ / "N^
G
/
/
/
.A.
First draw a side elevation of the desired vessel, DE, then from A
as a centre describe the arcs CDC and GEG ; after finding the diam-
eter of the top or large end, turn to the table of Diameters and Cir-
cumferences, where you will find the true circumference, which you
will proceed to lay out on the upper or larger arc CDC, making due
allowance for the locks, wire and burr. This is for one piece ; if for
two pieces you will lay out only one-half the circumference on the
plate ; if for three pieces one-third ; if for four pieces one-fourth ; and
so on for any number, remembering to make the allowance for locks,
wire and burr on the piece you use for a pattern.
3*
30
TO DESCRIBE A HEAPvT. CYCLOID.
TO DESCRIBE A HEART.
[Drawn for this work by L. W. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.]
Fig. 17.
Draw an indefinite line AB ; then span the dividers one-fourth the
■width you wish the heart, and describe two semicircumferences AC
and CB ; span the dividers from A to B, the width of the heart, and
desaribe the lines AD and BD, which completes the description.
CYCLOID.
Fig. 18.
ABA
Cjcloid, a curve much used in mechanics. It is thus formed : —
If the circumference of a circle be rolled on a right lino, beginning
at any point A, and continued till the same point A arrive at the
line again, making just one revolution, and thereby measuring out
a straight line ABA equal to the circumference of a circle, while the
TO STRIKE THE SIDE OF A FLARING VESSEL.
31
point A in the circumference traces out a curve line ACAGxi : then
this curve is called a cycloid ; and some of its properties are contained
in the following lemma.
If the generating or revolving circle be placed in the middle of the
cycloid, its diameter coinciding with the axis AB, and from any point
there be drawn the tangent CF, the ordinate CDE perpendicular to
the axis, and the chord of the circle AD ; then the chief properties
are these :
The right line CD equal to the circular arc AD ;
The cycloidal arc AC equal to double the chord AD ;
The semi-cycloid ACA equal to double the diameter AB, and
The tangent CF is parallel to the chord AD.
This curve is the line of swiftest descent, and that best suited for
the path of the ball of a pendulum.
TO STRIKE THE SIDE OF A FLARING VESSEL.
Fig. 19.
To tind the radius of a circle for striking the side of a flaring ves-
sel having the diameters and depth of side given.
Rule. -^As the difference between the lai'ge and small diameter
is to the depth of the side, so is the small diameter to the radius
of the circle by which it is struck.
Example. — Suppose ABCD to be the desired vessel, with a
top diameter of 12 inches, bottom diameter 9 inches, depth of side
8 inches. Then as 12 — 9 = 3 : 8 : : 9 to the radius. •
8x 9 = 72 -7-3 = 24 inches, answer.
TINNING IRON.
Cleanse the metal to be tinned, and rub with a coarse cloth,
previously dipped in hydrochloric acid, (muriatic acid) and then rub
on French putty with the same clotB. French putty is made by
mixing tin filings with mercury.
32
TO DESCRIBE BREASTS FOR CANS.
TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS FOR VESSELS, OR
BREASTS FOR CANS.
Fia. 20.
Construct a right angle ADB, and from tlic point C, tlie altitude
height you wish the breast, erect a perpendicular line F ; then on the
line B, mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can ; and on the
line F, mark the point G one-half the diameter of the opening in the
top of breast ; draw a line N to pass through the points E and G pro-
duced until it intersects the line A ; place one foot of the dividers at
the point of intersection II, and place the other on the point E, and
describe the circle EIK ; span the dividers from the point H to point
G, and describe the circle GLM ; then span the dividers from the
point D to E, and step them six times on the circle EIK, which gives
the size of the breast. Remember to mark the lines for the locks
parallel with the radii.
A GOOD SOLDEK.
Take 1 lb. of pure Banca tin, and melt it, then add half a pound
of clean lead, an<l when it is melted, stir tlie mixture gently witli a
stick or poker, and pour it out into solder strips.
TO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE.
33
rO riXD THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE FROM A PART
OF THE CIRCUMFERENCE.
[Drawn for this work by L. 'W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. T.]
Or-iginal.
Fig. 21.
Span the dividers any distance you wish, and place one foot on the
circumference AB, and describe the semicircumferences CD, EF, GH,
and IK, and through the points of their intersection PQ and RS,
draw two indefinite lines LM and NO ; the point of their intersection
T, will be the centre desired.
34
TO CONSTRUCT THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE.
SECTOR, FOR OBTAINING ANGLES.
Fig. 22.
« JL -
Sector, a portion of a circle comprehended between any two
radii and tlieir intercepted arcs.— Similar Sectors are those whose
radii include equal angles.
To find the area of a sector. Say as 360" is to the degrees, &c.,
in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the whole circle to the area
of the sector. Or multiply tlic radius by the length of the arc, and
half the product will be the area.
TO CONSTRUCT THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE.
Form of flat Plate by which to construct any Frustum of a Cone.
Fia. 23.
Let ABCD represent the required frustum ; continue the lines
AD and BC until they meet at E ; then from E as centre, with the
radius EC, describe tlie arc CII ; also from E, with the radius
EB, describe the arc BI ; make BI equal in length to twice AGB,
draw the line EI, and BCIII is the form of the plate as required.
STRIKING OUT A CONE.
35
RULE FOR STRIKING OUT A CONE OR FRUSTUM.
Fig. 24.
C
In a conical surface, there may be economy, sometimes, in haying
the slant height 6 times the radius of base. For a Circle may be
wholly cut into conical surfaces, if the angle is 60°, 30°, 15°, &c.
But there is a greater simplicity in cutting it, when the angle i3
60°. For instance, take AC equal to the slant height, describe an
indefinite arc AO ; with the same opening of the dividers measure
from A to B ; draw BC and we have the required sector. This
would make the angle C equal 60°. This angle may be divided
into two or four equal parts, and we should thus have sectors whose
angle would be 30° or 15°, which would not make the vessel very
flaring. The accompanying figure gives about the shape of the flar-
FiG. 25.
ing vessel when the angle of the sector is 30°.
TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A PYRAMID OR CONE.
Rule. — INIultiply the diameter of the base by itself, and this pro-
duct by the height, then take one-third of this product for the con-
tents ; to obtain gallons, divide the last result by 231.
Example. — Required the cubic inches of a Cone whose base is 8
inches diameter, and height 18 inches.
8 X S = 01 X 18 = 1152 -;- 3 = 3:4 cubic inches, -^ 231 = 1 gall. 2^ quarts.
3G COXTENTS IN GALLONS OF A FRUSTUM OF A CONE.
^
^
^z"
\/ \
/R
s
HIPPED ROOFS, MILL HOPPERS, &c.
To find the various Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials
whereby to construct any figure ivhoseform is the Frxistnm of a
proper or inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, 8,-c.
Fio. 2G.
D C
n
A B
Let ABCD be tlie given dimensions of plcan for a roof, tlie height
RT also being given ; draw the diagonal AR, meeting the top or
ridge Rs on plan ; from R, at right angles with AR and equal to
the required height, draw the line RT, then TA, equal the length of
the struts or corners of the I'oof ; from A, with the distance AT*,
describe an arc T/, continue the diagonal AR until it cuts thearo
T^, through which, and parallel with the ridge Rs, draw the line
m n, which determines the required breadth for each side of the
roof: from A, meeting the line m n, draw the line Ao, or proper
angle for the end of each board by which the roof might require to
be covered ; and the angle at T is what the boards require to be made
in the direction of their thickness, when the corners or angles re-
quire to be mitred.
CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE.
Figs. 27, 28, 29.
To find the Contents in Gallons of a Vessel, whose diameter is
larger at one end than the other, such as a Bowl, Pail, Flvkin,
Tub, Coffee-pot, &c.
Rule. — Multiply the larger diameter by the smaller, and to the
CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF SQUAKE VESSELS. 37
product add one-third of the square of their difference, multiply by
the height, and multiply that product by .0034 for Wine Gallons, and
by .002785 for Beer.
EifAJiPLE. — Required the contents of a Coffee-pot G inches diameter
at the top, 9 inches at the bottom, and 18 inches high.
large diameter 9
brou
-ht
up
1026
small do. 6
.0034
54
4104
J of the square 3
3078
57
3.4884
height 18
or nearly :
456
57
Carried up 1026
1026 multiplied by .002785 equal 2.8574 Beer Gallons.
RULE TO FIND THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF ANY
SQUARE VESSEL.
Rule. — Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts of an
inch, multiply the length, breadth, and height together, and then
multiply the product by .004329 for Wine Gallons, and by .003546
for Ale Gallons.
Example. — How many AVine Gallons will a box contain that is 10
feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep.
Length in inches, 120 brought up 345600
Breadth in do. 60 .004329
7200 3110400
Height in inches, 48 691200
57600
28800
1036800
1382400
Carried up, 345600
1496.102400 gallons.
or 1496 galls, and 3j gills.
4
38
CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS.
CONTENTS IX GALLONS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS.
Rule. — Take the dimensions, in inches and decimal parts of an
inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the length in inches, and
then multiply the product by .0034 for "Wine Gallons, or by .0(^785
for Ale Gallons.
Example. — How many F. S. Gallons ■will a Cylindrical Vessel con-
tain, •whose diameter is 9 inches, and length 9^ inches?
Diameter, 9 brought up 769.5
9 .0034
Square Diam. 81
Length, 9.5
30780
23085
405
729
2.G1630
or 2 gallons and 5 pints.
Carried up, 769.5
TO ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHTS OF FIPES OF VARIOUS
METALS, AND ANY DLA.METER REQUIRED.
Thickness in
parts of an
inch.
Wrought iron.
Copper.
Lead.
1-32
•326
Hi lbs. plate ^38
2 lbs
lead -483
1-16
•653
23<i " ^76 .
4
■967
3-32
•976
35" " 114
H
" 1-45
1-8
1-3
46^ " 1-52
8
" 1-933
5-32
1-G27
58 " 1-9
9.i
" 2-417
3-16
1-95
70 " 2-28
11
" 2-9
7-32
2-277
80A " 2-66
13
" 3-383
1-4
2-6
93 " 3-04
15
" 3.867
Rule. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches, add the thickness
of the metal ; multiply the sum by the decimal numbers opposite tlie re-
quired thickness and under the metal's name ; also by the length of the
pipe in feet, and the product is the weight of the pipe in lbs.
1. Required the weight of a copper pipe whose interior diameter is 7i
inches, its length 6^ feet, and the metal 1-8 of an inch in thickness.
7 5 + -125 = 7-625 X 1-52 X 6-25 = 72-4 lbs.
2. What is the weight of a leaden pine 18^ feet in length, 3 inches in-
terior diameter, and the metal ^ of an incli in thickness?
3 -f -25 = 3-25 X 3-867 X 18-5 = 2325 lbs.
TIN PLATES. QUANTITY OF TIN FOR. CANS.
TIN PLATES.
Size, Leni/th, Breadth, and
Weight.
Bbabd'Uaee.
No. of
Sheets
in Box.
Length and
Breadth.
■Weight per
Box.
Inches .Inches.
Cwt
. qr. lbs.
I C
225
14 by 10
1
0 0
1 X
225
14 by 10
1
1 0
1 XX
225
14 by 10
1
1 21
Each Ix advances
1 XXX
225
14 by 10
1
2 14
§1.75 to $2.00
1 xxxx
225
14 by 10
1
3 7
1 xxxxx
225
14 by 10
2
0 0
1 xxxxxx
225
14 by 10
2
0 21
,
DC
D X
100
100
17 by 12h
17 by U.h
0
1
3 14
0 14
W ^ 1 1
o "5 o ^
S ^ j; <a
Dxx
100
17 by 12i
1
1 7
D XXX
100
17 by 124
1
2 0
>>£. 9_-.
D xxxx
100
17 by 12.i
1
2 21
o _ o o
D xxxxx
100
17 by 12^
1
3 14
'^ .2 ^ !H
D xxxxxx
100
17 by 12i
2
0 7
4J a.':^ m
SDC
200
15 by 11
1
1 27
£ —Is
SD X
200
15 bv 11
1
2 20
fe J =. 2 -3
SD XX
200
15 by 11
1
3 13
S D XXX
S D xxxx
200
200
15 by 11
15 by 11
2
2
0 6
0 27
ition,
ortec
costi
than
•egu:
S D xxxxx
200
15 by 11
2
1 20
•6 D. ■"
S D xxxxxx
200
15 by 11
2
2 13
«.= = o o
^3 Qi -J « Qi
^H r: cfi o r^
about
TTT Taggers,
225
14 by 10
1
0 0
c3 3 Cw
IC
225
12 by 12
"
1 X
225
12 by 12
1 XI
225
12 by 12
1 XXX
225
12 by 12
About the same weight
1 xxxx
225
12 by 12
»
>per Box, as the plates
above of similar brand,
14 by 10.
1 c
112
14 by 20
1 X
112
14 by 20
1 XX
112
14 by 20
1 XXX
112
14 by 20
I xxxx
112
14 by 20
-
Leaded or'il C
Terms jl x
112
112
14 by 20
14 by 20
1
1
0 0
1 0
> For Roofing.
OIL CANISTERS, (from2i to 125 ff alls.) WITH THE QUANTITY
AND QUALITY OF TIN REQUIRED FOR CUSTOM WORK.
Galls.
Quantity and Quality.
Galls.
33
Quantity and Quality.
2^
2 Plates, I X
in body.
13^ Plates, IX in body, "3
3i
2 « S DX
breadths high.
5^
2 " DX
45
13^ Plates, S D X in body.
8
4 « IX
60
13i " D X "
10
3^ « DX
90
154 " D X « *
15
4 " DX
125
20 " D X «
• The boUom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise.
40 WEIGHT OF WATER AND DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.
WEIGHT OF WATER.
1 cubic inch is equal to .03617 pounds.
12 cubic inclies is equal to .434 pounds.
1 cubic foot is equal to 02. 5 pounds.
1 cubic foot is equal to 7.50 U. S. gallons.
1.8 cubic feet is equal to 112.00 pounds.
35.84 cubic feet is equal to 2240.00 pounds.
1 Cylindrical inch .. is equal to .02842 pounds.
12 Cylindrical inches . is equal to .341 pounds.
1 Cylindrical foot . . is equal to 49.10 pounds.
1 Cylindrical foot . . is equal to 6.00 U. S. Gallons.
2.282 Cylindrical feet .. is equal to 112.00 pounds.
45.64 Cylindrical feet . . is equal to 2240.00 pounds.
11.2 Imperial gallons . . is equal to 112.00 pounds.
224 Imperial gallons . . is equal to 2240.00 pounds.
13.44 United States galls, is C(iual to 112.00 pounds.
268.8 United States galls, is equal to 2240.00 pounds.
Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface.
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO THE FRACTIONAL PARTS
OF A GALLON, OR AN INCH.
[The Inch, or Gallon, being divided into 32 parts.]
[In multiplying decimals it is usual to drop aU but the two or tlirce first figures.]
Deci-
mals.
Gallon.
or
Inch.
3
5
1
a
ll
Deci-
mals.
Gallon.
or
Inch.
0
12
p
3
1
Decimals.
Gallon. . ^
Inch. 0 1 S
i
&
.03123
1-32
i^
.375
3-8
H
i .71875
23-32 23 55
.0625
1-16
2
^
I .40625 13-32 13
H
n'\ .75
3-4 24 6 3
.09375
3-32
3
i
i .4375 7-16
14
U
13 .78125
25-32 25 6i 3i
.125
1-8
4
1 i .46875 15-32
15
n
IJ .8125
13-16 26 6i3i
.15625
5-32
5
li SLS 1-2
16
4
2 .84375
27-32,27 63
33
.1875
.S-16
an ? .53125 17-32
17
^
21 .875
7-8 '28 7
34
.21875
7-32
7
13 I .5625 9-16
18
4i
2] .90625
29 32 29 7.i3|
.25
1-4
8
12 1 1. 59375, 19-32
19
■ii
2i .9375
13-16 30 74
n
.28125
9-32
9
'2-1 14 .625 ! 5-8
20
5
2h .96875
31-32 31 73
H
,3125
1 5-16 10
2i H -65625 21-32 21
5\
2^ 1.000
1 328
4
.34375
11-32
,11
\2i
ill
.6873 ill-16,22
,5i,2|,|
1
APPLIC.VTTON. Required tlie rrnllnns in any Cylindrical Vessel. Pup-
pose a vessel 9 1-i inrlies deep, i^ inclics (liiimcttT, and contents 2G163,
that is, 2 gallons and 61 hundrwllli parts o( a jL;allon,no\v to ascertain lliis de-
cimal of jT gallon refer to llic al.ovc 'i'ablc, lor the decimal ihal is nearest,
which is -620, op])ositc to which is 5-!!llis of a gallon, or 20 gills, or 5 pints,
cr 2 1-2 quarts, consequently the vessel contains 2 gallons anil 5 pnits.
INCHES. To find what part of an inch the decimal -708 is. Uefcr to
the above Table for the decimal that is nearest, which is 71875, opi)osile
to which is 23-32, or nearly 3-4ths of an inch.
A. TA.BLE
CONTAINING THE
DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS
OF CIRCLES,
AND THE
CONTENT OF EACH IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH.
XJXILIT'Z' OF THE T.A.BLE.
EXAMPLES.
1. Required the circumference of a circle, tlie diameter being ^«;e
inches ?
In the column of circumferences opposite the given diameter,
stands 15'708* inches, the cii'cumference required.
2. Required the capacity, in gallons, of a can the diameter being
6 feet and depth 10 feet ?
In the fourth column from the given diameter stands 211.4472*
being the content of a can 6 feet in diameter and 1 foot in depth,
■which being multipled by 10 gives the required content, two thou-
sand one hundred fourteen and a half gallons.
3. Any of the areas in feet multiplied by .03704, the product equal
the number of cubic yards at 1 foot in depth.
4. The area of a circle in inches multiplied by the length or thick-
ness in inches, and by .263, the product equal the "weight in pounds
of cast iron.
* See opposite page (page 40) for Decimal Equivalents to the Fraciional parts
of a Gallon, aud an Inch.
42
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, AND
THE CONTENT IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH.
[Jlrea in Inches.']
Diam. Circ. ia.
31416
3- 5343
39270
4-3197
4-7124
5-1051
5-4978
5-8905
6-2332
6 6759
7-0686
74613
7-S540
8-2467
8-6394
90321
9-4248
9-8175
0-210
0-602
0-995
1-38S
1-781
2 173
2-566
2959
3351
3-744
4-137
4-529
4-922
5-315
5-708
6-100
6-493
6-S86
7-278
7-671
8-064
8-457
8-849
9-242
9635
20027
Area. in.
Gallons.
•7854
-9940
1-2271
1-4848
1-7671
20739
2-4052
2-7611
3-1416
3-5465
3-9760
4-4302
4-9087
5-4119
5-9395
6-4918
7-0686
7-6699
8.2957
8-9462
9-6211
10-320
11-044
11 793
12-566
13-364
14-186
15-033
15-904
16-800
17-720
18-665
19-635
20-629
21-647
22-690
23-758
24-850
25-967
27-108
28-274
29-464
30-679
31-919
-04084
-05169
•063S0
•07717
-09188
•10784
•12506
-14357
-16333
-18439
•20675
•23036
•25522
•28142
•30S83
•33753
-36754
-39879
•43134
•46519
•50029
■53664
•57429
-61324
-65343
•69493
•73767
•78172
'82701
•87360
-92144
-97058
•02102
-07271
-12564
•17988
•23542
-29220
-35028
-40962
-47025
•53213
•59531
-65979
Diam.
h
A
8
i
7.
8
in.
i
8
J.
4
3
S
h
Circ. in.
20-420
20-813
21-205
21-598
21-991
22-383
22-776
23-169
2.3-562
23-954
24-347
24-740
25-132
25515
25-918
26-310
26-703
27-096
27-489
27-881
28-274
28-667
29-059
29-452
29-845
30-237
30 630
31-023
31-416
31 -.808
32-201
32 594
32-986
33379
33 772
34-164
34 557
34-950
35 343
35-735
.36-128
36.521
36-913
37-306
Area. in. Gallons.
33-183
34-471
35-7S4
37-122
38-484
39-871
41-282
42-718
44-178
45-663
47-173
48-707
50^265
51-848
53456
55-088
56-745
58 426
60-132
61-862
63617
65-396
67-200
69-029
70-882
72-759
74-662
76-588
78 540
80-515
82516
84-540
86-590
8S-664
90 762
92 885
95-033
97-205
99-402
101-623
103 S69
106- 139
108434
110-7.53
1-72552
1-79249
1>S6077
1-93)34
2-00117
2-07329
214666
2 221.34
2.29726
2-37448
2-45299
2 5.3276
2-61378
2-69609
2-77971
2-86458
2-95074
3-03815
3-12686
3-21682
3-30808
3-40059
3-49440
3-58951
3-6S586
378.347
388242
3-98258
4-0S40S
4^1 8678
4-29083
4-39608
4-50268
4-61053
4-71962
4-S-2S46
4-94172
5-05466
5- 16890
5 28439
5-40119
5-51923
5-63857
5-75916
DIABIETERS AND CIRCUBIFEEENCES OF CIRCLES.
43
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, AND
THE CONTENT IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH.
[Area in Feet."]
Diam.
Circ.
Area in ft.
Gallons.
Diatn.
Circ.
Area in ft.
Gallons.
Ft
In.
Ft.
In.
1ft. in depth'
Ft.
In.
Ft. In.
1 ft. in deplli
3
If
•7854
5-8735 i
4
6
14 If
15-9043
118-9386
1
3
4f
.9217
6-8928
4
7
14 4f
14 71
16-4986
123-3830
2
3
8
1-0690
7-9944
4
8
171041
127-9112
3
3
11
1 2271
9-1766
4
9
14 ll'
17-7205
132-5209
4
4
2i
1-3962
10-4413 '
4
10
15 21
183476
137-2105
5
4
5|
1 5761
11-7666
4
11
15 5^
18-9858
142-0582
6
4
8|
1-7671
13 2150 1
7
4
llf
1-9689
14 7241
5
15 8h
19-6350
146-8384
8
5
2i
21816
16-3148
5
1
15 11|
16 23
20-2947
151-7718
9
5
5|
2-4052
17-9870
5
2
20-96.56
156-7891
10
5
9
2 6398
19-7414
5
3
16 5i
21-6475
161-88S6
11
6
H
2S852
21-4830
5
5
4
5
16 9
17 01
22-3400
23-0437
167-0674
172-3300
2
6
3|
3 1416
23-4940
5
6
17 H
237583
177-6740
2
1
6
H
3-4087
25-4916
5
7
17 6|
24-4835
183-0973
2
2
6
9|
3-6869
275720
5
8
17 9f
25-2199
188-6045
2
3
7
03
3-9760
297340
5
9
18 0|
25-9672
1941930
2
4
7
n
4-2760
32-6976
o
10
18 31
26-7251
199-8610
2
5
7
7
4-5869
34-3027
5
11
18 71
27-4943
205-6133
2
6
7
lOi
4-9087
36-7092
8
2
7
8
1§
5-2413
39-1964
2
8
8
"^8
7|
5-5850
41 7668
6
18 101
19 n
28-2744
211-4472
2
9
8
5-9395
44-4179
6
3
30-6796
229-4342
2
10
8
log
6-3049
471505
6
6
20 41
21 2|
33-1831
248-1564
2
11
9
«-"<!
n
6-6813
49-9654
6
9
35-7847
267-6122
3
9
5
70686
52-8618
7
21 111
38-4846
287-8032
3
1
9
Si
7-4666
55-8382
7
322 9i
41 2825
308-7270
3
2
9
^4
llf
7 8757
58-8976
7
6 23 65
44-1787
330-3859
3
3
10
2i
8-2957
62 0386
7
9
24 41
471730
352-7665
3
4
10
5|
8|
8-7265
65-2602
3
5
10
9-1683
68 5193
8
25 1^
502656
375-9062
3
6
10
9-6211
73-1504
8
3
25 11
534562
399-7668
3
7
11
3"
100846
75-4166
8
6
26 8|
56-7451
424-3625
3
8
11
6*
10-5591
78-9652
8
9
27 53
601321
449-2118
3
9
11
4
11-0446
82 5959
3
10
12
H
11-5409
86 3074
9
28 3i
63-6174
475-7563
3
1]
12
34
120481
90-1004
9
3 29 Of
67-2007
502-5536
8
9
6 29 lOJ
70-8823
530-0861
4
12
61
12-5664
939754
9
9
30 Ih
74-6620
558-3522
4
1
12
H
13-0952
97-9310
4
2
13
1
13-6353
101-9701
10
31 5
78-5400
587 3534
4
3
13
4i
14-1862
103-0300
10
3] 32 2|
82-5160
617-0876
4
4
13
'^i
14-7479
110 2907
10
6 32 115
86-5903
647-5568
4
5
13
lO.i
15-3206
111 5735
|10
9 33 9\
90-7627
678-2797
44
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.
Diam.
Circ.
Area in ft.
Gallons.
Diam.
Circ.
Area i:i ft.
Gallons.
Ft. In.
Ft.
In.
] A. in depth
Ft.
In.
Ft. In.
1 ft. in depth
11
34
6f
4|
95-0334
710-6977
21
65 llf
346-3614
2590-2290
11 3
35
99-4021
743-3686
21
3
66 9
354-6571
2652-2532
11 6
36
u
103-8691
776-7746
21
6
67 6h
363-0511
2715-0413
11 9
36
101
108-4342
8109143
21
9
68 31
371-5432
2778-5486
12
37
81
113-0976
8481890
22
69 If
69 10.1
380 1336
2842-7910
12 3
38
55
117-8590
881-3966
22
3
388-8220
2907-7664
12 6
39
3d
1227187
917-7395
22
6
70 8.i
397-6087
2973-4889
12 9
40
Of
127-6765
954-8159
22
9
71 5f
406-4935
3039-9209
13
40
10
132-7326
992-6274
23
72 3
415-4766
3107-1001
13 3
41
U
137-8867
1031-1719
23
3
73 Oi
424-5577
3175-0122
13 6
42
^
143-1391
1070-4514
23
6
73 91
433-7371
3243-6595
13 9
43
n
148-4896
1108-0645
23
9
74 74
443-0146
33130403
14
43
in
153-9384
1151-2129
24
75 4|
452-3904
3383-1563
14 3
44
H
159-4852
1192-6940
24
3
76 21
461-8642
3454-0051
14 6
45
6|
165-1303
12349104
24
6
76 llf
471-4363
3525-5929
14 9
46
4
170-8735
1277-8615
24
9
77 9
481-1065
3597-9068
15
47
H
176-7150
1321-5454
25
78 6|
79 31
490-8750
3670-9596
15 3
47
101
182 6545
1365-9634
25
3
500-7415
3744-7452
15 6
48
4
1886923
1407-5165
25
6
SO l.-i
510-7063
3819-2657
15 9
49
5i
194-8282
1457-0032
25
9
SO ioi|
520 7692
3894-5203
16
50
H
2010624
1503-6250
26
81 8i
530-9304
3970-5098
16 3
51
Oh
207-3946
1550-9797
26
3
82 54
541-1896
4047-2322
16 6
51
lO"
213-8251
1599.0696
26
6
83 3
551-5471
4124-6898
16 9
52
n
220-3537
1647-8930
26
9
84 oa
562-0027
4202-9610
17
53
^
226-9806
1697-4516
27
84 91
572-5566
4281-8072
17 3
54
2i
233 7055
1747-7431
27
3
85 8^
5832085
4361-4664
17 6
54
ll|
240-5287
1798 7698
27
6
86 4f
593-9587
4441-8607
17 9
55
9I
247-4500
1850-5301
27
9
87 2|
604-8070
45229886
18
56
H
254-4696
19030254
28
87 lU
615-7536
4604-8517
18 3
57
4
261-5S72
1956-2537
28
3
88 9
626-7982
4686-4876
18 6
58
n
268-8031
2010 2171
28
6
89 6g
637-9411
4770-7787
18 9
58
105
276-1171
20649140
28
9
90 3:1
649-1821
4854 8434
19
59
H
283-5294
2120-3462
29
91 Id
660-5214
4939-6432
19 3
60
5| 291-0397
21765113
29
3
91 105
92 8i
93 5i
671-9587
5025-1759
19 6
61
3 A 298-6483
2233 2914
29
6
683-4943
5111-44S7
19 9
62
Oi
306-3550
2291-0452
29
9
6951280
5198-4451
20
62
91
7«
4
314-1600
2.349-4141
30
94 21
95 02
706-8600
5286-1818
20 3
63
322 0630
2408-5159
30
3
718-6900
5374-6512
20 6
64
3300643
2468-3528
30
6
95 9-I
730-6183
5463-85.58
20 9
65
2.j'33H- 1637 12528 92331
30
9
96 7|
742-6447
55.53-7940
CAPACITY OF CANS IN GALLONS.
45
CAPACITY OF CANS ONE INCH DEEP.
UTILITY OF THE TABLE.
Required the contents of a vessel, diameter G 7-liiths indies, depth 10 inches?
By llie table a vessel 1 inch deep and C and "i-Wths inches diameter contains
.15 (hundredtlis) of a gallon, then .15 X 10 = 1.50 or 1 gallon and 2 quarts.
Required the contents of a can, diameter 19 S-lOlhs inches, depth 30 inches ?
B}' the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 19 and $-Wths inches diameter contains
1 gallon and .33 (hundredths), then 1.33 X 30 = 39.90 or nearly 40 gallons.
Required the depth of a can whose diameter is 12 and 2-10(/iS inches, to con-
tain IG gallons.
By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 12 and 2-10<As inches diameter contains
.50 (hundredths of a gallon), then 16 -r- .50 = 32 inches the depth required, viz :
.50 ) IG ( 32 X -50 = 16 gallons.
Diam-
1
2
3
4
F,
6
7
8
9
eter.
TTT
10
T^
TO-
10-
.04
TF
TTJ-
Tn
T^
3
.03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.04
.04
.04
.05
4
.05
.05
.05
.05
.06
.06
.07
.07
.07
.08
5
.08
.08
.08
.09
.09
.10
.10
.11
.11
.11
6
.12
.12
.12
.13
.13
.14
.14
.15
.15
.16
7
.16
.17
.17
.18
.18
.19
.19
.20
.20
.21
8
.21
.22
.22
.23
.23
.24
.25
,25
.26
.25
9
.27
.28
.28
.29
.30
.30
.31
.31
.32
.33
10
.34
.34
.35
.36
.36
.37
.38
.38
.39
.40
11
.41
.41
.42
.43
.44
.44
.45
.46
.47
.48
12
.48
.49
.50
.51
.52
.53
.53
.54
.55
.56
13
.57
.58
.59
.60
.60
.61
.62
.63
.64
.65
14
.66
.67
.68
.69
.70
.71
.72
.73
.74
.75
15
.76
.77
.78
.79
.80
.81
.82
.83
.84
.85
16
.87
.88
.89
.90
.91
.92
.93
.94
.95
.97
17
.98
.99
1.005
1.017
1.028
1.040
1.051
1.063
1.075
1.086
18
1.101
1.113
1.125
1.138
1.150
1.162
1.170
1.187
1.200
1.211
19
1.227
1.240
1.253
1 266
1.279
1.292
1.304
1 317
1.330
1.343
20
1.360
1.373
1.385
1.400
1.414
1.428
1.441
1.455
1.478
1.482
21
1.499
1.513
1.527
1.542
1.5.56
1.570
1..585
1.600
1.612
1.630
22
1.645
1.660
1.675
1.696
1.705
1.720
1.735
1 750
1.770
1.780
23
1.798
1.814
1.830
1.845
1.861
1.876
1.892
1.908
1.923
1.940
24
1.9.58
1.974
1.991
2.007
2.023
2.040
2.056
2.072
2.096
2.105
25
2.125
2.142
2.159
2.176
2.193
2.210
2 227
2.244
2.261
2.280
26
2.298
2.316
2.3.33
2.351
2..369
2.386
2.404.
2.422
2.440
2.460
27
2.478
2.496
2.515
2.533
2.552
2.. 570
2.588
2.607
2.625
2.643
28
2.665
2.6S4
2.703
2.722
2.741
2.764
2.780
2.800
2.S20
2.836
29
2.859
2.879
2.898
2.918
2.938
2.958
2.977
2.997
3.017
3.0.36
30
3.060
3.080
3.100
3.121
3.141
3.162
3.182
3.202
3.223
3.245
31
3.267
3.288
3.309
3.330
3.351
3.372
3.393
3.414
3.436
3.457
32
3.481
3.503
3.524
3.543
3.568
3.590
3.612
3.633
3.655
3.689
33
3.702
3.725
3.747
3.773
3.795
3.814
3.837
3 860
3.882
3.904
34
3.930
3.953
3.976
4.003
4.022
4.046
4.070
4.092
4.115
4.140
35
4.165
4.188
4.212
4.236
4.260
4.284
4307
4..331
4.355
4,380
36
4.406
4.430
4.455
4.483
4.503
4.528
4.553
4 577
4.602
4.626
37
4.654
4.679
4.704
4.730
4.755
4.780
4.805
4.834
4.855
4.880
38
4.909
4.935
4.961
4.987
5.012
5.038
5.064
5.090
5.120
5.142
39
5.171
5.197
5.224
5.250
5.277
5.304
5.330
5.357
5.383
5.410
40
5.440
5.467
5.491
5.521
5.548
5.576
5.603
5.630
5.657
5.684
46 CRYSTALLIZED TIN-PLATE.
CRYSTALLIZED TIX-PLATE.
Crystallized tin-plate, is a variegated primrose appearance, pro-
duced upon the surface of tiu-plate, by applying to it in a heated state
some dilute niti'o-mui'iatic acid for a few seconds, then washing it with
water, drying, and coating it with lacker. The figures are more or
less beautiful and diversified, according to the degree of heat, and
relative dilution of the acid. Place the tin-plate, slightly heated,
over a tub of water, and rub its surface with a sponge dipped in a
liquor composed of four parts of aquafortis, and two of distilled water,
holding one part of common salt or sal ammoniac in solution. When-
ever the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly brought out, the
plate must be immersed in water, w-ashed either with a feather or a
little cotton (taking care not to rub off the film of tin that forms the
feathering) , forthwith dried with a low heat, and coated with a lacker
varnisli, otherwise it loses its lustre in the air. If the whole surface
is not plunged at once in cold water, but if it be partially cooled by
sprinkling water on it, the crystallization will be finely variegated
with large and small figures. Similar results will be obtained by
blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned surface, while it is just
passing from the fused to the solid state.
TINNING.
1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper, boiled with a solution of
Btannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the
course of a few minutes, covered with a firndy attached layer of pure
tin. — 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin
filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In the above way,
chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly
tinned.
NEW TINN^NG PROCESS.
The articles to be tinned are first covered with dilute sulphuric
acid, and when quite clean are placed in warm water, then dipped
in a solution of muriatic acid, copper and zinc, and then plunged into
a tin bath to which a small quantity of zinc has been added. When
the tinning is finished, the articles are taken out and plunged into
boiling water. The operation is completed by placing them in a very
warm sand bath. This last process softens the iron.
KUSTITIEN'S METAL FOR TINNING.
Malleable iron 1 pound, lieat to whiteness ; add 5 ounces regulus
of antimony, and Molucca tin 24 pounds.
RECEIPTS
FOR THE USE OF
JAPANNEES, VAENISHERS,
BUILDERS AND MECHANICS,
AND FOR
OTHER USEFUL AND IMPORTANT PURPOSES
IN THE
PRACTICAL ARTS.
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS
[TLj following Receipts are selected from " Ure's Dictionary," " Cooley's Cy-
clopedia," " MuspraU's Chemistry," and other valuable sources.]
JAPANNING AND VAPvNISHING.
Japanning is the art of covering todies by grounds of opaque
colors in vavnisli, wliicli may be afterwards decorated by printing
or gilding, or left in a plain state. It is also to be looked upon in
another sense, as that of ornamenting coaches, snuff boxes, screens,
&c. All surfaces to be japanned must be perfectly clean, and
leather should be stretched on frames. Paper should be stiff for
japanning.
The French prime all their japanned articles, the English do
not. This priming is generally of common size. Those articles
that are primed thus, never endure as well as those that receive the
japan coating on the first operation, and thus it is that those
articles of japan work that are primed with size when they are used
for some time, crack, and the coats of japan fly off in flakes.
A solution of strong isinglass size and honey, or sugar candy,
makes a good japan varnish to cover water colors on gold grounds.
A pure white priming for japanning, for the cheap method, is
made with parchment size, and one-third of isinglass, laid on very
thin and smooth. It is the better for three coats, and when the last
coat is dry, it is prepared to receive the painting or figures. Pre-
vious to the last coat, however, the work sliould be smoothly polish-
ed. When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming used,
the best plan is to lay on two or three coats of varnish made of
seed-lac and resin, two ounces each, dissolved in alcohol and
strained through a cloth. This varnish sliould be put on in a warm
place, and the work to be varnished should, if possible, be warm
also, and all dampness should be avoided, to prevent the varnish
from being chilled. When the work is prepared with the above
composition and dry, it is fit for the proper japan to be laid on. If
the ground is not to be white the best varnish now to be used is made
of shellac, as it is the best vehicle for all kind of colors. This is
made in the proportions of the best shellac, 'five ounces, made into
powder, steeped in a quart of alcohol, and kept at a gentle heat for
two or three days and shaken frequently, after which the solution
0
50 JAPANNING AND VARNISHING.
must l)e filtered tlirougli a flannel bag, and kept in a well corked bot-
tle for use. This varnish for hard japanning on copper or tin will
stand for ever, unless fire or liammer be used to burn or beetle it off.
The color to be used with shellac varnish may be of any pigments
whatever to give the desired shade, as this varnish will mis with
any color.
WHITE JAPAN GROUNDS.
To form a hard, perfect white ground is no easy matter, as the
substances which arc generally used to make the japan hard, have a
tendency, by a number of coats, to look or become duU'in bright-
ness. One white ground is made by the following composition :
white flake or lead washed over and ground up witli a sixth of its
weight of starch, then dried and mixed with the finest gum, ground
up in parts of one ounce gum, to half an ounce of rectified turpentine
mixed and ground thoroughly together. This is to be finely laid on
the article to be japanned, dried, and then varnished with five or six
coats of the foUowmg : two ounces of the whitest seed-lac to three
ounces of gum-anima reduced to a fine powder and dissolved in a
quart of alcohol. This lac must be carefully picked. For a softer
vax'nish than this, a little turpentine should be added, and less of the
gum. A very good varnish and not brittle, may be made by dis-
solving gum-anima in nut oil, boiling it gently as the gum is added,
and giving the oil as much gum as it will take up. The ground of
white varnish may of itself be made of this varnish, by giving two
or three coats of it, but when used it should be diluted vrith pure
turpentine. Although this varnish is not brittle it is liable to be in-
dented with strokes, and it will not bear to be polished, but if well
laid on it will not need polisliing afterwards ; it also takes some time
to dry. Heat api)lied to all oils, however, darkens their color,
and oil varnishes for white grow very yellow if not exposed to a full
clear light,
GUM COPAL.
Copal varnish is one of the very finest varnishes for japanning
purposes. It can be dissolved by linseed oil, rendered dry by adding
some quicklime at a heat somewhat less than will boil or decompose
the oil by it.
This solution, with the addition of a little turpentine, forms a
very transparent varnish, which, wlicn properly applied and slowly
dried is very hard and durable. This varnish is applied to snuff
boxes, tea boards and otlicr iitcnsils. It also preserves paintings
and renders tlicir surfaces capable of reflecting ligiit more uniformly.
If powdered copal be mixed in a mortar with canqihor, it softens
and becomes a coherent mass, and if camphor be added to alcohol it
becomes an excellent solvent of copal Ijy adding the copal well
ground, and employing a toleraljle degree of heat, having the
vessel well corked which must Jiave a long neck for the allowance of
expansion, and the vessel must only be aljout one-fourth filled with
the mixture. Copal can also be incorporated with turpentine, witli
one part of powdered copal to twelve parts of pure turpentine, sub-
JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 51
jected to the heat of a sand-bath for several days in a long necked
mattress, shaking it frequently.
Copal is a good varnish for metals, such as tin ; the vai'nish
must bo dried in an oven, eacli coat, and it can be colored with some
substances, but alcohol varnish ivill mix iivith any coloring matter.
For wliite japans or varnishes, we liave a,lready shown -tliat fine
chalk or white lead was used as a basis, and the vai'nishes coated
over it.
To japau or varnish wliite leather, so that it may be elastic, is
altogether a different work from varnishing or japanning wood or
metal, or papier mache.
For white leather oil is the principal ingredient, as it is well
known that chalk is extensively used to give white leather its pure
color, or speaking more philosophically, its fiir colorless whiteness.
White leather having already the basis of white varnish, it should
get a light coat of the pure varnish, before mentioned, and dried
well ill ^')coi;e;!,oracoatof the oil copal will answer very well. This
being well dried, boiled nut oil nicely coated and successively dried,
will make a most beautifal white varnish for leather, not liable to
crack. This quality takes a long time to di-y, and of course is more
expensive. Coarse varnish may be made of boiled linseed oil, into
which is added gradually the acetate of lead as a driei-. This addi-
tion must be done very cautiously as the oil will be apt to foam over.
A better and more safe drying mixture than the mere acetate of
lead, is, to dissolve the acetate of lead in a small quantity of water,
neutralize the acid with the addition of pipe clay, evaporate the
sediment to perfect dryness, and feed the oil when gently boiling
gradually with it.
These varnishes ov japans, as far as described, have only ref-
erence to white grounds.
There is some nice work to be observed, and there is much in
applying the varnishes at the right time, knowing by the eye the
proper moment when the mixture is perfect, or when to add any iu-
gredient. These things requu-e j)ractice.
BLACK GBOTJNDS.
Black grounds for japans may be made by mixing ivory black
with shellac varnish ; or for coarse work, lamp black and "the top
coating of common seedlac varnish. A common black jajian may
be made by painting a piece of work with drying oil, (oil mixed
with lead,) and putting the work into a stove, not too hot, but
of such a degree, gradually raising the heat and keeping it up
for a long time, so as not to burn the oil and make it blister.
This process makes very fair japan and requires no polishing.
BLACK JAPAX.
Naples asphaltum fifty pounds, dark gum-anime eight pounds, fuse,
add linseed oil twelve gallons, boil, add dark gum amber ten pounds,
previously fused and boiled with linseed oil two gallons, add the
driers, and proceed as last. Used for wood or metals.
52 JAPANNIXG AXD VAK^,-ISHING.
BRUNSWICK BLACK.
1. Foreign asplialtum forty-five pounds, drying oil six gallons,
litharge six pounds, boil as last, and thin -with twenty-five gallons
of oil of turpentine. Used for ironwork, &c. 2. Black pitch and
gas tar asphaltum, of each twenty-five pounds, boil gently for five
hours, then add linseed oil eight gallons, litharge and red lead, of
each ten pounds, boil as before, and thin with oil of turpentine twen-
ty gallons. Inferior to the last, but cheaper.
BLUE JAPAN GROUNDS.
Blue japan grounds may be formed of bright Prussian blue.
The color may be mixed with shellac varnish, and brought to a pol-
ishing state by five or six coats of vai'uisli of seed-lac. The varnish,
however, is apt to give a greenish tinge to the blue, as the varnish
has a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow form a green. Whenever
a light blue is desii'ed, the purest varnish must always be used.
SCARLET JAPAN.
Ground vermilion may be used for this, but being so glaring it
is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink, or lalie, which
have a good cifect wlien thus used. For a very bright crimson
ground, sufiSlower or Indian lake should be used, always dissolved in
the alcohol of whicli the varnish is made. In place of this lake,
carmine may be used, as it is more common. The top coat of var-
nish must always be of the white seed-lac, which has been before
described, and as many coats given as will be thought proper ; it is
easy to judge of this.
YELLOW GROUNDS.
If turmeric be dissolved in tlie spirit of wine and strained
through a cloth, and then mixed with pure seed-lac varnish, it makes
a good yellow japan. SattVon will answer for the same purpose in
the same way, but the brightest yellow ground is made by a primary
coat of pure cromc yellow, and coated successively with the varnish.
Dutch pink is used for a kind of cheap yellow japan ground. If
a little dragon's Idood be added to the varnish for yellow japan, a
most beautiful and rich salmon-culorcd varnish is the result, and by
these two mixtures all the shades of flesh-colored japans arc produced.
QREEN JAPAN GROUNDS.
A* good green may be made by mixing Prussian blue along with
the cromate of lead, or with turmeric, or orpiment, (sul[)huret of
arsenic) or ochre, only the two should 1)C ground together and dis-
solved in alcohol and applied as a ground, then coated with four or
five coats of shellac varnish, in tlic manner already described. A
very bright green is made by laying on a ground of Dutch metal, or
leaf of giiM, and then coating it over with distilled verdigris dissolved
in alcohol, then the varnishes on the top. This is a splendid green,
brilliant and glowing.
JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 53
ORANGE COLOEED GKOUNDS.
Orange grounds may be made of yellow mixed witli vermilion
or carmine, just as a briglit or rather inferior color is wanted. The
yellow should always be in quantity to make a good full color, and
the red added in proportion to the depth of shade. If there is
not a good full body of yellow, the color will look watery, or bare, as
it is technically termed. •
PUKPLE JAPAN GROUNDS.
^is is made by a mixture of lake and Prussian blue, or car-
mifle, or for an inferior color vermilion, and treated as the foregoing.
When the ground is laid on and perfectly dried, a fine coat of pure
boiled nut oil then laid on and perfectly dried, is a good method to
have a japan, not liable to crack. But a better plan is to use
this oil in the varnish given, the first coat, after the gi'ound is laid
on, and which should contain considerable of pure turpentine. In
every case, where oil is used for any pui'pose for varnish, it is all the
better if turpentine is mixed with it. Turpentine enables oils to
mix with either alcohol or water. Alkalies have this property also.
BLVCK JAPAN.
1. Asphaltum three ounces, boiled oil four quarts, burnt umber
eight ounces. Mix by heat, and when cooling thin with turpentine.
2. Amber twelve ounces, asphaltum two ounces ; fuse by heat, add
boiled oil half a pint, resin two ounces ; when cooling add sixteen
ounces oil of turpentine. Both are used to varnish metals.
JAPAN BLACK FOR LEATHER.
1. Burnt umber four ounces, true asphaltum two ounces, boiled
oil two quarts. Dissolve the asphaltum by heat in a little of the oil,
add the bui-nt umber ground in oU, and the i-emainder of the oil,
mis, cool, and thin with turpentine. Flexible. 2. Shellac one part,
wood naphtha four parts, dissolve, and color with lampblack. In-
flexible.
TRANSP.UIENT JAPAN.
Oil of turpentine four ounces, oil of lavender three ounces, cam-
phor one-half drachm, copal one ounce ; dissolve. Used to japan
tin, but quick copal varnish is mostly used instead.
JAPANNERS' COPAL VARNISH.
Pale African copal seven pounds, fuse, add clarified linseed oil one
half gallon, boil for five minutes, a-emove it into the open air, add
boiling oil of turpentine three gallons, mix well, strain it into the cis-
tern, and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furniture, and
by japanners, coachmakers, &c. Dries in 15 minutes, and may be
polished as soon as hard.
5*
54 JAPANNING AND VARNISHING.
TORTOISE SHELL JAP.VN.
This varnisli is prepared by taking of good linseed oil one gal-
lon, and of umber half a pound, ami boiling them together until
the oil becomes very brown and thick, Avhen they are strained
through a cloth and boiled again until the composition is about
the consistence of pitch, when it is lit for use. Having prepared
thk varnish, clean well the copper or iron plate or vessel that is
to be varnished, (japanned,) and then lay vcrmillion, mixed with
shellac varnish, or with drying oil, diluted with turj^entine, very
thinly on the i)laccs intended to imitate the clean parts of the
tortoise shell. AVhen the vermillion is dry brush over the whole ■fl^th
the above umber varnish diluted to a due consistence with tur-
pentine, and when it is set and firm, it must be put io^ a stove
and undergo a strong heat for a long time, even two weeks will
not hurt it. Tliis is the ground for tliose beautiful snuff boxes
and tea boards Avhich arc so much admired, and those grounds can
be decorated with all kinds of paintings that fancy may suggest,
and the work is all the better to bo finished in an annealing
oven.
PAIJJTIXO JAPAN WOEK.
The colors to be painted are tempered, generally, in oil, which
should have at least one-fourth of its weight of gum sandarach, or
mastic dissolved in it, and it should be well diluted with turpen-
tine, that the colors may be laid on thin and evenly. In some
instances it does well to put on water colors or grounds of gold,
which a skilful hand can do and manage so as to make the work
appear as if it was embossed. These water colors are best pre-
pared by means of isinglass size, mixed with honey, or sugar candy.
These colors when laid on must receive a number of upper coats
of the varnish we have described befoi'e.
JAPANNING OLD TEA-TRAYS.
First clean them thoroughly with soap and water and a little rotten
stone ; then dry them by wiping and exposure at the fire. Now, get
some good copal varnihh, mix with it some bronze powder, and apply
with a brush to tlie denuded parts. After Avliich set tlie tca-lray in
an oven at a heat of 212'^ or 31)0*^ until the varnish is dry. Two coata
will make it equal to new.
JAPAN FINISHING.
The finishing part of japanning lies in laying on and polishing the
outer coats of varnish, whieli is necessary in all painted or simply
ground colored japan work. 'Wlicn brightness and clearness are
wanted, the white kind of varnish is necessary, for seed-lac varnish,
which is tlic hardest and most tenacious, imparts a yellow tinge.
A mi.\ed vai nisb, we believe, is the best for this purpose, that is, for
combining li;iidncss and purity. Take then three ounces of sccd-lac,
VARNISHES. 55
picked very carefully from all sticks and dirt and washing it -well
with cold water, stirring it up, pouring it off, and continuing the
process until the water runs off perfectly pure. Di-y it and then
reduce it to powder, and put it with a pint of pure alcohol into a
bottle, of which it must occupy only two-thirds of its space. This
mixture must be shaken well together and the bottle kept at a gentle
heat (being corked) until the lac be dissolved. When this is the
case, the clear must be poured off, and the remainder strained through
a cloth, and all the clear, strained and poured, must be kept in a well
stopped bottle. The manner of using this seed-lac Tarnish is the
same as that before described, and a fine polishing varnish is
made by mixing this with the pure white varnish. The pieces
of work to be varnished for finishing should be placed neara
stove, or in a warm, dry room, and one coat should be perfectly
dry before the other is applied. The varnish is applied by proper
brushes, beginning at the middle, passing the stroke to one end and
with the other stroke from the middle to the other end. Great skill
is displayed in laying on these coats of varnish. If possible tlie skill
of hand should never cross, or twice pass over in giving one coat.
When one coat is dry another must be laid over it, and so on succes-
sively for a number of coats, so that the coating should be sufficiently
thick to stand fully all the polishing, so as not to bare the surface pf
the colored work. When a sufficient number of coats are thus laid
on, the work is fit to be polished, which, in common cases, is com-
menced with a rag dipped in finely powdered rotten stone, and
towards the end of the rubbing a little oil should be used along with
the powder, and when the work appears fine and glossy a little oil
should be used alone to clean oft' the powder and give the work a
still brighter hue. In very fine work, French whiting should be used,
which should be washed in water to remove any sand that might be
in it. Pumice stone ground to a very fine powder is used for the
first pai-t of polishing, and the finishing done with whiting. It is
always best to dry the varnish of all japan work by heat. For
wood work, heat must be sparingly used, but for metals the varnish
should be dried in an oven, also for papier mache and leather. The
metal will stand the greatest heat, and care must be taken not to
darken by too high a temperature. When gold size is used in gild-
ing for japan work, where it is desired not to have the gold shine,
or appear burnished, the gold size should be used with a little of the
spirits of turpentine and a little oil, but when a considerable degree
of lustre is wanted without burnishing and the preparation neces-
sary for it, a little of the size along with oil alone should be used.
VARNISHES, — MISCELLANEOUS.
Different substances are employed for making varnish, the object
being to produce a liquid easily applied to the surface of cloth,
paper or metal, which, when dry, will protect it with a fine skin.
