Full text of "The trackman's helper, a handbook for track foremen, supervisors and engineers"

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JUL 1 1 2006

THE
TRACKMAN'S HELPER

A HAND BOOK FOR TRACK FOREMEN,
SUPERVISORS AND ENGINEERS

1917 EDITION

REVISED AND ENLARGED
BY

RICHARD T. DANA and A. F. TRIMBLE

Mem, Am. Soc. C. E.
Mem. Am. Soc. E. C.
Mem. A. I. M. E.

Mem. Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.
Mem. Eng. Soc. N. E. Penna.

AFTER THE ORIGINAL
BY

J. KINDELAN

of the C. M. & St. P. Ry.
AS REVISED BY

F. A. SMITH

F. R. COATES

and

JERRY SULLIVAN

ILLUSTRATED

»?3U^A7rA 2ook %

NEW YORK

1917

By Clark Book Co., Inc.

New York

K5lt

PREFACE

The object of this book is to help the MAN ON
THE TRACK by giving him in the most convenient
form the practical results of observation and study
of track work on the railroads of the United States
for the last twenty years, in addition to the notes that
were published in 1894 by the late J. Kindelan.

The original book has been entirely rewritten and
brought up to date, the illustrations redrawn and a
great many new ones made. A very large quantity
of brand new material has been added from the ex-
perience of the authors and from the files of the tech-
nical journals, which have been carefully searched
for the purpose.

We have kept constantly in mind the following
points that are necessary in a practical book of this
kind, namely : —

(1) It must cover the principal field of a track-
man's work.

(2) It must not waste space by going outside of
that field.

(3) It must avoid elaborate theories, which he has
not the time to investigate.

(4) Its language must be plain enough to be read-
ily understood.

(5) It must be small enough to be carried in his
pocket.

(6) Its price must be within his means.

In writing this volume our final aim has been to
enable each man who uses it to become of the greatest
possible value to the company that employs him.
Richard T. Dana and A. F. Trimble.

New York, November, 1916.

371942

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I COTNSTBUCTION 1-42

II Spiking and Gaging . 43-66

III General Spring Work 67-74

IV Drainage . 75-85

V Summer Track Work 86-115

VI Cutting Weeds 116-119

VII Ballasting 120-141

VIII Renewal of Rails 142-156

IX Effects of the Wave Motion of Rail on

Track Rail Movements 157-179

X General Fall Track Work 180-184

XI Building Fences 185-208

XII General Winter Work 209-216

XIII Bucking Snow 217-220

XIV Laying Out Curves 221-225

XV Elevation of Curves 226-237

XVI Lining Curves 238-241

XVII Special Conditions on Mountain Roads , 242-254

XVIII Frogs and Switches 255-288

XIX Use and Care of Track Tools .... 289-314

XX Tie Plates 315-323

XXI Wrecking 324-329

XXII General Instructions 330-363

XXIII Practical Hints for Trackmen .... 364-380

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

CONSTRUCTION

Requirements of new track. A good railroad
should be complete in all respects. In its construction
nothing should be omitted that may contribute to-
wards making it safe and economical for operation.
It should be full-bolted, spiked, well ballasted, sur-
faced, lined, and gaged. A poor track bears about the
same relation to a railroad that a shanty does to a
house, and trackmen who are in the habit of doing
poor work, with means at hand to do better work,
never learn how to do good work.

Track laying. The best dirt ballasted track can be
made by bedding the ties to a level surface across
their tops before putting on the rails. To do this
engineers must first set grade stakes, which are usu-
ally placed 100 ft. apart. For very accurate work
they may be set every 25 ft. if the engineers have time,
which seldom happens. The ties can then be set be-
tween the 25 ft. stakes with strings.

Track laying machines. These have been used to
a considerable extent in buildijig new roads and are
elsewhere quite fully described in this volume with
cost data of their operation. The amount of track
laid each day must always be limited to what can be
bolted and spiked safe for trains between the forward
moves of the machine. The secret of success in lay-
ing track in this manner, just as in all cases involving

large operations, lies in the proper preparation and

THE TRACIvJMAN'S HELPER

the accurate organization of the entire work. In the
United States to-day, the vast bulk of track work con-
sists of re-laying under conditions that are not suitable
for track machine work.

Tools and material for track laying. The follow-
ing is a list of tools ordinarily required on construc-
tion work for track laying and ballasting where 100
men are employed:

Hand Cars 2

Push Cars 2

Track Shovels (#1 Flat) .100

Shovels, Round Pointed. 24

" Long Handled . . 6

Picks 50

Lining Bars 12

Claw Bars 12

Tamping Bars 12

Nipping Bars 12

Cold Chisels 24

Rail Punches 6

Chopping Axes 6

Hand Axes 6

Adze Handles 24

Axe " 6

Spike Maul Handles .... 36

Red Flags 12

Sledges, 16 pound each . . 2
" 12 " " . . 2

Grind Stone 1

Track Wrenches 24

Rail Tongs 12

Rail Forks 6

Expansion Shims 200

Switch Locks 6

Rail Drills 2

Torpedoes, dozens 4

Spike Mauls 36

Bush Scythes and Snaths,

each 6

Hand Saws 6

Adzes 12

Track Gages 12

Spirit Levels 4

Tape Lines 4

Claw Hammers 2

Monkey Wrenches 18"... 2

12"... 2

Lanterns, Red 6

White 6

Water Pails 6

Tin Diapers 12

Oil Cans 2

Oilers 2

Gallons of Oil 2

Xails, each of lOd, 20d,

40d, 60d Keg

Pick Handles 24

Track Jacks #1 4

#6 2

Rail Benders 2

Covered Water Barrels . . 2

Chalk Lines 2

Files 6

Crosscut Saws 2

Post-hole Diggers 2

114 -inch rope 300 feet

Tie Poles, 30 feet long . . 2

Tie Gages 4

Set Double Harness 1

Set Single Harness 1

Set of Double and Sin-
gle Trees, each 1

Wagon 1

Scrapers 2

Horses or Mules 2

Tool Boxes 2

Wheelbarrows 12

Trackbarrows 6

CONSTRUCTION 3

The above list of tools will do to supply an average
gang of 100 men employed on tracklaying and ballast-
ing with a surplus to equip extra men if required, or
replace tools out of repair or broken, until supplies or-
dered can be secured.

-The accommodations for tracklaying should be
about as follows :

One supply and office car.

One kitchen car.

Two dining cars.

Ten sleeping cars.

Where tracklaying is done at a long distance from
the base of supplies a blacksmith with forge and tools
should accompany the outfit.

Blacksmith shop outfit. Tools necessary for a
blacksmith shop suitable for drill and general repair
work are given in Dana's "Handbook of Construc-
tion Plant, ' ' as follows :

1 anvil, 130 lbs $13.00

2 augers, ship, 1%, $1, 1-1", $1.20 2.20

2 bevels, universal 2.50

1 brace and 13 auger bits, i/4 to 1", in roll 5.50

1 caliper, micrometer 6.00

4 calipers, spring, at $1 4.00

6 chisels cold, 12 lbs. at 50(^ 6.00

4 diisels, hot, 8 lbs. at 50(J 4.00

1 cutter for pipe up to 3" , 4.80

1 drill, stationary, hand power, 14 to 1^4 hole, weighs

170 lbs. . . ' 22.00

1 drill, breast 3.00

6 drill dollies 10.00

24 files, assorted, at $8 per doz 16.00

24 files, flat, at $8 per dozen 16.00

12 files, small taper .60

24 files, triangular, at $7 per dozen 14.00

1 grindstone, foot power, 3" x 12'' wheel 4.00

1 gauge, marking 2.00

4 heading tools, l^/o lbs. each 3.00

3 hammers, blacksmith 2.70

3 hammers, set 1.50

4 hardies at 50^ lb , 2.00

4 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

2 pails at 70^ $ 1.40

6 rasps, at $12 per doz. . . 6.00

1 rule, 6 ft. folding 40

1 saw, crosscut, hand, 26" 1.35

1 saw set .70

2 saws, hack, at $1 2.00

4 shanks 2.00

1 sledge, double face, 5 lbs 1.50

2 sledges, double face, 7 lbs. each 4.20

1 sledge, cross pein, 5 lbs 1.50

2 sledges, cross pein, 4 lbs. each 2.80

2 squares at $9 18.00

1 stock and 8 dies for W' to 2" pipe . 17.50

8 swedges, bottom, 1 lb. each 2.00

8 swedges, top, 1 11). each 2.00

9 tongs, assorted 12.00

1 vise, blacksmith's leg, 6i/4" 20.00

1 vise, hinged, for pipe, %" to 3" 3.15

$243.30

Tie bedding. This work consists in placing a
straight edge in a level position over the tops of loose
ties lying on the sub-grade, and bringing up each tie
to a uniform surface under the straight edge, just as
it should be in track under rails. Thin ties should
have ballast thrown under them and be settled to the
correct level. The bed under thick ties should be
dug out and the dirt removed sufficiently to bring
the tie down to the level of the other ties. One
straight edge should be provided for every two men
of the tie bedding gang. With dirt from the em-
bankment, the thick ties should always be bedded be-
fore laying the rails, because the grade is seldom a
smooth surface to receive the ties; the ties, no matter
how well selected, Yary in thickness, and it is well
known that the rails laid on loose ties and uneven
grade will be kinked and surface bent by trains run-
ning over the track before it is surfaced up smooth
and level. Another good point in favor of tie bed-
ding is that the rails can be laid faster th^n over

CONSTRUCTION 5

loose ties, and the spiking can be better done with
less labor.

Engineers should call the attention of the con-
tractor to inequalities or poor surface of grade. It
is much easier and cheaper to make a good grade
with teams and scrapers than with shovels.

The general practice now is to follow up with bal-
lasting practically as fast as the rails are laid and
with hopper and ballast cars that enable the distri-
bution of the material used in ballasting just as it is
needed. Tie bedding is done sparingly and only to
the extent of getting the track laid so that it will
carry a work train for a trip or two, "to drag the
track" full of ballast or perhaps get a few cars of
steel ahead for the rail laying gang.

Track laying*. There should be a good foreman
in charge of the track laying gang and he should
keep general oversight of the work and keep the men
properly proportioned to the work of distributing
ties, laying rail, and spiking and gaging. For each
of these three classes of work an assistant foreman
should be employed who will be in direct charge and
hurry the work along. The general foreman should
see that the work is properly done, and help out the
sub gang that he sees is getting behind, making such
change in the proportion of men alloted to each as he
sees is for the best to keep the work in the different
lines advancing continuously and at the same rate
of speed. If the laborers employed are foreigners it
is well to have assistant foremen who can speak their
language. The general foreman, while he may be
competent, cannot look after all the details and keep
a large gang of men working to advantage. It is
money well spent to have sufficient assistant foremen,
who should be held responsible for having all neces-
sary tools at hand when wanted and for carrying on
the work assigned.

« THE TRACKJSIAN'S HELPER

Locating joint ties. Two men should be delegated
to carry a measuring pole of the correct length of a
rail for locating the joint ties ahead of the rails.
These men should space the ties on each side of the
joint wherever necessary; they should also adze
twisted ties and bed down those that are too high.
The joint ties should not be located very far ahead
of the rail, because there is likely to be variation in
the distances, and the measurements taken with the
pole should occasionally be corrected from the ends of
the rails. The track laying is delayed and the ties
are seldom so well spaced when the work is left to
the spikers.

Tie gage. The two men who look after the loca-
tion of the joint ties can also mark the location of the
base of the rail on each tie by means of the tie gage,
which is a template or stick that should always be on
hand for this purpose. Its use is explained more
fully and an illustration of it given in Chapter V
under ''Renewal of Ties." This marking of the
position of the rails requires only very little time and
should always be done, as it saves much valuable time
for the spikers in getting the tie quickly adjusted to
its proper position.

Laying the rails. A construction foreman should
see that no new rails are laid in track before all
kinked and crooked places in the rails are straight-
ened. It has been a common fault when in a hurry to
spike down all rails just as they come, regardless of
any kinks that may have been put in them while in
transit or in unloading them from cars. Many light-
weight rails are irreparably damaged in this way,
and after such rails are put in a track they are sel-
dom, if ever, made perfect again, as very few sec-
tion foremen have the necessary amount of help or
spare time to do what can be done in the very short
time before the rails are laid. The foreman should

CONSTRUCTION 7

see that the rails are so laid that no joint will come
within ten feet of the end of any bridge or road cross-
ing where this can be avoided. For this purpose it
is the practice of some roads now to furnish double
length rails, i.e., 60 ft. or 66 ft. long, which are in most
cases sufficient to clear the travelled road with a
single length and thus eliminate an endless amount of
trouble on maintenance. It is also a good plan Lo
lay long rails at station platforms where it is difficult
to resurface joints on account of the track being filled
in to the top of the rails or planked over as at road
crossings ; and on bridges, in addition to getting easier
riding qualities, there is a great amount of shock saved
to the bridge structure by the elimination of half of
the joints. When placing the order for new rails
there is no particular difficulty in figuring out how
many long rails are necessary to meet these condi-
tions.

Expansion and contraction. "When laying rails
care should be taken to provide the proper spaces at
the joints for expansion. If they are laid with too
close joints in cold weather they expand and close up
all the openings as the weather becomes warmer until
finally, when there is no further room for expansion
as the heat increases, the track becomes kinked out of
line or ''buckled." This is an extreme condition
and is disastrous when it occurs ahead of a train, as
sometimes happens, causing a derailment.

The effect of expansion of the rails is most notice-
able on a line of track that is only partially ballasted
and filled between the ties, or where track has been
laid down without any particular ballast. This effect
may exist only to the extent of making each indi-
vidual rail-length of track "wavy," and slight kinks
can be noticed at the joints, but it is something
to be guarded against. When the rails are crowded
togethel* tightly so that there is no room for ex-

8 THE TRACKIVIAN'S HELPER

pansion in forty or fifty rail lengths, it is time for
the section foreman to take it in hand. He should
either bump the rails back if there is opening to do
so, or cut a few inches from a rail in the center of the
tight track and bump the adjoining rails to divide
up the opening so obtained throughout a number of
rail lengths either way. In cutting a rail for this
purpose it is best to cut from the end an amount equal
to the distance between the first and second bolt holes,
or, in other words, have it so that the second bolt hole
will move up to take the place of the one cut off.

"Contraction" is a shrinking or shortening of
the rails, and is caused by cold weather. The con-
traction of the rails increases with the severity of the
cold, and by this process the openings in the joints
between the rails are enlarged.

Sometimes in the winter the contraction is so
great that where the rails were not properly laid the
track is torn apart, joint splices are broken, and open-
ings between the rails are so much increased as to
render the track extremely dangerous for trains un-
less discovered in time and repaired.

Too much space at the joints also affects the wear-
ing qualities of the rails, the openings at the joints be-
ing so large that the wheels batter their ends, and
they wear out and have to be taken out of service
much sooner than would be the case with rails of the
same quality if laid with the proper spacing.

The table to be used for securing the proper space
for expansion is given in Chapter VIII under "Al-
lowance for Expansion."

Expansion shims should be made of narrow, flat
iron or steel, and bent so that one end will rest on
top of the rail when in place. The shim can thus be
easily removed and used again after a piece of track
is laid, and all the bolts then tightened up on the
joint fastenings.

CONSTRUCTION , 9

A ten-penny common steel nail, if bent at right
angles, makes a cheap and handy expansion shim
when no others are provided. It may be used at al-
most any temperature above the freezing point, by re-
versing the end and flattening the head of the nail.
Expansion shims should not be allowed to remain be-
tween the ends of the rails after a piece of track has
been laid and the joint fastenings made secure.

When laying old rails make the same allowance for
expansion as when laying new ones.

Creeping rail. Aside from the movement of the
rail due to expansion and contraction above referred
to, it is very likely to be moved by the wave motion
which exists when the wheel passing over a track
comes in contact with the rail; the rails are shoved
ahead, on double track with the current of traffic, and
on single track usually in the direction of the heavier
traffic, but if there is a heavy grade the track may
move down grade with the direction of the lighter
traffic. This force is often great enough to pull the
slot spikes and move the joints ahead of the joint ties,
and ties are slewed around and shoved ahead with
such force as to churn up the ballast ahead of them.
As a result, the rails are crowded ahead and the space
allowed for expansion on account of temperature is
all closed up perhaps pulling apart a joint just as
would occur in case of contraction in severe winter
weather when the proper spacing has not been made
in laying the rails as above explained.

To counteract this effect it is necessary to apply
anti-rail-creepers or ''rail anchors" as they are called.
There are a number of good ones on the market today
such as the P. & M., the Vaughan, the Dinklage Creep-
check, etc., shown and described in Chapter IX.

The number of rail anchors necessary is something
that varies with the particular conditions. The dia-
grams following show the manner in which they

THE TRACKAIAN'S HELPER

should be applied and the number used to resist the
creeping. AVhere the tendency to creeping is light
two per rail may answer the purpose, four where
medium, and six per rail where heavy creeping is en-
countered.

Unloading and loading rails. To avoid damage to
rails by dropping them on hard ground or ballast it
is best to unload them by derrick or other mechanical
means. The American Rail Loader, shown in Fig.
2, is an excellent machine for this work. It can be
run on its own wheels over a string of flat cars and
the rails picked up by means of a clamp which is
readily fastened to the rail near the center, the opera-
tion being by a long air cylinder supplied with com-
pressed air from the train line, the operator simply
turning a valve to raise or lower his load as desired.
Only a small force of men is employed when handling
rails in this way, one to operate the machine and six
others, three in a car to get the rails ready and ad-
just the clamp, and three on the ground to move the
boom, land the rail and remove the clamp. To handle
rails in this way requires, of course, a work train or
engine to supply air. The boom is so designed that
when the flat car upon which it is located is coupled to
a gondola car the clamp will come right for the center
of the car and rails can be loaded or unloaded as
readily from this class of car as from a flat car. In
loading up flat cars, the rails can be piled up as high
as desired and the car loaded to its capacity, which is
hardly possible, or at least not a safe practice, when
the loading is done by hand. In loading or unload-
ing a car an average of a rail per minute can be
maintained, and if flat cars are being unloaded the
machine can be moved forward by the men and placed
on the car just emptied ; if gondola cars are used, the
one loaded or unloaded must be switched out and re-
placed by another.

For Light Creeping Tendency. Two Per Rail

C)ii?E:cr-K)N

OF (:ni:t:pri

Medium Creeping Tendency. Four Per Rail.

[)iiREc:"i()i«i

OF (3hi:e:f'ii4(5

UUUUUUUUUT¥II

Heavy Creeping Tendency. Six Per Rail.

nnnnnnnnnn.nnnn[i.n^fin

SINGLE Track -Creeping Both DirecTions. Six Per Rail.
Fig. 1. Proper Location for Anti-Creepers

THE TRACIOIAN'S HELPER

Short rails for curves. The usual practice when
an order is given by a railroad company to furnish a
certain tonnage of rail is to specify the length of rails
desired, 30 ft. or 33 ft. as the case may be, and to
accept up to ten per cent of the tonnage in short rails,
down to 25 ft. lengths, diminishing by one foot succes-
sively. Some of these short rails are used on the in-

Fig. 2. American Rail Loader

side rail of curves in order to keep the joints broken
with the other rails on the outside line. What extra
ones are not required for this work should be kept to-
gether and used up on straight track, breaking joints
to the best advantage.

When laid in a sag. When a piece of track is laid
in a sag which it is intended soon to raise to grade,
the rails should be laid with open joints and the

CONSTRUCTION 13

splices loosely bolted, otherwise, when brought to
grade the joints will become too tight, since a sagging
track is longer than one which is laid accurately to
grade.

Change of line toward center of curve. In cases
where the general change of line is made by moving a
curved track inward several feet, dig out the material
which is used for filling between the ties for the full
distance covered by the change in line, so that the
ties will not crowd against each other or injure the
surface by rising up. Before commencing to line,
cut the track loose at the middle of the curve by re-
moving the joint fastenings at one joint on each line
of rails as nearly opposite as can be selected, and
loosen the spikes from at least one line of rails between
the joints thus cut in order to permit the two broken
pieces of track to move independently of each other.
Start lining gangs at one or both ends of the curve
and work towards the middle, moving the track
towards the new line 12 to 20 inches, or as far as it
can be pulled conveniently with one lining, without
kinking the rails or splices. Continue thus until the
opening in the middle of the curve is reached. Then
go back and commence again as near the end of the
curve as may be necessary, and work towards the
middle as before. Repeat this process until the inside
rail of the track has been moved beyond the cen-
ter stakes for the new line, bringing in both ends of
the curve alike. Then, while part of the men are
spacing and squaring the ties, throwing in surfacing
material, etc., go over the ground with a small gang
and line the track to the center stakes. Do not cut
the rails to fill up/ the opening at the middle of the
curve until all the lining of the track is finished;
otherwise the rails may not fit after all the lining is
completed. Lining from the ends of the curve to-
ward the middle always forces the track to move

14 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

forward toward the opening- when throwing track in-
ward. By moving the track a little past the center
stakes with the first lining, if the curve is being moved
in, and then throwing it outward to its place when
finishing the work, buckling or jamming joints to-
gether is prevented and the track is made less diffi-
cult to handle. The latter operation stretches the
track, and opens up joints that might otherwise have
proved too tight for conveniently maintaining a good
line in the future. If the section of track to be
thrown is long, and particularly if of heavy construc-
tion, it may be necessary to cut the track at more than
one place.

When the change of line is so great that the new
line is some distance clear of the old track, it is some-
times a better policy to lay a new section of track
throughout than to try to move the old piece of
track to place with lining bars.

Making connections. When laying rails on either
main or side tracks never make a connection with a
piece of rail shorter than ten feet. When you see
that only three or four feet of rail are necessary to
connect the ends of a piece of track, add the three or
four feet to the length of the rail immediately adjoin-
ing the space, cut two pieces of rail half the length of
the total number of feet, and put these into the track
to make connections. A piece of rail less than ten
feet in length is of greatest value to the railroad com-
pany when returned to the rolling mill. Except in
cases where it is absolutely necessary to use short
pieces of rail, as at the ends of frogs in round house
tracks, they should be avoided. Modern round house
design nowadays generally requires the elimination
of frogs between the turntable and house. A track
foreman can generally avoid making a short con-
nection, especially when laying old rails, by cutting
lengths of rail from 26 ft. to 33 ft. which are battered

CONSTRUCTION 15

on the ends but otherwise in good condition. When
rails of different length are at hand a great deal can
be accomplished by doing a little figuring to make
such a combination of length of rails that an opening
can be closed without cutting at all.

Lining new track. When a new road is first laid
out the engineers set stakes where the center of the
track should be. These are generally 100 feet apart,
and a tack is driven in the top of each stake to show
the correct center of the track. The man whose
business it is to line the rails behind the tracklayers
always carries with him a small light wooden gage on
which the center is marked. The manner of lining
new track is as follows: The trackliner places his
gage on top of the rails across the track over one of
the center stakes. His men then lift the track to
one side until the center mark on the gage is directly
over the tack in the top of the center stake between
the rails. This part of the track is then allowed to
remain in that position and should not be moved
again. After the trackliner has put the rails in posi-
tion at two or three center stakes, he proceeds with
his men to put the rails between these points in a true
line with them, which completes the work. Any care-
lessness on the part of the trackliner in the matter of
putting the rails in their proper place at the center
stakes is apt to cause trouble when the track has been
surfaced, as it is often difficult for the trackman in
charge of a section to get a perfect line on his track
at places Avhere the first trackliner left swings in it,
because often many of the center stakes are lost or
moved out of position during the work of tracklaying.

The steel car should be light, strong and compact,
and made of the best material, so that it can carry a
heavy load and at the same time be easily handled by
the crew working it. The wheels' tread should be at
least eight inches wide, so that the car can pass over

16 THE TBACKMAN'S HELPER

loose and unevenly gaged track without leaving the
rails. A car load of rails off the track may cause con-
siderable delay.

The gage used to hold the rails in place ahead of
the steel car should be made of one solid piece of iron
with a flange to come down on both sides of the ball
of each rail. This kind of gage serves the double
purpose of gaging the track and of holding the loose
rails in place until the car has passed over them.

AVhen spiking new track the foreman should see
that the gage is not placed too far away from the
joint when the spikes are being driven; otherwise, if
the loose end of the rail is bowed in or out, the gage
will be wrong.

Forwarding material. In constructing a new line
the material used must necessarily be hauled out to
the point of construction. The center of activities is
at the end of the completed track, hence it is of the
utmost importance that only what is required to keep
the work in progress continuously be forwarded. To
avoid accumulation and all interference, this distribu-
tion should be in charge of a competent man who will
keep in close touch with the general foreman and find
out just what is desired from day to day and have it
loaded up at the material yard, which is the center of
distribution; or, if the material be on cars, shall
see that the proper cars go forward switched out in
the proper order. If the track laying gang is con-
tinuously using the stub end of the track as fast as
it is laid during the day for the operation of the
steel car, and it is not convenient to distribute ties
ahead by means of teams without interfering with
the work of tracklaying, it may be necessary to have
the distribution of ties made at night.

Ballast gang. This should follow up the track-
layers as closely as can be arranged so that there will
be no interference with the distribution of material

CONSTRUCTION 17

either for the track layers or with the unloading of
ballast. A gang of forty men should keep this work
advancing properly and be able to furnish the help
required to distribute the ballast if furnished in self-
clearing cars. The composition of this gang will be
approximately the same as the one referred to in detail
in Chapter VII on ''Ballasting."
Force required for track laying.

1 Foreman

2 Assistant Foremen

2 to 4 Tie Spacers — Space ties ahead of new rails

2 Tie Gagers — Mark location of rails on ties before
rails are laid and assist tie spacers in locating
joints, ties, etc. '

1 Gageman — Handles gage for spiking track to gage

ahead of steel car •

4 Spikers (head) — Spike every third or fourth tie
ahead of steel car

2 Tie Nippers ( head ) — Hold up ties for head spikers . .
8 to 12 Tongmen — Unload rails from steel car and place in

position for spikers

1 Shimman — Carries box of assorted shims and places

proper shim for expansion

8 Bolters — Apply joint fastenings

8 to 16 Spikers (back) — Spike every tie not finished by

head spikers

4 to 8 Tie Nippers — Hold up ties for back spikers

6 Material and Toolmen — Distribute joint fastenings,
spikes and bolts, and look after tools

2 Water Carriers — ^Supply force with drinking water . .

51 to 69 Men in entire gang.

Note: — ^Above does not include force required for distribu-
tion of ties.

A machine for handling rail and track material.

The Brown Rail Loader is mounted on a covered 34-ft.
flat car of 60,000 lbs. capacity. It consists of a 22-ft.
demountable boom attached to a low mast and guyed
to an ad.i'ustable ''A" frame on each end of the car.
The hoisting cables run along the booms, through
the masts, around drums, and are then attached to

18 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

the rods of the pistons in the compressed air hoisting
cylinders. These cylinders are placed longitudinally
on the floor of the car and each is equipped with a
three-way valve lever or chain control enabling the
operator to occupy any position in the car while rais-
ing or lowering loads. In order to draw air for the
device from the ''Train Line" without cutting out
any of the cars in the train, two compressed air reser-
voirs are provided under the car and connected with
each cylinder. The housing between the boom masts
has sufficient door and window openings and is
made long enough to accommodate the booms so that
when not in use they can be placed in the car and
locked.

The loader is built in two types: (A) 2,200 lbs.
capacity with a compound lift of 12 ft. (B) 2,200
lbs. capacity with a compound lift of 24 ft. and 4,500
lbs. capacity with a straight lift of 12 ft. The change
from 2,200 lbs. to 4,500 lbs. in type B is made by re-
leasing the cables from the drums, a clamp of simple
construction being the only attachment required.

Some of the advantages claimed for this machine by
the manufacturers are: (1) The material is handled
without being damaged. (2) Danger of personal in-
juries is greatly reduced. (3) A much smaller force
of men is required for the work. (4) A considerable
saving in time required to handle a given amount of
material, which is of special importance in handling
material on main tracks, and (5) A great saving in
cost of doing the work.

In loading or unloading rail by hand a force of
about 40 men with foreman and sub-foreman is re-
quired. The wages of such a gang will amount to ap-
proximately $85 per day of 10 hours. If the work is
done with a Brown Rail Loader and is carried on at
the same time on the two cars coupled to it, the
makers claim that the force required will consist of

CONSTRUCTION 19

two men on each car for swinging the rails into place
and straight with the car and for loosening or attach-
ing the cable clamps to the rails, two men on the
ground opposite each car for attaching the cable
clamps to the rails and swinging the rails- parallel to
the car, or for swinging the rails parallel to the track,
properly spacing them and loosening clamps if rail is
being unloaded. An operator to manipulate the ma-
chine and a foreman complete the force, which will
cost about $22 per day of 10 hours. These figures
show a saving of about $63 a day for labor resulting
from the use of the machine. The amount actually
saved will, of course, be less than indicated, as in-
terest on the cost of the machine, maintenance, de-
preciation, taxes, cost of oil, grease and waste, cost of
compressing air, depreciation and maintenance of all
compressed air equipment involved, oil, grease and
waste for such equipment, and cost of handling the
machine in the work train, and from one piece of work
to another must be deducted from the $63 saved
through reduced labor cost.

The rate of speed at which the machine may be
operated is claimed to be four to five rails per minute
with the train moving at the rate of two miles per
hour. On the Boston & Maine R. R. five high side
cars containing 160 tons of rail were unloaded and
set up for laying in 3 hrs. and 15 min., which includes
time taken to clear the main track for three trains.
The Boston & Albany R. R. accomplished on June 6,
1912, 99 95-lb. rails handled in 50 min. using only
one end of loader. Illustrations of work performed
with Brown Rail Loaders on the New York, New
Haven & Hartford R. R., are :

July, 1913, 625 100-lb. rails handled in 4 hrs. and 30 mins.,

using only one end of loader.
July, 1913, 53 100-lb. rails handled in 17 mins., using one end

only.

20 THE TRACKIMAN'S HELPER

The amounts of time stated in these records include
the time necessary to clear the track for other trains.

Tracklaying by machine with treated ties. It is
difficult to lay track with a track laying machine
when treated ties are used. A report on this work by
E. E. Roos, Superintendent of Track on the Pecos &
Northern Texas Ry., states that in using ties right
from the treating plant, the dripping oil made them

Fig. 3. View of l>rown Kail Loader Ready for Operation

slip badly when carried forward on the rails. As the
carrier for the ties is above the carrier for the rails
the oil dripping on the rails gets them in a greasy con-
dition, making it hard for the machine to grip the
rails and frequently breaking the driving chain.

Cost of track laying with a track machine.
A large job of track laying is described in the April
1, 1914, issue of Engineering and Contracting, as fol-
lows: Every device or appliance which would help
along the work was furnished. Tools and machinery
were maintained at top efficiency through frequent ex-
pert attention. Years of experience have developed a
construction organization of enviable efficiency. It is
not surprising, therefore, that the costs appear ex-
ceedingly low, as compared with track laying by rail-
way company forces. The costs given do not include

CONSTRUCTION 21

unloading the material in the material yard, loading
it into the distributing train, nor transporting it to
the ''front."

One of the most vital reasons why contractors turn
out cheaper work than railway companies is the fact
that they offer better wages and thereby get better
laborers in the end, as the weeding out process is
available when good wages are paid. Also, stipula-
tions are usually introduced into contracts which
make the owner liable for extras in case the contract-
or's work is held up or interfered with. Conse-
quently, great efforts are made to keep the contractors '
force fully supplied with material and room to work in.

Make-up of track laying machine train. When
laying track, the train carrying the machine is made
up as follows, beginning with the ''pioneer car,"
which always remains at the "front," and is not
changed out as are the other cars in the train. Imme-
diately behind the "pioneer" are four cars of rails,
then the locomotive, and behind that eight cars of
ties ; next comes a car of tie plates, when they are
used, the "trailer," which is a car carrying spikes,
bolts and base plates, a car of plank for crossings, a
car of cattle guards, a tool car and the way car. This
makes twenty cars, and all are flats except the two
last mentioned.

The first car of rail behind the pioneer is
"trimmed"; that is, on it are loaded angle bars
enough to lay the amount of steel carried on the train.
The angle bars are carried forward over the pioneer
car and delivered as needed to the ' ' strap hangers ' ' in
front. The rails underneath the angle bars are the
last ones laid from the train, in order that the angle
bars may be cleared off by the time rails are needed.

A system of trams is used to carry the ties and rails
to the front. The trams are made in sections, each 33
ft. long, the sides consisting of 2% by 10 in. planks.

22 THE TRACKMA:N'S HELPER

Tie trams are 14 in. wide, and rail trams are 12 in.
wide. The trams are held together by bolts on which
are pipe separators to hold the sides the proper dis-
tance apart. Near the bottom of the trams are live
rollers, which complete a trough-shaped way for ties
or rails.

On the pioneer car is installed a 20-h.p. upright
engine for driving the live rollers in the trams; this
is done by means of a tumbler shaft and gear or cog
wheels. Steam for the stationary engine is piped
from the locomotive. The shaft is fitted with patent
couplings, consisting, on one end of each section, of
a casting containing a square socket into which the
end of the next rod fits. Each length of tram has a
section of the shaft bolted to it and as the trams are
hung the rods are fitted together, thus forming a
continuous shaft. The trams are " hung " on iron
brackets or trusses which hook into the stake pockets
on the cars. The trusses are made with flange rollers
on which the trams are placed, thus taking care of the
slack of the train in starting and stopping. The
trams have a coupling device which holds them to-
gether, the ones on the pioneer being permanently
fastened to the car.

The tie trams, 660 ft. long, are operated on the
right hand side of the train. Those for the rail, 240
ft. long, are on the left. The movement of ties and
rail is controlled bv the ''dinkev skinner," i.e., the
stationary engineer, so as to deliver them in front of
the train as needed. A tie chute, 53 ft. long, provided
with dead rollers, is attached at the front end of the
tie tram on the pioneer, and through this chute the
ties are pushed by the ones coming forward over the
live rollers. As fast as thev are delivered at the end
of the chute they are taken by the "tie buckers" (la-
borers) and are placed across the grade ready for the
rails.

CONSTRUCTION 23

A similar chute attached to the rail tram provides a
way for delivering the rail in front of the pioneer.
These chutes are supported at the outer end by cables
attached to the rear end of the pioneer car and car-
ried up over a high frame work or ''gallows" on the
front end. A boom, also attached to the front end of
the pioneer car, extends far enough ahead to have the
cable attached to it reach the middle of the rail when
placing it in position in track. This cable is oper-
ated by hand with an ordinary crab. Instead of
cranks, a light buggy wheel is used by the operator
to wind up the cable, which lifts the rail and holds it
while the "heeler" and his assistants place it in posi-
tion on the tracks. (A newer device handles the cable
with compressed air.) The rails are placed in the
trams by three men and are handled in front by six
more. One man on each car places the ties in the
trams. The spikes, bolts and base plates are peddled
from the trailer as the train proceeds.

The rails are held to gage by bridle rods until the
train passes over, all spiking being done in the rear.
The train moves ahead one rail length at a time when
laying square joints, and half a rail length when lay-
ing broken joints. The trams are taken down when
cars are empty and replaced on the loaded cars when
a new train arrives. From 100 to 125 men are re-
quired for a full crew.

Material for the track machine is loaded by railway
company forces, and great care is taken to have
the material loaded, not only in correct proportion,
but in correct order and position on cars. A train
called the ' ' swing train ' ' is then made up of sufficient
material for a half day's work, and is transported to
the front, or rather to the camp of the contractor,
where it is placed in the most convenient place avail-
able for the track machine crew to pick up. The
swing train crew then takes a train of empties and re-

24 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

turns to the material yard. The track machine is
served regularly by the same locomotive and train
crew. As the track machine does not move ahead by
its own power a locomotive and train crew are re-
quired to remain with the machine constantly.

Briefly, the movement of the machine is as follows,
in laying square jointed track: ties are trimmed and
carried ahead constantly and laid on the grade; the
machine moves ahead, and a rail is chuted out and
heeled in by the rail gang, and the angle bars bolted
on loosely with two bolts only; a second rail is placed
and held to gage by bridle rods; the machine is then
moved ahead a rail length by the locomotive, and the
operation repeated.

Back of the machine the bridle rods are removed,
and enough ties are spiked to hold the rails from
spreading. Spacing ties, bolt tightening and full
bolting are all done behind the machine and cause it
no delay.

Organization of gang. A gang of 127 men will
easily lay two miles of track per day, provided no un-
usual difficulties, such as soft grade, etc., are en-
countered. A gang of this size would be placed about
as follows :

1 general foreman, per day $ 5.00

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, per day . 3.50

1 ass't foreman, watching trams, per day 3.50

1 ass't foreman, with spikers, per day 3.50

1 ass't foreman, lining track, per day 3.50

1 stationary engineer, per month 75.00

1 pole man, per month 75.00

1 oiler, per day 2.50

1 line man, per day 2.25

16 "tie buckers," per day $2.25 and 2.50

2 tie spacers, ahead of machine, per day 2.25

1 man fiddling ties, per day 2.25

6 "rust eaters," handling rail, per day 2.50

1 bridle man, per day 2.25

1 heel nipper, per day 2.25

CONSTRUCTION 25

2 strap hangers, per day $ 2.25

1 man, carrying angle bars from "trimmed" car to

pioneer car, per day 2.25

3 steel rollers, rolling rails into trams, per day.... 2.50
8 tie trammers, rolling ties into trams, per day 2.25

2 spike peddlers, distributing spikes, per day 2.25

2 bolt and joint plate peddlers, per day 2.25

2 ''bridle men," carrying bridle rods from rear, per

day 2.25

4 rear bolters, per day 2.25

2 water boys, per day 2.25

8 men spacing ties, per day 2.25

1 gage man, per day 2.25

32 spikers, per day 2.50

16 nippers, per day $2.25 and 2.50

8 liners, per day 2.25

127

When the gang is smaller, the force behind the
machine is cut down, and 74 men would be organized
about as follows :

1 general foreman, per day $ 5.00

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, per day 3.50

1 ass't foreman, watching trams, per day 3.50

1 ass't foreman, with rail gang, per day 3.50

1 ass't foreman on general work, per day 3.50

1 stationary engineer, per month 75.00

1 pole man, per month 75.00

1 oiler, per day 2.50

1 line man, per day 2.25

10 "tie buckers," per day $2,25 and 2.50

2 tie spacers, per day 2.25

6 rail handlers, per day 2.50

1 bridle man, per day 2.25

1 heel nipper, per day 2.25

2 strap hangers, per day 2.25

1 man carrying angle bars, per day 2.25

3 steel rollers, per day 2.50

8 tie trammers, per day 2.25

2 spike peddlers, per day 2.25

2 bolt and point plate peddlers, per day 2.25

1 bridle rod man, per day 2.25

2 rear bolters, per day 2.25

1 water boy, per day 2.25

26 THE TRACKMAl^'S HELPER

1 gage man, per day $ 2.25

4 men spacing ties, per day 2.25

12 spikers, per day 2.50

6 nippers, per day 2.50

During the work from which the cost data were ob-
tained, the gang varied from about 50 to 100 men.
The $2.50 laborers (spikers, nippers, and tie buckers)
averaged about 40 per cent of the entire gang for
the 65 days worked. The following expenses were
chargeable against track laying:

Overhead charge on machine (interest at 6 per cent,

depreciation at 10 per cent) $ 100.00

Dinkey skinner at $100 per mo 210.00

Timekeeper at $85 per mo 177.00

Locomotive and crew, 65 days, at $40 2,600.00

Supervision and labor 8,710.00

$11,797.00
Force account, or extras allowed 578.00

$11,219.00
Average cost per mile $280.50

This cost represents the cost to the contractor, plus
the cost of the locomotive and crew at $40 per day.
The latter charge should be added, however, as it rep-
resents a real part of the operation expense of the
track machine.

The general track conditions. The organization of
a force working on a track laying machine is easily
adjustable to the amount of laborers at hand, within
certain limits, by a foreman who is competent. When
a full crew is not available, the man in charge will cut
out certain parts of the work, such as full spiking and
bolting behind the machine, reduce the number of the
''tie buckers," viz., men carrying ties, to the mini-
mum, take off the lining gang from behind, and so
on all through the entire crew wherever a man can

■^o-"

CONSTRUCTION 27

possibly be spared, leaving only those laborers whose
work is absolutely necessary to be done while the rail
is being laid. The rest is left to be done on the
''back work," The two methods given above illus-
trate this. Occasionally a crew becomes so small when
men are scarce, that only half of a train will be laid
in a half day. This is expensive for the contractor as
it generally necessitates "taking down" and "hang-
ing ' ' the trams an extra time for a mile of track.

When a full crew is on the work a mile of track can
be easily laid in from three to four hours, including
hanging and taking down the trams.

The track, from which the cost of track laying above
was computed, was laid during the winter months,
and some bad weather was encountered, but the work
probably progressed as fast as it would in the summer
months, when extremely hot weather is likely to slow
up the men.

The rail used was the standard length 33 ft., laid
square joints on tangents and broken joints on curves.
When a curve was reached a rail was cut to break the
joints, the cut being figured so that the short part
was used on the inside of the curve at the start, and
then the long part was used at the end on the outside
of the rail of curve to square the joints for the
tangent. The specifications stipulated that joints must
not be laid within four feet of the ends of bridges and
culverts. To avoid cutting rails to meet this condi-
tion, fractional steel (short rails) was loaded on the
"trimmed" car, and when approaching a bridge the
distance was measured, and if found necessary
a panel or more of these short length rails would be
used to bring the joints the desired distance from the
end of the bridge. In laying through yards where
sidings were located, the main line was laid through
regardless of the switches, and when switches were
put in they were laid as near to the engineer's loca-

28 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

tion as they could be put without cutting a main line
rail. The fractional steel, a certain amount of which
all companies agree to take with every large order for
rail, was laid between the switches on the main lines
through station grounds. As a rule the sidings were
all laid with released rail, the work being done by
hand.

The rail was of 90-lb. section laid on white oak ties,
spaced 18 to 21 under a 33 ft. rail on tangent, and 19
to 22 on curves. The joints were made with ordinary
angle bars with four bolts, and spring nut locks. The
heads of the bolts were staggered, that is, alternate
bolt heads were respectively on the inside and outside
of rail. The number of ties per rail length was
varied to suit their sizes, i. e., 18 broad faced ties be-
ing used, or 21 narrow faced ties, on tangents.

The cost of transporting the machine and the men
to the work is not included herein, the data given rep-
resenting the costs after the machinery and the
laborers were on the work.

An inspector was employed by the company, but al-
though his expenses represent a charge against the
track by the railwa}^, it is not chargeable against the
contractor's expenses.

A labor saver for unloading rails from end door
box, stock or coal cars. The following notes are by
Mr. F. L. Guy.

Frequently steel rails are shipped from the mills in
end door box, stock or coal cars, and for railroads in
the West this is very often the case. This is caused
by the scarcity of flat cars, or to save back haul on
empty cars. Thousands of stock cars are shipped
into Chicago from the West every month, and there
are not many articles that can be loaded in these cars
for the West. A large number of railroads in the
West utilize these stock cars for rail.

To unload rails for relaying from flat cars is a

CONSTRUCTION 29

simple proposition. The ear stakes are taken out and
the rails are pinched off the sides of the cars with
pinch or lining bars. When the rails are pinched
oft' they fall on the shoulder of the roadbed and no
further handling- is necessary except to butt them
against the rail that has been thrown off before.
There are necessary for this work about eight men on
each side of the flat car and about as many men on
the ground.

To unload rails from box, stock or coal cars is a
very different proposition. It is necessary to have
two ropes about 50 ft. long. On one end of each
rope a ring about 3 in. in diameter is fastened, and
on the other end is a hook made from i^ ^^ %-^^-
round iron with a square turn. This hook must be
small enough to go into the bolt holes of the rail that
is being unloaded.

A man is stationed on each side of the track about
50 ft. from the end of the car. Each man has a lining
bar, and they jab their bars down between the ties
and then drop the rings on the ends of the ropes over
the tops of the bars and let the rings drop to the
ground. The hooks on the other ends of the ropes
are then inserted into the bolt holes of two rails, one
on each side of the car. The car is then moved ahead,
and the rails into which the hooks are fastened slip
out of the car and fall in between the track rails.
Men are then assembled around the two rails which
have just fallen, and throw them out on the shoulder
of the roadbed.

The device which is shown by the accompanying
sketch (Fig. 4) is to throw the rails out on the shoul-
der when they come out of the cars. It consists of
a light rail say 48 or 52 lbs. about 10 ft. long, and
two pieces of 1 x 3-in. by 4-ft. strip iron. The rail
is bent into an A shape and the ends are turned up a
little to check the fall of the rail that is being un-

THE TILlCKIklAN'S HELPER

loaded. The strips of iron are bolted to the web of
the rail about lV-> ft- from the apex to balance the A-
f rame and keep it away from the end of the car. The
strips should be bent upward and should be so turned
as to get a good bearing against the bottom of the
floor of the car. The ends of the A-frame should
extend about 3I/2 ft- from the end of the car. This
is to keep the rail which is being unloaded from jump-
ing over when it falls out of the car.

The men with the bars should place them on the
outside of the track rails, as near as possible to the
ends of the ties, and when the car is moved ahead the
ends of the rails in which the hooks are fastened will

JF »o./^ '^

// \>

fn,C,^^

^ i

I SttOOl

LU LJ L^

Fig. 4. Device Used in Unloading Rails From End Door

Box, Stock or Coal Cars

fall to the ground on the outside of the track rails.
"When the other ends of the rails slide out of the
car thev will fall on the A-frame and slide down and
fall outside of the track rails on to the shoulder, where
they will be out of the waj'.

This device saves the work of about eight men, as
the rails do not have to be lifted out from between
the track rails, and it also saves time for the entire
crew, as they do not have to wait until the rails are
taken out of the way. The design of the strips can be
varied to suit anv make or class of cars. They can
also be shifted up or down the A-frame to suit local
conditions. When one car is unloaded the A-frame
can be lifted off and placed on another car by four
men and verv little time is lost.

CONSTRUCTLON

This device in about this same form has been used
on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., Eastern
Lines, for some little time with considerable suc-
cess.

List of track tools for maintenance. After the

construction of a new road, the following tools will be

required for use on each section.

For gangs composed
of foreman and
Kinds of Tools 6 4 2

men men men

Adzes, with handles 2

Axes, chopping, with handles 1

Ballast template 1

Ballast forks (stone ballast sections) 4

Bars, claw 3

Bars, lining 6

Brooms, common 2

" rattan 6

Cans, oiler for hand car 1

"■ one gallon oil 1

" five gallons oil 1

Cars, hand 1

" push 1

Chain for locking 2

Chisels, track 6

Cups

Funnels

Grindstones

Handles, extra for

Hand
Hoes,

adze .
axe .

picks
sledge

or spike maul,

axe

1
1
1
1
1
C
1
1

scuffle (gravel section only) 6

Jacks, Track #1 " 2

Kegs, water 15 gal 1

Lanterns, white complete 4

" red " 4

" yellow " 4

" green " 2

Lantern Globes, white 2

red 2

" yellow 2

2
1
1

2
2
4
2
4

4
2
1
3
3
4
2
2
2
2

2
1
1

2
2
2
2

2
2
4
2
2
2
2

32 THE TRACKJMAN'S HELPER

For gangs composed
of foreman and

Kinds of Tools 6

men

Lantern Globes, green 2

Level, track 1

Mauls, spike, with handles . 4

Picks, common 6

tamping, stone ballast sections 6

Pliers, wire 1

Post hole digger 1

Punch, track, round with handles 1

Rakes, on gravel sections 1

Saw, hand 1

" crosscut 1

Scythes, briar or grass complete 6

Shovels, track 7

Signals, flags, red 3

" '• green 3

'• vellow 3

Sledge, 14 lbs. with handles 1

it o " '>' << 1

Spike puller 1

Tape line, 50 ft 1

Torch 1

Torpedoes 40

Track gages ^ 2

Whetstones • . 6

Wire stretcher 1

Wrenches, Monkev, 14" 1

Track ' 7

Switch (2 sizes) 2

Wire, telegraph ( 100 ft. coil) 1

Force required for double tracking. The follow-
ing- notes were published in Ry. Eng. & M, of W.

"The proper distribution of laborers is dependent
on class, size, and weight of material, as well as on the
class of labor employed. Individual opinions and
methods of foremen also cause differences in distribu-
tion of men. After a grade has been completed and
the ties lined and spaced approximately, a gang may
be organized as follows, subject to the supervision of
one foreman and one assistant:

men

CONSTRUCTION 33

Tie fiddler 1 Spike and bolt peddler 1

Tie spacers 2 or 4 Spikers 12

Steel gang 12 Tie nippers 6

Rail nipper 1 Gage liner 1

Strap hangers 2 Back bolters 2

Strap tighteners 2 Tool man 1

Joint plate peddler 1 Water boy 1

''The tie fiddler is provided with a fiddle, i.e., a short
board with a cleat nailed on it at right angles near
one end. The distance from the inside edge of the
cleat to the end of the board is the standard distance
for the rail base from the end of the tie. This fiddle
is held on the face of the tie with the cleat securely
against the end, and a mark made on the tie along the
uncleated end of the fiddle. The outside track spike
should be set on this line when spiking. Before mark-
ing a tie, the fiddler should examine it, and be sure
that the bark side is up. The tie fiddler will gen-
erally be able to run ahead of the gang without diffi-
culty. He should also set the tie line. For this pur-
pose it is handy to have a board of such a length
that if one end is placed against the ball of the rail
in the old track, the opposite end will show the propel'
line for the new track ties.

"Two tie spacers work behind the tie fiddler. They
are provided with a rod of the same length as the rail
which is to be laid. The marks for tie centers for
one rail length are marked off on the rod, which is
laid on the ground with the rear end even with the
head end of the last rail laid. This rod should be
used on the line side, as the line rail is set up first.
Picks are generally used by the tie spacers in dragging
the ties to center. The pick point (if pick is used)
should be stuck in the end of the tie and never in
the top or side. When spacing ties the man on
the line side pulls the ties to the line (previously
stretched), and the man on the gage side places
the end of his tie so that it lies square across the

34 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

grade. The tie spacers must space ties for a full
rail length while the steel gang is setting up two
rails. Possibly four tie spacers may be needed
in some cases in order not to delay the rail gang.
The spacers must also inspect all joint ties, and
if they are deficient in size or quality, they should
be exchanged for those of better grade. In lining ties
they should not be pulled up against the tie line, but
should be left about y^^-mch away. If the ties are
allowed to touch the line, some of them are bound to
throw a kink into it. If broken joints are being used
in the track, the work of tie spacing is increased.
Several ties near the middle of the line rail will have
to be shifted in order to fit the joint slots on the gage
rail.

^^The rail gang picks up the rail, sets the rear end
on the ties, at the same time entering the rail ball into
the angle bars hung on the rail previously laid. The
head end of the rail is dropped at a word from the
heeler, and this movement throws the rail into proper
position in the angle bars. The heeler now gives the
command 'heel,' and the rail is pulled backward
against an expansion shim, inserted between the
ends of the rails. In setting up the line side the
assistant foreman should see that the rail is set as
near as may be to its correct line, as shown by the
fiddled chalk marks on the tie. The gage rail should
also be placed approximately in correct position.
For this purpose a light wooden gage can be used ; if
none is furnished, one may be easily made with a
board and a couple of blocks of w^ood. If the rails
are set up as described, scarcely any ties will have to
be lined up by the line spikers ; the work of the gaging
spikers is also reduced to a minimum, and the track
when finished will be approximately in correct line,
so that work is saved the lining gang as well as the
spikers.

