Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

(Quarterly Series)

AFFILIATED WITH THE A.A. A.S.

VOLUME 12
(Double Issue)
No. 1—April, 1945
No. 2—November, 1945

CONTENTS

Foreword to the Forum on Kentucky Education _...........

Forever In the Forties?

Walang Sel avlOrs2 2s. 2 ieee Soe oe

Education In Kentucky

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Elementary Education In Kentucky

Puichardeh na SSers, see oho eee ee

Secondary Education In Kentucky

ohn red . Williams tees eo a ee (:

Problems of Higher Education In Kentucky

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The Density of Ether

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
EDITORIAL STAFF
Lawrence Baker___.. Berea College.._..Psychology and Philosophy

Be Wee Cooke. Centre::College ua. tse Bacteriology
He Bs Lovell University .om Wousville ieee Biology
A, C. McFarlan.____. Universityob Kentucky.) 22 es Geology
Ward C. Sumpter...Western State Teachers College....Chemistry
Jarvis; Todd) Universitysor Kentucky. eee Physics

Harlow Bishop......-- University of Louisville, Managing Editor

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j “ArionatA MUS sEUe

Snr

FOREWORD

Due to wartime restrictions, the regular meet-
ing of the Kentucky Academy of Science for the
spring of 1945 could not be held. Among the
events planned for that occasion was a forum on
Kentucky education. The scheduled speakers for
this forum were invited to publish their papers in
the Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of
Science. The editorial board expresses its pleasure
with the manner in which the authors have re-
sponded. We hope that the Academy has contrib-
uted in this way to the cause of good education
in Kentucky.

We wish to affirm our editorial policy of accept-
ing papers at any time, in addition to accepting
those papers which are submitted as part of the
programs of the annual meetings. We feel that in
this way only can the Transactions be considered
truly a quarterly journal. Authors may send their
papers to the appropriate assistant editor or to
the managing editor.

The papers contributed to the Forum on Ken-
tucky Education follow immediately. Each paper
in this series is so designated. Mr. Charles
Farnsley was the chairman of the Forum and
to him we are indebted for its initial stimulus.

bo

The Kentucky Academy of Science

FOREVER IN THE FORTIES ?*

WILLIAM S. TAYLOR

Dean, College of Education, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

Kentucky is still in the forties! Since the first rating of the
states educationally, in 1918, Kentucky has been apologizing for
its position. At first many persons maintained that the rating
was unfair; that Kentucky had a better school system than the
evaluation indicated. Other rating scales have been developed
since that ‘time and Kentucky has been scored on these. By every
test Kentucky has been rated in the forties.

Great progress has been made in Kentucky in the past quar-
ter of a century—but other states have made progress too. We
are still in the forties and we cannot get out by pointing to our
educational accomplishments or by feeling sorry for ourselves.
If we want to improve our educational rank we must recognize
our deficiencies and improve our program where it is weak.

Under present conditions to be born in Kentucky is to be born
with a potential educational handicap. It is true that some of our
cities and counties have excellent school systems but in far too
many school districts of the state teachers are poorly qualified,
buildings are inferior, teaching materials and equipment are in-
adequate, school terms are short, attendance is low, and learning
is meager. Children attending such schools never have a chance
to learn what education should do for ‘them and for the communi-
ties in which they live. As citizens they will lack vision because
they now lack opportunity to learn the things that contribute to
effective ciizenship. We are in a vicious circle. Poor schools make
poor citizens; poor citizens are content with poor schools.

What are some of our handicaps in Kentucky? Why do we
receive an embarrassingly low rating every time the states in
the Union are ranked as to educational efficiency? Some of the
most difficult problems we have to overcome are the result of
constitutional limitations. Under a provision of the constitution
the superintendent of public instruction must be selected on a
political rather than a professional basis and his term of office is
limited to four years. No intelligent person would think of re-
quiring the president of the University and the presidents of the
teachers colleges to seek their offices on a political basis. The
position of state superintendent of schools in any state should be

* Received for publication May 11, 1945.
Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education.

Ar" 1 * 1047

Forever in the Forties? 3

free from political influences and should be comparable in im-
portance to the presidency of the state university. And not one
reason can be found for limiting the term of office of the state
superintendent to four years. It should be possible for a super-
intendent of public instruction to stay in office as long as he is
giving efficient service. No superintendent, however strong and
efficient, can project and carry through a constructive state pro-
gram of education in a period of four years.

An additional handicap is the constitutional limitation of
$5,000 on the salary that can be paid to any person in public
education, including the state teachers colleges and the Univer-
sity. The Legislature has added a further restriction in that it
has authorized a salary of only $4,000 for the state superin-
tendent of public instruction. The salary for this office is so
small that few men can afford to offer themselves for the
position. It takes a brave man to resign from a good school
position in Kentucky, run for office on a political ticket, without
prospect of a position when his four-year term of office is over.

Another great handicap to the development of a strong educa-
tional program in Kentucky is the meager financial support
which has been given by the Legislature to the State Department
of Education. It has been difficult for the Department to pro-
cure men and women with the highest qualifications for leader-
ship because of the low salaries paid and the uncertainty of
tenure which results from the election of the superintendent on
a party ballot. There has never been the security of office in
the State Department of Education that has existed in the public-
school systems of the state, in the teachers colleges, or in the
University.

A long-recognized need in Kentucky is a coordinated system of
education from the elementary school through college or univer-
sity. Great strides have been made in recent years in coordinat-
ing the programs of elementary and secondary education. These
programs are still not so well articulated with the program of
higher education as they should be. Most authorities in the field
of school administration agree that there are in Kentucky too
many different boards administering the program of publicly
supported education. This question needs serious study to dis-
cover the steps that could be taken to strengthen Kentucky’s
educational program.

Closely related, if not actually a part of the question of a better
coordinated system is the problem of reducing the number of
school administrative units in the state. We have at present too

4 The Kentucky Academy of Science

many small districts which are in most cases weak. There are
many reasons for combining city and county programs of educa-
tion. Around our larger cities are great suburban areas that have
all the problems of city school systems; in many instances, how-
ever, these areas are parts of county systems. The concentration
of wealth within cities makes it easier for urban centers than
for rural areas to support their programs of education. If larger
school units could be established, the burden of support would
be more nearly equalized and a more effective program would
be realized.

Not only must the tax laws be revised but property assess-
ments must be increased to more nearly their actual value. But at
best, Kentucky would not be able to compete with the wealthiest
states or even with the average state of the nation. Federal sup-
port for education must be provided if Kentucky is to approxi-
mate the national average in the provision of educational oppor-
tunity for its citizens. Kentucky does not have wealth to produce
the income necessary for an educational program comparable to
those of the upper 50 per cent of the states of the nation.

Kentucky ranks lowest of all of the states in the Union in the
percentage of its children between the ages of fourteen and
seventeen who are enrolled in high school. Our secondary schools
in America have frequently been called the peoples’ colleges.
These are the schools in which the children of America should be
given the kinds of education that will make possible richer lives
and better work. Kentucky has not been able, in many areas, to
provide transportation to high school for rural children. While
there is a high school in every county in Kentucky, in a great
number of counties the enrollments are exceptionally low.
Elementary education is not enough for Kentucky’s children.
Some means must be found of making secondary education
available to all of the children of the state.

All of us are agreed that longer terms must be made available
in rural elementary schools. A rural child cannot learn as much
in seven months in a poor school under an inadequately prepared
teacher as a city child learns in nine months in a good school
under a well-educated teacher.

Public school programs in every state are affected by the col-
leges and universities of that state. The institutions of higher
learning in Kentucky have served well with the limited resources
available. To insure adequate help from her state supported insti-
tutions of higher education, Kentucky must provide a larger
measure of support for these schools. The teachers colleges and

Forever in the Forties? 5

the University need greatly increased funds if they are to give
to the state the best possible service. The University should not
only offer programs for the high school graduates who come to
the campus for education, but it should also provide in-service
education on the adult level for many groups of people who need
training for the work they are doing or will do. Newly elected
city and county officials should be able to come to the University
for short courses before they take office; such public officials as
county cierks, city clerks, county judges, city judges, and sheriffs
should find at the University the help they need to enable them
to give effective service. Business executives should have an op-
portunity to come to the University for training which would
help them to improve their organization and management. EKm-
ployees of business and industry should receive services through
the Extension Division of the University that would enable them
to improve their earning power and to give better service to the
organizations that employ them. There has been in existence for
a long time an unusually effective in-service education program
for farmers and for homemakers. Similar services should be ex-
tended to people in other occupations.

These are only a few of the many things that need to be done
to give Kentucky an educational program that will meet the
needs of her people. We must stir ourselves to vigorous effort.
We are not a pauper state. We can finance better schools than
we now have, but we cannot provide schools as good as our chil-
dren deserve from money raised in Kentucky alone. We must pro-
cure for our state the help necessary to give to children and
adults an adequate educational program.

6 The Kentucky Academy of Science

EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY*
W. P. KING

Executive Secretary,
Kentucky Education Association

There are in Kentucky 120 county school systems and 137
independent systems, or a total of 257 school units each adminis-
tered by a board of education and a superintendent. The schools
are financially supported by local tax and appropriations from
the state. The latter consists of (1) a fund which is distributed
on a per capita basis, and (2) an equalization fund which is dis-
tributed on the basis of need. Districts which cannot raise from
their local tax plus their per capita allotment from the state an
amount equal to $40.00 for each pupil may participate in the
equalization fund.

Kentucky has struggled for a number of years under a tax sys-
tem for schools which differentiated between districts. For ex-
ample, a county could levy a maximum of 75 cents on each $100
of assessible property while independent districts could levy
within a range from $1.00 to $1.50 for the same purpose. This
inequality has been removed during the current session of the
Legislature by the passage of a law which permits $1.50 tax in
all districts. This law will become operative July 1, 1946.

Under the tax system which has prevailed, 55 counties have
only 7 months of school while most of the other 65 counties have
8 or 9 months as do nearly all independent districts. The new tax
program will remedy this condition.

There are slightly under 4,000 one-teacher schools in Ken-
tucky. These are rural schools and are chiefly in the seven-month
counties. Most of these counties are levying all the tax permitted
by law. Many of them would be willing to raise their tax for
schools if it were not for legal restrictions.

Another retarding factor for the schools and other depart-
ments of the state government is the great inequality in the as-
sessment of property. The range of assessments runs all the way
from approximately 35 per cent of the fair cash value as indi-
cated by sales, to approximately 85 per cent in some of the high-
est counties. On the other hand there is much potential wealth
in the state owned and operated by corporations out of the state,
which does not bear its part of the educational load.

The circumstances set out above result in the very low ranking

* Received for publication May 14, 1945.
Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education.

Education In Kentucky ]

of Kentucky in so many categories. For example, among the 49
states including the District of Columbia, according to the latest
data, Kentucky ranks 48th in number of days of school taught,
43rd in school attendance, 39th in per cent of persons 25 years
of age and above who have completed less than five years of
school, 40th in median school years completed by persons 25
years of age and older, 42nd in current expenditures for educa-
tion per child in average daily attendance, 41st in average salary
per teacher and 45th in the value of school property per child.
Latest data also shows that Kentucky ranks as follows in items
measuring the well being of her people: 45th in per capita in-
come, 44th in per capita retail sales, 42nd in per capita output
of industries, 39th in per capita life insurance in effect, 38th in
per cent of homes having mechanical refrigeration, 40th in per
cent of homes with running water and 43rd in per capita circula-
tion of 18 national magazines.

A question which logically arises is whether or not Kentucky
is able to support a system of public education. Let us examine
the facts.

Three measures are frequently used to determine the economic
ability of a state to support education and other governmental
services by taxation. They are per capita economic income, per
capita output of industry, including farming and mining, and per
capita retail sales.

In 1940, according to the Survey of Current Business, August,
1941, the per capita economic income in Kentucky was $298 and
the average for the U. S. was $532. Judged by this measure, Ken-
tucky therefore has only 56 per cent of the ability to support
taxation of the average for the entire country.

The U. S. Bureau of the Census reported in a special study in
September, 1942, that the per capita value of the output of in-
dustries, including farming and mining, was $161 in Kentucky
and $277 in the U. S. for the year 1939. On this basis Kentucky
has 58 per cent of the ability of the U.S. as a whole.

In 1939, according to the same study by the U. S. Bureau of
the Census the per capita retail sales was $185 in Kentucky
whereas the average for the nation was $322. Using this cri-
terion, Kentucky’s ability to support taxation is 57 per cent of
the nation’s average.

Combining these three measures we find that the state of Ken-
tucky has 57 per cent of the economic ability of the U.S. asa
whole, to support a program of taxation to pay the cost of edu-
cation and other governmental services.

8 The Kentucky Academy of Science

Let us now take a look at the tax burden carried by Ken-
tuckians and compare it with the tax load of the average citizen
of the United States. In 1941, according to the special study of
the U. S. Bureau of the Census, the per capita tax burden for
local purposes amounted to $39.89 in the United States as a
whole and only $13.97 or 35 per cent of that amount for the
state of Kentucky. Thus Kentuckians have 57 per cent of the
tax paying ability of the average for the United States and they
carry a local tax burden equal to only 35 per cent of the average
for the nation.

On the basis of these facts taxation for local purposes could
be increased by 63 per cent before reaching the ratio of per
capita local taxes to per capita taxpaying ability which now
exists for the entire country.

The facts recited here make a drab picture with very few
high-lights. What it shall be in the future depends upon the
recognition of the fact that the deficiencies in our program of
education constitute a problem for all the people.

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY*

RICHARD E.. JAGGERS
Chief Bureau of Instruction
Frankfort, Kentucky

One of the chief functions of elementary education is to help
the child take the first steps in becoming a practicing citizen of
the social group in which he finds himself. This means that the
elementary school must, if it serves this purpose, help him to
learn the languages common to the group: he must learn the
language of communication, oral and written; he must learn the
language of numbers; he must learn the language of health and
physical fitness; he must learn the language of human relation-
ship; he must learn the language of space relations; and he must
learn every language which will help him to become a part of
the social, civic, economic and spiritual life of the group. He
must be made to act, in a great measure, like the other members
of the group in which he lives and works and plays.

The other major function of elementary education is to dis-
cover in each child the ways in which he differs from other
members of the social group. This means that from the time the
child enters school until he leaves special effort must be made
to find his chief interest and chief aptitude. It is generally recog-
nized that the thing for which a child has the greatest aptitude
is generally the thing in which he is most interested. It is gener-
ally believed that when the chief interest-aptitude is found the
strength of the child is likely to be within that area. It means,
then, that the elementary school program of living and learning
should offer opportunity for discovering these strengths, i.e.,
interest-aptitudes. It follows that there must be means of
developing the total child with due respect for his interest-
aptitude. The effective achievement of this function lays the
foundation for personal happiness and for vocational efficiency.

It is believed that all the functions of elementary education
may be grouped under the two functions mentioned, i.e., integra-
tion of the child into the group in which his life is lived, and dif-
ferentiation to discover and develop his individual aptitude. If
this view is taken, then it is economy to provide the type
of elementary school in which this kind of program operates.

1. There must be an educated teacher who believes that an

individual human being is of immense worth, who believes
that all children can learn, who understands how children

* Received for publication May 10, 1945.
Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education.

10 The Kentucky Academy of Science

learn, and who is able to lead them in learning. Her edu-
cation should be anchored in the biological sciences, psy-
chologies, child growth and development and human prob-
lems of living. It is only in rare instances that a person can
become this kind of a teacher unless she has had a good
elementary schoo! experience, has attended a good secon-
dary school, and has followed this with four or five years in
a teacher-educating institution which bases its programs
upon the functions as suggested in this statement. This
must be followed by continued study on the job.

2. The elementary school must be housed in a plant suited to
the needs of the program undertaken. The place where
children live-and-learn must be as good as or better than
the home. This means that it must be as attractive and
livable, not like but as the home. As much attention must
be given to the health and happiness of a child in school
as is given his health and happiness in the home by his
parents whose beloved child he is. There should be absolute
certainty that nothing in ‘the physical environment of the
school shall in any way prevent a child from developing at
his best rate.

3. Then the elementary school if it is to perform its function
must be equipped with whatever is needed to provide the
best learning conditions. Supplies suited to the needs of
pupils at the elementary age level must be provided.

Kentucky has, during all her life as a state, treated the ele-
mentary school as her educational step-child. We, by law will
employ a teacher for the elementary school who has only two
years of college preparation, while we refuse by law to permit a
person to teach in secondary schools until and unless he has at
least four years of preparation in college. In 45 of our counties,
we permit the operation of a minimum term of seven months for
elementary children and require 9 months for secondary schools.
We, therefore, give the child in the elementary grades a short
term and a teacher with the low minimum level of training. The
pupil cost is much larger in secondary schools than in the ele-
mentary schools. The maximum teacher load is approximately
30 pupils in secondary schools while there is no limit to the
number of pupils that may be assigned an elementary teacher.
The secondary school is generally better housed.

To sum up, the elementary child may have a poorly trained
teacher, employed for the shortest term, with no load limit. The

Elementary Education in Kentucky 11

result is that pupils become retarded. The number of children
who have to repeat the first grade is appalling!

To place the elementary school in a position where it will cease
to be the educational step-child, the following appear to be
necessary:

1. There should be a uniform school term throughout the

state for grades 1 to 12.

2. Elementary as well as secondary teachers should be re-
quired to have at least four years of training which will
fit them for the job they are to fill.

3. The number of pupils per teacher should be limited to not
more than 20 for the first grade and increased grade by
grade with possible maximum number per teacher in the
twelfth grade limited to 40. The principle followed should
be: The younger the pupils, the smaller number to be
assigned per teacher.

4. There should be at least as much money spent per teacher
unit in the elementary grades as in the secondary grades.

5. All salaries should be calculated on an annual basis.

When the war came the average elementary teacher in Ken-
tucky had less than three years of college preparation while the
average teacher in the secondary school had slightly more than
four years of college preparation. The salary policy of the state
as a whole is based upon the principle of the single salary sched-
ule. This is a good principle. It means that a teacher in the eie-
mentary grades will be paid as much as the secondary teacher
if she has as much training and experience. The fallacy in the
application of the principle lies in the fact that it is applied on
a monthly basis. For example, the salary of a teacher who has
a bachelor’s degree is $120 per month. This applies to the ele-
mentary teacher who has a degree just as it does to the secon-
dary teacher, but when we give the elementary teacher this
salary for 7 months and the secondary teacher the salary for 9
months, it means that the annual salaries are $840 for the
elementary teacher and $1,080 for the secondary teacher. One is
without a job for five months and the other for three months.

The curricula for the education of elementary teachers now
required for the standard certificate meet the needs with reason-
able effectiveness. As soon as conditions of salary, term, and
teacher load in the elementary grades are equitably adjusted
there will be no reason why any person should be admitted to
teaching in the elementary school until she has been graduated
from a four year teacher training curriculum.

12 The Kentucky Academy of Science

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY*

JOHN FRED WILLIAMS

Superintendent of Public Instruction
Frankfort, Kentucky

The chief function of secondary education is to develop young
people so that they may become individually and socially useful
members of society as it is constituted in a democracy such
as ours. This means that secondary education must provide for
(1) the maximum development of the individual as a person,
(2) opportunity for the individual to develop wholesome human
relations, (3) opportunity to develop the ability to attain
economic security, and (4) to accept the responsibilities of
citizenship. It means that the secondary school must so be
planned, organized, staffed and financed that these ends may be
achieved by pupils of secondary school age.

To carry out its chief function, the secondary school must be
a citizenship leadership laboratory. This means that it must
meet the needs of all young people of secondary school age who
are to become functioning citizens. It is not a school devoted
exclusively to preparing young people for college; nor is it a
school devoted only to those who would prepare for the pro-
fessions; nor is it devoted only to the needs of those who live in
favored areas. The secondary school must meet the needs of all
its prospective citizens, regardless of what they will choose to
do, regardless of where they live, regardless of race, regardless
of what their needs may be.

The secondary school is the people’s school, and this means
all the people. This means that the people in a community served
by a secondary school should have a voice in planning the pro-
gram to be offered in their school. It means that the program
offered in the secondary schools must grow out of the needs
which are to be served by the program. The interests and
aptitudes of the young people in each area, as well as the
opportunities and needs for their services should determine to
a large degree what kind of a secondary school should be estab-
lished. These problems as they affect the locality, the county,
the state, the nation and the world-at-large should be a part of
the planning for secondary schools.

The secondary schools in Kentucky are not serving the needs
of all young people of secondary school age. There were in

* Received for publication May 17, 1945.
Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education.

»

Secondary Education in Kentucky 13

1943-44 in Kentucky 239,515 young people of secondary school
age (14-17) but only 81,068 were enrolled in public high schools.
For every young person of secondary school age in secondary
school there were two of secondary school age not in school. Said
in another way it means that of every 100 young people of
secondary school age, there were 34 in school and 66 out of
school. This means that the needs of 66 out of every 100 young
people of secondary school age were not met by the secondary
school. They did not go to school.

There are 546 public secondary schools in Kentucky. During
peace time the enrollment reached approximately 100,000 but
that constituted only about 36 per cent of young people of
secondary school age. The number of secondary schools in
counties is 352 and in independent cities and villages 194.
Approximately 4 in 10 secondary schools have 100 or fewer
pupils, and 3 out of 4 have 200 or fewer. Forty per cent have
from three to five teachers, and another 35 per cent have from
six to ten teachers. It follows that small schools have few
teachers and are unable to offer other than the most restricted
program, usually the college preparatory program.

There are excellent programs in most of the large secondary
schools, and in a few of the small schools. There are 200 or 300
small secondary schools which have added agriculture, home
economics or commerce, while a smaller number have all three
courses.

A large secondary school does not necessarily mean there will
follow an effective secondary school program. There is, however,
very little chance to have an effective secondary school program
until a large school is provided. Most of the small secondary
schools are in rural areas. It means that if we are to lay the
foundation for an improved secondary school program, the
attendance unit must be enlarged through consolidation. This
must be accompanied by an effective and economical plan of
county highway construction. Much has been done during the
past ten years toward increasing the size of the secondary school
through the consolidation of very small schools.

If the secondary schools are to serve the function stated in
the opening statement of this paper the people must take
education seriously. We have never effectively done this. The
people of the state must have faith that education is an invest-
ment for all the children and not a luxury to be shared by only
one-third of the children. They must not permit all the people
to maintain a secondary school program which meets the needs

14 The Kentucky Academy of Science

of only one-third of the children. They must invest enough in
the enterprise to make it useful for everybody. Two-thirds of the
people must be taught that they are investing their money and
getting no return.

All arms of the government at the state and local level should
work cooperatively in making the schools effective. They
should get the correct, truthful, statesmen’s answers to such
questions as:

1. Should all children of secondary school age have a school
which will help them to achieve their life purposes? If
not, who should be left out?

2. What should the secondary school do for a young person
to make him an effective citizen?

3. What will it cost to provide such a school?

a. What kind of teachers must be employed and what
will it cost to employ them ?

b. What kind of a school plant will be needed to house
the kind of program young people need? What will
it cost?

c. How can we procure the money with which to finance
such a school?

4, What will be the penalty if such a program is not provided?

5. Can we afford not to offer a secondary school for our
young people?

The correct answers to these questions must be found! We can
provide such a program but it will involve complete cooperation.
There must be maximum of local effort in planning and financing
the program, maximum efforts on the part of the state in
planning and financing, and there must be a sane plan of federal
aid to schools without federal control of education in any way.
In this way only, it seems, can we change the secondary school
from a minority institution to one which serves the majority or
even all of the children.

PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
IN KENTUCKY *

J. J. OPPENHEIMER

Dean, College of Liberal Arts, University of Louisville
Louisville, Kentucky

Problems of the Colleges in Kentucky. No one can prophesy
with any degree of assurity about the specific nature of higher
education in the postwar period. However, general trends seein
to be shaping up at the present time. The prophets of gloom,
who predicted that most American colleges would close up
during the war, have failed in their dire prediction. The colleges
of Kentucky have weathered the war period much better than
anyone would have predicted. The recent Roper poll (Fortune,
April, 1945) on higher education indicates that the American
public has greater faith in our higher education program than
ever before. This poll gives the strongest sort of approval to the
continuation of higher education and the desirability for both
public and private support.

The veterans are returning to the colleges, not in great
numbers at the present time, but there is every indication that
the colleges will have a greatly increased enrollment in the
very near future. Most public institutions in Kentucky, and some
of the private institutions, have had some kind of military
program. These have been of great assistance in keeping colleges
alive.

It is probably true that the world is in the greatest revolution
it has ever experienced and no world-wide change can take place
without affecting higher education. Undoubtedly, higher educa-
tion will change, and should change, but the change will be
gradual and certainly one can make this statement with a great
deal of assurance: The general outlines which we now have will
carry over for many years to come.

The Returning Veteran and the College. The prospect of good
wages at the present time is holding back the enrollment of
veterans in colleges in Kentucky. A relatively small number has
returned, but that is a good thing for the colleges inasmuch as
it gives the colleges a better chance to understand the returning
veterans and to attempt to adjust programs to their needs
and do a better job of counseling. Up to date the veteran has
fit into the present program in an unusually satisfactory pattern.

* Received for publication June 18, 1945.
Contribution to the Forum On Kentucky Education.

16 The Kentucky Academy of Science

They have been interested in pre-professional study, business
administration, teaching, journalism, etc. It is true that they
are looking forward to vocational adjustment when they with-
draw from college, but they certainly have not expressed
antagonism to liberal arts education. In fact, many of them are
getting a distinct reward in studying the more general subjects.
In regard to the vocational objective of the college, the afore-
mentioned Roper survey indicated that the public thought that
colleges should prepare students for vocational competence. That
was the first objective; the second objective was that of
citizenship.

The adjustment of the veteran to college life has been better
than some of the college administrators thought it would be.
The colleges have already found that the returning veterans
must be given a period of adjustment. Usually this takes two
or three months. It is likewise true that a great deal of guidance
and social contacts with both students and faculty are basic
requirements. No great demand has been made on the colleges
for short courses or any other type of short vocational training.
This may be due to the counseling which has been given
by the Veterans Administration and the fact that when men
want technical training in short order they are put under
apprenticeships.

Interest in General Education. For many years the colleges
have been deeply concerned with the problem of providing basic
aids for all citizens. It is important for society to have a common
cultural background. The older organizations followed the fixed
requirements of freshman and sophomore years. These were
usually group requirements. They included first courses in a
number of departments. In more recent days colleges have been ~
interested in providing specific courses of general character
which would reorganize not only much of the older knowledge,
but newer knowledge needed for common understanding and
appreciation of modern living. In Kentucky considerable interest
has been indicated in this problem. Centre College and the
College of Liberal Arts of the University of Louisville have
done considerable reorganization to meet this need. The problem
is a persistent one. Many critics, professional and lay people
believe that there should be a greater unity in the education
on the college level. Colleges should help modern men and
women comprehend a great unity in living. How to provide this
unity in subject matter, in ideals and methodology is a most
serious problem. Survey courses, independent study, compre-

Problems of Higher Education in Kentucky 7

hensive examinations and integrating courses for majors or
divisions are some of the ways in which greater integration
has been attempted. More and more pre-professional study in
the fields of medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, and teaching
requires fundamental training in general education. People are
not satisfied with the simple problem of arithmetic, of adding
together one hundred and twenty semester hours and calling it
a college education.

Vitalizing the College Curriculum. In addition to a greater
unity in the curriculum offerings of the college and a genuine
integration of understanding in the student himself, the problem
of values is probably the most persistent one. In the early
American college, there was much concern with the problem of
values. Most of the institutions were denominational. The
education of the ministry was an important function. This
interest in religion and moral philosophy has faded out of the
modern college to an alarming degree. The fact that higher
education is so highly compartmentalized, our recent experience
with totalitarian countries in which science has been used to
such destructive human ends, and the little regard for moral
values in modern living have all intensified the question of
whether or not the college must not concern itself with some
kind of moral undergirding in the education of youth. Modern
science is too dangerous without moral direction. Modern eco-
nomic practices are too tied into national welfare to be self-
directive. The study of human goals should be the common
concern of all college students. How is this to be done? A second
problem in vitalizing the college is that of selection of content
which is more modern and functional. There is much dead wood
in courses, textbooks and curriculum. Students, whether they be
veterans or civilians, will be more critical of college offerings
in the future. The same complacency of taking what the
professor “hands out” will be questioned.

Referring again to the Roper survey, the non-college educated
public is more sympathetic to higher education than the college
graduate. What does this mean? Certainly this is a danger
signal to the colleges themselves. If college administrators and
professors are wise, they will seriously consider their offerings.

Work-study. There is some reason to believe that interest in
work-study programs on the college level will become more
important in the future. Berea College has been a pioneer among
the colleges of Kentucky. Its experience certainly should be of
great value to the other colleges. The Speed Scientific School

18 The Kentucky Academy of Science

of the University of Louisville has had a cooperative plan
of education since its inception. The clinical years in the
Medical School of the University of Louisville have shown the
tremendous importance of connecting theory and good practice.

Cooperative Study in Teacher Education. Under the leadership
of the State Department of Education, all of the state institu-
tions and two non-state colleges have worked in a cooperative
plan to improve teacher education. Workshops have been held,
county educational systems and a few separate schools have
been sponsored by seven colleges of the state. This is a “grass
roots” program inasmuch as the sponsoring institutions have
gone back to local schools to see what could be done to improve
the quality of living in the communities in which the schools
exist. In actually attempting to improve the lives of people, the
colleges undoubtedly will learn much which will influence general
education and technical teacher education. This plan of coopera-
tive study suggests wider uses of the general plan of higher
education. One of the great needs in this state, as well as in
other states, is for the colleges to study their mutual problems
in a cooperative manner. They would do well to carry this
type of program into their own constituent communities. Adult
education lags far behind.

Utilization of Natural Resources. Under the joint sponsorship
of the Department of Conservation and the State Department of
Education, a project is now under way to study better utilization
of the natural and human resources of this state. Many separate
studies have been made of utilization of natural and human
resources by institutions and individuals. This material has been
widely scattered and many times has been in a form which is
not understandable to the citizens nor to the school child. Before
much improvement can be made in this area these materials
must be made available to all. The colleges of Kentucky have a
genuine contribution to make, not only in furnishing maierials
but also in seeing to it that these materials are made available
to students, adult citizens and pupils in our schools. This brings
up the larger question of state planning.

State Planning. The three agencies now concerned with post-
war plans for Kentucky indicates the wide interest that the state
is taking in its future. There must be some over-all planning
in which education has a prominent part, but without economical
planning so that the basic wealth of the state can be increased
there is little hope for any improvement in education in the state,
higher, secondary or elementary. To improve the quality of

Problems of Higher Education in Kentucky 19

living in Kentucky will require a great deal of expenditure of
money and energy in fundamental research, Kentucky institu-
tions have not had the opportunity to promote research. They
have done well to maintain their instructional programs. Inci-
dentally, a major problem is to get more young people to go
to high school and then get the proper ones to go on to college.
Our state is notably low in percentage of youth going to high
school and college. The state and individual citizens have not
supported research programs and yet any long-time policy of
fundamental improvement of living is dependent upon scientific
research. Of course, this research must not only concern itself
with physical problems, but also with the human ones. The late
President Roosevelt was eminently right in suggesting that we
had much to do in the field of the science of social relations.
The logical place for research is in the universities and colleges.
When the people see the fundamental need of research, undoubt-
edly support will be forthcoming. But the research must be
tied in with the total program of education of men and women.
In other words, there must be an integration of what the
research scientists find and the study of values and the other
liberal studies which make for all-round living.

20 The Kentucky Academy of Science

THE DENSITY OF THE ETHER*

The Wave Length of Photons Effecting Atomic Motion

The Gas Constant—An Anomalous Doppler Shift

OLUS J. STEWART

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Ky.

PART 1
THE DENSITY OF ETHER

An earlier paper (1) sought to create a unitary system of
matter and energy by invoking a new kind of ether. This unique
ether is not static, but is conceived to flow at the velocity of
light along the time axis of the space-time continuum, a property
which defies detection by the Michelson-Morley experiment.
This paper, the third in the series, proposes to estimate the
density of ether. To do this we recall that the first paper (1)
accounted for gravitation by declaring it to be the result of
the operation of the Bernoulli principle. To be more specific,
two bodies in the ether stream constitute, in effect, a Venturi
tube, or a constriction. This is thought to be true because one
would expect matter to exclude the ether, at least partially, from
the region in which the matter is located. The velocity of the
stream along the far sides of the two bodies should then be
less than that along the near; consequently the pressures
created by the flow would be greater along the far sides than
along the near; hence the two bodies would be forced together.
The argument will now be developed further by studying the
Bernoulli effect as the ether stream flows past two selected
portions of matter.

Consider the proton, an atomic building block of great density.
Its diameter is of the order, 1 x 10°°cm. The smallest cube that
will contain the proton has a volume of 1 x 10°*° cm.*; and a
spherical pile consisting of 6.06 x 10°° of these cubes will weigh
a gram, and have a radius of 4.88 x 10°° cm. Place two such one
gram masses of protons adjacent to one another, the centers
of the two spherical piles, a and b, Fig. 1, being one cm. apart.
The two parallel planes, c and d, introduced to simplify the
discussion, bisect these spheres; and the small cylinder, indicated
by the dotted lines, extending from plane to plane, contains one

* Received for publication November 8, 1945.

The Density of the Ether 2]

Fig. 1

half of each sphere. In other words, the free space in the cylinder
has been reduced by an amount equal to the volume of a one
gram spherical pile of protons. As a consequence, the ether fluid
flowing between the two bodies is accelerated by these obstruc-
tions proportionate to the lessened free space in the cylinder.
Likewise the ether’s velocity increases proportionate to the
shortening of the free space across the throat of the constriction,
the shortening of the distance being from 1 cm to (1-2 x 4.88 x
10°), or 0.99999024 cm.

This number is slightly in error because the two piles of
protons are not solid masses of matter, but are composed of
particles which we here assume to be spherical. The ether will
therefore freely penetrate the piles in proportion to their
porosity. Since the protons themselves, if spherical and solid,
occupy only two thirds of the space in their immediate region,
recalculation shows that the effective width at the constriction
is roughly 0.999994 cm., and the velocity of the ether stream
at the throat is 2.9978 x 10° / 0.999994 = 2.99782 x 10°°
em./sec. This figure is still somewhat in error for, according
to the theory proposed in the first paper, all ultimate particles
are vortices in the ether, and the charges which such particles
carry are due to the flow of the ether stream through the
properly oriented vortices. However, the uncertainties of the
problem force us to neglect the correction for this type of
porosity.

Nevertheless, there is another correction that requires atten-
tion. If the measurements under consideration were made on

22 The Kentucky Academy of Science
this planet, the two masses of protons would be in motion
relative to the ether because of the earth’s spin, orbital motion
about the sun, and migration toward the northern constellation
of Cygnus (2), as is brought out in the second section of this
paper. This motion would reduce the relative velocity of the
ether past the two bodies, and lessen the “force of attraction”
between them. With this in mind, we deduct 3.5 x 10’ cm/sec., the
velocity of the two bodies due to the earth’s spin, orbital motion,
and drift toward Cygnus, from 2.998 x 10’ em/sec., the theory’s
assumed velocity of the ether stream, obtaining 2.9945 x 10'°
em/sec. as the velocity of the ether stream relative to the two
bodies. Then the velocity of the ether stream at the throat of
the constriction will be 2.9945 x 10'°/0.999994 cm/sec.

The Bernoulli equation may take the form, p - P = (1 -
v?/V7) pV?/2, or, p - P = (V’-v’)»/2, where P and V represent
respectively the pressure and velocity of the fluid at some
distance, p and v the pressure and velocity at some other point
on the same stream-line, say at the throat, and p is the density
of the fluid. However, in the absence of other objects, there will
be no important constrictions on the far sides of the two bodies,
and P will then be also the pressure on the far sides tending to
force the bodies together. Now it is our contention that, after
multiplying both sides of the Bernoulli equation by (unit cm?)
to change the dimensions to that of force, the p - P term should
equal the gravitation constant, 6.66 x 10“dyne. However, since
P > p, the p - P term is negative in sign. So by substituting
the required quantities in the equation, and solving for p, we
have, p — - 6.66 x 10;°x 27 (2/9945 x 10)? - (2.99452 x10? )e
Lal se Os en ere

PART 2

THE WAVE LENGTH OF PHOTONS EFFECTING
ATOMIC MOTION

It is well known that atomic and molecular motion, wherein
heat makes itself manifest, is initiated most characteristically
by radiation from the infrared band, but the mechanism by
which radiant energy brings about this motion has escaped
discovery. Recently, however, the author of this paper succeeded
in visualizing a mechanism to account for atomic motion (3),
and he proposes now to test the validity of his theory of heat
and motion by observing whether a study, closely adhering to
the tenets of the theory, leads to the conclusion that it is

The Density of the Ether 23

infrared radiation that produces the atomic motion. It is quite
true that atomic motion may result from the absorbtion of
radiation other than infrared, especially in black body absorbers.
Nevertheless infrared radiation is definitely to be classed
primarily as a source of heat.

In order to estimate the wave length of the radiation which
causes atomic motion, the temperature, mean free path and mean
velocity of the atom under consideration being known, we resort
to the use of the concept, “parasite drag’’, an aerodynamic term
which one might say loosely designates the force of the wind
against a bluff body, tending to carry it down-wind. Quantita-
tively the term is defined by the equation (4), D, = 0.5xC, x
p X V’ x A, where C, is the dimensionless coefficient of parasite
drag, p is the density of the medium (air in aerodynamic
studies), V is the velocity of the dragged body relative to the
medium, and A is the body’s cross-sectional area projected on a
plane orthogonal to the stream. In this paper the postulated
ether replaces the atmospheric medium of aerodynamics, and
we assume that the laws of aerodynamics also apply in “etho-
dynamics’, to coin a new term.

The theory proposed by the author asserts that vortices in
the ether stream are to be identified by their frequencies of
rotation as photons, i.e., corpuscles of radiation, electrons,
neutrons, etc. Also, the stream is conceived to have the ability
to accelerate quickly, and drag along with itself at its own
constant velocity c, the relatively voluminous and almost mass-
less photons, in somewhat the same fashion as autumn leaves
are blown by the wind. But denser bodies, such as atoms, do
not accelerate rapidly. However, if there are photons attached
to the atoms, or combined with them in a loose chemical fashion,
(this is equivalent, in conventional language, to saying the
atoms possess energy), they accelerate more rapidly. Thus, all
atoms whose temperatures are above O°K have attached to
themselves one or more photons, and in consequence of this,
are in ceaseless motion.

A military illustration of an effect not unlike the one related,
is that of a paratrooper landing in a breeze. Unless the parachute
collapses promptly, it may drag the trooper and his heavy
equipment violently over the rough terrain, and be a serious
hazard to life and limb. But once the chute has collapsed, and its
dragging force vanished, the trooper suffers no ill effect of the
wind’s drag on his own person, for his mass is considerable

24 The Kentucky Academy of Science

compared with the projected area of his body. In this fashion
the theory seeks to account for the motion of material bodies.

To apply the concept of parasite drag to the problem, we
consider the behavior, at standard conditions, of a helium atom
to which photons are attached. When the atom-photon assem-
blage accelerates from a state of rest to one of motion, it does
so because of the action of some force, F = ma, whose magnitude
is measured by the acceleration and mass of the helium atom.
Equating F and D,, one writes, C, x p x V? x A/2 = m xa, and
A = 2xm x a/(C, x p x V’). Hence by evaluating the right
hand terms, the area of the photons will be known.

In aerodynamics, the value of C, for bluff bodies, in contrast
with those having streamline contours, may be approximately
unity (4). In heu of better information, we shall adopt this
figure. The mass of the helium atom is found in the usual way,
4/(6.06 x 10°*) g. The velocity of the helium atom at 273.1°K
relative to the ether stream is estimated as follows:

Ble 44000 cm./sec., velocity of the helium atom, at rest
relative to the earth, due to earth’s spin
on axis.

b. 2960000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom, at rest relative
to earth, due to earth’s orbital motion
around the sun.

ce. 32000000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom, at rest relative
to earth, due to solar system’s drift
toward the northern constellation of
Cygnus (2).

d. 120000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom relative to earth
at 273.1°K. This is the atom’s mean
velocity.

e. 35120000 cm./sec., velocity of helium atom at 273.1°K, rela-
tive to a three dimensional axis system,
origin at Cygnus.

fi @=v — Vi —= 2.998 x 102° = Silo x 109 — 2.9945) 1029 ema secs

velocity of helium atom at 273.1°K, relative to the ether stream,

or reciprocally, the velocity of the ether stream relative to the
helium atom. For the present we shall consider the northern
constellation of Cygnus fixed in space.

Item (a) in the preceding paragraph, depends on the latitude;
but maximum latitude change would affect the final results only

The Density of the Ether 25

to the extent of one in 10°. Item (b) is a variable quantity, and
affects the results only 1:10000. Item (c) may lack precision,
but to omit it altogether would affect the results to the extent
of only 1:1000. Item (d), the mean velocity of the helium atom
at 273.1°K, even if doubled to represent a possible maximum
velocity, can affect the final result only 1 : 300000. If then, those
enumerated are the only types of motion to be considered, the
value, V = 2.9945 x 10° cm./sec., is to be regarded as the
velocity of the ether stream relative to the helium atom.

In order to estimate the acceleration, a, of the helium atom,
we discard kinetic theory’s pure assumption that the collisions
are perfectly elastic, and instead, assume that they are perfectly
inelastic. Thus we assume that when a helium atom collides with
another body, it stops; and it regains velocity chiefly by virtue
of the drag of the ether stream on the photons attached to the
atom. This description is believed to be in accord with known
fact. For example, at 0°K, the atom, lacking photons, fails to
accelerate.

The magnitude of a helium atom’s kinetic energy in one direc-
tion may be stated in the terms, E = mv’?/2 = kT/2. It is
immaterial whether the velocity, v, is constant, or is merely
a momentary value reached during acceleration. That is, E —
mie) 2) — in (1./t2) 41/2 — malL/2 = kT/2. Hence, its acceleration
is, a = kT/mL, where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the
temperature, and m and L, for our purposes, are respectively the
mass and the mean free path of the helium atom at standard
conditions. Substitution of numerical values yields, a — 1.37 x
Meee iol x 6.06.x9 1022 x 44 x 2:51- x 10° = °2:26. x
10* cm./sec’.

It is necessary to comment briefly on the use here made of
the term, L = 2.51 x 10° cm., the mean free path of the helium
atom. It is assumed that the atom, starting from a state of rest,
accelerates constantly along the mean free path until, at the end
of this path, the instantaneous velocity, v = 1.2 x 10° cm./sec.,
or the mean velocity, has been reached. At this point the atom
normally collides, and the cycle starts again. In other words,
whereas classical kinetic theory assumes that the atom, traveling
at constant velocity, v. collides, stops, rebounds, and immediately
is again traveling at the same constant velocity, v, this theory
assumes that the atom, after being stopped in a collision,
constantly accelerates until it again collides; and it never
acquires a constant velocity until it has accelerated to the
velocity of light. This latter state cannot be realized except in the

26 The Kentucky Academy of Science

Wig. 2 1

absence of all interference, as in the perfect vacuum of inter-
nebular space, where such a speed, as suggested earlier (3),
heralds the birth of a cosmic ray.

Now, since all the terms are known, the value of A can be
calculated thus: A = 2 x 4/(6.06 x 107%) x 2.26 x 10“ x 1/
[2s xn On? xe 10229945) 2 x 11020] — 25 x On emi aredsoteailil
photons. Let A’ = area of one photon. Then nA’ = A. Let
Ns;3, — 273.1. By this we mean the following: let us simply
guess that the distribution of photons is one photon per atom
per degree change of temperature. This arrangement leaves the
atom devoid of photons at 0° K. Then A/n = 2.75 x 10°°/273.1 =
A’ = 1.007 x 10° cm.’, the area of one photon.

In estimating the wave length of this photon whose area we
have just calculated, we recall the assumption made by the
author (1) that a photon, like sub-atomic particles, is an ethereal
vortex whose force impulse, as the photon is dragged through
space at velocity c, traces a wave-like path, as illustrated in
Fig. 2, wherein the force-impulse, a, of the disk-like photon, b,
traces the wave-like path, c, of wave-length, \. By the time the
ether stream has dragged the photon from x to y, the point, a,
will have reached the point, a’, and the overall result will be
equivalent to rolling the disk one revolution along the line, d - e.
Hence the circumference of the photon equals the wave-length
Neen AY = 717) — OO xO rr) — (OO Cx 1On x7 camel
Dim Mi Nor LOOM xe 1 On? x 752) 2) — ded 3 xe Oss ende yor eres

Since the infrared, or heat rays, are said to extend in the
electromagnetic spectrum from 0.8 » to 420 wu, the result just
found indicate that our surmise as to the distribution of photons,
i.e., one photon per atom per degree change in temperature, was

The Density of the Ether 27

probably correct, for the value, 1.13 », lies within this band. In
this connection it is also worth observing that the area of the
puoton, 1-007 x 10° em?., where ) = 1.13 x 10-*em., is 1.3 x 10%”
times as large as the cross-sectional area of the helium nucleus.
Hence the drag of the ether on the attached photons will be
enormously greater than that on the nucleus alone. It is also an
essential part of the theory that the ether stream flows freely
through the outer part of the atom where the electrons are
located. For this reason, the cross-sectional area of the atom as
a whole is not to be regarded as a measure of the drag of the
ether stream on the atom stripped of photons, but rather the
projected area of the much smaller nucleus, together possibly
with the cross-sectional area of all the electrons.

PARTY3S
THE GAS CONSTANT. AN ANOMALOUS DOPPLER SHIFT.

The classical derivation of the gas constant was guided by
kinetic theory, and consequently employed constant molecular
velocities. Since the author of this paper has reason to doubt
that atoms and molecules have constant velocities, and suspects
that they have changing velocities and constant acceleration, it
is desirable to derive R through the use of atomic acceleration.
This will be done by employing the language and logic of the
two preceding sections.

Consider one mole of helium at standard conditions, and,
anywhere within its bulk, select a small cubical portion, L cm.
on the edge, containing N, x L*/22400 atoms, where L is the
mean free path, and N, is the Avogadro number. Attached to
each atom are 273.1 photons (See Part 2) which accelerate the
atom through ether drag, and the force applied by the ether
stream equals that which the accelerating atom, because of
inertia, exerts in the opposite direction. To avoid confusion, this
article will hereafter confine its attention to the force of the
atom, even though the ether is to be regarded as the prime
mover. With this in mind, we fix our attention first on the
gas in the small cube.

The mean acceleration, a, of the atoms in space may be
resolved into three component accelerations, a,, a, and 4a,,
referred to a three dimensional co-ordinate system with axes
menyoand.z: this a? i— a2. = a7, q-.a7;.,As the:number of mole-
cules is very large, one may say without sensible error, a*, =
a’, = a?, = a?/3, and the acceleration of atoms parallel to the

28 The Kentucky Academy of Science

x-axis, a,, equals a/3”. Then the force exerted by one helium
atom toward one side is, 4/N, x a/3”, and the force exerted by
1/6 th. the total number of atoms toward the same side is,
4/N, x a/3% x L’/22400 x N,/6 dyne. Dividing by L’, the area of
the’ side, gives, 4/N, x a/3* x 13?/22400 x N,/6 x li — ip
dyne/cm’. Now multiply by L/L, or unity, and have, 4/N, x
d/o? xl) 22400 x N,/6x le x L/L — p. Since 7 <a — ayaa
volume of the small cube, we may multiply both sides by v, and
obtain 4/N, x a/3” x L’/22400 x N, x L/6 = pv. This operation
leaves on the left the mass of 1/6 th. the helium atoms in the
cube, multiplied by the acceleration of each atom, times the
distance each atom travels between collisions, i.e., the mean free
path, yielding ergs, or work, and equals pv. On multiplying both
sides by 6, we have, 4/N, x a/3”" x L*/22400 x N./6 x L x 6 =
6pv — p’v’, the work done by all the atoms in the cube during
the time they travel the mean free path. But the main bulk of
gas contains 22400/L* small subes. Hence, 4/N, x a/3% x
L?/22400 x N,/6 x L x 6 x 22400/L* = 22400/L* x p’v’ = PV
ergs, the work done by a mole. Canceling, 4aL/3% — PV. But
experimentally, PV is proportional to T. Hence PV = cT, where e
is: a,constant. Then 4al/32)— PV) — ch and 4a) —"32e¢ne— ae
where 3%c = R. Hence, 4aL/T = R. Now, from Part 2, a =
2.26 x 10'* cm./sec.”, and L has the value 2.51 x 10° ecm. There-
forest 4s x 2/26 5X MOM x 22 bil x On / 203 al 9 — a ornare
ergs/mole/degree. Closer agreement with the accepted value,
8.31 x 10’, awaits more precise knowledge of atomic mean
velocity, and mean free path.

Naturally, R divided by N,, yields 1.37 x 10° erg/atom/
degree, the Boltzmann constant. However, the figure, 1.37 x 10°"°,
may have another significant interpretation. We may write,
476.06 x 10-% x)2.26 x 10** x Zot x 1077/2734 = 1320
erg/atom/photon. Here we have multiplied the mass of one
helium atom by its acceleration, and its mean free path, to
obtain erg/atom. If each atom has 273.1 photons attached to
itself at 273.1° K. then the quotient gives ergs per atom accom-
plished by the dragging effect of the ether on one photon.

Questions occur when contemplating the problems under
discussion. For example: what becomes of the atom’s energy
at the time of collision? This paper does not insist that abso-
lutely all atomic collisions are entirely inelastic. Occasionally
some energy may be passed on to the struck atoms. However, it
appears that most of the energy built up by the acceleration
of the atoms is completely destroyed when the atom stops. How

The Density of the Ether 29

then can this view be made to harmonize with the common belief
that energy is conserved? The answer is that photons are con-
served; then, after collision, the ether stream again accelerates
the atom-photon assemblage to replace the lost energy. But,
while the atoms accelerate, the ether decelerates. However, the
rate of deceleration is slow. Taking the radius of the observable
universe to be 500 million light years (5), a distance undoubt-
edly far short of the unobservable limits, the mass of ether
filling the corresponding sphere is 5 x 10°° grams, a quantity
10°° times that of the earth. Since the velocity of the ether is c,
its kinetic energy is of the order, 10** ergs. Little matter stands
in the way to oppose the ether’s progress. Although the ether’s
own momentum, plus that of photons in flight, is sufficient to
keep it going for a great period of time, nevertheless, a slow
retardation is inevitable. If this is true, light reaching us now
from the outer boundaries of space, is traveling slower now than
it did when setting out.

The deduction just reached, that the speed of light may be
less now than it formerly was, has a bearing on an important
problem in astronomy. The Doppler effect is counted on to detect
the approach or recession of heavenly bodies. It is disturbing
then to discover with the newer instruments that the most
distant nebulae show only the red shift, increasing directly with
distance, indicating that these bodies are receding without
exception. Do these Doppler effects represent, in fact, recession
of the nebulae, “or the action of some hitherto unrecognized
principle in nature’? (5). The deductions to follow tend to
discredit Doppler shifts if the radiation investigated originated
in the most distant regions.

Let the wave length of a photon, » = mc’/h at the time of
emission, be measured when the light reaches the earth at the
termination of the photon’s journey from the outer regions of
observable space, a distance of some 500 million light years (5).
The measurement showed, v, = mc?,/h, where c,, the velocity of
light at the present time, is less than c, the velocity of light at
the time the photon set out, because of the deceleration of light.
The wave length of another photon is examined at the same time.
The second photon, emitted during an atomic energy change
identical with that which occurred when the first photon was
emitted 5 x 10° years earlier, arrived after only an eight minute
journey from the sun. The frequency of the second photon is,
vy = m,c?,/h; that is, its frequency is identical with that which
the first photon had when it was emitted, but greater than that
which the first photon had when it was measured at the end of

30 The Kentucky Academy of Science

its long journey. Of necessity, the mass, m, of the first photon
is less than m,, the mass of the second, because, at the time of
emission, both had the same frequency, and c > ¢,. Hence 1,
the frequency of the ancient photon at the time of its arrival
on this planet, is found to be less than 1, the frequency of the
8-minute-old photon, even though the two frequencies were
equal at the time of emission.

The argument just presented accounts then for a red shift
which is not due to a receding emitter. The value of the con-
clusions, of course, depends on whether the speculations, relative
to the ether and the deceleration of light, have their foundations
in truth. Indeed, it is the purpose of this paper to investigate
the verity of the ether theory; and the fact that the theory, in
Part 2, finds that atomic motion is initiated by infrared radia-
tion, and now, in Part 3, discovers a fairly satisfactory explana-
tion of an anomalous red shift, is an accomplishment which, in a
small way, helps to establish the truth of the ether theory.

Note. The use, in Part 3, of the quantity, a = 2.26 x 10**
em./sec.’, as found in Part 2, is illogical because k, the Boltz-
mann constant, which is related to R through N,, entered into
the calculation of a. However, the estimation of R, as carried
out in Part 3, is not without value, for it indicates that a,
discovered by any other method not involving k, would yield a
figure for R identical with that found. A rather rough approxi-
mation of a, but one avoiding the use of k altogether, follows.

One may write, a — L/t’, for accelerating particles, and
t — L/v, for non-accelerating particles. Kinetic theory regards
the quantity, v = 1.2 x 10° cm./sec., as the mean velocity of :

helium atoms at standard conditions. Then t = 2.51/(10° x 1.2 x -
10°) sec. is the mean time required for the atom to travel the .
mean free path L at constant velocity. But whether the atom
moves at constant velocity, or starts from rest and reaches the
velocity v by acceleration, the time required for either journey
over the mean free path will be of the same order of magnitude.
Hence one may substitute this value of t into the first equation
and have without great error, a — 6 x 10“ cm./sec.’. This rough
value of a, obtained without using k, compares quite favorably
with the more precise figure obtained in Part 2.

Bibliography
(1) Stewart, Ky. Acad. Sci., Transactions, 7, 92-106 (1938).
(2) Shapley, Sigma Xi Quarterly, 30, 1-15 (1942).
(3) Stewart, Ky. Acad. Sci., Transactions, 9, 5-9 (1941).
(4) von Mises, Theory of Flight, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1945,
pages 95-96.
(5) Hubble, Sigma Xi Quarterly, 30, 99-115 (1942).

Sil

LEAF GLANDS IN AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA*
P. A. DAVIES

Department of Biology, University of Louisville
Louisville, Ky.

Two types of leaf glands are present in Ailanthus altissima:
(1) simple glands that are scattered over the surface of young
leaflets and are the outgrowths of epidermal cells, and (2) more
specialized glands found along the basal margins of the leaflets.

Although the epidermal glands are dispersed over the surface
of the leaflets, they are more abundant along the veins. These
simple glands are either one-celled hair-like projections of epi-
dermal cells, or many-celled knob-like growths which arise by
the division of epidermal cells.

The first indication of a simple gland, regardless of type, is
the outward arching of an epidermal cell. This takes place when
the young leaflets are from 0.10 to 0.130 millimeters long. The
initial arching shows that a gland is in the process of formation
but does not indicate the kind. The nucleus which is large and
stains heavily appears to have this controlling influence. If the
nucleus does not divide, the cell continues to elongate and pro-
duces the simple single-celled tubulary trichome, but if division
of the nucleus occurs, a many celled knob-shaped gland develops.

In the hair-like glands, illustrated in figure 1, the outward
growth continues until at maturity they vary from 0.07 to 0.32
millimeters in length. The young gland possesses a thin wall and
a single large nucleus, but at maturity the wall thickens (0.0012-
0.0015 millimeters) and the nucleus disappears.

The planes of the first cellular divisions of the many-celled
epidermal glands are parallel and form the stalk (2-6 cells) while
the remaining divisions which occur in different planes form the
knob-like head. The growth of this type of gland is shown in
figures 2, 3, 4, and 5. These glands vary from 0.020 to 0.192 milli-
meters in length and contain 4 to 56 cells. Both kinds of epi-
dermal glands lack a vascular system, so the growth materials
are obtained from the surrounding leaf cells. The secretion filters
through the wall of the gland and evaporates from the surface.
This method of secreting has been observed in three species of
Pelargonium by Hannig.'

Specialized leaf glands appear as small visual masses of secre-
tory tissue on the auriculiform teeth at the base of the leaflets

* Received for publication January 15, 1946.

32 The Kentucky Academy of Science .

(figure 6). Statistical studies of one thousand leaflets show that
the glands vary from 1 to 8 for each leaflet, with an average of
2.606.

The shape and external features of the marginal gland are
illustrated in figure 7. The outer surface is spherical with a small
depressed opening near the center. Each gland is supplied by
one or more veins that pass into the tooth.

Microscopic examinations of expanding leaf buds show that
marginal glands first appear on the tenth unit. Twelve per cent
of these leaves show glands, while all leaves developing after the
tenth possess glands (figures 8, 9,10, and 11).

In studying the position and structure of glands in members of
the family Simarubaceae, Solereder states: ‘So far as I know,
the marginal leaf glands in Ailanthus have not as yet been ex-
amined in detail.” * Figure 12 is a drawing of an auriculiform
tooth made from a series of photomicrographs which shows a
cross-section of a normal mature marginal gland. The glandular
area is large and distinct from the remaining tissues of the tooth.
The epidermal cells of the glandular portion of the tooth are
elongated and lack uniformity in shape that are characteristic
of normal cells. The opening in the center of the gland is pro-
duced by the breaking of the epidermal layer in this area. The
short cavity which is present below the opening is formed by the
parting of secreting cells.

The actively secreting cells are spindle-shaped, polygonal and
rather uniform, and in mass appear to converge toward the
cavity. The marginal cells of the gland are more granular and
deeply stained than the surrounding non-glandular cells.

The vascular system which extends into the tooth passes
along the margins of the secreting area but does not enter it.
The secretion passes from cell to cell until the border cells secrete
it into the cavity.

Bibliography
1 Hannig, E. Uber den mechanismus der Sekretausscheidung bei den
Drusenhaaren von Pelargonium. Zeitschr. Bot. 23: 1004-1014, 1930.

2 Solereder, Hans. Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Vol. I,
p. 184, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1908.

Tig. 1. A small section of the surface tissue of a young leaflet showing
the pesition and manner of growth of a hair-like gland.

Figs. 2-5. Illustrating four stages in the development of a many-celled

epidermal gland.

Tig. 6. Two leaflets from a mature leaf showing the position of the mar-
ginal glands on the basal portion of the ieaflet.

Fig. 7. Enlarged section of the basal part of a leaflet showing the posi-
tion of the marginal glands and the distribution of the vascular
systems to them.

Figs. 8-11. Showing the 9, 10, 11, and 12 units in the budscale-leaf series

and indicating the stage at which the marginal glands appear.

Fig, 12. Section through a marginal Jeaf gland showing the vascular dis-

tribution, secretory tissues, secretory cavity, and the ostiole.

faKa7"

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
Kentucky Academy of Science

CONTENTS
Editorial:
| A more active Academy. Alfred Brauer _. 2
Serenes in Society. Paul Kolachov = 3 SS eee

Studies on flavone-like substances isolated from tobacco.
Anna Shoulties Naff and Simon H. Wender ___._.. 10

Effect of glucose upon the viability of Lactobacillus casei.
Mary, WMiuedekin gp) =. ee es a ee 14

Research Notes:
A note on the elimination of Endamoeba coli in the human host.

David Richard Lincicome and Robert Arthur Gold __._.... 17
| Occurrence of Neoechinorhynchus emydis (Acanthocephala)
in Snails. David Richard Lincicome and Allie Whitt, Jr. __...-.... 19
i and Noten ey ee 20

> Abstracted Minutes of 1944 and 1946 meeting of the Kentucky
es POR GOITe. Ol. mintence. 22 <0. 3. fe a 22

Printed Quarterly by
THE THOROUGHBRED PRESS
Lexington, Kentucky

x

TRANSACTIONS

ss of the a
Nigh comer: nny”, ee
_ \2°.. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Editors ed

Dr. M. C. BROCKMAN Dr. DAVID R. LINCICOME
Jos. E. SEAGRAM AND SONS. Department of Zoology
7th. Street Road University of Kentucky

Louisville 1, Kentucky Lexington 29, Kentucky

OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS
“KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1947-1948

President Vice President Secretary

ALFRED BRAUER ARTHUR C. MCFARLAN WILLIAM H. STARK
University of Kentucky University of Kentucky Jos. E. Seagram and Sons |
eee Louisville, Kentucky

Counselor to Junior Representative to Council |

Treasurer Academy of the A. A. A. S. —

RALPH H. WEAVER ANNA A. SCHNEIB AusTIN R. MIDDLETON

University of Kentucky Eastern State Teachers University of Louisville
College

DIRECTORS

Morris SCHERAGO, University of Kentucky, to 1951

PAUL KoLAcHoV, Jos. E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., to 1950
GEORGE V. PAGE, Western State Teachers College, to 1950
J. S. BANGSON, Berea College, to 1950 :
ROBERT T. HINTON, Georgetown College, to 1949

H. B. LovELL, University of Louisville, to 1949

L. Y. LANCASTER, Western State Teachers College, to 1948
Ai ! AustTIN R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, to 1948

The Transactions are issued quarterly. The four issues constitute an an- —
nual volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50.

Manuscripts, advertising and all other material for publication should —
be addressed to the editors. Correspondence concerning membership in the
Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the |

3 2 ea

DR. ALFRED BRAUER
President, Kentucky Academy of Science, 1947-48

EDITORIAL

A MORE ACTIVE ACADEMY

The Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence, one of about thirty-five such
state or regional societies, endeavors
to carry the torch of scientific en-
lightenment within its environs. Its
purpose is to advance science by in-
vestigation and by the dissemination
of discovered knowledge. It has a
membership of slightly over 300, and
among these are a_ representative
number of the State’s outstanding re-

search men and scholars. Among its
members are also a_ considerable
number who advance its cause as

teachers, or as community, or as in-
dustrial leaders. The Academy’s sci-
entific accomplishments are present-
ed, and its business largely transact-
ed at the one annual meeting. Also
at this meeting, its new business for
the coming year is initiated, and, in
the brief period of about one hour,
this is presented, discussed, and leg-
islated. Whatever legislation is en-
acted is turned over to the Executive
Committee for execution.

Although most of its members
thoroughly believe in the Academy
and its purposes, this is no indica-
tion that they think the Academy is
all it should be. Almost all of them
can see its shortcomings. Individual-
ly its members believe in it to the
extent that they can help to make it
the kind of organization they most
desire.

In this column I wish to point out
some failings which can be correct-
ed, but first, as one who has been a
member of the Executive Committee

for several years let me come to the
defense of that body and thereby at-
tempt to disqualify one of the criti-
cisms most often directed at it and
at the Academy as a whole.

It is not entirely correct for ex-
ample, that we go to the annual
meeting, hear some papers present-
ed, initiate some business, and then
proceed to forget about it till the
next annual meeting. The members
of the committee have their work to
do, and as your representatives feel
their responsibilities and do their ut-
most to do the work with which they
are charged. On numerous occasions,
and especially during the war years,
the committee not only executed
duties, but initiated and set tasks
for itself. Briefly this work consisted
of letters to congressmen and sena-
tors first, in regard to the scientific
manpower bill, and second, in re-
gard to the eternal question of
opening national preserves to ex-
ploitation. It initiated a new meas-
ure in regard to conservation
within the state and contributed
to the work of the Committee for
Kentucky. It initiated and set in mo-
tion a study on the conditions under
which science is taught in secondary
schools, with the motive of improv-
ing them. To go into further detail
here regarding these movements
would be missing the real point o1
this communication, so, let me also
point out wherein we have failed and,
if possible, how we can make im-
provements.

AUG 1 2 19.

A More Active Academy

First: we have not yet scratched
the surface of possibilities in ob-
taining sustaining memberships which
are so necessary for carrying out
the work of the Academy. These are
open to educational and industrial
institutions, to their departments, or
to their libraries. In return for each
membership of this kind all the priv-
ileges of the society are granted
namely, a voting membership and
subscription to the Transactions.

The possibilities in this direction
are endless, and the ease of obtaining
them makes us wonder why we have
not ten times the present number.
The only thing lacking here is a
little effort, not only on the part
of the salesman, but also on the
part of those who present research
and do not make it available for
publication, on the part of those who
have research but do not present it,
and finally on the part of those who
have charge of the publication of the
Transactions. In other words when
we sell such a membership, it is posi-
tively necessary that we fulfill our
obligations in the contract, and give
something in return for the mem-
bership. P

Second: bring into the Academy a
greater number of workers from in-
dustrial research laboratories, where
so much is done in the application of
science, as well as in making real
fundamental discoveries. In obtain-
ing these memberships we could ap-
proximately double our present mem-
bership.

Third: bring into affiliation with
the Academy other scientific associa-
tions. We do not have adequate rep-
resentation from several engineering
societies, for example.

Semiscientifiec societies are often
interested in, and worthy of member-
ship. In this category are natural

history groups, astronomical study
groups, groups for the study of phys-
ical sciences. The Academy can aid
such organizations in much the same
manner it does the Junior Academy,
and in so doing, can advance science
by the dissemination of knowledge.

Fourth: do a great deal more than
we are doing toward conservation of
resources generally. This is a broad
term, and we are sometimes not in
harmony with one another as to its
real meaning. Here we have refer-
ence to mineral, land, and biological
conservation. In connection with the
latter, there are many representa-
tives of fish and game societies who
have learned what constitutes the
fundamentals of their chief interests,
and would be interested members of
the society.

Fifth: greater productiveness on
the part of all members is highly de-
sirable. Lack of this is now reflected
in the number, if not in the quality
of papers presented at the annual
meeting. In the past, from 1938 to
1942, between 40 and 60 papers
were read at meetings at Morehead,
Richmond, Lexington, and Louisville.
These were divided among six divi-
sional meetings. At Louisville and at
Morehead, demonstrational meetings
were also successful. Since that time
and especially since the war, there
has been a dearth of papers. At the
last annual meeting at Bowling
Green, only three divisional meetings
were held, and 15 papers were read.
The Biology division arranged a pro-
gram only during the last week be-
fore the meeting when it was dis-
covered that an insufficient number
of papers were forthcoming from its
membership to hold a meeting of
the division. This was the only time
in over fifteen years that this division
had even approximated failure.

A More Active Academy

Otherwise the meeting might have
been very successful, since about 140
members and their guests from out-
side the host city participated in the
meetings. Productiveness on the part
of the younger members would be
especially encouraging and stimulat-
ing. If you have something worth
while, get it on the program and
present it.

Finally, if you would like to see
the Academy function as it should
between annual meetings, and if
you have ideas for making it more
vigorous, bring those ideas to the
business sessions and present them
either in the form of motions, or in

the form of resolutions which can
be legislated in the same manner as
motions. If carried, they will be
executed during the year if at all
possible. Herein all members can
take a part whether or not they ever
present a research paper. Resolu-
tions may be presented by any mem-
ber even though he is not on the
resolutions committee, and in the
past some of the most worth-while
actions of the Academy have resulted
from them.

ALFRED BRAUER
President, Kentucky
Academy of Science

SCIENCE IN SOCIETY*

PAUL KOLACHOV

Technical Counselor
Jos. E. Seagram & Sons

No doubt this eminent Society of
Kentucky scientists did not know
what they were letting themselves in
for, when they elected this “crazy Rus-
sian’”’ to be their president—not only
a “crazy Russian’ but a fermentol-
ogist at that! So if I trouble you
with problems and keep you in a
state of ‘‘suspended fermentation”
do not blame me—but blame your-
selves!

Since August of last summer
when atom bombs fell on two Jap-
anese cities, science has been forced
to face social and political respons-
ibilities of staggering proportion.
In many places and on many levels,
men of science who think in terms
of humanity are searching their
minds and are coming to certain
conclusions with regard to this his-
toric challenge; among such men is
Dr. A. J. Carlson, distinguished Pro-
fessor of Physiology at the Univer-
sity of Chicago. In his address as
the retiring president of the Amer-

ican Association for the Advance- _

ment of Science delivered at St.
Louis on March 27th of this year,
Dr. Carlson made these solemn re-
marks:

“On the basis of my under-
standing of man and acquaint-
ance with human history, I have

. . advocated in the past that
a man’s social responsibility is
commensurate with his under-
standing of man and nature
.-- Men of science are urged to
‘knock at the door of politics’

. . I think that our social re-
sponsibility compels us to knock
at this door not only as individ-
uals but as organized profes-
sional people.”

*Address of the retiring president, Kentucky
Academy of Science, April, 1946

But Dr. Carlson is not alone in his
opinion. Indeed scientific societies
in many centers are stepping upon
the economic, the industrial, and the
political scene. As you no doubt
know there is ‘fermentation’ for
a National Science Foundation whose
duty would be to promote fund-
amental and basic sciences for na-
tional defense, for public health, for
better use of national resources.

In the past, science has been the
pioneer in society and economics and
politics have followed. But I ven-
ture to predict that since the re-
lease of nuclear energy, science will
examine very carefully the social
consequences of its inventions. It
will ask itself continuously WHAT
IS THE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE
IN SOCIETY?

Now I am proud to say that in
cur own state of Kentucky, science
is not alone in social progress. Two
organizations which are not afraid

to face facts have been started
within the past two years: one is
the Postwar Advisory Planning

Commission of Kentucky, created by
Executive Order of our Governor;
the other is the Committee for Ken-
tucky, a voluntary fact-finding com-
mittee.

The Postwar Advisory Planning
Commission of Kentucky was
created to study and investigate the
Physical and human resources of
the state and make plans and recom-
mendations for the full develop-
ment of such resources for the aid
of agriculture, labor, manufacture,
mining, transportation, conservation,
and all other interests of the state.

Here in our commonwealth the

Science in Society

very door of government is open-
ing to science and certainly it is our
duty and opportunity to walk in and
offer our services. This hour con-
tains a challenge of great good; if
we let the hour pass, we do not de-
serve the name either of scientist or
Kentuckian.

Now what are the jobs to be done
as set forth by the two fact-finding
groups of aroused citizens; let me
note but a few—the rehabilitation of
veterans through training, education,
and jobs. There is the complex of
public interest programs, as health,
conservation of natural resources of
all kinds, water supply, natural gas,
electricity, forests, and mines. There
is the challenge of inadequate edu-
cation! Lastly because I like ‘to
press home the point—the many
unsolved problems of agriculture.

Even if we had no social con-
science, still long-view selfishness
would demand that soil conditions be
improved, that new crops be de-
veloped, that old crops be brought
into balance, that surplus crops be
processed and saved, not wasted.

As we all know, Kentucky is a
state of contrasts: in the Bluegrass
region the product value per acre
is about twice that of the national
average per acre. Yet on the basis
of value PER PERSON engaged in
farming, Kentucky falls near the
bottom of the list of states. In
other words, we have some of the
most valuable farm land in the
whole United States, yet we have
some of the most impoverished
farmers. Since in a democracy, the
HUMAN element counts most, it is
the work of science to improve agri-
culture so that the standard of liv-
ing for farm families can be raised.

We cannot delay this kind of job;
improvement must be made and

made right World famine
would never have come about if in-
ternationally, men of science had
given their energies to the welfare
of mankind instead of being forced
to invent methods of destruction. So
then, while there is yet time, let us
make Kentucky a commonwealth
laboratory where science and gov-
ernment work hand in hand for the
betterment of all.

In the past, society expected a
great lag between scientific discov-
ery and practical application. In
this regard, I like to recall my own
experience with the Russian dande-
lion named KOK-SAGYZ from which
rubber can be produced. When I
started to talk about this back in
1941, I was laughed at by official
agriculture. Now in February of
1946, in the first draft of the Inter-
Agency Policy Rubber Report the
following appears on pages 40-41:
“Seeds of the Russian dandelion, a
plant used as a rubber source by the
U.S. S. R., were flown here in 1942.
The Department of Agriculture has
not yet had the time fully to ex-
plore the potentialities of this plant.
Such research as has been conducted
with experimental plantings indi-
cates that rubber from Russian
dandelion is of better quality than
guayule ... Government research on
plant improvement and cultivation
of guayule and Russian dandelion
should continue.” I merely men-
tion this official apathy in getting
started on such needed research and
utilization as the sort of thing we
should avoid in Kentucky. Slowness
in making use of scientific improve-
ments is an offense against our
economy and welfare. We failed to
develop native sources of much-
needed quinine — another example
of national waste. During the war

now.

Science in Society

especially in the mechanical field,
science was translated very quick-
ly into practical application. What
was done in war for the purpose of
destruction surely can be done in
peace-time in order for men to live
—and live better. The world is too
sick, too critically explosive for us
to go to sleep—scientifically.
Perhaps you have been aware,
ladies and gentlemen, that under-
neath my thoughts as expressed here
today, there runs a theme: concern
for the HUMAN element in society.
Just what can science do to raise the
HUMAN element? How can we, as
men of science, help develop high-
type individuals, the very base of
our commonwealth? Since we are
a democracy, that is the most fund-
amental of all our problems. I be-
lieve democracy is only workable
where the citizens are secure eco-
nomically and well-informed polit-
ically. Hungry people do not think
straight; despair leads to tyranny!
How then can the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science help raise the intel-
lectual level of its fellow citizens?
Let me quote again from the
speech of Dr. Carlson with regard
to the function of science in the
training of men’s minds. He said:

“Men in science have or should
have greater experience, train-
ing, and conditioning than the
rest of mankind because the
scientific method and scientific
research demand absolute in-
tegrity, the absolute sticking to
the facts as known or discov-
ered.”
As we must admit, men of science

are not born more honest than other
men, but by virtue of their training,
they must face facts and draw con-
clusions from them. INSIDE the
laboratory, at least, the man of
science must be honest or his exper-
iment will fail. This is the type of

mental training which is one of the
most valuable contributions of
science to society. It is the kind of
thinking needed most urgently in
state, and national, yes, and even in
international fields. Wishful think-
ing will not built a new world; but
science can start a sound framework.
Let me add here, I believe that
science without social conscience
ends in destruction of society—as
witness Germany. But social con-
science without science is also a
grave danger. Our democracy is
very subject to the troubles rising
from a conscience without know-
ledge of HOW to implement that
conscience. Only confusion can re-
sult from this, as we Americans
know bitterly.

Implementing social conscience is
not always easy. The man of
science, when knocking at the door
of politics, often finds himself
speaking a different language from
the administrator and the statesman.
The statesman and the politician
may look upon us as ‘‘odd ducks” or
“old fogies’’.

Why this gulf between us?

Let us examine our education and
try to discover if there is some lack
that explains this lack of under-
standing. After examining the cur-
ricula of many colleges, I am forced
to the unhappy conclusion that the
training of the scientist, even in the
best schools, includes little or no
awareness of the social consequences
of his work. On the other hand, the
education of the administrator and
the politician is without sufficient
information and adjustment as to
the rapid changes taking place in
our society because of scientific and
technical discoveries and inventions.
Here is a very serious inability of
two vital parts of our society to

Science in Society

understand each other. For instance,
read the arguments pro and con for
giving or not giving out information
on the atomic bomb.

But here, in the Commonwealth
of Kentucky, we are in a very for-
tunate position. Our politicians, our
industrialists, our economists have
reached out the hands of co-oper-
ation to us. They have in their re-
ports pointed out the jobs that are
unfinished and that cry out to be
done. We cannot hold back. We
DARE NOT shun the challenge.
Here, at least in Kentucky, we talk
the same language—the language of
social betterment for all our citizens.
When we look abroad, we see the
world standing on the threshold of a
new era: progress untold, or utter
destruction. Internationally, men of
science must lead humanity into the
good light of decency and progress;
nationally, we must find the paths
of health and stability; and inside
our own state, we cannot rest until
all “unfinished business” is taken
care of—and in good measure.

My friends, the historians tell me
that the word KENTUCKY means
the “dark and bloody ground.” That
name was given to this region of
ours because, being rich with natural
resources, men gave their lives,
shedding their blood to possess that
wealth.

Much was lost in that battle.
Man’s greed was short-sighted. It
is up to us, as the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science, to lead the way in
restoring their resources, and _ to
increasing our wealth in order to
raise the level of our state’s stand-
ard of living. We cannot rest until
Kentucky takes her place among the
leading progressive states of the
Union. Let us then change the
name KENTUCKY from “dark and

bloody ground” to the rich and
ruddy ground. This, then, must be
our goal, function, our duty, in the
society of Kentucky.

There is always the danger at
meetings of this kind, particularly
at meetings which come together but
once a year, to ventilate noble sent-
iments, exchange opinions — and
then afterwards to go home and for-
get all about it until next time. I
do not want you to do this. As I
said in the opening of my address,
I should like to put you, my col-
leagues, into a ferment of activity
with regard to Kentucky’s problems
and their solution.

To examine, to investigate, and
to inform ourselves about statewide
problems is not enough. We can-
not be content to be mere paper
scientists, with elegant plans in-
scribed on books and pamphlets. We
want to get into action. So then,
that is my program of ‘continuous
cooking’”’, if I may borrow a phrase
from the institution where I have
the honor of earning my bread—and
sometimes a little refreshment on
the side.

My opinion is that our Academy
should come together oftener than
once a year. At a time like this,
when the world finds itself in a
new era—The Atomic Age—cer-
tainly people like ourselves have to
get together often enough to keep
informed as to what is happening in
science and society. Therefore, I
suggest we consider how often we
can meet, where we can meet, and
if we should met by sections, or by
communities.

I feel our state should be divided
into various ‘problem areas’? so we
can apply ourselves to those prob-
lems and help get the jobs done.
We should get to know the various

Science in Society

members on the Postwar Advisory
Planning Commission of Kentucky
and the Committee for Kentucky
and get busy with these men—so
their postwar plans and their re-
ports use the spark-plug of science.
Thus we all can move forward faster
together than any one group could,
alone.

Another suggestion: I should like
to see the Divisions of our Society
be increased in number to include
engineers of all types, sociologists
especially those interested in rural
problems, and experts in city plan-
ning and improvement.

Still another thought: industry
should be stimulated to co-operate
with science so that educational
facilities in research and training
can be stepped up greatly. Better
education, more education is basic
to all Kentucky problems. Industry
will help science if it sees clearly
that only in this way can it obtain
the high-type personnel which _ it
needs. No matter what product is
made, its quality depends in large
part on the integrity and skill of
the men who make it. Our state is
in great need of technically trained
men to help solve our problems—
yet the very men we need most go
OUTSIDE the state for jobs. This is
economic nonsense and we can’t af-
ford it! It is sound investment, not
charity, for industry to help estab-
lish scholarships, fellowships, aid
education in every way possible. The
rewards will come back to industry
—and in good measure. In a highly
developed society, technical men

hold the key. If we are foolish
enough to let public machinery get
into the hands of dishonest or in-
competent men—vwe are giving over
the future into the hands of children
—or worse.

Our Society then should have
continuous vital contact with the in-
dustries of the state and make plans
and programs to encourage new in-
dustries to come here and settle.
This will enrich the state and in
turn aid education.

To sum up: Let us meet more
often; let us so organize our mem-
bership that we keep in touch with
community problems in order to co-
operate in their solution; let us re-
port more often to the Society as a
whole with regard to local and re-
gional problems; let us work with
industry in order to step up educa-
tion within the Commonwealth. If
we do follow a vital program such
as this, I am certain we shall begin
to feel new blood coursing in our
veins; we shall sense the excitement
and satisfaction of creating a Ken-
tucky even better than the old. We
should certainy keep the best of the
old but let us infuse into it the finest
of the new. As men of science we
are well-equipped to help Kentucky
make that transition—without dis-
location, without class hate, without
disaster. As I see it, to help lead
the way into a better life for all, to
epen the doors to a more just future
—these are the functions of science
in society! Let us now apply these
principles at home—in our own
Commonwealth of Kentucky!

Cc NOC)

<p)

STUDIES ON FLAVONE-LIKE SUBSTANCES
ISOLATED FROM TOBACCO

ANNA SCHOULTIES NAFF AND SIMON H. WENDER'
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

A method for the separation of cer-
tain flavone-like substances from to-
bacco has been described elsewhere by
the authors (1). In this paper, the
authors report the results of the
chemical and physical analyses con-
ducted on these water-soluble pig-
ments separated from tobacco.

The pigments studied were: (a) a
pigment called 'W’, which was ad-
sorbed on tale from 95% ethyl alcohol,
but was eluted by water; (b) a pig-
ment called ‘I’, which was not ad-
sorbed on tale nor on activated alum-
ina from 95% ethyl alcohol solution;
(c) a pigment called '2’, which was
not adsorbed on tale, but was ad-
sorbed on activated alumina from
95% ethyl aleohol solution; it was
eluted from the alumina by water;
(d) and a pigment called ‘3’, which
was not adsorbed on tale, was adsorb-
ed on activated alumina from 95%
ethyl alcohol solution, but was not
eluted by water; it was eluted, how-
ever, with very dilute hydrochloric
acid solution.

The following methods were used
in the qualitative analysis of the
samples: (Each test was carried out
separately.)

1. Two milliliters of each solu-

tion | were saturated with am-

monia gas.

2. Three drops of a 10 per cent

sodium hydroxide solution were

added to two milliliters of each
solution.

3. Three drops of alkali carbon-

ate were added to 2 milliliters of

each solution.

4.

1Present address Department of Chemistry,
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.

A drop of concentrated sul-

10

furic acid was added to two milli-
liters of each solution.
5. Two drops of ferric chloride
solution were added to 2 milli-
liters of each solution.
6. Two drops of lead acetate
solution were added to two mil-
liliters of each solution.
7. Two drops of basic lead ace-
tate solution were added to two
milliliters of each solution.
8. Four drops of Tollen’s re-
agent were added to two milli-
liters of all the solutions except
the hydrochloric acid solution.
The chloride ion would interfere
with the test.
9. One milliliter of concentrated
hydrochloric acid, then small
quantities of magnesium pow-
der were added to 5 milliliters of
the water solutions. Reduction
takes place with a change in
color. The mixture was shaken
from time to time. Amyl alcohol
was added, and the mixture shak-
en. Amyl alcohol should extract
the color. Aor)

The results of these qualitative
tests are listed in Table 1.

When a base such as ammonia,
sodium carbonate, or 10% sodium hy-
droxide was added to the pigment sol-
ution, the color of each of the pig-
ments under study deepened to form
an intense yellow to brown solution.
Flavone solutions react with am-
monia, sodium carbonate, and 10%
sodium hydroxide solution to form a
deeper yellow solution (2).

With sulfuric acid, an intensifica-
tion of the yellow color of the pigment
solutions being tested, resulted. Flav-
one solutions treated with concentrat-
ed sulfuric acid become deeper in yel-
low color, and in some cases the solu-

fon exhibits a fluorescence.

Studies on Flavone-like Substances Isolated from Tobacco

Three pigment solutions, on investi-
gation, exhibited a green coloration
when treated with ferric chloride,
while the solution of pigment ‘2’ turn-
ed brown with this reagent. A green
to brown coloration is observed when

flavone solutions are treated with fer-
rie chloride.

A yellow to orange precipitate
formed when the pigment solutions
under test were treated with lead ace-
tate and basic lead acetate. Flavones

TABLE 1
Pigment Pigment W Pigment 1 Pigment 2 Pigment 3
Ammonia Color of Yellow Solution A deep
NH, solution color turned yellowish
deepened. deepened. bright brown
Medium No precipi- yellow. solution
yellow tate ob- A floeculent resulted
precipitate served. precipitate
formed formed
Sodium Yellow A light Intensifica- Solution
Hydroxide color yellow tion of became
10% changed to amber yellow bright
amber color color of yellow in
produced solution color
Alkali Color Very little The color Bright
Carbonate changed if any of the yellow
from intensifica- solution solution
pale to tion of deepened resulted
lemon yellow from a
yellow color pale to an
intense
yellow
Sulfuric In all cases a slight intensification of color was produced.
Acid The final color contained traces of orange
(Conc.)
Alcoholic Green Yellowish Greenish Deep olive
Ferric | solution green brown green
Chloride solution solution solution
Lead Orangish Yellow Yellow Yellow
Acetate Yellow precipitate precipitate precipitate
precipitate contained a
trace of
brown
Basic Orange Yellow Yellow Orangish
Lead yellow precipitate brown yellow
Acetate precipitate precipitate precipitate
Mg plus HCl Yellow color deepened in all cases. The yellow color was
Extract extracted with amyl alcohoi except in the case of pigment 1.
Amyl
Aleohol
Ammoniacal °
Silver Blackish deposit formed
Nitrate

2a

Studies on Flavone-like Substances Isolated from Tobacco

also form yellow to orange-red per-
cipitates with lead acetate and with
basic lead acetate.

Thus, the qualitative tests described
indicated flavone-like properties for
the pigments under investigation.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA

A Cenco-Sheard ‘Spectrophotolo-
meter’ was used in making absorption
spectral measurements of the pig-
ments being studied. A blue filter was
used for determinations below 385
millimicrons. In the procedure used
to make the determination, a blank of
pure solvent was placed in cell 1, and
cell 2 was filled with the pigment solu-
tions. For the curves of pigments 'W’
and ‘2’, distilled water was used
as the solvent; for the curve of
pigment ‘1’, 95% ethyl aleohol; and
for the curve of pigment '3’, 1% hy-
drochlorie acid solution was used.

Sets of readings 5 millimicrons
apart were taken over the range 335-
620 millimicrons. A curve was plot-
ted using wave length in millimicrons
as abscissa and the ratio of incident
light to transmitted, Io/I, as the or-
dinate. The curves for the pigments
are shown in the accompanying fig-
ures.

The absorption spectral curve for
pigment ‘'W’ in water shows a sharp
maximum absorption at 380 millimi-
crons, and no minimum for the range
mentioned above. The curves for the
pigments ‘1’, '2’, and ’3’ showed
only one sharp maximum and no
minimum for each in the range tested.
The values for the maxima were 385
millimicrons for ‘1’; 375 millimicrons
for ‘2’; and 418 millimicrons for
he

Samples of pigments ‘'W’, ‘1’, and
‘2’ were sent to Mr. Dirk Verhagen,
Chemist, Lyle Branchflower Company,

,

Seattle, Washington for absorption
spectral studies in the 240-330 millimi-
cron range. The authors are very
grateful to him for his co-operation.
In order to obtain significant read-
ings, he made up his solutions at dif-
ferent dilutions from those obtained
above. He found that pigment ‘'W’
had a maximum at 262-266 millimi-
crons, with a minimum in the 310-
330 millimicron region; that pigment
‘1’ has a maximum at 262 millimicrons
with a minimum in the 330-335 milli-
micron region, and that pigment ‘2’
has a maximum at 246-248 millimi-
crons, with a minimum in the 320-335
millimicron region.

Flavones show maximum absorption
usually between 340 and 390 millimi-
crons with a second maximum in the
235-300 millimicron region. Pigments
'W’', ‘1’ and ‘2’ definitely show the
characteristic type of absorption spec-
tral curves exhibited by flavones.

Since both the qualitative tests and
the transmission curves for pigments
'W' ‘1’, and '2’ indicated the pres-
ence of flavones, these three pigments
have been fentatively placed in the
flavone group. Further studies are
now ,in progress.

SUMMARY

1. Qualitative tests and absorp-

tion spectral curves have been

run on four pigments separated
from tobacco.

2. The results of these studies

indicate that at least three of

these pigments, called 'W’, si
and ‘2’, are flavone-like in prop-
erties.