56 VARNISHES,
Gums and resins are the substances employed for making varnishes ;
they are dissolved either in turpentine, alcohol, or oil, in a close
stone ware, glass or metal vessel, exposed to a low heat, as the case
may require, or cold. The alcohol or turpentine dissolves the gum
or resin, and holds them in solution, and after the application of
the varnish, this mixture being mechanical, the moisture of the
liquid evaporates, and the gum adheres to the article to which it is
applied.
The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to the varnish-
maker. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a vial,
will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; it is mellow and sweet to the
taste, has very little smell, is specifically ligliter than impure oil, and,
when clarified, dries quickly and lirmly, and does not materially
change the color of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and
brilliant.
The following are the chief Resins employed in the manufacture of
Varnishes.
AMBER.
This resin is most distinguished for durability. It is usually of
some shade of yellow, transparent, hard, and moderately tough.
Heated in air, it fuses at about 51'J" ; it burns with a clear flame,
emitting a pleasant odor.
ANIME.
This is imported from the East Indies. The large, transparent,
pale-yellow pieces, with vitreous fracture, arc best suited for var-
nish. Inferior qualities arc employed for manufacturing gold-size or
japan-black. Although superior to amber in its capacity for drying,
and equal in hardness, varnish made from anime deepens in color on
exposure to air, and is very liable to crack. It is, however, much
used for mixing with copal varnish.
BENZOIN.
This is a gum-resin but little used in varnishes, on account of ita
costliness.
COLOPUONY.
This resin is synonymous with arcanson and rosin. When the
resinous juice of Pinus sylvcjiiris and otlier varieties is distilled,
colophony remains in the retort. Its dark color is due to the action
of the fire. Dissolved in linseed oil, or in tiy-pentiue by tlic aid ol
heat, colophony forms a brilliant, liai'd, but brittle varnish.
COPAL.
Tliis is a gum-resin of immense importance to the varnisli-m;iker.
It consists of several minor resins of dillcrent degrees of solubility.
VARNISHES. 57
In durability, it is only second to amber. When made into varnish,
the better sorts become lighter in color by exposure to air.
Copal is generally imported in lai'ge lumps about the size of pota-
toes. The clearest and palest are selected for what is called body-
yum ; the second best forms carrioije-gum. ; 'whilst the residue, freed
from the many impurities with which it is associatedj constitutes
worst quality, fitted only for japan-lilack or gold-size.
In alcohol, copal is but little soluble ; but it is said to become
more so by reducing it to a fine powder, and exposing it to atmos-
pheric influences for twelve mouths. Boiling alcohol or spirit of
turpentine, when poured upon fused copal, accomplishes its complete
solution, provided the solvent be not added in too large proportions
at a time. The addition of camphor also promotes the solubility of
copal ; so liliewise does oil of rosemai'y.
DAMMARA.
This is a tasteless, inodorous, whitish resin, easily soluble in oils.
It is not so hard as mastic, with which it forms a good admixture.
ELEMI.
This is a resin of a yellow color, semi-transparent, and of fiiint
fragrance. Of the two resins which it contains, one is crystallizable
and soluble in cold alcohol.
LAC.
This constitutes the basis of spirit-varnish. The resin is soluble
in strong alcohol aided by heat. Its solution in ammonia may be
used as a varnish, when the articles coated with it are not exposed
more than an hour or two at a time to water.
MASTIC.
This is a soft resin of considerable lustre. The two sorts in com-
merce are, in tears and the eormnon mastic ; the former is the purer
of the two. It consists of two resins, one of which is soluble in di-
lute alcohol. Witli oil of turpentine, it forms a very pale varnish,
of great lustre, which flows readily, and works easily. Moreover, it
can be readily removed by friction with the hand ; hence its use for
delicate work of every description.
SANDARACH.
This is a pale, odorous resin, less hard than lac, with which it is
often associated as a spirit-varnish. It consists of three resins dififer-
ing as to solubility in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. It forms a
good pale varnish for light-colored woods ; when required to be
polished, Venice turpentine is added to give it body.
Of the solvents of these various resins, little need be said. In the
manufacture of varnishes, great care, as well as cleanliness, are re-
quired. The resins should be washed in hot water, to free them from
particles of dust and dirt ; they should be dried and assorted accord-
58 VARNISHES.
ing to their color, reserving the lightest shades for the best kinds of
varnish.
The linseed-oil should he as pale colored, and as -well clarified as
possible. New oil always contains mucilage, and moi'e or less of
foreign matters ; as these prevent the regular absorption of oxygen,
the oil requires preliminary treatment. The common plan is toboil
it with litharge ; but such oil varnish is inferior to that prepared
with sulphate of lead.
The best method is to rub up linseed-oil with dry sulphate of lead,
in sufficient quantity to form a milky mixture. After a week's
exposure to the light, and frequent shaking, the mucus deposits with
the sulphate of lead, and leaves the oil perfectly clear. The precipi-
tated slime forms a compact membrane over the lead, hardening to
6uch an extent that the clarified oil may be readily poured off.
TURPEXTINE.
This is of very extensive use. The older it is, the more ozonized,
the better it is. Tui-pentine varnishes dry much more readily than
oil vai-nishes, are of a lighter color, more flexiljle and cheap. They
are, however, neither so tough nor so durable.
ALCOHOL.
This is employed as the solvent of sandarach and of lac. The
stronger, cateris paribus, the better.
NAPHTHA AND METHYLATED SPIRIT OF ^NE.
These arc used for the cheaper varnishes. Their smell is disagree-
able. The former is, however, a better solvent of resins than alcohol.
SPIRIT VARNISHES.
These varnishes may be readily colored — red, by drasjon's blood ;
yellow, by gamboge. If a colored varnish is required, cleirly no
account need be taken of the color of the resins. Lao varnish may
be bleached by Mr. Lemming's process : - Dissolve five ounces of shel-
lac in a quart of spirit of wine ; boil for a few minutes witli ten
ounces of well-burnt and recently-heated animal charcoal, wlien a
small quantity of the solution should be drawn off and filtered : if not
colorless, a little more chai-coal should be added. AVhon all tinge is
removed, press the liquor through silk, as linen absorbs more var-
nish ; and alterAvards filter it through fine blotting-paper. Dr. Hare
proceeds as follows : — Dissolve in an iron kettle about one part of
pearlash in about eight parts of water, add one part of shell or seed
lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool
the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine gas till the lac is all
precipitated. 'I he precipitate is white, l)ut the color deepens by
washing and consolidation. Dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached by
this process yields a varnisli which is as free from color as any copal
varnish.
One word in conclusion with reference to all spirit varnishes. A
VARNISHES. 59
damp atmosphere is sufficient to occasion a milky deposit of resin,
owing to the diluted spirit depositing a portion : in such case the
varnish is said to be chilled.
ESSENCE VARNISHES.
They do not differ essentially in their manufacture from spirit
varnishes. The polish produced by them is more durable, although
they take a longer time to dry.
OIL VARNISHES.
The most durable and lustrous of varnishes are composed of a mix-
ture of resin, oil, and spirit of turpentine. The oils most fi'equcntly
employed are linseed and walnut ; the resins chiefly copal and
amber.
The drying power of the oil having been increased by litharge,
red-lead, or by sulphate of lead, and a judicious selection of copal
having been made, it is necessary, according to Booth, to bear in
mind the following precautions before proceeding to the manufacture
of varnish : — 1. That oil varnish is not a solution, but an intimate
mixture of resin in boiled oil and spirit of turpentine. 2. That the
resin must be completely fused previous to the addition of the boiled
or prepared oil. 3. That the oil must be heated from 250° to 300°.
4. That the spirit of turpentine must be added gradually, and in a
thin stream, while the mixture of oil and resin is still hot. 5. That
the varnish bo made in dry weather, otherwise moisture is absorbed,
and its transparency and drying quality impaired.
The heating vessel must be of co^iper, with a riveted and not a
soldered bottom. To promote the admixture of the copal with the
hot oil, the copal — carefully selected, and of nearly uniform fusibility
— is separately heated with continuous stirring over a charcoal fire.
Good management is required to prevent the copal from burning or
becoming even high colored. When completely fused, the heated
oil should be gradually poured in with constant stirring. The exact
amount of oil required must be determined by experiment. If a drop
upon a plate, on cooling, assumes such a consistency as to be pene-
trated by the nail without cracking, the mixture is complete ; but if
it cracks, more oil must be added.
The spirit of turpentine previously heated is added in a thin stream
to the foi'mer mixture, care being taken to keep up the heat of all
the parts.
LACKER.
This is used for wood or brass work, and is also a varnish. For
brass, the proportions are half a pound of pale shell-lac to one gallon
of spirit of wine. It is better prepared without the aid of heat, by
simple and repeated agitation. It should then be left to clear itself,
and separated from the thicker portions and from all impurities by
decantation. As it darkens on exposure to light, the latter should be
excluded. It need scarcely be said that the color will be also modified
by that of the lac employed.
60 VARNISHES.
1. COPAL VARNISHEg.
1. Oil of turpentine one pint, set the bottle in a water bath, and
add in small portions at a time, three ounces of powdered copal that
has been previously melted by a gentle heat, and dropped into water ;
in a few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is very pale and
durable. Used for pictures, &c. 2. Pale hard copal two pounds ;
fuse, add hot drying oil one pint, boil as before directed, and thin
with oil of turpentine three pints, or as much as sufficient. Very
pale. i3/-tes hard in 12 to 2 J: hours. 3. Clearest and palest African
copal eight pounds ; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil two gallons,
boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with hot rectified
oU of turpentine three gallons, and immediately strain into the store
can. Very fine. Both the above are used for pictures. 4. Coarsely-
powdered copal and glass, of each four ounces, alcohol of 90 per cent
one pint, camphor one-half ounce ; heat it in a water-bath so that the
bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing frequently to stir the
mixture ; when cold decant the clear. Used for pictures. 5. Copal
melted and dropped into water three ounces, gum sandarach six
ounces, mastic and Chio turpentine of each two and one-half ounces,
powdered glass four ounces, alcohol of 85 per cent, one quart ; dis-
solve by a gentle heat. Used for metal, chairs, &c.
All copal varnishes are hard and durable, though less so than
those made of amber, but they have the advantage over the latter of
being paler. They arc applied on coaches, pictures, polished metal,
wood, and other objects requiring good durable varnish.
2. COPAI. VARNISn.
Hard copal, 300 parts ; drying linseed or nut oil, from 125 to 250
parts ; oil of turpentine, 500 ; these three substances arc to be put
into three separate vessels ; the copal is to be fused by a somewhat
sudden application of heat; the drying oil is to be heated to a tem-
perature a little under ebullition, and is to be added by small
portions at a time to the melted copal. When this combination is
made, and the heat a little abated, the essence of turpentine, likewise
previously licatcd, is to be introduced by degrees ; some of the vola-
tile oil will be dissipated at first, but more being added, the union
will take place. Great care must be taken to prevent the turpentine
vapor from catching fire, which might occasion serious accidents to
the operator. When the varnish is made and has cooled down to
about 130 degrees of Fah., it may be strained through a filter, to
separate the impurities and undissolved copal. Almost all varnish
makers think it indispensable to combine the drying oil with the
copal before adding the oil of turpentine, but in this they are mis-
taken. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with fused
copal; ;ind, in some cases, it would probably be preferable to com-
mence the operation with it, adiling it in successive small quantities.
Indeed, the whitest copal varnish can be made only in this way ; for
if the drying oil has been heated to nearly its boiling point, it
becomes colored, and darkens the varnish.
VARNISHES. 61
This varnish improves in clearness by keeping. Its consistence
may be varietJ by vai-ying the proportions of the ingi'edients -R-ithin
moderate limits. Good varnish, applied in summer, should become
so dry in twentj^-four hours that the dust ■will not stick to it nor re-
ceive an impression from the fingers. To render it suificiently dry
and hard for polishing, it must be subjected for several days to the
heat of a stove.
3. COPAL TAKNISHES,
1. Melt in an iron pan at a slow heat, copal gum, powdered, eight
parts, and add balsam copaiva, pi-eviously warmed, two parts. Then
remove from the fii-e, and add spirits of turpentine, also warmed be-
forehand, ten parts, to give the necessary consistence. 2. Prepared
gum copal ten parts, gum mastic two parts, finely powdered, are
mixed with white turpentine and boiled linseed oil, of each one part,
at a slow heat, and with spirits of turpentine twenty parts. 3. Pre-
pared gum-copal ten parts, white turpentine two parts, dissolve in
spirits of turpentine.
Gum-copal is prepared or made more soluble in spirits of turpentine,
by melting the powdered crude gum, afterwards again powdering,
and allowing to stand for some time loosely covered.
CABINET VARNISH.
Copal, fused, fourteen pounds ; linseed oil, hot, one gallon ; tur-
pentine, hot, three gallons. Properly boiled, such a varnish will dry
in ten minutes.
TABLE VARNISH.
Damma resin, one pound ; spirits of turpentine, two pounds ;
camphor, two hundred grains. Digest the mixture for twenty-four
houi's. The decanted portion is fit for immediate use.
COMBION TABLE VARNISH.
Oil of turpentine, one pound; bees' wax, two ounces ; colophony,
one drachm.
COPAL VARNISH FOR INSIDE WORK.
1. Pounded and oxidixed copal, twentj'-four parts; spirit of tur-
pentine, forty parts ; camphor, one part. — 2. Flexible Copal Var-
nish. Copal in powder, sixteen parts; camphor, two parts; oil of
lavender, ninety parts, it-
Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stu" in the co-
pal in sucoessive portions until complete solution takes place. Thin
with sufiicient turpentine to make it of proper consistence.
BEST BODY COPAL VARNISH FOR COACH MAKERS, &C.
This is intended for the body parts of coaches and other similar
vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse eight lbs. of fine African
gum copal, and two gallons of clarified oil, boil it very slowly for
four or five hours, until quite stringy, mis with three gallons and a
6
G2 VAKNISHES.
half of turpentine ; strain off and pour it into a cistern. If this ia
too slow in drying, coach-makers, painters and varnish-makers have
introduced to two pots of the preceding varnish, one made as follows :
eight lbs. of fine pale gum-anime, two gallons of clarified oil and
three and a half gallons of turpentine. To be boiled four hours.
COP.il. POLISH.
Digest or shake finely powdered gum copal four parts, and gum
camphor one part, with ether to form a semi-fluid mass, and then
digest with a suflicient quantity of alcohol.
WHITE SPIRIT V^iENISH.
Sandarach, 250 parts ; mastic, in tears, 64 ; elemi resin, 32 ;
turpentine, 64 ; alcohol of 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure.
The tui'pentLne is to be added after the resins are dissolved. This is
a brilliant varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing.
WHITE HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES.
1. Gum sandarach five pounds, camphor one ounce, rectified spirit
(65 over pi'oof ) two gallons, washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass
two pounds ; proceed as in making mastic varnish ; when strained
add one quart of very pale turpentine varnish. Very fine. 2. Picked
mastic and coarsely-ground glass, of each, four ounces, sandarach
and pale clear Venice turpentine, of each three ounces, alcohol two
pounds ; as last. 3. Gum sandarach one pound, clear Strasburgh
turpentine six ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) three pints ;
dissolve. 4. Elastic in tears two ounces, sandarach eight ounces, gum
elemi one ounce, Strasburgh or Scio turpentine (genuine) four ounces,
rectified spirit (65 over proof) one quart. Used on metals, &c.
Polishes well.
WHITE V.AJRNISn.
1. Tender copal seven and one-half ounces, camphor one ounce,
alcohol of 95 per cent, one (juart ; dissolve, then add mastic two
ounces, Venice turpentine one ounce ; dissolve and strain. Very
white, drying, and capable of being polished when hard. Used for
toys. 2. Sandarach eight ounces, mastic two ounces, Canada balsam
four ounces, alcohol one quart. Used on paper, wood, or linen.
SOFT BBILLI^VNT VARNISH.
Sandarach six ounces, elemi (genuine) four ounces, anime one
ounce, camphor one-half ounce, rectified spi-it one quart ; as before.
The above spirit varnislies are chiefly applieil to olijects of the toil-
ette, as work-boxes, card-cases, &c., but are also suitable to other
articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that require a bril-
liant and (juick-drying varnish. Tliey mostly dry almost as soon as
applied, and arc usually hard enough to polish in 24 hours. Spirit
varnishes arc less durable and more liable to crack than oil varnishes.
VARNISHES.
BEOWN HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES.
1. Sandaracli four ounces, pale ^ted-lac two ounces, elemi (true)
one ounce, alcohol one quart ; digest with agitation till dissolved, then
add Venice turpentine two ounces. 2. Gum sandai-ach three pounds,
shellac two pounds, rectified spirit, (65 over proof,) two gallons ; dis-
solve, add turpentine varnish one quart ; agitate well and strain.
Very fine. 3. Sead-lac and yellow resin, of each one and one-half
pounds, rectified spirit two gallons.
TO PREPARE A VARXISH TOR COATING BtETALS.
Digest one part of bruised copal in two parts of absolute alcohol;
but as this varnish diies too quickly it is preferable to take one part
of copal, one part of oil of rosemary, and two or three parts of ab-
solute alcohol. This gives a clear varnish as limped as water. It
should be applied hot, and when dry it will be found hard and
durable.
TO VARNISH ARTICLES OF IRON AND STEEL.
Dissolve 10 parts of clear grains of mastic, 5 parts of camphor, 15
parts of sandarach, and 5 of elemi, in a sufiicient quantity of alcohol,
and apply this varnish without heat. The articles will not only be
preserved from rust, but the varnish wUl retain its transparency
and the metallic brilliancy of the articles will not be obscured.
VARNISH FOR IRON WORK.
Dissolve, in about two lbs. of tar oil, half a pound of asphaltum,
and a like quantity of pounded i-esin, mix hot in an iron kettle, care
being taken to prevent any contact with the flame. When cold the
varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door wood and iron
work, not for japanning leather or cloth.
BLACK VARNISH FOR IRON "WORK.
Asphaltum forty-eight pounds, fuse, add boiled oil ten gallons, red
lead and litharge, of each seven pounds, dried and powdered white
copperas three pounds, boil for two hours, then add dark gum amber
(fused) eight pounds, hot linseed oil two gallons, boil for two hours
longer, or till a little of the mass, when cooled, may be rolled into
pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of
turpentine thirty gallons. Used for the ironwork of carriages, and
other nice purposes.
BRONZE VARNISH FOR STATUARY.
Cut best hard soap fifty parts, into fine shavings, dissolve in boil-
ing water two parts, to which add the solution of blue vitriol fifteen
parts, in pure water sixty parts. Wash the coi^per-soap with water,
dry it at a very slow heat, and dissolve it in spirits of turpentine.
64 VARNISHES.
AMBER VARNISHES.
1. Amber one pound, pale bftilecl oil ten ounces, turpentine one
pint. Render the amber, placed in an iron pot, semiliquid by heat ;
then add the oil, mix, remove it from the fire, and when cooled a
a little, stir in the turpentine. 2. To the amber, melted as above,
add two ounces of shellac, and proceed as before.
This vai'nisli is rather dai'k, but remarkably tough. The first form
is the best. It is used for the same purposes as copal varnish, and
forms an excellent article for covering wood, or any other substance
not of a white or very pale color. It dries well, and is very hard
and durable.
AMBER VARNISn, BLACK.
Amber one pound, boiled oil one-half pint, powdered asphaltum
six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint. Melt the amber, as before
described, then add the asphaltum, previously mixed with the cold
oil, and afterwards heated very hot, mix well, remove the vessel from
the fire, and when cooled a little add the turpentine, also made warm.
Each of the above varnishes should be reduced to a proper con-
sistence with more turpentine if required. The last form produces
the beautiful black varnish used by the coachmakers. Some manu-
facturers omit the whole or part of the asjahaltum, and use the same
quantity of clear black rosin instead, in which case the color is
brought up by lampblack reduced to an impalpable powder, or pre-
viously ground very fine with a little boiled oil. The varnish made
in tliis way, lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and depth of
blackness imparted by asphaltum.
AMBER VARNISHES.
1. {Pale.) Amber pale and transparent six pounds, fuse, add hot
clarified linseed oil two gallons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a
little, and add oil of turpentine four gallons. Pale as copal vai'uish ;
soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes ;
but requires time before it is fit for polishing. When wanted to dry
and harden quicker, " drying " oil maybe substituted for linseed,
or " driers " may be added during the boiling. 2. Amber one pound;
melt, add Scio turpentine one-half pound, transparent white resin
two ounces, hot linseed oil one pint, and afterwards oil of tui'pcntine
as much as sufficient ; as above. Very tough. 8. {Hard.) Melted
amber four ounces, hot boiled oil one quart ; as before. 4. (Pale.)
Very pale and transparent amber four ounces, clarified linseed oil and
oil of turpentine, of each one pint ; as before.
Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, where a very hard and
durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to copal
varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase its hardness
and durability.
BLACK VARNISH.
Heat to boiling linseed oil varnish ten parts, with burnt umber
two parts, ami powdered asphaltum one part, and when cooled dilute
with spirits of turpentine to the required consistence.
VARNISHES. 65
VAENISH FOU CERT.4JN PARTS OF CARRIAGES.
Sandarach, 190 parts ; pale shellac, 95 ; resin, 125 ; turpentine,
190 ; alcohol, at 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure.
COACH VARNISH.
Mix sheUac sixteen parts, white turpentine three parts, lamp-
black sufficient quantity, and digest with alcohol ninety parts, oil
of lavender four parts.
MAHOGANY VARNISH.
Sorted gum-anime eight pounds, clarified oil three gallons, litharge
and powdered dried sugar of lead, of each one-fourth pound ; boil till
it strings well, then cool a little, thia with oil of turpentine five and
one-half gallons, and strain.
VARNISH FOR CABINET MAKERS.
Pale shellac, 750 parts ; mastic, 64 ; alcohol, of 90 per cent,
1000 parts by measure. The solution is made in the cold, with the
aid of frequent stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed
without being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a var-
nish is made for the bookbinders to do over their morocco leather.
CEMENT VARNISH FOR WATER-TIGHT LUTING.
White turpentine fourteen parts, shellac eighteen parts, resin six
parts, digest with alcohol eighty parts.
THE VARNISH OF WATIN FOR GILDED ARTICLES.
Gum-lac, in grain, 125 parts ; gamboge, 125 ; dragon's blood,
125 ; annotto, 125 ; saffron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in
1000 parts by measure, of alcohol of 90 per cent ; two separate tinc-
tures must be made with the dragon's blood and annotto, in 1000
parts of such alcohol ; and a proper proportion of each should be added
to the varnish, according to the shade of golden color wanted.
CHEAP OAK VARNISH.
Clear pale resin three and one-half pounds, oil of turpentine one
gallon ; dissolve. It may be colored darker by adding a little fine
lampblack.
VARNISH FOR WOOD-WORK.
Powdered gum sandarach eight parts, gum mastic two parts,
seed-lac eight parts, and digest in a warm place for some days with
alcohol twenty-four parts, and finally, dilute with sufficient alcohol
to the required consistence.
DARK VARNISH FOR LIGHT WOOD-WORK.
Pound up and digest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach thirty-
two parts, gum mastic (juniper) eight parts, gum elemi eight
6*
66 VARNISHES.
parts, dragon's blood four parts, annotto one part, -with white tur-.
pentine sixteen parts, and alcohol two hundred and fifty-six. Di-
lute with alcohol if required.
VARNISH FOR INSTRUMENTS.
Digest seed-lac one part, with alcohol seven parts, and filter.
VARNISn FOR THE WOOD TOYS OF SPA.
Tender copal, 75 parts ; mastic, 12.5 ; Venice turpentine, 6.5 ;
alcohol, of 95 per cent, 100 parts by measure ; water ounces, for
example, if the other parts be taken in ounces. The alcohol must
be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a little oil of lav-
ender or camphor, if thought fit ; and tlie solution being passed
through a linen cloth, the mastic must be introduced. After it is
dissolved, the Venice turpentine, previously melted in a water-bath,
sliould be added ; the lower the temperature at which these operations
are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be. This varnish
ought to be very white, very drying, and capable of being smoothed
with pumice-stone and polished.
VARNISHES FOR FURNITURE.
The simplest, and perhaps the best, is the solution of shellac only,
but many add gums sandarach, mastic, copal, arabic, benjamin, &c.,
from the idea tliat they contribute to the effect. Gum arabic is cer-
tainly never required if tlic solvent be pure, ])ecause it is insoluble in
either rectified spirit or rectified wood naplitha, tlie menstrua cm-
ployed in dissolving the gums. As spirit is seldom used on account
of its expense, most of the following are mentioned as solutions in
naphtha, but spirit can be substituted when thought proper.
1. Shellac one and a lialf pounds, naphtha one gallon ; dissolve,
and it is ready without filtering. 2. Shellac twelve ounces, copal
three ounces, (lu* an equivalent of varnish); dissolve in one gallon of
naphtha. 3. Shellac one and a half pounds, seed-lac and sandarach
each four ounces, mastic two ounces, rectified spirit one gallon ; dis-
solve. 4. Shellac two pounds, l)onzoin four ounces, spirit one gal-
lon. 5. Shellac ten ounces, seed-lac, sandarach, and coi)al varnish
of each, six ounces, benzoin three ounces, naphtha one gallon.
To darken polisii, benzoin and di-agon's-blood ai-e used, turmeric
and otlier coloring matters are also added ; and to make it lighter it
is necessary to use bleached lac, thougli some endeavor to give
this effect ))y adding oxalic acid to the ingredients, it, like gum
arabic, is insoluble in good spirit or naphtha. Fur all ordinary pur-
poses the first form is best and least troublesome, while its appearance
is equal to any other.
TO FRENCH POLISH.
The wood must be placed level, and sand-papered until it is quite
smooth, otlicrwise it will 7iol polish. Tiien provide a rubber of cloth,
list, or sponge, wrap it in a soft rag, so as to leave a liandlo .at tlio
back for your hand, shake the bottle against the rubber, and in tho
VARNISHES.
67
middle of the varnisli on the rag place with your finger a little raw
linseed oil. Now commence rubbing, in small circular strokes, and
continue until the pores are filled, charging the rubber with varnish
and oil as required, until the whole wood has had one coat. When
dry repeat the process once or twice until the surface appears even
and fine, between each coat using fine sand-paper to smooth down all
irregularities. Lastly, use a clean rubber with a little strong alcohol
only, which will remove the oil and the cloudiness it causes ; whea
the work will be complete.
FURNITURE POLISHES.
New wood is often French-polished. Or the following may be tried :
Melt tlu'ee or four pieces of sandarach, each the size of a walnut,
add one pint of boiled oil, and boil together for one hour. While cool-
ing add one drachm of Venice turpentine, and if too thick a little oil
of turpentine also. Apply this all over the furniture , and after some
hours rub it off ; rub the furniture daily, without applying fresh var-
nish, except about once in two months. Water does not injure this
polish, and any stain or scratch may be again covered, which cannot
be done with French-polish.
FURNITURE GLOSS.
To give a gloss to household fuimiture, various compositions are
used, known as wax, polish, creams, pastes, oils, &c. The following
are some of the forms used :
FURNITURE CREAM.
Bees-wax one pound, soap four ounces, pearlash two ounces, soft
water one gallon ; boil together until mixed.
FURNITURE OILS.
1. Acetic acid two drachms, oil of lavender one-half drachm,
rectified spirit one drachm, linseed oil four ounces. 2. Linseed oil
one pint, alkanet root two ounces ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish
one ounce. 3. Linseed oil one pint, rectified spirit two ounces,
butter of antimony four ounces.
FURNITURE PASTES.
1. Bees-wax, spirit of turpentine, and linseed oil, equal parts ;
melt and cool. 2. Bees-wax four ounces, turpentine ten ounces,
alkanet root to color ; melt and strain. 3. Bees-wax one pound,
linseed oil five ounces, alkanet root one-half ounce ; melt, add five
ounces of turpentine, strain and cool. 4. Bees-wax four ounces,
resin one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, Venetian red to color.
ETCHING VARNISHES.
1. White wax, two ounces ; black and Burgundy pitch, of each
one-half ounce ; melt together, add by degrees powdered asphaltum
two ounces, and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break
when cold by being bent double two or three times between the fin-
68 VAKNISHES.
gers ; it must then be poured into warm water and made into small
balls for use. 2. (if(//-(2 F"ar«is/i.) Linseed oil and mastic, of each
four ounces ; melt together. 3. {Soft Varnish.) Soft linseed oil,
four ounces ; gum benzoin and white wax, of each one-half ounce ;
boil to two-thirds.
VAKXISH FOR ENGKAVINGS, MAPS, ETC.
Digest gum sandarach twenty parts, gum mastic eight parts,
camphor one part, with alcohol forty-eight parts. The map or en-
graving must previously receive one or two coats of gelatine.
VAKNISH TO FIX ENGRAVINGS OR LITHOGRAPHS ON WOOD.
For fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish called
mordant is used"" in France, which difl'ers from others chiefly in contain-
ing more Venice turpentine, to make it sticky ; it consists of sanda-
rach, 250 parts ; mastic in tears, <Ji ; rosin, 125 ; Venice turpentine,
250 ; alcohol, 1000 parts by measure.
VARNISHES FOR OIL PAINTINGS ^iJN'D LITHOGRAPHS.
1. Dextrine 2 parts, alcohol 1 part, water 6 parts. 2. Varnish
for drawmgs and lithographs : dextrine 2 parts, alcohol h part,
water 2 parts. These should be prepared previously with two or
three coats of thin starch or rice boiled and strained through a cloth.
VARNISH FOR OIL PAINTINGS.
Digest at a slow heat gum sandarach two parts, gum mastic four
parts, balsam copaiva two parts, white turpentine three parts, with
Bpirits of turpentine four parts, alcohol (95 per cent) 50-56 parts.
BEAUTIFUL VARNISH FOR PAINTINGS AND PICTURES.
Honey, 1 pint; the whites of two dozen fresh hen's eggs; 1 ounce
of good clean isinglass, 20 grains of hydrate of potassium, i ounce
of chloride of sodium ; mix together over a gentle heat of 80 or 90
degrees Fah. ; be careful not to let the mixture remain long enough
to°oagulate the albumen of the eggs ; stir the mixture thoroughly,
then b'ottle. It is to be applied as follows : one table spoonful of the
varnish added to half a table spoonful of good oil of turpentine,
then spread on the picture as soon as mixed.
MILK OF VfAX.
Milk of wax is a valuable varnish, which may be prepared as fol-
lows:—Melt in a porcelain capsule a certain quantity of white wax,
and add to it, while in fusion, an equal <iuantity of spirit of wine, of
sp. grav. 0-830 ; stir the mixture, and pour it upon a large porphyry
Blab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste by the mul-
ler, with the addition, from time to time, of a little alcohol ; and as
Boon as it appears to be smooth and homogeneous, water is to be in-
troduce<l in small quantities successively, to the amount of four times
the weight of the wax. This emulsion is to bo then passed through
VARNISHES. 69
canvas, in order to separate sucli .particles as may be imperfectly in-
corporated. The milk of wax, thus prepared, may be spread with a
smooth brush upon the surface of a painting, allowed to dry, and then
fused by passing a hot iron (salamander) over its surface. When
cold, it is to be rubbed with a linen cloth to bring out the lustre. It
is to the unchangeable quality of an encaustic of this nature, that the
ancient paintings upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii owe
their freshness at the present day.
CRYSTAL VARNISHES.
1. Genuine pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine,
equal parts ; mix, place the bottle in warm water, agitate well, set it
aside, in a moderately warm place, and in a week pour off the clear.
Used for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper, and
also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings. 2. Mastic
three ounces, alcohol one pint ; dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings.
ITALIAN VARNISHES.
1. Boil Scio turpentine till brittle, powder, and dissolve in oil of
turpentine. 2. Canada balsam and clear white resin, of each six
ounces, oil of turpentine one quart ; dissolve. Used for prints, &c.
WATER VARNISH FOR OIL-PAINTINGS.
Boil bitter-apple, freed from the seeds and cut five parts, with rain-
water fifty parts, down to one-half. Strain and dissolve in the liquor
gum arable eight parts, and rock-candy four parts, and lastly, add
one part of alcohol. Let it stand for some days, and filter.
VARNISH FOR PAPER-HANGINGS.
Sandarach, four parts, mastic, seed-lac, white turpentine, of each
two parts, gum elemi one part, alcohol twenty-eight parts. Digest
with frequent shaking, and filter. Before applying this varnish, the
paper must be twice painted over with a solution of white gelatine,
and dried.
book-binders' varnish.
Shellac eight parts, gum benzoin three parts, gum mastic two
parts, bruise, and digest in alcohol forty-eight parts, oil of lavender
one-half part. Or, digest shellac four parts, gum mastic two parts,
gum dammar and white turpentine of each one part, with alcohol
(95 per cent) twenty-eight parts.
TO VARNISH CARDWORK.
Before varnishing cardwork, it must receive two or three coats of
size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to the
design. The size may be made by dissolving a little isinglass in hot
water, or by boiling some parchment cuttings until dissolved. In
either case the solution must be strained through a piece of clean
muslin, and for very nice purposes, should be clarified with a little
70 VARNISHES.
■white of egg. A small clean brush, called by painters a sash tool, is
the best for applying the size, as well as the varnish. A light deli-
cate touch must be adopted, especially for the first coat, least the
ink or colors be started, or smothered.
SIZE, OR VARNISH, FOR PRINTERS, ETC.
Best pale glue and white curd soap, of each 4 ounces ; hot water 3
pints ; dissolve, then add powdered alum 2 ounces. Used to size
prints and pictures before coloring them.
VARNISH FOR BRICK WALLS.
A varnish made with one pound of sulphur boiled for half an hour
in an iron vessel is a perfect protection from damp to brick walls. It
should be applied with a brush, while warm.
MASTIC VARNISHES.
1. (Fine.) Very pale and picked gum mastic five pounds, glass
pounded as small as barley, and well washed and dried two and one-
half pounds, rectified turpentine two gallons ; put them into a clean
four gallon stone or tin bottle, bung down securely, and keep rolling
it backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter or any other
solid place for at least four hours ; when, if the gum is all dissolved,
the varnish may be decanted, strained through muslin into another
bottle, and allowed to settle. It should be kept for six or nine months
before use, as it thereby gets both tougher and clearer. 2. (Second
Quulity.) Mastic eight pounds, turpentine four gallons ; dissolve by
a gentle heat, and add pale turpentine varnish one-half gallon.
8. Gum mastic six ounces, oil of turpentine one quart ; dissolve.
Mastic varnish is used for pictures, &c. ; when good, it is tough,
hard, brilliant, and colorless. Should it get " chilled," one pound
of well-washed silicious sand should be made moderately hot, and
added to each gallon, which must then be well agitated for five min-
utes, and afterwards allowed to settle.
INDIA-RUBBER VARNISHES.
1. Cut up one pound of India rubber into small pieces and diffuse
in half a pound of sul]ihuvic ether, which is done by digesting in a
glass flask on a sand b;itli. Then add one pound pale linseed oil var-
nish, previously heated, and after settling, one jjound of oil of tur-
pentine, also heated beforehand. Filter, while yet warm, into bottles.
Dries slowly.
2! Two ounces India rubber finely divided and digested in the same
way, with a quarter of a pound of camphcnc, and lialf an ounce of
na]ilitlia or benzole. "When dissolved add one ounce of copal varnish,
which renders it more durable. Principally for gilding.
3. In a wide mouthed glass bottle, digest two ounces of India rub-
ber in fine shavings, with one pound of oil of turpontiiio, during two
days, without shaking, then stir up Avith a wooden spatula. Add
VARNISHES. 71
another pound of oil of turpentine, and digest, with frequent agitation,
until all is dissolved. Then mix a pound and a half of this solution
with two pounds of very white copal-oil varnish, and a pound and a
half of well boiled linseed oil, shake and digest in a sand bath, until
they have united into a good varnish. — For morocco leather.
4. Four ounces India rubber in fine shavings are dissolved in a
covered jar by means of a sand bath, in two pounds of crude benzole,
and then mixed with four pounds of hot linseed oil varnish, and a
half pound of oil of turpentine. Dries very well.
5. Flexible Varnish. — Melt one pound of rosin, and add gradually
half a pound of India rubber in very fine shavings, and stir until cold.
Then heat again, slowly, add one pound of linseed oil varnish, heated,
and filter.
6. Another. — Dissolve one pound of gum dammar, and a half
pound of India rubber, in very small pieces, in one pound of oil of
turpentine, by means of a water bath. Add one pound of hot oil
varnish and filter.
7. India rubber in small pieces, washed and dried, are fused for
three hours in a close vessel, on a gradually heated sand bath. On
removing from the sand bath, open the vessel and stir for ten minutes,
then close again, and repeat the fusion on the following day, until
small globules appear on the surface. Strain through a wire sieve.
8. Varnish for Waterproof Goods. — Let a quarter of a pound of
India rubber, in small pieces, soften in a half pound of oil of turpen-
tine, then add two pounds of boiled oil, and let the whole boil for two
hours over a slow coal fire. When dissolved, add again six pounds of
boiled linseed oil and one pound of litharge, and boil until an even
liquid is obtained. It is applied warm.
9. Gutta Percha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound of Gutta
Percha in wai-m water from adhering impurities, di'y well, dissolve in
one 'pound of rectified rosin oil, and add two pounds of linseed oil
varnish, boiling hot. Very suitable to prevent metals from oxidation.
BLACK VARNISH FOR HARNESS.
Digest shellac twelve parts, white turpentine five parts, gum
sandarach two parts, lampblack one part, with spirits of turpentine
four parts, alcohol ninety-six parts.
BOILED OIL OR LINSEED-OIL VARNISH.
Boil linseed oil sixty parts, with litharge two parts, and white
vitriol one part, each finely powdered, until all water is evaporated.
Then set by. Or, rub up borate of manganese four parts, with some
of the oil, then add linseed oil three thousand parts, and heat to
boiling.
DAMMAR VARNISH.
Gum dammar ten parts, gum sandarach five parts, gum mastie
one part, digest at a low heat, occasionally shaking, with spirits of
72 VARNISHES.
turpentine tirenty parts. Finally, add more spirits of turpentine
to give the consistence of syrup.
COMMON VARNISH.
Digest shellac one part, with alcohol seven or eight parts.
WATEEPROOF VARNISHES.
Take one pound of flowers of sulphur and one gallon of linseed oil,
and boil them together until they are thoroughly combined. This
forms a good varniyh for waterproof textile fabrics. Another is made
with four pounds oxyde of lead, twopounds of lampblack, five ounces
of sulphur, and ten pounds of India rubber dissolved in turpentine.
These substances, in such proportions, are boiled together until they
are thoroughly combined. Coloring mattei's maj' be mixed with them.
Twilled cotton may be rendered waterproof by the application of the
oil sulphur varnish. It should be applied at two or three different
times, and dried after each operation.
•
VARNISHES FOR BALLOONS, GAS BAGS, ETC.
1. India rubber in shavings one ounce ; mineral naphtha two lbs. ;
digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved, and strain. 2.
Digest one pound of Indian rubber, cut small, in six pounds oil of
turpentine for 7 days, in a warm place. Put the mixture in a water
bath, heat until thoroughly mixed, add one gallon of warm boiled
drying oil, mix, and strain when cold. 3. Linseed oil one gallon ;
dried white copperas and sugar of lead, each three ounces; litharge
eight ounces ; boil with constant agitation till it strings well, tlien
oool slowly and decant the clear. If too thick, thin it with quicker
drying linseed oil.
GOLD VARNISH.
Digest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach, mastic, of each three
parts, crocus one part, gum gamboge two parts, all bruised, with
alcohol one hundred forty-four parts. Or, digest seed-lac, sanda-
rach, mastic, of each eight parts, gamboge two parts, dragon's blood
one pai't, white turpentine six parts, turmeric four parts, bruised,
with alcohol one hundred twenty parts.
WAINSCOT VARNISH FOR H0D8E PAINTING AND JAPANNING.
Anime ciglit pounds ; clarified linseed oil three gallons ; litharge
one-fourth pound ; acetate of lead one-lialf pound ; sulphate of copper
onc-fouitli pcnuid.
All those materials must be carefully but thoroughly builed together
until the mixture becomes quite stringy, and then five and a half
gallons of heated turpentine stirred in. It can be easily deepened in
color by the addition of a little gold-size.
LACKERS. 73
L A C K E Tl S .
GOLD LACKEK.
Put into a clean four gallon tin, one pound of ground turmeric,
one and a half ounces of gamboge, three and a h.ilt pounds of pow-
dered gum sandarach, three quarters of a pound of shellac, and two
gallons of spirits of wine. When shaken, dissolved, and strained,
add one pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed.
KED SPIRIT LACKEK.
Male exactly as the gold lacker with these ingredients : two gal-
lons of spirits of wine, one pound of dragon's blood, three pounds of
Spanish annotto, three and a quarter pounds of gum sandarach, and
two pints of turpentine.
PALE BRASS LACKER.
Two gallons of spirits of wine, one pound of fine pale shellac,
three ounces of Cape aloes, cut small ; one ounce of gamboge, cut
small.
LACKER FOR TIN.
Any good lacker laid upon tin gives it the appearance of copper
or brass. It is made by coloring lac-varnish with turmeric to impart
the color of brass to it, and with annotto, to give it the color of cop-
per. If a tin plate is dipped into molten brass, the latter metal will
adhere to it in a coat.
LACKER VARNISn.
A good lacker is made by coloring lac-varnish with turmeric and
annotto. Add as much of these two coloring substances to the varnish
as will give it the proper color ; then squeeze the varnish through a
cotton cloth, when it forms lacker.
DEEP GOLD COLORED LACKER.
Seed-lac three ounces, turmeric one ounce, dragon's blood one-
fourth ounce, alcohol one pint ; digest for a week, frequently shaking,
decant and filter.
Ltickers are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the ap-
pearance of gold. If yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saffron,
or gamboge ; for red, use annotto, or dragon's blood, to color. Tur-
meric, gamboge, and dragon's blood, generally aflbrd a sufficient
range of colors.
LVCKERS FOR PICTURES, METAL, WOOD OR LEATHER.
1. Seed-lac eight ounces, alcohol one quart ; digest in a close vessel
in a warm situation for three or four days, then decant and strain.
2. Substitute lac bleached by chlorine for seed-lac. Both are very
tough, hard, and durable ; the last almost colorless.
7
74 MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS.
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS
AKMEMAN OR DIAMOND CEMENT.
This article, so much esteemed for uniting pieces of broken glass,
for repairing precious stones, and for cementing them to watch cases
and other ornaments, is made by soaking isinglass in water until it
becomes quite soft, and then mixing it with spirit in which a little
gum mastic and animoniacum have been dissolved.
The jewellers of Turkej', who are mostly Armenians, have a singular
method of ornamenting watch cases, &c., with diamonds and other
precious stones, by simply glueing or cementing them on. The stone
is set in silver or gold, and the lower part of the metal made flat, or
to correspond with the part to which it is to be fixed ; it is then
warmed gently, and has the glue applied, which is so very stnng
that the parts so cemented never separate ; this glue, which will
strongly unite bits of glass, and even polished steel, and may be ap-
plied to a variety of useful purposes, is thus made in Turkey : — Dis-
solve five or six bits of gum mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as
much spirits of wine as will suffice to render it liquid ; and in another
vessel, dissolve as much isinglass, previous!}' a little softened in water,
(though none of the water must be used,) in French brandy or gooil
rum, as will make a two-ounce vial of very strong glue, adding two
small bits of gum albanum, or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed
or ground till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a suffi-
cient heat. Keep the glue in a vial closely stopped, and when it is
to be used, set the vial in boiling water. Some persons have sold a
composition under the name of Armenian cement, in England ; but
this composition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the quantity
of mastic is much too small.
The following arc good proportions : isinglass, soaked in water and
dissolved in spirit, two ounces, (tiiick) ; dissolve in this ten grains of
very pale gum ammoniac, (in tears,) by rubbing them together ;
then add six large tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least jjossible
quantity of rectified spirit.
Isinglass, dissolved in proof spirit, as above, three ounces ; bottoms
of mastic varnish (thick but clear) one and a half ounces ; mix well.
When carefully made, this cement resists moisture, and dries col-
orless. As usually met with, it is not only of very bad quality, but
sold at exorbitant prices.
CEMENTS FOR MENDING EARTIIERN AND GLASS WARE.
1. Heat the article to be mended, a little above boiling water heat,
then apply a tiiin coating of gum shellac, on both surfaces of the
broken vessel, and when cold it will be as strong as it was originally.
2. Dissolve gum shellac in alc((iiol, apply the solution, and bind the
parts firmly together until the cement is perfectly dry.
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 75
CEMENT rOR STONEWARE.
Another cement in -which an analogous substance, the curd or ca-
seum of milk is employed, is made by boiling slices of skim-milk cheese
into a gluey consistence in a great ([Uantity of water, and then incor-
porating it with quicklime on a slab with a muller, or in a marble
mortar. AVhen this compound is applied warm to broken edges of
stoneware, it unites them very firmly after it is cold.
IRON-RCST CEMENT.
The iron-rust cement is made of from fifty to one hundred parts of
iron borings, pounded and sifted, mixed with one part of sal-ammo-
niac, and when it is to be applied moistened with as much water as
will give it a pasty consistency. Formerly flowers of sulphur were
used, and much more sal-ammoniac in making this cement, but with
decided disadvantage, as the union is effected by oxidizement, conse-
quent expansion and solidification of the iron powder, and any hetero-
geneous matter obstructs the efi:ect. The best proportion of sal-amino-
niac is, I believe, one per cent of the iron borings. Another compo-
sition of the same kind is made by mixing four parts of fine borings or
filings of iron, two parts of potter's clay, and one part of pounded
potsherds, and making them into a paste with salt and water. When
this cement is allowed to concrete slowly on iron joints, it becomes
very hard.
FOR M.UiING ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF.
For making architectural ornaments in relief, a moulding compo-
sition is formed of chalk, glue, and paper paste. Even statues have
been made with it, the paper aiding the cohesion of the mass.
Mastics of a resinous or bituminous nature, which must be softened
or fused by heat, are the following : —
varlet's mastic.
Mr. S. Varley's consists of sixteen parts of whiting sifted and thor-
oughly dried by a red heat, adding when cold a melted mixture of
sixteen parts of black rosin and one of bees'-wax, and stirring well
during the cooling.
electrical and chemical apparatus cement.
Electrical and chemical apparatus cement consists of 5 lbs. of rosin,
1 of bees'-wax, 1 of red ochre, and two table-spoonsful of Paris plas-
ter, all melted together. A cheaper one for cementing voltaic plates
into wooden ti'oughs is made with 6 pounds of rosin, 1 pound of red
ochre, 4 of a pound of plaster of Paris, and 5 of a pound of linseed
oil. The ochre and the plaster of Paris should be calcined beforehand,
and added to the other ingredients in their melted state. The thinner
the stratum of cement that is interposed, the stronger, generally speak-
ing, is the junction.
76 MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS.
CEMENT FOR IRON TUBES, BOILERS, ETC.
Finely powdereil iron sixty-six parts, sal-ammouiac one part, water
a sufficient quantity to form into paste.
CEMENT FOR IVORY, MOTHER OF PE-VRL, ETC.
Dissolve one part of isinglass and two of white glue in thirty of wa-
ter, strain and evaporate to six parts. Add one-thirtieth part of
gum mastic, dissolved in half a part of alcohol, and one part of
white zinc. When required for use, warm and shake up.
CEMENT FOR HOLES IN CASTINGS.
The best cement for this purpose is made by mixing one part of
sulphur in powder, two parts of sal-ammoniac, and eighty parts of
clean powdered iron turnings. Sufficient water must be added to
m;ikc it into a thick paste, which should be pressed into the holes or
seams which are to be filled up. The ingredients composing this ce-
ment should be kept separate, and not mixed until required for use.
It is to be applied cold, and the casting should not be used for two or
three days afterwards.
CEMENT FOR COPPERSMITHS AND ENGINEERS.
Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed together into a putty are often
used by coppersmiths and engineers, to secure joints. The washers of
leather or cloth are smeai-ed with this mixture in a pasty state.
A CHEAP CEMENT.
Melted brimstone, either alone, or mixed with rosin and brick dust,
forms a tolerably good and very cheap cement.
plumber's cement.
Plumber's cement consists of black rosin one part, brick dust two
parts, well incorporated by a melting heat.
CEMENT FOR BOTTLE-CORKS.
The bituminous or black cement for bottle-corks consists of pitch
hardened by the addition of I'osin and brick-dust.
CHINA CEMENT.
Take the curd of milk, dried and powdered, ten ounces ; quicklime
one ounce ; camphor two drachms. Mix, and keep in closely stopped
bottles. When used, a portion is to be mixed with a little water into
a paste, to be applied (juickly.
CEMENT FOR LEATHER.
A mixture of India-rubber and shell-lac varnish makes a very ad-
hesive leatlier cement. .\ strong solution of common isinghiss, with
a little diluted alcohol added to it, makes au excelleut cement for
leather.
MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 77
MARBLE CEMEXT.
Take plaster of paris, and soak it in a saturated solution of alum,
then bake the two in an oven, the same as gypsum is baked to make
it jjlaster of jsaris ; after which they are ground to powder. It is
then used as wanted, being mixed up with water like plaster and ap-
plied. It sets into a very hard composition capable of taking a very
high polish. It may be mixed with various coloring minerals to pro-
duce a cement of any color capable of imitating marble.
A GOOD CEJIEXT.
Shellac dissolved in alcohol, or in a solution of borax, forms a pretty
good cement.
CEMENT FOa MARBLE WORKERS AXD COPPERSMITHS.
White of egg alone, or mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will
answer for uniting objects which are not exposed to moisture. The
latter combination is very strong, and is much employed for joining
pieces of spar and marble ornaments. A similar composition is used
by coppersmiths to secure the edges and rivets of boilers ; only bul-
lock's blood is the albuminous matter used instead of white of egg.
TRANSPAREXT CEMENT FOR GLASS.
Dissolve one part of India-rubber in 64 of chloroform, then add
gum mastic in powder 16 to 24 parts, and digest for two days with
frequent shaking. Apply with a camels-hair brush.
CEMENT TO JIEND IRON POTS AND PANS.
Take two parts of sulphur, and one part, by weight, of fine black
lead ; put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the fire
until it begins to melt, then add the lead ; stir well until all is mixed
and melted ; then pour out on an iron plate, or smooth stone. When
cool, break into small pieces. A sufiicient quantity of this compound
being placed upon the crack of the iron pot to be mended, can be
soldered by a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith solders his sheets.
If there is a small hole in the pot, di'ive a copper rivet in it and then
solder over it with this cement.
« CEMENT TO RENDER CISTERNS AND CASKS WATER TIGHT.
An excellent cement for resisting moisture is made by incorporating
thoroughly eight parts of melted glue, of the consistence used by car-
penters, with four parts of linseed oil, boiled into varnish with lith-
arge. This cement hardens in about forty -eight hours, and renders
the joints of wooden cisterns and casks air and water tight. A com-
pound of glue with one-fourth its weight of Venice turpentine, made
as above, serves to cement glass, metal and wood, to one another
Fresh-made cheese curd, and old skim-milk cheese, boiled in water to
a slimy consistence, dissolved in a solution of bicarbonate of potash
7*
78 MISCELLA^'EOUS CEMEXTS.
are said to form a good cement for glass and porcelain. The gluten of
wheat, well prepared, is also a good cement. AVhite of eggs, with
flour and water well-mixed, and smeared over linen cloth, forms a
ready lute for steam joints in small apparatus.
CEMENT FOR REPAIRING FRACTURED BODIES OF ALL KINDS.
"White lead ground upon a slab with linseed oil varnish, and kept
out of contact of air, ati'ords a cement capable of repairing fractured
bodies of all kinds. It requires a few weeks to harden. When stone
or iron are to be cemented together, a compound of equal parts of sul-
phur with pitch answers very well.
CEMENTS FOR CRACKS IN WOOD.
Make a paste of slacked lime one part, rye-meal two parts, with a
sufScieut quantity of linseed oil. Or, dissolve one part of glue in six-
teen parts of water, and when almost cool stir in sawdust and pre-
pared chalk a sufficient quantity. Or, oil-varnisli thickened with a
mixture of equal parts of white-lead, red-lead, litharge, and chalk.