CONSTRUCTION 35

i i

In order to facilitate setting up a rail and putting
it in its proper place in the angle bars, a 'nipper'
is provided. He carries a bar to raise the angle bars
or rails as necessary.

^'The strap hangers use short handled wrenches,
these being handier and permitting faster work than
long handled ones. The latter are not necessary as
the strappers are required only to start the nuts, and
not to tighten them. When a rail is set up, the strap-
per hangs a pair of angle bars on the head end. As
the next rail is heeled into place he puts in a bolt
through the rail being placed, and after giving the
nut a few rapid turns, goes ahead and repeats the
operation. Two bolt tighteners follow, and tighten
the nuts which the strappers have started.

^'The joint plate peddler places the joint plates
under the rail in the proper position for spiking.
The spike and bolt peddler distributes four spikes
for each tie, and enough bolts and nut-locks at each
joint to finish bolting in full. These two men should
work together and help each other out whenever neces-
sary.

"Before spiking a tie, the nipper on the head gang
of spikers should see that the outside of the base of
rail is nearly in line with the chalk line marks on
the ties. If it is not in line, he should move the
rail over approximately to line with his nipping
bar.

'^The outside line spiker sets the outside spike on
the Addled mark, and gives it one heavy blow with
the spike maul. The nipper then raises the tie up
against the rail with a bar, using as a heel the nipping
block. The operation shoves the ties over until the
line spike sets snugly against the rail. The inside
spiker then sets his spike, and both spikes are driven.
The spikers work in six gangs, three on each side of
the track. The head gang spikes every third tie, the

36 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

second gang takes the tie just behind it, and the third
gang spikes the remaining tie. The rail, when spiked,
should have a solid bearing. If the face of the tie
does not afford a good even bearing, the gage spikers
must adze oft' the part of the tie beneath the rail, so
that a good bearing is assured. In having the gangs
spike every third tie there are the following advan-
tages: (1) Twelve to 16 spikers may be kept work-
ing in a distance of 60 feet or less, and being close
together, allow easy supervision by the foreman. In
the older method — i.e., each gang spiking a rail length
in full — the spikers frequently become scattered over
a distance of 200 to 300 feet. Spikes should be driven
perpendicularly and uniformly on the corresponding
edges of the ties and to accomplish this it is necessary
to have the men close enough together so that the
foreman can easily watch each man; (2) Any gang
of spikers must do as much work as the head spikers,
or fall behind, since the gangs are spiking tie for tie.
It is easy in this manner to discover an unwilling or
incompetent man; (3) By putting the best gangs in
the lead on each side of the track a greater amount
of work is accomplished. The back bolters bolt the
joints in full and turn up each nut as tight as pos-
sible. Back bolting requires little skill and only ordi-
nary strength ; this is a good place to start in green
or inexperienced men.

^'The tool man is one of the most important men on
the gang. If a good trustworthy man is selected he
may save the foreman much responsibility. He is
held accountable for the number of tools on the work
each day, and also for the tools in the tool boxes.
The condition and supply of tools can be left entirely
with him; in case any are in bad order, it is his busi-
ness to exchange them for good tools; if necessary
he must use his own ingenuity in repairing those on

CONSTRUCTION 37

hand or in 'borrowing' from other gangs. A live
tool man will be on the lookout and know when new
tools arrive on the job, and thus be sure of obtaining
his share. Although little hard work is required, a
tool man should be chosen who is industrious, reliable
and intelligent.

"A very handy way of taking care of tools and sur-
plus material, in double tracking, is to have a push
car on the track which is being built; the tool boxes
are kept on this car. The tool man shoves the car
along as the work advances; he takes out the shims
and picks up all scattered tools and light track ma-
terial, loading them on the car. In this manner ex-
cess tools and materials are convenient for emergen-
cies.

"When setting up rail, the assistant foreman has
charge only of the steel gang, strappers, tie spacers,
and the fiddler. If these men are able to run far
ahead of the spikers, setting up rail can be dis-
continued and the rail gang organized into spikers,
bolters, etc. The assistant foreman is responsible for
proper expansion in the track and must be careful to
use a uniform thickness of shim.

''The foreman will generally have to instruct his
assistant as to the proper thickness of shim to use,
and when to change to a thicker or thinner size. The
temperature of the steel is what should govern, and
not the temperature of the air. The temperature of
steel, in general, lags below the air temperature in the
morning, and loses its heat less rapidly than the air
in the afternoon. If a subgrade is rough and uneven
a greater allowance should be made for expansion, as
the track will shorten when brought up to surface.
The track laid should be lined at the end of each day
to prevent shortening. The track laid in one day will
move ahead when the short kinks are lined out, but

38 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

if lining is neglected for several days the weight of
the track becomes too great to move ahead, and all
lengthening caused by kinks being straightened will
be made up by a decrease in the expansion.

^'In case the number of men is too small to organ-
ize completely for all the necessary operations in
track laying, some of the work can be done before
starting to lay track. Peddling material, fiddling and
lining ties may be done beforehand. Spiking can be
partially done while setting up the steel and back
bolting can be done after the steel is set up and spiked
to gage. Track should be jointed up and gaged when
laying, in order to obtain correct expansion. If rails
are set up and the angle bars not put on, it is impos-
sible to keep some of the expansion shims from falling
out, and the ends of rails are liable to run past and
necessitate shifting a number of them, when jointing
up later.

"The foreman is responsible for both the quantity
and quality of work done. He must organize the
gang, and must be ready at any time to make changes
necessary on account of the absence of laborers. If a
number of men leave at the same time and new men
are not available, the whole gang must be reorgan-
ized. As the assistant foreman's time is constantly
taken up by the rail gang, the foreman must super-
vise the spiking and back bolting as well as inspect
the work of the assistant foreman."

Cost of machine tracklaying and organization of
gang on Erie R. R. in 1910.

The following data on tracklaying by machine are
given by Mr. C. K. Conrad, Assistant Engineer for
the work in the low-grade freight line from Guymard
to Highland Mills of the Erie R. R., in the Railway
Age-Gazette for June 3, 1910. A Hurley tracklaying
machine was used.

After many trials with fewer men, it was found

CONSTRUCTION 39

that the best results were obtained with 51 men, work-
ing as follows:

1 General foreman.
1 Foreman.

1 Lineman stretching a light rope at proper offset distance

from center line.

2 Tie spacers.

1 Tie marker, placing marks on ties so that center of tie
will be set midway between rails.

1 Clamp man, applying hoisting clam.p to rails before low-
ering.

1 Clamp man on ground disengaging hoisting clamp and

steadjdng rail.
8 Spikers, four to each rail.
4 Nippers, two to each rail.

2 Bolters, one to each rail.

1 Clamper, holding angle bars for bolts.

2 Barmen, holding rail to gage.
1 Spike peddler.

26 Total in front of wheels of machine.

1 Engineer, in charge of the machine.

1 Assistant, working rail conveyor, as rails leave the fric-
tion rolls.
1 Bolter, removing bolts as rails leave the roll.
1 Fireman.

1 Watchman (night).

2 Feeding ties to dogs at rear of machine.

7 Total on machine.

2 Breaking out ties.

8 Spacing ties.

1 \yatching and guiding ties.

11 Total attending to the ties.

1 At rear hoist.

1 Advancing rails on rollers.

2 Placing angle bars, and one bolt on front end of rail.
2 Bolting to forward rails.

1 Tightening bolts.

7 Total feeding the rail.

40 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Cost of laying track. Nearly all of the second
track on the Erie & Jersey was laid by hand. As most
railway companies are familiar with this cost on their
own line, it seems advantageous to compare it with
the cost of the first track in order to give a correct idea
of what the cost with the machine would be under the
same conditions.

With a machine laying a mile per day the cost was
as follows:

Laying track hy machine

1 General foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00

1 Engineer at $5.00 5.00

1 Fireman at $2.25 2.25

1 Foreman at $3.50 3.50

50 Laborers at $L50 75.00

1 Watchman (night) , at $2.25 2.25

Machine, coal and oil 30.00

Full bolting and spiking after passage of machine:

1 General foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00

1 Foreman at $3.50 3.50

50 Laborers at $L50 75.00

Loading materials — ties :

1 Foreman at $3.00 * $ 3.00

35 Laborers at $1.50 52.50

Engine and crew 35.00

Rails and fastenings:

1 Foreman at $2.00 $ 2.00

20 Laborers at $1.50 30.00

Total $ 32.00

6,963 lin. ft. of rail and fastenings loaded:

This gives per mile of track $ 48.53

Engine and crew 35.00

Total rail and fastenings $ 83.53

Total per mile of track $380.53

CONSTRUCTION 41

Laying second track by hand

Spacing ties, spiking and full bolting 3,000 ft. :

2 Foremen at $3.00 $ 6.00

74 Laborers at $1.50 $111.00

Total $117.00

Per mile $205.92

Loading ties:

1 Foreman at $3.00 $ 3.00

74 Laborers at $1.50 52.50

$55.50

Unloading ties:

1 Foreman at $3.00 $ 3.00 '

6 Laborers at $1.50 9.00

$12.00

Engine and crew 35.00

$102.50

Loading rail and fastenings, same as for machine $ 48.53

Unloading rail and fastenings:

2 Foremen at $2.00 $ 4.00

28 Laborers at $1.50 42.00

Total $ 46.00

Above worked four hours 18.40 18.40

Total per mile of track $375.35

It should be realized, of course, that these figures do
not represent the cost of continuing the work day by
day ; but they are representative figures for each class
of work under similar conditions. The cost of laying
the first track of a double track railway by hand is
variable, depending largely on the accessibility of the
roadbed for teams, as the ties are usuallv transferred
from the tie car to the front by this means. The
second track should be laid at a fairly regular cost.

So far as the track laid by machine is concerned,
it is not possible at this date to determine which track
was so laid. When laying down grade there is a tend-

42 THE TPvACKMAN'S HELPER

enc}^ to open the joints. Clips for the proper tem-
perature expansion are a necessity. From the ex-
perience with the machine the following may be ac-
cepted: (1) On a new line 25 miles long, or more,
the machine will prove economical. (2) The track
laid with the machine will be as satisfactory as track
laid by hand. (3) The organization will be reduced
in number by 150 to 200 men. (4) It is feasible to
lay one mile of track per day up to a limit of 12 or
15 miles from the supply base. (5) The danger of
injury to men is largely reduced.

SPIKING AND GAGING

No. of spikes per mile of single traqjk.

Size
Meas'd
Under

Head

P-iO
O (M

Kegs per Mile, (4 Spikes to a Tie)

Using 33 ft. Rails

20 18 16

Ties per E^il

Using 30 ft. Rails Ties

18 16 14 2 ft.

Ties per Rail C to C

u
o

6 X % 260
6 X 9/i6 350
51/^ X % 290
51/2x9/16 375
5 X %6 400
5 xi/o 450
4V^ X 1/2 530
41/2x7/16 680

49.2
36.6
44.1
34.1
32.0
28.5
24.2
18.8

44.3
32.9
39.7
30.7
28.8
25.6
21.8
17.0

39.4
29.3
35.3
27.3
25.6
22.8
19.3
15.1

48.7
36.2
43.7
33.8
31.7
28.2
23.9
18.6

43.3
32.2

38.8
30.0
28.2
25.0
21.3
16.6

37.9
28.2
34.0
26.3
24.6
21.9
18.6
14.5

40.6 =^ ^
30.2 S S

28.2 ^ ^

26.4 bjD

23.5 .S
19.9 «

15.5'S

Spikes per i-i

mile 12800 11520 10240 12672 11264 9856 10560

No allowance made in this table for broken or lost spikes.

Hints about spiking. Track should always be kept

full spiked and in perfect gage. In order to keep it

thus, a gage of the standard width should be used,

and when track is spiked the gage should be squared

across, about six or eight inches ahead of the tie, and

remain between the rails until the tie is spiked. The

outside spike should not be allowed to draw the rail

too tight on the gage or to be driven loosely, which

would affect the width of the track after the gage is

lifted. "When gage is tight, start inside spike first;

when loose, start the outside spike first. Bad gaging

detracts from the appearance of an otherwise good

44 THE TRACKMAN'S HELrER

track and makes the track more likely to be kicked out
of line. To be driven properly a spike should rest
upon its point almost vertically when receiving the
first stroke, M^hicli, if delivered properly, will leave
the spike perfectly straight up and down which is the
way it should be continued. Care should be taken
never to strike the last blow on a spike too hard, as
this may crack the head or break it off, rendering the
spike useless.

To draw a spike in frosty weather, or to draw a
spike out of an oak tie at any time of the year, tap
the spike on the head with a spike maul once
or twice before attempting to pull it out of the tie
with the claw bar. In most cases there will then be
no difficulty in pulling the spike without breaking it.
Tapping the spike with the maul loosens its hold
on the wood of the tie and makes it easier to re-
move. If an opposite course be pursued and track-
men try to pull spikes without doing as above di-
rected, a great number of them Avill break off under
the head.

Where to drive spikes. The spikes should be
driven about two and one-half inches from the edge
of a track tie. Both inside spikes should be driven
on one edge of a tie and both outside ones on the other
edge in order to prevent the tie slewing and also to
assist in holding the rail from creeping. The spikes
take a better hold in the wood of a tie, and support
the tie under the rail better when driven in this
wa.y. An oak tie will split open on the ends in frosty
weather if the spikes are driven in the center of the
tie, which will cause it to decay more quickly and
necessitate its removal from the track before the tie
which remains whole. Another reason why the track
spikes should be driven in the sides of the ties is that
the timber in the center of most ties is softer, while
as a rule the sides of the ties are sound.

SPIKING AND GAGING

The diagram, Fig. 5, shows the correct and incor-
rect methods employed in regard to the location of
the spikes on the outside and inside of the rail. An
examination of these sketches will bring this subject
to the proper view point more easily than a great
amount of explanation would, if it be borne in mind
that the end of the tie on the outside of the curve is
the one that is shoved ahead more than the end on

Incorrect

Correct
SpiKing

Correct
SpiKingo

Direction of Traffic

< —

•^ and Creeping

Direc tion of Traffic
and Creeping

Incorrect
Spiking

Correct Spiking

Correct/
Spiking

Fig. 5.

Correct and Incorrect Methods of Phicing Spikes

the inside, which is due to the tendency of the out-
side rail to creep more (doubtless on account of the
sliding of wheels because of those on the outside mak-
ing the greater distance). The rule which should be
followed for selecting the best location for spikes to
counteract the creeping and transfer the strain to
the ballast through the medium of the ties, which is
the way the strain must eventually be resisted, is as
follows : —

On double track the inside spikes should be placed

46 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

at the receiving side of the tie and the outside spikes
at the leaving side. On single track the outside spikes
should be placed at the side of the tie in the direction
of creeping and the inside spikes at the other side.

Screw spikes. The following notes appeared in the
Railway Age Gazette:

' ' The first installation of screw spikes of any magni-
tude was one of a half mile on the Santa Fe near
Topeka, Kan., in 1908. Since that time the mileage
has risen over 200 miles annually. The Santa Fe has
over 150 miles of screw spike track and is now (1915)
placing them in eight ties per rail on the western
lines when laying new 90-lb. rail to secure a more
rigid track construction. The Lackawanna is the
largest user of screw spikes, having employed them
exclusively^ in main tracks for both renewal and con-
struction work for the past four years, until it now
(1915) has over 12,000,000 in service. This line is
one of relatively heavy grades and curvature with an
average density of traffic of about 4,000,000 ton miles
and 600,000 passenger miles per mile of line for the
svstem, which figures are trebled if the main line only
is considered, so that the service is unusually severe.

'' Wherever introduced, the screw spike has en-
countered the opposition of the track men, who have
pointed out numerous objections. The one most em-
phasized has been the difficulty of removing the
spikes w^hen necessary to replace rails following de-
railments or during relaying operations. The Lacka-
wanna has a dense freight traffic on heavy grades,
and therefore has its share of derailments. It has
been the experience of this road that by providing a
stronger track the screw spikes have materially de-
creased its destruction as well as the delay to traffic
while it was being repaired. Another threatened dis-
advantage that has not been encountered in the ex-
perience of the Lackawanna is difficulty in keeping

SPIKING AND GAGING 47

the screw spikes tight. To offset these real or fancied
disadvantages, screw spike track construction gives a
stronger track, requires less maintenance after in-
stallation and greatly retards the destruction of the
ties.

''To secure the greatest advantages from the use of
screw spikes in the conservation of ties corresponding
standards must be adopted throughout the track con-
struction. It is obvious that it is not economical to
use screw spikes with untreated soft wood ties or
without adequate tie plates. While not so obvious at
first glance, it is also important that the ties be prop-
erly adzed and bored before treatment to retard de-
struction uniformly. It is interesting to note in this
connection that the use of screw spikes has enabled
the Lackawanna to secure sufficient resistance against
track spreading by using a flat bottom tie plate and
thus decreasing the abrasion of the tie.

"Where traffic is heavy and the expenditures for
maintenance are correspondingly high, the savings re-
sulting from the adoption of a more permanent form
of track construction are of course greater than on
lines of lighter traffic where a relatively long life is
secured from the track materials. On the other hand,
the Santa Fe is using screw spikes on its western lines
where the rainfall is small and the resistance of timber
to decay is relatively great, and where the ties cus-
tomarily fail from mechanical wear."

Comparative cost of cut and screw spiking are
given by Mr. J. W. Kendrick v. p., A. T. & S. Fe R.
R. in Ry. Eng. & M. of W.

He states that the cost of driving screw spikes is
based on work done under unfavorable conditions on
the Illinois Div. in 1909, and says that under ordi-
nary conditions there should be little difference in
cost of the two kinds of spikes.

A proper machine at the treating plant will bore

48 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

and plug- 600 ties, with 8 plug's each, per day of 10
hours, at a cost of 3i^f'' per tie. The cost of making
the plugs will be about ly^f each. The cost of screw
spikes will be 2.7^* each : of tie plates 21^ each. The
cost of cut spikes will be 1.06^- each. Assuming 3,000
ties per mile of track, with 4 spikes per tie, assuming
that the same types of tie plates are used both with
screw and cut spikes, and that 8 wooden dowels are
provided for the plates with screw spikes, and no
dowels are provided for cut spikes, the relative cost
per mile of track would be as follows :

One mile of track witli screw spikes and dowels.

12,000 spikes at 2.7c each $ 324.00

6,000 lie plates at 21(J each 1,260.00

Boring ties for, and driving,' 24,000 dowels at 1^ each 240.00

24.000 wooden dowels at li^c each 300.00

Driving screw spikes (per mile) 1.50.00

Total $2,334.00

One mile with cut spikes.

12,000 spikes, at 1.06<'- $ 127.20

6,000 tie plates at 21(J each 1,260.00

Driving cut spikes (per mile) 150.00

Total $1,537.20

Experience in the use of screw spikes. The fol-
lowing notes give a comi^rehensive outline of the ex-
perience up to that time on American railroads.

"The general use of screw spikes in both new con-
struction and maintenance on the D. L. & W. R. R.
was started at the beginjiing* of 1910, and during the
past five seasons there have been placed in new tracks
and in maintenance of old tracks 5.120,000 flat-bot-
tom tie plates and approximately 12,272,000 screw
spikes.

"As would be expected some mistakes were at first
made, and no doubt later developments will change

SPIKING AND GAGING 49

some of the present practice. As a whole, however,
the screw spike installation has proven very satisfac-
tory, and no conditions have developed such as to
cause any doubt about the ultimate success of the
undertaking'. Many minor difficulties which had
been anticipated have not developed. It was fully
expected that no small amount of trouble would be
experienced from derailments, changing out broken
rails, difficulty in gaging track on sharp curves, etc.
It is a pleasure to state that, to the writer's knowl-
edge, we have never had a derailment where the
screw spikes have not been very much less damaged
than the cut spikes in the same locality, and very
seldom has a derailment broken off any screw spikes
or damaged them to such an extent that they did not
continue to firmly hold the rail in place. There have
been many cases of derailment where it was not nec-
essary to remove a screw spike, whereas nearly every
cut spike on the damaged side of the rail was de-
stroyed. Again, there have been some derailments
where it is reasonably certain that bad accidents were
prevented by screw spikes in some of the ties holding
the rails in position, whereas the cut spikes in the
other ties were destroyed. As to relaying rails, or
removing broken rails, it is to be expected that the
use of screw spikes will require more time to do the
work.

*'Ties in use. The Lackawanna Railroad first com-
menced to creosote cross-ties on an extensive scale in
1910. During- 1910 and since that time all main and
sidetrack renewals have been made with creosoted
ties, excepting such chestnut ties as were available.
These chestnut ties were used in sidetracks and on
branch lines, where the service is light.

"From 1905 to 1909 a good many bridge-tie renew-
als were made with longleaf yellow pine, treated with
12 lbs. of creosote oil per cubic foot. These ties were

50 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

steamed at a 25-lb. pressure for an average of eight
hours before treatment. 'Wolhaupter' flange tie
plates (6 X 8I/2 x %-in.) were placed on all the bridge
ties, with the idea of protecting them. The dimen-
sions of the ties varied with the bridge structure and
were from 8x8 ins. to 10 x 10 ins. and 8 x 16 ins.

''On the main-line bridges none of the treated
bridge ties have lasted to exceed eight years. Many
of them were renewed in six and seven years. In
no case was the timber decayed, but the failure was
due to the shattering of the wood fibers under the rail
seat and tie plates. As stated above, these were all
longleaf yellow pine ties, w^th a very small percent-
age of sap. This failure has been attributed (1) to
the fiber being injured by the steaming process be-
fore treatment; and (2) to the destructive action of
the flanges on the tie plates. A total of 535 of these
ties (8x12 ins.) were placed on the eastbound track
of a deck plate girder bridge on the Buffalo Division
in 1906, and had to be renewed in 1914. Untreated
ties of the same size, and purchased under same speci-
fications, were placed on westbound track of the same
bridge in 1905 and are still in service and in fairly
good condition. The old flange tie plates were re-
moved from the deck of both tracks in 1910 and re-
placed with flat-bottom plates and screw spikes.

' ' For several jeavs past there have been placed very
few chestnut ties in main-line tracks. It was found
that they did not last to exceed five or six years, on
account of rail and tie plates cutting through them
Yery rapidly. These same ties give excellent service
and last many years in yard tracks or on branch lines
where the traffic is light.

''As far as possible, hardwood ties are used on
curved track. Longleaf yellow pine ties are generally
used throughout on straight track. They are not used
because they are preferable to hard woods, but on ac-

SPIKING AND GAGING 51

count of the difficulty in getting a sufficient supply
of hard woods. A considerable number of loblolly
and wide-ringed shortleaf pine ties were treated and
placed in various services. However, unless other-
wise stated, sap longieaf pine ties are referred to
where pine ties are mentioned throughout this report.
A good many gum, beech and maple ties were treated
and placed in 1910. These ties were used in many
sharp curves and their present condition will appear
later on.

"Tie plates. For several years it was the practice
to use flanged tie plates. It was found, after some
3^ears' experience, that much damage was done to the
ties by the use of flange plates. It was, therefore,
concluded that their use should not be further con-
sidered, either in connection with treated or untreated
timber.

''A good flange plate, or something equivalent
thereto in actual holding-power, is absolutely nec-
essary to hold gage on many of the sharp curves.
After a careful investigation of all available data on
screw spikes, it was concluded to adopt them as a
means of holding track to gage, and thus permit the
use of a flat-bottom tie plate which would not destroy
the fibers of the tie. Hence, since the spring of 1910,
screw spikes and flat-bottom plates have been used
generally in all ties placed in main tracks, heavy-run-
ning yard tracks and leads, but not in light yard
tracks. In no case have screw spikes been used with-
out tie plates.

''It is necessary to have a tie plate of sufficient size
to provide a safe bearing area for the weakest kind]
of wood used. As the main-track ties are 7x9 ins. x
8 ft. 6 ins., it was considered not advisable to make
the tie plates wider than 7 ins.

''The first tie plates which were rolled for our
screw-spike construction were 7 x 101/4 ins. x % in.,

THE TEACKiAIAN'S HELPER

with raised lugs to support the heads of two screw
spikes and with an intermediate shoulder on the out-
side of the rail. The plates were smooth on the bot-
tom, and did not have a shoulder or raised lug for
the screw-spike head on the inside of the rail. The
following season the plates were lengthened to 10%
ins. and made % in. thick, with lugs for the inside
screw spikes. Two holes were also punched for lag
screws, one at either end. About a year ago they
were again increased to % in. in thickness.

Screw spikes. The first change from the standard
cut spike fastening occurred in February, 1909. The
heads of the screw spikes have been somewhat in-

Fig. G. Standard Screw Spike on D. L. & W. R. R.

creased from those first used, on account of the great
deterioration from rust caused by brine dripping at
certain points on the line. The standard screw spike
now in use is shown in Fig. 6.

Holes for screw spikes. The first year that screw
spikes were used an "Ajax" hand machine was used
for boring all ties in the field, a template being used
to spot the holes. Creosote oil was poured into all the
holes as soon as bored. In 1911 a boring and adzing
machine, manufactured by Greenlee Brothers, of
Rockford, 111., Avas installed at the creosoting plant.
This machine operated more or less successfully, but
was not of sufficient capacity nor lieavy enough in

SPIKING AND GAGING 53

construction to successfully handle heavy hardwood
ties. Accordingly, two new and larger machines,
manufactured by the same company, were installed
the fore part of 1913. These two machines have op-
erated successfully, and have, without difficulty, adzed
and bored 5,000 ties per day.

"During the year 1914, 523,935 ties were adzed
and bored, the following data applying to this work:

Highest number of ties adzed and bored in one day by

one machine 3,324

Average number of ties per day per machine while op-
erating 3,011

Average number of holes bored per bit per sharpening. . 1,500

Average number of holes bored per bit 11,000

"It would not be safe to figure over 2,500 ties per
day per machine, or 62,500 ties per month, working
single shift.

"Eight men are required to operate one machine.
In addition to these it is necessary to have a foreman,
who is also a machinist, to keep the machines in re-
pair and keep the knives ancl bits sharpened and
ready to put on the machine when required.

"The cost per tie for adzing and boring, includ-
ing the interest on the investment, depreciation, op-
eration, running repairs, electrical current for oper-
ating the machines and trams, while the latter are
taking ties to and from the machine, does not exceed
11/4 ct. per tie.

"The ties are carried to the machiiie on trams,
which are dumped mechanicall3^ The machine is fed
by a conveyor. Two laborers place the ties on the
conveyors. Two surfaces are adzed at the rail seat,
exactly in the same plane, regardless of the shape of
the tie. The depth of cut can be regulated as de-
sired for perfect ties. The depth required to get all
ties adzed perfectly for the full length of tie plates
depends upon the irregularity of the ties. After

54 THE TRACK:MAN'S HELPER

passing the adzing heads, the tie is centered at each
adzed surface by an overhead device to insure that
the boring is done in the center of the adzed surfaces.
The ties then pass by conveyor to trams and are ready
for treatment.

''These machines are automatic, and it is, there-
fore, imperative that all parts continue to work prop-
erly while the machines are running. Trouble with
any one part puts the entire machine out of com-
mission.

"Cost data. The following data are a summation
of the labor cost in connection with construction by
the Lackawanna Kailroad in New Jersey.

"These figures cover the entire line, amounting to
approximately 60 miles of main track:

Cost of boring by hand in the field, 2,880 ties at

$0,035 $ 100.80

Cost of applying 11,520 screw spikes at $0.019 218.88

Cost of laying track, less boring and placing of screw

spikes at $0,085 per foot 448.80

Cost of surfacing 5,280 ft. track at $0.17 per foot 897.60

Average cost of labor per mile of main track $1,666.08

"The above figures include the entire labor cost
for putting the track in finished condition, but do not
include any labor cost for the distribution of mate-
rials. It will also be noted that the cost of boring
ties in the field on the above work amounted to Sy^
cts. per tie, whereas the boring and adzing of ties,
which is now done before treatment, has not cost to
exceed 1% ct. per tie.

"Conclusions. Ties. (1) Treated beech, birch,
gum, hard maple, elm and probably other similar
woods may be safely used with oak on sharp curves
where the traffic is especially heavy.

"(2) From an economic standpoint, softwood ties,
such as loblolly pine, should not be used on tracks of

SPIKING AND GAGING 55

excessive trafific, nor is it advisable to use them on
sharp curves with moderately heavy traffic. An ex-
pensive fastening device, such as an extra large and
heavy tie plate or chair, securely fastened to the tie
by fastenings independent of the spikes securing the
rail, with sufficient room for rail movement on the
tie plate, thus reducing the movement between plate
and tie to a minimum, would probably make it prac-
ticable to use softwood ties on straight track and light
curves with moderately heavy traffic. It is not be-
lieved, however, that loblolly pine, or similar ties,
can be economically used with good results on heavy
curves, regardless of the style of fastenings.

''(3) As a rule, with woods which it will pay to
treat, the poorer the quality of the timber the more
elaborate and expensive the fastening must be if the
mechanical life of the tie is made to approach the life
of the treated timber.

''(4) The hardest track to maintain, from a tie
standpoint, is on sharp curves, elevated for high-
speed trains, where the speed of freight trains is re-
stricted on account of grade conditions. Where traf-
fic is especially heavy, such curves should be provided
with the best of hardwood ties.

"Tie Plates. (1) Tie plates should be used on all
ties where screw spikes are used.

'' (2) The tie plates should project well beyond the
base of the rail on the outside and less on the inside
to counteract the tendency of rail to roll out.

"(3) As a rule, the required thickness of the tie
plates will depend upon their projection beyond the
base of the rail, and the traffic.

*'(4) Four holes should be provided for screw
spikes, so that two extra holes will be available if
needed.

''(5) All holes should be punched from the top
down and be as neat a fit for screw spikes as con-

50 THE TRACKMAN'S HELrER

sistent, so as to make all screw spikes act together in
resisting lateral pressure. The outside screw spikes
should be so protected by the shoulder on the plate as
to prevent the rail base from cutting into the screw
spike neck; otherwise, in case of derailment and
sJewed ties, it will be found impossible to remove the
spikes without first straightening the ties.

"(6) A raised lug, or shoulder, both inside and
outside of the rail base, should be provided to give
support to the screw spike heads. This should as-
sist in holding gage and materially reduces the
breakage of spikes and damage to track in case of de-
railment.

** Spikes. (1) The size of screw spikes and the de-
sign of the thread should be carefully considered be-
fore a screw spike is adopted. Thereafter no changes
should be made ; otherwise the new screw spikes can-
not be used in old holes without damaging the wood
fiber.

"(2) AYhere salt brine drippings are excessive,
screw-spike heads must be made sufficiently large ;
otherwise there may be difficulty in the future in re-
moving the screw spikes from the track, due to cor-
rosion. During nearly five years' service no screw
spikes have been found that were rusted within the
tie, and there was no rust to speak of below the
head, although some spike heads were rusted so badly
that they could not be removed with the standard
tool.

"(3) The screw spike head should have tapering
sides to prevent turning in the wrench socket after
the size of the head has been diminished bv rust.

''(4) Any mechanical device for setting down
screw spikes must automatically release when the
screw spike is seated ; otherwise the screw spike is
apt to be damaged in case of hardwood or the wood
fibers destroved in case of softwood.

SPIKING AND GAGING 57

'^(5) Very little trouble is experienced by screw
spike lieads breaking off, either on account of track
movement or derailed equipment. The heads are, at
times, damaged to considerable extent by derailments,
but as a rule the spikes are not broken, nor is their
holding-power affected. Where screw spikes are
broken off', a device for extracting the broken portion
from the old hole without injurj^ to the wood threads
would be a valuable appliance.

' ' ( 6 ) When screw spikes are fully seated, no fur-
ther strain should be put on them, as this will tend
to destroy the threads in the wood or injure the spikes.

*" Holes for screw spikes. (1) All ties should be
bored at the treating plant before treatment. This
can be done while the ties are being adzed, and not
only insures that the holes are bored sufficiently deep,
but provides for good treatment of all wood adjacent
to the spike holes.

''(2) Where the ties are bored before treatment,
the track must be to proper gage before the ties can
be placed.

''(3) The holes for screw spikes should be of
proper dimensions for the class of wood used, with
due regard to the size of screw spike used.

'' (4) A limited number of holes can be bored with
one bit, after which its size will diminish so as to make
it unfit for a hole of given size.

^ ' ( 5 ) Holes should be bored somewhat deeper than
the length of the screw spike. There is no serious ob-
jection to boring the holes clear through the ties.

"Gage. (1) With oak, birch, hard maple, gum or
longleaf yellow pine ties, gage can be maintained with
a tlat-bottom plate, using two screw spikes on straight
line and two or three on curves.

''(2) Heavy curves elevated for high speed, where
heavy freight trains move at a slow rate of speed, are
the hardest track to keep to gage.

58 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER ^^^M

"(3) Double spiking should be done on the insme
of the rail.

" (4) Not only is the lateral and vertical resistance
of a screw spike greater than that of a cut spike when
both are first applied, but the lateral and vertical re-
sistance of a loose screw spike is considerably greater
than the lateral and vertical resistance of a loose cut
spike.

''(5) When the threads in the tie are entirely de-
stroyed, a screw lining (any one of several different
varieties) may be used with good results.

"General. (1) All ties should be bored and adzed
before treatment. This insures good gage, a perfect
bearing for the tie plates and good treatment under
the rail seat and around the screw spike holes.

^'(2) In placing screw spikes, they should be
driven by hammer only sufficient to make the threads
take hold. If rigid instructions are not carried out,
laborers will continually over-drive spikes, and thus
destroy the wood fibers near the top of the holes.

" (3) Screw spikes with fiat-bottom plates on hard-
w^ood ties will hold track to gage on sharp curves
under heavy traffic. The holding power of screw
spikes in hardwood ties, after more than four years'
service, is not materially reduced.

'' (4) No screw spikes have ever been found so loose
that they could be easily pulled out of the holes, and
but few have been discovered which could be as easily
extracted as a newly-driven cut spike. In no case,
except with loblolly pine ties, have the threads in the
wood been found weakened.

"(5) Screwspikes in maintenance work can be
most economically used where all rail is of a standard
pattern, so that regaging of track is not necessary in
relaying rail.

" ( 6 ) Slight irregularities of track when frozen are
liable to throw an excessive strain on screw spikes

SPIKING AND GAGING 59

where there are but a few mixed with cut spikes.

"(7) The best results with the screw spikes can
be expected in new construction, and where the
screw spikes in tie renewals predominate over cut
spikes.

''(8) In relaying rail, cut spikes should never be
driven in old screw spike holes, if the holes are to be
* again used for screw spikes.

" (9) No effort should be made to draw up a low
tie with screw spikes when the roadbed and ballast
are frozen solidly.

''(10) Screw spikes do not have to be continually
set down, as do cut spikes, but should be gone over
and set down properly after the plates are seated in
the tie.

"(11) Flat-bottom plates with raised shoulders or
lugs for the screw spike head make but little noise
and do not rattle at all where ties are adzed before
treatment.

''(12) It cannot be expected that the full life of
all creosoted softwood ties, such as loblolly pine, will
be realized without providing expensive fastenings
from the start, and then it will probably be necessary
to add some further device at a later late. Probably
the most practical and least expensive device will
prove to be one or the other of the lining devices to
be placed in worn-out spike holes.

"(13) The use of screw spikes for the past five
years has not made it necessary to increase the num-
berL^of section men per mile of track.

"(14) Whether or not it will pay to use screw
spikes will depend upon the cost of ties, their probable
life and the amount of traffic."

The foregoing data were abstracted from a paper
by G. J. Ray, Chief Engineer, Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western R. R., in the Bulletin of the American
Railway Engineering Association for March, 1915.

60 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Gaging track. Section foremen should make an
effort to gage all the track in their charge once a year.
Early in the winter, and before general track work
begins in the spring are the best times for this pur-
pose, because then, on northern railroads, there is
generally less of other work to be done than during
the balance of the year, and it is best to utilize the
period when track is frozen up to do gaging work
and to apply tie plates.

To gage track out of a face, the tools required are : —

2 spike mauls,

2 claw bars for pulling spikes,

2 adzes for dressing a surface for the rail on the
ties,

2 standard gages, one for gaging the track and one
for testing the gage of track before pulling the spikes,

A good supply of track spikes and wood plugs to put
in the old spike holes.

If there are any bad places on the section, begin
gaging these first, but if the average is the same
throughout, it is best to work from one end contin-
uously.

When you arrive on the ground to commence work,
take out all short kinks on the line side, and spike
the rails to line, and have vour men drive down all
loose spikes on that side of the track before bringing
the opposite side to gage.

The foremen should take one gage and test all the
track ahead of the men and mark all ties where spikes
have to be pulled. Keep only enough spikes pulled
on the gage side of the track to make it handy to ad-
just rail to place ahead of the gage, and have the
track always ready to close up for the trains to pass.

Have one of the men move the rails to place ahead
of the gage with a lining bar, and do not try to draw
it over with the spikes.

Do not spoil or waste any of the old spikes that are

SPIKING AND GAGING 61

lit to be used a second time, and if they 'are oily or
greasy throw a little dirt or sand on the head of the
spike when you tack it into the tie ; this will prevent
the spike maul from slipping off the spike when driv-
ing it. Measure the gage and be sure that it is of
the length four feet eight and one-half inches, and if
it is an iron gage and the end lugs touch the joint
fastenings, grind or file them off, tapering so that
nothing but the rail will touch the gage when placed
across the track.

If the gage on a section is not very bad, a foreman
and two trackmen will do an average of one sixth of
a mile per day, and with four trackmen a little more
than double that amount of work. Gaging and spike-
lining a section of track well during the winter, be-
sides improving the track at that time, will enable*
the foreman to put a first-class line on the whole sec-
tion during the following summer, and will materially
lighten his other work.

Loose spikes. A section foreman should be par-
ticular to keep all spikes on his section driven down
in the ties, and tight against the rails. Some foremen
are not so careful in this respect as they should be ;
loose spikes in soft ties, especiall}^ where track is not
level or on curves, leave the rail at the defective place
liable to be turned over and cause an accident. You
cannot keep track in good line with loose spikes, and
in tamping loose ties when surfacing considerable
time is lost holding up the ties. Care should be taken
not to spring up the center of the rail, if of the lighter
sections, and spoil the surface, thus making it neces-
sary to go over the work a second time.

Respiking ties. AVhenever it is necessary to pull
the spikes out of ties in the track, changing rails or
at other repair work, and you find that the old spike
holes in the ties will do for spiking the second time
without changing the gage of the track, do not use

62 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

a fresh place in the tie to drive the spike, but plug
the old hole with a tie plug and drive the spike as it
was before pulling. Ties soon rot and break off un-
der the rail where spikes have been driven in differ-
ent places, while the balance of the ties may be good,
sound timber; this practice is termed "spike killing
the ties" and is one that should be avoided. The in-
creased use of tie plates of late years has obviated the
necessity of gaging track so frequently on curves.
Some roads use tie plates even on tangents to reduce
the wear of the rail on the ties.

Creosoting ties. For the last several years most
railroads have realized the importance of creosoting
or treating timber with oil preservative against de-
cay, since by so doing the life of the tie is greatly in-
creased, and with the general adoption of tie plates,
of which there is a great variety on the market, each
style having its own particular merit, ties cut from
soft timber can be used to advantage and substantial
track maintained, a result that was not possible years
ago before the perfection of the tie plate. The creo-
soting of ties at once suggests the use of tie plates on
them to avoid the necessity of regaging and adzing
any more of them than is absolutely necessary, since
the penetration of the oil into the timber is somewhat
limited, and if a tie is adzed after treatment the ef-
fectiveness of the preservative is destroyed or greatly
impaired. One of the late practices to overcome this
difficulty is to have the ties planed for the rail-bear-
ings before treatment. When screw spikes are used
and holes are bored for them, they should be filled
with creosote oil and left until all of the oil is ab-
sorbed by the timber, which requires from four days
to a week. For that reason it is best that this part
of the work be done in advance of the time when the
ties are to be applied. Men accustomed to the use
of the template and boring can prepare the ties for

SPIKING AND GAGING 63

application at the places along the track where they
happen to be distributed.

Boring ties by hand, Mr. C. W. Lane of the B.
and O. Railroad has described the boring of 100,000
treated ties for use with screw spikes on a special
form of tie plate, in the Railway Age Gazette, Nov.
20, 1914.

"The ties were bored at the road's treating plant
at Green Spring, W. Va., the adzing being eliminated
by using only sawn ties, and the work being done by
small portable air motors capable of driving a %-in.
bit 6 in. into the wood.

"In the tie plant yard a standard gage track was
paralleled by a narrow gage track 40 ft. away, and
the sawn ties were loaded on flat cars in the yard, de-
livered at one end of a rude skidway built between
the standard and narrow-gage tracks, bored on a rough
platform at the narrow gage end of the skidway, and
loaded on trams to be run into the cylinders for pre-
servative treatment.

' ' The first skidway was in the form of a rude trestle
work, sloping from a height of about 2% ft. above
the floor of a standard gage flat car to the level of
the boring platform, which was at the height of the
arms on the narrow gage tram cars. After complet-
ing this skidway its cost seemed too high and a cheaper
method of building was sought. In building the next
skidway a pile of ties that stood ready for treating
was taken down to a level slightly below that of a
flat car floor. Rails were then laid across this level
crib-work of ties, and a boring platform erected at
the-^arrow gage end at the level of arms on the nar-
row gage tram cars, as before. This was a cheaper
form of construction than the other skidway; but for
the final one three 67-lb. rails were used at the height
of a flat car floor and the arms on the trams, the rails
being supported by simple crib-work of ties. The

GJ:

THE TIIACKMAN'S HELPER

first or sloping skidwa}' proved to be the most effi-
cient, since thus the ties could be fed faster to men
doing the boring.

^' After picking up, loading on flat cars and deliv-
ering to the skidway the sawn ties, the places where
the holes were to be bored were marked by using a
template made of iron with holes exactly correspond-

t o"

a—

CL_

^=^

1 ^

oj ^

i ^ _ ,.^ , , -^^ :_:

1 } V — / i i

jC^

Fig. 7. The Template Used in Boring Ties for Tie Plates

ing to the holes in the tie plate that were to be used.
Two of these templates, one for joint and one for in-
termediate ties, were constructed according to the ac-
companying sketch. Fig. 7.

''The joint ties required four holes bored for each
tie plate, while the intermediate ties needed only two
holes for each plate. The little hook on one end of
the template was hooked over one end of the tie and
thus determined the distance from the end at which
the holes were to be bored ; this was known as the
'line end' of the tie.

"Two men performed the operation of marking
the ties for boring. The template was first properly

SPIKING AND GAGING Go

placed in position and then the men marked the places
by driving a hand punch through the holes in the
template with a wooden mallet. One little detail was
quickly worked out which added greatly to the suc-
cess of this part of the work. The punches were first
made fast to a stiff spring which was in turn fastened
to the template and which kept the punches out of
the holes until struck. Instead of having to pick up
and insert the marking punch in two or four holes
and strike two or four blows with the mallet, accord-
ing to the template used, one smart blow on the spring
marked the whole set of holes. This little change nat-
urally pleased the laborers and meant more output,
which is only another way of saying ' more money for
the men at a cheaper rate for the company.'

''The ties having been marked were pushed along
the skidwav to the men who did the boring. The
little air motors driving the boring-bits were sus-
pended from a sort of walking-beam or old fashioned
well-sweep, pivoted overhead so that it could move
up or down, or in a horizontal direction, as desired.
As the motors were too heavy to handle steadily all
day they were counterbalanced by weights placed on
these walking-beams. The bits with which the boring
was done were fitted with stops to insure the holes
being bored to the exact depth desired, which in this
case was 6 in.

"After the ties were bored they were immediately
loaded on trams, stamped, checked, reported, and sent
to the treating cylinders.

"In any statement of costs the particular condi-
tii^Hs surrounding each bit of work bear directly on
the unit-price, and the following prices are given as
fairly well suited to the locality where this work was
done, but with a full understanding that cheaper or
possibly higher rates might fit the situation in other
places. It cost 11/2 cents per tie to sort out and load

66 THE TRACKJSIAN'S HELPER

ties in the yard and i/o cent per tie to deliver them
properly piled on the skidway.

''A gang could bore 600 intermediate ties in 10
hours. The two men marking and pushing ties to
the boring-platform and the two men doing the bor-
ing received II/2 cents per tie divided equally. These
four men earned then about $2.25 per 10-hour day
per man. The two men loading trams received %
cent per tie or $2.25 each for 600 ties. This made
the total cost for an intermediate tie 4^4 cents.

"A gang could bore 400 joint ties in 10 hours.
The rate for marking and boring these ties was 2^4
cents per tie, but the men loading the trams received
the same rate of % cent per tie because they could
be loading other trams at regular yard rates during
the time they had to wait for the slower moving joint
ties to be bored. The total cost per joint tie was
therefore 5 cents. A portion of these costs should not
be included in the bill against adzing and boring by
hand, because these same ties would, in the natural
course of events, have to be picked up for treatment,
which would cost something, varjdng at the different
plants, say, approximately 1% cents per tie.

> J

Ill

GENERAL SPRING WORK

Overhauling track in spring. When the frost is
leaving the ground in the spring, track foremen
should remember to do all the little jobs which have
been left over or neglected during the winter on ac-
count of frost and snow.

Clean up the station grounds and tracks, and pile
up neatly all track or other material which may be
scattered about the premises.

Gather up all trash, cinders, straw and other com-
bustible material and waste it on the narrow banks
or burn it up if more convenient. Particular care
should be taken to see that there is no dry grass
around any timber bridges; if there is, have it re-
moved promptly by skimming it off with a shovel or
covering with dirt and cinders. Water barrels at
bridges should be examined and replaced with new
ones if necessary to provide proper protection against
damage to property from fire.

All switches and leads should be spiked to proper
gage and line, and battered rails replaced by good
ones; guard rails and frogs should be examined, and
any defects in them remedied, or new ones ordered
to replace them ; but this is something that must con-
scientiously be done at all times regardless of weather
conditions.

Right of way fences should be examined and re-
paired, especially in low places or where they cross
watercourses. Loose planks in wagon crossings

68 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

should be taken up and cleaned underneath, and
ragged or split ends should be dressed with adze, re-
newing as ma}^ be necessary, and then respiked to
place.

The approaches to all highway crossings should be
filled up and fixed, so that teams will have no trouble
in crossing' the track. All fence posts, crossing signs,
whistling posts and telegraph poles, should be put in
correct position and tamped solid.

Shimmed track should be watched and very thick'
shims should be replaced by thinner ones as fast as
the heaving goes down, and all shims should be re-
moved from the track as soon as it is possible to spike
the rails to proper surface.

Soft spots in the roadbed will develop at this pe-
riod of the 3^ear and must be carefully guarded
against and repaired as fast as they develop. If im-
practicable to keep them in condition so that the regu-
lar speed of trains can be maintained, it is better to
resort to the slow order than to permit any condition
to go far enough to risk an accident.

Washouts. Section foremen should keep a sharp
lookout for washouts at all points on their sections,
since the time of the vear is now at hand wdien thaw-
ing snow and rain combine to increase the quantity
of water above the surface of the ground ; and as the
frost goes out of the ground but slowdy at best there
is always danger to a railroad from the accumulation
of too much water at one place. This may damage
the track b}^ undermining or washing away the road-
bed, or by loosening the earth on hillsides along the
track, or it may cause quantities of earth, stones, or
trees to fall or slide upon the track.

Ditches should be opened up and waterwaj^s cleared
of all obstructions, and all track, trestles, bridges and
culverts should be examined frequently, every day if
necessary or, for that matter, as many times during

GENERAL SPRING WORK 69

the day as good judgment would dictate. Where
there is likely to be any trouble the section foreman
should remain out with his men day and night, and
do all in his power to keep the track safe, always re-
membering that upon the vigilance of himself and
men ma}^ depend the lives of trainmen and passen-
gers.

In case of storms where the foreman has reason to
apprehend danger, and his section extends both ways
from his headquarters, he should send a man over the
short end of it with instructions to reach the section
limit as soon as possible, and to remain there and
use the necessary signals to Hag trains should he find
anything dangerous on the way out. The foreman
should go as rapidly as possible in the opposite direc-
tion towards the other end of his section, leaving a
man a sufficient distance ahead of the first break or
washout to flag trains following, in case they should
get over the other end of the section safely. The
foreman should note the location and dimensions of
all places needing repair, but he should not stop to
do any work until the end of the section is reached,
and the men have all been posted to remain and flag
trains for all the dangerous places found.

The foreman should then go to the nearest tele-
graph office and make report, stating fully the condi-
tion of the track on his section, giving location and
dimensions of all breaks in roadbed or track, bridge
and culvert numbers, number of bents destroyed in
bridges, and any other information that would be
valuable as a basis from which to calculate the amount
of material or force necessary to put the track in good
condition.

This will insure the safety of trains, and enable
the train dispatcher to hold them at convenient points
until the track and bridges are repaired.

After reporting the condition of his section the

70 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

foreman can go to work repairing small breaks at
points where a large gang of men could not work to
advantage, but the men who are flagging at danger-
ous places should not be called away until relieved
by extra forces sent to protect and repair damage.

Instances have occurred where foremen have
stopped to repair the first bad spot found, and al-
lowed trains to run into other bad places on their
sections. It is alwaj^s the foreman 's duty first to pro-
tect those dependent upon him for safety, and then
to notify superior officers of the condition of his sec-
tion. If all of the track on the section is safe, send
a report to that effect so that trains will not be de-
layed.

Repairing" track. When track that has become
rough or uneven is being repaired, all low places
should be brought up to surface. Both rails on
straight track should be level, and on curves the ele-
vation should suit the degree of the curve.

Lining old track. The track should be kept in per-
fect line at all times. Nothing contributes more to
the smooth riding of a train than a true line of rails.
The foreman, when lining track, should do as much
as possible with his back to the sun, because in that
way he gets the best view of the rails. It is also nec-
essary to look at the track line from the opposite
direction, especially when lining across a sag, and
also at ends of curves. A common fault in lining the
last four or five rails on tangents is to throw the track
too far out. Very few trackmen can line track per-
fectly by going over it once unless they are experts
and have perfect sight. Always stand as far away
from the place to be lined as your sight will allow,
and train your men to line by the motion of your
hands w^hen first putting the rails in place. By stand-
ing too close to the place to be lined, you are likely
to throw a swing to one side of the track. This is a

GENERAL SPRING WORK 71

common fault with many foremen. If you have a
section which the previous foreman left in bad line,
show your ability by remedying its defects in that
particular every time you have an opportunity. If a
foreman has some track on his section which has set-
tled down and is out of line, where the ground is wet
or soft, and he has not the force of men necessary to
move it in the usual way, the work of putting it to
place can be done with a small gang by pulling the
spikes out of two or three ties in a rail length at a
time, and using the lining bars on top of the dead ties
imder the rails, thereby gaining a solid foundation to
rest the bars upon and much more leverage than
could be obtained with the bars in the ground. After
the track has been lined to place, the dead ties can
be shifted to their proper positions.

Some of the instructions herein given as to track
lining may seem unimportant to those who know it
all, but it should be remembered that there are
''kinks" in all trades and as far as suggestions may
be made which would be useful to any one engaged
in this line of business, reference will be made to
them as occasion may occur.