REFERENCES

1. Schoulties, Anna L. and Wen-

der, Simon H. 1947

Proc. Okla. Acad. of Science

2. Klein, G. 19382

Handbuch der Pflanzenanalyse,

J. W. Edwards, Ann Arbor, Mich-

igan. Vol. V, Part 1.

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13

Effect of Glucose Upon the Viability of Lactobacil-
lus Casei

MARY MUEDEKING

Department of Bacteriology University of Kentucky
Lexington, Ky.

In discussing the bacterial growth
curve with respect to the viable
count, it is often stated that the
population begins to decrease soon
after reaching a maximum, and a

logarithmic death phase _ ensues
(Porter, 1946). Evidence that, un-
der certain conditions, the viable

count may remain close to the maxi-
mum for a considerable time rela-
tive to the preceding phases of the
growth curve, was obtained in .con-
nection with a study of the lactic
acid fermentation. Evidence was
also found that this was not due to
balanced multiplication and death
rates, but rather to the maintenance
of a stationary population. It is be-
lieved that the results are of suf-
ficient interest to warrant publica-
tion as a preliminary note.

The organism used was Lactobacil-
lus) casez, A. T. C. C: 7649.) It was
grown in yeast extract-glucose broth
cultures, with excess calcium carbon-
ate added as a buffer. The media
were made up in a 1-200 dilution of
salt solution B of the Snell-Strong
(1939) riboflavin assay medium;
0.04% (final concentration) dibasic
potassium phosphate was added aiter
autoclaving. Cultures were incu-
bated at 37°C. The viable counts
were determined by plating the cul-
tures upon a medium containing 2%
yeast extract, 0.5% glucose, and
1.5%agar. Usually six plates per
culture were made; two at each of
three critical dilutions, or three at
two.

It was observed that the viable
count decreased several fold between

14

48 and 72 hours in a culture in
which the glucose (2% initial con-
centration) was exhausted at about
24 hours. Addition of glucose to
such a culture resulted in utilization
of the glucose and an increase in the
viable count.

In a culture with an initial glu-
cose concentration of 12% the count
at 86 hours was 4.8 x 10» cells per
ml., as compared to the maximum of
5.9 x 109 cells per ml. at 40 hours.
At 32 hours the population was 5.4
x 10°; thus this culture had an ap-
parently nearly stationary popula-
tion during the 32-86 hour period.
During this time glucose analyses
showed that the fermentation pro-
ceeded at a constant rate, and at 86
hours 1.2% glucose remained.

To study further the effect of
glucose upon maintenance of the vi-
able count the following experiment
was done. Three cultures of L. casei,
similar except that two had an in-
itial glucose concentration of 2%,
and one had 12%, were plated out at
24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. To one of
the cultures with 2% glucose at 24
hours, and subsequently every 24
hours, enough sterile glucose solution
was added to bring the concentration
to 1%. Data obtained are given in
Table 1.

According to these results, in the
presence of fermentable sugar, the
population stays close to the maxi-
mum until the culture is at least 96
hours old, whereas it falls off mark-
edly in the same time if the sugar is
depleted.

To determine if the stationary vi-

Effect of Glucose Upon the Viability of Lactobacillus Caset

able count was due to balanced mul-
tiplication and death rates a similar
experiment using direct counts was
done. Two cultures, containing 2%
and 12% glucose, were prepared.
The salts concentrations, slightly dif-
ferent from Solution B, were as fol-
lows: 10 g. Mg. SO4:7H20; 0.5 g.
Na Cl; 1.0 g. (Fe)2(SO4)3 (anhyd-
rous), and 0.5 g. Mg. SO4:H20 in

were chosen at random and counted.
Every cell distinguishable in a chain
was counted. Two,three, and four
cells in a chain were common. The
average number of individual cells
per field was determined, and from
this the total number of cells per ml.
culture was computed. Results are
given in Table 2.

The discrepancy between the to-

250 ml. glass-distilled water. Final tal and viable counts may possibly
TABLE 1
Plate Counts—cells per ml.
1 2
Time 2% glucose 2% glucose 12%
Hours none added bee. 24% glucose
glucose solution
added every 24
hours
; 24 3.2 x 10° 5.7 x 10° 1.7 x 102
48 3.8 x 10° @)-3} o< Je Hows 2¢ IE
72 6.6 x 10s 7.9 x 102 8.7 x 102
96 3.4 x 10s 8.3 x 102 6.4 x 102

concentrations were equivalent to a
1-200 dilution of this solution. After
sterilization enough K2HPO4 to
make a final concentration of 0.01%
was added. Cultures were plated at
24 and 120 hours, and direct counts
were done at 24, 50, 72 and 96

be because short chains of cells,
counted as several individuals in the
direct count, produced only one col-
ony on a plate. Since both plate and
direct counts were not done at 96
and 120 hours the results are not ab-
solutely comparable; yet they indi-

hours. Technique of the direct cate very clearly the effect of glu-
TABLE 2
Plate counts and Direct Count of L .casei Cultures
Time 2% 12%
Hours Glucose Glucose
Direct Count Plate Count Direct Count Plate Count
24 6.7 x 109 2.3 x 109 5.1 x 10° 2.6 x 102
50 Daiexe Os — 5.4 x 109 =
he, eslepxcnlli() 2 — 6.9 x 109 —
96 ot x IOs — 4.0 x 10 —
120 — Boo oe De — 2.3 x 102
counts was as follows: 0.01 ml. of a cose in maintaining the viable count,

1-10 dilution of the culture was
smeared as evenly as possible over
an area of 6 sq. cm. in two loopfuls of
nigrosin. The smear was allowed to
air-dry, and from 13 to 20 fields

15

and show that the total count is no
greater in the medium containing
12% glucose. Therefore, the con-
stant viable count must be the result
of a truly stationary population and

Effect of Glucose Upon the Viability of Lactobacillus Casei

not equal multiplication and death
rates. Autolysis of dead cells can be
discounted since in the 2% culture
the viable count had decreased near-
ly 100 fold; yet the direct count re-
mained the same within experimental
error at 96 hours. Thus many of the
cells visible on the slide were actual-
ly dead. Glucose probably remained
in the culture containing 12%; in a
similar experiment glucose analysis
showed 1.6 mg. per ml. remaining at
135 hours.

Discussion

Apparently the presence of a fer-
mentable sugar, with the energy
available from the fermentation, is
sufficient to keep the great majority
of cells of Lactobacillus casei alive
(capable of growth when transferred
to a fresh medium) for a period of
96 to 120 hours. If the energy
source is exhausted, however, the
cells begin to die in 48 to 72 hours.
The death of the cells cannot be as-

to the exhaustion of essential growth
factors or nitrogen, since these fac-
tors would, if they were influencing
the viability of the cells, tend to be
more injurious in the culture with
12% initial glucose. The presence of
an adequate energy source is appar-
ently the only important difference
between a culture having a viable
count of 2.3x10° cells per ml. at
120 hours, and one with 3.3 x 107
cells per ml. End products of metab-
olism, in this case calcium lactate, do
not adversely affect viability or fer-
mentation.

The time of occurrence of the log-
arithmic death phase in relation to
the rest of the bacterial growth
cycle, in the case of Lactobacillus
casei, is dependent upon certain en-
vironmental conditions.

References
(1) Porter, J. R. 1946. Bacterial
Chemistry and Physiology, p.
102. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
(2) Snell, E. E. and Strong, F. M.

cribed to a low pH, to the accumula- 1939. Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal.
tion of toxic metabolic products, or Ed, 11: 346.
(Se OO

16

RESEARCH NOTES

A Note on the Elimination of Endamoeba coli Cysts in the Human
Host

The irregularity in occurrence of
Endamoeba histolytica and Enda-
moeba coli cysts and trophozoites in
human stools has been observed by
several investigators. Quantitative
studies on the elimination of these
parasites from the human body have
been carried out by only a _ few.
Cropper (1918-1919. Proc. Roy. Soe.
Med. 12 Marcus Beck Lab Reports
No. 8: 1-14) concluded from his work
on EF. coli that no “periodicity” was
indicated “either in the number of
cysts per gramme of stool or in the
number excreted per day”. Von Brand
(1982: Zentralbl. f. Bakt. Abt. 1.
Orig. 128: 358-365) also was unable
to describe any “periodic” elimination
of cysts in his study of E. histolytica
from a.human case. Tsuchiya (1982.
Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 29:
930-932) observed an ‘“encystment
cycle” in a study of the same or-
ganism.

Lincicome (1942. Amer. J. Hyg. 36:
821-337) reported cysts of Endamoeba
histolytica and Endamoeba coli were
eliminated with a certain frequency
in the stools of rhesus monkeys under
prescribed standard and controlled
conditions. Maximum numbers of
cysts were discharged on the average
of every 7 days with a range of 4
to 10 days, occasionally as long as 14
days. The numbers of cysts present
in the stool usually declined rapidly
after a maximum output, and remain-
ed at a lower level until the next rise
occurred. Such frequencies were
found in animals maintained on a high
carbohydrate diet.

Using a method previously develop-
ed (Lincicome, 1942) observations
have been made on the elimination of
Endamoeba coli cysts in the stools of a
male human volunteer.

On October 6, 1942, a human volun-
teer naturally infected with Enda-
moeba coli and passing cysts of this
organism, was placed on a low-residue
diet. An adequate amount of meta-
mucil was included for soft, non-fib-
rous bulk. ““Embo” was added to furn-
ish sufficient vitamin-B complex in-
take (Thanks are expressed here to
Dr. Statie Erikson, Professor of Home
Economics, University of Kentucky,
who has kindly helped in arranging
the diet). The dietary carbohydrate
level was maintained high while the
protein level was kept at a point as
low as was commensurate with health.

Beginning October 16, 1942, twenty-
four-hour stool specimens were col-
lected and the cysts of H. coli enumer-
ated. Since it was physically impos-
sible to analyze quantitatively each
daily specimen, twenty - four - hour
stools on alternate days were prepar-
ed for cyst counts. Alternate daily
counts continued through November
23, 1942. No trophozoites were en-
countered.

The text figure is a graph showing
the number of E. coli cysts eliminated
per twenty-four-hour period per milli-
liter of a one-in-ten saline suspension
of the fecal sample from October 16
through November 23, 1942. Presenta-
tion of the numerical fluctuation of
cysts in this manner eliminates the
factor of stool-volume variation which

Research Notes

f 7 Hu
un Gere ESE RSE

might in itself account for increases
or decreases in numbers of cysts.
No cysts were observed in the stools
until October 24. After this there oc-
curred three maximum rises in num-
bers of cysts. Following each maxi-
mum output the number of cysts de-
clined to a minimum whence they
arose again. One one day, November
17, no stool was deposited.

There is here evidence of an orderly
fluctuation in numbers of E. coli cysts

18

not wholly unlike that already de-
scribed for the same organism in the
rhesus monkey. Fourteen days elapsed
between the first two maximum rises
while ten days elapsed between the
second and third. Further study of
the discharge of E. coli cysts in the
stools of human volunteers is in pro-
gress.—David Richard Lincicome and
Robert Arthur Gold, Parasitology
Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Occurrence of Neoechinorhynchus emydis (Acanthocephala)

in

Snails

In June 1942 an acanthocephalan
was found in the foot of the snail
Campeloma rufum (Haldeman) col-
lected from a point on the North Elk-
horn Creek known as Johnson’s Mill,
about 12 miles northwest of Lexing-
ton, Kentucky. Numerous collections
have been made subsequently and the
snails found infected indicating that
the infection is probably not accident-
al. Ceriphasia semicarinata (Say)
collected from the same locality has
also been infected but less consistent-
ly than C. rufum. (The snails in this
report have been identified by Dr. J.
P. E. Morrison, Division of Mollusks,
U. S. National Museum, Washington,

1D); (G5)
The worms have been identified as
Neoechinorhynchus emydis (Leidy

1851) a common parasite of turtles,
although they possess certain charact-
eristics apparently heretofore unre-
ported. These are being reported in
a separate communication.

All worms were in a post-larval or
juvenile stage of development, en-
closed in a cystic membrane. Usually
but one worm was found within a cyst
wall. Cysts ordinarily were situated
superficially in the foot tissue, oc-
casionally at the base of tentacles or
in the tissue around the mouth or in
the mantle.

19

This is apparently the third pub-
lished record of acanthocephala from
snails, and constitutes the first record
for C. rufum and C. semicarinata. The
first published record was by Meyer in
his monograph (1932-1933. Acantho-
cephala. Bronn’s Klassen and Ord-
nungen des Tierreichs 4 Abt. 2, Buch
2) in which he says regarding Neo-
echinorhynchus rutili “und experi-
mentell im Lymnaea .. .” This is
without bibliographical citation, and
is therefore assumed to be the result
of Meyer’s work (personal communi-
cation from H. J. Van Cleave, Janu-
ary 1947). However, on p. 2938 of his
monograph Meyer makes no mention
of Lymnaea in discussing the life
cycle of N. rutili.

Whitlock (1939. Snails as Inter-
mediate Hosts of Acanthocephala. J.
Parasit. 25: 443) records a species of
Neoechinorhynchus from Campeloma
decisum and Pleurocera acuta in
Grand River near Lansing, Michigan.

Cable (January, 1947) in a person-
al communication indicated that Hopp
working in his laboratory had found
a Neoechinorhynchus in snails.—
David Richard Lincicome and Allie
Whitt, Jr. Parasitology Laboratory,
Department of Zoology, University of
Kentucky, Lexington.

Dr. Paul O. Ritcher has been elect-
ed Vice-President of the North Cen-
tral States Branch of the American
Association of Economic Entomol-
ogists.

Dr. Ravid Richard Lincicome has

been elected Fellow of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hy-
giene in London, England.

Dr. Frank Pattie of the Rice In-
stitute, Houston, Texas, will become
Head of the Department of Psy-
chology, University of Kentucky on
1 July 1947. Dr. Pattie holds the
A. B. from Vanderbilt University and
the Ph. D. from Princeton.

It is with regret that the death of
Dr. Henry Beaumont, Professor of
Psychology, University of Kentucky,
in March 1947 is noted.

Drweaul Ps Boyd retires on 16

June 1947 as Dean of the College of
Arts and Sciences, University of
Kentucky.

Dr. M. M. White, Professor of
Psychology and Associate Dean of
Arts and Sciences, University of

Kentucky, will become Dean of the
college upon retirement of Dr. Boyd.
Mr. Elisha B. Lewis, Assistant
Chemist, Experiment Station, Uni-
versity of Kentucky, has resigned to
become Research Chemist with En-
gineering Company of Ohio in Day-
ton, Ohio, effective 16 June 1947.
The Department of Bacteriology,
University of Kentucky announces
the institution of the Ph. D. degree
in the following fields: morphology
and physiology of microorganisms,
immunology and serology and public
health bacteriology.
Dr. Robert N.

Jeffrey, Plant

NEWS and NOTES

20

Physiologist, Department of Agron-
omy, Experiment Station, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, is now Plant Physi-
ologist with the Firestone Planta-
tions Corporation in Harbel, Liberia.

Dr. James W. Archdeacon has
been promoted to Associate Profes-
sor of Anatomy and Physiology,
University of Kentucky.

Dr. Joe Kendall Neel will become
Assistant Professor of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky, on 1 September
1947. Dr. Neel holds the B. S. in
1937 and M. S. in 1988 from the
University of Kentucky and the Ph.
D. from the University of Michigan
in’ 194'7.

Dr. William R. Brown has been
promoted to Associate Professor of
Geology, University of Kentucky.

The Department of Psychology,
University of Kentucky, is one of the
first in the United States to be select-
ed by the American Psychological
Association to give the Ph. D. in
Psychology with a major in clinical
psychology.

Mr. A. S. Bradshaw, Assistant
Professor of Biology, Transylvania
College, will spend the summer quar-
ter at the Franz Theodore Stone
Laboratory at Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie.

The Keeneland Foundation has
placed an electron microscope in the
laboratories of the Department of
Bacteriology, University of Ken-
tucky. Dr. O. F. Edwards, in charge
of the microscope, has completed a
special study of techniques for the
microscope at the National Institute
of Health.

Dr. David Richard Lincicome, As-
sistant Professor of Zoology, Univer-

News and Notes

sity of Kentucky, has resigned to
become Assistant Professor of Para-
sitology, School of Medicine, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, on 1 July 1947.

Dr. Morris Scherago has been
awarded a _ research grant of
$1,500.00 from the American Col-
lege of Allergists for work on the
standardization of allergens.

The Department of Bacteriology,
University of Kentucky, announces
the following promotions: Dr. Mar-
garet Hotchkiss to full Professor;
Dr. O. F. Edwards to Associate Pro-
fessor and Dr. Mary Muedeking to
Assistant Professor.

Dr. L. A. Brown, Professor of Bi-
ology at Transylvania College spent
the winter quarter at Harvard Uni-
versity preparing a curriculum in bi-
ology in the field of General Educa-
tion to be instituted at Transylvania.

21

Dr. L. K. Wood, Assistant Soil
Scientist, Oregon State College at
Corvallis, Oregon, has become Chem-
ist and spectroscopist, Department of
Chemistry, Experiment Station, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Dr. H. B. Lovell, Associate Pro-
fessor of Zoology, University of
Louisville, will spend part of the
summer in study of birds in the
Allegheny Mountains of Eastern
Kentucky and Tennessee.

Drs. P. A. Davies and H. B. Lovell,
University of Louisville, represented
the Academy at the Field Day of the
Indiana Academy of Science in May.

Dr. William M. Clay, instructor in
Biology, University of Louisville, will
be a member of the party studying
the herpetofauna of Southern Ari-
zona under the auspices of the Chi-
cago Academy of Sciences.

Abstracted Minutes of 1944 and 1946 Meetings of the
Kentucky Academy of Science

THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING
University of Kentucky April 28 and 29, 1944
Officers:
PRESIDENT—L. A. Brown, Transylvania College, Lexington, Ky.
PAST PRESIDENT—J. T. Skinner, W. S. T. C., Bowling Green, Ky.
VICE ee ee ate Kolachov, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Louis-
ville, K
SECRETARY—Alfred Brauer, University of ee terrae Lexington, Ky.
TREASURER—William J. Moore, E. K. S. T. C.
REPRESENTATIVE TO A. A. A. any oe R. Middleton, University
of Louisville.
COUNSELOR TO JR. ACADEMY—Anna Schneib

Local Committee on Arrangements:

H. P. Riley
D. G. Steele
A. J. Bradshaw (Transylvania)
Dave Young

Reports were read by the Secretary, Treasurer, Representative to the A. A.
A. S. and the Counselor to the Junior Academy.
Elected to Membership were:

David Armstrong, Manual High School, Louisville

Glenn Dooley, Dept. of Chemistry, W. K. S. T. C., Bowling Green

Paul Maizlick, Dept. of Physics, E. K. S. T. C., Richmond

Vernon S. Gentry, Georgetown College, Georgetown

A constitutional amendment providing for sustaining memberships was
passed. A by-law fixing the annual dues of sustaining members at ten dollars
was passed.

Officers for a following year were elected.

THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING

University of Louisville April 26 and 27, 1946
PRESIDENT—Paul Kolachov, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville
PAST PRESIDENT—L. A. Brown, Transylvania College, Lexington
VICE PRESIDENT—Ward Sumpter, W. K. S. T. C., Bowling Green, Ky.
SECRETARY—Alfred Bauer, U. of Ky., Lexington, Ky.
TREASURER—W. J. Moore, E. K. S. T. C., Richmond, Ky.
REP. ON COUNCIL OF A. A. A. S.—Austin R. Middleton, U. of

Louisville

COUNSELOR TO JR. ACADEMY—Anna Schneib

Reports were read by the Treasurer, Representative to the Council of the
A. A. A. S. and the Counselor to the Ky. Jr. Acad.
New Members Elected to Academy:

Adams, Carl E. Grossman, James A. Roberts, V. D.

Balen, Virgil A. Houchins, John Sloan, Earl] P.
Bennett, E. M. Hutter, Harry K. Roth, George

Carey, Henry Jeffery, Robert N. Schwendeman, Jos. R.
Cole, Mrs. Constance L, Lewis, Elisha Betts Snyder, Marion

Coy, Fred MacLaury, Donald W. Steen, Russell
Crawley, Clyde B. Mayo, Mrs. Elizabeth Stevens, Russell
Dawson, Lyle R. McErlean, George Sutherland, William R.
Erickson, R. J. Nelson, Vincent E. Townsend, Lee Hill
Gardner, Jos. H. Ormsby, Robert L. Westad, J. W.
Hotchkiss, Margaret Pauls, Franklin B. Wetzel, Harold F.
Heimerdinger, Jane Wharton, Mary E.

No new business was forthcoming. Officers for the following year were
elected.

22

- NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

»

The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE is a medium for the publication of original investigations in science.
As the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science it publishes in addi-
tion programs of the annual meetings of the society, abstracts of papers
presented before the annual meetings, reports of the society’s officers and com-
mittees, as well as news and announcements of interest to the membership. 5

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors:

DR. M. C. BROCKMAN DR. DAVID R. LINCICOME
Jos. E. Seagram and Sons Department of Zoology

7th Street Road University of Kentucky
Louisville, Kentucky Lexington 29, Kentucky

Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide mar-
gins, in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles
are accepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be
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by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by the article in addition
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Bibliographic citations should follow textual material (except in Research
Notes, see later). Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the
current system employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts.

Biblographie citations in Research Notes should be in the same form as for _

longer papers but enclosed in parentheses within the text of the note.

Footnotes should be avoided. Titles must be clear and concise, and provide
for precise and accurate catologuing.

Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be included in an article
only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive
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Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order
for a maximum amount of material to be published. bs

Reprints may be obtained from the publisher and must be ordered at the
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- Authors are requested to submit an abstract of their papers when galley
proof is returned. This abstract must be no longer than 250 words, nor to ex-
ceed in any case 3% of the length of the original article. Abstracts will be
submitted to Biological Abstracts for publication.

ae
Kes)

Volume 12 October, 1947 Number 4

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Offiicial Organ
KeEentTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS
Editorial:

Power and, ‘Paneh:\\ The) Bditors. oy NN _ 55
Physiological variation in isolates of Polyporus schweinitzti Fr.

(Fungi; Basidiomycetes). William D. Gray... 59
Pollination in Asclepias, H. H. La Fuze and V. A. Greulach_..__ 79
A comprehensive survey of controlled grain alcohol production methods

they eer War eae N SN ee NG NEA ZS ty oh a MSZ
A planned economy for Kentucky’s waters. W. R. Allen. 89
Alcoholic fermentation under reduced pressure.

MG; Brockmann.and T.\J);B.Stier oo Mn A Oe 19
Report of the committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy.

Para riaa) Ac Cin Re eA Phy Nout Sy ha) NE Ay AE 101
Report of the representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science on the _

Council of the A.A.A.S. Austin R. Middleton... 105
ES a AE TRA ERE VPS TANDEM SEN Us MES MRA CL LOS OR OER Pe Nad Wl 110
pT Spa ch Fie Aa LS RUS NOS UU RIG ALUCALAI MONS EIS SE VAC) A A112

Printed Quarterly by
THE THOROUGHBRED PRESS
Lexington, Kentucky

TRANSACTIONS
of the |
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Editors
Dr. M. C. BROCKMAN Dr. DAvip R. LINCICOME
JOS. KE. SEAGRAM AND SONS School of Medicine
7th Street Road University of Wisconsin
Louisville 1, Kentucky Madison, Wisconsin

OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1947-1948

President Vice President Secretary
ALFRED BRAUER ArtTHuR C. McFaruAN J. R. STUETZ
University of Kentucky University of Kentucky Jos. E. Seagram and Sons
Louisville, Kentucky

Counselor to Junior Representative to Council

Treasurer Academy of the A. ALA. S.
RALPH H. WEAVER ANNA A. SCHNEIB AUSTIN R. MIDDLETON
University of Kentucky Eastern State Teachers University of Louisville
College
ve
DIRECTORS

A Morris SCHERAGO, University of Kentucky, to 1951

U/ . PauL KoLacnuoy, Jos. E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., to 1950
GEORGE V. PAGE, Western State Teachers College, to 1950
J. S. BANGSON, Berea College, to 1950 |
Rozert T. HINTON, Georgetown College, to 1949
H. B. Lovett, University of Louisville, to 1949
L. Y. LANCASTER, Western State Teachers College, to 1948
AUSTIN R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, to 1948

The Transactions are issued quarterly. The four issues constitute an an-
nual volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50.

Manuscripts, advertising and all other material for publication should

be addressed to the editors. Correspondence concerning membership in the
Academy, subscriptions or other business matters should be addressed to the

secretary.

ne

he

ey a

ve
eG

EDITORIAL

POWER AND PUNCH

At nine o’clock on the morning of
May 8, 1914, a group of about
twenty-five persons assembled in the
Physics Building, the University of
Kentucky, to organize the Kentucky
Academy of Science. Forty-six per-
sons had earlier indicated in a signed
statement their sympathy with and
their approval for an Academy of
Science in the State.

The secretary’s report read at the
second annual meeting of the Acad-
emy on May 15, 1915, showed that
the roll of members had increased
to some sixty individuals who had
either signed the organizational state-
ment or who otherwise had indicatea
they wished to become members. A
balance of two dollars was on hand
in the treasury.

By the next year 81 names were
on the membership list, and by 1917
there were 91, of whom 39 were ac-
tive members in good standing and
39 whose dues were in arrears.

The membership in the Kentucky
Academy of Science since the early
organizational days in 1914, 1915
and 1916 has grown slowly by small
yearly increments to the present
membership of about 330 for 1947.

Stated thus it might be said that
the Academy has done well in view
of the many obstacles encountered
during the thirty odd years of its
life. Not only has there been an an-
nual growth in membership, how-
ever small, but a journal, the
TRANSACTIONS, has been launched
since 1924 under circumstances that

Ee FEB ASP

have been a little more than diffi-
cult and discouraging and is now
completing its twelfth volume. With
this volume a new policy has been
inaugurated which provides for a
broader editorial horizon than was
possible at any time previously.

The Academy has weathered World
War I, the great depression of the
thirties, World War II and so far has
maintained fair balance in post World
War II inflation, although how much
longer seems a matter of conjecture
in view of the tremendous rise in
cost of everything including printing
of the journal.

The Academy has now advanced
to an age of maturity in a powerful
new world with vast new horizons
stretching out before her. They
bring new and greater responsibili-
ties and emphasize old problems that
have never been solved.

Dr. Paul P. Boyd in the presiden-
tial address of 1920 viewing the fu-
ture of the Kentucky Academy of
Science, laid before the members a
series of goals that are still today
short of attainment. In 1947 as in
1920 the Academy is still ineffective
as the representative organization of
Science in the State. Our member-
ship still does not encompass all fields
of scientific thought, and largely be-
cause of this the roster roll remains
at a relatively low figure. We have
yet to cooperate to the fullest extent
with educational and industrial lead-
ers and businesses, the public still
looms as a vast uninformed mass and

~

Power and Punch

our fundamental excuse for birth, the
zealous advancement of knowledge
and the dissemination thereof, still
lies abandoned for want of sufficient
support.

In order to have a _ vigorous,
healthy society new horizons in at-
tainable objectives must ever be be-
for us, and all efrort must be di-
rected toward accomplishment of
these objectives. The Academy has
too long been content to remain a
mediocre organization, impotent in
attainments and offering nothing to
prospective members, sustaining or
otherwise, for their participation.

The time has now come, the cross-
roads are before us, for us to re-ex-
amine ourselves to discover what the
reasons are for thirty-three years of
coasting along. We must then over-
haul our organization to give it
power and punch.

It is the opinion of the writers
that one of the fundamental causes
of our disease is a species of stagna-
tion resulting from an attitude of
general indifference. It is an atti-
tude that has permeated through
many levels of society in the State.
The Academy collectively is but re-
flecting this state of mind of the
population, and is taking what seems
to be the path of least resistance as
the guide to conduct.

This stagnation now and then
raises its dark countenance in many
forms, for example: the indignant
letters of citizens to newspaper edi-
tors protesting the paying of respec-
table and adequate salaries to the
faculty of our institutions of higher
learning, the orations of political
candidates for high office demanding
that the University deny the right of
freedom of speech, investigation and
publication to its faculty members.
This educational decay is reflected in
the shameful salaries paid to teach-

56

ers in our schools, and it reflects in
the amount of money available in
our colleges for research, facilities
and salaries. Everywhere the forces
of ignorance, intolerance and indif-
ference resist progress.

The Academy is doubly guilty of
neglect of duty when it fails in its
mission to promote truth and its dis-
semination, for after all ignorance,
intolerance, indifference, and inaction
as well, are attributes that follow in
the absence of truth.

Stagnation immediately within the
Academy is marked in many ways,
but principally in our lack of critical,
constructive and progressive action.
The membership is content with a
single general meeting once in every
year at which time it repeats many
words of fine and noble sentiment
and then promptly forgets the whole
thing. The general attitude does not
encourage or breed enthusiasm and
a deep desire to render service or to
pursue research, and it does not
serve as a stimulus for others who
are not members to join with us. We
offer nothing in return for partici-
pation in the Academy. We take no
bold or aggressive action in the name
of Science. On this basis there seems
little excuse to warrant the Acad-
emy’s existence.

The Academy has no alternative,
no choice or selection from which to
choose success but through enthusi-
astic, hard sacrifice to work. We
have got to sell ourselves first on the
worthwhileness of the Academy.
Then we have got to sell it to others.

The immediate necessity is to en-
large the membership to all fields of
scientific endeavor in the State
whether educational or industrial.
Increase in membership per se is not
a notable objective for the Academy,
but it is as necessary as the very

Power and Punch

food we eat to our metabolic proc-
esses.

The aftermath of World War II
has brought important sequelae di-
rectly concerned with Academy mem-
bers both as individuals in a frus-
trated society and as responsible sci-
entists. As informed and enlightened
citizens in a democracy we owe it to
ourselves and fellow statemen and
countrymen to contribute to the
sane and wise deliberations on the
establishment and keeping of just
peace in the world. Again as _ in-
formed and enlightened citizens,
Academy members are responsible
for disseminating truth as a means
of conquering fear and_ distrust.
Public education then is a continu-
ing and necessary objective that this
society has too long ignored. It is
now past time that the Academy for-
mulate and execute plans for public
education on matters that pertain to
its dominion.

The broad general function of any
Academy of Science incorporates the
injunction to promote and foster re-
search or the acquisition and dis-
semination of truth. Research and
the search for truth in the old days
was a matter of a room with a bench,
a shelf for books, perhaps a micro-
scope, and a keen, burning, passion-
ate desire for knowledge. The cost
was not more than the simple imple-
ments that it required. The thirst
for truth lay deep and powerful with-
in the individual. In the course of
years research has undergone change,
it has evolved or undergone evolu-
tion, and the old way has passed into
the great beyond.

Research today is spelled with a
capital “R.” It requires the coopera-
tion of many persons, institutions,
and considerable physical assets. Con-
siderable sums of money are neces-
sary to pay the hire of assistants,

for purchasing instruments and ma-
terial. Travel abroad from one’s im-
mediate environment is often a sine
Research today has meta-
morphosed from the general store era
to the age of streamlined specialties.

quo non.

Has the Kentucky Academy kept
pace with this evolution in Research?
The answer is not difficult to find.

There are many Academy mem-
bers who have had the enthusiasm to
be “companions in zealous research”
only to have it wither and die away
as the years have gone by because
research was and is not supported
well, either morally or financially,
either by the state government or by
industry at large. Many of the news-
papers throughout the State have de-
cried the fact that teachers in col-
leges of Kentucky have been leaving
for more lucrative positions in other
states, and all have uniformly as-
signed “low salaries’ as the main
reason for doing so. While it cannot
be denied that higher salaries else-
where do in many instances account
for resignations, lack of facilities for,
financial support of, and philosophic
sympathy with, research has played
no small part in the decision of a
faculty man to go elsewhere. The
statement that Kentucky’s institu-
tions of higher learning are serving
“as the happy hunting ground” for
other institutions is rightly and just-
ly made, but the question why has
not been correctly answered in full.
There seems little doubt that stagna-
tion in philosophy and provision for
research play a mighty important
role in the decision of an individual
to go elsewhere. There has been an
adage somewhere down the line that
one gets in return as much as one is
willing to put into a thing. This may
be applied to support for research.
As long as the people of the State
are content to spend very little to-

57

Power and Punch

ward support of research, their bene-
fits, their rewards, their return on
such will be proportionately small.

The individual Academy member
has been cognizant of this situation
for many years, there can be little
doubt; and the Academy as a whole
has been aware of the general atti-
tude, but has taken few if any steps
to remedy the condition.

The only research fund available
to the Academy has been supplied
from the national offices of the
A.A.A.S., and that has rarely ex-
ceeded fifty or sixty dollars a year!

Can there be, therefore, any doubt
or hesitation as to the course of ac-
tion this Academy ought to take to
fulfill so important an injunction as
that of the promotion of research?
We must at once consider the estab-
lishment of a fund for the develop-
ment, encouragement and execution
of research at all levels in the State.
This fund must come from the peo-
ple and it must be wisely and justly
administered in the interests of those
who have supported it.

THE EDITORS

6D DOS

58

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus
schweinitzii Fr. (Fungi; Basidiomycetes). *

WILLIAM D. GRAY

Department of Botany
Ohio State University
Columbus

Of the many forest tree diseases
caused by wood-rotting fungi, one of
the most widespread and most destruc-
tive is that caused by Polyporus
schweinitzit Fries. Commonly called
brown cubical rot, red-brown butt rot,
brown rot, butt rot, red rot, or stump
rot, this disease is known to foresters
of both Europe and North America.
Hartig (1900) reported that in
Europe this fungus attacks only pine,
but in the United States its host list
includes most conifers. The disease
has been reported as occurring on
nine species of Abies, four species of
Larix, eight species of Picea, thirty
species of Pinus, two species of Tsuga,
two species of Thuja, Chamaecyparis
thyoides Britt., Libocedrus decurrens
Torr., Taxus brevifolia Nutt., and
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Britt.—
a total of fifty-nine coniferous hosts.
In addition to this large number of
conifers, several broadleaf species
have also been reported as hosts of
P. schweinitzii; Hubert (1931, p. 356)
reported its occurrence on Quercus
spp. and Liquidambar styraciflua L.,
and Rhoads (1921) reported Eculayp-
tus globulus Labill. as another hard-
wood host. In the United States the
disease is most prevalent in the north-
ern forests but is found to some extent
wherever conifers occur. Apparently
the fungus may attack young trees as
well as older ones, entering the tree
through the root system and growing
up into the trunk (von Schrenk, 1900).

*Paper No. 504 from the Department of Botany,
Ohio State University.

Childs (1937), working with isolates
of Polyporus schweinitzii from numer-
ous, and, in some instances, widely
separated sources, has shown that
there exist certain cultural types
within the species. In culture upon
artificial media these isolates all had
a few characters in common, but with
the exception of isolates which were
taken from within a few feet of each
other, no two were identical. His
conclusion was that this species of
fungus is made up of many indi-
viduals which differ rather widely
from each other. This investigator
also reported a difference in wood-de-
caying ability between different iso-
lates; however, only a small number
of samples was used, and only two
isolates were involved in this study.
It is the purpose of the present in-
vestigation to ascertain whether such
physiological differences, as evidenced
by (1) variability in wood-decaying
ability, (2) variations in appearance
when cultured on wood blocks or arti-
ficial media, and (3) variations in
growth rate, do exist among isolates
of this fungus.

The concept of physiological spe-
cialization in fungi may be considered
as relatively new, since the majority
of the work in this field has been con-
ducted since 1880. In this regard the
rusts have received particular atten-
tion as it evidenced by the work of
Eriksson (1894, 1902), Dietel (1889),
Stakman (1914) and Hungerford and
Owens (1923). There are also ac-
counts of physiological variation in

59

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes) .

species of such fungi as Erysiphe,
Glomerella, Sphaeropsis, Rhizoctonia,
Septoria and others, but strangely
enough, little work has been done with
regard to the problem of physiological
variation in wood-destroying basidi-
omycetes. Since the character and
general properties of the host plant
are thought by some to exert certain
influences upon the fungi infecting it,
tending to produce physiological spe-
cialization, a study of the various
wood-destroying fungi should prove
a most fruitful investigation. These
fungi remain in close proximity with
their hosts for a considerable period
of time, and if they are susceptible
to any type of host influence should
prove to be excellent material for the
detection of an influence of this na-
ture. Boyce (1920) has determined
_ that Polyporus amarus may vegetate
in the trunk of the incense cedar
(Libocedrus decurrens) for a period
of three hundred years; it would seem
quite reasonable to postulate that un-
der such conditions the chances
would be very good for the produc-
tion of specialized forms or varieties
among the wood-destroying basidiomy-
cetes. Several references to investi-
gations concerning this particular
problem have been encountered; such
references will be discussed in con-
junction with the results herein pre-
sented.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ten different isolates of Polyporus
schweinitzti were used throughout the
present study.* These isolates were
from rather widely separate localities
and were obtained from several dif-
ferent coniferous hosts. The follow-
ing list gives the isolate number,
host and locality from which each
isolate was obtained:

*Supplied to the writer by Dr. Thomas Childs.

60

No. 1—Pinus strobus,

Springwater,
INES
No. 10—Pinus strobus, Springwater,
INES NG.
No. 19—Pinus strobus, Springwater,
Nowe
No. 31—Pinus strobus, Honeoye, N.

Ve
No. 32—Pinus strobus, Weston, Ont.
No. 38—Pinus sylvestris, Great Brit-

ain.
No. 89—Pinus rigida, Medford, N. J.
No. 40—Pinus mughus, Central Ex-

perimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario.
No. 40e—Fifth monosporus genera-

tion from No. 40.

No. 40j—-Tenth monosporus genera-

tion from No. 40.

Stock cultures were maintained on
2% Fleischman’s Malt agar, and
this same medium was employed in
the studies which involved observa-
tions on the characteristics of single
colonies of the various isolates as well
as the behavior of paired ESOIEN ES on
the same petri plate.

For studies concerned with determi-
nation of the capacities of the various
isolates for decaying wood (as meas-
ured by weight loss of the wood),
white pine sapwood was used. Several
hundred blocks were cut from sap-
wood of white pine (Pinus stobus L.)
obtained by Dr. Harlan H. York at
Springwater, N. Y., during the sum-
mer of 1936. These blocks were cut
to approximately the same _ size
(%4 x % x 4 inches) and were care-
fully selected: any showing a trace
of heartwood or incipient decay be-
ing discarded. The resultant num-
ber of sound blocks selected for use
was two hundred; these blocks were
then numbered consecutively, air-
dried, and weighed at intervals to the
nearest O.1 gm. until the weight of
each block was constant. After their
air-dry weights had been obtained, the

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes)

blocks were placed in distilled water
and allowed to absorb as much as
possible. Each block was then placed
in a 38x200 mm. test tube, 10 ml.
of two per cent malt was added, the
tube stoppered with a tightly rolled
cotton plug and then autoclaved. In-
oculations were made on Dee. 12, 1936
by dropping a small piece of agar,
upon which mycelium was growing,
into the liquid medium in each tube;
twenty wood-block cultures were pre-
pared for each of the isolates under
consideration. Since these cultures
were maintained for a period of ten
months, considerable loss of moisture
through evaporation occurred, and
it was necessary to add water to the
tubes at intervals: 15 ml. of sterile,
distilled water were added to each
tube on January 15, 1987; 25 ml.
were added on May 15, 1937; 20 ml.
were added on July 30, 1937. Air-dry,
the blocks used in this experiment
varied in weight from 11.0 to 14.5
gms.; initial weight data for the en-
tire series of blocks are presented in

to remove surface mycelia and spore-
bearing structures, air-dried, and fi-
nal weights determined.

In order to determine if growth
rate was correlated with destructive-
ness to wood blocks, one experiment
was designed to determine growth
rates of the various isolates on arti-
ficial medium. In this experiment the
medium employed was a modification
of Reitsma’s nutrient medium and
was prepared as follows:

2% Bacto peptone - 250.00 ml.
M/2 dextrose - - - 300.00 ml.
M/2 sucrose - - - - 200.00 ml.
0.4% MgS0:.H20 - - 49.00 ml.
1.0% ferric citrate - 1.00 ml.
N/2 HePOt - - - - 9.00 ml.
N/2 K2HPO: - - - - 3p22 mile

Cultures were made in 388x200

mm. test tubes by inoculating exactly
75 ml. of the above medium (which
had been found satisfactory for all
isolates) with a single loopful of
hyphae from ten-day old stock cul-
tures growing in 2% Fleischman’s
Malt. Ten replicate tubes were pre-
pared for each isolate; these were

TABLE 1.—Weights and numbers of white pine sapwood blocks used in
experiments involving the determination of weight losses of wood

by different

isolates of P. schweinitzii.

Isolate Block Total Average
No. Nos. Weight Weight
ie eee Se SE eee _ 1— 20 DAQEA 12.460
TEC) <8 ak Ss SS eae Rae are 21— 40 236.3 11.815
Tug) OS ee en eee 41— 60 247.0 12.350
S50”) ie ieee ee er 61— 80 251.0 12.510
So. Ns kde 5 SS Ae eel ae aes aera 81—100 247.4 12.370
SiS)” St a nea eee 101—120 251-9 12.595
So) 22 ee ee eae .121—140 250.1 12.505
i IM Be yr el IS A 141—160 243.5 12.175
07. ol a eS 161—180 246.8 12.340
LI) 2 (ee) Oe ey ae i os ae 181—200 259.4 12.970
Table I. then placed in the dark at a tempera-

Observation on woodblock cultures
were recorded at intervals during the
ten month incubation period and at
the end of this time the experiment
was terminated. The blocks were re-
moved from the tubes, washed lightly

ture of 23 degrees—25 degrees C. and
incubated for 35 days. At the end
of the incubation period a _ large
mycelial mat had formed in each
tube. The mats were filtered on num-
bered, dried, weighed filter papers,

61

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweimtzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

dried in an oven at 105 degrees C. and
placed in a desiccator. The dry
weight of each mat was then obtained
and average weights were calculated
for each series.

RESULTS

Appearance of single colonies on
petri plates.—In culture on artificial
medium, the isolates varied widely in
such characters as color, density of
growth, presence or absence of con-
centric zonation, and rapidity of
spread. A summary of the observed
growth characters of each isolate is
presented in Table II, while photo-
graphs of representative cultures of
each of the various isolates are shown
in Figures 1-10, Plate I.

Behavior of isolates in paired cul-
tures. — Several workers have de-
scribed the line of demarcation that

~ generally develops when two different

fungal mycelia are grown on the same
substratum; Schmitz (1925) and
Mounce (1929) have described this
phenomenon for Fomes pinicola (Sw.)
Cooke, and Childs (1987) described
the same reaction for P. schweinitzti.
Accordingly, paired cultures were
prepared using the ten isolates being
studied; the cultures were arranged
so that all possible combinations of
two isolates per petri dish were ob-
tained. In every instance a line of
demarcation appeared when the two
colonies met except in those petri
dishes in which there had been placed
two pieces of inoculum from the
same isolates. This was found to be
true even for pairings involving Nos.
40, 40e and 40j, which is rather sur-
prising in view of the fact that Nos.
40e and 40j are monospore cultures
derived from No. 40.

Three different types of reactions
were observed when two different
isolates were grown on the same sub-
stratum. The first, and most strik-

62

ing type was that in which a definite
line of avoidance about 1 mm. wide
occurred between the two colonies,
and the agar in this line became very
dark brown; this type of reaction is
illustrated in Figure 11, Plate I
(paired culture of Nos. 1 and 32) and
Figure 12, Plate I (paired culture
of Nos. 1 and 39). The second type
of reaction was similar to the first
with the exception that the agar be-
tween the colonies did not change
color; this is interpreted as being
a reaction in which the antagonism
between the two mycelia is not as
great as that shown by isolate pair-
ings exhibiting the first type of re-
action. In the third type the region
between the two colonies was not dis-
colored, was quite narrow, and one
of the two mycelia formed a solid
line of fluffy aerial hyphae imme-
diately adjacent to the line of de-
marcation. This third type of. reac-
tion occurred only in pairings involv-
ing Isolate No. 38, and it was always
this isolate which formed the line
of aerial hyphae. In practically all
pairings there was an enhancement
of color of both isolates. The types
of reactions (1, 2 or 8) occurring
with all possible combinations of two
isolates are indicated in Table III;
in this table “N’”’ indicates that no
line of demarcation was formed.

Appearance of five month old wood
block cultures.—Within each series
the cultures were remarkably uniform
in so far as color, amount of growth,
wood discoloration, and wood crack-
ing were concerned. That cultures of
different series differed widely from
each other is shown by the following
summation of the general appearance
of each series of cultures five months
after inoculation.

Isolate 1 (Blocks 1-20): Surface growth slight,
mycelium appressed, somewhat powdery in

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.

(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

pesserddy
-f£,esoTo {ao TTa4 [Ing

pesserdde-f£,o80TO
aAoTTos-G8 tT dang

esuop {moTToA-Ys FUMOIG

Near aa

RNOILVNOZ OTMILNIONOO

eTtyd esusp tact ted zo soyoged aoz wv UATA ‘ORTT A UZAOIF BT99TT AOA a

oTttd
dosp taoTTes 4qF Tag

pesserdde-sTex0TS fe, UA celia

ettd
desp {aot {sys tppey

pessordde
-f{esoTo ty4aom osrede Az0oa tao,tTos eTteg

pos serdde-f,esoto
fosreds {o4Tum

YIMOIF OTF44T
tpessordde-fL[e80T9

AOTTON OTeg ae
ettd esuep {morTek eTeg ils

UysIeU
ze AOTTOA YRTA ae

eTTd deep taot{os eTeg

asuep {mottos 4u#t1g | pesserddu-fjes0To fe Teg

AOTTOA-18 FUAOIG esieds ‘aoT{os-cowey

134 O4UT

Sup pels “ys pUAOIg

posserdde- fs, os80TO
*qu@tT Ar0A fosredg

esuep faoTTes 4OqeTIg

MOTTOA BUST Ig AOTTOL YyBtuACIg *AIeG fTesoTO ‘asreds ssavt| "|
pte | ROIPGY GIVICHNEALNI WOTNOONI HVEH
HLMOwD fO LLOVAVHO

pesseidde

TABLE II.—Growth characters of isolates of P. schweinitzii.

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes) .

appearance, white - brown where dry.
Blocks showing a dark pink discoloration.
Figure 1, Plate II.

Isolate 10 (Blocks 21-40): Surface growth
slight except for the occurrence of occasional
large clumps of bright yellow, fluffy hyphae.
Wood block discoloration darker than in

Series 1. Figure 2, Plate II.

Isolate 19 (Blocks 41-60); Surface growth
slight; mycelium appressed, pale cream-
colored; no clumping of hyphae. Wood

blocks with reddish-brown discoloration, and
almost every block exhibited one or more
large areas which had been eroded by the
fungus. Figure 3, Plate II.

Isolate 31 (Blocks 61-80) Surface growth for
the most part slight but there were occa-
sional fluffy masses of hyphae which were
almost white in color. Wood block dis-
coloration was reddish-brown and_ rather
evenly distributed. A few small eroded
areas, similar to those of the preceding
series, were found. Figure 1, Plate III.

Isolate 32 (Blocks 81-100): Mycelium bright
yellow, covering the surfaces of the blocks,
and forming both fluffy and compact masses
of hyphae; very little mycelial growth on
tops of blocks. Reddish discoloration un-
evenly distributed over the blocks. Figure

2 2, Plate III.

Isolate 38 (Blocks 101-120): Mycelium yellow
in color, sparsely and reticulately covering
the sides of the blocks but concentrating
in dense, compact, darker masses at the
tops. Block discoloration in the form of
reddish streaks. Figure 3, Plate III.

Isolate 39 (Blocks 121-140): Even growth over
surfaces of blocks; the few clumpings of
hyphae that occurred were small and were
fluffy rather than compact. Mycelium very

pale yellow. Reddish-orange discoloration
occurring irregularly through the wood
blocks. Figure 1, Plate IV.

Isolate 40 (Blocks 141-160): Mycelium bright
yellow, forming large fluffy masses which oc-
curred largely near the bases of the blocks.
Wood block discoloration was orange and
was distributed irregularly. Figure 2, Plate
IV.

Isolate 40e (Blocks 181-200): Surface growth
of bright yellow, fluffy hyphae. Growth
rather dense near the tops of the blocks.
Very dark, irregularly distributed, discolora-
tion of wood blocks. Figure 1, Plate V.

Isolate 40j (Blocks 161-180): Mycelium yellow,
showing a tendency to form small, rather
compact masses near the bases and along
the sides of the wood blocks. Discoloration
of blocks reddish, distributed irregularly.
Figure 3, Plate IV.

Production of fruiting bodies in
weod block cultures.—After the five
months observations were made, the
wood block cultures were observed at
intervals until the end of the incuba-
tion period (ten months) in order to
determine if fruiting bodies were pro-
duced, and, if so, if there were any
observable differences between isolates
with regard to this characteristic. Of
the ten isolates, five produced spore-
bearing structures on wood blocks.
Childs (1937) mentioned the produc-
tion of sporophores by P. schweinitzit
on agar medium, but this was not ob-
served in the present study.

The isolates varied widely in the
total number of spore-bearing struc-
tures they produced as well as in
lengths of time required for their pro-
duction. The series inoculated with
tsolate 40 produced the most fruit-
ing bodies (nineteen of the twenty
tubes contained such structures), a
total of fifty-four being produced;
Isolate 39 produced the next greatest

TABLE III.—Types of reactions obtained in paired cultures of isolates of

of P. schweinitzit.

(Type of reaction is indicated by number of ex-

planation in text). “N” indicates that there was no line of demarcation.

Now: il 10 19 jl

° oe

N

2,

2

: aL

32 : if
: 3

il

2,

2,

2

NNONNWNHENZ
NNHHwrwHZ
BNR WHIZ

32 38 39 40 40e 40j
N

5) N

1 3 N

2 3 il N

2 3 ak 2 N

2 3 IL 2 2 N

64

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

number, No. 40e was next, then No.
40j, and No. 32 produced the least.
Isolates 1, 10, 19, 31 and 88 produced
no fruiting bodies during the ten
months incubation period.

None of the fruiting bodies that
were produced in culture resembled
the normal sporophores of P schwein-
ited either in shape or size, but nearly
all of them produced spores in great
abundance. Isolates 32, 40, 40e and
40j produced fruiting bodies which
were largely of a cerebroid or lamell-
ate type with a tendency in some in-
stances toward a porose condition;
Isolate 39, however, produced fruit-
ing bodies which macroscopically were
clavaria-like in their appearance. Al-
though Nos. 40e and 40j, which were
monospore cultures from No. 40, did
not correlate with the parent isolate in
the number of fruiting bodies pro-
duced, they did produce structures of
the same type. Fruiting bodies varied
in diameter from 2 mm. to 2 cm.;
most of them being roughly hemi-
spherical except when produced on the
corner or edge of a wood block. Figure
2, Plate V and Figure 3, Plate VI,
show the type of fruiting bodies pro-
duced by Isolates 32, 40, 40e, and 40j;
Figure 3, Plate V, shows the clavaria-
like type produced by Isolate 39;
Figure 2, Plate VI, shows a normal
sporophore of P. schweinitzii. The or-
der of appearance and number of
spore-bearing structures produced by
each of the five isolates are shown in
Table IV.

Appearance of wood blocks after
ten months.—Cultures were discon-
tinued on October 12, 1937, after
having been maintained for a period
of ten months. The wood blosks were
removed from their tubes, wiped care-
fully with a moist cloth to remove all
surface mycelia and fruiting bodies,
and were then air-dried. The appear-

ance of the air-dry wood blocks were
as follows:

Blocks 1-20 (inoculated with No. 1): Dark,
reddish-brown discoloration in spots; cubical
cracking occurring in the discolored areas.
Discolored spots occurring largely near the
middle portions of the wood blocks, in
which regions the moisture content of the

wood was probably more nearly optimum
for the mycelium.
Blocks 21-40 (inoculated with No. 10): Brown

discoloration as in the first series, but the
discolored areas were greatly depressed and

cubical cracking was much more pro-
nounced.
Blocks 41-60 (inoculated with No. 19): Dis-

colored spots reddish-brown, small, and in
every instance confined to the middle por-
tions of the blocks. Cubical cracking was
very obvious; depression in discolored
areas was slight.

Blocks 61-80 (inoculated with No. 31): In-
fected blocks were only slightly darker than
uninfected ones. Eroded, dark red areas
very scarce and quite small. Cubical crack-
ing only in one or two instances and then
it was confined to the dark red, eroded
areas.

Blocks 81-100 (inoculated with No. 32): Brown
discolored areas occupying approximately the

middle two-thirds of each block. Shrinkage
slight; cubical cracking evident in every
block.

Blocks 101-120 (inoculated with No. 38): Slight
discoloration; cubical cracking apparent;
slight shrinkage at the middle regions of the
blocks.

Blocks 121-140 (inoculated with No. 39): Tan
discoloration; large eroded areas evident in
a few instances; shrinkage evident in the
lower portions of most blocks.

Blocks 141-160 (inoculated with No. 40): Mid-
dle two-thirds of all blocks greatly shrunk;
dark brown discoloration; cubical cracking
quite evident.

Blocks 161-180 (inoculated with No. 40j):
discoloration, occurring mostly in small de-
pressed areas where cubical cracking was
evident.

Blocks 181-200 (inoculated with No. 40e): Cen-
tral portions of blocks brown, slightly
shrunk; cubical cracking very obvious in
these areas.

From the above summation of the
appearance of the various wood block
series, it is evident that the isolates
behave somewhat differently when cul-
tured in this manner. In most blocks,
wherever destruction reached any con-
siderable degree, the cubical cracking,
so characteristic of attack by P.
schweinitzti, was quite evident. As

65

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitztt Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes) .

TABLE IV.—Fruiting body production in wood culture by isolates of

of P. schweinitzii.

No. of cultures
ing bodies

No. of cultures
with fruit ing bodies

No. of

fruiting bodies
No. of cultures
with fruiting bodies

No. of
fruiting bodies
| Hoe of cultures
_with fruiting bodies

No. of
_fruiting

bodies _|

No. of cultures
with fruiting

No. of

fruiting bodies

| No. of cultures
| With fruiting bodies

No. of
fruiting bodies

noted above, in some series the blocks
were greatly discolored, whereas in
others there was almost no discolora-
tion. Figure 1, Plate VI, shows a
group of attacked blocks selected to
show differences in amount of crack-
ing, degree of discoloration, and
ef shrinkage.

Weight losses from infected wood
blocks.—When the infected wood

bodies |

66

blocks were completely air-dry, each
was weighed and its percentage of
weight loss was calculated. Average
percentage weight losses were then
calculated for each series; these aver-
age percentage weight losses and their
probable errors are presented in
Table V. :

From the results shown in Table
V it may be seen that the isolates

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes)

‘aried considerably in their wood-de-
aying abilities when grown in pure
ulture on wood blocks. In a com-
varison of the percentage weight
osses caused by any two isolates, two
yrobable errors must be taken into
.ecount, and the probable error of the
lifference is always greater than
ither of the two probable errors in-
‘olved; however, the probable error
f the difference is so small in a num-
ver of instances that the difference
s a significant figure. Isolate No. 40
nay be said to be the most destruc-
ive and Isolate No. 19 the least de-
tructive of the isolate studied, with
rarious intergradations occurring be-
ween these two extremes. On the
Masis of percentage weight losses the
en isolates may be arranged accord-
ng to the following series: 40>40e>
107 >38>32>10>39>1>31>19.

ent lengths of time, and perhaps their
differences may be explained on this
basis; however, the possibility exists
that, even under natural condi-
tions, subsequent monospore genera-
tions may have a tendency to become
attenuated in degree of destructive-
ness.

In Table VI, the differences in per-
centage weight losses induced by the
various isolates are presented; the
table is so arranged that the difference
in percentage weight loss caused by
any two isolates may be found at the
intersections of the horizontal and
vertical rows of the isolates being
compared. Standard deviation was
calculated by means of the formula:

Se D.=Vv Probable error of ay-

by the
prob-

was calculated
P. B—2:6745_S. D.
-E=— Ny

erage
formula:

TABLE V.—Differences in percentage of weight losses from white pine
sapwood blocks induced by isolates of P. schweinitzii.

Isolate
No.

It has already been pointed out that
Isolate No. 40j varied more widely
than No. 40e from the parent isolate
(No. 40) both in culture on artificial
medium and on wood blocks as well as
in the number of fruiting bodies pro-
duced. It is interesting to note also
that both Nos. 40e and 40j were less
destructive than No. 40, and that No.
40j was less destructive than No. 40e.
Naturally, these mycelia have been
cultured on artificial media for differ-

Average
Block Percentage
Nos. Weight Losses
1— 20 9,.25+ (or-) 0.38
21— 40 12.994 (or-) 0.52
41— 60 7.29+ (or-) 0.38
61— 80 8.52-+-(or-) 0.33
81—100 13.30-+ (or-) 0.60
101—120 14.12+ (or-) 0.50
121—140 11.75+ (or-) 0.55
141—160 20.28-+ (or-) 1.28
161—180 14.424 (or-) 0.90
181—200 18.10+ (or-) 0.66
able error of difference by the

formula: P.E.(d)=\VP.E. 2 +P.E. 2

a

Statisticians are not in complete
agreement as to which should be
considered significant in analyses

of this type; however, many will agree
that the figure is probably a sig-
nificant one if the difference is three
times as great as the probable error
of the difference, and, if the difference
is six times as great as the probable
error of the difference, it is agreed

67

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes)

TABLE VI.—Differences in percentage of weight losses from white pine
sapwood blocks induced by isolates of P. schweinitzzi. The isolates,
on the basis of their destructivenessmay be arranged as follows:
40>40e>40j>-88>32 >10539 51531519.

2.69+

0.32¢

3.954

1.144

1 &>
a
e e
Dm IO

7.152

0.

78+
76

12.

5. 08+
1.754

8.82+
0.76
1.03

. 5.198
0.9%

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes)

that the difference is a certainty. In
Table VI, the differences which are
at least three times as great as their
probable error are underlined once;
those which are at least six times as
great as their probable error are un-
derlined twice. Out of a _ possible
forty-five comparisons, thirty-three
may be considered to represent sig-
nificant differences.

In a series of similar wood-decay
studies, Schmitz (1925) found simi-
lar variations among different isolates
of Fomes pinicola Fr. This author,
working with four isolates from
Douglas fir, western hemlock, west-
ern white pine, and white fir, found
differences in percentage weight
losses caused by the action of the dif-
ferent isolates on various woods; he
also reported differences in enzy-
matic activities of the different iso-
lates. Percival (1933), working with
mycelia of Fomes pint (Thore)
Lloyd, which had been isolated from
specific hosts, found no differences
such as those described by Schmitz
for F. pinicola or by the present
writer for P. schweinitzu. Percival
stated of P. pini: “The extent of
decay in spruce judged by loss in
specific gravity and crushing strength
showed as great variation when pro-
duced by cultures from the same host
as that produced by cultures from
different hosts. . .”’ On the basis of
Percival’s results it must be admitted
that physiological specialization with-
in the species need not necessarily
occur in all wood-destroying fungi.
This would scarcely be expected,
however, because in all groups of or-
ganisms there are some species in
which individuals occur which are
subject to variation over a rather
wide range in their activities, where-
as there are other species in which
the individuals are confined to more

narrow limits. It is to be expected
that further investiagtion of the ac-
tivities of

many wood-destroying
iungi will reveal species of both
types.

Growth rates of isolates in liquid
medium. Since the results of the
weight loss measurement experiment
showed definitely that differences be-
tween isolates do exist, the question
concerning the cause for such dif-
ferences naturally arises. The sim-
plest explanation might be that the
cifferences were due to differential
growth rates and for that reason an
attempt was made to measure the
growth rates of the different isolates
in liquid medium. Growth rates
(based upon weight of mycelium pro-
duced in five weeks) were determin-
ed; the average weights (based on
ten replicates) of the mycelial mats

produced by each isolate were as fol-
lows:

Isolate

.5 mg.
Isolate 10 128.5 mg.
Isolate 19 : 130.0 mg.
Isolate 31 153.0 mg.
Isolatewe2. 2 ees 118.0 mg.
AGH SVG os se ee ee eh 110.0 mg.
Isolaten 30) ee ee 169.5 mg.
isolates 0, =.= ees 104.0 mg.
isolates, 0 ewer oa sa 88.0 mg.
lig@lennge. diy) a jo 116.5 mg.

As may be seen from the above

figures, No. 40e produced the small-
est amount of mycelium (88 milli-
grams per culture), whereas No. 39
produced the greatest amount (169.5
milligrams per culture). This does
not correlate in any way with the
wood-destroying activity of the iso-
lates, since No. 19, not No. 40e, was
least destructive to wood blocks, and
No. 40, not No. 39 caused the great-
est destruction. This lack of corre-
lation is well-illustrated in Text Fig-
ure 1.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Ten different isolates of Polyporus

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Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes)
Soescsee
e @

WATTOOAW FO SUBLETTTIN

OF

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og+ o/
o2z/+ Sy
09/+ 02

SSOT QUSFSR SIeqQucor0g

70

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

schweinitew Fr., which were derived
from different sources and were
shown to differ in color, gross co-
lonial appearance, and rate of spread
on agar medium, were tested in order
to determine their growth rates in
liquid medium and also to determine
their relative capacities for destruc-
tion of white pine sapwood. This de-

structive capacity was judged by
weight loss of inoculated wood
blocks. From these studies the fol-

lowing conclusions may be drawn:

1. Isolates vary as widely from
each other in appearance in
wood-block culture as they do
upon artificial medium.

2. Isolates of this species differ
in fruiting body production
not only as to number and
rate of production, but also
as to form. Of the ten iso-
lates examined only five pro-
duced fruiting bodies’ on
wood-blocks during a _ ten
month incubation period. Iso-
late No. 89 produced struc-
tures which were clavaria-
like in appearance; the other
four produced cerebroid or
lameilate fruiting bodies. The
number of fruiting bodies
(per twenty cultures) de-
veloped by such isolate was
as follows: No. 40-54, No.
39-53, No. 40e-46, No. 40j-25,

. Further

lates varied widely. Average
percentage weight losses from
twenty replicate blocks varied
from 7.29+(or-)0.88 per cent
in wood blocks inocolated with
Isolate 19 to 20.26+ (or-) 1.23
per cent in blocks inoculated
with Isolate 40. With regard to
Isolate 40 and the two mon-
ospore generations derived
from it, it is obvious that the
destructive capacity of No.
40>No. 40e>Ne. 40j. Under
the conditions of the experi-
ment, subsequent monospore
generations show a tendency
to become attenuated in de-
gree of destructiveness.
evidence as to the
existence of differences be-
tween the ten isolates is ob-
tained by comparing the dif-
ferences in weight losses in-
duced by the isolates. In such
a comparison, there exist
forty-five possible combina-
tions using two isolates for
each; of these forty-five pos-
sibilities, thirty-three yielded
differences, which on the ba-
sis of standard statistical
methods may be considered
significant.

. Studies made on the growth

rates of isolates show clearly
that there is no correlation
between capacity for destruc-
tion of wood and growth in
liquid medium.

and No. 32-2. It should be
noted that No. 40 produced
a greater number than No.
40e (fifth monosporous gen-
eration from No. 40), and
that No. 40e in turn pro-
duced a greater a greater
number than No. 40j (tenth
monosporous generation from
No. 40). These data seem to
indicate the loss of capacity
for fruiting body production
in succeeding monospore gen-
erations; however, this point
will need further investiga-
tion before a definite state-
ment may be made.

. When the destructive capac-
ity of the isolates on white
pine sapwood was measured
it was again found that iso-

The general conclusion which may
be drawn from the above studies is
in agreement with the opinion of
Childs (1937) who concluded that
Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. is a spe-
cies composed of many widely dif-
fering individuals. Subjection of the
various individuals to critical bio-
chemical studies would undoubtedly
reveal still further differences.

LITERATURE CITED
Boyce, J. s- 192050 Lhe dry rot of
incense cedar. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 871: 1-58.
Childs, T. W. 1987. Variability of

Polyporus’ schweinitzii culture.
Phytopath. 27: 29-50.
Dietel, P. 1889. War~en die Rost-

(a

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

pilze in fruheren Zeitan plurivor?
Bot. Centralbl. 79: 81-118.

Eriksson, J. 1894. Ueber die Spe-
cialisierung des Parasitimus bei
den Getreiderostpilzen. Ber.
Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 12: 292-331.

— 1902. Ueber die
Specialisierung des Getreide-
schwartzrostes in Schwenden un
anderen Landen. Centralbl. Bakt.
II, 9:654-658.

Hartig, R. 1900. Lehrbuch der
Pflanzenkrankheiten. Dritte vollig
neu bearbeitete Auflag des Lehr-
buch de Baumkrankhe'ten. Ju-
lius Springer, Berlin.

Hubert, E. E. 1931. An outline of
forest pathology. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York.

Hungerford, C. W. and C. E. Owens.
1923. Specialized varieties of Puc-
cinia glumarum and hosts for va-
riety tritici. Jour. Agr. Res. 25:
363-401.

Mounce, I. 1929.

Studies in forest

pathology. II. The biology of
Fomes pinicola (Sw.) Cooke, Can-
ada Dept. Agr. Bull. (n. s.) III.

Percival, W. C. 19383. A contribution
to the biology of Fomes pini
(Thore) Lloyd [Trametes pini
(Thor) Fries]. Bull. N. Y. State
Coll. Forestry Tech. Bull. No. 40.

Rhoads, A. S. 1921. Some new or
little known hosts for wood-de-
stroying fungi. 8. Phytopath. 11:
Bos

Schmitz, H. 1925. Studies in wood
decay. V. Physiological speciali-
zation in Fomes pinicolo. Fr. Amer.
Jour. Bot. 12: 1638-177.

Schrenk, H. von. 1900. Some dis-
eases of New England conifers: a
preliminary report. U. S. Dept.
Agr., Div. of Vegetable Physiol.
and Path. Bull. 25.

Stakman, E. C. 1914. A study in
cereal rusts; physiological races.
Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull: 138:
1-56.

72

PLATE !

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Culture of Isolate 1, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 2. Culture of Isolate 10, two weeks after inoculation
tig. 3. Culture of Isolate 19, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 4. Culture of Isolate 31, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 5. Culture of Isolate 32, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 6. Culture of Isolate 38, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 7. Culture of Isolate 39, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 8, Culture of Isolate 40, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 9. Culture of Isolate 40e, two weeks after inoculation
Fig. 10. Culture of Isolate 40j, two weeks after inoculation
1

Paired culture of Isolates 1 and 32 showing line of demarcation.
Fig. 12. Paired culture of Isolates 1 and 39 showing line of demarcation.

9)
ne
ow
=

73

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweimtzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

PLATE Il

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 1. (Magnification x 2/3).
Fig. 2. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 10. (Magnification x 2/3).
Fig. 8. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 19. (Magnification x 2/3).

74

Physiological Variation m Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

PLATE III

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.
Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 31. (x 2/8).

Fig. 2. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 32. (x 2/38).
Fig. 3. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 38. (x 2/3).

75

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzi Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

PLATE IV

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 39. (x 2/8).
Fig. 2. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 40. (x 2/3).
Fig. 8. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 40j. (x 2/8).

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

PLATE V

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.
Fig. 1. Five month old wood block culture of Isolate 40e. (x 2/3).
Fig. 2. Fruiting body of the type developed by Isolates 32, 40, 40e and 40j in wood block
culture. (x 4).
Fig. 3. Clavaria-like fruiting body developed by Isolate 39 in wood block culture. (x Zao)

77

Physiological Variation in Isolates of Polyporus schweinitzu Fr.
(Fungi; Basidiomycetes).

PLATE VI

:
/
:
=
%

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. White pine sapwood blocks showing destruction caused by P. schweinitzii, block at
extreme left uninfected. (x 1).

Fig. 2. Normal sporophore of P. schweinitzii growing on needle-duff of forest floor. (x 1/2).

Fig. 3. Fruiting bodies of the type developed by Isolates 32, 40, 40e and 40j in wood block
culture. (x 2).

POLLINATION IN ASCLEPIAS

H. H. LAFUZE AND V. A. GREULACH
Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College,
Richmond, Ky.

and

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station,
Texas.

Introduction parts. Distinction was drawn _ be-

Possible commercial uses of milk- tween milkweed visiting insects

week (2, 17) suggest the value of
knowing how milkweeds propagate.
The production of fruits and seeds
in angiosperms usually depends on
the process of pollination. That this
is accomplished only by insects in
milkweeds has long been assumed but
never clearly demonstrated.

In the Asclepiadaceae are found
species in which the pollen grains
are not separate as in other families
but are bound into waxy masses or
pollinia. In the formation of a pol-
linium pollen masses from two
neighboring stamens become joined
by stalks and a disc-shaped corpuscu-
lum. Between the pollinia is a slit
which is open from below and leads
upward to a point near the corpuscu-
lum. When the insect alights on a
flower its legs slip down into the
flower and as the leg is moved a
hair, claw or other part is caught in
the slit below the corpusculum. As
the insect leaves the corpusculum the
two attached pollinia are pulled out
of the flower. The pollinia are thus
carried to other flowers in the process
of pollination.

The problem of milkweed pollina-
tion seems to have been approached
indirectly by several investigators (3-
16) who reported trapping different
kinds of insects in milkweed flowers.
Those insects usually included in
these reports were of the orders Hy-
menoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera. In most cases, the in-
sects were examined to determine if
pollinia were carried on their leg

carrying pollinia and those not carry-
ing pollinia or corpuscula.

The manner in which pollinia are
removed from one flower and intro-
duced into another has been ob-
served (14). Within a few seconds
after removal of the pollinia and cor-
pusculum from a flower the stalks
supporting the pollinia were reported
to twist in such a way as to bring
the pollinia into a new plane, thus
enabling them to be more easily in-
troduced through the corpuscular
slit into the stigmatic chamber of the
next flower. Knuth (8) stated that
flowers on a milkweed plant are self-
sterile and an anonymous author (1)
commented without scientific evi-
dence that syriaca Was
never self-pollinating. Several -bot-
anists have expressed opinions to one
of the authors that the elaborate ap-
paratus of the milkweed flower may
have been greatly overrated and that
it may be worthless, or even a handi-
cap (1). The purpose of this study
was to determine if milkweeds may
pollinate themselves without the aid
of insects.

Asclepias

Observations

General observations showed that
on twenty purple inflorescences of
Asclepias syriaca there was an aver-
age of 90.6 flowers per inflorescence
as compared with Nordham’s (11)
count of 60 for purple flowers and 95
for white flowers. The average num-
ber of fruits initiating from these in-
florescences was 7.8 pair or 8.6 per-
cent of the number of flowers in an

79

Pollination In Asclepias

inflorescence. As the fruits mature,
however, all but a few die. On ten
plants observed there was an aver-
age of five inflorescences per plant
and only three, or six percent of the
53 inflorescences, failed to develop
fruit. These figures suggest a higher
percentage of fruit development in
milkweed than has been generally
recognized.

The pollinia on the legs of several
insects were examined to determine
their relative position following re-
moval from the flower. The pollen
masses were found to be oriented
face to face, even after a period of
several days, which appears to con-
tradict the earlier report (14) that
the pollinia stalks twist soon after
being removed from the flower. Bees
were observed to be by far the most
common pollinating agent—every
bee trapped in the neighborhood
having pollinia or corpuscula on its
legs.

To study the role of insects in
pollination, inflorescences were cov-
ered with bags to exclude the insects.
At first paper bags were used but the
flowers appeared to mature abnor-
mally in these cases. In later experi-
ments when light weight muslin bags
were used the flowers developed nor-
mally and the visitation of insects
to the flowers was prevented. Ex-
treme care was taken to make cer-
tain no flowers had been partially
opened and that the inflorescence did
not conceal any hidden insects at the
time of bagging. The bagged in-
floresences were inspected after one
week when the flowers had opened
and again two weeks later to deter-
mine if fruit had set. In most cases,
the bags were allowed to remain in
place until the fruits on uncovered
plants had fully developed. All bags
were inspected for holes and their
contents were examined for bodies or

80

parts of insects which may have
penetrated the bags.

In July, 19389, at Columbus, Ohio,
28 inflorescen:es of Asclepias syriaca
covered with paper bags failed to set
fruit. The flowers within the bags
were observed to be pale and some-
what ‘‘cooked’’ looking.

In June, 1943, near Richmond,
Ky., 48 inflorescences of Asclepias
syriaca were bagged with paper and
muslin bags. Twelve of these ini-
tiated fruit but in each case the bag
had been penetrated by an insect
(usually a bee) and parts of the in-
sects were found within the bag. It
thus appeared that insect pollination
had occurred. The fruit, however,
aborted early and never matured,
only attaining a length of one and
one-quarter inches. The inflorescence
stalk seemed uninjured at the con-
clusion of the experiment and the
flowers appeared normal one week
after bagging. No explanation for
the failure of continued development
following pollination was evident.
However, it is possible that in milk-
weed any fruit initiated as the re-
sult of self-fertilization may fail to
mature due to self-sterility. The re-
maining 36 inflorescences did not in-
itiate fruit of any kind. Ten mature
inflorescences on the same plants ex-
posed to insects before bagging de-
veloped normally.

Fifty-five inflorescences of As-
clepias purpurescens were bagged in
muslin near Richmond, Ky., in June,
1944. None of these initiated fruit.
The peduncles of 28 of these remain-
ed firm and green, while the remain-
ing 27 dried up and turned brown as
if injured.

These observations and _ experi-
ments indicate that pollination by in-
sects is essential for the normal de-
velopment of milkweed fruit.

Literature Cited
1. Anon. 1917. The too-perfect

Pollination In

milkweed. Jour.
460-463.

. Beckett, R- R: and Stitt, R. S.
1935. The desert milkweed.
(Asclepias subalata) as a pos-
sible source of rubber. USDA
Tech. Bull. No. 472. 20 pp.

. Brown, W. 18382. On the organs
and mode of fecundation in
Orchidaceae and Asclepiadeae.

Heredity 8:

Mlora 15: 353-366, 378-382,
673-676.
mCoryvneel. eH 1883. On) the

structure and mode of fertiliza-
tion of the flower Asclepias cor-
nuti Decne. Trans. Lin. Soc.,
Bot. Ser. II, vol. 2, part 8, 186-
187.

. Delpino, F. 1865. Relazione sull
apparecchio della fecondazione
nelle Asclepiadeae, etc. Torino.
. Harlow, W. M. 1930. The pinch-
trap flowers in milkweeds. Am.
Bee Jour. 70: 432.

. Hildebrand, F. 1866. Ueber die
Befruchtung von Asclepias cor-
nuti Dec. Bot. Zeit. 24: 376.

. Knuth, P. 1906. Handbook of
flower pollination. 3 vols. Ox-
ford Press.

We

late

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

fife

Asclepias

Legget, W. H. 1872. Fertiliza-
tion of Asclepias. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club. 3: 34.

. Muller, Hermann. 1883. The
fertilization of flowers. Mac-
millan.

Nordholm, L. M. 1926. The
common milkweed. Am. Bee.
Jour. 66: 597.

Payson, Edwin. 1916. The pol-

lination of Asclepias cryotoce-
ras. Bot. Gaz. 61: 72-74.

Potts, Ed. 1878 and 1879. Sen-
sitive organs in Asclepias. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia,
30:293-296, and 31: 205-207.
Robertson, C. 1886. Notes on
the mode of pollination of As-
clepias. Bot. Gaz. 11: 262-269.
Robertson, C. 1918. Pollination

of Asclepias cryptoceras. Bot.
Gaz, 66: 177:

Robertson, C. 1928. Flowers
and insects. Sci. Press.
Whiting, A. G. 1948. A sum-
mary of literature on milk-
weeds (Asclepias spp.) and
their utilization. USDA _ Bib-

liog. Bull. No. 2.

A COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF
CONTROLLED GRAIN ALCOHOL
PRODUCTION METHODS

A. I. ZARow:

GENERAL DISTILLERS CORPORATION OF KENTUCKY

LOUISVILLE 6. KENTUCKY

Scientific control of production de-
pends upon the application of rapid,
reliablez, and valid: methods of an-
alyses of variables and their effect
upon unit operations.

The time requirements of a con-
trol method should not exceed the
time of the unit operation being con-
trolled.

The distilling industry is undergo-
ing an evolutionary change of pro-
duction methods—from an art to a
science. The former is a result of
post-mortem analyses, utilizing un-
reliable and invalid control methods.

It is the purpose of this paper to
identify rapid, reliable, and valid
methods suitable for distillery con-
trol.

Starch Determination

Corn, rye, milo, wheat, and malt
are the chief sources of starch for
grain alcohol productien. The con-
version of grain starch to ethyl alco-
hol is nearly quantitative; therefore,

iThe writer wishes to thank Dr. E. H.
Scofield, Director of Research & Control of
Jos. E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., for valuable
guidance and W. R. Gonevia, Superintendent
of Fleischmann Distilleries, for his suggestions.

eReliability indicates a high degree of corre-
lation between two sets of independent results
obtained under theoretical identical conditions.

3Validity is the correlation between opera-
tional data and the criterion which serves as the
point of departure.

aFermentation Efficiency equals Actual Proof

gallons/56++ of grain over Theoretical Proof
gallons/56++ of grain.
Theoretical grain

Proof gallons/56+} of
equals % starch x 1.725.

5S. Em equals
equals © over N-1l.
S. Em equals 2.3 ", or 95% of the cases con-
sidered
™ equals Standard deviation
N equals Number of cases
N-l equals Number of cases less than 25

Standard error of the mean

a theoretical amount of alcohol can
be calculated from the known amount
of starch. The amount of starch in
the grain varies with the grades and
type of grain, and since distilleries
use varlous grades and types of
grain, the only method for the de-
termination of fermentation effi-
ciency, anticipated yield, and econo-
ical operations, is based on starch
determination. The grain is processed
in the following manner: (A) The
grain is ground on roller, hammer,
or attrition mills, (B) To the
ground grain, water and _ stillage
(screened residue from distillation)
are added, and this mixture is cook-
ed either under pressure or atmos-
pheric conditions. (C) The cooked
mixture is cooled to 148-150°F and
then converted to sugar (primary
conversion) by the addition of either
a water slurry of ground malt or
dried ground malt that contains
amylases. (D) The resulting sugar
from the initial, converted starch plus
residual starch and various intermed-
iate starch-sugar molecules is cooled
to 70-86°F and fermented to ethyl
alcohol and by-products by the addi-
tion of yeast.

The polarimetric method for the
determination of fermentable starch
in grain is more rapid and reliable,
and contains fewer sources for errors
than other methods, such as numer-
ous transfers of material, tempera-
ture control, and the skill of the
analyst. Seagram’s results (1) on
wheat when using cold hydrochloric
acid for the solubilization of starch
previously washed with ether, alco-

82

A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production
Methods

hol, and water, produced results
which had a S. Em’ of 0.28. The
amount of starch in the wheat deter-
mined by the polarimetric method
and the ASSOCIATION OFFICIAL
AGRICULTURAL CHEMIST method
was correlated with fermentation ef-
ficiencies. The actual proof gallons
per 56 lb. bushel of grain was ob-
tained by laboratory fermentations.

Canadian method (2, 2a), which uses
CaCl’ in place of HCl has therefore
been tentatively accepted by the A.
O. A. C. as the method of choice.
Based on the correlation obtained be-
tween the amount of starch in grain
and fermentation efficiency using the
A. O. A. C. method minus pentosans,
the validity of the polarimetric
method without a factor is not ef-

TABLE 1—FERMENTATION EFFICIENCIES
APPARENT STARCH.

METHOD
Ae Os A. C. (Diastase-HCl)

#09 BO ps

Polarimetric (No Factor)
M equals 2.3 plus minus.

The wheat starch was determined by
pies A: ©: A. C. (Diastase—HCl)
(10) and Polarimetric methods. The
results are illustrated in Table I.

Metzner’s work (3b) indicates the
pentosans in grain, especially in
wheat, give high results in starch de-
terminations by the A. O. A. C. meth-
od, and thus low fermentation effi-
ciency.

In order to correct for the amount
of pentosans, the pentosans were de-
termined by the A. O. A. C. method,
and the resulting amount was sub-
tracted from the total starch deter-
mined by the A. O. A. C. method.
Often a factor is used to convert
starch equivalents from the _ polari-
metric method to the A. O. A. C.
method. The angle of rotation used
is 200.

The A. O. A. C. method measures
starch and other material such as
pentosans and hemicelluloses (3, 3a).
Methods 2 or 3 in Table I appear
more reasonable. This is based on
95 percent conversion of starch to re-
ducing sugar, and 2-3 percent sugar
utilization for yeast growth, and 2-
8 percent converted to non-ferment-
able material such as dextrins. How-

A. O. A. C. (Diastase-HCl minus Pentosans) 63

(DRY *FERMENTATION
BASIS) EFFICIENCIES
69 83.8— 87.6
91.6— 95.9

59.5 90.9—100.4

ever, cold concentrated hydrochloric
acid may cause partial hydolysis of
hemicelluloses and pentosans. The
fected. In addition the polarimetric
method is more rapid, reliable, and
practical than the colorimetric (4),
Rask (5), or the A. O. A. C. (diastase
HCl) method (10).
Percent Conversion of Mash—
Maltose-Dextrin Ratio

The conversion of starch to fer-
mentable sugar is a function of the
following factors: (A) conversion
temperature; (B) conversion power
of malt; (C) holding time; (D) pH.
Thus the percent conversion of starch
to sugar reveals whether variables
that govern the conversion of starch
are within the limits of good opera-
tions, and if not, what variable or
combination of variables are causing
low results,

The procedure consists of the fol-
lowing steps: (A) The converted
grain solution is filtered; (B) a mea-
sured amount of the filtrate is placed
into a flask containing (sp. gr. 1.125)
hydrochloric acid and refluxed 2 1-2
hours. (C) the refluxed solution is
cooled and neutralized with sodium
hydroxide to pH 7; (D) The neutral-

83

A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production
Methods

ized solution is made up to a known
volume which is used to titrate a
known amount of standard Fehling’s
solution according to the Lane-Eynon
procedure (10)—this result indicates
the total possible amount of reducing
sugar in the cooked grain solution.
The initial or primary amount of
sugar in the grain cook is determined
by titrating a measured amount of
standard Fehling’s solution before
acid hydolysis.

%Conversion equals initial reducing sugar as
glucose x 100% over total reducing sugar as

Slucose.
A modification of the above meth-

od decreases the total time from
three hours to one hour. The relia-
bility is not altered. This is accomp-
lished by the use of concentrated in-
stead of (sp. gr. 1.125) hydrochloric
acid for the hydrolysis of the dex-
trins. As a result, the reflux time is
reduced from two and one half hours
to one-half hour. The effect of the
concentrated acid on the pentosan or
hemicelluloses is minimized by the
partial insolubility of these sub-
stances.
Amlyase

The initial conversion of the grain
starch to reducing sugar by the ad-
dition of ground malt or a malt
slurry containing the amylases is ap-
proximately 70-85%; therefore, there
is 10-25% starch present at the
start of fermentation, and this re-
sidual starch must be converted to
sugar, to large extent, by the residual
amylase in malt for the production of
the maximum amount of alcohol.
Thus, the amount of active amylases
present in the fermenter is essential.
The amount of active residual amyl-
ase present during fermentation is a
function of pH, alcohol concentra-
tion, concentration of sugar, and
temperature.

The determination of amylase in

grain alcohol fermentation mash can
be completed within six minutes, and
with a minimum of equipment;
whereas, the modified Wohlgemuth
method (7) takes one and one-half
hours and uses comparatively large,
precision equipment. In addition, the
latter method has many possible
sources of errors such as prepara-
tion of the starch solution and water
bath temperature control.

The test for residual amylase ac-
tivity is conducted by the addition of
tincture of guaiac (7a) to 5 milli-
liters of filtered mash. A blue colored
compound is formed. The retention
and extinction point of this color ap-
pears to be a function of the con-
centration of the amylase in the
mash.

The method appears specific for
amylase. Starch, protein hydroly-
zates, inorganic or organic nitrogen,
and glucose do not interfere with the
test; ethyl alcohol tends to dissolve
the precipitate but does not influence
the formation and intensity of color
other than the tolerance of alcohol
on amylase. The reliability of this
determination is signified by a S. Em
equal 0.50 minute. The validity of
this method is based on the correla-
tion of the guaiac time of malt and
the amount of reducing sugar formed
trom starch by the addition of var-
ious alcoholic malt slurries to 2%
starch solution. It appears’ that
guaiac time of four minutes signifies
that there is sufficient amylase to
convert 5-10% starch, 10 minutes—
25% starch, and 15 minutes—35%
starch, or in Wohlgemuth units 110-
330 is equivalent 4-8 minutes guaiac
time.

Contamination Determination

For maximum alcohol production,
milling, cooking, conversion, and fer-
mentation operations must conform —

84

A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production
Methods

to a high level of sanitary practices.
If contaminants are present in the
plant mash the amount of alcohol
produced will be low. These con-
taminants will utilize the sugars and
starch for the production of products
other than ethyl alcohol. Therefore,
in the control of production it is es-
sential that the amount of contam-
ination (and the level of contamina-
* tion) in a plant be known.

An acid rise-bacteria count-yield
curve, (Figure 1) can be established
in each distillery. This curve will

50] Figure at
|
44 3

Py
48]| ¥

&
4 ¥

SS
sas
44
4.23
4b

fe)
4...

reveal immediately that amount of
contamination in the plant. The
method of approach is illustrated in
Figure 2. In this second figure, each
total acid, from the set time (the
time when a fermenter containing
yeast is filled to a designated vol-
ume) to the time the fermenter is
ready for distillation has a corres-
ponding increase at x hours after

set. Therefore, once the acid rise
at x hours is known, the correspond-
ing acid rise at the time the ferment-
er is distilled can be determined from
the chart, figure 2.

The media used for these studies
were thioglycollate and _ tryptone,
both of which were prepared by
Difco. Besides producing rapid re-
sults, the method eliminates a great
deal of time in preparation of ma-
terial for the bacteriological test.
However, any specific part of the
system which contains bacteria that

Reid Rise ~ Bacteria Cout - Yield Cuaeve
Legend

Upper Vint

Lowe. eee Upper fit

Lowgr lest

Mean Ling

: O
ileacee rent Treranse

Fa)
(c.<. 01% NaGt)

act as a seed can only be found by
the use of bacteriological media.
Bacteria counts were determined by
the use of the Halverson and Zieg-
ler’s (11) Probability table.
Crude Fiber

The residue from alcohol distilla-
tion is further processed for the
production of animal feed. This pro-
cess produces two types of feed (A)

85

A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production
. Methods

light or dark dried grain, and (B)
distillers’ solubles. Light grain is pro-
duced by screening the alcohol-free
distillation residue; the coarse ma-
terial which is retained on the screen
is pressed, and finally dried to 8-10%
moisture in a rotary drier. If syrup
is added to this material before it is
fed to a rotary drier, the product is
known as dark dried grain. The
syrup is produced by evaporating to a
solids content of 25-30%, the fluid
portion of the alcohol-free distilla-
tion residue in multiple effect evapor-
ators. In production of distillers’ sol-
ubles this syrup is dried on drum
dryers. Distillers’ solubles is a high
nutritive animal feed, and since it
is usually used in various mixed
feeds, its chemical composition (ni-
trogen, fats, fibers, mineral salts, and
vitamins) is important. In the mar-
keting of by-products grain residues
a statement of moisture, protein, fat,
and fiber is required. Since the de-
termination of the crude fiber con-
tent of grain products requires more
time than any other analyses it is
essential that a rapid, reliable, and
valid method for determining the
amount of crude fiber be employed.