CEMENT FOR JOINING METALS AND WOOD.
Melt rosin and stir in calcined plaster until reduced to a paste,
to which add boiled oil a sufficient quantity, to bring it to the con-
sistence of honey ; apply warm. Or, melt rosin 180 parts, and stir
in burnt uuiber 30, calcined plaster 15, and boiled oil 8 parts.
o.AS fitters' cejient.
Mix together, resin four and one-half parts, wax one part, and
Venetian red three parts.
impervious CEMENT FOR APPARATUS, CORKS, ETC
Zinc-white rubbed up with copal varnish to fill up the indentures;
when dry, to be covered with the same mass, somewhat thinner, and
lastly with copal varnish alone.
CEMENT FOR FASTENING BRASS TO GLASS VESSELS.
Melt rosin l^O parts, wax •¥), and add burnt ochre 30, and cal-
cined plaster 2 parts. Api)ly warm.
CEMENT FOR FASTENING BLADES, FILES, ETC.
Shellac two parts, prepared chalk one, powdered and mixed. The
opening for the blade is filled with this powder, the lower end of the
iron heated and pressed in.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT PAINT.
If hydraulic cement be mixed with oil, it forms a first-rate anti-
combustible and cxcelleut water-proof paint for roofs of buildings,
outhouses, walls, &c.
builders' cements, 79
BUILDEPvS' CEMENTS.
CEJIENT FOR TERRACES, FLOORS, ROOFS, RESERVOIRS, ETC.
In certain localities whei-e a limestone impregnated with bitumen
occurs, it is dried, ground, sifted, and then mixed with about its own
weight of melted pitch, either mineral, vegetable, or that of cold tar.
When this mixture is getting semifluid, it may be moulded into large
slabs or tiles in wooden frames lined with sheet iron, previously
smeared over with common lime mortar, in order to prevent adhesion
to the moulds, which, being in moveable pieces, are easily dismounted
so as to turn out the cake of artificial bituminous stone. This cement
is manufactured upon a great scale in many places, and used for
making Italian terraces, covering the floors of balconies, flat roofs,
water reservoirs, water conduits, &c. When laid down, the joints
must be well run together with hot irons. The floor of the terrace
should be previously covered with a layer of Paris plaster or common
mortar, nearly an inch thick, with a regular slope of one inch to the
yard. Such bituminous cement weighs Hi pounds the cubic foot ; or
a foot of square surface, one inch thick, weighs 1'2 pounds. Some-
times a second layer of these slabs or tiles is applied over the first,
with the precaution of making the seams or joints of the upper corres-
pond with the middle of the under ones. Occasionally a bottom bed,
of coarse cloth or gray paper, is applied. The larger the slabs are
made, as far as they can be conveniently tsansported and laid down,
so much the better.
MASTIC CEMENT FOR COVERING THE FRONTS OF HOUSES.
Fifty parts, by measure, of clean dry sand, fifty of limestone (not
burned) reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and 10 parts of
red lead, mixed with as much boiled linseed oil, as will make it
slightly moist. The brick, to receive it, should be covered with three
coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry, before
the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, but it
is not so moist. It becomes hard as stone in a few months. Care
must be exercised not to use too much oil.
CEMENT FOR OUTSIDE BRICK WALLS.
Cement for the outside of brick walls, to imitate stone, is made of
clean sand 90 parts, litharge 5 parts, plaster of Paris 5 parts, moist-
ened with boiled linseed oil. The bricks should receive two or three
coats of oil before the cement is applied.
CEMENT FOR COATING THE FRONTS OF BUILDINGS.
The cement of dihl for coating the fronts of buildings consists of lin-
seed oil, rendered dry by boiling with litharge, and mixed with por-
celain clay in fine powder, to give it the consistence of stiff mortar.
80 builders' cements.
Pipe-clay would answer equally well if well dried, and any color might
be given with ground bricks, or pottery. A little oil of turpentine to
thin this cement aids its cohesion upon stone, brick or wood. It has
been .applied to sheets of wire cloth, and in this state laid upon ter-
races, in order to make them water tight ; but it is a little less ex-
pensive than lead.
CEMENT FOR STEPS AND BRICK WALLS.
A cement which gradually indurates to a stony consistence, may be
made by mixing twenty parts of clean river saLd, two of litharge, and
one of quicklime, into a thin putty with linseed oil. The quicklime
may be replaced with litharge. When this cement is applied to mend
broken pieces of stone, as steps of stairs, it acquires after some time a
stony hardness. A similar composition has been applied to coat over
brick walls, under the name of mastic.
A HARD CEMENT FOR SEAMS.
An excellent cement for seams in the roofs of houses, or for any
other exposed places, is made with white lead, dry white sand, and
as much oil as will make it into the consistency of putty. This cement
gets as hard as stone in a few weeks. It is a good cement for filling
up cracks in exposed parts of brick buildings ; .and for pointing up
the base of chimneys, where they project through the roofs of shingled
houses.
ANOTHER GOOD CEMENT.
Dissolve one pound of alum in boiling water, and while it is boiling
add five pounds of brown soap, cut into small pieces ; boil the mixture
about fifteen minutes. It then becomes sticky like shoemaker's wax.
Now mix it witli whiting to a proper consistency for filling up seams,
&c. It becomes partially hard after a few months, and strongly ad-
heres to wood. The wood should be perfectly dry. To make it ad-
here it must be well pressed down. When dry it is impervious to
■water, and is slightly elastic.
CEMENT FOR TILE-ROOFS,
The best cement for closing up seams in tile-roofs is composed of
equal parts of whiting and dry sand and 25 per cent of litharge, made
into tlie consistcncyof putty with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack
when cold, nor melt, like coal-tar and asphalt, .with the heat of the
8un.
COARSE STUFF.
Coarse stuff, or lime and hair, as it is sometimes called, is pre-
pared in tiie same way as common mortar, witii the addition of hair
procured from the tanner, which nuist be well mixed with tiic mortar
by means of a three-pronged rake, until tlic hair is equally distribu-
teil throughout the composition. Tiie mortar sliould be first formed,
and wlien the lime and sand have been thoroughly mixed, tlie liair
bIioiiM lie ailded by degrees, and the wiiole so thoroughly united, that
the hair shall appear to be equally distributed througiiout.
builders' cements. 81
PARKER'S CEJIENT.
This cement, -wliich is perhaps the best of all others for stucco, as
it is not subject to crack or flake off, is now very commonly used,
and is formed by burning argillaceous clay in the same manner that
lime is made. It is then reduced to powder. The cement, as used
by the plasterer, is sometimes employed alone, and sometimes it is
mixed with sharp sand ; and it has then the appearance, and almost
the strength, of stone. As it is impervious to water, it is very
proper for lining tanks and cisterns.
hajielein's cejiext.
This cement consists of earthy and other substances insoluble in
■water, or nearly so ; and these may be either those which are in
their natural state, or have bean manufactured, such as earthen-
ware and china ; those being always preferred which are least
soluble in water, and have the least color. When these are pul-
verized, some oxide of lead is added, such as litharge, gray oxide,
or minium, reduced to a fine powder ; and to the compound is
added a quantity of pulverized glass or flint stones, the whole
being thoroughly mixed and made into a proper consistence with
some vegetable oil, as that of linseed. This makes a durable stucco
or plaster, that is impervious to wet, and has the appearance of
stone.
The proportion of the several ingredients is as follows : — to every
five hundred and sixty pounds of earth, or earths, such as pit sand,
river sand, rock sand, pulverized earthenware or porcelain, add
forty pounds of litharge, two pounds of pulverized glass or flint,
one pound of minium, and two pounds of gray oxide of lead. Mix
the whole together, and sift it through sieves of difierent degrees
of fineness, according to the purposes to which the cement is to be
applied.
The following is the method of using it : — To every thirty pounds
weight of the cement in powder, add about one quart of oil, either
linseed, walnut, or some other vegetable oil, and mix it in the same
manner as any other mortar, pressing it gently together, either by
treading on it, or with the trowel ; it has then the appearance of
moistened sand. Care must also be taken that no more is mixed at
one time than is required for use, as it soon hardens into a solid
mass. Before the cement is applied, the face of the wall to be plas-
tered should be brushed over with oil, particularly if it be applied
to brick, or any other substance that quickly imbibes the oil ; if to
wood, lead, or any substance of a similar nature, less oil may be
used.
PLASTER IN IMITATION OF MARBLE — SCAGLIOLA.
This species of work is exquisitely beautiful when done with taste
and judgment, and is so like marble to the touch, as well as appear-
ance, that it is scarcely possible to distinguish the one from the
other. We shall endeavor to explain its composition, and the man-
82 builders' cements.
ner in ■which it is applied ; but so much depemls upon the workman's
execution, tliat it is impossible for any one to succeed in an attempt
to work with it without some practical experience.
Procure some of the purest gypsum, and calcine it until the large
masses have lost the brilliant, sparkling appearance by which tliey
are characterized, and the wliole mass appears uniformly opaque.
This calcined gypsum is reduced to powder, and passed through a
very fine sieve, and mixed up, as it is wanted for use, with glue,
isinglass, or some other material of the same kind. This solu-
tion is colored witli the tint required for the scagliola ; but when a
marble of various colors is to be imitated, the several colored compo-
sitions required by the artist must be placed in separate vessels, and
they are then mingled together in nearly the same manner that the
painter mixes his color on the pallet. Having the wall or column
prepared with rough plaster, it is covered with the composition, and
the colors intended to imitate the marble, of whatever kind it may
be, are applied when the floating is going on.
It now only remains to polish the work, which, as soon as the com-
position is hard enough, is done by rubbing it witli pumice-stone, the
woi'k being kept wet witli water applied by a sponge. It is then
polished with Tripoli and charcoal, with a piece of fine linen, and
finished with a piece of felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and Tripoli,
and afterwards with pure oil.
MALTHA, OR GREEK MASTIC.
This is made by mixing lime and sand in the manner of mortar,
and making it into a proper consistency Avith milk or size, instead of
water.
FINE STUFF.
Tliis is made by slaking lime with a small portion of water, after
•which so much water is added as to give it the consistence of cream.
It is tlien allowed to settle for some time, and the superfluous water
is poured off, and the sediment is suffered to remain till evaporation
reduces it to a proper tliickncss for use. For some kinds of work, it
is necessary to add a small portion of hair.
STUCCO FOR INSIDE OF WALLS.
This stucco consists of fine stuff already described, and a portion
of fine waslied sand, in the pi-oportion of one of sand to tlirec of fine
stuff. Those parts of interior Avails are finished with this stucco
which are intemled to be painted. In using this material, great care
must be taken that the surface I)e pei'fectly level, an<l to secure this
it must be well Avorke<l with a floating tool or wooden trowel. This
is flone by sjirinkling a little water occasionally on the stucco, and
I'ubhiiig it in a circular direction with the float, till the surface lias
attained a high gloss. Tlie durability of the work very much de-
pends uiion the care Avitli Avliich this process is done ; for if it be not
thoroughly worked, it is apt to crack.
BUILDERS CEMENT.
HIGGINS' STUCCO.
83
To fifteen pounds of the best stone lime, add fourteen pounds of
bone ashes, finely powdered, and about ninety-five pounds of clean,
■washed sand, quite dry, either coarse or fine, according to tlie
nature of the work in hand. These ingredients must be intimately
mixed, and kept from the air till wanted. When required for use,
it must be mixed up into a proper consistence for working with
lime water, and used as speedily as possible.
GAUGE STUFF.
This is chiefly used for mouldings and cornices which are run or
formed with a wooden mould. It consists of about one-fifth of plas-
ter of Paris, mixed gradually with four-fifths of fine stufi". When
the work is required to set very expeditiously, the proportion of
plaster of Paris is increased. It is often necessary that the_ plaster
to be used should have the property of setting immediately it is laid
on, and in all such cases gauge stutf is used, and consequently it is
extensively employed for cementing ornaments to walls or ceilings,
as well as for casting the ornaments themselves.
COMPOSITION.
This is frequently used , instead of plaster of Paris, for the orna-
mental parts of buildings, as it is more durable, and becomes in time
as hard as stone itself. It is of great use in the execution of the
decorative parts of architecture, and also in the finishings of picture
frames, being a cheaper method than carving by nearly eighty per
cent.
It is made as follows : — Two pounds of the best whitening, one
pound of glue, and half a pound of linseed oil are heated together,
the composition being continually stirred until the different substan-
ces are thoroughly incorporated. Let the compound cool, and then
lay it on a stone covei'ed with powdered whitening, and heat it well
until it becomes of a tough and firm consistence. It may then be
put by for use, covered with wet cloths to keep it fresli. When
wanted for use, it must be cut into pieces, adapted to the size of the
mould, into which it is forced by a screw press. The ornament,
or cornice, is fixed to the frame or wall with glue or with white
lead.
FOUNDATIOXS OF BUILDINGS.
The nature and condition of the soil upon which houses are to be
built should receive far more attention than is usually bestowed upon
such subjects. A soil which is spongy and damp, or contains much
loose organic matter, is generally unhealthy ; whereas a dry, porus
soil afl:brds a healthy site for buildings. Wherever we find a soil de-
ficient in gravel or sand, or where gravel and sand-beds are underlaid
with clay, there should be a thorough sub-soil drainage, because the
clay retains the water, and a house built in such a spot would other-
wise always be damp and unhealthy.
84 BUILDERS CEMENTS.
When the sub-soil is swampy, which is the case with many portiong
of various cities that have been filleil in with what is called iiuide
earth, fever is liable to prevail in houses built in such localities,
owina to the decay of organic matter underneath, and its ascension
in the form of gas through the soil. When good drainage cannot be
effected in such situations, and it is found necessary to build houses
on tliem, they should all have solid floors of concrete, laid from the
outside of the foundations and covering tlie whole area over which
the structure is erected. These tloors tend to prevent dampness in
houses, consequently they are more comfortable and healthy than
they otherwise would be. Such floors also tend to prevent the crack-
ing of the walls, owing to the solidity and firmness imparted to their
foundations.
CONCRETE FLOORS.
The lower floors of all the cellars of houses should be composed of a
bed of concrete about three inches thick. This would tend to render
them dry, and more healtiiy, and at the same time prevent rats from
burrowing under the walls from the outside, and coming up under
the floor— the method pursued by these vermin where houses are
erected on a sandy soil. This concrete should be made of washed
gravel and hyilraulic cement. Common mortar mixed with pounded
brick and washed gravel, makes a concrete for floors nearly as good
as that formed with hydraulic cement. Such floors l)ecome very hard,
and are much cheaper than those of brick or flagstones.
FIUE-PROOF COMrOSITION TO RESIST FIRE FOR FIVE HOURS.
Dissolve, in cold water, as much pearlash as it is capable of holding
in solution, and wash or daub with it all tlie boards, wainscoting,
timber, &c. Then diluting the same li(iuid with a little water, add to
it such a portion of fine yellow clay as will make the mixture tlie same
consistence as common paint ; stir in a small quantity of paperhang-
er's flour paste to combine both the other substances. Give three
coats of this mixture. When dry, apply the following mixture:—
Tut into a pot C(iU!il quantities of finely pulverized iron filings, brick
dust, and ashes : pour over them size or glue water ; set the whole
neai-'a fire, and \\heu warm stir them well together. With this liquid
composition, or size, give tlie wood one coat ; and on its getting dry,
give it a second coat. It resists fire for five hours, and prevents the
wood from ever bursting into flames. It resists the ravages of fire,
so as only to he reduced to coal or embers, without spreading the con-
flagration by additional flames ; by which five clear hours are gained
inT-emoving valuable effects to a place of safety, as well as rescuing
the lives ot"all the family from danger ! Furniture, chairs, tables,
&c., particularly staircases, may be so protected. Twenty pounds of
finely sifted yellow clay, a pound and a half of flour for making the
paste, and one pound of pearlash, arc suflicient to prepare a square
rood of deal-boards.
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 85
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS.
TO POLISH WAINSCOT AND MAHOGANY.
A very good polish for wainscot may be made in the following
manner : Take as much beeswax as required, and, placing it in a
glazed earthen pan, add as much spirits of wine as will cover it, and
let it dissolve without heat. Add either one ingredient as is required,
to reduce it to the consistence of butter. When this mixtui'e is well
rubbed into the grain of the Avood, and cleaned off with clean linen,
it gives a good gloss to the work.
IMITATION OF MAHOGANY.
Plane the surface smooth, and rub with a solution of nitrous acid.
Then apply with a soft brush one ounce of dragon's blood, dissolved
in about a pint of alcohol, and with a third of an ounce of carbonate of
soda, mixed and filtered. When the brilliancy of the polish dimin-
ishes, it may be restored by the use of a little cold drawn linseed oil.
FURNITURE VARNISH.
White wax six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint ; dissolve by a
gentle heat. Used to polish wood by friction.
TO MAKE GLASS PAPER.
Take any quantity of broken glass (that with a greenish hue ia
the best), and pound it in an iron mortar. Then take severel sheets
of paper, and cover them evenly with a thin coat of glue, and, hold-
ing them to the fire, or placing them upon a hot piece of wood or
plate of iron, sift the pounded glass over them. Let the several
sheets remain till the glue is set, and shake off" the superfluous pow-
der, which will do again. Then hang up the papers to dry and
hai'den. Paper made in this manner is much superior to that gene-
rally purchased at the shops, which chiefly consists of fine sand. To
obtain different degrees of fineness, sieves of different degrees of fine-
ness must be used. Use thick paper.
TO MAKE STONE PAPEH.
As, in cleaning wood-work, particularly deal and other soft
woods, one process is sometimes found to answer better than another,
we may describe the manner of manufacturing a stone paper, which,
in some cases, will be preferred to sand paper, as it produces a good
face, and is less liable to scratch the work. Having prepared the
paper as already described, take any quantity of powdered pumice-
stone, and sift it over the paper through a sieve of moderate fineness.
When the surface has hardened, repeat the pi-ocess till a tolerably
thick coat has been formed upon the paper, which, when dry, will
be fit for use.
8
86 MISCKLLANEOirS KECEIPTS.
WHITEWASH.
The best method of making a -whitewash for outside exposure is to
slack half a bushel of lime iu a barrel, add one pound of common
salt, half a pound of the sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet milk.
PAIST FOR COATING WIRE WORK.
Boil good linseed oil with as much litharge as will make it of the
consistency to be laid on witli the brush ; add lampblack at the rate
of one pai't to every ten, by weight of the litharge ; boil tliree hours
over a gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner than the follow-
ing coats.
TO BLEACH SPONGE.
Soak it well in dilute muriatic acid for twelve hours. "Wash well
with water, to remove the lime, then immerse it in a solution of hypo-
sulphite of soda, to which dilute muriatic acid has been added a mo-
ment before. After it is bleached sufficiently remove it, wash again,
and dry it. It may thus be bleached almost snow white.
LAC VARNISH FOR VINES.
Grape vines may be pruned at any period without danger from
loss of bleeding, by simply covering the cut parts with varnish made
by dissolving stick-lac in alcohol. The lac varnish scon dries, and
forms an impenetrable coat to rain ; it may also be applied with ad-
vantage in coating the wounds of young trees.
RAZOR PASTE.
1. Levigated oxide of tin (prepared putty powder) 1 oz. ; pow-
dered oxalic acid 1-4 oz. ; powdered gum 20 grs. ; make it into a
stiff paste with water, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop.
With vei-y little friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and
its efficiency is still further increased by moistening it.
2. Emery reduced to an impalpable powder 2 parts ; spermaceti
ointment 1 i)art ; mix together, and rub it over the strop.
3. Jewellers' rouge, blucklcad, and suet, equal parts ; mix.
LEATHER VARNISH,
Durable leather varnish is composed of boiled linseed oil, in which
a drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. It is colored with lamp-
black. This varnish is used for making enamelled leather. Common
leather varnish, which is used as a substitute for blacking, is made
of thin lac-varnish colored with ivory black.
TO KEEP TIRES TIGHT ON WHEELS.
Before putting on the tires fill the felloes with linseed oil, which ia
done by lieating the oil in a trough to a boiling heat, and keejting
the wiieel, with a stick through the hub, in the oil, f»ir an hour Tlie
wheel is turned round until every felloe is kept in the oil one hour.
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 87
CUTTIXG GLASS.
To cut bottles, shades, or other ghiss vessels neatly, heat a rofl of
iron to redness, and having filled your vessel the exact height you
wish it to he cut, with oil of any kind, you proceed very gradually to
dip the red hot iron into the oil, which, heating all along the surface,
su<ldenly the glass chips and cracks right round, when you can lift
off the upper portion clean by the surface of the oil.
PREPAKED LIQUID GLUE.
Take of best white glue 16 ounces ; white lead, dry, 4 ounces ;
rain water 2 pints ; alcohol 4 ounces. With constant stirring dis-
solve the glue and leail in the water by means of a water-bath. Add
the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly pour
into bottles while it is still hot,
LIQUID GLUES.
Dissolve 33 parts of best (Buffalo) glue on the steam bath in a
porcelain vessel, in 36 parts of water. Then atld gradually, stirring
constantly, 3 parts of aqua fortis, or as much as is sufficient to pre-
vent the glue from hardening when cool. Or, dissolve one part of
powdered alum in 120 of water, add 120 parts of glue, 10 of acetic
acid and 40 of alcohol, and digest.
JIAEINE GLUE.
Dissolve 4 parts of India rubber in 34 parts of coal tar naphtha —
aiding the solution with heat and agitation, add to it 64 jiarts of
powdered shellac, which must be heated in the mixture, till the
whole is dissolved. While the mixture is hot it is jDOured upon metal
plates in sheets like leather. When required for use, it is heated in
a pot, till soft, and then applied with a brush to the surfaces to be
joined. Two pieces of wood joined with this glue can scarcely be
sundered.
AN EXCELLENT PASTE FOP., ENVELOPES.
Mix in equal quantities gum-arabic (substitute dextrine) and
water in a phial, place it near a stove, or on a furnace register, and
stir or shake it well, until it dissolves. Add a little alcohol to pre-
vent its souring.
DEXTRIN-E, OR BRITISH GUM.
Dry potato-starch heated from 300° to 600° until it becomes brown,
soluble in cold water, and ceases to turn blue with iodine. Used by
calico printers and others, instead of gum arable.
GUM MUCILAGE.
A little oil of cloves poured into a bottle containing gum mucilage
prevents the latter from becoming sour and putrid ; this essential oil
possesses great antiseptic powers.
88 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS.
FLOUR PASTE.
Too numerous to mention are the little conveniences of having a
little flour paste always at hand, as those made of any of the gums
impart a glaze to printed matter, and make it rather difficult to read.
Dissolve a tablespoonful of alum in a quart of warm water, and when
cold, stir in as much flour as will give it the cousistencj' of tliick
cream, being particular to beat up all the lumps, then stir in as
much powdered resin as will stand on a dime, then throw in half a
dozen cloves, merely to give a pleasant odor. Next, liave a vessel on
the fire which has a teacupful or moi-e of boiling water, pour the
flour mixture on the boiling water, stir it well all the time ; in a very
few minutes it will be of the consistence of mush ; pour it out in an
earthen or china vessel ; letj it cool ; lay a cover on it, and put it
in a cool place. It will keep for months. When needed for use, take
out a portion and soften it with warm water. Keep it covered an
inch or two in water to prevent the surface from drying up.
SEALING-WAX FOR FRVIT-CANS.
Beeswax, ^ oz. ; English Vermillion, \h ozs. ; gum shellac, 2-| ozs. ;
rosin, 8 ozs. Take some cheap iron vessel that you can always keep
for the purpose, and put in the rosin and melt it, and stir in the ver-
million. Then add the shellac, slowly, and stir that in, and afterward
tlie beeswax. When wanted for use at any after time, set it upon a
Blow fire and melt it so you can dip bottle-nozzles in. For any imr-
posc, such as an application to trees, wliere 3'ou want it touglicr tlian
the above preparation will make it, add a little more beeswax, and
leave out the vermillion.
If the vermillion is left out in the above, the wax will be all the
better for it, as it is merely used for coloring purposes.
FUSIBLE METAL.
1. Bismuth 8 parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 3 parts ; melt together,
Melts below 212 degrees Falir. 2. Bismuth 2 parts ; lead T) parts ;
tin 3 parts. Melts in boiling water. 3. Lead 3 parts; tin 2 parts;
bismutli .'j parts ; mix. Melts at 197 dog. Fahr.
Remarks. Tlic above are used to make toy-spoons, to surprise
chiklren by their melting in hot liquors ; and to form pencils for
writing on asses' skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt harts-
horn into it.
METALLIC CEMENT.
M. fJrpshiem states tliat an alloy of copjier and mcrciiry, prepared
as follows, is capable of attacliing itself firmly to tlie surfaces of
metal, glass, and porcelain. From twenty to thirty parts of finely
divided copper, obtaincl by the reduction of oxide of copper with
hydrogen, or by precipitation fi-om solution of its sulphate with
zinc, are made into a paste with oil of vitrol and seventy parts of
mercury added, the whole being well triturated. When the amal-
gamation is complete, the acid is removed by washing with boiling
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 89
water, and the compound allowed to cool. In ten or twelve hours,
it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a brilliant polish, and to
scratch the surface of tin or gold. By heat it assumes the consis-
tence of wax ; and, as it does not contract on cooling, M. Greshiem
recommends its use by dentists for stopping teeth.
AKTIFICIAL GOLD.
This is a new metallic alloy which is now very extensively used in
France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper 100 parts, zinc, or
preferably tin 17 parts, magnesia 6 parts, sal ammoniac 3-6 parts,
quick lime 1-8 parts, tartar of commerce 9 parts, are mixed as fol-
lows : The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal ammoniac,
lime, and tartar, are then added, separately and by degrees, in the
form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about half an
hour, so as to mix thoroughly ; and then the zinc is added in small
grains by throwing it on the surface and stirring till it is entirely
fused ; the crucible is then covered and the fusion maintained for
about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed and the alloy is
ready for castnig.
It has a fine grain, is malleable and takes a splendid polish. It
does not corrode readily, and for many purposes is an excellent sub-
stitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored by
a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc the alloy
will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, and must
ultimately attain equal popularity here.
OK-MOLU.
The or-molu of the brass founder, popularly known as an imitation
of red gold, is extensively used by the French workmen in metals.
It is generally found in combination with grate and stove work. It
is composed of a greater portion of copper and less zinc than ordi-
nary brass, is cleaned readily by means of acid, and is burnished with
facility. To give this material the rich appearance, it is not unfre-
quently brightened up after " dipping " (that is cleaning in acid) by
means of a scratch brush (a brush made of fine brass wire), the
action of which helps to produce a very brilliant gold-like surface.
It is protected from tarnish by the application of lacker.
BLANCHED COPPER.
Fuse 8 ounces of copper and ^ ounce of neutral arsenical salt, with
a flux made of calcined borax, charcoal dust and powdered glass.
BROWNING GUN BARRELS.
The tincture of iodine diluted with one-half its bulk of water, is a
superior liquid for browning gun barrels.
SILVERING POWDER FOR COATING COPPER.
Nitrate of silver 30 grains, common salt 30 grains , cream of tar-
ar 3i drachms ; mix, moisten with water, and apply.
8*
90 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS.
ALLOY FOR JOURNAL BOXES,
The best alloy for journal boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin,
24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the
tin, and lastly the antimony. It should be first run into ingots, then
melted and cast in the form required for the boxes.
ALLOY FOR BELLS OF CLOCKS.
The bells of the pendulcs, or ornamental clocks, made in Paris, are
composed of copper 72.00, tin 2G.56, iron 1.44, in 100 parts.
AN ALLOY FOR TOOLS.
An alloy of 1000 parts of copper and 14 of tin is said to furnish
tools, -which hardened and sharpened in the manner of the ancients,
aflbrd an edge nearly e(|ual to that of steel.
ALLOY FOR CYMBALS AND GONGS,
An alloy for cymbals and gongs is made of 100 parts of copper with
about 2-5 of tin. To give this compound the sonorous property in
the highest degree, the piece should be ignited after it is cast, and
then plunged immediately into cold water.
SOLDER FOR STEEL JOINTS.
Silver 10 pennyweights, copper 1 pennyweight, brass 2 penny-
weights. Melt under a coat of charcoal dust.
SOFT GOLD SOLDER.
Is composed of four parts gold, one of silver, and one of copper.
It can be made softer by adding brass, but the solder becomes more
liable to oxidize.
FILES.
Allow dull files to lay in diluted sulphuric acid until they are bit
deep enough.
TO PREVENT RUSTING.
Boiled linseed oil will keep polished tools fi-om rusting if it is
allowed to dry on them. Common sperm oil will ])revent them from
rusting for a sliort period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently
applied to polished tools exposed to the wcatlier.
ANTI-ATTRITION, AND AXLE-GREASE,
One part of fine black lead, ground perfectly smooth, with four
parts of lard.
TO GALVANIZE,
Take a solution of nitro-muriate of gold (gold dissolved in a mix-
ture of aquafortis an<l muriatic aciil) and add to a gill of it a pint
of etiier or aluoliol, tlien inuiiersc your copper cliain in it for about
15 minutes, when it will lie coated with a film of gold. Tlie copper
must Ije perfectly cleau and free from o.xyd, grease, or dirt, or it will
Dot take ou the gold.
BRASS, BRONZE, BELL AND BRITANNIA METAL. 91
RAPwE AND VALUABLE COMPOSITIONS.
Receipts for the use of Mechanists, Iron and Brass Founders,
Tinmen, Coppersmiths, Turners, Dentists, Finishers oj Brass,
Britannia, and German Silver, and Jor other useful and im-
portant purposes in the Practical Arts.
The larger number of the following Receipts are the result of
inquiries and experiments by a practical operative. Most of those
which relate to the mixing of metals and to the finishing ol manufac-
tured articles, have been thoroughly tested by him, and will be found
to produce the results desired and expected. The others have beeo
collected from eminent scientific works.
No. 1. Yellow Brass, /or Turmrao-. — (Common article. J— Copper,
20 lbs.; Zinc, 10 lbs.; Lead from 1 to 5 ozs.
Put in the Lead last before pouring off.
JMo. 2. Red Brass, /or Turning. — Copper, 24 lbs.5 Zinc, 5 lbs.;
Lead, 8 ozs.
Put in the Lead last before pouring off.
No. 3. Red Brass, free, for Turning. — Copper, 160 lbs.; Zinc, 60
lbs.; Lead, 10 lbs.; Antimony, 44 ozs.
No. 4. Another Brass, for Twning. — Copper, 32 lbs. ; Zinc, 10
lbs.; Lead, 1 lb.
No. 3. Best Red Brass, for Fine Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. j
Zinc, 5 lbs.; Bismuth, 1 oz.
Put in the Bismuth last before pouring off.
No. 6. Bronze Metal. — Copper, 7 lbs.; Zinc, 3 lbs.; Tin, 2 lbs.
No. 7. Bronze Metal. — Copper, 1 lb.; Zinc, 12 lbs.; Tin, 8 lbs.
No. 8. Bell 3Ietal, /or large Bells. — Copper, 100 lbs.; Tin, from
20 to 25 lbs.
No. 9. Bell Metal, /or small Bells. — Copper, 3 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb.
No. 10. Cock Metal.— Copper, 20 lbs.; Lead, 8 lbs.; Litharge, 1 oz.;
Antimony, 3 ozs.
No. 11. Hardening for Britannia. — (To be mixed separately
from the other ingredients ) — Copper, 2 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb.
No. 12. Good Britannia Metal. — Tin, 150 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs.;
Antimony, 10 lbs.
No. 13. Britannia Metal, 2d quality.— Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs.;
Antimony, 9 lbs.
No. 14. Britannia Metal, for Casting. — Tin, 210 lbs.; Copper,
4 lbs.; Antimony, 12 lbs.
No. 15. Britannia Metal, /or Spinning. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia
Hardening, 4 lbs.; Antimony, 4 lbs.
No. IG. Britannia Metal, /or 22eofts<crs. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Harden-
ing, 8 lbs.; Antimony, 8 lbs.
No. 17. Bfst Britannia, /or Spouts.— Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs;
Antimony, 6 lbs.
No. 18. Best Britannia, /or Spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Hardening,
6 lbs.; Antimony, 10 lbs.
92 GERMAN SILVER, TOMBAC, TUTANIA, AND SOLDERS.
No. 19. Best Bhitannia, for Handles. — Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 2
lbs.; Antimony, 5 lbs.
No. 20. Best Rrit.\nnia, /or Lamps, Pillars, and Siwuts. — Tin,
300 lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Anlimonj', 15 lbs.
]\o.21. Casting — Tin, 100 lbs; Hardening-, 5 lbs.; Antimony, 6 lbs.
No. 22. Lining Metal, for Boxes of Railroad Cars. - Mix Tin, 24
lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Antimony, 8 lbs. (for a hardening); then add 'J'in, 72 lbs.
No. 23. "Fine Silver Coloked Metal. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Antimony,
8 lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Bismuth, 1 lb.
No. 24. Of.kman Silver, First Quality for Casting. — Copper, 50
lbs.; Zinc, 25 lbs.; Nickel, 25 lbs.
No. 25. German Sii.vf.r, Second Qualify for Casting. — Copper, 50
lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; Nickel, (best pulverized,) 10 lbs.
No. 2n. German Sii.VER, for Rdling. — Copper, 60 lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.:
Nickel, 25 lbs.
No. 27. German Silver, ybr Bells and other Castings. — Copper,
60 lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs. ; Nickel, 20 lbs.; Lead, 3 lbs.; Iron, (ihait of tin plate
being best,) 2 lbs.
No. 28 Imitation of Silver. — Tin, 3 ozs.; Copper, 4 lbs.
No. 29. Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 lbs.; Zinc, 1 lb.
No. 30. Tombac. — Copper, 16 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb.; Zinc, 1 lb.
No. 31. Red Tombac — Copper, 10 lbs.; Zinc, 1 lb.
No 32. Hard White Metal. — Sheet Brass, 32 ozs.; Lead,2ozs.j
Tin, 2 ozs.; Zinc, 1 oz.
No. .33. iMetal for Taking Impressions. — Lead, 3 lbs.; Tin, 2
lbs.; Bismuth, 5 lbs.
No. .34. Spanish Totania. — Iron or Steel, 8 ozs.; Antimony, IG ozs.)
Nitre 3 ozs.
Melt and harden 8 ozs. Tin with 1 oz. of the above compound.
No. 35. Another Tutania. — Antimony, 4 ozs.; Arsenic, I oz.; Tin,
2 lbs.
No. 5G. Gun Metal.— Bri.stol Brass, 112 lbs.; Zinc, 14 lbs.; Tin,7 lbs.
No. 37. Rivet Metal. — Copper, 32 ozs.; Tin, 2 ozs.; Zinc, 1 oz.
No. 38. Rivet Metal, /or JTose. — T'm, 64 lbs.; Copper, 1 lb.
No. .39. Fusible Alloy, (which melts in boiling tvalcr.) — Bismuth,
6 ozs.; Tin, 3 ozs.; Lead, 5 ozs.
No. '10. Fusible Alloy, /o?- Silvej-ing Glass. — Tin, 6 ozs.; Lead,
10 ozs.; Bismulh, 21 ozs ; Mercury, a small quantity.
No. 41. Solder, /or Gold. — Gold, Gpwts.; Silver, 1 pwt.; Copper, 2
pwts.
No 42. SoLDER,/or Silrer.— (For thense cfJewrller.s) — Fine Silver,
19 pwls ; Copper, 1 pwt.; Sheet Brass, 10 pwts.
No. 43 White SoLDKR,/or Silver. — Silver, I oz ; Tin, 1 oz.
No. 14. White Solder. /or raised Britannia Ware. — Tin, 100 lbs.,
Copper. 3 ozs.; to make it free, add Lead, 3 ozs.
No '15. Best Soft Solvkr, for Cast Britannia Ware. — Tin, 8 lbs.;
Lead, 5 lbs.
No. 46. Yellow Solder, for Brass or Copper. — Copper, 1 lb.;
Zinc, 1 II).
GOLD, SILVER & COPPER SOLDERS, & DIPPING ACIDS. 93
No. 47. Yellow Solder, ybr Brass or Copper. — (Slronger than
the last.) — Copper, 32 lbs.; Zinc, 29 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb.
No. 48. SoLUER, /or Copper. — Copper, 10 lbs.; Zinc, 9 Ibsi
No. 49. Black Solder. — Copper, 2 lbs.; Zinc, 3 lbs ; Tin, 2 ozb.
No. 50. Black Solder. — Sheet Brass, 20 lbs.; Tin, 6 lbs.; Zinc, 1 lb.
No. 51. Soft Solder. — Tin, 15 lbs.; Lead, 15 lbs.
No. 52. Silver Solder, /or Plated Metal. — Fine Silver, 1 oz.j
Brass, 10 pwts.
No. 5.3. Yellow Dipping Metal. — Copper, 32 Ibs.j Zinc, 2 Ibs.j
SoftSolder,2| ozs.
No. 54. Quick Bright Dipping Acm, for Brass ivJiich has been
crmoloud. — Sulphuric Acid, 1 gall.; Nitric Acid, 1 gall.
No. 55. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric Acid, 12 lbs.; Nitric Acid, 1 pint j
Nitre, 4 lbs.; Snot, 2 handfuls ; Brimstone, 2 ozs.
Piilveri.!e the Brimstone and soak it in water an Iiour. Add the Nitric Acid last.
No. 56. Good Dipping AciO, for Cast Brass. — Sulphuric Acid,
1 qt., Nitre, 1 qt.; Water, 1 qt.
A little Muriatic Acid may be added or omitted.
No. 57. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric Acid, 4 galls.; Nitric Acid, 2 galls.;
Saturated solution of Sulphate of Iron (Copperas), 1 pint; Solution of
Sulphate of Copper, 1 qt.
No. 58. Ormold Dipping Acid, for Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric Acid,
2 galls ; Nitric Acid, 1 pt.; Muriatic Acid, 1 pt.; Water, 1 pt.; Nitre, 12 lbs.
Put in the Muriatic Acid last, a Utile at a time and stir the mixture witli a stick.
No. 59. Okmolu Dipping Acid, yb?- Sheet or Cast Brass. — Sulphu-
ric Acid, I gall ; Sal Ammoniac, 1 oz.; Sulphur, (in flour.) I oz.; Blue Vitriol,
1 oz.; Saturated Solution of Zinc in Nitric Acid; mi.xed with eui equal
qaantity of Sulphuric Acid, 1 gall.
No. 60. To Prepare Brass 'Work for Ormolu Dipping. — If
the work is ciily, boil it in lye; and if it is finished work, filed or turned, dip
it in old acid, and it is then ready to be ormcloed ; but if it is luifinished,
and free from oil, pickle it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid,
and then in the old acid, after which it will be ready for ormeloing.
No. 61. To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips. — If the
work after dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol till it answers
the purpose. If the vvork after dipping appears loo smooth, add muriatic
acid and nitre till it gives the right appearance.
The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the receipts,
putting in tHie proper ingredients to strengthen them. Ihey should not be
allowed to settle, but should be stirred often while using.
No. 62. Tinning Acid, for Brass or Zinc. — Muriatic Acid, 1 qt.,
Zinc, G ozs. To a solution of this add. Water, I qt.; Sal Ammoniac, 2 ozs.
No. 63. Vinegar Bronze, /br Brass. — Vinegar, 10 galls.; Blue
Vitriol, 3 lbs.; Muriatic Acid. 3 lbs,; Corrosive Sublimate, 4 grs.; Sal Am-
monia, 2 lbs.; Alum, 8 ozs.
No. 64. Directions for Making Lacquer. — Mix the ingredients
and let the vessel containing them stand in the sun, or in a place slightly
w.irmed three or four days, shaking it frequently till the gum is dissolved,
after which let it settle from twenty-four to fort3'-eight hours, when the
clear liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes
used in making Lacquer, to carry down the impurities.
No. 65. Lacquer, /or Dipped Brass. — Alcohol.proof specific gravity
94 LACQUERS — VARIOUS KINDS — BRONZES, &C.
not less than 95-lOOths, 2 galls.; Seed Lac, 1 Ih.; Gum Copal, 1 oz.; English
Saffron, 1 oz.; Annolto, 1 oz.
No. 66. hAcq,vEK, for Bronzed Brass. — To one pint of the above
Lacquer, add. Gamboge, 1 oz.; and after mixing it add an equal quantity of
tl*e first Lacquer.
No. 67. Deep Gold Colored LiciiUEU. — Best Alcohol, 40 ozs.;
Spanish Annntto, 8 grs.; Turmeric, 2 drs.; Shell Lac, ^ oz.; Red Sanders,
12 grs.; when dissolved add Spirits of Turpentine, 30 drops. i
No. 68. Gold Coloked hAC(ivr.R, for Brass not Dipped. — Alcohol,'
4 galls.; Turmeric, 3 lbs.; Gamboge, 3 ozs. j Gum Sandcracli. 7 lbs. ; Shell
Lac, 1^ lb.; Turpentine Varnish, 1 pint.
No. 69. Gold Colored L.\c(iUER,/o7' Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 36
ozs.; .Seed Lac, 6 ozs.; Amber, 2 ozs.; Gum Gutta, 2 ozs.; Red Sandal
Wood, 24. grs ; iJragon's Blood, 60 grs.; Oriental Saffron, 36 grs.; Pulver-
ized Glass, 4 ozs.
No. 70. Good L.\cquer, for Brass. — Seed Lac, 6 ozs.; Amber or
Copal, 2 ozs.; Best Alcohol, 4 galls.; Pulverized Glass, 4 ozs. ; Dragon's
Blood, 40 grs.; Extract of Red Sandal Wood obtained by water, 30 grs.
No. 71. Lacquer, /or Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 galls.; Seed Lac,
9 lbs.; Turmeric, 1 lb. to a gallon of the above mixture; Spanish Saffron,
4 ozs.
The Saffron is to be added for Bronze work.
Tio. T2. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs.; Gamboge, 1 oz.; Shell
Lac, 3 ozs. ; Annotlo, 1 oz.; solution of 3 ozs. of Seed Lac in 1 ])int of Al-
cohol; when dissolved add ij oz. Venice Turpentine,! oz. Dragon's Blood,
will make it dark ; keep it in a warm place four or live days.
No. 73. Pale Lac^quer, for Tin Plate. — Best Alcohol, 8 ozs. ; Tur-
meric, 4 drs.; Hay Safiron, 2 scs.; Dragon Blood, 4 scs.; Red Sanders. 1 sc;
Shell Lac, 1 oz.; Gum Sanderach, 2 drs.; Gum Mastic, 2 drs.; Canada Bal-
sam, 2 drs.; when dissolved add Spirits of Turpentine, 80 drops.
No. 7I-. Red Lacquer, for Brass. — Alrohol, 8 galls.; Dragon'a
Blood, 4 lbs. ; Spanish Annolto, 12 lbs., Gum Sandcracli, 13 lbs.; Turpeu-
line, 1 gall.
No. 75. Pale Lacquer, /<?r Brass. — Alcohol, 2 galls.; Cape Aloes
cut small, 3 ozs.; Pale Shell Lac, 1 lb.; Gamboge, i oz.
No. 76. Best Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 4 galls.; Shell Lac,
2 lbs.; Amt)er Gum, 1 lb.; Copal, 20 ozs.; Seed Lac, 3 lbs.; Saffron, to
color; Pulverized Glass, 3 ozs.
No. 77. Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 qf.; Annolto, 4 ozs.
No. 78. Lacquer, ybc Pihsophical Instrnmenls. — Alcohol, 80 ozs.;
Gum Gutta, 3 ozs.; Gum Sandarac, 8 ozs.; Gum Elemi, 8 ozs.; Dragon's
Blood, 4 ozs ; Seed Lac, 4 ozs.; Terra Merita, 3 ozs.; Saffron, 8 grs.; Pul.
verizcd Glass, 12 ozs.
No. 79. Brown Bronze Dip.— Iron Scales, 1 lb.; Arsenic, 1 02.
Muriatic Acid, 1 lb.; Zinc, (solid,) I oz.
Let the Zinc be kept in only while it in in ubc.
No. 80 Gkeen Bkon7.e Dip.— Wine Vinog.ar, 2 qts.; VerditerGreen,
2 ozs.; Sal Ammoniac, 1 oz ; Salt, 2 ozs. ; Alum, ^oz.; French 15erric8,
8 ozs.; boil the ingredients together,
•No. 81. Aquafortis Bronze Dip.— Nilric Acid. 3 ozs.; Mnriatio
Aci<l, 1 qt.; Sal Aiiim<>iiiac,2ozs.; Alum, 1 oz.; Salt, 2 ozs.; Water, 2 galls.
Alii the Suit after builiug the other ingredients, and u(C it hot.
BRONZES, SILVERING, AND VARNISHES. 95
No. 82. Olive Hronze Dip, for 7?rnss.— Nitric Acid, 3 czs ; Muri
atic Acid, 2 ozs.; add Titanium or Palladium ; when the metal is dissolveo
add 2 galls, pure soft water to each pint of the solution.
No. 83. Bkown Bronze Paint, /or Copper Vessels. — Tincture ol
Steel, 4 ozs. ; Spirits of Nitre, 4 ozs. ; Essence of Uendi, 4 ozs. ; Blue
Vitriol, 1 oz.; Water, A pint.
Mix in a bottle. Apply it with a fine brush, the ressel being lull of boiling water
Varnish after the application of the bronze.
No. 84. Bron/k, for all kinds of Metal. — Muriate of Ammonia 'Sal
Ammoni.ir), 4 drs.; Oxalic Acid, I dr.; Vinegar, 1 pint.
Dissolve the Oxalic Acid first. Let the work be clean. Tut on the 'bronze with a
brush, repeating; the operation as many times as may be necessary.
No. 85 Bronze Paint, for Iron or Brass — Chrome Green, 2 Ihs.;
Ivory Black, I oz. ; Chrome Yellow, 1 oz. 3 Good Japan, 1 gill ; grind all
togelhcr and mi.x with Linseed Oil.
No. 86. To Bronze Gun Barrels.— Dilute Nitric Acid v.ith Water
and rul> the gun barrels with it ; lay them by for a few days, then rub them
with Oil and polish them with bees-wax.
No. 87. For Tinning Brass. — Water, 2 pails full} Cream of Tar-
tar, 1-2 lb.; Salt, 1-2 pint.
Shaved or Grained Tin. — Boil the work in the mixture, keeping it in motion during
the time of boiling.
No. 88. Silvering by Heat. — Dissolve 1 oz. of Silver in Nitric
Acid ; add a small quantity of Salt ; then wash it and add Sal Ammoniac,
or 6 ozs. of Salt and White Vitriol ; also \ oz. of Corrosive Sublimate, rub
them together till they form a paste, rub the piece which is to be Silvered
with the paste, heat it till the Silver runs, after which dip it in a weak vitriol
pickle to clean it.
No. 89. Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 ozs. of Silver with
3 grains of Corrosive Sublimate; add Tartaric Acid, 4 lbs.; Salt, 8 qts.
No. 90. Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix Sulphuric Acid,
1 part; Nitric Acid, 1 part; Water, 1 part; boil the metal in the niixture
till it is dissolved, and throw in a little Salt to cause the Silver to subside.
No. 91. Solvent for Gold. — Mix equal quantities of Kitric and
Muriatic Acids.
No. 92. Varnish, ybr Smooth Moulding Patterns. — Alcoho., 1 gall.;
Shell Lac, 1 lb.; Lamp or Ivory Black, sufficient to color it.
No 93. Fine Black Varnish, /or Coaches. — Melt in an Iron pot,
Amber, 32 ozs.; Resin, 6 ozs.; Asphaltum, 6 ozs.; Drying Linseed Oil, I pt.j
when partly cooled add Oil of Turpentine, wormed, 1 pt.
No. 94. Chinese White Copper. — Copper, 40.4; Nickel. 31.6;
Zinc, 25.4; and Iron, 2.6 parts.
No. 95. Manheim Gold. — Copper, 3; Zinc, 1 part; and a small
quantity of Tin.
No. 96. Alloy of the Standard Measures used by tub
British Government. — Copper, 576 ; Tin. 59 ; and Brass, 48 parts.
No. 97. Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 ; and Zinc, 9 parts.
No. 98. Speculum Metal. — Copper, 6 ; Tin, 2 ; and Arsenic, I pari
Or, Copper, 7 ; Zinc, 3 ; and Tin, 4 parts.
No. 99. Hard Solder. — Copper, 2; Zinc, I part.
No. 100. Blanched Copper. — Copper,8; and Arsenic, ^ part.
No. 101. BitiTANNiA Metal. — Brass, 4 ; Tin, 4 parts ; when fused,
add Bismuth. 4 ; and Antimony, 4 parts.
This composition is added at discretion to melted Tin.
96 SOLDERS AND CEMENTS.
No. 102. Plumber's Solder. — Lead, 2; Tin, I part.
No. 103. Tinman's Solder. — Lead, i ; Tin, 1 part.
No. lOi. Pewterer's SoLDEii. — Tin, 2; Lead, 1 part.
No. 105. Common Pewter. — Tin, 4; Lead, 1 part.
No. 106. Best Pewter. — Tin, IOO5 Antimony, 17 parts.
No. 107. A Metal that Expands in Cooling. — Lead, 9 j Anil-
men)-, 2 ; Bismuth, 1 pari.
This Jletal is very useful in filling Email defects in Iron castings, &c.
No. 108. Queer's Metal. — Tin, 9; Antimony, 1} Bismuth, 1 ;
Lead, 1 part.
No. 109. Mock Platinum. — Brass, 8; Zinc, 5 parts.
No. 110. Silver Coin of the United States. — Pure Silver,
9; Alloy, 1 part; the alloy of silver is fine copper.
No. 111. Gold Coin of the United States. — Pure Gold, 9 ;
Alloy. 1 part ; the alloy of gold is ^ silver and | copper, (not to exceed J^
silver).
No. 112. Silver Coin of Great Britain. — Pure Silver, 11.1 5
Copper, 9.9 parts.
No. 113. Gold Coin of Great Britain. — Pure Gold, 11 ; Copper,
1 part.
Previons to 1826 Silver formed part of the alloy of Gold coin ; hence the difitrent color
of English Gold money.
No. 114. Ring Gold. — Pure Copper, 6^ pwts.; Fine Silver, 31 pwts.j
Pure Gold, 1 oz. and 5 pwts.
No. 115. Mock Gold. — Fuse together Copper, 16; Platinum,7j
Zinc, 1 part.
When Steel is a'loyed with 1-500 part of Platinum, or with 1-JCO part of Silver, it 1(
rendered much harder, more malleable, and better adapted for every kind of cutting
Instrument.
Note. — Tn making alloys, care must be taken to have the more infusible metals melted
fir.-t, and afterwards add the otliers.
No. 116. Compo-^ition Used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax,
10; Sal .Ammoniac, 1 part ; grind or pound thorn roughly together ; then
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to contiinip the heat
until all spume has disappeared from the surface. \\'hen ilic liquid appears
clear, ih<' composition is ready to be poured out to cool and concrete J
afterwards being pround to a fine powder, it is ready for use.
To use tliis roinpositinn, the Steel to be welded is raised to a heat which may be
expressed by " bright yellow;" it is then dipped among the welding powder, and again
placed in the fire until it attains the same degree of heat 03 before, it is then r,;ady to l>a
placed under the hammer.
No. 117. Cast Ikon Cement. — Clean borings, or turnin^is, of Cast
Iron. 16; Sal Ammoniac, 2 ; Flour of Sulphur, 1 part; mix thorn well to-
gether in a mortar and keep them dry. W'lien rcquircil for u>p, take of ihe
mixture, 1 ; clean borings, 20 parts; mix thoroughly, and add a sufficient
quantity of water.
A little grindstone dust added improves the cement.
No. 118. Booth's Patent Grease, /or /JaiVicai/ j4t/m. — Water, 1
pall.; Clean Tallow. 3 lbs.; Palm Oil, 6 lbs.; Common Soda, ^ lb. Or,
Tallow, 8 lbs.; Palm Oil. 10.
The mixture ti> be healed to about 210° F., and well stirred till it cools down to about
70", wheu it is ready for use.
No. 119. Cement, for Sleam-pipe Joints, S,'C., with Faced Flan<cfs. —
While Load, mixed, 2; lied Lead, dry, 1 part; grind or otlicr%vise mix thorn
to a coiisiBtcncc of lliin putty, apply interposed layers with one or two
thickucsscB of canvas or (^auzu wire, as the necessity of tlie case may be.
ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, AND TIN.
97
No. 120. Soft Cement, for Steam-boilers, Steam-pipes, 8fC. — Red
or White Lead, in oil, 4 ; Iron borings, 2 lo 3 parts.
No. 121. Hard Ceme.nt. — Iron Borings and Salt Water, and a small
quantity of Sal Ammoniac with Fresh Water.
No. 122. Staini.vg Wood axd Ivokt — FeWoic.— Dilute Nitric Acid
will produce it on wood.
Red. — An infusion of Brazil Wood in stale urine, in the proportion of a
pound to a gallon for wood ; to be laid on when boiling hot. and should be
laid over with alum water before it dries. Or, a solution of Dragon's Blood
in spirits of wine, may be used.
£/acA. —Strong solution of Nitric Acid, for wood or ivory.
Mahogany. — Brazil, Madder, and Log^vood, dissolved in water and put
on hot. . .
Blue. — Ivorv mav be stained thus : Soak it in a solution of Verdigris in
Nitric Acid, which will turn it green ; then dip it into a solution of Pearlash
boiling hot.
Purple. — Soak ivory in a solution of Sal Ammoniac into four times its
weight of Nitrous Acid.
TABLE OF ALLOYS.
Alloys having a density greater than the
Mean of their Constituents.
Gold and zinc.
Gold and tin.
Gold ami bismuth.
Gold and ainiraoiiy
Gold and ccball.
Silver and zinc.
Silver and lead.
Silver and tin.
Silverand bismuth.
[Silver & antimony.
I Copper and zinc.
Copper and iin.[um
Copper and palladi-
Copper & bismmh.
Lead and aminionj-
' Platinum & moUb-
denura. [muih.
Palladium and bis-
Alloys having a density less than the Mean
of their Constituents.
Iron and bismuth.
!lron and antimony.
Iron and lead.
Tin and lead.
Tin and palladium.
Tilt and antimony.
Nickel and arsenic.
Ziuc and antimony.
Gold and silver.
Gold and iron.
Gold and lead.
Gold and copper.
Gold and iridium.
Gold and nickel.
Silver a.nd copper.
Silver and lead.
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC, AND OF COPPER AND TIN.
c = c
Composition by
■Weight per cent
Specific
Gravity.
Colonr.
Ciiaracteristic Properties, &c.
Copper
8667
Tile red.
24.6
.Malleable.
lUO 00 Zinc
66^
Bluish srey.
15.2
Brittle.
83.02+16.93
8415
Yellowish red.
13.7
Baih metal.
79.G-5+20..35
8448
do. do.
14.7
Dutch brass.
74.55+25.4-2
8397
Pale yellow.
13.1
Rolled sheet brass.
66.1S+33.S2
8299
Full vellow.
12.5
British brass.
49.47+50..53
82:30
do. do.
9.2
German brass.
32.55+07.15
e^}
Deep yellow.
19.3
Watchmakers' brass.
30 30+09.70
7936
Silver white.
2.2
Ver\- briule.
24.50+75.50
7449
Ash ^ey.
3.1
Brittle.
19.65+S0.35
7371
do.
1.9
While button metal.
Tin
7291
White.
2.7
64.29+15.71
8561
Reddish yellow.
16.1
Gun metal.
81.10+1S.90
8459
Yellowish red.
17.7
Gun metal and bronze.
7S.97+21.03
8729
do. do.
13.6
Hard, mill brasses.
34.92+05.0?
8065
White.
1.4
Small bells.
15.17+S1.S3
7447
Very white.
3.1
Speculum metal.
11.92 -"-83.19
7472
do. do.
3.1
Files, toush.
jiJoTE. — No simple binary alloy of copper and zinc, or of copper and tin, works
as pleasantly in turning, planing, or filin?, as if combined wiih a small propor-
tion of a third fusible metal ; generally lead is added to copper and zinc, and
Zinc to copper and tin.
9
98 ALLOYS FOR BRONZE. VALUABLE ALLOYS.
To Polish Brass. — When the Brass is made smooth by turning or
filing witii a very fine file, it maybe rubbed witli a smooth fine grained
stone, or with charcoal and water. When it is made quite smooth and ("ree
from scratches it may be polished with rotten stone and oil, alcohol or spirita
t)f turpentine.
To Clean Brass. — If there is any oily substance on the Brass boil
it in a solution of potash, or strong lye. Mix equal quantities of Nitric
and Sulphuric Acicis in a stone or earthern vessel, let it stand a few hours,
stirring it occasionally with a stick, then dip the Brass in the solution,
but take it out immediately and rinse it in soft water, and wipe it in saw
dust till it is dry.
Glue. — Powdered Chalk added to common Glue strengthens it. A
Glue which will resist the action of water is made by boihng 1 pound of
Glue in 2 quarts of skimmecT Milk.
ALLOYS FOR BRONZE.
Professor Hoffman, of the Prussian artillery, has made esperimcnts with
the view of obtaining a good statuary bronze, and recommends the alloys
ranging between the two following admixtures ; —
1st. To produce the reddest bronze.
88.75 Copper Zinc (7 atoms copper, 1 atom zinc).
1L25 Copper Tin (3 atoms copper, 1 atom tin).
100-00
2nd. To produce a cheap bronze, with a bright yellow color, almost
golden.
93 5 CoppE
6.5 CopPE
100.0
n;R Zinc (2 atoms copper, 1 atom zinc).
ER Tin (3 atoms copper, 1 atom tin).
VALUABLE ALLOYS.
' The "Paris Scientific Review" has published, for the benefit of the
industrious workers in metals, the best receipts for composing all the various
factitious metals used in the arts ; the following are a few : —
Statuary Bronze. — Daroet has discovered that this is composed of
copper, 91.4 ; zinc, 5.5 ; lead, L7 ; tin, 1.4.
JJkonze for Cannon of LAKf;E Calihre. — Copper, 90 ; tin, 7.
Pi.NCHBECK. — Copper, 5 ; zinc, L
Bronze for Cannox of Small Calibre. — Copper, 93; tin, 7-
Bronze for Mepals.— Copper, 100; tin,??.
Alloy for Cymbals.— ('op|)or, 80 ; tin, 20.
Metal for the Mirrors of llEtLECTiNc Telescopes. — Copper,
100; tin, 50.
White .ARfiENTAN. — Copper, f? ; nickel, 3 ; zinc, 35; this beautiful
composition is in imitation of silver.
('hinese Silver. — M. Maircr discovered the following proportions: —
Silver, 2 5; copper, 65.21; zinc, 19..'i2; nickel, 13; cobalt of iron, 0.12.
TiJTKNAC— Co[)|icr, 8 ; nickel, 3 ; zinc, 5.
Printing CiiAitAcrERS. — Lead, 4; antimony, L For stereotype
plates — Lead, 9 ; antimony, 2 ; bismuth, 2.
MECHANICAL DRAWING
AND
INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING, 101
INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING.
To facilitate the construction of geometrical figures, we add a short de-
scription of a few useful instruments which do not belong to the common
pocket-case.
Let there be a flat ruler, AB, from one to two feet in
length, for which the common Gunter's scale may be sub-
stituted ; and, secondly, a triangnlar piece of wood, a,b,c,
flat, and about the same thickness as the ruler : the sides,
ab and be, of which are equal to one another, and form a
right angle at A. For the convenience of sliding, there is -^
usually a hole in the middle of the triangle, as may be seen in the figure.
By means of these simple instruments many very useful geometrical
problems may be performed. Thus, to draw a line through a given point
parallel to a given line. Lay the triangle on the paper so that one of its
sides will coincide with the given line to which the parallel is to be drawn ;
then, keeping the triangle steady, lay the ruler on the paper, with its edge
applied to either of the other sides of the triangle ; then, keeping the ruler
firm, move the triangle along its edge, up or down, to the given point ; the
side of the triangle which was placed on the given line will always keep
parallel to itself, and hence a parallel may be drawn through the given point.
To erect a perpendicular on a given line, and from any given point in
that line, we have only to apply the ruler to the given line, and place the
triangle so, that its right angle shall touch the given point in the line, emd
one of the sides about the right angle, placed to the edge of the ruler — the
oilier side will give the perpendicular required.
If the given point be either above or below the line, the process is equally
easj'. Place one of the sides of the triangle about the right angle on the
given line, and the ruler on the side opposite the right angle, then slide the
triangle on the edge of the ruler till the given point from which the perpen-
dicular is to be drawn is on the other side, then this side will give the per-
pendicular.
Other problems may be performed with these instruments, the method of
doing which it will be easy for the reader to contrive for himself.
When arcs of circles of great diameter are to be drawn, the use of a
compass may be substituted by a very simple contrivance. Draw the chord
of the arc to be described, and place a pin at each
extremity, A and B, then place two rulers jointed
at C, and forming an angle, ACB equal to the sup-
plement of half the given number of degrees ; that
is to say, the number oi degrees which the arc
whose chord given is to contain, is to be halved, and this half being sub-
tracted from 180 degrees, will give the degrees which form the angle at
which the rulers are placed, that is, the angle ACB. This being done, the
9*-
r
102 INSTRUMENTS TJSED IN DRAWING.
edges of the rulers are moved along against the pins, and a pencil at C will
describe the arc required.
Large circles may be described by a contrivance equally simple. On
an asle, a foot or a foot and a hal( long, there are placed two
wheels, M and F, of which one is fixed to the axle, namely F,
and the other is capable of being shifted to different parts of m
the axle, and, by means of a thumb-screw, made capable of
being fixed at any point on the axle. These wheels are of dif-
ferent diameters, say of 3 and 6 inches, the fixed wheel F being the largest.
This instrument being moved on the paper, the circles M and F will roll,
and describe circles of different radii : the axle will always point to the
centre of these circles, and there will be this proportion ;
As the diameter of the large wheel is to ihe difference of the diameters
of the two wheels, so is the radius of the circle to be described by the large
wheel to the distance of the two wheels on the axle.
If the diameters of the wheels are as above stated, and it is required to
describe a circle of 3 feet radius, then from the above proportion we have
6:6 — 3 : : 3 feet or 36 inches ; 18 inches = the distance of the two wheels,
to describe a circle 6 feet in diameter.
It may be observed, that it will be best to make the difference of the
wheels greater if large circles are to be described, as then a shorter instru-
ment will serve the purpose.
We will conclude tlicse instructions, by making a few remarks on the
Diagonal Scale and Sector, the great use of the latter of which, especially,
is seldom explained to ihe young mechanic.
The diagonal scale to be found on the plain scale in common pocket-
cases of instruments, is a contrivance for measuring very small divisions of
lines; as, for instance, hundredth parts of an inch.
Suppose the accompanying cut to represent an enlarged B E A
view of two divisions of the diagonal scale, and the bottom and \
top lines to be divided into two parts, each representing the ?
tenth part of an inch. Now, the perpendicular lines BC, AD, t[
are each divided into ten equal parts, which are joined by the p-
crossing lines, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., and ihc diagonals I5F, DI'^., are ^1 ^y_
drawn as in the fijrure. Now, as the division FC is the tenth s'
part of an inch, and as the line FB continually approaches C
nearer and nearer to BC, till it meets it in B, it will follow, that the part of
the line 1 cut off by this diagonal will be a tenth part of FC, because Bl is
only one-tenth part of BC ; so, likewise, 2 will represent two-tenth parts,
3 thrcc-tcnlli parts, and so on to 9, which is nine-tenth parts, and 10, ten-
tenth parts, or the whole tenth of an inch ; so that, by means of this diago-
nal, we arrive at divisions equal to tentli parts of tenth parts of an inch, or
huiidri:<liiis of an inch. With this consideration, an examination of the
scale Itself will easily show tlie whole matter. It may bo observed,
THE SECTOR. 103
that if half an inch and the quarter of an inch be divided, in the same man-
ner, into tenths and tenths of tenths, we may get thus two-hundredth and
four-hundredth parts of an inch.
THE SECTOR.
This very useful instrument consists of two equal rulers each six inches
long, joined together by a brass folding joint. These rulers are generally
made of boxwood or ivory; and on the face of the instrument, several lines
or scales are engraven. Some of these lines or scales proceed from the
centre of the joint, and are called sectorial lines, to distinguish them from
others which are drawn parallel to the edge of the instrument, similar to
those on the common Gunter's scale.
The sectorial lines are drawn twice on the same face of the instrument ;
that is to say, each line is drawn on both legs. Those on each face are,
A scale of equal parts, marked L,
A line of chords, marked C,
A line of secants, marked S,
A line of polygons, marked P, or Pol.
These sectorial lines are marked on one face of the instrument; and on the
other there are the following ;
A line of sines, marked S,
A line of tangents, marked T,
A line of tangents to a less radius, marked t.
This last line is intended to supply the defect of the former, and extends
from about 45 to 75 degrees.
The lines of chords, sines, tangents, and secants, but not the line of poly-
gons, are numbered from the centre, and are so disposed as to form equal
angles at the centre; and it follows from this, that at whatever distance the
sector is opened, the angles which the lines form, will always be respectively
equal. The distance, therefore, between 10 and 10, on the two lines marked
L, will be equal to the distance of 60 and 60 on the two lines of chords, and
also to 90 and 90 on the two lines of sines, &c. at any particular opening of
the sector.
Any extent measured with a pair of compasses, from the centre of the
joint to any division on the sectorial lines, is called a lateral distance ; and
any extent taken from a point in a line on the one leg, to the like point on
the similar line on the other leg, is called a transverse or parallel distance.
With these remarks, we shall now proceed to explain the use of the sec-
tor, in so far as it is likely to be serviceable to mechanics.
USE OF THE LINE OF LINES.
This line, as was before observed, is marked L, and its uses are,
To Divide a line into any number of equal parts : Take the length of the
line by the compasses, and placing one of the points on that number in the
104 THE SECTOR.
line of lines which denotes the number of parts into which the given line is
to be divided, open the sector till the other point of the compasses touches
Vlie same division on the line of lines marked on the other leg; then, the
sector being kept at the same width, the distance from 1 on the line L on
the one leg, to 1 on the line L on the other, will give the length of one of
the equal divisions of the given line to be divided. Thus, to divide a given
line into seven equal parts : — take the length of the given line with the com-
passes, and setting one point on 7, on the line L of one of the legs, move
the other leg out until the other point of the compasses touch 7 on the line
L of that leg; this may be called the transverse distance of 7 on the line of
lines. Now, keeping the sector at the same opening, the transverse distance
of 1 will be the length of one of the 7 equal divisions of the given line; the
transverse distance of 2 will be two of these divisions, tScc.
It will sometimes happen, that the line to be divided will be too long for
the largest opening of the sector ; and in this case we take the half, or third,
or fourth of the line, as the case may be ; then the transverse distance of 1 to
1, will be a half, a third, or a fourth of the required equal part.
To divide a given line into any number of parts that shall have a certain
relation or proportion to each other : Take the length of the whole line to be
divided, and placing one point of the compasses at that division on the line
of lines on one leg of the instrument which expresses the sum of all the
parts into which the given line is to be divided, and open the sector till the
other point of the compasses is on the corresponding division on the line of
lines of the other leg. This is evidently making the sum of the parts into
which the given line is to be divided a transverse distance ; and when this
is done, the proportional parts will be found by taking, with the same open-
ing of the sector, the transverse distances of the parts required. — To divide
a given line into three parts, in the proportion of 2, 3, 4: The sum of these
is 9 ; make the given line a transverse distance between 9 and 9 on the two
lines of lines ; then the transverse distances of tte severed numbers 2, 3, 4,
will give the proportional parts required.
To find a fourth proportional to three given lines : take (he lateral distance
of the second, and make it the transverse distance of the first, then will the
transverse distance of the third be the lateral distance of the fourth; then,
let there be given 6:3:: 8, — make the lateral distance of 3 the transverse
distance of 6; then will the transverse distance of 8 be the lateral distance
of 4, the fourth proportional required.
This sector will be found highly serviceable in drawing plans. For in-
stance, if it is wished to reduce the drawing of a steam engine from a scale
of 1 J inches to the foot, to another of five-eiglitlis to the foot. Now, in 1 ^
inches there arc 12 eighth parts ; so that the drawing will be reduced in the
proportion of 12 to 5. Take the lateral distance of 5, and keep the com-
passes at this opening; then open the sector till the points of the compasses
mark the transverse distance of 12 j keep now the sector at this opening,
MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 105
c
and any measure taken on the dpawing, to be copied and laid off on the
sector as a lateral distance, — the transverse distance taken from that point
will give the corresponding measure to be laid down in the new drawing.
If the length of the side of a triangle, of which we have the drawing, is
to be reckoned 45 ; what are the lengths of the other two sides ? Take the
length of the side given, by the compasses, and open the sector till the meas-
ure be the transverse distance of 45 to 45 ; then the lengths of the other
sides being applied transversely, wiW give their numerical lengths.
USE OF THE LINE OF CHORDS.
By means of the sector, we may dispense with the protractor. Thus, to
lay down an angle of any number of degrees : — take the radius of the circle
on the compasses, and open the sector till this becomes the transverse dis-
tance of 60 on the line of chords; then take the transverse distance of the
required number of degrees, keeping the sector at the same opening; and
this transverse distance being marked off on an arc of the circle whose ra-
dius was taken, will be the required number of degrees.
We will not enter farther on the use of the sectorial lines, as what
we have said will, we hope, be found sufEcient for the purposes of the
practical mechanic.
MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE.
A FLAT rectangular board is first to be provided, of any convenient size,
as from 18 to 30 inches, and from 16 to 24 inches broad. It may be made
of fir, plane tree, or mahogany; its face must be plqned smooth and flat,
and the sides and ends as nearly as possible at right angles to each other —
the bottom of the board and the left side should be made perfectly so ; and
this comer should be marked, so that the stock of the square may be always
applied to the bottom and left hand side of the board. To prevent the
board from casting, it is usual to pannel it on the back or on the sides.
A T square must also be provided, which by means of a thumb-screw
fixed in the stock, may be made to answer cither the purposes of a com-
mon square, or bevel,— the one-half of the stock being movable about the
screw, and the other fixed at right angles on the blade. The blade ought
to be somewhat flexible, and equal in length to the length of the board.
Besides these, there will be required a case of mathematical instruments;
in the selection of which it should be observed, that the bow compass is
more frequently defective than any of the other instruments. After using
any of the ink feet, they should be dried ; and if they do not draw properly,
the}' ought to be sharpened and brought to an equal length in the blade, by
grinding on a hone.
The colors most useful are, Indian ink, gamboge, Prussian blue, vermil-
ion, and lake. With these, all colors necessary for drawing machinery or
buildmgs may be made ; so that, instead of purchasing a box of colors, we-
106 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PEESPECTIVE.
would advise that those for whom this book is intended should procure
these cakes separately : the gamboge may be bought from an apothecary —
a pennyworth will serve a lifetime. In choosing the rest, they should be
rubbed against the teelh, and those which feel smoothest are of the best
quality.
Hair pencils will also be necessary, made of camel's hair, and of various
sizes. They ought to taper gradually to a point when wet in the mouth,
and should, after being pressed against the finger, spring back.
Black-lead pencils will also be necessary. They ought not to be very
soft, nor so hard that their traces cannot be easily erased by the Indian
rubber. In choosing paper, that which will best suit this kind of drawing
is thick, and has a hardish feel, not very smooth on the surface, yet free
from knots.
The paper on which the drawing is to be made, must be chosen of a
good quality and convenient size. It is then to be wet with a sponge and
clean water, on the opposite side from that on which the drawing is to be
made. When the paper absorbs the water, which may be seen by the wet-
ted side becoming dim, as its surface is viewed slantwise against the light,
it is to be laid on the drawing board with the wetted side next the board.
About half an inch must be turned up on a straight edge all round the
paper, and then fastened on the board. This is done because the paper
when wet is enlarged, and the edges being fixed on the board, act as stretch-
ers when the paper contracts by drying. To prevent the paper from con-
tracting before the paste has been sufficiently fastened by drying, the paper
is usually wet on the upper surface, to within half an inch of the paste mark.
When the paper is thoroughly dried, it will be found to lie firmly and equally
on the board, and is then fit for use.
If the drawing is to be made from a copy, we ought first to consider what
scale it is to be drawn to. If it is to be equal in size to, or larger than the
copy, a scale should be made accordingly, by which the dimensions of
the several parts of the drawing are to be regulated. The diagonal scale,
n simple and beautiful contrivance, will be here found of great use for the
more minute divisions ; and whenever the drawing is to be inatle to a scale
of 1 inch, i inch, 4 inch to the foot, a scale should be drawn of 20 or 30
equal parts; the last of which should be subdivided into 12, and a diagonal
scale fonned on the same principles as the common one, but with eight
parallels and 12 diagonals, to express inches and eighths of an inch. For
making such scales to any proportion, the line L on the sector will be found
yery convenient.
Great care should be taken in the penciling, that an accurate outline be
drawn, for on this much of the value of the picture will depend. The pen-
cil marks should be distinct, yet not heavy, and the use of the rubber avoided
as much as possible, as its frequent application ruflles the surface of the
paper. The methods already given for constructing geometrical figures
MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 107
«
will be here found applicable, and the use of the T square, parallel ruler,
&c., will suggest themselves whenever they require to be employed.
The drawing thus made of any machine or building is called a plan.
Plans are of three kinds — a ground plan, or bird's-eye view, an elevation or
front view, and a perspective plan.
When a view is taken of the teeth of a wheel, with the circumference
towards the eye, the teeth appear to be nearer as they are removed from
the middle point of the circumference opposite the eye. and it may not be
out of place here to give the method of representing them on paper : — If
AB be the circumference of a wheel as viewed by
the eye, and it is required to represent the teeth as
they appear on it, only half of the circumference can
be seen in this way at one time, consequently we can A[J
only represent the half of the teelh. On AB describe
a semicircle, which divide into half as many equal parts as the wheel has
teeth; then from each of these points of division draw perpendiculars to the
wheel AB, then will these perpendiculars mark the relative places of the
teeth.
When the outline is completed in pencil, it is next to be carefully gone
over with Indian ink, which is to be rubbed down with a little water, on a
plate of glass or eathemware — so as to be sufficiently fluid to flow easily
out of the pen, and at the same time have a sufficient body of color. While
drawing the ink lines, the measurements should be repeated, so as to cor-
rect any error that may have occurred during the penciling. The screw in
the drawing pen will regulate the breadth of the strokes ; which should not
be alike heavy 5 those strokes being the heaviest which bound the dark part
of the shades. Should any line be wrong drawn with the ink, it may be
taken out by means of a sponge and water, which could not be done if
common writing ink were employed.
In preparing for coloring it is to be observed, that a hair pencil is to be
fixed at each end of a small piece of wood, made in the form of a common
pencil, one of which is to be used with color, and the other with water only.
If the color is to be laid on, so as to represent a flat surface, it ought to be
spread on equally, and there is here no use for the water brush ; but if it is
to represent a curved surface, then the color is to be laid on the part in-
tended to be shaded, and softened towards the light by washing with the
water brush. In all cases it should be borne in mind, that the color ought
to be laid on very thin, otherwise it will be more difiicult to manage, and
will never make so fine a drawing.
In colors even of the best quality, we sometimes meet with gritty particles,
which it is desirable to avoid. Instead of rubbing the color on a plate with
a little water, as is usual, it will be better to wet the color, and rub it on the
point of the forefinger, letting the dissolved part drop ofi" the finger on to
the plate.
108 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE.
In using the Indian ink, it will be found advantageous lo mix it with a
little blue and a small quantity of lake, which renders it much more easily
wrought with, and this is the more desirable as it is the most frequently used
of all the other colors in Mechanical Drawing, the shades being all made
with this color.
The depth and extent of the shades will depend on various circumstan-
ces— on the figure of the object to be shaded, the position of the eye of the
observer, and the direction in which the light comes, &c. The position of
the eye will vary the proportionate size of any object in a picture when
drawn in perspective. Thus, if a perspective view of a steam engine is
given, the eye being supposed to be placed opposite the end nearest the
nozzles, an inch of the nozzle rod will appear much larger than an inch of
the pump rod which feeds the cistern ; but if the eye is supposed to be placed
opposite the other end of the engine, the reverse will be the case. But in
drawing elevations and ground plans of machinery, every part of the ma-
chine is drawn to the proper scale — an inch or foot in one part of the ma-
chine, being just the same size as an inch or foot in any other part of the
machine. So that by measuring the dimensions of any part of the drawing,
and then applying the compass to the scale, we determine the real size of
the part so measured. Whereas, if the view were given in perspective, we
would be obliged to make allowance for the effect of distance, &,c.
The light is always supposed to fall on the picture at an angle of forty-
five degrees, from which it follows, that the shade of any object, which is
intended lo rise from the plane of the picture, or appear prominent, will just
be equal in length to the prominence of the object.
The shades, therefore, should be as extictly measured as any other part
of the drawing, and care should be taken that they all fall in the proper di-
rection, as the light is supposed to come from one point only.
It is frequently of great use for the mechanic to take a hasty copy of a
drawing, and many methods have been given for this purpose — by macliines,
tracing, &c. We give the following as easy, accurate, and convenient.
Mix equal parts of turpentine and drying oil, and with a rag lay it on a
sheet of good silk paper, allowing the paper to lie by for two or three days
to dry, and when it is so it will be fit for use. To use it, lay it on the draw-
ing to be copied, and the prepared paper being nearly transparent, the lines
of the drawing will be seen through it, and may be easily traced with a
black-lead pencil. The lines on the oiled paper will be quite distinct when
it is laid on while paper. Thus, if the mechanic has little time to spare, he
may take a c<i|)y and lay it by lo be recopied at his leisure.
Care and perseverance are the chief requisites for attaining perfection in
this species of drawing. Every mechanic should know something of it, so
that ho may the better understand how to execute plans that may be sub-
niitifil to him, or make intelligible lo others any invention he himself may
make.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Geometry is the science which investigates and demonstrates the
propei'ties of lines on surfaces and solids : hence, Practicai Ge-
ometry is the method of applying the rules of the science to practical
purposes.
10
110 DEFINITIONS OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS.
DEFIMTION OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS USED IN
THE WORK.
= When we wish to state that one quantitj- or number, is equal to
another quantity or number, the sign of equalilij = is employed. Thus
3 added to 2 = 5, or 3 added to 2 is equal to o.
+ When the sum of two quantities or numbers is to be taken, the sign
plus + is placed between them. Thus 3 + 2 = 55 '^•1^ 's, the sum of 3
and 2 is 5. This is the sign of Addition.
— When the difference of two numbers or quantities is to be taken, the
sign minus — is used, and shows that the latter number or quantity is to be
taken from the former. Thus 5 — 2 = 3. This is the sign of Subtraction,
X When the product of any two numbers or quantities is to be taken,
the sign into X is placed between them. Thus 3x2 = 6. This is the
sign of Multiplication.
H- When we are to take the quotient of two quantities, the sign by -f- is
placed between them, and shows that the former is to be divided by the
fatter. Thus 6-^2 = 3. Tliis is the sign of Division. But in some cases
in this work, ihc mode of division has been, to place the dividend above a
horizontal line, and the divisor below it, in the form of a vulgar fraction,
thus !
Dividend ^ . 6 „
-^. . = Quotient. -— = 6.
Divisor z
When the square of any number 'or quantity is to be taken, this is de-
noted by placing a small fig'urc 2 above it to the right. Thus 6^ shows that
the square of6 is to be taken, and therefore 6^ = 6 x 6 = 36.
When wc wish to show that the scjuare root of any number or quantity is
to be taken, this is denoted by placing the radical sign n' before it. Thus
s/36 shows that the square root of 36 ought to be taken, hence -/36 = 6.
The common marks of proportion are also used, viz., : : : : as
3:6 : : 4 : 8, being read 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8.
Tlie applicailon Of thCSG Z'.pi t? ±t "vnression of niles is exceedingly
simple. Thus, connected with the circle we have the following rules :
1st. The circumference of a circle will be found by multiplying the di-
ameter by 3'1416.
2d. The diameter of a circle may be found by dividing the circumfer-
ence by 3-1416.
3d. The area of a circle may be found by multiplying the half of the di-
ameter, by the half of the circumference, or by niultipiying together the
diameter and circumference, and <lividing the product by 4, or by squaring
iJie diameter and multiplying by -7804.
Now all these rules may be thus expressed :
1st. diameter X 3-1416 = circumference.
_, circumference ,.
^- ~ 31416 ='»'*"'«^'"-
diameter circumference
3d. — 2 — ^2 ~ ^'®*'
diameter X circumference .
or, = area. •
4
or, diameter* X 7854 = area.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Practical Geometry is an important branch of knowledge to all who
are in any way engaged in the art of building. The workman, as well
as the designer, requires its aid ; and unless he is acquainted with
some of the leading principles of the science, he will frequently feel
an uncertainty as to the results he may deduce from the problems
which are presented to his notice.
Problem I.
To inscribe an Equilateral Triangle within a given Circle.
Let A B c be a circle ; it is required to draw within it a triangle
Fig. 1.
■whose sides are equal to one another. Commencing from any point
A, mark on ihe circumference of the circle a series of spaces equal
to the radius of the circle, of which there will be six, and draw the
arcs A D D B, &c. Then join every alternate point as a b, a c, c a,
and the several Unes will together form an equilateral triangle.
112
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Problem II.
Within a given Circle to inscribe a Square.
Let A B c D be the given circle, it is required to draw a square
Fig. 2.
"^^^-''
\^
r
O "^j
Iv'---
/^
^B^'s^^iX
^^A
D
within it. Draw the diameters a b, c d, at right angles to each
other; or, in other words, draw the diameter a b, and form a per-
pendicular bisecting it. Then join the points A c, c b, b d, d a, and
the figure a b c d is a square formed within a given circle.
Problem III.
Within a given Circle to inscribe a regular Pentagon ; that is, a
Polygon of five Sides.
Let A b c D be a circle in which it is required to draw a pentagon.
Fig. 3.
Draw a diameter A n, and perpendicular to it anotlicr diameter.
Then divide o b into two equal parts in the point e, and join c E ; and
with E as a centre, and the radius t; k, draw the arc c f, cutting A o
in K : and, with c as a centre, and the same radius, describe the arc
F G ; the arcs c f, g f intersect each other in the point f, and the
arc G F intersects the circflnifcrencc of the circle in the point G.
Join the points c and o, uiid llnit line will be a side of the pentagon
to be drawn. Mark oil within the circumference the same space,
and join the paints a h, h i, i k, k c, and the figure that is formed
is a pentagon.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
113
Problem IV.
Within a given Circle to describe a regular Hexagon ; that is to
say, a Polygon of six equal Sides.
Let A B c be the given circle, and o the centre. With the radius
Fig. 4.
of the circle divide it inta parts, of which there will be six, and con-
nect the points a d, d b, Stc, and the figure a d b e c f will be a
regular hexagon.
Problem V.
To cut off the Corners of a given Square, so as to form a regular
Octagon.
Let A B c D be the given square. Draw the two diagonal lines
Fig. 5.
3J K M
A c, and B D, crossing each other in o. Then, with the radius a o,
that is, half the diagonal, and with a as a centre, describe the arc
E F, cutting the sides of the square in e and f ; then, from b as a
centre, describe the arc g h ; and in like manner from c and d de-
scribe the arcs i k and l m. Draw the lines x, g, f i, h m, and
K E, and these, with the parts of the given square G f, i h, M k,
and E L, form the octagon required.
10*
114 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Problem VI.
To divide a given Line into any JVuinber of Parts, which Parts
shall be in the same Proportion to each other as the Parts of some
other given Line, whether those Parts are equal or unequal.
Let A B be the given line which it is required to divide in the same
Fig. 6.
manner and proportion as the line c n, whether the parts are equal
or unequal. On the base line c d, form an equilateral triangle in the
manner already described in a former problem. Then take the dis-
tance A B, and with e as a centre, describe the arc f g, and join the
points F and G, and f g shall be equal to a b. Now, if from the
points H I K, which are the divisions of the line c, wc draw lines to
E, as H E, I E, and ic e, these lines will cut f g in the points a b c,
which will divide the line fg into parts proportionate to the divisions
of the line c d.
Problem VII.
On a given Line to draw a Polygon of any JVumber of Sides, so
that (hut Line shall be one Side of a Polygon ; or, in other words,
to find the Centre of a Circle which shall circumscribe any Poly-
gon, the Length of the Side of the Polygon being given.
Wc shall here show, in a tabular form, the length of the radius of
a circle, which shall contain the given line, as a side of the required
polygon; and here we will suppose the line to be divided into one
thousand equal parts, and the radius into a certain numlier of like
parts. The radius of the circle for dilfercnt figures will be as fol-
lows : —
For an inscribed Tri.mglc .577
Square 701
Pentagon 8r)0
Hexagon 1000
Heptagon ll.')2
Octagon 1306.i
Enneagon 1462
PKACTICAL GEOMETRY. 115
Decagon 1618
Endecagon 1775
Dodecagon 1932
By this table, the workman may, with a simple proportion, find the
radius of a circle which shall contain a polygon, one side being given :
thus, if it be required to draw a pentagon, the side given being fifteen
inches, we may say as 1000 is to 15, so is 850, the tabular number for
a pentagon, to 12 inches and seventy-five hundredth parts of an inch,
or seven-tenths and a half o fa tenth of an inch.
We may here give another table for the construction of polygons,
one in which the radius of the circumscribing circle is given. If it
be required to find the side of the inscribed polygon, the radius being
one thousand parts, the sides of the different polygons will be accord-
ing to the" following scale : —
The Triangle 1732
Square 1414
Pentagon 1175
Hexagon 1000
Heptagon 867^
Octagon 765
Enneagon 684
Decagon 618
Endecagon 563<i
Dodecagon 517J
Here, as in the case already menfioned, the law of proportion ap-
plies, and the statement may be thus made : as one thousand is to the
number of inches contained in the radius of the given circle, so is the
tabular number for the required polygon to the length of one of its
sides in inches. Thus, let it be supposed that we have a circle whose
radius in inches is 30, and that we wish to inscribe an octagon within
it ; then say as 1000 is to 30 inches, so is 765 to 22 inches and 95-100
parts of an inch, the length of the side of the required octagon.
Method of Drawing Curved Lines.
We will now introduce a few remarks upon the method of drawing
curved lines, and also give some rules for finding the forms of mould-
ings when they are to mitre together, that is to say, of raking
mouldings, and of bevel work in general. It will also be necessary
to make a few remarks upon the form of ribs for domes and groins, a
knowledge of which is so necessary to the builder, that without it the
workman cannot correctly execute his task. It is hardly necessary
to state, that all these mechanical operations are founded upon geo-
metrical principles; and, unless he is acquainted with these, the
workman cannot hope to succeed in his attempt to excel in his art, —
one which is necessary for the comfort and convenience of all com-
munities.
116
PRACTICAL GOEMETRY.
Problem VIII.
To draw on Ellipse with fhe Rule and Compasses, the transverse and
conjugate Diameters being given ; that is, the Length and Width.
Let A B be the transverse or longest diameter ; c d the conjugate
Fig. 7.
or shortest diameter ; and o the point of their intersection, that is,
the centre of the ellipse. Take the distance o c or o d ; and, taking
A as one point, mark that distance A e upon the line a o. Divide
0 E into three equal parts, and take from a f, a distance e f, equal
to one of those parts. Make o g equal to o f. With the radius f g,
and F and g as centres, strike arcs which shall intersect each other
in the points i and h. Then draw the lines h f k, h g m, and i f l,,
1 G N. With F as a centre, and the radius a f, describe the arc
L A K ; and, from g as a centre, with the same radius, describe the
arc M B N. With the radius h c, and h as a centre, describe the arc
K c M ; and, from the point i, with the radius i n, describe the arc
L, D M. The figure a c b d is an ellipse, formed of four arcs of cir-
cles.
Problem IX.
To draw an Ellipse by means of two Concentric Circles.
Fig. 8.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 117
Let AB be the transverse, and e f the conjugate diameter, and o
the centre of an ellipse to be drawn. From o with the radius o A,
desciibe the circle a c b D.and from the same centre describe another
circle g e h f. Divide the outer circle into any number of equal
parts ; the greater the number, the more exact will be the ellipse :
and they sliould not be less than twelve. From each of these divi-
sions draw lines to the centre o, as a o, b o, c o. Then, from a, b, c,
&c., draw lines perpendicular to a b, and from the corresponding
points in the inner circle, that is, from the points marked 1, 2, 3, &,c.,
draw lines parallel to a b. Draw a curve through the points where
these lines intersect each other, and it will be an ellipse.
In the diagram to which this demonstration refers, only one quar-
ter of the ellipse is lettered, but the process described in relation to
that must be carried round the circles, as is shown in the dotted and
other lines. ^
Problem X.
To describe an Ellipse by Means of a Carpenter's Square, or a
piece of notched Lath.
Having drawn two lines to represent the diameters of the ellipse
required, fasten the square so that the internal angle or meeting of
the blade and stock shall be at the centre of the ellipse. Then take
a piece of wood or a lath, and cut it to the length of half the longest
diameter, and from one end cut out a piece equal to half the shortest
diameter, and there will then be a piece remaining at one end equal
to the difference of the half of the two diameters. Place this project-
ing piece of the lath in such a manner that it may rest against the
square, on the edge which corresponds to the two diameters ; then,
turning it round horizontally, the two ends of the projection will
slide along the two internal edges of the square, and if a pencil be
fixed at the other end of the lath, it will describe one quarter of an
ellipse. The square must then be moved for the successive quarters
of the ellipse, and the whole figure will thus be easily formed.
This method of forming an eUipse is a good substitute for the usual
plan, and the figure thus pioduced is more accurate than that made
by passing a pencil round a string moving upon two pins or nails
fixed in the foci, for the string is apt to stretch, and the pencil cannot
be guided with the accuracy required.
There are many other methods of drawing ellipses, or more prop-
erly ovals, but we can only notice two of those in common use.
1. By ordinates, or lines drawn perpendicular to the axis. Having
formed the two diameters, divide the axis, or larger diameter, into
any number of equal parts, and erect lines perpendicular to the
several points. Next draw a semicircle, and divide its diameter into
the like number of equal parts; that is, if the larger diameter or axis
of the intended ellipse be divided into twenty equal parts, then the
118
PRACTICAL GEOBIETRY.
semicircle must be divided into the like number. As the diameter of
the semicircle is equal to the sliorter diameter of the ellipse, or con-
jugate axis, perpendiculars maybe raised from these divisions of the
diameter, or the semicircle, till they meet the circumference ; and
the different perpendiculars, which are called ordinates, may be
erected like perpendiculars, on the axis of ellipse. Joining the sev-
eral points together, the ellipse is described ; and the more accurately
the perpendiculars are formed the more exact will be the ellipse.
2. By intersecting arches. Take anj' point in the axis, and with a
i-adius equal to the distance of that point from one extremity of the
axis, and with one of the foci as a centre, describe an arc ; then with
the distance of the assumed point in the axis from the other end of it,
and with the other focus as a centre, describe another arc intersect-
ing 4he former, and the point of intersection will be a point in the
ellipse. By assuming any number of points in the axis, any number
of points on the curve may be found, and these united will give the
ellipse. This process is founded on the property of the ellipse ; that
if any two lines are drawn from the foci to any point in the curve, the
length of these lines added together will be a constant quantity, that
is, always the same in the same ellipse.
Problem XT.
To find the Centre and the two Axes of an Ellipse.
Let A B c D be an ellipse, it is required to find its centi'e. Draw
Fig. 9.
any two lines, as e f and c ii, parallel and equal to each other. Bi-
sect these lines as in the points i and k. and bisect i ic as in l.
From L, as a centre, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in four ])oints,
1, 2, 3, 4. Now L. is the centre of the ellipse. But join the points
1, 3, and 2, 4; and Insect these lines as in m and n. Draw the lino
M !«, and produce it to A and b, and it will be the transverse axis.
Draw c n through l, and perpendicular to ab, and it will be the
conjugate or shorter axis.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
119
Problem XII.
To draw aflat Arch by the intersection of Lines, having the Open,'
ing and Spring or Rise given.
Let A D B be the opening, and c d its spring or rise. In the mid-
FiG. 10.
die of A B, at D, erect a perpendicular d e, equal to (wice c d, its
rise ; and from e draw e a and e b, and divide a e and b e into any
number or equal parts, as o, b, c, and 1, 2, 3. Join sa, 3 c, 2Zi, and
1 A, and it will form the arch required.
The more parts a e and b e are divided into, the greater will be
the accuracy of the curve.
Many curves may be made in the same manner, according to the
position of the lines a e and e b ; and if instead of two lines drawn
from A and b, meeting in e, a perpendicular be erected at the same
points, and two lines be then drawn from the ends of these perpendic-
ulars meeting in an angle, and these lines be divided into any num-
ber of equal parts, the points of the adjacent lines may be joined, and
a curve will be formed resembling a gothic arch. The demonstration
already given is therefore very useful to the workman, as he may
vary the form of the curve by altering the position of the lines, either
with i-espect to the angles which they make with each other, or their
proportional lengths.
Problem XIII.
Tofl,nd the Form or Curvature of a raking Moulding that shall
unite correctly with a level one.
Let A B c D be part of the level moulding, which we will here
Fig. II.
B
D
suppose to be an ovolo, or quarter round ; a and c, the points where
the raking moulding takes its rise on the angle ; f c G, the angle the
120
PRACTICAL GEOMETKY.
raking mouldino; makes with the horizontal one. Draw c f at the
given angle, and from a draw a e parallel to it ; continue b a to h,
and from c make c h perpendicular to a h. Divide c h into any
number of equal parts, as 1,2, 3, and draw lines parallel to h a, as 1
a, 2 b, 3 c,- and then in any part of the raking moulding, as i, draw
I K perpendicular to e a, and divide ik into the same number of
equal parts h c is divided into ; and draw 1 a, 2 6, 3 f , parallel to e a.
Then transfer the distances la,2b, S c, and a curve drawn through
these points will be the form of the curve required for the raking
moulding
We have here shown the method to he employed for an ovolo ; but
it is just the same for any other formed moulding, as a cavetto, semi-
recta, &c. It may be worthy remark, that, after the moulding is
worked, and the mitre is cut in the mitre-box for the level moulding,
the raking moulding must be cut, cither by the means of a wedge
formed to the required angle of the rake, or a box made to correspond
to that angle: and if this be accurately done, the mitre will be true,
and the moulding in all its members correspond to the level moulding.
The plane in which the raking moulding is situated is square to that
of the level one. This is always the case in a pediment, the mould-
ings of which correspond with the return.
Problem XIV,
To find the Form or Curvature of the Return in an open or broken
Pediment.
Let A B c be the angle which the pediment makes with the cor-
FiG. 12.
nice, and let the form and size of the moulding he as in the last pro-
blem, and as shown at n A b h. From d drop a perpendicular on
c n, and draw n e perpendicular to n c, or parallel to c b ; and let
D E be equal to E i (Fig. 11). Then from e draw e k, parallel to
D A, and divide e f into the same number of parts as i k (Fit; 11),
at 1 a, 26, 3 c, and transfer the distances 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, as in Fig. 11.
Then a curve line drawn through the points a, b, c, will he the form
of the return for the innulding of the open pediment.
The mitre for the return is cut in the usual manner, hut that of
the pediment is cut to the jnoper angle of its inclination, as in the
last problem. Infixing the mitre, the portion e d t; of the return
mu^t b(! cutaway, to make it come Hush with the lop of tlie pediment
uioulditig.
EPITOME OF MENSURATION
AND
INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC.
11
122 EPITOME OF MENSURATION.
EPITOME OF MENSURATION.
OF THE CIRCLE, OYLINDEK, SPHERE, &C.
1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure bounded
by an equal perimeter or outline.
2. Tlie areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diametersi
3. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3.1416.
4. The diameter of a circle is equal to .31831 of its circumference.
5. The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals .7854.
6. The square root of the area of a circle, multiplied by 1.12837, equals
its diameter.
7. The diameter of a circle multiplied by .8862, or the circumference
multiplied by .2821, equals the side of a square of equal area.
8. The sum of the squares of half the chord and versed sine divided by
the versed sine, the quotient equals the diameter of corresponding circle.
9. The chord of the whole arc of a circle taken from eight times the chord
of half the arc, one-third of the remainder equals the length of the arc ; or,
10. The number of degrees contained in the arc of a circle, multiplied by
Ihe diameter of the circle and by .008727, the product equals the length of
the arc in equal terms of unity.
11. The length of the arc of a sectop of a circle multiplied by its radius,
equals twice the area of the sector.
12. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area of the sector,
minus the area of a triangle whose vertex is the centre, and whose base
equals the chord of the segment, or,
13. The area of a segment may be obtained by dividing the height of the
segment by the diameter of the circle, and multiplying the corresponding
tabular area by the square of the diamener.
14. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied by
their difference and by .7854, equals the area of tlie ring or space contained
between them.
15. The sum of the thickness and infernal diameter of a cylindric ring,
multiplied by the square of its thickness and by 2.4C74, equals its solidity.
16. The circumference of a cylinder, multiplied by its length or height,
equals its convex surface.
17. The area of the end of a cylinder, multiplied by its length, equals its
solid contend.
18. The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder, multiplied by its
depth, equals its cubical capacity.
19. The square of the diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its length and
divided by ;iiiy other required length, the square root of the quotient equals
Uic diameter of the other cylinder of equal contents or capacity.
EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 123
20. The square of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by 3.1416, equals
its convex surface.
21. The culie of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by .5236, equals its
solid contents.
22. The height of any spherical segment or zone multiplied by the diam-
eter of the sphere of which it is a part, and by 3.1416, equals the area or
convex surface of the segment; or,
23. The height of the segment, multiplied by the circumference of the
sphere of which it is a part, equals the area.
21. Tiie solidity of any spiierical segment is equal to three times the
square of the radius of ils base, plus the square of its height, and multiplied
by Its height and by 5236.
25. The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the squares of the
radii of its two ends, and one-third the square of its height, multiplied by
^ the height, and by 1.5708.
26. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 foot in diameter and 1 foot in length,
equals 5 875 of a United States gallon.
27. The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter and 1 foot in length,
equals .0408 of a United States gallon.
28. The capacitj' of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch in length,
equals .OO."^ of a United States gallon.
29. The capacity of a sphere 1 foot in diameter equals 3.9156 United
States gillonSi
30. Tlie capacity of a sphere 1 inch in diameter equals .002165 of a
United Slates gallon : — hence,
31. The capacity of any other cylinder in United States gallons is ob-
tained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length, or the capaci-
ty of any other sphere by the cube of its diameter, and by the number of
United States gallons contained as above in the unity of its measurement.
OF THE SQUARE, RECTANGLE, CUBE, &C.
1. The side of a square equals the square root of us area.
2. The area of a square equals the square of one of us sides.
3. The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the square of
its side.
4. The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the square of
its diagonal.
5. The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given square contains
double the area of the given square.
6. The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its breadth.
7. The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the breadth; or,
the breadth equals the area divided by the length.
8. The side or end of a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of the
diagonal and opposite side to that required, multiplied by their difference.
124
EPITOME OF MENSURATION.
9. The diagonal iu a rectangle equals the square root of Ine sum of the
squares of the base and perpendicular.
10. The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides multiplied
by the length or breadth of one of its sides.
11. The length or breadth of a side of a cube equals the cube root of its
solidity.
12. The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 7.4-784 United States gallons.
SURFACES AXD SOLIDITIES OF THE REGULAR BODIES, EACH OF WUOSE
BOUNDARY LINES IS 1.
No. of sides.
Names.
Surfaces.
Solids.
4
6
8
12
20
Tetrahedron
Hexahedron
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
Icosahedron
1.7321
6.
3.4641
20.6458
8.6603
0.1179
1.
0.4714
7.6631
2.1817
The tabular surface multiplied by the square of one of the boundary Jines
equals the surface required ; or,
The tabular solidity multiplied by the cube of one of the boundary lines
equals the solidity required.
OF TRIANGLES, POLYGONS, &C.
1. The complement of an angle is its defect from a right angle.
2. The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right angles.
3. The sine, tangent, and secant of an angle, are the cosine, cotangent,
and cosecant of the complement of that angle.
4. The h^-potenuse of a right-angled triangle being made radii, its sides
become the sines of the opposite angles, or the cosines of the adjacent angles.
5. The three angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles :
hence the oblique angles of a right-angled triangle arc eacli others comple-
ments.
6. The sum of the squares of the two given sides oi a right-angled triap-
/>)e is equal to the square of the h^'potcnusc.
7. The difference between the squares of the hypotenuse and given side
of a righl-ajigled triangle is equal to the .square of the reiiuircd side.
8. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base multiplied
by the perpendicular height ; or,
9. The area of a triangle equals half the productof tiie two sides and the
natural sine of the contained angle.
10. The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its npoihcm or perpen-
dicular^ and by the uumbcr of its sides, e(juals twice the area.
EPITOME OF MENSITKATION.
12d
TABLE OF THE ARE^iS OF REGULAR POLYGONS EACH OF WHOSE
SIDES IS UNITY.
Name of
No ofi Apotheni or
Area when
Interior
Central
Polygon.
Sides Perpend'lar.
Side IS Limy
Angle.
Angle.
Triangle
3
0.2887
0.4330
60° 0'
120° 0'
Square
4
0.5
1,
90. 0
90 0
Pentagon
5
0.6882
1.7205
108 0
72 0
Hexagon
6
0.8660
2.5981
120 0
60 0
Heptagon
7
1.0386
3.6339
128 34f
51 25^
Octagon
8
1.2071
4.8284
135 0
45 0
Nonagon
9
].3737
6.1818
140 0
40 0
Decagon
10
1.5388
7.6942
144 0
36 0
Undecagon
11
1.7028
9.3656
147 16^4^
32 43/t
Dodecagon
12
1.8660
11.1962
150 0
30 0
The tabular area of the corresponding polygon multiplied by the square
of the side of the given polygon equals the area of the given polygon.
OF ELLIPSES, CONES, FRUSTUMS, &C.
1. The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two diameters of
an ellipse multiplied by 3.1-116 equals its circumference.
2. The product of the two axes of an ellipse multiplied by .7854 equals
its area.
3. The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of the circum-
ference of its base multiplied by its slant side, to which, if the area of the
base be added, the sum is the whole surface.
4. The solidity of a cone equals one third of the product of its base mul-
tiplied by its altitude or height.
5. The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustum of a cone
added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum multiplied by its
height and by .2618, equals its solidity.
INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC,
OR UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE.
The slide rule is an instrument by which the greater portion of operations
in arithmetic and mensuration may be advantageously performed, provided
the lines of division and gauge- points be made properly correct, and their
several values familiarly understood.
The lines of division are distinguished by the letters a B c D j A b and c
being each divided alike, and containing what is termed a double radius,
11*
126 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE.
or double series of logarilhmic numbers, each scries being supposed to be
divided into 1000 equal parts, and distributed along the radius in the fol-
lowing manner :
From 1 to 2 contains 301 of those parts, being the log. of 2.
„ 3_
n
3
477
it
4
602
it
5
699
u
6
778
tt
7
845
t(
8
003
ti
9
934
il
II
/I
It
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1000 being the whole number.
The line D on the improved rules consists of only a single radius ; and
although of larger radius, the logarilhmic series is the same, and disposed
of along the line in a similar proportion, form.ing exactlj' a line of square
roots to the numbers on the lines b c.
NUMERATION.
Numeration teaches us to estimate or propCrly value the numbers and
divisions on the rule in an arithmetical form.
Their values are all entirely governed by the value set upon the first
figure, and being decimally reckoned, advance tenfold from the commence-
ment to the termination of each radius : thus, suppose 1 at the joint be one,
the 1 in the middle of the rule is ten, and 1 at the end, one hundred : again,
suppose 1 at the joint ten, 1 in the middle is 100, and 1 or 10 al the end is
1000, &.C., the intermediate divisions on which complete the whole system
ofits notation.
TO MULTIPLY NUMBERS BY THE RULE.
Set 1 on B opposite to the multiplier on A ; and against the number to be
multiplied on b is the product on a.
Multiply 0 by 4.
Set 1 on B to 4 on A ; and against 6 on B is 24 on A.
The slide thus set, against 7 on b is 28 on a.
&c.