Tightening bolts. Some trackmen think that all
bolts should be kept as tight as it is possible to make
them. This is an error that any trackman may fall
into until he is convinced to the contrary. There are
several kinds of nut locks for track bolts in use on
the railroads throughout the United States, the ma-
"Jority of which are devised for the purpose of locking
the nut, and at the same time allowing the rails to
contract or expand after the bolts are tightened with-
out danger of breaking them. The section foreman,
and his men sometimes tighten up all the bolts on a
section, even if they can make only a quarter of a
turn with the wrench ; in fact, many foremen add
pieces to the ends of the track wrenches, so that the

72 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

men ma}^ be able to get more leverage, and as a resnlt
of their labor everything on a joint in the shape of a
nut, lock, or washer, hii« every particle of spring or
elasticity taken out of it, and the bolts are broken by
the action of traffic or by the expansion and contrac-
tion of the rails due to changes in temperature. Thus
what should ordinarily be serviceable material is ren-
dered useless b}^ such treatment. A joint with either
four or six bolts, and with a spring nut lock on each
bolt, should have the nuts tightened enough to get the
full force of the resistance of the material used for a
washer between the nut and the angle bar. A com-
fortable twist of the track wrench with the hand, after
the nut is run up to place will be found sufficient
force to use when tightening bolts. When bolts are
tightened in this way and there are angle bars or
patented joints slot-spiked to the ties, all danger of
the bolts or rails being injured is avoided, and the
rails can contract and expand without track creep-
ing. To prevent trackmen from breaking bolts when
tightening them, track wrenches should not be too
long, and the use of pieces of pipe on the end to in-
crease the leverage should be prohibited.

However, with the large sized bolts in use and with
the design of heavy joint fastenings lately developed,
the length of track wrench has been increased ac-
cordino'lv, and a standard of 36 in. is not unusual.
It should not be understood from the above that all
the trouble experienced is from keeping bolts too
tight, for such is not the case, but the foreman should
be impressed with the importance of giving this work
proper attention. When, for instance, new rails and
angle bars are installed, they are ordinarily covered
with a light scale or rust, due to lying out in the
weather for some time before being used, and even if
the bolts are applied so that the joint is substantially
tight at fi*rst the scale soon wears off by the action of

Ta\l
Hut locK

The Posit

LOCK WAS

Plmn Spring
Nut lock

Fig. 8. Various Types of Nut Locks

74 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

traffic and it becomes necessary to go over and tighten
the nuts to complete the seating of joints up to the
rail. If for any reason this second tightening is neg-
lected, the joints become loose and it is not a great
while before the threads of the bolts become damaged
on account of the play, with the result that the same
bolts cannot be further tightened and must be re-
moved and others applied. A great many bolts have
been damaged in this way and money spent in pur-
chasing others, where a little labor expended in the
right direction would have avoided it all.

All sudden changes of temperature affect the bolts
on account of the expansion or contraction of the
rails. This is most noticeable in the spring and fall
of the year. Foremen should not neglect to tighten
up the bolts at any time when it is necessary. Al-
ways remember that loose bolts make low joints and
increase the labor of track repair.

Nut locks. There are a number of good nut locks
on the market today, each possessing particular merits,
which permit of keeping the bolts tightened up with
a minimum amount of labor, and prevent excessive
wear of the joint fastenings. The nut locks illus-
trated in Fig. 8 are in very general use and are well
adapted for rail joints.

Line on bridges. Section foremen should be par-
ticular to keep the rails on all bridges in good line, as
well as to keep a good line and surface on the ap-
proaches.

Repairing bridges. All repair work on bridges
should be done b}^ bridge men or those in charge of
such work. Section foremen should not attempt to do
any work on bridges for which they have not the
proper tools or the necessary practice. Any work that
is necessary in an emergency should be done and a re-
port of it made to the proper authority, as to anything
further that may be considered necessary.

DRAINAGE

Ditching. In order to ditch a cut properly, meas-
urements should be taken from the rail to the bot-
tom of the face of the cut at different places along it.
Ascertain at what average distance from the track
it will be best to have the back of the ditch. This is
very important, because in the majority of cuts on a
railroad the line of face is more or less irregular and
not truly parallel to the track, and the best distance
from the track for the back of a ditch is that which
will give a good ditch without moving too great an
amount of material. After a foreman has decided
how wide the ditch should be, he should line it with
the shovel or drive stakes along the back of it for his
men to work by, otherwise they will be apt to make
it crooked. Nothing is more unsightly than a crooked
ditch, and it will fill up more rapidly than a straight
one. The ditch should always be a little deeper at
the lower end of the cut, and gradually grow shal-
lower as it goes up grade. If you ditch parts of two
ojE^ three cuts on your section at different times, each
of the cuts will have some time to drain off, the mate-
rial in the ditches will be dryer and in better condi-
tion to work, and men can thus do more than if kept
in one very wet cut all the time. Always carry the
discharge end of a ditch so far away from the track
that there will be no danger of water from the ditch
washing out the embankment under the track. A

76 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

time of the year should be selected when the weather
is not favorable for other track work.

Form of ditches. The width of a cut and the slope
of its face on each side of the track must always gov-
ern, to a certain extent, the distance from the track
rails to the back of a ditch. All railroad cuts should
be opened so wide when the track is first laid that
there will be room to make all ditches a uniform dis-
tance from the rail. A ditch should be deep enough
to thoroughly drain the track, and the distance from
the rail to the back of it should be in proportion to
the depth of the ditch, giving the water an easy fall
from the track and free passage through the ditch,
so that there w^ill be no danger of its washing the
shoulder of the grade, or undermining the track.
Deep ditches close to the track in a cut sometimes
weaken the foundation and wash away the ballast out-
side the ties, especially where the ballast is of sand
or gravel. The bottom of a ditch should be from
eight to ten feet from the rails, where the width of
grade will allow it, and should be two feet below the
bottoms of the ties.

Grade of ditches. If a cut is level throughout its
length, the ditch will necessarily be deeper at the ends
than at the middle. Where the grade of a cut de-
scends toward the ends from the center the average
depth of the ditch may be the same throughout the
cut. Trackmen should always begin to ditch at the
lower end of a wet cut, and finish up as they go.
The piece ditched every day will help to drain off the
water behind. The principle governing this is that a
ditch must have a fall in the direction tow^ard which
the water is to drain.

Cleaning out ditches. Old ties or other obstruc-
tions should never be allowed to remain in the ditches
along the track. They should be cleaned out thor-
oughly every fall and the last thing before winter

DRAINAGE 77

sets in, so that during the continuance of the spring
rains, or while snow is melting, the water can pass
off freety without injuring the track.

Protective ditches. A small ditch made with a
plow along the top of the side of a deep cut, and near
the edge of its face, will carry off the surface water
and protect the side of the cut from washing into the
track ditches and filling them up too rapidly.

If the track through a cut has a uniform grade ad-
vantage may be taken of it to turn any surface water
flowing near the upper end down through the ditch
and thus keep it scoured out. There is no danger of
injury to the track if the amount of water flowing to
the upper end of the cut is not too large.

A ditching template. A simple device like that
shown in Fig. 9 is very handy to use when ditching.

Fig. 9. Ditching Template

It can be made as follows : Use for the long piece A
a straight edge 1x4 inches, 12 feet long. For the
short cross-piece B use a piece of board 1x3 inches,
four feet long. On one end of the long piece fix a
piece of sheet iron, C, twelve or fourteen inches long,
double it, and bolt the ends of it through the wood,
leaving a space through which the short piece, B, can
be passed freely. A hole should be bored through
the sheet iron, so that a set screw or a bolt can be
used to secure the short piece at any distance from
either end of it. The cross piece, B, of the ditching
rule should be set so that the back of it will be at the
proper angle for the back of the ditch, and upon one
side of it should be marked the distances by which to

78 THE TRACKIVIAN'S HELPER

regulate the depth of the ditch. When in operation,
one end of this ditching rule, d, should rest upon the
nearest track rail, and at the other end the material
should be removed from the face of the cut, until the
cross piece, B, rests in proper position to shape the
ditch. Then, by trying the spirit level on top of the
longer piece, and adjusting the cross piece to the re-
quired depth, the bottom level of the ditch can be
carried uniformly throughout the length of the cut,
if the track is in true surface, without any change in
the rule. The template should be fitted to place at
distances of a rail length or less, and the men will
have a guide to work by, and can cut the ditch cor-
rectly without any additional labor. A marker can
be put on the long piece, which will show where the
ditch slope commences outside the ends of the track
ties. If it be desirable to lower the ditch, say twelve
inches in as many rail lengths, it is only necessary
to let the cross piece, B, down one inch every thirty
or thirty-three feet, at the same time keeping the
long piece always level on the top. In like manner,
by shortening up the cross piece the ditch bottom can
be gradually raised or made more shallow. When
constructing ditches in accordance with the standards
prescribed by the various railroads, of course the fig-
ures as taken from such standards should be used in
setting the template to shape the ditch. E represents
the difference in elevation between top of rail and
sub-grade.

Channels for conveying the water away from the
track should be sufficiently large to perform the duty
required of them during a freshet as well as when
only an ordinary amount of water passes through.
At all marshy or low places where water might remain
standing alongside of the track enough openings
should be made to insure a solid dry roadway. The
embankment should also be rip-rapped along its sides

DRAINAGE 79

if there is any possibility of strong winds or rapid
streams forcing the water against it and washing the
material away.

Where musk rats are plentiful and cause damage
to the track by burrowing under it, a heavy coating
of cinders and slag along the sides of the embank-
ment is a most effectual protection against their dep-
redations. The cinders form an alkali in the water
that tastes bad, besides which they are too sharp for
the animals to burrow through, forming thus an ad-
mirable remedy against their ravages.

In deep, wet cuts where the material has a tend-
ency to slide, the roadbed should be widened out much
more than at any other point, and the face of the side
of the cut should be made with a very gradual in-
cline from the top of the cut to the ditch. If it will
grow some grass, all the better.

The work of widening cuts and roadbeds can be
done at less cost and to better advantage before the
track is laid than afterwards.

The bottoms of ditches that run alongside the track
through a cut should be carried not less than ten feet
from the rails on each side, and as far below the bot-
toms of the track ties as it is possible to have them.
They should retain a nicely proportioned incline from
the end of the ties to the ditch. Open ditches or til-
ing which are too close to the track, or not deep
enough below the track ties, are only a makeshift
and a hindrance to maintaining a good, dry track.
Coarse stone makes a good foundation in a wet cut,
if laid beneath the ballast in which the ties are im-
bedded, but can be dispensed with where the track can
be raised above the mud without spoiling the surface
or grade standard. In fact, this latter is the most
economical method (after a track has been laid) of
draining a track and making a good ditch at the
same time. Briefly stated, to drain the track in a

80 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

cut, the same conditions must exist, as nearly as pos-
sible, as where the track is laid in ballast on a good,
solid fill or embankment, several feet above the sur-
face of the ground.

The incline of the sides of the embankment should
be a natural slope, with no abrupt angles. No earth
embankment can be prevented from washing without
artificial means where the incline is so steep that vege-
tation will not grow upon it.

Pipe culverts. Cast iron pipe from 12 in. to 48
in. in diameter provides a splendid means of passing
the water from one side of the roadbed to the other.
Concrete pipe is replacing this to some extent now.

Where the conditions are favorable stone or con-
crete arches should be installed with good, strong,
side walls, a paved floor and wing walls at both sides
of the embankment, to take the place, as far as pos-
sible, of all small wooden bridges.

Grading^ cuts. "Wet, soft cuts on railroads are a
great annoyance, and very expensive for the com-
panies that are troubled with them. They often ne-
cessitate increasing the section force or organizing
ditching gangs, and require extra quantities of bal-
last.

In the spring and summer the track in wet cuts is
rough ; in winter the track in bad cuts heaves up and
requires considerable labor and expense to keep it
safe, and owing to the frequent spiking and the na-
ture of the material in which they are laid the ties
soon decay and have to be renewed. In new railroad
construction this can often be remedied by widening
the roadbed in proportion to the depth of the cut, or
in conformity with the nature of the material through
which the cut is made instead of following out the
ironclad rule which makes the width of the roadbed
the same in all cuts. A practical and experienced
man should have charge of the grading work on a

DRAINAGE 81

new road, with authority to widen the roadbed, or
ease the side slopes of any cut, in a manner that will
protect the track from the effects of heavy rains or
a springy bottom.

Surface ditches should be put along the tops of all
cuts to run off the water at the ends, and to prevent
it coming in on the track over the faces of the cuts.

Drainage of high fills. Mr. Earl Stimson, Main-
tenance of Way Engineer on the B. & O. R. R., has
described in Ry. Eng. & M. of W. the drainage of two
fills which gave a good deal of trouble on account of
settling, on the Baltimore Division of that road,
known as the Orangeville Fill and the first fill east
of Eldridge.

The description is as follows:

''Before the work of drainage was commenced, it
was thought that the sub-grade had settled under tlie
track, forming water pockets. The fills being of im-
pervious clay, the water could not drain off, and grad-
ually softened the material, causing the fills to settle
slowly, the material working out at the base.

' ' However, when the drainage work was commenced
it was found that this condition did not exist, as will
be seen by the cross section which represents typical
conditions in both places. The Orangeville fill is
4,400 feet long, but only 200 feet have given any
trouble on account of slippage. At this point the
fill is 25 feet high with the slip all on the westbound
side. The eastbound track requires no more atten-
jtion than other points with a fair sub-grade.

''The original ground surface is of good support-
ing material so that the settlement could not be at-
tributed to a poor foundation. The first section cut
in the fill was cut down to the original ground to de-
velop any water pockets if they existed. This section
was not, however, cut through the entire width of
the fill, as the material under the eastbound track

THE TRACKjVIAN'S HELPER

was foiind dry and in good stable condition. From
time to time, cinders have been unloaded at this point
and used to bring the fill up to normal sub-grade ele-
vation and fill out the shoulder. The first section cut
showed the cinder extending to a depth of 12 feet
below the top of rail. Underlying the cinder was a
layer of slippery saturated clay, about a foot in thick-
ness, upon which the cinder moved toward the toe

Cross
Lkairrs

Originai around

.Section Looking East
li^pical Crvss Section Oranqeville nil

Cinders

0$^^^.

W//'!^"//''///''

drains

53furjf€<f

Onginil Orvund

3€cfhn look/no East:
Tijpical Cross Section Elkridge nil.

Fig. 10. Cross Sections of Two High Fills on the

B. & 0. R. R.

of the fill. Although it was not marked, there was
evidentlv some movement of this clav which would
account for the depth of the cinder under the track.
"It is probable that this condition is the result of
water pockets. The pumping action of passing
trains has worked the shoulder of the fill down also,
lea\4ng no defined pocket and forming the section

DRAINAGE 83

shown. Under the layer of saturated clay, the mate-
rial rapidly became clrj^er and assumed normal con-
ditions.

"Fi\e cross drains were constructed at points where
the settlement was most marked. The first section
cut having developed the fact that there was no water
pocket in the fill, the subsequent cross drains were cut
only to a depth sufficient to reach solid material below
the laj^er of saturated clay. No tile was used, the
trenches being back filled with cinder.

''The fill east of Eldridge is 1,100 feet long with
a maximum height of about 30 feet. In this case the
settlement was on the eastbound track and for prac-
ticallv the entire lens^th of the fill. Conditions were
found to exist here as at Orangeville, except that there
was more water, and as at Orangeville, no water pock-
ets were found. Eighteen cross drains were con-
structed at intervals of about 50 feet. The excavat-
ing was cut through a wet material, and back filled
with stone and cinder without tile. The cross sec-
tions illustrate the conditions as they existed and the
cross drains as constructed.

"The cost of the work at Orano'eville was:

's?'

Labor $ 711.55

Material 357.37

Total $r,'068.92

( i

The unit cost of $213.75 per cross drain is high,
-owing to the amount spent on the first drain, which
was in the nature of an exploration.
"The cost of the work at Eldridge was:

Labor $ 486.52

Material 550.00

Total $1,036.52

84 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

''The unit cost of $57.38 per drain is probably a
better average on which to base future estimates for
work of this character.

''During the progress of the work, the track was
supported on twelve by twelve inch timbers, placed
under the ties, the excavation being made four feet
wide, closely sheeted and cross braced. No piling
was used to support the tracks.

"When it was found that water pockets did not
exist, it was thought that the cross drains would ac-
complish little, but contrary to expectations, the re-
sults obtained have been most satisfactory, the bene-
ficial effects being noticeable almost immediately upon
the completion of the work, and the stability of the
fills increasing rapidly as they dried out.

"Results: A recent inspection has been made at
Orangeville and Eldridge. The embankment for the
last track built has slid down the slope of the original
embankment so far that not much of the original
material is left. The second track is now supported
mostly by cinders. In time of dry weather this holds
itself in fair equilibrium, but in wet weather the water
running down the slope of the old embankment car-
ries the new with it. The embankment seems to have
thoroughly dried out at the point where the two
ditches were dug to the bottom. After the first deep
trenches were dug it was decided to dig only shallow
ditches on the top of the embankment, digging them
down as far as any moisture was found. These, of
course, under the conditions, effectually drained the
water which was standing upon the top of the old
embankment, but did not help the track upon the new
embankment.

"At the point where the deep excavations were
made, the slip seems to have been cured, but where
the shallow ones were dug, conditions are practically
as bad as before. The ballast at the former point is

DRAINAGE 85

still in line and the track is standing up dry and
solid, but in all other points it has settled badly and
destroyed the line of the ballast leaving the one point
where the deep excavation was made higher than the
adjoining track.

''The conditions at these two points would indicate
that the proper course to take to fully overcome the
difficulties would be to dig deep excavations to the
bottom of the fill and at intervals of about 50 feet
throughout the entire length of the slip and fill with
coarse rock and cinder."

SUMMER TRACK WORK

Renewal of ties. The month of May in northern
climates is the season when the work of general track
repair should be pushed steadily. Track is becoming
dry and any track that has heaved during the winter
is generally settled back to its old bed. The time for
this varies with the location as to latitude and general
climatic conditions. In the North Atlantic States the
frost ordinarily leaves the ground in the latter part
of March or early April and then the danger of track
spreading is very great and should be carefully
guarded against. If there are any poor ties in track
they will show up at this time, and any weak spots
that develop on this account should be attended to
at once.

As soon as the worst parts of the section have been
attended to in this regard, the foreman should go
over and correct the line and general surface, which
should engage his attention practically for the re-
mainder of the month of April so that by the first
of May he can begin at one end of his section the
work of renewing those ties which are scheduled for
renewal during the season. This work should be
prosecuted continuously and should be interrupted
only to correct line and surface as necessary. The
tie renewals should have preference at this time, for
then the ballast, if cinders or gravel, has not become
hard or baked, as it will be in July and August. In
addition to making better progress with the work on

SUMMER TRACK WORK 87

account of this condition, the weather is usually pleas-
ant, full efficiency can be secured from labor, and
every tie put in at this time in ballast of whatever
kind will have a good chance to become solid by the
fall of the year. In other words, the track is now
undergoing" such repairs as may be necessary to put
it in proper condition for the coming winter. The
more those in charge of the work will consider the
fact that winter is surely coming, the better the track
will be.

Species of track ties. The species of wood in rail-
road ties are of great variety, ranging from cedar
and other soft woods to lignum vitae. The majority
are, however, of cedar, cypress, hemlock, pine, chest-
nut and oak, and are used according to the character
of the country through which the railroad runs.

Yellow pine ties are now secured in the South and
brought in large numbers by rail and boat to help
out the deficiency of other classes of timber in the
states farther north. Cedar ties give a very long
life in the track, as do chestnut, but if used without
tie plates are cut very fast by the base of the rail.
It is not uncommon to find chestnut ties in the track
that have been there for sixteen years, and cedar ties
that have given twenty years ' service ; however, cedar
and other very soft wood ties cannot be trusted on
curves without tie plates to resist the tendency of the
rails to spread. White oak ties are the best and make
the most substantial track, their average life being
from twelve to fourteen years. Red oak ties last
about four years on the ordinary railroad, but on
street railways, where covered up and not exposed,
they are quite suitable and give long service.

The usual size of ties for main track is seven inches
thick, nine inches wide and eight feet six inches long
(7" x9'' x8' 6") ; for side tracks they are six inches
thick, eight inches wide, and eight feet long (6"x8''

88 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

x8'0"). The latter class are also adapted for use
on all main tracks with light traffic and are often
used with great success under heavy traffic. In size
they vary according to the specifications of the par-
ticular company for which they are being cut.

Timber cross-ties can be divided into two classes,
and these in turn can be subdivided as follows :

I. Hewn.

(a) Quarter tie.

(b) Slab tie.

(d) Uneven tie.

(e) Pole tie.

II. Sawn.

(a) Quarter tie.

(b) Slab tie.

(d) Pole tie.

Fig. 11 shows, at upper part, (1) : A quarter tie,
from a tree quartered into 4 ties, having a little heart,
which, if placed in track with heart up, will check
quickly and if placed with heart down, as shown at
(1-a), the heart is likely to be split away from the
rest of the tie when the spikes are driven into it.
(2) : A slab tie, from a tree halved into two ties,
and the same results occur as from quarter ties; both
(1) and (2) w^hen placed in the track, heart down,
give sapwood as support for the rail, which will be
quickly cut into. (3) : A half tie, which requires
considerable care in tamping or it will become canted.
(4) An unevenly hewn tie with a narrow face on one
side, which, if placed up, will very soon be cut into
by the rail base, as shown at (4-a). (5) and (6) :

Pole ties," so-called, which are the best for use in

< I

SUMMER TRACK WORK

the track, owing to the heart being at the center, with
sapwood on the outer corners only. These, when
placed in track, will give longer life and allow cor-
rect spiking for gage and to prevent creeping, and

I 2 3 4 5 6

Quarter Slab
Tie Tie

Half

Uneven Pole
Hewn Tie Tie*

Pole
Tie

r t

l-a 2-a 3-a ^-a 5-a 6-a
Tie Sections of Various Kinds-

f^ ft^ \fhM v^fn rtym

While Oak Cedar Chestnut Chestnut Chestnut
Typical Ties in Plan and Section.

Fig. 11. Tie Sections of Various Kinds. and Typical Ties
^-^ in Plan and Section

will not require so soon the use of plates on tangents,
whereas the other ties should have tie plates, if sap
is placed up, to prevent their being cut into.

In the lower part of Fig. 11 is shown, first, a white

90 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

oak tie, a cedar, a chestnut, a narrow-faced chestnut
and a w'ide faced chestnut tie. It will be noticed
from the shading, which indicates the amount of wear
from the base of the rail, that the white oak tie is
cut but little, the cedar and narrow-faced chestnut the
most. If ties thus placed were of different wood or
of different face this would occasion an uneven bear-
ing for the rail when the wheels are upon it.

There is also an objection to narrow and wide faced
ties being placed near each other, especially in track
under an overhead bridge, owing to the fact that
frost will hang under the wide-faced ties and come
out quickly under the narrow-faced ones, making un-
even riding track in the spring. Above the sections
in the lower part of Fig. 11 is shown a rail spiked to
the ties showing the tie face.

In the tamping of track, a hewn tie can be worked
more rapidly to a good bed than a sawn tie. Other
things being equal, a railroad which is not compelled
to renew its track ties for nine or ten years after they
are laid, has an immense advantage over a road that
must renew its ties once in five years. The latter
road must figure into its expense account almost
double the cost for material, besides the additional
track labor necessar^^ to do the work, and during the
interval it cannot have as good a track as the former.
Ties sawn square will rot sooner and break more eas-
ily than he^\Ti ties, and are generally too small to
give a good bearing surface. Pole ties, with a face
on two sides, made by sawing slabs from them, are
generally good and preferable to quarter ties or those
split out of very large logs, because the wood of a
big tree is more brittle than that of the younger
growth. A well hewn pole tie, with a face on two
sides, eight or ten inches -^dde, is preferable to all
others for track purposes.

Dimensions of ties. The following table shows the

SUMMER TRACK WORK

sizes of ties specified for a first class line, the eight
and a half foot ties being used on main tracks and
the eight foot ones in sidings and yards, but in some
cases the eight foot ones are used on main track of
branch lines if the traffic is not so heavy as to war-
rant the use of the larger class.

Tie sizes.

Face

Length

Kind

Thickness

First Class

Second Class

81/2 feet

Pole

ties

inches

7 inches

6 inches

81/2 "

Split

9 "

7 "

81/2 "

Saw

9 "

8 «

Pole

7 "

6 "

Split

8 "

7 «

Saw-

8 "

7 "

Face must not be less than specified. Variations
in thickness of one-quarter inch under or over
will be permitted and, in length, one inch under or
over.

The life of a track tie is not altogether dependent
upon the kind or quality of timber used. The same
kind of tie will last longer in the North where the
ground is frozen all winter, than in the South, where
the process of decay goes on uninterruptedly; there
is also a marked difference in the effect on ties of an
extremely wet or dry climate and the amount of traf-
fic over them. If the length of ties equalled twice
the gage of a track, they would give much more sup-
port to the rail. As it is, the ties receive their main
support from the inside and only a proportion from
the outside ends. This condition has a tendency to
develop swings and rough track. If the rail received
as much support from the outside as from the inside
and the support provided by the ballast were uni-
form, the ends of the ties would not be so likely to
spring up and down under a passing train and there
would consequently be no ^ace between the ends of
the ties and the ballast beneath for water to get into,

92 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

but the ties would rest solidly on their foundation
from end to end.

Distribution of new ties. In renewing ties by the
"spotting method" as is the general practice and not
"out of face," each mile of track will require ap-
proximately the same number of ties each year, but
of course if track has recently been ballasted or relaid
with new rail and the tie renewals have been gener-
ous where the new rail was laid only light renewals
will be necessary for the next few years. Ties to be
used during the season may come for distribution the
winter before but there is no difficulty in approximat-
ing the number required in each mile of track, and
arrangements should be made to distribute them ac-
cordingly, that they maj- be available for use without
rehandling. If there are enough cars of ties to make
a day's work for a work train, all the better, otherwise
a few cars of ties and some other work may go to make
up a train. In any event, it is economical to get the
ties to the point where they are wanted in the first
place. If there are not ties enough on hand to war-
rant the ordering out of a work train, the service of
a way freight can usually be secured to release cars
promptly.

When new ties are unloaded from cars the foreman
should see that any of them that are too close to the
track are removed to a safe distance immediately
after the passage of the unloading train.

Piling ties. The usual practice is to put fifty ties
in a pile. Some roads place them in square piles
while others pile them in pyramids or A-shaped piles
at right angles to the track. See Fig. 12 for Correct
and Wrong Methods of Piling Ties, indicating
P. R. R. practice, as given in the Ry. Age Gazette,
Feb. 19, 1915.

Tie inspection. Large railroads usually have a sys-
tem of markings for the foreman the ties which are

SUMMER TRACK WORK

to be renewed on his section during the season. This
is done early in the spring or as soon as the frost is
out of the ties by the tie inspector, who goes over
every mile of track and marks with white paint the
rail over the ties that it is considered necessary to
renew. Ties that are questionable are tested with a
pick to ascertain the extent to which they are decayed
and a record is kept of the number to be renewed in
each mile or quarter mile, showing how many are on
curves and how many on tangent. The record is

Appro\/ed Methods.

Improper Methods.

Fig. 12.

Methods of Piling Ties

kept on blanks provided for the purpose, and know-
ing the total number of ties in track in each mile the
percentage of ties renewed each year is readily as-
certained. If the foreman makes any change in the
number renewed from those spotted he makes a re-
'port giving the reason therefor. Also, the number
of new ties on hand in each mile available for use
is tabulated and from this information the supervisor
or roadmaster knows how many additional ties
must be distributed to complete the renewals. The
tie inspection work is usually delegated to an experi-

94 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

enced foreman whose judgment is good in this line,
and necessary assistance is furnished him while on
this work temporarily, but some roads insist on the
supervisor doing it personally so that he will be thor-
oughly acquainted with the tie conditions on his sub-
division. When practicable it is best to have the sec-
Jon foreman along, too.

Renewing ties. "When putting ties under the
track the foreman should never allow the men to dig
out any more than is necessary to allow the tie to
go under easily. The old bed should not be disturbed
if the new tie will fit. A good method for putting in
ties where two together are to be renewed is to dig
out between the two and on each side of the track, a
little deeper than the bed of the ties, remove the spikes
from the old ties, knock the old ties into the hole, and
pull out. Pull the new tie into the same hole from
the opposite side of the track, if it is of about the
right size, and let a man on each side of the track
slide the tie into its bed, keeping it close up to the
rail until in its place.

Tie gage. New ties should always be spaced
evenly; they should be square across the track and
laid so that the center of the tie will coincide with
the center of the track ; this will leave the ends so that
they will not line up perfectly one with the other on
account of the slight variation in length of ties, but
this is hardly enough to be noticeable and there is
considerable question as to which looks better after
all, a track with ties evenlv lined at one end and
ragged on the other or where the variation is the same
in the line of both ends. It is best to have wheel
loads supported equally at the two rails and this is
best accomplished by having the ties centered. Also,
where, for instance, 8% ft. ties are adopted for re-
newal on a line already equipped w4th 8 ft. ties, a

SUMMER TRACK WORK

presentable appearance still obtains if all ties are
uniform with the center line of track.

In order to get the tie into this position without
any extra measuring', a tie gage or stick say V x2"
should be provided which has marked upon it the
length of the tie being used and the locations of the
two rails ; it is then only necessary to lay the gage on

Al'

a'-o"

d'- 6"

Fig. 13.

Tie Gage, Made of l"x4" Board

the tie to be installed and mark with chalk the loca-
tion of the base of each rail and see that the marks
so made come to the rails when the tie is being spiked.
The tie gage saves an endless amount of work both
^in renewals and especially in construction of new
tracks where a man marks the position of the rails
as fast as the ties are distributed out ahead, thus
greatly helping the spikers.

96 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Selecting joint ties. Under joints wliere angle
bars are used, put in two well-hewn ties of about
equal size, and have each tie come well under the
angle bars, as this is the first consideration. The
other ties are spaced to suit the joint ties.

The number of ties used per rail length depends
somewhat on the size of the ties, whether the general
run of them is large or not. A good way to roughly
space ties is to have them just far enough apart to
enable a track shovel to be passed between them when
held sideways. This will give about the proper space
for tamping. Where there are wide spaces betw^een
existing ties, an extra one should be put in and the
adjoining ties shifted as necessary to divide up the
space. For a thirty-three foot rail length, an aver-
age of eighteen good sized ties makes good track.
Ties sawn square should not be put under a rail joint
if it can be avoided. When putting in ties a foreman
should arrange his gang in such a w-ay that all can
be working at once, having each man do the work he
is best suited to perform. When working a large
number of men he ought to have tools enough to work
them in separate gangs, because in this w^ay more
work can be done in proportion to the number of men
employed. However, with section forces making tie
renewals it is not often advisable to divide up the
gang, but if track is in poor condition as to ties other
gangs can be added as necessary.

Finish as you go. The tie renewals when once
started should be prosecuted continuously and with
as little interruption as possible to take care of cor-
rections to surface, line or gage that cannot wait, of
course changing out rails that show signs of failure.
It is best to begin the tie work at the end of section
farthest from the foreman's headquarters and work
toward the tool house if possible, but it is also well

SUINBIER TRACK WORK 97

to have adjoining sections start together at the sec-
tion line and work apart, thus giving the large amount
of repaired track in one place.

Two kinds of foremen are in the railroad business
today. One is represented by the man who does ex-
actly what he is told in the manner in which he has
been instructed ; the other carries on what he under-
stands to be the intention of the superior officer, in
such a manner that it will pass inspection, but he
tries to do it in a brand new way, or at least in a way
different from the one that has been indicated to him
as satisfactory by his supervisor. This kind of man
fails to realize that there may be reasons for the in-
structions that are given him, of which he does not
know, but no one has had time to explain to him. The
first rule is to do exactly as your superior officer tells
you to do, exactly the way in which you think he
would do it if he were there to do it in your place.
The foreman who can follow this rule and does con-
scientiously follow it will get along a good deal faster
in the railroad business than the other foreman who
thinks that a second rate new-fangled method is bet-
ter than a first rate old one.

As soon as new ties are installed in place they
should be tamped and spiked, putting on tie plates if
required at the same time. It is not good practice to
open up and weaken a lot of track and let the new
ties go unspiked until you can make a general job
of spiking, but when one or two are applied they
should be spiked at once. The neglect of this rule
has been the cause of serious accidents. Fill in the
ballast that has been removed, and dress up gener-
ally as you go so that if called away at any time on
other work you wall leave good, safe track.

Remove the bark. The bark should be removed
from all hewn or round timber used in railroad con-

98 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

struction, before it is put into service. If allowed
to remain it retards the evaporation of moisture and
thereby hastens decay.

Bridge piles will remain sound longer if the bark
is removed. The same may be said of fence posts.
Considerable loss of strength is occasioned by the fail-
ure of nails or other fastenings to secure a firm hold
on the wood where they are driven through the bark.

In the case of track ties, the bark not only causes
decay but is a source of annoyance in tamping or re-
pairing the track and dangerous on account of fire.
The best plan is to have, in the specifications for ties
delivered by contract, a clause that they have all bark
removed.

When new ties are being placed in position they
should not be damaged by using picks or other sharp
pointed tools. Tie tongs, such as are now on the mar-
ket, afford a satisfactory method of handling ties
without injuring them.

Ties in highway crossings. When renewing ties,
the trackmen should not overlook highway crossings,
where it is necessary to take up the plank, examine
closely as to their condition, and make whatever re-
newals are necessary.

Renewing ties when ballasting. AVhen ballasting
with gravel, stone or other material, the ties in need
of renewal should be changed out, as the work is more
easily done then and the cost is less. It is well to
make such renewals that the track will not have to
be disturbed for two or three years. If any ties so
removed are found to be in fair condition they can
be turned over and used in nearby sidings.

Renewal methods on various roads. A very in-
teresting method and blank forms for keeping tie re^
newal reports on different roads were published in
the Ry. Age Gaz. for May 21, 1915, the accompany-
ing description reading as follows ;

SUMMER TRACK WORK 99

' ''The latest official statistics show that the rail-
roads spend annually about $55,000,000 for the ties
used to replace those removed from the track on ac-
count of wear, decay, accidents, etc. This figure,
which does not include the cost of labor for distribut-
ing the new ties, placing them in the track and dis-
posing of the old ones, together requiring so large a
part of the trackmen's time during the spring and
summer, is about 15% of the total cost of maintenance
of way and structures and 3% of all operating ex-
penses. It is obvious then that particular care is jus-
tified to insure the lowest percentage of renewals con-
sistent with proper maintenance standards; and im-
portant as this subject is at present, it is becoming
increasingly so on account of the rapidly increasing
cost of ties.

''Theoretically, to attain the maximum economy
every tie should remain in the track until it reaches
the point in its deterioration when it will no longer
support the rails with the proper factor of safety, and
should then be removed immediately. Practically,
since ties are renewed once a year it is the general
rule to remove all that will not safely carry the loads
for another year, and on account of the disadvan-
tages resulting from tearing up the roadbed, to a cer-
tain extent ties with even a greater life than this are
renewed during general surfacing, re-ballasting or rail
renewal.

' ' Some roads have tried to assign a reasonable num-
ber of ties to each section and leave it to the foremen
to use them to best advantage, but the imperfections
of this scheme are obvious. It is almost universal
therefore to base the requisition for ties on an inspec-
tion of the track prior to the season of renewal, al-
though the methods of making this inspection, of
checking the reports and of supervising the work of
placing the new ties in the track vary widely. These

100 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

differences as they exist on 16 typical important roads
are discussed in the following paragraphs.

"Inspection and marking. The inspection upon
which the requisition and allotment of new ties is
made is left to the section foremen on the Central
Kailroad of New Jersey with very satisfactory results.
The supervisors are constantly in touch with the fore-
men, walking each section during the year and fa-
miliarizing themselves with the details. Each fore-
man is allowed to ask for as many ties as he thinks
he will require. These data are then checked up by
the supervisors, who have acquired during the course
of the year an approximate idea of what the needs
of each section will be. The requirements are then
forwarded to the Engineers Maintenance of Way, who
tabulate the data and make requisition for the neces-
sary ties. After renewals have started, the supervis-
ors and assistant supervisors examine all ties re-
moved very carefully, and if a foreman is found to
be removing too many ties, or leaving poor ties in the
track, his attention is drawn forcibly to the fact.
The Engineers Maintenance of Way as well as the
Superintendents also inspect ties that are removed at
frequent and unexpected intervals in their trips over
the line. Any ties removed from the track that are
found to have any additional life are sorted and
picked up by the work train and used in siding re-
pairs or construction, being spotted in with good or
new ties. Under this system the situation has grad-
ually improved until it is scarcely ever necessary to
draw a foreman's attention to any misjudgment, and
much better results are being secured than by meth-
ods previously employed. The objection to leaving
the selection of ties to be removed from the track en-
tirely to the section foreman, which is advanced by
some maintenance men, is that there is too great a
tendency under this method to praise the man who

SUJVfflVIER TRACK WORK 101

puts in the most ties per day per man, resulting in
the removal of some ties from which additional life
could be secured.

''Several roads have found it advantageous to com-
bine the detailed inspection of the foremen with check
inspections by supervisors, roadmasters, engineers or
superintendents. On the Boston & Albany the fore-
man's statement is checked up by the supervisor or
his assistant and is then sent to the division engineer
for approval. On the Pennsylvania the practice is
similar except that the division engineer, usually ac-
companied by the supervisor, also makes frequent in-
dependent inspections to see that the proposed renew-
als are proper and economical. In addition, there
are men assigned to special duty both on the division
and in the office of the Engineer Maintenance of Way,
who regularly follow up tie renewals, making an in-
spection both of the ties removed from the track and
those left in. These men submit reports on what they
find and any cases of bad judgment are taken up
through the regular channels. During the time that
this practice has been followed, covering the last six
or seven years, there has rarely been any cause for
criticism.

"The reports of the Northern Pacific section fore-
men are checked by the roadmasters walking over a
part of each section, and in addition the division su-
perintendent goes over at least three sections on each
roadmaster's district accompanied by the roadmaster
on a hand car or on foot to verify the tie require-
ments. The Illinois Central requires the supervisors,
after receiving the foremen's reports, to make an in-
dependent inspection and then forward the foremen's
-. reports with their recommendations. The roadmas-
ters, on receipt of the supervisors' reports, check the
judgment of their men.

''Some roads place the responsibility for the tie in-

102 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

spection entirely on the supervisors or roadmasters.
Such roads include the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe,
the Norfolk & Western and the New York Central.
On the Baltimore & Ohio all tie inspections are now
being made by the supervisors, and a general tie in-
spector for the system checks up these reports. This
method has been found better than a previous one in
which tie inspectors alone handled this work. Other
roads, including the Chicago & North Western, the
New York, New Haven & Hartford, the Philadelphia
& Reading, the St. Louis & San Francisco, and the
Union Pacific, require the roadmaster or supervisor
and the section foremen to go over the line together
for the inspection of ties to be renewed, thus com-
bining the broader experience and better judgment of
the superior officer with the detailed knowledge of
local conditions possessed by the foreman.

''On two of the roads considered, the tie inspector
is used with satisfaction. The Queen & Crescent in-
spectors are selected by the roadmasters and report
to them.

''They are accompanied in making their trip over
the line by each supervisor while working on his dis-
trict. The Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh selects the
most intelligent extra gang foremen for tie inspectors,
making them report to the division engineers. They
are accompanied by the section foremen in going over
the line. The roadmasters and foremen are not re-
lieved of responsibility for the safety of their track
on this road and are given a proper voice in the mat-
ter of tie renewal.

"The time of making tie inspections is also ex-
tremely variable, so that considering April 1 as the
beginning of the tie renewal season, the inspection is
begun on some roads as much as nine months before
that date and is not finished on others until three
months after it. The Boston & Albany and the New

SUIVCVIER TRACK WORK 103

York Central are among those that begin early, the
former making its inspection during July and Au-
gust, and the latter usually finishing it before October
1. The Union Pacific, the Chicago & North Western,
the Pennsylvania, the Central Railroad of New Jer-
sey, the St. Louis & San Francisco, and the New
Haven require the inspection to be made during the
fall, and the Queen & Crescent specifies December.
On the Baltimore & Ohio the work is begun as soon
as possible after January 1 and is completed before
July 1. The months of April and May are designated
for tie inspection on the Illinois Central, and on the
New Haven and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh,
the work is handled during the spring, beginning on
the latter road as soon as the frost is out of the
ground.

''The points to be considered in an inspection of
ties in the track maj^ be left entirely to the judgment
of the inspector or be covered more or less completely
by written instructions, depending on the practice of
the individual roads. When such instructions are
brief thev ordiuarilv mention a close examination in-
eluding the ties on each side of the one under con-
sideration, the local roadbed conditions, the location,
whether in curve or tangent, the amount and charac-
ter of the ti^ffic, the visible rot or crack, and a test
with an adze or other suitable tool to determine in-
terior soundness. A very complete set of instructions
is issued to the tie inspectors on the Buffalo, Rochester
& Pittsburgh, from which the following abstract is
taken :

"There are two standards for making renewals in
main track; first, where the track is not to be dis-
turbed and the ties will therefore be dug in and, sec-
ond, where the track is to be raised off of the old bed
allowing the ties to be placed during the raise. Under
the first condition ties must be inspected by driving

104 THE TEACKJVIAN'S HELPER

a pick in each side adjacent to the rail seat near both
the bottom and the top faces below the sap line. The
pick must be driven into the ties toward the center
and be drawn with as little prying as possible. The
ties must not be tested on the top except in an en-
deavor to find decay around the tie plate and spike,
and in such tests the ties must not be mutilated more
than absolutely necessary. To test the tie for
strength, one end of a pick should be inserted under
the end of the tie and the pick used as a lever. If
the tie is broken under the rail seat this will usually
determine it. If two ties with only one year's safe
service are adjacent, one must be removed. In a
group of ties, all of which have only one year's safe
service, enough must be renewed to leave each doubt-
ful tie with one good neighbor. Sap rot alone is not
sufficient to condemn a tie. A tie cut down by rail
wear should not be renewed unless the rail has cut
into the face more than % in. This applies to ties
on tangent, as all curves are tie plated. On curves
when by being adzed repeatedly for rail renewal a
tie is cut down sufficiently to weaken it, it should be
removed and used for side track renewals if the tim-
ber is sound. On tangents where a good tie is cut
down % in. by rail wear or adzing it should be pro-
tected with tie plates against further cutting. Care-
ful attention must be given to the inspection of red
oak and pin oak ties, as this timber usually rots from
the center, leaving a hard shell which can be detected
only by careful inspection. In track that is subject
to heaving and where shimming is necessary, care
must be taken to insure enough good ties for spiking
and bracing, and special attention must be given to
the inspection of ties through road crossings, station
platforms and other places where they are covered and
likely to be overlooked by the section men.

''The second condition governing the marking of

SU]\IMER TRACK WORK

1Q5

ties for renewal arises from the policy of the com-
pany to resurface out of face a part of the main line
on each section each year in addition to the reballast-
ing of track when new rail is laid. In such cases it
is the intention to make sufficient renewals to last two
three years without having to disturb the track

""" "buffalo, ROCHESTER & PITTSBURGH RY.

ENOINEERINQ DEPARTMENT
FOREMAN'S DAILY REPORT OF TIES PUT IN TRACK

Date 1 91 _

_ Division

fte'^llnn

Ull. P..1 ^^S<,|. Pn.<

LOC*TION

en.

Cr.

RGMARKS

North Bound Track

South Bound Track

Single Main Track

SWe Track No.

SMe Track No.

Sld« Track No.

No. 7 Switch Set

No. a Switch Sat

No. a Switch Set

No 9 Switch Set

No. Switch Set

No 12 Switch Set

No. 12 Switch Sat

No. 7 Xover Set

No. 9 Xover Sat

No. 12 Xover Set

Correct

Signatu

noAowASTcn

sec. rORCMAN

INSTRUCTIONS-Seetlon Foreman muat fill out ena of theae reporta covering tlea put In main track* and aldlnoa
lor each mile, and mall to Roadmaater at eloae of each day. Note oppoilta each awltch and
crossover aet, under proper Heading, tjie number of pieces of each kind of timber, and ahow
station and side track number where located. Show station where each side track la located
In remarks column oppoalte.

Fig.

14. The B. R.

& P. Foreman's Report of Ties Put in
Track

during that time. Under this condition the inspect-
ors test the ties as previously described, removing all
that will not last more than two years. Where new
steel is laid, no bad ties must be left under the joints.
In making renewals in this case, some fairly good ties
may be taken out, in which case they should be care-

106

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

fully sorted and piled, to be picked up and distributed
for side track renewals. A lower standard of inspec-
tion is used for mine tracks and side tracks, and es-
pecially for standing tracks in yards where no ties
are taken out until their safe service is passed. In
passing tracks care should be used to see that all ties
around turnout curves are in good condition.

"Although a large majority of the roads considered
require the officer making the first inspection to mark
each tie in some distinctive manner for future iden-
tification, several roads, including the Pennsylvania,
the Union Pacific and the Central Railroad of New

— — BUFFALO, ROCHESTER &, PITTSBURGH RAILWAY ,...„

e:isio(me:e:f)ino oef^ ARTMe:is*T ;
FOREMAN'S DAILY REPORT OF TREATED TIES TAKEN OUT OF TRACK j

Dale 191

OUI.IO.

S.cfien

B.1.«Mn MU. Po.» _..<i ""'• P..* -M

LOCATION T

" 1

PoJi

b\\

c»

■5

REMARKS

North BoHad Track

S«wth Beynd Tract

- -

L — ii^

— -+-

n 1

1 '

L=J

' ^

fc =a

err««t

Signatyr.

• (CTi^- *..(■•■

INSTRUCTIONS-Secliort Foreman miut nil out en* of the** reports eo»*rinf treated t.e. taken owt of ma.n tracks and sldmg* for each mile, and ma.l
to Roadmasler at close of *aeh day. Show ond*' proper heading all ties ha«.ng corresponding letter en na.l. and sho- thoa* ha«<n«

same date an dating nail on the same lino and give dati. In ose number en dat.ng nx.l cannct be read, g.ve date as shewn by pest.

tien of nail in tie In accordance with standard instructions. Not* oppssit* oscH switch and crosse«e> sot. under proper headma.

tKe rtuml»er or aieces ef each kind of timber, and thow station and side track number where located. Show ttatton wh*r* stdd

track is located in reraarhs column oBDOsH*. —

Fig. 15. A Report Covering Treated Ties Taken Out of

Track

Jersey use no system of marking. The two commonly
recognized methods of designating ties for renewal are
by cutting with an adze or axe, and by painting a line
on the web or base of the rail directly over the tie.
Various forms of cutting are in use, such as chipping
off one corner, and notching the side or top of the
tie, while on the Northern Pacific two gashes about
3 in. apart are cut on the side near the end. The
Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh, the Queen & Cres-
cent, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Atchison, To-
peka & Santa Fe use paint.

"Renewals and records. On the Union Pacific it

SUMMER TRACK WORK

107

is the practice to distribute enough ties before March
1 to care for the renewals on each section up to June
30, the remainder being piled in yards and distributed
after July 1, so as not to interfere with the mowing
of the right of way. The roadmaster selects the loca-
tions at which the renewals are to be made each
month and inspects the ties after renewal. On the
Pennsylvania the foreman "blazes" or marks with
kiel the ties that are to come out just previous to
their renewal. The ties removed are held for inspec-
tion and the good ones returned to side tracks, the
rest being burned or destroyed. On the New York
Central the foremen are instructed to avoid as far

Incticofes
kind of

fimber.-)

— r-

< H h^ H H M M H M H N H M M M »-^ H ^

■8"

■18 (^Z"' 3-0"-

Fig. 16. Method Used on the B. R. & P. for Marking the
Kind of Timber and the Year Ties Are Put in Track

as possible the renewal of ties to face and they are
cautioned particularly against damaging the ties by
picks or by hammering them in spacing. Tie tongs
are furnished on all sections where treated ties are
used and tie plugs are required to be driven in the
holes whenever a spike is drawn. To reduce the tend-
ency to decay around the holes these plugs are
treated.

* ' On the Queen & Crescent the foreman, during the
renewal of ties, examines carefully each tie spotted for
renewal by the inspector and leaves in the track any
that he thinks will last another year. He also reports
any ties not spotted that he thinks should be removed,
giving their location, but waiting for authority from

108

THE TRACKAIANS HELPER

the roadinaster before taking them out of the track.
On the B., R. & P., the foremen renew only the ties
spotted by the inspectors on track that is not to be
raised. In case they think additional ties should be
removed they report to the roadmaster, who has the
ties reinspected. In track that is being raised the
foremen are allowed to remove unmarked ties which
should come out, placing a cross on them for special
inspection later. Such ties are used again if possible.
The inspectors on this road are instructed to watch
carefully the practice of section forces in renewing
ties and to report an}' improper practice. It is cus-

Ife BOSTON & ALBANY RAILROAD

»Mi n. H.

CROSS TIES TACEI- OUT OF TRAM .._, «- _^

Sectioe FoRmen sfcal tepon al Cra» Tms ukem oat nt Track, wv mcIwJmc Bnlcr or S«ntd) Tt^ t^ per BUnk F.»m brkv* Gnu »rT •Antld
be Likca to fnv aH iafarvaboa caHtd lor. la arfnnn "IGad of TitaUKni** the [ollovmf: \eHen sSouU be iced iftMC^d d vritnie word& in (ofl ~
Unurarnd. I Tnrat*^ Ziw Oloridc Procws Z C\ Cmisoc«. C: R«rppine RP

KivD or Ckfsf or KtMOru.

W BKMtM U.

— ^zz. ~;r

T*_w ^'-', D*«-i a.- c. iSi; 1 f ■""

^^ 0^»

i ; ! 1 1

1 . . ' ;

. 1 1

<wnn«..-.

JSVfOtfitf.

'""'"'

Fig. 17. The Boston & Albany Form for Reporting Cross

Ties Taken Out of Track

tomary on most roads to pile and burn the ties re-
moved after proper inspection to secure ties that maj^
have additional life in side tracks or yards. Special
precautions are necessary in burning ties to prevent
fire damage to the telegraph line, right of way fences
and adjacent property.

"The number and kinds of records of tie renewals
kept for future reference differ considerably^ on the
roads considered. These permanent records are kept
by various officers ranging from the division engineer
to the general manager and the records may be in-

SUMMER TRACK WORK 109

tended simply for a check of the actual renewals with
the requisition or for comparisons of the renewals on
each mile for a period of years to make possible close
supervision. On the Union Pacific each roadmaster
is given an allowance showing the number of ties that
can be used each month to avoid getting the expense
for all renewals in one month. To supplement the
record turned in by the tie inspector, the foremen on
the Queen & Crescent are required to make a monthly
report to the roadmaster showing the number of ties
on each mile spotted for renewal, but found good for
another year, and also the number not spotted but
removed, with the cause of their removal. The Bos-
ton & Albany keeps a record by weeks of all ties taken
out of track on the forms reproduced herewith.