Whitehouse’s (8) method for the
determination of crude fiber in dried
grain is twice as rapid as the A. O. A.
C. method. The inherent errors are
reduced by the decrease in the num-
ber of transfers of the material. The
above determination had a S. Em
equal 0.03 compared to 0.08 for the
A. O. A. C. procedure (10). There-
fore, the distribution of the data is
significantly greater in case of the
A. O. A. C. method as compared to
the Whitehouse’s procedure.

The new method eliminates sep-
arate digestions with caustic and
acid, and instead uses one digestion
with a mixture of glacial acetic, ni-

tric, and trichloracetic. The White-
house method markedly accelerates
filtration time after treatment com-
pared to extended periods with the
A. O. A. C. procedure.

Protein Determination

The determination of the amount
of protein in grain aids in establish-
ing the cooking procedure, as pro-
teins indirectly effect the percentage
starch converted to sugar (9); also,
the protein content of dried grain
and dried solubles (products of alco-
bol-free residue after distillation) is
required for marketing.

The method for determining the
amount of protein in grain, dried
grain, and solubles developed by
Whitehouse (6) can be completed
within an hour and has a reliablity of
S. Em equal 0.04 compared to a
minimum of 38 hours and S. Em.
equal 0.12 for the A. O. A. C. (10)
method. The Whitehouse method uses
H202, and P205 as oxidizing agents,
HgO as catalyst, and K2S04 to ele-
vate the boiling point of the mixture.
Based on values obtained with the
A. O. A. C. method the validity is
not affected by the use of the above
reagents,

Discussion

The application of these methods
in distilleries has aided to a great
extent in producing high efficiencies,
economical operations, and simultan-
eously, uniformity and quality of
product. These fundamental objec-
tives can be realized by the estab-
lishment of operational limits based
on reliable and valid analytical meth-
ods. All phases of operations can be
measured. Reliable and valid meth-
ods correlated with normal operations
will produce economical operations,
uniformity and quality of product.
Normal operations are defined as

86

A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Alcohol Production
Methods

x hours

Time
phases of productions of constant
variability within fixed limits.

The methods discussed above all
meet the time requirements for con-
trolled operations; in addition neither
skilled technicians nor _ elaborate
equipment is necessary; in other
words, these methods give the pro-
duction man the tools essential for
the attainment of the principles men-
tioned here.

References

1. Seagram’s Research and Control
Dept. 1944 Unpublished.

2. Hopkins, C. 1935. Polarimetric de-
termination of starch. Canad. J.
Res. 11: 757-758.

2a. Etheredge, M. P. 1944. Report
on the Determination of Starch in
Raw and Baked Cereals. J. Assoc.
Off. Agr. Chem. 29: 404-412.

3. Baker, J. D:, Parker, H. K.. and
Mize, M. D. 1943. Pentosans of
Wheat Flour. Cereal Chem. 20:
267-280.

(Hours)

Figucr sf ees Acid Rise Curve

#1

3a. Mirils, D. I., Gorokhlolinskaya, U.
S. 19385. Mechanisms of the Step-
wise Hydrolysis in Prepartion of
Furfural from Substances contain-
ing Pentosans. J. Chem. Ind.
(Moscow) 12: 156 through C. A.
29: 5838.

3b. Vernon, C. C. and Metzner, M. A.
1941. The determination of fur-
furalyielding substances and fer-
mentable carbohydrates in grain.
Cereal Chem. 18: 572-584.

4. Simeral, J. E. and Browning, B. L.
1939. Photocolorimetric Determin-
ation of Starch, Anal. Ed. 11: 121.

5. Rash, O. S. 1929. Rapid Method
for the Determination of Starch.
J. Assoc. Agri. Chem. 10: 108-120.

6. Whitehouse, K. Unpublished.

7. Wohlgemuth, J. 1908. A new
Method for the Quantitative De-
termination of Amylolytic Fer-
ment. Biochem. Z. 9: 1-9.

Ta. Wender, 1903. Diastase Test.

87

A Comprehensive Survey of Controlled Grain Aleohol Production
Methods

Apoth. Ztg. 471 through Merck In- 10. A. O. A. C. Official and Tentative
dex. Methods of the Association of Of-
8. Whitehouse, K., Zarow, A. I., Shay: ficial Agricultural Chemists. Wash-
H.,1945. A Rapid Method for the ington, D. €. 1940, 1945.
Determinating Crude Fiber in Dis- 11. Halverson, H. O. and Ziegler, N.

tillers Dried Grain. J. Assoc. Agr. R. 1934. Quantitative Bacteriol-
Chem. 29: 147. ogy, Burgess Publishing Co., Min-
9. Gortner, R. A. and Hamalainen, C. neapolis.

1941. Protein films and the Sus- 12. Lindquist, E. F. ‘‘Course in Sta-
ceptibility of Raw Starch to Dia- tistics” 1942. Houghton Mifflin Co.
static attack. Cereal Chem. 17:

378.

GND Ca

88

A Planned Economy For Kentucky’s Waters*

W. R. ALLEN
Department of Zoology

University of Kentucky
Lexington

If all Kentucky’s rainfall should
happen to be precipitated in an in-
stant, it might be considered her
greatest crop, standing, as it would,
some forty inches deep over lands,
rooftops and roads. If it should fall
in the form of snow, it would average
more than thirty feet upon field, forest
and town. This crop is one produced
without labor, without expenditure
for seed, rentals, or overhead of any
kind. It falls almost equally upon
all of the lands of the state, without
regard to fertility or other variable.
The total production of some 120 bil-
lion tons at the domestic rate of 8.4
cents per ton, delivered at the kitchen
sink, would amount to more than ten
billion dollars. At this so-called
cheap rate Kentucky’s rainfall should
pay off the national debt within the
lifetime of many persons here present.

The above calculations are without
value except to emphasize the magni-
tude of a natural resource, which to-
gether with the sunshine and air,
claim little attention. Possibly no po-
litical division of the United States
gives less consideration to water-sup-
ply and what might be done about it.

Ideally this resource should be
evenly distributed at perhaps weekly
intervals throughout the year, just
enough to mature crops and replenish
ground-water, with none left. over.
But actually it is uneven as between
one year and another, one season and
another, and between the weeks of
the same season. The range is be-
tween total failure and great excess
at any time of the year. Of course
mankind can do nothing about it—or

*Presented before the annual meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science, April, 1947.

can we? The tradition is now and
has always been THAT MAN IS
HELPLESS IN THE HANDS OF A
RELENTLESS FATE—that neither
the individual nor the State may
hope to control so great a force of
Nature. We either believe that or
behave as though we do. In some of
the more level lands of the prairie
states, the farm owner has more or
less successfully controlled the ex-
cess rainfall through artificial sub-
surface drainage and systems of pub-
lic ditches. But in Kentucky most of
the land lies on a decided slope and
is closely underlain by its parent
rock, so drain-tile is no answer to
excessive rainfall here. The more
than one-hundred billion tons of water
therefore dashes precipitously toward
the streams, except as restrained by
the porosity of the soil, the rock, and
the root-systems of vegetation.

The fate of the cargo of soil swept
down into the streams has begun but
recently to be a matter of general pub-
lic coneern, and one about which it
was believed that united action might
be taken. Yet to this moment little
planning has related directly to the
water itself, or otherwise than as the
agent of erosion.

From the point of view of those
citizens whose theory of government
is strongly on the side of state-
sovereignty and state responsibility,
it may appear unfortunate that Ken-
tucky has done so little on her own
initiative. She has awaited the na-
tion-wide program of conservation so
belatedly handed down to her in re-
cent years from higher up. Being the
oldest of the mid-western states, she
has suffered from this neglect longer

89

A Planned Economy For Kentucky’s Waters

than most of her neighbor-states. Not
only that, but Kentucky has failed to
this moment to assume the leading
part in her own restoration. As the
situation may be summarized today,
Kentucky is playing only the support-
ing role in the soil and forest con-
servation, while neither the federal
nor state government is attacking the
problems of water-control and aquatic
resources through any equitable and
all-round plan.

In the early history of the state,
while there was sufficient forested
land to restrain the turbulence of
rainfall on hillsides, streamflow was
sufficiently constant to contribute to
the industry of many communities,
especially in transportation and in
the operation of flour-mills. Records
well attest their further usefulness
to the inhabitants in the matters of
food and water-supply. Since the
passing of the primitive social and
economic organization of that day, the
water-resources, then largely a small-
scale, private concern, have been lost
in our preoccupation with greater
matters—lumbering, mining, railroad-
ing, etc. Interest in our streams has
lagged for generations and a new
population has grown up which knows
them not. It is not to be wondered
at, then, that the Federal Government
found our people ready to welcome
the flood-control project without sus-
picion, especially as it came upon us
during the stress of the Depression
and that of the 1937 Flood—a period
of anxiety, deprivation, and uncer-
tainty. Public work—made work of
any kind were the accepted panacea
everywhere.

In the experience of a decade, what
is Kentucky gaining and what is she
losing in the transaction?

We entered the New Deal period
with one of the most magnificent

0

systems of streams to be found on
the map. Encircling the great arch
of the Blue Grass country the 120
billions of tons of annual precipitation
of the state had sculptured out the
sweeping arcs of the wide Tennessee,
the scarcely less impressive Cumber-
land, Green River, the Tradewater
and the Kentucky—and flanking the
other side, the Licking and the Big
Sandy. One by one these assets are
being traded in on a system of storage
reservoirs, sold to the public under
the name of Lakes, which is more
euphonious and unintentionally phony
as well. Lakes they are not, nor any
longer rivers—only so much water.
Their necessary system of operation
precludes the development of estab-
lished stages, of fixed shore-lines, sta-
tionary boat-docks, littoral planting
of feeding-grounds for wildlife. A
further exchange has been that of
temporary floods downstream for per-
manent floods up-river—at least until
the not remote time when they are
silted up full and revert to alluvial
land. The engineer’s dream has be-
come the valley-farmer’s nightmare
and a disappointment to the vaca-
tioner and sportsman.

Meanwhile the smaller streams sug-
gest a second line of defense—a re-
fuge from the encroachment of the
flood-control engineer and his one-
track program—a refuge where other
interests may still be much better
represented. A wealth of such tribu-
tary waters is available, most of them
masterpieces of beauty and adapti-
bility. The roll-call of these streams
in itself evokes mental images of
what Kentucky’s outdoors with its
wildlife might come to be: Rock-
castle river, Nolin river, Rough river,
Barren river, Salt river; such creeks
as Troublesome and Quicksand, Kinni-
connick, Elkhorn, Bluebird, Rolling
Fork, Fishing creek, Beaver creek, —

A Planned Economy For Kentucky’s Waters

Muddy fork, Station Camp creek, and
a hundred more.

Shall Kentucky’s master-planners
now begin the strategy of acquiring
some of those streams for the use of
the public? What are some of the
arguments for and against?

For: A common-sense reason is
that water areas have been shown to
be capable of producing more food
than equal areas of land. On top of
that count the income from hunters
and fishermen — sale of ammunition,
boat-hire, cabin rentals. Thus more
or less waste land can be, and often
has been, made to produce revenue.
Thus all the recreation, and health-
giving activity, all the intellectual
and spiritual advantages which Na-
ture affords, and the aesthetic ad-
vancement of which Kentucky is ca-
pable, come gratis, or at least within
the bounds of reason.

Against: 1. The backwaters from
the impoundments of main rivers
have already drowned, and will drown
more, of the lower courses of the
secondary streams. 2. Power-interests
and flood-control engineers not only
have their eyes upon our minor
streams, but have already driven
stakes along their courses, in some
instances. Thus there is something
of an emergency about the acquisition
of these waters, if the Commonwealth
of Kentucky cares to administer any
of them for the benefit of its citizens.

Should the state go out for conser-
vation of all natural resources in a
big way, there are numerous fields
into which it might enter. To name
a few only: the increase of the fur-
bearing aquatic-mammal population,
of commercial fisheries, of button-
shell resources, in addition to the
hunting and fishing usually thought
of in this connection. In the aggregate
these have never been considered a
matter of first importance to the busi-

ness of the state, comparable, if not
of equal magnitude, with a road-
building program, for example.

Meanwhile we have assigned im-
possible responsibilities to the various
conservation agencies of the state. We
have made them attempt the produc-
tion of large amounts of timber and
of wildlife on small tracts of land
and with few men and tools to do
the work. But large populations of
living organisms require large areas,
and thus on the present scale of opera-
tion, we are doomed to be disappointed
in the results, so long as we expect
adequate output. The timber require-
ments and the recreational possibili-
ties within a population of three mil-
lion people should be very high. We
have the people, but not the acreage
of publicly owned land, in a situation
of superabundant land suitable for
such exploitation.

In addition to the hundreds of
thousands of people who could get
profit and enjoyment from frequent
excursions into Kentucky’s outdoors
and the other thousands who would
break the long drive to Florida or
Michigan if Kentucky had facilities
to offer, we have made no signi-
ficant gestures in behalf of numerous
groups of citizens and young people.

Among these so very inadequately
provided for are: the 4H _ clubs,
sportsmen’s clubs, the youth-hostel

movement, Boy Scouts and Girl
Scouts, Natural History Clubs, school
clubs and classes in Biology and Na-
ture Study. All these groups are
carrying on, but they are missing
valuable experiences from which our
urban civilization is isolating them.
The situation has only one right solu-
tion: state parks greatly amplified,
hunting preserves and fish and game
refuges, much more extensive state
forests, hiking trails and trailside
museums, so-called, trained personnel.

91

A Planned Economy For Kentucky's Waters

They should be matched by smaller
regional and municipal facilities, both
terrestrial and aquatic.

What does all this have to do with
Science and with an Academy of
Science? As a matter of fact all
that I have said is only a preface to
a paragraph or two which deal with
matters pertaining to Science. Paren-
thetically I may be permitted to re-
peat here what I have said on an-
other occasion: that I myself believe
that the peculiar function which a
state academy of science should
assume should be that of counsellor in
matters scientific, to the state—bring-
ing science into the service of the
state, in much the same manner as
the National Academy of Science in
its relation to the Federal Govern-
ment.

Kentucky’s 120 billion tons of water
should be ample for all public and
private necessities, including its
function of chief sculptor of the land-
scape, and even though so much as
one-third of it be lost by evaporation.
That would still leave some 25,000
tons or more for each man, woman,
and child, and I should like to vote
my share and those of my family as
wisely as possible. There are, how-
ever, many agencies now in sharp
competition for this major resource,
some of which are:

1) Flood-control 4) Sanitation

2) Navigation 5) Fisheries

38) Water-supply 6) Recreation

As many additional lesser demands,
actual and potential, might be named.
Among these rivalries, both open and
covert, some well entrenched, the pub-
lic interest is not well represented.
Although it is now later than we
think, the State of Kentucky owes it
to herself and to her citizens that the
machinery be set up to handle the
matter. Possibly two agencies of the

state government not now in existence
could do so.

The first of these agencies should
include those functions usually associ-
ated with state tourist or travel
bureaus, together with the all phases
of conservation and public recreation.
It should therefore be composed in
part of persons representing recrea-
tional activities, conservation, hotel,
tourist camp, transportation and other
interests. This group should get to-
gether and lay out a workable pro-
gram for the location and acquisition
of lands for state parks, state forests,
camps, ete., in accordance with the
needs of three million people, a pro-
gram to be submitted to the legisla-
ture for action.

A second, more specialized body
might be considered essential—to have
the functions, whether or not the
name of, Water Control Board. Its
membership chosen from among
power, flood-control, water-supply,
sanitation, and biological resources,
including forestry, personnel, should
work out an over-all state program for
administering the public waters of
Kentucky. Thus the various interests
of Kentuckians might have a more
equitable representation in dealing
with internal affairs than is now the
case, with all the emphasis on flooding
Kentucky valleys to withhold flood-
waters from down-river. This paper
is intended not so much a criticism of
the flood-control program as a defen-
sive gesture in favor of other equally
important aspects of the water-supply
program, not getting much public
consideration.

The water-control board would re-
quire a technical staff, of course, con-
sisting of engineers, geologists, sani-
tarians, biologists, and no doubt
others, who would initiate and carry
out the necessary preliminary re-

92

A Planned Economy For Kentucky's Waters

search on which action by the main
body could be based under sound prin-
ciples—principles of equity and law
included.

This is where Science comes in,
then, in any sweeping public program
by which Kentucky might see fit to
assay her remaining natural _ re-
sources, and to salvage all that she can.
I have emphasized the matter of the
waters rather than the land because
that is far more neglected. In an en-
hanced conservation program I can
visualize the Academy of Science

assuming some share in either a gen-
eral advisory way, or in some frac-
tional part of the enterprise which
may be assigned to it. The job needs
the academy; perhaps the academy
needs certain concrete objectives. Cer-
tainly various members of the biolo-
gical section should have an impor-
tant share in the survey, or advisory
phases of such a program; in the
custodianship of certain activities
such as a guide service for parks; in
the training of personnel.

93

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION UNDER
REDUCED PRESSURE!

M. C. BROCKMANN’ AND T. J. B. STIER
Department of Physiology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana

The experiments here presented
are related to the fermentative be-
havior of yeast cultures maintained
at 30°C. under an absolute pressure
of water while being vigorously
sparged with water vapor. The pri-
mary objective of the experimental
approach, which represents virtually
a steam distillation under vacuum,
was to study the effect on the pro-
duction of glycerol of the partial re-
moval of acetaldehyde formed in the
course of fermentation.

Several authors, e.g. Joslyn (1940)
and Wallerstein and Stern (1945),
have stated without reference to spe-
cific data that fermentation under
reduced pressure or under strong
aeration during the so-called induc-
tion period materially increases the
rate of glycerol production, presum-
ably, by removing the acetaldehyde.
From the classical work of Neuberg
and co-workers (Kobel and Neuberg,
1933), it is known that a marked in-
crease in the formation of glycerol
is produced by the addition to a fer-
menting medium of chemical agents
interfering with the ultimate reduc-
tion of acetaldehyde to alcohol.

A secondary objective of this in-
vestigation was concerned with the
frequently discussed problem of the
inhibitory effect of alcohol on cell
multiplication and on the rate of fer-

I Presented before the Kentucky-T ennessee
Branch of the Society of American Bacteri-
ologists at the thirty-third annual meeting
of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Bowl-
ing Green, April 26, 1947.

2 Seagram Research Associate at the Laboratory
of Cell Physiology, Indiana University,
1944-1946; on special assignment from Jo-
seph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville,
Kentucky.

mentation. The experimental method
employed, steam distillation under
vacuum, made it possible to main-
tain the ethyl alcohol concentration
of the cultures at relatively low
values throughout the observation
periods. In such an experimental en-
vironment, rates of growth and sugar
utilization should be higher than in
the control cultures in which “‘inhibi-
tory’? metabolic products, such as al-

cohol, can accumulate, see Gause
(1934) and Rahn (19382).
Experimental

Yeast strain. <A _ distillery type

yeast designated as Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, strain DCL, in the stock
culture collection of Joseph E. Sea-
gram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Ken-
tucky, was used for all experiments.
Medium. The medium used in all
experiments contained 10 g. glucose,
0.7 g. dehydrated yeast extract (Dif-
co, and 0.56 g KH2P04 per 100 mi.
This medium was autoclaved at 120°
C. for 10 minutes.
Preparation of inoculum and inocula-
tion. In the development of inocu-
lum, yeast was transferred at 24-
hour intervals through the following
steps: (a) from the stock slant to 10
ml. of medium, (b) 1 ml. from (a)
to each of two tubes containing 10
ml. of medium apiece, (c) the con-
tents of each tube from (b) to 150
ml. of medium in a 250 ml. centrif-
uge bottle. Cultures were incubated
at 30 C. At the time of incubation,
yeast cells were centrifuged from the
cultures of step (c), washed twice
with KH2P04 solution (0.5 g. per
100 ml.) and transferred to 1300 ml.
of experimental medium.

94

Alcoholic Fermentation

Management of fermentation,
After a thorough mixing, 160 ml.
portions of inoculated medium were
transferred to seven 500 ml. round
bottom flasks. Each flask received
two drops of cottonseed oil to con-
trol foaming. Six of these flasks
were attached to the apparatus illus-
trated in Fig. 1; the seventh flask
was plugged with cotton and carried
as a control. The remaining medium
was analyzed as the initial (zero
time) sample. As shown in Fig. 1,
the fermentation vessel was closed
with a rubber stopper through which
passed two tubes: one extending al-
most to the bottom of the flask, the
other terminating a short distance
below the stopper. The shorter tube
was attached through a 0.75 mm.
capillary to a manifold which was
connected through a condenser to a
mechanical vacuum pump. Also at-
tached to this exhaust manifold were
a manostat, a mercury manometer
and water vapor manifold. The con-
nection with the water vapor mani-
fold was made through a 0.25 mm.
capillary. This connection caused a
flow of water vapor through the
length of the manifold and thus
helped to eliminate the accumulation
of condensate. The external end of
the tube extending to the bottom of
the fermentation vessel was con-
nected through a 0.25 or a 0.75 mm.
capillary with the water vapor mani-
fold. This latter manifold had its
origin in a one liter suction flask par-
tially filled with water and held over
a variable temperature electric hot
plate.

In this system the temperature of
the medium in the low pressure flasks
was maintained very close to the
temperature of the bath (30 C.).
Heat was supplied to the flasks by
the water vapor (temperature of va-
por in steam generator, 41-44 C.) to

Under Reduced Pressure

95

balance approximately the heat loss
through evaporation. Since the vac-
uum pump attached to the system
had a capacity far in excess of that
required to maintain the system at
the required pressures, the rate of
gas flow into and out of the flasks
was regulated by the diameter of the
capillary tubes inserted in the lines
leading into and out of the flasks.

The fermentation flasks together
with their manifolds were attached
to a frame supported by coil springs
over a water bath. During the fer-
mentation period, the flasks were
held partially immersed in the water
bath and subjected to continuous agi-
tation. At intervals throughout the
observation period a flask was re-
moved from the vacuum system for
analysis. Before analysis the initial
volume in each flash was restored by
the addition of distilled water.

The setting up of a suitable con-
trol for the vacuum fermentations
presented a major problem. The ex-
perimental medium was under not
only a lower absolute pressure but
also under a lower oxygen tension
than prevailed in that portion of the
inoculated medium which was held at
atmospheric pressure in a_ cotton
plugged flask. On the basis of earlier
experiments (Brockman and Stier,
unpublished) it was established that
the oxygen tension of the medium,
particularly during the first few
hours following inoculation has a
marked influence on the ultimate
yeast population, on the rate of glu-
close utilization and, to a lesser ex-
tent, on the yield of glycerol. Con-
sequently, two types of control fer-
mentations were employed. For Type
I control, a portion of inoculated
medium was held in a cotton-plugged
flask in the same water bath as the
low pressure fermentations. Here no
attempt was made to alter the oxy-

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96

Alcoholic Fermentation Under Reduced Pressure

gen tension of the control culture.
For the Type II control, 1200 ml. of
medium was sparged with tank CO2
for a short period following inocula-
tion in order to reduce the oxygen
tension of the medium to a level com-
parable to that in the low pressure
cultures. The total volume of CO2
blown through the medium was
roughly equivalent to the volume of
the free space in the flask above the
medium. This medium was then fer-
mented in rubber-stoppered flasks
which were vented through water
seals. Both types of control cultures
were held under continuous agita-
tion in a 380 C. water bath.

Analytical Glucose
concentration and yeast population
were determined according to the
procedure described by Brockmann
and Stier (1947).

Glycerol concentration was deter-
mined according to the procedure
described by Amerine and Dietrich
(1943) for use in the determination
of the glycerol concentration of wine
containing less than 5 g. of sugar per
ml. Because the yeast extract pres-
ent in the medium contributed to the
observed glycerol concentration, the
apparent glycerol concentration of
the medium immediately after inocu-
lation was subtracted from the ob-
served concentration of subsequent
samples; this difference was recorded
as “glycerol formed.”’

In the determination of alcohol
concentration, 50 ml. of fermentation
medium was subjected to distillation.
The alcohol concentration in the dis-
tillate was evaluated with an immer-
sion refractometer according to the
procedure of the A. O. A. C.. (1940).

For the determination of alde-
hyde concentration, another 50 ml.
portion of the fermentation medium
was distilled. The aldehyde present
in the distillate was determined ac-

operations.

cording to the A. O. A. G. (1940)
procedure for the aldehyde content
of distilled spirits,

Results and Discussions

In Fig. 2 representative date are
summarized for fermentations held
under greatly reduced pressure while
being sparged with water vapor; also
included in this figure are single
points (open squares and triangles)
or curves (open circles) illustrating
the two types of control cultures.

An examination of the curves char-
acterizing glucose utilization as a
function of time indicates that under
reduced pressure the rate of glucose
utilization may be slightly higher
than at atmospheric pressure. How-
ever, a study of the curves for yeast
population shows a direct relation-
ship between yeast populations and
rates of glucose utilization. Thus the
apparent differences in rates of glu-
cose utilization can be accounted for
by corresponding differences in yeast
population.

From an examination of the curves
showing the concentration of alcohol
in the fermenting medium there can
be no doubt that the low pressure
steam distillation was effective in
maintaining a low concentration of
aleohol in the experimental medium:
the alcohol concentration of the cul-
tures maintained under reduced pres-
sure never exceeded 0.65 g. per 100
ml. In view of the parallelism be-
tween the yeast populations and the
rates of glucose utilization in cul-
tures of similar oxygen tension, the
evidence here presented suggests that
6 reduced alcohol concentration tends
to favor yeast growth. The higher
year population in turn elevates the
rate of glucose utilization of the cul-
ture. With the relatively low concen-
trations of alcohol here involved,
there is no evidence of a direct con-
nection between alcohol concentra-

97

Alcoholic Fermentation Under Reduced Pressure

represent final data for controls
(Type I) in cotton plugged

Figure 2. Representative data for

fermentations maintained under

reduced pressure.

Solid triangles and squares rep-
resent periodic observations on
fermentations conducted with ex-
haust manifold pressures of 40-
41 and 20-21 mm Hg. respective-
ly. Open triangles and squares

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GEUCOSE- USED
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98

flasks which correspond to low
pressure runs represented by
solid triangles and squares. Cir-
cles represent average data for
5 runs conducted at atmospheric
pressure (Type II control) with
medium of reduced oxygen ten-

sion (sparged with tank CO2).

9
OOML.

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Fig. 2

Alcoholic Fermentation Under Reduced Pressure

tion and the rate of glucose utiliza-
tion.

As seen from the data of Fig. 2,
cultures held under reduced pressure

have significantly higher rates of
glycerol production than cultures
held under atmospheric pressure.

After about eight hours the rate of
glycerol producion in low pressure
cultures appears to diminish as evi-
denced by a reduced slope in the
glycerol formed-time curves. A some-
what parallel rate decrease is seen in
the glucose used-time curves for the
same cultures. From the curves char-
acterizing glycerol formation as a
function of glucose consumed it is
evident that throughout the obser-
vation periods, glycerol is formed in
a relatively stable relationship to
glucose consumed.

While there can be no doubt that
the production of glycero! was sig-
nificantly increased under reduced
pressure, it should be pointed out
that the theoretical yield of glycerol
has been increased only from 7 to 12
percent, calculated on the basis of
the equation for Neuberg’s second
type of fermentation:

glucose glycerol + actalde-
lhyde+carbon dioxide.

The concept that glycerol forma-
tion is controlled by the availability
of acetaldehyde, which in the course
of normal alcoholic fermentmation is
reduced to alcohol, is difficult to
align with the data here reported.
The aldehyde concentration of the
medium maintained under reduced
pressure averaged approximately one-
half of that of the CO2 sparged con-
trol. Nevertheless, the rate of glu-
cose utilization in the low pressure
cultures was approximately the same
as the CO2 sparged control. Conse-
quently, the concentration of acetal-
dehyde in the low pressure cultures
cannot be regarded as limiting the

99

rate of glucose utilization. More-
over, even in the control culture, the
aldehyde content of the medium
showed a marked tendency to de-
crease after fermentation became
well established. This decrease ap-
pears to be without influence either
on the rate of glucose utilization for
the culture as a whole or on the
amount of glycerol formed per unit
of glucose metaboiized. Further-
more, according to the previously
mentioned Neuberg equation, gly-
cerol and acetaldehyde should be
formed in equal molar ratios, 92 g. of
glycerol and 44 g. of acetaldehyde.
However, on the basis of the ob-
served glycerol, only a very small
part of the theoretically formed al-
dehyde appears in the medium, and
instead of increasing along with the
formed glycerol, the aldehyde con-
tent of the culture diminishes during
the greater part of the observation
period. Moreover, the authors have
observed a marked increase in the al-
dehyde content of yeast cultures fol-
lowing the addition of various sur-
face active agent, which depress
yeast multiplication. This increase is
not attended by an alteration in the
amount of glycerol produced per unit
of glucose metabolized. These ob-
servations present an _ interesting
problem, namely, what is the dispo-
sition of the 2 or 3 carbon oxidation
compound which must be formed si-
multaneously with the reduction of
a portion of the glucose molecule to
glycerol under the conditions of nor-
mal alcoholic fermentation.

Under the conditions of the experi-
ments here reported no significance
can be attached to the aldehyde con-
tent of the culture. A possible ex-
planation for the observed relation-
ship between acetaldehyde and gly-
cerol is suggested by the disclosure
of Negelein and Bromel (1939)

Alcoholic Fermentation Under Reduced Pressure

that acetaldehyde is much more
readily reduced by a reduced yeast
pyridine nucleotide than dihydroxy-
acetone. It appears quite possible
that in the low pressure cultures the
depressed aldehyde concentration fa-
vored the reduction of slightly great-
er amounts of dihydroxyacetone.
Summary

Data have been presented for glu-
cose utilization, yeast population,
glycerol formation and the concen-
trations of alcohol and acetaldehyde
’ in cultures continuously sparged with
water vapor while held at a pressure
close to the vapor pressure of water.
In comparison with cultures having
a similar oxygen tension and main-
tained at atmospheric pressure, the
slight elevation in rate of glucose
utilization seen in the low pressure
cultures is accounted for on the basis
of the somewhat higher yeast popu-
lations. It appears probable that the
low alcohol concentration of the cul-
tures maintained under reduced pres-
sure favored a somewhat greater
yeast population and thus, indirectly,
an increased over-all rate of glucose
utilization.

In cultures maintained under re-
duced pressure glycerol formation is
definitely elevated. No conclusion is
forthcoming regarding the relation-
ship between the increased glycerol

tormation and the lowered aldehyde
concentration of the cultures.

Literature Cited

Amerine, Maynard A. and Dietrich,
William C. 1948. lycerol in
wines. J. Assoc. Official Agr.
Chem., 26, 408-413.

Assoc. Official Agr. Chem. 1940. Of-
ficial and tentative methods of
analysis. Official Agricultural
Chemists, Washington, D. C.

Brockman, M. C. and Stier, T. J. B.
1947. The use of solium azide
for determining the fermenta-
tive ability of yeast developed
under different oxygen tensions.
J. Bact., 53, 621-629.

Gause, G. F. 1934. The struggle for
existence. Williams and Wilkins
Co., Baltimore.

Joslyn, M. A. 1940. The by-products
of alcoholic fermentation. Wal-
as Labs. Commun., 3, 30-
43.

Kobel, Maria and Neuberg, Carl
1933. Handbuch der Pflanzen-
analyse (G. Klein, Editor) Vol.
4 part 3, 1253-1344.

Negelein, Erwin and Bromel, Heinz
1939. Uber die Entstehung von
Glycerin bei der Garung. Bio-
chem, 303, 231-233.

Rahn, Otto 1932. Physiology of Bac-
teria. P. Blakiston’s Son and
Co., Philadelphia.

Wallerstein, James and Stern, Kurt
G. 1945. On bisulfite as an in-
hibitor of carboxylase and the
mechanism of glycerol fermen-
pation: J. Biol. Chem., 158, 1-
2:

100

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE
for the

KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY

The Committee, H. B. Lovell, W.
R. Sebastian, Tandy Chenault,
Austin Durham, Hazel Nollau, and
Anna A. Schnieb, submits the fol-
lowing report:

I. Work of the Committee

1. Conferences held with indi-
dividual members of the committee
and much additional business trans-
acted through correspondence with
high school science teachers.

2. The third Sponsor-Delegate
conference held in October, Eastern
Teachers College, with seventy-six
present. The officers were installed.
List of problems previously sent to
the clubs were discussed and plans
for the year’s work were made.

3. Directed the Christmas Bird
Census for the Junior Academy.

4. Assisted in securing financial
contributions.

5. Assisted in organizing five new
clubs.

6. Appointed the honorary mem-
bers to A.A.A.S.:

Mrs. Alice Summers, Atherton,
Louisville.
Mr. Jimmy Garritson, Tilghman,
Paducah.

7. Answered many letters.

II. Junior Academy Activities:

1. Five issues of Junior Science
Bulletin, two eight page and three
six page issues, published.

2. Definite efforts taken to im-
prove the articles in the Bulletin.

38. A decided increase noted in
the number and the size of the
Special Financial contributions.

4. Formulated a_ standard for
conferring honors:

a. Quality and number of ar-
ticles contributed to Bulle-
tin.

b. Sustained

interest in sci-

ence and in the Academy.

ce. Cooperation on the part of
members and sponsors.

d. Effort and interest shown in
organizing new clubs.

e. Some financial contribution
made.

5. Much effort put forth to or-
ganize new clubs, especially on the
part of the members.

III. Annual Convention:

The thirteenth annual convention
was held Friday and Saturday, March
18 and 19 at Maysville High School
with the Maysville science clubs as
hosts. Mr. Tandy Chenault and Supt.
Laukhuf were in charge of the con-
vention assisted by Dr. Schnieb, state
counselor. The Friday evening pro-
gram was entirely social and was
planned by the Maysville High School
1 phd ae

About three hundred attended the
Saturday meeting which was presided
over by the president, Burt Monroe.
The program consisted of addresses,
exhibits, demonstrations, a trip to the
Carnation Plant, music, and confer-
ring the honors and the awards.
Considering the deep snow which fell
on Thursday, the attendance was
considered good.

IV. Highlights of the Convention:

1. The quality and the wide
range of interests shown in the ex-
hibits and demonstrations. Each ex-
hibit as well as demonstration in-
cluded a clear statement of the prob-
lem, and what was learned.

2. The interest shown by the
members and the sponsors in the ex-
hibits and in the demonstrations.
They wanted to see just what made
them good. Many took close notes.

3. The interest of the judges who
were rather critical. ‘Some sloppy

101

Report of the Committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy

work.” “Yes, this is good, but they
must be taught to do better,” were
statements frequently made by the
judges.

4, The interest of Maysville in
science and in the convention. Not
only the newspapers, but the mayor,
the churches, and the citizens in gen-
eral showed much interest by attend-
ing the sessions and by making favor-
able comments, as well as giving in-
valuable assistanec in making the
meeting a success.

V. Affiliation:

The Junior Academy today has a
membership of 950 representing 16
Class A and 18 Class B Clubs.

VI. Outstanding Accomplishments:

1. Five new clubs organized and
only two fatalities.

2. Decided increase in the num-
ber of Christmas Bird Census.

3. Improvement in the quality
and arragnement of exhibits.
4. Decided improvement

Bulletin.

in the

5. The Junior Science Bulletin
maintaining the rating as an out-
standing publication issued regularly
by the members.

6. Decided increase in the Special
Financial Contributions.

7. Decided improvement
Sponsor-Delegate Conference.

8. Better judgment noted in
making the nominations for officers.

VII. Honors Received:

1. Recognition by The Kentucky
Academy of Science in offering hon-
orary memberships to four club spon-
sors and to four junior members.

2. The Library at Havana, Cuba,
requesting to be placed on the mail-
ing list for the Junior Science Bulle-
tin and sending a check to meet the
expenses of mailing the Bulletin.

38. Citation received from the
Michigan Junior Academy of Science
quote: “For excellent set-up of the
Kentucky Junior Academy and for
the outstanding publication—The
Junior Science Bulletin.”

in the

SUMMARY

1. New Clubs

Breathitt County High —._ SNe Bee ie
ie Ss VOOGLes Sponsors aren:
Mrs. Dickerson, Sponsor ____
Robert Sentz, Sponsor_________-
Ormsby Village, Mrs. Searles. bates
Valley Station, Mrs. H. B. Lovell ____

he i NBO) IWlertnloeres

56 Members
49 Members
25 Members
16 Members
50 Members

2a hinancials Contributions frome Clubsie==—ssse Be ORION By pce. $201.00

Total Expenses
Awards
Bulletins
K.A.S. Affiliation

438.64

Postage, Long Distance, Telegrams
Sponsor-Delegate Conference
Dues, contributions from interested friends, and sponsorship of the

Kentucky Academy of Science give a balance to be carried for 1947-1948.
3. Clubs with Distinction:

Cane Run, Jefferson County

Kingston, Madison County

Maysville

Model High, Richmond

102

Report of the Committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy

Morehead
Owensboro
Waco
4. Honorary Members to A.A.A.S.:
Miss Rlice Summers, Atherton, Louisville
Mr. Jimmy Garritson, Tilghman, Paducah
5. Honorary Members to Kentucky Academy of Science:
Sponsors:
Mr. Tandy Chenault, Maysville
Mrs. M. S. Dickerson, Jackson
Miss Hazel Nollau, Morehead
Miss Elizabeth Maupin, Kingston
Junior Members:
Burt Monroe, Anchorage
Proctor Riggins, Harrodsburg
Susanne Newell, Maysville
Geraldine Maupin, Waco
6. Officers Elected:
President: Turner Burns, Owensboro
Vice President: Harold Cox, Model High, Richmond
Secretary: Mary Buetel, Atherton, Louisville
Treasurer: Chad Christine, Maysville
7. Club Affiliation

PCH GT ASC, en ees, ee er ee et eee eet ee 27
FAtnercon! 9 22.2 2. ARE SND eee aa ae Oe OES mE Re ee 48
Teyellikesyae, kee ee I a a ee 40
rer Gintiee ountyen( ho SreulOOre i= «kt ee 56
Brean @ounty (Mrs: Dickerson) == 29 ota:
Becaunittt County "(RGbert Oembz 4. a2 2 ee » BE
SSUES DEIN OCG OIG EA alae SE eee 25
CSTE SEU 0 gee eee ee RN res ors ik nk aie oe Bes Ney eee EGR 35
(Cyasantirranll cs eat ee or ee ee ee 16
Shader, We ian iis ee A ee ae ee ee On Wes Se ee a ASRS 29
PERS) ae ee se ee SEALE Wie a Lae ee 25
PEE Ye eaNTal cali 1 ee ann oI oc ree ea ae ea ee ee 19
(Bireczyeran aS ae ie te ED A ee ee ee es 10
ingmntie S ih nee eee ee ee 13
Pimeiieeida te nONINS = 2 ee ee ee ee 30
eoimeston a RE Sey ce ge te ee A 32
(cdkey Soa ee eee 14
Termes (Cea ee Se ee ee ae eas Sed oe RAE 33
[LT LEE BUT Shy IL 09 A eS se eae ps 2a fete ens 20
BenchLea SemtO re = he ee es ee ee 20
Terie ee ce 2 ae Se BEE ee ee 15
eroswillothOr. We a ee ADs Ser ee ee ee Eli
Maysville Senior —.-_____. Fe ie) ok. SER ©! OE Ee Ea eee anton 38
Wray eax cD Sy ip a Seg ls a ee 25
VGC Cl eee ee ee NMaeM ErD P B ee ee 26
IMCamnalingvagl GARR: a ee 20

Report of the Committee for the Kentucky Junior Academy

IMOreEHe Ads SOMUON? 225. Be) Rael ed eee CN Os Ree 13
INT TV esi ieee BS NATO ee a a 10
Ormsby: Villages 6 ee 16
CS TAS TT Or a gee a SI Ale a oe ai Ae Wess 1 33
Paducalas Tile bnyma ny 22 sles ie ae os oe ea ee SS lade 45
Aerts es CT ie a ae SS ee EP, cael ec 15
IVER Mey ED a ge A PSI Ota A nee ee 50
WiC Ol ees Pe TS PI Le ae eae EP ee GEN ERMAN eet a ne a pac aemne, 26
919

SSP OVS OWS ea ae ee eee Al aie et Gee ee 31

Respectfully submitted,
ANNA A. SCHNIEB,
April 25, 1947 Counselor

GSS) CEs)

104

Report of the Representative
of the
Kentucky Academy of Science on the Council
of the
Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science
Boston, Dee. 1946
Minutes of the A.A.A.S. Academy Conference

The first meeting of the Council of
the A.A.A.S. was concerned with rou-
tine business, i.e., the report of the
Administrative Secretary, election of
emeritus members, the operating bud-
get, etc.

It was explained that under its new
constitution the A.A.A.S. now will
have, each year, a Retiring President,
a President and a President Elect.
The President Elect serves one year
in that capacity, the succeeding year
as President, and the third year as
Retiring President, who delivers the
Annual Address.

The Second Council Meeting was
concerned with the presidential elec-
tions. It was necessary to elect a
President and a President Elect to
meet the provisions of the new consti-
tution. Dr. Shapley was elected Pres-
ident and Dr. Sinnot was elected Pres-
ident Elect.

Dr. Baitsell and Dr. Martin were
elected to the Executive Committee.

There followed a long discussion of
the proposed National Science Foun-
dation at the conclusion of which the
President was instructed to designate
representatives of the A.A.A.S. on
an Inter-Society Committee on the
National Science Foundation and to
invite all scientific societies of na-
tional scope to do so. This was done
because of the failure of adoption of
past national legislation was largely
due to lack of agreement among
scientists as to its provisions.
Report of the Proceedings of the

Conference of State Academies

of Science

The minutes of the meeting of the

Conference of State Academies is ap-
pended hereto, together with the paper
presented by Dr. E. C. L. Miller of the
Virginia Academy.

Dr. Degering, Indiana Academy,
Chairman, had prepared an agenda
for the conference which centered
about three problems, to wit, improve-
ment of the services to and its rela-
tions with its own state by the state
academy. The development of valu-
able additional scientific personnel.
How can the academy supplement its
research funds?

Your representative wishes to bring
to the critical attention of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science certain sug-
gestions that were presented at the
Conference. (1) That the academy
form a special committee to contact
industrial firms to initiate a study of
problems of mutual interest and of
means of funneling funds to research
workers. (2) That the Academy use
its influence toward the promotion of
research in the smaller institutions of
higher education in the state. (38)
The participation of the Academy in
the administration of national and
other grants for research in the state.
(4) The guidance of young people of
ability into research, and (5) the de-
vising of some means for the educa-
tion of the layman in the advances of
science and its needs. This last car-
ried the further suggestion that the
academy organize a speakers’ bureau
among the public speakers of its mem-
bership and also bring in occasionally
some scientist of national repute.
These five suggestions were incorpor-
ated in the address of Dr. Miller.

105

Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science
on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science

A great deal of the discussion fol-
lowing that address centered on the
importance of the Junior Academy in
developing young scientists. The Ten-
nessee Academy conducts a Science
Talent Search in its state which gives
awards to young people who were not
selected in the National Science Tal-
ent Search.

It was pointed out that more atten-
tion should be given to high school
teachers of science to encourage them
and to demand high quality teaching
by them. There is a need for abstracts
of new developments in science for use
by these high school teachers of
science in their work in the science
club.

Your representative wishes to urge
upon the Academy the serious con-
sideration of these proposals, with
‘especial attention to the matter of in-
forming the layman about science and
its needs, the committee on cooperative
study with industry, the matter of the
administration of grants from all
sources, and the matter of the en-
couragement of the high school science
teacher, since the high school is the
ultimate source from which will come
the scientists of the future. Dr.
Michaud of Purdue was elected Chair-
man of the Conference and Dr. Mid-
dleton, of Kentucky, Secretary.

Respectfully submitted,
Austin R. Middleton
Representative of the
Academy on Council of A.A.A.S.
Minutes of the A.A.A.S. Academy

Conference

The A.A.A.S. Academy Conference
was called to order at 4:00 P. M.,
Friday, December 27, 1946, in Parlor
C of the Statler Hotel, Boston, Massa-
chusetts, by the Chairman, Dr. Ed. F.
Degering of Purdue University. There
were 28 delegates present represent-
ing 24 Academies of Science. Dr. F.

R. Moulton, Permanent Secretary and
Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, General Secre-
tary were present, representing the
American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.

Previous to the opening of the meet-
ing, Dr. Degering appointed a nomi-
nating committee composed of the fol-
lowing persons:

Dr. Arthur H. Bragg, Chairman,
Oklahoma Academy of Science.

Dr. Austin R. Middleton, Kentucky
Academy of Science.

Dr. Glenn W. Blaydes, Ohio Acad-
emy of Science.

The Committee nominated Dr.
Howard H. Michaud, Purdue Univer-
sity as Chairman of the Academy Con-
ference for 1947; and Dr. Austin R.
Middleton, University of Louisville, as
Secretary. Both the nominees were
unanimously elected by the Academy
Conference group.

Chairman Degering introduced Dr.
Otis Caldwell, who presented greet-
ings from the A.A.A.S. to the Acad-
emy delegates. He spoke of the great
responsibility borne by the affiliated
Academies for improvement of serv-
ices and relations to state educational
and industrial enterprises, the prep-
aration of scientific personnel, the
sponsoring of Science Clubs and de-
velopment of the Junior Academy as
a valuable educational procedure and
channels for directing interested and
competent young people into the field
of science. He spoke briefly on federal
research subsidies.

This led to consideration of the
agenda prepared by Dr. Degering as
follows:

1. In what ways may a State

Academy improve its serv-
ices and relations with its

own state educational and
industrial enterprises?

2. What can be done by the
State Academy toward de-

106

Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science
on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science

veloping valuable additional
scientific personnel?

3. How may the services of
the Junior Academy be in-

creased?
4. Should the State Academies
supplement their research

funds? If so, how and for
what specific purposes?
Mr. Glenn O. Carter, representing

the American Institute of the City
of New York suggested that the
Academies could make _ substantial
contributions to education and indus-
try by sponsoring lecture programs
on human relationships throughout
the year. He indicated that industry
has much to offer education and that
closer cooperation should be secured
between the Academies of Science and
industrial organizations.

From New Hampshire, Professor
H. D. Carle described their mountain
experiment station which was spon-
sored by that Academy. Cooperation
and financial aid has been obtained
from industry and the Federal Govy-
ernment in its development. Studies
in meterology, and the effects of
severe weather condition on various
materials of industry are _ being
studied. Also biological surveys are
being conducted.

Dr. Otis W. Caldwell spoke of the
many grants being made from the
Federal Government, particularly
under the auspices of the Army and
Navy, made to relatively isolated
groups. The grants are of such a
number that they affect the assign-
ment of research funds from the
A.A.A.S,

Dr. Ed. F. Degering of Purdue Uni-
versity suggested that the State Acad-
emies of Science have the responsi-
bility of sponsoring research in the
smaller institutions, where the larger
Federal funds will likely not be avail-
able.

Dr. G. W. Prescott, Michigan State

College, believes that the State Acad-
emies of Science should have commit-
tees who have the duties of contacting
industrial concerns for research aid.

Dr. Austin R. Middleton of Ken-
tucky pointed out that the Kentucky
Academy has made valuable industrial
contacts, and that the past President
is head of research in one of Louis-
ville’s large industrial organizations.

Dr. Joseph C. Gilman, Iowa State
College, suggested that the A.A.A.S.
research grants should be directed to
the smaller institutions. He indicated
that there is some difficulty in placing
research funds at present because of
the excessive teaching and administra-
tive burdens being carried by the per-
sonnel of the smaller schools.

Dr. C. L. Porter of the Colorado-
Wyoming Academy of Science, sug-
gested that the Academies should in-
vite industrialists to take part in the
Academy meetings, and in this way
cultivate a better understanding be-
tween the Academies and industry.

Dr. Waldo Schmidt, of the Wash-
ington, D. C. Academy said that the
small grants of the A.A.A.S. are of
importance and may mean a great
deal to many investigators.

Dr. E. C. L. Miller of the Virginia
Academy of Science, presented a
paper on the responsibilities of the
State Academies of Science. A copy
of this paper is attached to these
minutes.

Dr. H. A. Webb of the Tennessee
Academy, spoke of the importance of
continuing and developing the Science
Talent Search. Tennessee has in addi-
tion developed a State Science Talent
Search. He suggested that this may
be of great importance in guiding the
most talented young people into the
field of science.

From Wisconsin, Dr. L. E. Noland
expressed himself concerning the in-

107

Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science
on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science

spiration they had received because of
the development of the Junior Acad-
emy of Science in Virginia and Ten-
nessee. In Wisconsin, the Junior
Academy has a program of meetings
at several centers in the State. Papers
are presented by the Junior scientists.
The best from each center are selected
and sent to the Senior Academy meet-
ing. This appears to be of much im-
portance in guiding talented young
people into further science studies. He
enthusiastically told of the work of
Dr. John Thompson of Wisconsin, who
has the duty of traveling about the
State aiding in science teaching in the
secondary schools.

From the American Institute of the
City of New York, Mr. Glenn O. Car-
ter, suggested that we do something
for the Junior scientists through in-
dustry. Industry does not know about
these needs. Closer cooperation of the
Academies with industry is very de-
sirable.

Dr. Otis W. Caldwell pointed out
that there are 10,500 Science Clubs
in the United States, with an average
enrollment of 25 per club. A new fea-
ture of the A.A.A.S. meeting this year
is the Junior Scientific Assembly, an-
nounced by Dr. Morris Meister, presi-
dent of N.S.T.A. It is expected that
this will be an annual feature of the
A.A.A.S. meetings.

From Minnesota, Dr. John W.
Moore indicated that in his Academy
each member acts as a committee of
one to contact new members. Small
grants are made to the Junior Acad-
emy. Considerable care is taken in
selecting a sponsor of the Junior
group.

Dr. Howard H. Michaud from In-
diana, spoke of the 52 Science Clubs in
Indiana. Representatives from these
clubs meet with the Senior Academy
at their regular autumn meeting. The

assembling of ‘youngsters at meetings
is a considerable problem. In about
50% of the schools, teachers lose sal-
ary for days away on Junior Academy
trips. Teachers are so over-burdened
that it is difficult to get them to
stimulate students to enter contests.

Dr. Joseph C. Gilman of Iowa, sug-
gested that there is the difficulty in
interesting and _ stimulating high
school teachers to organize and direct
the activities of Science Clubs. In
Iowa a high school teacher acts as a
permanent secretary of the Junior
Academy. This is regarded as an im-
portant feature of their success.

Dr. Martin D. Young of South
Carolina indicated that there are 151
Science Clubs in that State, which are
affiliated with the S. C. Academy of
Science. A Junior Academy congress
is planned and will be held in conjunc-
tion with the Senior Academy meet-
ing. Several of the Clubs have entered
the Westinghouse Science Talent
Search Examination.

Mr. Glenn O. Carter of New York,
presented a motion which was am-
mended by Dr. Ditmer of New Mexico.
The motion as ammended is as fol-
lows:

We request the officers and direc-
tors of the A.A.A.S. to consider pos-
sible measures of working through the
Academies of Science for the encour-
agement of Junior Academies, or Jun-
ior Science Activities, and prepare a
report for publication on the present
status of Junior Academies of Science
in the United States, with recommen-
dations.

The motion was seconded and ac-
cepted by the Academy Conference.

Dr. Otis W. Caldwell, while speak-
ing of the fourth item of the agenda,
pointed out that in order to obtain
research funds from the A.A.A.S., ap-
plication must be made by each acad-

108

Report of the Representative of the Kentucky Academy of Science
on the Council of the Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science

emy for these funds. Such funds can- funds for the sole use of the Academy
not be used for publication purposes. of Science for research.
As to supplementing these grants

from the A.A.A.S., he suggested that Respectfully submitted,

a resolution might be made to state GLENN W. BLAYDES, The

some kind of principle of obtaining Ohio State University

ways of setting up and underwriting Acting Secretary.
CSSD

109

NEWS and NOTES

Editors’ Note: Pagination for Number 3, Vol. 12 of the Transactions was not

made continuous with the preceding journal number through error. The

nages of this issue (Number 4) are numbered in sequence from Number 3

had the latter been correctly paged. Page numbers for Number 3 will be

considered from 34 to and including 54 in the volume index.

The Springfield conference of the
Kentucky Geological Society was
held on May 2, 3, and 4, 1947. Ap-
proximately seventy-five geologists
assembled at Tazewell, Tennessee,
and examined sections of the Knox
dolomite under the direction of Dr.
Charles R. L. Oder of the American
Zinc Company. The party was con-
ducted over the Thorn Hill, Halls
Mill, and Jockey Creek sections. Dr.
Oder spoke on the paleogeographic,
stratisgraphic and lithologic features
of the Knox dolomite.

The annual business meeting of
the Kentucky Geological Society was
held Saturday 4 May, 1947. The fol-
lowing papers were presented:

1. The Geology of Pickett County,
Tennessee, by Willard R. Jill-
son.

2. The Warwick Abandoned Chan-
nel of the Kentucky River by
Willard R. Jillson.

3. Paleogeographic Elements Dur-
ing Knox Deposition by Dan K.
Hamilton.

Dr. Frank Fisher, Ashland Oil and
Refining Co., Ashland, Kentucky, has
been elected President of the Ken-
tucky Geological Society at its an-
nual meeting in May 1947.

Dr. David Richard Lincicome in
collaboration with the Manitoba Mu-

seum, Winnipeg, Manitoba, spent two
weeks in August making extensive
collections of parasites from birds in
the spruce forests of upper Mani-
toba.

The annual meeting of the Ken-
tucky section of the Mathematical
Association of America was held at
the University of Kentucky on Sat-
urday, May 10, 1947.

The following papers were pre-
sented:

1. Trisection of an angle by

means of higher plane curves,
by Paul P. Boyd.

2. Development of the Frenet For-
mulas for N-dimensions, by S.
J. Jasper.

3. Contrasting two solutions of a
certain problem in Modern Ge-
ometry, by W. R. Hutcherson.

4. Application of mathematics in
Meteorology, by McClellan
Cook, Jr.

5. The Graphic Construction of a
Human Eclipse, by F. V. Rohde.
Rohde.

Prof. D. W. Pugsley, Berea Col-
lege, has been elected chairman of
the Kentucky Section of the Mathe-
matical Association of America.

Dr. Sallie Pence, University of
Kentucky, has been elected Secretary
of the Kentucky Geological Society.

Mr. W. M. Insko, University of
Kentucky, has been elected 2nd Vice-

110

News and Notes

president of the Poultry Science As-
sociation at the annual meeting at
Clemson College, South Carolina, 25-
28 August.

Dr. Dan K. Hamilton, University
of Kentucky, has been elected Secre-

tary of the Kentucky Geological So-
ciety.

Dr. W. D. Gray is now associate
professor of Botany at the Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Siig

INDEX TO VOLUME 12

TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

Academy : - Greulach}VicA ns a2o= Seb e ie eee 79
EN TAOS COIN. Uensyerrsy Laie neve) Dy ee 9
Kentucky, Science, minutes of 1944 and Kentucky
1946 annual meetings ~---------------~-- Academy representative to A.A.A.S.

: Councilgreport 2 ee eee eee 105

Ailanthus altissima, leaf glands in ~-------- 31 3

Academy, minutes of 1944 and 1946

Alcohol annual ;mectingsi 2 — ose sees 54
Survey of production methods ~--~-----~-~ 82 Biication Gnu hae ie 6
Fermentation under reduced pressure ~--~~ 94 Elementary Education in _________-_-____ 9

PAD Te ea WV ea ce eee eee al ie Se eles 89 Forum) on) Education: 2222222222) ee 1

Alsclepias;apollinationsiny sees ees see 79 Higher Education in -___-_____________- 15

Bee CATE Sao eae hy AU mene ae 34 Junior Academy, committee report ~_--___ 101

Planned Economy of Waters ~_---------~- 89
LORIE | coecaee see e eo 33 Secondary, Education in, 2222222) 12

Brockanan, eV ie Org eae 94 Kang Wick ie te ae oon 6

Committee reports Lactobacillus casei, effect of glucose on _____ 46
Kentucky Junior Academy ~-_----------_-_ 101 Tea Ra ee EO 79
Representative to A.A.A.S. Council —-~_- 105 Leaf Glands in Ailanthus altissima _—----- 31

) DRAUSS a ee eS 31 incicomes| sR ee 49, 51

Density soi tb then ie cons as wee Leal 20 Middleton;s AustingR y= === === a =a 105

Editorial Milkweed. Rollinationy anes en 79
A more active academy —______-_________ 34 Minutes, Kentucky Academy, 1944 and
2 Apenen =e 1946, meetings) 2=—--— 22 eee 54

BM een ty tye te Oras GOs ta Trae Muedéking, “Mary .-/22- 5 eae 46

Editors wNoteyeos.22- 22 Sepia eee 109 Naf Ane (Si ce oe 42

Education i a Neoechinorhynchus emydis, occurrence
IORI He IIOHIES cote 2 Sit Stats eee es cea EO ee 51
InsKentuckyge 2 kee ee Se es 6 INewsmand = Note sie 52, 110
Elementary in Kentucky ___..____________ 9 Oppenheimer, J. J. -----_----------------- 15

Spins A weed. or 79
Secondary: ARGH Eich oe Ree oe ort 12 Pollination, in milkweed
Polyporus schweinitzii, physiological
roblemsmofmlrliig he reese eee 15 Variations! of 222-225 22 eee 59

Endamoeba coli, elimination of ~___________ 49 Power and Punch ~—----___-_______-_______ 55

Ether density gees ane ees anew eee 20 PS ect cilia) Sia Re eae 37

Fermentation, alcoholic under reduced Science inuSocietya se 37
PRESS UNC yee ee Dee Sere ee 94

Research notes ;

Forum on Kentucky Education Elimination of Endamoeba coli in man ___ 49
VORWORG) eee ane eS eee 1 Neoechinorhynchus emydis, occurrence in
Rorevensinethe stortiess = soe annem 2 snails §~---~---------------------------- 51

i Ks pa heft a Se SS 101

Education in Kentucky _________________ 6 SOMETEDy ADINO 2
Science: in’) Society) —2-_--—_-—- 37
Elementary Education in Kentucky ______ 9 stoiware Ole It ee 20
Secondary Education in Kentucky ~_______ 12 Stier DIB ee ae 2 94
Exoblems of Higher Education in Taylor;-William’S, -=2--2) 2
entuck yi eee ee eee 1S iabacco aflavoneslikeeubstances ink === 42
Flavone-like substances in tobacco _________ 42 Waters, planned economy for Kentucky’s _--- 89
Srcoe es effect on viability on Wender, Simon Hi 22-22 =s ss =e eee 42

: s

actobactlltsmcase: maaan ea 46 Whitt Allies rit -- Se 51
CO ARON S NG ee Se 49" Williams: JohnvR) 22-2 eee 12
Grays Winns D) eyes cere UR este HEARN 59. Zarow; An ls coe ee 82

112

. _ D + oe *
twee Ps ce. & 3 J
8
7 an bd
i
*
Om
d -
~*~
es
4 _
i
;
f
0 &
~~
- 4
7 mo. i

ay

- y a
Y - baat - va 7 syed Ban ih
Tis Oa a eR ee Re be
7 a i oe
ree
as |
es pts ;

; ie
rs ‘Wa eo

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE is a medium for the publication of original investigations in science.
As the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science it publishes in addi-
tion programs of the annual meetings of the society, abstracts of papers
presented before the annual meetings, reports of the society’s officers and com-
mittees, as well as news and announcements of interest to the membership.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors:

DR. M. C. BROCKMAN DR. DAVID R. LINCICOME
Jos. E. Seagram and Sons School of Medicine

7th Street Road University of Wisconsin
Louisville, Kentucky Madison, Wisconsin

Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide mar-
gins, in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles
are accepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be
published exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS. Each paper will be reviewed
by one or more persons qualified in the field covered by the article in addition
to the editors before a contribution is accepted for publication.

Bibliographic citations should follow textual material (except in Research
Notes, see later). Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the
current system employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts.
Biblographic citations in Research Notes should be in the same form as for
longer papers but enclosed in parentheses within the text of the note.

Footnotes should be avoided. Titles must be clear and concise, and provide
for precise and accurate catologuing.

Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be ineluded in an article
only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive
number of tables or illustrations, or with poorly arranged or executed tables or
illustrations may be returned to the author for modification.

Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order
for a maximum amount of material to be published.

Reprints may be obtained from the publisher and must be ordered at the
time galley proof is returned.

Authors are requested to submit an abstract of their papers when galley
proof is returned. This abstract must be no longer than 250 words, nor to ex-
ceed in any case 3% of the length of the original article. Abstracts will be
submitted to Biological Abstracts for publication.

= |

Volume 13 |
1949-1952 ff aay 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS»

aye Le VIDS Sle) SEs Ry 0 0 (oy (ga

A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waeters From Central Ken-
tucky Counties. Rafael A. Cartin and R. H. Weaver .....__..

Comparison of the Sherman Tests With the Chapman Plate
for Identification of the Streptococci From Teeth. C. B.
Maman andar ranicy JsGruchallay 2.)

A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration. A. A. Rosen
and B. S. Andrews

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae (Homoptera).
Dye Am YOUNG sic ce cacao

Academy Holds Spring Meeting

Effect of Commercial Malt Sprouts on the Anaerobic Growth of
Disilersmevrcastavh ere ocaky andl. J. Oller.

Preparation of Ketones by the Sommelet Reaction. M. I. Bow-
man, Irving B. Joffe, W. W. Rinne and James C. Wilkes ........

Economic Status of Lespedeza Seed Oil. Richard H. Wiley —..............

Performance of an Earth Heat Pump on Intermittent Operation.
E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning, and H. H. Thompson ._..........

The Effects of Small Amounts of Glycine and Ethyl Glycine on
Food Ingestion in the Dog. J. W. Archdeacon and A. B.
CHEW ASSN (0) | SSS APE oe re a ee oe en ee Reve eee
The Precision and Accuracy of Meter Sticks. Sigfred Peterson _.....
The Effects of Composition on the Specific Gravity of Binary
Wax Mixtures. John R. Koch and Sister M. Concetta _........
Chromosome Behavior in a Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid. Her-
lovebes VeRErS FOES GEO eee ee aero
(20 EEO STRES TSE aS ogee Re eee

No. 3

Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist.
ET el Nav, Cyan a 0 150, UL ce te ere ee I ee a eee
The Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride in
Acetone at 20° and 40° C. Lyle R. Dawson and Ralph
SNC ES Lh Corea ae as eS Pe eae shee none
The Distribution of Alkali Iodides Between Ethylene Glycol
and Ethyl Acetate. Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J.
SEER an J Ag aL eR le oe RS se Set on MN

The Free Energy of Copper Chromate. Sigfred Peterson and
Rr re i ONE go aa re ee cates sod Seg Rencesmncecctonacbaasne

Emissivities of Protective Coatings. W. R. Barnes and N. P. Shah.... 149
Performance of an Earth Heat Pump Operating Intermittently on
the Cooling Cycle. E. B. Penrod and R. C. Thornton ............ 156
Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and_ Liver
Catalase in Mice. I. Titrimetric Method. Sister Mary
Adeline O'Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N.,
Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Green-
well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke _......000000002 173
Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and _ Liver
Catalase in Mice. II. Gasometric Method. Sister Mary
Adeline O’Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N.,
Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Hose Agnes Green-

well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke 178
Antibotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water.

R. H. Weaver and Theodore Bolter _............00..-..220-.-s eee 183
Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method.

Ter C2 Pend ey iss eae oie ae ene oe Fe ee Nees 3c, 189
Matling Bist. a eS rete re 201
Weademy:Atharrs: 2.20. ch ks Sono Ses aly ell esse ee 208

No. 4
Preparation of Acylaminoacid Esters. Richard H. Wiley and

OlinvH. :Borum: 215 248 es es aes ee ee 213
Animal Habitats on Big Black Mountain in Kentucky. Roger

We Biarbo ur. siceii ek eee at ed re ne ce 215

Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions of
Several Salts in Dimethylformamide. L. R. Dawson, M.

Golben, G. R. Leader, and H. K. Zimmerman __.................... 221
Structure and Function of the Mature Glands on the Petals of
Frasera. carolinensis) Ps AS Davies) = eee 228

Performance of a Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater. E. B.
POnrod's 2232) 2 05 eek eG SU eer IU Sa 9 es GD eae 235

Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrcgraphs of a Cop-
per-berylium Alloy. H. W. Maynor, Jr., C. J. McHargue,

and::@ii-Fe Edwards) 20525 es se a 248
Structural Settlement Computations. John E. Heer, Jr. _.................. 258
Preparation of 1-xylyl-1, 3-butanediones using Diketene. Reedus

Ray Estes and Albert:Tockman 2.0000 .42) 2 ae eee 265
A Look at Kentucky Woodlands. Eugene Cypert, Jr. _....................... 270
Geological Sketch of the Jackson Purchase. E. B. Wood ___........ 275
Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids on a Weak Base Anion Exchanger.

Sigfred Peterson and Robert W. Jeffers 277
Research Notes:

An Albino Snake (Elaphe obsoleta). William M, Clay .......... 285
Academy HA ffaars icy p08 = kn nds eb y Vogtle My Sell CN cS nd Senor oe 286

Index

oF

506.73
ths ho

Volume 13 ! November, 1949 Number 1

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Pee AR PIER EDS.) jaa ee TAEOVER 0 01 scctss covetacuvconebeal su vale udeas sate vanisns cducces gers de pau atventesievaadetarisccassuiet 1

A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters From Four Central
Kentucky Counties. Rafael A. Cartin and R. H. Weaver ...............00 38

Comparison of the Sherman Tests With the Chapman Plate for Identifica-
tion of the Streptococci From Teeth. C. B. Hamann and Frank
SPU OMIMMG RNA DESE Reset Mei bihe em nU re ccbhie uedthanh: wus cists tbaudl ssp attiee tio nas eeadleuc aaeeamededteuse adele 45

A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration. A. A. Rosen and B. S.
PR SACST EWU eect iC TIOSe one cies el rac ose tabica Save Cheh dnd sy vies tune y Kcachaches be dacdudpmecedcogiddasseuateus 48

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae (Homoptera). David A.
DT) AT aE LS aA TAR BTA SPIN EVER EAS AAT I PRL REN SGN GH NSC RE RECOM SPO ROEED E R eB 54

PCIE GY ELOIOS ESTILO OLIN siifonty vcs nuasccestaneakQeuce dorstesydbsovvbewssepeycessivebcuanduduaacsiseeaen cen 68

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1948-1949

President

Morris SCHERAGO,
University of Kentucky,
Lexington

Secretary

C. B. HAMANN,

Asbury College,
Wilmore

Representative to the Council

of the A. A. A.S.

Austin R. MIDDLETON,

University of Louisville,
Louisville

WILLIAM M. Cray,

University of Louisville,

Vice President
M. L. BrILLinss,
Western State College,
Bowling Green
Treasurer

R. H. WEAVER,
University of Kentucky,
Lexington
Counselor to the Junior
Academy of Science

ANNA A. SCHNEIB,

Eastern State College,
Richmond

M. C. BROCKMANN,

Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc.,

Louisville Louisville
Directors
Warp C. Sumpter, Western State College, Bowling Green. foe to 1952
W. D. VaLLEAu, University of eee Keying Gh ee 1952
Morris SCHERAGO, aR ID ive Renty ck J re 1951
PauL Kotacuov, Joseph i f GR ecrarn 342 a dui oy en
GeorcE V. Pace, Western; State College) ost 1950
J. S. Bancson, Berea oe BCL OH as tacarn share es alchore eto a tage ...to 1950
ALFRED BRAUER, University 0 Ghitneky, Je singten\ 1949
H. B. Lovext, University of Louies Ate yee ete 1949

The TRANSACTIONS are issued quarterly. Four numbers constitute a volume.
Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume.

Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other
business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and other
material for publication should be addressed to the editors,

HEAT PUMPS
E. B. PENRop

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky
Lexington 29, Kentucky

INTRODUCTION

Three distinct types of heat pumps which may be used
for continuous air conditioning are considered in this
paper; namely, the Peltier heat pump, the absorption heat
pump, and the compression heat pump. Commercial heat pumps
of the last type have been developed to a high state of per-
fection and can be recommended whenever a good application
presents itself (1). The domestic heat pump systems are in
the experimental stage at the present time and considerable
research must be done before the most economical heat ex~
changer can be designed for extracting the heat from its
source. At the present time there are over three hundred
domestic heat pump systems (pilot-plants) in operation in
the United States.

In this paper attention will be given primarily to
heat pumps for continuous air conditioning and some con=
sideration will be given to fundamental principles. A heat
pump may be defined as a device arranged so that heat is
absorbed from one medium at a low temperature level and
delivered to another medium at a higher temperature level.
A heat pump system is a heat pump plus the auxiliary equip-
ment such as fans, pumps, and automatic controls. This
distinction is made primarily for the purpose of determining
the performance characteristics of different heat pump
systems.

THE REVERSIBLE CYCLE

In 182) Sadi Carnot described an engine that could
transform heat into mechanical work with the minimum unavoiu-
able waste. He pointed out also that the efficiency of his
reversible engine depends on the absolute temperatures of
the source and sink, and that the efficiency is independent
of the nature of the working substance. Twenty-four years
later Kelvin, after making a careful study of the Carnot
cycle, introduced the thermodynamic scale of temperature.
According to this temperature scale, any two temperatures
on it are proportional to the quantities of heat absorbed
and rejected by a reversible Carnot engine working between

APR 17 1969

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

these temperatures. That is

Qn oy Qe - - —(()

Th Te
where Ty, Te are the absolute temperatures of the source
and sink respectively, and Q are the quantities of heat
absorbed and rejected. t can be seen that the ratio of
the heat taken in (or given out) to the absolute temperature
at which it is taken in (or given out) is the same for ail
isothermal changes between any two adiabatics, This sug-
gested to Clausius, in 1651, that the quantity 2. is the
change in &@ certain property of the working T
substance which remains constant during any reversible
adiabatic process, but changes when the substance passes
from one adiabatic to another, Clausius named this prop-
erty entropy. If the Carnot cycle is plotted on the
temperature-entropy plane, Fig. 1, it has the form of the
rectangle ABCD. The area ABFE represents the quantity of
heat taken from the source, in a reversible way, at the
absolute temperature T,, and the area DCFE represents the
unavoidable waste or the heat discharged, in a4 reversible
way, to the sink at the absolute temperature T, (2). The
area ABCD represents the maximum amount of useful mechani-
cal work that can be obtained from the Carnot engine. The
ee of a Carnot engine is given by the equation

uly tha... by ye 2 Se ee
Mie (C£S)) 9 rn Qn

ise af varnot engine were reversed it would absorb a
quantity of heat, in a reversible way, represented by the
area DCFE from a cold body at the absolute temperature T,,
and discharge an amount of heat, in a reversible way,
represented by the area ABFE to a hot body at the absolute
vemperature T,. The area ABCD now represents the minimum
amount of oa berelertl work that must be supplied to the
reversed Carnot engine, If the function of the reversed
Carnot engine is to cool a given space, its efficiency is
called the coefficient of performance and is given by the
equation

q Te

C 0 P as a cooling machine = =) 7 Ale
Ta- Te
If the purpose of the reversed Carnot engine is to heat a
given space, or medium, then

"That 7 em

C O P as a heating machine =

no

Heat Pump

Carnot never suggested that his reversed engine be
used as a heating machine. Now it is impossible to make
an actual engine that will operate on the Carnot cycle and
therefore no refrigeration machine has ever been constructed
that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle. The actual com-
pression refrigeration cycle used today is a cycle in its
own right and should not be considered as a reversed engine
of any type. If a compression refrigeration plant is used
for continuous air conditioning, for example, the events
of the refrigeration cycle are not altered in any way what-
soever when the machine is changed from heating to cooling,
or vice versa. If the refrigeration machine is to have a
special name it is preferable to call it a heat pump instead
of "the reversed cycle". A heat pump may be changed from
a heating to a cooling machine either by the use of a system
of dampers (3), or by the use of several valves (li). In
the former the functions of the two heat exchangers are
unchanged, while in the latter the functions of the two
heat exchangers are interchanged although the various events

of the refrigeration cycle are unaltered .+#+

In 1852 Kelvin suggested that a building could be
heated or cooled with the same equipment (5). A year later,
in order to determine the size of his heating and cooling
machines, Kelvin showed that it would require 0.286 horse-
power for changing the temperature of one pound of air per
second from 50 F to 80 F and that the volume of the com-
pression cylinder should be 15.63 cubic feet, requiring a
diameter of 2.23 feet and a length of ) feet (6). Kelvin's
proposed machine had to be modified considerably in changing
over from heating to cooling, and consequently was never
built. However, refrigeration machines operating on the
Kelvin air cycle came into common use.

# The events of an ordinary compression refrigeration
machine are: (a) the compression of a vapor at low tempera-
ture and pressure to a higher temperature and pressure;

(b) the condensation of the vapor; (c) the expansion of the
liquid through a valve or capillary tube; and (d) the
evaporation of the liquid. These events are always followed
in the same cyclic order no matter whether the plant is

used for heating or cooling a given space or medium.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

1

0) S

Fig. 1.— The Carnot cycle on the temperature-entrophy plane.

@¢O ARE THE TWO ARMS
OF THE THERMOCOUPLE
T = TIME
P = POWER SUPPLIED
Q,= PELTIER HEAT EVOLVED

Q,= PELTIER HEAT
De ABSORBED

poe Th,=PELTIER EMF. AT THE
SUPPLY HOT JUNCTION

T,= PELTIER E.M.E AT THE
COLD JUNCTION

Q,2 MIT
Q°1,1T
P =(71,-Tl, ) I

JUNCTION~s-] || 7.2

le.

Fig. 2.— A simple Peltier heat pump.

4s

Heat Pump

THE PELTIER HEAT PUMP

In 1821 Seebeck discovered that electric charges flow
in a circuit composed of two metallic conductors of differ-
ent materials if the temperatures of the two junctions are
different (7)(8). The combination of two such conductors
is generally referred to as a thermocouple. The energy
expended as the electric charges flow in the circuit is
supplied by the absorption of heat from external sources,
assuming the temperature at every point in the circuit is
maintained unchanged since there is no other means of
supply. In 183) Peltier found that when electric charges
flow across the junction of two dissimilar metals it gives
rise to an absorption or liberation of heat. If electric
charges flow across the junction in one direction, heat is
absorbed, while if they flow in the opposite direction heat
is liberated. The Peltier heat liberated or absorbed at
either junction of the thermocouple is given by

Qh mae.
where Q represents the quantity of heat, tf the Peltier
eom.f., I the electric current, and Y the time (9).

In 185) Kelvin noticed that when electric charges flow
through a wire of homogeneous material and cross-section,
but of non-uniform temperature, heat must be supplied in
order to maintain the temperature gradient. The amount of
heat imparted for a temperature rise dt in time 7 is given

h uation
aes dAQ= ch cedt,
where dQ is the quantity of heat absorbed in time 7% , l
the electric current, and. @ the specific heat of elec-
tricity.* This phenomenon is known as the Thomson effect
and is perfectly reversible.

% The specific heat of electricity is defined by the
equation

ae ta dt } where g” is the specific heat
of electricity, dQ the hcat absorbed by an elemental lengtn
of a conductor, IT the quantity of electricity, and dt is
the temperature difference between the two ends of the
elemental length of the conductor.

LS) ¢

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

A simple Peltier heat pump is shown schematically in
Fig. 2. The arm "a" of a thermocouple is connected to a
D. C. power line. If P is the power input the energy
supplied in time y is P@ , the heat absorbed at the cold
junction at temperature Tg is Q,=™1L@Y_ , and the heat
liberated at the hot junction at temperature T, is =

+. Thus it can be seen that when electric energy
is supplied to a thermocouple as shown in Fig. 2 itis
essentially a heat pump capable of absorbing heat from one
medium at a low temperature level and delivering heat to
another at a higher temperature level.

If the Peltier heat pump is considered as a Carnot
engine, the reversible Thomson heat and the irreversible
Joule heat being neglected, it can be seen from (1) that

ap lig

hs os oy ie We, oe

ero te Te lig ; ire tle Th-Te

The efficiency of the Peltier heat pump is = Tho Te

and the energy supplied is Th

Pr= @— Qtr —mlit, P=(t,-Me)I, 242.
A Se j TL

The coefficients of performance of the Peltier heat
nump are given by

/ ; Te 6)
C O PtKcooling) = —~ - =i( J
; Tipe ile
and CO P(heating) = A = || aI pA IESE (6) .

Th, - We My-TMe

The Peltier refrigerator has been discussed by Alten-
kirsch (10), and patents on this type of refrigerator were
obtained as far back as 1889. If a pile is made of a large
number of thermocouples the capacity of the Peltier heat
pump will be increased in proportion to the number used.
Fig. 3 is a schematic diagram of one thermocouple in the
pile of a Peltier heat pump. The arms "a" and "b" of the
thermocouple are thermally insulated. For an elemental
section, length dx, of one arm of the thermocouple the
irreversible Joule heat absorbed per second is

Heat Pump

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

uu Ht o
dQ, = Tar * = (i 4)? Es 3 82) dv.
i A
The reversible Thomson heat developed per second i.~
Qn Soo kat = cate ate ie ate ay
g dx dx

The irreversible Fourier heat (heat conducted along the
element of the couple) per second is

dQp = Qpn - Qer > (for steady state heat flow,

where
d
Qen = Qpr + OF ax Orr — k A Seti On, = eel
dx dx2
ace
Hence, dQp =-k a dv
2]
ae E's dat ciate. dt
Also dQ, = dQy + dQns then Sy ee PO tA
dx
Cte yin dt 42 = (8)

where Q; = Joule heat
Qp = Thomson heat
Qp- Fourier heat

I = electric current

=
10

electric current per unit area
R = electric resistance

* According to Joule's law, the heat produced in a con-
ductor is proportional to the product of the square of the
current, the electrical resistance, and the time.

#%* The electrical resistivity of a conductor, p , is the
resistance of a bar of the substance one centimeter long
and one square centimeter cross-section.

Heat Pump

electrical resistivity

=
i

@ =- specific heat of electricity
k = thermal conductivity

t - temperature

dt = drop in temperature along dx
oe ‘
— = temperature gradient
dx
L = length of an arm of the
thermocouple
av -A dx or elemental volume

Equation (8) is a linear differential equation of the
second order and first degree. Introducing the dimension-
less ratios

S t x :
= = Bier and a= aoe equation (8) transforms

to dae¢G d¢ - 0 (9)
ay ix dn S p
where 2 Loe (Th = Te)
seaenie (ip = ine «
L

a total Thomson heat per unit area
4 ’

Fourier heat per unit area
2
and - pie Ate May ;
P = x(n, - 1)
L
p = Joule heat per unit area per arm

Fourier heat per unit area

Rearranging the terms in equation (9),

d , :
ay ( oe +xXS) = -B » integrating

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

ae +S = A-BN.

The solution of this linear differential equation of the
first order is

Integrating by parts it is seen that

_x<7
@=1(a-pu)+4+B¢ 5 Ov

ie
t=(hr TA (ab a)4 4% pee =e

where A and B are constants of integration.

Equation (10) is a general solution of (8); anda
particular solution is obtained by applying the boundary
conditions

WS Be 15 2keho 2

tt

Oy;

!
od
e

t=-0, Ones =

Hence B nee a
t=(h- Te)fi— Seal =6 °° )- Bxt- (11).

Equation (11) shows the variation of the temperature along
the arm of the thermocouple. Expanding the exponential
terms, equation (11) transforms to

- ! B B 2 eo ees (()))
t=(The Te) $1 -(o hae T 4
Differentiating equation (12) to obtain the temperature
gradient along an arm of the thermocouple, it is seen that

dt - is Be val -
ae ne HOO 4-8.)

At the hot junction, x = 0, then

B

PTE Aa

dt

dx x

1
ae) ae.

10

Heat Pump

Hence,
Boi iets,
eae ry i, ) a= 25 ee c)
L
a
= == Qr (13)
At the cold junction, x = L, then
dt MP a:
dx, Stee (57 t= Cleese leds
And 1,8
LS + CT aD Ce
So Go Bia, Cn te)
L
SA oye
Bee (1h)
The heat absorbed per unit area, Qabs? from the sink, or
external medium, is equal to the difference between
the Peltier heat, Q,, and Q, _ ;+ Hence
2
‘ nay I
Qr. eae YE) - but = =
abs Te 2 Qp fp Qn 3
- Bes 2
so that Qe ee = (Qe+ 5 i ie L)
’ ke (fs =, TT)
Sat Oe ee 53° pL, or
2 gece -~ i; p L} (15)
ale é

To obtain the maximum value for the heat absorbed at the cold
junction differentiate equation (15) with respect to il and
set the result equal to zero. The value of iL which mares
Qabs a maximum is

P

11

“-“
Ww

JIN

dd

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

pate ee K(Ta- Te) _ Ap /zKGH Te

an ears aki) +4 ?
abs ae pare == (iiaiie

ow _ a pilot al °
: P= eRe)

Substituting the pres of iL from (16) it is readily seen
that 8 = 2. Thus it is seen that for maximum refrigera-
tion, the length and cross-sectional area of the arms of
the thermocouple should be constructed so that the Joule
heat will be equal to twice the Fourier heat. Flacing

8 = 2 in equation (13) it is seen that Q, _ , = 0, which
shows that Peltier heat only is transferred” to the external
medium at the hot junction.

From equation (17) it is seen that

Qabs t fme—Valiet) VKP $ » (for one arm)
fre VF LV kaprVkig] } co

When the Joule and Thomson heats were neglected it was
shown that the power supplied to the Peltier heat pump was

given by the equation
he (a, — 112) 16 .

When the irreversible Joule heat is taken into con-
sideration the power supplied per unit area is given by
the equation

Cabs

| | or
See ee Cabs i

pz fare +12 Gate) [ (haa + Vk] $ couple.

If the cross-sectional area of the arms of the thermo—
couple is sufficiently large so that the current density is
relatively small the Feltier heat pump cycle approximates
a Carnot refrigerator, and it can be seen that

12

Heat Pump

5 (es
M,— Te = HoT Tle
c

Hence, the above equation becomes
=) dna y |
p=if — Tet 2 (TT) h Kaf + ral

For substances that obey the Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz law

(11)
Hence Rafa — Kipp = Bales
P= if tel, Tr 8 (T,-T) y KP } ie

The coefficients of performance of the Peltier heat pump
are given by the equations

couple.

gic

CO P(cooling) -. -~- (19)
TL Te
A Te +Y8(Th Tey KP

SRme (lest ine) yates es a (90)

For alloys that obey the Wiedemann-Franz—Lorenz law,
the heat absorbed at the cold junction is given by the

equation :
Cabs = i $Me ¥8(T,- Te} \/K P |
is positive it follows that

(tte - YF (Th Te) kp) ies
then ae eran Vip
squaring, a? > 8 Gea Kp
transposing, ( Msetake )

Since abs

lars COUR
BK Pp

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

FLUE GAS 6500 BTU PER HR.

Q
NY, 5 36,000 BTU PER HR.
= REMOVED FROM AIR
VN FOR COOLING BUILDING

OV

@
+
fe Cy FLUE GAS
mis \<@ BYPASS
DS p<
<P
: mM
2)
8
r4
wr AIR SUPPLY | 5 | 8 95,500 BTU PER HR.
Boas |= ABSORBER-| 2 | @ SUPPLIED TO AIR
2 7/ \ |GONDENSER Or lia FOR HEATING BUILDING
UNIT 5 1]
m
a Dol [=
2 aio (8
° =~ 8
° a 18 a
o® @) (v9) 2)
> mM = a
Pan) Z yo)
on x vU co)
cz > m @
ve =~ a d
m 4 9 x je
2)
; ;
a

Fig. 4.— A schematic diagram of an absorption refrigeration heat pump system.

14

Heat Pump

The efficiency of the Peltier heat pump (or that of
the Peltier generator) is relatively low when calculated
from data on existing metals and alloys (12).* The effi-
ciency may be improved if alloys having higher Peltier co-
efficients can be found through research. The Peltier heat
pump has no maving parts, and if its efficiency can be im
proved may have application for continuous air conditioning
and in industries that require both warm and cold water for
processing.

ABSORPTION HEAT PUMP

From tests it has been shown that a 3-ton absorption
refrigeration plant, having an efficiency of 5.7 per cent
requires 66,000 Btu per hour, produces refrigeration at the
rate of 36,000 Btu per hour (13). If a 3-ton absorption
refrigeration plant is arranged as shown schematically in
Fig. 4, it can be used as a heat pump system capable of
delivering approximately 95,500 Btu per hour for heating a
given space. The C 0 P's of the absorption refrigeration
heat pump will be about 1.) and 0.55 respectively for heat-
ing and cooling. There will be a saving in the consumption
of gas during the heating season which will reduce the
annual operating cost for continuous air conditioning as
compared to the gas-fired air conditioner that does not
function as a heat pump. By the use of a bypass valve
enough heat can be absorbed from the flue-gas during the
heating period to prevent frosting the evaporator coils when
outdoor air drops below 38 F. Applied to domestic air con-
ditioning the absorption heat pump would smooth out the gas-
sending-out curve and make a good load factor for the Gas
Utility. On the other hand, the absorption heat pump would
be a little more complicated than the gas-fired package air
conditioner and therefore would have a higher installation
cost. (1),) ’ (15) ©

* Cullity reports an efficiency of about 6% for a thermo-
electric generator in which a bismuth-selenium alloy was used
as one arm of the thermocouple and a zinc-antimony alloy as
the other. This value compres favorably with the effi-
ciency of a non-compound steam engine which varies from ) to
8%. "The Thermoelectric Properties and Electrical Comiuc-
tivity of Bismuth-selenium Alloys" by B. D. Cullity, Metals
Technology -— A.I.M.E. Vol. 15, No. 1, January 1948, Tech.
Publ. No. 2313.

15

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

COMPRESSION HEAT PUMP

An air-to-air heat pump system is shown in Fig. 5
when the plant is used for heating. The fan that forces
air into the rooms to be air conditioned is called the cir-
culating fan, and that which discharges air to the outside
after it gives up heat to the evaporator is referred to as
the discard fan. The refrigeration cycle and the air-flow
for the same heat pump instellation are shown in Fig. 6
when the plant is used for cooling.

The performance characteristics of an air-to-air heat
pump system were calculated for a well insulated six-room
house in Lexington, Ky. where the outside design tempera-
ture is 0 F. The inside dry-—bulb temperature was assumed
to be kept at 70 F. The building heat losses for differ-
ent outside mean air temperatures are given in Table I.

In making these calculations the following assumptions
were made:

1. Specific heat of air = 0.2) Btu per lb per OF.
2. Freon-l2 evaporates at -20 F.
3. Evaporator terminal temperature difference = 10 F.
4. Condenser terminal temperature difference = 10 F.
5. Total static pressure iin the air circulating
system = 1.25 inches water.
6. Interior volume of the house = 15,000 cu.ft.
7s One air change per hr., outside air introduced
- 250 cfm at OF.
8. Circulating fan to supply air at the rate of 1,500
cfm.
9. Fan efficiency = 50%.
10. Fan-motor efficiency = 80%.
ll. Refrigeration compressor efficiency - 85%.
12. Compressor-motor efficiency = 90%.
13. Expansion at constant enthalpy.
- Isentropic compression.
15. Atmospheric pressure = 29.92 inches Hg.