TO DIVIDE NUMBERS UPON TIIE RULE.
Set the divisor on b to 1 on a ; and against the number to be divided on
B is the quotient on A.
Divide 63 by 3.
Set 3 on B to 1 on A 3 and against 63 on b is 21 on a.
8
32
9
36
10
40
12
48
15
60
23
100
UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 127
PROPORTION, OR RULE OF TUREE DIRECT
Rule. — Set the first term on b to the second on a 5 and against the third
upon B is the fourth upon a.
1. If 4 yards of cloth cost 38 cents, what will 30 yards cost at the same
rate?
Set 4 on B to 38 on A ; and against 30 on B is 285 cents on A.
2. Suppose I pay 31 dollars 50 cents for 3 cwt, of copper, at what rate is
that per ton ? I ton == 20 cwt.
Set 3 upon b to 31.5 upon a ; and against 20 upon b is 210 upon A. •
RULE OF THREE INVERSE.
Rule. — Invert the slide, and the operation is the same as direct proper-
tion.
1. I know that six men are capable of performing a certain given por-
tion of work in eight days, but I want the same performed in three j how
many men must there be employed ?
Set 6 upon c to 8 upon a ; and against 3 upon c is 16 upon a.
2. The lever of a safety-valve is 20 inches in length, and 5 inches between
the fixed end and centre of the valve; what weight must there be placed on
the end of the lever to equipoise a force or pressure of 40 lbs. tending to
raise the valve ?
Set 5 upon c to 40 upon a ; and against 20 upon c is 10 upon A.
3. If 8| yards of cloth, 1.^ yard in width, be a sufficient quantity, how
much will be required of that which is only 7-8ths in width, to effect the
same purpose ?
Set 1.5 upon c to 8.75 upon a ; and against .875 upon c is 15 yards upon a.
SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS.
On the engineer's rule, when the lines c and d are equal at both ends, c
is a table of squares, and D a table of roots, as
Squares 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 on c.
Roots 12 3 4 ar 6 7 8 9 on d.
To find the geometrical mean proportion between two numbers.
Set one of the numbers upon c to the same number upon D ; and against
the other number upon c is the mean number or side of an equal square
upon D.
Required the mean proportion between 20 and 45.
Set 20 upon c to 20 upon d ; and against 45 upon c is 30 upon D.
To cube any number, set the number upon c to 1 or 10 upon D ; and
against the same number up mi d is the cube number upon c.
128 TTTIXITY OF THE SLIDE RULE.
Required the cube of 4.
Set 4 upon c to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against 4 upon D is 64 upon c.
To extract the cube root of any number, invert the slide, aud set the
number upon b to 1 or 10 upon d ; and where two numbers of equal value
coincide on the lines B D, is the root of the given number.
Required the cube root of 64.
Set 64 upon b to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against 4 upon B is 4 upon D, or root
of the given number.
On *hc common rule, when 1 in the middle of the line c is set opposite to
10 on D, then c is a table of squares, and d a table of roots.
To cube any number by this rule, set the number upon c to 10 upon D-
and agamst the same number upon d is the cube upon c.
MENSURATION OF SUEFACE.
1. Squares, Rectangles, ^c.
Rur.E. — When the length is given in feet and the breadth in inches, set
tlie breadth on B to 12 on a ; and against the length on A is the content in
square feet on B.
If the dimensions are all inches, set the breadth on B to 144 upon A 5 and
against the length upon A is the number of square feet on B.
Re()uircd the content of a board 15 inches broad and 14 feet long.
Set 15 upon b to 12 ujjon a ; and against 14 upon a is 17.5 square feet on B.
2. Circles, Polygons, S(c.
Rule. — Set .7854 upon c to 1 or 10 upon d ; then will the lines c and D
be a table of areas and diameters.
Areas 3.14 7.06 12.5G 19.63 28.27 38.48 50.26 63.61 upon c;
Diam. 2345678 9 upon d.
In the common rule, set .7854 on c to 10 on D j then c is a line or table
of areas, and D of diameters, as before.
Sol 7 upon li to 22 upon A ; then B and a form or become a table of di-
ameters and circumferences of circles.
Cir. 3.14 6 28 9.42 12.56 15.7 18.85 22 25.13 28.27 upon a.
Dia. 123 4 56 78 9 upon b.
Poti/gons from 3 to 12 sides. — Set the gauge-point upon c to 1 or 10
upon u ; and against the length of one side upon d is the area uponc.
Sides 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
Gauge-points .433 1.7 2.G 3.G3 4.82 6.18 7.69 9.37 11.17
Required the area of an equilateral triangle, each side 12 inches in length.
Scri .433 upon c to 1 upon D 3 and against 12 upon D arc 62.5 square
Inches upon c.
UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE.
129
TABLE OF GAUGE-POINTS FOR THE ENGINEER'S RULE.
Names
Cubic inches
Cubic feet
Imp. Gallons
Water in lbs.
Gold
Silver
Mercury
Brass "
Copper "
Lead "
Wrot iron "
Cast iron ♦'
Tin "
Steel "
Coal "
Marble "
Freestone "
F, F,V. I F, 1,1. I 1,1, I. i! F, I
I, I.
I.
578
1
163
16
814
15
118
193
18
141
207
222
219
202
127
591
632
83
144
231
23
1175
216
169
177
26
203
297
32
315
292
183
85
915
728 !
106
1273
1
1833
22
277 !
294
353
276 .
293
352
141 1
149
178
261 1
276
334
203
216
258
333
354
424
319
331
397
243
258
31
357
338
453
384
407
489
378 i
401
481
352 i
372
448
22 i
33
23
102 :
116
13
11
1162
14
105
121
306
305
155
286
225
369
345
27
394 I
424
419
385
242
113
141
121
33
529
528
269
5
389
637
596
465
682
733
728
671
42
195
21
FOR THE COMMON SLIDE RULE.
Names.
F, F, F.
F, I, I.
1.1,1.
i F,I.
1,1.
F.
r
Cubic inches
36
518
624
660
799 i
625
113
Cubic feel
625
9
108
114
138
119
206
Water in lbs.
10
144
174
184
22
191
329
Gold
507
735
88
96
118
939
ISO
Silver "
938
136
157
173
208
173
354
Mercury "
738
122
127
[ 132
162
141
242
Brass "
12
174
207
; 221
265
23
397
Copper "
112
163
196
' 207
247
214
371
Lead
880
126
152
! 162
194
169
289
Wrot iron "
129
186
222
235
283
247
423
Cast iron "
139
2
241
254
3*4
, 265
458
Tin
137
135
235
25
300
i 261
454
Steel "
1.36
183
22
233
278
239
418
Coal "
795
114
1.38
146
176
! 151
252
Marble "
370
53
637
' 725
81
72
121
Freestone "
394
57
69
! 728
873
755
132
JIENSURATION OF SOLIDITY AND CAPACITY.
General Rule. — Set the length upon u to the gauge point upon a ; and
against the side of the square, or diameter on D, are the cubic contents, or
weight in lbs. on c.
1. Required the cubic contents of a tree 30 feet in length, and 10 inches
quarter girt.
Set 30 upon b to 144 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 10 upon u is
20.75 feet upon c.
130 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE.
2. In a cylinder 9 inches in length, and 7 inches diameter, liow many cubic
inches ?
Set 9 upon B to 1273 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 7 on d is 346
inclies on c.
3. What is the weight of a bar of cast iron 3 in. scjuare, and 6 ft. long?
Set 6 upon B to 32 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 3 upon D is 168
pounds upon Ci
By the common nde.
4. Required the weight of a cylinder of wrought iron 10 inches long, and
5J diameter.
Set 10 upon B to 283 (the gau2;-e-poinl) upon a; and against 5^ upon D is
66.65 pounds on c.
5. ^V^lat is the weight of a dry rope 23 yards long, and 4 inches circum-
ference 1
Set 25 upon e to 47 (the gauge-point) upon a j and against 4 on d is 53 16
pounds on c.
6. What is tlie weight of a short-linked chain 30 yards in length, and
6-16ths of an inch in diameter?
Set 30 upon b to 52 (the gauge-point) upon A ; and against 6 on D is 129.5
pounds on c.
POWER OF STEAM EXGIXES.
Condensing Engines. — Rule. Set 3.5 on c to 10 on D ; then D is a line
of diameters for cylinders, and c the corresponding number of horses'
power ; thus,
H. Pr. 3iJ 4 5 G 8 10 12 IG 20 25 30 40 50 on c.
C. D. 10 in. 10| 12 13.i 15^ 17 18| 21^ 24 2G| 29^ 33| 37| on D.
The same is effected on the common rule by setting 5 on c to 12 on d.
Non-condensing Engines. — Rule. Set the pres.>-ure of steam in pounds
per square inch on B to 4 upon a ; and against the cylinder's diameter on D
is the number of horses' power upon c.
Required the power of an engine, when the cylinder is 20 inches diameter
and steam 30 pounds per square inch.
Set 30 on B to 4 on A ; and against 20 on D is 30 horses' power on c.
The same is effected on the common rule by setting the force of the steam
on B to 250 on a.
OF ENGINE BOIIERS.
IIow many .superficial feet arc contained in a boiler 23 feet in length and
6^ feet in width ?
Set 1 on B to 23 on A ; and against 5.5 upon B is 126.5 square feet upon A.
If 5 square feet of boiler surface be sufficient for each horse-power, how
many horses' power of engine is the boiler equal to ?
Set 5 upon B to 12G.ti upon A ; and against 1 upon fi is Z5.5 upon A.
RULES AND TABLES
FOE
AETIFICERS AND ENGINEERS,
132 MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS* WORK.
ARTIFICERS' RULES AND TABLES
For Computing the Work of Bricklayers, Well Dig-
gers, Masons, Carpenters and Joiners, Slaters, Plas-
terers, Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, and Plumbers.
MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS' WORK.
Brickwork is estimated at the rate of a number of bricks in thickness, estimat-
ing a brick at 4 inches thick. The dimensions of a building are usually taken
by measuring half round on the outside, and half round on the inside ; the sum
of these two gives the compass of the wall, — to be multiplied by the height, for
the content of the materials. Chimneys are by some measured as if they were
solid, deducting only the vacuity from the hearth to the mantel, on account of the
trouble of them. And by others they are girt or measured round for their breadth,
and the height of the story is their height, taking the depth of the jambs for their
thickness. And in this case, no deduction is made for the vacuity from the floor
to tlie mantel- tree, because of the gathering of the breast and wings, to make room
for the hearth in the next story. To measure the chimney shafts, which appear
above the building, gird them about with aline for the breadth, to multiply by
their height. Anil account their thickness half a brick more than it really is, in
consideration of the plastering and scaflolding. All windows, doors, &c., are to
be deducted out of the contents of the walls in which they are placed. But tliis
deduction is made only with regard to materials ; for the whole measure is taken
for workmanship, and that all outside measure too, namely, measuring quite
round the outside of the building, being in consideration of the trouble of the
returns or angles. There are also some other allowances, such as double meas-
ure for feathered gable ends, &c.
Example. — The end wall of a house is 28 feet long, and 37 feet high to the
eaves : 15 feel high is four bricks or 16 inches thick, oilier 13 feel is three bricks
or 12 inches thick, and the remaining 11) feet is two bricks or 8 inches thick;
above which is a triangular gable 12 feet high and one brick or 4 inches in
thickness. What number of bricks are there in the said wall? A>is. 25,620.
tliiclincss.
28 X 15 = 420 X '1 = Ifisn contents of Isl story.
28 X 12 = 3.30 X 3 = 1003 " " 2d "
23X10 = 260x2= 5G0 " " 3d "
12 -T- 2= 6X28 = 108X1= 1(53 " "gable.
34 10 square feet area of whole wall.
7^ bricks to square foot.
23,912 By the table
1,708 3000 suprfi. ft. = 22,500 bricks,
400 " " = 3,000 "
Answer,—
25,620 bricks. 10 " " = 75 "
6 " " = 45 "
3416 " " = 25,620 bricks
^ Table by ii'hich to ascertain the number of Bricks necessary to construct any
Piece of Building, from afour-inch Wall to ttvoity-four inches in Thickness.
The utility of the Table (on next page) can be seen by the following Ex-
ample. Required the number of bricks to build a wall of 12 inches thickness,
nnu containing an area of 0,437 square feci.
Square feet 1000 22,.'')00 bricks— See table.
X 0 6
6000 = 135 000 NoTK. — 7J bricks.
400 = 9,000 equal one superficial loot.
30 = 075
7= 158
6,437= 144,833 bricks.
MEASUREMENT OF BRICKWORK, WELLS t CISTERNS. 133
Superficial
Numtel- of B>-icks lo Thickness of
Wall.
4-inch
8inch.
12-inch.
16-lnch-
20-inch.
1 24-inch.
1
8
15
23
30
38
45
2
15
30
45
60
75
90
3
23
45
68
90
113
135
4
30
60
90
120
150
J 80
5
38
75
113
150
188
225
6
45
90
135
180
225
270
7
53
105
156
210
263
315
8
60
120
180
240
300
3(10
9
68
135
203
270
338
405
10
75
150
225
300
375
450
20
150
300
450
600
750
900
30
225
450
675
900
1125
1.330
40
300
600
900
J 200
1500
ISdO
50
375
750
1125
1500
1875
2250
60
450
900
1350
1801)
2250
2700
70
525
1050
1575
2100
2625
3150
SO
600
1200
ie-00
2400
3000
3600
90
675
1350
2025
2700
a375
4050
100
750
1500
2250
3000
3750
4500
200
1500
3000
4500
6000
7500
9000
300
2250
4500
6750
9000
11250
13500
400
3000
6000
9000
12000
15000
160(10
5(10
3750
7500
11250
15000
18750
22500
600
4500
9000
13500
l&OOO
22500
27000
700
5250
10500
15750
21000
26250
31500
800
6000
12000
18000
24000
30000
36000
900
6750
13500
20250
27000
33750
40500
1000
7500
15000
22500
30000
37500
45000
MEASUREMENT OF WELLS AND CISTERNS.
There are two methods of estimating the value of excavating. It may bo
done by allowing so much a day for every man's work, or so much per cubic
foot, or yard, for all that is excavated.
Well Di§^ng. — Suppose a Well is 40 feet deep, and 5 feet in diameter,,
required the number of cubic feet, or yards?
5 X 5 = 25 X .7354 = 19.635 X 40 = 785.4 cubic feet.
Suppose a well .o be 4 feet 9 inches diameter, and ]6i feet from the bottom to
the surface of the water ; how many gallons are therein coniained ?
4-752 X 16.5 X 5.875 = 2187.152 gallons.
Again, suppose the well's diameter the same, and its entire depth 35 feet; re-
quired the quantity in cubic yards of material excavated in its formation.
4.752 X 35 X -02909 = 22.9?2 cubic yards.
A cylindrical piece of lead is required 7^ inches diameter, and 1G8 lbs. ia
weight ; what must be its length in inches ?
7.52 X .3223 = 18, and 163 -^ 18 = 9.3 inches.
Digging for Foundations, If c. — To find the cubical quantity in a trench, or
an excavated area, the lengih, width, and depth must be multiplied togellier.
These are usually given in feet, and therefore, to reduce the amount into cubic
yards it must be divided by 27.
Suppose a trench is 40 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, required the
number of cubic feet, or yards?
40 X3 = 120x3=360feet^27 = 13j yards.
24 cubic feet of sand, 17 ditto clay, 18 ditto earth, equal one ton.
1 cubic yard of earth or gravel, before digging, will occupy about IJ cubio
yards when dug.
31EASUREMENT OF MASONS' WORK.
To masonry belong all sorts of stone-^vork ; and the measure made use of is
a foot, either superficial or solid.
Walls, columns, blocks of stone or marble, &c., are measured by the cubio
12
134 MEASUREMEXT OF MASONS' & CARPENTEES' WORK.
foot; and pavements, slabs, chimney-pieces, &c., by the superficial or square
foot. Cubic or solid measure is used lor ihe materials, and square measure for
the workmanship. In the solid measure, the true lenglli, breadih and liuckness,
are taken, and multiplied continually together. In the superficial, there must be
taken the leiigih and breadih ol every part of the projection, which is seen with-
out the general upright face of the building.
E.XAMPLE. — In a chimney-piece, suppose the length of the mantel and slab
each 4 feet 6 inches ; breadth of both together 3 feel 2 inches ; lenijlh of each
jamb 4 feet 4 inches ; breadth of both together 1 fool 9 inches. Required ihe
superficial content. — Ans. 21 feel 10 inches.
4 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 2 in. = 34 ft. 3 in. ) „, .^, ,„ . . ,
4" 4 " xl"!)" =7" 7 >' {21 feet 10 inches.
Rubble Walls (unhewn stone) are commonly measured by the perch, which is
16J feel long, 1 loot deep, and IJ fool thick, equivalent to 'ii^ cubic feet. 25 cu-
bic feel is sometimes allowed to ihe perch, in measuring stone before it is laid, and
22 after it is laid in the wall. This species of work is of two kinds, coursed
and uncoursed ; in the former the stones are gauged and dressed by the hammer,
and the masonry laid in horizontal courses, but not necessarily confined to the
same height. The uncoursed rubble wall is formed by laying the stones in the
wall as they come to hand, without any previous gauging or working.
27 cubic feet of mortar require for its preparation, 9 bushels of lime and 1
cubic foot of sand.
Lime and sand lessen about one-third in bulk when made into mortar ; like-
wise cement and sand.
Lime, or cement and sand, to make moriar, require as much water as is equal
to one-third ot their bulk.
All sandstones ought to be placed on their natural beds ; from inattention to
this circuinsiance, the slones often split off at the joints, and the position of the
lamina much sooner admits of ihe destructive action of air and water.
The heaviest slones are most suited for docks and harbors, breakwaters to
bridges, &c.
Granite is the most durable species of stone yet known for the purposes of
building. It varies in weight according to quality ; the heaviest is the most
durable.
MEASUREMENT OF CARPENTERS' AND JOINERS' WORK.
To this branch belongs all the wood work of a house, such as flooring, parli-
lioning, roofing, &c. Large and plain articles are usually measured by the square
foot or yard, &.C., but enriched mouldings, and some other articles, are oltcn esti-
mated by running or lineal measures, and some things are rated by the piece,
All joints, girders, and in fact all the pans of naked flooring, are measured by
the cube, and their quantities are found by multiplying the length by ilie breadth,
and the product by the depth. The same rule appplies to the measurement of
all the timbers of a roof, and also the framed limbers used in the construction of
partitions.
Flooring, that is to say, the boards which cover the naked flooring, is meas-
ured l)y the square. Tlie dimensions are taken from wall to wall, and the pro-
duct IS divided by 100, which gives the number of squares ; but deductions must
be made for staircases and chimneys.
In measuring of joists, it is to be observed, that only one of their dimensions
IS the same willi that of ihe floor ; fo the other exceeds the length of il e nmin by
the thickness of the wall, and oiie-il ird of the same, because each enc is let iiilu
the wall about two-thirds of its thickness.
No deductions are made for hearths, on account of the additional trouble and
waste of materials.
Partitions are measured from wall to wall for one dimension, and from floor to
floor, as far as they extend, forihe other.
No deduction is made lor door- ways, on account of the trouble of frnming Ihem.
In mi-.isuiinp ol" joiners' work, the string is made to ply close to every part of
the Work over which it pusses.
The measure for centtrine for CKi.t.Ans is fcaind by iniiking a string puss over
ttie surface of the arch for the breadth, and taking ihe length of the cellar fof
MEASUEEMENT OF CARPENTERS* & JOINERS' WORK. 135
the length ; but in groin centering, it is usual to allow double measure, on ac-
count of their extraordinary trouble.
In roofing, the length of the house in the inside, together with two-thirds of the
thickness of one gable, is to be considered as the length , and the breadth is equal
to double the length of a string which is stretched from the ridge down the rafter,
and along the eaves-board, till it meets with the top of the wall.
For staircases, take the breadth of all the steps, by making a line ply close
overihem, from the top to the bottom, and multiply the length of this line by the
length of a step, for the whole area.— By the length of a step is meant the length
of the front and the returns at the two ends ; and by the breadth, is to be under-
stood the girth of its two outer surfaces, or the tread and riser.
For the baliisirade^ take \he whole length of the upper part of the handrail,
and girt over its end till it meet the top of the newel post, lor the length ; and
twice the length ot the baluster upon the landing, with the girth of the hand-
rail for the breadth.
For wainscoiing, tnke the compass of the room for the length ; and the height
from the floor to the ceiling, making the string ply close into all the mouldings
fcr the breadth. Out of this must be made deductions for windows, doors, and
chimneys, &:c., but workmanship is counted for the whole, on acco'unt of the
extraordinary trouble.
For doors, it is usual to allow for their thickness, by adding it to both dimen-
sions of length and breadth, and then to multiply them together for the area.
If the door be paneled on both sides, take double its measure for the workman-
ship ; but if the one side only be paneled, take the area and its half for the
Workmanship. — For the surrounding architrave, gird it about the outermost parts
for its leiiirth ; and measure over it, as far as it can be seen when the door is
open, for the breadth.
Window-shutters, bases, ^c, are measured in the same manner.
In the measuring of roofing for workmanship alone, holes for chimney-shafts
and sky-lights are generally deducted. But in measuring for work and mate-
rials, they commonly measure in all sky-lights, lutheranlights, and holes for
the chimney-shafts, on account of their trouble and waste of materials.
The diiors and shutters, being worked on both sides, are reckoned work and
half work.
Hemlock and Pine Shingles are generally 18 inches long, and of the average
width of 4 inches. A%Tien nailed to the roof 6 inches are generally left cut to
the weather, and 6 shingles are therefore required to a square foot. Cedar and
Cypress Shingles are generally 20 inches long, and 6 inches wide, and therefore
a less number are required for a "square." On account of waste and delects,
1000 shingles should be allowed to a square.
Two 4penny nails are allowed to each shingle, equal to 1200 to a square.
The weight of a square of partitioning may be estimated at from 1500 to
2000 lbs.; a square of single-joisted flooring, at from 1200 to 2000 lbs.; a square of
framed flooring, at from 2700 to 45(XI lbs; asquareof deafening, at about 1-500 lbs.
100 superficial feet make one square of boarding, flooring, &c.
In selecling Timber, avoid spongy heart, porous grain, and dead knots;
choose the brightest in color, and where the strong red grain appears to rise on
the surface.
The Carpenter will find in the " Business Man's Assistant " Tables giving the
solidcontentsot Timber and Logs ; the square feet in Scantling from 2.2 to 15.16 in-
ches ; the square feet in Boards and Planks; the contents of Logs in standard
Board measure; the strength and weight of Iron Cylinders, Trusses, Plates,
Cast Iron for Beams, and Hoop Iron.
Number of Americcin Iron Machine Cut Nails, in a pound, (by count.)
Size.
Number.
Size.
Number.
Size.
Number.
3 penny . . 408
4 " ... 275
5 " ... 227
6 penny . . 156
8 " . . . lUO
10 " ... 66
12 penny ... 52
20 " .... 32
30 " .... 25
136
MEASUKE3IENT OF SLATERS' WORK.
SASH TABLE.— Size and Prices of Sashes, Shutters, Ifc. Cincinnati, Ohio.
1
Size of Sash
"S S £ ■-■
o ej J? '3
I Price of Window
Size of Lights.
for 12 light 'Windows.
Price
Sash
Light
Price
Vcnit
Shutt
per p
Frames.
Width.
' Length.
Box.
Common.
IneliLS.
In.
feet. in.
feet. in.
cts.
$ cts.
$ cts.
$ CIS.
8 by 10
li
2 4
3 10
4
1 37i
2 00
1 20
8 by 10
n
2 4
3 10
5
1 62^
2 00
1 20
9 by 12
li
2 74
4 6i
5
1 62i
2 50
1 30
9 by 12
u
2 7|
4 6i
6
1 75
2 50
1 30
10 by 12
ij
2 10^
4 6i
5
1 62h
2 50
1 30
10 by 12
n
2 m
4 6^
6
1 75
2 50
1 30
10 by 14
n
2 lOi
5 2i
7
2 12i
2 75
1 40
10 by 15
If
2 104
5 6i
74
2 25
2 75
1 40
10 by 16
n
2 lOi
5 lO.i
8
2 374
3 20
1 50
11. by 15
n
3 2
5 6i
8
2 374
3 20
1 50"
11 by 16
n
3 2
5 lOi
84
2 50
3 35
1 60
11 by 17
n
3 2
6 2i
84
2 62.i
3 50
1 70
12 by 16
n
3 5
5 104
8*
2 62i
3 75
1 80
12 by 18
n
3 5
6 6i
9
2 874
4 00
1 90
12 by 20
n
3 5
7 2i
10
3 124
4 25
2 12i
12 by 22
n
3 5
7 10;^
11
3 37i
4 50
2 30
12 by 24
n
3 5
8 6i
12
3 624
4 75
2 50
Sasli 1 1-2 or 1 ."i-t inches thick, add 11-2 cents per light, to 1 3-8 inch prices ; for Plough-
ing and Boring sasli, add 1-2 cent i>er light ; all 1 3-8 sash arc made with hook rails.
Vcnitian Shutters, 1 1-2 or 1 3-4 inches thick, add 50 cents per pnir to 1 3-8 inch prices.
Shutters arc made 1 1-t inches longer than sash. Pivot or Rolling Shutters, extra price.
MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS' WORK.
In these article.s, the content of a roof is found by multiplying the length of the
riilge by the girth over from cave? to eaves ; msiking allowance in this girth for
the double row of slates at the bottom, or for how much one row of slates is laid
over another. When the roof is ot » true pilcli, that is, forming a right angle at
lop, llien the breadth of the building with its half added, is the girlh over both
sides. In angles formed in a roof, running from ilic ridge to the eaves, when the
angle bends inwards, it is called a valley ; but when oul\rards, it is called a hip.-
It is not usual to make deductions for cliiinney-shafis, sky-lights or other openings.
SLATES. [From the Quarries of Rutland County, VermoTit.}
3 inch
Cover.
No. of Slates
2 inch Cover.
No. of slates
3
inch Cover.
2 inch Cover.
No. of Slates
No. of slates
Sizes of Slates.
to the Siiiiarc
to the square
Sizes of Slates.
to the Square
to the square
or 100 Feet.
or 100 Feet.
or 100 Feet.
or 100 Feet.
24 l)y 16
86
84
18 by
11
174.i
163.i
24 Ijy 14
98
93i
18 by
10
192
180
24 by 12
114
109
18 by
9
213
200
22 by 14
108
W)2.i
16 by
12
184
171i
22 by 12
126
120
16 by
10
2214
205.1
22 by 10
152
144
16 by
9
246
228i
20 by 14
129
114 i
16 by
8
277
257
20 by 12
143
133i
14 by
10
262
240
20 by 11
146
1154
14 by
9
293
266i
20 by 10
169i
160
14 by
8
327
son
18 by 12
160
150
14 by
7
374
343
" Earh Slate i«3 inches iii)M> or rovKii. The rule for nii'iiniirini; Slatinft Is, to add one
fiixit for all hipn and vnll<-y<*. No deduction U niudo for I.uthcnii) windows, skyligbtJ or
chimneys, cxce[it they are of nuuiual size i then one half is deducted,"
plasterers', pavers', and painters' work. 137
IMPORTED SLATES.
Names of Slates.
Duchesses, ....
Marchionesses, . .
Countesses, ....
Viscountesses, . .
Ladies,
do
do '
do
Plantations, ....
do
do. ....
Doubles,
do. small, . .
School Slates for
Blackboards, . . .
Sizes.
laches. Inches.
24 by 12
22
20
18
16
16
14
12
14
13
12
13
11
12
10
10
10
8
8
8
12
10
10
7
7
5 ft. by 2 1-2 ft
5 feet by 3 feet.
Number of Super-
ficial Feet each M
of 1200 will cover.
1100
1000
750
666
583
466
400
333
600
458
1-3
1-3
416 2-3
320 5-6
262 1-2
Weight of
each M of
1200 Slates.
60
55
40
36
31
25
22
18 1-2
33
25
23
17 1-2
14 1-2
cwt.
((
((
it
((
((
((
((
((
((
(<
MEASUREMENT OF PLASTERERS' WORK.
Plasterers' work is of two kinds, namely, ceiling — which is plastering upon laths
— and rendering, winch is plastering upon walls, which are measured separately.
The comenls are eslimaied eiiher by ihe fool or yard, or square of ICO feet.
Enriched mouldings, &c., are rated by runningor lineal measure. One foot extra
is allowed for each mitre.
One half of the openings, windows, doors, &c., allowed to compensaie for
trouble of finishing returns at top and sides.
Cornices and mouldings, if 12 inches or more in girt, are sometimes estimated
by the sq ft. ; if less than 12 inches ihey are usually measured by the lineal foot.
1 bushel of cement will cover 1 1-7 square yards at 1 inch in thickness,
do. do. do. li do. do. | do. do.
do. do. do. 2} do. do. J do. do.
1 bushel of cement and 1 of gand will caver 2^ sq. yds. at 1 inch in thickness.
do. do. do. do. 3 do. f (jo. (jo.
do. do. do. do. 4J do. | do. do.
1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 3| square yds. at 1 inch in thickness,
do. do. do. do. 4i do. | do. do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
63
do.
do.
do.
1 cwt. of mastic and 1 gallon of oil will cover IJ yards at |, or 2J at J inch,
1 cubic yard of lime, 2 yards of road or drift sand, and 3 bushels of hair,
will cover T5 yards of render and set on brick, and 70 yards on lath, or 65 yards
plaster, or reyider, 2 coats and set on brick, and 60 yards on lath j floated work
will require about the same as 2 coats and set.
Laths are i} to It inches by 4 feet in length, and are usually set ^th of an inch
apart. A bundle contains 100. 1 bundle of laths and 500 nails cover about 4J yds.
MEASUREMENT OF PAVERS' WORK.
Pavers' work is done by the square yard. And the content is found by multi-
plying the length by the breadih. Grading for paving is charged by the day.
MEASUREMENT OF PAINTERS' WORK.
Painters' work is computed in square yards. Every part is measured where
the color lies ; the measuring line is forced into all the mouldings and corners.
12*
138 painters', glaziers', and fLUMEERS' WORK.
Cornices, mouldings, narrow skirlings, reveals to doors and windows, and
generally all work not more than nine inclies wide, are valued by ilieir length.
Sasli-franies are charged so much each according to their size, and the squares
so much a dozen. Mouldings, cut in, are charged by ihe foot run, and the work-
man always receives an extra price for pnriy-colors. Writing is charged by the
inch, and the price given is regulated by ihe skill and manner in which the work '
is executed : the same is true ot" imitations and marbling. The price ol'paiaiiii"-
varies exceedingly, some colors being more expensive and requiring much more
labor thiin others. In measuring open railing, it is customary lo tiiUe it as (lat
work, which pays for the extra labor ; and as the rails are painted on all sides,
the two surfaces are taken. It is customary to allow all edges and sinking?.
MEASUREMENT OF GLAZIERS' WORK.
Glaziers' work is sometimes measured by the sq. ft., sometimes by the piece,
oral so much per light ; except wlierc the glass is set in metallic iVanies, when
the charge is by the foot In estimating by the sq. ft., it is customary lo include
the whole sash. Circular or oval windows are measured as if ihey were square.
TABLE SHOWING THE SIZE AND NUMBER OF LIGHTS
TO THE 100 SQUARE FEET.
Size.
Lights.
Size.
Lights.
1 Size.
1 Lights.
! Size.
Lights
6 by S
3U0
12 by 14
86
14 by 22
47
20 by 20
36
7 by 9
229
12 by 15
80
14 by 24
43
20 by 22
33
8 by 10
180
12 by 16
75
15 by 15
64
20 by 24
30
8 by 11
164
12 by 17
71
15 by 16
60
20 by 25
29
8 by 12
1.50
12 by 18
67
15 by 18
53
20 Iiy 26
28
9 by 10
160
12 by 19
63
15 by 20
48
20 by 28
26
9 by 11
146
12 by 20
60
15 by 21
46
21 by 27
25
9 by 12
133
12 by 21
57
15 by 22
44
22 by 24
27
9 by 13
123
12 by 22
55
15 by 24
40
22 by 26
25
9 by 14
114
12 by 23
52
16 by 16
56
22 by 2S
23
9 by 16
100
12 by 24
50
16 by 17
53
24 by 28
21
10 by 10
144
13 by 14
79
16 by 18
50
24 by 30
20
10 by 12
120
13 by 15
74
16 by 20
45
24 by 32
19
10 by 13
111
13 by 16
69
16 by 21
43
25 by 30
19
10 by 14
103
13 by 17
65
16 by 22
41
26 by 36
15
10 by 15
96
13 by 18
61
16 by 24
38
2S by 34
15
10 by 16
90
13 by 19
58
17 by 17
50
30 by 40
12
10 by 17
85
13 by 20
55
17 by 18
47
31 by 36
13
10 by IS
80
13 by 21
53
17 by 20
42
31 by 40
12
11 by 11
119
13 by 22
50
17 by 22
38
31 by 42
12
11 by 12
109
13 by 24
46
17 by 24
35
32 by 42
10
11 by 13
101
14 bv 14
73
18 by 18
44
32 by 44
10
1 1 by 1 4
P4
14 by 15
68
18 by 20
40
33 by 45
10
11 by 1.5
87
14 by 16
64
18 by 22
36
34 by 46
9
11 by IG
82
14 by 17
60
18 by 24
33
30 l)y 52
9
11 by 17
77
14 by 18
57
19 by 19
40
32 by 56
8
11 by IS
73
14 by 19
54
19 by 20
38
33 by 56
8
12 by 12
100
14 by 20
61
19 by 22
34
36 by 58
7
12 by 13
92
14 by 21
49
19 by 24
32
38 by 58
7
MEASUREMENT OF PLUMBERS' WORK.
Plumbers' work is rated at 30 much a pound, or else by the hundred weight,
of 11-.' pounds. Sheet lead, used in roofing, pullering, &c., is from 7 to 12 lbs. to
the Hi|uiire foot. And u pipe of iin inch bore is cuiniiionly frcnii 0 to 13 lbs. lo ihe
yard in length. — [Sec Table," Weij;hC of Lead Pipe per Fool'' J
SIZE & WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPES, EOPES & CHAINS. 139
PATENT IMPROVED LEAD PIPE, SIZES AND WEIGHT
PER FOOT.
Calibre.
Weight
Calibre
Weight
Calibre
AVeight
Calibre
Weight
Calibre.
Weight
per foot.
lbs. ozs.
per foot,
lbs. ozs.
per foot,
lbs. ozs.'
per foot,
lbs. ozs.
Inches.
per foot.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
lbs. ozs.
%
0
^
1 4
X
1 4
1
4 0
ij
5 0
8
K
1 8
ih
2 0
tt
6 0
A
4 0
10
u
2 0
u
2 4
1>^
2 8
2
5 0
12
(C
3 0
u
2 8
u
3 0
cc
G 0
1 0
%
13
IC
3 0
cc
3 8
!C
7 0
1 8
u
1 0
11
4 0
cc
4 0
2^1 ■S
11 0
y^
8
Cf
1 8
1
1 8
(i
5 0
3 3
13 0
10
ec
2 0
IC
1 12
IK
3 0
3n^
15 0
12
(C
2 12
(C
2 0
((
3 8 1
4 -2
18 0
14
K
12
tc
2 8
IC
4 0 [
4UI
20 0
_,
1 0
t(
14
<(
3 0
IC
4 8 :
5
22 0
Sheet Lead.— Weight of a Square Foot, 2\, 3, 3^, 4, 4^, 5, 6, 7,
8^, 9, 10 lbs. and upwards.
BOSTON LEAD PIPE
SIZES
AND
WEIGHT PER
FOOT.
1-2 Inch.
5-8 Inch. 13-4 Inch.
1 Inch.
11-4 Inch.
11-2 Inch.
13-4 Inch.
2 Inch.
Ibi.
oz.
lbs.
cz.
lbs.
oz.
lb$.
oz.
lbs.
oz.
lbs.
oz.
lbs.
oz.
lbs. oz.
10
2
12
1
1
1
8
2
4
3
^
3
10
4
12
12
3
1
6
1
12
2
8
3
12
4
3
^
8
IG
1
12
2
2
13
4
4
5
2
7
12
1
4
2
4
o
6
3
3
4
10
1
S
3
2
2
14
3
13
6
1
11
3
14
3
13
1
14
5
2
4
1
6
4
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF ROPES
AND CHAINS.
li
^1
si
1.2
5 a
S|
-1
^1
roof Strength
in
ns and cwt.
3.3
Weight per
athom in lbs.
Diameter of
iain in inches.
li
oof strength
in
ns and cwt.
O
Ph
(h
CU S-
o
Ui
O
b
S B
3^
2|
5|^
1 5i
10
23
i
43
10 0
4^
4-^
f
8
1 16f
lOf
28
\^
49
11 11
5
5f
7
10^
2 10
lU
301
lin.
56
13 8
5f
7
^
14
3 5i
m
36
Wr
63
14 18
6^
Of
9
TIT
18
4 3J.
13
39
n
71
16 14
7
IH
*
22
5 2
I3f
45
ifV
79
18 11
8
15
4^
27
6 4J.
144
48J-
u
87
20 8
H
19
.3
32
7 7
15i
56
ItV
96
22 13
n
21
1 3
37
8 131
16
60
If
106
24 18
Note. — It must bn understood and also borne in mind, that, in eslimatins: the
amount oflen^iile strain lo wliich a body is subjected, the weight of tlie body
itself must also be taken in"lo account: for according to its position so may it
approximate to us whole wcia-ht in lending lo produce extension within itself;
as in the almost consiaiu application of ropes and chains to great depths, con-
siderable heights, &c.
140
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION.
IFrom Templeton's Workshop Companion.l
Materials of construction are liable to four different kinds of strain ;
viz., strelcliing, crushing, transverse action, and torsion or twisting : tlie
first of wliich depends upon the body's tenacity alone ; the second, on its
resistance to compression ; the third, «n its tenacity and compression com-
bined ; and the fourth, on that property by which it opposes any acting force
tending to ciiange from a straight line, to that of a spiral direction, the
fibres of which the body is composed.
In bodies, the power of tenacity and resistance to compression, in the di-
rection of their length, is as the cross section of their area multiplied by the
results of experiments on similar bodies, as exhibited in the following tables.
Table shoicing the Tenacities, Resistances to Compression, and other Prop-
erties of the common Materials of Construction.
Absolute.
Corapa
red with Cast Iron.
Kames of Bodies.
Tenacity
Resistance
to compres-
sion iu lbs.
Its
Its ex-
Its
in lbs. per
strength
tensibility
stitfnesg
sq. inch.
per sq. inch.
is
is
is
Ash,
14130
0.23
2.6
0.089
Beech, .
12225
8548
0.15
2.1
0.073
Brass,
17968
10.304
0.435
0.9
0.49
Brick, .
275
562
Cast Iron,
13434
86397
1.000
1.0
1.000
Copper (wrought), .
33000
Elm,
9720
1033
0.21
2.9
0.073
Fir, or Pine, white,
12.346
2028
0.23
2.4
0.1
" " Red, .
11800
5375
0.3
2.4
0.1
«' " Yellow,
11835
5445
0.25
2.9
0.087
Granite (^Aberdeen),
10910
Gun-metal (copper 8,
and tin 1). .
35838
0.65
1.23
0.535
Malleable Iron,
56000
1.12
0.86
1.3
Larch,
12240
5568
0.136
2.3
0.0585
Lead,
1S24
0.096
25
0.038
Mahogany, Honduras,
11475
8000
024
2.9
0.487
Marble, .
551
6060
Oak,
11880
9504
0.25
2.8
0.093
Rope (1 in. in circum.)
200
Steel,
128000
Stone, Bath, .
478
" Craigleith, ,
772
5490
" Dundee,
2661
6630
" Portland,
857
3729
Tin (ca-t)
4736
0 182
0.75
0 25
Zinc (sheet) .
9120
0 365
05
0.76
RESISTANCE TO LATERAL PRESSORE, OR TRANSVERSE ACTION.
The Strength of a square or rectangular beam to rcHist iaterni pressure,
acliiig in a perpendicular chrcrtioii lo ils length, is as the breadth and scpiare
of the depth; and inversely as the length j— thus, a beam twice the breadth
ELASTICITY AND STRENGTH OF TIMBEE.
141
of another, all other circumstances being alike, equal twice the strength of
the other J or twice the depth, equal four times the strength, and twice the
length, equal only half the strength, &c., according to the rule.
Table of Data, containing the Results of Experiments on the Elasticity
and Strength of various Species of Timber, by Mr. Barlow.
Snecies of
Value of
Value of
Species of
Timber.
E.
S. 1
Timber.
Teak,
174.7
2462 1
Elm, .
Poena,
122.26
2221 '
Pitch pine,
English Oak,
105.
1672 j
Red pine, .
Canadian do.
155.5
1766 i
New England Fir.
Dantzic do.
S6.2
1457
Riga Fir, .
Adriatic do.
70.5
13S3
Mar Forest do.
Ash, .
119.
2026
Larch,
Beech,
98.
1556 j
Norway Spruce.
Value of Value of
E. S.
50.64 1013
88.68
1632
133.
1341
158.5
1102
90.
1100
63.
1200
76.
900
105.47
1474
To find the dimensions of a beam capable of .lustainin^ a given iceight, with a giv-
en degree of deflection, when sttpported at both ends.
Rule. — iMuhiply tlie wei,!,'ht to be supported in lbs. by the cube of the length
in fee! ; divide the product by 3"2 times the tabular value of E, multiplied into ihe
given elefleciiun in inches ; and the quotient is tlie breadth multiplied by the cube
of the depth in inches.
Note 1 .—"When the beam is intended to be square, then the fourth root of the quotient
is the breadth and depth required.
Note 2.— If the beam is to be cylindrical, multiply the quotient by 1.", and the fourth
root of the product is the diameter.
Ex. The distance between the supports of a beam of Riga fir is 16 feet, and
the weight n must be capable of sustaining in the middle of iis length is S00() lbs,
with a deflection of pot more than 3 of an inch ; what must be the depth of the
beam, supposing the breadth 8 inches?
16 X 8000 „
-— — ^^ = 15175 -^ 8 = V1897 = 12.35 in., the depth.
90 X 32 X .75 1 I'
To determine the absolute strength of a rectangular beam of timber, lehen supported
at both ends, and loaded in the middle of its length, as beams in general ought to
be calcidatfd to, so that they may be rendered capable of withstanding all accident-
al cases of emergency.
Rule. — IMuhiply the tabular value of S by four times the depth of the beam in
inches, and by the area of the cross section in inches ; divide the product by the
distance between the supports in inches, and the quotient will be the absolute
strength of the beam in lbs.
Note ].— If the beam be not laid horizontally, the distance between the supports.fot
calculation, must be the horizontal distance.
Note 2.— One fourth of the weight obtained by the rule, is the greatest weight that ought
to be applied in practice as permanent load.
Note 3.— If the load is to be applied at any other point than themiddle, then the strength
will be as the product of the two distances is to the square of half the length of the beam
between the supports ;— or, twice the distance from one end, multiplied by twice from the
other, and divided by the whole length, equal the effective length of the beam.
Ex. In a building IS feet in width, an engine boiler of 5} tons (dS-lO lbs. to a
ton) is to be fixed, the center of which to be 7 feet from the wall, and having two
pieces of red pine, 10 inches by 6, which I can lay across the two walls for the
purpose of slinging ii at each end,— may I with sufficient confidence apply them,
60 as to efl'ect this object ?
•2210X5.5 -=- 2 = 6160 lbs. to carry at each end.
And IS feet — 7 = 11, double each, or 14 and 22, then I-IX-^ -=- 18 = 17 feet,
or 2(W inches, efTective length of beam.
Tabular value of S, red pine, =1341X'lXlP.Xf'0 -r- 201 = 15776 lbs. the abso-
lute strength of each piece of timber at that point.
112
STRENGTH OF RECTANGULAR BEAMS.
To determine tht dimensions of a rectangular beam capable of supporting a rsquired
weight, with a given degree of deflection, when fixed at one end.
Rci.E. — Divide the weight to be supported, in lbs., by the tabular value of E,
mulllplied by the breadth and deflection, both in inches ; and the cube root of the
quotient, muUiplied by the length in feet, equal the depth required m inches.
Ex. A beam of ash is intended to bear a load of 7U0 lbs. at its extremity ; its
length being 5 feet, breadth 4 inches, and the defleclion not to exceed J an inch.
Tabular value of E = 119X4X-5 = 23S the divisor ;
then 700 -^ 238 = V2.94 X 5 = 7.25 inches, depth of the beam.
To find the a'jsolute strength of arectangular beam, when fixed at one end, and load-
ed at the other
RcLE — Multiply the value of S by the depth of the beam, and by the area of
its section, both in inches ; divide the product by the leverage in inches, and the
quotient equal the absolute strength ol the beam in llis.
Ex. A beam of Riga fir, 12 inches by 4i, and projecting 6J feet from the wall;
what is the greatest weight it will support at the extremity of its length ?
Tabular value of S = 1100. 12X4.5 = 54 sectional area.
Then, 1100X12X54 -h 7S = 913S.4 lbs.
When fracture of a beam is produced by vertical pressure, the fibres of the
lower section of fracture are separated by extension, whilst at the same lime
those of the upper portion are destroyed by compression ; hence exists a point in
section where neither the one nor the other takes place, and which is distinguished
as the point of neutral axis. Therefore, by the law of fracture thus established,
and proper data of tenacity and compression given, as in the preceding table,
we are enabled to form metal beams of strongest section with tlie least possible
material. Thus, in cast iron, the resistance to compression is nearly as (ij to 1
of tenacity, consequently a beam of cast iron, to be of sirontjest section, must be
of the following form, and a parabola in the direction of its length,
the quantity of material in the bottom flange being al-.out G.J times
that of the upper. But such is not the case with beams of lim-
ber ; for although the tenacity of timber be on an average twice
that of its resistance to compression, its flexibility is so great,
that any considerable length of beam, where columns cannot be
situated to its support, requires to be strengthened or trussed by
iron rods, as in the following manner.
T
And these applications of principle not only tend to diminish deflection, but the
required purpose is also more eflcctivcly attained, and that by lighter pieces of
timber.
To ascertain the absolute strength of a cast iron beam of the preceding form, or that
of strongest section.
RiT.K.— Multiply the sectional area of the bottom flanse in inches by the depth
of the beam in niches, and divide the product by the distance between the sup-
ports, aUo in inches; and 514 limes the quotient equal the absolute strength of
the beam in cwts.
. The strongest form in which any given quantity of matter can be disposed is
that of a hollow cylinder; and it ha<i been drnioiislratcd llinl the maximum of
Btreni;ili is ol)inined in cast iron, when llie lliickiiess of the niinulus, or ring,
am'iuiiiK ti> oiie-flrih of the cylinder's exicrnal dinineter; the relative strength of
a Kollil to that of a hollow cylinder being us the diameters of tiieir sections. ( Set
Tables.)
"WEIGHT CAST IRON BEAMS WILL SUSTAIN.
143
A Table showing the Weight or Pressure a beam of Cast Iron, 1 inch in
breadth, iviil sustain, without destroijitig its elasiicjurce. whe7i it is sup-
ported at each end, and loaded in the middle of its length, and also the
deflection in the middle which that weight will produce. By Mr.
Hodgkinson, Manchester.
Length.
6 feet.
7 feet.
8 feet.
9 feet. *
10 feet.
Depth
Weight
Defl.
Weight i Defl.
Weight Defl.
Weight
Defl.
Weiglit Defl.
in in.
in lbs.
1278
in m-
in lbs.
in in.
in lbs. in in.
in lbs.
in in.
in lbs. in in
3
.21
1089
.33
954
.426
855
.54
765 .66
3*
1739
.205
1482
.28
1298
.365
1164
.46
1041 !..57
4
2272
.18
1936
.245
1700
.32
1520
.405
1360
.5
4*
2S75
.16
2450
.217
2146
.284
1924
36
1721
.443
5
3560
.144
3050
.196
2650
.256
2375
.32
2125
.4
6
5112
.12
4356
.163
3816
.213
3420
.27
3060
.33
7
6958
.103
5929
.14
5194
.183
4655
.23
4165
.29
8
9088
.09
7744
.123
6784
.16
6080
203
5440
.25
9
9801
.109
8586
.142
7695
.18
6885
.22
10
12100
.098
10600
.128
9500
.162
8500
.2
11
12826
.117
11495
.15
102S5
.182
12
15264
.107
13680
.135
12240
.17
13
16100
.125
14400
.154
14
18600
.115
16700 .143
12 feet.
14 feet.
16 feet.
18 fe
et.
20 feet.
6
2548
■48
2184
.65
1912
.85
1699
1.08
1530
1.34
7
3471
.41
2975
.58
2603
.73
2314
.93
2082
1.14
8
4532
.36
3884
.49
3396
.64
3020
.81
2720
1.00
9
5733
.32
4914
.44
4302
.57
.3825
.72
3438
.89
10
7083
.28
6071
.39
5312
.51
4722
.64
42.50
.8
11
8570
.26
7346
.36
6428
.47
5714
.59
5142
.73
12
10192
.24
8736
.33
7648
.43
6796
..54
6120
.67
13
11971
.22
10260
.31
8978
.39
7980
.49
7182
.61
14
13883
.21
11900
.28
10412
.36
9255
.46
8330
.57
15
15937
.19
13660
.26
11952
.34
10624
.43
9562
.53
16
18128
.18
15536
.24
13584
.32
12080
.40
10880
.5
17
20500
.17
17500
.23
15353
.30
13647
.38
12282
.47
18
22932
.16
19656
.21
17208
.28
15700
.36
13752
.44
Note. — This Table shows ihe greatest weight that ever ought lo be laid upon
abeam for permanent load ; and, if there be any liability to jerks, &e., ample
allowance must be made ; also, the weight of the beam itself must be included.
(See Tables of Cast Iron.)
To find the weight of a east iron beam of given dimensions.
Rule. — Multiply the sectional area in inches by the length in feet, and by 3.2,
the product equal the weight in lbs.
Ex. Required the weight of a uniform rectangular beam of cast iron, 16 feet
in length, 11 inches in breadth^and }^ inch in thickness.
11 X 1-5 X 16 X 3.2 = 844.8 lbs.
RESISTANCE OF BODIES TO FLEXURE BY VERTICAL PRESSURE.
When a piece of timber is employed as a column or support, its tendency to
yielding by compression is diflerent according to the proportion between its
length and area of its cross seciion ; and supposing the form that of a cylinder
■whose length is less than seven or eight times its diameier, it is impossible to
bend it by any force applied longitudinally, as it will be destroyed by splitting
before that bending can lake place ; but when the length exceeds this, the col-
umn will bend under a certain load, and be ultimately destroyed by a similar
144 ELASTICITY OF TORSION.
kind of action to ihat wliieh lias place in the transverse strain. Columns of cast
iron and of oilier bodies are aUo similarly circumsianced.
When llie length of a cast iron column wiih flat ends equals about thirty times
its diameter, fracture will be produced wholly by bending olihe material. When
of less length, fracture takes place partly by crushing and partly by bending.
But, when the column is enlarged in the middle of its length trom one and a half
to twice its diameter at the ends, by being cast hollow, the strength is greater by
one-seventh than in a solid column containing the same quantity of material.
To determine the dimensions of a support or column to bear, without se7liiiile curva-
ture, a given pressure in the direction of its axis.
Rule. — Multiply the pressure to be supported in lbs. by the square of the col-
umirs length in feet, aiKl divide the product by twenty times the tabular value of
E ; and the quotient will be equal to the breadth multiplied by the cube of th©
least thickness, both being expressed in inches.
Note 1. — When the pillar or support is a square, its side will be the fourth root of the
quotient.
Note 2.- If (he pillar or column be a cylinder, multiply the tabular value of E bj 12,
and the fourth root of the quotient equal the diameter.
Ex. 1. What should be the least dimensions of an oak support, to bear a
weight of 2240 lbs, without sensible flexure, its breadth being 3 inches, and its
lengths feet?
Tabular value of E = 105,
2240 X 52
Ex. 2 Required the side of a square piece of Riga fir, 9 feet in length, to bear
a permanent weight of GOOD lbs.