"The B., R. & P. R. R. requires a daily report from
foremen showing ties put in the track and treated ties
removed. This information furnished on the blanks
reproduced herewith, is tabulated in the office of the
chief engineer in book form by weeks. The treated
ties on this road are marked at the treating plant by
a galvanized nail bearing letters indicating the kind
of timber, which are driven in the upper face of the
tie 12 in. from one end. When the ties are placed
in the track a similar nail bearing the date is placed
in the upper face of the tie between the rails, the
position along the tie also being varied hy an incre-
ment of 2 in, for each year. On the Baltimore &
Ohio the record of ties marked for renewal is trans-
ferred in the office of the division engineer to forms
covering main and side track, tie inspection and re-
newals, blue prints of which are sent to the Engineer
Maintenance of Way through the office of the district
Engineer Maintenance of Way immediately upon the
completion of the inspection for the division. Dur-
ing the season of renewals the foremen report
monthly on the ties removed from track, this report

no THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

accompanying and checking the material report.
This information is also entered on the forms men-
tioned above, furnishing a complete record of the re-
newals of the year by miles.

"On the Illinois Central a record is kept in the of-
fice of the chief engineer of all ties used each year
for construction and maintenance and also a special
graphical record of the renewals in main track. Each
district has a separate chart, and these are bound in
book form. A book covering the entire system is kept
in the office of the chief engineer and one covering
each division is furnishd to the division superinten-
dent. As soon as the recommendations for tie renew-
als are made they are plotted on the chart and when
any important difference from the accumulative aver-
age is shown an investigation is immediately made
by an assistant engineer from the office of the En-
gineer Maintenance of Way or by an old roadmaster
selected by the Engineer Maintenance of Way on ac-
count of his previous good record in tie renewals. The
curves shown herewith illustrate the manner of keep-
ing this record for a typical division (Fig. 18).

"In determining the average number of ties per
mile used in renewals each year, a correction is ap-
plied in cases where new lines have been constructed,
so that the average derived furnishes a comparison
of the renewals on all divisions regardless of the date
the line was constructed. The mileage of new track
is therefore added not in its entirety the year the
line is built but in sections during the period of nine
years. The amount added each year is proportion-
ate to the estimated tie renewals required for that
year. The first addition is made during the third
year, amounting to 2 per cent, the remainder being
added as follows : fourth year 3 per cent, fifth year
5 per cent, sixth year 5 per cent, seventh year 25 per
cent, eighth year 50 per cent, and ninth, 10 per cent.

SmiMER TRACK WORK

111

On account of the increased average life of ties re-
sulting from the use of tie plates and preservative
treatment these percentages will be revised in the near

/397

Cross Ties per f'hie of Track

K> C« -t^

^ ^ o
•o <:i c:i

'=^278

^§

288
283
302
339
350
353
327
34/
350
348
335
334
329
34/
336
335
335
372
3/7

(ft

407.26

480.66

^80.96

4 8/. 3/

48/94

482.96

485.60

4 9/. 36

S04.3/

5/2.68

S/9.92

538.22

568.84

S8S.64

604.ZI

602.84

604.80

608.65

6/0.00

l/7^S£
/33909
/6/8S7
2/3903
/ 37 8 99
/79960
8599/
2/3/39
208046
/7/3dd
/J/772
/74/83
/58399
27S53/
/69427
/99960
200SS9
226484
/936/2

98
99

00
01
02

I ''

^ OS
\ 06

1 OS

^ 09

19/5

273

336

444

389

373

/78

434

4/2

334

2/5.

324

278

47/

280

33/

332

338

-^i

''IC\

Uo/

■i

"^^

(

" /
/

r
1

1
i

1 —

1
k 1

Fig. 18. A Chart Kept by the Illinois Central, Showing
the Actual Annual Consumption and the Accumulative
Average Annual Consumption of Ties Per Mile of Main
Track on One Division

future. Two averages are shown on the chart, the
solid line representing the average ties per mile used
in renewals in the years shown, and the dotted line
the accumulative average per mile used in renewals

112 THE TRACKIMAN'S HELPER

since 1897, the year in which the chart begins. The
actual number of ties used each year is shown at the
top of the chart and the scale of miles is corrected,

not actual/'

Economy in the use of treated ties and the com-
parative cost of treating seasoned and unseasoned
ties. Mr. F. J. Angier, Superintendent Timber
Preservation, Baltimore and Ohio R. E., read a paper
at the eighth annual meeting of the American Wood
Preservers' Association at Chicago, from which we
quote the following abstract:

"When we speak of an unseasoned tie, we mean
one freshly cut, or, at least, one that has been recently
cut and has lost but a very small amount of the mois-
ture which it originally contained; in other words,
the sap wood -is so completely filled with moisture that
it would be impossible to thoroughly treat the tie
until this moisture had been at least partially re-
moved. A seasoned tie, therefore, is one that has
been cut for some time and the moisture allowed to
evaporate to a greater or less degree. The time nec-
essary to season a tie so that it can be properly treated
varies in different localities, as well as in different
seasons. The kind of wood also is of considerable
importance. Oak ties, in Illinois, must be air-sea-
soned six months or more, according to the time of
year, before they can be properly treated. Some
kinds of ties may be seasoned in three or four months.

''For the purpose of illustration we will assume
that it requires six hours to treat a charge of thor-
oughly seasoned ties and nine hours to treat a charge
of "unseasoned ties. Of course, the time may vary
one way or the other, but we found this to be a fair
average. (It should be stated here that the treatment
referred to is w^th a mixture of creosote and zinc-
chloride, known as the card process.)

"Assuming this to be correct, attention is called to

SUMMER TRACK WORK 113

the two tables following, one showing the cost of
treating in a plant having a maximum capacity of
1,800,000 seasoned ties a year, and the other the cost
of treating in the same plant, where the maximum
capacity is reduced to 1,200,000 unseasoned ties a
year.

Cost of Seasoned Ties; Treating Capacity of Plant,

1,800,000 PER Year

Unloading from cars to ground to season at $0.0070

each $ 12,600.00

Loading from ground to trains at $0.0055 each .... 9,900.00

Switching trams at $0.0020 per tie 3,600.00

Loading treated ties out at $0.0065 each 11,700.00

Fixed expenses 23,268.00

Preservatives at 15 cts. per tie 270,000.00

Fuel (assume 1/3 less for seasoned over unseasoned

ties) 5,600.00

Insurance carried on 1,000,000 ties (estimated) .... 4,000.00
Interest on 1,000,000' ties for six months, or 5 per

cent on $250,000.00 12,500.00

$353,168.00
600,000 more seasoned ties treated than unseasoned,
worth $0,044 each per year extra (see state-
ment) 26,400.00

$326,768.00
Cost per tie $0.1815

Cost of LTn seasoned Ties ; Treating Capacity of Plant

1,200,000 per Year

Unloading one-fourth from cars to ground to enable

prompt releasing of cars, at $0.0070 $ 2,100.00

Loading 900,000 ties from cars to trams at platform
and 300,000 ties from ground to trams at

$0.0055 6,600.00

Switching 300,000 ties from yard to retorts at

$0.0020 i. 600.00

Loading ties out at $0.0065 each 7,800.00

Fixed expenses 23,268.00

Preservatives at 15 cts. per tie 180,000.00

Fuel 8,400.00

114 THE TRACKJMAN'S HELPER

Insurance carried on 300,000 ties (estimated) .... 1,200.00
Interest on 300,000 ties, or 5 per cent on $75,000.00 3,750.00

$233,718.00
Cost per tie $0.1948

''In each case the total cost of handling is shown
from the moment the ties are received at the plant
until they are loaded into cars for shipment. In the
case of fixed expenses there are included the salaries
of the superintendent, general foreman, office force,
engineeers, firemen, etc. ; that is, all labor which would
not change one way or the other, whether treating
seasoned or unseasoned ties. This amounts to
$0.0129 per tie when treating 1,800,000 ties per year,
and $0.0194 when treating 1,200,000 ties per year.
In the case of seasoned ties, where no steaming is
done, it is assumed that insurance is carried on 1,000,-
000 ties for six months and that $250,000 will be con-
tinually invested at 5 per cent. In the case of un-
seasoned ties, we must assume that at least 300,000
will always be in the yard. This stock is necessary
to provide against delay to plant at certain times of
the year, when traffic is so great that company mate-
rial cannot be moved with regularity. Also, at cer-
tain times of the year, ties will be received faster
than they can be treated, necessitating the storing
of a portion of them.

' ' It is shown in the table that a treated tie is worth
$0,044 per year to the company more than an un-
treated one. This figure is obtained as follows :

Untreated Ties —

First cost $0.50

Cost of putting in track 15

Cost of tie in track $0.65

5 per cent interest on investment for six years 195

Second renewal, end of six years 65

SUMMER TRACK WORK 115

5 per cent interest on first investment for six years,

and on second investment for six years 39

Total cost of tie for period of 12 years $1,885

Average cost per tie per year $0,157

Treated Ties-
First cost $0.70

Cost of putting in track 15

Cost of tie in track $0.85

5 per cent on investment for 12 years 51

Total cost of tie for 12 years $1.36

Average cost per tie per year $0,113

Saving per tie per year, $0,044.

** Untreated ties are assumed to last six years, and
treated ties twelve years. Assuming this to be rea-
sonable, and that 600,000 more ties per year can be
treated when thoroughly seasoned, deduct from the
cost of seasoned ties the difference between 1,800,000
ties and 1,200,000 ties, or 600,000 ties, at $0,044 each,
and we have a difference of $0.0133 per tie in favor
of treating seasoned ties.

"In addition there would be a better penetration
of the preservatives; therefore a longer life obtained
for the ties and the lessened possibility of injury to
the wood by steaming. When steaming there is al-
ways a large amount of sewage to dispose of, while
in non-steaming there is practically none. The dis-
position of sewage is a difficult problem at most
plants, because no matter how it is handled some of
it will get into the rivers or creeks and pollute the
water to such an extent that damage suits may result.
This is entirely avoided when using seasoned ties."

CUTTING WEEDS

Points about weeding. On embankments, the
weeds should be kept down with a scythe or brush
hook, as far out as the right of way limits, if the fore-
man is allowed men enough to perform this work with-
out neglecting the track or other necessary work. A
clean track is not necessarily a safe track, and a fore-
man should not have his men mowing grass and weeds
along the right of way, unless the help he is allowed
and the condition of his track at the time will permit
it. When weeds are cut in the center of an earth
ballasted track or on an embankment the earth that
is picked up by the shovel together with the weeds
should not be thrown down the embankment, but
should be turned over and allowed to remain where
it was originally. The practice of shaving off the
embankment one or two inches everv time weeds are
cut is bad, since the loose earth thrown down the hill
soon washes away, and each additional weed cutting
of this kind weakens the shoulder, makes the fill nar-
rower, and in time allows the ends of the ties to pro-
ject over the bank and the track to settle for want of
a sufficient support.

In connection w4th this subject attention may be
called to the fact that extensive experiments have been
made on some of the prominent roads by sprinkling
the roadbed w^ith oil, for the purpose of preventing the
raising of dust by fast trains. The observed effects
have been very gratifying. Not onlv does the oil pre-

116

CUTTING WEEDS

117

vent the former clouds of dust, but it has proven use-
ful in other ways. The oil acts as a tie-preserving
agent, and to a certain extent prevents water from
soaking into the roadbed, and finally discourages the
rapid growth of grass and weeds. The oil is applied

A- Kennedy quicx acting
.Gate Valves

Section

Ot:

£"013. Inside

Plan.

Fig. 19. Section and Plan of Q. & C. Sprinkling Car

on cinder, sand, gravel, or earth ballast, with equally
good results, and many western roads are making ex-
tensive tests both to destroy the weeds and grass, and
to prevent the heaving of track by frosts. Any de-
velopment that will relieve the track department of

118 THE TRACKIMAN'S HELPER

weed cutting and at the same time ^Ijay the dust will
meet with general approval.

We show herewith in Fig. 19 a section and a plan
of the Q. & C. oil sprinkling car. A 4-inch pipe runs
the full length of the car with rubber hose attachments
to the oil supply, which is carried in ordinary tank
cars. To this main pipe other pipes are attached by
rubber hose so that they can be raised or lowered ac-
cording to the surface of the roadbed. Each side
sprinkler is adjusted by a hand wheel with chain at-
tached to a staff supporting the outer end of the pipe.
The rails are protected from the oil spray by a suit-
able device, as shown in the sectional view.

Tools for weed cutting. Although a shovel is most
commonly used for cutting weeds on railroads, tools
such as that shown in Fig. 20 are used on many roads
on account of their superiority in many respects. In
the first place, they are more convenient for the men
to use*, are not so tiresome, and can be handled with
greater convenience, the men working in an upright
position when cutting weeds with them, instead of in

Fig. 20. Weed Cutting Tool

the stooped or bent over posture which must be as-
sumed with a short-handled shovel. From one-sixth
to one-fourth more weeds may be cut in a day with
this tool than with a shovel. It is less expensive than
a shovel, and the dirt or ballast that would be lifted
by a shovel and wasted by careless men is not dis-
turbed by the tool shown, when weeds are cut, but
remains in its original position in the track or on the
shoulder of the embankment. This last advantage
alone is a sufficient reason for its general introduction

CUTTING WEEDS 119

on all roads where extensive weed cutting is neces-
sary.

The weed cutting tool should have a blade made of
very thin, hard steel. The blade of the hoe, as manu-
factured for garden use, when properly tempered, is
the correct thing, because, although the edge grad-
ually wears away, yet it never requires sharpening,
as would be the case with thicker blades on account
of their coming in contact with stones or gravel.

When weeds are heavy, section foremen can greatly
improve the appearance of their track and save con-
siderable labor, by bolting a piece of timber to the
end of the hand car, allowing it to project far enough
out on the side of the track to carry an iron rod with
a small steel shovel at its end to mark on the ground
the outside line for cutting weeds as the car is pushed
ahead on the track. A still better plan is to rig out
a thin steel wheel, which offers less resistance to the
motion of the car.

VII

BALLASTING

Ballast. Crushed stone is the best kind of ballast
since it makes the most solid foundation, drains the
track most thoroughly, does not heave the track in
cold weather, does not wash, makes little or no dust
and stands the wear and tear of heavy traffic better
than any other kind. There is no doubt that ties last
longer in stone ballast than in any other, but it is
hard to give exact data as to how much longer.

Fiirnace slag was extensively used on roads in the
eastern part of the country until the adoption of the
process of granulating it at the steel mills about ten
years ago because of economies effected in the handling
of it. However the granulated slag now received
from the mills is used to some extent and ranks very
close to gravel for general excellence as ballast.

Gravel is easier to procure along a large percentage
of roads than crushed stone, makes easier riding track,
and is easy to handle; it also permits of track being
readily lined and surfaced and ties renewed with lit-
tle labor.

Burned clay ballast is used in parts of the country
where gravel and stone are not available.

Cinders make an effective ballast and are used on
account of their cheapness, it being necessary to load
them at ash pits, and those not required for filling in
connection with new work may be utilized to advan-
tage for this purpose.

Levels. Levels should be taken by engineers and
grade stakes set every hundred feet apart indicating

120

BALLASTING

121

the height to which it is desired to bring the top of
the rail. If for any reason it is not possible for the
engineers to give grade stakes, as sometimes happens
when track is being re-ballasted, the spot board should
be used, which very useful and convenient tool will
now be described for the benefit of any who may not
have had occasion to use it.

Spot board. For use in raising track and ballast-
ing this board may be ten feet long, eight inches wide

, ^ , fLine of Sight Painted

.:rt

r Elevation of
Outer Rail

Raising Sight
Block Block

-i^Peep Hole Attachment to run elevation

Q/y Set Screw when ballasting without

K^Elevation using the ordinary cross level
^^^ Of Outer Rail

CURVE.

Fig. 2L Spot Board

and about one and a quarter inches thick, constructed
of white pine as shown in Fig. 21. One of the legs
should be about sixteen inches long and the other three
feet, both being adjustable by means of the set screws
shown. A convenient coloring for the board is to
have the lower half black, then a two-inch white stripe
and a two-inch red one, the line of sight being to the
division line between the red and the white stripes,

122 THE TIIACK:MAN'S HELPER

or two inches below the top of the board. Use an
eight-inch raising- block so that the top of finished rail
will be two inches below the bottom of the board or
eight inches below the line of sight.

The use of the spot board permits of taking out all
small irregularities in the grade by running from one
high spot to another where it is not desired to change
the height; or it may be used for making a uniform
lift in ballasting such as is often the case when the
old grade of the track is regular. The operation of
setting the board is simply to force the legs into the
ground or ballast, and banking enough dirt around
them to hold firmly, and then adjust the board on the
legs so that the division line between red and white
is exactly eight inches above the height selected for
the finished top of rail. Then level up the board by
means of the level bubbles provided.

The foreman sights through the sight block which
has a peep hole for that purpose 8 inches from the
top of the rail when the sight block is resting upon
the rail. The other end of the line of sight is the di-
vision line between red and white, which likewise is
exactly 8 inches above the point selected for the fin-
ished top of rail. At the point of the track where
the jack is applied another 8-inch block is placed upon
the rail and the track is jacked up until the top of
this block is on line between the foreman's eye and
the division line on the spot board. If the track is
straight and there is no super elevation to provide for,
both rails are brought up in exactly the same way,
or one rail can be raised in this way and the other
one leveled to it. If on a curve, there are two ways
of providing for the elevation of the outer rail.

First : — Run in one rail or the other by the method
described above and use this as a basis in fixing the
height of the other rail by means of the cross level.

Second: — Have the spot board set so that the line

BALT^STlNa 123

of sight is eight inches above the height selected for
the "high rail" and when running the "high rail"
use the eight-inch blocks just as explained above ; but
in running the low rail run adjustable slide on both
the sight and raising blocks down to increase the
height of these by the amount of super-elevation de-
sired, or in other words if you want four inches' ele-
vation run the slide down four inches which makes the
block twelve inches high to use on top of the rail in-
stead of eight, so that the low rail will be run in just
four inches lower than the high rail where the plain
blocks are used without the extension slide. By re-
ferring to the lower part of the figure the application
and use of the spot board on a curve will be under-
stood. Track with elevation can be run in quite ac-
curately by this method but of course not so accurately
as with the cross level, which should be used when
giving the final raise and surface.

Cleaning stone ballast with screens. Stone ballast
is now generally cleaned on American railroads by
shaking it out with ballast forks. During the sum-
mer of 1912 experiments were made on the Baltimore
& Ohio Railroad with screens for cleaning this type
of ballast. The experiments indicate that the use of
screens is preferable to the use of ballast forks, both
on account of better work and lower cost. The type
of screen and the method and cost of using it for
cleaning stone ballast, were described by Mr. W. I.
Trench, Division Engineer of the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad, in an appendix to the report of the Com-
mittee on Ballast of the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association. The information here given is taken
from Mr. Trench's description as published in the
Bulletin of the Association for February, 1913.

In approaching the problem of cleaning ballast by
means of screens, it was recognized that the present
methods involved one of the most expensive and

124 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

tedious operations occurring in railway maintenance
and that for this reason the periodical cleanings are
often deferred much longer than good practice would
seem to demand. It was felt that if a screen could
be designed which would make a proper separation of
stone and dirt and at the same time dispose of these
two materials in a way to avoid further handling, with
a single cast of the shovel instead of the repeated sift-
ing motion and the further shoveling of the dirt in
its disposal as required by the fork, an enormous sav-
ing could be made.

It was believed that to be practicable this screen
must be as cheap as was commensurate with durabil-
ity, easily portable, and so related in position to the
track when in use as^ to make its removal unnecessary
on the passage of trains. Its operation must be pro-
gressive along the track and complete, working toward
the dirty ballast and leaving the clean ballast behind
it in such shape as to require no further handling.
Its capacity must be limited only hy the speed with
which the laborers can handle the shovel and it must
be susceptible to use by a gang, so arranged that the
work of every man is continuous and unchanging and
so proportioned that no man's work is dependent on
the progress made by another ; that is, there should be
no halts. It is believed that these results have been
secured in the screen to be described and that its use,
by a properly organized gang, will result in such a
saving as to make the further general use of the fork
method improbable.

Experiments on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad were
made on a portion of its double track line, and it was
found that the most efficient gang for this condition
was one of twelve men equipped with three screens.
There is a screen for each berm and one for the cen-
ter ditch. The construction of all three is identical,
there being interchangeable legs for use on the berm.

BALLASTING 125

and in the center ditch. The legs for use on the berm
are so designed that the screen rides on the ends of
the ties outside the rail at such a distance from the
track as not to interfere with traffic, and at the same
time deposits the cleaned stone on the berm in final
position. It stands at such an elevation that the dirt
is deposited directly into a wheelbarrow standing on
subgrade. The legs for use in the center ditch are
designed to ride on the cleaned subgrade as the screen
is slid along and are of such a height that the dirt
is deposited in a handbarrow, which is placed beneath
the screen, and the clean stone is left in the center
ditch in final position. The upper end of the screen
is carried on supports which are readily adjustable
in height to accommodate it for use in the center ditch
or on the berm in either cut or fill. When in use in
the center ditch, the screen is laid flat upon the ground
on the passage of trains and lies wholly below the
top of rail.

A short description of the structural details will be
made so that a better understanding will be had of
the method of operation to follow. The screen frame
is constructed of standard 2-in. x 3-in. x l^/^-in. angle
iron set up so that tlie short leg turns out, the long
leg forming the vertical sides of the screen. The
screen proper is formed of i/4-in. rods, crimped to-
gether, giving a mesh % in. x 8 ins. It was found
with this mesh and with the screen inclined at 45°
that the separation of stone and dirt was perfect even
in damp weather, and this cannot always be said of
the results secured from forks. These crimped rods
are set in a rectangular steel frame made of 1-in. x
i/2-in. X Vs-in. channel iron, and this frame is bolted
inside the main frame so that the screen proper can
be readily detached, as a whole, and sent to the shop
for repairs. The entire screen is backed with a gal-
vanized iron slide which is so formed that it gathers

126 THE TPw\CKjVIAN'S HELPER

the dirt which has come through any part of the
screen and deposits it in a receptacle set beneath by
means of a spout. The spout is really a hinged door
suspended at its outer end by a chain and convenient
fastening so that its height can be regulated, and
when the receptacle is removed for emptying, can be
closed. With this door closed the screen will hold
about one wheelbarrow load of dirt, so that the opera-
tion of the screen is not stopped while dirt is being
dumped. At the top of the screen is a hood which
forms a deflector for the ballast thrown over the top,
the method of operation in this case being to slide the
screen backwards from the cleaned ballast towards
the uncleaned ballast, the latter being thrown over
the top and being left in clean condition at the bot-
tom. This hood w^hen screen is in use on the berm
is thrown back and forms the top against which bal-
last is thrown when in this position. The screen con-
structed as indicated is practically indestructible and
will support the weight of a man without impression.

For use with each screen is provided a galvanized
iron handbarrow which is so formed that it fits ex-
actly upon the horizontal legs when in use on the
berm, being so placed after a sufficient quantity of
cleaned ballast has been allowed to fall outside the
rail, that the remainder is caught in the handbarrow
and drawn across the rail to be deposited in the cribs.
When in use in the center ditch, the handbarrow is
placed beneath to catch the dirt.

The cross-section of the finished work is shown in
Fig. 22. It will be noted that the cribs are cleaned
to the bottom of the ties, the center ditch 18 ins. below
the top of rail and the berm 24 ins. below the top of
rail at the end of tie and sloping to 3 ft. below top of
rail at back of side ditch. Every 50 ft. one crib is
cleaned to the bottom of the center ditch on one end
and to the top of subgrade on the other, forming an

BALLASTING

127

outlet for water collected in the center ditch. This
arrangement gives an absolutely dry and stable road-
bed. The dirt from the ballast, or so much of it as is
required, is dressed upon the subgrade outside the
ballast line, and in addition to giving a neat black
appearance and a pleasing contrast to the white stone
-ballast, serves to keep down weeds very effectually.
What is not required for this purpose is used to widen
embankment along the line.

As stated above for double track work, three screens
are used. When tracks are on fill on both sides, dirt
from each side screen is disposed of on its own side
of the embankment, and dirt from the center ditch is
dumped directly from handbarrow over bank on side

Fig. 22. Roadbed Section for Cut and Fill, B. & 0. R. R.

most desirable. When one side is on fill and other
side in cut, wheelbarrow loads of dirt are wheeled or
carried bodily from cut side to fill side. When it is
necessary to carry dirt across tracks, care is used to
keep the screen on the side from which it is carried in
an advanced position, with reference to the other
screens, so that dirt will be carried over uncleaned
roadbed and not over that which has been cleaned.
It will be seen that dirt carried to the fill on other side
of tracks from the center screen passes over dirty bal-
last before the arrival of the screen to the right, and
likewise, dirt from the screen to the left passes over
the tracks before the arrival of either of the other two
screens, the screens in this case traveling from right
to left. When tracks are in cut, on both sides, wheel-

128 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

barrow loads are wheeled out to the nearest end of
cut, the handbarrow from the screen in the center
ditch being dumped into a wheelbarrow or shoveled
directly from pan to barrow standing across one rail,
dirt from side screens being poured from screens di-
rectly into wheelbarrow. It is found that dirt can be
wheeled out of a cut for a distance of 800 ft. to 1,000
ft. at less expense than would be the case if thrown
upon the ground and loaded again upon a work train
on a busv railroad.

' ' The f ollowins: 2;ang organization is adhered to :
For the operation of three screens as indicated under
ordinary circumstances, twelve men are sufficient ; with
long hauls of dirt, more men to be added for wheel-
barrow work, so screen gang will be kept going. Of
the twelve men, two shovel from each side of berm
onto their respective screens, two from the center
ditch onto the center screen, and one man in center
of each track shoveling from the cribs onto the screen
most available; one man with pick advances ahead
of shovelers to loosen hardened ballast before their ar-
rival. These are dispensed with if ballast is loosened
by means of a plow attached to work engine. Long
stretches of ballast can be loosened in this way in a
short time by work engine ; enough to keep gang going
several days. The remaining three men are sufficient
usually to handle wheelbarrows in disposal of dirt,
dress dirt down on berm and fork a uniform ballast
line, although if hand laid ballast line is required,
more men would be necessarv. Bv careful handling
of this gang, ballast and dirt are disposed of at one
operation in their final position and no further at-
tention is necessary. In most cases it is found that
the cleaning of ballast so reduces its volume that ad-
ditional stone is necessary. In this case the disposi-
tion of the stone from the screens is so handled that
the berms and center ditch are filled out completely,

BALLASTING 129

and any deficiency occurs between the rails where ad-
ditional stone can be most conveniently distributed
from Rodger ballast cars without further handling-.
The gang of twelve men costs per day: Foreman,
$2.40; 11 laborers at $1.60, $17.60; total, $20.

''A gang equipped and organized as above will cover
165 ft. of double track per day of 10 hours, making
the cost per mile of double track, $640. This, of
course, includes cleaning ballast, dressing ballast and
disposal of dirt complete. Single track work would
cost considerably less than half this amount, as there
would be no center ditch to contend with. The ballast
really handled in this test was considerably more than
the cross-section, shown in Fig. 22, would indicate,
as before cleaning the ballast was piled above rail in
center ditch and rounded high on berm. An average
of 227 wheelbarrow loads of dirt were removed pei*
100 ft. of double track cleaned.

"For comparison with the fork method, the identi-
cal gang used above was tried with forks and advanced
but 72 ft. per day. This also included the dressing
complete and disposal of dirt, it being necessary to
shovel the latter in wheel and handbarrows. This
shows a cost per mile of double track of $1466."

We see various figures given from time to time on
the cost of cleaning ballast per mile. Some of them
are very much less than the above, and we can only
believe that this is occasioned by omitting to include
the disposal of dirt and dressing road complete, or
on account of cleaning to a less depth in track than
indicated in Fig. 22, or perhaps a less thorough sepa-
ration of stone and dirt. In many cases, a raise is
given the track and ballast is put under without clean-
ing. In the above test, no raise was made.

''This screen weighs about 325 lbs., and can be eas-
ily propelled along the track by the two shovelers at
work at the respective screens. With the material

130 THE TRACIOLA^s'S HELPER

used in them with careful handling and painting, they
should last for years. The trial lot of three made
with handbarrows complete by a Baltimore firm cost
$45 each."

Both sides of the track should be raised and tamped
at the same time when ballasting or taking out sags;'
otherwise, if first one side is raised and tamped and
the other side afterwards it will have a tendency to
throw the track out of line, and there will be a place
under the side that was first raised which is not
tamped. Do not tamp in the center of the track, as
this produces center-bound track and will result in
broken ties.

High places. Short high points in the track to be
ballasted should not be raised at all if they are higher
than the surfaced track, but should be let down, if
this requires less labor than to surface up the track
to the high point.

Uniform tamping. The secret of putting up good
smooth track that will remain so for a long time lies
in having your men well organized, and in getting
them to work as nearly alike as possible. Uniformity
in the work is everything. Where sand or gravel is
used, a first-class track can be ballasted by having the
men put the material to place under all the ties with
the shovel blade, tamping only the joint ties, and
picking up the low places after some trains have
passed over it.

A tie should be tamped throughout, so as to fur-
nish as solid a bearing as possible, but care should be
taken that it does not become centerbound, or, in other
words, the middle of the tie so supported as to cause
the track to rock. On double track roads it will assist
the general condition of the track to tamp the leaving
side of the tie harder than and after the other, thus
forming a wedge and arresting any slight forward
movement.

BALLASTING 131

Mechanical tamping. There are several electric
and pneumatic tamping machines on the market. One
of these is called the ''Imperial pneumatic tamping
machine ' ' and has materially reduced the cost of track
ballast and maintenance. These machines are oper-
ated in pairs, one on each side of the tie, the opera-
tion of the tool being a rapid hammer action on the
tamping bar, which in turn compacts the ballast and
forces it down and under the tie, each tie being tamped
a distance of about 16 to 18 in. either side of the rail.
Observations made on a railroad where new track was
being raised from 2 to 3 in. on stone ballast showed an
average of 240 ties tamped per nine hour day, at a
total cost of 2 cents per tie. These machines operate
very conveniently in cramped quarters, such as
switches, frogs and crossovers, where hand tamping is
difficult and sometimes almost impossible to do well.

For operating these tampers an air compressor is
necessary, and is generally built in the style of a
gasoline motor ; consisting of a vertical air compressor
mounted on a hand car with reservoir cooling system
direct connected to a gasoline motor, accompanied by
a suitable air receiver and piping. These compressor
cars are self-propelled and capable of transporting the
section gang to and from its work. The tamping ma-
chines are economical in air consumption and may pos-
sibly be operated from switch and signal service air
lines without interfering with the operation of sig-
nals, etc. They handle stone, cinder or other ballast
with equal effectiveness.

The New York Central Railroad made some experi-
ments in 1914 with tamping machines, where ties
were being spaced and the track lifted from 2 to 4 in.
by the action of the machines. One of the tests con-
sisted of spacing ties under new rails, raising the
track on stone and doing the work of the section gang.
Another test was for regular section work, spacing

132 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

ties and surfacing the track. Still another test was
done by a main line section gang using the mechanical
tamping outfit after the track had been raised 12 in.
on stone by a special gang. The time necessary for
the work increased with the thickness of the layer of
ballast. A lift of from 2 to 4 in. required 2 min. for
two machines. Ordinarily it required 2 min. for a tie.

The final conclusions from the tests were as fol-
lows : —

(1) Mechanical tampers can raise track; (2) Less
settling was observed when the tampers were used
than by hand work; (3) The settling of track was
more uniform; (4) Machine tamped track is more
permanent. The only difficulty encountered in using
the machines was the breaking of their parts.

In air operated tampers the work was satisfactorily
done at distances of 600 ft. and also at 50 ft., the
cost of the apparatus being reasonable. One com-
plete unit of three tampers, 600 ft. of hose and com-
pressor mounted on a car cost about $1800.

A self-propelled compressor car was equipped with
clutch, sprocket and chain for driving one pair of
w^heels, and the car could be moved at 12 to 15 miles
per hour. It had a deck 9 ft. by 5 ft. 5 in. and could
easily hold twelve men; weighed 2180 lbs., gasoline
and water 145 lbs., and the hose and tampers 170 lbs. ;
total weight 2495 lbs.

In the first test with an average of 26 ties per hour
a raise of from 2 to 4 in. was accomplished by machine
work. One mile of track done in 13i/i davs, includ-
ing 3200 ties, cost $86.40, compared w^ith $282.60 by
hand.

In the second test the hand work required 9 days
for a mile of track and cost $550.80, while the machine
did it in 13 days at a cost of $417.69.

The general result of the tests was that the machines
would accomplish the same work at considerably

BALLASTING 133

lower cost than the hand work and with more perma-
ment results. ' ' Two men equipped with a pneumatic
tamper can tamp more ties than eight or ten men
using picks and bars."

A stability test was made on a stretch of track 1600
ft. long across the Hacken^ack Meadows in 1913.
' ' Half of the test section was tamped by the usual hand
methods and half by the pneumatic tamper. At this
point, owing to yielding foundation, it is difficult to
maintain the track in proper surface. After six
months of service under heavy traffic the maximum
settlement of hand tamped ties was .116 ft. and of the
machine tamped .063. The corresponding minimum
figures were .018 and .004, and the figures for average
settlement were .067 for hand and .033 for machine
tamped ties respectively. A year's cost record for
one pneumatic tamper showed an average cost per tie
tamped of $0,026."

The proper size of tamping face for different
kinds of ballast. Mr. H. L. Hicks states that in
crushed stone ballast which is 2" or more in size, a bar
with a face 3" by %" gives the best satisfaction ; and
he recommends a tamping face of 3" by %" for smaller
stone or gravel, and a tamping face of 3" by 1%" for
tamping sand, dirt, or cinders.

A day's work. A little judgment will enable any
foreman to so arrange the work that, when he and his
men finish in the evening the track where they were
working will be in good shape and will remain safe
for several days if necessary. It is very important
that all track should be filled in and dressed up as fast
as it is surfaced in order to preserve a good line on
the rails. Track which is not filled between the ties
will not stay in line.

Ballast in cuts. Only the cleanest of gravel ballast
should be unloaded in cuts for ballast. Where it is
necessary (in order to get rid of them in the pit) to

134 THE TRACK^IAN'S HELPER

haul out on the track, together with the gravel, large
stones, grass, sods, etc., they should always be dumped
on an embankment where they will assist in strength-
ening the fill.

Have the track ready. AVhen ballasting track or
raising it to surface, the foreman should so arrange
his work that the track can at all times be readily
adjusted for the safe passage of trains. He should
make a *' run-off" at the last rail of the track raised,
and the outer ends of ties at least should be tamped
up before a train is allowed to pass over it. The
length of the "run-off" should be in proportion to the
height to which the track is raised. Never make a
"run-oft"' too short; it is better to flag a train and
hold it until vou are readv than to risk surface-
bending the rails, or wrecking the train. Foremen
ballasting track should always protect themselves
against all trains by keeping a flag out against them.

High raising. When track is raised more than six
inches high in order to put ballast under it out of a
face the foremen employed on the work should be
thoroughly competent and reliable. One foreman
should work the larger part of the surfacing gang,
and with them lift the track, tamp the ties, and do a
part of the fllling, leaving the track behind him with
a true surface, level, and in good line. Working some
distance behind the first gang another foreman with a
smaller crew of men should do the finishing work.
He should be several days behind the first gang, so
that any poor tamping or weak places may be fully
developed. He should carry, besides his other tools,
a full set of tamping bars, and should raise up all
depressions in the surface of the track made by trains
which passed over it after the first gang left it. Every
piece of track taken up to surface by the second gang,
should be tamped solid with tamping bars or picks.

The rails should be lined true^ the balance of the

BALLASTING 135

gravel filled in, and the sides and center of the track
dressed up, all surplus ballast being moved to points
along the line where it is needed to make the shoulder
of uniform width.

Gravel for one mile of track. Allowing an average
of 36 ft. for each car length, including the space be-
tween the cars, one hundred and fifty cars of gravel
will reach over one mile of track. If this amount of
gravel be unloaded by hand, or plowed ofi^ from the
cars, which is a better way, and if the trains average
about eight yards of gravel to the car, there will be
gravel ballast deposited along the track equal to six
inches in thickness, twelve feet wide on top, and
twelve feet six inches wide at the bottom, for the en-
tire length of one mile of track. Deduct from the
above amount of gravel about one-half for filling be-
tween the track ties and for dressing the center of the
track after it has been surfaced up, and there is still
left a balance of about three inches in thickness to be
put under the bottoms of the track ties.

It is now customary for large roads to use coal cars
for handling ballast, averaging about 35 cubic yds.
per car, with over all length of 40 ft.

Where the sub-grade is well drained and solid, a
first-class track can be made by ballasting with half a
cubic yard per lineal foot of track. The embankment
should not be less than fourteen feet wide on top, and
should be made sixteen feet wide, if possible, before
putting on the gravel, to prevent the ballast from
being wasted by running down the bank.

Level track in yards. The tracks in all yards
should be surfaced level throughout their entire
length, and all tracks running parallel with each other
should be of the same height when it is possible
to have them so. When tracks have once been put to
a uniformly level surface, no part of them should
be raised again higher than the rest of the yard un-

136 THE TRACKIMAN'S HELPER

less it is intended to raise the level of the whole yard.

Many inexperienced foremen in charge of yards
think it is necessary every time they repair track to
surface it a little higher than it was before, which is a
harmful and senseless policy and should not be toler-
ated.

How to level yard tracks. A simple method by
which to get tracks that run parallel to each other to
the same height is as follows:

First, put up the main track properly, then use a
straight edge from the nearest rail of the adjoining
track in order to raise it to a level with the main
track. You can then move to a point several rails
ahead on the main track and repeat the operation.
After this you can raise the track on the siding be-
tween the two points which you have made level with
the main track.

Rule : — Run the level and a straight edge on the
top of two or three stakes located parallel with the
track to be leveled, and do the same at a place some
distance from that point. Then sight over the tops of
the stakes at both points, and have a man drive stakes
between the two places where you have leveled, until
the stakes which he has driven are at the same height as
those you have leveled with the level and straight
edge. The top level of the stakes will be the level of
the track rails. In important yards the company's
engineers generally give level stakes for all tracks.

Gravel pits. A few words about the gravel pit will
not be out of place in this book.

On roads where stone, or other satisfactorv ballast
is scarce, or cannot be procured, a gravel pit along the
line is very desirable. There are very few roads that
cannot find at least one or two gravel pits along a
division.

After the gravel pit has been purchased, and when
the work of removing material is about to commence,

BALLASTING 137

the foreman in charge should thoroughly examine the
lay of the land and decide how his track must be laid
to get the deepest face of gravel to work on. Of
course, at the same time, the best location for the
track must be arranged for the accommodation of
trains, and this should be done with a view to future
improvements.

The track should always be longer than the face of
the gravel in the pit, so that one, ten, or any number
of cars can be loaded without danger of spoiling the
line of the pit face. This is very important, because
where a short track is put in on account of a handy
place to put in the switch, or for the reason that there
is not much gravel needed at that time, the face of the
pit contracts and becomes so short that the loading
place is like a sink hole in the ground, and it soon be-
comes difficult for an engine to pull out of the pit
more than two or three cars at a time, making neces-
sarv six or seven switches to do what could be done
by one with a good track. Besides this there are
other reasons why a short track should not be used.
The men loading the gravel keep lining the track over
as the bank recedes and there is soon a heavy curve
in the track which follows around the edge of the
excavation, so that it is only a short time until the
track has to be torn up and the work all done over
again. At this time the loss occasioned by gouging a
hole in the bank is discovered. If the track is then laid
along the face of the pit, cars can be loaded only at
either end of the pit, and there is loss of time from
placing them, switching, etc., and perhaps the two
ends of the pit next the track are not long enough to-
gether to allow a full train of gravel to be loaded at
once, but there is no help for it except to work at the
ends, until the gravel can be reached all along the
track.

Another argument in favor of a longer track is that

138 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

the face of the gravel can be increased in depth by
lowering the track.

Foremen in charge of loading gravel should see
that the men load in one place until there is a space
on that side of the track at least two or three feet
lower than the ties and wide enough to let the track
into it. It should then be lined over, enabling the men
to load on each side of the cars. Every foot that
the face of gravel can be deepened makes the cost of
loading it less, and reduces the proportion of top soil
which mixes with the gravel.

A steam shovel or locomotive crane, with a suffi-
cient number of coal or ballast cars, is the best equip-
ment to use for economically getting out gravel from
the pit.

Ballast gang. A gang of fortj^ men organized as
follows may be used to advantage in ballasting track.

Number

Foreman 1

Assistant Foreman, sighting track 1

Assistant Foreman, track tampers 1

Flagmen, to furnish protection in either direction 2

Laborers, digging jack holes 1 or 2

Laborers, operating jacks 4

Laborers, tamping at jacks 4

Laborers, holding ties tight to rail 2

Laborers, driving spikes home 2

Laborers, back tampers 16

Laborers, partially filling and dressing track 4

\Yater carrier, supplying force with drinking water .... 1

Total 40

Note: When not raising track on account of in-
terference with traffic or otherwise, the time is to be
employed in finishing the dressing of track and lining
the ballast ; also in cleaning out and preparing track
ahead for ballast.

Depth of ballast. The height to which track is to
be raised should be fixed by the engineers. The fol-

BALLASTING

139

lowing figure represents a good cross section for sin-
gle track roadbed together with the diagrams for
broken stone and gravel ballast.

I9'-0"

9-fe"

9-6"

^^51.

' '-*"4-" Crown.

BROKEN STONE. TANGENT.

4^.

9-fe"

, 1-52 . A-'-Zz . , 2-/U ; 2-44

A'-aVto 6-24" 11^

-4- "Crown

Greatest elevation figured on is 6"
BROKEN STONE. CURVE.

9'0"

t-^-4- Crown

GRAVEL. TANGENT.

19^0"

_aie_

9'-fe"

/°... " 7^^ TT *r-

2*-5i'

Greatest elevation figured on is 6"
GRAVEL. CURVE.

Fig. 23. Roadbed Sections

140 THE TPuACKMAN'S HELPER

Tamping". In gravel, granulated slag and cinder
ballast, tamping picks should be used only at joint
ties, shovels at all others. AVith broken stone ballast
all ties should be tamped with picks from the ends to
a point twelve inches inside the rail, centers of ties
to be lightly filled in by use of ballast forks. After
the first raising about one week should elapse for ties
to secure a good bearing and then the final surface
should be given. In resurfacing joint ties they should
be tamped hard on the joint end, easing off towards
the center.

Tools and methods for tamping recommended by
the American Railway Engineering Association: —

Earth or clay ballast : Tools: Shovel equipped
with iron cuff' or handle for tamping; broad pointed
tamping bars.

Method: Tamp each tie from 18 inches inside of
the rail to end of tie with handle of shovel or tamping
bar. If possible, tamp the end of the tie outside of
rail first and let train pass over before tamping in-
side of rail : give special attention to tamping under
the rail ; tamp center of ties loosely with the blade
of the shovel ; the dirt or clay between the ties should
be placed in layers and firmly packed with feet or
otherwise, so that it will quickly shed the water; the
earth should not be banked above the bottom of the
ends of the ties; the filling between the ties should
not touch the rail and should be as high as, or higher
than, the top of the ties in the middle of the track.

Cinder ballast {railroad product) : Tools: Shovel,
tamping bar or tamping pick.

Alethod: Same as for gravel.

Burnt clay ballast: Tools: Shovel only in soft
material. AYhen burnt \ery hard, tamping pick or
bar should be used.

Method: Tamp 15 inches inside of rail to end of
tie, tamping end of tie first, letting train pass before

BALLASTING 141

tamping inside of rail ; tamp center loosely ; tamp
well between the ties ; dress ballast same as for earth
or cinders.

Broken stone or furnace slag: Tools: Shovel,
tamping pick, stone fork.

Method: Tamp 15 inches inside of rail to end of
tie ; if possible tamp the end of the tie outside of rail
first and allow train to pass over before tamping in-
side of rail; tamp well under the rail; tamp well un-
der ties from end of same ; do not tamp center of tie ;
fill in between ties to height of top of tie ; bank bal-
last into shoulder about the end of the ties level with
top of tie.

Chats, gravel or chert ballast: Tools: Shovel,
tamping pick or tamping bar. For light traffic,
shovel tamping is sufficient. For heavy traffic, the
tamping pick or tamping bar should be used. The
tamping bar is recommended instead of the tamping
pick for ordinary practice.

Method : Tamp solid from a point 15 inches inside
of rail to the end of the tie ; if possible, tamp the
end of the tie outside of the rail first and allow train
to pass over before tamping inside of rail ; care should
be taken not to disturb the old bed. Tie should be
tamped solidly from the end, using the pick or tamp-
ing bar. After train has passed, the center of the
tie should be loosely tamped with the blade of the
shovel; dress same as stone ballast.

General: When not surfacing out of face, as in
the case of picking up low joints or other low places,
the general level of the track should not be disturbed.
Where the rails are out of level, but where the differ-
ence in elevation is not excessive and is uniform over
long stretches of track, a difference in elevation be-
tween the two rails of % inch may be permitted to
continue until such time as the track would ordinarily
be surfaced out of face.

VIII

RENEWAL OF RAILS<#

The weight of steel rails in main tracks on rail-
roads in this country varies from sixty pounds to one
hundred and forty pounds per yard and although
there may be some of the iron rail of lighter weights
in use it is fast becoming obsolete. The introduction
of heavier power and increased wheel loads on all
classes of equipment in recent years has also increased
the necessity for more substantial track and this has
been secured by the increased use of stone ballast,
ties of better grade, and heavier rail. The weight of
rail varies with the requirements of the traffic of the
particular lines as to speed of trains, weight of cars
and engines, density of traffic, or a combination of
these. The Baldwin Locomotive Works rule is that
each 10 lbs. weight per yard of ordinary steel rail,
properly supported by cross ties, is capable of sus-
taining a safe load per wheel of 2240 lbs. This rule
calls for a rail heavier than the average used on roads
possessing very large locomotives. On the other hand
rail calculated by this rule would not be economical
on roads using small contractors' locomotives; a
larger rail being required.

The gross tons of rails required for one mile of
track is exactly found by multiplying the weights per
yard by 11 and dividing by 7. An allowance of about
2% should be made for cutting.

As a general thing railroads that up to six or eight

142

RENEWAL OF RAILS 143

years ago had 80, 85 and 90 lb. rails for main track
service, are now supplanting these very rapidly with
100 lb., 105 lb., 125 lb., and as high as 135 lb. metal.
The American Railway Engineering Association has
adopted as standards for use sections of rail from 90
lbs. to 140 lbs., varying frotai each other by 10
lbs.

The roads are now buying new rail only of the
heaviest types and sections suitable for use on their
most important and high speed tracks, the rails re-
leased by the installation of these being sorted out
and the best of them used for so called ''main track
patching"; the next grade, or rails not required for
such use, are put on slow speed freight tracks or main
track of branch lines, where traffic is lighter and
schedules slower. Still another class of steel is used
in side tracks and yards. Those rails not suitable for
any of the above purposes are sold for scrap.

Nothing improves the physical condition and rid-
ing qualities of a piece of track more than new rail.
It is one of the principal items of expense on main-
tenance and should have the attention that its im-
portance deserves as to care in laying and surfacing
and afterwards the tightening of bolts in order that
the maximum life may be secured. If rail be not
kept in good surface after having been laid it soon
becomes battered at the joints and kinked, the condi-
tion of the ballast of course having a great deal to
do with the standard of excellence of line and surface
that can be maintained.

Life of steel rail. The life of rail in main tracks
varies from one to fifteen years or more, depending
on the quality, the traffic and the location, whether
on tangent or curve.

On tangent track the wear of the two rails is ordi-
narily the same, but on curve track the wear on one
rail is generally more than on the other. If there are

144 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

more slow speed trains than high speed the greater
part of the load will be supported by the inside or
low rail of the curve, and the low rail will be worn
thin, whereas if there is an excess of high speed trains
the outside or high rail in addition to becoming top
or surface worn becomes flange or side worn.

Laying new rail must be done with as little inter-
ference to traffic as possible, and to accomplish it the
time of the day when there is the longest period be-
tween the passage of trains should be selected. The
new rails should be set up along the ends of the ties
opposite where they are to go but without being
coupled together, otherwise there is liability of spoil-
ing the expansion. It is sometimes permissible to
slide the rail in by long strings coupled together when
relaying on tangents, but when relaying on curves
rails should always be laid one at a time. The rail
gang can utilize all the time to advantage, and when
not engaged in actually changing rails on account of
trains that are due the time can be profitably spent
in uncoupling old rails or placing rails for applica-
tion when opportunity offers. The adzing work
should be done as far as possible, and as many spikes
and bolts removed or started in advance of the time
when the track can be secured as can be safely spared.
Full preparation should be made and everything pos-
sible attended to before the integrity of the track is
disturbed, so that when the track is opened the work
can be rushed in every possible way.

Rail laying gang. When relaying rail a gang of
forty men may be employed to advantage, organized
as follows:

Force required for laying single rail.

Number
of men

Foreman 1

Assistant Foremen 2

RENEWAL OF RAILS 145

Number
of men

Flagmen — ^To furnish protection in either direction .... 2
Spike Pullers — Pull all spikes on one side to permit old

rail to be removed 4

Rail Removers — Carry lining bars and throw out old rail 2

Adzers — Do all necessary adzing and plug old spik'e holes 6

Tongmen — Place new rail in position 8

Bolters — ^Apply new joints and tighten bolts 8

Shimmen — Clean seat for new rail 1

Carry shim box with thermometer and place proper

shim for expansion 1

Spikers — Spike new rail in position 4

Water Carrier — Supplies force with drinking water 1

Total 40

For relaying both rails at the same time the above
force should be duplicated with the exception of the
flagmen.

When laying two lines of rail one line should not
be laid until the first has been laid far enough ahead
to furnish line side for spiking.

Gaging. When the proper gage can be maintained
draw spikes on the inside of rail; when rail wear or
change in design of rail affects the gage, pull spikes
on the inside of one rail and the outside of the other,
and where necessary pull the two inside lines and one
outside line. Proper gage should be made as the new
rail is laid.

Expansion. The usual length of rails rolled now
is 33 ft., and to secure the proper space for expansion
or contraction a shim box with partitions to hold
shims of the different sizes required in separate com-
partments should always be provided. Provision
should also be made for carrying a thermometer in
such a way that it will not easily be broken ; the ther-
mometer should have a tin or metal back and the
temperature should be taken on the rail. Shims
should be used of the proper size to give the space re-

146 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

quired for the different temperatures as shown in the
following table.

Allowance for expansion — 33' rails.

Temperature (Fahrenheit) Allowance.

— 20'^to 0° %6 inch

0° to 25° H

25° to 50° %6 "

50° to 75° 1/^

75° to 100° Vie "

At temperatures over 100°, rail should be laid close with-
out bumping.

To maintain the proper expansion the ties should
be spaced and slot spikes and rail anchors applied as
soon as possible to avoid their becoming distorted by
creeping rail. Various devices for preventing the
creeping of rail are described in Chapter IX.

Closing up for trains. The force employed as in-
dicated for the relaying gang will keep the work going
continuously, or until necessary to close up the track
to let trains over. When closing up, make a good
substantial job, cutting old rails in preference to the
new ones. The use of switch points for this purpose,
which have been the cause of many accidents in the
past, should not be allowed at all. If the rails being
laid are the same length as the ones removed it may
be necessary to cut a very short piece from a full
length rail to make closure. It is therefore a good
plan to carry two pieces of rail about 10 ft. long,
equipped with compromise joints if necessary, which
when laid in will ' ' carry by " so that a good sized piece
can be cut from a full rail to close up properly.

Rail sections. The following tables show the sizes
of rails of different weights per yard and certain in-
formation relative to the adoption of the different
types is given.

RENEWAL OF RAILS 147

Table, Weight of Rails.