Calculation for the heating period on a 0° F:
0.2 wx 1500t = 0.2) (wx 250 x 0 + 0.075 x 1250 x 70)

Moty= Li si5

16

Heat Pump

GAN VAS

ONNEC TION
eee FAN

Tp— HEAT
{| EXCHANGER

HEAT
EXC
(EVAPORATOR) (CONDENSER)

COLD AIR

————

(DISCARDED AFTER
—_———

GIVING UP HEAT

TO REFRIGERANT)

HUMIDIFYING
NOZZLES

CANVAS
CONNECTION

ELECTRIC REFRIGERATION
MOTOR COMPRESSOR

Fig. 5.— A schematic diagram of an air-to-air heat pump system showing the
refrigeration cycle and the air flow during the heating period. The circulating fan
operates continuously while the discard fan operates only when the heat pump is in

operation.

17

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

BELT
DRIVE —||<MOTOR | aere
FAN Ih |
OUTDOOR AIR 5
|
{USED AS i
COOLING SOURCE} s
CANVAS
CONNECTION 00°F AIR
FAN
HEAT
EXCHANGER EXCHANGER
(CONDENSER). (EVAPORATOR)

FROM REFRIGERS

REFRIGERATION
COMPRESSOR

Fig. 6.—A schematic diagram of an air-to-air heat pump system showing the
refrigeration cycle and the air flow during the cooling period.

Table 1.

Mean outside air
temperature, F

Se eee es
(Ss) 1S (i a(S) XS) jo)

Heat Pump

Air conditioning a well-insulated six-room house
using either an air heat pump or an earth heat pump system

Building heat loss,

Btu per hr

65,000
55,000
45,000
35,000
25,000
15,000

5,000

Daily heat lost from

building, Btu

1,560,000
1, 320,000
1,080,000
8,0, 000
601,000
360,500

120,000

|

19

Operation of heat pump

hrs per day

Energy supplied to
circulating fan per

day, kwhr

Heat delivered by heat

pump system per day

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Assume t = 57 F, then 57 w = 4.375

w - 0.0767 1b per cu ft, where w is the sp.wt.
of dry air at 57 F and 29.92 in. Hg.

Temperature of the air leaving the condenser
0.2ly x 0.0767 x 1500 x 60 x (t-57) = 65,000
t = 96.3 F

The following values were obtained from Freon-12 Table_
and Charts:

hy, = 32.7 Btu per lb h3 = 93.2 Btu per lb

P), = 143-4 psia S3 = 0.17275 Btu per lb per OR
%9 = 15.3 psia 3, slau

Ay = 75.9 Btu per lb

Coefficient of performance of a reversible heat pump as a
heating machine operating between the temperature limits
of -20 F and + 132 F
ag
Carnot © 0) P(heating) = _ 2 = 1 5920 6p

Refrigeration effect lel lob
= 75.9 - 32.7, since hy -h

3.2 Btu per lb.

Heat equivalent of compression

Be = hy = Bre = 75.9

L723 Bru per dibs.

Heat discharged from condenser —- h - hy, = 932 — 32m

60.5 Btu per lb.

Theoretical coefficient of performance for the refriger?-
tion cycle considered

The>. C O P(heating) - sig ak _ 90-9 - 3.5
lens | Wee

20

Heal Pump

(aq)

132°E

106.3°F = 1-106. 30F

ST

FLUID FLOW THROUGH THE CONDENSER

-10°F

-20°F

FLUID FLOW THROUGH THE EVAPORATOR

Fig. 7.— A schematic diagram showing the temperatures of the air and the re-
frigerant on passing through the heat exchangers of an air-to-air heat pump on a
day when the outside mean air temperature is 0 F.

21

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

(z)

0

143.4 PSIA

PRESSURE, PSIA

(6)

4

3132°F

TEMPERATURE, F

0.17275

ENTROPY S

Fig. 8.— The refrigeration cycle shown on the pressure-enthalpy plane and on the
temperature-entropy plane on a day when the outside mean air temperature Is 0 F.

ho
ho

Heat Pump

h,
geo. ce. O-P(cooling) =) 26-4 == 43-2 _ ais
=] =
F-12 circulated = en _ 65,000 Btu hr

- h) Btu ipbet | s« O58 Beu Ib

1075 1b hr7L

43.2 Btu b+ x 1075 1b hr

Capacity of the compressor
12,000 Btu hr7+ ton71

= 3.87 tons

cal} -1
Capacity of compressor-motor - ENE SOL ast ermal
0.85 x 0.90 x 3413 Btu kwhr7L

Tele kw, or-9253) hp.

Energy supplied to heat pump - 2h hr x 7.12 kw = 171.0 kwhr.

Compression ratio = 143.4 9.34
TUS
0.000157 x 1500 x 1.25
0250 se 0580
0.736 hp or 0.55 kw.

Power input to circulating fan-motor -

Energy supplied to circulating fan-motor = 2 hr x 0.55 kw
13.2 kwhr.

Use discard fan-motor with the same rating as the circulating
fan-motor,.

-1
Power output - POU hee - 19.0 kw

313 Btu kwhr7+
19.0, kw

= 2.67
712 kw

Actual C O P(heating) for the heat pump -

Total power input to the heat pump system
- 7.12 kw + 0.55 kw + 0.55 kw = 8.22 kw

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Actual C O P(heating) for heat pump system = = - 2.32

The daily heat loss from the house on a O F day, or the hea
delivered by the heat pump system

2, hr day7) x 65,000 Btu hr7t
1,560,000 Btu per day - 57.1 kwhr per day.

Energy supplied to heat pump = 2) hr x 7.12 kw = 171.0 kwhr.

2 hr x 8.22 kw
197.4 kwhr.

Energy supplied to heat pump system

Similar calculations were made for various outside mean
air temperatures. The results of these calculations are
recorded in Tables I and II, and are shown graphically in
Fig. 9. This heat pump system was designed to operate con-
tinuously when the outside mean temperature was O F. The
effect of the increase in the mean temperature of the fresh
air admitted (and the decrease in the specific weight) upon
the head pressure was considered in these calculations. The
actual C 0 P's of the heat pump system at O F and 60 F were
found to be 2.3 and 1.2 respectively (16). It should be
pointed out that the heat pump operates only 1.85 hours per
day, and at its lowest efficiency, when the outside mean
temperature is 60 F.

An earth-to-air heat pump system is shown schematically
in Figs. 10 and 11. Calculations were made to determine the
performance charecteristics of this heat pump system when
used to heat a well insulated six-room house under exactly
the same conditions as for the above air-to-air heat pump
system. The results of these calculations are recorded in
Table III and are shown graphically in Fig. 12. In making
these calculations the effect of the increase of temperature
(and decrease in specific weight) in the 250 cfm fresh air
admitted on the increase in the condensing temperature of the
refrigerant was considered. The actual C O P's of the earth-
to-air heat pump system at O F and 60 F were found to be 3.@
and 1.5 respectively. When this effect was neglected the
corresponding C O P's were found to be 3.52 and 1.57 respec-
tively (17).

Heat Pump

Table JI. Performance characteristics of an air-to-air heat
pump system for various outside mean air temperatures.
Freon-l12 evaporates at -20 F. The heat pump was designed to
operate continuously at O F outside air temperature and inter
mittently at higher air temperatures. The circulating fan
operates continuously and the discard fan intermittently.

Mean outside air
temps. F (@) 10 20 30 0 50 60

Temp. of air enter-
Pre codeiscr F 57.0 59.0 60.9 62.9 64.8 66.7 68.2

emp. of air leav-
ine condenser, F 96.3 98. 100.) 102.6 104.7 106.6 108.2

emp. of F-12 enter-
Be eo cicnser Roe eo Ly 38 OY 3 hs
Temp. of F-12 leav- FSi be

ing condenser, F 106.3 108.4 110.4 112.6 114.7 116.6 116.2

C. ity of
ace, cee Be9 Be 38 368308 3 AT

Oo al
ge i Peo see 9.9) Oc? 10.5: 1068. 1.0

Capacity of com SubweOO 69.9. 10.2 > 10.3 -10.5,.. 10.6
ressor-motor, h

nergy to heat pump

Tee ae ay NU elo We BN (ee 43 15
Energy to discard

day, kwhr
Energy to circu-

lating fan-motor ipcneloee eis .e lace! lee eee age
er da kwhr

Eserey to heat

pump system per 197 py DS 2B) 89 60 29

day kwhr

Heat delivered by

heat pump system 57 513 yf mame a Ii 26° “176 106 35

per day, kwhr

Carnot C O P aro seo meaeo) asco. 340 i FY es i
es COP of the 315 Salta ese 3363 S23 Bee) See
a
Actual C O P of

the heat pum el pen teuaa a ine anaes

Actual C O P of the
‘eat pump system 2.3 2 ittew bees eel) 2.0 a False PR

mm

25

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

70

i)
Oo
(eo)
|
a
fe)

@
°
|

7)
ro)
|

DAILY ENERGY CONSUMPTION, KW. HR.

FS
{o)
|
HEAT LOSS, |OO0O BTU PER HR-WELL INSULATED 6 ROOM HOUSE

120 —£ 30
100 —
80-5 20
60 —
40-3 10
20 —
ee 0 “10 20 30 es 50 60

MEAN OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. 9.— Performance characteristics of an air-to-air heat pump system during the
heating period. The circulating fan operates continuously. The heat pump and
discard fan operate continuously for an outside temperature of O F and inter-
mittently for higher temperatures. The refrigerant evaporates at —20 F.

26

Heat Pump

CANVAS
CONNECTION

FAN

4- WAY
VALVES

EXPANSION
VALVE

AIR bx
FILTERS &

HUMIDIFYIN
NOZZLES
AIR AT 70°F
FROM
ROOMS
AUTO

DAMPERS
REFRIGERATION
COMPRESSOR

HEAT
EXCHANGER

CANVAS
CONNECTION
ELECTRIC MOTCR
~ GROUND
>: TEMP. 30°F

— REFRIGERANT i
TEMPERATURE 20°F

Fig. 10.— A schematic diagram of an ecarth-to-air heat pump system for heating
a building.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

BELT
(YY AT orive
4
AIR TO
—P
ROOMS

CANVAS
CONNECTION
FAN
ANT
\b>— HEAT
EXCHANGER
(EVAPORATOR)
EXPANSION

WARM AIR
iM MS
FouSP

iid
DAMPERS

\ \Y, \y \Y, Ly \yy/ CANVAS
? Be eS NMS ELECTRIC REFRIGERATION NECTI
(2 ; 2 ios MOTOR COMPRESSOR acahitn sl
HEAT
_ EXGHANGER
(CONDENSER)
Fig. 11.—A schematic diagram of an earth-to-air heat pump system used for

cooling a building.

Heat Pump

Table III. Performance characteristics of an earth-to-air
heat pump system for various outside mean air temperatures,
Freon-12 evaporates at + 20 F. The heat pump was designed
to operate continuously at O F outside air temperature and
intermittently at higher air temperatures. The circulating
fan operates continuously.

Mean outside air
es @) 10 20 30 ho SO 60

ia MOEA Ronchi li A ee in Me oe al bom
ing condenser, F B70) 59.0 GOL9 62.9 6h.6- 65.7 68.2

femp Of air Teav= 96.3 98.1, 100.) 102.6 101.7 106.6 108.2
ing condenser, F

Temp. of F-l2 enter-
ing condenser, F Gy 22 25" 127 329. 132 Bh

Temp. of F-12 leav- 196,3 108.4 110.4 112.6 114.7 116.6 118.2
ing condenser, F

SS eS. ee ee
pee a ee Oe

Compression ae
eed Meteo en he2. lish oh 5. lsorelie

Capacity of com-

pressor-motor, hp Oem eS eerie to eOln ect oo) Oso
Energy to heat

wane Senge Tene 108 96 81 oie NY 29,10
Energy to circu=

lating fan-motor I) Sele ats ea ei casas be ede ada ce a ce beg
per day, kwhr

Energy to heat eae Te Fi

pump system per i2i= | 109 OPT COs sham 23
day, kwhr

Heat delivered by

heat pump system 457 387 317 26 176 106 35
per day, kwhr

Carmo: O Po 5.9 Bird Be) 55 Delt 5.8 ae

Theo. CO P, of the 5,6 5,3 5.1 5.0 TIE Nels es, ey UE
heat pump
Paintatearota Celi at aes oo eee a en ee
eee Seae Mesna tele 73260 eorGee 20 okt. 366
Baar@ceent role thcuns ©... 1 +. lee oes
heat pump system 3.0 3.6 Sele ei Setpeege coco, les

29

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

a
ce)
|

~
°
|

1000 BTU PER HR.- WELL INSULATED 6 ROOM HOUSE

ieee sy

(+2) @ Oo
(eo) fo) (eo)
| | |

40 -

DAILY ENERGY CONSUMPTION, KW. HR

HEAT LOSS,

a
a
N
:
a
|

i)
o Oo
| |

O io 20 30 40 50 60
MEAN OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE, F

Fig. 12.— Performance characteristics of an earth-to-air heat pump system during
the heating period. The circulating fan operates continuously. The heat pump
operates continuously for a mean outside temperature of 0 F and intermittently
for higher temperatures. The refrigerant evaporates at + 20 F.

30

Heat Pump

Comparative results are shown in Table IV for an air-
to-air and an earth-to-air heat pump system designed to heat
the same well insulated six-room house in a locality where
the outside temperature is 0 F. From this table it can be
seen that the operating cost is less for the earth-to-air
than that for the air-to-air heat pump system since less
energy is required to operate the former. The earth-to-air
heat pump requires a much smaller compressor-motor than the
air-to-air type and there is no danger of ice collecting on
the evaporator coils. However, the earth coil is much more
expensive to install and will be less accessible if and when
repairs are required.

CONSERVATION OF FUEL

The following calculations were made to show that the
compression type heat pump system must have a C O P greater
than 3.33 before it can be used to conserve our natural fuel
supply: One pound of eastern Kentucky coal (14,500 Btu per
lb) burned in a boiler of a modern steam power plant and con-
verted into electric energy at an efficiency of 2.4% would
result in 3537 Btu (0.828 kwhr) available at the terminal of
the electric generator. Assume a 20% loss between the genera-
tor and a house, 2830 Btu would be available for direct
electrical heating for each pound of coal burned. On the
other hand, the 2830 Btu (0.828 kwhr) of electric energy
supplied to a domestic heat pump system having a C OP of
3.33 would result in 9420 Btu (3.33 x 2830) per pound of
coal burned at the power plant available for heating the
house. One pound of the same coal burned in a good stoker-
fired furnace at an efficiency of 65% in a house, would
result in 9420 Btu (0.65 x 14,500) available for heating.

On this basis of comparison, the domestic heat pump system’
Will only deliver just as much heat per pound of coal burned
as the stoker-fired furnace.

HEAT PUMP PROGRESS

There are twenty-four commercial heat pump installations
in the Americas which provide continuous air conditioning,
seven of which are not in offices of electric utilities. Of
the latter, three were installed on the Pacific coast in 197,
one of which has a nominal capacity of 225 tons and one 50
tons. A 550-ton heat pump system has been installed in the
+welve-story Equitable Building in Portland, Oregon.

a

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Table IV Comparison of an earth-to-air and an air-to-air
heat pump system

Type of System
Earth-to-Air Air-to-Air

Outside mean air temperature OVE OF
Inside dry-bulb temperature 70 F 70 F
Evaporator temperature +20 F -20 F
Carnot C O PL Bo) 3.9
Theoretical C O P, of heat pump B56 365
Actual C O P, of heat pump has} Zod
Actual C O P, of heat pump system 3.8 253}
Compressor capacity, tons 4.0 B69)
Compression ratio 4.0 9.3
Compressor-motor, hp Soll 705
Energy supplied to system, kwhr 120.7 Mall
Operating time, hrs per day 2h 2h

Heat Pump

The General Engineering and Manufacturing Co., St. Louis,
Mo. manufactured a limited number of domestic heat pump units
in 1948 and installed them as pilot-plants in various parts
of the United States to obtain performance data. This Com
pany has had one domestic heat pump in operation for several
years.

The Webber Engineering Company, Indianapolis, Ind. made
experimental heat pump units for electric utilities. Three
earth-to-air heat pumps of the direct expansion type are now
in operation in the Indianapolis area and two more are now in
the process of construction.

In 1938 C. E, Boggs designed and installed a heat pump
system to provide panel heating in his new house in Boise,
Idaho. During 197 he designed two domestic heat pumps, water-
to-water type, for the Boise area. One of these was installed
in a new house to provide panel heating and the other replaced
a hot air furnace in a house already constructed. In addition
to these, he designed a 3-ton package heat pump system which
was installed in the Idaho Power Company System Dispatcher's
office where the heat source is waste cooling water from feeder
regulators. The Northwestern Heat Pump Company of Boise
planned to make about six domestic heat pumps last year.

This Company is interested particularly in designing heat

pump systems with hot water storage tanks of sufficient size

to make off-peak house heating with the heat pump mre economi-
cal,

Drayer-Hanson, Inc., of Los Angeles, has approximately
300 heat pump units in operation, most of which are semi-
commercial installations. Recently the Gay Engineering Com-
pany of Los Angeles installed a heat pump system in the ware-
house of the Spector Produce Co. of Phoenix, Arizone to ripen
bananas, Here the heat pump rinciple is used very efficiently
since both heat exchangers are used simultaneously, one ex-
tracting heat from the frozen food rooms at a low temperature
level and the other discharging heat to three banana lockers
at a higher temperature level.

SUMMARY

1. The Peltier heat pump was proposed nearly sixty years
ago. However, a heat pump constructed from alloys available
at that time was known to have a low efficiency. Recently
research has been done to develop new alloys which obey the

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Wiedemann-Franz—Lorenz law and at the same time have a much
higher thermoelectric power, in order to improve the effi-
ciency of the thermocouple when used as either a direct
current generator or a Peltier heat pump (12). It is hoped
that the review of the theory of the Peltier heat pump given
here will stimulate research in metallurgy in order to pro-
duce alloys which will be malleable, have a very high thermo-
electric power, and at the same time obey the Wiedemann-
Franz-Lorenz relation.

2. Although the absorption heat pump may have a low
COP, if perfected it would lower the annual operating cost
as compared to the gas-fired package air conditioner when
used for continuous air conditioning, by reducing the gas
consumption during the heating season. hesearch is recom
mended.

3. The commercial heat pump of the compression type has
been applied successfully in industries for processing and
for continuous air conditioning. When used for air condi-
tioning, the maintenance cost is comparable with that of the
ordinary refrigeration plant. The refrigeration engineer may
also find many good applications of the heat pump by making
a careful survey of industries other than air conditioning.

h. The domestic heat pump is in the experimental state
at the present time. aA theoretical analysis has been given
here to determine the performance characteristics of an
earth-to-air and an air-to-air heat pump system. A water-
to-air heat pump system will have performance characteristics
similar to that of the earth-to-air type. From Table IV it
can be seen that the air-to-air heat pump requires a motor
whose capacity is about 50 per cent greater than an earth-
to-air heat pump for heating the same house under the same
conditions. The condensing temperature of the refrigerant
could be lowered if panel heating were provided. This in
turn would increase the C O P, decrease the compression ratio,
and thereby decrease the horsepower of the compressor-motor.

5. At the present time very little engineering data are
available on the transient flow of heat through the earth.#

* Data on the strength of a earth heat source will be pub-
lished in a bulletin by the Engineering Experiment Station
of the University of Kentucky.

34

Heat Pump

In case the time rate of heat flow through the earth is very
low the heat transfer surface per ton of refrigeration, in
the evaporator, will be larger unless the moisture around

the coil is frozen. Considerable research will be necessary
before it can be decided whether the earth is a suitable

heat source. The cost of digging trenches to install an
earth coil at the present time will make this type of heat
pump system more expensive than the air-to-air type. However,
a machine might be developed for digging deep holes for
placing hair-pin coils in the earth.

6. It has been shown that solar house heating may be
possible with relatively short-term heat storage (18). It
might be possible to supplement an earth heat pump in the
northern states and the air heat pump in the southern states
with solar heat. However, it should be pointed out that by
combining two different types of heating systems the initial
installation cost will be increased but the annual operating
cost may be reduced.

7. There will be practically no saving of our natural
fuels if the heat pump is employed unless the C O P for
heating is above 3.33.

8. In general it is not easy to predict the cost of a
commodity until it has been made. It is therefore rather
difficult to estimate the initial cost of a domestic heat
pump system until the manufacturers have produced it. The
economics of the heat pump has been discussed recently (19).

9. A domestic heat pump system should be completely
automatic and entirely reliable. The reliability of the
domestic heat pump system should be determined by installing
a large number of pilot plants before it is placed on the
market.

35

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

‘The author had the privilege of reading an unpublished report on
“Thermo-Electric Refrigeration” by Dr. David B. Smith of the Philco

Corporation and wishes to thank him specially for permission to use
some of his material. He also wishes to thank George A. Stetsen,
Editor, Mechanical Engineering; Dean D. V. Terrell, Director of the
Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Kentucky; and
Dr. George A. Baitsell, Editor of the American Scientist for permission

to use some material that appears in this paper.

36

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. “A Review of Some Heat Pump Installations”, by E. B. Penrod, Mechanical
Engineering, Vol. 69, No. 8, August 1947, pp. 639-647.

2. “Entropy”, by Karl K. Darrow, The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 21,
MNES ISSA pp. ol-o4:

3. “Practical Aspects of the Heat Pump”, by F. W. Jordan, Electrical West,
Vol. 94, April 1945, pp. 65-69.

f. “The Heat Pump: An Ail Electric Year Round Air Conditioning System”,
by Philip Sporn and E. R. Ambrose, Heating & Ventilating, Vol. 41, January 1944,
pp. 68-78.

5. “On the Economy of Heating and Cooling of Buildings by Means of Air”,
by Sir William Thomson (Kelvin), Proceedings of the Philosophical Society, Glas-
gow, Scotland, Vol. 3, December 1852, pp. 269-272; Collected Papers of Lord Kelvin,
WolselipscoL5.

6. “The Power Required for the Thermodynamic Heating of Buildings’, by
Sir William Thomson (Kelvin), Mathematical and Physical Papers of Kelvin, Vol.
5 reprint 1910, pp. 125-133. (This set was published in 1882, 1883, and 1890.)

7. “Elements of Electricity and Magnetism”, by Sir J. J. Thomson, p. 377
(Cambridge University Press 1921).

8. “Principles of Electricity”, by Page and Adams, p. 218 (D. Van Nostrand
Co., Inc., 1931).

9. “Vextbook of Thermodynamics”, by Epstein, p. 363 (John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1937).

10. “Elektrothermische Kalteerzengung und Reversible Elektrische Heitzung”,
by Edmund Altenkirch, Zeitschrift fur die gezamte Kalte—Industrie, Vol. 19, pp.
1-95 (1912):

Il. “Heat and Thermodynamics”, by J. K. Roberts, p. 233 (Blackie and Sons,
Ltd., 1933).

12. “The Efficiency of ‘Phermoelectric Generators”, by Maria ‘Velkes, Journal
of Applied Physics, Vol. 18, No. 12, December 1947, pp. 1116-1127.

13. American Gas Association “Summer Air Conditioning Research Bulletin
No. 18", (American Gas Association ‘Vesting Laboratories, Cleveland, O., or Los
Angeles, Calif.).

I4. “Gas for Summer Air Conditioning”, Heating and Ventilating, Vol. 41,
February 1944, pp. 56-78.

15. “An All-Year Gas Air-Conditioning Unit", by H. C. Pierce, Mechanical
Engineering, Vol. 67, March 1945, pp. 171-174.

16. “Continuous Air Conditioning with the Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod,
American Scientist, Vol. 35, No. 4, October 1947, pp. 515-516,

17. “Development of the Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod, Engineering Experi-
ment Station Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 4, June 1947, pp. 47-56, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

18. “Solar House Heating—A Problem of Heat Storage”, by Maria Telkes,
Heating and Ventilating, Vol. 44, No. 5, May 1947, pp. 68-75.

19. “Economic and Technical Aspects of the Heat Pump”, by W. E. Johnson,
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 19, No. 12, December, 1947, pp. 119-126.

A BACTERIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WELL WATERS
FROM FOUR CENTRAL KENTUCKY COUNTIES

RAFAEL A. CARTIN AND R. H. WEAVER

Bacteriology Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

In the Drinking Water Standards adopted by the Public Health
Service in 1942 ts the statement: “A brief summary of the pertinent
facts relating to the sanitary condition of the water supply, as revealed
by the field survey, should be submitted.” Among the pertinent facts
are listed, “Nature of soil and underlying strata; depth to water table”
and “Nature of rock penetrated, noting especially existence of porous
limestone.”

In the Sanitation Manual for Ground Water Supplies, 1944, is the
statement: “Formations such as limestone, broken lava rock, coarse
eravel, and brittle rocks whose interstices are in the form of channels,
joints, and fissures, provide little filtering action to prevent contamina-
tion from reaching the water-bearing stratum.”

In spite of these statements, a search of the literature will reveal a
deficiency in studies of the effect of soil and rock types on the sanitary
quality of water supplies.

Through the cooperation of the U. S. Geological Survey and the
Department of Geology of the University of Kentucky, who have been
making a survey of the water supplies of four Central Kentucky coun-
ties, Bourbon, Fayette, Jessamine and Scott, it has been possible to
obtain samples of water from 73 wells in this area, together with geolog-
ical data concerning the locations of the wells.

Along with studies to correlate the bacteriological quality of the
water with the geological surroundings of the well, studies have been
made of the effect of storage of the water samples for 24 and 48 hour
periods at room temperature on the results of tests for members of the
coliform group in the water. Although the Standard Methods for the
Examination of water and Sewage (Ninth edition, 1946) specifies that
samples of relatively pure waters shall not be held for more than 12
hours (impure waters waters 6 hours) at 6 to 10 C, the majority of
water samples from rural regions in Kentucky are examined only after
prolonged storage at room temperature. Many of them are mailed to
the laboratories where the examinations are made. ‘The work of
Hutchison, 1943, on the influence of the presence of antagonists for
Escherichia coli in water samples on the results of tests for coliform
organisms has suggested that results obtained after such handling of
samples may be very unreliable.

38

A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters

EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURES

The samples were taken by members of the Geology Department
of the University of Kentucky. ‘Three samples were taken from each
well, all at the same time, in sterile glass-stoppered bottles of approxi-
mately 100 ml capacity. “hey were brought to the laboratory, uniced.
In most cases, the time between sampling and commencement of ana-
lysis was less than one hour, and in no case was it greater than two
hours.

One of three samples from each well was examined immediately
upon receipt in the labortary for bacterial content by means of the
standard 37 C plate count and for density of coliform organisms, the
most probable number (M. P. N.) being determined. “The procedures
of the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage,
1946, were followed. For the coliform determination five 10-ml por-
tions, five I-ml portions and five 0.1-ml portions were planted in lac-
tose broth. All positive presumptives were confirmed in brilliant green
lactose bile broth.

The remaining two samples from each well were stored at room
temperature. At the end of 24 hours, one of the two stored samples
was exzmined for density of coliform organisms, and at the end of 48
hours, the other sample was examined.

RESULTS

The results are included in table 1. Information on depth of wells
and rock formations in which the wells are located is also included
in the table. In some cases such information was not available.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

TABEES

BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS ON CENTRAL KENTUCKY WELL WATERS

Well Depth Formation at
No. feet bottom of well
I 120 Curdsville
2 165 Hermitage
3 65 Jessamine
{ 2000
5 17
6 75
7 195 Hermitage
8 185 ‘Tyrone
9
10 185 ‘Tyrone
11 180 Curdsville
12 85 Jessamine
13 65 Hermitage
14 90 Jessamine
15 28 Jessamine
16 42 Jessamine
17 78 Hermitage
18 135 Jessamine
19
20 75 Curdsville
2) 100 Hermitage
22 70
23
24. 60 ‘Tyrone
25
26 70

Standard plate
count

FAYETTE COUNTY

140
230
6600
70
70
110

2900
7
350
600
34

we

J

40)

M. P. N. coliforms*

1]
*1600
240

2

Sample
2 3
17 6.1
0 0
350 540
0 0
130 240
350 *1600
920, 920
540 540
2 4.5
0 2
23 45
130 49
33 4.5
4.5 6.8
1600 *1600
0 0
0 0
33 170
0 0
220 170
23 11
2) 0
7.8 2
*1600 49
79 14
2 0)

A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters

Well Depth Formation at Standard plate M. P. N. coliforms?

No. feet bottom of well count Sample
| 2 3
JESSAMINE C@UNTY
27 350 130 79 17
28 500 110 130
29 14 9,600 *1600 *1600 *1600
30 86 35 4 1 0
31 30 700 81 *1600 220
32 75 *30,000 19 33 17
33 170 2,900 64 540 240
34 65 6 4.5 0 0
35 85 10 19 33 17
Scott COUNTY

56 135 Jessamine 130 ail 4.5 0
37 60 Woodburn { 14 16 23
38 190 ‘Tyrone 75 19 17 22
39 80 150 6.8 0 0
40 500 Tyrone 110 4.5 0 0
11 100 Curdsville 95 23 4.5 4:5
+2 A4 Jessamine 85 4] 7.8 a)
43 60-75 Jessamine 1 0 0 0
44 25 Benson 30 240 41 17
45 65 Benson 38 39 140 33
46 30 27 33 33
47 55 15 17 21 13
48 100 2900 7.8 4.5 0
49 140 920 920 33
50 123 ‘Tyrone 15 0 2 1.8
51 76 Jessamine 80 Z 2 0
52 75 Benson 85 19 040)
53 80 Curdsville 110 110 79 130
Df 50 Benson 190 540 240 920
55 132 Hermitage 3 0 0 0
56 55 ‘Tyrone i) 2 0 0
oY 90) Curdsville 250 *1600 *1600 *1600
58 78 Jessamine 60 350 95 33
59 100 Jessamine 170 0 0 0
60 90-100 Jessamine 85 49 19 1.5
61 84 Tyrone 32 11 1] 13
62 150 ‘Tyrone 325 22 23 14
63 135 Jessamine 7 0 0 0
64 135 Jessamine 16 540 7.8 5
65 200 Tyrone 31 350 31 49
66 200 Jessamine 240 540). 920: 4920
67 18 21 2 4.5

4]

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Well Depth Formation at Standard plate M. P. N. coliformst
No. feet bottom of well count Sample
1 2 3

BOURBON COUNTY

68 73 30 79 70 33
69 65 240, 240 350
70 350 240 *1600 2
71 31 33 1.8 0 0
72 30 5 0 0 0
73 140 85 0 0 0

7 Sample 1 examined immediately after arrival at laboratory.
Sample 2 stored 24 hours at room temperature before examination.
Sample 3 stored 48 hours at room temperature before examination.

* Greater than.

In accordance with the usual results of water surveys little correla-
tion can be found between the standard plate count results and the
results of the tests for members of the coliform group. Judgment of
the sanitary quality of the waters should be based primarily upon the
coliform results.

Of the 73 wells examined, 62 (84.99) were positive for coliforms.
Standard plate counts of samples from these wells varied from 1 to
greater than 50,000; the median was 80. Of the 62 coliform positive
samples, 50 had M. P. N. values of over 10 and the wells may be con-
sidered zs heavily polluted. Standard plate counts on these samples
varied between 4 and greater than 30,000; the median was 85. Stand-
ard plate counts on the samples from the 12 lightly polluted wells
varied between | and 2,900; the median was 33. Standard plate counts
on the Il samples that were negative for coliforms varied between 1
and 375; the median was between 5 and 6. While the wells from
which these samples were taken should not be considered as polluted,
at least 2, with plate counts of 325 and 375, should be viewed with
suspicion.

Rock formations in the region studied are Ordovician, and are pri-
marily limestone formations. No correlation could be found between
the specific formations in which the wells were located and the sanitary
quality of the water; nor could any correlation be found between the
depths of the wells and the sanitary quality of the water. Likewise
no correlation could be found with the soil types in which the wells
were located. For the sake of brevity, data on soil types have not been
included in the table of results.

Samples from 61 of the 62 wells that yielded coliform oryanisms
when the samples were examined immediately were studied for the
complete storage period of 48 hours.

42

A Bacteriological Survey of Well Waters

Of the 61 stored samples, 43° (70.5°,) showed decreases in the coli-
form content during the storage period. Fifteen (24.69%) showed
increases. Of the remaining 3 samples, one showed no change in
coliform content in the 48 hour period and the other 2 had M. P. N.
values greater than 1600, so that the serial dilutions used did not give
accurate results.

Of the 62 samples from sources that yielded coliform organisms
from the samples that were examined without storage, 6 yielded no
coliform organisms after they had been stored for 24 hours at room
temperature. Of these, only one was from a source that had a M. PLN.
of over 6.8 as determined from the unstored sample. ‘Uhis well had a
M. P. N. of 49 from the unstored sample, a M. P. N. of 0 from the
sample that was stored for 24 hours, and a M.P.N. of 2 from the
sample that was stored for 48 hours.

Of 61 samples from sources that yielded coliform organisms from
the samples that were examined without storage, 11 yielded no coli-
form organisms after they had been stored for 48 hours at room
temperature. Of these only one was from a source that had a M. P.N.
of over 27 as determined from the unstored sample. ‘This well had a
M. P. N. of 540 from the unstored sample, a M. P. N. of 7.8 from the
sample that was stored for 24 hours, and a M. P. N. of 0 from the
sample that was stored for 48 hours.

DISCUSSION

Little information was available concerning the construction of
the wells from which the samples were obtained. It is probable that
some of the wells are not so constructed as to avoid the entrance of
surface pollution. Allowing for the presence of some wells of this
type in the test group, it is still evident that much of the pollution
can only be ascribed to the geological features of the region.

It may be concluded that comparatively few unpolluted wells exist
in the area studied. Only 15 per cent of the wells studied were un-
polluted on the basis of the coliform test as judged by a single sampIl-
ing. High plate counts indicate that some of these wells might be
found to be polluted at certain times if a series of samples were to be
examined.

The results obtained with the stored samples emphasize the im-
portance of the Standard Methods limitations on the storage of
samples. Quantitative results to indicate the extent of pollution are

43

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

almost worthless on samples that have been stored for 24 hours or
more at room temperature. Qualitatively, pollution can usually be
detected with samples that have been stored under these conditions,
provided the extent of the pollution is comparatively great. Positive
results on stored samples may be trusted but negative results should be
looked upon with suspicion.

SUMMARY

Samples of water from 73 wells in four Central Kentucky counties
have been examined. Of these wells 50 were found to be heavily
polluted, and 12 to be lightly polluted, as judged by tests for coliform
organisms. High plate counts indicate that some of the remaining 11
wells should be viewed with suspicion pending further investigation.
The high degree of pollution of well waters in Central Kentucky is
associated with the predominantly limestone formation of the region.
No correlation could be established, however, between the quality of
the well water and the depth of the well or the formation in which the
well was located.

Studies on the effect of storage of samples of well water at room
temperature before examination emphasizes the importance of follow-

ing Standard Methods provisions on the handling of samples if corrcet
results are to be obtained.

REFERENCES

Hutchison, D. 1943. The incidence and significance of antagonists to Escherichia
coli in water with respect to Standard Methods procedures. Thesis, Univ. of Ky.

Public health service drinking water standards and manual of recommended water
sanitation practice. 1943. Public Health Reports 58. 69-111.

Sanitation manual for ground water supplies. 1944. Public Health Reports 59:
U3 9E Wile

Standard methods for the examination of water and sewage. Ninth edition, 1946.
American Public Health Association, New York, N. Y.

COMPARISON OF THE SHERMAN TESTS WITH THE
CHAPMAN PLATE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF THE
STREPTOCOCCI FROM TEETH

C. B. HAMANN AND FRANK J. GRUCHALLA

Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky. St. Louis University, School of Dentistry.

The present paper is a part of a larger study involving the flora
of infected root canals of teeth.’ In the course of the study it became
apparent that in over 90°) of the cases, streptococci were present,
usually in pure culture. The clinical men soon observed that not all
teeth responded equally well to treatment and as one of the variables
was the bacteria, an attempt was made to differentiate the various
species of streptococci.

Isolations were made by inserting sterile cotton points into the
root canal, dropping into Brewer’s Fluid ‘Thioglycollate medium
(Bacto), and incubating 24-96 hours. Growth’ was usually apparent
in 24 hours. Blood agar plates were streaked as soon as growth became
visible. From these plates pure cultures were started using serum
tryptose broth.

As a majority of the cocci isolated gave either an alpha or gamma
reaction on blood agar, further identification became a_ necessity.
While the author was aware of Chapman’s medium? for isolation of
the streptococci, it seemed advisable to check the results of this plating
medium against the fermentation test and the Sherman series of tests.*

Accordingly 44 pure cultures of streptococci isolated from the root
canals as well as stock strains of streptococci were subjected to the
three techniques.

The substances for fermentation included: adonitol, cellobiose,
dextrin, dextrose, dulcitol, maltose, mannitol, mannose, melezitose,
raffinose, rhamnose, salacin, sorbitol, sucrose, and xylose. All were
sterilized by filtration and tubed in 2 ml. amounts in serological tubes.
Phenol red was used as the indicator and was added before sterilization.
The pH was adjusted to 7.8. All innoculated tubes were incubated
at 37° C. for 96 hours, and read at 24 hour intervals. In addition to
the fermentation tests, liquifaction of gelatin was noted.

The Sherman tests included: Growth in litmus milk at 45° C., final
pH of dextrose broth, growth in 0.19 methylene blue, production of
ammonia, growth in 6.5°% salt broth and growth in serum tryptose

ata pH of 9.6.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

The Chapman technique was carried out as described by him.?
The results of the fermentation tests may be summarized as follows:
All strains fermented dextrin, dextrose, galactose, lactose, maltose,
mannose and sucrose. None of the strains fermented dulcitol or
inositol. Strains varied in their fermentation of adonitol, cellobiose,
esculin, glycerol, inulin, mannitol, melezitose, raffinose, rhamnose,
salicin, sorbitol and xylose.

‘The results of the Sherman tests were interpreted as follows:

No growth in the 0.1% methylene blue, 6.5% salt broth, or in the
high pH medium and no production of ammonia, were considered
to be Streptococcus salwarius.

No growth in the 0.1% methylene blue, but growth in the other
media and production of ammonia, were considered to be Strepto-

coccus mitts.

Growth in all media and production of ammonia were considered
to be Streptococcus felcalis, or liquifaciens. “Vhose liquifying gelatin
were designated liquifaciens.

According to this classification of the 44 unknown strains:

16 were Streptococcus salivarius
6 were Streptococcus mitis

17 were Streptococcus fecalis

5 were Streptococcus liquifaciens

Chapman’s description of the colonies on the plate was used as
the basis of classification.

Pale blue opaque colonies 2-5 mm. in diameter and giving a “gum
drop” appearance, (a few were rugose), were considered to be Strepto-
coccus salivarius.

Small blue colonies about 0.2 mm. in diameter were called
Streptococcus mitts.

Dark brown to black, smooth, slightly raised colonies 0.5-1.5 mm.
in diameter were considered enterococci and later differentiated on
the basis of gelatin liquification. ‘This gave from the 44 strains:

13 Streptococcus salivarius

9 Streptococcus mitis

15 Streptococcus fecalis

5 Streptococcus liquifaciens

2 no growth (salivarius by Sherman’s tests)

46

Comparison of the Sherman Tests With the Chapman Plate

By the way of correlation: Of three strains determined by the
Sherman tests to be salivarius, two refused to grow on the Chapman
medium and one was considered to be mitis by the appearance of the
colony. No strains identified as salivarius on the plates differed from
the determination by the Sherman tests. None of these determined
by the Sherman tests to be sal:varius fermented cellobiose or esculin.
While only six strains were determined by the Sherman tests to be
mitis, five of these six checked with the plate and one gave the black
colony of fecalis. In addition, three considered to be enterococci by the
Sherman test, gave mitis colonies, and as noted above, one mitis
colonial type was salivarius. “Those considered to be mitis by the
Sherman test did not ferment cellobiose or esculin, except with one
strain and it gave a typical mitis colony.

‘Twenty-two strains were identified as enterococci by the Sherman
tests. Three of these gave typical mitis colonies and one black colony
gave a mitis reaction as noted above. Otherwise they correlated in
determining this species. “Two of the mitis colonies were liquifaciens
and one fecalis, according to gelatin liquifaction. All of the strains
except one identified as enterococci. by the Sherman test, fermented
cellobiose and esculin.

As every worker on the streptococci has discovered, the fermenta-
tion reaction of these organisms is in general too variable to be of
value. However, the very high number of strains of enterococci fer-
menting cellobiose and esculin may be of some use. “The Chapman
plate appears to be a rapid and fairly reliable means of identifying
Streptococcus salivarius, though less reliable in differentiating between
Streptococcus mitis and the enterococci.

REFERENCES

'Gruchalla, F. J., and C. B. Hamann, J. Mo. State Dental Assoc. 27: 230-231.
Chapman, G. H:, J. Bact., 1944, 48, 113-114.

* Sherman, J. M., Bact. Rev., 1937, I.

47

A MODIFIED PROCEDURE FOR THE FORMOL
TITRATION*

A. A. ROSEN AND B. S. ANDREWS
Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky

The formol titration, described in 1907 by Sorensen (6), has been
a most valuable tool in the study of protein hydrolysis and for the
determination of amino acids. “The method is based on the reaction
be.ween tormaldehyde and amino compounds to produce Schiff
compounds (5). When formaldehyde is added to a solution of an
amino acid, the end-point of the titration with alkali is displaced from
a pH value over 12 to a pH value about 9. Not only is it possible to
select an indicator for the lower pH, but the titration curve breaks
more sharply under this condition, and the end-point can be deter-
mined more precisely.

The nature of the reaction between amino acids and formalde-
hyde has been the subject of intensive investigation by Levy and
others (2) (3). The following conclusions may be drawn from the
work of these investigators: (a) the formol titration is essentially a
determination of the amino groups, not the carboxyl, of an amino
acid; (b) the formaldehyde forms methylol as well as methylene
derivatives of the amino group.

‘The titration can be carried out both electrometrically and colori-
metrically, using suitable indicators. Dunn and Loshakoff (1) have
described the use of the glass electrode in the formol titration. ‘Their
procedure gave greater accuracy and precision than can be obtained
by the use of indicators. However, the procedure is tedious and re-
quires apparatus not readily available in many laboratories.

Phenolphthalein is an indicator of suitable pH range for the
formol titration. ‘The first appearance of color, however, occurs at
a pH somewhat below the stoichiometric end-point for most amino
acids, which is pH 9.0 to 9.1 (2). Northrop (4) has devised a pro-
cedure which takes advantage of the property of a one-color indicator
to fix the end-point more exactly. In his method, the amino acid
solution is first adjusted to pH 7 with neutral red indicator, then
formalin is added and the titration is completed with phenolphthalein.

* Presented before the Section on Chemistry, Kentucky Academy of Science
April, 1947.

A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration

Color standards for each indicator are prepared from the sample under
conditions identical to those in the determination. By using half as
much phenolphthalein in the color standard as in the titration and
developing the maximum color intensity in the standard, this color is
matched in the titration of the sample when the pH is in the middle
of the range for phenolphthalein.

Two advantages of this method are evident: (a) the volumes of
the color standards are automatically equal to the volumes of the
sample at the corresponding stages of the titration; (b) the color
standards automatically adjust for moderate amounts of color in the
sample to be titrated, thus enabling the method to be applied to many
protein hydrolyzates.

Several trials of Northrop’s method did not produce a desirable
degree of accuracy, in the titration of pure amino acids. ‘This pro-
cedure is a semi-micro one, using 5 ml. of a 0.01 molar solution of the
amino acid sample. “The formaldehyde concentration at the end of
the titration is about 3.5%. The work of Levy (2) suggests an ex-
planation for the inaccuracy of this method. He has shown that
increased accuracy is obtained in the formol titration when the con-
centration of the amino acid 1s increased, the dilution during titration
is held at a minimum, and the formaldehyde concentration at the end-
point is 6 to 9%.

In order to modify the Northrop method to obtain greater accuracy
in the Hight of the factors described above, the concentration of the
sample and the standard alkali were increased tenfold and the volumes
used were doubled to avoid the use of semi-micro equipment. ‘The
optimum proportions of formaldehyde and indicator for the titration
were selected. “The resulting modification of the formol titration is
described in the following Experimental section.

EXPERIMENTAL
MODIFIED FORMOL TITRATION

Four 10 ml. aliquots at 0.1 molar concentration are transterred to
separate Erlenmeyer titration flasks.

NerurrRAL Rep STANDARD.—To thé first flask is added 2 ml. of 0.05 M.
sodium phosphate and 2 drops of 19% neutral red. The solution is
titrated to the point of sharp color change.

ALKALINE STANDARD.—To the second flask is added 2 drops of the

neutral red indicator and the sample is titrated to neutrality. Then
6 ml. of 37% formalin and 3 drops of 0.29% phenolphthalein are added

49

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

and the standard is titrated with the 0.1 N. alkali to a maximum color,
adding a small excess of the alkali.

Tirration.—The two remaining flasks contain the aliquots to be
titrated. ‘To the sample is added 2 drops of neutral red, then the
solution is adjusted roughly to neutrality with strong alkali or acid,
as required, to avoid excessive dilution of the sample. The neutraliza-
tion is completed with 0.1 N. reagent, to match the color of the neutral
red standard. Six ml. of formalin and 6 drops of the phenolphthalein
are added, then the sample is titrated with the standard alkali to match
the color of the alkaiine standard. ‘The end-point is thus controlled
at pH 9.0 to 9.1. The amount of alkali required to bring the solution
from the neutral red standard to the alkaline standard provides the
titration figure.

FORMALDEHYDE BLANK.—To 6 ml. of formalin in 10 ml. of distilled
water is added 3 drops of the phenolphthalein and the solution is
titrated wwith the standard alkali. ‘This blank is subsracted from the
titration value.

EFFECT OF FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATION

Accuracy in the formol method requires a 6 to 9% formaldehyde
concentration at the end of the titration (2). A 0.1 molar solution of
DL-alanine was titrated according to the modified method described
above, verying the amount of formalin added from 2 to 10 ml. The
results, graphical.y presented in Figure I, showed that a maximum
recovery of the amino acid was obtained with the use of 6 ml. of forma-
lin and that additional formalin did not affect the recovery. “The con-
centration of formaldghyde at the end of the titration was 8.4%, which
is within the required range. Therefore 6 ml. of formalin was selected
for use in this method.

EFFECT OF VARIATION IN ALKALINE STANDARD

A variation in the ratio of phenolphthalein used in the titration to
the amount used in the alkaline standard will affect the completeness
of the titration. In Northrop’s procedure (4) the ratio was 6 to 1,
which does not agree with the theoretical basis for using the alkaline
color standard—a ratio of 2 to 1. A series of titrations were performed
to determine the effect of varying the phenolphthalein concentration
in the alkaline standard. ‘The variation was from | to 4 drops, while
in each case 6 drops were used in the sample being titrated. At the
end of each titration, the end-point pH was determined by means of
a glass electrode. Figure II illustrates the relation between alkaline

50

PERCENT RECOVERY ALANINE

°

APPARENT RECOVERY ALANINE,

A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration

PERCENT FORMALIN AT ENO OF TITRATION
34 6/ 8/ 10.3 19

2 a i ir

402

40/

100

FIGURE 1
99

98
FORMOL T/TRAT/ION

= OF OL -ALAN/NE

LFFECT OF FORMAL/N ON PERCENT RECOVERY
%6

95
Qo / 2 = F Si 6 7 8 9 10

VOLUME 397% FORMALIN ML

pH AL END POIinT
: 8.75 9/

/06
/04
FIGURE 2

102

FORMOL T/TRATION
OF DOL-ALANINE

/00

%8
fFFECT OF ALKALINE COLOR STANDARD

ON PERCENT RECOVERY AND END PO/NT pA
96

/ 2) a 4

DROPS PHENOLPHTHALE/N IN ALKALINE COLOR STANDARD

5]

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

standard, recovery of titrated amino acid, and end-point pH. It is
noteworthy that when the alkaline standard contained 3 drops of
phenolphthalein (half the amount used in the titrated sample) the
end-point occurred at pH 9.1. This is the proper value for the
stoichiometric end-point.

APPLICATION OF THE METHOD

The modified procedure for the formol titration described above
was applied to a number of different amino acids, each at 0.1 molar
concentration. When the amino acid was difficultly soluble in water,
a small amount of HCl was used in preparing the solution. ‘The re-
sults are contained in Table I (simple amino acids) and Table II
(polyfunctional amino acids). In most cases the results were within
2% of the theoretical, a deviation 4 times the theoretical minimum cal-
culated by Levy (2).

TABLE I
FORMOL TITRATION OF AMINO ACIDS

Amino Acid Recovery, %
JANIE Ov TOV Sy aust ene an at a ts MT rlnnae coe ots Git OE 102.6
GIVGin esau itiiy xlactntonst cian eae Ornate atone ere 102.6
Isoleucine nt se See Be ee Dee saat 97.3
1 LS BYGil oq ehemmaRRee Nes AD eae nna eye eer lite ail uar a RUN ELLA 96.0
MS ETO MTN EH tees ees aie lin Wee Wet eae ie aT eet 100.4
INMoye) (SU VeaVes We erattia re obs win Gata nS bis hie ee 99.7
Phenylalamimed een yes ar meee iaenrer attra 100.2
PrOlINe ri eet aee CAC Magic Ins ae cMtic nme TREC 84.6
SYS G0 Taare ve li leone ay Soa elbaay es A weet 99.7
ASHE EONINVE Re Aer arpa aaa REl epi eL ON 105.1
Tiryptophane ane cs eee eee eens 84.8
Wallies Basin Ginx che Aenea arate sh Oe, SNE nm eA ae 99.8

TABLE II
FORMOL TITRATION OF POLYFUNCTIONAL AMINO ACIDS

Amino Acid Recovery, % Equivalents ‘Titrated
ZN STDIN Ccyepieyaieyelean ocekeent Gh ene 100.6 1
INS PAU GWACIG! yack penei ya ce oe 99.3 1
(CGI OTOL SA aint sina staoeeshone A entaei ea 98.1 2
ClumavicnAcidr eres uate 97.0 ]
Histidine s See i yoacsari ek acnask cee 101.8 1
I EVES OVC emt Cosh rece tne mae une een 99.1 2
PE OST CUTE Mian sey ay sue au tan a 76.9 2

Van Slyke and Kirk (7) have shown that under the conditions of
this method the titration is a measure of the reactive amino and imino
groups. Accordingly, all the amino acids in Table I titrated as one
equivalent per mole of amino acid. Of the amino acids listed in Table

Or
ho

A Modified Procedure for the Formol Titration

il, the two dicarboxylic amino acids reacted with only one equivalent
of alkali, corresponding to their single amino groups. In the case of
cystine and lysine, both amino groups of each amino acid were titrated.
Because of the very slight solubility of cystine the reaction with alkali
was slow. It was necessary to allow the flask to stand several minutes
before determining when the end-point was reached. Only one nitro-
gen atom in the arginine and histidine molecules is sufficiently basic
to be determined by the formol method. In the case of histidine, the
value obtained was unexpectedly close to the theoretical. This fact
may be explained as a compensation of errors in the two end-points
in this method, inasmuch as the adjustment to pH 7 with this amino
acid involves a large error (2). ‘he stoichiometric end-points for
proline and tryptophan occur at pH values more alkaline than is ob-
tained with phenolphthalein in this method (3) (7), thus accounting
for the low values obtained. Under the conditions of this method, the
phenolic group of tyrosine is incompletely titrated. The titration
procedure has been applied with similar convenience to protein hy-
drolyzates and mixtures of amino acids.

SUMMARY

A modification of the Northrop procedure for the formol titration
is described in which increased accuracy and convenience is obtained
through the use of larger and more concentrated samples. “The condi-
tions for establishing the indicator end-point have been shown to re-
sult in an optimum degree of accuracy. “The determination of a large
number of amino acids is reported.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. M. Dunn and A. Loshakoff; J. Biol: Chem. 113: 359 (1936)
2 Me Levy; J. Biol. Chem. 99: 767° (1933)

de Biol @hem: 103: 157 (1934)

J. Biol. Chem. 109: 365 (1935)
3. M. Levy and D. E. Silverman; J. Biol. Chem. 118: 723 (1937)
4. J. Northrop; J. Gen. Physiol. 9: 767 (1926)
5. H. Schiff; Ann. Chem. 319: 59 (1901)

Ann. Chem. 325: 348 (1902)
6S. P. L. Sorensen; Biochem. Z.; 7: 45 (1907)
7. D. D. Van Slyke and E. Kirk; J: Biol. Chem. 102: 651 (1933)

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF KENTUCKY CICADELLIDAE
(HOMOPTERA)

Davip A. YOUNG, JR.

University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

Since the first World War, many new species of leafhoppers have
been described from the United States, and several studies have been
carried on to determine the distribution of these insects, many species
of which are economically important. Noteworthy among such studies
are those of DeLong for ‘Tennessee, Osborn and Johnson for Ohio,
Medler for Minnesota, Buys for New York, Lathrop for South Carolina
and DeLong for Illinois.

The present study was begun while the writer was a candidate for
the degree of M.S. at Cor nell University, and continued, with a con-
siderable interruption during the years of World War II, to the pres-
ent. The present list will receive many additions in the future, for
the family is one of the largest in North America. DeLong recently
estimated that the Illinois list will exceed 600 forms when complete,
and it ‘s probable that the Kentucky fauna will present no fewer forms,
when more completely known.

Credit is due Dr. J. S. Bangson (J.S.B.) of Berea College, Miss
Liza Spann (L.S.) of Murray State Teachers College, Mr. F. H. Bunce
(F.H.B.) formerly at the Otter Creek Recreational Area, all of whom
operated trap lights to assist in the project, and to Dr. William M.
Clay (W.M.C.) of the University of Louisville who helped during a
particularly profitable collecting trip near Henderson. Records of the
above collectors are indicated below by the initials employed above.
Mr. D. L. Harmon and Miss Genrose Haselwood, students at the
University of Louisville, contributed records obtained on the Univer-
sity campus. ‘These are indicated below (D.L.H. & G.H.) also. Rec-
ords not credited to other collectors were obtained by the author.

Dr. P. W. Oman of the National Museum identified some trouble-
some specimens and made corrections on a portion of the manuscript.

The writer is greatly indebted to the late Prof. P. A. Readio of
Cornell University under whose kind guidance the problem was begun.

The arrangement of genera into subfamilies is essentially that of
the recent Evans classification.! 2

‘Evans, J. W., A Natural Classification of Leafhoppers. ‘Trans. Roy, Ent. Soc.
Lond. 96 (part 3): 47-60. 1946; 97 (part 2): 39-54. 1946; 98 (part 6): 105-271. 1947.

~A more recent reclassification appeared while this paper was in the hands of

the printer: Oman, P. W. The Nearctic Leafhoppers. A Generic Classification and
Index. Mem. Ent. Soc. Wash. No. 3, 253 pp., 1949.

54

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

The distribution cited is, in most cases, that listed by DeLong and
Knull, in “Check List of the Cicadellidae of America North of
Mexico.”! Where the distribution was taken from another source, the
author’s name is cited in parentheses after the citation.

SUBFAMILY LEDINAE
Genus Xerophloeca Germar
majesta Lawson. Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, Oct. 14, 1942.
DISTRIBUTION: Kans., Miss., S. C., Tex.
major Baker. Louisville, May 20, 1948 (G. E. Sproatt); May 2, 1948. (J. McGuire).
DisTRIBUTTION: Kans., N. J., N. Y., Tenn., Va.

SUBFAMILY HECALINAE
Genus Parabolacralus Fieber
flavidus Signoret. Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940, July 17, 1940; Berea, Sept. 7, 1941
(J-S:B.); Murray, Aug. 15, 1941 (L.S.): Pineville, July 3, 1948.
Distrinution: Southeastern states and Ark., Kans.
Genus Spangbergiella Signoret
quadripunctata Lawson. Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941;
Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DISTRIBUTION: Ala., Ark., D. C., Fla., Kans., Ill., La., Minn.

SUBFAMILY TE TTIGELLINAE

Genus Carneocephala Ball
flaviceps (Riley). Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.), July 29, 1941, July 31, 1941,
Aug. I, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 13, 1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 all
[-S:); Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940.
DisTRIBUTION: Ala., Ariz., Ark., Calif., Fla., Ga., Kans., Ky., La., Miss., Mo.,
NED NaiViex: sOkila-; Ss iG) Wenn. lex... Va, Wis:

Genus Acopsis Amyot and Serville
mollipes (Say). Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1918; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Middlesboro,
Aug. 3, 1948.
DIsTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ariz., Br. Col., Calif., Colo., Kans., Mo., N. Mex.
antica (Walker). Princeton, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern. states.
constricta (Davidson and DeLong). Berea, May 29, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville,
June 7, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
Disrripution: Alberta, Fla., Ill., Ta., Kans., Ky., Me., Mich., Minn., Mo., Nebr.,
Nee ODO mOkKla.. Pas Oue... Whex.. Wis.
producta (Walker). Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Murray, Aug. II, 1941 (L.S.); Hen-
derson, July 10, 1918; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DIstRIBUTION: Fla.

Genus Graphocephala Van Duzee
coccinea (Forster). Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, Feb.
29, 1948, Nov. 1, 1942; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Berea, Sept. 20, 1941 (J.S.B);
Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DistRiBUTION: Eastern and Kans., Mo., Okla., ‘Vex.
versula (Say). Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 14, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19,
1941, Oct. 14,-1941, Nov. 1, 1942; Berea, July 3, 1941 (J.S.B.); Rock Haven,
Sept. 27, 1941; Murray, Aug. 13, 1941 (L.S.); Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Kuttawa,
July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisrriguTION: Southern states and Mo., Tex.

‘Ohio State University Press, 1945.

Jt

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Genus Helochara Fitch
communis Fitch. Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DistRIBUTION: Eastern states and Ariz., Calif.; Colo., N. Mex., Tex.

Genus Kolla Distant
bifida (Say). Berea, Sept. 7, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 9,
1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941;
Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948; Mid-
dlesboro, July 3, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DisrrRiBUTION: Eastern and Kans., Mo., Nebr.
geometrica (Signoret). Louisville, May 8, 1941, May 15, 1941, May 22, 1941;
Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948.
DistripuTion: Ark., D. C., Fla., Ill., Ky., La., Mo., Ohio, Tenn.

Genus Neokolla Melichar
gothica (Signoret). Louisville, May 16, 1948 (H. C. Soehner).
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and Kans., Mo.

Genus Plesiommata Provancher
tripunctata (Fitch). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven,
Sept Zip Oalr
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and Mo.
Genus Aulacizes Amyot and Serville
irrorata (Fab.). Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DIstRIBUTION: Eastern and Mo., Tex.
Genus Cuerna Melichar
costalis (Fab.). Brandenburg, June 9, 1938, Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, Oct. 14,
1942; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Mo., Tex.
Genus Oncometopia Stal
undata (Fab.). Louisville, Oct. 14, 1942, Nov. 11, 1942; Rock Haven, June 8,
1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DISTRIBUTION: Fla., Ga., Mass., N. J., N. Mex., N. C., Pa., Que., Tex.

SuBFAMILY MACROPSINAE
Genus Oncopsis Burmeister
verticis (Say). Louisville, May 21, 1948, June 7, 1948. Taken on Juglans.
DIsTRIBUTION: Colo., Ia., Me., Tenn.
Genus Nionia Ball
palmeri (Van Duzee). Middlesboro, July 3, 1948; Louisville, May 10, 1948
(J. Arnold),
DISTRIBUTION: Southeastern states.

SUBFAMILY AGALLILNAE

Genus Aceratagallia Kirkaldy
sanguinolenta (Provancher). Brandenburg, June:l, 1941, June 9, 1941, Aug. 21,
1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Murray, Apr. 18, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, Sept.
9, 1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948 Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Henderson,
July 10, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948. an)
DISTRIBUTION: Canada and Eastern states to Ariz., Utah.

Genus Agallia Curtis
constricta Van Duzee. Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, May 1, 1941, May 9, 1947, May
10, 1941, July 17, 1940, July 22, 1940, July 23, 1940, July 24, 1940, July 27, 1940,
July 30 1941, Aug. 2, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Berea, June 28, 1941 (J.S.B.), July 1,
1941 (J.S.B.); Brandenburg, Apr. 17, 1941, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Murray,
Aug. 11, 1941 (L.S.), Aug. 18, 1941 (L.S.) Aug. 19, 1941 (L.S.); Jefferson Co., May
10, 1941; Madison Co., Apr. 26. 1941; Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Rock Haven,
June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Princeton, July 25,
1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948;
Henderson, July 10, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948.

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A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

DISTRIBUTION: Southeastern states, Ill., Ind., Ia., Nebr., Ohio, Okla., Tex.
quadripunctata (Provancher). Louisville, May 8, 1941, May 9, 1947, May 10,
1941 (all females). y ‘
DisTRIBUTION: Br. Col., Calif., Canada, Colo., Ida., Northeastern States, Ore..
Se ID We ites

Genus Agalliopsis Kirkaldy
novella (Say). Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, Apr. 26, 1941, May 1, 1941, May 8, 1941,
July 22, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Madison
Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern. states. et

SUBFAMILY ITIDIOCERINAE
Genus Idiocerus Lewis
fitchii Van Duzee. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940; Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940.
DIsrRIBUTION: Eastern states and Ta.
alternatus Fitch. Louisville, July 22, 1940.
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Calif., Colo., Utah.
scurrus (Germar). Louisville, Aug. 20, 1947. On Lombardy poplar.
DISTRIBUTION: N. Y.

SUBFAMILY CICADELLINAE

Genus dAlebra Fieber
albostriella var. agresta McA.* Louisville, June 19, 1948, June 25, 1948
(D.L.H. & G.H.), June 29, 1948, June 10, 1947. ‘Taken on elm and sycamore.
DisrripuTion: Md., Kans., Va.
albostriella var. fulveola (Her.-Sch.). Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville,
June 7, 1941, June 10, 1947 on elm; Berea, June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.); Henderson,
July 10, 1948.
DIstTRIBUTION: D. C., Ill., Kans., Md., Minn., N. Y.
albostriella var. pallidula (Walsh).* Louisville, June 10, 1947, July 9, 1948
(DEE cGs):
DisTRiBUTION: Il]., Kans., Mass., Mo., N. Y.
albostriella var. rubrafrons DeL. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940.
DisrRiBuTION: Ill., Tenn.
fumida Gillette. Louisville, Aug. 6, 1940, June 19, 1948, July 24, 1941.
DisrripuTION: Ill., Kans., Minn., ‘Venn.

Genus Alconeura Ball and DeLong
unipuncta (Gillette). Murray, July 28, 1941, July 29, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, Aug.
S941) Vall cs:):
DistRIBUTION: Ala., Ariz., Calif., Fla., Miss., Ore.

Genus Dikraneura Hardy
abnormis (Walsh). Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, May 15, 1941, May 22, 1941, Sept.
9, 1941; Rock Haven, June &, 1941.
DistRisuTION: Conn., D. C., Ga., Tl., Ia., Kans., Mo., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Wis., Tex.
angustata Ball and DeL. Louisville, May 9, 1947, May 22, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941,
Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, June 1,
1941, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 14, 1941; Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Murray, Aug.
13, 1941 (L.S.); Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., S. C., Tenn., Tex.
cruentata Gillette. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, July 30, 1940, Sept.
9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10,
1948 (W.M.C.),
DisTRIBUTION: B. C., Calif., Colo., Kans., Me., Md., N. Y., Ohio, Tenn., Va.
maculata Gillette. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Berea, Oct. 6, 1941]
(J.S.B.); Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941.

* Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

DisTRIBUTION: La., Eastern U. S. (DeL. and Caldwell).

Genus Empoasca Walsh
bifurcata DeL. Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DistripuTION: Ala., Del., D.C., Fla., Kans., Mass., Miss., N. J., Pa., Wis.
convergens DeL. and Davidson. Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DIsTRIBUTION: Can., Ohio.
decurvata Dav. and DeL. Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941.
DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., Tenn.
fabae Harris. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.); Berea, June 25, 1941 (J.S.B.),
Aug. 30, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, July 25, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 5, 1941,
Aug. 20, 1940; Murray, July 31, 1941, Aug. 11, 194], Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 18,
1941 (all L:sS:).
DistRIBUTION: Ala., Ark., D.C., Fla., Ill., La., Mass., Mich., Pa., Va.
patula DeL. Louisville, June 7, 1941.
DisTRIBUTION: Me., Pa., Venn.
pergandei Gillette. Rock Haven, May 24, 1941, July 17, 1940.
DistripuTion: Colo., Conn., Mass., Pa.
trifasciata Gillette. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940.
DISTRIBUTION: II]l., Ia., Kans., Mass., Mo.

Genus Erythroneura Fitch
aclys McA.* Louisville, May 22, 1947, June 21, 1948, July 1, 1948; Brandenburg,
Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948. Several of the records from Cercis.
DIsTRIBUTION: ‘Throughout U. S., east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).
acuticephala Rob. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., Minn. (Beamer).
affinis Fitch. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DIstRIBUTION: Kans., Ohio.
albescens Beamer. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941.
DistripuTion: Ill., Kans., Okla., Ohio (Beamer and DeL.)
atra Johnson. Murray, July 28, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Hender-
son, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisTRIBUTION: Onio.
beameri Rob. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27,
1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DistripuTion: U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).
bella McA. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941;
Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941.
DIstRIBUTION: Md., Ohio.
bicornis Beamer. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.
Disrripution: Ill, Md.
bidens McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DistripuTion: Md., Va.
bistrata var. stricta McA.* Louisville, June 21, 1948 from Cercis; Henderson,
July 10, 1948.
DISTRIBUTION: Colo., Ind., Ja., Kans., Md., Pa.
brundusa Rob. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DistriputTion: Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson).
calycula McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Murray, July 31, 1941 (L.S.), Aug. 7,
1941 (L.S.); Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, Feb. 17, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DistRiBUTION: Throughout the eastern half of U. S. and Canada (Beamer).
campora Rob.* Louisville, Aug. 16, 1948 (D.L.H. and G.H.).
DistripuTion: Ark., Kans., Nebr., N. Y., Ohio, Ont.

* Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948.

58

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

comes (Say). Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

DistRiBuUTION: Throughout U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).
compta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (author and W.M.C.).

DisrrinuTiON: Ala., Ill., Ind., Kans., Mich., Miss., Ohio, Ont.

cornt Rob.* Louisville, July 7, 1948, July 9, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.),
July 1, 1948.

DistRIBUTION: Kans., Nebr., Ohio.

cuneata Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DIstRIBUTION: Okla.

cymbium McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, July 17, 1940; Hender-
son, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

DistRIBUTION: Eastern half of the U.S. (Beamer).

cymbium var. disjuncta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DistRiBuTION: Kans., Pa. (DeL. and Knull), La., Ill. (Beamer).

delictata McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrripuTion: U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).

delicata var. accepta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrRiBUTION: As in delicata (Beamer).

diffisa Beamer, Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrriputTion: Kans., Ohio, Okla., Tenn.

diva McA. Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940.

DistRIBUTION: Eastern half of U. S. (Beamer).

elegans McA.* Louisville, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.).

DisrriButtion: ‘Phroughout most of U. S. (Beamer).

eluta McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrrimuTion: Tl., Ind., Va.

festiva Beamer. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisrripuTion: Ill., La., Kans., Ark., Tenn. (Beamer).

fraxa Rob. Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948.

Disrripution: Kans., Ark., Ill. (Beamer).

fulmina McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

Disrripution: Md., Ill., Kans.

fulvocephala Rob.* Louisville, Aug. 16, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.).

DistRIBUTION: Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson).

gleditsia Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DistRIBUTION: Ohio, Okla.

harpax Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

DisrRiBUTION: D. C., Ohio, ‘Venn.

illinoiensis var. illinoiensis (Gillette). Louisville, Feb. 17, 1948, Sept. 8, 1941,
Oct. 12, 1940; Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrRiBUTION: III.

illinoiensis var. spectra McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

Disrripution: Md., Ohio, Va.

infuscata (Gillette). Berea, June 27, 1941 (J.S.B.), June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.), Sept.
18, 1941 (J.S.B.); Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisTRIBUTION: Throughout U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).
integra McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

Disrripution: ‘Throughout eastern half of U. S. (Beamer).

kansana var. kansana Baker.* Louisville, Aug. 16, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), Sept.
19, 1941, Oct. 12, 1940; Brandenburg, Apr. 14, 1941.

Distripution: Conn., Kans., Md., Mo., Ohio, ‘Venn., Va.

* Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948.

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kanza Rob. Louisville, May 22, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven,
Septepedny osde

DisrriputTioN: Kans., Nebr., Ohio.

lawsoni Rob.* Louisville, June 29, 1948 (D.L.H. & G. H.), July 15, 1948, July
26, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.); Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisrriputTion: Ark., D. C., TL, Ta., Kans., Md., Ohio, Okla.

lawsoniana Baker. July 24, 1940, Aug. 2, 1940, Sept. 30, 1940.

DisrriBuTION: Calif., Conn., Tl., Kans., Md., Minn., Mo., Nebr., N. C., Ont.,
Tenn., Va.

morgani DeL.* Louisville, June 29, 1948, July 15, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.),
Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10,
1948 (W.M.C,).

DisTRIBUTION: Ohio, Tenn.

nigra Gillette. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Hen-
derson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

DistRIBUTION: Colo., Conn., Ill., la., Kans., Md., Nebr., N. Y., Va., (DeL. and
Knull), Ohio (Johnson).

nigra var. decora McA. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948
(W.M.C.).

DistripuTION: Md. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson).

nigerrima McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

Distripution: Colo., Conn., Ill., Ia., Kans., Md., Nebr., N. Y., Va., (DeL. and
Knull), Ohio (Johnson).

noeva (Gillette). Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, July 17, 1940, July 22, 1940, Sept. 9,
1941.

DisrrRiBuTION: Calif., Colo., Conn., Ill., Ind., Kans., Md., Nebr.. Ont., ‘Tenn.
(DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson).

nudata McA. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisrRIRUTION: ‘Throughout the eastern half of the U. S. (Beamer).

obliqua (Say). Louisville, July 28, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Boyle Co.,
Apr. 26, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.

DistRIBUTION: Can., United States.

omaska Rob. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DistripuTion: ‘Throughout U. S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).
osborni (DeL.). Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrriButTion: Ark., Hl., Ohio, ‘Tenn.

quadraia Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

DisrripuTion: Ill., Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Okla. (Beamer).

rubens Beamer.* Louisville, June 25, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.); Brandenburg,
Sept. 14, 1941.

DIsTRIBUTION: II.

rubra (Gillette). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Hen-
derson, July 10, 1948.

DisrRiBUTION: Throughout the eastern two-thirds of U. §. and Canada (Beamer).
rufostigmosa var. subnubila Beamer. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941.
Disrripution: Tl., Kans. (DeL. and Knull), Ohio (Johnson).

scissa Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C,).

DisrRIBUTION: Ark., I.

stolata McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.

DistRIBUTION: Kans., Ia., Md. (Beamer), Ohio (Johnson).

tenuispica Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisTRIBUTION: Kans. (Beamer), Ohio (Johnson).

* Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948.

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A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

lricincla Fitch. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Feb. 17,
burg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
Disrrinurtion: Throughout the eastern half of U.S. and Canada (Beamer).
unicus pidis Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).

DisrRiBUTION: Kans., Ill. (Beamer), Ohio (Johnson).

1948; Branden-

vaga Johnson. Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DisrriputioN: Ohio (Johnson), La., Ark., Ill., Kans. (Beamer).
vitis (Harris).* Berea, July 3, 1941, Sept. 3, 1941, Sept. 28, 1941, Oct. 1, 1941,
Oct. 6, 1941 (All J.S.B.); Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. &
G.H.), May 22, 1947; Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948
(W.M.C.).
DistrRiputton: Throughout U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains (Beamer).
vitis var. corona McA.* Louisville, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), Sept. 9,
1941; Berea, Oct. 4, 1941 (J.S.B.); Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DisrriBuTION: As in vitis.
vulnerata Fitch.* Louisville, June 23, 1948 (D.L.H. & G.H.), July 17, 1940,
July 22, 1940, July 28, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 6, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941; Berea,
mers Loa june 0 OL Miuly 3, LOL july 7 194 Sept 75 L9LIl Sept. 15;
1941; Sept. 20; 1941, Oct. 1, 1941, Oct. 6, 1941, Oct. 8, 1941, Oct. 28,1941 (all
J.S.B.); Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.); Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941; Henderson,
July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DistRIBUTION: Canada and United States.
ziczac Walsh. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisrrRipuTion: Ill., Calif., Colo., Ia., Kans., Md., Mich., Miss, Nebr., Ont.
Genus Forcipata DeLong and Caldwell
loca DeL. and Caldwell. Louisville, May 15, 1941, May 16, 1941, May 22, 1941,
Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941, July 17, 1940; Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941, Berea,
June 27, 1941, July 7, 1941, Oct. 6, 1941 (all J.S:B.); Brandenburg, Aug: 21,
1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948; Henderson, July
10, 1948 (W.M.C. and author).
DisrRIBUTION: Eastern states and Canada.
Genus Hymetla McAtee
balteata var. balteala McA.* Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, June 23, -
1948, July 9, 1948 (both D.L.H. & G.H.)* Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DISTRIBUTION: D. C., Kans., Md., Tex., Va.
balteata var. anthisma McA. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Henderson, July 10,
1948.
DistRIBUTION: Md., ‘Tex.
distincta Fairbairn. Henderson, July 10, 1918.
DistRIBUTION: United States.
Genus Typhlocyba Germar
arisnoe McA. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DISTRIBUTION: Mass.
danae McA. Berea, June 28, 1941, July 3, 1941, June 14, 1941 (all J.S.B.);
DisrRIBUTION: N. Y., Va.
gillettei var. apicata McA. Louisville, June 10, 1947.
DisTRIBUTION: D. C..,. Ill., Ia.. Kans., Md., Ont., Va., Wisc. (McA.), Ohio
(Johnson).
gillettei var. casta McA. Berea, May 31, 1941, June 19, 1941, June 27, 1941
(all J.S.B.).
DistTRiBUTION: Ill., Ia., Kans., Md., Mass., Mich., N. Y., Ont., Wis., Va. (McAtee),
Ohio (Johnson).
hockingensis Knull. Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 28, 1940.
DIsTRIBUTION: Ohio, ‘Tenn.

* Previously reported in Ky. Nat. 3: 19. 1948.

61

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

modes'a Gibson. Louisville, June 27, 1940.

DisrrrButION: HL, Ia., La., Mo., Va. (McAtee), Ohio (Johnson).
piscator McA. Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941.

DisrrizuTIon: Ill., Ia. (McAtee).

pomaria McAtee. Louisville, Oct. 12, 1940.

DisTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Ark., Colo., Kans.

SuBFAMILY COELIDITNAE
Genus Coelidia Germar
olitoria (Say). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941; Sept. 19, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27,
1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisTRIBUTION: Ariz., Eastern and Kans., Mo.

SuBFAMILY JASSINAE
Genus Gyponana Ball
octolineata (Say). Louisville, July 24, 1940.
DISTRIBUTION: N. Y., Pa.
vincula DeL. Henderson, July 10, 1948; Louisville, July 22, 1940.
DiIsrRIBUTION: Conn., Kans., Nebr., Pa., Tex., Utah, Wis.
Genus Ponana Ball
limonea Ball and Reeves. Berea, May 31, 1941 (J.S.B.).
DISTRIBUTION: Ohio.
quadralaba DeL. Louisville, Aug. 22, 1947.
DistBipuTIoN: Ariz., Nebr., N. J., Ohio, Tenn., ‘Tex.
Genus Rugosana DeLong
querci DeL. Berea, Sept. 21, 1941 (J.S.B.).
DIstRIBUTION: Ariz., Fla., Md., Mich., Miss., Ohio, Pa., ‘Tex., Utah.

SUBFAMILY EUSCELINAE
Genus Aligia Ball
modesta (Osborn and Ball). Murray, July 18, 1941 (L.S.), July 21, 1941 (L.S.).
DISTRIBUTION: D:C., Ia., N. C., Pa.
Genus Amodlysellus Sleesman
curtisit (Fitch). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Brandenburg, June 1, 1941.
DIsTRIBUTION: Northeastern states and Ia., Mo., Tenn.
Genus Amplicephalus DeLong
estacadus (Ball). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941.
DistTRIBUTION: ‘Tenn., Tex.
Genus Chlorotettix Van Duzee
borealis Sanders and DeL. Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DISTRIBUTION: Wis.
tunicatus Ball. Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940.
DisTRIBUTION: Ark., Fla., Kans., La., Mo., N. C., Tenn., Tex.
viridius Van Duzee. Murray, July 18, 1941, July 29, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, (all L.S.);
Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940; Berea, Oct. 1, 1941 (J.S.B.); Brandenburg, Aug. 21,
1941; Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1940.
DistRIBUTION: Ark., Mich., and N. Y. to Fla., and west to Kans. and Tex.
vacunus Crumb. Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940.
DISTRIBUTION: ‘Tenn.
lusorius (Osb. and Ball). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941.
DisrRiBUTION: Northeastern states and Colo., Ia., Utah.
necopinus Van Duzee. Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948
(W.M.C.).
DISTRIBUTION: Southeastern states,

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

oF

rugicollis Ball. Louisville, July 27, 1940.

DIsTRIBUTION: Fla., N. J., Tex.

galbanatus Van Duzee. Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Berea, Oct. 6
1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, July 22, 1940, July 27, 1940, sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19,
1941, Sept. 30, 1940, Oct. 14, 1942; Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940, Sept. 27, 1941;
Kuttawa, July 25, 1948: Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Hen-
derson, July 10, 1948; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.

DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ta., Mont., N. D.

balli Osborn. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941.
DisrRiBUTION: Ia., Ohio, Tenn.

Genus Colladonus Ball
clitellarius (Say). Berea, May 20, 1941, Aug. 30, 1941, Oct. 8, 1941, Oct. 22,
1941 (all J.S.B.); Louisville, May 22, 1941, June 7, 1941, July 24, 1940, July 30,
1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Rock Haven Sept. 21, 1940. ee
DistrRiBUuTION: Colo., Kans., eastern, Mo.

Genus Deltocephalus Burmeister
balli Van Duzee. Murray, Aug. 11-13 incl., 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Louis-
ville; June 7, 1941, July 22- of incl., 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940, Aug. 27,
1940; Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), Sept. 21, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug.
21, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DistRIBUTION: Ia., Ohio, Pa., Wis.
flavicosta Stal. Murray, July 28, 1941 (L.S.), Aug. 19, 1941 (L.S.); Brandenburg,
Aug. 21, 1941; Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 97, 1940, July 30, 1940; Berea,
June 28, 1941 (J.S.B.): Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948;
Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948
(W.M.C.); Maddlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DisrripuTION: Eastern and Ia., southern and Kans., Mo.
melsheimerii (Fitch). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941.
DisTRIBUTION: Colo., Ia., Kans., and Me. to Gulf Coast.
sonorus Ball. Murray, July 31, 1941, Aug. 4, 1941, Aug. 6, 1941, Aug. 8, 1941,
Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Brandenburg Aug. 21, 1941; Rock
Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: Ariz., Calif., Fla., Kans., Miss., N. Mex., N. C., S. D., Tenn., Tex.
sylvestris Osborn and Ball. (Determined in part by Dr. P. W. Oman). Bran-
denburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.);
Louisville, May 22, 1941, May 30, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DisrrinuTiON: la., Me., and Gr. Lakes to Gulf Coast.
uhleri Oman, Louisville, May 15, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: Colo:, Ta., Kans., Me., Mo., N. Y., N. H., Ont., Pa., Tenn.

Genus Doleranus Ball
vividus (Crumb). Berea, June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.), July 7, 1941 (J.S.B.); Murray,
July si, 1941 (L:S:):
DistRIBUTION: Kans., Ohio, S. C., Tenn.
longulus (Gill. and Baker). Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27,
1941; Louisville, May 22, 1941.
DistTRIBUTION: Colo., Ta., Kans., Pa., Tenn.

Genus Driotura Osb. and Ball
gammaroides (Van D.). Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DisrrinuTion: East of Rockies.
gammaroides var. fulva Ball. Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July
3, 1948.
DisrriputTion: Colo., Tl., Kans., Tenn., Tex., Utah.

Genus Exitianus Ball
obscurinervis (Stal.). Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940; Berea, June 27, 1941 (J.S.B.),
June 30, 1941 (J.S.B.), July 7, 1941 (J.S.B.); Murray, July 30, 1941 (L.S.), July

63

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Sciénce

31, 1941, Aug. 1, 1941, Aug] 4, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 18, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941
(all L.S.); Louisville, Aug. 6, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941.
DistRiBUTION: Throughout U. S., Haiti, Mex.

Genus Ficberiella Signoret
florii (Stal.). Louisville, July 24, 1940, Aug. 20, 1947.
DisTRIBUTION: Conn., Il.

Genus Flexamia DeLong
areolata Ball. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941.
DistRIBUTION: Ariz., Kans., Mo., N. Y., S. C., to Miss.
sandersi. (Osborn). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DIstRIBUTION: Conn., Miss. to Gulf, Ohio, -Pa., ‘Penn.
stylata (Ball). Brandenburg, June I, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: la., Neb.
picta (Osborn). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Brandenburg, June 9, 1938; Daw-
son Springs, July 24, 1948.
DIsrRIBUTION: Kans., Md., Miss., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Tenn., Va.

Genus Graminella DeLong
fitchii (Van D.). Pactolus, Aug. 14, 19148; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ia., Kans.
nigrifrons (Forbes) (determined in part by Dr. P. W. Oman). Murray, Aug. II,
1941, Aug. 12, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville, July 17, 1940, July 24,
1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940; Brandenburg, June I, 1941; Berea, June 25,
1941 (J.S.B.); Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948; Henderson, July
10, 1948 (W.M.C.); Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DistRiBUTION: Eastern and Colo., Ia.
pallidula (Osborn). Louisville, July 22, 1940.
DisTRIBUTION: ITa., Pa.

Genus Idiodonus Ball
subcupraeus (Provancher). Louisville, June 7, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: East coast.
kennicottii (Uhler). Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.).
DistRIBUTION: Eastern states and Br. Col., Colo.

Genus lowanus Ball
majestus (Osb. and Ball). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941.
DIstRIBUTION: Ia., N. J., N. C., Ohio, Tex.

Genus Latalus DeLong and Sleesman
sayi (Fitch). Louisville, May 15, 1941, May 30, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941 Brandenburg,
June 1, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.
DistripuTion: Colo., Dak., Ia., Kans., Ky., Me., Mass., Miss., Mo., N. H., N. J.,
N. G., Ohio, Ont., Pa., Que., ‘Venn.

Genus Alenosoma Ball
cincta (Osb. and Ball). Louisville, Aug. 4, 1940, Sept. 20, 1940, July 6, 1948;
Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940; Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DistRIBUTION: Eastern and Colo., Ta., ‘Vex.

Genus Norvellina Ball
helenae Ball. Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 24, 1940; Rock Haven, May 22,
1941 (F.H.B.), May 24, 1941.
DisTRIBUTION: Fla., Ky., Mo., Tex.
seminuda (Say). Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940; Louisville, July 24, 1940, July 30,
1940, Aug. 6, 1940, Aug. 20, 1940, Sept. 30, 1940, Oct. 12, 1940; Rock Haven,
May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.); Berea, May 29, 1941 (J.S.B.), June 12, 1941, Oct. 6,
1941 (both J.S.B.); Brandenburg, May 26, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DIsTRIBUTION: Eastern and Ia., Kans., Mo., Tex.

Genus Opsius Fieber

stactogalus Fieber. Louisville, May 5, 1941, June 7, 1941, Oct. 12, 1940.
DIstRIBUTION: Coast to coast. :

64

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

Genus Paraphlepsius Baker

slossonae (Ball). Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940.

DISTRIBUTION: Fla., N..C., S. CG.

fuscipennis (Van D.). Louisville, July 24, 1940, July 30, 1940.

DistripuTION: N. Y., eastern to Fla.

humidus (Van D.). Louisville, July 17, 1940; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948.
DIsTRIBUTION: Conn., Me., Md., N. H., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Tenn.

collitus (Ball). Louisville, June 7, 1941, July 24, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 20,
1940; Berea, May 20, 1941. (J.S.B.), May 28, 1941, June 21, 1941 (both J.S.B.);
Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), Sept. 21, 1940; Brandenburg, June 1,
1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DisrripuTion: Me. to Fla. and west to Ia.

irroratus (Say). Berea, May 20, 1941, May 23, 1941, May 29, 1941, June 25, 1941,
June 27, 1941, Sept. 7, 1941 (all J.S.B.); Murray, Aug. 1, 1941, Aug. 6, 1941
(both L.S.); Louisville, May 15, 1941, July 22, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940;
Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Princeton, July 25,
1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948.

DistRIBUTION: Coast to coast.

pusillus (Baker). Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948.

DISTRIBUTION: D. C., Md., N. C.

rossi (?) (DeL.). Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941.

DistRiBUTION: Conn., IIL.

tenessus (DeL.). Henderson, July 10, 1948 (\W.M.C.).

DistRIBUTION: D.C., N. C., Ohio.

Genus Polyamia DeLong

interrupta DeL. Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940.

DISTRIBUTION: Ill., Mass., N. Y., N. C., Ohio, Pa., ‘Tenn.

inimica (Say). Louisville, July 24, 1940; Berea, May 31, 1941, June 27, 1941
(both J.S.B.); Murray, July 30, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941
(all L.S.); Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Henderson, July 10, 1948.

DISTRIBUTION: Coast to coast.

apicalis (Osb.). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and Md., Vt.

compacta (Osb. and Ball). Brandenburg, June 1, 1941; Rock Haven, June 8,
1941; Grayson, Aug. 14, 1948; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948.

DisrRIBUTION: Eastern and Ta., Kans., Wis.

oblecta (Osb. and Ball), Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Murray,
July 18, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (all L.S.); Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DistRIBUTION: Eastern and Ta., Kans., Mo.

similaris Del. and Davidson. Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948.

DistRipuTion: Tll., Lenn.

weedi (Van Duzee). Murray, July 18, 1941, July 28, 1941, July 29, 1941, July 30,
1941, Aug. 1, 1941, Aue. 4-8 incl., 1941, Aug. I1, 1941, Aug. 13,
1941, Aug. 19, 1941 (all L.S.); Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Rock
Haven, June 8, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948;
Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.

DisrriputTion: Eastern and Ta., Kans., Miss.

Genus Psammotettix Haupt

striatus (L.). Louisville, May 22, 1941; Berea, June 27, 1941 (J.S.B.); Rock
Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: Coast to coast.

Genus Scleroracus Van Duzee

anthracina (Van Duzee). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941.
DIsTRIBUTION: Northeastern states and Colo., Ia., Kans.