Tabular value of E = 96,
^ GOOO X 9* . ::Tr , . ,,
and V- fifi~ ~ '•^^-33 = 4 inches nearly.
ELASTICITY OF TORSION, OR RESISTANCE OF 3B0DIES TO TWISTING,
The angle of flexure by torsion is as the length and extensibility of the body
directly and inversely as the diameter ; hence, the length of a bar or shaft being
given, the power, and the leverage the power acts with, being known, and also
the number of degrees of torsion that %vill not affect the action of the machine, to
determine the diameter in cast iron with a given angle of flexure.
Rule. — Multiply the power in lbs. by the length of the shaft in feet, and by the
leverage in I'eet ; divide the product by fifty-five limes the number of decrees in
the angle of torsion ; and the fourth root of the quotient equal the shaft's diame-
ter in inches.
Ex. Required the diameters for a series of shafts 35 feet in lengih, and to
transmit a power equal to 1-J45 lbs., acting at the circumference ol a wheel 2J
feet radius, so that the twist of the sliaAs on the application of the power may not
exceed one degree.
r^l5 X 35 X 2 5
— — Trv^TT^—- =<.v/1981 = 6.67 inches in diameter.
55 X 1
To determine the side of a square shaft to resist torsion with a ^iven flexure.
Rui.E. — M'llliply the power in pounds by the leverage it acts with in feel, and
also by the lengih ol the shuft in feel ; divide this product by 02.5 times the angle
of flexure in degrees, and the square root of the quotient equals the area of the
shaft in inches.
Ex. Suppose the lengih of a shaft to be 12 feet, and to be driven by a power
equal to 700 lbs., nz-iing at 1 foot from the centre of the shaft — required the area
oictoii section, no that it may not exceed 1 degree of flexure.
-j^^^j— =«.vA)0.8 ^ 0.53 inches.
Relative strength of Bodies to resist Torsion, I^ad heinei 1-
Tin 1.4
Copper 4..'!
Yellow Uruss 4.0
Gun Melnl ."j.n
Cast Iron il.O
Swedish Iron 9.5
English Iron 10.1
Illisterid Steel 10 0
Shear Steel 17.0
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS — GRIER, AND OTHERS. 145
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
iFrom Griefs Mechanic's Calculator, SfC.'\
Bar of Iiion. — The average breaking weight of a Bar of Wrouglit Iron,
1 inch square, is 2o tons; its elasticity is destroyed, however, by aljout two-
fifths of ihnt weight, or 10 tons. It is e.^tendcd, within the limits oi its elas-
ticity, .000096, or one-tenthousandih part of an inch for every Ion of str.iin
per square inch of sectional area. Hence, the greatest constant load should
never exceed one-fifth of its breaking weight, or 5 tons for every square
inch of sectional area.
The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with cast iron, is as 14
to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron bars, 3 inches deep, 1 1-2 inches
thick, and 33 inches between the supports, will carry 4 1-2 tons.
Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot is about 120
pounds.
Floors. — The. least load on a square fool is about 160 pounds.
Roofs. — Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51 1-2 pounds.
Bf.ams. — When a beam Is supported in the middle and loaded at each
end, it will bear the same weight as when supported at bnih ends and load-
ed in the middle ; that is, each end will bear half the weight.
Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-fifth of their
ultimate strength.
The strength of similar beams varies inverselj' as their lengths ; that is,
if a berfm 10 feet long- will support 1000 pounds, a similar beam 20 feet long
would support only 500 pounds.
A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth part the weight
which it would if supported at both ends.
When a beam is fixetl at both ends, and loaded in the middle, it will bear
one-half more than it will when loose at both ends. When the beam is load-
ed uniformi}' throughout it will bear double. Whe.n the beam is fixed at
both ends, and loaded uniformly, it will bear triple the weight.
In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direction, its strength or
strain will be equal to that of a beam of the same breadth, thickness, and
material, but only of the length of the horizontal distance between the points
of support.
In the construction of beams, it is necessary that their form should be
such that they will be equally strong throughout. If a beam be fixed at one
end, and loaded at the other, and the breadth uniform throughout its length,
then, that the beam may be equally- strong throughout, its form must be that
of a parabola. This form is generally used in the beams of steam engines.
When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points that are least
strained, so that all the sections are similar figures, whether it be supported
at each end and loaded in the middle, or supported in the middle and load-
ed at each end, the outline should be a cubic parabola.
When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the same breadth
throughout, then, i/the load be uniformly distributed throughout the length
of the beam, the line bounding the compressed side should be a semi-ellipse.
The same form should be made use of for the rails of a wagon-way,
where they have to resist the pressure of a load rolling over them.
Similar p/a?es of the same thickness, either supported at the ends or all
round, will carry the same weight either uniformly distributed or laid on
similar points, whatever be their extent.
13
146 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS GRIER.
The lateral strength of any beam, or bar of wood, stone, metal, &c., is hi
proportion to its breadth multiplied b}' its depth^. In square beams the
lateral strengths are in proporlion to tlie cubes of the sides, and in general
of like-sided beams as the cubes of the similar sides of the section.
The lateral strength of any beam or bar, one end being fixed in the wall
and the other projecting, is inversely as the distance of the weight from the
section acted upon ; and the strain upon any section is directly as the dis-
tance of the weight from that section.
The absolute strength of ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise, is in proportion
to the squares of their diameters. All cylindrical or prismatic rods are
equally strong in every part, if they are equally thick, but if not they will
break where the thickness is least.
The strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength of a solid
one as the difference between the fourth powers of the exterior and interior
diameters of the tube, divided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of
the diameter ol a solid cylinder, — the quantity of matter in each being the
same. Hence, from this it will be found, that a hollow cylinder is one-half
Stronger than a solid one having the same weight of material.
The strength of a column to resist being crushed is directly as the square
of the diameter, provided it is not so long as to have a chance of bending.
This is true in metals or stone, but in timber the proporlion is rather greater
Ihan the square.
MODELS PROPORTIONED TO MACHINES.
The relation of models to inachines, as to strength, deserves the particu
jar attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly proportioned in
all its parts as a model, yet the machine, if constructed in the same propor-
tion, will not be sufficiently strong in every part; hence, particular attention
should be paid to the kind of strain the different parts are exposed to; and
from the statements which follow, the proper dimensions ol the structure
may be determined.
If the strain to draw asunder in the model be 1, and if the structure is 8
times larger than the model, then the stress in the structure will be 8'' equa'
612. If the structure is G times as large as the model, then the stress oi.
the structure will be 6-' equal 216, and so on ; therefore, the structure will be
much less firm than the model ; and this the more, as the structure is cube
times greater than the model. If we wish to determine the greatest size
we ean make a machine of which w'c have a model, we have,
The greatest weight which the beam of the model can hear, divided by
the weight which it actually sustains equal a quotient which, when multi-
plied by the size of the beam in the model, will give the greatest possible
size ol the same beam in the structure.
Ex. — If a beam in the modfl be 7 inches long, and bear a weight of 4 lbs.
but is capable of bearing a weight of 2G lbs. ; what is the greatest length
which we can make the corresponding beam in the structure ? Here
2G -f- 4 = C-5, therefore, 6-5x7= 45 5 inches.
The strength to resist crushing, increases from a model to a structure in
proporlion to their size, but, as above, the strain increases as the cubes;
wherefore, in this rase, also, the model will be stronger than the machine,
and the greatest size of the structure will be found by employing the square
root ol the quotient in the last rule, instead of the quotient itself; thus,
If the greatest weight which the column in a model can bear is 3 cwt.,
and if it actually bears 28 lbs., then, if the column be 18 inches high, we have
V/( -^ ) = 3-401 ; wherefore 3-4G4 X 18 = 62-352
iochcs, the length of the column in the structure.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS — ADCOCK. 147
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
[From Adcock's Engineer.]
List of metals, arranged according to their strength. — Steel, wrought-
iron, cast-iron, platinum, silver, copper, brass, gold, tin, bismuth, zinc, anti-
mony, lead.
According to Tredgold's and Duleau's experiments, a piece of the best
bar-iron 1 square inch across the end would bear a weight of about 77,373
lbs., while a similar piece of cast-iron would be torn asunder by a weight
of from 16,243 to 19,464 lbs. Thin iron wires, arranged parallel to each
other, and presenting a surface at their extremity of 1 square inch, will
carry a mean weight of 126,340 lbs.
List of woods, arranged according to their strength. — Oak, alder, lime,
box, pine (s?//r.), ash, elm, yellow pine, fir.
A piece of well-dried pine wood, presenting a section of 1 square inch, is
able, according to Eytclwein, to support a weight of from 15,646 lbs. to
20.408 lbs., whilst a similar piece of oak will carry as much as 25,850 lbs.
Hempen cords, twisted, will support the following weights to the square
inch of their section i
i-inch to 1 inch thick, 8,746 lbs.; 1 to 3 inches thick, 6,800 lbs.; 3 to 5
inches thick, 5,345 lbs.; 5 to 7 inches thick, 4,860 lbs.
Tredgold gives the (bllowing rule for finding the weight in lbs. which a
hempen rope will be capable of supporting : ftlultiply the square of the
circumference in inches by 200, and the product will be the quantity sought.
In the practical application of these measures of absolute strength, that
of metals should be reckoned at one-half, and that of woods and cords at
one-third of their estimated value.
In a parallelopipedon of uniform thickness, supported on two points and
loaded in the middle, the lateral strength is directly as the product of the
breadth into the square of the depth, and inversely as the length. Let W
represent the lateral strength of any material, estimated by the weight, b the
breadth, and d the depth of its end, and I the distance between the points of
support ; then W = fd-b -h I.
If the parallelopipedon be fastened only at one end in a horizontal posi-
tion, and the load be applied at the opposite end, W = fd-b -h 4/.
It is to be observed that the three dimensions, 6, d, and /, are to be taken
in the same measure, and that b be so great that no lateral curvature arise
from the weight ;/in each formula represents the lateral strength, which
varies in different materials, and which must be learnt experimentally.
A beam having a rectangular end, whose breadth is two or three times
greater than the breadth of another beam, has a power of suspension re-
spectively- two or three times greater than it ; if the end be two or three
times deeper than the end of the other, the suspension power of that which
has the greater depth exceeds the suspension power of the other, four or
nine times ; if its length be two or three limes greater than the length of
another beam, its power of suspension will be ^ or 1-3 respectively that of
the other ; provided that in each case the mode of suspension, the position
of the weight, and other circumstances be similar. Hence it follows that a
beam, one of whose sides tapers, has a greater power of suspension if
placed on the slant than on die broad side, and that the powers of suspen-
sion in both cases are in the ratio of their sides ; so, for instance, a beam,
one of whose sides is double the width of the other, will carr^' twice as
much if placed on the narrow side, as it would if laid on the wide one.
In a piece of round timber (a cylinder) the power of suspension is in
proportion to the diameters cubed, and inversel}' as the length; thus a
beam with a diameter two or tliree times longer than that of another, will
carry a weight 8 or 27 times heavier respectively than that whose diameter
is unity, the niode of fastening and loading it being similar in both cases.
148 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ADCOCK.
The lateral streng-th of square timber is to that of a tree whence it is
hewn as 10 : 17 nearly.
A considerable advantasje is frequently secured by using hollow cylinders
instead of solid ones, vvhicli, with an e(|ual expenditure of materials, have
far greater strength, provided only that the solid part of the cylinder be of
a suflicicnt thickness, and that the workmanship be good ; especially that
in cast metal beams the thickness be uniform, and the metal free from
flaws. According to Eytelwein, such hollow cylinders are to solid ones of
equal weight of metal as 1.212:1, when the inner somi-diametcr is to the
outer as 1 : 2 ; according to Tredgold as 17 : 10, when the two semi-diame-
ters are to each oUier as 15 : 25, and as 2 : 1, when they are to each other as
7 : 10.
A method of increasing the suspensive power of timber supported at
both ends, is, to saw down from i^ to h of its depth, and forcibly drive in a
wedge of metal or hard wood, until the timber is slightly raised at the mid-
dle out of the horizontal line, liy experiment it was found that the suspen-
sive power of a beam thus cut 1-3 of its depth was increased l-19th, when
cut 4 it was increased l-29th, and when cut 3-4th through it was increased
l-87th.
The force required to crush a body increases as the section of the body
increases ; and this quantity being constant, the resistance of the body
diminishes as the height increases.
According to Eytelwein's experiments, the strength of columns or tim-
bers of rectangular form in resisting compression is, as
1. The cube of their thickness (the lesser dimension of their section).
2. As the breadth (the greater dimension of their section). 3. inversely as
the square of their length.
Cohesive power of Bars of Metal one inch square, in Tons.
Copper, wrought . . . 15.08
Gun metal 16.23
Copper, cast 8.51
Iron, Swedish bar 29.20
Do., Russian bar 20.70
Do., Englsh bar .... . 25.00
Steel, cast 59.93
Do., blistered 59.43
Do., sheer 56.97
Brass, cast, yellow . . . 8.01
Iron, cast 7-87
Tin, cast 2.11
RELATIVE STRENGTH OF CAST AND MALLEABLE IRON.
It has been found, in the course of the experiments made by Mr. Iloilg-
kinsoii ami Mr. Fairbiirn, that the average strain that cast iron will bear in
the waj' of tension, before breaking, is about seven Ions and a half per
square inch ; the weakest, in the course of IG trials on various descriptions,
bearing 6 tons, and the strongest 9 3-I' tons. The ex])erimcnts of Telford
and i'rown show that malleable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons ; the
weakest bearing 21-, and the strongest 29 tons. On ap])roarhing the break-
ing point, cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous symptom,
while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half its breaking weight, and so
conlimies to stretch till it breaks. The experiments of Ilodgkinson and
Fairbairn show also that cast iron is capable of sustaining compression to
the extent of nearly 50 tons on the s(iuare mrli ; the weakest bearing 36iJ
tons, and the strongest 60 tons. In this respect, malleable iron is nmch in-
ferior to cast iron. With 12 tons on the S(|uare inch it yields, eontracis in
length, and expands laterally; tlmugh it will bear 27 tons, or more, without
actual fracture.
■
Rcnnie stalos that cast iron may be crushed with a weight of 93,000 lbs.,
and brick with one of 5G2 lbs. on ilic square inch.
STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
149
STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
[From Lowndes' Engineer's Hand-book, — Liverpool, I860.]
SOLID, KECTANGULAR, AND ROUND : TO FIND THEIR STRENGTH
Square and rectangular.
(Depth ins.)2 x Thickness ins
Length, ft.
- X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, tons.
Round.
(Diameter ins.)3 „, . . »t ^ , .
-^f nr^ — TT-^ X 1 abuiar No. = Breaking weiffht, tons.
Length in ft. s> b >
Hollow.
(Outside dia. ins.)^ — (Inside dia. ins.)
tons.
Length, ft.
X Tabular No. = Breaking weight
Thickness not exceeding ( ^ .^"'=''/°^ 'f""- 2 ins. for iron 3 ins. for iron.
° ( 3 ins. for wood. 6 ins. for wood. 12 ms. for wood
Square and Rectangular.
Cast and Wrought Iron
1
•85
•7
Teak and greenheart
•36
•32
•26
Pitch pine, and Cana^
dian oak ....
•25
•22
•18
Fir, red pine, and Eng-
lish oak ....
•18
•16
•13
Round.
Cast and Wrought Iron
Teak and greenheart .
Fir and English oak .
•8
•28
•14
•68
•25
•125
■56
•2
•1
To find the Breaking Weight in lbs. use the Tabular No. below.
Thickness not exceeding |
1 inch for iron.
3 ins. for wood.
2 ins. for iron. | 3 ins. for iron.
6 ins. for wood. 12 ins. for wood.
Square and Rectangular.
Iron . .
Teak . .
Fir and oak
2240
1900
1570
800
710
570
400
355
285
13*
150 BEAMS — CAST IRON FLANGED.
Round.
Iron
1800
1570
1260
Teak
640
570
460
Fir and oak ....
320
285
230
Though wrought and cast iron are represented in these rules as of equal
strength, it sliould he observed tiiat while a cast iron bar 1 inch X 1 inch X
1 foot 0 inch long, of average quahty, will break with one ton, a similar bar
of wrought iron only loses its elasticity, and deflects 1-lGth of an inch, yet
as it can only carry a further weight by destroying its shape and increasing
the deflection, it is best to calculate on the above basis : —
y 1-lG with 1 ton.
A wrought iron bar 1 in. xl in. X 1 ft. 0 in. long C deflects 1-8 " I J "
> 2 1-2 " 2i "
The above rule gives the weight that will break the beam if put on the
middle. If the weight is laid equally all over, it would require double
the weight to break it.
A beam should not be loaded with more than 1-3 of the breaking weight
in any case, anil as a general rule not with more than 1-4, for purposes of
machinery not with more than 1-C to I -10 depending oa circumstances.
Tojind the proper size for any given purpose.
Rectangular.
Weight X Length ft. _ „ . _ . i- , ■
■ ^. T — ^1 — jvj^' X o or 4 or 6, dec. accordmg to circumstances =
Tabular No. ' "
B v^ ins.
Round.
^i/Weight X Length, ft, ^ „ '. 7~^ ~. ' '. '
V f„-r— I — 1VI X 3 or 4 or 6, &.C. accordmg to circumstances
1 abular J\o. ' °
= diam. ins.
CAST lEON WITH FE.1THEI19 OR FL.\NGES : TO FIND THEIR STRENGTH.
Sec. area, bottom flanse ins. X depth ins. „ r. . ■ • > ,
— — 5 i -7 X 2 = Breaking weight, tons.
Length in feel. " " '
If the metal exceeds 1 inch in thickness deduct l-8th.
If above 2 inches deduct I-4th.
This description of beam is of the strongest form, when the sectional area
of the bottom flange is six limes that of the top flange.
In designing this description of beam, the bdttoni flange may be from 1-2
to 1 1-2 the depth of beam; the top flange from I-l to l-;{ the width of
ihc bottom one, and 2-3 lo 1-2 the thickness of it ; the feather being made
al the top a little thicker than the top (lange, increasing to the bottom to
nearly the thickness of the bottom flange ; in this way avoiding any sud-
den vari.'itiou in the ihirkiiess and saving weight ; many cngiiw^ers, however,
prefer keeping tlic same tliickn(?ss throughout in cverv part. The verti-
cal brackets for slilfening the girilor shouhl not be ma<le straight, but l;ol-
lowed out soriielhing like llie sketch, as thus they are much less liable lo
crack, and all the corners should be well filled in.
In most cases it is necessary that tliu beam should be of uniform
STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
151
depth throughout ; it will, however, save weight, without diminishing the
strength of the beam, if the width of the bottom flange be reduced very
considerably towards the ends ; 1-2 of the width of the middle being quite
sufficient; care being taken to maintain a sufficient surface for bearing, if
the beam has to be carried on a wall.
Fig. 1.
L
WROUGHT IRON BEAMS.
Girders. — The sketch shows a very strong form for this description of
firder, when rolled solid. The top
ange being condensed and square is
in a good form to resist compression ;
the bottom flange has a wider surface
to rest on, and the middle rib is light ;
an experimental beam of this description 8 ins. deep and 11 feet long re--
quiring 5 tons to break it.
'J'he top flange should have a sectional area 1 1-2 times that of the bottom.
When thus proportioned ;
Sec. area top flange, ins- X depth ins. _ „ , . - , . •
-^ ihT"~t X 5 = Breaking weight in tons.
This is an inferior shape. Pig- 4.
In such a beam the top flange should have an area
1 3-4 that of the bottom flange.
When thus proportioned :
Sec. area top flange ins. x depth ins.
weight, tons.
Length feet.
X 4 = Breaking
Beams of the above forms, made of plates and of L iron, are of equal
strength with the above
care being taken to make
the bottom flang^e of
double plates, with joint plates over the butts, allowing a little extra area
in the bottom to conipcnsaio for the rivet holes, though this is not necessary
if they are rivetted up by steam.
152
STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
^VRO^QHT IRON BEAMS.
Fis. 5.
Hollow Girders. — The sketch represents the form
for hollow girders combining the greatest strength
witii tlie least weight, the top being in the best form
for resisting compression.
Tlic proportion of the bottom sectional area to that
of the top should be as 11 to 12, or 4-5 ; and the sides
should be well stiffened with angle iron, to keep them
from buckling ; the sectional area of the top and bot-
tom may be reduced at the extremities to 1-3 of the
area at the middle, without diminishing the strength of
the beam.
When thus proportioned ;
Section, area top, ins. X depth ins.
Length
weight, tons.
feet.
X 5 = Breaking
An experimental beam of this form, 75 feet long between supports, 4 feet
6 inches deep, with 6 cells at the top, about 6 inches square each, with a
sectional area 24' sq. ins., the sides stiffened with 1 1-2 L irons, 2 feet apart,
required 86 tons to break it.
Fis:. 6.
In the plain hollow girder the top should have a sectional
area 1 3-4 that of the bottom.
Thus proportioned :
Section, area top, ins. X depth ins.
Length feet,
tons.
X 4 = Breaking weight
Tojind the strength of a round girder.
Sec, area, ins. X dia. ins.
Length feet.
=: Breaking weight, tons.
Tojind the strength of any beam.
If the top flange is the weakest, find the compressive breaking strain in
Ions per square inch due to its shape, thickness, and length. (See Columns.)
If the boitoni is the weakest, find the tcnsional breaking strain of the
material in tons per square inch.
Then,
Sec.
.of
weakest ^ flange ^ breaking strain, tons per in. X depth of beam (\. X ■*
Length between supports, feet.
= Breaking weight, tons.
Tliis rule will be found useful, either to confirm the results obtained from
the previous rules, or to find the strength of any beams of irregular shn|)C
not included in them.
The mode of ascertaining the compre.ssion and tension on the top and
bottom flanges of beams is sufficiently simple.
Take the case of a beam, 20 feel long, 2 feet deep, with a weight of 20
tons ou the middle 3 thfi force counteracting this weight will be 10 tons on
SOLID COLUMNS.
153
each end; the force of compression at the top in the middle of tlic beam,
and that of tension at the bottom, taking the central weight as the fulcrum,
will be just in proportion to the leverage; in this case, as 10 to 2, or 5 to 1.
The force of 10 tons applied to the end will thus result in a force of oO tons
of compression and tension on the flanges in the middle of the beam. Or
in a simple form,
Weight, tons X length, feet ^ .
1\„ iu f — -^ A = Strain on top and bottom flanges, tons,
The ultimate compressive strength of boiler plate iron may be taken at
16 tons per square inch, the tensile strength at 20 tons per square inch; and
this is the reason why, in all wrought iron beams, the top requires to be the
strongest.
But as in cast iron the compressive strength is about 48 tons, while the
tensile strength is only about 7 tons per square inch, the bottom flange in
cast iron girders requires to be much the strongest.
The fullest information on this subject, and the experiments in detail,
will be found in 31r. Eaton Hodgkinson's experiments on the strength of
cast iron beams, and in IVIr. Edwin Clark's work on the Britannia and Con-
way tubular bridges.
SOLID COLUMNS.
Fail by crushing with length under 5 diameters-
Principally by crushing from --------- g to 15 "
Partly by crushing, partly by bending, from - - - 15 to 25 "
Altogether by bending above -- --25 "
Cast iron of average quality is crushed with - - 49 tons per square inch.
Wrought iron of average quality is crushed with 16 " " "
Wrought iron is permanently injured with - - - 12 " " "
Oak wrought is crushed with --..--. 4 « " ''
Deal wrought is crushed with --..-.- 2 " " "
The comparative strength of different columns, of different lengths, will
be seen very clearly from the following table derived from experiments by
Mr. Hodijkinson : —
Wrought Iron Bars.
Proportion of Length
to Thickness.
Gave way with
Square.
Length.
ins.
ft. ins.
IX 1
n
7^ to]
21-7 tons per sq. inch
((
1 3
15 to 1
154
(C
2 6
30 to 1
113
(C
5 0
60 to 1
7-5
cc
7 6
90 to 1
4-3
hx h
5 0
120 to 1
25
((
7 6
ISO to 1
1-
To find the strength of any wrought iron column with square ends.
Area of column sq. inches x tons per inch corresponding to proportion of
length, as per table above = Breaking weight, tons.
154
STRENGTH OF COLUMNS.
If the ends are rounded, divide llie final result by 3 to find the breaking
weight.
In columns of oblong section, the narrowest side must always be taken in
calculating- the proportion of height to width.
To find the strength of round columns exceeding 25 diameters in length.
Mr. Hodgkinson's rule.
(Diameter, ins.)^-® ,n l i -i^t t. ■ • • ■
— -j i — ,. ,,' X i abular No. = Breaking weight, tons.
Length, (t. ' ^ & *= '
Wrought iron
Cast iron
Dantzic oak
Red deal
Rounded or Moveable
Ends.
26
15
1 7
1-2
A column should not be loaded with more than 1-3 of the breaking weight
in any case, and as a general rule, not with more than 1-1 ; for purposes o
machinery not with more than 1-6 to 1-10, according to circumstances.
Tables of Powers for the Diameters and Lengths of Columns.
Diameter.
1 in.
3-6 Power.
Diameter.
3-6 Power.
1-
7 in.
1102-4
d
2-2.3
k
1251-
•i
4-3
d
1413-3
I
75
1
1590-3
2
12 1
8
1782-9
k
1.8-5
i
1991-7
h
27-
h
2217-7
I
38-16
1
2461-7
3
52 2
9
2724-4 .
\
69-63
k
3006-85
. 4
90-9
h
3309-8
\
116-55
i
. 3634-3
4
147-
10
3981 07
.}
182-9
k
4351 2
h
22468
h
4745-5
3
272-96
i
5165-
5
.328-3
11
5610 7
;■
.391-36
^
6083-4
,
462-71
^
65S4-3
!
TiV.Un
%
7114-4
6
6.32 91
12
7674-5
h
733-11
h
844 2S
i
967-15
Length.
1-7 Power.
1
1-
2
325
3
6-47
4
10 556
5
15-426
6
21-031
7
27-332
8
34-297
9
41-9
10
50 119
11
58-934
12
68-329
13
78 -289
14 •
8S-S
15
99 85
16
111-43
17
123-53
18
13() 13
19
149-21
20
162 81
21
176-92
22
191-18
23
206-51
24
222
HOLLOW COLUMNS.
155
HOLLOW COLUMNS.
Hollow columns fail principally by crushing, provided the length does
not exceed 25 diameters; indeed, the length does not appear to affect the
strength much till it exceeds 50 diameters.
The comparative strength of dilTerent forms and of different thicknesses
will appear so distinctly from the experiments below, made by Mr. Hodg-
kiuson, that no difficulty will be found in ascertaining the strength due to
any size or form of column that may be required.
Square Columns of Plate Iron Rivetted
Columns 10 ft. 0 in. long.
Size.
4 in. X 4 in
<<
8 in. X 8 in.
((
Thick-
ness.
•03
•06
•1
•2
•06
•14
•22
•25
Proportion of
Thickness to Width,
Proportion of Break'g wei^hf
Length Tons per sq. in.
1
TTJ3
1
1
4(y
1
20
X
T3TJ
]
_1
36
1
to Width.
of section.
30 to 1
4-9
((
8-6
((
10^
((
12^
15 to 1
6-
((
9-
<(
ll-G
((
12-
Column 9 feet 0 inches long.
18 X 18 !
•5
■^jj practically
5^4 to 1
13-6
Column Id feet 0 inches long, with Cells.
8 in. X 8 in.
•06
■^^ of width of cells
15 to 1
8^6
To find the strength of any Hollow Wrought Iron Column.
T
ea, sq. ins. X
Breaking weight, tons.
o • ^ Tons per inch, corresponding to the proportions of
^^^- ^'■®^' ®^- '"^- ^ length and thickness to width as per tables "
Columns of Oblong Section.
The strength of these may be ascertained by the same rule as that of
square columns. The smallest width being taken in calculating the pro-
portion of height to width, while the longest side must be taken into consid-
eration in calculating the proportion of thickness to width.
Column 10 feet 0 inches long.
Size.
Thick-
ness.
Proportion of
Thickness to
greatest Width.
Proportion of
Length to least
Width.
Actual Breaking
Weight Tons per
sq. in. of Section.
8in. X4in.
•06
^^^
30 to 1
6-78
156
STRENGTH OF COLUMNS. — CRANE. — PUMP.
Round Columns of Plate Iron Rivetted.
Columns 10 ft
. 0 in. long.
Same Columns
Reduced in Length.
Dia-
Thick-
ness.
Proportion
of thick-
ness to
Diameter.
Proportion
of length to
Diameter.
Breaking
Weight.
Tons per
sq. ijich.
Breaking Weights.
Tons per square inch.
5 ft. 0 in. long.
2 ft. C in. long.
u
•1
1
X &
SOlol
6-5
13-9
5-8
2
•1
sV
60 to 1
10-35
14^8
16^5
2^
•1
?v
48tol
13-3
15-6
16-3
♦ 2i-
•24
tV.
48tol
9-6
156
16^
24-
•21
tV
46 to 1
9-9
13-
17-
3
•15
jV
40tol
12-36
IS-
16-5
4
•15
fV
30tol
12-34
IS-
6
•1
1
20tol
15-
17-
186
6
•13
tV
20tol
lS-6
It would seem from this that a thickness of 1-48, or 1-4 inch in thickness
for every foot in diameter is a good proportion for this kind of column.
It will he seen from lliesc experiments, that it is the proportion of tliick-
ness to the width of cell wliich regulates the strength witlnn certain limils
of iieight.
And tliat a thickness of 1-30 or 1-8 inch for every 1 inches in width will
give the highest result practicable for square columns.
CR.VNE.
Tlie strains on the principal parts can be ascertained with great ease in
the following manner— the strength iseing proportioned accordingly.
To find tlie strain on the post.
Weight suspended, tons X Projection, feet „, . ,- .
"iT-^ ,7^ : — i -j—i- == Strain on toi) of post, tons.
Height of post ahove ground, feet ' '
The post can tlien be calculated as a beam, twice as long as this height
from ground, with twice the weight on the middle. [See Beams.']
COLD WATER PUMP.
Usually l-l- of cylinder diameter when the stroke is 1-2 that of piston.
1-3 " '• 1-4
To find the proper size, under nnij rircumslancrs, capable of supplying twice
the quantity ordinaritij used for injection.
Cub^ft. water per hour used in cylinder in form of steam _ .
Stroke ofpuini), ft. X strokes permiimtc ~ P P
in square feet.
VELOCITY OF FANS.
157
FAN.
Case should be slrons; and heavy. Bearings long.
Blades and arms as light and well balanced as possible.
Good proportions —
Inlet ^ ^ diameter of fan,
Blades = 5 diameter of fan each way,
Outlet = area of blades.
The area of tuyeres is most advantageous when made
area of blades
density of blast, oz. per sq. inch,
and it should not exceed double this size.
TELOCITY OF FANS.
TTie best Velocity of Circumference for different Densities.
Velocily of Circumference.
Density of Blast.
Feet per Second.
Oz. per inch.
170
3
ISO
4
195
5
205
6
215
7
A speed of 180 to 200 feet per second, giving a density of 4 or 5
oz., is very suitable for smithy fires.
250 to 300 feet per second is a proper speed for cupolas.
A fan 4 feet 0 inch diameter, blade 1 foot 0 inch square, will sup-
ply 40 fires with 1| tuyeres at a density of 4 oz.
To find the Horse Power required for any fan.
Let D = density of blast in oz. per inch.
A = area of discharge at tuyeres in square inches.
V = velocity of circumference in feet per second.
,-7;7^ X D X A
Then iY__ = EfTeclive Horse Power required.
963
To find the density to be attained with any given fan.
Let D =: diameter of fan in feet.
2
Then
aj.
Density of blast in oz. per inch.
120 X d.
Or the density may be found by comparison with the following
table :—
14
158
FRICTION. — CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.
Velocity of Circumference.
Feet per Second.
. Area
of Nozzles.
Dens
Oz
it)- of Blast.
. per inch.
150
Twice
area of blades
1
150
Equal
ditto
2
150
1-2
ditto
3
170
1-4
ditto
4
200
1-2
ditto
4
200
1-6
ditto
6
220
1-3
ditto
6
To find the quantity of air that tvill be delivered by any Fan, the
density being known.
Total area nozzles, sq. ft. X velocity, ft. per minute corresponding
to density (as per table) = Air delivered, cubic ft. per minute.
Density.
Velocity.
i Density.
Velocity.
Oz. per Sq. Inch.
Feet per Minute.
Lbs. per Sq. Inch
Feet per Minute.
1
5,000
1
20,000
2
7,000
H
24,500
3
8,600
2
28,300
4
10,000
n
31,600
5
11,000
3
44,640
6
12,25(1
4
40,000
7
13,200
6
49,000
8
14,150
8
56.600
9
15,000
10
63,200
10
15 800
12
69,280
11
16,500
15
78,000
12
17,300
20
89,400
FRICTION.
From Mr. Rennie's Experiments.
The friction of metal on metal, without unguents.
May be taken at 1-6 of the weight up to 40 lbs. per sq.
in.
1-5
Brass on cast iron 1-4 "
Wrought on cast iron 1-3 "
With tallow at
" olive oil at
100
" 800 "
" 500 "
MO of the weight.
1-13
800 lbs. per inch forces out the oil.
Fiiction ol journals under ordinary circumstances 1-30 of weight.
" well oiled, sometimes only 1-60 "
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.
(Revolutions per min.)" X dia. in ft. X weight
in terms of weight.
5870
= Centrifugal force
PEDESTAL, BRACKET. TEMPERING. 159
PEDESTAL — BRACKET.
PEDESTAL.
Good proportions.
Thickness of cover -4 of diameter of bearing.
of sole plate -.3 " "
Diameter of bolts -25 " " if 2.
" << -18 " " ifthereare4.
Distance between bolts twice diameter of bearing.
BRACKET.
Solid. Met.il round brass equal to 1-2 diameter of bearing.
General thickness web, &c. equal to 1-4 diameter of bearing.
With feathers. Width at lightest equal to diameter of bearing.
Tiiickness equal to 1-6 "
TEMPERING.
The article after being completed, is hardened by being heated
gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold water; it is then
tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, either over a tire,
or on a piece of heated metal till of the color corresponding to the
purpose for which it is required, as per table below, when it is again
plunged into water.
Corresponiling Temperature.
A very pale straw . 430" Lancets )
Straw - - - 450'' Razors ^
Darker straw - - 470'^ Penknives ) All kinds of wood tools
Yellow - - - 490"^ Scissors i Screw taps.
Brown yellow - 500'= i Hatchets, Chipping Chisels,
Slightly tinged purple 520"^ > Saws.
Purple - - - 530 •^ 5 All kinds of percussive tools.
Dark purple - - 550'^ > g;
Blue - - - 570"5''P""°-
Dark blue - - 600° Soft for saws.
To Temper by the Thermometer.
Put the articles to be tempered into a vessel containing a sufficient
quantity to cover them, of Oil or Tallow; Sand; or a mixture of 8
parts bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, the whole to be brought up to,
and kept up at the heat corresponding to the hardness required, by
means of a suitable thermometer, till heated equally throughout; the
articles are then withdrawn and plunged into cold water.
If no thermometer is available, it may be observed that oil cr tallow
begins to smoke at 43C or straw color, and that it takes lire on a light
being presented, and goes out when the light is withdrawn, at 570'*
or blue.
CASE HARDENING.
Put the articles requiring to be hardened, after being finished but
not polished, into an iron box in layers with animal carbon, that is,
160 HEAT. SOLDERING. BORING AND TURNING.
horns, hoofs, skins, or leather, partly burned so as to be capable of
being reduced to powder, taking care that every part of the iron is
coinpletcly surrounded ; make the box tight with a lute of sand and
clay in equal parts, put the wbole into the fire, and keep it at a light
red heat for half an hour to two hours, according to the depth of har-
dened surface required, then empty the contents of the box inio
water, care being taken that any articles liable to buckle be put in
separately and carefully, end in first.
Cast iron may be case hardened as follows: —
Bring to a red heat, and roll it in a mixture of powdered ])russiate
of potash, saltpetre and sal-anuuoniac in equal parts, then plunge it
into a bath containing 2 oz. prussiate of potash, and 4 oz. sal-ammo-
niac per gallon of water.
HEAT.
EFFECTS OF HEAT 'AT CERT.AIN TEMPERATURES. — GrIER.
Tin and Bismuth, equal parts, melt at 283 degrees, Fahrenheit ;
tin melts at 442 ; polished steel acquires straw color at 460 ; bismuth
melts at 476 ; sulphur burns at 560; oil of tuipentine boils at 560;
polished steel acquires deep blue color at 580 ; lead melts at 594 ; lin-
seed oil boils at GOO; (luicksilvcr boils at 660 ; zinc melts at 700; iron,
bright red in the dark at 752 ; iron, red-hot in twilight at 8S4 ; led
heat fully visible in daylight at 1077 ; brass melts at 3807 ; copper
melts at 4587; silver melts at 4717; gold melts at 5237; welding heat
of iron, from 12777; welding heat of iron, to 13427; greatest heat of
smith's foige 17327; cast iron begins to molt at 17977; cast iron
thoroughly melted at 20577.
SOLDERING.
The solder for joints requires to be of some metal more fusible than
that of the substances to be jointul.
For Copper, usual solder 6 to 8 parts brass to 1 of zinc ; 1 of tin
sometimes added.
A slill stronger solder, 3 parts brass, 1 of x.inc.
To prepare this solder. — Melt the brass in a crucible, when
melteil add in the zinc, and cover over for 2 ot 3 minules (ill the
combination is ctrected, tlien pour il out, over a bundle of Iwigs, into
a vessel of water, or into a mould composed of a number of little
cliatinels, so that the sohler may be in long strips convenient for use.
Brass tilings alone will answer very well.
To braze with this xoliler. — Sci-.\\)c. the suil'accs perfectly clean,
and secure the flange or joint carefully ; cover the surfaces to be
brazed with borax powder moistened ; apply the solihu-, and melt it
in with the llanie of a clear coki; fire from a snuth's hearth ; partic-
ular care being taken not to burn the cuiqier.
BORING AND TURNING. BRASS CASTINGS.
IGl
Iron and brass are soldered with spelter, which is brass and zinc in
equal parts; the process being performed in a manner similar to the
above. For ironwork, however, sometimes rather differently ; the
articles aie fixed in their position, and the solder applied, a covering
ot'loam is then put over all to exclude the air, the work thus prepared
is then put into the fire a sufficient time to melt the solder in.
BORING AND TURNING.
The best speed for boring cast iron is about 7.^ feet per minute.
For drilling about 10 or 11 feet per minute is a good speed for the
circumference of the tool. For a 1 inch drill 40 revolutions = 11
feet per minute, other sizes in proportion
For turning, the proper speed for the circumference is about 15
feet per minute.
BRASS.
COMPOSITIONS OF BRASS.
Copper.
Tin.
Zinc.
Watch-makers brass
1 part
—
2 parts
German brass
1 «
1 "
Yellow brass
2 «'
__
1 "
Speculum meta!
2 "
1 part
Bell metal
3 "
,
Light castings and small bearings . . .
4 "
i "
Ditto a little harder ....
4 "
h "
Heavy castings
6 to 7
1 "
Gun met.il
9 «
The addition of a little lead makes the metal more easily wrought,
and is advantageous when the work is not intended for exposure to
heat.
BEASS CASTING.
As it is often useful to engineers, especially abroad, to be able to
cast brass, a slight description of the process may not be out of place.
The ordinary furnace used is of very simple construction.
After lighUng the fire, put the pot intended for use bottom upwards
over it, so as to warm gradually through. As soon as the fire is
burned well through, put the pot into its place, resting the bottom on
a fire brick to keep it off the bars, and filling round with lumps of
coke to steady it; then put in the copper, either blocks cut up into
pieces of convenient size, or if this is not to be had, shest copper
doubled up ; as the metal sinks down add more copper or old brass
till the pot is nearly full of melted metal ; now add the tin, and when
this is melted and mixed, put in a piece or two of zinc ; if this begins
to flare add the rest of the zinc in, stir it well in, lift the pot off at
14*
162 BRASS CASTINGS. WEIGHT OF ROPE.
once, skim the rubbish off the top, and pour into the mould. If,
however, it does not tlare up, put a little coal on to excite the fire,
and cover over till it comes to a proper heat. As soon as the zinc
begins to flare, add in the rest, and take the pot off the fire. If old
brass alone is melted down no tin is required, Lnt a small quantity of
zinc. If part copper and part brass, add tin and zinc in proportion to
the new copper, with a little extra zinc for the biass.
As soon as the boxes are run, it is tbe usual custom to open them
at once, and to sprinkle the castings with water from tlie rose of a
watering can, this has the effect of making them softer than they
would otherwise be ; the boxes are then emptied, and fresh moulds
made while fresh metal is being melted.
When the casting is completed, draw the bearer forward, and let
the bars all drop, so that the furnace can be eflectuallj- cleared from
the clinkers, and put the pot among the ashes to cool gradually.
The moulding boxes may be of hard wood, well secured at the
corners, either bj- dovetailing or by strong nails and iron corner
plates, with guides to keep the boxes fair with one another. A few
cross bars in the top box help to carry the sand.
Fresh green sand, the same as used for iron founding, mixed with
a small ijuantity of coal dust, about one-twelfth part, should be sifted
over tlie patterns on all sides to the thickness of about an inch, the
box then tilled up with old sand, and properly rammed up, and well
pricked to let the air and gas escape, then remove the patterns, and
dust over the mould with a little charcoal powder from a bag, or with
a little flour, cover over the box again, and the mould is ready for
pouring.
For long articles, spindles, bars, &c., make a good airhole at the
opposite end from where the metal is poured, incline the box slightly,
and pour the metal at the lower end; for flat, thin and sti-aggling ar-
ticles it is necessary to have two or more pouring lioles, and to till
them all at the same time.
The pots generally used arc the Stourbridge clay pots, and black
lead pots, both kinds being made of various sizes up (o 60 lbs. ; the
former are less durable, but much cliea|)er than the latter, they re-
quire to be carefully hardened by gradual exi)Osure to the fire.
Clay pots are made of 2 parts raw Stourbridge clay to 1 of gas coke
pulverized ; well mixed up together with water, drieii gently, and
slightly baked in a kiln.
Hlack load pots of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of fireclay, mixc<l with
water, baked slightly in a kiln, but not completely until required for
use.
The pots are made on a wood mould, the shape and size of the in-
side of the pot, the clay being plastered round it to the thickness
desired.
ROPE.
To find the breaking Weight of an ordinary Tarred Ihnip Rope.
(Circumference, ins.)^ h- 5 = Hreaking weight, tons.
A rope should not be loaded with more than 1-3 its breaking weight.
WEIGHT OF ROPE. WEIGHT OF CASTINGS.
163
To find Weight of Rope or Tarred Cordage.
(Circumferenr.e ins.)^ X Length, ft. -~ 2A = Weight, lbs.
Or,
(Circumference ins.)^ -j- 4 = Weight, lbs. per fathom.
To find Weight oj Tarred Hawser or Manilla Rope.
(Circumference ins.)* -^- 5 = Weight, lbs. per fathom.
To find Weight of Hawser-Laid Manilla.
(Circumference ins.)* -h 6 = Weight, lbs. per fathom.
WEIGHT.
To find the Weight of any Casting.
Width in \ ins. X Thickness in ^ ins., or vice versa, -j- 10 X
Length, ft. = Weight, lbs. cast iron.
For instance ; to find the weight of a casting 3;^ ins. X 1| ins. X
2 ft. 6 ins. long.
13 X 9 H- 10 = 11-7 X 2-5 = 29-25 lbs.
This rule is very useful, and can easily be remembered in the fol-
lowing form.
Width in 5 ins. X Thickness in ^ ins. or vice versa, cut ofTl figure
for decimal, the result is lbs. per foot of length.
For wrought iron add l-20th to the result ; for lead add 1-2 ; lor
brass add l-7th; for copper add l-5th.
To find the Weight from the Areas.
Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. X 3 1-7 = Weight, lbs. cast iron.
Multiplier for Cast iron 3*lo6 or 3 1-7.
" Wrought iron 3-312 or 3 1-3.
'* Lead 4-854
" Brass 3 644
" Copper 3-87
Or, Area, sq. ins. X 10 = lbs. per yard for wrought iron.
To find the Weight in cwts.
Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. -j- 31-9 = Weight, cwts. cast iron.
For wrought iron, divide by 33.6.
WEIGHT OF BOILER PLATES.
Thickness, ins.
1
i
3
i
tV
f
■/f
i i
1
^
1
Weight, lbs. per
sq. ft.
2-5
5
7-5
10
12-5
15
17-5
20 25
30
35
40
For cast iron deduct l-20th.
164
CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION.
To find Weight oj Boiler Plates in cwts.
Area sq. ft. „, . .
= Weight cwts.
No. corresponding to thickness ° '
in table below.
Thickness.
Divisor.
Thiclsness.
Divisor.
Thickness.
Divisor.
In.
In.
In
1
22-4
t
7-5
5
4-48
t\
15-
tV
6-3
f
3-73
i
11-2
^
5-G
^
3-2
t\
9-
9
5-
1
2-8
CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION.
In- mechanics, circular motion is transmitted by means of wheels,
drums, or pulleys; and accordingly as the driving and driven are of
equal or unequal diameters, so are equal or unequal velocities pro-
duced. Hence the principle on which the following rules are founded.
1. When time is not taken into Account.
Rule. — Divide the greater diameter, or number of teeth, by the
lesser diameter or number of teeth ; and the quotient is the number
of revolutions the lesser will make, for one of the greater.
Example. — How many revolutions will a pinion of 20 teeth make,
for 1 of a wheel with 125 .'
12.5 -^ 20 = 6.25 or 6^ revolutions.
To find the number of revolutions of the last, to one of the first,
in a train of wheels and pinions.
Rule. — Divide the product of all the teeth in the driving by the
product of all the tcelh in the driven ; and the quotient equal the
ratio of velocity required.
Example 1. — Required the ratio of velocity of tlie last, to 1 of
the first, in the following train of wheels and pinions; viz., pinions
driving — the first of which contains 10 teeth, the second 15, and
third 18. Wheels driven first, 15 teeth, second, 25, and third, 32.
10 X 15 X 18
— 1 -— = -225 of a revolution the wheel will make to one of the
15 X 25 X 32
pinion.
Example 2. — A wheel of -12 teeth giving motion to one of 12, on
which shaft is a pulley of 21 inches diameter driving one of (i; required
the number of revolutions of the last pulley to one of the first wheel.
42 X 21
— — = 12.25 or 12 J revolutions.
iZ X 0
NiiTE. — Wlicre increase or decrease of vclocily is required lo be coininuni-
calfd by wlieel-work, it Iia8 lieen deinonstrnted thai llic number of leeih on eai^h
pinion Hhoiild not l)c less than 1 to 0 of its wheel, unless there be some other im-
portant rcusoii for u higher rulio.
CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 165
2. When Time must be regarded.
Rule. — Multiply the diameter or number of teeth in the driver,
by its ivelocity in any p;iven time, and divide tlie product by the re-
quired velocity of the driven; the quotient equal the number of teeth
or diameter of the driven, to produce the velocity required.
Example 1. — If a wheel, containing 84 teeth, makes 20 revolu-
tions per minute, how many must another contain, to work in contact,
and make 60 revolutions in the same time ?
84 X 20 -=- 60 = 28 teeth.
Example 2. — From a shaft making 45 revolutions per minute,
and with a pinion 9 inches diameter at the pitch line, I wish to trans-
mit motion at 15 revolutions per minute ; what, at the pitch line, must
be the diameter of the wheel ?
45 X 9 -7- 15 = 27 inches.
Example 3. — Required the diameter of a pulley to make 16 rev-
olutions in the same time as one of 24 inches making 36.
24 X 36 -=- 16 =: 54 inches.
TTie distance between the centres and velocities of two wheels
being given, to find their proper diameters.
Rule. — Divide the greatest velocity by the least; the quotient is
the ratio of diameter the wheels must bear to each other.
Hence, divide the distance between the centres by the ratio -\- 1 ;
the quotient equal the radius of the smaller wheel ; and subtract the
radius thus obtained from the distance between the centres; the re-
mainder equal the radius of the other.
Example. — The distance of two shafts from centre to centre is
50 inches, and the velocity of the one 25 revolutions per minute, the
other is to make 80 in the same time ; the proper diameters of the
wheels at the pitch lines are required.
80 -^ 25 = 3.2, ratio of velocity, and 50 h- 3.2 + 1 = 11.9 the radius of
the smallerwiiee); then 50 — 11.9 = 38.1, radius of larger; their diame-
ters are 11.9 X 2 = 23.8 and 38.1 X 2= 76.2 indies.
To obtain or diminish an accumulated velocity by means of wheels,
pinions, or wheels, pinions, and pulleys, it is necessary that a propor-
tional ratio of velocity should exist, and which is thus attained: mul-
tiply the given and required velocities together; and the square root
of the product is the mean or proportionate velocity.
Example. — Let the given velocity of a wheel containing 54 teeth
equal 16 revolutions per minute, and the given diameter of an inter»
mediate pulley equal 25 inches, to obtain a velocity of SI revolutions
in a machine ; required the number of teeth in the intermediate
wheel and diameter of the last pulley.
V81 X 16 = 36 mean velocity.
54 X 16 ^ 36 = 21 teeth and 25 X 36 -h 81 = 11.1 inches, diam. of pulley,
166 CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION.
To determine the proportion of wheels for screw-cutting by a
Lathe.
In a lathe properly adapted, screws to any degree of pitch, or
number of threads in a given length, may he cut by means of u lead-
ing screw of any given pitch, accompanied with change wheels and
pinions; coar.-e pitches being effected generally by means of one
wheel and one pinion with a carrier, or intermediate tcheel, which
cause no variation or change of motion to take place. Hence the
following
RuLK. — Divide the number of threads in a given length of the
screw which is to be cut, by the number of threads in the same
length of the leading screw attached to the lathe ; and the quotient
is the ratio that the wheel on the end of the screw must l)ear to that
on the end of the lathe spindle.
Example. — Let it be required to cut a screw with 5 threads in
an inch, the leading screw being of h inch pitch, or containing 2
threads in an inch ; what must be the ratio of wheels applied ?
5 -^- 2 = 2.5, the ratio they must bear to each other.
Then suppose a pinion of 40 teeth be fixed upon for the spindle, —
40 X 2.5 = 100 teeth for the wheel on the end of the screw.
But screws of a greater degree of fineness than about S threads in
an inch are more conveniently cut by an additional wheel and pinion,
because of the proper degree of velocity being more effectively at-
tained ; and these, on account of revolving upon a stud, arc commonly
designated the stud-wheels, or stud-wheel and pinion ; but tlic moile
of calculation and ratio of screw are the same as in the preceding
rule. Hence, all that is further necessary is to fix upon any 3
wheels at pleasure, as those for the spindle and stud-wheels; then
multiply the number of teeth in the spindle-wheel by the ratio of the
screw, and by the number of teeth in that wheel or pinion which is
in contact with the wheel on the end of the screw ; divide the product
!)y the stud-wheel in contact with the spindle-wheel; and the quotient
is the number of teeth required in the wheel on the end of the lead-
ing screw.
Example.- Suppose a screw is required to be cut containing 25
threads in an inch, and the leading screw, as before, having two
threads in an inch, and that a wheel of (iO teeth is fixed upon for the
end of the sj)indle, 20 tor the pinion in contact with the sciew-wbeel,
and 100 for that in contact with the wheel on the t nd of the s|)indle;
re(iuired the number of teeth in the wheel for the end of the leading
sciew.
(10 X 12.5 X 20
2.5 -i- 2 = 12.5, and = 150 loelh.
Or su|)po-;i> the sjjindle and screw-wheels to be those fixed upon,
also any one of the stud-wheels, to find the number of teeth in the
other.
GO X 12 5 „^, , GO X 12.5 X 20 ,,_^
,-60-^oa = 2« ^-"'' '^^ m = ''' ''-'■''■
CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION.
167
Table of Change Wheels for Screw-cutting ; the leading Screw
being ^ inch pitch, or containing 2 threads in an inch.
Numb, of
Number of
Number of
a
teeth in
a
w
■a
teeth in
■a
teeth in
0 s
0 » 1
■^ 1)
■Si
>. to
-3
O
o
fcc
an
c
■3.
ll
to
1
si
si
.= 2
t-i
m
bo
(U<«
w .
o^
CO
_ a
"^ 0
aji-
OD
— c
- Cj r^r .