Miles of
^Y f single track. Feet of

^, T Rail per mile, per 1000 single track

^ y r ' in Tons of 2240 lbs. gross tons per ton

of rails, of rails

(No allowance)

100 157.14 =157 tons, 320 lbs. 6.36 33.60

95 149.29 =z 149 " 640 " 6.70 35.37

90 141.43 = 141 " 960 " 7.07 37.33

85 133.57 = 133 " 1280 " 7.49 39.53

80 125.71 = 125 " 1600 " 7.95... 42.00

77% 121.79 = 121 " 1760 " 8.21 43.35

75 117.86 = 117 " 1920 " 8.48 44.80

70 110.00=110 " 000 " 9.09 48.00

68 106.86=106 " 1920 " 9.36 49.41

67 105.29 = 105 " 640 " 9.50 50.15

65 102.14 = 102 " 320 " 9.79 51.69

60 94.29 = 94 '' 640 " 10.61 56.00

58 91.14= 91 " 320 " 10.97 57.94

.56 88.00= 88 " 000 " 11.36 60.00

55 86.43= 86 " 960 " 11.57 61.09

50 78.57 = 78 " 1280 " 12.73 67.20

45 70.71= 70 " 1600 " 14.14 74.67

40 62.86 = 62 " 1920 " 15.91 84.00

35 55.00= 55 " 000 " 18.18 96.00

30 47.14= 47 " 320 " 21.21 112.00

25 39.29= 39 " 640 " 25.45 134.39

20 31.43= 31" " 960 " 31.81 168.00

16 25.14= 25 " 320 " 39.77 210.00

12 18.86= 18 " 1920 " 53.03 280.00

8 12.57= 12 " 1280 " 79.55 420.00

Rail sections used on steam roads.

(From "Steel Rails, Their History, Properties,
Strength and Manufacture," by William H. Sellew.
By permission of D. Van Nostrand Co.)

The early steel rails were naturally made to the
existing iron pattern. These were generally pear-
headed in order to prevent the side of the head from
breaking down and were not adapted to fishing as the
design prevented the joint from supporting the head.

The adoption of an improved section was very slow,

148 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

and, as late as 1881, 119 patterns of steel rails of 27
different weights per yard were regularly manufac-
tured, and 180 older patterns were still in use, mak-
ing a total of nearly 300 different patterns. This
great variety of sections in use required the mills to
keep a large number of different rolls in stock, and
finally, to standardize the design of the rail, the A. S.
C. E. section, Fig. 24- A, was presented to the society
on August 2, 1893. These sections met with favor,
and were adopted by many railroads, so that in a few
years about two-thirds of the output of the rail mills
conformed to this design.

While the A. S. C. E. section was apparently well
adapted for the light-weight rails of 65 pounds and
75 pounds in use when it was designed, the increase
in weight on railway wheels soon necessitated a heavier
rail, and the manufacturers of rails claimed that it
was difficult to make these heavier rails of the A. S.
C. E. section due to the thin edge of the base.

Realizing the importance of the question, the Amer-
ican Railway Assn. appointed a special committee on
Standard Rail and Wheel Sections. This committee,
through a subcommittee on which the manufacturers
were represented, devoted a large amount of time and
attention to the matter of sections and specifications
for steel rails and presented a preliminary report to
the association, Oct. 1, 1907.

Accompanying the report of the committee were
two series of proposed standard sections: Series
"A" designed to meet the requirements of those who
advocate a rail with thin head and a high moment of
inertia, and series ''B" to meet the requirements of
those who think that there should be a narrow, deep
head, with the moment of inertia a secondary mat-
ter. See Fig. 24, B and C.

On June 5, 1907, a joint committee of the Penna.
R. R. system — Mechanical and Civil Engineers east

RENEWAL OE RAILS 149

and west of Pittsburgh — was appointed to study the
rail question, and on Sept. 20, 1907, their labors re-
sulted in designs for 85-lb. and 100-lb. rail sections
(see 24D).

This section, known as the "P. S." section, is a
step farther away from the ''A" section. It has a
still heavier head, a narrower base, and thicker flanges
than the "B" section. The radius of the web is
smaller, thus producing more of a buttress where the
head and web join.

The experience of the Pennsylvania system seems to
be that with their heavy wheel loads and dense traffic
more rails fail from crushing and disintegration of
the head, apparently due to the pounding of the traf-
fic, than from any other one cause, and accordingly
in this section the maximum effort has been made to
strengthen the rail in its weakest point.

The sections given in Fig. 24, B, C, and D of the
rails used at the present time show the modifications
which have been made to meet the criticism of the
manufacturers in regard to the faults in the design
of the heavier A. S. C. E. sections.

These thick base sections, adopted after the studies
of 1907, cool with less curvature than the former thin
base types and require less cold straightening. The
straightening or gagging tends to develop injurious
strains in the base, and there appears to be a fewer
number of base failures in the new sections as com-
pared with the A. S. C. E. design.

To still further reduce the failures in the base of
the rail. Dr. P. H. Dudley has designed a section for
use on the New York Central in which the radius of
the fillet between the base and the web is increased to
one inch.

Laying rail under heavy traffic. Mr. W. F. Rench
of the P. R. R. recently published the following ex-
cellent notes in the Ry. Age Gazette :

STANDARD TEE RAIL SECTIONS

(by permission of Lefax, Phila.)

H— height
B— base
Hd-.-head

, ^ ^ W— web.
>-g \ H D-depthof

tALL. j_ F— &?h

E — depth of base.
A — held angle
A: — base angle
S — slope of bead
head N — center of web

All dimensioDS in inches.

L;:?:

5 S -., S

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151

152

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Standard Rail Section of

A. S.

C. E. (adopted 1893.)

100 lbs. per yd.

Area

of Head 4.13 sq. in. 42%

" Web 2.06 " " 21%

" Base 3.63 " " 37%

B. Standard Rail Section of
Am. Ry. Assn., Series "A" (rec-
ommended 1907).
Area of Head 3.64 sq. in. 36.9%
" " Web 2.29 " " 23.4%
" " Base 3.91 " " 39.7%

Total 9.82 sq. in. 100%

Moment of Inertia. 43.8
Section Modulus, Head, 14.44
Section Modulus, Base, 16.11

C. Standard Rail Section of
Am. Ry. Assn., Series "B" (rec-
ommended 1907).

Area of Head
" *' Web
" " Base

3.95 sq. in.
1.89 " '*
4.01 " "

40.2%
19.2%
40.6%

Total 9.84 sq. in. 100.0%;

Moment of Inertia. 48.94
'Section Modulus, Head, 15.04
Section Modulus, Base, 17.78

D. Standard "P. S.'" Rail

Section of Penna. R. R. System
(adopted 1907).

100 lbs. per yd.

Area of Head 4.09 sq. in. 41%

" " Web 1.85 " " 19%

" " Base 4.03 " " 40%

Total 9.85 sq. in. 100.0%

Moment of Inertia, 41.3
Section Modulus, Head, 13.70
Section Modulus, Base, 15.74

Total 9.97 sq. in. 100%

Moment of Inertia, 41.9
Section Modulus, Head, 13.71
Section Modulus, Base, 15.91

Section

lbs. .
per

Dimensions

of Rails, in inches

Thick-

(Fig. 24)

Height

Width

ness

yd.

Total

Base

Web

Head

Base

Head

of web

A. S. C. E. '

1 80

100

5% i
5%

7^
5%4
31/^2

25/s
255/64

35/64

11/2

11%2

145/64

5%
5%

21/2 ;

2% 1
2% ;

• 35,^4

/j-D

' %6

A. R. A.
Scries "A"

100

51/s
5% .
6

31/^2
1
11/16

22^32
3-%2 .
3%

17/16

115/32

19/16

4%
51^

51/2

21/2 ,

1|« :

, 33/64
1 9/16
1 9/16

A. R. A.
Series "B'

100

415/16
517/64
541/64

11^2
1%4

215/32

25/s
255/64

11%2
13%4
145/64

47/16

44%4

5%4

27/16 ,

29/16

22%2

35/64
1 9/16
1 9/16

P. S. ;

85
100

51^
511/16

1%2

21%2
225/32

121/!2
11%6

45/8 ,

21/2 ,
24%4

17/^2
1 9/16

< i

On lines of intensive operation where the avail-
able intervals between trains are never more than 25
mill, and where intervals as low as 12 min. must fre-
quently be utilized it is of the utmost consequence
that the preliminary work be done to the last item.
No single operation that can be completed before the
track is broken must be omitted. The cutting of a
closing rail is entirely out of the question and this
must be provided for beforehand by careful deter-

RENEWAL OF RAILS

153

mination with the steel tape. The number of rails
that can be laid in a given interval must be known
and though this is somewhat variable it will be found
close to a rail a minute for intervals between 10 and
25 min.

•5?

Fig. 24. Standard Rail Sections for Steam Roads

"The rails must be as near the place where they
are to be applied as possible and all needed material
must be close at hand. The distant flagman must be
trained to receive instantly the flag signal to begin

154 THE TRACKIVIAN'S HELPER

protecting and must respond just as promptly when
the signal is given to withdraw. The need for im-
mediate action by each member of the rail laying
force is no less insistent.

"There is no item of work wherein the matter of
detail is of such importance as rail renewal, which of
necessity causes a break in the track. A specific duty
is laid upon each member of the gang and remains for
every operation, so that no further line-up is required.
Maintenance rules generally require that the rails
shall be laid one at a time and similarly forbid the
withdrawal of spikes or the removal of bolts in ad-
vance of the renewal. This severe but necessarj^ re-
striction can be met by perfect organization.

"The bolts at the joints to be broken have washers
added until the nut has just a safe hold. Two of the
best workmen are assigned to each end of the run to
be relaid. Ten men with claw bars are delegated to
remove from the chosen side of the rail the spikes
which have previously been started to assure their com-
ing out readily. Eight men with lining bars push the
old rail aside, two dislodging it, one guiding it across
the new rail and five lining it away. Four men fol-
low closely, two with spike mauls and punches to drive
down the butts of broken spikes, one with an adze and
one with a stiff broom to sweep aside chips of wood,
pieces of ballast and spikes. Twelve men with tongs
put the new rails in place as fast as the old are re-
moved and 10 men working in pairs apply the splices
with half their complement of bolts. Two men push
the rail under the spike heads and spike the joints
and centers while the 10 men who were pulling spikes
but who are now free spike the rail upon every other
tie. Four utility men put the cut rail in place and
look after the compromise joint in case a different
section is being laid. The gang which threw out the
old rail completes the full spiking and the men with

RENEWAL OF RAILS 155

the tongs assist in applying the remaining bolts, giv-
ing them all as full tension as possible. This force
of men generally consists of two gangs and, in addi-
tion to foreman and assistants, numbers about 50 men.
''The preliminary work in renewals of this charac-
ter largely determines the efficiency of the gang. In
the event of a different section of rail being used in
renewal, the first work upon the arrival of the relay-
ing gang is to remove the tie plates, the ties that were
without tie plates being adzed down when these are in
the minority and those surfaced up that carried the
tie plates when they are in the minority. After this
is done the detailed surface of the track is given at-
tention so that the new rail may lie upon as smooth a
bed as possible. The ties must then be adzed to a
level seat alongside the rail. The point of beginning
must next be established and where possible this should
have especial regard for the existing locations of block
joints when these cannot be changed so that the in-
troduction of unusual lengths of rail in the main track
at isolated points may be avoided. In the event that
this necessitates laying the rail against the current of
traffic, temporary rails of the new section are used
so that the approach ends of the permanent rails will
not be injured. The rails are then strung out just
outside the ends of the ties to be as near their final
positions as possible and incidentally to indicate the
new positions of the joints for use in the preliminary
tie spacing. This method is not accurate on sharp
curves and the position of the joints must be deter-
mined in such cases by careful measurement with a
steel tape after the average length of the new rails
has been carefully ascertained. When the rails are
set up for the purposes named it would be an unnec-
essary refinement to use shims and many of the shims
would surely become lost. It is quite sufficient to
place a number of the rails, five in summer weather,

156 THE TRACKMAX'S HELPER

with their ends in contact and separate each five with
a spike, which represents the aggregate of the sev-
eral spaces.

"When the preliminary spacing is completed so as
to assure the flanges of the splices entering without
exception, the word is given and the men line up to
await the foreman's signal that use of track has been
given, communicated from the telephone box or from
his field telephone connected with the despatcher's
telephone line. The principal protection is the dis-
tant flagmen, who not only display a red banner but
place torpedoes on the rail. The signalmen, whose
duty it is to bond the track further by means of a
wire shunt the track circuit so as to display the dan-
ger signal at the nearest signal ; but at the immediate
location the foreman's red flag is always in evidence
until replaced by a white one to indicate that all pro-
tection may be withdrawn and traffic be allowed to
run as usual. This assumes that all ties are fully
spiked, all bolts inserted and made tight and at least
two bond wires are in place at each joint."

EFFECTS OF THE WAVE MOTION OF RAIL ON TRACK RAIL

MOVEMENTS

As all rail movements are on the principle of the
lever, there is of necessity an undulatory motion dur-
ing the passage of every train, the principle of which
is illustrated in Fig. 25. The amount of this is de-
pendent on the condition of the sub-grade, ballast,
ties, rail and weight of the rolling stock. Any weak-

Normal Track,

TracK under passing load.

Fig. 25. Wave Action of Track Under Wlieels

ness in the drainage, ballast, ties or rail will at once
show itself when put into use. If not corrected at
once this will increase, and the destruction it can
cause is likely to be serious. The less substantial the
superstructure the greater ballast compression there
will be, and, of necessity, rough-riding track,

157

158 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

If water be permitted to collect under the ties in a
short time they will churn, which action, unless taken
care of, will prove destructive.

IMovements or vibrations of any kind are objection-
able in the track ; and for that reason wood and stone
are used to absorb these as much as possible.

The undulatory motion of the rail has the follow-
ing- injurious effects :

1. Compresses the ties in the ballast.

2. Churns the ties.

3. Cuts the ties at the rail base.

4. Displaces the ballast.

5. Injures the roadbed.

6. Injures the rail.

7. Causes the rail to creep.

8. Wears the angle bars.

9. Wears the bolts.

10. Raises the spikes.

11. Wears the spikes.

Ballast compression. The different functions that
a tie performs must be taken into consideration,

1. It holds the rails to gage.

2. Supports the rails.

3. Distributes the weight of the passing w^ieel loads
to the ballast and roadbed.

4. Resists compression into the ballast.

It is claimed by many that the ties act as abut-
ments, and the rail deflections occur between these.
This was finally proved to be an error.

Churning of ties and displacing of ballast. The
foundation of all ties being loosely compacted mate-
rial, any movement of the tie, or what is commonly
called "churning of the tie," necessarily throws un-
equal loading on the ballast at different times, causes
its compression and movement, and destruction of the
tie foundation. The wider the ties and the lighter

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 159

the rail and the heavier the loads, the greater such
movement must necessarily be.

Assume, for instance, two wide ties and a light rail,
and over them a heavy wheel load, midway between
the ties. This rail will bend under these conditions
and take the form of a curve, thus throwing the wheel
load on the near edge of each tie, producing an ec-
centric loading of the tie, greater compression under
the edge of the tie that is loaded than on the opposite
edge, and, necessarily, a slight movement of the tie
to adjust itself to these conditions. When the wheel
moves to the opposite side of either of these ties the
conditions are reversed, and thus the churning takes
place.

Injury to the roadbed is a necessary sequence of
the ballast displacement, and is augmented by the
amount of water standing in pools on the bed.

Injury to the rail. According to Professor Dud-
ley, rails take a permanent set, as regards wave mo-
tion, in one of three forms :

1. Joint low and center high.

2. Joint and center low, quarter high.

3. Entire rail wavy.

The first occurs in rails which are laid with the
joints square or opposite ; consequently the low places
are found at the weakest point, the joints, while the
centers are high.

The second form is met with in rails which are laid
with their joints broken. The weak point being the
joint, it deflects in time, and trouble also appears in
the opposite rail at the center. On this line of rea-
soning, if it is low at one point it must be high at
another, which is the quarter.

The third form appears in the rail where the ties
have been tamped unevenly, there being alternate
hard and soft spots in the bed.

160 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Wear of angle bars and bolts. At the joints there
are several parts working independently — the two
angle bars, the bolts, nuts, nut locks, rails, ties, and,
to a certain extent, the spikes and ballast. Now, the
least particle of vibratory motion destroys the mutual
relationship between these parts, and wearing is the
result. The principal wear is on top and underneath
the bar, where the rail rests, and, in turn, where the
bar rests on the rail. The bolt holes are also en-
larged. The bolts, being a portion of the joint fasten-
ing, also wear, and in time are unfit for use.

Raising of spikes. As the vibratory motion of the
rail takes place, something has to give way. If the
fastening to the tie is by push bolt or lag screw, the
tie will be raised with the vibration and ' ' pump ' ' the
ballast. This action will take place for a while, but
in time these fastenings will become loose. If the rail
is held down by a spike, the tendency is to raise it
an exceedingly small amount, enough to allow for the
play of the rail. Spikes are either re-enforced under
the head or perfectly plain. It is at this point that
the re-enforcement is injurious, for whether it is in
the back or front of a spike, raising it affords the rail
an opportunity to move laterally by the amount of ex-
tra metal in the neck. As the re-enforcement inclines
toward the vertical axis of the spike as it extends down
the neck, the further it is extracted from the tie the
larger the opening left for the spike to fill up ; hence
the spike is crowded backwards in the hole and the
rails have a chance to spread. In short, there should
be no re-enforcement on the neck of a spike.

Tendency of rail to work into face of tie. When
the spike is slightly higher than its normal position
in the tie, the rail has an opportunity to act on the
tie more than otherwise. This action partakes of
three different forms:

1. A straight pressure downwards.

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL

161

2. A lateral pressure.

3. A resultant of these two.

Wear of spikes. The rail has an opportunity to
work up and down, wearing the neck of the spike.

Fig. 26. The P. & M. Anti Rail-Creeper
Two Simple Parts — No Bolts

The same action takes place when a spike is not driven
properly.

Wear of rails. When a rail is unduly canted all
the running is done on one side of the head, and, con-
sequently, this is where the surface wear takes place.

162

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Creeping rails. Creeping is caused by the iindula-
torv motion, and is verv destructive to track. Not

Fig. 27. The "Dinklage Creep Check"

only does it buckle the joints and tear apart the bolts,
but also disturbs the ties, especially those at the joints,
and displaces the ballast. This is arrested in part by

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL

163

the slot holes in the angle bar, but anchors of some
sort should be used in addition. Many devices for
this purpose are on the market, a number of which
are illustrated in Figs. 26 to 29 inclusive. In stone
ballast, tamping ties on the leaving side materially
assists, as well as driving the outside spikes on the
leaving side.

Rail creeping'. ^Ir. G. Van Zandt published, in

Fig. 28. The Vaughan Rail Anchor '

Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way, the
following article, which is here given substantially in
full:

*' Among the peculiar phenomena of the mainte-
nance of railway track, one of the most interesting
(and sometimes most perplexing and troublesome) is
the continual movement of the rails along the ties.
It has long been observed by trackmen and engineers
and many interesting accounts have been published in

strike
Here

Strike
Here

Fig. 29. The Holdfast Rail Anchor
164

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 165

regard to this movement with theories accounting for
the action.

''Rail creeping has been found to assume aston-
ishing proportions and to cause a large number of
wrecks in some localities. An incident often quoted
in this connection is given by Mr. Thomas Keefer of
the Canadian Pacific Ry. (Am. Soc. C. E. XIX. 1888)
w^ho witnessed a movement of over two feet with the
passage of a single train over a 'muskeg' or swampy
locality. In many cases it is reported to have moved
around sharp curves and to have straightened out on
the following tangent or reversed on a following curve.

"The results to the track are well known to track-
men who have to continually combat this tendency.
'The movement,' says Mr. Camp (Am. Soc. C. E.
1904), 'causes trouble and expense in many ways. It
shoves joint ties off their tamped beds upon loose
ballast; frogs are crowded out of alignment, and
wrecks are not infrequent from such causes.' Sig-
nals and switches are put out of order and splice bars
broken, so that constant inspection is made necessary
to insure safety of operation. The alignment at cross-
ings is often disturbed and many irregularities of
track are due to the accumulative creeping of the rails.
At summits rails have separated several feet, the
bolts shearing off or splice bars breaking and track
crowding in the sags where kinking out of alignment
frequently occurs.

"Numerous appliances known as 'anti-creepers'
have been devised to prevent this movement, some of
them combining the splice bars with the holding de-
vice. These generally consist of a plate fastened to
the rail and held to the tie so that any movement of
the rail will be retarded by the resistance of the tie
in the ballast. The result has been unsatisfactory, in
many cases, because the ties have moved with the rails
and 'bunched' before the creepers; however where

16G THE TRACKJVIAN'S HELPER

creeping is not excessive ' anti-creepers ' have prevented
appreciable movement.

''For obvious reasons it is not desirable to run the
risk of throwing additional stresses into the bridge
structures by attempting to hold the creeping rails by
'anti-creepers.' Hence in many places the rails are
left free to move across the bridges. In some locali-
ties there is very little trouble from creeping and no
provision is made for it. In other places the placing
of blocks between ties to reduce the wave-motion of
the rail has been used more or less successfullv. In
some bridges, however, it has been a difiScult prob-
lem, especially with long spans giving considerable
deflection, and especially where the elasticity of the
ties beneath adds to this depression by remote support.
The Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River at St.
Louis, ^lo., has an excessively heavy traffic and has
the remarkable record of rail creeping, forty-two (42)
feet in a single month.

"In this bridge, devices have been made for han-
dling the rail as its moves, switch points being placed
where the process begins and ends. At eight points
on the bridge these 'creepers' are located, requiring
the services (day and night) of eight men. A full
description (Sci. Am. Mar. 24, 1900) of the 'Irish-
man,' or rail creeper, has been given by the superin-
tendent of the structure, who states that 'the creep-
ing occurs not only on the bridge but also on the ap-
proach trestles. It is always in the direction of the
traffic. The movement is dependent upon the elas-
ticity of the track supports and varies with the ton-
nage passing over the rails. An attempt was made
at one time to check the movement but the strain on
the fastenings was sufficient to tear fish-plates in two
and shear off seven-eighths inch track bolts. ' ' A fur-
ther studv of this bridge,' states Mr. J. B. Johnson
(Journal of Ass'n. of Eng. Soc. Vol. IV, Pg. 8, 1885),

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 167

' reveals the secret of the causes of the phenomena.
The tendency is due to the wave motion, causing the
rail to be longer than the corresponding linear dis-
tance. The rail is seen to roll along on its base and
move as much as the base is longer than the neutral
axis. ' A careful study of the depressions of the track,
due to this rolling load, reveals the following :

" ( 1 ) There is first a rising of the rail from the tie
at a point about ten feet in front of the wheel.

''(2) A deep and rapid depression follows as the
load approaches, reaching a maximum under the
wheel.

" (3) Between the wheel loads there is a slight ris-
ing of the rail varying with the weights and the dis-
tance between them.

''(4) The forward motion occurs just in front of
each wheel.

"Figure 30 is a diagram showing the motion as
theoretically determined by Mr. Johnson. The load
advances from P to p and the base is held down by
the weight upon the rail so there can be no movement
backward. The frictional hold would probably be
thirty per cent or more of the weight upon the tie,
not to mention the grip of the spikes, etc. It is ob-
vious that while depressed under a wheel load the
base of the rail is on the circumference of an arc of
greater radius than the neutral axis. Since the base
cannot slip the neutral axis must move forward the
difference between lengths of the arcs. As there is a
difference between the length of the neutral axis when
horizontal and when on the curve, in the rolling of
the wheel load there must be an elongation or a move-
ment. If there were no wave motion beneath the
train and the depression were uniform, the depressed
curved track would evidently be longer than the orig-
inal horizontal track since the straight line is shorter
than a curve. It would appear, therefore, that the

168

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

advance wave and depression, together with the resil-
ience wave in the rear are the causes of the horizontal
motion of the rail.

On the basis of the above theory, it follows that,

Figure
Fig. 30. Wave Motion, Cause of Creeping

should the rail be supported in some manner from the
top, it would move in the opposite direction. This
it has been shown actually to do upon a model con-
structed for the purpose. This model was prepared

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 169

with a wooden rail mounted on springs and free to
move. A rolling weight was moved around a circular
track causing deep depressions. A forward motion
was very apparent when the rail was supported at
the base and a similar backward motion when the rail
was supported from the top. A practical demonstra-
tion of this action has also appeared in bridges which
show a marked tendency to move on their supports
unless held by rigid connections. Through spans are
thus forced forward and deck spans backward."

Many contradictions appear among the observations
of creeping rails ; some observers declare that the outer
rail on curves creeps more than the inner, whereas
others claim the reverse, and, similarly, some state
that on tangents the right hand rails move more than
those on the other side (in the direction of traffic).
A typical report of investigation is found in the rec-
ord of the annual meeting .of the Roadmasters' As-
sociation of America, 1898, a part of which is quoted
below :

"Rails creep in the direction of traffic on double
track lines. This creeping is found to be the greatest
on down grades and worst where tracks are laid over
marshes.

"It has also been ascertained that on curves the
outer or higher rails creep the more.

"The cause of creeping track is the rolling load
passing over it, — producing a wave motion.

"It is doubtful if a remedy exists or can be
found.

"The most common method is to rely upon an-
chorage. Three-tie joints give best anchorage but do
not prevent creeping.

"The best method is to restrict the wave motion,
which can be done only by having a stiff rail to trans-
mit weight over greater area of ties and ballast, track
to be well tied, and ballast dressed off full at the

170 THE TRACKjVIAN'S HELPER

ends of ties (to prevent skewing of ties and tighten-
ing of gage) but to allow for drainage."

Reference is made to the experiments of Mr. How-
ard on the C. B. & Q. R. R. for the determination
of the rail depressions. ( Watertown Arsenal Reports,
1905.) A long series of tests was made and the re-
sults carefully prepared, showing the actual depres-
sions under different loads with different rails and
roadbed conditions. It was found that, generally
speaking and other things being equal, of the three
kinds of ballast used, viz., stone, gravel and cinders,
the gravel ballast gave the least average depressions.
The advance wave was well demonstrated and found
to be eight to ten feet in front of the locomotive and
to rise to a level about one-fourth of one inch above
the depressed track under the wheel load. A series
of readings was also made with a spirit level to de-
termine the slope of the rail as the loads passed over
it. From these it appears that there is a hump in the
rail immediately preceding each wheel like that pro-
duced by sliding a heavy weight over a carpet. This,
of course, is true for moving loads only, and consider-
able difference would be found if the locomotive were
to be let down upon the rail from above by a crane,
thus giving static depression curves.

A number of interesting experiments are given by
Mr. P. H. Dudlev, who invented a micrometer for
measuring the strains in rails. His results are inter-
esting, revealing the stresses due to these depressions
and concentrations of weight. He concludes that
"heavier rails distribute the weight better," the de-
sign being an important element. "The dynamic ef-
fects increase with the roughness of the rails and
treads" and with the speed, especially on track with
many irregularities. New rails do not appear to show
a reduction of wave motion, probably on account of
their non-conformity to the worn treads of the wheels.

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 171

It lias been observed that ''it requires two years and
over before heavy rails reach their best condition in
the track." The readings of the stresses in the rails
indicate that the ' ' strains increased 14.3 per cent, with
an increase of speed from two to ten miles per hour. ' '
Reverse stresses were recorded between wheels, indi-
cating compression on the base of the rail. It ap-
pears, therefore, that the resilience of the track-bed
tends to bend up the rail as soon as the wheels have
passed over. It is noticeable that light passenger
locomotives with wheels separated by greater distance
give greater wave motion than the heavier freight loco-
motives with drivers bunched together.

A very interesting series of experiments is recorded
by Mr. Wagner (Amer. Soc. C. E., Vol. 53, p. 466,
1904), giving actual observed experiments of track
covering long periods of time. The results show that,

(1) Of the 32 points measured, 21 showed no dif-
ference between the movements of right and left rails ;
8 showed more for right and 3 the more for the left.

(2) In seven of twelve observations, the greatest
creeping was on down grades ; five on level showed no
difference.

(3) More creeping was observed to occur on em-
bankments or over swampy ground.

(4) More creeping appears on imperfectly main-
tained track.

Mr. W. M. Camp (''Notes on Track," p. 584) states
that "there are two longitudinal movements on rails;
one, a molecular movement of expansion or contrac-
tion in the metal, the other a progressive shifting of
the rails bodily, commonly known as ' creeping ' or run-
ning. " He states also that the "creeping is most
rapid during hot weather," and "it is greater on
double than on single track," and further that it is
generally in the direction of the traffic. The manner
of the creeping and the amount depend upon " (1) the

172

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

character of the ground or foundation for the track ;
(2) the direction in which the train loads are the
heavier; (3) the proportion of the weight distributed
on the two rails; (4) the speed of the trains; and (5)
the manner in which the ties are spiked."

The actual value of rolling resistance is difficult to
determine as any data are likely to include some of the
many other factors which go to make up train re-
sistance.

Y-rrTTTT

>n n // f /'///' / y

k-b-

Figure
Fig. .31. Direction of Rollinor Resistance

< (

That it is a very insignificant part of train re-
sistance" is the contention of Mr. Webb (Economics
of Railway Location, p. 181). Mr. I. P. Church, in
''Mechanics of Engineering," states that "the word
'friction' is hardly appropriate except when the road-
way is perfectly elastic." Referring to Figure 31 he
continues : ' ' The track being compressed, its resultant
pressure is not at vertically under the centre, but
some distance 0-D in front. The 'rolling-resistance'
is therefore

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 173

R = b -f- radius X weight.

where 'b' is the small distance 0-D."

Mr. Pambour gives as the result of experiment on
railroad wheels of cast-iron 39.4 inches in diameter.

b = .0196 to 0.0216 inches.

''If the force of resistance or the resultant can be
assumed as acting normal to the track at the centre of
the area of contact, we have a triangle of forces one
angle of which can be approximated by the slope tests
above mentioned. After working out a series of re-
sults in this manner, the values shown in the table
below were obtained.

Table of rolling resistance or ''rail push."

Wheel

Pilot .
Driver

Tender

Load

Slope

Resistance

Remarks

(Axle)

Total

Pounds

Per Cent

Pounds #/Ton

Pounds

.11,000

0.0241

22.14

4.02

Rail 85 lbs
A.S.C.E.

26,500

0.0149

32.904

2.48

Stone Ballast

27,500

0.0110

25.205

1.84

Oak Ties

31,300

0.0065

16.984

1.08

28,500 (

— )0.0025

( — ) 3.854

0.03

93.343

or 1.51 # /Ton

15,950

0.0125

20.913

2.52

0.0080

10.633

1.33

0.0190

25.251

3.17

" (

— )0.0010

12.287

1.66

43.510

or 1.36#/Ton

( i

Similarly with a passenger locomotive and tender
it was found that with 70-lb. rail and gravel ballast
the rolling resistance of the engine was 2.21 Ibs./ton
and of the tender 1.59 Ibs./ton.

"The above analysis demonstrates the fact that the
rolling resistance is a small part of the train resistance,
probably seldom reaching as much as 1 per cent of the
weight in any well maintained track. Further, on the
basis of the above analysis of rail creeping, the rolling
resistance is not all taken up by the rail by 'glancing
blows,' but is communciated to the track below and
results in the depression of the earth or 'settling' of

174 THE TRACICMAN'S HELPER

the track so commonly observed. It is not improbable
that a part of this energy is consumed in producing
the forward movement of the rail, but this would not
be an important factor in its determination. The
statement has been made that rolling resistance in-
creases on curves, but evidently resistance other than
the ' rolling friction ' was taken into consideration and
it is probable that in a more careful investigation it
would not be materially different on curves of ordinary
radius than on tangent. In the light of the above it
appears improbable 'that there would be no creeping
with a continuous rail, ' as Mr. Lindenthal asserts. If
the rolling resistance is the controlling factor, there is
no reason why a continuous rail would remove creep-
ing. The concussive and oscillatory factors would be
materially reduced as with any item improving the
track condition, but any improvement of the track
reduces wave -motion as well and in this way only may
reduce creeping.

"The prevention of rail creeping has always been a
serious problem of track maintenance. Of the many
appliances now on the market, few attempt to remove
the cause of the greatest part of this movement. To
summarize the conclusions of practice, we find the fol-
lowing recommendations :

*'(1) Good track. If alignment, drainage, ballast,
tieplates, spiking, are all first class, much of the creep-
ing can be prevented. 'Track inspections show that
almost invariably the rails on the outside of double
track are subject to greater average deflection.'
(Camp, Notes on Track, p. 588), and this is due to
the lack of ballast on the ends of ties and shows the im-
portance of the suggestions made by the committee of
the Roadmaster's Association above quoted.

"(2) The desirahility of traffic moving in both di-
rections over the same track and the equalizing of ton-
nage in each direction.

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 175

< (

(3) Most of all, the necessity of removing the
cause of the wave-motion by preventing depressions
of large amount under wheel loads.

' ' If the other conditions are well taken care of, then
the only remaining cause of consequence is the rolling
of the rail on its base as above described. It is evi-
dent that to overcome this effect, it is necessary to sup-
port the rail at such a place above the neutral axis
that the tendency to move backward due to wave-
motion will counteract the forward tendency due to
the difference in length of the curved and the straight
rail.

''This requires a new rail of such shape and a sup-
port of such design as will fulfill the conditions stated.
This would also mean a design to meet the special con-
ditions of each locality where great trouble is found
with creeping. A rail somewhat approaching this de-
sign is found in use in England where creeping is
almost unknown. The rails are not supported by
the head, but prevented from moving sidewise by
supports which are wedged against the web directly
under the head, and they doubtless transmit some of
the concentration to the tie. (See Fig. 32.) Some

tBk.

A' B.

Fig. 32. English Rail Section to Prevent Creeping

similar system could be used in localities of much
creeping and ought to remove the cause of the diffi-
culty. In the figure it is suggested that 'B' supports
the rail under the head and leaves the base free to

176

THE TRACKISIAN'S HELPER

move with the inevitable wave motion, but there would
be no tendency to move forward. This would re-
quire the use of the English rail section, which for
many other reasons might be undesirable.

"As a practical solution of the problem, on long
span bridges such as the Eads bridge above mentioned,
the type of construction shown in Figure 33 is sug-
gested. This might also be found of advantage in

Fig. 33. Special Rail Section to Prevent Creeping on

Bridges

other places of excessive rail creeping. Two rails
are turned base to base and bolted together with track
bolts. The two sections are so selected that the neutral
axis lies sufficiently below^ the point of support to
counteract all tendency to move forward. The sup-
port is of such design that the weight is well dis-
tributed and investigation shows that there would be
no danger of deformation or shear with ordinary rails
and present loads.

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 177

"KoUing loads upon passing over this track would
produce some wave motion, but that which would be
produced, would be taken care of in the backward
motion of the head of the under rail. All the causes
would therefore be removed and the conditions would
be fulfilled to prevent the rail from creeping.

'^ Comparative observations have been made upon
bridges which have stringers directly under the rails
and those supporting the rails on the ties at some dis-
tance — as in the support of double track on three
stringers. A very marked increased creeping is
noticeable on the design involving the elasticity of the
ties,

''In conclusion, it appears that by the close study
of all the conditions, including the design of the bridge
floors, and the preparation of the track, practically all
the rail movement may be eliminated in a way which
when applied to the bridge spans will not bring unde-
sirable stresses into the structure.

''The use of the precautions above noted, together
with anti-creepers, on good track on which trains are
run in opposite directions with approximately the
same tonnage, should completely eliminate the creep-
ing of the rails and its attendant evils. Too much
emphasis can not be laid upon the desirability of good
drainage for it is necessary that the depression of the
rail, under the wheel load, should be a minimum, and
this requires that the roadbed should be firm and well
drained."

Practical conclusions by the authors. In com-
menting upon the above interesting article and giving
the theoretical reason for the creeping of rails and
such suggestive theoretical methods for avoiding such
trouble, we would note that up to date the most satis-
factory and practical solution of the difficulty has been
to employ rail anchors or anti-creepers, the judicious
use of which nearly always results in an entirely satis-

178 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

factory solution. The number of anchors or anti-
creepers used should be proportioned to the amount
of creeping force developed by the conditions of road
bed and traffic. It need hardly be remarked that while
it is desirable to have the same amount of tonnage in
each direction in order to avoid creeping, no railroad is
going to regulate its business for the purpose of elimi-
nating the creeping of rails, this being very desirable
from a laboratory and experimental standpoint, but
utterly impractical from the point of view of the rail-
road business.

The relative cost of maintenance of unanchored
track and track anchored to prevent creeping of ties
is shown in an article in the Railway Age Gazette.
The data are taken from records made on the mainte-
nance of 3 1/2 miles of double tangent track of level
grade, light gravel ballast, 85 lb. rail and broken
joints. The heavy traffic was north bound and conse-
quently all data are based on the north bound track,
as the creeping tendency here was decided. This
track had been put in service 14 months before, and
one mile in the center of the stretch was anchored,
leaving IV2 miles on the north and one mile on the
south end not anchored. Where the track was an-
chored, 640 anti-creepers were applied, two per rail
length, opposite joints against opposite end of joint
ties. The anti-creepers have received no maintenance
and have shown no failure, although they had been in
service 14 months at the time of inspection.

The kind of work done on the two pieces of track
in 14 months was as follows : — The anchored track was
resurfaced once, while the unanchored track was re-
surfaced twice, the ties thereon were spaced twice and
the rail driven back twice.

The total maintenance cost for the mile where the
anti-creepers were applied, including the cost of anti-
creepers, is as follows:

EFFECTS OF WAVE MOTION OF RAIL 179

Cost of anti-creepers, 640 at IT^/oc each $112.00

Applying 640 anti-creepers at %c each 3.20

Resurfacing, 10 men working 16 days, at $1.55 per day 248.00

Total $363.20

The total cost of the next mile north of the mile
where the anti-creepers were applied, subject to the
same conditions of traffic, roadbed, etc., but unan-
chored, is given below:

Cost of resurfacing twice, each time 10 men, 16 days,

at $1.55 per day, $248 $ 496.00

Cost of respacing ties twice, each time 10 men, 17 days,

at $1.55 per day, $263.50 527.00

Cost of driving back rail twice, each time 10 men, 2

foremen, 6 days, at $1.55 per day, $111.60 223.20

Total $1,246.20

This shows a saving in 14 months of $883 in favor
of the anchored track.

It will be noted that the original cost of the anti-
creepers and of their application have been included
in the first 14 months. These costs are properly
chargeable over the total number of years anchors
are in service, which in all cases is at least as long
as the life of the rail on which they are applied.
This would make the saving considerably greater than
has been estimated. Furthermore, this maintenance
cost does not include injury done to ties, spikes and
joints, which was considerable where anchors were
not applied, as the creeping had pulled the ties badly
askew, bending or completely destroying the spikes
and often causing broken joints. Where the anti-
creepers were applied, the wear and tear were hardly
worth considering.

GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK

Track foremen will find plenty of work to do dur-
ing the fall months before the ground freezes, prepar-
ing their sections to go through the long winter
months with as little repair work as possible. If the
weather is good more track work can be done in one
month before the ground freezes than can be per-
formed during the whole winter.

Section foremen should find all the places needing
attention and repair them in the best manner possible.

Special care should be given to improving the sur-
face of the track and putting a perfect line and gage
on the rails.

The roadbed should be cleared of weeds and grass
and the ballast along the shoulder of the track and
between the rails should be dressed up neatly; joint
fastenings should be made tight, and the ditches in
all cuts cleaned out.

Any rotten ties remaining in the track should be
taken out and replaced by new ones.

All new rail should be laid before cold weather.
The joint ties should be spaced properly and ballast
put under the track, and at other points requiring at-
tention where new rail is not laid good repair rails
should be put into the track to replace the ones that
have become battered. Grass should be cut while still
green and no rubbish allowed around the wood work
of bridges, culverts or cattle guards. Rubbish should
be gathered up and burned.

180

GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK 181

In a prairie country the grass along the right of
way on both sides of the track should be burned off
clean as soon as it is dry enough, and the tops of the
cuts should be burned off first, to prevent the loco-
motives from setting fires on farm lands adjoining.
All right of way fences should be examined and re-
paired and snow fences put in good condition to be
ready for the first snow storm. All track material
should be piled at headquarters or regularly desig-
nated points, a safe distance from the track where it
cannot cause snow drifts.

Rails, splices and such other material should be
raised from the ground and piled upon platforms of
old ties so that there will be no difficulty in handling
them after snow falls.

All ties, fence posts, or lumber should be piled up
with spaces between the piles so that fire can not com-
municate to a large quantity at once. Emergency
rails and angle bars should be placed at the mile posts
along the section, to be handy in case of broken rails.

Much of the fall track work is the same as that done
during the spring or summer, but foremen should be
particular to do at this season of the year all work
which can only be imperfectly done in the winter, or
must wait over until the following spring if not at-
tended to now.

Cleaning the right of way. In the latter part of
the month of July, or before the weeds growing along
the railroad right of way run to seed, the section fore-
man should commence mowing and cutting down all
grass, brush and weeds from the shoulder of the track
out to the right of way limits.

The grass and weeds growing around the ends of
culverts, or close to the bridges, should be mown
down, while the surrounding grass is still so green
that it will not burn, in order that the mown grass,
when dry, may be burnt without danger of the wind

182 THE TRACKINIAN'S HELPER

spreading the fire, and to prevent other fires from
reaching the wood work when burning off the right of
way afterwards. In localities where the sections are
long and only a small force of men is employed the
right of way mowing is sometimes done only for a
short distance out from the shoulder on each side
along the track, and the balance of the right of way
is left to be burnt off later in the fall.

Narrow embankments. Some foremen have a habit
of digging holes in the embankment just outside
the ends of the track ties when they want a little
dirt or ballast to pick up or dress the track. This is all
wrong, and can be justified only in case the traffic over
the line is so heavy that it is not advisable to attempt
to haul earth with a push car. On a mud track if
material is wanted for this purpose it should be
taken from the nearest cut with the section push car,
or if the fill is not very deep the foreman should set
his men throwing up dirt from outside the bottom of
the original fill. There the necessary material can be
procured without injuring the embankment suf-
ficiently to make it likely to wash away, or weakening
it as a support for the track. The preference should
always be given to material from a cut even when the
cost is a little greater. A double purpose is served by
removing the surplus which accumulates in the
ditches and putting it on the fill to strengthen it.
Of course, where track is ballasted with gravel, or
other like material, dirt should not be mixed with it,
but when only a small quantity of material is needed
it can be taken from places where the ballast is the
heaviest along the shoulder of the track. Whenever
any material is taken from a grade or wasted therein,
such places should be leveled off, dressed and finished
up in a workmanlike manner. Never leave unsightly
holes along the track. Both sides of the embankment
should be of the same width outside the ties, if pos-

GENERAL FALL TRACK WORK 183

sible, and grass should be encouraged to grow along
the slopes, because it offers the best protection against
weeds and washouts. Section foremen should not at-
tempt to raise up track on high, narrow fills in order
to surface it. At such places it is always best to
pick up and tamp only joints or other low places in
the rail, and keep the track in good line until you can
get enough dirt or ballast to leave a good shoulder
outside the ties after raising up the track to surface.

Haul out material from cuts. Where the distance
between cuts is short, and the fill between is high
and narrow, section foremen should make good wide
ditches in the cuts, haul out the material from the
ditches, and distribute it evenly on both sides of the
track. This work should be done either early in the
spring, or late in the fall of the year, or when the
facilities for doing other work are not good.

To remedy too wide an opening at the joints.
Track is often laid with too wide an opening at the
joints, or has excessive opening at certain points due
to rail creeping, and as a result the ends of the rails
batter down very quickly and the joint splices often
break and tear apart, owing to the contraction *of the
rails in extremely cold weather. Track foremen who
are troubled with this state of affairs should try to
remedy it at once in the following manner:

Loosen the bolts in forty or fifty joints and pull out
slot spikes as necessary, then, in the middle of this
stretch take out one or two of the rails on each side
of the track. Have ready to replace the rails that
you take out, one or two rails the combined length of
which will be six or eight inches greater than that of
the rails removed, allowing this length to be a little
less than the total amount necessary for closing the
joints. Have your men take one loose rail, and bump
back the track rails on each side of the opening until
it is wide enough to admit of putting in the longer

184 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

rails, then bolt and spike the rails to place, dividing
the expansion on the other joints afterwards.

Follow out this method at different points along
your section wherever j^ou see it is necessary, and
you will prevent trouble on account of rails tearing
apart in cold weather, endangering trains and increas-
ing your responsibility. The rails will wear much
longer, and you can keep a much better surface on the
track. Judgment should be exercised in this matter
so that the expansion be so distributed that there will
be no danger of making the joints too tight for warm
weather.

BUILDING FENCES

Building fences.— It is sometimes the duty of sec-
tion foremen to build fences along the railroad right
of way limits; and as there are many foremen who
have had no experience in this branch of work, it will
not be out of place here to give a good, practical
method for performing this duty.

Measure with a tape line from the center of the
track to the right of way limits, and set a stake in
the ground. This should be the outside face of the
fence posts when set. Where the track is straight
these measurements need be taken only at distances of
ten or fifteen rods, but around a curve they should
be taken every fifty or one hundred feet, in order to
have the fence conform to the line of the track.

Peel the bark from all fence posts and set their
centers sixteen feet apart, when not otherwise or-
dered, so that boards may be nailed on them if desired.
To line the fence and regulate the distance between
posts, use a chain or line two hundred feet long for
straight track, and one hundred feet, or less, for curve
track. Have tin tags at regular distances on your
chain, or tie knots in the line to mark where the
center of each post hole should come, and when the
line is stretched take a spade and remove a little of
the sod or top surface of the ground opposite the
marks on the line as a guide for the men digging the
post holes. The line may then be moved ahead.

Set all posts two and one-half feet in the ground

185 '

186

THE THACKJMAN'S HELPER

and have the men who are digging make marks on
their shovels by which to determine the correct
depth of the postholes, and thus have all the posts
of a uniform height above the ground. A good way
to save sighting along straight track is to set a post
every ten or fifteen rods with a temporary brace, and
stretch one wire of the fence to use as a guide.

When putting on wires, if you are not furnished a
wire stretcher, they may be tightened by taking a
turn around a lining bar. Stick the point of the bar

A:^^^^

"^"^M,^

-•^W./^.^l

Fig. 34. Fence Corner

in the ground diagonally from you, and pull the top
of bar towards you and downward. In this way you
can take up the slack.

Always put the wire on the farmer's side of the
fence posts. A good brace should be put in at the end
of each piece of fence, or at any point where the fence
turns an angle, also at gates and cattle guards. See
Figs. 34 and 35.

Mortice one end of the brace into the top of the
corner post, and the other end into the bottom of the
post adjoining, where it enters the ground. Provide

BUILDING FENCES

187

a board with notches cut into it at distances equal to
the proper spaces between the wires. The wires may
be hung in the notches, and the board will keep them
in position while they are being fastened to the posts.

Have the men well organized. Divide a gang of
sixteen about as follows: Assign two men to lay out
the fence, six to dig post holes, four to set the posts,
and four to string the wires and fasten them. Move
the men occasionally from parts of the work which
are the most advanced to parts which are behind.
When crossing creeks or marshy places it is well to

Fig. 35. Standard Fence

turn the fence in at right angles to the end of the
bridge and string the wires across on the piles.

Order material as follows : Fence wire, one pound
for every single wire panel of sixteen feet ; staples, one
and three-fourths pounds for each hundred pounds of
wire used.

"When spacing wires, have the bottom ones the closer
together. For instance, for a five-wire fence four
and one-half feet high, place bottom wire eight inches
above the ground; the second wire ten inches above
the first, and the other three wires each twelve inches
above the last, or the third wire from the bottom
could be spaced ten inches above the second, and the
top wire fourteen inches above the fourth. The latter
is the best method where it is desirable to fence against

188 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

all kinds of stock. The tops of fence posts should not
be more than six inches above the top wire of the
fence, and all posts when set and tamped solid should
be in perfect line and at a uniform height from the
ground. When posts are irregular in length, the sur-
plus timber should be sawed off if it amounts to four
or more inches, but where the post is only two or three
inches too long, the hole may be deepened sufficiently
to leave it of the proper height when set.

If a post is two or three inches short fill up the hole
sufficiently to bring it to the right height above the
ground, but should it be as much as six inches too
short, do not use it in the fence except at some place
where it would answer for a short brace. To regulate
the height of fence post above the ground, have a
standard made of the correct length, and nail square
across the bottom of it a cross piece two feet long,
which will prevent slight inequalities in the surface
of the ground from affecting the height when placed
beside the post. This standard can also be arranged
to regulate the distance between the boards or wires as
they are nailed on the fence.

A fence with the top wire or top board four and
one-half feet from the ground is a lawful fence in
most of the States.

Board fences. In building a board fence, the set-
ting of posts and nailing on of the boards can be done
at the same time. Always use the shortest boards to
measure from one post to the next one to be set; the
longer boards can be sawn to the proper length.
Nail the boards on at the outside of the fence. Sev-
eral men can be nailing on boards at once, ending
the boards against those last nailed on the adjoining
panel. On straight track, sighting posts can be set
at the proper distance from the track, every forty or
sixty rods ahead of the men digging the post holes,
but on curve track, to make a good fence and have it

BUILDING FENCES 189

in line, every panel post should be measured from
the center of the track, and a stake set for it. This
is not much of a job, if two men go along the track
carrying the tape line stretched from place to place,
while a third man sets stakes for the posts. By laying
a board against the two panel posts, it lines the place
for the middle posts. A bracket, made the proper
height from the ground with the projections on it
to fit between the boards, making the spaces the cor-
rect width, is very handy when building a board
fence. It makes a much better fence than when the
spacing is done by guess, and saves measuring the
spaces.

If board fence is built with the boards meeting on
the same side of the post, a batten should be nailed
over the joint from the ground to the top of the post.

For a permanent snow fence constructed with posts
and boards, the posts may be set about fifteen feet four
inches apart, and the ends of the boards can be nailed
on opposite sides of each panel post. By this method
there is a larger amount of the board available for
nailing when putting them up again after being torn,
or blown off. It also saves the labor of sawing off the
ends of the boards to make them meet square on the
post.

The following table will be useful to foremen,
when estimating the amount of fencing material re-
quired to build a board or wire fence :

Table showing number of posts required.

Distance

No,

. Posts in

No. Posts

No. Post

Between Posts

i Mile.

i/o Mile

1 Mile

8 feet.

16G

331

661

12 "

111

221

441

16 "

1G6

331

20 "

133

265

32 "

166

190 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Table showing the number of boards 16' long re-
quired.

No. of Boards

per Panel. One-fourth Mile. One-half Mile. One Mile.
4 boards 330 660 1320

4121/2

825

1650

495

990

1980

5771/2

1155

2310

660

1320

2640

7421/2

1485

2970

825

1650

3300

One 6 inch sixteen foot board contains eight square
feet of himber. If a lumber estimate is required,
multiply the number of boards wanted by eight, and
the result is the number of feet board measure when
one inch thick, six inches wide and 16 ft. long.

Example : — 4 boards per panel for 14 i^ile of track
= 330 X 8 = 2,640 feet B. M. of lumber.

Weight of nails.

55, 10 penny, common nails, weigh one pound.

45, 12 penny, common nails, weigh one pound.

30, 10 penny, fence nails, weigh one pound.

28, 12 penny, fence nails, weigh one pound.