Genus Stirellus Osborn and Ball

bicolor (Van Duzee). Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Murray, Aug. 11, 1941 (L.S.),

65

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Aug. 15, 1941 (L.S.); Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DIsTRIBUTION: Kans., Miss., N. J., and Md. to Ia. and Nebr. and south.
dixianus var. acutus Thomas. Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941.
DistripuTION: Ala., Fla., Miss.
obtutus (Van Duzee). Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941, Sept. 14, 1941; Louisville,
May 15, 1941, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 19, 1941; Jefferson Co., May 10, 1941; Rock
Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.
DistRIBUTION: Miss., throughout the South and Southwest.
Genus Texananus Ball
decorus (Osb. and Ball). Pineville, July 3, 1948:
DISTRIBUTION: Fla., Ill., Ia., Me., N. C., Ohio, Tenn.
Genus Unerus DeLong
colonus (Uhler). Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Murray,
July 18, 1941 (L.S.): Aug. 6, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941 (all L.S.); Berea,
Sept. 7. 1941 (J.S.B.): Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941.
DIstRIBUTION: Fla., Tenn.
Genus Acurhinus Osborn
pyrops (Crumb). Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948.
DisrRIBUTION: Md., N. C., Ohio, Pa., Tenn., Va.
Genus Cloanthanus Ball
scriptus (Ball). Berea, May 27, 1941 (J.S.B.).
DistRIBUTION: Kans., Tenn.
fulvus (2) (Osborn). Brandenburg, June 1, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1940.
DistRIBUTION: N.Y., Ohio, Pa.
acutus (Say). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941, Sept. 21, 1940; Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Br. Col., Calif., Colo., Mo., Kans., Utah.
cuprescens (Osborn). Rock Haven, Sept. 21, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941.
DIsTRIBUTION: Colo., Me., N. Y., N. G., Ont., Que., Tenn.
frontalis (Van Duzee). Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), June 8, 1941, Sept.
21, 1940° Brandenburg, June 1, 1941, Aug. 21, 1941; Berea, Sept. 14, 1941
(J.S.B.); Louisville, June 7, 1941; Kuttawa, July 25, 1948; Grayson, Aug. 14,
1948; Pactolus, Aug. 14, 1948: Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and Calif., Ta., Kans., Mo.
cinereus (Osborn and Ball). Murray, July 29, 1941 (L.S.); Louisville, June 7,
1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DIsPRIBUTION: Ariz., Fla., Ta., Kans., Nebr., N. €., Tenn.
Genus Japananus Ball c
hyalinus Osborn. Murray, July 28, 1941, July 30, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. II,
1941, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 18, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville, June 25, 1940, July 17,
1940; July 22) 1940; July 24, 1942° July 27, 1940, Sept. 30, 11940:
Distripution: D. C., Tl., Ohio, Pa.
Genus Afesamia Osborn
nigridorsum Ball. Louisville, June 2, 1948 (H. L. Bockman).
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern states and Colo., Dak., Ia., Kans., Utah.
Genus Osbornellus Ball
auronitens (Uhler). Louisville, Sept. 19, 1941; Henderson, July 10, 1948
(W.M.C.). Cidee
DistRiBuTION: Eastern states only.
consors (Uhler). Berea, July 4, 1941 (J.S.B.); Louisville, May 20, 1940; Hender-
son, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C)).
DIstRIBUTION: Eastern and Colo., Il., Tex., Utah.
clarus Beamer. Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.
DisrrrBuTION: Ala., Ariz., D. C., Fla., Ga., Kans.. Ky., La., Md., Miss., S. C.
rotundus Beamer. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DsITRIBUTION: Ala., Conn., D. C., Fla., Ga., Miss., S. CG.

66

A Preliminary List of Kentucky Cicadellidae

Genus Sanclanus Ball
sanctus (Say). Previously reported from Ky., but not seen by author.
Genus Scaphoideus Uhler
dilatus DeL. and Mohr. Louisville, July 22, 1940, July 23, 1940, July 24, 1940,
July 27, 1940, July 28, 1940, July 30, 1940.
Dist RIBUTION: Pa.
diutius DeL. and Mohr. Henderson, July 10, 1948 (W.M.C.).
DisrRiBUTION: T1L., Pa.
immistus (Say). Louisville, June 17, 1940, July 23, 1940; Berea, June 25, 1941
(J-8-B.); Brandenburg, Sept. 14, 1941.
DistRiBUTION: Eastern and Calif., Colo., la., Kans., Mo., Tex.
productus Osborn. Previously taken in Ky. Not seen by author.
Genus Xeslocephalus Van Duzee
pulicarius Van D. Rock Haven, Sept. 9, 1941, Sept. 27, 1941; Louisville, Jan. 22,
1940, July 17, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941; Murray, Aug. 14, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941 (both
L.S.); Berea, June 27, 1941, July 3, 1941, Oct. 28, 1941 (ail J.S.B.); Henderson,
July 10, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Eastern and fa., Kans., Mo., Utah.
Genus Balclutha Kirkaldy
punctata (Thunberg). Rock Haven, June 8, 1941; Louisville, Sept. 9, 1941;
Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941.
DistRIRUTION: Br. Col., Colo., Eastern, Mo.
impicta (Van Duzee). Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941;
Pactolus, Aug, 14, 1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948.
DistRIBUTION: Eastern and Calif., Kans., Mo., Wash.
impicta var. maculata DeL. and Davidson. Brandenburg, Apr. 17, 1941; Madi-
son Co., Apr. 26, 1941: Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: Conn., D. C., Pa.,. Tenn., Wis.
abdominalis (Van Duzee). Madison Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Brandenburg, Aug. 21,
1941; Boyle Co., Apr. 26, 1941; Louisville, Apr. 24, 1941, May 9, 1947, May 15,
1941; July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 5, 1940, Sept. 9, 1941; Pactolus, Aug. 14,
1948; Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948; Pineville, July 3, 1948.
DistRiBUTION: Br. Col., Eastern and Calif., Colo.
neglecta (DeL. and Dav.). Murray, July 30, 1941, July 31, 1941, Aug. 7, 1941,
Aug. 8, 1941, Aug. 11, 1941, Aug. 15, 1941, Aug. 19, 1941 (all L.S.); Louisville,
July 30, 1940; Brandenburg, Aug. 21, 1941; Middlesboro, July 3, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: U. S.
Genus Davisonia Dorst
delongi Dorst. Louisville, June 7, 1941; Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940.
DISTRIBUTION: Canada, IIJ., Ia., Md., Mass., N. Mex., N. Y., Ohio, Pa., Va., Wis.
Genus Macrosteles Fieber
lepidus (Van Duzee). Jefferson Co., June 25, 1940; Rock Haven, Sept. 27, 1941.
DISTRIBUTION: Kans., N. Y., Ohio, Tenn., Wis.
divisus (Uhler). Rock Haven, May 24, 1941 (F.H.B.), Sept. 21, 1940; Louisville,
May 10, 1941, July 17, 1940, July 24, 1940, Aug. 4, 1940, Aug. 5, 1940; Murray,
July 29, 1941 (L.S.), July 30, 1941 (L.S.), throughout August 1941 (L.S.); Berea,
May 23, 1941 (J.S.B.); Brandenburg, Apr. 17, 1941; Princeton, July 25, 1948;
Dawson Springs, July 24, 1948.
DisrriputTion: Alaska, Can., Calif., to Me., Minn. to Tex.
variatus (Fall.). Henderson, July 10, 1948.
DisTRIBUTION: Colo., Conn., Kans., Me., Man., N. H., N. J., N. Mex., N. Y.,
Ohio, Pa., Que., Tenn.
wilburi Dorst. Louisville, July 17, 1940, July 30, 1940, Aug. 21, 1941.
DisTRIBUTION: Kans.

ACADEMY HOLDS SPRING MEETING

The Kentucky Academy of Science held its Spring meeting at
Cumberland Falls State Park on Friday afternoon and Saturday morn-
ing, April 29 and 30, 1949. Main feature of the Friday afternoon
program was a symposium on “Fish and Streams”. ‘The following
speakers participated in the program:

Mr. Hudson Biery, Chairman of the Ohio River Valley Water
Sanitation Commission. Subject: “Ohio Valley States Undertake
Pollution Abatement”.

Dr. Peter Doudorff, Environmental Health Center, Cincinnati.
Subject: “Standardization of ‘Toxicity Bio-assays in Relation to Waste
Disposal Control”.

Mr. Earl Wallace, Director of the Division of Fish and Game,
Frankfort. Subject: “How You Can Use Wildlife Resources”.

Mr. Glen Gentry, Aquatic Biologist, Paris, ‘Tennessee. Subject:
“The Fisheries Program of the ‘Tennessee Department of Con-
servation’.

Dr. A. H. Wiebe, Chief of the Fish and Game Branch, Division of
Forestry Relations, T. V. A. Subject: “Density Currents in Norris
Reservoir”.

Following the dinner meeting Friday evening, Mr. Ben East, Field
Editor of Outdcor Life, spoke on the subject of “Conservation Educa-
tion”. A short business meeting was held following Mr. East’s address.

The schedule for Saturday morning included an early morning bird
hike, mid-morning field trips to points of interest in Cumberland Falls
State Park and a late morning trip to the fish hatcheries a short dis-
tance from the Falls. Main feature of this latter trip was a demonstra-
tion of an electric seine by Mr. Minor Clark, Superintendent of
Fisheries.

‘The outdoor meeting at Cumberland Falls was an experiment in
response to a long felt need for ‘a type of Academy meeting which pro-
vided our biologists and geologists with greater opportunity for field
trips. ‘The number and enthusiasm of those participating in this
meeting provide ample evidence that the experiment was a success.
It must be remembered, however, that this outdoor meeting was under-
taken to complement, not to replace, our annual meeting which this
year will be held on the Campus of Eastern State College, Richmond,
Kentucky, October 21 and 22.

68

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

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Lanham Hardwood Flooring Company, Louisville, Kentucky.

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Peerless Manufacturing Company, Louisville, Kentucky.

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506.73
ics ts?"

Volume 13 October, 1950 Number 2

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ

Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

Effect of Commercial Malt Sprouts on the Anaerobic Growth of

of Distillers’ Yeast. R. E. Scalf and T. J. B. Stier —.......00000...... 69
Preparation of Ketones by the Sommelet Reaction. M. I. Bowman,

Irving B. Joffe, W. W. Rinne and James C. Wilkes _............... 78
Economic Status of Lespedeza Seed Oil. Richard H. WHO Y, te See 80

Performance of an Earth Heat Pump on. Intermittent Operation.
E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning, and H. H. Thompson .................. 82

The Effects of Small Amounts of Glycine and Ethyl Glycine on Food
Ingestion in the Dog. J. W. Archdeacon and A. B. Carreiro .... 100

The Precision and Accuracy of Meter Sticks. Sigfred Peterson ............ 102

The Effects of Composition on the Specific Gravity of Binary Wax
Mixtures. John R. Koch and Sister M. Concetta _..................... 104

Chromosome Behavior in a Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid.
In IR ETA NOD ae ee ae 111
IO seh acs emucndaigucnvecctwadeesaduneneartaanenct 116

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1949-1950

President Vice President
W. E. BLackBuRN, E. B. PENROD,
Murray State College, University of Kentucky,
Murray Lexington
Secretary Treasurer
C. B. HAMANN, R. W. WEAVER,
Asbury College, University of Kentucky,
Wilmore Lexington
Representative to the Council Counselor to the Junior
of the A.A.A.S. Academy of Science
Austin R. MIDDLETON, Anna A, SCHNEIB, —
University of Louisville, Eastern State College
Louisville Richmond
Editors

M. C. BRocKMANN,
Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc.,

Louisville
Directors

astern State College, Richmond: ..0..).0 ce to 1953
Mary E. Wuarton, Georgetown College, Georgetown..........-.-.-.-::-11-e0- to 1953
ALFRED BRAUER, University of Kentucky, Lexington..............-.222-------+ to 1952
Warp C. Sumpter, Western State College, Bowling Green.......................- to 1952
W. D. Vatieau, University of Kentucky, Lexington ..........-...2.....--..-----0: to 1951
Morris ScHERAGO, University of Kentucky, Lexington...................2..222---+- to 1951
Pau. Koiacuov, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville.................-.... to 1950
J. S. Bancson,’ Berea ‘College; Berea:.. cee tse ee ee to 1950

The TRANSACTIONS are issued quarterly. Four numbers constitute a volume.
Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume.

Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or other
business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and other
material for publication should be addressed to the editors.

EFFECT OF COMMERCIAL MALT SPROUTS ON THE
ANAEROBIC GROWTH OF DISTILLERS’ YEAST!

R. E. Scalf? and T. J. B. Stier
Department of Physiology, Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana

Acceleration of lactic acid fermentation in a glucose or molasses
medium by the addition of commercial malt sprouts was attributed
to the presence of accessory substances for growth as well as fer-
mention in this material (Pan, et al, 1940). Euler (1924) found
that water extracts of malt sprouts stimulated cell multiplication and
COz production of yeast and that water extracts of fresh barley
sprouts gave higher rates of COz production than water extracts of the
dried material. We will present evidence showing that, when the
anaerobic growth of a distillery type of yeast is increased by the ad-
dition of malt sprouts to a medium which is apparently complete
with respect to the water soluble growth factors, lipid substances
in the malt sprouts themselves account for the larger crops.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Yeast strain. All experiments were conducted with a distillery
type yeast obtained from Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louis-
ville, Kentucky, under the identification, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
strain DCL. This strain is included in the culture collection of the
Northern Regional Research Laboratory, Peoria, Illinois. ;

Medium. A medium containing 10 gm glucose, 0.5 gm KH2PO,4
and various amounts of Difco yeast extract (see below) per 100 ml
was used throughout these experiments.

Seed yeast. The yeast for the inocula were grown under initially
aerobic conditions, according to the method of Brockmann and
Stier (1947) and, after dilution to 10 million cells/ml with the
growth medium, were rendered oxygen-free by purging with Linde
High Purity Nitrogen. The purging was carried out in a flask of
special design from which an inoculating syringe could be loaded
under strict anaerobic conditions.

This syringe loading unit consisted of a 50 ml boiling flask
(Corning 4100) with a special side tube assembly for inserting the
1 This work was aided by a grant from Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc.

2 Formerly Seagram Research Associate at the Laboratory of Cell Physology,

Indiana University. Present address: Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc,, Louis-
ville 1, Kentucky.

NOV 2 0 1950

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Q

3 inch needle of the syringe and a ground glass head carrying
both a center gas inlet tube (7 mm OD) extending to the bottom
of the flask and a 1 mm capillary vent tube sealed into the dome
of the head. The syringe loading sidearm consisted of a 25x5 mm
tube sealed at a 60° angle near the neck of the flask, a short piece of
rubber tubing for inserting the hypodermic needle and ended with
a piece of 1 mm capillary tubing for the escape of nitrogen gas,
thus ensuring the removal of any oxygen brought into the sidearm
with the needle. The 3 inch needle of the 10 ml Luer-Lok syringe
was inserted into the flask above the liquid level by perforating
the rubber tubing of the sidearm connection, and nitrogen was
alternately drawn into the syringe and discharged back into the
flask several times in order to remove any entraped oxygen. The
nitrogen purge rate through the inoculum was maintained at 80
ml/min for 30 minutes before the syringe was loaded for inocula-
tion of the all-glass culture flasks described below.

Experimental culture flasks. The growth studies were conduc-
ted in all-glass units similar in design to those described by Stier,
Scalf and Brockmann (1950, Fig. 1) except that they were fabricated
from 250 ml wash bottles with standard taper stopper (Corning
1660). A straight bore stopcock was attached to the original water
outlet tube of the stopper, and a mercury trap was attached to the
original air inlet tube. A short length of heavy walled rubber tub-
ing connected the stopcock of the center tube of each flask to a
manifold which was attached by copper tubing to the cylinder of
purified nitrogen. Anaerobic conditions were established by purg-
ing the rubber tubing and the attached flasks, with their experi-
mental growth medium (25 ml), with Linde High Purity Nitrogen
at a rate of 80 ml/min for 40 minutes. The flasks were then inoculated
with 1 ml of seed yeast, which had been treated as described above,
by inserting the needle of the syringe through the rubber tubing
and allowing the stream of nitrogen to carry the volume of inoculum
into the flask. Purging with nitrogen was continued for an additional
20 minutes in order to remove any oxygen which may have been
introduced during the inoculating procedure. The trap on the gas
outlet tube was then filled with mercury to a height of 2 cm and
the stopcock was closed.

Malt sprouts. The malt sprouts employed in these studies were
obtained from Joseph E. Seagram and Sons, Inc., and were ground

70

Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts

fine in a Wiley mill before being used. In the experiments reported
below, the dry malt sprouts were added to the basal growth medium
(see legend, Fig. 2) and autoclaved together at 120°C for 12
minutes.

Yeast population. The number of yeast cells in a known dilu-
tion of medium was determined, after cessation of cell multiplication
(circa 40 hours at 30°C), by direct count in a Neubauer counting
chamber. Interference with the counting of the yeast cells by par-
ticles of malt sprouts was eliminated by filtering the entire contents
of each flask at the end of the growth period through four thicknesses
of cheese cloth and washing the residue free of yeast cells with

sufficient water to make a final volume of 200 ml.

Various extraction procedures employed for determining the
gross nature of the anaerobic growth stimulating material in the

malt sprouts will be given in the following section.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

In order to set up nutritional conditions which would reveal
the presence of any unusual growth factors in the added malt sprouts,
we first studied the relation between the Difco yeast extract con-
centration of the medium and the resultant crops produced under
anaerobic conditions. Figure 1 shows that the final crops increased
in cell number as the yeast concentration was increased in the
range 0 to 7% and that no further increase in crop production re-

sulted beyond the 7% yeast extract concentration.

The final crops reported in these experiments were obtained
after 42 hours at 30°C. Periodic sampling at low and high yeast
extract concentrations established this period of time as being suf-
ficient for the complete development of maximum crop. Additional ex-
periments, not reported, showed that the dextrose concentration of

the medium did not limit the development of the maximum crops.

On the basis of the findings reported in Fig. 1, a basal medium
consisting of 7% yeast extract, 0.5% KH2PO, and 10% dextrose

71

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

was chosen for subsequent studies of the relation between malt
sprouts concentration and magnitude of the final crop. These re-
sults are given in Fig. 2. Note that the addition of malt sprouts to
the basal medium resulted in an increase in the size of the final
crop. It was found that 5% malt sprouts was the maximum concen-
tration which could be handled satisfactorily for these growth studies.

To determine the nature of the stimulatory substance in the
added malt sprouts, we first made extracts of the water-soluble
materials and the fat solvent soluble substances. An outline of the
fractionation Bucci and results from a typical experiment are
given in Figure 3. The procedure employed was as follows: 10 gm
a malt sprouts in 100 ml of distilled water, adjusted to pH 4.8, was
autoclaved in a 200 ml centrifuge bottle at 120°C for 12 minutes,
and the solids were removed and washed with three 100 ml portions
of distilled water by centrifugation. The combined liquids contain-
ing the water extractable substances were evaporated under reduced
pressure at 50°C to a final volume of 100 ml and assayed in the 7%
yeast extract medium.

The washed solids, obtained above, were dried at 60°C in a
vacuum oven for 24 hours and their weight determined. Triplicate
portions of this residue, each equivalent to 1.25 gm of the original
sprouts material, were assayed under sterile edie in 25) aoltot
basal medium for their anaerobic growth promoting activity. The
remainder of the solids was extracted with three 100 ml portions of
absolute alcohol by refluxing for 30 minutes over a steam bath.
This treatment of the solids was followed by a similar extraction with
absolute ethyl ether. The two extracts were then combined by eva-
porating the ether and redissolving the residue from the ether
extract in the alcohol extract. This fraction called the “alcohol-ether ex-
tract’, was assayed in triplicate by measuring an aliquot, representing
the fat solvent soluble material in 1.25 gm of the original malt sprouts,
into a sterile culture flask and evaporating the alcohol under re-
duced pressure at 60° C. Sterile medium was then added to the ma-
terial deposited on the bottom of the flask, and the whole culture
unit was prepared for inoculation with oxygen-free seed yeast as de-
scribed above. The alcohol-ether extracted solids were dryed at
60° C in a vacuum oven for 24 hours, weighed and assayed in the
same manner as the water extracted solids.

72

Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts

The results given in Figure 3 indicate that it was the lipid
materials in the malt sprouts which had induced the extra anaerobic
growth. The material in the alcohol-ether extract was then fraction-
ated by saponification. An aliquot of the alcohol-ether extract was sap-
onified by refluxing 4 hours with KOH on a steam bath, followed by
extraction with ethyl ether and washing the ether extract with water.
The final washed ether fraction which Sede a the non-saponifiable
substances was then tested for its anaerobic growth promoting pro-
perties by the same procedure described above for the alcohol-
ether extractives.

Additions of the non-saponifiable material (11.2 mg), obtained
from 1.25 gm malt sprouts, to 25 ml of basal yeast extract medium
gave yeast crops with values within + 10 per cent of those obtained
with the alcohol-ether extracts. Therefore, it is concluded that the
lipid anaerobic growth stimulating material of malt sprouts belongs
to the non-saponifiable class of substances. We have reported a si-
milar finding for the lipids extracted from distillers’ dried solubles
(Stier and Scalf, 1949). The work of Devloo (1938), on the stimu-
lation of cell multiplication of yeast by various sterols, suggests that
the sterol fraction of malt sprouts might contain the material which
stimulates the anaerobic growth of our distillers’ yeast.

The manner in which the lipid growth stimulating substances .of
malt sprouts are absorbed and metabolically utilized by the yeast
cell has not been investigated as yet. In some recent experiments
(unpublished) with oils from plants and animals, we have found that
these oils will form stable emulsions in the yeast extract medium
itself. The possibility that this process also takes in the case of the
lipids of finely ground malt sprouts, or that some process of solubili-
zation takes place whereby the growth stimulating fat-soluble sub-
stances couple with certain water-soluble substances in the medium
(for example, see Wald, 1949), will be considered in future in-
vestigations.

3 The average yields of the various extractives from the malt sprouts were as
follows: water-soluble substances, 27%; alcohol-ether extractives, 8.4%; non-
saponifiable substances, 0.9%.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

nm
(o)

ANAE ROBIC

)
o)

@
(oe)

6

aS
(S)
al

20

FINAL YEAST CROP 10° CELLS

fe) ] Bi Sse ae4 5 625 7 8) S89 10
% YEAST EXTRACT (Difco)

Figure 1. Relation of concentration of Difco yeast extract to magnitude of the
final anaerobic yeast crop.
The growth medium consisted of 0.5% KH,PO, (Merk, reagent), 10%
dextrose (Merck, reagent) and varying concentrations of Difco yeast
extract (Control # 395778). The Difco yeast extract employed in this
laboratory has generally given final anaerobic crops of 90-100 x 106
cells/ml at a concentration of 7%. However, some shipments of Difco
yeast extract gave maximum crops in the range 15-25x 106 cells/ml
and therefore were not suitable for the experiments reported in this

paper.

74

Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts

=

a

=

a ANAEROBIC
= 200

O.

QO 160

O

ae 120

{ 7% YEAST EXTRACT MEDIUM
= ag

q

Zz

Ee

0 1 2 3 4 5
S% MALT SPROUTS

Figure 2. Relation of concentration of malt sprouts to magnitude of the final
anaerobic yeast crop.
The basal medium consisted of 7% Difco yeast extract, 0.5% KH>-
PO, and 10% dextrose and produced anaerobic crops of 90 x 106
cells/ml. The basal medium was apparently complete with respect
to water-soluble growth factors since additions of water extracts of
malt sprouts (Fig. 3), or of liver (unpublished) or higher concentra-
tions of yeast extract (Fig. 1) did not increase the final yeast crops.

75

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

| FRACTIONATION OF MALT SPROUTS

MALT_SPROUTS

ANAEROBIC ne

RESIDUE HO EXTR.
MALT SPROUTS 2
ALC. = ETHER ALC.
RESIDUE EXTR ETHER

i ee

ine)
=)
S
q
4]

‘)

ae

Ky

ne

qd RESIDUE

ne

ta

Oa)

4,0

ee

AX

80!:] 7% YEAST

EXTRACT

FINAL
RESIDUE

FINAL YEAST CROP 10° CELLS / ML
g
eit a

SB

0 Es ; : °
% MALT SPROUTS ESIDUES EXTRACTS

Figure 3. Anaerobic growth promoting activity of the water and fat solvent solu-
ble fractions of malt sprouts.
Note that the water extracted residue gave approximately the same
anaerobic yeast crop as the untreated malt sprouts. Extraction with
absolute alcohol followed by ethyl ether gave a residue producing no
extra anaerobic growth when added to the basal 7% yeast extract me-
dium. Addition of the materials in the water extract also gave no
significant increase in anaerobic growth; addition of the alcohol-ether
extractives from 5 gm of malt sprouts per 100 ml of basal medium,
however, gave an average crop of 175x 106 cells/ml. We have not
been able, so far, to produce larger crops by extracting the lipid ma-
terial with other fat solvents.

76

Lipid Anaerobic Growth Factors In Malt Sprouts

SUMMARY

The production of anaerobic crops of a distillery type of yeast
was increased from 100 to 195 x 10® cells/ml by the addition of com-
mercial malt sprouts to a basal medium which was apparently complete
with respect to the water-soluble growth factors. Water extracts of
the malt sprouts were shown not to contain the substances which
produced the larger anaerobic yeast crops. The anaerobic growth
stimulating material was extracted by alcohol and ether and all of the
active lipid substance (or substances) was shown to be present in
the unsaponifiable fraction.

LITERATURE CITED

Brockmann, M. C. and Stier, T. J. B. 1947. Cellular mechanisms
controlling rates of glucose consumption by yeast. J. Cell. and
Comp. Physiol., 29: 159-178.

Devloo, R. 1938. Un Sterol Indispensable a la Levure W. Arch. Int.
de Physiol., 46, 157-188.

Euler, H. V. and Swartz, Olof. 1924. Uber den Zusammenhang der
wasserloslichen Wachstumsfaktoren mit Aktivatoren des Zuck-
erabbaues and uber einen thermostabilen Biokatalyzator in der
Hefe. Z. Physiol. Chem., 140, 146-163.

Pan, S. C., Peterson, W. H. and Johnson, M. J. 1940. Acceleration of
lactic acid fermentation by heat labile substances. Ind. Eng.
Chem., 32, 709-714.

Stier, T. J. B. and Scalf, R. E. 1949. Nutrient limited anaerobic growth

of yeast at high temperatures. J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol., 33:
18.

Stier, T. J. B., Scalf, R. E. and Brockmann, M. C. 1950. An all-glass
apparatus for the continuous cultivation of yeast under anaerobic
conditions. J. Bact., 59: 45-49.

Wald, George. 1949. The enzymatic reduction of the retinenes to the
vitamins A. Science, 109, 482-483.

an

PREPARATION OF KETONES BY THE SOMMELET REACTION
M. I. Bowman, Irving B. Joffe, W. W. Rinne and James C. Wilkes*

University of Louisville

The Sommelet reaction involves reacting a halogen compound
with hexamethylene tetramine to give a salt of the quaternary amine
type. This is then decomposed by steam distillation to give the
aldehyde. Little or no work has been done in preparing ketones
by this method and it appears likely that secondary halides do not
ordinarily undergo this reaction to any great extent. In the cases
discussed here, it is possible that the fact that the halogen is adjacent
to the double bond activates this reaction.

A possible mechanism for the Sommelet reaction has been

suggested by Graymore and Davis (1945).

Two procedures are commonly used, one involving actual isola-
tion of the quaternary salt and the other steam distillation of the
reaction mixture without isolating the salt. We have found the
latter to give better results in the cases studied.

Experimental

2-Methyl-2-cyclohexen-l-one. 1-Methylcyclohexene (30 g.) was bro-
minated with N-bromosuccinimide in carbon tetrachloride in the us-
ual manner (Ziegler, 1942). Two fractions were obtained (A) b.p.
53-60/10mm (20 g.) and (B) b.p. 60-90/10mm. (11 g.). Both
fractions were subject to the Sommelet procedure as described by
Weygand (1945).

Both of these products were analyzed by treatment of aliquot
portions with dinitrophenylhydrazine. The dinitrphenylhydrazones were
not pure but could be recrystallized from benzene-ethanol and gla-
cial acetic acid to bring the melting point up to 204-6°. Chromato-
graphy gave somewhat better results. Two bands were formed with
either chloroform or benzene on alumina, a top band about 1/5 of the
total, m.p. above 300°, and a lower band m.p. 208°, about 4/5 of
the total. According to Butz (1947) the dinitrophenyl hydrazone of
* This work was carried out under contract N8onr76201 between the Navy
Department, Office of Naval Research, and the University of Louisville.

78

Preparation Of Ketones By The Sommelet Reaction

2-methyl-2-cyclohexen-l-one melts at 207-10°. From the quantities
obtained it appeared that the yield of ketone from (A) was only
3% wrereas from (B) it was 18%

The identity of the 208° m.p. derivative was checked by mixed
melting point with that from several samples of 2-methyl-2-cyclo-
hexen-l-one prepared by other methods. Also mixed chromatograms
‘were run using many different solvents and no separation of bands
could be produced.

An attempt to prepare this ketone from the bromo derivative
by the oxidative hydrolysis method of Mousseron (1947) gave only
traces of the desired product. However, refluxing with potassium
carbonate gave a 15% yield of 2-methyl-2-cyclohexen-l-ol, (Urion,
1934) readily converted to the phenyl urethane m. p. 209-10°.
6-Methyl-2- -cyclohexen- -I-one. Starting with 4-methylceyclohexene + and
subjecting it to the same procedure as above, there was obtained
a small amount of ketone yielding a dinitrophenylhydrazone m.p.
158°. This corresponds to the 6-methyl derivative as indicated by
Birch (1946) rather than the 5-methyl which Mousseron obtained by
oxidative hydrolysis of the bromo compound obtained in the same
manner as ours. Our bromo derivative differs slightly from Mousseron’s
in physical properties. Further investigation of this reaction is being
made.

References

Birch, A. J., J. Chem. Soc., 1945, 595

Butz, L. W., Benjamin L. Davis and Adam M. Gaddis, J. Org. Chem.
EAD ( VO4T ).

Graymore, John, and David R. Davies, J. Chem. Soc., 1945, 293
Mousseron, Max, Francois Winternitz and Robert Jacquier, Compt.
rend. 224 1062-4 (1947).

Urion, Edmond, Compt. rend., 199, 363-5 (1934).

Weygand, C. “Organic Preparations”, Interscience Publishers, New
York, 1945, p. 156.

Ziegler, K., E. Schauf, W. Schumann and E. Winkelmann, Ann. 551,
80-122 (1942).

+ Kindly supplied by the Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville, Okla.

79

ECONOMIC STATUS OF LESPEDEZA SEED OIL
Richard H. Wiley

Department of Chemistry
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky

A preliminary report on the isolation and characterization of
lespedeza seed oil has occasioned a general interest in the economic
Bos ciblties involved in the progluetlon and utilization of lespedeza
seed oil. This discussion summarizes some of the pertinent informa-
tion on this topic.

Lespedeza is rapidly becoming a major agricultural crop in
Southern states. It is widely and readily accepted as a forage crop
of the legume family. Its acceptance is due to its excellent growth
during hot months (July and August) when other forage crops do
not provide good pastures and to its value as a legume in rebuilding
exhausted soils. Lespedeza seed is harvested for replanting on a
fairly large scale. An estimated (2) 250,000,000 pounds was harvested
in the United States in 1948. The oil from the seed has not been
studied prior to our work. Neither has the possibility of cultivating
the plant as a seed crop other than for replanting been examined.

Preliminary studies (1) of its unsaturation and drying pro-
petries indicate that the oil has properties that will make it of
value as a drying oil for the paint and varnish industry. If the oil
is of commercial value, the Southern farmers have available, without
now realizing it, an oil seed crop which may be as valuable to
them as the soy bean crop has been to Middle Western farmers. Such
use of lespedeza as a seed crop is of obvious value in developing a
diversification of Southern agriculture.

The potential cost of lespedeza seed oil is determined by the
yield per acre of seed. Current yields of the Korean strain average
200 pounds per acre but “yields of 500 pounds of cleaned Korean
seed per acre are not unusual.” (3) Yields of Sericea seed of up to
1200 pounds per acre have been reported (4). Using 500 pounds
as an average yield of seed, $10 per acre as minimum costs for
harvesting by combine, and a 10% yield of oil from seed, the
estimated cost of the oil not including costs of extraction is $0.20 per

80

Economic Status Of Lespedeza Seed Oil

pound. This might well be halved by developments in increasing seed
yield per acre. Current quotations on linseed oil are $0.18 per
pound and reflect a decrease of 30% in the last year. This is re-
garted as unusually favorable for this development when it is remem-
bered that current oil prices are low and that lespedeza culture as
a seed crop has received little if any development.

If Southern lespedeza seed oil, based on a crop readily ac-
cepted by the Southern farmer, can replace Northern linseed oil,
based on a crop which must be subsidized to find acceptance by
farmers who are loath to grow it, the Southern agricultural leaders
should know about it and plan and work accordingly for the benefit
of the region. Such developments take many years during which
short range economic factors—particularly market values—will un-
doubtedly go through many fluctuations in the $0.10 to $0.40 range.

The most important problems facing this development at present
are: (1) to relate oil yields from seed to seed production particularly
with strains giving high seed yields and (2) to complete a thorough
characterization of the oil. Both are receiving active, although limited,
attention in our laboratories.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

fh HH. Wiley and A. W. Cagle. Paper presented at the Richmond
meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science, October 22, 1949.
J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 27, 34 (1950).

2. December 1, 1948, General Farm Report, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Raleigh, North
Carolina.

a “Lespedeza in Kentucky,” University of Kentucky, Agriculture
Extension Division, Circular 407, page 9.

4, “Lespedeza Culture and Utilization,” U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Farmers Bulletin, No. 1852.

Sl

PERFORMANCE OF AN EARTH HEAT PUMP ON
INTERMITTENT OPERATION

E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning*, and H. H. Thompson**

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Kentucky, Lexingion, Kentucky

INTRODUCTION

From October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950 the earth heat pump at
the University of Kentucky operated intermittently on the heat-
ing cycle (1)!. By the use of an electric clock, the plant was set in
operation at 6 p.m. and stopped at 6 a.m. daily. While the plant was
in operation heat was extracted from the earth, thereby lowering the
temperature of the soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger (2,3,4)?.
The heat absorbed from the earth at a low temperature level was dis-
charged at a higher temperature level to the air stream going to the
space to be air conditioned. During the twelve hour period in which
the heat pump was idle, heat flowed from the more remote soil into
that surrounding the earth heat exchanger, thereby restoring its tem-
perature wholly, or partially to its original value.

Tue Heat Pump INSTILATION

The earth heat pump system installed in the mechanical engineer-
ing laboratory consists of a Marvair package unit manufactured by
the Muncie Gear Works, Muncie, Indiana, an instrument panel,
and an earth heat exchanger (Fig. 1) buried at an average depth of

Now Instructor in Mechanical Engineering, Evansville College, Evansville,
Indiana.

** Now Research Engineer, Refrigeration Division, International Harvester

Company, Evansville, Indiana.

i Numbers in parentheses refer to references in the Bibliography.

bo

For a description of an earth heat pump and how it functions, see pages
47-58, reference (2); pages 506-513, reference (3); and pages 24-30,
reference (4).

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

v
z|9 =
o wo
m =
v0 t
mae
r =
ro)
dd z
©
<A y
ny
er
' by 7
DEPTH-5.8 oO
©) 2 ° A D
w Su mo) (s) (eo)
= = os Cc
x t a
U Oo
2 2 =
2 j a
oO. = j fo)
5 = =
at 2)
x re)
t vU Oo i
o 2 a.
ro} a)
Q)
=, '
Cc |
o
—] =
on P ro)
Oe
ae
Rom
a wn 2 4
o
> mM :
a 2a) 0) DEPTH-4.2 y
m
| (@) ae
S
to ie
> /
0 x = %
oO = 4 WY
S a LY N
SS x i
eae Le
ee eee ae

Figure 1. The earth heat exchanger or ground coil.

83

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

about 4.5 ft. in the soil nearby (1, 5). The essential parts of the
package unit are two heat exchangers; a 4-cylinder, single stage, air-
cooled, refrigeration compressor manufactured by Servel, Inc., Evans-
ville, Indiana; a 5-hp, single phase, electric motor used to drive the
compressor!; a fan driven by a %%-hp, single phase, electric motor;
and a circulating pump driven by a '%-hp, single phase, electric motor.

The earth heat exchanger (Fig. 1) consists of an effective
length of 489 ft. of one inch copper tubing through which an anti-
freeze solution is circulated. Thermocouples were installed so tem-
peratures could be measured at the center of the antifreeze line at
Stations’ 1 to 37 inclusive. The line) heat source is) L797 t slong
and consists of the portion of the earth heat exchanger from stations
2 to 5, and from stations 7 to 8, except the length of tubing which
is thermally insulated as shown in Fig 1. The grid has a length
of 317.1 ft., and is that portion of the earth heat exchanger be-
tween stations 5 and 7°. Thermocouples (Fig. 2) were installed so
that the temperature of the soil at stations 3 and 6 could be measured.

DEFINITIONS

It has been shown that a heat pump system should have a
heating energy ratio of about 3.33 to deliver as much heat energy
as a pound of coal burned in stoker-fired furnace*. If the
heat pump is to replace conventional heating equipment for the sake
of economy its efficiency must be improved considerably.

The French use the term coefficient of amplification as a
measure of the efficiency of a refrigeration plant, while Davies and
Watts use the term performance energy ratio (6, 7). In the United

1 For the tests during the heating season of 1949-1950 a 5-hp motor was
used instead of the 3-hp motor which was originally installed in the
Marvair package unit.

2 For a description of the heat pump installation used in this research,

see pages 8-21, reference (1).

In this paper the heat source will be considered as the entire effective

length of copper tubing in the earth heat exchanger, namely 489 ft. In

a future Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin a more detailed analysis

will be given in which the earth heat exchanger will be considered as a

line heat source of 171.9 ft. and a srid heat source of SI7l ttmor

copper tubing.

4 See page 58, reference (2); and page 521, reference (3),

(es)

84

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

STATION 3 STATION 6

ARTH’S SURFAC EARTH’S SURFACE

E
WEN VISTO SWS WIS INT. YIN UN

10
e

le 6a eas 6
6"
CU TUBING
12
e
ioe
18"
16
13 5
e

@ THERMOCOUPLE BEADS

14
e

Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing the location of thermocouples
used to determine the soil temperatures at stations 3 and 6.

85

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

States the term coefficient of performance (COP) is generally used
as a measure of the efficiency of a refrigeration plant!. In heat
pump engineering these terms are somewhat misleading since the
energy ratio for heating exceeds, theoretically, that for cooling by
unity?. In this paper the term coefficient of performance will be
replaced by the term heating energy ratio.

The object of this research is to determine the factors responsible

for the low performance energy ratios, and to find out if the earth
is a suitable heat source. In order to make a careful analysis of
data taken, the following definitions were used:

lk

bo

8.

1

A Carnot heat pump is a highly idealized machine which re-
moves heat reversibly from a cold body at a constant tem-
perature, and discharges heat reversibly to a hot body at a
constant temperature, it operates on a cycle consisting of
two isothermal and two isentropic processes.

A vapor compression refrigeration plant is a system consisting
of an evaporator, condenser, precooler, expansion valve (or
capillary tube), and a compressor.

A heat pump is a refrigeration plant and the electric motor
used to drive the compressor.

A heat pump system is defined as a heat pump plus the
necessary auxiliary equipment (which consumes electric energy )
needed for air conditioning.

The heating energy ratio (HER) of a Carnot heat pump is the
ratio of the heat absorbed by the hot body to the heat
equivalent of the net work of the cycle.

The heating energy ratio (HER) of a refrigeration plant is
the ratio of the heat absorbed by the condenser to the
heat equivalent of the work of compression.

The heating energy ratio (HER) of a heat pump is the
heat absorbed by the fluid which removes heat from the
condenser to the heat equivalent of the electric energy sup-
plied to the motor used to drive the refrigeration compressor.
The heating energy ratio (HER) of a heat pump system is

For two years the senior author has been using the team heating energy

ratio (HER), in his classes in thermodynamics and refrigeration, as a
measure of the efficiency of the heat pump when it operates on the

heating cycle, and the term cooling energy ratio (CER) when it operates

on the cooling cycle.
2 See page 506, reference (3); and page 2, reference (4).

86

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

the ratio of the heat absorbed by the fluid which removes
heat from the condenser to the heat equivalent of the electric
energy supplied to the entire system!.

PERFORMANCE TESTS O¥ SHORT DURATION

During the summer of 1949, four heating tests ot short dura-
tion were made to determine the efficiency of the Marvair package
heat pump unit, and the general operating performance of the
entire installation?. For the sake of comparison with the six-month
heating test considered here, the average values obtained from
these four tests are listed in Table IS. Items 19 and 20, clearly indi-
cate that a very inefficient refrigeration compressor was installed
in the Marvair package unit4. From item 5, it can be seen that 25,650
B of heat were discharged to the air stream per hour. In reference
(2), it was shown in an 8-hour heating test made on June 24, 1949,
that 6,670 B of heat were absorbed from the air stream by the
evaporator and connecting pipes each hour, thereby reducing the
useful heat power to the air stream from 31,420 to 24,750 B/hr. This
shows clearly that the evaporator (and pipes leading to and from it)
should have been either more thoroughly insulated, or should have
been placed in a separate compartment through which the air steam
did not pass during the heating cycle. As shown in item 14, 14,630 B
of heat per hour were absorbed by the antifreeze from the earth,
which is one indication that the evaporator in the package unit is
an inefficient heat exchanger. From items 21 and 22 it can be seen
that the heating energy ratio of the refrigeration cycle is 5.6 or
87.5% of that for the Carnot heat pump. The actual HER for the
heat pump is 2.3 or 41% of that for the refrigeration plant; this re-
duction in the heating energy ratio is due to taking the single phase
compressor motor into consideration, and to insufficient insulation
on the evaporator and connecting pipes. By including the single phase
fan and pump motors, there is a further reduction in the HER,
and it can be seen that the heating energy ratio of the heat pump
system is 1.7, or about 74% of that for the heat pump. This fur-

See reference (5).
See pages 35-46, reference (1) and 24-30, reference (4).
Pages 55-64, reference (1).
By reducing the compressor speed from about 1130 to 700 rpm, the
capacity of the refrigeration plant was reduced from 2.0 to 1.6 tons although
the volumetric efficiency increased from about 52.7 to about 71.5%

Bm OO py

87

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

ther reduction is due to the additional energy consumed by the
fan motor and circulating pump motor. From the above it can
be seen that the package heat pump under consideration is very
inefficient.

TABLE IL AVERAGE VALUES OBTAINED FROM FOUR HEATING TESTS
OF SHORT DURATION DURING THE SUMMER OF 1949.

1. Air-temp. in Mech. Engr. Lab., OF 85.9
2. Inlet temp. of air stream, OF 85.8
3. Outlet temp. of air stream, OF 104.9
4. Increase in temp, of air stream, OF 19.1
5. Heat power to air stream, B/hr. 25,650
6. Inlet temp. of antifreeze, OF 36.0
7. Outlet temp. of antifreeze, OF 39.6
8. Increase in temp. of antifreeze, OF 3.6
9. Temp. of antifreeze in earth heat exchanger, OF Biot
10. Soil temp. 6 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 60.2
11, Soil temp. 12 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 61.0
12. Soil temp. 18 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 61.5
3. Strength of heat source (entire earth heat exchanger ), B/hr/ft. 974A
14. Heat power from soil, B/hr 14,630
15. Electric power input to compressor motor, kw 3.632
16. Electric power input to fan motor, kw 0.484
17. Electric power input to pump motor, kw 0.810
18. Total electric power to heat pump system, kw 4.926
19. Volumetric efficiency of refrigeration compressor, % Bol
20. Compression efficiency of refrigeration compressor, .% 66.7
21. HER for Carnot heat pump 6.4
22. HER for refrigeration plant 5.6
23. HER for heat pump (actual) 8)
24. HER for heat pump system (actual ) 1.7
25. Heating cost, kwhr/therm 18.1
26. Actual capacity of refrigeration plant, tons 2.0

The heating energy ratios determined in the tests of short
duration are in line with those calculated from a hypothetical earth-
to-air heat pump installation!. It is hoped that designers of new
heat pump installations will take cognizance of the various factors
which are responsible for the reduction in the heating energy ratio
(i. e., from 5.6 to 1.7 in the case under consideration ).

I Page 29; reference (4):

88

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

Heatinc Test From Ocroser 31, 1949 To May 1, 1950

A great deal of information concerning the performance of an
earth heat pump system has been obtained through tests of short
‘duration. However, such tests give little or no information as to
the actual quantity of heat that is available, in the earth, for heat-
ing a building during the entire season. A long-term heating test
in which the heat pump operates continuously throughout the entire
season will not give the true performance because actual plants
generally operate on a demand basis.

During the heating test of 1949-1950, the heat pump system
operated intermittently, extracting heat from the earth daily from
6 p.m. to 6 a.m. It was recognized, however, that by operating the
plant in this manner, more heat would be absorbed from the earth
during the first and last parts of the heating season than would be
required normally to heat a house on the demand basis. Nevertheless,
this procedure simulates actual operation much better than where
the heat pump system is kept operating continuously.

The chief results obtained from the test made during the heat-
ing season of 1949—1950 are listed in Table Hl. The total degree-
days! during the test period were about 92% of normal for 48
seasons. From Table HI, however, it can be seen that the average
outdoor temperature for the season? was 42°F and the normal
temperature for the same period was 41.1°F. The rain fall was

2

36.48 inches as compared with 22.33 inches which is the normal
for the same _ period.

The average heat power supplied to the air stream for the season
considered was 92.36 therms per month, and the average electric
power input to the heat pump system was 1893 kwhr per month.
Hence the average monthly heating cost

1 The degree-day is a term based on the idea that heat is not required i

a building maintained at 700F when the aver: age outdoor air Benet 9
represented by the mean of the maximum and minimum outdoor air tem-
peratures for the day, does not fall below 65°F (8). If the average outdoor
air temperature is 64°F, there is one degree-day, and if the average outdoor
air temperature is 400F, there are 25 degree-days.

The actual average outdoor air temperatures reported in this paper are
the average hourly temperatures instead of averages of the maximum and
minimum temperatures.

bo

89

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

1893. kwhr/month
92.36 nerinev anon.

= 20.5 kwhr/therm.

Whence, the average heating cost from October 31, 1949 to May 1,
1950 was found to be 20.5 kwhr/therm for cold wet soil! (average
soil temperature 6” below the center of the antifreeze line for the
season was 43°F). For the four tests of short duration, the average
heating cost was found to be 18.1 kwhr/therm for warm dry soil

(average soil temperature 6” below the center of the antifreeze line
was 60.2°F ).

By the strength of the heat source is meant the heat absorbed
per unit time per unit length of the earth heat exchanger. The average
strength of the heat source (Table III) was 27.5 B/hr/ft for the
season of 1949-1950, and that obtained from the four tests of short
duration was 27.4 B/hr/ft for the summer of 1949. Curve E, Fig-
ure 3b shows the variation of the strength of the total heat source
(489 ft of pipe) versus time. From Fig. 8a and 3b it can be seen
that the maximum value of the strength of the heat source occurs
at the time of maximum rainfall.

For the season under consideration the average temperature of
antifreeze solution in the earth heat exchanger was 28.1°F for Novem-
ber and 17.5°F in April. The average temperature of the antifreeze
in the earth heat exchanger was 23.3°F for the entire season.

TABLE II. AVERAGE MONTHLY VALUES OBTAINED DURING AN IN-
TERMITTENT HEATING TEST FROM 6 P.M., OCTOBER 31, 1949 TO 6
A.M., MAY 1, 1950.

Nov. -"Dee, Jan: “Heb: Marsemeapr

1. Outdoor air temp., OF 43.4 40.0 40.0 387.9 406 499
2. Normal outdoor air temp., O9F 44.8 35.8 329 35.4 43.7 543
3. Air temp. in Mech.

Engr, Lab., OF Ue OOS) ks 70 VQ THe
4. Inlet temp. of air

stream, OF (ae Wel Wer We WO B04
5. Outlet temp. of air

stream, OF 97.9 95.2 97.4 94.7 966 99.9

| In Fig. 3(a) the actual and normal monthly rainfalls are shown graphically
for the season.

90

S|

2

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

Increase in temp. of

air stream, OF 21.4
Heat power to air

stream, B/hr 27,265
Total heat power to

air stream, therms/mo. 98.15*

Temp, of antifreeze

entering line, OF 28.1
Temp. of antifreeze
leaving line, OF 31.4

Increase in temp.
of antifreeze, OF 3.3
Temp. at center of

antifreeze line, OF 28.7
Soil temp. 6 in. below

center of antifreeze line, OF 51.9
Soil temp. 12 in. below

center of antifreeze line, OF 56.4
Soil temp. 18 in. below

center of antifreeze line, OF 55.4
Strength of heat source

(for 489 ft), B/hr/ft 27.8
Heat power from earth to

antifreeze, B/hr 13,560

Total heat power from
earth to antifreeze, therms/mo 48.80*
Elect. power to

compressor motor, kw 4391
Elect. power to fan

motor, kw 0.503
Elect. power to

pump motor, kw 0.832
Elect. power to heat

pump system, kw 5.726
Elect energy supplied

to heat pump system, kwhr 2061*
HER for heat pump 1.82
HER for heat pump

system 1.39
Rainfall, inches Beal ge
Normal rainfall,

inches 318)
Degree days 625
Normal degree days 601*

Total values—not average values.

ol

20.1 20.7
25,620 26,590
95.31* 98.91*

26.4 23.7

29:4 29:4

3.0 3.7

27.6 25.7

45.1 40.2

49.2 41.0

48.6 43.2

23.8 30,5
11,840 14,890
44.15" 54.39%

4.430 3.780

0.500 0.502

0.842 0.875

5.772 95.157
2147* 1918*

1.82 2.06

1.30 1.50

1.25" 15.63"
S.01, -<4eko*
iio... Go4*

916") (964*

19.5
24,900
83.66°

19.2

22.7

14,150
47.69*
3.560
0.501

0.871

19.6

24,440 §

90.92

17.8

50.90°

3.540

0.489

0.860

4.889

1819*
2.02

1.46

3.62*

AB)
743°

650°

26.2
12,800
46.10°
3.540
0.482
0.858

4.880

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

RAINFALL AND STRENGTH OF HEAT SOURCE VS TIME
FROM NOV.1,1I949 TO MAY1I,1950
A. AGTUAL RAINFALL
B. NORMAL RAINFALL
C. STRENGTH OF LINE HEAT SOURCE
D. STRENGTH OF GRID HEAT SOURCE
E. STRENGTH OF TOTAL HEAT SOURCE

INCHES

TOTAL RAINFALL

B. PER HR. PER FT.

a : NOV. DEG: JAN. FEB. MAR. APRI
Figure 3. Graphs showing the variation of rainfall and strength of the heat
source with respect to time.

2

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

TABLE III. AVERAGE VALUES OBTAINED FOR THE SIX-MONTH HEAT-
ING TEST. HEAT WAS ABSTRACTED FROM THE EARTH TWELVE
HOURS EACH DAY.

1. Outdoor air temperature, OF 42.9
2. Normal outdoor air temperature, OF 41]
3. Inlet air temperature, OF 76.8
4. Outlet air temperature, OF 97.0
5. Heat power to air stream, B/hr! 25,510
6. Heat power to air stream, therm/mo2 92.36
7. Heat power from earth, B/hr 13,490
8. Heat power from earth, therm/mo 48.66
9. Temperature at center of antifreeze line, OF DBS)
10. Soil temperature 6 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 43.0
11. Soil temperature 12 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 46.1
12. Soil temperature 18 in. below center of antifreeze line, OF 46.0
13. Strength of heat source (489 ft.), B/hr/ft Piles
14. Electric energy to heat pump system, kwhr 1893
15. HER for heat pump 1.96
16. HER for heat pump system 1.43
17. Heating cost, kwhr/therm 20.5

The average value of the soil temperature 6 in. below the center
of the antifreeze line was 43°F for the season’. The average soil
temperatures for the season were 46.1°F and 46.0°F at distances
of 12 and 18 inches below the center of the antifreeze line, respec-
tively.

The average heating energy ratios for the heat pump and the
heat pump system are 1.96 and 1.43, respectively, while those re-
ported for the four tests of short duration were 2.3 and 1.7, re-
spectively.

The performance of the actual earth-to-air heat pump system for
the test season is shown graphically in Fig. 4. The effect of heavy
rainfall upon the temperature of the antifreeze in the earth heat
exchanger, the soil temperatures, and the rate of absorbing heat is
quite apparent. It should be pointed out that the intermittent opera-

1 B/hr means British thermal units per hour.
2 Therms/mo means 100,000 British thermal units per month.

3 It may be more than passing interest to not that the average outdoor air
temperature for the season was 42° F.

93

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATI
» STATION 3, ANTIFREEZE LINE 5.6 FT. BELOW GF
CURVE NOTATION
. TEMPERATURE AT CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE
. TEMPERATURE 6° BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREI
. TEMPERATURE 12" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFRE
. TEMPERATURE 18" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFRE
a ————

9000 p>

70

45

20

OUTSIDE AIR TEMP -F

TEMPERATURE —F

RAIN FALL- INCHES
i)

NOV. t DEC.I JAN. I

Figure 4. Graphical presentation of hee
94

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

T PUMP DATA
EATING SEASON FROM NOV.1,1949 TO MAY I, 1950

E. AVERAGE OUTDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE

F TIME RATE OF ABSORBING HEAT FROM SOIL
G. RAINFALL

HEAT ABSORBED FROM GROUND — B. PER HR.

MAR. 1 APRIL | MAY |

ita during the heating season of 1949-1950.
95

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation
)
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATIoy (ygat PUMP DATA
. STATION 3, ANTIFREEZE LINE 5.6 FT. BELOW GRoy HEATING SEASON FROM NOV.1,1949 TO MAY I, 1950
GURVE NOTATION NONE:
A. TEMPERATURE AT CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE Line \ & AVERAGE OUTDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE
B. TEMPERATURE 6° BELOW CENTER oF ANTIFREE zp ¢ TIME RATE OF ABSORBING HEAT FROM SOIL

C. TEMPERATURE 12” BELOW CENTER OF AntigR ¢. RAINFALL

D. TEMPERATURE 18" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIEREESE \

EEZe {

2 | P| ma Vi
45 65

nO ian AP :
=

te 20 60 | i {

x . 2

r 55 IL |

8 50 j u _|| ee ||

: ai

.—— |
WV
fe /
lu 35 A)
a
z
3
ty 30 | i
mt |
S °
lu
F
25 i
)

20

: f \ PNY
—= es | '
; | — S 10,000
UNIT INOPERATIVE

MAY |

HEAT ABSORBED FROM GROUND — B. PER HR.

RAIN FALL- INCHES
n

NOV. = a
DEG.I JAN. | FEB. MAR.I APRIL |

es igure 4. Graphical presentation of heat pump data during the heating season of 1949-1950.
4 95

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

tion, also, is responsible for the irregularities in the graphs. From
curve F, Fig. 4, and item 17 of Vable I it can be seen that the
time rate of absorbing heat from the earth is nearly constant for the
test season!. Professor Coogan reports a gradual decrease in the
strength of the heat source and the heat absorbed for continuous
operation of 700 and 900 hours (9, 10). It should be pointed out that
on comparing curves F and A (Fig. 4), that apparently there is no
correlation between the variation in the outdoor air temperature
and the rate of absorbing heat from the earth. According to Ingersoll
and Plass (Problem 6, page 121) there should be a periodic varia-
tion of the soil temperature in the vicinity of the earth heat ex-
changer due to the variation in the solar energy absorbed at the
earth's surface (11, 12). Neglecting the effect produced on the soil
by extracting heat from it and that due to rainfall, the soil tempera-
ture should have decreased (somewhat in a sinusoidal manner)
from, say, the middle of October to the middle of April. The decrease
in the soil temperatures (items 13, 14, 15 in Table IL) from October
31, 1949 to May 1, 1950 is partly due to the extraction of heat from
the soil and partly due to the periodic reception of solar radiation.
Graphs A, B, C, and D show that considerable heat was carried to
the soil in the vicinity of the earth heat exchanger (due to moisture
migration ) on December 10-14 and 18, January 3-6, 10-14 and 29-31,
February 1, and March 11-13.
CONCLUSIONS

1. Some of the average results from the six-month heating test
compare favorably with those obtained from tests of short duration
using the same installation; namely,

SIX-MONTH TESTS SO

TEST SHORT DURATION
Outlet air temp., °F 97.0 104.9
Heat power to air stream, B/hr 25,510 25,650
Heat power from earth, B/hr 13,910 14,630
Elect. input to entire system, kw 5.259 4.926
Strength of heat source (489 ft), B/hr/ft OSS 274
HER for heat pump 1.96 23
HER for heat pump system 1.48 Ie
Heating cost, kwhr/therm 20.5 18.1

1 The time rate of absorbing heat from the soil probably would have decreased
from November to May if the ratio of the refrigeration capacity to ground
coil length had been 5 tons to 489 ft. instead of about 2 tons to 489 ft,

96

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

2. The heating energy ratios obtained from tests of short
duration show clearly Ww Here the reduction in efficiency takes place;
to wit,

HER for the Carnot heat pump 6.4
HER for the refrigeration plant 5.6
HER for the heat pump ZS
HER for the heat pump system 1 Leh

3. The heating energy ratio of the refrigeration plant can be
increased by producing better heat exchangers and_ refrigeration
compressors. A more efficient heat exchanger can be manufactured
by decreasing the pressure drop through it and its connecting pipes,
and by increasing the amount of heat transfer surface. Professor
Budenholzer has shown that the HER of a refrigeration plant can
be improved by decreasing compressor losses, low side pressure
drop losses, and high side pressure drop losses (13). Through re-
search and development it ought to be possible to produce an
axial-flow vapor refrigeration compressor with a volumetric effici-
ency of 88% (or better) and with a very high mechanical efficiency.
In using the axial-flow vapor compressor, the above high and low
side pressure drops will be reduced greatly. It has been observed
that there was very little loss in efficiency due to departure from
isentropic compression in the four tests of short duration!. Also,
the HER of the refrigeration plant can be increased by using a
heat pump of the direct expansion type, thereby eliminating one
heat exchanger, the circulating pump and its driving motor. By doing
this, the initial cost of the earth heat pump system could be decreased
considerably, and the operating cost would be decreased by about
17%.

4. It is probably possible to manufacture electric motors in
the low capacity bracket having an efficiency of about 85%. with-
out increasing the cost of production, assuming wages and the cost
of raw materials remain the same.

5. The evaporator of the package unit should not be in the
air stream during the heating cycle, and the condenser should not
be in the air stream during the cooling cycle.

1 The average increase in entropy during compression for the four heating
tests was 0.0043 B/Ib/deg. Rankine. In two cooling tests of short duration,

the entropy increased by 0.0089 in one test, and decreased by 0.0007
B/lb/deg. Rankine in the other.

97

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

6. From October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950, the rainfall was in
excess of the normal for that period by 64.4%. Therefore, the per-
formance of the earth heat exchanger should be interpreted ac-
cordingly. Additional heat was carried to the ground coil by moisture
migration so that the time rate of absorbing heat from the soil did
not decrease appreciably with time. If the rainfall had been normal.
the soil temperature in the vicinity of the earth heat exchanger
would have decreased with time as the heating test progressed, there-
by reducing the capacity of the refrigeration plant?.

7. The demand, particularly, for domestic heat pumps will
probably increase in direct proportion to improvements in the design
and methods of manufacturing refrigeration equipment. The cost
of production will naturally decrease as the volume of sales is
increased.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. “Earth Heat Pump Research—Part I”, by E. B. Penrod, O. W.
Gard, C. D. Jones, H. E. Collier, and R. N. Patey, University
of Kentucky Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 4.
No. 14, December, 1949, pp. 1-64.

2. “Development Of The Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod, University
of Kentucky Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 1.
No. 4, June, 1947, pp. 1-78.

3. “Continuous Air Conditioning With The Heat Pump’, by E. B.
Penrod, American Scientist, Vol. 35, No. 4, October, 1947, pp.
502-525.

4, “Heat Pumps’, by E. B. Penrod, Transactions of the Kentucky
Academy of Science, Vol. 13, No. 1, November, 1949, pp. 1-37.

5. “Earth Heat Pump Research”, by E. B. Penrod, Proceedings of
the Midwest Power Conference, Vol. 12, April, 1950, pp. 394-398.

6. “Fuel and Power Economy, with Special Reference to Heat
Pumps’, by S. J. Davies and F. G. Watts, Engineering, Vol. 166.

1 During the six-month heating test the rotameter readings were not reliable
due to flashing of the refrigerant in passing through the rotameter. There-
fore, the capacity of the refrigeration plant was not measured.

98

~

a,

LO.

Be

13.

Earth Heat Pump On Intermittent Operation

No. 4312, September 17, 1948, pp. 268-287; Ibid, No. 4318,
September 24, 1948,pp. 309-312.

“Heat Pumps And Thermal Compressors”, by S. J. Davies, 1950
(Constable and Company, Ltd., London), pp. 1-126

“Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Fundamentals”, by
W. H. Severns and J. R. Fellows, 1949 (John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.,) page 118.

“The Residential Heat Pump In New England”, by C. H. Coogan,
Jr., Bulletin published by The Connecticut Light and Power Co.,
Watterbury. Conn., August 1948, pp 1-48.

“Heat-Transfer Rates”, by C. H. Coogan, Jr., Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Vol. 71, No. 6, June, 1949, pp. 495-498.

“Theory of the Ground Pipe Heat Source for the Heat Pump’,
by L. R. Ingersoll and H. J. Plass, Heating, Piping, and Air
Conditioning, Vol. 20 No. 7, July, 1948, pp. 119-122.

. “Heat Conduction With Engineering And Geological Applica-

tions”, by L. R. Ingersoll, O. J. Zobel, and A. C. Ingersoll, 1948
(McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,), pp. 151-154.

“Losses In The Cycle Of A Heat Pump Using A Ground Coil”, by
R. A. Budenholzer, Proceedings of the Midwest Power Conference,
Vol. 9, March, 1947, pp. 67-78.

99

THE EFFECTS OF SMALL AMOUNTS OF GLYCINE AND ETHYL
GLYCINE ON FOOD INGESTION IN THE DOG

J. W. Archdeacon and A. B. Carreiro

Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

One of the unsolved problems in the physiology of the mammal
is the urge to eat. In general investigators have attempted to eluci-
date the role of mechanical and/or metabolic factors in the regula-
tion of food ingestion. The rat and the dog have been used often
as experimental subjects. Brobeck (1) has reported data to sub-
stantiate the importance of the metabolic factor in food ingestion
regulation. In this study with rats he concluded that food intake
appears to be controlled is if it is a mechanism of temperature
regulation, and that the amount of food eaten appears to be de-
termined partly by the organism's ability to dissipate the heat of
food metabolism (Rubner’s “Specific Dynamic Action” ).

It is known that certain amino acids exert the specific dynamic
action effect more than others. One of these amino acids is glycine.
In the following experiments glycine and its ethyl derivative were
injected intraperitoneally into the dog. The assumption was that if
body heat production was raised the ingestion of food might be
inhibited. The experiments in which one and two grams of glycine
and ethyl glycine were injected are reported here.

Data were collected on three adult dogs and are presented
in Table I. The figures represent average values, and each was
obtained from at least three days’ experiments. The days were
“scattered” in order that eating cycles be avoided. The amino
acid was injected in a 0.3% sodium chloride solution, and the
total volume injected was twenty milliliters. As a control, a similar
volume of .9% sodium chloride solution was injected. The animals
were exposed to food (block Purina) forty-five minutes after the
injection of the amino acid. They were then allowed to eat as much
food as they desired in a half hour interval. The quanity of food
eaten was determined. The animals received food at no other time
during the day. They were kept separately in metabolism cages
each of which was large enough for the animal to move about

freely.

100

The Effects of Glycine and Ethyl Glycine On Food Ingestion

It may be seen from Table I that glycine in the amounts of one
and two grams exerted no constant inhibitory effect on food ingestion.
In fact, dog 5 ate more food when two grams of glycine were in-
jected than when the animal received the control saline solution.
However, an interesting effect was obtained with the ethyl deriva-
tive of glycine. It may be seen from Table I that there was an
inhibition of food ingestion both with one and with two grams of
ethyl glycine. Dogs 4, 5, and 6 ate only 41%, 10%, and 23%
respectively of the food eaten in the saline interval when one gram
of ethyl glycine was injected. With two grams of ethyl glycine the
inhibition was quite marked. Only dogs 4 and 6 ate, the. former
18 grams and latter 1 gram. +

The data in these experiments seem to indicate that the ethyl
group on the glycine molecule exerted an inhibitory effect on. food
ingestion, at least when the compound was used in the quanity of
two grams. The mechanism of probable inhibition is not. clear.
Meites (2) has reported on the effects of adminsitration of natural
and artificial estrogens on the food intakes of rats. It was concluded
that diethylistilbestrol decreases growth and food and water intakes.
The substance was administered in comparatively small amounts.
Again the presence of an ethyl group in a food intake depressing
compound is to be noted. This, in conjunction with the present ex-
periment, indicates that the ethyl group may have been the respon-
sible factor of food intake inhibition which occurred in these ex-
periments.

TABLE I
Average Quantity of Food Ingested (Grams )
1 Gram 2 Grams
NaCl 1 Gram 2 Grams Ethyl Glycine
Glycine Glycine Glycine Ethyl
Dog 4 148 113 81 61 18
Dog 5 135 108 196 13 0
Dog 6 207 LF 17 47 i
REFERENCES

(1) “Food Intake as a Mechanism of Temperature Regulation’,
John R. Brobeck, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine,
vol. 20, No. 6, July, 1948, pp. 545-552.

(2) “Regulation of Food Intake to Growth-Depressing Action of
Natural and Artificial Estrogens”, Joseph Meites, American Jour-
nal of Physiology, vol. 159, No. 2, November, 1949, pp. 281-286.

101

THE PRECISION AND ACCURACY OF METER STICKS
Sigfred Peterson

Chemistry Department, College of Arts and Sciences
University of Louisville, Louisville §, Ky.

It seems unusual to think of an ordinary laboratory meter stick
as a precise or accurate instrument. Yet a successful student ex-
periment illustrating the statistical laws governing precision has been
based on the meter stick as an instrument (1). By application of stati-
stical formulas to 100 measurements of the same length with ran-
domly chosen portions of the same meter stick, the probable error
of a single measurement is frequently found to be as low as 0.01cem.
or less, and seldom greater than 0.02 cm. This means that the average
of 100 measurements with the same meter stick is precise to 0.01
millimeter!

A sufficiently large number of classes have now performed this
experiment measuring the same specimens so that it now becomes
possible to compare measurements of the same length with several
different meter sticks. Table I gives typical sets of results, each
result the average of about 100 measurements with the same meter
stick. Since there were about 12 meter sticks available for the ex-
periment, it is possible that some pairs of results on the same
specimen used the same stick, but the variations must be due to
differences between different meter sticks.

For each specimen studied at least five times, Table II gives
the average of the average lengths, the difference between the high-
est and the lowest values, and the average deviation from the average.
It appears that different meter sticks can differ by as much as 0.10
cm. when used very carefully to measure the same length. However,
if one can assume that the errors of different meter sticks are random,
it can be concluded that the average of several measurements with
the same meter stick is certainly accurate to within a few hundredths
of a centimeter and is probably within 0.02 cm. of the truth.

102

The Precision and Accuracy of Meter Sticks

Table I

Typical Average Measurements of Rods

38.80 cm.
38.81
38.82
38.86
38.87
38.87
38.89

Number of
Values

~I Ol

“10 Ol

~1 Ol oO

60.23 cm.
60.24
60.26
60.32
60.32

Table II

Spread of Values

Average
Length

36.87
38.85
43.75
46.78
47.38
58.16
60.27
61.43

cm.

46.725 cm.

46.75

46.765

46.77

46.79

46.80

46.80

46.80

46.81
Maximum Average
Spread Deviation
0.03 cm. 0.014 cm.
0.09 0.03
0.10 0.03
0.09 0.025
0.05 0.02
0.08 0.02
0.09 0.04
0.07 0.02

(1) Peterson, J. Chem. Ed., 26, 408 (1949).

103

THE EFFECT OF COMPOSITION
ON THE
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BINARY WAX MIXTURES

John R. Koch, Ph. D.
Marquette University

Sister M. Concetta, M.S.
Ursuline College, Louisville, Kentucky

Commercial waxes when used in binary mixtures show some in-
teresting expansion results with increase of temperature. In the pre-
sent study these results were observed over a temperature range of
25° C to 80° C. In some mixtures this expansion proved to be regular
no matter what the percentages of the binary composition. With some
other mixtures this was definitely not the case.

Because of the very many theoretical and practical applications
~ and because of the accuracy with which the values can be deter-
mined, it was thought best to work out the problem by specific
gravity or density determinations. The density of the wax mixtures
at 25° was determined by the pycnometer method using a Hubbard
pycnometer, and at higher temperatures it was determined by the
dilatometer method.

The density of the commercial waxes at 25°C was determined
in the following manner. Twenty grams of the wax were placed in
a 50 milliliter beaker and heated on a steam bath until the wax melted.
The melted wax was carefully poured in a petri dish to cool. This
required from two to three hours for complete shrinkage. Small
slabs of approximately one and a half by three centimeters were
cut; the edges were smoothed, and the corners rounded. These were
weighed. The Hubbard pycnometer was cleaned, dried, and weighed.
It was filled with recently boiled and cooled distilled water, and
again dried and weighed. The pycnometer stopper was removed. A
weighed wax slab was lowered into the distilled water as carefully
as possible to avoid the adherence of air bubbles. The stopper was
replaced and the pynometer and contents were weighed. The density
or specific gravity could be calculated at 25/25°C from the follow-
ing equation.

104

Specific Gravity Of Binary Wax Mixtures

Weight of the wax
Specific Gravity = — - —
A — B + Weight of the wax
where A =weight of the pycnometer filled with water, and B= the
weight of the pycnometer, water, and wax sample. Results were re-
producible to 0.001.

The specific gravity of the waxes at higher temperatures was
determined by the dilatometer method. Ten milliliter graduated cylin-
ders were cut off at the four milliliter mark, and the’ edges were
fire polished. One milliliter Mohr pipettes graduated in hundredths
were cut off, polished, and placed in rubber stoppers so that the
ends were just even with the ends of the stoppers. The empty dilato-
meter was weighed, then the dilatometer and wax, and finally, the
dilatometer, wax, and water were weighed. After these we‘ghings
were made the cut off Mohr pipette was inserted carefully so as
not to trap any air bubbles, and the water rose to some constant
level. This was taken as the initial reading. The dilatometer was
placed in the water bath and the temperature was increased about
ene degree per minute. Readings on the pipette were made at the
desired temperatures. (Fig. 1).

Fis

=

ure l.

iG)

105

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

a
fo}

80)
70
60°
50'

REFINED, BEESWAX
fe)

Figure 2.

PERCENT y
[e}

[s)

1) 4 1
75 280 2-85 298

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
REFINED BEESWAX - YELLOW BEESWAX

The volume of the wax was determined by dividing the weight
of the wax sample by the specific gravity as calculated at 250 C. The
volume of the water used was determined by dividing the weight
of the water by the specific gravity of water at 25°C, which value
can be obtained from a hand book. The total volume of wax and
water used was obtained by adding these two volumes together.

The volume of water at the elevated temperatures was calculated.
The total volume minus the volume of water equaled the volume of
wax at the higher temperatures.

The specific gravity of the wax sample at the desired tempera-
ture was obtained from the equation

Weight of wax
Specific Gravity =

Volume of wax

The values at the higher temperatures agree to 0.01 or 0.02. In
some cases the agreement is less than this. The volume of the dilato-
meter was read to the third place. but this third place was neces-
sarily an estimation. A difference of 0.001 milliliters in volume makes
a difference of about 0.01 in the specific gravity value, depending up-
on the wax used.

From the calculated specific gavity values at 25°C to 80°C
the volume increase of the waxes were as follows:

Mineral Waxes

Paraffin Wax 20.7 %
Ozocerite Wax 25.9%
Montan Wax 11.8%

106

Specific Gravity Of Binary Wax Mixtures

Vegetable Waxes

Carnauba Wax 12.0%
Candelilla Wax 18.7%
Japan Wax 15.1%
Ouricury Wax 11.0%
Animal Waxes
Refined Beeswax 15.8 %
Yellow Beeswax 15.1%
Chinese Insect Wax 8.9%

It will be seen that the mineral waxes expand the most and
animal waxes the least. The hard, microcrystalline, tough, high melt-
ing waxes show less expansion than those which are soft and have
low melting points, and Chinese Insect Wax, which is a fairly hard,
crystalline wax, shows the least expansion.

It was found that there is an interesting relation of the melting
point to the extent of expansion. Usually where the melting point
curve follows the normal pattern the expansion curve will likewise
do so.

When the beeswax curves are studied certain similarities are
noticed. The expansion between 25°C and 30°C is very slight.
The greatest amount of expansion is between 50°C and 60°C.
Mixtures of waxes with melting points lower than 70°C show very
little expansion between 70°C and 80° C.

The most striking graph in this group is presented by the mix-
ture of refined beeswax with yellow beeswax. (Fig. 2). Refined
beeswax has a specific gravity at 25° C of 0.957 and yellow beeswax
one of 0.953. Mixtures of these two waxes show an average value
of 0.974 which means that the two waxes shrink in mixtures at 25° C.
This change is equally observable at 30° C, less so at 40° C, still less
at 50°C, and at 60°C, 70°C, and 80°C the average value is the
same for the mixtures as it is for the individual waxes.

The greatest amount of expansion in the beeswax occurs with
the largest percentages of beeswax except in the case of paraffin and
ozocerite (Fig. 3). The 25°C and 30°C curves are regular. We
see the increase of expansion toward the middle of the curve in the
40° C, 50° C, and 60° C curves.

The candelilla wax mixtures at 25°C give normal curves and
the individual specific gravity values could be calculated from
the values of the original waxes within the limits of experimental

107

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

error. The candelilla mixtures with vegetable waxes, with refined
beeswax and with ozocerite wax show a decreased volume at 30° C.
In most of the candelilla mixtures we see that between 30% and
70% of candelilla there is almost no increase in the amount of
expansion.

The most interesting sets of curves are obtained with the car-
nauba mixture. The greatest amount of expansion with increase of
temperature occurs where the percentage of carnauba is small. The
specific gravity values of the wax mixture at 25°C can be calculated
within the limits of experimental error from the values of the original
waxes. A study of the carnauba wax—montan wax curves will point
out this regularity in the 25°C curve. (Fig. 4).

This same graph can be used to point out that the 50-50%
mixtures with carnauba call for special attention. The greatest per-
centage of expansion is found in these mixtures when carnauba is
studied with refined beeswax, yellow beeswax, candelilla, Japan
wax, montan, paraffin, and ozocerite. On the other hand, the great-
est amount of shrinkage is found when equal amounts of carnauba
and Chinese Insect wax are mixed. (Fig. 5).

The most regular sets of curves are obtained with the paraffin
wax mixtures. The paraffin wax—montan wax curves serve as an
example. (Fig. 6). The 25°, 30°, and 40° curves are very regular.
There are only slight deviations in the 50°, 60°, and 70° curves. The
80° curve again follows the regular pattern. The experimental specific
gravity values for the mixtures at 25° C agree very accurately with the
calculated values in all the mixtures except those with carnauba (where
the difference is more marked). The greatest amount of expansion
occurs between 40° C and 50°C. In most cases the amount of expan-
sion increases with the increase of the percentage of paraffin.

A careful study of the graphs and a check with mathematical
calculations show that in most cases the values for the specific gravity
of the wax mixtures at 25°C can be calculated from the values
of the components and that the experimental values agree very well
with the calculated values, except in the cases pointed out. Most
of the calculated values for higher temperatures have been found to
agree with the experimental values by 0.01, and rarely have the
differences been more than 0.02.

108

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Specific Gravity Of Binary Wax Mixtures

PERCENT BEESWAX CER aan
~ a a = = PERCENT CARNAUBA
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Figure 4, top right
Figure 5, bottom left
Figure 6, bottom right

109

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

One other set of observations may be made. The mixture of
a soft low melting wax with another soft low melting wax exhibits
a very normal expansion between the 30° and 40° curves. Past this
temperature the mixtures show more expansion than do the original
components.

The mixture of a soft low melting wax with a hard micro cry-
stalline high melting wax or with a hard crystalline wax also give
normal curves.

When hard high melting waxes are mixed together their curves
exhibit marked abnormalities as was pointed out in the carnauba—
montan mixtures. When these same waxes are mixed with hard
crystalline waxes marked volume changes are noticed at the different
temperatures. The carnauba—Chinese Insect wax mixtures illustrate
this point.

We may summarize our conclusions as follows:

1. Various waxes exert different effects upon the expansion of
any individual wax.

2. The greatest amount of expansion occurs just before the melt-
ing point of the wax mixture.

3. Paraffin wax mixtures give the most normal sets of curves.
4. Carnauba wax exerts the most marked effect in expansion values.
The 50-50 mixtures show the greatest deviations.

5. Candelilla wax mixtures tend to shrink most in the neighbor-
hood of 30° C.

6. Hard, microcrystalline, high melting waxes show less expansion
in the 80° range.

7. Chinese Insect wax which is a fairly hard, crystalline, high
melting wax shows the least expansion.

8. Mixtures of soft low melting waxes with each other or with other
waxes, at temperatures higher than 40°C expand more than do
the original wax components.

9. When hard high melting waxes are mixed together, or are
mixed with high melting crystalline waxes their curves show
marked abnormalities. Examples: carnauba—montan, carnauba—
Chinese Insect wax.

10. Care should be taken in calculating the specific gravity of a
wax mixture unless the specific gravity versus composition curve
at the desired temperature is known to be a straight line.

110

CHROMOSOME BEHAVIOR IN A SECOND GASTERIA-ALOE
HYBRID

Herbert Parkes Riley
University of Kentucky

The author (Riley, 1948) has recently described the behavior of
the chromosomes in a putative hybrid between Gasteria and Aloe,
found among a collection of succulents growing at the University
of Kentucky. More recently, a second putative hybrid has been studi-
ed from the same collection. Both plants had been obtained from

Figure |

Mr. Charles Cass of Pacific Grove, California, but are considerably
different in general appearance.

The second plant is herbaceous and has a very short stem.
The leaves form a rosette but lack the prominent spines so often pre-
sent on the margins of Aloe leaves (Fig. 1). The leaves are pale

111

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

green, approximately the color of those of Gasteria sulcata and they
are not covered with white dots. The flowers resemble those of Aloe,
being straight at the end and not swollen at the base, but the ra-
cemes are lax and not dense and, except for a tendency to be not
secund, are like those of Gasteria (Fig. 2). The inflorescences and
flowers of the two putative hybrids are much alike.

Observations — Pairing at the first meiotic metaphase was much
more frequent than it was in the hybrid reported previously, al-

Chromosome Behavior In A Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid.

though not so frequent as has been observed in plants of either
genus. As Table I shows, there was a large proportion of cells with
three or four bivalents among the eight long chromosomes. The
chiasma frequency was 1.40 per bivalent and 0.51 per chromosome,
and about 45 per cent of the chiasmata were terminalized. The six
short chromosomes showed a greater tendency to pair than did the
long ones, and no cell showed a complete failure of pairing among
the short chromosomes. The chiasma frequency was apparently 1.00
per bivalent and 0.43 per chromosome, and all the chiasmata were
terminalized.

Table I
Frequency of bivalents at first meiotic metaphase in a
Gasteria-Aloe hybrid.

No. of Eight long chromosomes Six short chromosomes
bivalents No. of cells Per cent No. of cells Per cent
+ 30 28.93
3 55 45.45 74 G27
2 18 14.88 29 26.36
i 10 §.26 i 6.36
0 3 2.48 0 0.00
et 100.00 110 99.99

There were a number of irregularities at first anaphase and only
48 of the 87 cells which were examined showed a 4-4 distribution
of the long chromosomes. In four cells the distribution was 4-3 with
one chromosome lagging on the equator and in one cell was 4-2
with two laggards. In 24 cells there was an equational separation of
one or more chromosomes at the first division. In nine cells the
distribution was 5-3 and in one cell it was 6-2. Six cells had chromatid
bridges with fragments. For the short chromosomes, 90 per cent of
the cells were normal. In one cell there was a 4-2 distribution and a
few cells had lagging chromosomes or the equational separation of
chromatids. A chromatid bridge between the short chromosomes was

present in one cell.

113

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Of 320 cells in first telophase, 190 appeared normal. In 115
cells there was one micronucleus and in 15 cells two micronuclei
were found.

Thirty-eight cells were examined in anaphase of the second meio-
tic division. In 26, four long chromosomes were going to each pole
on both spindles, but the other twelve cells showed various ab-
normalities including lagging chromosomes. The loss of chromosomes
or of chromatids at the first meiotic division was clearly reflected in
some of the cells at second anaphase. In two figures chromatid
bridges connected the two daughter nuclei on one spindle, and in
one figure a bridge appeared to connect one nucleus of each spindle.

Second telophase did not appear so abnormal as in the hybrid
previously reported. The tetrad consisted of four daughter cells in
about 74 per cent of the figures, and all four nuclei always appeared
to be about the same size. “Tetrads” of five cells were found in
about 24 per cent of the figures, groups of six cells in two per
cent, and a group of seven cells was found once. When the “tetrad”

Table II
Stages of successive buds on the main raceme of a Gasteria-Aloe
plant. The buds with the lowest numbers are the smallest.

Bud Stage
i Early prophase of first meiotic division (leptotene
and zygotene ).
2 Zygotene through diplotene.
3 First metaphase through second telophase.
4-8 Tetrads; microspores together.
9-16 Microspores separated; nuclei generally central; in

later buds some nuclei towards one side of cells which
are somewhat more elliptical; in buds 15 and 16,
some cells shrunken.

17 Same but an occasional prophase of the microspore
division.

18 Some cells empty; cytoplasm becoming very oily in
most cells; an occasional dividing cell, chiefly in
prophase.

19-20 More cells appear empty; only a few have nuclei.
21-40 All but a very small per cent empty and shriveled;

none with two nuclei.

114

Chromosome Behavior In A Second Gasteria-Aloe Hybrid.

consisted of more than four cells, one or two were frequently smal-
ler than the others.

In spite of the normal appearance of well over half the te-
trads, the mature pollen appeared to be 100 per cent inviable.
As Table II shows, development proceeds normally until the tetrad
stage. The microspores separate from one another normally and be-
gin to take on a mature shape and to develop a pollen grain wall,
but very few develop so far as the nuclear division. Most of them
remain in interkinesis. Their cytoplasm becomes very oily and sooner
or later the nucleus and cytoplasm disappear and the cells appear
to be merely shrunken pollen grain walls. No microspore metaphases
or anaphases were observed, but a few cells were found in prophase.
When cells were studied from buds of various sizes, about four per
cent appeared to be shrunken and empty shortely after meiosis.
About one per cent was unusually large and probably was a diploid
microspore, and about two per cent were unusually small but ap-
parently contained cytoplasm and a nucleus. About four per cent of
the cells that seemed to be otherwise normal contained one or two
micronuclei: On the other hand, in one of the largest unopened
buds there were 497 shrunken and empty cells, four large cells
without nuclei, and 27 cells that were unusually small but which ap-
peared to contain cytoplasm but no visible nucleus; no cell appeared
to be normal in the largest buds.

Meiotic pairing in this plant was considerably more frequent
than in the plant previously described, which would indicate a
greater homology between the genomes of its parents. However,
both plants appear to be 100 per cent pollen sterile. The high per-
centage of bivalents would suggest that some mature pollen grains
would be found. It is possible that the failure to find any fertile
grains is in part due to a disharmony between chromosomes and
cytoplasm in an intergeneric cross.

LITERATURE CITED

Riley, H. P. 1948. Chromosome studies in a hybrid between
Gasteria and Aloe. Amer. J. Bot. 35: 645-650.

115

ACADEMY AFFAIRS
THE 1949 FALL MEETING

The thirty-fifth annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was
held at Eastern State College, Richmond, Kentucky on Friday afternoon and
Saturday morning, October 21 and 22, 1949.

Main feature of the Friday afternoon program was a symposium on “Recent
Scientific Developments.” Participating in this program were:

Dr. J. M. Schreyer, University of Kentucky. “Recent Developments: in
Chemistry.”

Dr. D. M. Bennett, University of Louisville. “Recent Developments in
Physics.”

Dr. W. R. Jillson, Transylvania College, “Recent Developments in
Geology.”

Dr. J. S. Bangson, Berea College. “Recent Developments in Biology.”

Mr. J. Stephen Watkins, President of the Kentucky Chamber of Com-
merce. “Recent Industrial Development in Kentucky.”

Following the annual dinner of the Academy Friday evening there was
held a symposium on “Research Facilities in Kentucky”. Speaking on_ this
symposium were:

Dean R. C. Ernest, Dean of the Speed Scientific School, University
of Louisville. “Research Facilities at the University of Louisville.”

Dr. Leo Chamberlain, Vice-President of the University of Kentucky.
“Research Facilities at the University of Kentucky.”

Mr. Ervin Kaufman, Chief-Chemist, Hirsch Bro. & Co., Louisville.
“Research Facilities in Kentucky Industries.”

At the business meeting Saturday morning officers were elected for the
Academy year, 1949-1950.

President: W. E. Blackburn, Murray State College, Murray

Vice-President: E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Secretary: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College, Wilmore.

Treasurer: KR. H. Weaver, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Representitive to the Council of the A.A.A.S.: Austin R. Middleton,
University of Louisville, Louisville.

William Moore and Mary E. Wharton were elected to serve on the Board
of Directors until 1953.

Following the Saturday morning business meeting the various Divisions
of the Academy met for the presentation of specialized papers and for the

transaction of divisional business. The programs of the various Divisions are
recorded as follows:

116

Academy Affairs

Medical Technology and Bacteriology
Miss Mary Benedict Clark, Presiding.
“A comparison of methods of giving blood transfusions”. L. C. Harrison,
Good Samaritan Hospital and University of Kentucky, Lexington.
“Rh-Hr classification and antibody determination”. Mary Benedict Clark,
Louisville.
“Techniques of Huggins thermal coagulation test for carcinoma”. Oscar
M. Alton, Norton Infirmary, Louisville.
“Quick microtenchniques for bacteriological work”. R. H. Weever, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington.
“Mycological techniques in clinical diagnosis”. Margaret Hotchkiss, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington.
“A weekly mold survey of air and dust in Lexington”. M. Elizabeth Wal-
lace, R. H. Weaver and M, Scherago, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
“Problems in the standardization of allergenic extracts”. Morris Scherago,
University of Kentucky, Lexington.
“The laboratory production of penicillin”. Robert Blair, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington.

Marcus Allen, Howard Clinic, Glasgow, Kentucky, was elected Chairman
of the Division of Medical Technology and Bacteriology for the coming year.
Biology Division
Dr. Joe Neel, Presiding.

“Observations on the life history of Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi”’. Gerald
A. Cole, University of Louisville, Louisville.

“Biographical data on the life of Sadie F. Price, Kentucky naturalist.”
Harvey B. Lovell, University of Louisville, Louisville.

William M. Clay, University of Louisville was elected Chairman of the
Biology Division for the coming year.