XI O
^.5
31
*-9 ^
SI
^1
0 ^J
ll
0 ^
•2 °
Z.H
31
1
so
40
8i
40
55
20
60
19
50
95
20 100
li
so
50
8^
90
85
20
90
194
SO
120
20 130
u
80
60
83
60
70
20
75
20
60
100
20 120
ll
80
70
9h
90
90
20
95
20^
40
90
20 90
2
SO
90
9|
40
60
20
65
21
80
120
20 140
2i
SO
90
10
60
75
20
SO
22
60
110
20 120
2^
80
100
10-^
50
70
20
75
22.i
80
120
20 150
2|
SO
110
11
60
53
20
120
22|
80
130
20 140
3
SO
120
12
90
90
20
120
232
40
95
20 100
H
SO
130
12:1
60
85
20
90
24
65
120
20 130
H
80
140
13
90
90
20
130
25
60
100
20 150
n
80
150
13i
60
90
20
90
251
30
85
20 j 90
4
40
80
133
80
100
20
110
26
70
130
20 140
4i
40
S5
14
90
90
20
140
27
40
90
20 120
4i
40
90
Hi
60
90
20
95
27i
40
100
20 110
4|
40
95
15
90
90
20
150
28
75
140
20 150
5
40
100
16
60
80
20
120
28i
30
90
20 ; 95
5i
40
110
16.i
80
100
20
130
30
70
140
20 150
6
40
120
16i
80
no
20
120
32
30
80
20 120
6i
40
130
17
45
S5
20
90
33
40
110
20 120
7
40
140
174
SO
100
20
140
34
30
85
20 120
7i
40
150
18
i -1^
60
20
120
35
36
60
140
20 150
8
30
120
181
SO
100
20
150
30
90
20
il20
Table by which to determine the JVwjiber of Teeth, or Pitch of
Small Wheels, by what is commonly called the Manchester
Principle.
Diametral
Circular
Diametral
Circular
Pitch.
Pitch.
Pitch.
Pitch.
3
1.047
9
.349
4
.785
10
.314
5
.628
12
.262
6
.524
14
.224
7
.449
16
.196
8
.393
20
.157
168
WHEELS AND GUDGEONS.
Example 1. — Required the number of teeth that a wheel of 16
inches diameter will contain of a 10 pitch.
16 X 10 = 160 teeth, and the circular pitch = .314 inch.
Example 2. — What must be the diameter of a wheel for a 9 pitch
of 126 teeth ?
126 -f- 9 = 14 inches diameter, circular pitch .349 inch.
Note. — The pitch is reckoned on the diameter of the wheel instead of the cir-
cumlerence, and designated wheels of 8 pitch, 13 pitch, &c.
Strength of the Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels at a given Velocity.
Strength of teeth
in horse-po
wer at
Pitch
of teeth
Thickness
of teeth
Breadth
of teeth
3 feet per
4 feet per
6 feet per
8 feet per
in inches.
in inches.
in inches.
second.
second.
second.
second.
3.99
1.9
7.6
20.57
27.43
41.14
54.85
3.78
1.8
7.2
17.49
23.32
34.98
46.64
3.57
1.7
6.8
14.73
19.65
29.46
39.28
3.36
1.6
6.4
12.28
16.38
24.56
32 74
3.15
1.5
6.
10.12
13..50
20.24
26.98
2.94
1.4
5.6
8.22
10.97
16.44
21.92
2.73
1.3
5.2
6.58
8.78
13.16
17.54
2.52
1.2
4.8
5.18
6.91
10.36
13.81
2 31
1.1
4.4
3.99
5.32
7.98
10.64
2.1
1.0
4.
3.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
1.89
.9
3.6
2.18
2.91
4 36
5.81
1.68
.8
3.2
1.53
2.04
3.06
3.08
1.47
.7
2.8
1027
1.37
2.04
2.72
1.26
.6
2.4
.64
.86
1.38
1.84
1.05
.5
2.
.375
.50
.75
1.00
WHEELS AND GUDGEONS.
To find size oj Teeth necessary to transmit a given Horse Power.
(Tredgold.)
Horse power X 240
Diameter "'" •
t/ Strength
= Pitch, ins.
X Revs, per min.
Strength
= Strength of tooth.
Breadth, ins.
Breadth, ins. ' (Pitch, ins.)-*
The above rule will be found very suitable for a speed of circum-
ference of about 240 feet per minute. For speeds above, add to 240
half tlic dinTereiice, for speeds lielow, deduct lialf the did'crence, be-
tween 2 JO and the actual speed, the result being a suitable multiplier.
For in-itance ; at 300 ft. per minute, 60 being the diflcrenco, 240 -}-
30 = 270 multiplier.
At 160 ft. per minute, 80 being the dilTercncc, 240 — 40 = 200
multiplier.
"WATER.
169
The reason being, that with iiio-her speeds, the friction, wear, and
liability to shocks is increased, at lower speeds decreased, and the
teeth may advantageously be proportioned accoidingly.
To find the Horse Power that any Wheel will transmit.
(Pitch, ins.)* X Breadth, ins. X Diameter ft. X Revs, per minute
Appropriate No. according to speed, as above.
= Horse Power.
To find the multiplying number for any Wheel.
(Pitch, ins.)2 X Breadth, ins. X Diameter ft. X Revs, per minute
Horse Power
= Multiplying No. as above.
To find the size of Teeth to carry a given load in lbs.
Load, lbs. — 1120 = Breaking strength of teeth.
Load, lbs. -f- 2S0 = Strength for very low speeds, and for steady
work; being 4 times the breaking strength.
Load, lbs. -~- 140 = Strength for ordinary purposes of machinery ;
being 8 times the breaking stiength.
Load, lbs. -=- 100 = Strength for high speeds, and irregular work ;
or when the teeth are exposed to shocks.
As before.
Strength
(Pitch, ins.)'
= Breadth
i/ Strength
, ins. V ^. ^-
Breadth, ins.
Pitch, ins.
WATER.
To find the quantity of Water that will be discharged through an
orifice, or pipe, in the side or bottom of a Vessel.
Area of orifice so in X ^ ^°- corresponding to height of surface
' ^' ' \ above orifice, as per table
= Cubic feet discharged per minute.
Height of
Surface above
Orifice.
Multiplier.
\ Height of
Surface above
Orifice.
Multiplier.
Height of
Surface above
Orifice.
Multiplier.
Ft.
1
2-25
I Ft.
i 18
9-5.
Ft.
40
14-2
2
3-2
20
, 10-
1 45
151
4
4-5
22
10-5
i 50
16-
6
5-44
24
II-
60
17-4
8
64
26
11-5
70
18-8
10
7 1
28
12-
! 80
20-1
12
7-8
30
123
90
21-3
14
84
32
ll7
100
22-5
16
<*•
35
13-3
15
170 WATER.
To find the size of hole necessary to discharge a given quantity of
Water under a given head.
Cubic ft. water dischaiged » ^ ./-
ivf ^1^ - JT^- w ^ . 1,1 "= Area of onnce, sq. in.
jNo. corresponding to height, as per table ^
To find the height necessary to discharge a given quantity through
a given orifice.
Cubic ft. water discharged ^^ , . ,
— ; — ;- = No. corresp. to height, as per table.
Area ontice, sq. inches. o > r
The velocity of Water issuing from an orifice in the side or bottom
of a vessel being ascertained to be as follows :
-^Height ft. surface above orifice X 5-4 = i Velocity of water, ft.
° ( P^"" second.
^Height ft. X Area orifice, ft. X 324 = J ^ubic ft;^discharged per
^Height ft. X Area orifice, ins. X 2-2 = Do. Do.
It may be observed, that the above rules represent the actual
quantities that will be delivered through a hole cut in the plate ; if a
short pipe be attached, the quantity will be increased, the greatest
delivery with a straight pipe being attained with a length equal to 4
diameters, and being l-.i more than the delivery through the plain
hole ; the quantity gradually decreasing as the length of pipe is in-
creased, till, with a length equal to 60 diameters the discharge again
equals the dischai'ge through the plain orifice. If a taper pipe be
attached the delivery will be still greater, being \h times the deliv-
ery thiough the plain orifice ; and it is probable that if a pipe wi'.h
curved decreasing taper were to be tried, the delivery thiough it
would be equal to the theoretical discharge, which is about 1-C5 the
actual discharge through a plain hole.
To find the quantity of Water that will run through any orifice,
the top of which is level ivith the surface oftvater as over a sluice
or dam.
I /Height, ft. from water surface to hot- ) ^ Area of water ) ^ gig
' torn of orifice or top of dam j passage, sq. ft. )
= Cub. ft. discharged per minute.
Or,
Two-thirds Area of water passage, sq. ins X No. corresponding to
height as per table, = Cub. ft. discharged per minute.
To find the time in which a Vessel will empty itself through a
given orifice.
VHeight ft. surface above orifice X Area water surface, sq. ins.
Area orincc, sq. in. X ^7
= Time required, seconds.
The above rules are founded on Bank's experiments.
MECHANICAL TABLES
FOR THE USE OF
OPERATIVE SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS,
AND
ENGINEERS
172 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES,,
MECHANICAL TABLES
FOR THE USE OF OPERATIVE SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS, AND
ENGINEERS.
The following Tables, originally dedicated to ' the JVational Asso-
ciation of the Forgers of Iron Work,' England, by James Fo-
DEN, will be found extremely useful to Smiths, generally, and
are accompanied by Practical Examples. — Templetox.
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.
Diam.
c
re.
Diam.
III.
Circ.
Diam.j Circ.
Diam
Circ.
Diam
Circ.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft. In.
Ft. Iii.'fi.
In.
Ft. In
Ft.
In.
Ft. In 'fi. 111.
1
0
H
5.^
1 5i
0 10 2
7|
1 2f
3
9i
1 6^
4 Hi
IJ
0
3i
5|
1 5t
1 2.^
1 3
9h
1 7
4 111
H
0
H
55
1 6
0 lOJ 2
73
1 2i
3
H
If
0
H
H
1 61
0 10:J' 2
8i
1 23
3
m
1 n
5 0
li
0
^
6
1 6|
0 10| 2
Si
1 2-^
3
log
1 n
5 0|
ll
0
5
0 10^ 2
8|
1 3
3
11
1 7|
5 05
l|
0
5i
6J
1 n
0 101; 2
9f
1 7.^
5 1^
H
0
5fe
6.i
1 ^s
0 lOi 2
n
1 31
3 114
1 n
5 It
2*
0
6i
6|
1 8
0 10|
2
101
1 3i
3
m
I 73
5 2
64
1 S§
0 11
2
104
1 3|
4
o\
1 75
5 2|
2i
0
n
6§
1 85
1 34
4
n
1 8
5 23
H
0
7
H
1 9i
0 llj
2
10|
1 3|
4
1
21
0
n
^«
1 94
0 11-J 2
lli
1 33
4
n
1 SI
5 3J
24
0
n
7
1 yj
0 11| 2
llg
1 3}
4
n
1 H
5 31
24
0
8i
.
0 11^ 3
0
1 4
4
2i
1 83
5 4
21
0
H
7J
1 10|
0 11| 3
04
1 84
5 4J
2&
0
9
7.i
1 103
0 ll.i 3
OS
1 4i
4
n
1 8|
5 41
3
0
9s-
n
1 llj
0 115 3
li
1 4i
4
3
I 83
5 5^
u
1 Uh
1 0
3
n
1 4g
4
3i
1 SI
5 5i
3i
0
n
7|
1 111
1 1.^
4
33
1 9
5 5i
3.i
0
lOJ
7.|
2 0:J
1 OJ 3
2
1 4g
4
44
H
0
10.^
n
2 0|
1 OJ 3
25
1 43
4
1 91
5 G|
sd
0
lOJ
8
n
1 Og 3
2S
J f^
4
5
1 9j
5 6
3j
0
113
1 O.^t 3
3.i
1 5
4
5|
1 98
5 7
3?
0
115
8J
2 u
1 0|] 3
3g
1 94
5 7,i
3;
oj
8i
2 li
1 03 3
4
1 5J
4
53
1 96
5 8
4
oi
8g
2 2.^
1 OJ 3
4i
1 5i
4
64
1 93
5 8|
8i
2 2g
1 1 3
45
1 5i
4
6A
1 yj
5 8.^
4ji
05
8|
2 3
I 54
4
6S
i 10
5 9
4i
l.i
8.^
2 3g
1 IJ 3
"^i
I 56
4
78
4i
n
8J
2 :ij
1 l.i 3
n
1 5.3
4
73
1 ini
5 94
4d
21
9
2 4i
1 li 3
6
1 55
4
81
1 lo.i
5 9S
.1
24
1 14 3
62
I 6
4
84
1 10|
5 lOi
21
9i
2 4g
1 1| 3
6ii
1 104
5 10|
^
'i\
f'i
2 5
1 1.4' 3
7i
1 6i
4
8J
I lol
5 11
6
^
y|
2 5g
1 n 3
51
I 6i
4
9.i
1 103
5 llf
y-i
2 5i{
I 2 3
1 63
4
n
1 10 J
6 llj
H
4
!>3
2 fii
1 64
4
10
1 11
6 Oi
H
43
}>ii
2 68
1 2i 3
83
1 Gg
4
log
6
■n
n
2 7
1 2.1 3
8.H
1 6:{
4
105
1 UJ
6 Oft
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.
17'
Diam. Circ. Diam. Circ.
Ft. In.
m
111
111
112-
2 0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0|
1
1*
H
13
1|
1*
i|
2|
2|
2|
^1
3|
3|
H
3|
07
,4
4*
4|
4|
45
4#
4
Ft.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
In.
1
Ft.
o
In.
1|2
1-1
2J-
25
3
31
33
45
4i
4
6^
65
61
7^
85
H
10
10|
101
Hi
iif
0
0^
0|
II
2
23
23
3J
3^
H
43,
5i2
5^
•■;3
55
n;5
2 6
6f
65
u
73
's
75
7-5-
2 8
8*
Si
8|
85
8^
83
8J
9
9f
9i
• 9
9^
9*
9|
QZ
^8
10
5|2
6^12
lOi
lOi-
Ft.
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
S
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
m.
6
75
9
9^
lOi
11'
111
lis
Oi
ol
0|
4
1-!
2J'
25
2|
3i
3|
4*
45
4^
5i
•^8
6
6h
u
n
Diam. Circ.
. In.
lOf
m
10|
103
10|
2 11'
8|
83
9i
91
10
10|
103
lU
115
Hi
11a
115
11^
113
11^
0^
0^
Oi
Of
Oi
of
01
H
1
li
If
15
If
13
11
2'
Ft.
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
In.
11^
8
0^
03
n
H 9
2il0
2|10
2510
2f 10
23 10
2^10
10
3*10
3il0
3|10
3510
3*10
3310
3x10
1^
^8
2i
^8
3
35
3f
4i
^8
51
6|
'8
n
9
9|
9:
lOi
105
10|
11^
113
Oi
0
Oi
1
Diam. Circ.
2i
2I
3?
3t
4
4.^
H
In.^Ft.
4 10
4*10
4il0
43
^8
45
4^
^8
43
42.
5°
10
10
10
10
10
10
In
5f
6|
63
7-^
I*
8^
84
5*10
5il0
5|10
5|10
5310
5*10
6 10
6*
6i
^*,
6511
6f 1
631
6*1
7'il
T*l
73 ]
8 ,
751
7|1
731
7*1
8 11
8*1
8|l
85 1
8|1
84:1
8|;i
8*;i
9 1
9*;i
9il
9|1
9i
^8
95
^8
10|
103
11*
115
lU
"5
0^
li
15
12-
2
^3.
H
4|
5
^r
5i
4
65
7
7a
'8
n
8*
8|
9i
10*
105
Diam.
Ft. In.
3 9.^
9^
circ.
3 93
3 91
3 10
3 101
lOi
3 lOf
3 lOA
3 lOf
3 103
3 101
3 11'
3 Hi
3 llf
3 115
3 114
3 11*
Ft In.
11 1U|
11 Hi
11 uj
12 0
12 oi
4 0
12 4
12 4t
12 43
12 5A
12 55
12 6
12 64
12 61
01 12 7i
Of
05
12
12
12
■7-1
71
si
It
1^^
^8
15
I
^8
2
2*
2i
2|
25
95
--s
23
97
12 83
12 91
12 95
12 91
12 lOi
12 10|
12 11
12 lU
12 11|
13 Oi
13 0|
13 1^
13 li
13 1*
13 2|
13 2|
13 3
13 3|
13 3|
15*
174 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.
Diam.j C
re.
Diam.
Circ.
Diam. Circ.
Diam.
C
re.
D
am. Circ.
Ft. IiiJpt.
In.
Ft. In.
Ft.
III.
Ft
in. Ft.
In.
Ft. In.
Ft.
In.
Ft
■ In.iFt. In.
4 3il3
4*
4 85
14
lOi
■5
2il6
3A
.> H
17
yi
6
1|,19 24
4 3^13
5
4 8f
14
m
5
2116
3i
5 8
17
H
6
1419 21
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fiil 20 fii
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l.ifi
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5
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20 73
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 175
Diaia.
176 DIAMETEKS AND CIRCUMFEHENCES OF CIRCLES.
Diam.l Circ. Dia. \ Circ. Diam. Circ
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 177
Diaxn. Circum. Diani. Circum. I Diam.
Ft Ivi.
11 2|
11 2i
11 3
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
3^
^8
3d
H
34
^8
Ft.
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
3f 35
" 35
35
35
11 41
11 H
11 4|
11 H
11 4|
11 4i
11 u
11 5
11
11
11
11
11
5^
4
5|
In.
n
6
U
35 7|
35 8
35
35
35
35 9h
35 10
35 10|
H
35
35
35
35
36
10|
lU
llj
'J*
111. I Ft. In.
5i 36 0|
Sff 26 1|
6 36 Ij^
11
11 7|
8'
36 6^
74
Ft. In.
11 8|
11 8|
11 9
11 91
11 9i
11 9|
11 9i
U 9|
11 95
11 9|
11 10
11 101
11 10^
11 10|
II lOA
11 lOf
11 lOSi
11 101
11 11
11
11
11
11
11
1%
Hi
11^
^^8
114
iif
circum. I Diam. Circum
Ft. In.
36 10|
36 10.^
36 101
36 111
36 Hi
37 01
37
37
37
37
37
li
n
37 2i
37 21
37 4
37
37
37 4|
37 4|
37 5i
37
37
37
37
37
5^
6
61
71
'8
Ft. In. Ft. Ill
11 11.^ 37 7h
11 111 37 7|
12 0
37 61
12 0^ 37 8|
12 0^ 37 91
12 0|| 37 9|
12 oil 37 91
12 Of
12 Oi
12 01
12 l'
12 11
12 H
12 If
12 14
12 If
12 li
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
2^
P
24
21
37 10:^
37 10|
37 111
37 114
37 115
38 Oi
38 0|
38 1
38 If
38 l|
38 2i
38 2|
o ■~± o 2 = - o_
If a Hoop of larger diameter than 12 feet is required, double some number.
Observations on Tables relating to the Diameters and
Circumferences of Circles.
I do not intend to enter into any labored argument to prove the general
utility of these Tables, as their simplicity and clearness are sufficient to
stamp their value to the artist and mechanic. It will be clearly perceived,
on inspection, that the Table commences with as small a diameter as is gen-
erally used in hoops and rings, viz. one inch, and increases by the regular
gradation of one-eighth of an inch, to upwards of twelve feet; and in the
column marked Circumference, against each Diameter stand the respective
circumferences : hence all that is necessary on inspecting these Tables is to
enter into them with any proposed diameter or circumference, and an answer
to the inquiry is immediately obtained.
Example. — Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter being 8
feet 7 7-8 inches ?
In the column of circumferences, opposite the given diameter, stands 27
feet 2:^ inches, the circumference required.
But it will be necessary to observe, that in the formation of hoops tind
rings a contraction of the metal takes place. Now, the just allowance for
this contraction is the exact thickness of the metal, which must be added to
ihe diameter.
Ex. — In making a hoop whose diameter inside is 6 feet 9 1-8 inches, the
thickness of the iron being 4 inch, this 4 inch must be added to the given
diameter, which will make it 6 feet 9 5-8 inches} this will allow 1 5-8 inch
178 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.
for the contraction in bending in a hoo^ of the above diameter, pivinff the
circumference or length of iron required for the hoop, 21 feet 4 3-8 iiicnes.
The foregoing example appertains to the formation of hoops or iron bent
on the flat; but in the formation of rings or iron bent on the edge, the same
rule must also be followed, only taking care to add the brtadlh instead of
the thickness. As for example :
To make a ring whose inside diameter is 8 feet 2.] inches, the breadth of
the iron being 2^ inches ; by adding the 2!^ inches to the given diameter,
will increase it to 8 feet 4| inches ; opposite to this diameter in the column
of circumferences stands 26 feel 4^ inches, being the length of iron necessary
for the ring.
The foregoing observations relate more particularly to plain hoops and
rings ; but as respects the hoops that are on the wheels of radway carriages,
a difference must be observed, which is as follows : These hoops having
a flange projecting on the one edge of the surface, it will be necessary, in
addition to the thickness of the metal, to add two-thirds of the thickness of tlie
flange to the diameter, as the flange side would contract considerably more
than the plain surface ; this is supposing the tires are in a straight form, but,
in general, they come from the iron-works in a curved state. In the latter
case, it will be only necessary to add the thickness of the bare metal, as the
aforesaid portion of the thickness of the flange is allowed for in the curve.
It has been found that the curve may be exactly obtained, by using four
times the circumference of the hoop as a radius.
If the tire has not been previously curved, it may easily be done in the
operation of bending ; the smith must pay particular attention to this, or he
will have his hoop bent in an angle.
But the practical utility of this Table is not confined to smiths alone ; to
the millwright it will be found equally useful and expeditious, as on a bare
inspection of the Table he may ascertain the diameter of any wheel thaJ
may be required to be made, the pitch and number o( teeth being given.
Ex. — Suppose a wheel were ordered to be made to contain sixty teeth,
the pitch of the teeth to be 3 7-8 inches, the dimensions of the wheel may be
ascertained simply as follows;
Multiply the pilch of the tooth by the number of teeth the wheel is to
contain, and the product will be the circumference of the wheel ; thus
3^ inches pilch of the tooth,
10 X 6 = 60 the number of teeth,
Feet 19 4J the circumference of the wheel.
However, by inspecting the column marked Circumference, I find the
nearest number to this is 19 feet 4 .3-8 inches, which is the cighlli of an inch
less than the true circumference ; but if this 1-8 were divided into (JO equal
pirls, it would not make the difference of a single hair's-brcadln in the size
of each tooth ; so that it is sufficiently near for any practical purpose. The
diameter answering to this circumference is 6 feet 2 inches ; consequently,
wilh onc-h;ilf of this number as a radius, the circumference of the wheel
will be described.
The manner in which the foregoing Table of Circumferences is found is
as follows : Taking the diameter at unity, we have by decimal proportion
in. in.
Asl :31HG :: 1- :3141G,
and the decimal 1 HG multiplied by 8, gives the circumference for 1 inch
of diaincler 3 1-8 inches.
In these 'Jables tiie number S-HIG is divided by 8, which gives .3927
Tb:H decimal [iroportion has been used as a constant, and tin- sum niiiltiplicd
by 8 gives the excess above the decimal value in cigluiis of an inch
CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS.
179
CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS.
ANGLE OUTSIDE.
Diam.
Circ.
Diam.l Circ.
Diam
Cin;.
Diam.
Circ.
Diam. Ciri'.
Ft In.
Ft. In.
Ft. In.lFt. In.
Ft. In
Ft. In.
Fl. In.
Ft. in.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
6
1 5i
1 6
4 4:1
2 6
7 31
7 4|
3 6
10 3
4 6 113 24
i
1 64
4 51
i
i
JO- 3|
4'l3 3
h
1 7
4 6^
4 61
4 7|
h
7 5|
7 4
i
10 4i
413 3|
1
1 7|
1
i
1
10 54
|13 4|
4 7 13 5|
413 51
7
1 8i
1 7
2 7
7 6g
3 7
10 6
i
1 H
i
4 St
4 91
4 91
4
7 U
4
10 65
h
1 9|
h
i
7 84
4
10 74
413 6|
1
I io|
1
*
7 9
1
10 84
3,13 7|
8 : 1 HI
1 8
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4 n|
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7 9|
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10 8|
10 9|
4 8
13 8i
i
2 Oi
i
i
7 lOi
k
4
13 81
h
2 Oi
h
5 0
h
7 114
h
10 10|
10 ll|
10 ll|
H of
11 l|
4
13 9|
2 l|
i
5 0.^
1
8 0
I
1
13 104
9 i 2 2|
1 9
5 1^
2 9
8 0|
3 9
4 9
13 11
•
2 3
4
5 24
4
8 1|
4
k
13 111
%
2 3|
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5 3
d
8 ■ 2|
^
4
14 o4
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2 .4i
3
5 3|
1
8 21
1
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14 U
10
2 5i
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5 5|
5 6|
5 81
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8 3|
3 10
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4 10
14 2
k
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8 si
4
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4
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h
2 65
1
1
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4
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2 7.i
1
1
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1
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11
2 Si
2 8|
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2 11
8 6i
3 ll'*
11 55
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14 4f
1
i
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8 74
4
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2 9|
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2 ll|
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k
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3 l|
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1
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1 5
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5 5 1
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^
4 2i
1
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4
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1
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d
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iio 1|
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13 0|
4I16 0
1
4 4
I
7 3|
§10 2|
113 HI
|ll6 Of
180
CIKCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS.
CIRCUxMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS.
ANGLE INSIDE.
Diam
. Circ.
Diam.j Circ.
Diam
Circ.
Diam
. Circ.
Diam. Circ.
Fi. in
. Ft. In
Ft. In. Ft. In
. Ft. in
Ft. In
Ft. In
Ft. In
. Ft. In. Ft. In.
6
1 S.J
1 6 5 1|
2 6
8 6^
3 6
11 111
4 6 15 4|
J
\ 1 n
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i
8 7A
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415 5|
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7
I Hi
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3 7'
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4
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t
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8
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dl6 l|
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3
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3!l6 2i
9
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16 4"
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f 9 51
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a
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} 5
8 A
3 5 11 81 -
1 5 |15 Id
5 5 18 6.
:}
4 11
4
8 4|
411 94
415 24
418 7
i
4 Ul
A
8 5
iiii loA
d 15 H
4 18 8
3
5 0§
1
8 bl
3I11 102
il5 4
III8 9,
CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS, 181
Observations on Table containing the Circumferences foi
Angled Iron Hoops. — Angle Outside.
As this Table will be useful to those smiths who chiefly work angled
iron, it will be necessary to remark, that the observation made on Tables
relatinst to the Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, respecting addmg
the thickness of the iron to the diameter, must be attended to in this, with
this difference, — the breadth of the angle must be added to the diameter.
Example. — Suppose a hoop is wanted to be made of 2^ inch angled iron,
whose diameter inside must be 12 inches. Here the 2^ inches must be add-
ed to the 12 inches, which raises the number to 1 foot 2^ inches. I-ooking
into the Table, I find the circumference, or length of iron requisite for the
hoop, is 3 feet 6:^ mches.
Observations on Table containing the Circumferences for
Angled Iron Hoops. — Angle Inside.
The observations respecting this Table are the reverse to those on the
preceding one, — viz. the breadth of the angle must be taken from the diam-
eter,— for tl>is reason, that the diameter is taken from outside to outside of
the ring.
Suppose a ring is to be made of angled iron, whose diameter outside is to
be 12 inches, the breadth of the angle 2^ inches; then, by talking 2^ inches
from 12 inches, we have left 9.i inches. Looking into the Table in the col-
amn of diameters, I find in the circumference column, opposite 9^ inches,
2 feet 8J inches, which is the length of iron necessary for the ring.
It his been already observed, that between angled and plain iron a con-
siderable diflerence exists with regard to the proportion of the circumference
to the diameter : this is owing to the angle or flange on one side of the bar,
and when the iron is formed into a hoop : it contracts more or less, as the
angle or flange may be mside or outside of the hoop. From repeated ex
periments on this subject, I have ascertained that the proportions of the
diameters to the circumferences are as follows : — For the angle inside as
1 : 3-4243, and for the angle outside the hoop, as 1 : 2-9312 : : Diam : Circ'f.
Problem — ^To find the circumference of an ellipse, or an oval hoop or ring.
Rule. — Add the length of the two axes together, and multiply the sum by
1-5708 for the circumference; or as it may be used in the Table of Circum-
ferences, take half the sum of the axes as a diameter, with the breadih ot
the iron added, and enter the Table of Circumferences where it will be found.
Ex. — Required the circumference of an elliptical hoop, whose axes are
18^ and 13 inches, the thickness of the iron being 2^ inches.
ISi -f 13 = 31i -^ 2 = 153 -f 21 = 18i inches the diameter.
Entering into the Table of Diameter with 18| inches, the circumference
will be found to be 4 feet 9j- inches.
In constructing elliptical hoops of angled iron, with the angle outside,
reference must be made to the Tables for hoops of angled iron ; the opera-
tion will be similar to the above example. Bui in hoops where the angle is
inside, the thickness of the iron must be taken from halt the sum of the axes.
Note. — It must be observed, that in the examples given in the Observa-
tions on Table relating to the Diameters and Circumferences of Circles,
and also on hoops formed of angled iron, that those circumferences are
nothing more than the ends of the iron meeting together; therefore, ever}-
smith must allow for the thickening of the ends of the metal previous to
scarving the same in order to weld it
IG
182 SHIP AND RAILROAD SPIKES, AND HORSE SHOE&-
SHIP AND PvAILHOAD SPIKES.
NUMBER OF IRON SPIKES PER 100 POUNDS.
Manufactured by Philip C. Page, Mass., and Sold by Page, Briggs &
Babbitt, Boston.
Ship Spikes
or
Hatch Nails
1-4 in. sq're.
Ship SpikeS
or
Hatcli Nails
5-lG in. sq.
Ship Spikes
or
Deck Nails
3-8 in. sq're.
Ship Spikes
7-16
inch square.
Ship Spikes
1-2
inch square.
Ship Spikes
9-lG
inch square.
Ship Spikes
5-8
inch square.
size Nil.
size No. 1
,sizei No.
1
size
No. 1
size
No.
size
No.
size] No.
in 1 0 0
in 10 0
in |1 0 0
in 10 0,
in
1 0 0
in
10 0
in
1 0 0
inc lbs.
inc. lbs. j
inc. lbs.
inc.
lbs.
inc.
lbs.
inc.
8
lbs.
inc.
lbs.
3 jl900
3
1000
4 540
5
340
!6
220
140
1 10
80
3^1.580
3.i
960 1
4k 500
5i
310
6.i
200
9
120
15
60
4 [1320
4
800,
5 460
6
300
7
190
10
110
—
—
4i 1220
U
600
5i 420
6*
280
n
180
11
100
—
—
5
1020
5
680
6 400
7
260
8
170
—
. —
—
—
6
520 i
6h 320
1 u
240
Sh.
160 1
—
—
[
._
—
—
—
—
—
—
8 J
220
9
150
—
—
1
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
i — ,
—
10
140
—
—
— ■
Mail Road Spikes 9-16lhs square 5.^ inches 160 per 100 pounds.
Rail Road Spikes 1-2 inch " 5.^ " 200 per 100 pound.s.
BURDENS PATENT SPIKES AND HORSE SHOES.
Manufactured at the Troy Iron and Nail Factory, Troy, New York.
Boat
Spikes.
Size in
No. in
inches.
K)0 11)s.
3
1750
84
1468
4
1257
44
920
5
720
H
630
6
497
64
47S
7
S62
n
337
8
295
84
290
9
210
10
198
COPPERS, TUBING, CAST IRON AND STEEL.
183
COTFEB.S. —Dimensio7is and TT'ci
ghlfrom 1 to 208 Gallons.
Indies
Weight
Inches
■Weight
Inches
Weight
lag
Gallons.
m
lag
Gallons.
in
hie
Gallons.
in
to brim.
pounds.
ito brim.
pounds.
to brim.
pounds.
9\
1
14
24
15
224
294
29
434
Ui
2
3
24*
16
24
30
30
45
14
3
44
25
17
254
32
36
54
15i
4
6
254
IS
27
34
43
644
16i
5
74
26
19
28h
35
48
72
174
6
9
26.^
20
30
36
53
794
m
7
104
26|
21
314
37
58
87
19h
S
12
27
22
33
38
63
944
20|
9
134
27i
23
34.1
39
67
1004
21
10
15
274
24
36
40
71
1064
214
11
164
27$
25
374
45
104
1.56
22
12
18
28
26
39
50
146
219
224
13
194
2S4
27
404
55
208
312
234
14
21
29
28
42
COPPER TUBING. — Weight of the usual Thicliness.
When the inside diameter, is | of an inch, 3 ozs. ; f do., 5 ozs. \ ^io
6 ozs. ; I do., 8 ozs. ; % do., 10 ozs. per foot.
BRASS, COPPER,
STEEL AND LEAD.— Weight of a
Foot.
BRASS.
COPPER.
STEEL.
LEAD.
Diam'ter
Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight
,' Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight
and Side
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of Sq're.
Round.
Square.
Round.
Square.
j Round.
Square.
Hound.
Square.
Inches.
Lbs.
Lbs. j
Lbs.
Lb3.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
^
.17
.22
.19
.24
.17
.21
I
..39
.50
.42
.54 '
.38
.48
X
.70
.90
.75
.96
.67
.85
.
1.10
1.40
1.17
1.50
1.04
1.33
' ■
1.59
2.02
1.69
2.16
1..50
1.91
I
2.16
2.75
2.31
2 94
2.05
2.61
1
2.83
3.60
3.02
3.84
2.67
3.40
3.87
4.93
u
3.58
4.56
3.82
4.86
3.38
4.34
4.90
6.25
n
4.42
5.63
4.71
6.
4.18
5.32
6.06
7.71
n
5.35
6.81 :
5.71
7.27
5.06
6.44
7.33
9 33
14
6.36
8.10
6.79
8.65
6.02
7.67
8.72
11.11
1^
7.47
9.51
7.94
10.15 ,
7.07
9.
10.24
13.04
n
8.66
11.03 ;
9.21
11.77
8.20
10.14
11 87
15.12
n
9.95
12.66 i
10.61
13.52
9.41
11.98
13.63
17.36
2
11.32
14.41
12.08
15.38 ;
10.71
13.63
15.51
19.75
2J
12.78
16.27
13.64
17.36
12.05
15.80
17.51
22.29
H
14.32
18.24
15.29
19.47
13.51
17.20,
19.63
25.
21
15.96
20.32
17.03
21.69
15 05
19.17
21.80
27.80
24
17.68
22.53 ;
18.87
24.03
16.68
21.21
24.24
30.86
2|
19.50
24.83
20.81
26.50
18.39
23.41
26.72
34.02
21
21.40
27.25
22.84
29.08
20.18
25.70
29..33
37.34
n
23.39
29.78
24.92
31.79
22.06
28.10
32.05
40.81
8
25.47
32.43 i
27.1S '
34.61
24.23
30.60
34.90
44.44
184 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON & lEON AND BRASS BALLS.
CAST IRON.
Weight of a Foot in Length of Flat Cast Jrcn.
Width
Thick,
Thick,
Thick,
Thick,
Thick,
Thick,
Thick,
Of Iron.
nth inch.
3-Sths inch
Pounds.
1-2 inch.
S-Sths inch.
Pounds.
3-4ths inch.
7-8ths incli.
Pounds.
1 incli.
Inches.
Pounds.
Pounds.
Pounds,
Pounds.
2
1-.56
2-34
312
3-90
4-68
5-46
6-25
2i
1-75
2-63
3-51
4-39
5-27
615
7-03
2*
1-95
2-92
3-90
4-S8
5-85
6-83
7-81
21
214
322
4-29
5-37
6-44
7-51
8-59
3
2-34
351
4-68
5-85
7-03
8-20
9-37
3i
2-53
3-80
5-07
6-34
7-61
8-88
10-15
3*
2-73
4-10
5-46
683
8-20
9-57
10-93
35
293
4-39
585
732
S-7S
10-25
11-71
4
312
4-68
6-25
7-81
9-37
10-£>3
12-50
4|
3-32
4-97
6-64
S-30
9-96
11-62
13:28
4h
3-51
5 27
7-03
8-78
10 54
12-30
14-06
4^
371
5-56
7-42
9-27
11-13
12-98
1484
£
3-90
5-86
7-81
9-76
11 71
13-67
15-62
5;J
410
615
8-20
10-25
12-30
14-35
16-40
- 5.^
4-29
6-44
8-59
10-74
12-89
1503
17-18
S.'v
4-49
673
8-98
11-23
13-46
15-72
17-96
6
4-68
703
9-37
11-71
1406
16-40
1875
CAST IKON.
Weight of a Superficial Foot from \ to 1 inches thicK.
Size.
Weight.
Pounds.
Size.
AVeight.
Poumls.
Size.
Ins.
AVeight.
Pounds.
Size.
■\Vci?lit.
Size
1d<..
Ins.
Ins.
pounds.
Ins.
ii
9.37
i
23.1.5
1
37.50
1^
51.56
1:1
1
14.06
5
28.12
IJ
42.18
1*.
56.25
n
h
18.73
I
32.81
l.i
46 87
1|
60.93
2
CAST IRON, COPPER, BRASS, AND LEAD BALLS.
Weight of Cast Iron, Copper, Brnss. and Lead Balls, from 1 inch to
12 inches in Diameter.
5
■S 0
6^
o.
o
o
1
'6
el
pounds.
•214
i
5
Cast
Iron.
Copper.
g
a
1
Ins.
1
pounds.
•136
pounds.
-166
I)oundH.
•158
Indies.
7
pounds.
46-76
pounds.
57- 1
pounds.
54-5
pounds.
73-7
u
•46
•562
•537
•727
n
57-52
70-0
67 11
900
2
1-09
1-3
1-25
1-7
8
69-81
85-2
81-4
110-1
2*
213
2-60
2-50
3-35
8^
83-73
102-3
1000
1 .'52-3
3
3-68
45
43
5-8
9
P9.4
121-3
1159
156-7
3*
5-84
7-14
6-82
923
H
116-9
1430
1.36-4
ISl 7
4
8-72
10-7
10-2
13-8
10
l.'56-35
166-4
1590
21.50
4*
12 42
15-25
14-5
19-6
10.^
1.57-84
193-0
184 0
250-0
5
1704
20-8
19-9
26-9
11
181-48
221 8
211-8
2S6-7
H
22-68
27-74
26-47
36-0
m
207-37
233-5
242-0
327-7
6
29-45
35-9
34-3
46-4
12
235-62
288-1
275-0
372-3
eh
37-44
4576
43-67
6913
WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUAEE CAST IRON.
185
CAST IRON.
— Weight of a Foot in L
mgth of Sq
uare and Round.
SQUARE.
ROUND.
Size.
Weight. „
Size.
Weight.
Size.
Weiglit.
1 Size.
Weight
Inches
Square
Poundj.
Inches
Square.
Pounds.
Inches
Diam.
Pounds. *
Inches
Diam.
Pounds.
d
•78
45
74-26
4
•61 1
45
58-32
1
1-22
5
78-12
1
-95
5
61-35
i
1-75
5^
82-08
i
1-38
5i
64-46
I
2-39
H
86-13
I
187
H
67-64
I
312
H
90-28
1
2-45
5|
7009
n
3-95
5h
94-53
n
3 10
54
74-24
H
4-8S
H
98-87
u
3 83
5ft
77-65
If
5-90
51
103-32
If
4-64
5|
81-14
n
7-03
55
107-86
14
5-52
^
84-71
if
8-25
6
112-50
ii
6-48
6
88-35
11
9-,57
H
12208
11
7-51
H
95-87
n
10-98
H
13203
n
8-62
H
103-69
2
1250
64
142.38
2
9-81
6|
111 82
2k
14-11
7
153-12
2i
1108
7
12026
2k
15-81
7.i
164-25
2i
12-42
H
129-
2|
17-62
n
175-78
21
1384
u
138-05
24
19-53
7|
187-68
24
15-33
n
147-41
2|
21-53
8
200-
2|
1691
8
15708
21
23-63
H
212-56
2|
18-56
8|
167-05
25
25-83
84
225-78
21
20-28
84
177-10
3
28- 1 2
8|
239-25
3
22-08
8|
187-91
Si
30-51
9
2.53 12
3J
23-96
9
198-79
H
33-
H
267-38
H
25-92
H
210-
31
35-59
94
282-
31
27-95
94
221-50
H
38-28
n
29707
34
30-06
91
233-31
3|
4106
10
312-50
H
32-25
10
245-43
31
43-94
lOi
328-32
3|
34-51
m
257-86
H
46-92
104
344-53
H
3685
104
270-59
4
50-
10|
361-13
4
39-27 1
10|
283-63
4i
53-14
n
378-12
4J
41 76
11
296-97
4^
56-44
Hi
395-50
4i
44-27
lU
310-63
^
59-81
114
413-28
41
46-97
114
324-59
^
63-28
111
431-44
44
49-70
m
3.38-85
4|
66-84
12
450-
4|
52-50
12
35343
4i
70-50
4|
55-37
STEEL. -
- Weight of a
Foot in Length of Flat.
•
Size.
Thick,
1-4 inch.
Thick,
3-Sths.
Thick,
1-2 inch.
Thick, 1
o-Sths. 1
Size.
Thick,
1-4 inch.
Thick, 1 Thick,
3-Sths. Il-2ineh.
Thick,
."i-Sths.
Inches
1
pounds.
•852
pounds.
1 27
pounds.
1-70
pounds.
2.13
Inches.
24
pounds.
2-13
pounds.
3-20
pounds.
4-26 .
pounds.
5-32
n
-958
1-43
1-91
2-39 ,
m
234
3-51
4-68
5-85
H
1-06
1-59
2 13
2-66
3
2-55
.3 83
5-11
639
n
1 17
1 75
234
2-92
3^
2-77
4-15
5 53
6-92
n
1 27
1 91
255
3-19
34
2-98
4-47
5-98
7-45
n
1-49
2-23
2^98
3 72
n
319
4-79
6-38
7-98
2
170
2-55
3-40
4-26
4
3-40
5-10
6-80
8-32
2|
191
2-87
3-83
4-79
16-^
186
PARALLEL AND TAPER ANGLE IKON.
WEIGHTS OF ROLLED IRON
Per lineal foot, in pounds and decimal parts, of sections of Parallel Angle
Taper Angle, Parallel J, Taper J, and Sank Iron and Rails.
Table I. — Parallel Axgle Iron, of Equal Sides.
f
il
Lena:ih of sides.
Uniform lliickness
Weinrht of one
A B, in inches.
throug'hoLit.
lineal foot.
in.
in.
3
3_
80
2|
70
2i
8
575
2i
5-16ths
4-5
2
d full
3-75
li
k
30
li
i
25
ll
No. 6 wire guage
1-75
li
8
1-5
1*
9
1 25
1
10
10
1
10
•875
11
•625
4
11
•563
\
12
■5
A
Table II. — Parallel Angle Irox, of Unequal Sides.
L'^h of side
L'eth of side
Uniform
Weight of 1
A in inches.
Bin inches.
thickness
throu-rhoul.
lineal loot.
in.
in.
in.
3.i
5
3
975
3
5
1
5^75
3
4
5-l«ths
7-5
2.i
4
5-16ths
675
2.i
4
h
5-75
2
4
k
5-5
2i
3
k
4-75
2
2i
i
3-375
1.^
2
k
2-875
1-i
2
3-16ths
2-23
A ,
s^^^
B
Table III— Tap^r Angle Iron, of Equal Sides
L'gih of sides
'I'hickness of
Tliickness of
Weiprht of 1
A.A, ill inches.
edifes at B.
root at c.
lineal foot.
in.
in.
171.
4
h
i
110
3
h
1
io:n5
2.1
7-16lh9
a-iethit
8-25
2i
J
h
e-5
2.1
5-HiiJis,full
7-l()llis
5 0
■>
,i lull
.0-16!hi full
3-S7.>
H
.i
5-l()tli.s
3-25
Ih
i bare
5-16lh,ljare
2 625
WEIGHT OF PARALLEL AND TAPER T IRON
187
WEIGHl^ OF PARALLEL AND TAPER T IRON.
Table /F. -Parallel J iron, of Unequal Width and Dtpxa
Width
Total
Uniform
Uniform
Weijrht of
ot top
depth
thickness
thickness
one lineal
table A.
B.
top table c
of rib D.
foot.
in.
in.
in.
in.
5
6
h
h
1.5-75
4i
H
h
9-16ths
13-25
4
3
3
t
8-875
3i
3
J
825
3i
4
h
^
12 5
u.
3
i
ffuU
7-0
n
2
5-16ths
4-5
2
1-^
5-16ths
5-16tlis
4-0
11
2
i
i
3-125
14
2
k
i
2-875
n
li
i
k
2-375
1
H
3-16!hs
3-16ths
1-5
1
1
3-16ths
3-16ths
1 125
l\^'^x^;^-:-|px\-^
X..
^d
Table V. — Parallel J Iro.v, of EquAL Depth and Width.
Width of top ta-
Uniform
Weight of •
ble, and total
thickness
one
depth A, A.
throughout
lineal foot.
in.
in.
6
h
5
7-16ths
13-75
4
!
g
9-75
34
S-5
3
7-5
24
5-l«ths
4-625
2i
5-16th3
4-5
2
5-16ths
3-75
1|
4
30
14
i
2-25
n
i
1-75
1
3-16ths
10
t
1
•725
•625
-A—
^
'/^yy9/>/^'-A/'///'A
Table VI. —
Taper T Ikon
Width
Total Thickness Thickness Uniform | Weight
of top
depth of top table of top table thicknesof of one
table A
B.
at root c.
at edges D.
nb E. lin.foot.
in.
%n.
in.
in.
in.
3
H
4
I
7-16ths
8-0
3
•^
7-16ths
3
8
4
8-0
2
3
7-16ths
5-16ths
5-16th<!
5-25
24 24
1
4
4 full
6-5
: 2 14
1 full
5-16th3
t i 3-5 1
I 2 1
14
5-16ths
k k 1 2-875 1
168
WEIGHT OF IRON SASHES AND RAILS.
WEIGHT OF SASHES AND RAILS.
Table VII. — Sash Iron.
Total
depth
A.
Depth
of re-
bate B.
AVidth
at edge c.
greatest
width
D.
Weight of
one lineal
foot.
in.
in.
in.
2
1
No. 9 w. guage
5-8ths
1-75
If
;.
7
9-16ths
1 625
U
i
6
9-16ths
1-2.5
H
§
10
9-16th.>.
1125
A
10
9-16ths
10
1
1
*
h
•75
Table VIII — Rails ec^ual top and bottom Tables.
-B-
Depth A
ill inches.
in.
5
4i
4i
Width across
top and Ijottom,
BB, in inches.
in.
2|
2i
Thickness
of rib c.
Weight of
1 lin. foot.
in.
\
\
25-0
2.'J-,3.3
21-66
I^
K -
-B
/ L f
L-
•u-
TaUe IX. — Temporary Rails.
Top width
a.
Rib width
B.
tn.
in.
Bed width
c.
171.
3
4
4
Total
depth D.
in.
2
2i
.•}
3
Thickness
of bed E.
Wcig-ht of
L lin. foot
in.
7-16ths
h
90
12 0
160
173.3
WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON.
189
WEIGHT OF
A LINEAL FOOT OF MALLEABLE REC-
TANGULAR OR FLAT IRON.
From an Eighth of an Inch to Three Inches Thick.
T designates the thickness, B. the breadth.
T.
B.
Weig)it.
T.
1 B.
in.
j Weight.
T
'TIT
Weight.
T
1 ^'
in.
Weight.
in.
in
lbs. ozs.
in.
lbs. ozs.
in
lbs. ozs.
in
Jbs. ozs.
*
1
0 1.6
i
10:]
4 7-3
i
94
7 141
i
8|
10 13-8
o
0 2-4
11
4 9-0
n
8 1-4
9
11 2.8
1
0 3-3
Hi
4 10-7
10
8 4-8
H
11 7-8
1
0 4-1
n-i
4 12-3
loi
8 8-1
94
11 127
i
0 5-0
m
4 14-0
lOi
8 11-4
95
12 1-7
i
0 5-8
12
4 15-6
io|
8 14-7
10
12 67
1
0 6-6
11
11. i
9 2-0
9 5-4
lOi
104
12 11 6
13 0-6
0 8-3
1
4
i
0 6-6
H
0 9-9
0 8-3
114
9 8-7
103
13 56
i|
0 11-6
1
0 100
115
9 12 0
11
13 10-5
2
0 13-2
I
0 11 6
12
9 15-3
Hi
13 15-5
24
0 14-9
1
u
0 13-2
114
111
14 J-'i
■^4
2h
1 0-6
1 0-6
Y
%
• 0 14-9
14 94
2|
1 2-2
u
1 3-9
I
1 1-3
12
14 14-4
3
1 .^-9
11
2
1 7'>
1
1 3-8
1 8-8
H
1 55
X 1 ad
1 10.5
4
1
1 10-4
H
1 7-2
2i
1 13-8
•
14
1 13-8
H
2 11
31
1 8-9
24
2 1-2
13
2 2-7
14
2 7-7
4
1 105
21
2 4-5
2
2 7-7
i|
2 14-3
4i
1 12-2
3
2 7-8'
2i
2 12-7
2
3 4-9
4h
1 13 8
3i
2 IM
24
3 1-6
2d
3 11-6
44
1 15-5
3h
2 14-4
25
3 6-6
24
4 2-2
5
2 12
31
3 1-8
3
3 11-6
25
4 8.8
5i
2 2-8
4
3 51
3-i
4 0-5
3
4 15-4
5^
2 4-5
H
3 8-4
34
4 5-5
H
5 61
51
2 61
4h
3 11 7
31
4 10-5
34
5 12-7
6
2 78
4|
3 15-0
4
4 15-4
35
6 3.3
6i
2 9-5
5
4 2-4
44
5 4-4
4
6 9-9
6;^
2 111
5i
4 5-7
44
5 9-4
4i
7 0-6
61
2 128
54
4 .90
45
5 14-3
44
7 7-2
7
2 14-4
55
4 12-3
5
6 3-3
45
7 13 8
7i
3 0 1
6
4 15-6
5i
6 8-3
5
8 4-4
7i
3 1-8
6i
5 3-0
54
6 13-2
5i
8 111
7|
3 3-4
64
5 6-3
55
7 2-2
54
9 1-7 •
8
3 51
6l
5 96
6
7 7-2
55
9 8-3
8i
3 6-7
7
5 130
64^
7 12-2
6
9 149
8i
3 8-4
7i
6 02
64
8 11
H
10 5-6
8;|
3 10 1
74
6 .3-6
65
8 6-1
64
10 12-2
9
3 11-7
7|
6 7-0
7
8 111
65
11 2 8
9.i
3 13-4
8
6 10-2
7.i
9 00
7
11 94
9i
3 150
8i
6 13-5
7.-i
9 50
7ii
12 00
9|
4 7
84
7 0-8
7.5
9 lO-O
74
12 6-7
10
4 2-4
Si
7 4-2
8
9 14-9
75
12 1.3 3
lOJ
4 4-0 j
9
7 7-5
8.1
10 3-9
8
13 39
lOi
4 5-7
1
H
7 10-8
84
10 8-9
H
13 10-5
190
WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON.
T. designates tne thickness. B. the breadth.
T
B.
in.
Weight.
T
in
B.
in.
Weight. '
r. B.
n. in.
Weight. '
r. B.
1. in.
Weight.
in
lbs. ozs.
lbs. ozs. i
lbs. ozs. i
lbs. ozs.
i
8^
14 1-2
1
9k
19 10-6
1 io|
26 11-2 1
2
6 10-0
H
14 7-8
93
20 2.9
11
27 5-1
24
7 7-2
9
14 14 4
10
20 11-2
114
27 151
2i
8 4.4
H
15 50
104
21 3-«t
Hi
28 9-0
n
9 1-7
H
15 11-7
m
21 11-7
111
29 30
3
9 14-7
n
16 23
105
22 40
12
29 12-9
34
10 12-2
10
16 8-9
1 1
22 12 3 -
3i
Si
11 9-4
12 67
1'-'
KM
16 15-5
1 1.