To ascertain the amount of nails wanted to build
a given length of fence, multiply the number of boards
by 6, and divide the result by the number of nails to
the pound.

Example: — For 14 mile board fence, 330 boards,
4 per panel ; number of nails per board 6 ; number of
fence nails per pound 30 : 330 X 6 = 1980 ^ 30
== 66 lbs.

Weight of fence wire. The average weight of the
wire now used by railroads is very close to one pound
per rod for one wire, or about 6 lbs. per 100 feet in
length. When making estimates for wire fence, about
10 pounds to the mile of fence may be added for tying,
splicing, etc. The weight of staples varies according
to the size used. Seventy l^^ inch staples to the

BUILDING FENCES 191

pound is the size most commonly used in building rail-
road fence.

A day's labor for one man at building post and
board fence, where the boards meet on the post, six to
a panel, and the work of setting the posts is included,
is about eight to ten panels of fence complete. When
the ends of the boards lap on opposite sides of the
post, thirteen to fifteen panels can be constructed by
one man in a day. Building a post and wire fence,
posts one rod apart, and four strands of wire, a man
can construct about fifteen panels in a day; but a
great deal depends on the conditions under which the
work is performed, the quality of material used, and
the quality or general excellence of the work when
finished. The results obtained from a man's labor de-
pend, first, on his intelligence ; next, on his willingness
to work; and lastly, on his physical endurance.
These three requisites should always be considered by
a foreman when employing men ; and when possible he
should always choose for his men those who possess
all the qualities mentioned.

Woven wire fences. Barbed wire fences are gradu-
ally being replaced by woven wire, particularly in the
East and in populous districts. They are generally
made of steel wire of some meshed pattern, as shown
in Fig. 36, and are fastened to posts properly an-
chored in the ground. The advantages of a woven
wire fence are that it can be made to fence against al-
most any stock, besides which there is less liability to
accident than with the barbed wire fence, which is
often injurious to stock. The woven wire fence is also
readily and economically constructed.

Comparative cost and serviceability of wood and
steel fence posts. The majority of American rail-
ways employ wood posts for right of way fencing.
Usually the kind of wood employed is that which is
native to the locality whether or not it is a wood par-

192

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

ticnlarly suitable for such service. These facts, with
some discussion of the life and cost of wood fence
posts based on the experience of some 44 American
railways, are brought out by the report of a special
committee of the American Railway Engineering As-
sociation in 1913. We summarize a part of this re-

CISTIICE
lETHEEl
llRS-litiEi

Fig. 30. American Railroad Fence

port and in particular a comparison of steel and wood
posts :

"Wood posts.. From the data collected the life of
wood posts of various kinds actually in use is as

follows :

Years.

Red Cedar 7 to 25

Cedar 10 to 30

BUILDING FENCES 193

Years.

White Cedar 12 to 17

Chestnut 10 to 15

Locust 7 to 20

Yellow Locust 15 to 30

Black Locust 10 to 25

\Vhite Oak 7 to 15

Bois D'Arc 12 to 45

Catalpa 10 to 25

Juniper 15

^Mulberry 15 to 20

^'Doubtless some give little heed to the particular
species of the timber that they use, aud assume that
any species of that genus has about the same life.
This is manifestly incorrect as is demonstrated by the
oak family. The inferior grades of oak have a life
only of from 2 to 4 years, while a good white oak has
a life in our northern climates of from 10 to 12 years
at least. Certain classes of oak last much longer in
their native regions than in other localities to which
they are transported for use. This principle applies
with equal force to every other class of timber.

"In reviewing the replies of the various roads we
find that the consensus of opinion, based upon expe-
rience of the users, is that the cost and average life
of the different classes of timber are as indicated be-
low:

Range. Average. Years.

Red Cedar 1.5c to 25c 22c 18

\Vhite Cedar 12c to 15c 14c 15

Chestnut 10c to 27c 20c 12

Yellow Locust 20c to 38c 30c 20

Black Locust 15c to 25c 20c 20

White Oak lie to 40c 20c 10

Bois D*Arc 13c to 17c 15c 25

Catalpa 15c to 25c 20c 15

Juniper 6c to 10c 8c 15

Mulberry 13c to 17c 15c 15

Climatic influences have an important bearing upon
this phase of the case, and may lengthen or shorten

194 THE TEACKJNIAN'S HELPER

the life of a particular kind of wood, dependent upon
locality in which, used. It is not feasible in most cases
to recommend any particular kind of timber for a
given territory, as the source of supply may be so
distant as to preclude its use economically. It is the
prevailing practice to use such timber as is native to
the country and thus most easily obtainable.

''It will be observed that the relative cost to life
of post ranges from % ct. to 2 cts. per year of life,
the Bois D'Arc and the Juniper being the cheapest
posts, but so rare that a more general use is impos-
sible.

''It was of interest to know to what extent wooden
posts were subject to destruction by fire. Replies re-
ceived indicated that this varied by from 1 per cent
to 5 per cent, with the exception of one road which
reported a loss of 30 per cent from this cause. We
think it fair to assume that the average loss by fire is
around 3 per cent.

* ' Steel posts. Only two roads so far as we can learn
make mention of having used any metal posts, and
then but to a limited extent. In the one case bar iron
1/4x2 ins. was used and in the other old boiler tubes.
We have reason to believe, however, that quite a num-
ber of roads, not replying to our circular, are trying
out a proprietary metal post. Several styles of steel
right-of-way fence posts are on the market. Their
exploitation has just begun in the last year or two,
and any statement as to their efficiency and economy
could be but vague and from the manufacturers'
standpoint alone. Greater experience may demon-
strate their utility, but thus far we have no data upon
them, and can only give some computations from one
of the manufacturers, which might be of interest for
study from the viewpoint of railroad economy. These
figures, while prepared for a certain style of post only,
if reliable, will no doubt be equally accurate for any

BUILDING FENCES 195

other style of metal post, built along similar lines, and
others are generally so designed. In order that the
membership may have the manufacturers' explanation
of the merits of the steel post for their further con-
sideration, we give the statement of the case in sub-
stance, according to one with whom we have had the
matter under discussion :

Steel posts cost 23.03 cents

Cost of settino^ 1.30 cents

Total 24.33 cents

Estimated life 30 years

"Based upon above figures, steel posts set one rod
ap"art cost 0.81 cents per year.

''The cost of setting wood posts is estimated at 5.8
cts. each. The following table is based on wood posts
costing from nothing up to 20 cts. each, and is in-
tended to show what the life of wood posts must be at
different first costs to be as cheap as the steel posts :

Years it must
Cost of Cost of Total last to be as

post. setting. cost. cheap as steel.

Cents. Cents. Cents. Years.

5.8 5.8 7.1

5 5.8 10.8 . 13.3

8 5.8 13.8 17.

10 5.8 15.8 19.5

12 5.8 17.8 21.9

15 5.8 20.8 25.6

17 5.8 22.8 28.1

18.53 5.8 24.33 30.

20 5.8 25.8 31.8

''The above figures would indicate that wood posts
costing 15 cts. would have to have a life of 25.6 years
and those costing 20 cts. a life of 31.8 years to be as
cheap as steel.

' ' The first steel posts are said to have been manufac-
tured about 15 years ago at Bloomfield, Ind. Others,

196 THE TRACKJSIAN'S HELPER

doubtless, of different design unknown to the Com-
mittee were manufactured as long ago and perhaps
longer, but only during the past twelve years have
they been given any serious study with a view to
placing them on the market for ordinary right-of-way
fencing. Hundreds were taken up and examined to
discover signs of rust and deterioration at ground line
or elsewhere. They have been in use at Spencer,
Worthington, Bloomfield, Ind., and elsewhere in all
kinds of soil and under all conditions. The investiga-
tions have resulted in placing them on the market
during the past year or so.

*'To be of economic w^orth for right-of-way pro-
tection, a fence post must possess the following quali-
ties: Durability, practicability, efficiency, and the
price must be right. Inquiry develops that one man
can set in a day from 15 to 35 wooden line posts. To
be conservative, 30 posts per day per man is assumed
as the unit of work. Estimating wages at $1.75 per
day places the cost of setting a wood post at 5.8 cts.
The cost of post is estimated at 12 cts., resulting in an
entire outlay of 17.8 cts. Experience demonstrated
that three men can readily set from 390 to 640 steel
posts per day, or 130 to 213 per man — 130 posts per
man is taken as the basis of calculation with wages at
$1.75 per day. This places the cost for setting a steel
post at 1.3 cts., cost of steel post 23.03 cts., plus cost
of setting 1.3 cts., resulting in entire outlay, 24.33 cts."

Reinforced concrete posts and sig^s. Mr. E. F.
Robinson, Chief Engineer and Mr. G. H. Stewart,
blaster Mason of the B. R. & P. Railroad, have fur-
nished some Yerj interesting and valuable data in re-
gard to the manufacture of reinforced signs and posts,
which were published in the November, 1914, issue of
Railway Engineering and ^Maintenance of Way, and
the June 18, 1915, issue of Railway Age Gazette, from
the latter of which the following description is taken :

BUILDING FENCES 197

i i mi

This road operates a plant at East Salamanca, N.
Y., for the manufacture of these articles. Concrete
fence posts are used universally, except in swamps
and in places where there is a liability of slides, and
since their adoption with the necessary concrete
corner posts and braces they have proved very satis-
factory. The company plant has manufactured about
15,000 of these posts, 500 concrete mile posts, 600 con-
crete property line posts and 100 concrete whistle
posts. In addition, concrete signal foundations, con-
crete telephone booths and concrete pipe of various
sizes are made at this plant.

''The post and sign plant is housed in a one-story
building 90 ft. long and 19 ft. wide with an available
floor space of 1,496 sq. ft. Coils of steam pipe are
located under the concrete floor and along the sides
of the building for heating, and a stationary boiler
is provided in one corner to furnish the necessary
steam. The cement to be used is stored in one end of
the building, securely partitioned off to keep it per-
fectly dry. The balance of the building is used for
the manufacture and curing of the posts and signs,
which are stored here until required for use. No
special equipment is required in this work other than
ordinary concrete mixing tools, as the concrete is
mixed by hand except in a few instances when a large
amount is to be placed, requiring the use of a mixer
to keep a supply on hand. The building is served by
tracks along each side, allowing material to be un-
loaded and the manufactured articles to be loaded
with ease.

''The designs of the principal signs and posts are
illustrated in the accompanying drawings. The right
of way fence posts are of the tapered T-section type
8 ft. long. The flange is 6% in. wide and IVo in.
thick at the bottom and 4% in. wide and 1 in. thick
at the top, while the stem is 6^/^ in. deep and 2l^ in.

198

THE TRACIOIAN'S HELPER

thick at the base
thick at the top.
pieces of i/4-in.
being placed in
wire is attached
wires, wrapped
each side of the

tapering to 2i/2 in. deep and 1% in.
The reinforcement consists of three
round bars 7 ft. 6 in. long, one bar

each corner of the post. The line
to these posts by No. 7 soft steel tie
three times around the line wire on

flange of the post. These wires are

.x.t
Property Line Post

Fig.

Station WhistlePosx

Mile Post

37. Details of Concrete Sign Posts

pulled tight to bite into the corners of the posts, thus
preventing slipping.

''The corner posts are 6 in. square and 8 ft. long.
Notches 11^ in. deep are cast 6 in. from the top and
3 ft. 6 in. from the bottom of these posts in which
the diagonal corner post braces are set, and a slot
2 in. by 4 in. is provided through the post 6 in. from
the bottom, into which short anchor bars 'can be

BUILDING FENCES 199

placed at right angles to the fence line. All corners
on these posts are rounded off to a ^ in. radius. The
reinforcement consists of four i^ in. round bars 7 ft.
6 in. long. Five of these posts are placed at each
corner on 7 ft. 6 in. centers, thoroughly braced and
tied. The braces used with these corner posts are 8
ft. 2% in. long and 4 in. square, with mitered ends
to fit into the notches provided in the corner posts.
These braces are also reinforced with four i/4 in. round
bars 7 ft. 6 in. long, and all corners are rounded to a
14 in. radius.

' ' The property line posts, which are set on all prop-
erty corners, opposite the beginning and the end of all
curves and at 1,000 ft. intervals on tangents, are 5 in.
square at the top and 7 in. square at the bottom with
a length of 5 ft. They are set in the ground 3 ft.
On one side of the post are moulded the letters *B. R.
& P. By.,' and on the opposite side are the letters
'PROPERTY LINE.' These letters are 2 in. high.
The side of the post with the latter lettering is placed
toward the main track whenever possible. The post
is reinforced with four pieces of % in. twisted steel
bars 4 ft. 6 in. long. The corners of the post are
rounded to a 1 in. radius.

"The concrete whistle posts, which are set on the
engineer's side of the track 1320 ft. from highway
crossings and 7 ft. 6 in. from the near side of the post
to gage side of the near rail, are 9 ft. 6 in. long, 6 in.
wide and 4 in. thick at the bottom and 12 in. wide and
4 in. thick at the top. The latter width is only main-
tained for a length of 151/2 in. to provide room for
the letter 'W. ' These posts are set in the ground
3 ft. 6 in. The letter is 714 in. high, % in. deep and
1^/4 ill- wide and is placed only on one side of the
post, the other side being left blank. This post is
reinforced with four pieces of I/2 in. twisted steel
bars, 8 ft. 2 in. long and the corners are rounded to a

200

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

% in. radiiis. Station whistle posts are identical with
those described except that a line 8 in. long is cast
under the letter 'W. ' These signs are placed i/4 mi.
from stations.

''The concrete mile posts are made in two widths,
one for one or two figures and one for three figures.
The former are 6 in. thick and 12 in. wide and the
latter 6 in. thick and IJ: in. wide. All are 8 ft. 6 in.
long with the upper 4 in. rounded off from the edges
to the center. The figures, which are 6 in. high, are

No. 7 scff sfeef wire.

FeMccPosT.

Fig. 38.

'■ C I.

/'rence oar

^Concrete brace>.

\ ^Corner pas f^\ !

Elevation ofFcs/cc

CoPNEff Post.

Details of Line and Corner Fence Posts
and Braces

set into the posts between two horizontal lines % in.
wide placed 14 in. and 26 in., respectively, from- the
top of the post. Both sides of the post are made the
same. The reinforcement consists of four pieces of
% in. twisted steel bars 8 ft. long and the corners are
rounded to a 1 in. radius. These posts are set 3 ft.
6 in. in the ground, and are placed 10 ft. from the
center of the post to the gage side of the near rail
on the right hand side of the track going south from
Buffalo and Rochester. They are used both on the
main line and branches.

BUILDIXG FENCES 201

* ' A mixture of 1 part cement and 3 parts fine gravel
is used in the fence posts, corner posts, and corner
post braces, while a 1 :2 :4 concrete mixture is used in
the other cases. The fence posts are cast in gang
moulds of 30 each, mounted on trucks. Three of
these batteries are used, giving a capacity of 90 posts
at one pouring. The other posts and signs described
are moulded in wooden forms made of 2 in. surfaced
yellow pine, the parts of the moulds being fastened
together by hinges and hasps in all cases, except the
mile post form, which is clamped in position. In
all cases the forms are constructed so that they can
be readily removed from the posts after the concrete
has set sufficiently, which is about 48 hours. After
removing the posts from the forms they are placed on
end along timber racks outside of the building for
one week to cure properly. During this time they
are sprinkled once a day, or as often as necessary, and
covered to protect them from the action of the
weather. At the end of the week, or when they are
strong enough to permit them to be removed, they are
corded up in a pile ready for shipment. During the
winter they are treated in much the same manner with
the exception that they are not taken out of the build-
ing until thoroughly cured. The building is kept at
an even temperature of 60 deg. After the posts are
removed from the forms, the latter are thoroughly
cleaned and sparingly coated over with fuel oil to
prevent the concrete from sticking to the form when
being removed. In the case of the property line
post and the whistle post the surface of the concrete
is rubbed down to a true, even, uniform surface as
soon as the form is removed, using a small briquette
and clean water. This briquette is made of 1 part
of cement and 2 parts of sand mixed with clean
water.

**The letters used on these posts are V shaped and

202 THE TRACK:MAN'S HELPER

indented into the concrete, the indentation being
painted black in the case of the whistle and mile posts.
An advantage of this type of letter is that it elimi-
nates the necessity for restenciling the posts from time
to time. In the case of the whistle post the letter
*W and the line, when it is used, are fastened to the
bottom of the forms and the post made face down.
The figures and the cross lines on one side of the
mile posts are secured to the forms, while the corre-
sponding depressions for the other side of the posts
are moulded into the concrete from the exposed sur-
face while it is in the form. The weights and de-
tailed cost of manufacture of these various posts
and signs are shown on the accompanying table."

Cost

Material

Cement Aggregate R

einforcement

Weight Amount

Amount Amount

Total

lin.

matl.

Total

lb.

Labor Sacks

Cost

cuft.

Cost

ft. Cost

cost

Fence post. 87.5

$0,055

0.30

$0.07

0.623

$0.02

22.5 $0.09

$0.18

$0.23

Corner post 285

0.18

0.81

0.19

1.90

0.05

30.0 0.12

0.36

0.54

Corner post

brace . .146

0.15

0.355

0.08

0.875

0.03

30.0 0.12

0.23

0.38

Property

line post. 202

0.50

0.29

0.07

1.65

0.05

18.0 0.18

0.30

0.80

Whistle

post . . . .410

1.00

0.41

0.09

2.31

0.07

36.66 0.37

0.53

1.53

12-in. mile

post . . .560

0.80

0.88

0.20

5.64

0.17

32.00 0.32

0.69

1.49

14-in. mile

post . . .690

0.80

1.15

0.26

6.63

0.20

32.00 0.32

0.78

1.58

Method of molding reinforced concrete fence
posts. A reinforced concrete post plant having a
capacity of 400 posts per day is being successfully
operated by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R.
The method of molding fence posts at this plant is
outlined in a paper by ]\Ir. L. J. Hotchkiss, Assistaoit
Bridge Engineer, before the National Association of
Cement Users. It is stated that while not enough

BUILDING FENCES 203

posts have been made to determine the minimum cost
possible, it seems certain that it will be low enough to
compete with the price of cedar posts. The rein-
forced concrete post cannot, however, be so roughly
handled. It is in no sense fragile and has ample
strength to withstand all fence loads, but some care
must be exercised not to cause cracking by throwing
about.

Turning now to the manufacture and use of the
posts, we abstract from Mr. Hotchkiss' paper as fol-
lows: "Figure 39 is a view of the post machine.
The measuring apparatus consists of two hoppers, one
for gravel and one for cement. A small conveyor un-
derneath the hoppers feeds the two materials in proper
proportions into a small elevator boot. From this it
is hoisted by a chain of elevator buckets and dropped
into the mixer at the top of the machine.

"The mixer is a large shallow bowl with a concave
bottom. A number of paddles rotate in this bowl
and mix the concrete, water being sprayed on it from
a perforated pipe. In the bottom of the mixer is a
hole which is closed by a form of gate valve, and
through which concrete is discharged into the molds
below. Under the mixer is a turntable arrangement
which holds four molds at a time. There is also a
jolting device so arranged that as each mold is being
filled it is alternately raised and dropped through a
distance of perhaps an inch. This tamps the concrete
effectually and insures a smooth finish.

"Two forms of reinforcement are used. The one
which was used last year is made from sheets of No.
24 or No. 26 black iron. The sheets are passed
through a machine which cuts out half the reinforce-
ment for a post at each pass. At the same time long
slits are cut in the iron and the edges of the slits
turned up. Two strips of this material are inserted
in the mold to form the reinforcement for one post.

204

THE TRACIO^IAN'S HELPER

'^It has not been altogether satisfactory, however;
if the concrete material is a bit too coarse it does not
run through the slits readily and the posts are not
well filled. The reinforcement also has a tendency
to get out of place during filling and is occasionally
found to be near the center of the post instead of at
the outside.

Fig. 39. View of Concrete Post Machine

*' Figure 40 shows an improved style of reinforce-
ment now coming into use. It is made entirely of
wire, each wire being crimped to insure a bond with
the concrete. The material is shipped knocked down,
as shown at the left of the photograph, and is quickly
made up into the cages shown at the center. The
wires may be of such size as needed to give the re-

Fig. 40. View of Reinforcement for Concrete Posts, Shown
in Bundle for Shipping and Ready for Placing in Mold

205 '

20G THE TRACiaiAN'S HELPER

quired strength. The concrete flows around this re-
inforcement without obstruction.

''As the posts are taken out of the machine they
are placed on a push car. In cold weather they are
stored in the house for a few days before being taken
out of doors. In warm weather they are stored in-
doors or out, as may be most convenient. They are
removed from the molds a day or two after being
made and stored against the heavy timber racks until
ready for shipment or until they are strong enough
to be corded up in piles. For a week after being
removed from the molds they are thoroughly wet
down once a day and in summer they are protected
from the sun by tarpaulins.

''The methods of attaching the wire fencing to the
concrete posts are illustrated by Figs. 41 and 42.

"Figure 41 illustrates the post and also the method
of fastening the wires to the posts. By reference to
the cross sections it will be seen that there is a groove
in one side of the post and that the holes through
the posts are offset, being smaller on the grooved side
of the post. These holes are of such a size that a
ten penny nail can be pushed through them until the
head brings up against the offset. The fence wire
is then placed on top of the projecting end of the
nail and the latter bent up around the wire until its
point is curled back into the groove, thus holding the
wire tight against the post. This work is done with
a small tool which is shown in successive positions in
the upper part of the drawing. This is a very cheap
and effective fastening. One difficulty has developed
in connection with it, however. The pins with which
the holes through the post are made are necessarily
all alike. The post is tapered. As a result the small
part of the hole through which the shank of the nail
passes is longer nearer the bottom of the post than
at the top. Consequently the nails at the top stick

BUILDING FENCES

207

out too far and when bent around the fence wire the
points strike the bottom of the groove and make it
difficult to pull the wire up close to the post. A
tapered strip is now attached to the outside of the
mold under the heads of the pins. It is of such a
thickness that the offset in the holes is a uniform dis-
tance from the grooved side of the post and all nails

P05t-

Post-,

Post-;-

Noil
5troight

Tool-:.

^Wire

Nail
''Half Bent)

Noil
^fuliij dent)

-►

ft-V M'"\

-9

Tool for ro5fening Wire

^^lOd Wire Nail
Cro55 5ectionofPo5t

Fig. 41. Method of Fastening Wire on Grooved Posts

project the correct distance to insure proper fasten-
ing of the wire.

"Another method of fastening the wires is shown
in Fig. 42. It will be seen that the hole through the
post is of uniform diameter and a piece of wire with
one end doubled back is substituted for the nail. The
other end of the wire projects at the back of the post,
and by means of the tool shown this is twisted up
into a cork screw. The fastening has not yet been

208

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

tried out in practice, but its use on an experimental
post seems to indicate that it is simple and efficient.
It was designed for use with a round post having no
groove. As our molds are all grooved, we expect to
use it with this type of post.

*'The post molding machine is made by the Na-
tional Concrete Machinery Co., of Madison, Wis.

Concrete
Post,

Wire-

Fasfenmg Wire ^^^^,^,,^,3,

'•-Reinforcement

Fastening
- Wire

^"■/?5^

^4?

>i / " 1

Eng & Contg

Fig. 42. Method of Fastening Wire on Round Posts

From information furnished by this company we find
that the machine requires three men for its operation,
one man to shovel in the material, one man to take
away posts and put on empty molds, and one to op-
erate the machine. These men, it is stated, should
make 40 posts per hour.

"If operated in a sand pit so as to save the cost
of moving sand the posts should be produced at a
cost of 15 to 20 cts. each, including the five wire re-
inforcement which costs a fraction less than 7 cts.
per post.

> >

XII

GENERAL WINTER WORK

General repairs. There are many kinds of track
work which should be done during the winter months,
all of which are important and assist materially to
lighten and advance the work of the following spring
and summer.

In the early part of the winter, when the cold
weather has contracted the rails, its effect on the
rail joints should be noticed by the foreman ; all loose
bolts should be tightened up, and broken or cracked
joints replaced by good ones.

All open joints should be closed to the proper
space and battered rails taken out of the track and
replaced by good ones.

Cleaning switches and yard tracks, and flanging
out of the main track after snow storms, shimming
track, distributing ties for spring work, opening up
ditches and culverts, etc., all add to the section fore-
man's labor, and it requires a man of good judgment
and energy to keep all of his work done properly at
the right time and place.

If the foreman keeps the loose spikes driven down
to place and good gage on his track, he will be sur-
prised at the splendid line which he can have on his
track the following summer, and trains will ride over
it without that disagreeable side motion of the cars
which spoils the line and surface of his track, and is
not conducive to the comfort of passengers.

Shimming track is a very important kind of win-

209

210 THE TRACK^IAN'S HELPER

ter work on northern railroads, and should be done
with a view to keeping straight track level, smooth
and safe, and the proper elevation of the outer rails
on curves.

Shims are placed under the track rails to raise up
the low places to a good surface. All shims should
have holes bored through them for the track spikes.
This can be done by boring the holes through a block
of straight-grained hard wood, six inches wide by ten
inches long, and splitting off the shims as thick as
needed. On account of the difficulty of finding such
wood in many parts of the countr}?- it is best to have
this work done in shops where odd pieces of timber
may be utilized for making shims, which can be sawed
and bored to better advantage there than on the road.

The top surface of the track tie should be adzed
off level, especially when there is a groove made by
the rail. This is necessary to give the rails a solid
foundation, preserve the correct surface, and prevent
the shims from breaking. Shims should never be
placed lengthwise under the rails, because in that po-
sition they increase the height of the rail without wid-
ening its base.

Where shims are used, rail braces should be applied
against the outside of the rail at every second, third
or fourth tie, in proportion to the height of the shims.

High shimming of track is now obsolete and the
necessity for it should be guarded against by pro-
viding a remedy in the way of improving the ballast,
drainage, etc., to remove the cause of heaving track.

All shimmed track should be watched closely, and
thinner shims be used to replace the thicker ones as
fast as the heaved track settles in the spring. Shims
should not be removed from the track until all heav-
ing has gone down. When the rail under which there
are shims is higher than the track each side of it by
the thickness of the shims, you may remove them as

GENERAL WINTER WORK 211

the heaving has all gone out of the ground. Many
foremen have spoiled nice pieces of track by remov-
ing the shims and tamping the ties as soon as the frost
was out to the bottom of the ties. All good shims,
shim spikes and braces should be put away in the tool
house every spring and saved for use another year.

Heaved bridges and culverts. Pile bridges need
careful watching in the winter season, and whenever
they are found heaved up out of surface or line the
bridge carpenters should be promptly notified. In
some bridges and culverts the piles which have heaved
must be cut off, and that part of the bridge or the
culvert lowered to correspond with the track on either
side of it. Unlike the track in cuts or on fills, some
piles which heave up in the winter do not settle back
to place again when the frost goes out of the ground,
and shims must be put under the caps or stringers
to keep the bridges up to surface during the summer.
The greatest danger is to be apprehended where the
piles in a bridge heave up irregularly, as when only
one or two piles heave in a bent, or when the piles
heave up in opposite corners of two different bents.
This often happens when the piles are driven in deep
water, as the ice which freezes to them lifts them
up and should, therefore, always be cut away by the
trackmen before there is danger of its doing so.

Report amount of snow. Section foremen should
ascertain the condition of the track in their charge
immediately after every snow storm, or wind storm
that is likely to drift snow upon the track, and report
the depth and length of snow drifts in all the cuts
on their sections. It is of the greatest importance
that snow reports be sent promptly by telegraph in
order that the officers of the road may be able to
make necessary preparations to clear the track.

Snow on side tracks. Section foremen should clear
away the snow that has drifted upon side tracks as

212 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

soon as possible after a storm, and the snow on
switches and in frogs and guard rails should be shov-
eled off as necessary. This work should never be de-
layed as trainmen may need to use the switches at any
time.

Snow in cuts. During the winter months when
snow falls or is drifted into cuts to a depth of two
or more feet, section foremen should take their men
just as soon as possible after the storm and remove
from the track sufficient snow at the ends of all drifts
to leave a clean flange and a clear face of snow, at
least eighteen inches deep, at both the approach and
run-out ends of the drift. It is a fact that a great
many engines, when bucking snow, run off the track
when coming out of, or running into a snow drift.
This is generally caused by hard snoAV or ice in the
flanges. On being suddenly relieved of the resistance
of the snow the truck wheels sometimes mount the
rail on a hard flange-way and are derailed.

Flanging track. Whenever the track becomes full
of snow in the winter it is necessary to flange it out.
Most roads now have flanging machines for this pur-
.pose. These devices may be divided into two classes,
those directly attached to the locomotive and those
built into a special car. The former class is obviously
the best and most economical since it does not neces-
sarily require a special train for the purpose of flang-
ing a division, as in the latter class. The Priest
flanger has proved to be a very serviceable device for
removing snow. On this device there is nothing that
can break except the knives, which may suffer if they
strike a metallic obstruction like a guard rail, but can
be readily replaced. If the engineer is careful to raise
the mechanism every time he approaches such an ob-
struction, the knives w411 last until thev wear out.
When the flanger is used the only hand flanging that
the trackmen w^ill have to do will be around frogs and

GENERAL WINTER WORK 213

switches and highway crossings, where the knives of
the Hangers had to be raised. The Priest flanger
has thoroughly flanged track at the head of heavy
freight trains cutting through twelve inches of fairly
hard snow, the trains making nearly schedule time.

Some roads have a proportion of the heaviest loco-
motives in freight service equipped with pilot plows
as soon as winter sets in and leave them on until all
danger from snow is past. These engines, moving
over the line in regular service, keep the track clear
down to within a few inches of the rail. If conditions
are such as to warrant it one of the engines so equipped
can be started over the road light to open up the
track and make fairly good wheeling for following
trains. A helper engine can be added if necessary.

Opening ditches and culverts. On roads where
snow lies on the ground during the winter months, sec-
tion foremen should open up all ditches, culverts, and
other waterways which pass along or under the track.
Culverts, which are apt to be covered with snow in the
winter, can easily be located when the thaw comes, if
a long stake is driven close to the mouth of each
culvert early in the fall of the year before any snow
falls on the ground.

In cuts that are full of snow on each side of the
track, leaving only room enough for trains to pass
through, a ditch should be made in the snow about six
feet from the rail on each side of the track so that
when the water begins to run it will not injure the
track by running over it.

Protect your men. When the line becomes block-
aded and before the snow bucking gang arrives, track-
men should clean the snow from everv alternate rail in
long, deep cuts where it would be likely to stick the
snow plow. A look out should be kept so that the men
in the pits are not caught by the unexpected arrival
of the train. If the amount of snow in a cut is not

214 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

sufficient to stall the type of snow plow used it will be
a waste of time to do this work. By cleaning the
snow from alternate rails, as mentioned, and with two
engines coupled together doing the ' ' bucking, ' ' one
engine will always have a clean rail under it and the
resistance of the snow will not be great enough to stop
the plow, no matter how long the cut may be.

Snow walls. If you have any snow fences for pro-
tection along the cuts on your section, watch them
closely, and whenever you find a fence which has been
drifted full of snow, or nearly so, build with blocks
of snow, taken from the inside face of the drift, a wall
four feet high along the top of the highest part of
the drift. As long as the weather remains cool a wall
built of blocks of snow will give as good protection to a
cut as would the same amount of ordinary snow fence.
Make snow walls strong and thick, and increase their
height on the worst cuts in proportion to the force of
men that can be spared to do the work, and use double
lines of snow wall fifty feet apart where necessary.

Snow fences. On the majority of northern rail-
roads the amount of snow-fall during the winter
months is not so great as to require the building of
snow sheds, but to protect the cuts along the track
from filling with snow, fences are built along the tops
of the cuts at a sufficient distance from the track to
catch the snow when it is drifted and prevent it from
being blown into the cuts and blocking the track.
The efficiency of a snow fence as a protection against
snow depends on its strength, durability, height, how
far it is from the track and the manner in which it is
arranged along the tops of the cuts.

Snow fence is not needed on cuts where heavy timber
or underbrush grows close along each side of the
track, as the only snow in such cuts falls directly upon
the track. But where the ground is level for some dis-
tance from the track, or on a gently rolling prairie,

GENERAL WINTER WORK 215

cuts are likely to fill up with snow if not properly
fenced. Snow fences should be set up at such a dis-
tance from the track that the edge of the snow drift
forming inside of them will not reach within thirty
feet of the track when the fence is drifted full. A
good rule is to set the fence about eleven or twelve
feet from the track for each foot in height of fence ;
the height of snow fence regulating its distance from
the track. If a snow fence is set too far from the
track for its height, the wind, after passing over the
top of the fence, soon strikes the ground on the inside
of the fence and gathers all the snow before it into
the cut, and part of the snow which blows over the
fence is also carried to the track.

Storms from the northwest, north and northeast are
the most prevalent throughout the Northwest, and as
a general rule the north sides of railroads running
east and west and the west sides of roads running
north and south need the most protection from snow.
Where two snow fences are put up on one side of the
track they should run parallel with each other. Un-
less a very large quantity of snow is drifted the out-
side fence will hold it all.

Very good results have been attained by setting out
the snow fence next to the track in the following man-
ner: If the fence is of ordinary height, set it up
seventy-five feet from the nearest track rail. Enough
of the snow fence should run parallel with the track
to reach the full length of the cut and no more. After
this part of the fence is up, turn a wing on each end
of it, approaching the track gradually until the ex-
treme end of each wing extends 100 feet beyond the
end of the cut, at a distance of about fifty or sixty feet
from the track rail.

When a cut ends abruptly on the beginning of a
high fill, the wing on that end of the snow fence
should be turned in toward the track before the end

216 THE TRACiaiAN'S HELPER

of the cut is reached, or at least soon enough to pro-
tect the cut from a quartering- storm. A snow fence
built parallel with the track and without a wing on the
end of it, is of very little use when a storm l)lows
nearly parallel with the track, as much of the snow
on the inside of the fence is apt to be blown into the
cut. New ties which are received for repairs to track
the following spring can be distributed and used ad-
vantageously to make a temporary snow fence on cuts
where needed. The ties may be laid along in line with
their ends lapping each other about one foot. Slats or
pieces of board can then be put across the ends of the
ties where they lap and a new line of ties laid along on
top of them until the snow fence is of the proper
height.

XIII

BUCKING SNOW

General remarks. No one is so well qualified to
buck snow as he who has had some experience at it,
and no man should be trusted with full charge of a
snow plow outfit unless he certainly understands the
best methods to be employed in opening up the road
for traffic after a blockade. The man in charge of a
snow plow outfit should be informed of the exact con-
dition of the road, the depth of snow, the lengths of
drifts, and their location as nearly as possible, before
starting out. Another engine and car, with a con-
ductor, train crew and shoveling gang, should follow
close behind the snow plow during the daytime, and
should be coupled in behind the plow when running
after dark.

The second engine should be used as a helper in
striking deep snow, and to pull out the plow
engine whenever it is stuck fast in a snowdrift. All
cars attached to the helper engine should be left be-
hind on the clear track when both engines run to-
gether to buck a drift of snow. Never allow two en-
gines to buck snow with a caboose or other car be-
tween them, as either arrangement endangers the
lives of the men on the train. There is no necessity
for using two engines behind the snow plow to buck
snow which one engine can throw out. If the snow
is not too hard one good heavy engine and plow will
clear the track of a snow drift three to five feet deep,
and from five to eight hundred feet in length, at one
run.

217

218 THE TUACKLMAN'S HELPER

Two good locomotives coupled together behind the
plow, if managed properly, will remove any snow
which it is advisable to buck. Snow drifts which
are higher than the plow cannot be cleared from
the track successfully without first shoveling the
snow off the top of the drifts. They should be opened
wide enough to enable the plow to throw out of the cut
the snow left in it. When the snow is reported hard
those in charge of snow plow outfits should be very
careful to have their engines and plow in as perfect
condition as possible. They should run no risk ; every
snow drift should be examined before running into it,
and each end should be shovelled out enough to leave
a clean flangeway and a face that will let the plow
enter under the snow. The tendency of hard snow
is to lift the plow up over the top of the drift and
throw the engine off the track. Whenever the ends of
the drifts are not faced as before mentioned there is
always great danger when entering or leaving short,
shallow drifts of hard snow; while on the contrary
there is little or no danger in plowing soft, deep snow
at high speed.

The engines with a snow plow outfit should alwaj^s
take on water and fuel to their full capacity at every
point on the road where a supply can be obtained.
When it is at all probable that progress will be slow
on account of hard or deep snow, a car loaded with
coal should be taken along by the helper engine.

Length of run. In plowing snow the length of run
and the speed of the engine should always be in pro-
portion to the depth and length of the snow drifts. If
the drifts are deep and long, and likely to stick the
plow, a good long run should be taken on the clear
track, so that the plow engine may acquire good speed
before striking the drift.

The engineer of the snow plow engine should sound
the whistle frequently when approaching a cut, so that

BUCKING SNOW 219

section men, if working there, would be warned in time
to get out of the cut. When the snow plow is making
repeated runs for a big snow drift, the signal to come
ahead should never be given until all the snow
shovelers have left the cut. It is very difficult for men
to climb out of a cut where the snow is deep, and many
accidents have occurred where approaching trains have
failed to w^arn the men in time, or where the men have
neglected to look out for the danger until it was too
late.

Preparing drifts. If necessary, very hard snow
should be broken up by the men and the crust thrown
out before striking it with a snow plow. The shock
felt w^ien striking a hard drift is sometimes very
great, and often damages the machinery or knocks the
plow from the track. The force of the concussion may
be materially lessened by having the men clean a good
flangeway, and then shovel out of the face and top of
the drift enough snow to make a gradual incline of
about one foot to the rod. Besides reducing the force
of the shock the above method of preparing a hard
snow drift enables the snow plow to open it for a much
greater distance at a run.

Snow plowing with a plow car ahead of a loco-
motive has been supplanted to a considerable extent
by the improved rotary snow plows, especially when
cuts are deep and long and the snow is hard.

A hot blast gasoline torch for thawing interlocking
connections is made by the Turner Brass Works of
Sycamore, 111.

The tank of the torch is made of heavy gage brass
tubing 2 ins. in diameter and 5 ft. long. There is a
burner at one end of the tube and a gasoline A^alve and
pressure pump at the opposite end. There is also a
controlling valve inside the tube which regulates and
controls the flow of the gasoline. The long tube holds
the gasoline supplied to the burner. The size of the

220 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

blast flame is regulated by the control valve. The
torch and flame can be pointed in any direction de-
sired.

The tank has a capacity of three quarts. The con-
sumption of gasoline is one quart per hour when the
flame is 2 ins. in diameter at the burner and 12 ins.
long. The length of the tool over all is 5 ft. 9 ins.,
and it weighs about 8 lbs. The tool operates on the
same principle as the ordinary gasoline blow torch.
It gives a heat production equal in amount to that of
six ordinary blow torches.

For removing snow and ice from railwaj^ tracks, es-
pecially around the movable portions of the track ac-
tuated by interlocking plants, these torches will prove
very useful and economical. Following a recent severe
sleet and rain storm in Chicago and vicinity, which
froze up the movable parts of railway tracks, a single
torch of the character here described was sufficient to
take care of the large number of switches in the
Chicago' transfer yard of the Chicago Great Western
R. R. The work formerly done by five or six men by
old methods was, in this case, performed by one man
with one of these torches.

The torch is also well adapted to thawing frozen
water pipes and hydrants. It is also useful in melt-
ing the lead out of bell and spigot joints on water
mains where a section or two of pipe must be removed
for any cause. The device possesses other obvious
fields of application, particularly on construction op-
erations in cold weather.

XIV

LAYING OUT CURVES

Geometrical properties. Curves are spoken of as
being of a certain degree or radius. The radii of
curves are inversely proportional to the degrees of
their curvature. The radius corresponding to any
degree may be found approximately by dividing 5730
(the radius of a 1 degree curve) by the degree of
curve.

Hence the radius of a 5 degree curve = 5730 ^- 5
= 1146.

This rule is very close for radii of not less than 500
feet.

The middle ordinate of a chord is the perpendicular
distance from the middle of the chord to the curve ;
thus M N, Fig. 43, is the middle ordinate of the chord
CD.

The middle ordinate may be found, approximately,
by dividing the square of the chord by eight times the
radius.

The chord deflection (in feet )of a 100 foot chord
may be ascertained (exactly) by dividing 10,000 by the
radius in feet. The tangent deflection is one half the
chord deflection.

To lay out a curve by offsets. In Fig. 43 the line

H C subtends the angle formed by the tangent A B

produced to H, with the chord B C, and is called the

tangent deflection. The line I D, which subtends the

angle formed by the chord B C produced to I, with

the chord C D, is called the chord deflection. The

221

RADII, ORDINATES AND DEFLECTIONS FOR 100 FEET

CHORDS.

Mid.

Tang.

Chord

Deg.

Rad.

Old

Deflec,

Deflec.

D M.

FT.

IN.

FT.

IN.

FT.

IN.

34377

0'/l6

3V^

17189

31/2

11459

i-yi6

51/4

101/2

8594

6875

2%6

57A6

5730

101/2

8l-yi6

4911

31/16

0%6

07/16

4297

31/2

3iyi6

3820

3i-yi6

311/16

77A6

3438

5^A6

107^

3125

4l%6

7%6

2865

5V4

81%6

57/6

2645

5IV10

IOII/16

9§6

2456

61^

07/16

o7^

2292

69/16

2^16

2149

31%6

77/6

2022

77/16

5II/16

11%6

1910

77^6

2iyi6

1810

8-yi6

9%6

6^i6

1719

107,6

9iyi6

1637

9%6

OII/16

iyi6

1563

1495

lOVic

81/4

1433

IOV2

57^

11%

1375

10%

31/4

1322

11^16

1274

111%G

111/6

101/4

1228

0^16

07/6

1186

011/16

5%6

1146

11^

8iyi6

1109

IV2

6I/16

oyi6

1075

71%6

31V16

1042

9%6

71/6

1012

11%6

10%

983

31/4

11A6

2%6

955

311/16

2l^i6

930

41^

49i6

9V6

905

4%6

6^16

0«/i6

882

860

57/16

71/2

839

111/2

222

RADII, ORDINATES AND DEFLECTIONS FOR 100 FEET

CHORDS' — Continued.

Deg.

Rad.

Mid.
Old.

Tang.
Deflec.

Chord
. Deflec.

D. M.

FT.

IN.

FT.

IN.

FT.

IN.

819

6%6

11/4

21/2

800

782

7%6

43/4

91/2

765

6I/2

748

81/16

8I/4

47/16

732

8V2

717

8l%o

11%

117/16

702

1%6

27/8

688

913/16

3%6

675

101/4

415/16

97,^

662

1011/16

611/16

649

111/^

87/16

41%G

637

11%6

10%

85/16

625

11%

1113/16

615

OV16

31/4

604

63/4

593

15/16

51^

101/4

583

67^

III/16

574

2%6

53/16

546

3I/2

iiyi6

35^

522

41%3

499

61^

01/4

01/2

478

7Vi6

57/16

107^

459

■^ 2

83/4

10%

91/4

442

101/16

37^

711/16

425

11%

9116

61/8

410

011/16

21/4

41/2

396

77/16

27^

383

3^16

11/4

371

51^16

11%

359

5i%e

/- 30

348

71/4

4^16

338

93^

320

111/4

37/16

303

6I/16

01/^

288

41/2

83/4

274

71/^

2II/16

262

93/4

251

oyi6

111/4

101/2

240

31/16

91/2

231

31/2

223

224

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

number of degrees in the angle I C D, expresses the
degree of the curve when the chord is 100 ft.

In the table of Radii, ordinates for a curve contain-
ing odd minutes can be readily calculated by simple
proportion. Having these respective distances, any
intelligent foreman can trace a curve on the ground
with tolerable accuracy, especially where the ground
is favorable.

Suppose it be required to lay out in this manner, a
four degree curve : — First, find from the table the
tangent deflection, H C, corresponding to a four-de-
gree curve, viz, 3 feet 5% inches, and also the chord

Fig. 43. Elements of Railroad Curve

deflection, I D, or K E, 6 feet ll^ inches. Then from
the starting point, B, and in line with A B, measure B
H, equal to 100 feet, and mark the point H. Swing
the tape around toward B C, keeping the end at B
fixed, at the same time measure from the point H the
tangent deflection 3 feet 5% inches, and place a
stake at C for the first point on the curve. Then
make C I equal to 100 feet, putting a peg at I, in line
with those at B and C. Swing the tape around until
I D is equal to the chord deflection, 6 feet 11% inches.
Place a stake at D for the second point on the curve.
In the same manner continue the chord deflection
until the end of the curve is reached at E.

LAYING OUT CURVES 225

In order to pass from the curve at E to the next
tangent, E G, make E L equal to 100 feet, and put in a
peg at L in line with those at D and E. Swing the
tape around until F L is equal to the tangent deflec-
tion. Then will a line passing through E and F be
tangent to the curve at E,

Difference in length between the inner and outer
rails of a curve. There are three different methods
for finding this difference : 1st. The difference in
length may be taken at 1%2 inches, per degree of
curve per 100 feet.

Example : — To find the difference in length between
the inner and outer rails on 600 ft. of 10 degree curve.
Here 10 x 1%2 x 6 == 5.154 ft.-=5 ft. 1% inches.

2d. Divide the distance from center to center of the
rails (ordinarily 4 feet 11 inches, or 4.9167 feet) by the
radius of the curve, and multiply the result by the
length of the curve in feet.

Example : — Taking the same example 600 ft. of 10
deg. curve, (4.9167-^573.7) x 600 = 5.142 ft.=:5 ft.
1% inches.

3d. Multiply the excess for a whole circumference,
by the total number of degrees in the curve, and divide
the product by 360. The excess for the whole circum-
ference, no matter what the degree of curve, is equal to
twice the distance between rail centers multiplied by
3.1416.

Where the distance between rail centers is 4 feet 11
inches, the excess for a whole circle is 30.892 feet.

Example : — Taking the same example 600 feet of 10
deg. curve (30.892 x 600) -^ 360 = 5.148 ft.== 5 ft.13/4
inches.

For the easier curves that are laid to exact gage the
first method is the simplest. On sharper curves, where
the gage is widened, or for narrow gage lines, use the
second method, or prepare a table by the third method.

ELEVATION OF CURVES

General remarks. The rails on straight track are
kept level so that the weight of trains may be borne
equally by both rails and to insure easy riding for
trains. If one rail were lower than the other it would
receive more than half the load, which would cause the
ends of the ties on that side to sink still lower in the
roadbed and then, because resting on an incline, the
track would be moved to the lower side and out of line
by the swinging of trains. The same is true, of course,
if the weight on one rail is greater than the other ; the
line and surface of the track will soon show kinks and
swings.

Centrifugal force. AYith a train standing still on a
curve the rails must be level for each to bear half the
w^eight, but when the train begins to move some extra
weight will be thrown on the outer rail by the centri-
fugal force, which develops with the speed of the train.
This centrifugal force is the resistance offered by all
moving bodies to anything which may be interposed to
change their course from a straight line, and may be
illustrated by throwing a stone at a board set at an
angle of say 45 degrees. If the stone misses the board
it will move onward in a straight line until forced to
the ground by the attraction of gravity. But if it
strikes the board it is deflected from its course and the
dent made in the board shows in a way the amount of
force offered by the stone in resisting the effort of the

board to change its course to that extent. On rail-

226

ELEVATION OF CURVES 227

roads, the curves are made long and as easy as pos-
sible, so that the destructive force shown by the impact
of the stone against the board may be considerably re-
duced by distributing it over several hundred feet of
track.

Centripetal force. This lengthening of the curve
being insufficient, the outer rail of the curve is elevated
so that the centripetal force set up thereby may
counteract the remaining centrifugal force. The
centripetal force in this case is simply the force of
gravity, which tends to tip the leaning cars over to-
ward the inside of the curve. Now, when the curve is
elevated so that these two forces exactly balance each
other, the weight of a moving train will be supported
equally by the two rails. If the elevation of a curve
is just right for a speed of forty miles per hour, it is
evident that trains running sixty miles per hour will
press laterally against the outer rail, and if this pres-
sure be great it may throw the track out of line or
spread the rails. On the other hand, with trains run-
ning only twenty miles per hour the weight would be
greatest on the lower rail, and while it would tend to
depress the rail still more, and perhaps develop swings
when the ballast is weak, it would not spread the
track.

Effect of speed on elevation. The elevation neces-
sary on curves depends on the speed and on the de-
gree of curve. For instance, if a four-degree curve re-
quires 7 inch elevation for speed of fifty miles per
hour, for a speed of twenty-five miles per hour it would
require^mot 3I/2 inches but only 1% inches to balance
the weight of trains. This may be illustrated by Fig.
44.

A weight B is suspended from a rigid support S by
a cord A. By giving the weight a circular motion it
will describe a circle C around a center E, and the
angle of the cord A B will show what elevation would

£jl41£ujd^

Fig. 44.

Effect of Speed on Elevation of Curves
228

ELEVATION OF CURVES 229

be required if the circle C were a track in order to dis-
tribute the weight of B if it were a car bearing equally
on both rails at a given speed ; that is, the level of the
rails should be at right angles to the line S B to give
the curve the proper elevation for the rate of speed
at which the weight B moves around the circle. Sup-
pose that circle C represents a four-degree curve and
the inner circle D. with but half the radius of C, repre-
sents an eight-degree curve. Now, if the weight B
moves around the outer, or four-degree, curve, in say
four seconds, it will revolve in continually decreasing
circles, but always in the same period of time, and will
move around the inner circle, or the eight-degree curve,
in four seconds also. But the inner circle being but
one-half the circumference of the outer, it follows that
the speed of the weight is reduced one-half. The posi-
tion of the dotted line shows that the angle of the
cord from the perpendicular has been reduced one-
half also, and this indicates that the elevation of curve
D should be one-half that of curve C. Now suppose
weight B is a car traveling around four-degree curve C
at fifty miles per hour, and the angle of the cord S B
shows that an elevation of 7 inches is necessary to
bring the level of the rails to a right angle with the
cord, then when the car moves around eight-degree D
it is going at the rate of twenty-five miles per hour,
and the elevation necessary, as shown by dotted line, is
half that of the outer curve, or 3l^ inches ; and, if an
eight-degree curve should be elevated Sy^ inches for a
speed of twenty-five miles per hour, a four-degree
curve should be elevated only 1% inch for the same
speed, as^reviously stated.

It requires more than a passing thought to under-
stand the two elements that must be considered in cal-
culating elevation. One is increase of speed and the
other increase of curvature. In one case elevation
should increase in exact proportion to the increase of

230 THE TRACKISIAN'S HELPER

curvature where the rate of speed is the same. In the
other, if the speed is increased say two times, the ele-
vation shoukt be increased four times where the curva-
ture is the same. This explains the reason for giving
such light elevation in yards and other places where
the speed does not exceed twenty-five miles per hour,
in proportion to the elevation given main tracks when
the speed is fifty miles per hour. In fact, some roads,
while giving liberal elevation on main line curves,
allow little or none in yards.

How to calculate the elevation. While .the theory
of elevation is easily understood, the application in
practice brings in the speed factor, which is more or
less uncertain, as trains will run at different speed.
The practice is to elevate for the highest speed at
which trains are to be run over the particular piece of
track, and if the curvature requires an elevation be-
3'ond the prescribed maximum (some roads specify 6"
and others 8") the only alternative is to reduce the
speed of the fastest trains.