Engineering.
Prof. E. B. Penrod, Presiding.

“Finishing steels for decorative and corrosion resistance purposes’. Reid
Kenyon, Armco Steel Co.

“Research in highway engineering”. William B. Drake, Kentucky Department
of Highways.

“The heat pump from a home owner’s viewpoint”. O. G. Petersen, Somer-
set, Kentucky.

“Teaching electronics at the junior college level”. H. Alex Romanowitz,
University of Kentucky, Lexington.

“Physiological aspects of flight”. W. F. Savage, University of Kentucky,
Lexington.

“Hydrogen manufacture”. Robert Reed, Girdler Corporation, Louisville.

“Chemical colors”. J. D. Todd, Kentucky Color and Chemical Co., Louisville.

“Aluminum in the petroleum industry”. William B. Moore, Reynolds Metals
Co., Louisville.

“Manufactured tobacco products”. Jesse Simpson, Brown and Williamson
Tobacco Corp., Louisville.

E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky was reelected Chairman of the En-
gineering Division for the coming year.

117

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Chemistry.
Dr. G. L. Corley, Presiding.

“The banding of silver chromate and silicic acid gel”. Miss Cooper, Centre
College, Danville.

“Increase in dissolved solids and acidic components during the aging of
whisky”. M. C. Brockmann, Joesph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville.

“A preliminary characterization of lespedeza seed oil”. Richard H. Wiley
and A. W. Cagle, University of Louisville.

“Soil iodine”. Forrest G. Houston, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Lexington.

“Determining sugars in plant material”. J. H. Hamilton, Ivan Stewart and
M. E. Weeks, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington.

“Comparative rates of growth and calcification of the humeri of male and
female New Hampshire chickens having crooked keels”. G. Davis Buckner,
W. M. Insko, Amanda H. Henry and Elizabeth F. Wachs, Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station, Lexington.

“Comparative rates of growth and calcification of the femur, tibia and
metatarsus bones of male and female New Hampshire chickens having crooked
keels”. G. Davis Buckner, W. M. Insko, Amanda H. Henry and Elizabeth F.
Wachs, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington.

“The catalase activity of normal tissues”. Sister Mary Julitta, Donna keller
and Richard Klare, Villa Madonna College, Covington.

“Effects of Staphylococcus aureus on blood and liver catalase in mice”.
Sister Rose Agnes, Sister Mary Adeline and Cornelius W. Kreke, Nazareth
College Unit of Institutum Divi Thomas, Louisville.

“Some observations on tidal disturbances. in the atmosphere”. G. C. Mance,
Union College, Barbourville.

“The effect of composition on the specific gravity of binary wax mixtures”.
John R. Koch, Marquette University, and Sister M. Concetta, Ursuline College,
Louisville.

“Pigment derived from dioximes”. Max I. Bowman, Carl E. Moore, Leonard
Viola and Shelden Weinstein, University of Louisville.

“Cyclo octa tetraine”. Norman O. Long, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Dr. T. C. Herndon, Eastern State College was elected Chairman of the
Chemistry Division for the coming year.

The final event of the Richmond meeting was an address by the Hon.
Charles Farnsley, Mayor of Louisville. Mayor F arnsley spoke on “The Role of
Scientists in City Government” at a Saturday luncheon in the Student Union
Building.

The following faculty members of Eastern State College served as the
Committee on Arrangements for the Richmond meeting: Anna A. Schnieb
(Chairman), T. C. Herndon, Meredity Cox J. G. Black, L. G. Kennamer and
Smith Park.

118

Academy Affairs

THE 1950 SPRING MEETING

Murray State College was host to the Kentucky Academy of Science at its
spring meeting held on Friday and Saturday, April 28 and 29, 1950. It is the
intent of the Academy that these spring meetings, which were inaugarated last
year at Cumberland Falls State Park, should provide the maximum opportunity
for field trips in regions of the Commonwealth which are of special interest
to outdoor scientists.

Following registration Friday afternoon provision was made for an in-
spection of the new science building at Murray State College. President of the
Academy, W. E. Blackburn of Murray State College presided at the Friday
afternoon program. The following papers were presented:

“Geological sketch of the Jackson Purchase”. E. B. Wood, Kentucky Geolo-
gical Survey.

“A look at Kentucky Woodlands”. Eugene Cypert, U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service.

“Wild turkey in Kentucky Woodlands”. John DeLime, Kentucky Division of
Fish and Game.

At the dinner Saturday evening, Dr. R. H. Woods, President of Murray
State College gave a short address of welcome. Following dinner, members and
guests reconyv ae for a general program consisting of addresses on:

“Research and development activities at the T.V.A. chemical works, Wilson
Dam, Ala.”, Ralph Stitzer, Tennessee Valley Authority.

“Recent advances in medical science”. Hugh L. Houston, Kentucky State
Medical Association.

“Indian corn in Old America”. Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University, Bloom-
ington.

The program for Saturday was intended to provide members an opportunity
to participate in a variety of field trips or to pursue special outdoor interests.
The schedule provided for a trip to Kentucky Woodlands, a sightseeing tour
of Kentucky Lake, an inspection of the Kentucky Dam and Generating Station
and a conducted tour through the plant of the Pennsylvania Salt & Manufactur-
ing Co. which produces hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids. Facilities were provided
for small fishing parties.

Arrangements were made for a Saturday noon luncheon. In the evening
the membership of the Academy was inv ited to a social and informal dance
sponsored jointly by the honory ‘biological sciences fraternity and the American
Chemical Society student affiliate chapter of Murray State College.

Preparations for the meeting were in the hands of the following committees
which were drawn from the faculty of Murray State College:

Program—A. M. Wolfson (Chairman), Grace Wyatt and Peter Panzera.

Dinner—Mrs. A. M. Wolfson.

Arrangements—C. W. Kemper (Chairman), Collus Johnson, William G.
Reed, Paul Bryant and R. A. Johnston.

Registration—Liza Spann (Chairman), Roberta Whitnah, A. G. Canon,
and R. E. Goodgion.

119

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

THE 1950 FALL MEETING

The thirty-sixth annual meeting of the Academy will be held at the Univer-
sity of Louisville on October 27 and 28, 1950. All sessions will meet in the
main building of the Speed Scientific School, located on the south side of

Eastern Parkway near South Third Street.

The program of Friday afternoon will consist of conducted tours to certain
industrial plants in Louisville. These tours will leave the University of Louis-
ville at 2:30 p.m., and will return in time for the annual dinner at the Seelbach
Hotel at 5:30. The guest speaker at the dinner is to be Dr. Anton J. Carlson,
of the University of Chicago, who will address the Acacemy on “Science and
Society”. It is necessary to meet promptly for the dinner, inasmuch as Dr.
Carlson must leave Louisville at 8:00 o'clock for another engagement. A business

session will conclude Friday's activities.

Saturday morning will be allotted to scientific sessions, held in the Speed

Scientific School, and to any remaining matters of business.

CALL FOR PAPERS
A third number of the TRANSACTIONS can be published before the end

of the present calendar year if a sufficient number of manuscripts are submitted

to the editors in the near future.

120

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a
medium for publication of original investigations in science. In addition, as
the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science, it publishes programs of the
meetings of the Academy, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings,
reports of the Academy’s officers and committees, as well as news and announce-
ments of interest to the membership.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the co-editors:

M. C. BrockMANN, WILLIAM M. Cray,
Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Department of Biology,

Seventh Street Road, University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky Louisville, Kentucky

Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide margins,
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Berea College, Berea, Kentucky.
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Borgerding, Walter L., General Distillers Corporation of Kentucky, Louis-
ville, Kentucky.

Cedar Bluff Stone Company, Inc., Princeton, Kentucky.

Centre College, Danville, Kentucky.

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Devoe and Raynolds Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.

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B. F. Goodrich Chemical Company, Louisville, Kentucky.

Kentucky Brewers Association (10), Louisville, Kentucky.

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Lanham Hardwood Flooring Company, Louisville, Kentucky.

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Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Kentucky,

Medley Distilling Company, Owensboro, Kentucky.

Mileti, Otto J., The Mileti Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
Moser, Harold C., Gamble Brothers, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.

Old Joe Distillery Company, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky.

Peerless Manufacturing Company, Louisville, Kentucky .

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Scofield, E. H. Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
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Smith, L. A., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
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| Volume 18 August, 1951 ccs" Number 3

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
CADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS .

Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist.

RN I I eee en ee Soccbasagaece 121
The Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride in

Acetone at 20° and 40°C. Lyle R, Dawson and Ralph

VEE Tees hed ney NOM Su aug A as EAN RR a ee 129
The Distribution of Alkali Iodides Between Ethylene Glycol

and Ethyl Acetate. Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J.

LL MARRIES SECS Teac ASA Na ate 0 EE SCOR a 137
The Free Energy of Copper Chromate. Sigfred Peterson and
pS IM Oe 2 oso a A RS UE RAR a ay ee 146

Emissivities of Protective Coatings. W. R. Barnes and N. P. Shah... 149
Performance of an Earth Heat Pump Operating Intermittently on
the Cooling Cycle. E. B, Penrod and R. C. Thornion ............ 156

Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and Liver
Catalase in Mice. I. Titrimetric Method. Sister Mary
Adeline O’Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, §.C.N.,

Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Green-
well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W. Kreke .......0.000.2.00....00--.0.-..0--00--- 173

Effects of Staphylococcus aureus Infections on Blood and Liver
Catalase in Mice. II. Gasometric Method. Sister Mary
Adeline O’Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N.,
Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Green-

ae ey ee zs

2 aa
ae

+

well, S.C.N., and Corenlius W, Kreke .................. ote
Antibotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water.

R. H. Weaver and Theodore Boiter .......02.2.22..2.0..20-22-eeceeceeesee 183
Subsurface Earth ee By Electrical Resistivity Method.

L. C. Pendley .. TELA CTU RR Gea tly MSN RAR ROE CSRS RRR, |
a SSL couade nea ddectueectecdeccecceeece 201
ERR RN) Se oe asic eanecueteacecesscunaceadeucvnsesenece 208

OE a EE oe Fe

——

ioe aa

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1950-1951

President Vice President }
5
E. B. Penrop, M. C. BrockMANN, :
University of Kentucky, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc.,
Lexington Louisville
Secretary Treasurer
C. B. Hamann, R. H. WEAVER,
Asbury College, University of Kentucky,
Wilmore Lexington
Representative to the Council Counselor to the Junior
of the A.A.A.S. Academy of Science
AusTIn R. MIDDLETON, ANNA A. SCHNEIB,
University of Louisville, Eastern Kentucky State College, :
Louisville Richmond ‘
Editor
WituiaM M. Cray,
University of Louisville,
Louisville
Directors
W. E. Biackpurn, Murray EState College, Murray...) Se ae to 1954
Pau. Ko.acnovy, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville... to 1954.
Witt1aAM Moore, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond................ to 1953
Mary E. Wuarron, Georgetown College, Georgetown....:0. Gc ages to 1953
ALFRED BRAUER, University of Kentucky, Lexington3.00). 2 2 ee to 1952
Warp C. Sumpter, Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green........ to 1952
W. D. VaLiEav, University of Kentucky, Gexihgton.. i. 3 ae ee to 1951

Morris ScHERAGO, University of Kentucky, Lexmpton:...:) 2 3 ey to 1951

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually. Four numbers constitute a
volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume. —

Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or
other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and —
other material for publication should be addressed to the editors.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SARAH F. PRICE, KENTUCKY NATURALIST
By Harvey B. Lovell

Biology Department, University of Louisville
Louisville, Kentucky

INTRODUCTION

Sarah Frances Price was born in Evansville, Indiana, in 1849,
the daughter of Alexander and Maria Morehouse Price. The family
moved to Bowling Green, Kentucky, while she was still quite young.
She was educated at a church school in Terra Haute, Indiana. An
injury to her back invalided her for many years but after six months’
treatment by Dr. Weir Mitchell of Philadelphia, she was sufficiently
improved to follow her interests in natural history. Miss Price first
taught a class painting but later gave a course in nature study. From
1889 to 1893 she prepared an exhibit of water-color sketches of the
native plants and birds of Warren County, Kentucky, for an exhibit
at the Chicago World’s Fair; this exhibit took first place in it class.
She had previously published two compilations, Songs from the South-
land in 1890, and Shakespeare's Twilights in 1892. The list of plants
which she had made while preparing her plant exhibit for the fair
she privately published as the Flora of Warren County, Kentucky in
1893. It contained 714 species of vascular plants. In several copies
of this list which I have seen, Miss Price has written in 255 additional
species, the number which she found during the next ten years.

Miss Price now began to subscribe to several botanical journals
and published many short articles on her discoveries. Many of these
are quotations from letters which she wrote to the editors. Several
contain questions which are answered then or later. Her earliest
contributions were to GARDEN AND FOREST, the ASA GRAY
BULLETIN, and the LINNAEAN FERN BULLETIN (later cal-
led the FERN BULLETIN). She also wrote for the PLANT
WORLD. Her most extensive botanical work was The Fern Col-
lectors Handbook published by Henry Holt and Co. in 1897, which
contained drawings of the ferns of northeastern United States. In
1898 she printed privately the Trees and Shrubs of Kentucky, which

contained a list of 255 species of woody plants.

Miss Sadie was an all round naturalist and made observations

in several other fields. Many of these were published, such as her

SEP 141951

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

articles on A Peculiar Stone Mound, Kentucky Folk Lore, and the
Mollusca of Southern Kentucky, the latter containing a list of 151
species of mollusks which she wrote that she had collected “while
engaged in botanical work.” She also wrote several articles on
birds, although most of her bird observations were never published.
Her drawings of birds are mounted in a large book which was de-
posited in the library of the Missouri Botanic Garden by her sister
in 1908. There is also a portfolio of water-color sketches of moths
and butterflies in the same library. The majority of these include
the caterpillar on the host plant, the chrysalis, and the mature in-
sect. She had evidently reared these from caterpillars to the adult
stages.

Her sudden death (from dysentery) on July 8, 1903, at the
age of 54 left much unpublished material and many projects un-
finished. Several of her unpublished manuscripts were submitted
for publication by her sister and life long companion, Mary Price.
Miss Sadie had been earlier commissioned by Willard N. Clute,
editor of the FERN BULLETIN, to prepare an article on the fern
flora of Kentucky. This appeared in the July, 1904, issue with the
comment that it had been complied from her notes. Other posthu-
mous contributions were her illustrated manuscript on Kentucky
Oaks published in the PLANT WORLD in February, 1904, and two
bird articles in the AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGIST also in 1904.
An autobiographicai article describing in detail one of her longer
field trips was entitled “Perusin” the “Pennyrile’ County. It ap-
peared in two parts in the AMERICAN BOTANIST for December,
1906, and January, 1907. In this paper Miss Price describes her
visits with one companion to the back country along the Green and
Nolin rivers in search of rare plants.

Much of Miss Price’s fame rests on her discovery of several new
species of plants, five of which were named in her honor. These
were Cornus Priceae Small, Ovxalis Priceae Small, Viola Priceana
Pollard, Apios Priceana Robinson, and Aster Priceae Britton. Other
species discovered by her include Clematis flaccida Small, Ly-
copodium porophilum Lloyd and Underwood, Polyporus juniperus
Schrenk, and Ganoderma sessile Schrenk. A sketch of her life ap-
peared in Who's Who in America (1903-1905). The FERN BUL-

122

Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist

LETIN published a brief biography of her life in the January, 1904,

issue which contains the only known picture of Miss Sadie.

Miss Price’s nature class at Bowling Green continued to meet
regularly for nearly thirty years after her death. The members
called themselves the Sadie Price Nature Class and continued to
explore and collect in Warren County, the locale of her labors.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

1890. Songs from the Southland, selected by S. F. Price. D. Lo-

throp and Company, Boston. 32 pages, illus.

1892. Shakespeare’s Twilights. D. Lothrop and Company, Bos-
ton. Illus. Part I. Shakespeare’s mornings. Part II. Shake-

speare’s sunsets.

1893a. Flora of Warren County, Kentucky. C. F. Carr,
New London, Wisconsin. 31 pages.

A list of 714 species of vascular plants. In addition to
the scientific name and common name, a local name
occasionally added. The copies in the Missiouri Botanic
Garden, the Filson Club, and the Louisville Public Library
have 255 additional species written in, bringing the list to 969.

1893b. Cave plants. Garden and Forest, vol. 6, no. 292, p.

“A different growth of plants is to be found in the cave

entrances and large sink holes than along the banks of

streams. She describes Wolfs Sink and Lost River.

1893c. A rare fern. Garden and Forest, vol. 6, no. 262, pp. 99-100.

Asplenium Bradleyi was found September 10, 1892 in

a very wild spot 13 miles from Bowling Green.

1894a. The buck bush. Garden and Forest, vol. 7, no. 438, p. 429.

Deer formerly fed on the bush.

1894b. The ferns of Warren County, Kentucky, Part I. Illustrated

Kentuckian, vol. 2, no. 11, March.

1894c. The ferns of Warren County, Kentucky, Part II. Illustrated

Kentuckian, vol. 2, no. 12, p. 277, April.

123

1894d.

1895.

1896b.

1896c.

1897a.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

The ferns of Warren County, Kentucky, Part III. Illustrated
Kentuckian, vol. 3, no. 1, p. 291 and pp. 294-295. May.
Queer misfortunes of birds. American Naturalist, vol. 29,
p. 341.

A crow blackbird died from entanglement in string and

a hairy woodpecker was found dead with its bill stuck in
a tree.

A plea for the trees. Bowling Green Courier, March 6,
Friday.

She states that trees are being trimmmed so badly that
many die. Article is signed P. F. S. (In scrapbook).
Kentucky birds. Bowling Green Courier, May 31, Sunday.

“I have frequently been asked to give a list of Ken-
tucky song birds.” She then lists by families the species

which she considers songsters.

Two rare ferns—Asplenium Bradleyi and Trichomanes radi-
cans. Garden and Forest, vol. 9, no. 451, p. 418.

In a letter to editor she describes the finding of these
ferns on a trip to Edmonson County. She noted many

changes in the flora since Professor Shaler had camped there
ma JESS),

A few Kentucky plants. Asa Gray Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 6, p. 66.
Miscellaneous notes on albino blackberries, Solanum

rostratum, and the spider lily (“the most fragrant flower” ).

Trichomanes radicans. The Linnaean Fern Bulletin, vol. 4,
no. 4, pp. 57-59.

Ophioglossum vulgatum. The Linnaean Fern Bulletin, vol. 4,
no. 4, pp. 61-62.

(No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Linnaean Fern Bulle-
tiny vol) 4) no, 405: 66: “A \note son a worked) imondijon
Trichomanes radicans.

The fern-collector’s handbook and herbarium. Henry Holt

124

1897b.

1897c.

1898a.

1898b.

1898c.

1899a.

1899b.

1900a.

Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist

and Company, New York. 72 drawings.

Opposite each drawing there is a blank page to be used
for mounting ferns. There are no descriptions but a guide
in front is arranged in part as a key.

Albino plants. Asa Gray Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 47.

Signed S. F. Rice but was pasted in her scrapbook.

A peculiar stone mound. The Antiquarian, vol. 1, p. 107.

An oblong knob named “Indian Fort” in Warren County
has a group of limestone slabs, set endwise at regular dis-
tances.

Trees and shrubs of Kentucky. Privately printed. 6 pages.

A list of 255 woody plants based on work of several
botanists including her own. The list contains 145 trees and
110 shrubs and woody climbers. Seven additional species have
been added in writing to the copy in the Filson Club library.

(No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. 6,
no. 2, p. 30.

She describes the growing of ferns indoors in winter.
(No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. 6,
no. 2, p. 3l.

She asks about a crested form of Aspidium marginale.
(No title; in: Notes and News). Plant World, vol. 2, No.
10, p. 175.

Miscellaneous notes on a gentian, the poisonous ber-

ries of Solanum Carolinense and the irritating properties of
Tragia macrocarpa.

Our state flower. Illustrated Kentuckian, vol. 8, no. 7,
November.
Includes a drawing by Miss Price of the trumpet
creeper, the Kentucky state flower at that time.
The poisonous plants of Kentucky. In: Western Farmers
Almanac, pp. 43-48. John P. Morton and Company, Louisville.
Water hemlock causes the death of more people than

any other native plant.

125

1900b.

1900c.

1900d.

1900e.

1900f.

1900¢.

1900h.

1901la.

1901b.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

(No title; in: Notes and News), Plant World, vol. 3, no.
3, p. 47.

Large trees of Kentucky are the tulip tree (the largest),
the American elm, silver poplar, sycamore and chestnut.

Abnormal leaves and flowers. Plant World, vol. 3, no.
4, p. 53. 1 figure.

She describes abnormal leaves of clover, Bignonia,
English ivy, and buckeye and abnormal flowers of zephyr
lily and wild rocket.

(No title; in: Notes and News). Plant World, vol. 3, no.
6, pp. 94-95.

She describes variations in persimmons, and states that
6 or more varieties occur in southern Kentucky.

A fern enemy. The Fern Bulletin, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 86-87.
A podurid insect destroyed ferns.

(No title, in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol. 8,
MOK as, jon wl

The country people call Botrichium virginianum a
‘sang-sign and say it points to a ginseng plant.

Mollusca of Southern Kentucky. The Nautilus, vol. 15, no.
i] ppsato-19:

A list of 151 species with data on locality and abund-
ance.

(No title; in: Our Miscellany). The Fern Bulletin, vol.
oh 00h Wh job wk,

She lists Botrichium virginianum, B. ternatum, Phegop-
teris hexagonoptera and ginseng from Warren County.

Kentucky folk-lore. Journal of American Folk-lore, vol. 14,
no. 52, pp. 30-38.

She lists the superstitions of the country people in south-
ern Kentucky, which she has learned on her “numerous bo-
tanical collecting trips.”

(No; ttle) The Fern Bulletin, vol. 9) no. 1.ep. 15;
A specimen of Dryopteris spinulosa intermedia from
Tennesee with a majority of the pinnae forked.

126

190 1c.

1901d.

1901e.

1901f.

1904a.

1904b.

1904c.

1904d.

Bibliography of Sarah F. Price, Kentucky Naturalist

Poison hemlock. In: Western Farmers’ Almanac, page 39.
John P. Morton and Company, Louisville.

She describes a case of hemlock poisoning in Warren
County in which a 7-year-old child died and the mother
and two older children were very sick.

Notes from Western Kentucky. Plant World, vol. 4, no. 8,
pp: 143-144.

At Airdrie, the home of General Buell, she found many
interesting plants in a Green River marsh.

(No title; in: Notes on Current Literature). Plant World,
vol. 4, no. 9, p. 177.

She writes that Styrax americana should have been S.
pulverulenta, and adds some additional species to her list
from Ohio County.

(No title; in: General Notes). Plant World, vol. 4 no. 11,
p- 215.

Heuchera macrorhiza cured a sore on a horse.
Kentucky Oaks. Plant World, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 32-36.

Contains 8 drawings showing both the leaves and acorns
of 17 species of oaks.
Contributions toward the fern flora of Kentucky. The Fern
Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 65-70.

This article complied from notes left by Sadie Price
contains data on forty-two species.
Wild plants of Warren Co. Bowling Green Times-Journal,
February.

She describes the buttercups, poppies and violets of
the area.
Bird sketches from southern Kentucky. American Orni-
thology, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 146-150.

Contains drawings of the Wood Pewee and Bobolink
by Miss Price and observations and anecdotes on the birds

of southern Kentucky.

1904e.

1906.

1907.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Kentucky birds. American Ornithology, vol. 4, no. 6, pp.
166-167.

An annotated list of 36 species of unusual occurrence.
The Passenger Pigeon is “Exceedingly rare in southern Ken-
tucky, where forty years ago there used to be any number
of ‘pigeon roosts.’ ”

“Perusin’ the “Pennyrile” County. American Botanist, vol.
11, no. 4, pp. 76-81.

“Perusin” the “Pennyrile” Country (cont.). American Bo-
tanist, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 105-112.

A spirited description af a collecting trip to the Green
and Nolin Rivers accompanied by one companion. She tells
of finding many new or rare plants and describes the coun-

try and the people.

The following newspaper articles have been found in
the scrapbook, which is now in the library of the Missouri
Botanical Garden.

The Wildflower Preservation Society of America. Louis-
ville Post.

This is a plea for the protection of the plants of the
eastern mountains.

The heaven tree. Louisville Times

Miss Price states that if the tree is prevented from flower-
ing by cutting back the branches every second year, the bad
odors are eliminated.

No title. Louisville Post. Not signed but S. F. Price

An article about the need for bird protection.
written at the bottom of the copy in the scrapbook.

128

THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE OF SOLUTIONS OF
FERRIC CHLORIDE IN ACETONE AT 20° AND 40°C

Lyle R. Dawson and Ralph L. Belcher?

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

A study of the conductance of solutions of ferric chloride in
acetone was undertaken with a view toward obtaining evidence con-
cerning the nature and extent of dissociation of a tri-univalent salt
in a solvent having a relatively low dielectric constant. Generally,
it is assumed that no strong electrolytes exist in non-aqueous solu-
tions where the dielectric constant of the solvent is less than 40 (1).
Therefore it seemed of interest to study the influence of tempera-
ture on the primary dissociation of a 3-1 electrolyte and investigate

the extent to which secondary dissociation occurs.

Anhydrous ferric chloride dissolves readily in acetone with
the liberation of considerable heat. In dilute solutions, the heat
effect may be caused by solvation or it may result from neutraliza-
tion in the Lewis sense. Timmermans (2) reported that in more
concentrated solutions the yellow color produced at first deepens
rapidly and evidence of extensive reaction appears; however, _de
Coninck (3) found that dilute solutions of ferric chloride in ace-

tone are stable.

Rabinowitch and Stockmayer (4) have reported evidence that
aqueous solutions of ferric chloride contain a variety of forms of
ions including Fe (OH)++, Fe (OH)2*, FeCl*++*, and FeCl:*. No
report of extensive studies of the molecular or ionic species occurr-

ing in solutions of ferric chloride in acetone has appeared.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Commercial anhydrous ferric chloride, which analysis by the

Mohr method and titration with standard dichromate showed to

Present address: Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio.

129

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

be better than 99.5% pure, was used without further purification.

Samples of acetone having a specific conductance as low as
4 x 10-8 ohm~! cm.—! were prepared by successive distillations
from argentic oxide, sodium hydroxide, and anhydrous calcium
oxide collecting only the middle fractions each time. However, sol-
vent of this purity was very hygroscopic and seemed to offer no
particular advantage. Every sample used in this investigation had

a specific conductance of 3.8 x 10-7 chm! cm.~! or less.

A shielded bridge similar to that described by Shedlovsky (5)
was used for the resistance measurements, the null-point being
determined by use of headphones. The conductivity cell was of
the Freas type having a constant of approximately 0.4, which was
determined by the method of Jones and Bradshaw (6). Between
20° and 40° the change in cell constant was negligible.

A water-bath which maintained the temperature constant to
within *0.01° held the conductivity cell and the viscometer. Vis-
cosity data obtained for the solvent used were in good agreement
with the values reported in the literature (7).

All dilutions were made in a dry atmosphere and the solutions
were prepared on a volumetric basis directly in the conductivity
cell. In these dilute solutions, the molar concentrations were as-
sumed to be equal to the product of the density of the solvent and
the molal concentration.

The conductances of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone
were determined over the concentration range 0.00266 M to 0.00025 M
at 20° and 40°, with some additional values being obtained at higher
concentrations. Averages of duplicate or triplicate determinations
comprise the data presented.

130

Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride

Concentration

(Molar; x 108)

0.00
0.2603
0.7101
0.8115
0.8739
0.9467
1.033
1.136
2.271

Concentration

(Molar; x 10°)

0.00
0.4792
0.5687
0.6635
0.8030
1.606
2.677

Concentration

(Molar)

0.0149
0.0236
0.0406
0.0738
0.0775
0.2101

RESULTS

TABLE I

Solutions of Ferric Chloride in Acetone at 20°C
Thermodynamic

Mean Dissociation Degree of Dissociation
Equivalent Activity Function Dissociation Constant
Conductance Coofficient (Ostwald; x 10°) ( Fuoss) (x10)
109.9
95.2 0.877 1.49 0.934 1.15
84.2 0.812 1.80 ().864 1.19
82.7 0.801 1.88 0.856 1.20
82.3 0.795 1.98 0.856 1.25
80.0 0.790 1.88 0.836 M317/
79.2 0.782 1.95 0.832 1.19
78.0 0.77 2.01 0.826 1.20
67.3 0.706 2129, 0.755 all
TABLE II

Solutions of Ferric Chloride in Acetone at 40°C

Thermodynamle

Mean Dissociation Degree of Dissociation
Equivalent Activity Function Dissociation Constant
Conductance Coefficient (Ostwald; x 10°) (Fuoss) (x10?)

116.2

102.1 0.829 3.01 0.982 PAOIT(
100.8 0.815 8.21 0.980 Za,
99.6 0.802 3.42 0.977 2.19
96.4 0.788 3.22 0.960 1.99
90.4 OE 7/Alal 4,33 0.963 2.19
82.1 0.644 4.55 0.937 1.89

TABLE III

Conductance Data for Higher
Concentrations of Ferric Chloride in Acetone

20° 40°
Equivalent Concentration Equivalent
Conductance (Molar) Conductance
49.2 0.0145 56.1
48.2 0.0719 53.9
48.7 0.0753 52.9
46.5 0.2060 50.9
44.3
39.9

131

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Ferric chloride in acetone was treated as a uni-univalent elec-
trolyte which dissociates as follows: FeCl; s FeCl,* + Cl—

Application of the Ostwald dilution law results in the following
equation,

/A = AC/K1A.2+ I/A, [1]

This is the equation for a straight line in which 1/K‘A.”
is the slope and 1/A., is the intercept. From conductance
data, values of 1/A and AC were plotted, and by the method
of least squares the intercept and slop of the line were
obtained.

20e

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

C ;
Fig.l. Conductance as a_ function of C*
for solutions of ferric chloride in acetone.

ni—

In order to obtain more nearly accurate values for the limiting
equivalent conductances and to permit calculation of the thermo-
dynamic dissociation constants in which corrections for interionic
effects were introduced, the Fuoss method of calculation was em-
ployed. Using the value of A. obtained as described above, a

132

Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride

variable Z was calculated from the equations,
7 Ghat o)/ K-77) (LOL)*/2 7 [2]
Oe 0.147 x 10°/ (DT 8/2
go = 81.86/y (DT)1/?

The value of the function of Z, F(Z) as defined in the Fuoss
treatment, was obtained from the Fuoss table (8). The apparent
degree of dissociation, which was calculated from the relation
a = A/A,F(Z), was substituted in the following equation to obtain
the molar activity coefficient: -log f? = 2A(Ca)*/*/3] where
A = (1.812 x 10*)/(DT)#/2.

These values permitted use of the Fuoss equation
Hak —(V/KAS*) (CALVE(Z) + 1/A,|4]. Plots of FEZAA
versus CAf*/F(Z) resulted in straight lines with, in each
case, the intercept equal to 1/A., and the slope equal to
1/KA.” By the method of least squares a value for the
limiting equivalent conductance was obtained. Then this
value was improved by substituting in equation [2] and
calculating another value for the limiting conductance.
This process was repeated until a constant value was
obtained.

0.016

0.014
0.012
V/n

0.010

0.008

0.05 0.10 OAS 0.20 0.25
AG

Fig.2. Plots of equation [11 for solutions of ferric
chloride in acetone.

133

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

0027 0041 0106 | 0108) Olof oO l2aons
CAT /E(2)

Fig. 3. Plots of equation [4] for solutions of ferric
chloride in acetone.

020
0.16
slong Oe
0.08

0.04

0.01 OO2T O03 jos ©:05 +) 0106
C
Fig.4. The concentration dependence of the logarithm
of the activity coeffecient of ferric chloride in acetone.
Dashed lines are theoretical according to the limiting law.

134

Electrical Conductance of Solutions of Ferric Chloride

Discussion

The plots of conductance versus the square root of concentra-
tion and of equation |1| are typical of those obtained for weak
electrolytes.

Cryoscopic data (2) for this system furnish additional evidence
that the solute behaves as a weak uni-univalent electrolyte for at
no concentration is the molecular weight found to be as low as 81,
which would be the case if the first ionization were complete.

According to Murray-Rust and Hartley (9) the limiting ionic
conductance of the chloride ion is about 25 in ethanol having a
viscosity of approximately 1.2 centipoises. In acetone, with a viscosity
of 0.3 centipoise, the value would be expected to be three or four
times as large. The conductance of the large FeCl.* ion would
be much smaller than that of the chloride. Therefore a value of

109 for ferric chloride in acetone seems to be reasonable on the as-
sumption that it behaves as a uni-univalent electrolyte. No break
appears in the plot of equation |1| which seems to indicate that
the second dissociation does not occur at obtainable concentrations:
or if it does occur in dilute solutions at these temepratures, its
effects must be almost entirely counterbalenced by interionic effects.

The degree of dissociation increases with temperature in going
from 20° to 40°. This produces a greater number of ions per unit
volume resulting in a decrease in the mean activity coefficient. As
would be expected, the molar activity coefficient increases with a

decrease in concentration at both temperatures.

In Fig. 4, the broken lines are plots in which the slopes have

the theoretical values of the constant “A” in the equation for the

Debye-Hiickel limiting law (equation [8
that at both temperatures the limiting law is obeyed at lower con-

). It may be observed

centrations. Deviations from ideality become more pronounced at
higher concentrations at 90° than at 40°.

Conductance data for several higher concentrations are pre-
sented in Table III, although at present there is available no satis-

factory theoretical treatment for such solutions.

135

de) fe) een Sk

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

SUMMARY

Conductances of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone have
been determined at 20° and 40° over the concentration range
0.26 x 10-3M to 200 x 10—-3M.

The Fuoss method has been used to calculate the thermodynamic
degree of dissociation and this has been compared to the Ostwald
dissociation function over the concentration range studied.

It has been shown that ferric chloride in acetone behaves as an
incompletely dissociated uni-univalent electrolyte at attainable
concentrations at 20° and 40°.

Conformity of the solutions to the Debye-Hiickel limiting law
at low concentrations has been demonstrated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fuoss, R. M., and Shedlovsky, T., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 71, 1496
(1949).

Timmermans, J., Bull. Soc. Chim. Belg., 20, 21 (1906).
de Coninck, W. F. O., Compt. rend., 130, 1551 (1900).

Rabinowitch, E., and Stockmayer, W. H., J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
64, 335 (1942).

Shedlovsky, T., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 52, 1793 (1930).

- Jones, G., and Bradshaw, B. C., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 55, 1780 (1933).

{.-C. T., VII, 214 (1930).
Fuoss, R. M., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 57, 488 (1935).

Murray-Rust, D.M., and Hartley, H., Proc. Roy. Soc., A126, 84
(1929).

136

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ALKALI IODIDES BETWEEN
ETHYLENE GLYCOL AND ETHYL ACETATE

Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J. Griffith
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky

It is well known that the distribution rato for a solute between
two immiscible solvents remains constant for varying concentra-
tions only where it represents the ratio between the activities ot
the solute in the two phases (1). The activity may be considered
as the product of the activity coefficient and the concentration,
or q@=yerC. Therefore, for a solution which exists in the same
state of aggregation in both phases, the exact form of the equation
for the distribution ratio is

a

aK
a, [|
or
ec *C
: Cc, =K 2]
CR res

Where y. refers to the stoichiometrical activity coefficient as de-
fined by Bronsted (2). If the state of aggregation of the solute
is different in the two phases, a suitable exponent must be used
with one of the terms in equation [2] (3).

In sufficiently dilute solution where the activity coefficients
approach unity, the ratio of the concentrations becomes practically
constant. Similarly, if two relatively immiscible solvents are chosen
so that the solute to be studied is sparingly soluble in one giving a

solution of low concentration in which the activity coefficient may
be considered to be unity, equation [2] may be used to calculate
the activity coefficients of the solute in the more concentrated phase
at various concentrations (4).

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the dis-
tribution ratio for the iodides of ammonium, sodium, potassium,
and lithium between the two slightly miscible solvents ethylene

glycol and ethyl acetate. It was desired also to determine the

137

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

variations in activity coefficients of the pure iodides in ethylene
glycol solution with changes in concentration and to study the
resulting effects when mixtures of these salts were used.

REAGENTS

Best grade, “anhydrous,” salts which were carried through a
final re-drying operation immediately prior to use, were employed
throughout the investigation. The cthylene glycol was dried over
anhydrous sodium sulfate and distilled under reduced pressure.
The ethyl acetate was tested for water with anhydrous copper sul-
fate and its purity confirmed by measurement of its refractive index.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

One hundred ml. of glycol solution of the salt and_ three
hundred ml. of pure ethyl acetate were mixed in a one-liter flask
and stoppered with paraffin-sealed corks. The flask was supported
in a thermostat at 30°C. and thoroughly agitated for twenty hours.
Upon being removed from the thermostat, the greater part of the
acetate solution was poured off and a 10-ml. sample of the glycol

layer was removed by means of a pipet.

Then the two solutions were analyzed for iodide by the Mohr
method. Titration of the glycol solution directly with a water solu-
tion of silver nitrate gave consistently satisfactory results, but
analysis of the acetate layer was more difficult. The ethyl acetate
was removed by carefully controlled high temperature evaporation,
and the iodide redissolved in about 10 ml. of water. The iodide
concentration was then determined by titration with standard silver
nitrate solution.

RESULTS

The results are presented in Tables I to VII and in Figures
1 to 3. All data were obtained at 30°C. The activity coefficient,
yo is a relative value based on the activity coefficient of ammonium
iodide taken as a unity.

138

The Distribution of Alkali Iodides

TABLE I

Distribution Ratios of Ammonium Iodide Between

Ethylene Glycol and Ethyl Acetate at 30°C.

Moles/1. Moles/1. x 102
NHglI in NHgI in
Glycol Ethyl Acetate
0.1483 0.0506
0.2779 0.0954
0.3232 0.1106
0.3260 0.1115
0.3955 0.1349 295
0.4903 0.1688 292
s 500 Lil
75 6)
R O
| pee
B 400
U
1p
| NH
4]
S 300 © @ @> O
O-O
O S O 0 Nal
R
i ee a KI
7 O—-O0-0 0
|
O

0. Or2 OLS: 0.4

IODIDE ION CGONCENTRATION

GLYCOL LAYER

Fig.l. The distribution ratios
iodides between’ ethyl acetate
ethylene = glycol.

139

of alkali

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

TABLE II

Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of
Sodium Iodide

Moles/1. Moles/1. x 10? Kk ye
Nal in Nal in
Glycol Ethyl Acetate
0.0683 0.0246 278 1.04
0.1082 0.0390 2 1.05
0.1466 0.0557 265 1.10
0.2406 0.0935 258 12
0.3059 0.1201 254 1.13
0.3629 0.1430 253 1.14
De |
NH4l + Lil
S 400 e
T
i
B 300 NHal +Nal
T
|
Be
NHqal + KL
A
meye)
T
|
@)

Oi 20 530.40) 5©, 60,70) 80 90
MOLE PER CENT SUBSTITUTED IODIDE

IN GLYCOL LAYER

Fig.2. The distribution ratios of mixtures
of ammonium iodide and alkali iodides

between ethyl acetate and ethylene glycol.

140

The Distribution of Alkali lodides

TABLE III
Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of
Potassium Iodide

Moles/1. Moles/1l. x 10? K Ye
KI in KI in
Glycol Ethyl Acetate
0.0694 0.0358 194 1.02
O51 0.0822 184 1.08
0.1870 0.1020 183 1.08
0.2123 0.1172 182 1.09
0.2770 0.1590 174 1.14
TABLE IV
Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of
Lithium Iodide
Moles/1. Moles/l. x 107 kK ye
Lil in Lil in
Glycol Ethyl Acetate
0.1336 0.0320 417 0.93
0.1859 0.0430 430 0.90
0.2496 0.0568 439 0.89
0.3681 0.0782 470 0.83
0.4759 0.0975 489 0.80
TABLE V
Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Sodium
Iodide-Ammonium Iodide Mixtures
Series One
Mole % Nal Moles I-—/1. Moles I—/1. x 10? Kk ye
to in in
NHgI Glycol Ethyl Acetate
5 0.2683 0.0885 304 0.96
25 0.2739 0.0909 301 0.96
40 0.2621 0.0910 288 1.02
Sp 0.2681 0.0945 283 1.03
70 (0.2668 0.0987 270 1.08
Series Two
10 0.4138 0.1316 0.93
20 0.4244 0.1366 0.94
30 0.4231 0.1473 1.02
50 0.4148 0.15380 1.07
70 0.4125 0.1538 1.09

141

Ve

1.0 |

0.8
0.6

me)
0.8

20

1.0
0.8

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

a 6 ~ NH4I+Lil
®@ ©
NHal + Nal
6 © Cmarran Cane
NHgl + KI

os ae

coe @

lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

MOLE PER CENT SUBSTITUTED IODIDE
IN GLYCOL LAYER
Fig.3. Effect on activity coeffecient of

solute of substituting alkali ions for part of
the ammonium ions in ethylene glycol.

Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Potassium
Iodide-Ammonium Iodide Mixtures

Moles I-/1. x 102

Mole % KI
to
NHgI

10
25
50
60
70

Distribution Ratios and Activity Coefficients of Lithium
Iodide-Ammonium Iodide Mixtures

Mole %
to
NHglI

10
25
40)
60
70
80

al

The Distribution of Alkali Iodides

Moles I-—/l1.

In

Glycol

0.2680
0.2741
0.2421
0.2399
0.2377

Moles I-/1. Moles I-/1. x 10?
in in
Glycol Ethyl Acetate
0.2296 0.0760
0.2315 0.0713
0.2261 0.0654
0.2095 0.1595
0.2176 0.1528
0.2261 (0.1620
DIscussiON

TABLE VI

Ethyl Acetate

TABLE VII

m

0.875
0.965
0.991
1.062
1.103

kK

306
284
244
226
216

kK

310
325
346
381
396
413

0.97
0.90
0.83
0.76
O71
0.70

Activity coefficients of solutes may be influenced by solvation
or other solvent effects or, in the case of electrolytes in solvents
having low dielectric constants, by changes in the degree of dis-

sociation as the concentration is varied.

In the distribution of ammonium iodide between ethyl acetate

and ethylene glycol it was found that the ratio did not vary with

changes in concentration in the range from 0.1 M to 0.5 M with

respect to the glycol layer (Fig. 1). This indicates that ammonium

iodide exists in the same molecular form in both solvents, and that

143

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

its activity coefficient is not altered appreciably by concentration
changes.

The activity coefficients, Yo listed in the tables given above
and shown in Fig. 3 are calculated from equation [2] and are
stoichiometrical in nature in that they are based on the total iodide
concentration in the two phases irrespective of its relationship to
the cations. It may be assumed that the solute exists essentially as
“molecules” or “ion-pairs’ in ethyl acetate which has a low dielec-
tric constant. Therefore, the activity coefficients calculated from
the data obtained in this investigation, represent in each the ratio
of the number of “molecules” or “ion-pairs” of a given solute in
the glycol layer to the number of “ion-pairs” of ammonium iodide
in the acetate layer at a given total electrolyte concentration.

The decrease in the distribution ratio as the concentration of
sodium iodide or potassium iodide is increased is probably caused
by an increase in the relative number of “jon-pairs in the glycol

layer, hence, a greater tendency to pass into the acetate layer. As

would be expected, the equilibrium between “ion-pairs” and “free”
ions is shifted to the left as the concentration is increased.

The opposite effect observed with pure lithium iodide, that
is, an increase in the distribution ratio resulting from a decreased
tendency to pass into the acetate layer, indicates that at higher con-
centrations there are relatively fewer of the species that cross the
interface. It is difficult to conceive of increased dissociation at
higher concentrations. However, it seems probable that, owing to
the high charge density on the lithium ion, complex ions or “triple”
ions of the type Lil>, or possibly others containing more iodide,
would form in ever increasing numbers at higher concentrations.
If these do not cross the interface, the distribution ratio would
increase.

Graphs illustrating the effects of substituting varying quanti-
ties of foreign salts on the distribution of ammonium iodide are
shown in Figure 2. Small amounts of sodium or potassium
salts increase the partition ratio by shifting the equilibrium,
“ion-pair’ < “free” ion, to the right as the result of a decrease of the

144

The Dis'ribution of Alkali lodides

actual “ionic” activity of the free ions. At higher concentrations,
greater solvation of the foreign cation in comparison to the am-
monium ion causes the equilibrium to shift to the left, which re-
sults in a smaller distribution ratio. Potassium ion appears to exert

a greater influence in this respect than does sodiurn ion.

Substitution of lithium ion for ammonium ion leads continually
to larger distribution ratios, presumably because of complex ion

formation, as mentioned above.

SUMMARY

1. Distribution ratios for lithium, sodium, potassium and am-
monium iodides and mixtures of each lithium, sodium, and_potas-
sium iodides with ammon‘um iodide between ethylene glycol and
ethyl acetate have been determined at 30°C.

2. Stoichiometrical activity coefficients for the alkali iodides
and for solutes in solutions of mixed iodides have been calculated
using the constant distribution ratio of pure ammonium iodide as

a basis of reference.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Lewis, G. N., and Randall, M., “Thermodynamics and Free
Energies of Chemical Substances,” McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
Work, IN: Y:, 1923:

Bronsted, J. N., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 42, 761 (1920).
Nernst, W., Z. physik. Chem., 8, 110 (1891).

3
4. Hildebrand, J. H. “Solubilities of Non-Electrolytes,’ McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York N. Y., (1936).

5. lewis, G. N., Proc. Am. Acad., 43, 259 (1907).

6. Berthelot, M. P., and Jungfleisch, E. C., Ann. Chim. et Phys.
26, 400 (1872).

7. Landau, M., Z. physik. Chem., 73, 200 (1910).
8. Cavanagh, B., Proc. Roy. Soc., 106A, 243 (1924).

to

145

THE FREE ENERGY OF COPPER CHROMATE*
Sigfred Peterson and Orland W. Cooper
College of Arts and Sciences, University of Louisville

Louisville 8, Kentucky

As an aid in predicting the behavior of argentic oxide, AgO,
it was desired to know the extent of conversion of copper oxide
to chromate by reaction with dichromate:

(a) CuO +-Cr,O,— = CuCrO,= + CrO,—

While a direct measurement of the equilibrium probably could be
made by a series of spectrophotometric observations, it was decided
to calculate the equilibrium constant from existing thermodynamic
data and the solubility of copper chromate.

The early literature on copper chromate (4) reports a number
of preparations of both normal and basic salts but little study of
their properties. Basic salts usually result from precipitation at
elevated temperatures or from alkaline solutions. The normal di-
hydrate was precipitated by Briggs (1) by adding sodium chromate
to a copper dichromate solution; Pelletier, Cloutier, and Gagnon
(5) find the normal salt precipitates when potassium chromate is
added to cupric solutions.

The validity of our calculations requires that the copper chromate
formed by reaction (a) be the same as that in equilibrium with
solutions containing Cut * and CrO,>~ and little else. This is reason-
able since both conditions should give the normal salt and since the
degree of hydration of copper chromate should not be appreciably
affected by dichromate ion in the solution. Our calculations are
based on the anhydrous formula CuCrO, although the chromate
is probably hydrated as found by Briggs. In that case, the free
energy of formation of hydrated copper chromate is our value
plus the proper multiple of the free energy of formation of water;
the equilibrum constant for reaction (a) will be unaffected.

EXPERIMENTAL
An aqueous solution of reagent quality cupric chloride was
added to a solution of sodium chromate (also of reagent quality).
The precipitate was filtered, washed with water and with methanol

* Presented before the Chemistry Section of the Kentucky Academy of Science,

October 28, 1950.

146

Free Energy of Copper Chromate

(C. P. special acetone free), and dried in the air at room temperature.

The copper chromate obtained was left in contact with distilled
water and the mixture occasionally shaken. No effort was made to
thermostat the mixture; the experiment was performed at laboratory
temperatures not far from 25°C. The close agreement between
measurements in two seasons (August, October) show the tempera-
ture dependence of the solubility is not great.

Samples of the saturated solution were removed after 3 and 9
weeks of equilibration and analyzed by a standard method for
chromate (6). Since both ions of copper chromate oxidize iodide,
equivalence was determined from the equation
Sacro, 5 l- - 6 Ht = Cul + Crt+++ 4+ 4400 +
The molarity found (x 10*) and average deviation were after three
weeks, 3.47 + 0.06 (2 samples); after nine weeks, 3.42 + 0.03
(3 samples); average, 3.44 + 0.04.

CALCULATIONS

Solubility Product of CuCrO,: To calculate a solubility pro-
duct from the measured solubility requires an estimate of the mean
activity coefficient of copper chromate. The only available activity
data for 2-2 electrolytes are for a number of sulfates—these data
indicate that the activity coefficients depend far less upon the
identity of the cation than those of other charge types (2), in fact,
the extreme variation in values for different salts at the same con-
centration is only a few percent. Accordingly, it seems reasonable
that chromates should not differ very greatly from sulfates. Thus
we take as the mean activity coefficient of 0.00344 M copper chro-
mate the value 0.55 graphically interpolated from the values (3)
for copper, cadmium and zinc sulfates at molalities of 0.001, 0.002
and 0.005, neglecting the small differences between molality and
molarity. This gives as the solubility product of copper chromate
3.6 x 10~-® and the standard free energy of solution 7440 cal./mole.

Free Energy of Copper Chromate: For the dissolution of cop-
per chromate we have

Piero .2— Cus —— CrOie AES Fo Oe Ee Se-F*
@uaea CrO, CuCrO,

Putting in the above value for the free energy of solution and litera-
ture values (3) of 15,910 and -171,400 for the standard free energies
of copper ion and chromate ion respectively we find for copper

147

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

chromate a standard free energy of -162,930 cal./mole.

Copper Oxide-Dichromate Reaction: For reaction (a) we have

L\ F° — F° 7 F° —F°? == ]9'0
CuCrO, CrO,= CuO Cr,0,—-

Putting in the above values for copper chromate and chromate ion
and the values -30,400 for copper oxide and -306,000 for dichromate
ion (3) gives as the standard free energy of the reaction 2,070 cal.
This corresponds to an equilibrium constant of 0.030. This is the
ratio at equilibrium of the activities of chromate ion and dichromate
ion in a solution saturated with both copper oxide and copper chro-
mate. This corresponds to reaction (a) proceeding until the dichro-
mate is about 3% converted to chromate, since the activity coef-
ficients of two similarly charged ions in the same solution should
not be greatly different.

SUMMARY

The solubility in water of copper chromate is found to be
3.44 x 10-3 M at about 25°C. From this it is calculated that the
thermodynamic solubility product is 3.6 x 10~°, the free energy of
copper chromate is -162,930 cal./mole, and the equilibrium con-
stant is 0.030 for

CuO + Cr,O;— = CuCrO,+ CrO,4=.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Briggs, Samuel H. C., J. Chem. Soc. 1929, 242-5.

Harned, H. S. and Owen, B. B., The Physical Chemistry of Elec-
trolytic Solutions, pp. 425-6, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New
York, 1943.

3. Latimer, W. M., The Oxidation State of the Elements and their
Potentials in Aqueous Solution, Appendix II and IV, Prentice-
Hall Inc., New York, 1938.

4. Mellor, J. W., A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theo-
retical Chemistry, Volume XI, pp. 260-2, Longmans, Green and
Co., London, 1981.

5. Pelletier, P. E., Cloutier, L., and Gagnon, Paul E., Can. J. Research
16, B, #2, 37-45 (1938), C. A. 32, 4096 (1938).

6. Treadwell, F. P., and Hall, W. T., Analytical Chemistry, Volume
II, Quantitative, eighth edition, p. 620, 1935. John Wiley and
Sons.

148

EMISSIVITIES- OF PROTECTIVE GOATINGS
W. R. Barnes

University of Louisville Institute of Industrial Research
and

N22. Shah?

Chemical Engineering Department, University of Louisville

ABSTRACT

A thermometer technique for the determination of surface emissivities of paints is described.
The procedure involves the use of 1/10 degree thermometers coated with a paint and one reference
thermometer to which has been applied a bright silver coating. Theoretical considerations, and ex-
perimental values of five differently colored paints, lamp black, and a mercury-glass thermometer are
given.

Heat transfer is one of the important considerations in all
branches of engineering and science. Traditionally, heat transfer
mechanisms have been considered to be convenction, conduction
and radiation. The mathematical and theoretical treatment of these
mechanisms has been verified by thousands of experiments and in
many Cases the heat transfer may be anticipated without recourse to
experimental investigation.

So frequently is heat transfer considered in many industrial
operations that convection, conduction, radiation and appropriate
combinations may be considered of major importance and the parti-
cular operation of secondary significance by comparison. On the
other hand, there are many instances wherein there are several
fundamental processes occurring simultaneously, e.g., heat and mass
transfer together with fluid flow.

The continuing use of radiant heating in industrial and do-
mestic installations has emphasized the importance of this mechanism.
Many uses of radiant heating are such that it is difficult, if not
impossible, to completely isolate the radiation from other phenomena.
Nevertheless, the radiation is important, and appropriate constants
and data for radiation calculations are required.

One application of radiant heat transmission which has been
of interest is the so-called radiant drying or baking of protective
coatings on various objects. The baking of finishes or protective
coatings on automobile body parts is an example of this type of
operation.

* Present Address: University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

149

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

The conventional relationship (1) for calculating the net trans-
fer of heat by radiation from a hot body to a cooler body separated
by a nonabsorbing medium is,

1 G5)" “Go |

ae = OG) 38 19

where gq, ~ net heat transfer by radiation, BTU/hr.

F_ ~ emissivity factor relating the emissivities of the surfaces
of the two bodies.

F, ~ geometric factor relating the areas of the surfaces of the
two bodies.

T, ~— temperature of the surface of the hot body, °R.
T, — temperature of the surface of the colder body, °R.

An inspection of the above equation clearly indicates the need

of emissivity values for the surfaces of objects to be subjected to

radiant heat transmission if heat requinrements are to be calculated.

The emissivity of a surface is the ratio of the emissive power
of the surface to that of a “black body”. The “black body” has zero
reflectivity, an absorptivity of unity, and is a perfect radiator, i.e.,
its emissivity is unity. Accordingly, the theoretical range of values
of emissivity would be slightly above zero to unity. Then the closer
the emissivity value is to unity the better the radiator, and the poor-
er the reflectivity.

In the following discussions and presentations the surface emis-
sivities of several protective coatings are reported to illustrate the

variations in values, and the experimental technique used in obtain-

ing these emissivity values is described.

The technique employed in these measurements has been termed
a static thermometer technique and requires little specialized ap-
paratus. Essentially, the apparatus consisted of tenth-degree thermo-
meters, a duct fabricated from 8 inch diameter galvanized sheet iron
pipe, a blower for moving warm air through the duct, an anemometer

for measuring the air velocity within the duct, and a portable poten-

150

Emissivities of Protective Coatings

tiometer for obtaining thermocouple readings of the pipe tempera-
ture. The simplicity of the apparatus is shown in the sketch of
Figure 1 where thermometers are shown inserted through the pipe
wall into the warm air stream.

THERMOMETERS

WARM_ AIR STREAM

PIPE WALL

Ee

SS SS SS SS SS SS SS SS SS SSS

_THERMOCOUPLE

__POTENTIOMETER

FIGURE |, DIAGRAMMATIC SKETCH OF
APPARATUS USED IN EMISSIVITY
DETERMINATIONS

In operation, warm air was passed through the duct with ther-
mometers extending into the duct at right angles to the direction
of air flow, and thermocouple in place as shown. When constant
thermometer and thermocouple readings were obtained, the values
were recorded and the air velocity determined with the anemometer.

One thermometer was designated as a reference thermometer
and was coated with silver by Brashear’s method (2). The second
thermometer having dimensions substantially the same as those of
the reference thermometer was coated with the paint and dried.
This latter thermometer was called the materia! thermometer. Both
thermometers were coated over the entire surface exposed to the

warm air stream.

When constant temperature readings were obtained, an ap-

151

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

proximate heat balance was permissible,

omens
where q, ~ heat transfer by convection from warm air to thermo-
meter, BTU/hr.

Qe met heat transfer by radiation between thermometer and

surfaces in sight of thermometer, BTU/hr.

The simple heat transfer case of an air stream, with true air
temperature t, flowing through a duct of a diameter large compared
to that of the reference thermometer at temperature t, and the inner
duct surface at temperature t, can be described by the heat balance,

Gp sage or hWA (tet) a h_A (t,-t,)

where h, ~ convection heat transfer coefficient, BTU/(hr) (sq.ft. )

(F)

h, = radiation heat transfer coefficient, BTU/(hr) (sq-ft.)
fk)

A > thermometer area, sq.ft.

The heat balance may be written,
vAN(t -t.)) se a0 sre AG | e100) (7/100) 5

where e ~ emissivity of the reference thermometer.

In this case of a small object, the thermometer, very nearly totally
inclosed by the larger object, the duct, F, ~ e, the emissivity of the
small object. Similarly, F, — A, the area of the small object, the
thermometer

The heat balance may be arranged to
(Gai) aia) lige)

and a similar expression may be written for the coated material
thermometer

eu) = (a) se)

Under nearly identical conditions h. ~ h.” since the two thermometers

152

Emissivities of Protective Coatings

have identical demensions and
Ct, : ee) (h, /h, ) Ct : f)
where h, and h,’ refer to the material thermometer.
The value of h, can be calculated from the air velocity and

equations for convection transfer from. air flowing at right angles
to single cylinders (3),

h D/k, — 0.32 + 0.43 ( DG/u, 0.52
for ranges of (DG/,,) from 0.1 to 1000 and
h_D/k, 7 aQi24 ( DG/y, )0.6

for ranges of (DG/y, ) from 100 to 56000. In this case D is the
thermometer diameter in feet, G is the mass velocity—the product
of the linear velocity and air density—in lb/(hr) (sq.ft.), k. is the
thermal conductiiiy of the air at the film conditions in BTU/(hr.)
(sq.ft.) (°F/ft.), and 4, is the air viscosity at the film conditions

mayelps/Gtits,) Car:.).

Values of h,’ may then be obtained since the true air temperature
can be calculated from the equation given above,

(eet) = Chive) (t= )
by solving for t,
as (h,/h, ) (tee) Sats
Obviously lie for the silver coated reference thermometer must
be obtained in order to solve for t, This evaluation of h, is made
using the equality,
AWE=t ) = Ol7sce ACT 7/100)4= (7 /100)*|
For polished silver the emissivity, e, is 0.02 (1).
With a value of t, the heat balance for the coated material ther-

mometer can be used to calculate he
Ge 7 ea ™ (h,’/h, ) Gee 7 &)
and Mes Se hi) CU =a }/ (E.=)

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

The numerical value of h,’ is then used to calculate the emissivity
as follows,

Ihe ( tt )

"013 [(T.,/100)+ - (T_/100)4]

Using the apparatus and calculation procedure described above,
emissivities of six colored paints, lamp black and the uncoated
thermometer were determined (4). The average numerical values
of these emissivities are listed blow:

TABLE I

AVERAGE EmiIssiviry VALUES
For The Temperature Range 90°F to 140°

Finish Emissivity
Lamp-Black 0.95
Yellow 0.46
Orange 0.60
Red 0.70
Green 0.74
Phythalocyanine Blue 0.91
Milori Blue 0.88
Glass-Mercury Thermometer 0.95

Obviously, the exact color and characteristic of the paint will
influence the emissivity value. This fact is demonstrated in the
range of values contributing to the averages listed above. The
number of different paints of each color and the range of emissivity
values are given in Table II.

TABLE II

Rance OF Emissiviry VALUES For Various COLORS
Number of

Colored Paints Color Emissivity Range
5 Yellow 0.32 - 0.66
5 Orange 0.32 - 0.74
5 Red 0.30 - 0.87
5) Green 0.66 - 0.78
5 Phthalocyanine Blue 0.89 - 0.94
5 Milori Blue 0.70 - 0.98

15-4

Emissivities of Protective Coatings

An inspection of the data of Table Il shows the overlapping of
emissivity values for the several colors even though repeated deter-
minations with a given paint rarely gave deviations as great as 3.5
percent and in many cases less than 1.0 percent.

These ranges of emissivities for a given color strongly empha-
size the need for an evalution of the emissivity of the particular
surface if precise radiant heat transmission calculations are import-
ant. Frequently the determination of the emissivity cf the coated
surface has been considered such a time-consuming task that the
measurement of the property has been neglected or average values
estimated. However, this thermometer technique is straight for-
ward and requires little or no equipment not in common use in the
industrial laboratory. Accordingly, it is felt that the appropriate
use of the procedure can provide information of immediate use in a
number of radiant heating operations.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Perry, John H., “Chemical Egineers’ Handbook”, 3rd Edition,
pp. 483-487. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1950.

(2) Hodgman, Charles D., “Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”,
30th Edition, pp. 2537-39. Cleveland, Chemical Rubber Pub-
lishing Company, 1948.

(3) McAdams, W. H., ‘Heat Transmission”, 2nd Edition, pp. 220-24.
New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1946.

(4) Shah, N. P., M.Ch.E. Thesis in Chemical Egineering, University
of Louisville, 1949.

PERFORMANCE OF AN EARTH HEAT PUMP OPERATING
INTERMITTENTLY ON THE COOLING CYCLE

E. B. Penrod and R. C. Thornton
Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

INTRODUCTION

The rate at which heat can be absorbed from, or discharged
to the earth with a heat pump depends on the size and configuration
of the ground coil as well as the physical properties of the soil.
Some of the physical properties of the soil surrounding the earth heat
exchanger are affected by rainfall, solar radiation and by altering
the quantity of heat energy in the ground by artificial means. There-
fore a brief history of the operation of the heat pump will be given
here.

From October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950, the heat pump operated
intermittently on the heating cycle extracting heat from the earth
from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. daily (1)!. During this period the rainfall was
in excess of its normal value by 64.4%. The heat pump remained
idle from May 1, 1950 to May 16, 1950 inorder to permit the tempera-
ture of the soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger to recover
its normal value. The plant operated continuously* on the heat-
ing cycle from May 16, 1950 to July 1, 1950 in order to obtain data
from which the thermal diffusivity of the soil could be calculated if
desired (2,3). On June 9, 1950, data were taken, at two-hour in-
tervals from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. so that the calculated results from a
heating test of short duration could be compared with the average
results of seven cooling tests of short duration.

The earth heat exchanger, Fig. 1, was buried in soil at an
average depth of about 4.5 ft. It consists of an effective length of
489 ft. of one inch copper tubing through which an antifreeze solu-
tion is circulated. Thermocouples were installed at the center of the
antifreeze line at stations | to 8 inclusive. By use of thermocouples,
1 Numbers in parenthesis refer to the Bibliogray hy
%

From June 19 to July 1, the plant was stopped several times for making
minor changes.

156

Performance of An Earth Heat Pump

‘ =
ae J? ae)
Vv z = a.
A S)
a
¥% S :
or
rt ©) cc =
2'b-Hid 3d ee 6
Zo?
ba ©
Od +
Sle
ce) ae
2 qa
@
= eal
=
a
ul )
: = Te)
in :
(e)
wo Oo wo
_ ==
&
: Ww pe
Te) wo a Oo
= r
@ | & a
uJ
ui
a \8°S-Hid3ad \\\—_
z'9g—
™N
a a
z Co)
Oo \
= ak;
=
< & te
er lu [A
=) a
(7p) = oS
Zz S| Ee
Figure 1. The earth heat exchanger or eround coil.

157

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

soil temperatures can be measured at depths of 6, 12, and 18 inches
below the center of the antifreeze line at station 3, and also at 6 and
18 inches below the line at station 6.

The line heat sink is 171.9 ft. long and consists of the portion
of the earth heat exchanger from station 2 to 5, and from station 7
to 8, except the length of tubing which is thermally insulated as
shown in Fig. 1. The grid heat sink has a length of 317.1 ft. and
is that portion of the earth heat exchanger between stations 5 and
7. The distances between the center of the grid pipes are 4.75 ft.
The total heat sink includes the line and grid sections of the earth
heat exchanger.

The soil surrounding the earth heat exchanger falls in the general
Casagrande classification of lean clay. Analysis of a sample of the
soil at station 3 showed that about 60% of its grains are in the size
generally termed clay, and less than 30% of the sample is silt. The
liquid limit of the sample is 43.4% and its corresponding plasticity
index is 16.1%. The bulk density of the dry soil is 103.4 Ib/cu. ft. (1).

INTERMITTENT Coouinc TESTS

From July 1, 1950 to October 1, 1950 the heat pump operated
intermittently on the cooling cycle from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily. When
the plant was in operation, heat was absorbed from the air circulated
throught the package unit (also from the compressor-motor and the
fan-motor combinations), and discharged to the soil. The rainfall

was 30.1% in excess of the normal rainfall for the same period.

In addition to the three month test, seven tests of short dura-
tion were made during the cooling season. In the tests of short
duration, data were taken at two-hour intervals from 10 a.m. to
6 p.m., at the beginning and middle of each month. The results of
the tests of short duration are listed in Table 1, and their average
values are given in Table 2

During the heating test of June 9, 1950, the refrigeration com-
pressor was driven at a speed cf 1180 rpm by a 5-hp, single phase,
electric motor. Previous ccoling tests clearly indicated that the heat

158

Performance of An Earth Heat Pump

pump could not be operated at this speed during the entire cooling
season under controlled conditions. Therefore, the plant was changed
so that the compressor was driven at an average speed of about 680
rpm by a 3-hp, single phase, electric motor during the cooling sea-
son of 1950. By operating the refrigeration compressor at a speed
much below its normal rating, its volumeric efficiency was increased
from 61.2% for the heating test to 72.8% on the cooling tests.

Coouinc Tests Or SHORT DuRATION

From Table | it can be seen that the suction pressure remained
nearly constant, (at about 35.6), but the discharge pressure increased
from 143.1 to about 190 psia during three months of intermittent
operation. The strength of the total heat sink (489 ft.) was practic-
ally constant, and its average value for the seven tests was 34.8
B/hr/ft. The temperature of the antifreeze entering the soil increased
from 91.7°F to 124.5°F, and then decreased to 120.5°F. At station
3, the soil temperature 6 in. below a center of the antifreeze line
increased from 56.2°F on July 1 to 73.4°F on September 30, while
that at station 6 increased from 53.8° = to 77.7°F. The cooling cost
remained nearly constant from July 15 to September 30*. The soil
temperatures 18 in. below the center of the antifreeze line increased
slightly from July 1 to September 30. These increases in soil tem-
perature are due, in part, to the effect of solar radiation (4).

Table 1. Results obtained from seven cooling tests of eight hour duration.

7/1/50 7/15/50 8/1/50 8/15/50 9/1/50 9/15/50 9/30/50

Room temp., °F (HAS 79.0 85.5 79.2 80.5 72.8 74.2
Air temp. at entrance, saint 77.6 81.1 87.9 79.1 80.8 73.0 ost
Air temp. at exit, °F 69.3 76.2 82.4 74.9 ioe OOO e men Ons
R.H. of Room Air,% SO a OOn moses GEO “7A SSN) TRAY,
Air circulated, lb/hr 5.320 5.240 5,125 5,840 5,060 5,840 5,180
Air circulated, cfm [ROTA WeIS8) 20a) EIS8O SO) E2208 ETO
Heat power from air, B/hr 5,320 7,280 7,720 7,850 6,990 6,669 7,550
Heat power to evaporator,

B/hr 20.250 18.949 18,76) 18,650 18,600 18,600 18,710
Heat power to condenser,

B/hr 18.890 16,509 16,400 16,020 15,880 16,010 16,220
=

In reference (1) it was shown that the package unit heat pump was very
inefficient.

159

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

7/1/50 7/15/50 8/1/50

Suction press, psia 34.0
Discharge press, psia 143.1
F-12 circulated, lb/hr 315.2
Capacity of refrig. plant,

tons 1.69
Vol. eff., % ales
Comp. eff., % 74.8
Comp. speed, rpm 704
Comp. motor, kw D5)
Fan motor, kw 0.50
Pump motor, kw 0.93

35.3
181.5
300.3

1.58
67.8
HO

701

2.58

0.49

0.88

35.9
191.0
298.6

1.56
mOe
85.0

673

2.64

0.49

0.91

8/15/50 9/1/50 9/15/50 9/30/50

35.9
190.1

36.6
198.2

36.4
ISS

35.4
188.1

299.6 300.0 303.0 302.0

1.55
69.2
79.8

677

2.60

0.50

0.73

Heat power to earth, B/hr 17,000 16,550 16,780 16,510 16,120 16,000 16,510

Total strength of heat

sink, B/hr/ft 34.8
Antifreeze circulated, lb/hr 5,880
Temp. of antifreeze

entering soil, °F 91.7
Temp. of antifreeze

leaving soil, °F 88.6
Temp. of antifreeze, °F 93.0
Soil temp. 6 in. below center

of line, °F 56.2
Soil temp. 12 in. below center

of line, °F 59.9
Soil temp. 18 in. below center

of line, °F 56.1
Approximate temp. grad.,

°F /ft 73.6
Temp. of antifreeze, °F 90.1
Soil temp. 6 in. below center

of line, °F 53.8
Soil temp. 18 in. below center

of line, °F 51.6
Approximate temp. grad.,

/it 72.6
CER, Carnot 5.38
CER, refrig. plant 4.89
CER, Heat pump 0.62
CER, Heat pump sys. 0.40

Cooling cost, kwhr/therm 74.0

SAO eo bel
5,890 5,910
116.5 119.7
IB Se

Station 3
TONG eX.” EIU) S55

682 Re '>

65.2 69.2

64.0 68.1

96.2 94.0

Station 6
114.4 117.6

(70) > -78i83

60.7 67.9

94.2 88.6

5.02 4.43
AN9) 865
0.83 0.86
0.54 0.56
py EL bpd}

160

33.8
5,840

95.6

118.7

74.9

70.5

87.6
4.43
3.93
0.89
0.60

48.7

1:55 5 5ie aES6
6S) 15 687 eeeiont
TOL = (Sco. Winter

675 680 651

2.66 2.65 2.63

0.47 049 0.49

ON, Oommen One
33.0 38.0 33.8

5,850 5,690 5,600
124.5 122.6 120.5
UPA AUIS ro} = IIL G5)
124.0" 12205 Peo
73.7 74.4 73.4
Ce errata: ©) 7/110)
69.5 68.4 66.7
100.6 96.2 89.4
122.6 121.2 119.8
Tl eS OMmenien
CP SS) ALA!
89.8 864 84.2

4.35 444 4.46

3.84 3.92 3.98

0.77 0.74 0.84

0.53 0.50. 0.57
59.0 58.4 51.0

Performance of An Earth Heat Pump

Table 2. Average results obtained from seven cooling tests while the heat

pump operated intermittently from July 1, 1950 to October 1, 1950.

Air temp. at entrance, °F

Air temp. at exit, °F

Heat power from air, B/hr

Heat power to earth, B/hr

Suction press., psia

Discharge press., psia

Capacity of refrigeration plant, tons

Compressor speed, rpm

Volumetric efficiency, %

Compression efficiency, %

Input to heat pump system, kw

Total strength of heat sink (489 ft), B/hr/ft

Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F

Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F

Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F

Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 3, °F
Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line at station 3, °F
Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at station 3, °F
Temp. of antifreeze at station 6, °F

Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 6, °F
Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at station 6, °F

CER, Carnot
CER, refrigeration plant

CER, heat pump
CER, heat pump system

Cooling cost, (sensible) kwhr/therm

79.3
74.2
7,050
16,500
35.6
183.4
1.58
680
72.8
78.7
3.91
34.8
116.6
113.5
116.2
70.1
67.6
65.8
114.9
71.8
67.4
4.64

Fig. 2a is a diagram which shows the relation between the tem-

perature of the antifreeze and soil 6 in. below (at station 3), as the

antifreeze passes through the earth heat exchanger, and Fig. 2b

shows the average temperature difference between the antifreeze

and the condensing temperature of the Freon-12 in the condenser.

Fig. 3 shows the change in temperature of the antifreeze as it passes

through the earth heat exchanger for three cooling tests of short

duration, and for the six-hour heating test.

161

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science
COOLING TEST -AUGUST_ 15,1950
STATION 3
130°F

120 ANTIFREEZE

100

At =46.7°F

-=—-—— 488 FT. ——_—_____»
‘a) EARTH HEAT EXCHANGER

(6) CONDENSER

Figure 2. (a) Graph showing the temperature difference between the anti-
freeze in the earth heat exchanger and the soil 6 in. below. (b) Graph showing
the temperature difference between the antifreeze and the Freon-12 in the
condenser.

162

arth Heat Pump

=
1
4

Performance of An E

ee HEAT Saas © STATIONS

peels 7
hae! ed
LS a as ae io y rs
chases fol
(@)

I lie 9
ee ee see eile
\ Eo
Tie telas Mega.
©
SST ENE MEY HOPS Se
Y Za] aaa f
ae nese flea a else
©
rd,
le Shale al see el ellen
IR, )
{EP SMD M: Bawa:
[e)
Baia es eae Se pas a
7 eee ey A a) oy
Gs =
An Oe ee,
i eae gc a Ee ae
[sl 20 a ere, ge [135 bee
WmGsGet ooh em eae

‘ie — Pee qaly deat See

Antifreeze temperature versus length of earth heat exchanger.

163

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

COMPARISON Or Heratinc AND Coo.Linc TESTS

The results of the heating test made on June 9 are listed in Table
3. During this test the refrigeration compressor was driven at a speed
of 1180 rpm by a 5-hp motor. However, the compressor was driven
at an average speed of 680 rpm by a 3-hp motor during all cooling
tests reported in this paper. All tests were made during the summer

of 1950.

Comparative results of the cooling and heating tests of short
duration are listed in Table 4. From Fig. 2a and 4a it can be seen
that the difference in temperature between the antifreeze in the
earth heat exchanger and the soil 6 in. below for the cooling and
heating tests are 46.7°F and 17.2°F respectively. Similarly, from
Fig. 2b and 4b the difference between the temperature of the anti-
freeze and Freon-12 for the cooling and heating tests are 9.4°F and
25.5°F respectively.

Coouinc Tests Or Lonc DurATION

The average of the daily results obtained from the cooling tests
made during July, August, and September of 1950 are listed for each
month in Table 5. On August 13, the antifreeze line connecting the
expansion tank and the heat pump broke, so that nearly all of the
antifreeze was lost. The line was repaired and the earth heat ex-
changer was filled with water. From September 15th to the 30th,
the water was circulated counter clockwise instead of clockwise
through the earth heat exchanger.

Table 3. Results obtained from an eight hour heating test made on June
9, 1950.

Air temp. at entrance, °F 76.8
AiG temp. ateexit. oF 99.6
Heat power to air, B/hr 28,600
Heat power from earth, B/hr 15,870
Suction press., psia 26.0
Discharge press., psia 142.0
Capacity of refrigeration plant, tons Nee,
Compressor speed, rpm 1180
Volumetric efficiency, % 61.2
Compression efficiency, % 64.6

164

Performance of An Earth Heat Pump

Input to heat pump system, kw 5.17
Total strength of heat source (489 ft), B/hr/ft 32.5
Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F 97.5
Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F 31.4
Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F 28.0
Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 3, °F 46.7
Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line at Station 3, °F 49.8
Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at Station 3, °F BED
Temp. of antifreeze at station 6, °F 29.5
Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line at station 6, °F 42.7
Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line at Station 6, °F 47.0
HER, Carnot Hal
HER, refrigeration plant 4.99
HER, heat pump 2.19
HER, heat pump system 1.59
Heating cost, kwhr/therm 18.41

Table 4. | Average results of seven cooling tests versus those for a single heating

——Summer of 1950.

Cooling Heating
Room temp., °F 78.4 78.3
Air temp. at entrance, °F 79.3 76.8
Air temp. at exit, °F 74.3 99.6
Suction press., psia 35.6 26.0
Discharge press., psia 183.4 142.0
Nominal power of comp. motor, hp 3 5
Compressor speed, rpm 680 1180
Volumetric efficiency, % 72.8 61.2
Compression efficiency, % 78.7 64.6
Power input to system skw 3.91 oly
Total strength heat sink or source, B/hr/ft 34.8 32.5
Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F 116.7 Diep
Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F 113.6 31.4
Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F 116.3 28.0
Soil temp. 6 in. below line at station 3, °F 70.1 46.7
Soil temp. 12 in. below line at station 3, °F 67.6 49.8
Soil temp. 18 in. below line at station 3, °F 65.8 51S
Carnot GER,- 4:64, HERS “o:o7
Refrigeration plant CER, 4.06 HER, 4.99
Heat pump CERee 2089) EIB Res eke
Heat pump system GEReY 105Se HER 1.59
Operating cost, kwhr/therm 56.3 18.41

165

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

HEATING EST: = JUNE SSS 5©

STATION 3

SOIL TEMP. 6" BELOW ANTIFREEZE LINE

“ANTIFREEZE

EEE 489 FT. ———+ | ©
(@)EARTH HEAT EXCHANGER

FREON -12

(0) EVAPORATOR

Figure 4. (a) Graph showing the temperature difference between the antifreeze
in the earth heat exchanger and the soil 6 in. below. (b) Graph showing the

temperature difference between the antifreeze and the Freon-12 in the evaporator.

166

Performance of An Earth Heat Pump

Table 5. Monthly average of daily results obtained from cooling tests made

in July, August, and September, 1950. The heat pump operated intermittently

from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. daily.

Rainfall, 43 year average, inches
Rainfall, 1950, inches

*Outdoor air temp., °F

Room, temp., °F

R. H. at entrance, %

R. H. at exit, %

Inlet air temp., °F

Outlet air temp., °F

Air circulated, lb/hr

Sensible heat absorbed from air, B/hr
Total heat absorbed from air, B/hr
Temp. of antifreeze entering soil, °F
Temp. of antifreeze leaving soil, °F
Antifreeze circulated, lb/hr

Heat power to the earth, B/hr

Strength of grid heat sink
Collett) = B/hr/tt

Total strength of heat sink

(489 ft), B/hr/ft

Temp. of antifreeze at station 3, °F
Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line
at station 3, °F

Soil temp. 12 in. below center of line
at station 3, °F

Soil temp. 18 in. below center of line
at station 3, °F

Temp. of antifreeze at station 6, °F
Soil temp. 6 in. below center of line
at station 6, °F

Power input to heat pump system, kw
CER, heat pump (sensible )

CER, heat pump (total )

CER, heat pump system (sensible )
CER, heat pump system (total )

Cooling cost, kwhr/therm

*Average of hourly readings.

July

1950
3.65
6.24

799

(o.4

79.9
59.3
69.2
81.1
75.3
5,280
He329
§,530
115.9
eS
5,950
17,010

41.5

34.8
116.0

70.5
67.9

66.2
114.7

68.6

3.946

0.84
().97
0.54
0.63
53.90

167

August
1950

3.45

2.70
71.0
TAs}
59.1
67.5
78.6
74.0
5,289
5,970
8,243
121.8
118.8
5,780
15,950

39.9

70.7

120.9

77.6
3.956
0.67
().92
0.45
0.61

66.26

September 1950
Ist-15th 16th-30th
3.07
4.28
65
72.9
61.8
69.7
73.6
69.3
5,250
6,140
50) 7,800
6 PALE?
i) 118.0
0 5,660
850 22,760

39.5 28.1

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

The results of the three-month intermittent cooling test are
shown graphically in Fig. 5. From curve A it can be seen that the
temperature of the antifreeze in the earth heat exchanger increased
from 104°F on July 1 to 124°F on September 1, after which it de-
creased as shown. The rise in antifreeze temperature would probably
have been greater for a cooling season with normal rainfall, since
wet soil has a high thermal conductivity as compared with dry soil.

Curves B, C, and D show soil temperatures at distances of 6,
12, and 18 inches below the center of the antifreeze line at station 3.
The effect of heavy rainfalls on soil temperatures as well as the anti-
freeze temperature in the ground coil is quite apparent. It can also
be seen that the soil temperatures beneath the ground coil increased
slightly from July 1 to the latter part of September, after which they
decreased. This drop in soil temperature is partly due to the ex-
cessive rainfall during the first three weeks of the month, and also
to the decreasing effect of solar radiation on soil temperature at the
depth under consideration, for this period of the year (4).
| It is to be expected that the rate at which heat can be dis-
charged to the earth would decrease with time. However with in-
termittent operation during July the rate of discharge increased due
to execessive rainfall. The precipitation in August was below normal,
and it can be seen from curve F that the rate of discharging heat to
the soil decreased until September 1, after which it increased.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Valuable data for designing an earth heat pump are reported
in this paper. These data, however, should be interpreted with the
understanding that the rainfall was 30.1% in excess of the normal
rainfall for the test period. In studying these data, it should be
kept in mind that as previously reported, the heat pump package
unit which is being used in this research, is not very efficient (1).
The cooling comfort produced and the rate at which the soil dis-
sipated the heat transferred to it depends upon the efficiency of
the heat pump.

2. The performance of a heat pump is different when it is
used for space heating than when used for space cooling. For this
reason data from a three month cooling test and a six-month heating

test are listed in Table 6. During the heating period the heat given

168

arth Heat Pump

.
Ly
4

Performance of An I

~ ©
° °

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE -F
a
°

.
°
|

INGHES
o
|

°

RAINFAUL ,
°
a

GRAPHIGAL PRESENTATION OF HEAT PUMP DATA

STATION 3, ANTIFREEZE LINE 5.6 FT. BELOW GROUND LINE, COOLING SEASON FROM JULY |

TO OCTOBER !, 1950
CURVE NOTATION

A TEMPERATURE AT CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE —. AVERAGE OUTDOOR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE
B TEMPERATURE 6° BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE F TIME RATE OF DISCHARGING HEAT TO GROUND
© TEMPERATURE 12” BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE G RAINFALL
D TEMPERATURE 18" BELOW CENTER OF ANTIFREEZE LINE aes Oe > i. eer se
Boni: al ee a a
| ar ee
1207 | 4a —

w
wi a a
> - |
5 avi |
E |
«
wi
a
= |
w
ci |
UNIT) INOPERATIVE | =)
RL |
|
} |

120,000

17,500

15,000

12,500

JULY | AUG | SEPT 1 : OCT!

HEAT DISCHAGED TO GROUND— B PER HR.

Graphical presentation of heat pump data during the cooling season

€

Figure 5.

of 1950. The earth heat pump operated daily from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.

169

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

up by the compressor-motor and the fan-motor combinations is used
to advantage to warm the air stream. However, during the cooling
season the heat given up by the compressor-motor and the fan-motor
combinations must be transferred to the earth, together with the
heat removed from the air stream. This accounts for the small
value (8,000 B/hr) of heat power taken from the air stream during
the cooling cycle. The low value (25,510 B/hr of heat power to
the air stream during the heating season is due to poor engineering
practice in building the package unit (1). The heat power to the air
stream is too low even though it includes the heat given to the
air stream by the compressor-motor and the fan-motor combinations.

3. Low values are reported for the heat power to or from the
earth (16,690 B/hr and 13,910 B/hr). These low results are due
to the operation of an inefficient plant and are probably lower than
they would have been under normal conditions as to rainfall.

4. The strength of the heat sink (35.6 B/hr/ft) was greater
than the strength of the heat source as anticipated, and is due to
the fact that the difference in temperature between the antifreeze
in the ground coil and the soil was much greater during the cool-
ing season than that during the heating period.

Table 6. Average results of a three month cooling test made dur-
ing the summer of 1950 versus the average results of a six month
heating test made from October 31, 1949 to May 1, 1950.

3-month 6-month

cooling test heating test

Outlet temp. of air stream, °F 72.8 97.0
Suction press., psia 35.6 33.1
Discharge press., psia 183.4 149.9
Heat power from or to air stream, B/hr 8,000 25,510
Heat power to or from the earth, B/hr 16,690 13,910
Power input to heat pump system, kw 393% De Ge
Total strength of heat sink or source, B/hr/ft 35.6 Dhl 5)
Antifreeze temp. at station 3, °F 119.6 OR IL
Soil temp. 6 in. below line at station 3, °F Te 43.1
Energy ratios, heat pump 0.90 1.96
Energy ratios, heat pump system 0.60 1.43
Operating cost, kwhr/therm 62.9 20.5

* 3-hp compressor motor
**5-hp compressor motor

170

Performance of An Earth Heat Pump

5. The suction pressures during the cooling and heating periods
are all right for good operating performance, but the discharge pres-
sures are too high, particularly during the cooling period. The high
discharge pressure are due to excessive pressure drops through the

heat exchangers in the package unit.

6. From Table 5 it can be seen that the CER was much lower
when the sensible heat only was taken into account, than when

the removal of moisture from the air stream was considered.

7. There was no appreciable increase in the heat transfer from
the ground coil to the soil when water replaced the prestone solution

as the heat transfer medium.

8. During the last half of September the direction of flow
through the earth heat exchanger was reversed so that the warm
water entered the grid before passing through very much of the
line. It was expected that the strength of the grid heat sink would
be increased, since there was an increase in the difference between
the temperature of the water in the ground coil and the soil. The
strength of the grid heat sink was observed to drop from about 39.5
to 28.1 B/hr/ft. This apparent anomaly has not been fully accounted
for. It may be due, in parts to the error resulting from taking the
differences of temperatures of about the same value. The effect of
reversing the direction of fluid flow through the ground coil will

be investigated in the near future.

9. From this research it is believed that the earth is a suitable

heat sink as well as a suitable heat source.

10. A more complete account of this investigation will be
given in a future Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin of the

University of Kentucky.

171

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Performance of an Earth Heat Pump on Intermittent Operation’,
by E. B. Penrod, E. L. Dunning, and H. H. Thompson. Trans-
actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Vol. 13, No. 2,
October, 1950, pp. 82-99.

“Measurement of the Thermal Diffusivity of a Soil by the Use
of a Heat Pump”, by E. B. Penrod. American Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol. 21, No. 5, May, 1950, pp. 425-427.

“Earth Heat Pump Research—Part I”, by E. B. Penrod, O. W.
Gard, C. D. Jones, H. E. Collier, and R. N. Patey. University
of Kentucky Egineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 4, No.
14, December, 1949, pp. 1-64.

“Theory of the Ground Pipe Heat Source for the Heat Pump’,
by WW) R. Ingersolland 11. J, Plass, H-PALC | Vol 2053Nowane
July, 1948 pp. 119-122.

EFFECTS OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTIONS ON
BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE IN MICE. I
TITRIMETRIC METHOD

Sister Mary Adeline O'Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N.,
Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Greenwell, S.C.N.,
and Corenlius W. Kreke ®

Nazareth College Unit of Institutum Divi Thomae, Louisville, Kentucky

In one of the earliest reports, Brahn observed low liver catalase
activity in human beings who had died with different forms of
cancer tumors. Later work revealed that the liver catalase of tumor-
bearing rats and mice is considerably more affected than many other
individual enzyme systems studied (1). Within the last decade,
intensive studies (2 3,4,5,6) have shown that this peroxide-splitting
enzyme activity is considerably reduced in both the liver and kidney
of these animals but not in the blood. The mechanism of action of
catalase in these neoplastic conditions is not well understood, but
as anemia generally accompanies tumor growth, it has been sug-
gested that the progress of the tumor in some way interferes with the
synthesis of the hemo-prosthetic group, which is possessed both by
the hemoglobin and catalase (1).