114
23 4-6
l^
5 11
10^
17 6-2
Hi
23 128
2
5 12 7
4
13 39
10$
17 12-8
m
24 51
24
6 8-3
44
14 1-2
11
IS 3-4
12
24 13-4
2i
7 3.9
4i
14 14-4
114
m
18 lOO
?
7 15-5
8 11.1
4|
5
15 11 7
16 89
19 0-7
i|
li
3 11-6
m
19 7-3
IJ
4 5-5
34
9 6-7
54
17 6-2
12
19 13-9
2
24
4 15-4
5 9-4
10 2.2
10 13-8
5i
53
18 3-4
19 0-7
'—
1
H
2 9-4
2i
6 3-3
4
11 9-4
6
19 139
u
3 1-6
21
6 13 2
H
12 5-0
64
20 11-2
n
3 9-9
3
7 7-2
4
13 0-6
6i
21 84
2
4 22
34
8 11
n
13 12-2
6i
22 5.7
24
4 10-5
3i
8 111
5
14 78
7
23 2-9
2*
5 2-8
35
9 50
H
15 3-4
74
24 0-2
2i
5 110
4
9 14-9
4
15 150
7i
24 13-4
3
6 3.3
44
10 8-9
4
16 10-6
n
25 10-6
34
6 11 6
4i
11 2-8
6
17 62
8
26 7-9
Si
7 3-9
4|
11 12-7
64
18 1-8
84
27 51
n
7 122
5
12 6 7
4
18 13 4
8i
28 2-4
4
8 4-4
54
13 0-6
H
19 8-9
Si
28 156
44
8 12.7
5i
13 10-6
7
20 4-5
9
29 12-9
4i
9 50
51
14 4-5
74
21 01
9.1
30 101
4^
9 13-3
6
14*14-4
7i
21 11.7
9i
31 7-4
5
10 5-6
64
15 S-4
7|
22 7-3
9:i
32 4-6
54
10 13-8
6i
16 2-3
8
23 2.9
10
33 1-9
5ii
11 61
63,
16 12-2
84
23 14-5
104
33 151
5ii
11 14 4
7
17 62
4
24 101
lOi
:J4 12 4
6
12 6-7
74
18 01
H
25 57
105
35 9.6
64
12 150
7i!
18 10-0
9
26 1-3
11
36 69
6i
13 7-2
n
19 40
94
26 12 9
H.1
37 4-1
6.^
13 15-5
8
19 13-9
9A
27 8.5
Hi
38 1-4
7
14 7-8
84
•20 7-8
H
28 4-0
11:1
3S 14-6
74
15 0.1
8i;
21 1-8
10
28 15-6
12
39 119
7i
7-4
15 8-4
8;{
9
21 11-7
22 5.7
lot
29 11-2 -
30 6-8 1 i
16 0-6
'" 1
lOi
^ 2.i
8 6-1
8
16 8-9
94
22 15 6
lof
31 2-4
2i
9 50
84
17 12
9i
23 9-5
11
81 140
2.1
10 3 9
8.i
17 9-5
9:1
24 3.5
ll.{
32 9-6
3
1 1 2-8
«ii
18 18
10
24 13-4
Hi
33 5-2
31
12 1-7
9 1
18 10.0
10.1
25 7-3
11=1
31 0-8
H
13 0-6
».ll
19 2 3
lOi 26 1-3 1
12
34 12.4
35
13 15-5
WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON.
191
T. designates the thickness, B. tlie breadth.
T.
B.
in.
AV
eight.
T.
in.
B.
j in.
Weight.
T.
in
B.
in.
w
eight. .
T.
' B.
in.
AV
eight.
in.
lbs.
ozs.
lbs.
ozs.
'lbs.
ozs.
in.
lbs.
• ozs.
H
4
14
14-4
H
6i
25
140
If
83
39
13-5
u
Hi
57
21
4i
15
13-3
6h
28
14-5
9
40
15-7
113
58
5.9
4i
16
122
d'i
27
151
H
42
20
12
59
98
43
5
17
111
7
28
15-6
93
43
4-2
■
Ig
100
7i
30
0-2
44
6-4
H
H
17
7-8
5i
19
8-9
u
31
0-8
10
45
8-6
H
IS
13-4
H
20
7-8
n
32
13
101
46
10-8
33
20
29
53
21
6-8
8
33
1-9
lOi
47
130
4
21
8-4
6
22
5-7
H
34
2-4
103
48
15-2
4i
22
13-9
H
23
4-6
H
35
30
11
50
1-5
4h
24
3 5
eh
24
3-5
83
36
3-6
1I5
51
3-7
43
25
90
6|
25
2-4
9
37
41
Hi
52
59
5
26
145
7
26
13
H
38
4-7
113
53
81
H
28
40
7i
27
0-2
H
39
5-2
12
54
10-3
4
29
9-6
27
151
93
10
40
5-8
53
30
151
4-6
28
140
41
6-4
li
3
14
14.4
"•1
6
32
8
29
12-9
10|
42
6-9
H
16
2-3
H
33
10-2
H
30
11-8
m
43
7-5
H
17
6-2
6i
34
15-7
H
31
10-7
103
44
8-0
3|
18
lO'O
63
36
5-2
8|
32
9-6
11
45
8-6
4
19
139
7
37
10-7
9
33
8-5
114
46
9-2
4|
21
1.8
n
39
0-3
H
34
7-4
lu
47
9-7
4i
22
5-7
u
40
5-8
H
35
6-3
113
48
103
43
23
95
n
41
113
n
36
5-2
12
49
10-8
5
24
13.4
8
43
0-9
10
•^7
41
30
54
5i
26
27
1-3
51
8i
dS
6-4
11-9
m
O 1
38
n
23
12
8-3
°4
8i
45
lol
S9
1-9
3
13
10-6
53
28
90
S3
47
14
10|
40
0-8
H
14
12-8
6
29
12-9
9
48
70
11
40
15-7
H
15
15-0
H
31
0-8
H
49
12-5
Hi
41
14-6
33
17
1-2
H
32
4-6
H
51
20
Hi
42
13-5
4
18
34
63
33
8-5
93
52
7-6
113
43
12-4
H
19
5-6
7
34
12-4
10
53
131
12
44
11-4
4h
20
7-8
7i
36
0-2
lOi
55
26
43
21
101
H
37
41
loi
56
8-1
"
H
o^
10
5-6
5
22
12-3
n
38
8-0
103
57
13-7
23
11
61
H
23
14-5
8
39
11-9
11
59
3-2
3
12
6-7
H
25
0-7
H
40
15-7
114
60
8.7
H
13
7-2
53
26
2-9
8i
42
3-6
Hi
61
14-2
H
14
7-8
6
27
51
83
43
7-5
113
63
3-8
33
15
8-4
H
28
7-4
9
44
11-4
12
64
9-3
4
16
8-9
6k
29
9-6
94
45
15-2
H
17
9-5
6|
30
11-8
47
3 1
I4
u
20
4-5
4i
18
100
7
31
14-0
n
48
70
3:1
2]
11-7
43
19
10-6
U
33
0-2
10
49
10-8
4
23
2-9
5
20
11-2
u
34
2-4
K'i
50
14-7
44
24
101
5i
21
11-7
n
35
4-7
io|
52
2-6
4i
26
1-3
H
22
I2:i
8
36
6-9
103
53
6-5
43 1
27
8-5
53
23
128
Si
37
91
11
54
10-3
5 i
28
15-6
6
24
13-4
8i
38
11-3
Hi
55
14 2
5il
30
6-8
ly
d
WEIGHT OF
FLAT IRON.
T. designates the thickness, B. the breadth.
T. B. W
eigrht. JT.; B.
w
eight.
T.
in.
B.
in.
W
eight.
T.
in.
B.
W
eiglit.
ill. in lbs.
1.
ozs. in.
in.
lbs.
ozs.
lbs.
ozs.
iu.
lbs.
ozs.
1| o.i 31
140
n
9
55
14-2
2i
44
^31
10-7
n
85 65
32
5iJ 33
5-2
9i
57
70
45
33
6-3
9
67
10
6 ;34
12-4
i>4
58
15-9
5
35
30
9i
68
14-9
61
36
3-6
n
60
8-7
5^
36
15-2
94
70
12-7
6i
37
10-7
10
62
1-6
54
38
113
95
72
10-5
6|
39
1-9
m
63
10-4
55
40
7-5
10
74
8-3
7
40
91
104
65
3-2
6
42
3-6
m
76
61
7.i
42
0-3
10|
66
121
6.i
43
15 8
10.4
78
3-9
74
43
75
11
68
4-9
64
45
119
lOij
SO
1-7
n
44
14.7
lU
69
13-8
65
47
8-1
11
81
15-5
8
46
5-8
114
71
6-6
7
49
4-2
m
83
13-3
Si
47
13»0
111
72
15-4
74
51
0-4
114
85
111
8i
49
4-2
12
74
S-3
74
52
12-5
113
87
8-9
8|
50
11-4
75
8
54
56
8-7
12
89
6-7
52
J. J. ^
2-6
2
4
r^R
7-9
2-4
0 1
4-8
»7
9.\
53
9-8
4i
28
8i
58
*4 0
10
n
I5
37
5-8
H
55
1-0
44
29
12-9
8.h
59
131
5
39
5-2
n
56
81
41
31
7-4
85
61
9-3
H
41
4-7
10
57
15-3
5
33
19
9
63
5-4
54
43
4-2
lO.i
59
6-5
H
34
12-4
9.i
65
1-6
55
45
3-6
10.4
60
13-7
54
36
6-9
94
66
137
6
47
31
l()l
62
4-9
53
38
14
95
68
9-9
6i
49
2-6
11
63
12 1
6
39
11-9
10
70
60
64
51
20
Hi 6.5
3 2
6.i
41
6-4
10.^
72
2-2
65
53
15
llh 66
10-4
64
43
0-9
104
73
14-3
7
55
10
llf
68
1-6
65
44
11-4
10.5
75
10-5
n
57
0-4
12
69
8-8
7
46
5-8
11
77
66
74
58
15-9
7i
74
48
0-3
"J
11.4
79
2-S
75
60
15-3
1|
35
23
4-6
49
10-8
80
150
8
62
14-3
O
4
24
13-4
7.5
51
5-3
115
82
HI
s\
64
143
•1.!
26
62
8
52
15-8
12
84
7-3
84
66
13-7
4h
27
15.1
8i
54
10-3
—
85
68
13-2
±*J ad
4:1
29
7-9
84
56
4-8
2-i
44
33
8-5
9
70
12-7
5
31
0-8
85
57
153
45
35
63
9J
72
121
5.i
32
9-6
9
59
90
5
37
4 1
94
74
116
54
34
2-4
^\
61
4-3
5.i
39
19
95
76
11 1
5ii
35
11-3
o.\
62
14-8
54
40
157
10
78
10-5
6
37
4-6
95
64
93
55
42
13 5
10 1
80
100
6i
38
130
10
66
3-8
6
44
11-4
104
82
9-4
64
40
5-8
m
67
143
6.^
46
92
105
84
8-9
G'i
41
14-6
lOi
69
8-8
64
48
70
11
86
8-4
7
43
► 7-5
105
71
33
65
50
4-8
HI
88
7-8
7i
45
0-3
11
72
13-8
7 ,
52
2-6
114
90
7-3
74
46
9-2
11-i
74
8-3
7.i
54
04
115
92
6-8
n
4S
20
1
114
76
2-8
1
74
55
14 2
1
1
12
94
6-2
49
51
10-8
37
115
12
77
79
13 3
7-8
75
8 i
57
!•> 0
1
'
59
1 M V
98
-'4
5 1
41
6-4
8A
liO
125
5-4
84
<;i
7-6
m
j.-i
7.5
85 54
^\ 4.i|
29
14 5
0, \f »
84 ' 63 •
1 \t
5 4
O.J ,--
54145
8.6
WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON.
19-
T
de:
.ignates the thickne
ss, B
. the breadth.
T.
B.
ill.
Weight.
T.
in.
B.
We
ght.
T.
in.
B.
in.
We
?ht.
T.
ir..
in.
We
gilt.
in.
lbs
ozs.
in.
lbs.
ozs.
lbs.
ozs.
lbs.
ozs.
2i
51
47
9-7
2|
7
60
13-7
n
H
77
6-6
91
~8
i"4
97
9-6
6
49
10-8
74
63
0-5
83
79
111
lo.i
99
15-7
6i
51
120
U
65
3-2
9
81
15-5
103
102
5-7
6h
53
131
n
67
60
94
84
3-9
11
104
11-8
n
55
14-2
8
69
8-8
H
86
S-4
114
107
19
7
57
153
8.i
71
11-6
n
88
12-8
ii-i
109
8-0
n
60
0-4
8h
73
14-3
10
91
1-2
111
111
141
u
62
1-6
SI
76
11
104
93
5-7
12
114
4-2
u
64
2-7
9
78
3-9
10^
10|
95
10 1
8
66
3-8
n
80
6-7
97
14-5
3
6
59
98
Si
68
4-9
H
82
9-4
11
100
30
64
62
16
Sh
70
6-0
9:1
84
12-2
114
102
7.4
6d
64
9-3
Si
72
7-2
10
86
15-0
114
104
lis
61
67
1-0
9
74
8-3
104
89
1-8
111
107
0-3
7
69
8-8
9i
76
9-4
lOh
91
4-6
12
109
4-7
74
72
0-5
9-i
9^
7S
80
10-5
11-6
105
11
03
7-3
7i
7:1
74
77
S-3
00
95
101
01
51
54
120
10
82
12-8
114
97
12-9
6
57
21
8
79
7-8
m
84
13-9
uh
99
15-7
64
59
8-2
84
81
15-5
m
86
150
m
102
2-4
6h
61
14-2
8i
84
7 3
m
89
0-1
12
104
5-2
f
74
64
4-3
n
86
150
11
91
1-2
66
69
10-4
0-5
9
94
89
91
6-7
14-5
Hi
93
2-4
2:1
5h
50
1 5
lid
95
3:5
5:1
52
5-9
n
71
6-6
9.i
94
6-2
111
97
4-6
6
54
10-3
7:1
73
12-7
91
96
140
12
99
5-7
64
56
14-8
8
76
2-S
10
99
5-7
6h
59
3-2
84
78
8-9
104
101
13.5
■
2|
54
45
10-3
6|
61
7-6
8i
80
15.0
lOi
104
5.2
5i 47
130
7
63
121
8|
83
5-0
103
106
13.0
54
49
15-8
74
66
0-5
9
85
111
11
109
4.7
6
52
2-6
U
68
4-9
94
88
1-2
114
111
12.4
6i
54
5-4
7%
70
9-4
9i
90
7-3
ii-i
114
4.2
6d 56
8-1
10-9
8
72
13-8
91
92
134
11:1
116
11.9
6| 58
84
75
2-2
10
95
3-5
12
119
3.7
OBSERVATIONS ON TABLE OF FLAT IRON.
The wei£;hts here given are in poitnds, ounces, and decimal parts, avoir-
dupois ; and it will be seen, on inspecting- the Tabic, that the first numbers
in each page are those which applj' to nul iron, and that the breadth in-
creases by 4 of an inch. The last numbers in each page show the weight
of a square foot, according to the respective thickness of each bar. Hence
the weight of any length of a bar of rectangular iron may be ascertained
gimply, as follows :
Rule. — Multiply the tabular weight, according to the thickness and breadth,
by the number of feet in the bar, the product will be tne weight required.
Example — In a bar of iron whose thickness is 2} inches, the breadth 61^
inches, and the length 18 feet, what is the weight thereof?.
In the Table for 2 [inches thick, and opposite G^ inches, stand 48 lbs. 7 ozs.;
being the weight of one lineal foot. Multiply this number by 18 feet, and
we have as follows ;
48 lbs. 7 ozs. X IS = 871 lbs. 14 ozs.
194
ELASTICITY OF STEAM.
ELASTIC FORCE OF STEA.M.
lable of the Elastic Force of Steam, and corresponding Tempera-
ture of the Water ivith ivhich it ts in Contact-.
1 Elastic 1
Volume of
Elastic
Volume of
Pressure in
force in
Temper-
Steam ]
Pressure in
force in
Temper-
Steam
pounds
Inches
ature
compared ]
pounds
Inches
ature
compared
per sij. in J
of
Fahreu't.
with Vol.
per sq. in.
of
Fahren't.
with Vol
Mercury.
of Water.!
Mercury.
of Water-
14.7
3U.IJU
212.0
170U
63
128.52
299.2
44 9
15
30.00
212.3
1609
04
130.56
300.3
443
16
32.64
216.3
1573
05
132 00
301.3
437
17
34.68
21i).6
14SS
00
134.64
302.4
431
18
3a.72
222.7
1411
07
130 .'58
303.4
425
19
33.76
225.6
1343
03
138.72
304.4
419
20
40.80
229.5
1281
69
140.70
305.4
414
21
42 84
231.2
1225
70
142.S0
3f)0.4
403
22
44.83
233.8
1174
71
144.S4
307.4
403
23
46.92
2:36.3
1127
72
140.88
303.4
393
24
43.96
238.7
105*4
73
143.92
309.3
393
25
51J0O
241.0
1U44
74
150.90
310.3
383
26
53.04
243.3
1007
75
153 02
311.2
383
27
55.08
215.5
973
70
155.00
312.2
379
23
57.12
247.6
941
77
157.10
313.1
374
29
59.16
249.6
911
73
159.14
314.0
370
30
61.21
251.6
883
79
161.18
314.9
360
31
63.24
853 6
857
SO
103.22
315 8
362
32
65.28
255.5
833
81
10.5. 26
310.7
353
33
67.32
257.3
SlO
82
107.30'
317.6
354
34
69.36
259.1
788
83
109.34
318.4
350
35
71.40
260.9
J67
84
171.38
319.3
346
36
7344
202.6
743
85
173 42
320.1
342
37
75.48
264.3
729
SO
175.10
321.0
330
33
77.52
265.9
712
87
17 7. .50
321.3
335
39
79.56
267.5
695
88
179.54
392 6
3:12
40
81.60
269.1
679
89
181.58
32:) .5
329
41
83.64
270.0
604
90
133.02
321.3
325
43
85.63
272.1
019
91
185.00
325.1
322
43
87.72
273.6
035
92
137.70
325.9
319
44
89.76
276.0
022
93
189.74
326.7
316
45
.91.80
270.4
010
94
101.78
327.5
313
46
93.81
277.8
593
95
193.S2
328.2
310
47
95.83
279.2
530
90
195.60
329.0
307
43
97.92
230.5
575
97
197.90
329.8
304
49
99.96
281.9
564
93
199.92
330.5
301
50
102.00
283.2
551
99
201.90
331.3
298
51
104.04
284.4
544
100
204.01
332.0
295
52
106.03
2S5.7
534
110
221.40
339.2
271
53
1(18.12
280 9
525
120
241. 82
345.8
251
54
11010
258. 1
516
130
203.23
352.1
233
55
1 12.20
239.3
503
HO
2S5.GI
357 9
218
56
114.21
29!l.5
500
150
306.03
363.4
205
57
116.23
291.7
492
100
320.42
368.7
193
58
118.32
292.9
4Sl
170
310.80
373.6
133
59
120.30
204 2
477
180
307.25
378.4
174
CO
122.40
295.6
470
190
.387.61
382.9
166
61
121.44
290.9
403
200
403.01
337.3
153
62
120.43
298 1
456
1
Water ii
ililmcr im
puriiies in solution lends to ret
ard its at
ainin^ l)i
c nuriform
stale, and so impair:
the amount of its cla.sllc force
al an cqi
al lenipcr
aturc.
Common v
Sea waler
Common \
Sea wmcr
/tiXCT. . . .
boilinp point, 212° F
ut 212 "
boiling' point, 210° F
al 210 "
. ( clastic
1 •
force, 30
' 23
32
' 21
inches.
.05 "
I'atrr. . , ,
.5 "
'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
.0 "
PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
195
PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire, it readily im-
bibes the heat or fluid principle of which the fire is the immediate cause,
and sooner or later, according to the intensity' of the heat, attains a tempe-
rature of 21 i** Fahrenheit. If at this point of temperature the «atcr be
not enclosed, but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition wil' take
place, and steam or vapor will ascend throufih the water, carryins: with it
the superabundant heat, or that which the water cannot under such circum-
stances of pressure absorb, to be retained and to indicate a higher teinpera-
tUre.
Water^ in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly confined to the
same laws nnderevery degree of pressure ; but as the pressure is augmented,
so is the indicated temperature proportionately elevated : hence the various
densities of steam, and corresponding degrees of elastic force.
The preceding Table is peculiarly adapted for estimating the power of
steam engines on the condensing principle, because in such the efft-ctive
force of tlie steam is the difl^erence between the total force and the resisting
vapour retained in the condenser. The following Table is more adapted
for estimating the effects of non-condensing engines, as, in such, the atmo-
spheric pressure is not generally taken into account, engines of this principle
being supposed to work in a medium; or, the atmospheric pressure on the
boiler, to cause a greater density of steam, is equal to the resisting atmo-
sphere which the effluent steam has to contend with on leaving the cylinder.
Table of the Elastic Force of Steam, the Pressure of the Atmosphere not
being included.
Elastic Force in
Atmospliere.
lbs. square inch
1.1'J
2.5
1.22
3
1.29
4
1.36
5
1.70
10
2.04
15
2.-38
20
8.72
25
3.06
30
3.40
35
3.74
40
4.08
45 •
4.42
50
4.76
55
5.10
60
inch, of Mer.
Temperature [ Volume of
in degrees of Steam Water
Fahr. I being 1.
5.15
CIS
S.24
10.3
20.6
30.9
412
51.0
61.8
72.1
82.4
92.7
103.0
113.3
123.G
230
222
225
223
2.40
251
2150
268
275
282
288
294
299
304
309
1496
1453
1.366
12S2
1044
853
767
678
609
553
506
468
435
407
382
Cubic in. of
"Water in a
cubic foot of
Steam.
1.14
1,18
1.25
1..33
1.64
1.93
2.23
2.52
2.8 1
3.09
3.38
3.6G
3.93
4.20
4.43
Steam, independent of the heat indicated by an immersed thermometer,
also contains heat that cannot be measured by any inslrument at present
known, and, in consequence of which, is termed latent or|concealcd heat •, the
only positive proof we have of its existence being that of incontestable re-
sults or effects produced on various bodies. Thus, if one part by weight of
steam at 212° be mixed with nine parts of water at 62*^, the result is water
at 178 6° ; therefore, each of the nine parts of water has received from the
steam IIGG" of heat, and consequently the steam has diffused or given out
UG.G X 9 = 10494 — 33.4 = 1016° o"f heat which it must have contained.
Again, it is ascertained by experiment, that if one gallon of water be trans-
formed into steam at 212", and that steam allowed to mix with water at 52°,
the whole will be raised to the boiling point, or 2 12". From these and other
experiments, it is ascertained that the latent heat in steam varies from 940"
196
CONSUMPTION OF COAL.
to 1044°, the ratio oT accumulation advancing from 212°, as the steam be-
comes more dense and of greater elastic force 5 hence the severity of a scald
by steam to tliat by boihiig water.
The rules formed by experimenters as corresponding with the results of
their experiments on tlie elastic force of steam at given temperatures vary,
but appro.ximate so closely that the following rule, because of being simple,
may in practice be taken in preference to any otiier.
lirt/e. — To the temperature of the steam in degrees of Fahrenheit, add
100. divide the sum by 177, and the 6th power of the quotient equals the force
in inches of mercury.
Ex. Required the force of steam corresponding to a temperature of 312°,
312 -f 100 ~ 111 — 2.o27" = h')d inches of mercury.
But the Table is much belter adapted to practical purposes, as the vari-
ous results or effects are obtained simply by inspection.
CONSUMPTION OF COAL.
TABLE for finding the CONSUMPTION of COAL per Hour in Stcamera
either Paddle or Screw (the same Screw being used throughout,) at
any Kate of Speed, the Consumption lor a particular Rate being known.
(At a given Amount of Cord, the Engineer may determine tiie most pru-
dent Rate of Engine for reaching next coaling Port.) — Engineer's and
Contractor's Pocket Book, London.
Speed.
Consumption
of Coal.
Speed.
Consumption
of Coal.
Explanation.
3
.216
9
5.83
3 1-2
.3 13
9 1-2
6.86
The speed for the consump-
4
.512
10 1
8.00
tion of a unit of coal is sup-
4 1-2
.729
10 1-2
' 9.26
posed here to be 5, which may
5
1 .000
11
10.65
' be 5 miles or knots, or 5 times
5 1-2
1 .;i.ii
11 1-2
1'2.15
any number of miles or knots ;
i;
1 728
12
13.82
then if 5 of sudi number of
6 1-2
2.197
12 1-2
15.61
miles require 1 unit of coal
7
274I.
13
17 58
per hour. 9 of such units will,
7 1-2
3.375
13 1-2
19.08
jy the table, retiuirc 5.83 units
8
4.096
14
2195
of coal, and 3 of them .21&
8 1-2
4.910
units of coal.
It will be evident that this Table is calculated on the principle that the
horse power varies very nearly as tlie cube of the speed ; the enormous in-
crease of consumption at increased velocities is in liict a little greater than
that shown by the Table.
The advantages indicated above to be obtained at low velocities arc
evidently independent of those obtained at those velocities by using the
steam expansively.
EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL AND RESULTS OF COKING.
Under the authority of an Act of the American Congress, approved Sept.
11, 1841, an extensive series of experiments was conducted by Prof .fohn-
son upon the evaporative power of sevi'ral kinds of coal. The number of
samples tried was 41 , including 9 anthracites from Pennsylvania; 12 free-
burning or semi-bituniinous coals; II biluminons from \ir";inia; (i foreign
bituminous coals, viz. 1 from Sydney, Nova Scotia, sent by llie Cuniird (.'oal
Mming Company; 1 of Pictou Coal, sent by tin; same ; I ol'Scolch; 1 of
Newcastle ; 1 ol Liverpool ; and 1 of Piclou. From one to six trials were
EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL.
197
made on each sample, the average ciuantity used per trial being 978 lbs. The
experiments occupied 144. days, during each of which continuous obser-
vations were made during 12 or 14 hours.
The coals were burnt under a steam boiler, fitted with apparatus for com-
plete regulation, the supply of water and coals being determined both by
weight and measure.
The standard adopted to measure the heating power of each tind of coal
was the weight of water which a given weight of each evaporated from the
temperature of 212^ Fahr.
The following Table gives the results of five comparisons in each of which
that coal which ranks the highest is stated as 1000, and the others in deci-
mal parts of the integer.
Comparison Comparison
Comparison
Comparison Comparison
1. 2.
t.
.
4.
5.
3
O
■a t»>
0) CI o
EC
o o
Si
es
s
£•9
ll
4
O
Cm
O
tn
CO
Kinds of Coal.
'si
fir"
GS
11,
evaporativ
I weights of
oir steam f
d by 1 cubi
2°
ll
i
quired to b
steady ac
i
t
II
O OJ
a
'p.
£ .
11
.11
Pounds
water at
of fuel.
Relative
for equa
Pounds
produce
each.
Relative
for equa
u a
>
Time re
boiler to
hours.
li
it
ll
5 >»
Anthracites :
Atkinson and
Terapleman's )
10 70
1.000 566.2 I.OOO
1
7.96
.633
0.99
.505
5.1
.725
52.92
Beaver Alea- i
dow (No. 5). J
Bituminous and
9.38
.923 556.1
.982
6.74
.748
2.42
2.07
6.12
.060
56.19
free burning :
Newcastle .
8.66
.809 439.6' .776
5.68
.887
0.84
.595
10.7
.346
.50.82
Pictou . . .
HA-i
.792 417.9 .738
12.06
.418
0.85
.588
3.7
i.noo
49.25
Liverpool
7.84
.733 375.4 .663
504
1.000
0.86
.581
11 1
.333
47.88
Cannelton, (In)
7.34
.636 348.8 .616
5.12
.984
0.50
1 .000
6,4
.578
47.65
Scotch . .
6.9.5
.649 353.8 .625
10.10
.499
0.96
..•)21
5.7
.649
51.05
Dry pine wood. 4.69
.436 98 6 .475
0.307
16.417
The same report states some results of coke-burning, from which it ap-
pears that by burning in uncovered heaps, and only covering up the ignited
mass when flame ceases to be emitted (as in many of the iron works of
Great Britain, France, &c.), the loss in weight at Plymouth has been found
to be 17 per cent. ; at Penn-y-darran, 20 per cent. ; and at Dowlais Cwhere
it may be presumed the abundance of coal admits of an uneconomical man-
agement), 34: per cent. By coking in stacks, or well covered heaps of coal
from 10 to 15 ft. diameter, as followed in Staffordshire, highly bituminous
coals lose from 50 to 55 pr. ct. weight, and those of a drier nature from 35 to 40.
By coking in close ovens, a coal which, in an uncovered heap, yields only
45 to 59 per cent., yields 69 per cent. In the close oven the gain in bulk is
from 22 to S!3 per cent. ; and while highly bituminous coals yield only 40 to
45 percent, in open heaps, and actually /ose in hulk, \hey yield in close
ovens from G5 to 66 per cent., and gain in bulk. By coking fn gas retorts,
the Deane Coal of Cumberland gains nearly 30 per cent, in bulk, and loses
in weight 25 per cent. Carlisle coal nearly the same. Cannel and Cardiff
coals gain 30 per cent, in bulk, and lose 36.5 in weight. Bewick's Wallsend
loses 30, and Russell's Wallsend, 30.7 per cent, by the same process.
17*
198 POV/ER OF STEAM.
POWER OF STEAM.
Mr. Trcdgold gives the following- Table, which will show how the power
of tlie steam as it issues from the boiler, is distributed.
IN A NON-CONDENSING ENGINE.
Let the pressure on the boiler be 10.000
Force required to produce motion of the steam in the cylinder will be O.OiiO
Loss by cooling in the cylinder and pipes O.IGO
Loss by friction of the piston and waste 2.000
Force required to expel the steam into the atmosphere 0.0G9
Force expended in opening the valves, and friction oftlie various parts 0.G23
Loss by the steam being cut oiTbefore the end of the stroke 1.000
Amount of deductions 3.920
Effective pressure 6.060
IN A CONDENSING ENGINE.
Let the pressure on the boiler be 10.000
Force required to produce motion of the steam in the cylinder 0.070
Loss by cooling in the cylinder and pipes 0.160
Loss by friction of the piston and waste 1.250
Force required to expel the steam through the passages 0.070
Force required to open and close the valves, raise the injection
water, and overcome the friction of the axes 0.630
Loss by the steam being cut off before the end of the stroke 1.000
Power required to work the air pump 0.500
Amount of deductions 3.680
Effective pressure 6.320
If wc now suppose n cylinder whose diameter is 21 inches, the area of this
cylinder and consequently tiie area of the piston in scjuare inches, will be,
24" X .7854 = 452.39
Let us also make the supposition that sloam is admitted into the c^dinder
of such power as exerts an cfTeclivc pressure on the piston of 12 lbs. to the
square inch ; therefore, 4-52.39X12 = 5128.08 lbs., the whole force with
which the piston is pressed. If wc now suppose that the Icnnlh of the stroke
is five feet, and the engine makes 44 single or 22 double strokes in a minute,
then the piston will, move through a space of 22 X 5 X 2 = 220 foot in a
minute ; the power of the engine being equivalent to a weight of 5428 lbs.
raised through 220 feet in a minute.
This is the most certain measure of ihc powor of a steam engine. It is
usual, however, to estimate the ed'cct as e(|uivalenl to the power of so many
horses. This method, liowever siini)lc and naturnl it may appear, is yet,
from (lifTereuccs of opinion as to the power of a horse, not very accurate ;
and its employment in calculation can only be accounted for on the ground,
that when steam engines were first employed to drive machinery, they were
substituted instead of liorses ; and it becanic tlius necessary to eslimate what
size of a steam engine would give a power e<]nal to so many horses.
'J'liere arc various opinions as to the power of a liorsc. According to
Smeaton, a horse will raise 22,'JIG lbs. one foot iiigh in a minute. Doaagu-
licrs makes the number 27,500; and Watt makes it larger still, that is lU.OOO.
Thcre.is reason to believe that oven this nnndicr is too small, and that we
may add at least 11,000 to it, which g'vcs 41,000 lbs. raised one fool higli
per minute. — drier.
RULES AND TABLES
FOR
GAUGING, ULLAGING, &c
GAUGING OF CASKS.
201
GAUGING OF CASKS.
In takinc; the dimensions of a Cask it must be carefully observed :
1st, That the bung-hole be in the middle of the cask; 2d, That the
bung-stave, and the stave opposite to the bung-hole, are both regular
and even within; 3d, That the heads of the Cask are equal, and
truly circular; if so, the distance between the inside of the chime to
the outside of the opposite stave will be the head diameter within
the Cask, very near.
Rule. — Take, in inches, the inside diameters of a Cask at the
Head and the Bung, and also the Length; subtract the head -diameter
from the bung-diameter, and note the difference.
If the measure of the Cask is taken outside, with callipers, from
head to head, then a deduction must be made of from 1 to 2 inches
for the thickness of the heads, according to the size of the Cask.
1 1/ the stave.i of the Cask, between the bung and the head, are
considerably curved, (the shape of a Pipe), multiply the difference
between the bung and head, by .7.
2 If the staves be of a medium curve, (the shape of a Molasses
Hogshead), multiply the difference by .65.
3. 1/ the staves curve very little, (less than a Molasses Hogs-
head), multiply the difference by .6.
4. If the staves are nearly straight, (almost a Cylinder), mul-
tiply the difference by .55.
5. Add the product, in each case, to the head-diameter ; the sum
will be a mean diameter, and thus the Cask is reduced to a cylinder.
6. Multiply the mean diameter by itself, and then by the length,
and multiply if for Wine gallons, by .0034. The difference of dividing
by 294 (the usual method), and multiplying by .0034 (the most ex-
peditious method), is less than 500ths of a gallon in 100 gallons.
EXAMPLE.
Supposing the Head-Diameter of a Cask to be 24 inches, the Bung-
Diameter 32 inches, and the Length of Cask 40 inches; What is the
content in Wine Gallons ? 1st variety.
Bung-Diameter, 32 brought up 876.16
24 Length, 40
~8 35046.40
.7 .0034
Head-Diameter,
Difference,
Multiplier,
5.6
Head-Diam., 24
multiply 29.6
by 29.6
carry up Square, 876.16
14018560
10513920
119.157760
Jlns. 119 galls. 1 pint.
To obtain the contents of a similar Cask in Ale Gallons, multiply
35046.40 by .0027S5, and we get 97.6042, (or 97 gallons 5 pints.)
202
GAUGING OF CASKS.
GAUGING OF CASKS IN IMPERFAL (BRITISH) GALLONS.
AND ALSO IN UNITED STATES GALLONS.
Having ascertained the variety of the Cask, and its interior dimen-
sions, the following Table will facilitate the calculation of its capacity.
Table of the Capacities of CasJ:s, ivhose Bung Diameters and
Lengths are 1 or Unity.
n. 1st Var. 2d Var. 3d Yar. ■ith Var.
.50
.51
.5-2
.53
.54
.5.5
.5(i
.5/
.53'
.59
.OU
.GI
.6>
m
.01
.G.J
.00
.07
.03
.09
.70
^
.73
.74
.75
.00212441
.0021310
.0021 I37I
.0021530'
.0021037
.0021740
0021315
.0021951
.0022000;
.0022170'
.0022233!
.00223971
.00225 13i
.0022031'
.0022751
.0022373;
.00229971
.002;3122
.00232.)0
.0023379!
.0023510
.00230431
.0023778
.002:3915
.0021051!
.0024195
.0020300
.0020433
.0020507
.0020702
.0020333
.0020975
.0021114
.0021253
.0021394
.0021530'
.0021079
,0021323'
.0021903
.0022114
.0022202
.0022110
.0022500
.002271 1
.0022303
.0023010
.0023170
.0023320
.0023432
.002)040
.0023799
.00239.59
.0017704
.0017347
.0017993
.0018141
.0018293
.0013447
.0013004
.0018704
.0018927
.0019093
.0019201
.0019433
.0019007
.0019784
.0019901
.0(120147
.0020332
.0020.521
.0020712
.0020900
.0021103
.0021302
.0021.505
.0021710
.0021913
.0022129
.0010523
.0010713
.0010905
.0017098
.0017294
.0017491
.0017090
.0017391
.0018094
.0013299
.0018500
.0018715
.0018925
.0019133
.0019352
.0019503
.0019730
.0020000
.0020228
.0020452
0020073
.0020905
.0021135
.0021306
.002)599
.0021834
II. 1st Var. 2d Var. I 3d Var. I 4tli Var.
.70
.77
.73
.79
.80
.81
.82
'33
.84
.85
.80
.87
.38
.89
.90
.91
.92
.93
.94
.95
.90
.97
.98
.99
1. 00
.0024337
.0024482
.0024023
.0024777
.0024927
.0025079
.0025233
.0025383
.0025540
.0025700
.0025307
.0020030
.0020190
.0020303
.0020532
.0()2(i703
.O020'<75
.0027050
.0027227
.0027405
.0027535
.0027703
.0027952
.0023133
.0023320
.0024120
0024232
.0024445
.0024010
.0024770
.0021942
.0025110
.0025279
.0025449
.0025021
.0025793
.0025907
.0020141
.0020317
.0020491
.002(5072
.0020351
.0027032
.0027213
.0027390
.0027579
.0027704
.0027950
.0028137
,0028320
.0022343
.0022500
.00227.-0
.0023002
.0023227
0023155
.00231)30
.0(I2:>920
.00241.56
.0024390
.0024033
.0021333
.0025131
.002.5331
.0025035
.0025-91
.0020150
.0020412
.0020077
.0020945
.0027215
.00274.39
.0027705
.0028044
.0023320
.0022071
.002a310
.0022551
.002279 4
.002:3033
.0023285
.002:S533
.0023733
.0024035
.0024269
.0024545
.0024803
.0025003
.0025324
.00255'-3
.0025-5:3
.0021120
.0020389
.0020000
.0020933
.0027208
.0027484
.0027703
.0023013
.0023320
Divide the head by the hung diameter, and opposite the quotient
in the column II, and under its proper variety, is the tahular number
for unity. Multiply the tabular number by the square of the bung
diameter of the given cask, and by its length, the product equals its
capacity in Imperial gallons.
Required the number of Gallons in a Cask, {\st variety,') 21 inches
head diameter, 32 bung diameter, and -10 inches in length i
■ 32) 2 1.0 (.75 see Table for tabular No.
.002419.5 tabular No. for unity.
82 X 32 is 1024 square of bung diam.
ytnso
4S390
24195
2.4775(J80
40 Inches long.
99.1027200 Imperial Gallons.
1.2
Note. — Mulliply-
ing Imperial gallons by
one &. two-tenths (1.2)
will convert them into
U.S. gallons; and U. S.
gallons multiplied by
■8.33 equal Imperial
gallons.
1982054400
991027200
I18.9232(JI00 United States Gallons.
ULLAGE OF CASKS. 203
TO ULLAGE, OR FIND THE CONTEXTS IN GALLONS
OF A CASK PARTLY FILLED.
To find the contents of the occupied part of a lying cask in gallons.
Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the bung
di;inietcr, and if the quotient is under .5 deduct from the quotient one-
fourth of what it ii less than .5, and multiply tlic remainder, by the
whole capacity of the cask, this product will be the number of gallons
in the cask. But if the quotient exceeds .5, add one-fourth of that
excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum, by the whole capacity
of the cask, this product will be the number of gallons.
Example i. — Suppose the bung-diameter of a cask, on its bilge,
is 32 inches, and the whole contents of the cask 118.80 U. S. standard
gallons; requiied the ullage of 15 wet inches.
32) 15.00 (.46875 .5 — .46875= .03125 -4- 4 = .0078125 .46875 —
.0078125 =.4609375 X 118.80 = 54.759375 U. S. Gallons.
Example ii. — Required the ullage of 17 wet inches in a cask of
the above capacity ?
32) 17.00 (.53125 — .5 = .03125 -=-4 = .0078125+ .53125 = .5390625
X 118.80 = 64.040625 U. S. Gallons.
Proof — 64-040625 + 54-759375 = 118-80 gallons.
To find the ullage of a filled part of a standing Cask, in gallons.
Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the
length of the cask; then, if the quotient is less than .5, deduct from
the quotient one-tenth of what it is less than .5 and multiply the re-
mainder, by the whole capacity of the cask, this product will be the
number of gallons. But if the quotient exceeds .5, add one-tenth of
that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum, by the whole capac-
ity of the cask, this product will be the ullage, or contents in U. S.
standard gallons.
Example. — Suppose a cask, 40 inches in length, and the capacity
118.80 gallons, as above: required the ullage of 21 wet inches?
40) 21.000 (.525 — .5 = .025-=- 10= .0025+ .525=. 5275 X IIS.SO
= 62.667 U. S. Gallons.
Note. — Formerly the British V/inc and Ale Gallon measures were sim-
ilar to ihose now used in the United States and British Colonies.
Ttie following Tables exhibit the comparative value between the United
States and the present British measures.
TJ. S. measure for British (Im.) measure.
wine, spirits, &c. galls, qts. j>ts. gills.
4-2 gulls. = • lierce, = 34 3 13
63 =1 lio-!sh. = .5'2 113
120 = 1 pipe, = 104 3 13
252 =1 tun, =209 3 1 2
U. S. measure for British (Im.) measure.
ale and beer. sails, qts. pts. gills.
9 galls. = 1 firkin, =" 9 0 1 1
30 =1 b;irrel,= 36 2 0 3
54 =1 liogsh. = 54 3 1 1
108 =1 bult, =109 3 0 3
To convert Imperial Gallons into United States Wine Gallons multiply the im-
perial by 1-2. To convert U. S. Gallons into Imperial multiply the U. Slates
Wine gallons by -feSS.
51 U. S. Ale Gnllons equal 60 Imperial Gallons, therefore to convert one into
other add or deduct 1-COth.
204 PLOUGHING, PLANTING. — WEIGHT OF WOOD, &C.
PLOUGHING.
Tabic showing the distance Travelled by a horse in Ploughing an Acre of
L-and ; also, the quantit}' of Land worked in a Day, at the rate of 16
and 18 miles per day of 9 hours.
B'dth of
Furrow
Spaco travel-
led in Ploush-
Extent rioughed
B'dth of
Furrow
Space travel-
led in IMoueh-
Extent Ploughed
Elice.
ing an Acre.
slice
ing an Acre.
Miles.
Inches.
Miles.
18 Miles.
16 Miles.
Inches.
18 Miles.
iO Miles.
7
14 1-2
11-4
11-8
14
7
2 1-2
2 1-4
8
12 1-2
1 1-2
1 1-4
15
6 1-2
2 3-4
22 5
9
11
13-5
1 1-2
10
6 1-G
2 9-10
2 3-5
10
9 9-10
14-5
13-5
17
5 3-4
3 1-10
2 3-4
11
9
2
1 3-4
18
5 1-2
3 1-4
2 9-10
12
8 1-4
2 1-5
19-10
19
5 1-4
3 1-2
3 1-10
13
7 1-2
2 1-3
2 1-10
20
4 9-10
3 1-5
3 1-4
PLANTING.
Table showing the number of Plants required for one Acre of Land, from
one Toot to Twenty-one Feet disicmce from Plant to Plant.
Feet No. of
Feet
No. of
Feet
No. of
Feet
No. of) Feet
No. of
Distance. Hill-.
Distance
Hills.
Distance.
Hills.
Distance.
Hills.
Distance
Hills
1 43, .560
4
2,722
7
889
10
436
17
151
Ij^ 19,360
4.^
2,151
ih
775
lOi
361
18
135
2 10,890
5
1,742
8
680
12
302
20
108
2.i 6,969
5.^
1,440
sh
C02
14
223
21
99
3 4,840
6
1,210
9
538
15
193
25
69
3^ 3,556
fi-i
1,031
94
482
1.6
171
30
48
WEIGHT OF A CORD OF WOOD.
Table of the Weight of a Cord of different kinds of Dry Wood, and the
comparative vahie per Cord.
A Cord of Hickory, - - 4469
poun
ds,
-
-
Carbon - -
100
Maple, - - - 2863
-
-
*'. - -
54
Wliile Birch, - 2360
-
-
" - -
48
" Beech, - 3236
-
-
" - -
65
" Ash, - - 3450
-
-
" - -
77
Pitch Pine, - - 1904
-
-
" - -
43
White Pine, - 1868
-
-
"
42
Lombard V Poplar 1774
-
-
"
40
While Oak - - 3821
-
-
" - -
HI
Yellow Oak, - 2919
-
-
" - -
(iO
. Red Oak, - - 3254
-
-
" - -
09
Note. — Nearly oiii; lialf of tlie weight of a ijrowhipr Oak tron consists of
sap. Oriliiiary Dry Wood contains about one-fourtli of its wciijlil in water.
CHAIICOAL.
Oak, Maple, Hecch, and Chostnnt make llie best qiialilj. Do-
twccn 15 and 17 per cent, of coal can be obtained when tlie %von(l is
propcM-ly l)nine(!. A bnsliel of coal (Voiii Iini-d wood wi ii;hs between
29 and 31 lbs., and Iroin lioni pine between 28 and 3U lbs.
ADDITION TO TINMAN'S MANUAL.
TINMAN'S TWELVE POUND BILL,
OR BILL OF DAY'S WORK
No. of Articles for Day's Work. 12 lb.
16 Sixteen quart Large Dish
Kettles, 84
10 Water Pots, 75
18 Twelve quart Pails, 67
18 Large Dish Kettles, 67
20 Foot Stoves, 67
24 Ten quart Pails, 58
24 Ten quart Pans, 68
18 Gallon Coffee Pots, 58
18 Six quart Covered Pails, . 58
18 Large Sauce Pans, 58
24 Gallon Measures, 39
30 Six quart Pails, 39
36 Common Size Milk Pans, . 39
20 Large AVash Bowls, 39
20 Lanterns, 39
24 Small Dish Kettles, six qt. 39
20 Cullenders, 39
24 Three quart Coffee Pots, . 39
24 Large Pudding Bags, ... 39
24 Roasters, 39
40 Lantern Pans, 36
24 Two quart Coffee Pots, . , 34
20 Three qt. Covered Pails, . 34
24 Small Wash Bowls, 34
24 Small Sauce Pans, 34
30 Half gallon Measures, ... 25
48 Half gallon Pans, 25
24 Half gallon Dippers, 25
36 Half gallon Funnels, 25
30 Thi-ee pint Coffee Pots, . . 25
24 Two quart Covered Pails, 25
86 Large Blow Horus, 25
36 Three quart Pails, 25
48 Round Pans, 18
100 Square Pans, 18
108 Scollop Pie Pans, 18
48 Sausage Horns, 18
86 Quart Coffee Pots, 18
48 Square Toast Pans, 18
No. of Articles for Day's Work. 12 lb.
36 Round Toast Pans, 18
40 Quart Covered Pails, 18
36 Round Flat Bottom Tea
Pots, 18
72 Second Size Horn, 18
48 Sailor Pots, 18
36 Quart Lamp Fillers, 18
36 Water Ladles, 18
36 Sugar Scoops, 18
36 Milk Strainers, 18
72 Quart Measures, 14
48 Large Skimmers, 14
72 Quart Funnels, 14
72 Small Horns, 14
72 Basins, 12
144 Quart Scollops, 12
144 Quart Grease Pans, 12
60 Round Handled Dippers, 12
120 Half Square Pans, 10
84 Half Sheet Funnels, 10
72 Half Sheet Dippers, 10
120 Half Sheet Scollops, 10
96 Pint Funnels, 8
84 Pint Measures, 8
96 Pint Cups, 8
168 Pint Scollops, 8
48 Flour Boxes, 8
96 Half Pint Measures, 5
108 Half Pint Cups, 5
96 Half Pint Dippers, . . 5
120 Half Pint Funnels, 5
96 Gill Measures, 5
48 Blisters, 5
96 Small Skimmers, 5
124 Flat Candlesticks, 5
120 Needle Cases 5
84 Pepper Boxes, 5
120 Hearts, 3
144 Rounds, 3
98 Rattle Boxes, 3
[The 6 Pound Bill is one-half of the 12 Pound Bill.]
ADDITION TO TINMAN S MANUAL.
No. of Articles for Day's Work. 121b.
12 Six quart Coffee Boilers, 1.00
12 Five quart Coffee Boilers, 83
12 Four quart Coffee Boilers, (37
12 Three qt. (ioffee Boilers, 50
12 Two quart Coffee Boilers, 42
12 Six quart Coffee Pots,. . . 83
12 Five quart Pots, 75
12 Large Dutcli Buckets,. . .
12 Small Dutch Buckets,. . .
12 Small AVater Pots,
12 Ten quart Covered Pails, 84
18 Five quart Covered Pails, 50
26 Three pint Covered Pails, 20
30 One pint Covered Pails,.. 14
30 Five quart Open Pails, . . 50
32 Gall. Open Pails,
40 Three Pint Open Pails,. .
121b.
No. pf Articles for Day's Work.
24 Nine quart Pans,
16 Twelve qt. Pans, handles,
20 Seven qt. Pans, handles,
36 Five quart Straight Pans,
40 Two quart Straight Pans,
48 Three pint Straight Pans,
20 Handled Wash Boards,. .
18 Twelve qt. Dish Kettles,.
18 Ten qt. Dish Kettles,
24 Four qt. Dish Kettles, . . .
40 Three pint Dish Kettles, .
Twelve qt. Cov. Buckets, 1.00
Oak Leaf Cake Cutters, . . 10
One quart Tea Pots, 34
One gallon Fluid Cans,. .
Half gallon Fluid Cans, . .
80
50
39
67
58
39
18
1.— WEIGHTS OF IRON WIRE PER 20 FEET.
Manufactured by Ichabod Washbukn & Moen, Worcester, Mass.
No.
0.
.5 lbs.
No.
6..
.lib.
14 ozs.
No.
12.
. 9 ozs.
No.
1.
.4 lbs.
2 ozs.
No.
7..
.lib.
10 ozs.
No.
13.
.6 ozs.
No.
2.
.3 lbs.
8 ozs.
No.
8..
.1 lb.
7 ozs.
No.
14.
.5 ozs.
No.
3.
.2 lbs.
15 ozs.
No.
9..
.lib.
2 ozs.
No.
15.
.44 ozs.
No.
4.
.2 lbs.
8 ozs.
No.
10..
14 ozs.
No
16.
.3i^ ozs.
No.
5.
.2 lbs.
5 ozs.
No.
11..
•
10 ozs.
No.
17.
.3 ozs.
2.— WEIGHT OF IRON WIRE PER LINEAL ROD.
N09.
Diameter in 1-100
of an Inch.
Weight per
Lineal Rod.
4 lbs. 2 OZS.
3 " 10 "
2 " 15 "
2 " 8 "
2 " 5 "
1 " 15 ''
4 " 9 "
Nos.
1 8
9
10
11
12
1 13
Diameter in 1-100
of an Inch.
.18
.16
.15
.13
.12
.10
Weight per
Lineal Rod.
1
2
3
4
5
6
.32
.30
.27
.25
.24
.22
1 lb. 4 OZS.
1 " 0 "
0 «« 14 "
0 " 10 "
0 " 9 "
0 ♦« 6 "
7
.20
1
33 R^ H A. T A. .
Page 35. — To find tiik Solidity of a Pyramid or Cone.
Role.— Multiply the area of the base by the height, and one-ihird of the
product will be the solid eoiilenl.
ExAMPi-E.— Required the solid conlent in inches of a Cone or Pyramid, the
diameter of the base being 8 inches, uiid perpendicular height 18 inches ?
&X8 = 0IX .7854X19 = ''*'>' "^03^ 3 =301 59.% inches -^ 2.31 = 1 gall, li qts.
Page 92 No. 38.— For Tin 61 lbs. Copper I lb. rtad Copper 64 lbs. Tni 1 lb.
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY CONS
T 49 B98 1861 *5
c 1 Butts. I R (Isaac
The tinman- s manual and Builder s and me
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