The correct rule, deduced from Mechanics, is

E =

32.16 R

the result being in feet or fractions of a foot. V^
means the square of the velocity in feet per second.
This should be multiplied by g, the gage, which in this
case is the distance between points supporting the
wheels, or from the center of one rail head to the
center of the other, say 5 feet, instead of 4' Sy^", and
the result, divided by the product of 32.16, which
represents the intensity of force of gravity, multiplied
by R, or radius of the curve in feet, will be the eleva-
tion expressed in feet, or fraction of a foot. That
the rule may be understood by all, the following ex-
amples are made as plain as possible.
Example : — ^What elevation should be given a four-

ELEVATION OF CURVES 231

degree curve for a speed of sixty miles per hour? In
this case the velocity is 88 feet per second and the
radius of this curve 1433 feet; therefore, 88 is multi-
plied by 88, and the result by the gage 5 feet t= 38720 ;
this is divided by 32.16 multiplied by radius 1433 =
46085

38720 .- ,^. .

ft. = 10 inches.

46085

What elevation should be given a four-degree curve
for a speed of thirty miles per hour, velocity 44 feet
per second?

44 X 44 X 5 = 9680

32.16 X 1433 = 46085

ft. = 2 i/o inches.

In this example the result follows closely the prac-
tice of trackmen who give I/2 inch per degree for a
speed of thirty miles per hour, but in the former ex-
ample the result, 10 inches, for a four-degree curve for
a speed of sixty miles per hour is more than it is good
practice to put in the track not only because the curve
resistance for the slower trains and the wear on the
low rail would be excessive, but because the center of
gravity of any cars or locomotives that happen to stop
on the track would be too far in. Consequently, if the
maximum elevation allowed is eight inches the speed
around the four-degree curve should be reduced to
about fifty-two miles per hour, and if the maximum
elevation permitted is six inches the speed should be
reduced to forty-seven miles per hour.

Curving rails. Bend or curve the rail through its
entire length until the middle ordinate of the rail
equals as many quarter inches as there are degrees in
the curve for which you are preparing it. To ascer-
tain this, stretch a string between the extreme points
of the rail on the gage side and measure the distance
from the center of the string to the gage side of the

232

THE TIUCKMAN'S HELPER

rail at its center. For foremen who have not had
much practice in curving rails it is best to also meas-
ure the distance from the string to the rail at the quar-
ters, seven and one-half feet from the end of a 30-foot
rail, and this distance should be three-quarters of what
it is at the center of the rail. By measurements taken
at the quarters it is generally easy to detect a kink
in the rail, which should always be taken out. Rails
which have a true curve will hold their place in the
track ready for spiking. The more accurate the curve
of rails, the less the amount of Jining that the track
will need afterward.

Table of elevation of outer rail on curves in inches.

Degree

of
Curve

Speed in Miles per Hour

w m w w w oj

O <U O 0) o o

1 "s 's '1 i 's

C lO O lO O lO
(M (M CC CO rr -^

• l-H

• rH

1 ....

2 .. .

• %

. %

• %
1

178

iy4

lys
2y8

2%
2%

2ys
3y8

ly.

2y8

3y4
334

4y8

iy8

2%
3

31/2
4ys
4%
5%
syg

%
1%
2%
3y4
4

4y8
5%

iy8
2y8
3y8
4y4
5y4

lys
2%
4

1%
3y4
4%

2%
4%

3 ...

7y8

4 .. .

5 .. .

sy^

6 ....

61/4

7 ...

8 .. .

61/0

9 ...
10 . . .

7y4
sys

11 . . .

6yo

12 .. ..

7y8

XoTE^ — The figures above the heavy black line are the ones
ordinarily used in practice.

ELEVATION OF CURVES

233

Rail benders. There are two general types of rail
benders, one operated by the section men by hand and
the other by power mounted on a flat car, the rails
being pulled through the bender from another flat car
to a car on which they are stored or from which they
are distributed upon the ground for laying. The
power for doing the pulling may be obtained either
from the locomotive or a hoisting engine mounted on

t:£H

Fig. 45. Vaughan Rail Bender

another car. The common tj^pe of curver consists of a
semicircular steel yoke, a strap connecting the jaws of
the yoke and a plunger between the yoke and the strap,
whose position can be regulated by a threaded end
which passes through the yoke and a nut abutting
against it. The curving is accomplished by the pres-
sure upon the side of the rail of three wheels, two of
which are located at the intersections of the strap and
the yoke, and the third is carried by the plunger. The

234

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

rails are pulled between tliese wheels, the amount of
curve being" regulated by the position of the plunger.

With one of these machines, described in the Decem-
ber 18, 1914 number of the Railway Age Gazette, it
was found that 20 rails per hour or 200 per day could

Fig. 46. Superior Reversible Rail Bender

be curved at an expense of about $40 per day or $0.20
for a 33-ft. rail. The force required for operation was
eight men and a foreman, assisted by a locomotive.
For curving rails in very large quantities a more eco-
nomical method would be to utilize a platform with a

ELEVATION OF CURVES 235

Middle ordinates in inches for curving rails.

Degree

Radius

Length of Rails

in Feet

of Curve

in Feet

0° 30'

11459.

5/64

1/16

%4:

1°00'

5730.

V4.

1° 30'

3820.

2%4

7/b

?i6

5/^2

2° 00'

2865.

3-/64

19b

1%2

11/32

1%4

1?64

2° 30'

2292.

4%4

1%2

3%4

■^16

21/^64

17/^4

3° 00'

1910.

5%4

4%4

3%4

17/b

7/16

5/i6

3° 30'

1637.

27/b

47/64

3%4

7^6

4° 00'

1433.

1 %4

61/64

5%4

23^2

1%2

27/64

4° 30'

1274.

1 %2

1 I/16

5%4

51/64

43/^64

9/46

15/b

5° 00'

1146.

127/64

1 %6

1 1/^2

57/64

41/^64

17/k

5" 30'

1042.

1 %6

11%4

1 Vs

6?^64

27/b

45/64

37^4

6° 00'

955.4

12%2

113/b

1 7/32

1 I/16

2%2

4%4

6° 30'

881.9

1 %

117/.52

111/^2

1 %2

63^64

53/64

ii/ie

7° 00'

819.0

141/64

1 7/16

1 V4.

1 I/16

57/64

47/64

7° 30'

764.5

2%4

1 %

117/32

121/64

1 Vs

61/^64

25/b

8° 00'

716.8

2 %2

157/64

141/64

127/64

11%4

1 1/64

27/b

8° 30'

674.7

22%4

147/64

13%4

117/64

1 5^64

57/64

9° 00'

637.3

2 9/l6

2%2

127^2

11%2

111/^2

1 %4

15/16

9° 30'

603.8

24%4

2 1/4

161/64

III/16

127/64

1 7/b

10° 00'

573.7

22%2

223/64

2 3/64

125/32

1 V2

117/k

1 ^64

11°

521.7

3 %4

21%2

2 1/4

161/64

14%4

11%2

1 %2

12°

478.3

327/64

253/64

215,^2

2%4

11^16

117/b

117/k

13°

441.7

3^%4

3 ^64

22i,b

21%4

161/64

121/^2

12%4

14°

410.3

36%4

31%4

2 Vs

231/64

2?'32

12%2

115/^2

15°

383.1

417/64

335/64

3 5/64

243/64

2 1/4

12%2

137^4

16°

359.3

43%4

3 %

3 %2

253/64

21%2

2%4

14%4

17°

338.3

427,^2

331/64

3 V32

2 9/16

2 %2

12%2

18°

319.6

5 Vs

4 7/^2

343/64

3%6

245/64

3 %2

1 Vs

19°

302.9

51%2

42%4

357/64

323/64

255/64

21%2

16%4

20°

287.9

5^3/64

445/64

4 %2

335/64

235/64

2%2

21°

274.4

531/32

45%4

4 %2

345/64

3 %4

221/^2

2%6

22°

262.0

6 1/4

5 5^2

4 1/2

32%2

31%4

251/64

21%4

23°

250.8

633/64

513/32

4II/16

4 1/16

3 7/16

25%4

225/64

24°

240.5

61%6

5 Vs

457/64

4 1/4

31%2

3 1/b

2 1/3

25°

231.0

7%4

55%4

5%2

41%2

347/64

3 5/^2

21%2

26°

-^22.3
214.2

7 %

6 5/64

51%4

437/64

3 Vs

3 %2

245/64

27°

7 %

6%2

531/64

4 %

4 1/64

31%2

251/64

28°

206.7

75%4

635/04

54%4

415/16

411/64

317/^2

22%2

29°

199.7

81%4

64%4

557/64

5 %2

421/64

341/64

30°

193.2

81%2

6%2

5 1/4

431/04

31%6

3 7/64

236 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

hoist for unloading and loading the rails and a hoist-
ing engine between drums and cables for pulling them
through the curver.

Directions for use of the Vaughan rail bender.
Seat the device squarely on top of the rail, over the
splice, with the slots in the legs at center of splice.
Insert the lifting bar in leg slots. Turn up screw
until rail and splice are straight.

For straightening bent splices not in track, bolt the
splice to two ends, forming a complete joint, and pro-
ceed as above.

For use as an ordinary rail bender, lay the device
on its side with the legs over and under the rail. In-
sert bearing blocks, and turn up screw.

A few drops of oil on the screw will very materially
lessen the labor of operation.

Printed information for foremen. On all curves it
is good practice to have plainly printed signs showing
the degree of the curve on one side and the proper ele-
vation therefor on the other side. If for any reason
it is not possible for the engineers to give center line
stakes for relining curves and to set these markers giv-
ing the exact location of point of curve and any change
in its degree, the next best plan is to furnish the fore-
man with a record of the curves on his section and the
elevation for each. This may be in pamphlet form
convenient to carry with him at all times, such as
shown in Fig. 47, page 237. The column ''gage"
should show the exact gage to maintain ; that is, if
there is any departure from the standard, on ac-
count of widening for the curve.

ELEVATION OF CURVES

537

l_ .fit «(. 0^«-*-C3 60 S CC ^ .

L.i* oj C^r^^

ieC"©**

£Z*-» J-tr^ - a ♦"

Ho .

NtlkR;

Oe«Kt.K.

G-c. -—

W C: Al^

DCCR^tE,

0*>ce

/?Pfifioy£^l

/^/>/>jeoy£/?l^

r-^'^^^ )

/f 7Trv>^ }

Fig. 47. J^ist of Curves on a Section.

XVI

LINING CURVES

One method of lining. Select any part of a curve
track which seems to be in the best line for a distance
of at least 60 feet, but do not begin at the point of a
curve unless you know positively that the curve turns
off from the straight track without leaving a swing in
the line.

Set two stakes accurately in the center of the track,
60 feet apart, and one in the center of the track at
the middle of the 60 feet. These three points are
shown in Fig. 48 by the letters A, B and C. Now
stretch a cord tight from A to C, and measure from
the center of the cord indicated by M to the center
stake, B. The result should be your guide as a middle
ordinate for the balance of the curve in either direc-
tion from where you commence work. We will sup-
pose this middle ordinate to be four inches. You
next move the cord 30 feet ahead in the direction in
which you wish to line, stopping at B with the end
you had first at A, and holding the end of the cord
which was at C in your hand until its center is directly
opposite and distant just four inches from the track
center, at C. You may then set track center D at the
end of the cord which you hold in your hand. This
process may be carried on until you have set track
centers for the whole curve.

After you have set the track centers for the whole

curve, procure a gage which is square and true, and

mark on the gage, with some sharp instrument, the

238

LINING CURVES

239

correct center between track rails or middle of the
gage. Place this gage on the track between the rails
and over the track center where you wish to begin lin-
ing the rails to place. Then have your men move the
track with their lining bars until the center, as marked
on the gage, comes directly over the track center
point on the stakes. Move the track in this manner

Fig. 48. The Letters A, B, C, to G are Track Centers of
a Curve 30 Feet Apart; A C is a 60-Foot Line with which
to Ascertain the Middle Ordinate; B M Shows Where
the Measurements Should Be Taken to Find the Middle
Ordinate.

at every point where you have set a center stake, and
then go back over it again, taking out any kinks or
other defects left in the line, and you will have a
splendid and a true curved line on your track.

Care should be taken not to make any mistakes in
measuring the middle ordinates, or in setting the track
centers. It will pay to take your time and do the job
well, because if properly done (like well surfaced

240 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

track) it will need to be retouched only in spots after-
wards.

By commencing at a rail joint, this method of lining
a curve may also be applied to the gage side of the
rails, and any defects in the track line can be taken
out by moving the rails to place as you go, but the
work will not be as accurate nor as reliable as by the
process first given. If the rails are 33' long, use a 66
foot cord or string.

Effect of locomotive and car wheels on curve track.
Car wheels which are badly worn on the tread, or
close to the flanges, or have the flanges worn sharp,
are not safe when passing over switches if there is the
slightest ''lip" on the rails. They are dangerous also
on battered rails, or going around sharp curves, where
they are likely to climb the rails and leave the track.
Wheels of the kind mentioned have a tendency to hug
the rail on their side of the track, and as a conse-
quence make a considerable wear along the gage side
of the head of the rail. They also wear spots along
the top surface of the outer rail on curves, because, the
circumference of the wheel being the same or worn
smaller at the flange than at the outside, the wheel
must slip by a certain amount in proportion to the
degree of curvature, in order to travel as fast as the
wheel on the inside rail. When the driving wheels of
an engine are allowed to run too long without being
turned off, the groove worn in the tire often causes
considerable damage to track before the cause is
known. Badly worn driving wheels are likely to break
the points and wing rails of frogs and cause excessive
wear on the stock rails when passing over switches.

Run off. If the curve in the track is a portion of
the arc of a circle, it has the same radius right from
the point of beginning on the tangent, and conse-
quently should have full elevation at the point of
curve as at any other part of it. To insure easy riding

LINING CURVES 241

the elevation must commence on the tangent and in-
crease regularly until the curve is reached. It is good
practice to run the elevation out fifty (50) feet on the
tangent for each inch of elevation. Thus a curve re-
quiring four inch elevation would have the four inches
at the point of curve, running out to nothing at a
point two hundred (200) feet back on the tangent.

Easements. The practice of running the elevation
out on the tangent as above mentioned is not all that
may be desired but is the best that can be done when
the curve is of the same degree throughout, or, in other
words, is a circular curve. To insure easy riding,
especially for fast trains, a ''spiral" or "easement
curve" should be applied to join the tangent with the
circular curve. There are several kinds of easements,
the principle being that the curve will have a radius
varying from infinity at the point of spiral down to the
radius of the circular curve at the point where the
main curve begins. This permits running the eleva-
tion in the same proportion, the elevation increasing
just as the degree of curve increases until full eleva-
tion is attained where the main or circular curve is
reached. The application of spirals or easements in
relining curves which were staked out as arcs of circles
in the first place is quite complicated and should not
be undertaken by trackmen. If it be desired to put
spirals on curves, the engineers will have to be called
upon to do it, and a record can then be kept of just
what change is made.

XVII

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS

Track work. The winter should find trackmen in
the mountains well prepared for the most exacting
part of the year's work. The ditches should be
cleaned out and all loose rock should be barred down
from overhanging walls ; otherwise, later, they may be
dislodged by the expansive force of ice or by the weight
of snow, and roll upon the track. If the cut ends ab-
ruptly at a deep fill, the ditch should be extended away
from the track along the side of the hill in order to
prevent the water cutting unsightly holes in the grade
at the end of the cut. At many places the cut is on
one side only, the other side being a fill, and where
the formation above the track is loose rock, gravel and
dirt, this material is very apt to slide down when wet.
In such cases the dirt must be cleared from the track
and cast down the side of the fill. After a time this
fill becomes so wide at this point that the material can
no longer be cast over the bank, but must be carried
part of the way. This is a very costly manner of
doing the work, for it becomes necessary to use wheel-
barrows or ditching machines and employ work serv-
ice, so that the material can be loaded up and wasted
on some narrow fill. When large rocks are to be
barred out or rolled down, they may be made to roll
across the track and down the fill on the other side
by laying an inclined platform of ties over the ditch
next to the hill. But if for any reason the success of
this plan is doubtful or if the walls of the cut rise on

242

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 243

both sides of the track, such large rocks should be
blasted before being moved, so that the track may
not be obstructed with rocks too large to handle. In
all cases the rails below the rock should be pro-
tected by ties; if the rock is to be rolled, the ties
should be laid along each rail on the side next to the
cut, but if blasting is to be done a row of ties should
be laid along each side of each rail for forty or fifty
feet near the point where the largest rocks are expected
to fall; if sufficient ties are not at hand to do this a
single row laid on top of the rails may do, but in this
case there is no danger of a tie being displaced by one
stone and leaving the rail exposed to damage by a
heavier one coming after. If ties are not to be had,
poles may be cut and substituted. All such rock work
should of course be done under the protection of
flags.

Cross drains should be cleared out, and if the lower
ends empty on loose sand or soil they should be filled
around with rock to prevent washing or undermining
the drains. All loose, coarse rocks projecting above
the ties in the track should be removed before winter
sets in, otherwise they may become displaced and roll
on the packed snow or ice between the rails and be
caught by pilot, snow plow or flanger.

Protection against snow. Every road crossing a
mountain range maintains an expensive system of
snow fences and snow sheds. At the higher altitudes,
on account of the excessive amount of snowfall, fences
are ineffective and sheds are built over cuts and other
places where the snow is likely to cause trouble, while
the fills are generally left exposed because the winds
may be depended upon to keep them clear. Where the
elevation is low great snow fences are in a measure
depended upon to keep the snow from drifting upon
the track. The point of elevation at which fences are
no longer effective and sheds are necessary varies

244 THE TRACKIVIAN'S HELPER

greatly in different parts of the country, and must be
determined by experience in each particular case.
Sheds and board fences are usually built by the car-
penter forces, but trackmen are generally expected to
look after them and do light repairs, remove grass and
other combustible material from sheds, and see that
water barrels are kept filled. Before winter sets in
salt should be furnished and about two common water
pailfuls of it should be put in each barrel, which
amount is sufficient to prevent the water from freezing
hard enough to injure the barrels. Before putting in
fresh salt the barrel should be thoroughly cleaned out.

Clear rails of ice. Particular attention should be
given to keeping the rails in snow sheds and tunnels
free from ice in winter.

Making snow fences. (See also the chapter on
"Winter Work.) Sometimes trackmen are required to
make snow fences out of poles where timber is con-
venient. If the ground is not rocky a good fence may
be made by beginning at one end and setting an up-
right forked post: then lay one end of a pole on the
ground the other projecting through the fork of the
post. The poles should be about twenty feet long, and
the upper end should be about eight feet above the
ground. After setting the first pole in position, drive
cross stakes about four feet from the upright post so
that they will lap over the inclined pole ; then lay an-
other pole in the crotch thus formed by the stakes
and repeat the process until the fence is finished. The
cross stakes may be made from the tops of the branches
of the poles cut. This makes a good snow fence, but
requires a good deal of work.

The portable snow fence similar to that shown in
Fig. 49 is about the best form of snow fence in use
today where the snow conditions are not too severe.

The rotary plow and Sanger. The modern rotary
snow plow and Sanger have made obsolete the old

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 245

snow plow and "snow bucking" outfit, which were al-
ways costly and hardly ever effective in keeping the
mountain passes open for anything like regular serv-

I"x6"x 16 -O

a X 5" Bolt

^Diagonal
ix6"xa-o"

',^'1

("2 per Sect)

I"x6"x J6'

i6fT Sections

Fig. 49. Portable Snow Fence

ice. If the rotary plow and flanger are kept moving
over the line during a storm the section men will have
little snow shoveling to do except at switches, station

246 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

platforms and snow slides. Turntables on the passes
are usually housed in and require no attention.

Water supply. There is sometimes trouble about
keeping up the flow of water to the tanks. Those lo-
cated in the mountains are generally supplied by
gravity ; that is, there is an underground pipe line up
some stream to a point w^liere the intake or upper end
of the pipe is higher than the tank. The line is
usually laid so deep that there is little danger of freez-
ing, but as an additional precaution the lower end is
provided with a waste pipe arranged so that when the
tank is full a valve in the lower end of the pipe line is
opened and the water flows out through a waste pipe
until the water in the tank is lowered by engines to a
certain point, when the valve is again closed. By this
arrangement water is always flowing through the pipe
line, and the likelihood of its freezing up reduced ; but
the box or housing at the upper end is often broken or
filled wdth sand during a freshet and should be
promptly dug out and repaired. It is a very diffi-
cult matter to so protect the upper end of the pipe
as to admit water freely and still keep out sand and
silt.

Expansion. The contraction of rails on mountain
roads in the winter does not seem to be greater than
on other lines. This is probably accounted for by the
fact that while the temperature falls very low in the
winter it does not rise high in the summer, so that the
range is not excessive. This fact should not be lost
sight of in track laying, or relaying steel. The
greater the altitude the less expansion needed if the
rails are laid in the summer. The rails do not absorb
the heat of the sun and become so much hotter than
the temperature of the air as they do at lower alti-
tudes. At some passes the thermometer never rises
above 80 degrees, and in such places steel laid when
the temperature reaches this point would need no al-

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 247

lowance for expansion, because whatever movement
takes place must be in the way of contraction. Yet
steel is sometimes laid in the mountains with the same
allowance for expansion required by rules intended
and accepted as correct for use in other climates.
Where this is done the contraction during the nights,
which are always cold in the mountains, and in winter,
is so great that the joints are pounded down and rail
ends battered by the wheels, and frequently the bolts
are broken and the rails pulled apart.

When curves are numerous the "butting back"
process should begin at the short rails, if any, at each
end of the curve on the inner line of rails, and the
closing up process should be done with a view to taking
out these rails and using longer ones. When reverse
curves are close together, by changing rails on the in-
side of one curve the expansion may sometimes be
adjusted on the outer rail of the next curve.

Washouts. In the spring mountain roads are sub-
ject to considerable damage from washouts. These
occur not only along water courses, but also in the
valleys where the ground is comparatively level and
where the track may be at some distance from the
stream. A peculiarity of mountain streams is that
they rarely cover any considerable territory. There
are points where clouds seem to gather or form, and
sometimes the fall of water at these places may amount
to two or three inches in a few minutes. The down-
pour of the^ so-called "cloudbursts" is something
tremendous, and of course in such a case the nearest
stream is changed in a short time into a torrent, along
whose bed are rolled enormous boulders, which strike
and break off bridge piles as if they were pipe stems.
At other times a cloud may leave some peak or range
and, swelling up big and black, move out over a valley
and suddenly dump almost its entire contents in a
forty-acre field. If there happens to be a railroad

248 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

track whose grade is not much above the surface of
the ground at this place, it will be flooded or the bal-
last washed out. Foremen in the valleys soon learn to
watch certain points in the mountains for storms that
may cause damage to the track, and when it is evident
that a serious storm is in progress at such a place flag-
men should be sent out to watch the effect on the track
and bridges spanning the streams involved. These
watchmen should not be withdrawn until all danger is
known to be past.

Land slides. The melting snow in the spring at
high altitudes softens the ground to such a depth that
sandy cuts are always caving in, or loose rocks rolling
down. Most of the cuts have one high wall next to the
hill and little or no cutting on the lower slope. If the
slide cannot be removed by the section gang without
delaying trains the division headquarters should be
notified, stating the number of feet of track covered,
how deep, and whether with gravel, clay or rock. This
information should be sent by telegraph or telephone
and should always state what forces of men are avail-
able nearby or are working on the removal of the ob-
struction, and the length of time necessary for such a
force to clear the track and repair it. Information
should be sent in as accurately as possible so that the
division officers can estimate what extra help must be
provided.

Blasting rocks. At points where large rocks are
likely to roll upon the track, a supply of drills, dyna-
mite, and fuse and caps should be kept. If a rock too
large to be rolled is found on the track it may be
broken by fastening two sticks of dynamite together,
attaching the cap and fuse, and laying the charge on
top of the rock on a flat surface, if possible. Then, if
a smaller rock is laid on top of the giant powder, much
additional force of the explosion will be exerted down-
ward. Sticks of dynamite should not be hung over the

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 249

side or laid beneath a rock lying on the track, as the
explosion is certain to injure the ties or rails. If the
rock is too large to be broken as above it must be
drilled. A hole equal in depth to one-fourth the thick-
ness of the rock will be sufficient and half a stick of
dynamite, properly tamped, will rend a rock weighing
several tons. It is best to use a liberal quantity of
powder, so that the pieces may be small enough to be
handled readily. If the shot misses — that is, if the
fuse fails to carry the fire to the cap or the cap does
not explode — the hole should not be picked out, as the
drill is likely to strike fire and ignite the fuse, or it
may hit the cap and cause it to explode. Only expe-
rienced men should be allowed to handle dynamite,
and it should never be carried in the well or bed of a
hand car, as a collision may take place or something
be dropped on it and cause an explosion. If it is
necessary to carry a few sticks along on a car they
should be taken in the pocket or hand of some one who
will take care of them. Frozen dynamite will not al-
ways explode, and must be thawed out in manure or
warm water, not too hot, and never while vessel is in
contact with the fire.

Protecting embankments. Much trouble is often
experienced in protecting railroad embankments from
being cut away by the currents of mountain streams.
If the track is in a narrow canyon where the water runs
swiftly and deep, solid masonry walls afford the most
reliable protection ; but if the width of the stream will
permit, a good wall having a slope of ''one to one"
may be made of uncut sandstone by using selected
stones from two to three feet square and from six to
twelve inches thick. The foundation should, if pos-
sible, be laid on bedrock, but in the absence of this
the foundation may be of loose rock, laid in a trench
about six feet wide and at least three feet below the
line of scour in the bed of the stream. Much depends

250 THE TRACKjVIAN'S HELPER '

on getting- down below the line of shifting sands during
liigh water, and allowance must be made for the in-
creased depth of scour that may be caused by the
water being deflected or confined b}^ the wall. After
the loose rock is put in place and interstices filled with
sand a line of the large square stones may be laid on
top with the face in the center of the foundation and
backed b}^ loose rock carefully packed and to a height
equal to the top of the first line of stones. Then an-
other layer of stones may be laid on the first, but at a
distance back of the first line equal to the average
thickness of the stones, when the backing may be again
brought up to the level of the stones, and so on, mak-
ing a wall somewhat like a stairway the height and
width of the steps being equal. This makes a good,
strong wall at a cost less than solid masonry, but, like
the masonr}^, its life depends largely on the security
of the foundation. When sandstone is not to be had,
such walls are often built, but without the steps, of
smelter slag. This is melted rock, and is heavier than
sandstone, and when well laid with the smooth side out
presents a nice appearance ; but it is impossible to
make the pieces fit closely, and, being small, they are
easily knocked out of place by floating driftwood,
logs, etc., and if the current is swift, in a few years
the carefully laid wall looks like common loose rip-
rap. Where the width of the stream is ample, or
where there is no reason for building masonry or
other walls, ordinary riprap may be employed to pro-
tect the embankments. This is made by dumping
stones, slag or like material over the bank of the river
until it is entirely coated from top to bottom to a depth
of from perhaps two feet at the top to ten feet or
more at the bottom, depending on the shape of the
bank and on the slope given to the riprap. No
foundation need be provided, as the loose rock will roll

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 251

down and fill up any holes scoured out by the water.
The amount of rock on the side of the bank should be
in proportion to the depth and volume of water that
may pass this point when the river is full. If the
course of the stream lies parallel with the track the
slope of the riprap may be about one and one-half to
one ; but if the water strikes the bank at an angle the
lower half of the slope should be at least two to one.
It may frequently be noticed that a bar of loose
boulders a few feet high and sloping into the water at a
slight incline will hold its place and turn the course
of the stream while if a wall of these same loose
boulders were run out into the stream it would be
swept away by the first flood. This shows that the cur-
rent of a stream cannot be turned by loose rock unless
it is laid with a long slope or incline, and the longer
the incline, especially of the lower portion, the greater
will be its power of resistance.

Stone cribs laid parallel to the track or projecting
down and outward into the stream are used in many
places to prevent the water from cutting away the
bank. They are simple in construction, being long
boxes made of logs properly notched at the ends, laid
somewhat like the walls of a log cabin, or they may be
made of timbers. In either case they are drift-bolted
at the corners and through the cross stays, which may
be placed in rows about ten feet apart, and then the
whole is filled with loose rock or slag. When laid on
a good foundation they answer the purpose for which
they were bii^ilt very well, but the cost of material
and labor required in building the crib is consider-
able.

Work in tunnels. Eepairing track in long, dark
tunnels presents problems to the section foreman not
often encountered elsewhere. They are cut through
formations ranging from loose sand or clay to solid

252 THE TRACKMAN S HELPER

granite ; they may be straight or curved, level, or with
a grade uniform from one end to the other, or from
the center each way.

If lined with brick or stone they are usually dry;
if wood is used there may be wet spots in the tunnel
where the water leaks through. If the tunnel is
through rock, seams or cracks are often met, through
which water pours the year around. In the winter
it requires considerable labor in such a tunnel to keep
the rails free from ice and attend to the heaved places
in the track. In all wet tunnels the ballast should be
broken stone, and ample provision made for drainage.
If a rock tunnel has but few seams, the water may be
kept out by filling them with good cement, but if the
rock is badly cracked this cannot be done without con-
siderable expense, although it will probably pay in the
end. Open ditches are in most cases relied on to carry
off the water, and as they do not fill up except with
ice in the winter they are about as good as any system
of pipes or tiling. In dry tunnels gravel or cinders,
or in fact any material, makes good ballast, because it
is not affected by wet weather. Track in tunnels can-
not be raised without diminishing the clearance over-
head. This clearance is a matter of record and is the
basis of information as to what sizes of cars, etc., may
be safely sent over the line. Therefore, foremen should
not raise track in tunnels without permission from
their superiors. The width of tunnels for standard
gage track is never less than thirteen feet, and when
putting in ties in rock tunnels, it is cheapest to take
out two adjoining ones at the same time, even if one is
sound and must be put back when the new tie is put
in. Fig. 50 will show how ties may be taken out or
put in where the width of the tunnel is thirteen feet
or more and the ties do not exceed eighteen to the rail.

One tie (a) is taken out on one side and slewed in one
direction, and the other (b) on the opposite side and

SPECIAL CONDITIONS ON MOUNTAIN ROADS 253

slewed the other way. Where rock does not interfere
ties may be taken out by digging a trench (c), sloping
from the rail down and outward to the wall of the
tunnel, then pull the tie to that side until the other
end can be raised over the other rail and the tie pulled
out. As the back end of the trench need be only about

///////////////

Line of Tunnel,

LummmmjUi

Line of Tunnel

Fig. 50. Replacing Ties in Tunnel

a foot deep, less ballast is handled than in the first
method, which should be employed only where a trench
cannot be dug. To line track in a long tunnel, get a
pole long enough to reach from wall to wall at a point
level with the top of the rail, then find and mark the
exact center. Next make a mark at the center of the

254 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

rail gage, lay the gage and the pole across the track
side by side and throw the track until the mark on the
gage comes even with the mark on the pole. This may
be done to get centers at points fifty feet apart, and
then the track can be lined according to those points.
If the tunnel is dark a torch or lantern may be held
over the rail to give light. The foregoing in regard to
tunnels will apply also to track repairs in snow sheds.

XVIII

FROGS AND SWITCHES

Turnouts. A turnout is a curved track by which a
car may pass from one track to another, the principal
parts of which are a frog and a switch with a con-
necting- piece of track called the '4ead. " The frog is
a device whereby two rails may cross each other in
such a manner that a wheel rolling along either rail
will have an unobstructed flangeway while crossing
the other. A switch consists of two rails, each of
which has one end free to move, so connected by cross
rods that they move parallel with each other, whereby
a car may be switched or shunted from the main track
on to the turnout track. Originally switches were
generally of the ' ' stub ^ ' variety but of late years these
have become obsolete and we have now practically only
''split" switches or "point" switches, the simplest
form of which is shown in Fig. 51.

The upper illustration. Fig. 51, shows the switch set
for side track while the lower figure shows it set for
the main track. The rails A B & Gr D are called
''stock" rails, ^are continuous and spiked their full
length. E and F are called the "point" rails and are
usually fastened at their heels, HH, by angle bars to
the lead rails. The point rails are as a rule straight
and are planed in such a manner that they bear against
the solid rail for a length of 6 or 7 ft. or more. The
"throw" of the point, which means the lateral dis-
tance that the two switch rail points move at right

angles with the main track, in order to change the

255

25t>

THE TRACKMAN'S HELrER

route of traffic from one track to another, is about 4^/^
or 5 in., and the clear space at the heel between gage
lines is usually 6 in. or at least 5 in. In order to de-
termine whether a point is a left or right hand one,

Fig. 51

stand at the point of the switch and face the heel or at
the switch and face the frog. The point at your
right hand is the right hand switch point and the
other one is the left.

Temporary turnouts without frogs and switches.
Mr. Andrew Palm, Roadmaster for the C. C. T. Co.,
was once required to spur out one car, using the ordi-
nary method of stripping out and lining over the
track. Upon investigation the ties in the main track
were found to be so decayed that they would not sur-
vive the operations of digging out, lining over and
lining back again. Naturally it was not desirable to
renew ties for 60 ft. or more of track in order to spur
out one car, and if left undisturbed it was estimated
that the old ties had a vear or more of life still left
in them. Therefore, ^Ir. Palm used the very in-
genious plan which is described below. The spikes
were drawn and the main track rails lined over and

FROGS AND SWITCHES 257

connected to the temjDorary track with angle bars, and
spiked to gage, enough short ties being laced in to
hold the track meanwhile. The quotations are from
Mr. Palm's article in Ry. Eng. & :\L of W.

''This is nothing more than the old stub switch
method with the frog and guard rails omitted.

''We all know that it is undesirable to place in
main lines any switches that are not absolutely neces-
sary, so quite frequently I lay one of these temporary
turnouts in preference to the standard switch and frog
turnouts. From a safety standpoint, they are ideal,
and can be constructed for less than half the cost of
the standard point switch.

"Our main lines are laid 'broken joints' and when
we decide to lay a track of this character we take two
half rails, using one to even the joints at the point
where we wish to begin our turnout and the other
where the frog would be placed in a standard lead;
this half rail is used in place of the frog when we de-
sire to place on or take cars from the temporary siding,
by simply releasing the half rail from the main line
and laying it in the open space in the turnout, and
when the cars have been taken out or placed in, the
rail is taken up and relaid in the main line at the be-
ginning of the turnout; all that is necessary is to
remove the angle bars from the main line and a few
spikes from the inside of one rail, and the same amount
of spikes from the outside of the rail opposite back of
the joints where this connection is to be made with
the turnout: by using the angle bars to make this
connection there is no likelihood of a derailment, while
there would be if the joints were left open as
they were in the days when stub -switches were in
vogue.

"I prefer this method for 'spurring out' extra gang
outfits to the old way : digging out between the ties for
three rail lengths, then opening the main line and

258 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

lining the main track out to connect with the tempo-
rary spur. This I consider bad practice, as the road-
bed is badly disturbed, ties are skewed, which renders
it necessary to re-space the ties and to correct the
gage of the main line rails after each time the track
has been ' cut. '

"By the method which I am submitting, the road-
bed is disturbed but very little, the ties not at all,
for cross-ties are inserted between those in the main
line to support the lead rails.

"I also prefer using this 'layout' instead of tracks
with standard turnouts for temporary use by extra
gang outfit cars, for we then have the cars isolated,
and switchmen and trainmen cannot use the track for
storing or setting out commercial cars.

"We continually have complaints from extra gang
foremen as to the rough usage their outfits are receiv-
ing at night by cars being 'kicked in' against them.

"In the construction of new railroads we find this
'layout' very useful ; often we have to construct sidings
for track-laying and surfacing gangs, and more often
than otherwise we are short of frogs and switches ; we
lay these sidings at points where permanent sidings
are to be located, and later, upon the arrival of the
frogs and switches, the standard turnouts are installed.

"Our switch leads are for a No. 10 frog, whose
length is 16i/^ feet, or half the length of a 33-foot rail,
so when we 'square' the joints for the temporary
turnouts we have done that much toward the installa-
tion of the permanent switches.

"Unless we used this temporary lead, we would
often be compelled to have our material trains go
fifteen to twenty miles to pass each other ; we can pass
the trains by switching the empty train onto one of
these sidings and thereby allow the loaded train to
proceed to the front, resulting in the saving of many
hours of valuable time. We have passed these trains

FROGS AND SWITCHES

259

with only two trackmen, an assistant foreman and one
laborer making the necessary changes.

' ' In any case where the lined over track is left at a
pretty sharp curve, the locomotive should not be
pushed in on the curve. The best arrangement is to
have a number of empty flats between the car or cars
to be spurred out and the locomotive. In this way the

/^ain Line

Lined

Fig. 52. ( Turnout Without Frog or Points

light empty flat cars will pass over the track without
spreading it or getting off the track as a locomotive is
apt to.

"With a well trained and organized gang three or
four cars may be spurred out in this way and the track
closed in ten minutes, after thorough preliminary
preparations have been made."

260

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Laying switches. Locate the frog with a view to
cutting the least possible number of rails. After you
have determined where the frog point will come, mark
the place on the track rail, take from the turnout table
the distance from the switch point to point of frog
corresponding- to the number of the frog which is
used. The head block can now be located by meas-
uring the total distance obtained from the frog point.

Make marks with chalk along the flanges of the rail
between the head block and frog, so that the switch
ties can all be placed the proper distances apart from
center to center. After the switch ties have all been
arranged according to their proper lengths, lay them

•

I-

-t p

1 r

T r

"j n

"1 F

"J p

]

III

■^

—

Main
Line

J~"

Fig. 53. Method of Spurring Out Cars

out alongside the track, and see that each tie is num-
bered, and in its proper place as it will lie in the track.
Then take out the old ties and pull in each new tie
in regular order.

When pulling the ends of the ties to line, time can
be saved by using a gauge, made by nailing a cleat
across a piece of board, allowing eighteen or twenty
inches to project beyond the cleat. Have this gage
square at each end, lay it with the cleat against the
end of each tie and draw a chalk line across the tie
at the end of the board, marking all the ties the same
length from the end. This chalk line should be placed
so as to mark the position of the outside flange of the
rail or where the spikes are to be driven on the line

FROGS AND SWITCHES 261

side. When the ties are all in place under the track,
the ends of all the ties will line uniformly on the line
side but how closely they will line up on the turnout
side depends on how nearly to length the switch ties
have been cut or selected to suit the turnout curve.
This is a much better way than measuring the end of
each tie with a stick or the maul handle. The switch
ties should be put in from either end, just as you have
the time to spare between trains. If trains are run-
ning close together begin at head blocks and select the
time longest between trains to put in frog and lead.
At least two long switch ties should be put in behind
the frog to avoid adzing and crowding short ties past
each other where the two tracks separate.

No frog should be put in until the main track guard
rail is first secure in its proper place ; otherwise the
first train that comes along facing the frog may be
derailed.

To put in a turn-out proceed as follows :

1. Locate the frog and switch point and put in the
turn-out ties, as described in the preceding paragraph.

2. Put slide plates and braces under the unbroken
side of main track, placing shims of the proper thick-
ness on the ties at the opposite rail where plates are to
be used.

3. Line and full spike the unbroken side on new ties
and spike the guard rail to proper position.

4. Couple up frog and main track lead rail and main
track switch point on the new ties on the turn-out side,
doing such cutting and drilling as may be required
to complete the main track lead to the proper length
from the point of the switch to the heel of the frog.

5. Break the main track at the position of the heel
of the frog and throw the main track rail for the
siding, bending the stock rail at the same time. This
can be done without taking the stock rail out of the
track. Throw in the main track lead, which has al-

262 THE TRACKIMAN'S HELPER

ready been coupled, bolt the main track end of the
frog, and then spike the new section to the proper
gage from the frog to switch, putting on the proper
slides and braces.

6. Couple up the switch point for the siding by
means of the proper rods, making such adjustments
in the rods as are necessary. Cut the rails to com-
plete the siding turn-out from the heel of the switch
to the point of the frog, and spike the siding lead to
the proper line for the turn-out curve.

7. Complete the work of laying the turn-out by the
necessary spiking, gaging and adjustment of switch
stand.

Table of switch leads. A great many tables of leads
have been published of which, except where one has
been copied from another, practically no two are ex-
actly alike. The reason for this is because the lead
depends upon a considerable number of factors which
vary among the different railroads and wi1;h the
different lengths of switches and frogs. A large rail-
road system with modern standards for frogs and
switches will nevertheless have a quantity of perfectly
serviceable material that is not exactly in accord with
the standard drawings and yet which must be utilized
in the track. Consequently any one table of leads
will not be theoretically correct for all the material on
hand.

An elaborate set of tables for a great many different
conditions of frog and switch length, etc., is published
in the new edition of Practical Switch "Work, issued
by the publishers of this book.

If a frosr is set within a few inches of its theoretical
position, provided that the turnout rail be accurately
lined, the lead will work properly and no one will
notice its lack of theoretical correctness in riding over
it, except at very high speed. Therefore it is pos-
sible to design a table for average conditions, being

FROGS AND SWITCHES 263

absolutely accurate for those average conditions, and
sufficiently near the standards likely to be adopted
to work well in practice. Such a table, which was
designed to meet just such average conditions, and
which has been used in practice for a number of years
with entire satisfaction, is given herewith.

With the diagram illustrating the table are given
for the use of engineers the formulas by which the
table has been calculated.

Arrangement of tables. The table runs from frog
numbers 4 to 20 inclusive, with three intermediate frog
numbers, 4^/^, 5i^ and 6i/4. There are other half
numbers of course, but they are so little used that it
has not been thought worth while to put them in this
table.

The first column of the table gives the frog num-
ber, the second the frog angle, and the third gives the
distance in feet from the theoretical point of frog to
the toe of frog. It is here assumed that this distance
is in even feet, whereas it frequently happens that it
may be 6 ft. 9 in., or 6 ft. 3 in., or 7 ft. 10 in., etc.,
as the ease may be. This, however, will have a very
small effect upon the actual length of lead and the
distances given in the table are near enough to those
actually used in practice for all practical purposes.
The fourth column gives the spread of the frog at
the toe, based upon the number of the frog and the
assumed distance in column 3. It is given in hun-
dredths of a, foot, and is the same as that given in
the third column, divided by the frog number. The
fifth column headed ''Planing of Switch Rail," gives
the assumed distance from the point of the switch to
the point at which the switch rail commences to curve
toward the frog, usually where the planing runs out
on the head of the switch rail. Thjs also varies a
good deal in practice, and theoretically would intro-
duce more variation in the correct theoretical length

Table for point leads.

Z f ^ea</ 3/oc/c /o Theo fro^ Pi!-'

-£. = 9/nj^ C = a . ,, /?- <^ _ r

Fig. 54, Switch and Frog Theoretical Layout

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264

FROGS AND SWITCHES

265

of lead and variations in the distance from point of
frog to the toe of frog, but as we have said above,
it is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes of
this table. The next column, headed with a small
"t," ^'Spread of Switch Rail at Heel or End of Plan-
ing," gives the distance separating the switch rail

F==:=^—

|3"
'^7

i^A

i ,

. 3'-0- ,

9'-0"

.18",

» 'o;

-^ — ^

Fig. 55. Typical Guard Rail

from the main rail at the point where the switch rail
starts to curve toward the frog, and where this is at
the end of planing it will be equal to the width of a
rail head, or about 0.22 of a ft. The column headed
" G " is the gage of the track minus the spread of toe
of the frog and the spread of the switch rail at heel
or end of planing. The other columns are explained
by their captions in the table.

fTrue Point
Blunt Point

'y-

Standard Frog

Frogs. Fig. 56 is an outline diagram of a frog.
The triangle C A E is the tongue. C E is the heel of
the tongue. The channel at K is the mouth. Its nar-
row part, F H, is the throat. The wings, F G, and
H I, support the treads of the wheels from the point
B, to the throat. L M is the heel of the frog. The

266 THE TEACKMAN'S HELPER

angle is the divergence of the lines, A C and A E.
The intersection of the lines at A is the true "the-
oretical ' ' point of the frog. As this point is too weak
for service, it is rounded off where the tongue is about
one-half inch wide. The frog number is the ratio of
the perpendicular, A D, the length of the point to the
base, C E. Thus, if the length, A D, be 7, 9 or 10
times C E, the frog is called a No. 7, 9 or 10 frog.
The angle of the frog is determined approximately by
dividing 57% o degrees by the number of the frog.
To get the number of a frog one of the following ways
mav be used :

1. Take a short stick say six inches long, lay this on

Fic^. 57. Conlev All Rail Froor

the heel of the frog where the spread of the frog
equals the length of the stick; then from this point
measure with the stick to the theoretical point of the
frog ; if it is seven times the length of the stick it will
be a number seven ; if eight times, a number eight, etc.

2. Measure with a rule and find where the spread
is four inches; mark this point; then get where it is
five inches; also mark this; then the length in inches
from where it is four to five inches measured along
the rail will be the number of the frog.

3. Add the spread between the gage lines at the
heel to the spread at toe in inches and divide this into
total length of frog in inches; the result will be the
number.

FROGS AND SWITCHES 267

4. Divide the spread between gage lines at the heel
of frog in inches into length along the rail from heel
to theoretical point in inches; result will be the num-
ber.

5. Divide the spread between gage lines at toe in
inches into length along rail from toe to theoretical
point in inches; the result will be the number.

In order to make the main line rail as continuous as
possible, spring frogs are introduced. These are right
and left handed. To determine whether right or left,
stand at the toe and face the heel; if the spring rail
is at the left it is left-handed; if at the right, it is
right-handed.

Laying frogs in track. When putting frogs into a
track care should be taken to have them in a true line
and level with the track rails which are connected to
them. The gage rail, opposite the frog, should be put
to a perfect gage for the full length of the frog. Fore-
men should see that frogs are not allowed to fill up
with ice or snow in the winter season, and when foot
guards for the protection of trainmen are provided,
it should be seen to that they are always kept properly
in place to prevent any liability of accident.

Length of frogs. Long frogs and long switch leads
are best where it is practicable to use them; the rails
in short switch leads soon wear out. If the switch
lead is long, the saving effected in the wear of the rails
and rolling stock is considerable. A valuable feature
in a frog is to have it of such a length that Yery little
cutting of rails' is necessary w^hen putting in a new
switch. When full length rails can be used in a
switch it saves time, labor and material. For this
purpose a foot or two is often added to the lead.

Crossing frogs are used where one track crosses
another. They are generally supported by long ties
or switch timber. Where one road is double-tracked,
the frogs are difficult to keep in line, owing to the

268 THE TRACIv^IAN'S HELPER

tracks of the double line often creeping in opposite
directions.

Guard rails. The guard rail at frogs is used to pre-
vent the car and locomotive wheels from crossing the
point of the frog on the wrong side when trains are
passing over it. The length and shape of a guard rail
adopted as the standard should be used with all frogs
in service on the same road. Guard rails should be
preferably ten feet in length or over ; fifteen feet and
fifteen and a half feet are ordinary lengths; for the
higher numbered frogs longer ones are used. Enough
of the middle of the guard rail should be spiked down
parallel with the track rail, opposite the point of the
frog, to secure ample protection. The guard rail may
be secured by spiking it to the ties and by clamps, or
by passing a bolt through the guard rail and track rail
at each side of that part which is parallel with the
track rail, leaving between the two rails a wheel chan-
nel. This makes it unnecessary to use braces except
as additional precaution. Fillers or separators may
be used on the bolts between the webs of the guard
and track rails, to regulate the width of the wheel
channel, which should never be more than two inches
on a standard gage track. Also clamps may be used;
these are of great advantage, especially when a guard
rail fills with snow.

The extreme ends of the guard rail should be spiked
to the ties at a distance of four inches from the track
rail. This will give the wheels an easy and gradual
approach to the narrower space where the rails are
parallel. Guard rails should not be sprung to place
with the track spikes but should be bent to the proper
shape before being laid.

When guard rails are made in the company's shops
their ends should be heated and hammered down or
cut on a bevel of 45° to form a gradual approach or

FROGS AND SWITCHES 269

slanting surface from the base of the rail, where it
rests on the ties, to the top. This may prevent brake
beams, chains, or snow plows, etc., from catching on
the end of the guard rail and tearing it out of place.
It is well to take the same precaution with the ends
of guard rails that cross bridges or go around curves
inside the rails on main track. See Fig. 55.

Guard rails are necessary on a railroad, and if the
track foreman has to provide them when he puts in a
new switch the piece of rail which is cut from a full
length rail to let in the frog will often serve for a
guard rail ; when long enough it should always be used
instead of cutting another good rail. The width of
wheel flangeway between the guard rail and track rail
should be from 1%" to 1%"? a-^d no more, if the wheel
flangeway through the frog is 1%" and the track is to
gage.

A frequent error in practice is to place the guard
rail so that its center will come even with the point
of the frog. The effect of this is to jerk trailing
wheels against the end of the frog wing rail, and if
the gage of track happens to be wide the frog bolts
will be broken. Even if the track is in proper gage
the end of the guard rail projecting beyond the end
of the wing of the frog will throw worn flanged wheels
(because of their greater lateral play) against the frog
wing, thus subjecting an already weak flange to the
danger of being broken, whereas if the projecting
guard rail did not alter the course of the wheel it
would enter the frog without a shock. The province
of a guard rail is to guide the facing wheel flange
safely past the point of the frog, and where the wheel
has passed this point, be it but one inch, it has no fur-
ther use for a guard rail. Therefore about two-thirds
of the guard rail should be ahead of the point of frog
to get the greatest amount of protection with the ma-

270 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

terial used. The ends of guard rails should not be
curved to a short radius, but on as easy a curve as
practicable so that the wheels will be deflected gradu-
ally to clear the frog point. Sometimes a short curve
is put in the end of guard rails, but this causes bad
riding qualities.

Switch timbers. As there is considerable difference
in the standards for bills of material for switch tim-
bers on the different railroads, the following rules,
will be useful to track foremen:

Rule — To ascertain the number of pieces needed for
any switch lead, find the distance from the head block
to the point where the last long tie will be used behind
the frog. Reduce this distance to inches, and divide it
by the number of inches from the center of each tie to
that of the next one. This will give the number of
ties wanted.

Example — Distance from the head block to the last
long tie behind the frog, 55 feet ; reduce to inches, 660
inches; distance from center to center of ties, 20
inches; number of ties required, 33.

The first three of these ties next the head block
may be common long oak cross ties, and if 9 feet is
the shortest piece sawed square for a switch tie, and
14 feet the longest for a single throw switch, the other
30 pieces may be divided up, when ordering the dif-
ferent lumber lengths, as follows :

5 pieces, feet long; 5 pieces, 12 feet long.

5 pieces, 10 feet long; 5 pieces, 13 feet long.

5 pieces, 11 feet long; 5 pieces, 14 feet long.

When odd lumber lengths of switch timbers are
not furnished, then order double the quantity, 10, 12
and 14 foot pieces. In large yards where there is
very heavy traffic, switch timbers should not be laid
more than 8 or 9 inches apart from the face of one
timber to the face of the next one.

FKOGS AND SWITCHES

271

Bills of material of switch ties for various turn-
outs and crossovers.

Switch Ties

FOR No. 6

Switch Ties

FOR No. 7

Turnout

No.

Size

Length

No.