It was the purpose of the present investigation to compare the
enzymatic pattern of the catalase activity in the blood and liver of
mice infected with Staphylococcus aureus, with that reported for
mice bearing tumors, two quite different types of pathology.

EXPERIMENTAL

Normal female mice from Rockland Farm, N. Y., and a patho-
genic strain of S. aureus from the General Biological Supply House,
Chicago, Ill., were used in these determinations. The virulency of
the microorganism was kept up by transfers to a blood agar medium.
All reagents used were of the c.p. grade or of the highest purity
obtainable.

About two dozen determinations were run to establish con-

Assistant Research Professor of Chemistry, Institutum Divi Thomae, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio.

173

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

stant values for the enzyme activity, fahigkeit, of the blood and
liver of normal animals. The permanganate titrimetric procedure,
essentially the same as previously reported (7), showing the rate

of decomposition of HzO2 by catalase, was employed. This method
was used in determining the fahigkeit of blood and liver of normal

and infected animals.

In the preparation of the blood enzyme, the blood from the slit
throat of the mouse was collected in a graduated certifuge tube
and diluted. This dilution was made so as to contain the same
weight of enzyme-containing material per ml. of blood to be used
in the calculation of the fahigkeit from the kK values at zero time.

The liver enzyme was prepared by placing the minced liver
in 10 ml. of distilled water and allowing it to stand in the ice chest
for 24 hours. Then it was diluted according to the original tissue-
weight and filtered. From these dilutions, samples were taken for
analysis and further diluted according to the activity of the enzyme.
After an equilibrium period of 10 minutes, which allowed the solu-
tion to come to 0°, 35 ml. of HzO, (0.9 ml. of 35% diluted to 1000
ml.) were mixed with 10 ml. of phosphate buffer (M/5 approxi-
mately pH 6.8) containing 1 ml. of the diluted enzyme. At three
5 minute intervals, 5 ml. of the reaction mixture were pipetted into
20 ml. of HzSO4 (1:8) in order to stop the reaction, and the un-
decomposed peroxide titrated with 0.0140 N KMnO,. Blanks run
for reaction of KMnO, with blood and liver enzyme activity showed

almost negligible results.

RESULTS

The analyses of the blood and liver catalase of 18 out of 24
normal mice are shown in Table I. The mean value for blood enzyme
was found to be 99+ 3.4 and the liver enzyme to 195+ 3.2. Ratios
of blood fahigkeit values to liver fahigkeit is 1:1.8 showing the
liver enzyme activity average about twice that of the blood activity.

Forty-eight animals were used in preliminary experiments to

174

Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice 1

determine the day best suitable for the analysis of the blood and
liver of mice infected with Staphlococcus aureus. The 9th day showed
the enzyme values to be the most consistent, and the day when the
lesions had reached the peak of severity. Analyses were then made
on 37 more infected mice to determine the fahigkeit of the blood
and liver catalase. The mean value for blood catalase is 81+ 4.7
and 216+ 18 for the liver enzyme. The ratio of blood catalase to
liver catalase in the infected animals varies from approximately 0.5
to 8, while in the normal animals the variation is from 1 to 2. From
the data in Table IH it can be seen that there is a wide variability
in the enzyme values, particularly for liver, and no consistent

yattern in the relationship between blood and _ liver catalase.
I I

TABLE I. DETERMINATION OF BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE
ACTIVITY IN NORMAL MICE

Det. Mouse Wt. Blood Catzlase Liver Catalase 7 Kat. f. (liver)
No. ¢ Zero time K at Kat.f. Zero time K at Kat.f. Kat.f. (blood)
Blank O time Blank O time
ile 22, 5.96 0.051 108 5.97 0.135 292 27
2. 21 “0.083 —— 7 0.104 226 +5
3. 21 ra 0.035 —— a 0.100 210 =.
4. Gal 5-03— 0.047 97 5.93 0.048 126 1.5
D. 24.5 en OL03 SS as = 0.068 176 2.3
6. 24.5 4 0.055 86 ds 0.059 166 1.9
Ue 20.9 6.00 0.050 124 5.80 0.062 167 1.3
8. 23.8 > 40085". 586 rf 0.088 223 2.5
2). 24.6 “0.046 108 zo 0.064 166 1.5
10. 23.0 Bis) AO OzNE 10) 2:00 0.074 224 2.48
ne 24.3 im OLOS6 ES rz 0.037 168 1.4
12. 21.3 (OOK Is) * 0.084 271 2.76
15. 26.0 ONL ONO)s yh Mala 5.90 0.050 22:7 2.04
14. 23.7 Op eae lelts >: 0.048 180 1.6
15. 20.9 SOLO SSM'S 4 0.058 222, 1.9
16. 21.0 5.93 0.037 81 5.95 0.039 130 1.6
ies 23.8 (OM SIS SIs ny 0.070 166 1.75
18. 21.2 0.032 80 i; 0.062 167 2.02

AVE. 99+3.4 AVE. 1953.2 AVE. 1.80

175

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

TABLE II. FAHIGKEIT VALUES OF BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE
OF MICE INFECTED WITH STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS

Det. Day of Mouse Wt. Blood Kat.f. Liver Kat.f. Kat.f. (liver)
No. Analysis g. Kat.f. (blood )
Ie 6 19.6 128 308 2.4
2: 6 23.6 38 286 7.5
8. 7 18.2 91 398 4.37
4, 7 18.2 91 185 2.05
5. df 20.4 96 196 2.04
6. 7 18.7 89 82 0.92
ie 9 18.0 32 110 3.4
8. 9 20.0 160 380 2.38
9. 9 18.4 106 284 2.68
10. 9 19.0 114 310 Deo,
Li. 9 18.2 114 270 2.37
12, 9 26.6 54 179 3.31
13. 9 22:2) 113 63 0.557
14. 9 Zell 117 83 0.709
BY, 9 24.0 55 444 8.07
16. 9 27.4 86 276 3.2
17. 9 22.4 69 245 3.50
18. 9 21.0 Si 368 6.43
19. 9 pd) 52 271 5.2
20. 9 22.9 65 232 3.07
21 9 20.0 88 232 2.63
22 9 23.9 66 411 6.23
23. 9 SIO) 87 42 0.48
24, 9 24.8 82 lio 2.13
Dy, 9 19.9 61 D2 0.85
26. 9 2255 118 173 1.47
ile ) NY oe 35 191 5.45
28. 9 22.0 70 128 1.8
29. 9 29.0 85 84 0.99
30. 9 19.5 67 210 3.18
31 9 20.0 116 116 I,
32. 10 21.0 67 192 2.86
33. 10 21.0 87 411 4.72
34. 10 19.8 45 188 4.18
85. 10 19.8 62 98 1.58
36. 10 24.4 84 142 1.69
37. 15 18.5 63 163 2.58

AVE Oise 477, AVE. 21618 AVE. 2.6

176

Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice I

Discussion

The data from the analyses of the infected animals indicates
considerable variability in the catalase values of blood and _ particul-
arly in the liver. The mean values of 81 and 216 for blood and liver
catalase, respectively, point to the fact that on the average the blood
enzyme in the infected animals was below normal, whereas the liver
catalase, while slightly above normal, is less significantly so. Cal-
culating the ratio of the normally distributed variant to its estimated
Pederd error, (t) for blood is 15; for liver is 4.8. From these con-
siderations it seems warranted to conclude that there tends to be a
lowering of the blood catalase at the height of infection as revealed
by the data on the 9th day.

This work is at present being repeated by other methods to
attempt to eliminate some of the variations due to method in the
blood and liver catalase of the infected animals.

SUMMARY
1. Normal blood catalase activity (Kat. fahigkeit) in mice was
found to be 99+ 3.4, and normal liver catalase 195+ 3.2.
Mean values of blood and liver catalase of infected animals are
81+ 4.7 and 216+ 18, respectively. The greatest variation was
encountered in the liver catalase of infected animals.

Lo

3. Blood catalase tends to drop below the normal value at the height
of infection without a consistent change in the liver catalase.

REFERENCES
1. Biochemistry of Cancer, J. P. Greenstein,
pp. 321, Academic Press, Inc., N.Y. (1947).
Greenstem, ||. —.; jenrette, ie a and
White: J., J. Biol. Chem. £47, 5 (L941).
o» Greenstein, J, P., Jenrette, oe and
White, J., J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 2, 283, (1941).
4. Greenstein, J. P., and Andervont, H. B.,
J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2, 345, (1942).
jo. soreenstem, — P., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2,
525, 589, (1942); 3, 397, (1943).
6. Greenstein, J. P., and Andervont, H. B.,
J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 4, 283, (1943).
7. Kreke, C. W., and Sister Paulette Maloney,
J. Biol. Chem. 172, 317-324, (1948).

Lo

EFFECT OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTIONS ON
BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE IN MICE. II.
GASOMETRIC METHOD.

Sister Mary Adeline O'Leary, S.C.N., Sister Virginia Heines, S.C.N.,
Sister Roderick Juhasz, S.C.N., Sister Rose Agnes Greenwell, S.C.N.,
and Cornelius W. Kreke *

Nazareth College Unit of Institutum Divi Thomae, Louisville, Kentucky

* Assistant Research Professor of Chemistry, Institutum Divi Thomae, Cin-

cinnati, Ohio.

Studies in this laboratory of the enzymatic pattern of the cata-
lase activity in the blood and liver of mice infected with Micrococcus
pyogenes var aureus have shown values of considerable variability.
In a previous report (1) it was noted that on the average the blood
enzyme in the infected animals was below normal, whereas the liver
catalase, while slightly above normal, was less significantly so.

In order to attempt to reduce some of the variations possibly
due to technique of the titrimetric method (2), the work was re-
peated using the gasometric procedure.

EXPERIMENTAL

The procedure of White and Winternitz (3), extensively used
by Greenstein in catalase studies in relation to cancer, is based
upon the rapid evolution of oxygen after addition of H2,O, to the
enzyme mixture (Figure 1). The i00 ml. widemouth bottle moved
through a distance of 10 cm. at the rate of 4 oscillations per second.
The oxygen output was measured at constant pressure by the rate
of displacement of a dilute solution of methylene blue from an in-
verted buret attached to the reaction bottle by means of a rubber
tubing. Readings were taken at 5-second intervals over a period of
30 seconds.

In control experiments the wide-mouth bottle contained 5 ml.
of M/5 prosphate buffer (pH 6.8), 2 ml. of distilled water, and
1 ml. of properly diluted enzyme, all kept at approximately 5°C.
These were allowed to stand in contact 10 minutes at 5°C., at the
end of which time a 1 ml. beaker containing 0.5 ml. of 30% H2O2
was placed upright in the wide-mouth bottle before putting the
bottle in the shaking machine. As shaking began, the beaker tipped

178

Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice II

over, allowing the H2O2 to come in contact with the enzyme-buffer-
mixture.

en |

Figure 1.

PREPARATION OF ENZYME SOLUTION
A mouse liver is thoroughly ground in a glass mortar, diluted
with cold distilled water, filtered through four thicknesses of chees-
cloth, and placed in an ice bath until ready for use. One ml. of
the dilution added to the reaction mixture should give about 10 - 15

179

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

ml. Oz in 10 sec. Dry weights are determined and the ml. Og per
mg. dry weight is obtained.

The blood from the slit throat of the mouse is collected in a
graduated centrifuge tube, diluted and kept in ice bath. As it is
not possible to maintain a constant temperature in the reaction
mixture during the course of the experiment, all ingredients are
kept in an ice bath until ready for use. Under these conditions the
enzyme does not deteriorate very rapidly and many experiments
can be run with one preparation. Readings taken at the 10 second
period are reported.

RESULTS

Analyses of the blood and liver catalase of 12 control animais
are shown in Table I. The mean value for the blood enzyme was
found to be 1.57 0.37 and for the liver enzyme to be 3.44 0.55.
The ratio of the blood values to liver values is 1:2.1 showing the
liver enzyme activity averages twice that of the blood activity.

Of the thirty-six animals infected with the organism, twenty-
- five animals gave mean values of 1.37+ 0.32 and 3.882 1.18 for
blood and liver catalase respectively (Table II). The ratio of blood
to liver enzyme is 1:2.8 or about 3 times that of the blood activity.
Table HI shows the comparison between the values obtained by
the titrimetric and gasometric methods for both normal and infected
animals.

TABLE I. BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE ACTIVITY IN MICE.

GASOMETRIC METHOD

CONTROLS
Determination Blood Liver
Number ml/O, mg. dry wt. extract
le eS 4.49
on 1.36 3.46
3 eh, 3.22
4, 1.78 3.63
Be 1.34 3.33
6. 1.68 8.01
Lo 2.54 4.00
8. 1.26 4.11
9. Lal 4.14
10. Lae RT
BIE ILA TK@ 2.36
1, 1.30 2.82
Average aise s8i7/ 3.44+ 0.55

180

Effects of Staphylococcus Aureus Infections In Mice II

TABLE II. BLOOD AND LIVER CATALASE ACTIVITY IN MICE
GASOMETRIC METHOD

ANIMALS INFECTED WITH STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS

Days Blood Liver
Infected ml/O,mg dry wt. extract
8 1.50 1.75
8 1.42 2.90
8 1.45 P13
8 ESS 2.63
9 1.43 4.00
9 1.26 8.72
9 1.36 1EnS
9 1.39 3.87
9 0.82 1.02
9 1.47 1.96
9 152, 1.40
9 1.90 3.33
9 1.23 5.43
9 1RO3 3.61
9 1.54 3.86
9 1.73 4.22
) gay 4.93
9 1.29 5.52
11 MG 3.22
11 .90 4.03
13 1.02 3.47
13 R25 3.40
13 1.89 3.90
13 1.30 3.87
13 1.48 2.38
Average eis OLY Bela IE:

TABLE III. CATALASE ACTIVITY IN MICE DETERMINED
BY TITRIMETRIC AND GASOMETRIC METHODS

Blood Liver
Titrimetric Gasometric Titrimetric Gasometric
ml. O./mg. ) ml. O,/mg.
Reatents dry wt. extract Kate he dry wt. extract
Controls 99+ 3.4 Wael 195+ 3.2 3.44—=- 0.55
Infected SMlar 4h7/ 137+ 0.32 PNGE== NS 3.88+ 18

181

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

DISCUSSION

The mean values of the blood and liver enzyme appear to show

the same trend of activity by the gasometric as by the titrimetric
method. Both procedures reveal a drop in the blood catalase and a
rise in liver catalase of the infected animals. This increase of the
liver enzyme activity shown by both methods may not be significant
due to considerable variation in the liver values; however, calculat-
ing the ratio of the normally distributed variant to its estimated
error, (t) for blood is 7.1 and 5.6 for the liver. From Fisher's table
of t, P is 0.01 for a t value of 2.797. A t of 7.1 or of 5.6 is definitely
significant.

SUMMARY

Catalase activity of blood and liver in normal mice by the gaso-
metric method was found to be 1.57+ 0.37 and 3.44+ 0.53 respec-
tively. The blood and liver values of animals infected by Staphy-
lococcus aureus were found to be 1.87+0.32 and 3.88+1.18
respectively.

Both procedures (titrimetric and gasometric) revealed a drop
in blood catalase during infection and an increase in the liver
enzyme.

As there exists a wide variability in the enzyme values, particularly
for the liver, no consistent pattern seems to exist between the
relationship of the blood and liver catalase for individual animals,

but the t and P values show that the results are significant for
the groups.

REFERENCES

1. Proc. Kentucky Acad. of Science. In Press.*

bo

Kreke, C. W., and Sister Paulette Maloney, J. Biol.
Chem. 172: 317-324, (1948).

325 White, |) and) Winternitz, M.-@.) Am, |) (‘CanceraaG:
269, (1989).

= Volel3> noo, pp. lise

182

ANTIBIOTIC-PRODUCING SPECIES OF BACILLUS FROM
WELL WATER

R. H. Weaver and Theodore Boiter

Department of Bacteriology
University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky

The studies reported upon were carried out on triplicate samples
that were collected from each of 32 Fayette County Kentucky wells.
Of each set of samples, one was examined within two hours of the
time of collection, another after storage for 24 hours at room tem-
perature, and the third after storage for 48 hours. Plate counts, coli-
form determinations, and attempts to isolate antagonists for Escheri-
chia coli were made on each sample. Attempts have been made to
correlate the presence of antagonists with the presence of coliforms
and with the decrease in number of coliforms during storage of the
water samples. Antagonists isolated consisted chiefly of members of
the actinomycetes, Bacillus and Pseudomonas groups. This paper
deals only with the Bacillus strains.

The method used for the isoluation of the antagonists was es-
sentially that of Kelner, 1948. Plates were prepared containing ap-
proximately 15 ml quantities of sterile nutrient agar. After the agar
had solidified, a layer of 5 ml of nutrient agar containing an appro-
priate dilution of the water sample was spread over the surface of
the plate. Quintuplicate plates for each of three dilutions were
made from each water sample. After one week's incubation at room
temperature ali plates which contained a satisfactory number of
colonies were tested for the presence of antagonists. For this pur-
pose a 5 ml layer of nutrient agar containing 1:750,000 crystal
violet and 1 ml per 50 ml of agar of a 24 hour nutrient broth cul-
ture of a freshly isolated strain of E. coli was poured over the sur-
face of each plate. The plates were then incubated over night at
37 C and examination was made for zones of inhibition of growth
of the E. coli above and around colonies of organisms that produced

diffusable antibiotic substances. Attempts were made to isolate

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

cultures from all types of colonies of antagonists that were found on
the plates.

As the antibiotic substances produced by the Bacillus strains
were apparently sufficiently bactericidal in almost all cases to kill
the E. coli in the layer of agar above the colonies no difficulty was
experienced in the isolation of pure cultures of these organisms.

Species of Bacillus that were antagonistic for the strain of E.
coli used were isolated from 24 of the 32 sets of samples. In about
two thirds of the cases only one or two colonies of the antagonists
were present on the plates but in the other third of the cases the
numbers of antagonists amounted to from several hundred to several
thousand per ml of sample. Several types of antagonists were some-
times present on the same plate.

The Bacillus isolates were identitied according to the procedure

of Smith, Gordon and Clark, 1946. A total of 15 isolates of B. sub-
tilis, 2 of B. subtilis var. aterrimus, 3 of B. pumilis, 13 of B. cereus,
i of a B: megatherium - B. cereus intermediate, 1 of B. circulans,
1 of B. macerans, | of B. brevis, and 2 of B. laterosporus were identi-

fied.

After the purity of the cultures was established, they were stor-
ed in tubes of semi-solid agar in the refrigerator. Approximately 12
to 18 months later their antibiotic activities were studied. For this
purpose a cross streak method similar to that used by Cervagal, 1947,
Gilliver, 1949, and others, was employed. Each culture was streak-
ed across one diameter of a nutrient agar plate. The plates were in-
cubated at 32C for 48 hours before cross streaking the other dia-
meter of the plate with the test organisms. Test organisms used were
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella paratyphi, Salmonella typhosa,
Shigella flexneri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Aerobacter aerogenes, 3
strains of Escherichia coli including the one used in the isolations,
a strain of Paracolobactrum, Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus, My-
cobacterium hominis, Mycobacterium phlei, Mycobacterium smeg-
matis, and Candida albicans. After a 24-hour period of incubation
the zones of inhibition were measured. The plates were incubated
for another 24-hour period and the zones of inhibition were re-
checked. In no case did the zones increase or decrease during the
second 24-hour period. All isolates were tested at least once against

184

Antibiotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water

each of the test organisms. Selected representative isolates were
tested as many as six times.

As his been shown by many workers, Bacillus strains tend to
lose their antibiotic activity upon cultivation on laboratory media.
Many of the cultures were found to have lost their antibiotic ability
against the strain of E. coli which had been used for their original
detection, and many of the other isolates produced a smaller antibiotic
zone than had been produced on the original plate.

It is evident that variations both in the antibiotic-producing
abilities of the various isolates and in the resistance of the various
test organisms occurred during the course of the tests. As examples
of the former; On August 8, isolate 16 (B. subtilis) was antibiotic
only to S. typhosa and M. pyogenes, although on July 26 it had also
been antibiotic to S. paratyphi, S. flexneri, all 3 strains of E. coli, and
the paracolon strain; On August 8, isolate 72 (B. subtilis) was
antibiotic to S. flexneri, S. typhosa, one strain of E. coli, and M. pyo-
genes, although on July 26 it had been antibiotic only to S. flexneri.
As an example of the latter, S. paratyphi gradually became resistant
to all antibiotic action during the period of approximately four
months during which the tests were being performed so that on
August 8 none of 10 isolates showed any antibiotic action toward it
although 9 of the 10 had showed such action on previous tests.

None of the Bacillus isolates showed antibiotic action against
P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, A. aerogenes, C. albicans, M. phlei,
or M. smegmatis. The strongest meiotic action was shown against
S. flexneri, S. typhosa and M. pyogenes.

The best antibiotic action was produced by the B. subtilis iso-
lates. On the original plates they had produced antibiotic zones of
from 2 to 15 mm. In general, no loss in potency appears to have oc-
curred during storage of the pure cultures before their antibiotic
activities were tested. Some of the isolates produced larger zones
than those on the original plates. Almost all the 15 isolates were
antagonistic to S. paratyphi, S. typhosa, S. flexneri, the 3 strains of
E. coli, and M. pyogenes. Four were antagonistic to the paracolon
strain. Zones of inhibition varied from 2 to 18 mm, the largest being
with S. flexneri (average 10 mm) and M. pyogenes (average 11 mm).

The isolates of B. subtilis var. aterrimus were slightly less active.

185

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

The 3 isolates of B. pumilis produced zones of 8, 8, and 5 mm
respectively against E. coli on the original plates. The ability to
antagonize E. coli was lost completely during storage of the cul-
tures. One of the isolates produced no antagonistic effects, one an-
tagonized S. flexneri and M. pyogenes, and the third antagonized
S. flexneri, S. typhosa and M. pyogenes when it was first tested but
was entirely negative when it was retested 3 times from one to two
months later.

The B. cereus isolates producted at least as large zones of in-
hibition against E. coli as did the B. subtilis isolates at the time of
isolation but they almost completely lost their antibiotic powers
before the tests for antibiotic activity were made. Eight of the 138
isolates had no antibiotic action, 2 produced a slight inhibition of
M. hominis on one test, 1 produced a slight inhibition of the para-
colon strain, and the other 2 inhibited S. flexneri, S, typhosa, one of
the strains of E. coli, and M. pyogenes when they were first tested
but were negative when they were retested a few days later.

The isolates of B. brevis, B. macerans, B. circulans and B. latero-
sporus produced zones of inhibition against E. coli of 15 mm, 20 mm,
2 mm, and 5 mm, respectively when they were isolated. All these iso-
lates produced spreading types of growth so that reliable tests could
not be made with the method that was employed in this study.

COMMENT

The data available thus far from this study are not adequate
to determine the significance of Bacillus species in connection with
the longevity of coliforms in water. Previous work has presented
strong evidence that antagonistic organisms in water may signifi-
cantly decrease the longevity of coliforms that are present along with
them. Hutchison, Weaver and Scherago, 1943, isolated antagonists
for E. coli from water samples and showed that if they were ino-
culated in fairly large numbers into water samples they would cause
a rapid decrease in the number of coliforms present in the samples.
Vaccaro, Briggs, Carey and Ketchum, 1950, have reviewed the ques-
tion of viability of E. coli in sea water and have presented convinc-
ing evidence that microorganisms produce bactericidal substances
in the water which affect the viability of the E. coli. The detection

186

Antibiotic-Producing Species of Bacillus from Well Water

of Bacillus strains in samples from 24 of 32 wells in this study is
indicative that these organisms may have some signifiance. Samples
from 29 of the wells yielded positive tests for coliform organisms.
No direct correlation is evident between the number of coliforms
and the number of antagonists present. Large numbers of Bacillus
antagonists were found, however, only in heavily polluted water
samples.

The most significant groups of Bacillus antagonists appear to
be the B. subtilis and B. cereus groups. It is not surprising that the
B. subtilis group should be one of the dominant ones in view of the
large number of antibiotic substances that have been shown to be
produced by members of this group. It should be noted, however,
that the B. cereus isolates, on the average, produced slightly broader
zones of antibiosis at the time of isolation than did the B. subtilis
isolates. This antibiotic ability was largely lost upon cultivation.
From these results, the possibility should be considered that the
B. cereus strains are better suited to antibiotic formation under na-
tural conditions whereas the B. subtilis strains are better suited to
antibiotic formation on artificial media, and that the presence of
B. cereus strains, in the water, therefore, may have greater signifi
cance.

SUMMARY

Members of the genus Bacillus that are antagonistic for Escheri-
chia coli were isolated from samples of water from 24 of 32 Fayette
County, Kentucky, wells. Of 39 isolates that were identified, 15
were B. subtilis and 13 were B. cereus. The B. cereus isolates had
slightly broader zones of inhibition for E. coli than did the B. subtilis
isolates at the time of isolation. When they were tested 12 to 18
months later, however, they had almost completely lost their anti-
biotic-producing ability while the B. subtilis isolates had retained
theirs. Almost all the B. subtilis isolates also produced antibiotic
action against Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhosa, Salmonella para-
typhi and Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. Although the data
presented are inadequate to determine the significance of Bacillus
species in connection with the longevity of coliforms in water, the
demonstrated prevelence of potentially antagonistic strains indicates

that they may have some significance.

187

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

REFERENCES
Cervajal, Fernando. 1947. Screening test for antibiotics. Mycologia,
39:128-130.
Gilliver, K. 1949. The antibacterial properties of some species of

aerobic spore-forming bacilli. Br. J. Exp. Path., 30:214-220.
Hutchison, Dorris, R. H. Weaver, and M. Scherago. 1943. The

incidence and significance of microorganisms antagonistic to Escheri-
chia coli in water. J. Bact., 45:29.

Kelner, Albert. 1948. A method for investigating large microbial
populations for antibiotic activity. J. Bact., 56:157-162.

Smith, N. R., R. E. Gordon, and F. E. Clark. 1946. Aerobic mesophi-
lic spore-forming bacteria. U. S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Pub. 559.

Vaccaro, Ralph F., Margaret P. Briggs, Cornelia L. Carey, and Bost-
wick H. Ketchum. 1950. Viability of Escherichia coli in sea water.

Am. J. Pub. Health, 40: 1257-1266.

188

SUBSURFACE EARTH EXPLORATION BY ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY METHOD

by L. C. Pendley

University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Throughout the ages men have erected innumerable structures
and have performed a multitude of engineering feats directly upon
the earth’s crust or outer layer. In the planning for most of these
projects, there has arisen the need for knowledge of the character
and depth of the materials immediately below the surface at the
site. On such occasions it has, until recently, been necessary to at-
tack the problem by the direct, time-consuming, costly, and laborious
method of digg’ng b >y some means a pit or a hole in order to examine
the underlying material. Even with up-to-date methods, this pro-
cedure is costly both in time and money. In recent years, how-
ever, two geophysical methods for securing information regarding
subsurface conditions have attracted considerable attention. They
are known as the Refraction Seismic method and Electrical Re-
sistivity method. Both of these methods have been used exten-
sively in recent years by geologists, mining, and petroleum engineers
for subsurface reconnaissance. In this paper, a brief discussion of
the Electrical Resistivity method will be given. In addition, some
results of a study now being made to attempt an_ evaluation
of this method will be presented.

The basic theory underiying measurements of the earth's re-
sistance to the flow of an electric current was set forth in 1915
by Wenner.‘)* The method employed in this study is known as
the four-electrode type. A schematic diagram of the four-electrode
equipment as it is set up for use in the field is shown in Figure
1. In brief, the equipment used consists of a source of power such
as “B” batteries, a milliameter to measure current passed, two
current electrodes, two non-polarizing electrodes, a potentiometer
to measure the drop in potential between the potential electrodes,
and the necessary wiring to connect all parts of the equipment.
This material is assembled in two independent circuits. The first
or outer circuit includes the current source, the milliameter, and

Numbers in parentheses refer to items in bibliography.

189

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

the two current electrodes. The current electrodes which are two
copper-coated steel rods are driven into the ground a distance of
“3a” apart. The power source is equipped with a reversible switch
which allows the current to be transmitted in either direction along
the circuit. The second or inner circuit consists of the potentio-
meter and the two non-polarizing electrodes. The non-polarizing
electrodes consist essentially of a transparent plastic cartridge filled
with a solution of copper sulfate and having a porous plug in one
end to permit the solution to seep through in order to insure good
electrical contact with the earth’s surface. The non-polarizing elec-
trodes are placed on a line between the two current electrodes
dividing the distance 3a into three equal parts “a”. A current “I” is
then passed through the outer circuit and flows through the earth
from one current electrode to the other. The drop in potential “E”
between the intermediate potential electrodes is then measured.
Current will flow from the current electrode in the usual pattern.
Equipotential lines or equipotential surfaces normal to the current
lines are also formed. Current is passed in one direction in the
outer circuit and the drop E and voltage I are measured. In order

MILLIAMMETER (T)

POWER SUPPLY KS]

it

B BATTERIES POTENTIOMETER (V)

CURRENT POTENTIAL CURRENT
CI ELECTRODE ELECTRODES ELECTRODE [Cy
ee a ieee :
"AE HA TE) Tal TA AEE ae:
Se a Cleese
~ — SS SS ee a_i
SAS USE iat a ra eel rater TN ec haere
—— => EN Sy ts a =
SS —cURRENTIFLOWNE ==. 2
= Pai Fear —

— ——

DIAGRAM OF FIELD SET-UP
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Equipment Used for Finding Resistivity of Soils
by the Four-Electrode System.
190

Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method

to prevent polarization of the current electrodes and to eliminate
or minimize the effect of stray currents present in the earth, the
current direction is then reversed and the readings taken as be-
fore. The resistivity of the material between the potential electrodes
may then be foud by use of the formula

E
APY, Se
Pe nea

in which a is the electrode spacing in feet

E is the drop in potential, in millivolts

I is the current in milliamps flowing through the circuit
and p= the resistivity of the soil between the potential elec-
trodes in ohms-feet.

If the material is homogeneous, the resistivity found by this for-
mula can be assumed to be the specific resistivity of the material
between the equipotential lines or surfaces passing through the
potential electrodes. If the material is not homogeneous and _ soil
seldom is, then the resistivity found is called the apparent resistivity
and represents the average specific resistivity of the material in
the area between the potential electrodes.

Various investigators have found that the value of resistivity
is influenced largly by the material in the above area to

«<

a depth “a” and that materials at a depth greater than “a”
apparently have a negligible effect on the flow of the current lines
and therefore on rota

If the value of the electrode spacing “a” is increased through
given increments, the current flow lines extend to deeper layers in
the earth’s crust and the resistivity found reflects the apparent re-
sistivity of the material to greater depths corresponding to the in-
creased electrode interval

The resistivity of materials of the earth's surface has been
found to depend largely upon the amount of moisture and ionized
salts present in the material. Since the amount of these electrolytic
salts will vary greatly with different types of material, the resistivi-

ties of layers of different materials may also be expected to vary

191

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

greatly. For example, moist clay deposits may have a fair amount
of these salts in their structure and as a result clays usually show
very low resistivity value. Rock, on the other hand, is usually re-
latively dense and has few pores for the electrolytic solution to oc-
cupy and therefore shows correspondingly high resistivity values.

Several different methods of interpreting resistivity data have
been used or proposed. The method of interpretation used in this
study is known as the Gish-Rooney method.“ By this system the
resistivities found at each electrode spacing are plotted as ordi-
nates against the electrode spacing as abscissae. If the curve plotted
by this system is studied, it will usually show changes in slope at
electrode spacings which correspond approximately with the depth
at which changes in types of material occur.

For the electrical resistivity method to be of much value to
the Highway Engineer, it is obvious that some quick method such
as this must be used which will enable the readings to be placed
in usable form as soon as possible.

One of the large problems of this study has been, therefore,
to determine if depths of soil layers obtained by this method can
be correlated with actual depths or thicknesses as obtained by
direct methods. Also, if the correlation exists, is it close enough to
allow the use of the data obtained in ordinary Highway work?

Several sites were selected where records of borings were
available and resistivity measurements were made at these sites.
Results from four of the principal sites investigated are presented
here with typical resistivity curves obtained shown along with a
plot of the drill borings at the same site.

TYRONE BRIDGE

One of our most detailed investigations was made at Tyrone
Bridge on the Kentucky River near Lawrenceburg, Kentucky. Resis-
tivity readings were taken in the flat space on the Versailles side of
the river ecween piers four and five. The resistivity measure-
ments were made along a line parallel to and seventy-five feet
toward the river from the face of pier five and 149 feet from pier
four. The right hand drill log shown in Figure 2 is from a boring
at pier five and the left drill log is from a boring made at pier four.

Measurements were made on July 12 and 14. The weather

192

Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method

RESISTIVITY OHM-FEET
410 450 490 530

MAYA

Vv

co Rts)
ALIAS

KONE Se Be
“Oo
& Cr

E-
7 oO
be
°G

oe
Peace

ELECTRODE SPACING-FEET

Figure 2. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Cores along Line D at Tyrone

Bridge.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

was clear and ground was moist from previous rains.

The drill logs at this location show the upper layer of material
to be a sandy clay. At pier five the log shows the sandy clay to
be underlain at a depth of about twenty-five feet by sandy gravel
which extends to bedrock (limestone) at a depth of about thirty-
two feet. At pier four the borings show sandy clay to a depth of
twenty-one feet and sandy gravel extending to bedrock at a depth
of 39.5 feet.

The resistivity curve at this location shows a marked increase
in apparent resistivity at an electrode spacing corresponding to a
depth of twenty-two feet. This increase would indicate the pre-
sence of a more resistant material such as a sand or gravel. The
decrease in the rate of increase of the apparent resistivity of the
sandy gravel between twenty-two feet and thirty-four feet prob-
ably reflects the increase in moisture content with depth as bed-
rock is approached. The next significant change in slope of the
resistivity curve occurs at a spacing of thirty-four feet. The in-
crease in slope at this point would point to the presence of a more
dense material such as bedrock. This depth of thirty-four feet
_ corresponds to a depth cf about 34.5 feet to bedrock as predicted
from the drill logs shown in Figure 2.

BURNSIDE, KENTUCKY

Studies at this site were made in the vicinity of the Monticello,
Pitman Creek and U. S. 27 Highway bridges. Data for resistivity
Line A shown in Figure 3, were taken at the site of the new high-
way bridge on the Monticello-Burnside road. Measurements were
taken on the north bank of the Cumberland River parallel to and
53.7 feet toward the river from pier five.

The drill logs shown in Figure 3 are located on the same line
that the resistivity data were taken on and were spaced twenty-five
feet each way from the center line of the bridge.

Data at this location were taken July 6, 1950. Adverse weather
conditions consisting of intermittent showers were encountered.

As shown in Figure 3, the drill logs here show sandy loam to
a depth of about four feet. This is underlain by a firm yellow

clay to a depth of about thirty-seven feet. Below this is found a

194

Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method

RESISTIVITY OHM-FEET
Ge k130 170 210 250

\-—
—S
a
———

RXKG||REQ\MMBASSA AAA AAA

ELECTRODE SPACING-FEET

ee
di}

0":
oO
a

Figure 3. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Cores along Line A at Burnside,

Kentucky.

195

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

layer of loose sand and gravel and bedrock is encountered at depths
of forty-two to forty-four feet.

The low value for resistivity shown at four feet spacing un-
doubtedly was caused by the completely saturated condition of the
topsoil at the time the readings were taken. With the above ex-
ception, this curve is practically ideal for the materials present at
this location.

The ideal curve for the soil layers found here would start with
high resistivity values in the loam strata and the resistivity values
would decrease as the electrode spacings were increased, permitting
a greater percentage of current lines to flow through the clay strata.

The resistivity values should decrease until an electrode spac-
ing is reached which permits the major portion of the current lines
to be flowing through the clay strata. At this point, the resistivity
values should show a gradual increase with depth due to the com-
bined effect of the overlying materials. This is the condition illu-
_ strated by Line A at Burnside as shown in Figure 3.

The first deviation from the above pattern may be noted at a
spacing corresponding to a depth of thirty-six feet. The increase
at this point is caused by the presence of the sandy gravel which
is a more resistant material. Another change in slope is noted at
forty-four feet indicating the possibility of a more resistant material
at this depth. That this is the condition actually existing is shown
by the drill logs which indicate bedrock at a depth from forty-two
to forty-four feet.

BOONESBORO BRIDGE

Another location investigated was at Boonesboro Bridge on the
Kentucky River. Resistivity readings were taken on the west bank
of the river between piers eight and nine. The data were taken
along a line parallel to and fifteen feet toward the river from pier
nine. The right hand drill log shown in Figure 4a is from a boring
at pier nine and the left hand drill log is from a boring made at
pier eight.

The readings were taken June 26. Weather was clear and
very warm. The river was falling.

Since the resistivity data were taken near the face of pier nine,
it is believed that the drill log for the boring there presents a better

196

Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method

picture than would the drill log at pier eight of the conditions to
be expected at the point where the resistivity data were taken.

This drill log shows a firm clay to a depth of eighteen feet.
This is underlain by a soft yellow clay stratum to a depth of twenty-
six feet. At this point, the material changes to a very soft blue clay
which continues to a depth of forty-two feet. Below this is found
gravel extending to bedrock at a depth of forty-six feet.

Down to a depth of twenty-six feet, the curve fotlows closely
the ideal curve for a clay material. It is thought possible that the
break in the curve at the electrode spacing corresponding to this
depth can be attributed to a possible difference between the con-
ductivity of the soft yellow clay and the very soft blue clay. The
increase in the slope of the curve at thirty-six feet is believed to
be caused by an extension of the sand strata into this area. A de-
crease in the slope of the curve is noted at forty to aoa feet.
This condition is contrary to what would normally be expected for
the gravelly material shown on the drill log. Observations made
at the time the resistivity data were taken indicate that this depth
corresponded closely to the elevation of the water level of the
river. In other words, it is thought probable that the decrease in
resistivity values at this point was caused by a saturated condition
cf the sand and gravel strata. Forty feet could then be taken as the
upper limit of the water table at this point. The increase in slope
at fifty feet and beyond clearly indicates that the current flow
lines have entered a more resistant material such as bedrock. This
corresponds closely with the depth to bedrock shown on the drill
logs.

Crays FERRY BRIDGE

A number of different investigations were made on the Lexing-
ton side of the Kentucky River at Clays Ferry Bridge. The line
shown in Figure 4b was plotted from data taken between piers
six and seven, twenty feet toward Lexington from the face of pier
six, and along the line passing through the points where the cores
shown in Figure 4b were taken.

Measurements were made May 16, 1950. Weather was clear
and soil moist.

The center cores shown in the Figure were taken thirty feet
apart. The outer cores were located fifteen feet on either side of
the two center cores.

197

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

|

RESIOTIVITY CHa-7EET RL OIDTIVITY Onm—PaET

3

Ik

|

aBoe
ANG

=
i
Ei
a
sa
isle
B
als

:
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|
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OO AAA Bee ee =

~fEET

ELECTROOE SPACIMNG-PEET

ELECTRODE SPACING

St

=.
+
see
Ho

ae ae
ee BOOMESBORO BRIDGE AY

Figure 4a Figure 4b
Cc Cc

Figure 4a. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Core along Line A at Boones-
boro Bridge, Ky.

Figure 4b. Resistivity Measurements and Drill Core along Line A at Clays
Ferry Bridge.

The outer cores show eight to nine feet of sandy loam under-
lain by brown sand and yellow clay to a depth of twenty-four to
thirty-six feet below which there is sand and blue clay to a depth
of forty-six feet. A sandy gravel is then noted which gives way
to bedrock at about forty-eight to forty-nine feet.

The center cores in F igure 4b show sixteen to eighteen feet of

198

Subsurface Earth Exploration By Electrical Resistivity Method

sandy loam turning to a brown sand at about twenty-eight feet.
This is underlain by blue clay and sand to about forty feet. Below
this is coarse sand giving way to bedrock at forty-seven to forty-
nine feet.

This curve has been included to show some of the many pro-
blems that may be encountered in a study of this type. First, it
should be noted that there is a pocket of sand in the area covered
by the center drill holes. The exact size and shape of this deposit
are unknown. It is believed possible that this deposit of sand could
have caused the peak in apparent resistivity values shown at an
electrode spacing corresponding to a depth of sixteen feet.

The erratic shape of this curve for electrode spacings from
twenty-six to forty-two feet can possibly be attributed to the poor
contact obtained with the current electrodes. At these electrode
spacings, it was necessary to drive the current electrodes in an
area which had been covered with rocky rubble used in backfilling
around the pier.

Between forty-two and fifty feet, the curve follows the pattern
expected for a granular material underlain by bedrock. The de-
crease in apparent resistivity values at this point is believed due to
a solution channel. The presence of this channel is indicated by
data from a core taken twenty feet toward the river on a line mid-
way between the center cores shown in Figure 4b. The channel at
that point was encountered at a depth of sixty-one feet. Drilling
was discontinued at fifty feet on the cores shown on this figure

which could explain why the channel is not shown.

An extensive study is being made at this location in an at-
tempt to obtain better correlation between the resistivity data and

the usual conditions shown by the drill logs.

CONCLUSIONS

Inasmuch as this study is not yet complete and the data taken
has been only partially analyzed, no broad or sweeping conclusions

can be attempted. More field data are being taken and some of the

199

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

other methods available for analyzing these data are being investi-
gated.

On the basis of the results to date, though, it is felt that the
following conclusions are justified:

1. The amount of moisture present in the various soil strata
encountered in this investigation was found to be the major factor
influencing the resistivity of these materials.

2. The depth to bedrock can be ascertained with sufficient
accuracy for general highway work.

3. By using this method in conjunction with properly located
drill holes, it is possible to map the subsurface conditions of large
areas at a saving of both time and money.

4. In the case of such a condition as illustrated in Figure 4b,
this method can be used to direct core drilling operation in a man-
ner that would insure drill holes being placed in the proper position
to obtain the best survey of actual site conditions. For example,
the resistivity data shown in Figure 4b indicate that another core
should be taken midway between the two center cores in order to
obtain a better idea of the shape of the sand pocket. Our data
would also indicate that this core should be carried to a depth of
at least sixty feet in order to investigate the possibility of a solution
channel at this point.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Wenner, Frank, “Method of Measuring Earth Resistivity”, De-
partment of Commerce Bureau of Standards, Scientific Paper
pacar, JUGS),

(2) Shepard, E. R., “Subsurface Exploration by Geophysical Me-
thods”, 1949, ASTM Preprint.

(3) Shepard, E. R., “Subsurface Exploration by the Earth Resis-
tivity and Seismic Methods”, Public Roads, Vol. 16, +4, June
1935.

(4) O. H. Gish and W. J. Rooney, Terrestrial Magnestism and
Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. 30, pp. 161-187, December 1925,
“Measurements of Resistivity of Large Masses of Undisturbed
Earth”.

200

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AGT AS DD) EMG Ys ACE SAGE Eas
THE 1950 FALL MEETING

The University of Louisville was host to the thirty-sixth annual meeting
of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE on Friday afternoon and Satur-
day morning, October 27 and 28, 1950.

The program for Friday afternoon, October 27, provided for conducted
tours through various industrial plants in the Louisville area. Arrangments for
the tours were handled by Dr. M. I. Bowman of the University of Louisville.

The annual dinner of the ACADEMY was held Friday evening in the
Seelbach hotel. High light of the dinner was an address delivered by Pro-
fessor Anton J. Carleen of the University of Chicago on the subject, “Science
and Society”. Professor Carlson was introducted ie Dr. Warren Rehm of the
University of Louisville School of Medicine. Arrangments for the dinner and
for the speaker were made by a committee, consisting of Dr. William Clay
(Chairman), Dr. Paul Kolachoy and Dr. Richard Wiley.

At the business meeting Saturday morning, October 28, officers were
elected for the Academy year, 1950-1951.

President: E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Vice President: M. C. Brockmann, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louis-
ville.

Secretary: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College, Wilmore.

Treasurer: R. H. Weaver, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
Representative to the Council of the A.A.A.S.: Austin R. Middleton, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville.

W. E. Blackburn of Murray State College and Paul Kolachov of Joseph
E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., were elected to serve on the Board of Directors until
1954.

Following the Saturday morning business meeting the various Divisions
of the Academy met for the presentation of specialized papers and for the
transaction of divisional business. The programs of the various Divisions are
recorded as follows:

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY

Mrs. Rose Conner, Presiding.

“Metabolism of sodium in health and disease with a photometric method
for its determination in biological fluids”. Mary Simonette, Nazareth College,
Louisville.

“The use of the flame photometer”. Jean Segar, Nichols General Hospital,
Louisville.

“A mycological study of a case of histoplasmosis in a three month old in-

208

Academy Affairs

fant from Jessamine County Kentucky”. James T. McClellan, George H. Scherr
and Margaret Hotchkiss, Lexington.

“Standardization of dust extracts by biological methods”. Morton Reitman
and Morris Scherago, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Role of vitamins in the oxidation of glucose and glycerol by Lactobacillus

casei’. Mary M. Hardin, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

“Antibiotic producing species of bacillus from water’. Theodore Bacter
and R. H. Weaver, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

“Comparison of the bacterial count on home and commercially packed
frozen foods”. Leona Quigg and C. B. Hamann, Asbury College, Wilmore.

The following were elected as officers of the Division of Medical Technology
and Bacteriology for the year 1950-1951:
Chairman: Dr. S. L. Adams, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville.

Secretary: Sister M. Simonette Savage, Nazareth College, Louisville.

BIOLOGY
William M. Clay, Presiding.

“Report from the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholn”.
Arland Hotchkiss, University of Louisville, Louisville.

“An ecological study of the microbenthic fauna of two Minnesota lakes”.
Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville, Louisville.

“Notes on the vertical distribution of organ’sms in the profundal sediments
of Douglas Lake, Michigan”. Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville. Louisville.

“An old case of gynandromorphism in Boros discicollis”. T. J]. Spilman,
University of Louisville, Louisville.

“Reptiles of Bullitt County, Kentucky”. Richard W. Allen, Louisville.

“Amphibians of Bullett County, Kentucky”. Robert C. Cunningham, Louis-
ville.
“Multiplication of Bacterium tabacum in leaves of Nicoticna longiflora”.

Stephen Diachum and Joseph Troutman, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station, Lexington.

“Some X- and Gamma-radiation effects on peanuts”. J. S. Bangson, Berea
College, Berea.
The following were elected as officers of the Division of Biology for the

year 1950-1951.

Chairman: Dr. Gerald A. Cole, University of Louisville, Louisville.

Secretary: Dr. Arland Hotchkiss, University of Louisville, Louisville.

209

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

ENGINEERING
E. B. Penrod, Presiding.

“The relation of composition to the properties of hydraulic cement”.
Eugene J. Wechter, Louisville Cement Company.

“Performance of an earth heat pump operating intermittently on the cool-
ing cycle”. R. C. Thorton and E. B. Penrod, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

“New tools for processing vegetable oils”. Allen Bond, Votator Division, The
Girdler Corporation, Louisville.

“New techniques in the study of soils for engineering purposes”. James H.
Havens, Kentucky Department of Highways, Lexington.

“Emissivities of protective coatings’. W. R. Barnes, University of Louis-
ville Institute of Industrial Research, Louisville.

“Subsurface earth exploration by electrical resistivity method”. L. C.
Pendley, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

“Instruments and progress”. G. E. Smith, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

The following were elected as officers of the Division of Engineering for
the year 1950-1951:

Chairman: Mr. L. X. Gregg, Department of Highways, Lexington.

Secretary: Prof. Merl Baker, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

CHEMISTRY
T. C. Herndon, Presiding.

“3-Methyl-2-Cyclohexene-l-one and derivatives”. M. I. Bowman and C.
C. Ketterer, University of Louisville, Louisville.

“Chromatography of amino acids on cellulose columns”. Forest G. Hous-
ton, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington.

“The mechanism of action of certain sulfhydryl reagents on the cytochrome
oxidase system”. M. Angelice Seibert, Ursuline College, Louisville and Cornelius
W. Kreke, Institutium Divi Thomae, Cincinnati.

“Effects of Staphlococcus aureus infections on blood and liver catalase in
mice. I. Gasometric method”. Mary Adeline O'Leary, Virginia Heines, Rode-
rick Juhasz, Rose Agnes Greenwell and Cornelius W. Kreke, Nazareth College
Unit of Institutium Divi Thomae, Louisville.

“The electrical conductance of solutions of ferric chloride in acetone at
XN) araval ZO Ge Lyle R. Dawson and Ralph L. Belcher, University of Kentucky,
Lexington.

“The distribution of alkali iodides between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate”.
Lyle R. Dawson and Edward J. Griffith, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

The tetra-hydroxy cobalt (II) ion as a qualitative test for cobalt”. Saul
Gordon and James M. Schreyer, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

The decomposition pH of the thio-anions of arsenic, antimony and iin”.

210

Academy Affairs

G. L. Corley and Norma M. Woodward, University of Louisville, Louisville.

“The free energy of copper chromate”. Sigfred Peterson and Orland W.
Cooper, University of Louisville, Louisville.

“Spectrophotometric studies of the composition of Lespedeza seed oil”.
Richard H. Wiley, A. W. Cagle and Phil H. Wilken, University of Louisville,
Louisville.

“Improvement of soaps for GR-S polymerization. Retarding influence of
multiple unsaturated acid soaps on the butadiene-styrene polymerization”. C.
S. Marvel, University, of Illinois, Urbana; W. E. Blackburn, Murry State College,
Murray; D. A. Shepherd, The Upjohn Co., Kalamazoo, Michigan; and J. A.
Dammann, American Safety Razor Corp., Brooklyn, N.Y.

The following were elected as officers of the Division of Chemistry for
the year 1950-1951.
Chairman: Sister M. Virginia Heines, Nazareth College & Academy, Nazareth.

Secretary: Mr. Gerrit Levey, Berea College, Berea.

THE 1951 SPRING MEETING
The spring meeting of the Academy was initiated several years ago
to provide field trips in regions of the Commonwealth which are of special
interest to botanists, zoologists, geologists and others. The 1951 spring meet-
ing was held at Morehead State College, Morehead, Kentucky, Friday and
Saturday, April 27: and 28. The Friday afternoon program provided for re-
gistration, refreshments served by the Home Economics Department, a con-
ducted tour through the Lee Clay Products Company, and a short general
meeting at which various field trips for Saturday were described. :
At the dinner Friday evening, Dr. Warren C. Lappin, Dean and Acting
President of Morehead State College gave a short address of welcome. Follow-
ing dinner there were two addresses, “Related problems of water supply and
sewage disposal” by Herman F. Dundberg, Chester Engineers, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania and “The science of color as seen by the physicist and the artist”
by Tom Young of the Morehead State College Art Department. After the ad-
dresses members of the Academy were invited to a dance in the college
gymnasium.
The Saturday schedule provided for the following conducted tours and
field trips:
Bird walk, tour of Lee Clay Products Company, tour of General Re-
fractories at Olive Hill, trip to Carter Caves State Park, Forestry-Soil
Conservation trip, scenic trip through Cumberland National Forest, trip
to the Knob Licks area and a trip to Lochege.
Arrangements for the meeting at Morehead State College were directed by
Professor Fenton T. West of the Division of Science and Mathematics.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

THE 1951 FALL MEETING

The regular fall meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science will be held
on Friday and Saturday, October 26 and 27, 1951, at the University of Kentucky.

OTHER NEWS

Dr. M. C. Brockmann has resigned from the editorial staff of the TRANS-
ACTIONS. He assisted, however, in editing the present issue and prepared
the preceding portion of the “Academy Affairs” section. The Academy is
deeply indebted to Dr. Brockmann for his excellent services as editor.

William F. Savage, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the
University of Kentucky, has been appointed Associate Editor of the TRANS-
ACTIONS. Manuscripts may be submitted either to Mr. Savage or to William
M. Clay.

The printing of the present issue of the TRANSACTIONS was delayed
by mechanical difficulties which could not be avoided. These are not expected
to recur, and papers which are received now should receive prompt publication.
It is our intention to publish two numbers per year, each volume to consist of
four numbers. Number 4 of the present volume will go to press as soon as
a few more manuscripts are received. If you are preparing a paper for the
fall meeting, let us have the manuscript as soon as possible.

* oo
Dr. Arland Hotchkiss, Secretary of the Biology Section, will spend the

Academic year of 1951-52 on the staff of Robert College, Instanbul, Turkey.

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

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WiLuiaM M. Cray.

Department of Biology,
University of Louisville,

Louisville, Kentucky

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The following individuals, educational institutions and industrial organiza-
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Borgerding, Walter L., General Distillers Corporation of Kentucky, Louis-
ville, Kentucky.

Cedar Bluff Stone Company, Inc., Princetia: Kentucky.

Centre College, Danville, Kentucky.

Corhart Refractories Company, Louisville, Kentucky.

Eastern Kentucky State College Library, Richmond, Kentucky.

Devoe and Raynolds Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.

DeSpain, T. H., Southern Textile Machinery Company, Paducah, Kentucky.
Eve Printing Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.

B. F. Goodrich Chemical Company, Louisville, Kentucky.

Kentucky Brewers Association (10), Louisville, Kentucky.

Kolachoy, Paul, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
Lee Clay Products Company, Inc. (2), Clearfield, Kentucky.

Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Kentucky.

Medley Distilling Company, Owensboro, Kentucky.

Mileti, Otto J., The Mileti Company, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
Morehead State College, Johnson Camden Library, Morehead, Kentucky.
Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky.

Old Joe Distillery Company, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky.

Perkins, George, Reynolds Metals Company, Louisville, Kentucky.
Scofield, E. H. Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
Skirvin, J. B., General Refractories Company, Olive Hill, Kentucky.

Smith, L. A., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
Spanyer, William, Brown-Forman Distillers Corp., Louisville, Kentucky.
Stallings, E. M. Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky.
Union College, Abigal E. Weeks Memorial Library, Barbourville, Kentucky.

F506. 73
meres K-37 ~

Volume 13 August, 19

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
KEentTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

Preparation of Acylaminoacid Esters. Richard H. Wiley and
wo aS 8 INN SS GI oa Ne RE 213

Di SD ev nate Ee ROO ee) CDSs BG a ON GT ER ES thay eg A ee eo ce 215

Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions of
Several Salts in Dimethylformamide. L. R. Dawson, M,
Golben, G. R. Leader, and H. K. Zimmerman ........................ 221

Structure and Function of the Mature Glands on the Petals of
Frasera carolinensis. P. A. Davies -.......220....cc.c.2c2cccccceccecccccceeseseneeee 228

Performance of a Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater. E, B.
ER EG ac a alO) ICE Sao eo Sa CRE Cl Pe 235

Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs of a Cop-
per-beryllium Alloy. H. W. Maynor, Jr., C. J. McHargue,

RR MURAI ie ar ica nance boro SPY teh. teen tnscmecenseanenesoweesecwnes 248
Structural Settlement Computations. John E. Heer, Jr. ...00002000020...... 258
Preparation of 1-xylyl-1, 3-butanediones using Diketene. Reedus

may, betes and Albert. Tockman’ ~2...2.-.......2..-....220:....ccccccccenseeees 265
A Look at Kentucky Woodlands. Eugene Cypert, Jr. -..000.000020220002..... 270
Geological Sketch of the Jackson Purchase. E. B. Wood .................... 275
Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids on a Weak Base Anion Exchanger.

Sigfred Peterson and Robert W. Jeffers —........000000000000 ue. 277
Research Notes:

An Albino Snake (Elaphe obsoleta), William M, Clay .......... 285
BT ES 8 ESC ST SAE A EN Sa a 286

PPT YE TS PIER ESR 8 a Sa ag a 288

“KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1951-1952

President _ President-Elect
H. B. Lovett, 4 THoMAS HERNDON,
University of Louisville, Eastern Kentucky State College,
Louisville Richmond
Past President Vice-President
E. B. PENROD, Won. B. OwsLey,
University of Kentucky, Morehead State College,
Lexington Morehead
Secretary Treasurer
C. B. HAMANN, R. H. WEAVER,
Asbury College, University of Kentucky,
Wilmore Lexington
Reresentative to the Council Counselor to the Junior
of the AAAS, Academy of Science
Austin R. MImpLeTon, ANNA A. SCHNEIB,
University of Louisville, Eastern Kentucky State College,
Louisville Richmond
EDITORIAL STAFF
Editor

Wn. M. Cray,
University of Louisville,
Louisville

Associate Editors

Bacteriology and Medical Technology Chemistry
SisteER Mary SIMEONETTE, *SIGFRED PETERSON,
Nazareth College, University of Louisville,
Louisville Louisville
Biology Engineering
H. H. LaFuze, *Wm. R. SAVAGE,
Eastern Kentucky State College, University of Kentucky,
Richmond Lexington
Directors
Jos S-SBANGSON SS 52 cet Se a eile cere ee eee to 1955
Msc Ds VD ART AAR ie PAN ey A et SOT a eR I Voge aN a to 1955
Wits BUACKBURN 62 au sale Rae S80 oes ith 5e HA a ere ee a en a to 1954
BAUT KOUAGCH OVE er ots CS ete ee ote ge EL tees Oe en a fe to 1954
Wire RAINE NIO ORR oo eh ees cts tee ese vatete Si A tu cg oe aa to 1953
MARY Hc WHARTON: 200 bi he ORR aie cco AEN RSE faces Neaaaiia cane neta aaa am to 19538
ALFRED‘ BRAUER] 2462550 AB Ue ENG ia CLES UR eae a rE Dnt a oa | Se a to 1952
Wianb Br. “SUMPTER Aon Soe ibaa Ais ie, St Bi a di alpen to 1952

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semiannually. Four numbers constitute a
volume. Domestic subscription, $2.00 per volume, foreign, $2.50 per volume.
Correspondence concerning membership in the Academy, subscriptions or
other business matters should be addressed to the secretary. Manuscripts and

other material for publication should be addressed to the editors.

* Resigned

Fer NERA AIR

PREPARATION OF ACYLAMINOACID ESTERS
Richard H. Wiley® and Olin H. Borum

Ethyl esters of acetylglyci:e and acetylleucine are prepared by azeotropic distillation procedure

There are a variety of methods available for the preparation of
a-acylaminoacid esters, RCONHCHR’CO.R”. This report is based
on a study of relative advantages of these methods and describes a
preferred procedure for preparation of these esters.

A review of the literature has shown that acetylglycine ethyl
ester has been prepared by the action of ethyl iodide on the silver
salt of acetylglycine (1); by passing dry hydrogen chloride into an
alcholic suspension of acetylglycine (2); by heating glycine ethyl
ester hydrochloride on the water bath with acetic anhydride and
sodium acetate with (3) or without (4) copper sulfate; by the ac-
tion of acetyl chloride on a suspension of glycine ethyl ester hydro-
chloride in boiling benzene on the water bath (3); and by the ac-
tion of ketene on glycine ethyl ester (5). Esters of other acylamino
acids have been prepared by a simultaneous acetylation-esterifica-
tion which takes place on treating the sodium salt of the amino acid
in ethyl alcohol with acetic anhydride (6,7).

The method described in this report is an adaptation of the
azeotropic distillation procedure used for other esterifications (8,9).
It is preferred to esterification by the ethanol-hydrogen chloride me-
thod (2) which must be carefully controlled to prevent removal of
the N-acyl radical.

Preparation of Acetylglycine ethyl ester (Aceturic acid ethyl ester). In a
1-]. round-bottomed flask are placed 58.5 g. (0.5 moles) of acetylglycine (10),
200 cc. of carbon tetrachloride (319 g., 2.08 moles), 200 cc. (157.8 g., 3.42
moles) of absolute alcohol and 2g. of sulfosalicylic acid. Ordinary commercial
absolute alcohol testing by specific gravity to be between 99.5 and 100% is
used. During refluxing and distillation the system is protected from the atmos-
phere by means of a calcium chloride tube. The mixture is refluxed slowly for
one hour and thirty minutes over an open-coil resistance heater. At the end
of this time about 200 cc. of solvent are distilled slowly from the mixture through
a 36-inch vertical column.

An apparatus similar to one previously described (9) is used, except that
the arm provided for return of condensate to the reaction flask is omitted. A
* Present address: Department of Chemistry, University of Louisville, Louisville,

Kentucky. This report is a contribution from the Venable Chemical Labora-
tory of the University of North Carolina. Inquiries may be addressed to
this author.

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

36-inch condenser serves as a reflux condenser at first and later as a fractionat-
ing column. A thermometer at the top of the column shows that the mixture
starts to distill at about 63° and the temperature then rises slowly to 78°. The
round-bottomed flask is placed about one to two inches above the heating coil
which is regulated by a variable transformer for the slow refluxing and distilla-
tion.

One hundred cc. each of carbon tetrachloride and absolute alcohol are
added and the mixture refluxed again for one hour, after which about 175 cc.
are slowly removed by distillation through the column as above. The same
amount of solvent mixture is added again, refluxed, and finally distilled until
about 200 cc. of solution remain. During this period all of the acetylglycine
dissolves. Until this time the acetylglycine is suspended in the reaction mixture.

The clear remaining solution is then transferred to a 250-cc. Claisen distill-
ing flask. The carbon tetrachloride and alcohol are removed at reduced pres-
sure and then 62g. (85%) of acetylglycine ethyl ester of b.p. 124°-130° at
2-4imm are collected with the oil bath at 150°-180°. Toward the end of the
distillation the bath is kept below 180° to prevent volatization of the catalyst.
No attempt is made to remove the catalyst by washing prior to distillation be-
-cause of difficulty in isolating the water soluble ester. The ester solidifies to
hygroscopic solid, m.p. 47°-49°.

Preparation of Acetylleucine ethyl ester. This ester is prepared by a
similar procedure except that the heating period is lengthened to seven hours.
From 60.3 g. of acetylleucine, prepared by the method of Karrer, Escher, and
Widmer (11), there is obtained 61.5 g., 87.5%, of acetylleucine ethyl ester,
b.p. 113°-120° at 2.5-3.5 mm. with the bath at 135°-145°. The ester solidifies
to a solid, m.p. 55.5°-57.5°.

LITERATURE CITED

J. Curtis, Ber 17, 1672 (1884).

2. Radenhausen, J. Prakt. Chem. [2] 52, 4388 (1895).

3. Curtius, J. Prakt. Chem. [2] 94, 116 (1916).

4. Cherbuliez and Plattner, Helv. Chim. Acta 12, 322 (1929).

5. Bergmann, Chem. Zentr. 1928, I, 2663; German Patent 453,577; Frdl. 16, 237.
6. Ashley and Harington Biochem. J., 23, 1178 (1929).

7. DuVigneaud and Meyer, J. Biol. Chem. 99, 143 (1932-33).

8. Kendall and McKenzie, Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. I, 247 (1941).
9. Clarke and Davis, Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. I, 262 (1941).
10. Herbst and Shemin, Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. II, 11 (1943).

ll. Karrer, Escher, and Widmer, Helv. Chim. Acta 9, 322 (1926).

214

ANIMAL HABITATS ON BIG BLACK MOUNTAIN IN KENTUCKY
Roger W. Barbour

Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Between 1939 and 1948 I camped over four months in Harlan
County, Kentucky, making a study of the mammals, reptiles, and
amphibians of Big Black Mountain. This mountain, the highest point
in Kentucky, reaches a maximum elevation of 4150 feet above sea
level. It lies largely in Harlan County, Kentucky, but occupies a
portion of adjacent Wise County, Virginia.

The majority of data were collected within a four-mile radius
of the summit of the mountain, centering at a point designated
“Grassy Gap” on the United States Geological Survey Estillville sheet.
Collections made elsewhere in the region are so indicated.

It is my purpose to herein present a classification of the animal
habitats of the mountain, with notes on the occurrence of mammalian,
reptilian, and amphibian species therein.

The area under consideration has been, and still is, subjected
to intensive logging operations. The trees are being cut indiscrimi-
nately, with little apparent regard for young timber. In removing the
timber, expediency rather than wise use seems to be the dominating
factor. Such logging operations undoubtedly influence the fauna
of the area and will continue to influence the animal population for
years to come as the normal succession following logging operations

takes place.

No intensive study of the habitats was undertaken, except as
they influenced animal distribution. Braun (1940) made a thorough
ecological study (from a botanical standpoint) of a transect of

Black Mountain in adjacent Letcher County, Kentucky.

For my purposes, I have grouped the animal habitats of Big
Black Mountain into six general categories, each with numerous sub-
divisions. A clear-cut delineation of the habitats of the area is im-
possible; frequently one habitat grades imperceptibly into another.

More often a single habitat may be classified under two or more

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

divisions, depending on the individual point of view. These divisions
and subdivisions are discussed below.

1. Aquatic. Aquatic habitats of the area are divisible into two
Inajor groups: standing water, as rain pools, and running water. The
latter may be further divided into springs and streams. The streams,
on the basis of size, may be divided into brooks and creeks. The
latter two classifications grade insensibly into each other.

Rain pools are common about the summit of the mountain: one
puddle in a logging road was known to contain water continuously
from June 4 to September 1, 1948. These puddles were extensively
used as breeding pools by Bufo americanus americanus, Bufo wood-
housii fowleri, Hyla v. versicolor, and Pseudacris brachyphona. A
snapping turtle (Chelydra s. serpentina) was taken from one of them.

At least seven springs occur within a radius of two miles of the
summit of the mountain; each of them that formed a pool support-
ed one or more Rana clamitans. One could always find Desmogna-
thus fuscus welteri about the springs. Pseudacris brachyphona was
known to breed in the largest spring.

Nearly every cove about the summit of the mountain gave rise
to a small but apparently permanent stream. These small, swift
streams supported an abundance of salamanders, largely Desmogna-
thus fuscus welteri, along their margins.

The creeks in the lower valleys were not so rich in salamanders
as the brooks, but supported a considerable population of frogs and
toads, largely Rana catesbeiana, Rana clamitans, Bufo woodhousii
fowleri, and Hyla v. versicolor. Natrix sipedon was abundant in the
larger streams, but rare in the smaller tributaries.

2. Low Vecetation. This habitat comprises fields covered mostly
with herbaceous vegetation. Extensive areas of this sort are found
about the summit of the mountain. Some of these are largely in
grass; others clothed with a mixture of Lysimachia quadrifolia, Fra-

garia virginiana, and Potentilla simplex; still others support practically
pure stands of ferns, largely Osmunda cinnamomea, Dryopteris nove-
boracensis, and Dennstaedtia punctilobula.

The origin of these fields is obscure. They have been cultivated

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Animal Habitats On Big Black Mountain In Kentucky

in past years when the mountain top was inhabited by man. Old res-
idents informed me the fields had been there when they were chil-
dren. At the present time, trees are beginning to appear, although
most are still small. Possibly, these areas are comparable to the “balds”
in the Great Smokies.

As far as small mammals are concerned, these fields are practi-
cally deserts. The edges are fairly rich in species, largely of the
genera Peromyscus, Clethrionomys, Blarina, and Sorex, but only Synap-
tomys was caught near the middle of the fields. Of the amphibians
and reptiles, Bufo americanus americanus, Bufo woodhousii fowleri,
Diadophis punctatus edwardsii, Coluber c. constrictor, and Thamno-
phis s. sirtalis occurred frequently in the fields.

In fields at lower elevations (obviously cleared), Carphophis a.
amoena, Diadophis punctatus edwardsii, Lampropeltis t. triangulum,
Storeria occipitomaculata, and Thamnophis s. sirtalis were taken as
well as Pseudotriton montanus diastictus, Bufo americanus americanus,
and Bufo woodhousii fowleri. All were taken from beneath stones
with the exception of a large milk snake which was found in a weed
patch near a pile of stones.

3. BRUSHLAND. This general habitat comprises areas in which
the dominant species are shrubby. Areas of small individuals - of
tree species are treated under the subsequent divisions.

The brushland habitat, as defined above, may be subdivided
into three groups, on the basis of the dominant species.

a. Crataegus - Vaccinium - Rhododendron cumberlandense. These
three genera are dominant in several once-open areas about the sum-
mit of the mountain. These areas support a curious admixture of
species from the beech - birch - maple and oak - hickory - chestnut as-
sociations treated below. This habitat is perhaps the least well de-
fined on the mountain. Sorex cinereus, Sorex fumeus, Peromyscus
maniculatus nubiterrae, Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis, and
Clethrionomys gapperi maurus, among others, were taken from this
habitat. Amphibians and reptiles are scarce in this habitat, although
one Hyla crucifer was taken here.

b. Rhododendron maximum. This species occupies extensive

areas along the lower reaches of the mountain streams. In places, the

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

growth extends upward along the stream to an elevation of about
3600 feet.

c. Kalmia - Vaccinium. Some areas, where logging has been
heavy, support practically pure stands of these two genera. In such
areas, a few dead chestnuts remain standing; the ground is littered
with decaying tree tops. According to natives, a little “red rabbit”
is found only in such areas. A specimen of this “red rabbit” proved
to be Sylvilagus transitionalis.

4. WoopLanp. Included in this habitat are those areas clothed
with tree species; three subtypes are recognized, as follows:

a. Beech - birch- maple. This association is apparently the cli-
max forest of the upper, more humid, slopes of the mountain. Al-
though occupying extensive areas above 3000 feet on the northern
exposures, on the south slopes this habitat extends no lower than
_ 8500 feet, and reaches this elevation only in densely shaded valleys.

Few stands of virgin timber are left, and these seldom occupy
more than a few acres. Here, the forest floor is relatively clean;
there are few low woody plants, and the herbaceous plants are for
the most part low. Humus ranges up to eight inches in depth, and
is continually moist. even in the dryest seasons. Here is to be found
perhaps a greater assemblage of mammalian species than in any
other area of the mountain.

When logged over, most of this area grew up again to the same
woody species, with less beech and an admixture of oak and hickory.
In places, these species, along with Rubus canadensis, Smilax rotundi-
folia, and Pyrularia pubera form an almost impenetrable thicket. With
continuous logging operations over the years, practically every stage
of growth is represented.

b. Oak - hickory - chestnut. This association clothes most of the
lower slopes and extends up the drier areas to the very summit of
the mountain. All the larger chestnuts have long since died, while
most of the larger oaks have been removed. For a number of years,
logging operations in the area were largely confined to removal of
the dead chestnuts for mine timbers, but the remaining naked boles
are still a conspicuous part of the landscape. In such areas, the

woody species that have established themselves after logging are

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Animal Habitats On Big Black Mountain In Kentucky

predominantly oaks, hickories, and chestnut stump sprouts. Many
other plants are abundant, among them Acer, Tilia, Rubus, Smilax,
Kalmia, Vitis, and Vaccinium. These thickets form dense tangles.
In some areas, logging has been remote enough for sufficient growth
of the trees to occur to eliminate much of the rank undergrowth.
In such areas, particularly at the lower elevations, there is a well
marked growth of Liriodendron, Oxydendron, Robinia, and Cornus.
From about 2400 to 3000 feet, particularly on southern exposures,
a large part of this association supports a rank growth of Vitis. Along
the highway on the Virginia (south) side of the mountain, these
plants have vined vigorously into the tops of the trees and form a
veritable canopy over the forest floor. Natives report that the opos-
sum (Didelphis v. virginiana) is largely confined to this “grape belt.”
However, I took one specimen near the summit of the mountain,
considerably above this region. In other areas at lower elevations,
Smilax enters as a conspicuous part of the flora, vining 30 to 40
feet into the trees. In this habitat alone was Peromyscus nuttalli found.

c. Liriodendron. About the base of the mountain, at elevations
ranging from 1800 to 2500 feet, regardless of exposure, are isolated
areas consisting of practically pure stands of Liriodendron tulipifera.
These areas have been logged over in the past, and the majority of
the trees in the present stand vary from six to 14 inches in diameter
breast high. Here the forest floor is relatively free of undergrowth.
Blarina and Peromyscus are the most abundant mammalian genera
in these areas.

5. Rocxianp. Herein are grouped those regions where exten-
sive areas of bedrock are exposed, and jumbles of rock occur. Such
places are rare on Black Mountain; those that do occur support
Neotoma, Peromyscus, Clethrionomys, Sceloporus, and Crotalus. On
Pine Mountain, however, exposed bedrock is a very conspicuous
part of the terrain. The little collecting done there, just north of
Cumberland, Harlan County, Kentucky, revealed only Neotoma and

Aneides.

6. Man-MapE. In this category are grouped such works of man
as buildings, roads, fences, orchards, and the like. Buildings shelter-
ed Rattus and Mus, as well as various species of bats. Roads, especi-

ally little used ones, proved an extremely fertile field for collection

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

of amphibians and reptiles. Fences harbored Sceloporus and Eumeces.
A single old orchard, located at the summit of the mountain, was
examined briefly in 1939; at that time it proved to be a veritable
desert, as far as amphibians, reptiles, and mammals were concerned.

CONCLUSIONS

The two most extensive habitats on the mountain are the beech -
birch - maple and oak - hickory - chestnut subdivisions of the woodland
group. The majority of mammalian species occurring on the moun-
tain may be found most abundantly in these two habitats. Qualita-
tively, there is little difference in the mammals of the two areas,
but extensive trapping revealed that individuals were approximately
three times as abundant in the beech - birch - maple regions as in
the oak - hickory - chestnut habitat.

Reptiles were most abundant, both in number of species and
number of individuals in habitats herein classed as man-made. The
edges of litile-used logging roads were the most fruitful collecting
areas. This situation was undoubtedly due to several factors, among
which might well be the exposing of rocks suitable for cover; the
creation of woodland edges, affording two adjacent types of hunt-
ing territory; and the drying out of a narrow strip through an other-
wise moist woodland.

Amphibians were most abundant, from the standpoint of in-
dividuals, along streams and about springs and puddles. However,
as many species were found in the beech - birch - maple subdivision
of the woodland habitat, as in areas classed as aquatic. Several species
found only in wooded areas are known to breed in water, hence
the occurrence of a given species in a certain habitat is dependent,
among other things, upon the time of year.

At the present time, mining operations on the mountain are
exposing extensive areas of bare soil. The effects of this wholesale
destruction of the present-day habitats in the area are undoubtedly
profound. Whether or not the operations will continue to the point
of destroying the only known habitats in Kentucky for such animals
as Sorex c. cinereus, Blarina brevicauda churchi, Mustela v. vision,
Clethrionomys gapperi maurus, and Napaeozapus insignis roanensis,
is a matter for the future.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Braun, E. Lucy. 1940. An ecological transect of Black Mountain, Kentucky.
Ecol. Monogr., 10 (2): 193-241.

290

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCES OF MODERATELY
CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS OF SEVERAL SALTS IN
DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE*

L. R. Dawson, M. Golben, G. R. Leader and H. K. Zimmerman, Jr.

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Dimethylformamide combines the properties of a wide liquid
range (1), good solvent power for inorganic salts, and fairly high
dielectric constant (measurements in this labor: atory have shown the
dielectric constant to be 36.7 at 25°). Consequently, it appears to
have considerable promise as a solvent which may be used for elec-
trolytic studies in the nonaqueous field. Reported here are the
results of a study of the conducting properties of some solutions of

magnesium and zinc iodides, magnesium, zinc and cadmium bromides,
and silver perchlorate, all of which were found to be quite soluble

in this solvent even at low temperatures.

EXPERIMENTAL

Dimethylformamide supplied by the du Pont company was used after puri-
fication by fractional distillation under reduced pressure (specific conductance,
1.83 x 10-6 at 25°). The salts used were the best available commercial an-
hydrous grade with the exception of the silver perchlorate, which was prepared
from silver oxide and perchloric acid according to the method described by
Hill (2) and dried at 110°C. Weighed amounts of each salt were added to
weighed quantities of solvent, all transfers being made in a dry box. The
final concentration of the perchlorate was confirmed by titration with standard

thiocyanate solution.

Conductance measurements were made with a standard Wheatstone Bridge
assembly, with temperatures being adjusted by means of a manually controlled
bath consisting of a dry ice-acetone mixture contained in a one-gallon Dewar
flask. Two Washburn-type conductance cells, having constants of 0.072 and
0.012 were used. The cell constants were determined by the Jones and Brad-
shaw (3) method. Because of the low specific conductance of the dimethylfor-

mamide no solvent correction was necessary.

* Based on research performed under contract No. w36-039-sc-32265 for the

U. S. Army Signa! Corps.

bo
bo
—

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1. Conductance of Solutions of Various Salts in Dimethylformamide
Conductancest at the Temperatures:

Molality 20° 0° == ()2 —40° —50°

Magnesium Bromide
0.00725 2.86 (326) 1.78 (246) 1.29 (178) 0.727
0.0434 6.56 (151) 4.40 (102) 2.86 (65.9) 1.40
0.104 7.27 (69.8) 4.26 (40.9) 2.19 (21.0) 0.800
0.132 6:67 (50:5) 3.25 (246) 1.57 (10.9) 0.450

(100) 0.572 (79.1)
(32.2) 0.976 (22.6)
(7.68) 0.334 (3.20)
(3.41) 0.183 (1.01)

Magnesium Iodide

OONOSH A371 Se nC S62) e285; (276) 2.025 (196)) 29 i C125) ee nORSGremtoce op)
OLOAOO P2904 C226) 6:54 (GES 4255) (CLOG) 2224 (5610) lea aan C3 aE49)
ONO Oy CCA GCSE CGE) BOM (ROCIO (OS OR (44.98)
OOS CQ. (00) VB MOUS) OL2S GIs).
OMG 2 eta (2626) OLGA (ALONE = a Z
03020 pie OO (2552)) ey 189 39n(6:39))aaee * #
Zinc Bromide
0.0146 1.00 (68.5) 1.01 (69.1) 0.871 (59.7) 0.599 (41.0) 0.472 (82.4)
O:0588i338" 7(o7125)) 32298) (498) 2-20) (37-4) 120) (20:4) ee OLS a Glsss))
OMOM RA ASibs (418) ECLOSm (So Ete (215) 1209) 5 C1022) Oss 9S Garaas)
ONAAI Al OSke (82:5 yio eat le) ST CSO) -O:667 14:68) ee Oe2 Glam Gla sop)
Zinc Iodide
CO OHEAO Es Tigo (abet IBS OO) ae Cie ieat Oaxe) ILS}. (TULL)
0:0440) 3:64 (82:9) 3:28 (74.6) 2:72 (61.9). 1.95 (44:4) Ab G33:0))
0.0789)" 276. (60:4) (3:81 (48:3) 2:72) (84:5), | 1525-1923) 20:9 la Glele sy)
O10) 35:00 (45:4) 3:84" (34.9) 25385) C214) 002 39:09) O74 Ol ecto)

Cadmium Bromide
125) 01532" (GEA Ol367 1 (63:0)
SN) AGS (L083) hey! = 0)
54.8) 3.54 (87.9) 1.99 (21.3) 0.880
39.9) 3.19 ce AL Mase, CDS)

0.00583 0.727

( 8) 0.148 (25.4)
0.0408 3.32 (

(

(

34
19.6) 0.625 (15.3)
9.42) 0.506 (5.41)
4.65) 0.304 (2.52)

0.0934 5.12
0.121 4.83

Silver Perchlorate

0.208 16" (55.8) Ser. (407) 5.57 (2618). 3.6 (5.0) onSamalors)
0580" 20:5 (38.7) 14.4 (272) 853 (161) 454 (856) 93.28) (Garo)
01945 7° 241 (5.5) 15.6 (165) 853 (9.01) 361 (3.82) soe 0p)
VIO) 2Sou (ote). * # ® 8

tSpecific conductances (x 10?) are given followed by “molal” conductances in
parentheses.

*Conductance not measured either because part of the solute precipitated or
because of extremely high viscosity.

222

Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions

0.02 0.04 0.06 0:08 0.10 O12 0.14
MOLALITY

FIGURE |. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR
SOLUTIONS OF Mg Br, IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE

270

240

210

180
Am
150

loa)

120
AN
90
60

30

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 010 012 0.14
MOLALITY

FIGURE 2. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR

SOLUTIONS OF Mglz IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE

270
240

240
210
180

I5O
Am
120

994

90

60

30

——$—

pontine ETE TS

“0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 010 01

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science
x)
fo)

2 0.14 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 010 O12 0.14
MOLALITY MOLALITY
FIGURE 5. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR FiGURE 4. CONDUGTANGE ISOTHERMS FOR

SOLUTIONS OF Zn Bro IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE SOLUTIONS OF Zn Ip IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE

Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions

Of O4706 Car io Viz
MOLALITY
FIGURE 6. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR
SOLUTIONS OF Ag CLOq IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE

0.02 0.04 0:06 0.08 0.10 O12 0.14
MOLALITY
FIGURE 5. CONDUCTANCE ISOTHERMS FOR
SOLUTIONS OF Cd Bro IN DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE

Ye)
AN

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Since the nature of the dissociation of unsymmetrical salts in di-
methylformamide is uncertain, “molal” conductances have been cal-
culated and the conductance isotherms plotted in Figures 1 to 6. It
may be observed that for magnesium bromide and silver perchlorate
the conductance decreases uniformly with increasing concentration,
the data showing no particular irregularities. The data for zinc iodide
show similar behavior, but, in addition, there occurs a pronounced
maximum in the conductance isosyst at 0.012 molal; thus there is a
negative temperature coefficient of conductance over a part of the
range studied. Evidence of the same type of behavior may be ob-
served in the 0.0146 molal isosyst for zinc bromide also.

The molal conductance isotherms for magnesium iodide, zinc
iodide and cadmium bromide all display departures from the smoothly
dropping curves which were obtained for the first two salts. For
magnesium iodide this break occurs at about 0.11 molal and is pro-
‘nounced. Probably this phenomenon is due to a viscosity effect, since
although magnesium iodide was found to be the most soluble of the
salts in the halide group, its more concentrated solutions were ex-
tremely viscous. It is to be noted that for this salt, the effect appears
to persist at all the temperatures studied, and therefore may be the
result of a marked change in the nature of the particles participating
in viscous flow. The irregularity for the zinc bromide solutions oc-
curs at a much lower concentration (about 0.04 molal) and appears
only at the higher temperatures. Thus, it would seem that its primary
cause is not to be found in the viscosity influence. Similar behavior
has been reported from this laboratory (4) for solutions for zine chlo-
ride and bromide in methanol, which appears most likely to be the
result of changes in the degree of complex formation between zinc
and halide ions.

It should be remarked also that silver perchlorate in dimethylfor-
mamide apparently is not a stable system as is shown by the ap-
pearance of a dark deposit in the solutions upon standing. The reac-
tion was slow, however, and appeared not to influence appreciably
the results of the measurements.

SUMMARY

1. Conductances of solutions of silver perchlorate, magnesium, zinc
and cadmium bromides, and magnesium and zine iodides in dime-

226

Electrical Conductances of Moderately Concentrated Solutions

thylformamide have been determined at concentrations ranging from
0.005 to 0.50 molal over the temperature range -50° to 20°.

2. Evidences of unexpected changes in the nature of the solute par-
ticles at low concentrations and of behavior probably resulting from
various solvent effects have been obtained.

LITERATURE CITED
Ruhoff, J. R. and Reid, E. E., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 59, 401 (1937).
Hill, A. E., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 43, 254 (1921).
Jones, G. and Bradshow, B. C., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 55, 1780 (1933).

ee Oe ae

Dawson, L. R., Tockman, A., Zimmerman, H. K. Jr., and Leader, G. R.,
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73, 4327 (1951).

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MATURE GLANDS
ON THE PETALS OF FRASERA CAROLINENSIS

P. A. Davies

Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 8, Ky.

On numerous occasions while on botanical field excursions, the
writer has observed bumble bees actively working on the flowers of
American Columbo, Frasera (Swertia) carolinensis. Although other
insects were occasionally observed clinging to or resting upon the
flowers, the bumble bee appears to be the only insect obtaining nec-
tar from the flowers.

Frasera carolinensis is widely distributed in Kentucky. This
biennial or triennial is usually found in oak-hickory habitats on dry
hillsides. It can be easily identified during the winter by a basal
rosette of large leaves. During the spring and early summer a
single stem 9-21 dm. (3-7 ft.) high develops and produces at the
apex during July and August a paniculate, many-flowered inflores-
cence from 1.5 to 6 dm. long. The flowers range from 1.5 to 3 cm.
broad and the floral parts, except for the two-carpillate ovary, are
arranged in fours (fig. 1). On the mid-vein of each yellowish-
white petal, about one-third the distance from its base, is a large
oval, fringed nectariferous gland 3.3-3.9 mm. long, 3.0-3.3 mm. wide,
and, including the wall processes, 3.2-4.2 mm. high. This is the
gland visited by the bumble bees and is the subject of this paper.

A search through the literature has yielded but one reference
on the floral morphology of Frasera carolinensis. McCoy (1940), in
his studies on the floral organogenesis of this plant, has considered
in detail the early structural development of the gland. He found

that the glandular tissue arose in the adaxial subepidermal layer at
the base of the petal. Periclinal divisions continue in this area until
seven or eight cell layers are formed. This disk of adaxial derivatives
forms the secretory tissue. Periclinal divisions in the glandular disk
continue at its periphery to form the wall of the glandular cup. With
periclinal divisions in the lower wall ceasing, and with divisions in
different planes continuing in the upper part of the wall, the nume-
rous wall processes are produced. These form the top of the gland

228

Mature Glands On The Petals of Frasera Carolinensis

and cover the apical opening. Mature glands, which McCoy did
not describe in detail, exhibit structures different from those us-
ually found in entomophilous glands and so should be of interest
to students of floral morphology.

FIG. I

Figure 1. Floral arrangement and the position of the glands.

External features of a gland (fig. 2) show that the basal por-
tion of the gland wall is solid and extends 0.3-0.4 mm. above the sur-
face of the petals. Above the solid portion the gland wall splits into
numerous sections. Each section divides and re-divides frequently
several times resulting in a mat of hair-like processes which plug
the apical opening. The wall processes, as they mature, become
sclerified and rigid. Bumble bees work along the sides of the glands,
indicating that it is easier for the tongue to be pushed through the

229

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

wall crevices than to penetrate the closely matted sclerenchymous
_ wall processes which plug the apical opening.

Each gland is supplied by branches from the mid-vein and

several small lateral ones. Vascular tissue extends into the base and

walls of the gland but does not penetrate into the secreting area.

\ \ |

\

SOG

FIG. 2

Figure 2. External features of a gland and the vascular supply to it.

230

Mature Glands On The Petals of Frasera Carolinensis

Observations on the inner part of a gland (fig. 3) show that
the solid lower walls and the nearly flat floor formed by the modi-
fied upper surface of the petal produce a large cavity or well. That
part of the petal beneath the gland floor is slightly thickened and
the secreting area is composed of modified epidermis and paren-
chyma tissue.

Shon 7 ree Ge (3

~~=S.YASCULAR SUPPLY

FIG. 3

Figure 3. View of the cavity or well of a gland showing its size, thickness
of the secretory area and the extent of cell stretching.

The entire floor of the gland and the inner surface of the un-
divided wall area possesses secreting cells. Fig. 4 depicts a section
through the floor of the gland and the upper part of the petal.

It shows that in the upper seven layers of cells the cytoplasm is more
dense, indicating greater cell activity. The maximum amount of cell
activity is in the upper three layers. The basal tissue on which the

231

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

= CUCL
|
|

>-SECRETING
CELLS

BASAL CELLS

FIG. 4

Figure 4. Section through the floor of a gland and the upper part of the
petal showing the depth of the secretory area.

secreting cells rest is composed of the normal parenchyma cells of
the petal. Covering the exposed surface of the upper layer of secret-
ing cells and forming the floor layer of the gland is a medium-
thick cuticle. Since no ducts or pores are present to carry the secre-
tion through the surface layers and cuticle, the nectar must diffuse
from cell to cell and then through the cuticle. Numerous mature
glands were examined, and in each one only a thin film of liquid
was present on the surface of the cuticle. Although the cuticle nor-
mally retards the flow of nectar, it does not inhibit it. Behrens (1879)
and Bonnier (1879) found the same to be true for many other plant
secretory surfaces.