Size

Length

2 pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

6 "

9' 0"

((

9' 0"

5 "

9' 6"

((

9' 6"

5 "

10'— 0"

10' 0"

2 "

10' 6"

2 "

ir 0"

11' 0"

2 "

ir 6"

11' 6"

2 "

12' 0"

((

12' 0"

2 "

12' 6"

((

12' 6"

o «

13'— 0"

((

13' 0"

2 "

13' 6"

2 "

14' 0"

14'— 0"

2 "

14' 6"

((

14'— 6"

2 "

15' 0"

((

15'— 0"

36 " Total = 2134' B.M. 42 " Total = 2499' B.M.

Exclusive of head blocks. Exclusive of head blocks.

SWIT

CH Ties

FOR No. 8

Smutch Ties

FOR No. 10

Turnout

No.

Size

Length

No.

Size

Length

2 pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

9 «

9' 0"

7 "

9' 6"

((

9' 6"

4 "

10' 0"

((

10'— 0"

3 "

10' 6"

10'— 6"

3 "

11' 0"

3 "

11' 6"

2 "

« ^

; 12' 0"

12'— 0"

2 "

((

12' 6"

3 "

((

13' 0"

3 "

13' 6"

13'— 6"

3 "

14' 0"

2 "

14'— 6"

14' 6"

2 "

15'— 0"

15' 0"

46 " Total = 2708' B.M.'
Exclusive of head blocks.

55 " Total = 3215' B.M.

Exclusive of head blocks.

272

THE TIL\CKMANS HELPER

Switch Ties

FOE No. 12

Switch Ties

FOB No. 15

Turnout

No.

Size

Length

No.

Size

Length

2 pc.

V X 9"

Head blocks

pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

11 "

((

9' 0"

((

9'— 0"

10 "

((

9'— 6"

((

9'— 6"

8 "

((

10' 0"

7 "

{(

10'— 6''

10'— 6"

5 "

((

ir— 0"

((

11' 0"

4 "

11'— 6"

4 «

12'— 0"

3 "

12'— 6"

3 "

13'— 0"

((

13'— 0"

3 «

((

13' 6"

3 "

14'— 0"

3 "

14' 6"

14'— 6"

5 "

15'— 0"

((

15'— 0"

69 " Total = 4062' B.M.
Exclusive of Head blocks.

80 " Total = 4730' B.M.
Exclusive of Head blocks.

Switch Ties

for No. 20

Turnout

No.

Size

Length

2 pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

18 "

((

9' 0"

18 "

((

9'— 6"

8 "

((

10'— 0"

8 "

10'— 6"

7 "

11' 0"

7 "

11'— 6"

6 "

12'— 0"

9 "

12'— 6"

9 "

13'— 0"

6 "

13'— 6"

6 "

14' 0"

5 "

14' 6"

5 "

15'— 0"

5 "

15'— 6"

5 "

16'— 0"

122 " Total = 7486' B.M

Exclusive of Head blocks.

FROGS AND SWITCHES

273

Switch Ties fob No. 6

Switch Ties for No. 7

Crosso

VEB

Crossover

No.

Size

Length

No.

Size

Length

pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

9' 0"

((

9'— 0"

9'— 6"

9' 6"

10'— 0"

10'— 6"

((

10'— 6"

ir— 0"

((

11' 0"

11' 6"

((

11'— 6"

12'— 0"

((

12'— 0"

21' 6"

((

21'— 6"

70 " Total = 5019' B.M.

Exclusive of Head blocks.

82 " Total = 5906' B.M.

Exclusive of Head blocks.

Switch Ties for No. 8

Switch Ties for No. 10

Crossover

No.

Size

Length

No.

Size

Length

pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

4 pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

((

9'— 0"

18 «

9'— 0"

9'— 6"

20 "

9'— 6"

10'— 0"

12 "

10'— 0"

10'— 6"

8 "

((

10' 6"

{(

11' 0"

8 "

((

11' 0"

((

11'— 6"

6 "

ir— 6"

12' 0"

6 "

12'— 0"

((

21'— 6"

31 "

((

21'— 6"

94 " Total = 6872' B.M.
Exclusive of Head blocks.

109 " Total = 7618' B.M.

Exclusive of Head blocks.

Switch Ties for No. 12

Switch Ties for No. 15

Crossover

No.

Size

Length

No.

Size

Lengtli

4 pc.

7" X 9\^ Head blocks

4 pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

22 "

((

9'- 0"

28 "

9' 0"

20 "

((

9'— 6"

18 "

9' 6"

16 "

((

10^—0"

18 "

((

10' 0"

14 "

((

10' 6"

14 "

((

10'— 6"

10 "

11' 0"

12 "

11'— 0"

8 "

11' 6"

10 "

11' 6"

8 "

12' 0"

10 "

12' 0"

39 "

21' 6"

52 "

21' 6"

137 " Total = 9618' B.M.

Exclusive of Head blocks.

162 " Total = 11734' B.M.
Exclusive of Head blocks.

274 THE TRACIvMAN'S HELPER

Switch Ties for Xo, 20
Crossover

No.

Size

Length

4 pc.

7" X 9"

Head blocks

36 "

((

9' 0"

36 "

9' 6"

16 "

W 0"

16 "

10' ' 6"

14 "

11'— 0"

14 "

11'— 6"

12 "

12' 0"

63 "

21' 6"

207 " Total = 14742' B.M.
Exclusive of Head blocks.

To cut switch ties of the proper length.

Rule — ^Measure the length of the tie next the head
block and also the length of the last tie behind the
frog. Find the difference in inches between the
lengths of the two ties, divide this amount by the
number of ties in the switch lead, and the quotient
should be the increase in length per tie from the head
block towards the frog, to have the ties line evenly
on both sides of the track.

Example — AVe will suppose the tie next to the head
block to be 8 feet 6 inches, or 102 inches in length,
and the last tie behind the frog, 14 feet or 168 inches
in length. The difference in the lengths of these two
ties is 5 feet 6 inches, or QQ inches; dividing by 33,
the number of ties, gives 2 inches as the amount that
each tie must be longer than the last.

Section foremen will find this rule valuable in many
cases, especially w^hen putting in a cross-over from
one track to another. There is nothing gained by
having switch ties project beyond the proper line of
track. They cause trouble in raising track, are un-
sightly, and labor is wasted in tamping up the long
ends. The switch ties may be cut off to the proper

FROGS AND SWITCHES 275

length and numbered with chalk, and the line side
marked for the rail flange before being put in the
track. The work can be done in that way more rap^
idly and better, and the unnecessary labor of digging
out for the tamping up of long ends can be dispensed
with.

Tamping switch ties. When a switch track has
been raised, to surface the track the switcli ties under
the frog and main track rail should be tamped up
first. The long ends of switch ties should be tamped
up last and then not as solid as those under the frog.
Tamping bars should be used in tamping up a switch,
and special care should be taken to make the ties as
solid as possible under the frog. A turnout is all the
better if the frog is a shade higher than the re-
mainder. If the outer ends of switch ties are tamped
up first, unless the timbers are very large they will
sag down in the center and the ends turn up, espe-
cially if a train is allowed to pass over the switch be-
fore the ties are tamped throughout their length.

A set of switch timbers may be put into a mud
track very quickly, and with little or no tamping, by
the following method: — Remove all the old timbers
except a few to support the track rails. Raise the
rails on the supporting ties about a quarter of an inch
higher than the track surface, and level them with a
spirit level. Clear away a bed for the timbers equal
to their depth, and spread a little loose dirt on it;
then pull in the timbers, keeping their upper surface
close up to the rails and each timber level throughout
its length until it is in place.

Putting in three-throw switches. The length of
switch ties in a three-throw switch is found by
doubling the set for a single turnout, and subtracting
the length of the standard cross tie. When putting
them in the track, measure the length of each tie and
draw a chalk line across the middle; mark also the

276

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

middle of the gage. Lay the gage on the main
track, and as each tie is put nnder the track, see that
the chalk mark across the middle of the tie comes di-
rectly under the middle of the gage of the main
track. The approximate number of the middle or
crotch frog is found by multiplying the number of
the side frogs by the decimal .707, or by adding the
numbers of the two side frogs together and dividing
by 2.83.

Derailing switches. Fig. 58 illustrates a method
of derailing cars and is used in cases where precau-
tions are required to prevent cars from accidentally
running out of the siding upon the main track. When
putting in this derailing switch, drive a row of spikes
against the inside flange of the rail, C, when set for

«S/V

'cf/ny

^c/n

Fig. 58

derailing and place rail braces on the outside to sup-
port and keep the rail in place when set for movement
to the main track. It is good policy to use sound oak
ties, spaced not more than eight inches apart under
the moving rail. This presents a smoother surface
for the derailed cars than ties spaced in the ordinary
way, and prevents the wheels from sinking between
them.

In setting up switch-stand, have the target show
danger when the switch is set for derailing.

FROGS AND SWITCHES 277

Turnouts from curves. In turnouts from curves,
the lead distance is practically the same as in turn-
outs from a straight track. The degree of curve of
the turnout is approximately increased by the degree
of the main track curve, when the turnout is with
the curve ; and decreased by the degree of the main
track curve, when the turnout is against the curve.
In turnouts against curves, when the degree of the
main track curve is the same as the turnout curve
corresponding to the frog, the lead will be straight;
when greater, the turnout curve will deflect in the
same direction as the main track curve. As curves
for the ordinary frog numbers are sharp, avoid as
much as possible turnouts from the inside of the
curve.

In turnouts from curves the ordinates for a straight
track will be increased by a certain rate per degree
of main track curve, when the turnout is laid with the
curve; and decreased by the same rate per degree
wlibn the turnout is laid against the curve.

Example: — (1) Turnout against a main track
curve of 4°, with a No. 8 frog. In the table for point
leads, page 264, the degree of the turnout curve
(Column D) from a straight track for a No. 8 lead
is 12°-08', Subtract from this the degree of the main
curve 4°-00' and we have the difference of 8°-08',
for the degree of curve of the switch track, which will
curve in a direction opposite to that of the main
track. ^

(2) Turnout against a main track curve of 8°, with
a No. 10 frog. Here the degree of the main track
curve is 8°-0'; degree of the turnout, from table,
7°-31'. This is flatter than the main curve by 0°-29',
and the switch curve therefore will be in the same
direction as the main track. Note that these figures
are' approximate only, and are subject to the remarks
in the paragraph introductory to the table of Leads.

278 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Cross-over tracks. To put in a cross-over from one
track to another where the work has not been laid
out by an engineer:

Rule — Put in the first frog and switch lead com-
plete on one track. Then sight a straight line along
the gage rail from opposite the point of frog, which
you have just put in track, to the nearest rail of the
adjoining track. Where the line crosses the rail is
where the point of the next frog ought to be located
to complete the cross-over if both frogs are of the
same angle.

To find the approximate distance between frog^
points in a cross-over: For 12-foot centers multiply
2.58 by the number of the frog. If the distance be-
tween centers is less than 12 feet, subtract the dif-
ference from 2.58 ; if more, add the difference. Thus :
Find distance between frog points on a No. 10 cross-
over, distance between track centers, 12 feet; 2.58 X
10, equals 25.8 feet.

If the center distance is 11 feet, we have as follows :
Eleven feet is one less than 12 feet ; hence we sub-
tract 1 from 2.58 and we have 1.58 ; if a No. 10 cross-
over is to be put in we have: 1.58 X 10, or 15.8. If
the center distance were 13 feet we would have 3,58
X 10, or 35.8. These measurements are made on the
main line rail.

Another method, which is particularly^ important
when the frogs used in the cross-over are of different
angles, is as follows : Add the numbers of the two
frogs together and divide by two. The result is the
average number of frog for cross-over; now multiply
this by the distance between gage lines of inside
rails, less the gage; or, where the distance between
centers of two tracks is used, subtract twice the gage
from this distance and multiply by average number
of frog.

Example. Distance between centers of two tracks

FROGS AND S^WTCHES 279

is 12 ft. It is desired to put in a cross-over, using a
No. 10 and No. 8 frog. Proved according to rule :
10 H- 8 = 18 divided by 2 equals 9. Then 2.58 X 9
= 23.22 ft.

The distance between frog points diagonally in
any cross-over track put in with the frogs mentioned
in the table, for distances between tracks of 10 to 15
feet is shown in the following table. Where the dis-
tance between two tracks is greater than 12 feet, fore-
men can calculate the distance between the frog points
by the rules preceding this table :

DISTANCE BETWEEN ADJACENT RAILS IN FEET

Frog No. 7 8 9 10 11 12
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.

5 11-6 16-6 21-6 26-6 31-6 36-6

6 13-9 19-9 2.5-9 31-9 37-8 43-8

7 16-0 23-0 30-0 37-0 44-0 51-0

9 18-4 26-4 34-4 42-4 50-4 58-4

9 20-8 29-8 38-8 47-8 56-7 65-8

10 23-0 33-0 43-0 53-0 63-0 73-0

11 25-3 36-3 47-3 58-3 69-3 80-2

12 27-6 39-6 51-6 63-6 75-6 87-6

15 34-4 49-4 64-4 79-4 94-4 109-4

16 36-8 52-8 68-8 84-8 100-8 116-8

20 46-0 66-0 86-0 106-0 126-0 145-9

A reverse curve can be made in the cross-over be-
tween tracks when they are veiy far apart, and there
is not room to set it in the regular way.

Staggered switch points on any curve. Mr. W. F.
Rench of the P. R. R. has given in Ry. Age Gaz., the
following very interesting description of a convenient
and useful device for use on curves where the switch
points are subject to heavy wear:

'^ Considerable economy is effected in the wear of
switch points in yards at points where the service is
extreme by moving the point of lesser wear back a
distance of 26 in., so that the first lug of the one point
and the second lug of the other are opposite, and in-

280 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

troducing a guard rail 9 or 10 ft. long curved sharply
through 12 in. at the end which covers the switch and
in the standard manner at the other end. The guard
rail is set close to the one point which permits 12 in.
of 2 in. flangeway opposite the longer point. This
greatly increases the life of the point and is an excel-
lent protection against derailment as well. One set
of lugs must be connected with the standard head rod
and for entire safety each lug should be connected
with the one diagonally opposite. If made on a stand-
ard plan these rods may be of regulation design, but if
resort must be had to makeshift designs a flat made
rod of 21/2 in. by % in. material is quite satisfactory.
Care should be taken that the guard rail, which is
subject to a severe strain, is braced by anchor clamps
and at least one tie plate guard rail fastener.

''This arrangement has been used in a number of
places where the wear is severe, but perhaps in none
where the conditions are as extreme as at two switches
in the Midvale Branch, a siding leading to the Penn-
sylvania's Nicetown (Philadelphia) freight station,
and to the plant of the Midvale Steel Company.
These two switches follow each other closely and spring
from the inside of a 17-deg. curve. Approximately
30 movements are made over these switches every day.

"At each one of the switches the high side point,
applied new of P. R. R. 100-lb. material, formerly
lasted just two months, it being a matter of actual
knowledge that 12 switch points were consumed in the
two places within a period of one year. Besides, it
was the rule for a derailment to herald the time for
renewal which by reason of the difficulties of access
to this location usually involved an expense for the
wrecking and repair of equipment equal to the value
of a new point. It is three years since the points now
in track, which were then close to the limit of safe
w^ear, were cut back and the guard rails applied and

FROGS AND SWITCHES

281

it is quite probable the points will still last two years
longer. At this one location 60 switch points will
have been saved in a period of five years, which rep-
resents at least $1,200 in money. (Fig. 59.)

Turnouts for narrow-gage track on industrial rail-
way. Mr. Ealph D. Brown of the 'Gara Coal Com-
pany has given the following useful notes which were
published in Eng. News in 1916.

The development of narrow-gage railway track is
confined chiefly to limited layouts for industrial plants
and to mining operations where limited clearances ne-

Fig. 59. Staggered Switch Points on a Curve of Heavy Wear

cessitate its use. A coal mining company operating
many mines which had been developed independently
was forced by economic necessity to standardize its
equipment. As some of the mines were already de-
veloped extensively, it was not considered advisable
to relay the tracks entirely to change the gage, but it
was found possible to use one type of frog and switch
for all turnouts.

Standard designs were adopted, and the results of
computations were placed in tabular form for the
use of the construction gang. Certain assumptions
had to be made, such as the length of the wing rails
of the frog and the heel distance of the switch, but
they were all within the limits of accepted practice and

282

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

can be applied to any industrial-track system. The
designs of the frog and switch point, shown in Fig.
60 were made after considering both simplicity and
economy of construction. Any ordinary blacksmith
or ironworker will make these parts without difficulty.
The cost of making a No. 5 frog and two 6-ft. switch
points at a well-equipped mine shop was as follows:

Frog '

End Deva+\on

.-Phmed ofFU-

r;<---H-— ->i

— F- ->J

Side Eleva+ion

Switch

Fig. 60

Material, $6.37 ; labor of blacksmith and machinist,
$6.58; total, $12.95.

A cast-steel frog supplied by manufacturers at a
cost of about $6.50 is inherently more rigid than the
riveted frog, but unless unusual precaution is taken it
is difficult to fasten it securely to the ties. In order
to stiffen the riveted structure, cast-iron fillers may
be added which also support the flanges of the wheels
in passing over the throat of the frog, thus relieving
the jar to the rolling stock.

FROaS AND SWITCHES 2,83

In designing various parts of the turnouts it was
kept in mind that all such turnouts may be of only
temporary usefulness in one particular location, and
that the constituent parts may be used many times be-
fore being cast aside as useless. The standard frog
is somewhat shorter than one designed to the speci-
fications of the American Railway Engineering As-
sociation.

The cost of laying and ballasting a No. 5 turnout
complete, as shown in Fig. 61, was as follows :

One 30 lb. No. 5 frog and two 6 ft. points $12.95

40 ties, 5x6 in., @ 20e 8.00

Spikes, bolts, tie plates, etc 75

1 low switch stand and rods 2.25

2 headblocks, 5x6 in.— 8 ft. long 1.00

*otal material $24.95

Laying, 16 hr. @ BSVgC 5.68

Ballasting and surfacing, 8 hr. @ 35^40 2.84

Total labor $8.52

Total cost of material and labor $33.47

The dimensions of the standard frogs, switches and
turnouts are given at the end of Chapter XXIII. The
formulas used for the turnouts are as follows :

^; -, , ^, ^r Gr — B sin X — F sin Y
Chord length 11^== : — -, — ,„ , „.

sm 1/2 (X + Y)

T-. , . _ ( G — B sin X — F sin Y ' , ^,

Kadms K= — == VoG

cos Y cos X.

Lead S= (R+ i/>G) (sin X — sin Y)

+ B cos X -f F + O

in which

X = Frog: angle ;
Y = Angle of point rail;
B = Length of wing rail ;
F = Length of switch rail ;

284

THE TPuACKJVIANS HELPER

= Distance between actual and theoretical frog

point, taken as 2 in. ;
G = Gage of track ;
R = Radius of turnout.

The dimension of was taken as 2 in. and the heel
distance of switch points as 4l^ in.

The spacing of the ties depends on the size of the
tie and the style of the turnouts. If the regular set
of switch ties is used as in standard-gage trackwork,
5 X 6-in. ties spaced 18 in. c. to c. will give good re-
sults for track laid with rails weighing up to 40 lb.
per yd. If the turnout is laid with ties of even length

^-3 -__

nn n n n n n n

Jm]_n n n n

n"rr^ni n

Fig. 61

staggered in, as shown in Fig. 61, a spacing of 16 to 18
in. centers for each branch has proved satisfactory.
This style of construction is specially well adapted to
underground turnouts, where headroom is limited and
flat ties 3 by 5 in. or 3 by 6 in. are used.

Too often the trackwork for mines and industrial
works is poorly executed, due to lack of experience
of the tracklayers and construction foremen. The es-
sential requirements do not differ from those of the
standard gage, and true alignment and surface may
be obtained by intelligent supervision.

FKOGS AND SWITCHES 285

Crossing of narrow and standard gage track. Mr.

T. C. Herbert of the P. C. C. & St. Louis Ry., in con-
nection with the second track and grade reduction
work on that road between Alton, Ohio, and Glade
Run, as described in the Ry. Age Gaz., gives the fol-
lowing very interesting arrangement (Fig. 62) :

This crossing was subjected to considerable use by
both standard and narrow gage equipment, but there
was not time nor justification for the installation of
a special crossing frog, neither were there any mov-
able or double-point frogs available. So it was de-
cided to construct a crossing out of standard frogs and
switches which were on hand. The crossing, as shown
by the illustration, consisted of two No. 8 frogs and

Fig. 02. Details of Crossing of Standard Gage and Narrow
Gage Track Using Only Standard Frogs and Switches

four switch points operated separately with a switch-
stand for each point. The switch targets showed
white when set for the normal position in line for
side track movements.

A crossing watchman, who also acted as a switch
tender, was k^pt on duty during the working hours of
the contractor, and at night the crossing was locked
clear for the side track. It would be possible to pipe
connect such a crossing with the main track switch,
thus eliminating the necessity for a watchman, and
this would perhaps be advisable if traffic over the
crossing were very light. In an emergency such a
crossing could be used on main track by pipe-connect-
ing the crossing switch points with the signals.

The crossing, as constructed, was installed by a

286 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

gang' of 25 men in seven hours, and as there was no
charge for material the entire cost amounted to only
$35.

Frogs in a ladder track. Inexperienced foremen
sometimes find it difficult to locate the frogs in a lad-
der track in such a manner as to avoid leaving kinks
either in the ladder track or in the tracks which run
parallel to the main track. The places for the points
of frogs can readily be located in the following man-
ner : —

Rule: Stretch a string along the gage line of the
ladder track rail 4 ft. 8V2 in. from the gage line of the
frog in the main track, measured on the side towards

I . At least 75 R. J

Fig. 63, Frogs in a Ladder Track

the proposed side tracks — (A B, fig. 63). Then set
two stakes CD, CD, etc., in the gage line of the rail
nearest main track for each of the parallel side tracks.
These stakes should contain tacks accurately set and
at least 75 ft. apart. Of each pair of tacks C D, the
one nearest the ladder track, C, should be not more
than 25 ft. from where you think the frog is to be.
The desired locations of the theoretical points of frogs
for the ladder track are at the intersections of the
string A B and the lines given by strings stretched
over the tacks at C D-C D, etc.

The above rule will work well where the two tracks
diverge at an angle corresponding to the frog angle,

FROGS AND SWITCHES

287

but where this angle of divergence is different from
the frog angle in the main track, or when the tracks
running from the ladder track are not parallel to
the main track, these will meet the ladder track at
a special angle and will leave the ladder track on a
curve, or else will require a frog of special number,
which can be ascertained by the following method:

To ascertain the number of frog needed. The lines
in the diagram. Fig. 64, represent the rails of two
tracks. Measure across between the track rails at the
points marked A and B, each of which is at an equal
distance from C, where the rails cross, then measure
the distance, C B. Now divide the distance, C B, by

Fig. 64. Diagiam for Determining Frog No. ,

the distance, A B, and the result will be the number
of the frog required. Suppose the distance, A B, is
twelve inches, and the distance, C B, nine feet; it
would require a one to nine frog, or as it is generally
called, a number nine frog. The distance, A B, may
be measured where the rails or lines are only six or
eight inches apart, but the result will always be the
same in proportion to the distance from C to B.
Where tracks are to run parallel with each other, it
is best to gage the distance they are to be apart by
measuring from the nearest rail of a permanent track
adjoining, if in good line, or from the center of the
main track in yards.

288 THE TRACIOIAN'S HELPER

In ladder tracks the distance between frog points,
where they are all of the same number, is approxi-
mately equal to the distance between track centers
multiplied by the frog number.

XIX

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS

Tidy tool houses. Most railways furnish tool
houses with ample room for a hand car and all the
tools necessary for a section gang, and with a little
pains on our part we can arrange them so that each
tool may have its own place, and be kept there when
not in use. By taking a look at a foreman's tool
house a fair idea of his ability may be gained. If he
has a tidy and well arranged tool house, with the hand
car and tools all in good working order, you can rest
assured that there is some well-kept track not far
away.

Foremen are expected to send their tools to the
shops to be repaired, or to be replaced by new ones
whenever necessary, so there is seldom any excuse for
having tools on hand which are not in working order.

There is probably a difference of opinion as to just
how each tool should be used, but there is no room
for argument on the proposition that there should be
an individual system of use and care for track tools,
and that the best should be given.

The Axe. The first thing needed for it is a
handle, which should be snugly fitted, an(J firmly
wedged in. Next, it should be ground sharp, and kept
in that condition ; it should not be used for anything
but chopping or splitting.

Adze. It takes some practice to learn to use an

adze properly, and leave the ties smoothly adzed. In

adzing down old ties, cut deep enough so that the

289

290 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

edge of the adze will go beneath the flange of rail and
thus avoid dulling the adze. When adzing ties on
curves, great care should be exercised to adze them
uniformly and to a proper depth, always keeping a
lookout for stub spikes, or anything that may dull
the tool unnecessarily. The adze should not be used
as a hammer, nor for anything but adzing. A handle
is very easily adjusted to this tool, but is easily broken
if not handled properly.

Hand cars. Oil boxes should be frequently re-
packed, as the packing soon becomes filled with sand.
Keep all boxings fitted snug; when they become worn,
file or grind them down. Keep all keys tight, as well
as all bolts and nuts. Do not let cogs mesh deep
enough to grind. See that the driving arm is not too
short or too long so as to throw one end of the walking
beam too high and the other too low. Drop a little
oil on all the bearings often. Do not use much at a
time, but apply frequenth^ Care should be exercised
when putting the car on and off the track. A little
pains should be taken to instruct men in pumping a
car so that they pump steadily and together, and in
going up grade or against the wind to pump on tlie
up stroke as well as on the down. Keep the car going
at a brisk rate, for it is easier to keep it going in that
way than it is to pump when the speed gets low.

Hand cars are in universal use, and a car which
will give good service on an American road will be
equally desirable and useful on any railroad. To be
desirable a hand car should be light, speed}^, strong,
durable, and of simple construction, so that the sec-
tion men can perform minor repairs without having
to send it to the shop. With these qualities it will
pay for itself in a year in time saved and useful work
performed.

Several manufacturers make a specialty of building
improved hand cars, any of which are preferable to

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS

291

the ''home made" ones which come from the railway
shop.

Buda No. 1 Standard Hand Car. The following-
standard specifications apply to the car illustrated in
Fig. 65 :

Gage : Standard 4' 81/2".

Fig. 65. Hand Car

Wheels: 20" diameter, Buda pressed steel.

Axles: II/2" diameter, open hearth steel. Taper
wheel fit.

Weight: 525 pounds.

Gears : Regularly equipped with machine-cut
helical gears. Can equip with cut spur gears, if de-
sired.

292

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Platform: 6 feet long by 4 feet, 5 inches wide.

Remarks : For roads having block signals with
track circuit, this car can be insulated.

The modern type of section car is motor driven and
effects very considerable economy, due to saving the
time and strength of the men.

Cost of operating motor cars. Mr. J. L. Walsh
of the I\I. K. & T. Railway says in Ry. Age Gaz. that
in 1913 and 1914 this organization was furnished 10

Fig. 66. Gasoline ]\Iotor Section Car

Fairbanks-]\lorse No. 32 motor cars at a total cost of
$2,444. These cars in 13 months made 80,465 miles,
consuming 2,701 gallons of gasoline at a cost of
$256.63, with oil and other supplies costing $75.61.
The mileage was 29.9 per gallon of gasoline.

Upon putting the cars in service on the Kansas City
division the number of sections was reduced from 16
to 12 of eight miles each. The total cost of track
labor for 13 months decreased $3,326.80, which he at-
tributes to the use of these cars.

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 293

In proportioning the money saved he considers that
the largest saving was going to and from work, since
under ordinary conditions the cars will make a speed
of 20 miles per hour, enabling the men to start to
work fresh from 30 to 45 minutes earlier than they
would on the hand car, and allowing them to work a
correspondingly larger number of hours without
greater fatigue. The total saving thus effected at 13,-
134 man hours amounted to $1,970.10, which will pay
for the cars in 15 months.

Another advantage of the cars is that the foreman
can leave most of his gang on a piece of work and go
over his section with one man, but in doing this he
ought to be very sure that he can get the car oft" the
track with one man helping fast enough to avoid get-
tiiig hit by a train.

^e cars accommodate 10 men together with track
tools and can handle the push car with from 25 to
40 ties without much trouble ; moreover with the
push car they can handle 20 or 25 men in extra gang
work. Mr. Walsh also used these cars in bridge
work. He had for this purpose a Buda motor car
No. 19 equipped with a free-running engine, and he
found that it was possible to eliminate four moves
of the bridge outfit per month, the average move be-
ing about 25 miles.

Hand cars and speeders. Mr. C. E. Foreman has
given the following* valuable suggestions in Railway
Engineering ancl Maintenance of Way.

''Most hand cars are manufactured with a view to
light running, and consequently the majority of new
cars when received are squared up and true. How-
ever, if not, they should be trued up by loosening the
bolts which fasten the boxes in which the axle re-
volves, and moving one end of the axle forward or
back to a position where there will be no tendency
for the flange of any of the wheels to bind against

294

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

the rail when the car is moved forward on straight
track.

"Flanges binding against the rail cause more hard
bumping than any other single defect. When axles
are in proper condition tighten the bolts firmly and
see that they are kept tight. Hand cars should be
tried out frequently to see if they are 'true,' as set-
ting cars off and on the track, pushing them loaded

yr Wrong Position
f for Axle

FIdnge
Binaing

"^ Correct Position
for Axle

Flange
Binding '

■Correct Pbs/ffon
for h^/?ee/

Flange .
Binaing

Fig. 67.

WroncJ Fbsition
for Wtieel

Correct and Incorrect Positions of Axle

with tools over highway crossings, rough handling,
etc., is very liable to loosen and move the boxes from
their proper positions.

"Binding may also be caused by a wheel not run-
ning parallel to the track, although the axle may be
in proper position. (See Fig. 67.) This, in a new
car, is clearly the fault of the manufacturer and
should be remedied in a shop. Binding occasionally

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 295

is caused by a crooked wheel or 'a wheel which has
the snakes.' If the wheel cannot be straightened and
trued up a new wheel should be obtained.

''Most handcars have their 'Front' and 'Rear' ends
marked, and if the wheels and axles are properly trued
up the car will always run lighter when placed on
the track with the 'Front' end in the direction of
travel. This is especially true when running around
curves. All wheels except the 'loose wheel' should
be keyed tightly to the axle and not allowed to work
loose or get out of position so that they bind. The
loose wheel should be painted a conspicuous color or
otherwise marked so as to be readily located, and then
the car can be turned by lifting the end opposite that
which the loose wheel is on. Proper lubrication of
the* loose wheel makes pumping easier around curves
on account of the unequal distance traveled by the
inner and outer wheel.

"Next in importance to binding comes grinding.
Grinding in the bearings may be due to lack of oil,
but it is safe to say that more frequently it is due
to dirt and sand in the bearings. Hand cars should
never be used to transport sand and gravel, but in
case it has to be done the bearings and oil holes should
be protected from all dirt and sand.

"Exterior surfaces around bearings and oil holes
should be kept clean of oil and grease and the conse-
quent accumulation of dirt. Never oil the cogs of the
gear wheels in either a speeder or hand car. While
good clean oil wall reduce friction between the cogs,
the oil will also cause an accumulation of dirt, sand
and cinders, and before long the teeth will be choked
with a hard, gritty mass that will cause the car to
drag, even down grade.

' ' Bolts and screws holding the frame together should
be kept reasonably tight, but should never be turned
excessively tight, especially where the heads or nuts

296 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

and washers sink into the wood. Unless the nuts on
the underside of the platform are tightened occasion-
ally, especially those with which oil comes in contact,
they will jar loose and the lower half of a bearing box
may drop off unnoticed.

"The care and operation of speeders (three-wheel
velocipede cars) requires more attention than of heav-
ier four-wheel handcars. Binding here is more fre-
quent and, since usually only one or two men are
pumping, more noticeable. Fig. 67 represents the
conditions ordinarily found. The front wheel on the
load-bearing side (right side) should be very slightly
turned toward the rail, as shown, exaggerated, in the
lower view of Fig. 67, but should not bind enough to
make pumping difficult. This position of the wheel is
necessary in order to make certain of the car keeping
the rails when going around curves to the right, espe-
cially if the curvature is sharp. If the speeder is to
be used only on tracks having very light curves the
wheel can be advantageously placed parallel with the
rail and it will be found that the car will keep the
rails unless there are other faults, such as sprained or
badly worn frame or parts, etc.

' ' Speeders, which are necessarily built light, should
be handled with more care than lieavv handcars, as

«. 7

shocks and derailments are liable to cause sprains or
breaks. While these damages may be repaired, it is
usuallv found that the car does not run as easilv as be-
fore, on account of failure to restore exact former con-
ditions. Rough usage in loading and unloading
speeders for shipment is frequently the cause of a car
running heavy. Personal attention to this feature,
instead of leaving it to the baggageman or freight
handlers, will lessen the labor of pumping.

"A speeder which is used regularly should be
cleaned periodically. The ball bearings and retainers
should be removed and thoroughly cleaned with kero-

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS

297

sene. Examine the bearings for rough spots and if
found replace with new parts. When replacing, pack
the ball bearings in a generous amount of clean vase-
line.

''Under heavy loads or usage a grinding or ^screech-
ing' will sometimes develop in the wheel bearings, al-
though they may be well oiled. This denotes a worn

Fig. 68. Single Speeder

retaining cup or a brol^en ball bearing. These should
be replaced at once, else the damage will spread to
all the ball bearings, the cups and the axle, besides in-
creasing the labor necessary to propel the car.

"Attention to the details mentioned, by the man who
has considerable pumping to do, will result in the sav-
ing of a great deal of unnecessary hard labor. The

298

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

writer has found this to be true by trying it out. In
one season from :\Iarch to September, inclusive, the
writer has, with a partner, covered over 2,500 miles
on a No. 3 velocipede car. By keeping the car in
proper condition a mileage of 56 miles was made in
one day, and 65 miles the following day; these dis-
tances being over ordinary track and grades, including
the climbing of a long divide; one day facing a 'head-
wind' and the following day pumping with the wind.

Fig. 69. Gasoline Speeder. Weight 320 lbs.

( (

The 'head-wind' always has been and alwavs will
be the pumper 's worst enemy. We cannot control it ;
but we can control the condition in which we keep
the hand cars and speeders which we pump everv
day. ' '

Speeders are made with three or four wheels, ar-
ranged to be propelled by hand as well as driven by
mechanical motors. This latter mode of operation has
gained in favor of late years and is particularly ad-
vantageous for roadmasters who have to cover long
distances, or for inspection trips where considerable

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 299

speed is required, and where the working of the levers
of a hand car would interfere with the view of the
inspectors.

Claw bars. Nothing will cause more annoyance
than a poor claw bar, one on which claws are too far
apart at toe or close together, neck not properly bent,
heel out of proportion to claws, and so on. Most of
these things can be remedied at shops. When they are
sent in to be remedied a letter and a sketch should be
sent along if possible, showing what changes should be
made. A good many of the claw bars now in use
would be more valuable to the company in the scrap
pile than anywhere else.

Cross cut saws. Strict attention should be paid to
filing and setting saws. They should be carried on the
car an'H kept in tool house in such position that the
teeth will not come in contact with other metal tools.
Men should stand squarely opposite each other when
sawing, each dragging the saw toward him, but never
pushing the saw. A saw in good running order does
not need any crowding.

Cold chisels. A full complement of these should al-
ways be kept on hand. It is the custom when using a
chisel to stick any kind of a hard wood piece into it for
a handle, but it pays to fit good handles to chisels, as
well as other tools, so that you will not have to stop
to insert handles while cutting a rail. A great many
chisels are spo:j:led by not being properly held. If a
chisel has good temper and is not broken too badly it
is better to grind it down than to send it to the shop ;
but if it cannot be ground down profitably, it should
be sent to the shop at once, not kept around the tool
house.

Track gage. The gage should be made to serve a
better purpose than merely to mark the standard dis-
tance between the rails. A wooden gage may do well
when ends are well bound with iron, but a metal gage is

300 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

better. There should be a fork on one end to pre-
vent the gage from falling on its side when spiking,
and also to square it across the track. This end should
be fastened solid, either welded or screwed and riveted
to the end of a wrought iron pipe. On the other end
of this pipe, the single end of the gage, the lug should
be adjustable; it should be screwed up tight on the
pipe when standard gage is desired, and lengthened
out as necessary when gage is widened on curves. A
small thumb screw through the adjustable lug, with a
narrow seat planed on the pipe will hold the lug in
place, and this screw seat can also hold oil to keep
thread from rusting and turning hard. The lugs
should be of the same size on both ends 1% inches
wide and 1% inches deep. This would be satisfactory
under all circumstances and is simple ; strong with no
delicate parts- to break; will adjust to widen gage on
curves; the width of the lugs is standard guard rail
distance ; the depth of the lugs will show if blocks in
switches are clear of wheel flanges, allowing one-
fourth inch extra as flanges on wheels are generally
1% inches deep ; the wide lugs on double end of gage
will fit snugly between wing rail and point of frog
and stay there, while the single end will show where
to set the guard rail regardless of how wide the track
is. This gage will pay for itself in the saving of wear
of frog points alone, besides other services that it can
render while gaging track on curves.

Lining bars. Some of the bars in use are of iron
and are too heavy. A steel bar weighing about twenty
pounds, with chisel point on square or bottom end of
bar, and sharp pointed at small end, is about right.
Lining track is probably one of the most difficult
things a foreman has to do. Where track has just
been raised, take only enough men and bars to move
track easily. Don't let men stick the bars in the
ground at too great an angle ; if they do they will raise

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 301

the track when they throw it over, and if the ballast is
sandy some of it will run under the ties and spoil the
surface. When lining track where it is hard to move,
bars should be struck firmly in the ground before heav-
ing on them, for if one bar slips all the other men have
to wait while that one is being replaced. Men must
always pull together, and always be ready when the
word is given ; the foreman should keep as far back as
he can, to see well and avoid putting swings in the
track. Some of the little defects can be taken out at
short range.

Lanterns should always be kept in perfect order,
for you never know at what moment you will need
them, and you are always in a hurry when you do.
The lajaterns usually furnished are good to use for
signals, but give little light to work by. A couple of
engineer's torches will give more light than a dozen
lanterns. Every trackman should know all lamp sig-
nals thoroughly, and when placing danger or slow
signals care should be taken to set them in plain view
of an approaching train. Be sure to have them out
the full distance required by the book of rules. If you
err at all, be on the safe side. It is a short job to
place signals, and serious accidents will be prevented
often if they are put out properly. If you have any
doubt about the stability of a piece of track, don 't hesi-
tate to use your signals. Be on the safe side.
Lanterns, after being used, should have the oil taken
out and put back in the oil can. Clean the globes, trim
the wicks and set them in a safe place. If lanterns re-
main a long time without use the wicks should be
changed or they will not burn well. When putting
out lanterns as danger or slow signals, be sure that
they are in good trim with plenty of oil. Signal oil
gets too thick if it stands very long in small cans.
When it does not burn well add kerosene to it. A
few extra globes should always be kept on hand.

302 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Spike mauls. About eight pounds is the right
weight. Select the straightest handle for this, fit it
snug and wedge it tight. If the eye is not straight in
the hammer, which is often the case, file it out as
nearly straight as possible w4th a rat-tail file. If face
of hammer gets too rounded, file or grind it down. To
drive a spike properly, stand at side of rail and start
the spike perpendicular to the tie; never allow it to
slant under the rail. A spike may be leaned a little
from you when started, but the second blow should
straighten it up. Stand with heels close together, use
full length of handle, and give long, swinging strokes
when spiking.

A shovel is the tool the trackman uses most and the
incorrect use of it causes him to waste more time than
in almost any other way. Therefore it is necessary
for him to know some of the principles governing its
work, and he should be continually on the alert to
apply those principles in his daily practice. Most men
think that shoveling is a perfectly easy, perfectly nat-
ural, and perfectly simple thing to do, and so it is
when it is done without regard to the economy of the
work or its quality; but when both these things are
considered, shoveling is one of the most difficult of
processes to perform properly. Hence, a brief refer-
ence to some of the principles involved in it will not be
amiss in this book.

In order to accomplish the most work in a day, a
man must perform the smallest amount of unnecessary
muscular effort, to do w^hich each motion should have
the right direction with only the necessary amount of
force. Now, in shoveling, two or three principal oper-
ations are performed. In the first place, the shovel
must be pushed into the material or under the ma-
terial to be lifted. Secondly, the man must raise the
shovel and with it his own body, get ready to throw,
pr swing the shovel back, and next he must throw, for-

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS 303

ward or side-wise, the shovel with its load, and a part
of his own body also. Finally, he must stop the shovel
and allow the load of the shovel to go on its way to
its intended place. These operations may be listed as.
follows : —

1. Penetration 4. Throw.

2. Elevation. 5. Recover.

3. Swing-back.

It is clear that for some of these operations, certain
kinds of shovels are particularly adapted, and for
other kinds of operations other kinds of shovels are
better. For instance, for penetrating tough ground in
digging ditches, a square tamping shovel is one of the
worst tools that can be used. Its cutting edge is not
particularly sharp, it is wide and there is a poor place
on it for a man's foot to push on. The average laborer
will accomplish less than half as much work in digging
ditches with a standard track shovel as he can with a
round pointed shovel of proper size. It is thus evi-
dent that when the work to be done involves pene-
trating tough material, a penetrating shovel should be
used rather than a tamping shovel. It is also clear
that for throwing dirt, for instance, there are large
shovels and small shovels to be used for heavy ma-
terials and light ones. The very large shovel should
not be used for heavy material, nor should the small
shovel be used for light material. If you give your
men shovels which are designed for handling soft coal
and they have to use them to throw iron ore the men
will either stop work entirely or else in a short time
they will become so tired as to very greatly reduce
the day's output. On the other hand, if you give a
man a standard track shovel and set him to work
shoveling sawdust, his strokes will be perhaps a little
faster than if he were shoveling dirt, but they will not

304 THE TPw\CKMAN'S HELPER

be enough faster to make up for the tremendous de-
ficiency in the weight of material on the shovel, so that
in the same amount of time he will throw perhaps a
third as much sawdust as he would if he had a proper
shovel for the purpose.

A most important feature in the economy of shovel
work is the length of the shovel handle. If a man
were to raise his body up and down, bending forward
and bending back, without doing any other work at
all, at the end of a whole day of that sort of thing he
would be very tired without having accomplished any-
thing. In working with a short-handled shovel, this
is to some extent just what he does, with a great deal
of effort. Whenever he lifts a shovelful of dirt he
lifts several times that weight in his own body, and the
weight of his own body that he lifts is just as tiresome
to him as the weight of material on the shovel that he
lifts, plus the weight of the shovel itself. Now, with a
long-handled shovel he can stand up almost straight
and with yerj^ little bending of his back and almost no
bending of his hips, he can throw his shovelful of ma-
terial without doing much of the unnecessary work of
lifting his body. A great many men, especially track
laborers, are accustomed to work with short-handled
shovels and do not like to use long-handled ones when
thev are first given them. But after thev have been
trained to the use of long-handled shovels, especially
for deep trench work, shoveling into a wagon, or for
any purpose in which the delivery point is above the
height of the waist, they take very kindly to the long-
handled shovel, and in a day's work will accomplish a
great deal more, generally speaking, than with a short-
handled tool. When mixing concrete by hand the ma-
terial can be lifted much more easily if the shovels are
square pointed and are shoved along a platform, pre-
ferably of sheet iron or boards laid lengthwise of the
movement of the shovel. AYhen loading into cars

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS

305

from a platform, whenever possible the men should
work parallel with the planks of the platform; when
working across them the edges of the shovel stick at
the edges of the plank and can account for a sur-
prisingly small output of work.

Long Handle
Round Point Shovel

Concave Dram Spade

Post Spade

Screening
Scoop

^ I Marl Gouge

uare Point Shovel

Ballast Fork

Round Point Shovel

Tamping Bar

Fig. 70. Various Types of Shovels

The foreman should see to it that several kinds of
shovels are kept in the tool house, and he should make
a practice of timing his men by counting how many

306 THE TRACKJMAN'S HELPER

shovelfuls they throw per minute. In this way he will
soon be able to become an expert on economical shovel-
ing. To accomplish this result it is not necessary to
drive the men or to try them with the wrong sized
shovel in order to determine the amount of work ac-
complished. The proper selection of tools is always
appreciated by the men and they will always work
more w^illingly, more intelligently and more effectively
with proper tools. For ordinary average shoveling in
earth a shovel w^hich carries about 20 lb. of material
is about right; for high lifts or very long casts, one
size smaller than this should be used.

Fig. 70 gives an idea of the various types of shovels
most suitable for different kinds of work.

Tamping bars should be made of seven-eighths in.
iron or steel, length Si/o ft., sharp-pointed at upper
end, have a tamping face four inches wide, and five-
eighths inch thick, and weigh about 14 lbs., the neck
bent so that the tamping face will be in right position
when bar is held at an angle of about 45 degrees.
When tamping face gets too thin send to shop to be
refaced. Always be sure to remove enough dirt so
that the tie can be well tamped ; reach under the rail so
that all the space under the tie will be tamped. Never
slight this work nor allow the men to do so.

Track flags. Always have the flags with you, and
always place them at the extreme limit required by
the book of rules under which you are working.

Always send a trusty man to do the flagging. Flags
when not in use should be encased in something that is
water proof.

Tape lines. It often happens that a cloth tape line,
after being wet two or three times, will shrink, and
be too short ; therefore measure them once in a while
and see if they are accurate. Of course it is best not
to get them wet, but sometimes it cannot be avoided.
Steel tapes are not subject to this difficulty but are

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS

307

liable to rust and must be kept oiled. Have a box to
keep the tape line in when not in your pocket.

Track level. When surfacing track never try to get
along without the level, but try it every day it is used
to see that it is in correct adjustment. A good track
level is one made of wood, li/^ inches thick by 3 inches
wide, bound with iron strap at one end, and the other
end having an iron or brass cap fitted over it and an
iron standard 5 or more inches long through it;
standard to be one-half inch square and graduated to
one-eighth inch. Standard should slide easily either
way, and have a set screw to hold it at any desired
place. The end with the standard will, of course, be
the heavier, and the handle should not be in the center,
but should be placed so that the level will balance when

Fig. 71. Track Level

picked up. The track level should be used continu-
ally, especially on track which was never ballasted, or
which was surfaced hurriedly without using a level.
If you have surfaced a piece of track to a perfect level,
then you can sight the depressions in the surface with-
out using the spirit level when going over it a second
time if the trapk has not become rough.

Section foreitien in charge of new track should make
it their business to improve the line and surface as
fast as possible with the force allowed them, before
the track settles or the ballast becomes a solid mass.
"While the ties and rails are new is the time to make
a good track.

Track wrenches. Each section should have as many
track wrenches as there are men in the gang. It takes
a little practice to use a wrench quickly and handily.

308

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

The nuts should be well tightened and then hit with
the hammer and tightened again. Where nutlocks
are used nuts will not need to be as tight as where
there are none. Wrenches should be made of one

•ity

Fig. 72. Typical Track Jack

piece of steel, and have four sides to the jaws, so as to
fit square or hexagonal nuts.

Monkey wrenches. One should go with every hand-
car. Don 't use it for a hammer ; keep it in good work-

ing order to tighten nuts.

USE AND CARE OF TEACK TOOLS 309

Drawing knives and hand axes are very handy f or
putting- in new handles and are often useful when
making' repairs around tool houses or other buildings.
They need to be kept very sharp and should have a
special place in the tool house.

A grindstone is a most necessary tool and should be
turned steadily and tools held square to avoid wearing
the face of the stone unevenly.

Track jacks. Every section foreman should have a
track jack along with his other track tools, and he
should always carrj^ it with him on the hand car, and
have it ready to use whenever it is necessary to raise
track. A good track jack is one of the best and most
economical tools that can be used on a railroad.

There are few things that look more ridiculous than
three "or four men making futile efforts to raise a rail
with a long bar or track lever and a block of wood
which is either too high or too low. The ingenuity or
ignorance of the whole gang is displayed a score of
times during the day, whenever the block will not do
to raise the track to the proper height, and valuable
time is lost in trying to find a stone, a chunk of wood
or a spike to increase the leverage, and which is seldom
or never thought of until the moment it is wanted.
Sometimes the spikes are pulled out of one or two
ties in every rail length, and the track is raised from
the tops of the ties. This method also causes a con-
siderable loss of time, pulling the spikes and respik-
ing the ties, besides the injury done the ties when the
old spike holes are left open to rot the wood. Raising
track with a lever pulls the rails out of line much
more than raising it with a jack, and makes it more
difficult to put back into place, often loosening the
spikes where the ballast is heavy, and the track is laid
with soft ties.

In order to avoid accidents when track is being
raised, the track jack should be set on the outside of

310

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

the rail. In this position the pilot of an engine, if it
should strike the jack, will knock it clear of the
rails. But there is no necessity of using a track jack
immediately ahead of the passage of trains, or when

Fig. 73. Pony Car

they are due at that point, and the men can be em-
ployed at other work for the time. Track jacks placed
inside the rails which could not be removed in time,
have caused the derailment of numerous trains. Al-

USE AND CARE OP TRACK TOOLS

311

ways properly protect yourself with flags when using a
jack

Rail benders and jim crow. Almost every section
has more or less kinky rails, and with these tools the
joints can be straightened where they are crowded out
too much. First, pull the spikes and plug the holes

Fig. 74. Jim Crow Rail Benders

where the kinks occur, then use the rail bender or jim
crow and the track will present a much better appear-
ance. These are also very handy in cutting rails.
Mark the rail with chisel, put on the "bender" and
break it.

Ratchet bits. When drilling holes the bits should
not be crowded too hard, as they are generally highly
tempered and are likely to break at the point. See
that the bit is in the ratchet straight and fits snug.

Ratchet drills. Keep them as free from grit and
dirt as possible. When placing them for drilling a
hole, be sure to set them straight, so that there will be
no crooked or misplaced hole.

Standard track drills have supplanted the use of
the ordinary ratchet drills to a great extent now and
there are numerous styles on the market.

312

THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Striking- hammer. Every section should have one
of these. Twelve pounds is about the right weight,
and the handle should be a little shorter than for a
spike hammer. Always use the striking hammer for
striking the chisel; a spike hammer should never be
used for this.

Sight boards and spike pullers. Every foreman
should have some kind of sight board or blocks to use

Fig. 75.

Ratchet Drill

w^hen taking out long sags. Another tool which is
very handy is a short spike puller for pulling spikes
where the claw bar cannot be used. In lieu of some-
thing better, a short pinch bar, such as engineers or
car repairers use with their jacks, can be used to ad-
vantage. Bend them a little more at the heel and they
will start spikes fairly well. However, the spike

USE AND CARE OF TRACK TOOLS

313

pullers offered by manufacturers are far better and
handier.

Oil for wooden handles. All wooden tool handles
should be well oiled before being used ; it prevents sea-

Fig. 76. Standard Track Drill

son checking to a great extent and causes them to wear
smoother.
Importance of having tools ready for use. One of

the most important things in railway service is time.

314 THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

Time represents so much capital invested by the com-
pany, and to make this investment pay dividends you
must know how to use and care for the tools you have.
IMake a practice of handling tools to the best advan-
tage, so that in case of emergency you may be pre-
pared for anything that turns up. Think for a mo-
ment of the loss and inconvenience that is caused if
one of the main lines of one of our great railway
systems is blocked for a few hours. In case of a wreck
or washout, or any other accident that may happen to a
railroad, and a big force is called out to repair it you
can make yourself of valuable service by knowing
how, when and where to use tools, and have them dis-
trib