While the flowers are in the bud, the walls of the glands are
much reduced and the apical openings are large. As the buds open
the floral parts expand, the walls extend upward and inward, form-
ing conical-shaped glands. This reduces the size of the apical open-
ing and brings the wall processes into a matted arrangement. A micro-

939

Mature Glands On The Petals of Frasera Carolinensis

section through the lower part of the wall is shown in fig. 5. The
secreting area, as indicated by cytoplasmic density, is confined to

the two innermost layers of cells. The elongation of the walls, except

: 4

» \GE
: er
‘
gt

SECRETING CELLS WALL CELLS

FIG: 5

Figure 5. Section through the lower wall of a gland illustrating the depth
of the secretory area and the extent of cell stretching.

in the innermost layer and to some extent the next layer, is due to
the stretching of the cells rather than to an increase in the number

of cells. In the innermost layer the cells were able to divide rapidly

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

enough to keep pace with the stretching. The amount of stretching
of the cells is indicated by the extent to which the nuclei are

stretched.
LITERATURE CiTED

1. Behrens, W. J. 1879. Die Nectarens de Bluthen. Flora, pp. 374-375.

2. Bonnier, Gaston 1879 Les Nectaires. Libraire ce |) academie de Medicine,
Paris, pp. 1-212.
3. McCoy, R. W. 1940. Floral organo~enesis in Fracera carolinensis. Amer. Jour.

Bot., 27:600-609

PERFORMANCE OF A DOMESTIC HEAT PUMP
WATER HEATER

E. B. Penrod

Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

INTRODUCTION

A study of a Master Kraft heat pump water heater was made
during the last two weeks of June, 1951.* Data were taken each
day to obtain the operating performance of the hot water heat pump
and the effect produced on the relative humidity of the air in the
room containing the unit. The heating energy ratio of the plant was
determined through tests of short duration.

PRINCIPLE OF THE Hor Water Heat Pump

The Master Kraft** heat pump is designed to take heat, at a
low temperature level, from the air in the basement (or utility room),
containing the unit, and transfer the heat to the water in the tank
at a higher temperature level (Fig. 1). When the heat pump is in
operation the refrigerant (Freon-12) changes from the liquid phase
to the vapor phase in the evaporator located in the air stream. In
changing phase the refrigerant absorbs heat from the air reducing
its temperature from, say, 76°F to 70°F. The temperature and pres-
sure of the vapor are increased from about 62°F and 75 Ibs. per sq.
in. abs. to approximately 322°F and 177 lbs. per sq. in. abs. in pass-
ing through the refrigeration compressor.

The Freon-12 vapor is superheated during compression. As it
passes through the condenser, located in the tank, it gives up heat
to the water in cooling to the saturation temperature at the existing
pressure, and then gives up additional heat while condensing. The
liquid refrigerant then passes through the expansion valve, thus
completing the refrigeration cycle. The primary purpose of the
refrigeration compressor is to circulate the refrigerant and to main-

*The Kentucky Utilities Company purchased a Master Kraft heat pump water
heater and installed it together with the necessary instruments in the author's
house. He is indebted to the Heat Pump Committee of this Company who
sponsored the investigation.

*°The Master Kraft Heat Pump Water Heater is manufactured by Harvey-
Whipple, Inc., Springfield, Mass.

235

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

tain a difference in pressure on the opposite sides of the expansion
valve.

The heat given up by the refrigerant in cooling and condensing

WATER AT |55°F
TO KITCHEN
OR BATH

HOT WATER TANK

HOT FREON-I2
VAPOR AT 322°F

LIQUID FREON-I2 AT AND I77 PS.LA.

125°F AND 177 PS.LA.
CONDENSER

FROM MAIN
AT 80°F

EXPANSION VALVE

LIQUID FREON -I2

REFRIGERATION
AT 62°F AND 75 PSIL.A.

COMPRESSOR

=

°
< AIR AT 76 F
=— FROM

—=— BASEMENT

ELECTRIC UTILITY ROOM
=

MOTOR

FREON-I2 VAPOR
AT 62°F AND 75 PS.LA.

Figure 1. A schematic diagram showing how a heat pump produces hot water
for domestic purposes.

is absorbed by the water surrounding the condenser. The heat
absorbed by the water while cooling the superheated Freon-12 va-
por from 322°F to 125°F is about 40% of that required to raise the
temperature of the water from 80°F to 155°F. The remainder of
the heat transferred to the water is supplied while the refrigerant con-
denses at 125°F.

236

Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater

Heat Pump Water HEATER

The Master Kraft heat pump water heater shown in Fig. 2, is
2634 inches in diameter and 70 inches high. It has a water capa-
city of 53 gallons and weights 680 lbs. empty. The circulating fan
and refrigeration compressor are driven by 1/20-hp. and 1/3-hp.,
single phase motors. The circulating fan draws air through the evap-
orator coils and forces it out at the top of the unit. Fig. 3 is a
photograph of the upper half of the unit showing the thermostat,
refrigeration compressor, expansion valve, and the air coil or evap-
orator.

When the heat pump is in operation the refrigeration compres-
sor circulates the refrigerant (Freon-12), through the condenser, ex-
pansion valve, and the evaporator. During the test period, the
compressor maintained discharge and suction pressures of about
163 and 63 lbs. per sq. in. gage while the plant was in operation.
The air temperature in the basement determines the suction pres-
sure; and the thermostat setting, the rate of water consumption, and
compressor capacity determine the discharge pressure.

INSTRUMENTATION

A Bailey recording meter was used to measure the quantity of
hot water used, and the inlet and outlet water temperatures. The
thermometers were of the platinum resistance type, one being placed
where the water enters and the other where it leaves the tank.

The relative humidity of the basement air was obtained by the
use of a Bristol's wet and dry bulb recording thermometer and
Taylors relative humidity tables. The moisture taken from the
air dropped in a trough beneath the evaporator coils. Provisions
were made so that the condensed moisture could be piped to a
suitable container and measured.

An Esterline-Angus recording meter was used to determine the
operating time of the heat pump water heater and the power input
to the fan and compressor motors. A General Electric single phase
watthour demand meter was also used to determine the power in-
put to the heat pump as well as the demand. A similar General
Electric single phase watthour meter was used to determine the
electric energy supplied to the house exclusive of that supplied to
the hot water heat pump.

Darty OPERATING PERFORMANCE
During the test period the house was occupied by a family

237

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Figure 2. A photograph of the Master Kraft heat pump water heater.

Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater

Figure 3. A photograph of the upper half of the heat pump water heater

showing the thermostat, refrigeration compressor, and air coil or evaporator.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

consisting of two adult persons. The following electrical appliances
were in the house and were used when desired: electric lights, iron,
refrigerator, washing machine, percolator, toaster, two clocks, radio,
and a hot water heat pump. Performance data are listed in Table I.
The daily average electric energy supplied to the hot water heat
pump was about 54% of that supplied to the entire house. The
hot water used per day varied from 30 to 55 gallons. The average
cost of producing hot water was about 0.117 kwhr per gallon. The
temperature of the water entering and leaving the tank were ap-
proximately 80°F and 155°F respectively.

The quantity of moisture removed from the basement air was,
on the average, 24% pints per day. The maximum amount of mois-
ture was removed from the air on June 18th, 22nd, and 25th, the
days that the washing machine was in operation, and laundry was
hung in the basement to dry.

The average daily operating time of the hot water heat pump
was 8.1 hours.

Table 1. Normal daily performance of a hot water heat pump from June 15, 1951
to July 1, 1951.

Electric Energy Mositure
Supplied Removed
Date Opera- Total To To Hot Heat Hot From Discharge Suction
ting House Water Pump Water Basement Pressure Pressure
Time And Heat Demand Used Air
Heat Pump
Pump
Hrs/Day kwhr. — kwhr. kw. Gallons Pints _ Psig. Psig.
6-16 IU 9 5 0.58 50 2 148 60
G7 6.2 9 5 58 AO 1% 152 63 -
6-18 8.6 10 5 8 40 3% 163 63
6-19 6.8 8 4 .60 35 2 160 62
6-20 T9) 8 4 .60 30 20 163 62
6-21 leo 9 5 Gl 35 24 161 63
6-22 8.3 9 5 ‘Gil 45 3h 158 62
6-23 9.3 10 6 61 50 3 155 62
6-24 6.2 8 4 .60 35 245 162 62
6-25 10.6 10 6 61 1) 64 162 62
6-26 6.8 8 4 09 30 2% 162 62
Coie ri 4 .60 AO 245 163 63
6-28 8 4 .60 SS 2% 157 63
6-29 8 4 .60 35 2 159 63
6-30 rf 4 .60 35 2% 163 63
Averages 8.1 8.53 4.2 0.598 39.3 21 159.2 62.3

* Difficulty with recording meter.

Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater

The actual operating time is shown graphically in Fig. 4, and the
average electric power demand was approximately 0.60 kw. From

DRY act TEMPERATURE -°F

[ AvONNS |
oe el

[iz anne |
AWOSUNHL |
ear ae
‘cea
ears]

Oz _aNnr
AYOS3NG3M |
a

i A s ( | | ;
ee ' » (ae
= CaS tH LTT
Lope cel pt py a):
a ) : a

Sie Pit

: CEES :

: Be

aS | +

Ee SC eS BS
oT oo) PP
DOT Pe EEE peer TEE PEN
ATT eset SSL TAL Ter
OMEN maase i ita A et at

=
oO
x
8

ete ape ae

Figure 4. Graphical representation of the operation of the heat pump water
heater, and the effect produced on the temperature and relative humidity of
the basement air. Curve A gives the dry bulb temperatures. The plateaus of
Curve B indicates the maximum electric power demand, and shows when the
plant was in operation. Curve C gives the value of the relative humidity of
the basement air.

241

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Fig. 4 it can be seen that in general there was a slight decrease in
the dry bulb temperature and a corresponding increase in the rel-
ative humidity of the basement air when the plant was in operation.
On the whole the heat taken from the basement air did not reduce
the dry bulb temperature to a great extent.

Fig. 5 is a photograph of the record of the wet and dry bulb
temperature readings for a period of one week. The wet and dry
bulb temperatures decreased simultaneously after the heat pump was
set in operation. Shortly after the plant stopped the wet and dry
bulb temperature readings returned to their previous values. The
depressions in the two temperature graphs indicate clearly when
the plant was in operation.

Test Or SHORT DURATION

During the normal intermittent operation of the domestic heat
-pump water heater it is virtually impossible to determine the heating
energy ratio of the system because the water does not flow in a
steady stream in and out of the tank. Hot water may be drawn out
of the storage tank a great deal of the time when the unit is not in
operation, and the cold water which enters merely mixes with the
hot water, thereby reducing its temperature. In addition to this, hot
water is generally drawn off at such a high rate that the heat pump
did not have the capacity to maintain a constant temperature differ-
ential between the water at entrance to and exit from the storage
tank.

During a short test of 52 minutes duration, hot water was drawn
off at a steady rate of 0.37 gallons per minute. Test data are listed
in Table 2. The air temperature dropped from 76°F to 71°F on
passing through the evaporator coil. From the table it can be seen
that the temperature of the air leaving the evaporator coil was 1°F
below that of the wet bulb temperature.

Table 2. Results of a steady flow test of 52 minutes duration.

Duration of test, hour 0.866
Temp. of air entering evaporator coil, °F 76
Temp. of air leaving evaporator coil, °F val
Dry bulb temp. of basement air, °F 76
Wet bulb temp. of basement air, °F 72
Relative humidity of basement air, % 83
Avg. hot water temp., of 116.8

y
ey

Ft

THURS Da

Pas

THURS Day

Figure 5. A photograph of a weekly record made by Bristol’s recording wet
and dry bulb thermometers. (A) With the heat pump water heater and (B)

without the heat pump water heater.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Avg. cold water temp., °F 88
Increase in temp. of water, °F 28.8
Water heated, *gallons 19.2
Discharge press., psig. 136
Suction press., psig. 61
Theoretical H.E.R. 10.5
Actual H.E.R. 2.6

*The hot water was discharged into a small tank and then weighed.
Energy supplied to heat pump system — 0.596 kw x 0.866 hr.
— 0.516 kwhr.

Energy delivered to water 98°8 x 19.9 -x 813

|

4580 Btu.

|

— 1.341 kwhr.

energy delivered to the water

Actually SHEERS R=
energy supplied to the

heat pump system
1.341 kwhr
0.516 kwhr

= 2.6

The refrigeration cycle for the test of short duration is shown
in Fig. 6. The theoretical heating energy ratio of the refrigeration
cycle is given by the equation

lay ol
TENG ret cals Eun ees
hit bs

90.6 — 33.7
~ 90.6 — 85.2

==. 06

The actual H.E.R. is just about one fourth of that for the re-
frigeration cycle. The reduction in the heating energy ratio from
10.5 to 2.6 is due to the inefficient single phase motors together
with compressor and radiation losses.

From Fig. 6 it can be seen that the discharge and suction pres-
sures are 150.7 and 75.7 lbs. per sq. in. abs., and the Freon-12 vapor

244

150.7

15.7

PRESSURE,PSIA

337 852 90.6
ENTHALPY, BTU PER LB.

t (b)

TEMPERATURE, °F

0.1673
ENTROPY, BTU PERLB°R.

Figure 6. Refrigeration cycle of the heat pump water heater for a 52 minute
test in which water flowed into and out of the storage tank at a constant rate.
s
Isentropic compression was assumed. (a) Refrigeration cycle shown on the
I I : g )
pressure-enthalpy plane. (b) Refrigeration cycle shown on the temperature-
entropy plane.

245

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

was superheated only 7°F. In comparison, from Fig. 1 it can be
seen that the discharge and suction pressures are 177 and 75 Ibs. per
sq. in abs.; and that the Freon-12 vapor was superheated 197°F
(322° — 125°). From an analysis of these data it can be shown that
the actual heating energy ratio obtained from the test of short dura-
tion will exceed the heating energy ratio obtained if the plant could
be tested under normal operating conditions as shown in Fig. 1.

CONCLUSIONS

The following results give a good idea concerning the perfor-
mance of the domestic heat pump water heater under actual operat-
ing conditions:

Test period, days 15
Operating time, hours/day 8.1
Elect. energy supplied to all appliances, kwhr. 128
- Elect. energy supplied to heat pump water, kwhr. 69
Demand, watts 598
Hot water used, gallons 590
Hot water used, gallons/day 39.3
Hot water, gallons/kwhr 8.54
Moisture removed from basement air, pints/day PAL)
Average basement air temps he 76.3
Average discharge press., psig. 159.2
Average suction press., psig. 62.3

Freyder* gives the following results from a similar study on a
Harvey-Whipple pilot model:

Test period, days 91
Water Consumption, gal. Bile
Power Consumption, kwhr 427.0
Gal/kwhr 12.0
Gal/day, avg. 56.3
Demand, watts 560
Basement air temperature, °F, avg. 70
Water inlet temperature, °F, avg. 67.9
Water outlet temperature, °F, avg. 140
Load factor, % 34.7
Performance factor | 2.14

ie : é ; :
References are given in the Literature Cited

246

Performance of A Domestic Heat Pump Water Heater

The results from the two studies compare favorably. For the

test reported in this paper, hot water was supplied to a family of
two, and for Freyder’s test, to a family of four.

The following are some of the chief advantages of the heat

pump water heater:

i

2.

Provides a high load factor for the electric utility.

Operating costs at the regular residential rates are much lower for the
heat pump water heater than for the electric resistance water heater operat-
ing under the same conditions.

Dehumidifies the air in the basement or utility room.

Laundry dries much faster in a room where the heat pump water heater
operates.

It is not necessary to carry heavy wet laundry out of the house to dry.

Laundry hung out of doors to dry is subject to weather changes and dirt
in the atmosphere.

The heat pump water heater can supply all the hot water needed and at
the temperature desired.
LITERATURE CITED

Freyder, G. G., 1951. Domestic water heaters employing the heat pump
principle. Proc. Midwest Power Conference, 13, 470-476.

____________ 1951. Heat pump domestic water heater. Heating & V entilat-
ing, 48 (7) (July), 77-80.

COMPARISON OF ELECTRON AND OPTICAL
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF A COPPER-BERYLLIUM ALLOY

H. W. Maynor, Jr. and C. J. McHargue
Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering

and

O. F. Edwards

Department of Bacteriology

University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

INTRODUCTION

It is conceivable that, (1) greater resolving power, (2) the pro-
cess of replication of the surface and, (3) the shadowcasting tech-
nique may constitute factors which will be reflected in the appearance
of electron photomicrographs, and differentiate them from optical
photomicrographs. Also, it is possible that variations, by large
amounts, in the magnification of electron photomicrographs may be
accompanied by changes in the appearance of microstructures dif-
ficult to correlate. The objectives of this investigation (immediately
following) were largely evolved from considerations of these possi-
bilities.

a. To effect a visual comparison of photomicrographs of selected
areas of polished and etched specimens of a copper-beryllium alloy
(2.5% Be, 1.1% Ni, balance Cu) at magnifications within the range
of both the electron and optical microscopes.

b. To further study the selected areas with the electron micros-
cope: (1) by maintaining a nearly common geometric center of field
as an orientation point for each individual series of photomicrographs

and, (2) by varying the magnification in increments of approximately
12.000X.

c. To ascertain if certain structural features can be distinguished
with the electron microscope that cannot be distinguished with the
optical microscope.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The specimens were cut from copper-beryllium bar stock. All were solution
treated at 800°C for one-half hour and quenched in water. Specimens A, B,
and C were subsequently aged at 316-330°C for zero, one, and two hours re-

248

-
Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs

spectively. The surface of each was polished and lightly etched after aging.
The production of a negative replica (1) of each specimen surface was

carried out by dipping the specimen in ethylene dichloride containing one per
cent by weight of Formvar. When the film had dried and hardened, a 250-
mesh wire screen was placed in contact with the desired area and encircled by
a scribed line. Then the replica was stripped by breathing upon it, covering
it immediately with scotch tape, and gently pulling the tape with the at-
tached replica away from the surface of the specimen. The time that elapsed
between etching and stripping was never more than five minutes. This period
of time appeared to be critical, and if exceeded, difficulty in stripping was
encountered.

Shadow-casting of the specimens was carried out at a grazing angle of nine
to eleven degrees with chromium. A thin alumium film was deposited verti-
cally to strengthen the replica.

The electron photomicrographs were made with an EMU-2A, RCA electron
microscope. The optical photomicrographs were made with a Bausch and
Lomb research metallograph in the customary manner.

RESULTS
1. Optical photomicrographs.

The light and dark areas in the optical photomicrographs cor-
responded directly with the apparently light and dark areas of the
specimen surface which was illuminated by reflected light.

Figure 1 was an optical photomicrograph of specimen A (zero
aging time) at a magnification of 3,000X. The appearance was typi-
cal of other areas of the same specimen. This photomicrograph
showed annealing twins which characterize copper base alloys and
which represent differences in orientation within grains. The small,
white particles of a somewhat spheroidal shape comprised a_preci-
pitate generally thought to be of the formula CuBe (2). The pre-
sence of these particles in the specimen was due to the incomplete
solution of the CuBe phase during the course of the solution treat-
ment. Because this magnification was within the range of the opti-
cal microscope, the absence of very fine detail in this photomicro-
graph should be attributed to a lack of adequate resolving power
rather than to insufficient magnification.

This fact was confirmed when the area within the circle was
enlarged to give a magnification of 15,000X, Figure 2. The appear-

249

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

250

Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs

ance of the surface showed that although the magnification had been
increased here by photographic enlargement, no new detail was re-
vealed.

Figure 3 was an optical photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at 3,000X. As was shown in the optical photo-
micrographs of specimen A (zero aging time), Figure 1, the anneal-
ing twins and undissolved CuBe phase were readily revealed. The
background presented a mottled appearance in which very little de-
tail could be seen. This mottled appearance is common in age-hard-
enable alloys during the relatively early stages of precipitation and
is probably due to very fine particles of unresolved precipitate. The
presence of extensive areas of this unresolved structure indicated that
precipitation occurred during heat treatment.

2. Electron photomicrographs.

The method used in preparing the replicas produced nega-
tives of the surface, that is, depressions in the electron photomicro-
graphs corresponded to raised places in the specimen surface. The
black line in the various figures indicates a distance of one micron
in the original specimen.

Figure 4 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero
aging time) at a magnification of 3,000X. The variations in top-
ography were more evident than in Figure 1, the optical photomicro-
graph of the same specimen at the same magnification, and were
perhaps due to the use of the technique of shadow casting, which
introduces artificial shadows, thus emphasizing contour differences.
The apparent lack of depth and height in the optical photomicro-
graph was probably due to the method of preparation, or to the
means of examination of the specimen, or to the absence of shadows,
rather than to an actual lack of depth and height in the specimen sur-
face. The wealth of detail contained in the photomicrograph was
to a great extent hidden because of the use of the relatively low
order of magnification. Inspection of the small, ringed area (con-
taining the particle with the constricted central portion) at a higher
magnification (see Figure 5), substantiated this statement. However,
the resolution was better than that in Figure 1 as was evident when
higher magnifications of each, Figure 5 and 2, respectively, were
compared. New detail, in the form of small particles (smaller bits

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

of precipitate not dissolved during the solution treatment), were now
seen (Figure 5) to accompany the larger particles of precipitate which
were not dissolved during the solution treatment. No new smaller
detail appeared in Figure 2.

Figure 5 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero
aging time) at a magnification of 18,000X. Measurements indicated
that the large, dark areas corresponded in size with the large, light,
spheroidal particles such as were easily discernible in Figure 1. The
size, shape and distribution of the smaller particles could now be
ascertained for the first time in this series of electron photomicro-
graphs, because here, both magnification and resolving power were
sufficiently great.

The limit of resolution of the best optical microscopes is ap-
proximately equal to one-fifth of a micron. Consequently, any particle
in this photomicrograph which is less than about one-fifth of the
micron line cannot be resolved and hence cannot be seen with an op-
tical microscope. Some of the structural features were less than one-
fifth micron and ranged in size from 30 to 60 millimicrons.

It should be pointed out that it is extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to interpret many electron photomicrographs solely up-
on the basis of their appearance. Among these difficulties is the
optical illusion effect (3), which is apparent in this figure, inasmuch
as the same portion of an image will sometimes appear as a raised
area, and again as a depression. Only when the object-shadow
relationship is known does it become possible to determine
the true elevations of the different areas of the image. Since,
logically, shadows are contained within depressions, but lie out-
side of raised areas, the orientation of the shadow with respect to the
object serves to distinguish the hills from the valleys.

The crack-like lines were probably due to the deterioration of
the Formvar membrane under the unavoidable handling to which
the replica was subjected.

The presence of white particles in this photomicrograph was
explained by any of the following reasons:

1. They may have been replicas of holes or depressions in
the original specimen surface.

952

Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs

2. They may have been pseudo structures produced by the
stripping process and unintentionally implanted on the
Formvar replica.

3. They may have been foreign matter deposited after strip-
ping and prior to shadowing.

4. They may have been foreign matter (chromium) deposited
during the shadow-casting operation.

Regardless of the reason for their existence in the photomicro-
graph, the white particles do not represent a part of what was be-
lieved to be the characteristic microstructure. In partial support of
this contention, it could be stated that if they were indeed replicas of
holes or depressions in the original specimen surface, then for each
particle there must have been a hole in the original.

The presence of such a large number of depresssions in the ori-
ginal would have been detected, since many of the particles were
within the limit of resolution of the optical microscope, during micro-
scopic examination of the specimen at the various stages of its pre-
paration. Because such an examination failed to reveal the presence
of holes, the first reason was untenable.

Evidence obtained by many workers in electron microscopy has
indicated that Formvar is capable of producing faithful replicas. In
view of this knowledge, the second possibility was believed to be
remote.

The storage environment of the replicas, after preparation and
prior to examination with the electron microscope, was so free of
dust that it was relatively certain that such a great number of particles
could not be attributed to dust which had settled on the replica
surface.

It was possible that they were introduced during the shadow-
casting process because rather concentrated quantities of metal have
been observed over restricted areas of replicas (due to uneven in-
crease of power input to heater filament) in other types of microscope
preparations. The shapes and sizes of these particles were compati-
ble with this viewpoint and not with the idea that they represented

true structure, as they did not resemble any known structure of cop-

953

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

per-beryllium alloys detectable in either optical or electron photo-
micrographs (3).

Figure 6 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at a magnification of 9,000X. It is considered at
this point because of the large numbers of white particles that form-
ed a pseudo structure and tended to mask the true structural fea-
tures present. The interpretation of these particles was the same
as for those in Figure 5. In addition, a careful examination of the
shadows of the particles revealed that their orientation was incom-
patible with the shadows of the grain boundary, if it was assumed
that the grain boundary was raised. Only when the assumption was
made that a one sided, v-shaped boundary existed, could the orienta-
tion of the shadows of the particles be made compatible with the
shadows of the grain boundary.

The depressions in this photomicrograph did correspond to
precipitated particles on the copper-beryllium specimen surface.

Figure 7 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero
aging time) at a magnification of 36,000X. The wrinkled area was
produced by deterioration and collapse of the membrane. Since this
photomicrograph did not contain any new, fine detail of structure
heretofore unseen at lower magnifications, and since this magnifi-
cation was concomitant with a reduced area of field, the working
magnification for studies of this alloy should probably correspond
more nearly to 18,000X than to 36,000X.

Figure 8 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen A (zero
aging time) at a magnification of 50,000X. No new, structural de-
tail could be seen in this photomicrograph, which indicated that
lower magnifications were appropriate for this specimen.

Figure 9 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at a magnification of 3000X. The large, dark
areas corresponded to the undissolved precipitate seen in Figure 3.
However, the magnification used did not permit revelation of the
finest details, which higher magnification proved to be present in
the specimen.

Figure 10 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at a magnification of 9,000X. The undissolved
precipitate exhibited no new detail at this magnification, but the in-

954

Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs

255

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

dividual particles of the newly formed precipitate were easily de-
tected. They are not recognizable, as such, in optical photomicro-
graphs after the elapse of periods of time of the order employed in
this investigation. The doughnut-like appearance of some of these
particles was explained on the basis of depressions resembling troughs,
surrounding, and in contact with the precipitate. It was believed
that this structure resulted from an accelerated rate of attack by
the etchant at the CuBe-matrix interface.

Figure 11 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at a magnification of 18,000X. The precipitate,
which was more plentiful in this photomicrograph than in Figure 5,
showed the effect of aging on the process of precipitation in Cu-Be
alloys.

Figure 12 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at a magnification of 36,000X. The doughnut-
shaped configuration of the precipitate was revealed in greater de-
tail, here. Shadows with orientation both inside and outside con-

firmed the existence of the precipitate in this form.

Figure 13 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen C (two
hours aging time) at a magnification of 50,000X. The increase in
magnification definitely revealed no new, fine detail, which indicat-
ed the likelihood that all structural detail was large enough so that
magnifications of a lesser degree were sufficient.

Figure 14 was an electron photomicrograph of specimen B (one
hour aging time) at a magnification of 9,000X. The dark spots
were not interpreted as being characteristic of the microstructure.
Quite probably they were holes in the Formvar, negative replica.
The white areas immediately surrounding the dark areas were just
as probably due to the folding back of the replica around the holes.
Since it was reasonable for the replica to deteriorate at points where
it was relatively thin, it seemed probable that the holes were made
by projections of precipitate on the original surface. As such, the
holes did not describe the form of the precipitate, but did indicate
that precipitation occurred rather extensively.

256

Comparison of Electron and Optical Photomicrographs

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Optical and electron photomicrographs of nonidentical, but similar

areas of sections of a Cu-Be alloy aged for zero, one, and two hours
were compared, and the following conclusions drawn:

fe

bo

Lo

ey)

Electron photomicrographs of Formvar, negative revlicas, shadow-
ed with chromium, revealed topographic variations to a greater
degree than reflection-type, optical photomicrographs.

The resolving power of the optical microscope did not permit
the revelation of all detail present in the microstructure of the
Cu-Be alloy.

It was possible to follow, with assurance, the changes in appear-
ance of the microstructure of the specimens during the transition
in magnification from the upper optical range to 50,000X, with
electron photomicrographs of intermediate magnifications.

Certain structures which appeared in the electron photomicro-
graphs were observed to be from 30 to 60 millimicrons in size.
Obviously these were too small to be resolved with the optical
microscope.

The presence of certain particles, foreign to the true microstruc-
ture, were attributed to defective shadowing.

LITERATURE CITED

Harker, D. and M. J]. Murphy. 1945. A study of age-hardening using the
electron microscope and Formvar replicas. Trans... Amer. Inst. Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers, 161, 75-89.

Metals Handbook. 1948, 1176.

Barnes, R. Bowling, Charles J. Burton, and Robert G. Scott. 1945. Electron
microscopical replica techniques of the study of organic substances. Journ.

Applied Physics, 16 (11), 730-739.

STRUCTURAL SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS*
John E. Heer, Jr.

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky

The Science of Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest of the
Sciences, its entire history being within the past three decades.

Shortly before World War I, Civil Engineers had rather dis-
astrous experiences with soils in three countries almost simultaneously.
In Sweden there were catastrophic slides, resulting in the loss of
many lives, on the State Railways. The German engineers were sur-
prised many times with slides of the banks of the Kiel Canal. At
the same time our own engineers were experiencing some of their
most trying times with failures in the cuts of the Panama canal.
Previously the study of the soil and its properties was a distasteful
task, undertaken only as a last resort after all other experimenta-
~ tion with changes in the structural elements had failed to correct
the difficulties encountered. With this attitude toward the problem
it is small wonder that the data accummulated were hardly worthy
of the term science.

Intensified experimentation from 1910 to 1930 led to the discovery
of a whole series ef vitally important physical factors which had
escaped the attention of the investigators of the previous generations.
Among these new found facts was one pertaining to the continued
settlement, for many months, of structural foundations at a constant
load. From the discovery of this and other just as important facts
came a desire to rebuild the existing theories to conform with the
increased knowledge of the physical properties of the soil.

As happens with the research program in many of the sciences,
it is not always the oldest problem nor the one which is causing
the maximum amount of real damage that receives the first atten-
tion of the scientist; it is usually that problem which is causing the
most spectacular and newsworthy concern that gets first call on
the time of those in the field. In soil mechanics, in spite of the
fact that settlements had been causing structural damage and finan-
cial loss for many years, it was the lateral stability of earth slopes
that received the primary consideration. This was probably as it

*Presented at Kentucky Academy of Science annual meeting at Lexington, Kentucky, October 27, 1951

258

Structural Settlement Computations

should have been since seldom had settlements caused loss of life:
and while settlements were probably causing more extensive damage,
they were occurring in too many places with a correspondingly
smaller loss per occurrence.

There is no complete theory of the settlement of foundations
and probably there never will be, because of the non-homogeneity of
the medium transmitting the forces. We have only theories which
inform us by crude approximations of one or more of the aspects of
the phenomena of soil behavior. At the present time, however, the
theories that are available, while not exact, are adequate for a ma-
jority of the more serious cases, yet they are seldom given study un-
til after the structure is built and the settlement begins to occur.

In view of the fact that the space allotted to this discussion is
rather limited it would hardly be practicable to attempt to cover
the settlement problem in its fullest details. I should like, there-

fore, to confine my discussion to just one phase of the problem,
this phase being that which I consider one of the most important:

the theory of the distribution of stress in the loaded soil mass.

In almost any recent text on Soil Mechanics can be found
the development of an equation relating the physical properties of
the soil mass, the loads on the soil, and the state of stress in the

soil with the predicted settlement.

The equation will take a form somewhat as follows:

c i Ap
S — H fap bee
l+e P
fe} (@)

In this equation S is the predicted settlement, H is the thickness of
the compressible layer, e. the void ratio of the compressible layer, Py
and p the initial stress and increase in stress due to the superimposed

load, and C., is the coefficient of consolidation of the soil.

This equation has been developed from laboratory consolidation
tests on both disturbed and undisturbed samples. The results of
these tests have been extrapolated to give an equation which is pro-

posed for use in computations involving virgin soil in a completely

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

undisturbed state.

This paper is primarily concerned with the calculation of a
reasonable value for Ap, or the increase in pressure on the com-
pressible layer caused by the load of the structure. Since the com-
pressible layer hardly ever is in direct contact with the footing,
and may be many feet below the surface, the problem is presented
in evaluating the amount by which the footing load is spread over
adjoining area, thus reducting the unit stress as the load is trans-
ferred vertically into the ground.

The analysis of stresses in a loaded soil mass is a complex pro-
blem, the solution of which would be difficult even if we had a
complete knowledge of the physical properties of the soil. The
problem may be simplified by making various assumptions and ac-
cepting certain approximations.

If Soil Mechanics is to be applicable to engineering problems,
it must be considered a part of the mathematical theory of elasticity
and resistance of materials. The approach to solutions must be taken
as special cases of that general theory.

The solution of any design problem can be broadly divided in-
to three general steps:

1. The determination of the forces acting in terms of the basic
properties

i)

The basic properties of the materials under average conditions

8. The variation of the basic properties due to differences in
assumption or non-homogeneity of the material.

Considering step one, if we assume that the stresses in the soil
are the same as in an elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material,
then the theory of elasticity can be applied to the solution. It is
well known that this assumption is not valid; perhaps the only
real excuse that can be offered for its use is that it leads to a con-
venient and generally a reasonable value for the stresses, and that
the results, if accepted at their face value, are useful in estimating
the probable settlement of a structure.

One of the first methods used to compute the increase in pres-
sure on a compressible layer due to a building load was to break

260

Structural Settlement Computations

the loaded area into small parts, considering the load on each
piece to be concentrated at its center. On this basis, if we accept
the theory of elasticity, the increase in stress due to each concen-
trated load could be computed. Then by the principle of super-
position the results added to approximate the total increase in stress
on the soil. This procedure, of course, amounts to a mechanical in-
tegration of the stress due to a differential force on a differential area.

If an external force acts on a very small area of a horizontal
solid of semi-infinite dimensions, that is, one infinite in breadth only,
the point load produces a state of stress with circular symmetry
about a vertical line through the point of application of the load.

On account of the symmetrical nature of the stress the shear-
ing stresses on vertical radial planes are zero. The intensity of the
other stresses has been computed, by Bousenseq in 1885, by means
of a stress function which strictly satisfies the boundary conditions.

The vertical stress at a point on a horizontal plane at depth
z is expressed as

as 3q 1 5/2
wr Bae | I+ Gy si

TZ

In this equation q is the point load on the differential area and r
is the radial distance between the load and the point being stressed.

We can see from this equation and the variety of sizes and
shapes of footings under a modern structure with combinations of
individual, combined and continuous footings, and the further pos-
sibility of different unit loads on different footings, that a mechani-
cal integration as such would require a tremendous amount of time
and labor for a complete solution.

In order to reduce the amount of time involved in these cal-
culations several alternate methods have been proposed for a solu-
tion of the problem.

One of the first proposed is a solution using the same differential
load and area but using the calculus for the integration or summa-
tion. This method is satisfactory as long as the shape of the footing

and hence the limits of integration are relatively simple, such as a

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

circular footing. Unfortunately, this is seldom the case in the prac-

tical structure.

A second method that has been suggested for use when the

foundation consists of a large number of footings or footings of an
irregular shape is a graphical solution developed by Newmark at
the University of Illinois. If we take the basic equation and integrate
it to find the pressure on a point at depth z and immediately below

the center of the loaded area circular in shape with a radius R, we get

P, = 4] (a5 )|

This can be rewritten in the form

p 1 3/2
oA Fy s
q I Se nz)

A study of this equation shows that when r equals infinity

peste 1. Carrying this process further we can find values for the
, ; é Py
ratio of radius of loaded area to depth z for which the term ——

Py
will be equal to 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, ete. As an example for —— equal to
q

0.2 the ratio ~ will be equal to 0.401. This means in effect that if

a loaded circular area has a radius equal to 0.401 times the depth z, the
unit pressure at depth z will be 0.2 of that pressure being applied on
the surface. If we proceed in this manner we can construct a chart
showing the various circles to be loaded to give 0.7q, 0.8q, 0.9q as
pressures at depth z. The first problem in the actual construction of
the chart is to select a suitable scale. If we take any arbitrary length
AB and let it be equal to the depth z we can use as radii of the

262

Structural Settlement Computations

circles the proper fractional lengths

of this scale to construct the chart.
From this chart we see that if
proagthe area in the circle marked p = 0.5q
p°5Zis loaded the pressure at depth z
is one half the applied load. Similar-
ily if the circle marked p = 0.4q is
loaded, the pressure is four tenths
the applied load; then from the prin-
ciple of superposition if only the an-
nular ring between the two circles is
loaded, the increase in pressure is
0.5q minus 0.4q or 0.lq. We can further divide this annular ring in-
to smaller areas by n equally spaced radial lines the smaller areas
being included between two radii and the two circles, as shown
cross-sectioned on the chart, the increase in pressure due to a load

0.1q
on this area being ———. Since all the areas are symmetrical about

the center each will eeu equal influence on the stresses in the soil;
if n is equal to ten, the influence of each area is 0.01 q. This proce-
dure was followed by Newmark in the construction of his charts
published in 1942 by the University of Illinois Engineering Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 338.

The method for using the chart is as follows: after the soil pro-
file is throughly investigated, the depth to the center of the com-
pressible layer is used as the depth z. Then to a scale such that
z — AB from the chart a foundation plan is drawn showing the indi-
vidual footings and their unit loads. This tracing is then laid over
the chart in such a manner that the point on the foundation under
which the stress is to be computed is directly over the center of
the chart. The number of influence blocks covered is then counted,
the increase in stress being equal to the product of the number of
blocks, the influence stress per block, and the unit load on the foot-
ing area. If all the footings have the same unit load one calculation
is sufficient; however, if there are footings of different unit loads,
each unit load must be handled independently and the final stresses
added to give the total increase in stress in the soil.

We have a notable example of the use of this theory in an

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Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

article published by Dr. Karl Trezaghi in his text. In this article
he compares the predicted settlements with the actual measured
settlements on the Charity Hospital in New Orleans. It is remark-
able that in spite of the complexity of the problem the predicted

and measured contours of equal settlement virtually coincide.

In closing I should like to call to your attention that while we
are far from a complete solution, the problem is not as hopeless
as some would lead us to believe. One of our most pressing needs
today is to have more complete records from those people in the
field who are having settlement problems. We must not only be
told that the settlement is occurring, we must be given a complete
description of the rate of its occurrence and the pattern of its
occurrence throughout the building. Above all, it is necessary to
have a detailed description of the soil profile and the results of
laboratory tests of the soil.

264

PREPARATION OF 1—XYLYL—1, 3-BUTANEDIONES USING
DIKETENE*

Reedus Ray Estes and Albert Tockman

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Hurd and Kelso (1) used diketene to prepare benzoyl acetone
by three different methods in 11-25% yields. The preparation of
benzoyl acetone in 73% yield by He reaction of diketene and ex-
cess benzene at 50° in the presence of aluminum chloride was re-
ported by Boese (2). This appeared to be an attractive method
for the preparation of the xyloyl acetones and for observation of the
directive effects in the ring during this Friedel-Crafts type of re-
action.

During preliminary experiments at 50° with diketene, excess
p-xylene, and aluminum chloride it was noted that isomerization
of p-xylene occurred. Re-use of the recovered p-xylene with dike-
tene and aluminum chloride produced a non-separable mixture of
d'ketones derived from m-xylene, p-xylene, and other substances
which were not identified. (Isomerization of p-xylene to m-xylene
at 100° by aluminum chloride (3) and at 55° by aluminum chlo-
ride and hydrogen chloride (4,5) has been reported.) Reaction of
diketene and p-xylene in the presence of the milder catalysts,
stannic chloride and boron trifluoride, did not produce any of the
desired product. Boese found that the best yields of benzoyl ace-
tone were obtained by using two moles of aluminum chloride for
each mole of diketene, because the diketone formed during the re-
action complexes the aluminum chloride, making it less available for
catalysis. The use of a lower reaction temperature made possible by
the relatively greater ease of substitution of the xylenes, practically
eliminated isomerization by aluminum chloride. The p-xylene re-
covered from a typical run at 20° showed no appreciable change
in index of refraction or freezing point. The viscous red complex
formed by aluminum chloride and xylene (6) so decreased the ef-
ficiency of stirring that the yield was appreciably lowered unless
xylene was present in large excess. This necessitated combination
of the products of several batches to obtain enough material for
purification by fractional distillation. The structure of each dike-
* From the M.S. dissertation of Albert Tockman, University of Kentucky,

April, 1950.

265

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

tone was determined by hypochlorite oxidation to the dimethyl ben-

zoic acid, and conversion of the acid to the amide.
Only one monosubstitution product is possible from p-xylene (1).

This gave upon hypochlorite oxidation 2, 5-dimethyl benzoic acid,
corresponding to 1—(2, 5-dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (II).

CH; ae
(1) (1)
~ f a —CHo- a CH3
, HG-6- ae AlGls,
0-G=0 20°
(1) 7 2 a
be
CH; 3
di a

Three monosubtitution products are possible from m-xylene
(III). The most probable position for the substituent is ortho- to
one methyl group and para- to the other. A second possibility, ortho-
to both methyl groups, is less probable because of the relatively
weak ortho-directive influence of a methyl group and the likeli-
hood of steric hindrance. The least probable position is meta- to
both methyl groups. Hypochlorite oxidation of the product gave
2, 4-dimethyl benzoic acid, corresponding to 1—(2, 4-dimethylpheny] )
—I, 3-butanedione (IV). Two monosubstitution products are pos-

(2)

H3C CH3 H30\. 7

4 H2C=G-GHp AlClz. | : &
0-6-0 720" u ae
—CH»-C—CH3
ie a)
A)
(3)
Ii Iv

266

Preparation of 1—xylyl—1, 3—Butanediones Using Diketene

sible from o-xylene (V). The more probable position for the
substituent is para- to one methyl group and meta- to the other. A
slightly less probable position is ortho- to one methyl group and
meta- to the other. The product which was obtained could not be
purified by fractional distillation; the major component crystallized
upon cooling. Hypochlorite oxidation gave 3,4-dimethyl benzoic acid,
pe peedine to 1-(3,4-dimethylphenyl )-1,3-butanedione (VI). Suf-
ficient quantity for identification of the minor component (presum-
ed to be 1-(2, 3-dimethylphenyl )-1, 3-butanedione (VII) could not be

VI
CH3
H30
9 9
CH C—CH»—CG—CH3
ke /2)
H,C=C-—CH
=~ 2 ! 2
0-¢=0 ny
CH
(2)7 Nay didhgs 6
lI fl
AF H30\ 7 C—CHp—G—CH3
aig —<

VIL

obtained. The 1-xylyl-1,3-butamediones gave a deep red coloration
with ferric chloride. The copper complexes of the “para’ * and “meta”
are useful derivatives of the diketones.

EXPERIMENTAL

Melting points and boiling points are corrected. Analyses were made by
the Clark Microanalytical Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois.

MATERIALS. Ortho-, meta-, and para-xylenes were obtained from The
Matheson Co. Anhydrous aluminum chloride was Merck reagent grade. Dike-
tene was kindly supplied by Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co., at the South
Charleston, West Virginia plant. It was purified by fractional distillation at 40
mm. pressure through a 48-inch helices-packed vacuum-jacketed column mount-

267

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

ed in a hood. The fraction boiling at 50° was collected and stored at
—20° until needed.

1—(2, 5-Dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (II).

Using a three-necked flask equiped with Walter dropping funnel, reflux con-
donee and Hershberg stirrer, 16.8 g. (0.2 mole) of diketene dissolved in 63.7 g.
(0.6 mole) of p-xylene was added dropwise over a period of 40 minutes to a
stirred suspension of 54 g. (0.4 mole) of anhydrous aluminum chloride in
63.7 g. (0.6 mole) of p-xylene. The reaction temperature was 20°; stirring
was continued to give a total reaction time of one hour. The reaction mixture
was decomposed by pouring onto 300 g. of ice and water containing 25 ml.
of concentrated hydrochloric acid and was then gently refluxed for one hour.
The unreacted p-xylene was recovered by steam distillation. About 100 ml. of
acetone was added to the cool residue, the organic layer separated, and the
acetone and any remaining p-xylene removed by distillation at 20 mm. pres-
sure. The viscous red residue was then rapidly distilled at a pressure of 3 mm.,
leaving a considerable quantity of tars. Twenty-six grams of a pale yellow
oil boiling at about 129° was obtained; the yield based on diketene was 68%.
This material was combined with the products of other similiar runs and was
fractionally distilled at a pressure of 10 mm. through a 10-inch helices-packed
column, yielding a colorless oil boiling at 150.9-151.4°. Dielectric constant at
25.0° and 10 megacycles 14.15; d,?5 1.0512, nie? I aiO2:

Anal, Galed. for ©)5H7,05: GC, 75:76; Hes7-42. ‘hound: €@) 76:50-3eawe5o

Two milliliters of the purified material was suspended in 10 ml. of 10%
aqueous sodium hydroxide and added with stirring to 100 ml. of 5.2% so-
dium hypochlorite (Clorox) (7). After gentle warming for five minutes, 10
ml. of acetone was added cautiously and the mixture heated for 10 minutes.
The solution was filtered and acidified with acetic acid. When cool, the
precipitated white solid was separated by filtration and recrystallized twice
from water-methanol mixture. The dried solid melted at 130.0-130.5° (litera-
ture for 2, 5-dimethyl benzoic acid, 132°). One gram of the dry acid was
converted to the amide by treating with thionyl chloride and adding the
resulting acid chloride to cold concentrated ammonia water. The amide was
decolorized with charcoal and recrystallized twice from water-methanol mix-
ture. The dry amide melted at 184-185° (literature (8) for 2, 5-dimethy]
benzamide, 186°). A freshly filtered solution of 12 g. of copper acetate
monohydrate in 150 ml. of hot water was added with stirring to 2 g. of the
purified diketone. When the precipitate had crystallized (about two hours),
it was collected by filtration and recrystallized from methanol. After three
recrystallizations, the gray-green copper complex melted sharply at 122.0°

1—(2, 4-Dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (IV).
The apparatus and general procedure were the same as above except for the
substitution of m-xylene for p-xylene. Twenty-four grams of a pale yellow oil,

boiling at about 135° at 3 mm. was obtained; the yield based on diketene was
63%. The products of several runs were combined and purified as above,

268

Preparation of 1—xylyl—1, 3—Butanediones Using Diketene

giving a colorless oil boiling at 146.4-147.2° at 10 mm; dielectric constant
at 25.0° and 10 megacycles 14.88; d,?° 1.0522; me 1.5754.
Anal, Caled. for C,H, ,O5: C,; 75.76; H, 7.42.. Found: C, 75.91; H, 7.19.

Hypochlorite oxidation as described above gave an acid which melted
at 125° (literature (8) for 2, 4-dimethyl benzoic acid, 126°). The amide
melted at 179° (literature (8): 179-181°). The blue-gray copper complex
melted at 156°.

1—(3, 4-Dimethylphenyl)—1, 3-butanedione (V1).
The apparatus and general procedure were the same as above except that
o-xylene was used. Twenty grams of a pale yellow oil, boiling at about 160°
at a pressure of 7 mm. was obtained. The yield based on diketene was 79%.
The products of three runs were combined and subjected to fractional dis-
tillation. No pure component could be isolated in this manner. Upon cooling,
however, a solid separated and was recrystallized from Skellysolve B until its
melting point became constant at 48.8-49.0°;
Anal. Caled: for C,H, ,05: ©, 75.76; H, 7.42. Found: C, 75.96; H, 7.25.

Hypochlorite oxidation gave an acid which melted at 166° (literature (8)
for 3, 4-dimethyl benzoic acid, 165-166°). The amide melted at 130° (lit-
erature (8): 131°). The green copper complex decomposed without melt-
ing when heated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant-in-aid from The
Research Corporation. The dielectric constants were determined by
Mr. Frederick Gormley, using apparatus which has been described (9).

SUMMARY

1-(2, 5-dimethylphenyl )-1, 3-butanedione, 1-(2, 4-dimethylpheny] )-
1, 3-butanedione, and 1-(3, 4-dimethylphenyl )-1, 3-butanedione have
been prepared from diketene and para—, meta—, and ortho-xylene
respectively. Copper complexes of the first two compounds are
useful derivatives.
LITERATURE CITED

1. Hurd and Kelso, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 1548 (1940).

2. Boese, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 21 (1940).

3. Heise and Tohl, Ann., 270, 169 (1892).

4. Norris and Rubenstein, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 61, 1163 (1939).

5. Norris and Vaala, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 61, 213 (1939).

6. Dilke, Eley, and Perry, Research, 2, 538 (1949).

7. Fuson and Bull, Chem. Rev., 15, 275 (1934).

8. Heilbron, Dictionary of Organic Compounds, Oxtord University Press, New
York, (1943).

9. Leader, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73, 856 (1951).

269

A LOOK AT KENTUCKY WOODLANDS
Eugene Cypert, Jr.

Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Paris, Tennessee

Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge is one of the
system of some 280 Wildlife Refuges administered by the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the only National Wildlife
Refuge in Kentucky. It was established for the preservation and
propagation of all forms of native wildlife, particularly the wild
turkey, the white-tailed deer, and waterfowl.

HisToRICAL

The refuge, which contains approximately 65,000 acres, is located
in Lyon and Trigg Counties between the Cumberland River and
Kentucky Lake. This area, which was made a national wildlife refuge
in 1938, has an interesting history. Most of the land included in it
was formerly owned by ihe Hillman Land and Iron Company. Iron
was mined and smelted here, intermittently, between 1841 and 1912.
The ruins of one of the three iron furnaces, known as Center furnace,
still stand. It was on this area, in 1845 or 1846, that the first Chinese
labor was used on this continent. It was here, during the decade fol-
lowing the Civil War, that the so-called Bessemer process for mak-
ing steel was developed. Here, also the famous Golden Pond moon-
shine whiskey was produced during, and just following, the prohibi-
tion era.

The area is, largely, rough hilly woodlands interspersed with
cleared hollows which have been used, more or less, for some form
of agriculture since an early day. The Cumberland River and Ken-
tucky Lake extend parallel to each other about eight or nine miles
apart along the east and west sides of the refuge. The Dividing Ridge,
running between the two streams, has an elevation of about 520 feet.
On the west side, the land slopes off rather sharply to Kentucky Lake.
The general slope on the Cumberland river side is less abrupt and
the hills gradually play out into the flat fertile Cumberland river
bottom which aver ages about a mile across.

The timber on the wooded area has been cut heavily in the
past. During the iron smelting day, it was clear cut. Everything

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A Look At Kentucky Woodlands

down to small trees, two inches in diameter, was used for making
charcoal for smelting. Fortunately for the native wildlife, not more
than 300 acres were clear cut in this way in any one year. After the
cessation of iron mining and smelting, heavy timber cutting was car-
ried on for the production of cross ties, until the land was purchased
by the United States, through the Resettlement Administration, in
1936. During this long period, there was no attempt to control fires
and the woods were burned over almost annually. Also, this coun-
try was without a stock law and free ranging livestock often severely
stripped the woodlands of palatable vegetation and mast.

GENERAL PROGRESS

Since the refuge was established, substantial progress has been
made toward developing the area as wildlife habitat. Poaching,
woods fires, and uncontrolled grazing have been practically eliminat-
ed through the vigilance of the refuge personnel. Three small lakes,
Hematite Lake with an area of about 125 acres, Honker Lake with
an area of about 130 acres, and Empire Lake with an area of about
60 acres, have been created on the eastern side of the refuge and
waterfowl food plants have been established in them. Field crops,
suitable for wildlife food, are planted and tended each year by re-
fuge personnel and by neighboring farmers. When farmers tend this
land, a share of the crop is left unharvested for wildlife as rent
payment. Some of the land is rented as pasture for cattle. This is
not incidental to wildlife management but is, rather, a part of it.
While rental of pasture land fits in desirably with the local economy,
I wish to emphasize that grazing is permitted primarily with the
view of maintaining wildlife habitat. It is desirable, from the stand-
point of certain species, to maintain clearings and the grazing of
livestock is simply an economical way of doing this. In fact it ap-
pears that grazed clearings are actually more attractive to wild
turkeys than clearings maintained in other ways.

WiLp TURKEY

Probably the most interesting form of wildlife on this refuge is
the Eastern Wild Turkey. These birds are of the orignial wild stock
and show no sign of being contaminated by domestic turkeys. Their
spindle shaped bodies, small blue heads with practically no wattles,

271

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

brown tipped tails and their nervous ever-alert manner all are char-
acteristics peculiar to the pure strain wild turkey.

The wild turkey is truly a wary and resourceful bird. During
the iron working days, and afterward, the area between the rivers
was fairly thickly populated and the turkeys were hunted the year
around, The fact that they were able to survive in spite of this
uncurbed hunting and the disturbance and habitat destruction result-
ing from timber operations, fire, and uncontrolled grazing, speaks
well for their adaptability.

These birds increased very satisfactorily for the first few years
after the refuge was established and then there was a sharp decline
in their numbers. This decrease was not due to-poaching since the
turkeys have been afforded good protection and the attitude of the
local people toward turkey hunting has improved steadily. Apparent-
ly there is some factor, or factors, in the turkey’s environment which
tends to limit their density, that we have not yet determined. There
are several factors which may contribute to this limitation of popula-
tion:

1. The amount and availability of proper food and water at
critical periods during the year.

bo

. The accessibility of the various types of conditions required
by the turkey for feeding, nesting, and escape.

3. Competition with, and depredations by, other species of
animals.
4, Disease and parasites.

It is the work of those concerned with wildlife management to
discover the factors and inter-relations of factors that govern wild-
life populations and to make practical applications of such findings.

WHITE-TAILED DEER

The management of the white-tailed deer, on Kentucky Wood-
lands, has been simpler than the management of the turkey, and
more successful. Given brushy growth, adequate water supply, and
salt, the deer will ordinarily increase satisfactorily when protected.
In 1915, the last of the native white-tailed deer were killed by

272

A Look At Kentucky Woodlands

hunters. In 1919, Mr. J. N. Esselstyn, superintendent of the Hill-
man Land Company, introduced thirty white-tailed deer. These deer
persisted through the years, in spite of a considerable amount of
hunting, until the refuge was established. By 1948 the population
appeared to be approaching the carrying capacity of the refuge.
More than 350 deer were live trapped between 1946 and 1949 to
restock wildlife areas managed by the state of Kentucky. In 1949,
disease decimated the population so that trapping was discontinued.
The remaining deer appear to be in good shape and it is expected
that the population will build up again to its former density.

WATERFOWL

In the future, Kentucky Woodlands may be looked upon as,
primarily, a waterfowl refuge. The success of waterfowl manage-
ment here has surpassed expectations and the refuge promises to be
an important unit in the management of waterfowl of the Mississippi
flyway. Prior to the establishment of the lakes, ducks and geese
were almost unknown in this vicinity. Within four years after their
flooding, as many as 10,000 ducks of several species could be seen
on these lakes during the winter. The mallard and the black duck
are the principal species. Pintails, ringnecks, lesser scaups, wood
ducks, baldpates, gadwalls, goldeneyes, ruddy ducks, buffleheads,
and mergansers are common.

The response of Canada geese to the refuge was not as im-
mediate as that of the ducks but it is even more satisfactory. Large
fields adjacent to Empire and Honker Lakes and to Kentucky Lake
on the west side of the refuge have been cleared of brush and crops
of small grain for winter green food and corn and milomaize are

planted and are ready for the geese when they arrive in the fall.

In 1940, eight crippled geese from Horseshoe Lake in Illinois
were placed on Hematite Lake as decoys. It was encouraging to
refuge personnel that six Canada geese stopped and spent a day on
Empire Lake. During the fall and winter of 1941 and 1942 three
flocks of 28, 48, and 50 were observed on the refuge. And so each
year there was a gradual increase in the number of Canada geese us-

ing the area. By the fall of 1945 there was a winter resident popu-

273

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

lation of about 250 geese. In the following spring 56 pinioned de-
coys from Carolina Sandhills Refuge were penned at Empire Lake.
The following fall and winter there was a resident population of
475 geese. The following years showed a continued increase. Dur-
ing the winter of 1949-50, a peak of about 3,000 geese used the
refuge and spent the winter there and nearby on Kentucky Lake
and in neighboring grain fields.

Kentucky Woodlands is not considered as merely a kind of
museum of native wildlife, but rather as a unit in a system of refuges
and wildlife mangement areas whose object is the restoration of North
American wildlife. It works in conjunction with a series of federal
and state waterfowl refuges and managed hunting areas, extending
along the system of T.V.A. lakes in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ala-
bama. This has resulted in a desirable eastward extension of the
Mississippi waterfowl flyway.

SUPERVISED HUNTING AND TRAPPING

Since 1946, the state of Kentucky has conducted a live trapping
project for the purpose of restocking wildlife refuges and manage-
ment areas throughout the state with turkeys, deer, and raccoons
taken from Kentucky Woodlands Refuge.

Hunting and trapping are not entirely and forever excluded
from this refuge. In fact, when a species becomes over-abundant,
it may be good management to remove the surplus in this way. In
years of a heavy squirrel crop, squirrel hunts, supervised by per-
sonnel of the refuge and the Kentucky Department of Conservation,
are held. In the fall of 1949, a supervised coon hunt was conducted.
The trapping of fur animals under permit is allowed at times when
it is deemed desirable to reduce the fur animal population. It is
entirely possible that, in the future, some regulated hunting of deer
and turkeys may be conducted if these species build up a popula-
tion that can safely stand such removal.

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE JACKSON PURCHASE*
EK Wood

Kentucky Geological Survey

Kentucky is divided into several physiographic provinces each
with its own rather distinctive characteristics. The Cumberland Pla-
teau of eastern Kentucky, with its rugged mountains, scenic beauty,
widespread forests and vast coal deposits, is one example of these
provinces. Another is the Bluegrass Region, famous the world over
for its fertile farm and pasture land which supports the very impor-
tant tobacco and horse industries. Still others are the Pennyroyal
famous for the great Mammoth and associated caverns, good farm
land and high calcium limestones, and the western Kentucky Coal
Basin which produces most of Kentucky's petroleum and a consid-
erable amount of coal. The Jackson Purchase is another province
with its own peculiar characteristics.

The types of rocks present in outcrop and the influence of the
elements (weathering) on them is an important factor in the forma-
tion of these various provinces. The outcrop pattern of the different
systems of rocks shown in colors on the geologic map of Kentucky
corresponds very closely to the physiographic provinces.

In the Jackson Purchase region some of the older rocks which
outcrop in other parts of the state have been covered by younger
formations consisting mainly of sands, gravels, and clays. This was
accomplished by submergence of the area and the formation of a
sort of glorified Gulf of Mexico which extended northward over
what is now the Jackson Purchase region. These waters were re-
sponsible for the deposition of these younger sediments. Thus we
find a different type of formation in the Jackson Purchase from that
in any other section of the state.

It should be apparent from an east-west cross section through
the state that one would not expect to find in the Purchase Region
the coals of the western Kentucky Coal Basin or eastern Kentucky
Coal Fields or the high calcium limestones of the Pennyroyal. Like-
wise, the Mississippian oil bearing formations of the western Ken-
tucky Coal Basin which account for perhaps 75% _ of Kentucky's oil
production would not be present.

So, while the Purchase lacks certain minerals found in other

® Condensation of a talk presented at the 1950 Spring Meeting of the Kentucky
Academy of Science at Murray State College.

275

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

parts of the state, it in turn possesses its own characteristic minerals.
Probably the most important of these is its ball, sagger, wad and
other high grade types of ceramic clay. In 1946 the value of ball
clay alone totaled about one million dollars.

Other mineral resources include ground water, sand and gravel,
chert and the possibility of oil or gas. Not a great deal is known
concerning these mineral resources and more information must be
compiled if they are to be efficiently developed.

At present, the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board
through the Kentucky Geological Survey is carrying on mineral re-
source investigations in the vicinity of Henderson, Hopkinsville and
Paintsville. Ground water investigations are also being carried on
in close cooperation with the above program and in Louisville and
Covington. Four inner Bluegrass counties have already been survey-
ed and water maps issued.

Also of vital importance to many state industries and agencies
is the topographic mapping program under the sponsorship of the
Agricultural and Industrial Development Board in cooperation with
the U.S. Geological Survey. The goal of this program is to provide
statewide coverage of modern up-to-date topographic maps on a
scale of 1 inch = 2600 feet.

It is hoped that the mineral resource investigation will also
be put on a statewide basis so that every section of Kentucky will
know what mineral resources are present and how to develop
them efficiently.

276

ADSORPTION OF ALIPHATIC ACIDS ON A WEAK BASE
ANION EXCHANGER®

Sigfred Peterson and Robert W. Jeffers

Chemistry Department, College of Arts and Sciences,
University of Louisville, Louisville 8, Ky.
Equilibrium isotherms have been measured at 30.3°C. for the reaciion be-
tween Amberlite IR-4B and the acids chloracetic, formic, acetic, propionic, butyric,
and isobutyric. Formic and chloracetic are more strongly taken up than the others

from dilute solutions. A strong adsorption from high concentrations of butyric and
isobutyric is probably due to true adsorption.

While considerable attention has been given in recent years to
the factors influencing cation exchange equilibrium, little attention
has been given to equilibria involving anion exchange resins. Kunin
and Meyers (1) show graphically a variety of equilibria involving
a weak-base resin, Bishop has correlated adsorption of a wide variety
of acids by both weak base (2) and strong base (3) resins, and
Robinson and Mills (4) show the adsorption by another weak base
resin of normal aliphatic acids from water, acetone, and hydrocar-
bon solvent. Cleaver and Cassidy (5) show adsorption of glutamic
acid by both anion and cation exchangers.

It is the purpose of this work to give a quantitative description
of the adsorption of carboxylic acids by a weak base resin and to
correlate the adsorption with other properties of the acids.

EXPERIMENTAL

Materials. — Amberlite IR-4B anion exchange resin (we are indebted to the Res-
inous Products Division, Rohm and Haas Company, for a generous supply of
the resin) in 500 g. batches was left in contact with distilled water for a week,
with water changed once or twice daily. The resin was then placed in a
large Buchner funnel, washed with one liter of distilled water using gentle
suction, and treated with a 5% solution of hydrochloric acid without suction
until sufficient acid had been run through to convert the resin to the chloride
form. The resin was then similarly treated with three one-liter portions of 5%
sodium hydroxide, and washed with water. This washing with sodium hydroxide
followed by washing with water was continued until the pH of the washings was the
same as that of the water used. Full suction was then applied for one hour.
The resin was then removed from the funnel and dried in vacuo over calcium

‘This work was performed under a contract with the Atomic Energy Commission and also

received some support from the College of Arts and Sciences Research Fund, The paper is based
on the M.S. Thesis research of Mr. R. W_ Jeffers.

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

chloride for three days. Resin was used soon after processing to avoid decom-
position.

Laboratory distilled water was further demineralized by a mixed-bed ion
exchange column. :

C. P. Baker’s analyzed formic and acetic acid, Coleman and Bell C. P.

butyric acid and Dow specially purified chloracetic acid were used. Eimer
and Amend C. P. propionic acid and Sapon Laboratories isobutyric acid were
distilled, the fractions used boiling respectively at 141.0°C. (750 mm.) and
158.4°C. (760 mm.).
Procedure. — To weighed samples of resin (usually about 2 g.) in Pyrex glass
stoppered bottles were added 100 ml. portions of acid of known concentration.
The bottle was then agitated gently, sealed with paraffin wax and placed in
a constant temperature bath at 30.3°C. for seventy-two hours, a time found to
be quite sufficient for the system to reach equilibrium. The bottles were then
removed and the concentration of the acid in the solution measured.

Acid concentrations were measured by titration with standardized sodium
hydroxide. For acid concentrations below 0.02 M conductometric titrations (6)
-were used.

RESULTS AND Discussion

From the decrease in acid concentration in the solution the con-
centration, y, of acid in the resin phase is calculated in millimoles
per gram of dry resin. A number of graphical representations of the
equilibrium data were plotted in order to find clues as to a suitable
mathematical interpretation of the data. As illustrated in Fig. 1 for
two of the acids, plots of y as a function of the equilibrium concen-
tration, c, of the solution, as in typical adsorption isotherms, show
slopes continuously decreasing from large values at low concentrations.
While adsorption of strong mineral acids on a similar resin was
found by Meyers, Eastes and Urquhart (7) to follow the Freundlich
isotherm, graphs of log y versus log c for aliphatic acids on another
similar resin were found by Robinson and Mills (4) to show slopes
decreasing with increasing concentration, suggesting a saturation
effect. Our data, as illustrated in Fig. 2 for chloracetic and acetic
acids, show the same decreasing slope. This suggests fitting the
data with the Langmuir isotherm which is derived for adsorbents of
limited capacity, unquestionably a property of ion exchange resins if
the “adsorption” is confined to the basic groups of the resin. In his
report on the reaction between acids and weak base anion exchangers,
Bishop (2) has derived the Langmuir isotherm in a form applicable
to both weak and strong acids.

278

Anion Exchanger

Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids On A Weak Base

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‘Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids On A Weak Base Anion Exchanger
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The Langmuir isotherm can be reduced to the linear form
Cf Ae By Cl)
in which A is theoretically the reciprocal of the capacity of the resin
and B is inversely proportional to the “affinity” of the resin for the
acid. Fig. 3 shows a test of this equation for propionic acid and
butyric acid. Formic, acetic and chloracetic fit equation (1) as well

o
09

0. 8

0.7

|
|
()
+

iz

O propionic acid
0.6

O butyric acid

Os

0.4

C (Moles)

Frg.3. /sotherms at 30.3° plotted to test the Langmuir /sotherm.
Straight lines are eg.) with least squares values of Aand B

0.1/4
0/2
0/0
0.08
cly
g./eal.

281

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

as propionic, giving fair agreement with the data to about 0.7 M.
Isobutyric, like butyric, does not fit very well, showing important de-
viations above 0.25 M.

A careful examination of Fig. 3 shows also deviations from the
straight lines at low concentrations, possibly indicating a difference in
the nature of the “adsorbed” state at low concentrations. No other
interpretation has occurred to us which permits the calculation of
numerical quantities giving a measure of the equilibrium.

Lacking a satisfactory analytical comparison betwen the acids,
we have read from smooth curves values of y for round concentra-
tions. These are given in Table I along with the ionization constants
compiled by Dippy (8). It can be seen that the stronger acids are
more strongly adsorbed from dilute solutions, while the longer-chain
acids are more strongly adsorbed from more concentrated solutions.
Crossing of the isotherms in Fig. 1 also illustrates this.

Table I. Adsorption (millimoles/g.) at round equilibrium molarities.

Acid K x 105 Ges WIL @ S08 (eS OS 6s Lv
Chloracetic 137.8 5.9 6.8 7.5
Formic TA 6.0 7.0 38 8.4
Acetic 1.754 4.3 5.2 5.6 6.3
Propionic 1.34 4.2 Ball 6.0 7.3
Butyric 1.50 4.6 6.5 9.3
Isobutyric 1.38 4.1 5.9 8.2

The increased adsorption at high concentrations (shown by the
continued rise in Fig. 1 and the decreasing slope in Fig. 3) can be
explained in a number of ways. Studies of cation-exchange (9) and
strong base anion-exchange (10) equilibria have found that in some
cases water taken up by the resin cannot be neglected in calculating
compositions. If appreciable water is absorbed by the resin in our
experiments, it can be shown that the error in y is proportional to
the equilibrium acid concentration. This, however, is in the wrong
direction unless we make the rather implausible assumption that the

282

Adsorption of Aliphatic Acids On A Weak Base Anion Exchanger

resin carboxylate has a smaller affinity for water than does the
resin base. There is no reason to believe that the resin phase is an
ideal solution. Since one component of this phase is ionic, the other
not, the activity coefficients should differ significantly from unity.
This has been found (9, 11) to be true even when both components
of the resin are ionic.

The process studied here is called adsorption only because it is
measured and described like adsorption; it is in truth an acid-base
reaction, the resin being a high molecular weight polyamine which
is converted by the acid to a polycation resin which somewhere in
its structure contains anions in quantity sufficient to keep the phase
electrically neutral. That adsorption at high concentration is far great-
er for butyric acid and isobutyric suggests, however, that true adsorp-
tion is taking place in addition to neutralization of the resin base,
since (12) increasing chain length increases adsorption of fatty acids
on charcoal from aqueous solution. Also, the total concentration in
the resin phase in equilibrium with high concentrations in solution is
in the case of butyric acid greater than that calculated from the re-
ported (1) nitrogen content of the resin with the assumption that
all the nitrogen is in active amino groups. True adsorption has for
some time been considered (2, 13) a source of error in equilibrium
studies of this type. Recently evidence for true adsorption has been
presented in studies of carboxylic acids with a strong base anion ex-
changer (14) and of weak bases with cation exchangers (15). Car-
boxylic acids are also apparently adsorbed by cation exchange resins
(15) and by salt forms of strong base anion exchangers (16), and
adsorption even of salts has recently been found (9) an important
factor in cation exchange equilibrium.

To determine the temperature dependence of the equilibrium,
parallel series of equilibrium measurements were made with the series
of six acids at 24.4° and 30.4°C. The resin was older at the time of
these experiments, and apparently less stable, since the solutions show-
ed a yellow color due to resin decomposition products.

Nevertheless the equilibria found at either temperature fit the
30.3° isotherms about as well as do the points upon which the iso-
therms are based. This is illustrated for two of the acids in Fig. 1.

From this we can conclude that the equilibrium does not depend

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

greatly upon temperature or upon age of the resin. The latter is

reassuring to us since it was impossible to determine all petats on

six isotherms simultaneously.

LITERATURE CITED
R. Kunin and R. J. Meyers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69, 2874 (1947).
J. A. Bishop, J. Phys. Chem. 50, 6 (1946).
J. A. Bishop, J. Phys. & Colloid Chem. 54, 697 (1950).
D. A. Robinson and G. F. Mills, Ind. Eng. Chem. 41, 2221 (1949).
C. S. Cleaver and H. G. Cassidy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 72, 1147 (1950).

H. H. Willard, L. L. Merritt, and J. A. Dean, Instrumental Methods of
Analysis, 2nd Ed., D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1951, p. 235.

R. J. Meyers, J. W. Eastes, and D. Urquhart, Ind. Eng. Chem. 33, 1270
(1941).

J. F. J. Dippy, Chem. Rev. 25, 204 (1939)

W. K. Lowen, R. W. Stoenner, W. J. Argersinger, Jr., A. W. Davidson and
D. N. Hume, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79, 2666 (1951).

C. W. Davies and T. G. Jones, J. Chem. Soc. 1951, 2615.

W. J. Argersinger, Jr., A. W. Davidson and O. D. Bonner, Trans. Kansas
Acad. Sci. 53, 404 (1950).

KE. R. Liner and R. A. Gortner, J. Phys. Chem. 39, 35 (1935).

M. C. Schwartz, W. R. Edwards, Jr. and G. Boudreaux, Ind. Eng. Chem. 32,
1462 (1940).

S. Peterson and R. W. Jeffers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74, 1605 (1952).
C. W. Davies and G. Garrod Thomas, J. Chem. Soc. 1951, 2624.

S. Peterson and H. Footerman, unpublished results.

284

RESEARCH NOTES

AN ALBINO SNAKE (ELAPHE OBSOLETA)

Inasmuch as reported instances of albinism in snakes are somewhat un-
common, it seems desirable to record that an albino Elaphe obsoleta (Say)
was taken in Oldham County, Kentucky about the 12th of September, 1951.
The living specimen was presented to the writer by Perry Farmer, a teacher
at Anchorage, Kentucky, who in turn had received it from one of his students.

Description of specimen: This snake, a female 656 mm. in length, is es-
sentially a “pure” albino in appearance. The general color is a light cream. The
iris is of this same color, while the pupil is dark red and the tongue pink.

The skin is not entirely without pigment, however, and the blotched pat-
tern characteristic of Elaphe obsoleta confinis (Cope) and of immature E. o.
obsoleta (Say) is faintly discernible. Examination under a lens reveals the
presence of small amounts of red and yellow pigments in most of the body
scales. The unequal distribution of these pigments, particularly the erythrin,
is responsible for the appearance, faint though it be, of the coloration pat-
tern. A third pigment, a melanin, is present as small punctations on most of
the head shields and on a few of the body scales. There is one obvious dif-
ference between the coloration of this snake and that of newly-born water-
snakes (Natrix sipedon sipedon L.) described some years ago!. In the latter
the areas corresponding to the dark blotches of normal individuals were of
deep flesh or pink color, a condition which resulted from the visibility of
cutaneous blood. In the Elaphe, however, these areas as well as the spaces
between are pervaded by the opaque cream which seemingly is due to struc-
ture rather than pigment.

The scutellation and size appear to be not unusual for this species: dorsal
scale rows 25-24- ea ventrals 236 plus divided anal; caudals 74; suprala-
bials 11; oculars 1, 2; temporals (left) 2 + 3 and (right) 2(+1)+3; total
length 656 mm; tail length 102 mm; ratio of tail to total length 0.155.

Remarks: The present specimen _ provides further evidence (see
loc. cit.) that albinism in snakes frequently or even generally is not com-
plete but consists rather of the absence of a melanin which is abundant in
normal individuals, while pigments normally present in small quantities are
still present in albinos. It is logical to assume, therefore, that the different
pigments are under the control of different genes. Albinism in its usual form
(near or complete absence of melanin) appears to be inherited as a single factor
Mendelian recessive, but little or nothing seems to have been published about
the inheritance of the minor pigments.

A problem in the application of common names arises in connection with
the albino discussed in this paper, since one cannot determine whether it is
referable to E. 0. obsoleta (the Pilot Black Snake) or E. 0. confinis (sometimes
called the Gray Rat Snake). These two forms are generally distinguished,
of course, by the amount of pigmentation (particularly melanin) present in

1 Clay, Copeia, 1935: 115-118

285

Research Notes

normally-colored individuals. Geography does not provide the answer, for ob-
soleta and confinis intergrade in this region.

Since individuals frequently cannot be determined reliably to subspecies,
particularly among highly polymorphic species or in areas of intergradation,
it is desirable to extend the practice of applying one common name to the
entire population of such species with the addition of adjectives for the re-
spective subspecies.

In this particular case, since the name “rat snake” is more firmly estab-
lished for certain other species of Elaphe, and the term “black” is not descrip-
tive of E. 0. confinis, it would be appropriate to apply to the species E. obsoleta
the common name of “Pilot Snake”. The two forms under discussion may
then be known as the Black Pilot (E. 0. obsoleta) and the Gray Pilot Snake
(E. o. confinis).

Wituiam M. Cray, DEPARTMENT OF BioLocy, UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE,
LouisviLLE 8, KENTUCKY.

HAC fe 1D) Udy UE NES fee I as IE IG, S

THE 1952 SPRING MEETING

The 1952 spring meeting of the KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
was held at Mammoth Cave National Park, May 9 and 10, 1952. The com-
mittee on arrangements consisted of L. Y. Lancaster (Chairman), Ward Sump-
ter and Gordon Wilson. The program follows:

Friday afternoon, May 9

A symposium on Mammoth Cave and Mammoth Cave National Park.

“The history of Mammoth Cave and the Mammoth Cave Park.” H. B.
Lovell.

“The geology of Mammoth Cave and the Park.” C. T. Reid, Park Naturalist.

“The anatomy of the eyes of some cave animals.” W. B. Owsley.

“The birds of Mammoth Cave National Park.” Gordon Wilson.

“The flora of Mammoth Cave National Park.” P. A. Davies.

Friday evening, May 9
“The National Parks.” (illustrated) T. C. Miller, Superintendent of Mam-
moth Cave National Park.

Saturday morning, May 10
Field Trips:
Plants. Mary Wharton and P. A. Davies, leaders.
. Birds. Gordon Wilson and Harvey Lovell, leaders.

. Amphibians and reptiles. Roger Barbour, leader.
. Geology. C. T. Reid, leader.

BO lS

286

Academy Affairs

Due to rain, only a few members attended the field trips. Many members,
however, enjoyed going through the caves and noting the beautiful formations.
In spite of the weather, a successful meeting was held.

1952 CONFERENCE OF ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE

The next Conference of Academies of Science will be held on December
28, 1952, in St. Louis, Mo., as a part of the program of the A.A.A.S. The
morning session will be a business meeting devoted to a number of vitally
important questions concerning academy functions. Committees will report on
“Cooperation among Academies of Science,” “Cooperation of the Academies
with the Academy Conference,* and “The Committee to Sponsor the Junior
Scientists’ Assembly.” Dr. C. L. Baker will give a brief history of the
Academy Conference. The Resolutions Committee will make recommendations
as to what action the Conference should take in reference to the above reports.
The morning session will conclude with a roundtable discussion on “The
Responsibilities of Academies of Science in Promoting Improvement of Science
Teaching in the Public Schools.”

The afternoon will be devoted to a second roundtable discussion of aca-
demy opportunities and should be of primary interest to all academy mem-
bers. There topics will be discussed: “Relations of Academies to College Stu-
dents,” “Relations of Academies to the Public,” and “Relations of Academies
to the Press.” The evening meeting will be a dinner for members of the
Conference and their guests. At this time Dr. Paul Klopsteg will speak on
“What, from the Standpoint of Geographic Distribution, the National Science
Foundation is Doing in the Allocation of Awards.”

Conference of State Academies of Science.
—Austin Ralph Middleton, President

It is with regret that we report the resignation of two associate editors,
both of whom have accepted positions outside the state of Kentucky. Dr.
Sigfred Peterson has joined the staff of the Atomic Energy Commission at
Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Mr. William R. Savage now is with an engineer-
ing firm in Cincinnati. Each assisted materially in the preparation of this
issue. The Academy is grateful for their services.

Manuscripts for the next issue are now being processed. Additional papers
received in the near future should obtain prompt publication. Short papers,
of generally not more than two pages, will appear under “Research Notes.”

Distribution of the TRANSACTIONS to other libraries and _ societies
is now being handled by the University of Louisville General Library. Under
an agreement with the ‘Academy, materials received in exc change become the
property of the University, but will be available to KAS members upon re-
quest. A list of these publications will be printed in a future issue of the
TRANSACTIONS. For this exchange privilege, the University of Louisville
contributes $300 annually to the Academy.

287

INDEX

Academy affairs, 68, 116, 208, 286

Acetone, conductance of ferric chloride solutions in, 129
Acylaminoacid esters, preparation of, 213

Air conditioners, heat pumps for, 1, 156

Albinism in snakes, 285

Aliphatic acids, adsorption on a weak base anion exchanger, 277
Alkali iodides: distribution between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate, 137
Alloy, copper-beryllium, electron and optical photomicrographs of, 248
Aloe, 111

Andrews, B. S., 48

Archdeacon, J. W., 100

Barbour, Roger, 215
Barnes, W. R., 149
Belcher, Ralph L., 129
Borum, Olin H., 213
Bowman, M. I., 78

Carreiro, A. B., 100
Cartin, Rafael A., 38
Chapman Plate, comparison with Sherman ‘Test for streptococci, 45
Chromosome behaviour in a Gasteria-Aloe hybrid, 111
Cicadellidae of Kentucky, 54
Clay, William M., 285
Concetta, Sister M., 104
Conductance, electrical
ferric chloride solutions in acetone, 129
salts in dimethylformamide, 221
Copper, Orland W., 146
Copper-beryllium alloy, photomicrographs of, 248
Copper chromate, free energy of, 146
Cypert, Eugene, ites 20

Davies, P. A., 228

Dawson, L. R., 129, 187, 221

Deer, White-tailed, 272

Diketene: use in preparation of 1-xylyl-1, 3-butanediones, 265
Dimethylformamide, electrical conductances of solutions of salts in, 221
Distribution ratios of alkali iodides between ethylene glycol and ethyl acetate, 137
Dunning, E. L., 82

Edwards, O. F., 248

Electron photomicrographs, comparison with optical, 248
Emissivites of paints, 149

Esters, acylaminoacid, preparation of, 213

288

Index

Estes, Reedus Ray, 265

Ethyl acetate, 137

Ethyl glycine: effects on food ingestion, 100
Ethylene glycol, 137

Ferric chloride, conductance in acetone, 129

Formol titration, 48

Frasera carolinensis, structure and function of glands on the petals of, 228
Free energy, of copper chromate, 146

Gasteria, 111

Glands, of Frasera carolinensis, 228
Glycine: effects on food ingestion, 100
Golben, M., 221

Greenwell, Sister Rose Agnes, 173, 178
Griffith, Edward J., 137

Gruchalla, Frank J., 45

Habitats, animal, on Big Black Mountain in Kentucky, 215
Hamann. G. B:, 45
Heat pump

absorption type, 15

compression type, 16

earth: performance on cooling cycle, 156

earth: performance on heating cycle, 82

for air conditioning, 1

Peltier, 5

water heater, 235

Heat transfer: paints, 149

Heat transmission, radiant, 149

Heer, John E., Jr., 258

Heines, Sister Virginia, 173, 178
Homoptera: Cicadellidae of Kentucky, 54

Ingestion, food, 100

Jackson Purchase, geological sketch of, 275
Jeffers, Robert W., 277

Joffe, Irving B., 78

Juhasz, Sister Roderick, 173, 178

Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge, 270
Ketones: preparation by the Sommelet reaction, 78
Koch, John R., 104

Kreke, Corenilus W., 173, 178

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Leader, G. Rs 221

Leaf hoppers, 54

Lespedeza seed oil, economic status of, 80
Lovell, Harvey B., 121

Mailing list, 201

Malt sprouts: effect on anaerobic growth of distillers’ yeast, 69
Maynor, H. W., Jr., 248

McHargue, C. J., 248

Meter sticks, precision and accuracy of, 102

Middleton, A. R., 287

O'Leary, Sister Mary Adeline, 173, 178

Pendley, L. C., 189

Penrod EB ole Oo alo On 23.

Peterson, Sigfred, 102, 146, 377

Photomicrographs, comparison of electron and optical, 248
Price, Sarah F., bibliography of, 121

Resistivity, electrical, in subsurface earth exploration, 189
Riley, Herbert Parkes, 111

Rinne, W. W., 78

Rosen, A. A., 48

Scalf, R. E., 69

Shah, N. P., 149

Sherman Test, comparison with Chapman Plate, 45

Snake, Albino, 285

Snakes (see “Habitats, animal’)

Sommelet reaction in preparation of ketones, 78

Specific gravity of binary wax mixtures, 104

Staphylococcus aureus, effects on blood and liver catalase in mice, 173, 178

Stier alee. 109

Streptococci from teeth, comparison of Sherman tests with Chapman plate for
identification, 45

Structural settlement computations, 258

Subsurface earth exploration, 189

Thompson, H. H., 82
Thornton, R. C., 156
Tockman, Albert, 265

Waterfowl: in Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge, 271
Water heater, performance of a domestic heat pump, 235
Waters, bacteriological survey of well, 38

290

Index

Waxes, binary: effects of composition on density, 104

Weaver, R. H., 38

Wiley, Richard H., 80, 213

Wild turkey in Kentucky Woodlands National Wildlife Refuge, 273
Wilkes, James C., 78

Wood, E. B., 275

Yeast, distillers, effect of malt sprouts on anaerobic growth of, 69
Young, D. A., Jr., 54

Zimmerman, H. K., Jr., 221

291

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

The TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE is a
medium for publication of original investigations in science. In addition, as
the official organ of the Kentucky Academy of Science, it publishes programs of the
meetings of the Academy, abstracts of papers presented before the annual meetings,
reports of the Academy’s officers and committees, as well as news and announce-
ments of interest to the membership.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the editor:

WILLIAM M. Cray,

Department of Biology,
University of Louisville,

Louisville, Kentucky

Papers should be submitted typewritten, double-spaced, with wide margins,
in an original and 1 carbon copy, on substantial quality paper. Articles are ac-
cepted for publication with the understanding that they are to be published
exclusively in the TRANSACTIONS. Each paper will be reviewed by one or more
persons qualified in the field covered by article in addition to the editors before
a contribution is accepted for publication.

Bibliographic citations should be in one of the styles used in this issue.
Abbreviations for the names of periodicals should follow the current system
employed by either Chemical Abstracts or Biological Abstracts.

Footnotes should be avoided. Titles must be clear and concise, and provide
for precise and accurate cataloging.

Tables and illustrations are expensive, and should be included in an article
only to give effective presentation of the data. Articles with an excessive number
of tables or illustrations, or with poorly arranged or executed tables or illustrations
may be returned to the author for modification.

Textual material should be in clear, brief and condensed form in order for a
maximum amount of material to be published.

Reprints must be ordered at the time galley proof is returned.

SUSTAINING MEMBERS

The following individuals, educational institutions and industrial organiza-
tions have subscribed to one or more sustaining memberships in the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

Anderson, S. V., Kentucky Utilities Co., P.O, Box 191, Central City, Ky.
Beard, Joe, Kentucky Utilities Co., P.O. Box 48, Versailles, Ky.
Bechanan, W. B., Kentucky Utilities Co., Lexington, Ky.

Borgerding, Walter L., General Distillers Corp. of Ky., Louisville, Ky.
Borgerding, Walter L., Kentucky Utilities Co., Lexington, Ky.

Botts, Seth, Kentucky Utilities Co., P.O. Box 48, Versailles, Ky.
Buchanan, D. E., Kentucky Utilities Co., Lexington, Ky.

Carloss, H. M., Kentucky Utilities Co., Lexington, Ky.

Cedar Bluff Stone Co., Inc., Princeton, Ky.

Centre College, Danville, Ky.

Cohart Refractories Co., Louisville, Ky.

Devoe and Reynolds Co., Inc., Louisville, Ky.

DeSpain, T. H., Southern Textile Machinery Co., Paducah, Ky.
Eastern Kentucky State College Library, Richmond, Ky.

Eve Printing Co., Inc., Louisville, Ky.

B. F. Goodrich Chemical Co., Louisville, Ky.

Johnson, Henry, P.O. Box 191, Central City, Ky.

Lee Clay Products Co., Inc. (2), Clearfield, Ky.

Lewis, Milton H., Kentucky Utilities Co., Pineville, Ky.

Louisville Free Public Library, Louisville, Ky.

Medley Distilling Co., Owensboro, Ky.

Mileti, Otto J., The Mileti Co., Inc., Louisville, Ky.

Morehead State College, Johnson Camden Library, Morehead, Ky.
Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

Old Joe Distillery Co., Lawrenceburg, Ky.

Perkins, George, Reynolds Metals Co., Louisville, Ky.

Scofield, E. H., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Ky.
Skinner, W. H., Kentucky Utilities Co., Lexington, Ky. 4 Pv
Skirvin, J. B., General Refractories Co., Olive Hill, Ky. @ ea
Smith, L. A., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Ky. G
Spanyer, William, Brown-Forman Distillers Corp., Louisville, Ky.

Stallings, E. M., Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc., Louisville, Ky.

Union College, Abigal E. Weeks Memorial Library, Barbourville, Ky.
Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green, Ky.

5,

a wi 4