Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 21 — 1960

Published by

THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

Rocrer W. Barsour

Associate Editors

JoHn M. Carpenter, Zoology
Barsara M. Conxin, Geology
SETH GILKERSON, Bacteriology and Medical Technology
Warp SuMPTER, Chemistry

Mary E.. Wuarton, Botany

Editorial Office

Department of Zoology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 21

No. 1-2

A Search for Long-Lived Ca®° and Cr56
WILLIAM D. EHMANN and JOHN R. HUIZENGA ...........cceseeeceeee

Materials, Techniques and Methods in Teaching Psychology
in 34 Secondary Schools
Pee Nira mA CANIS oe mrt Mace deh ucts! Va ckttsiuascceuenadsuawatenenoiivaidaukedesseueee

A Study of the Worm Snake, Carphophis amoenus Say,
in Kentucky
RRONGERY WV), SARBOU Ric csyastndvsavcersussuisnstandesacusoessensconssnduedtigartessszee

The Chromosome Number of Helianthus decapetalus
BD aaa es NAMM EN arc cere ce crc s ca caee dances sais cou'vdaceusazngusstatesemser seed

Sugars in the Nectar of the Poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima
SISTER VirGINIA HEINEs and SisTER MARY ADELINE
OLE LAT Ey SP al NSE ge As 9 ONAN a tg Ce

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion
N. W. Hati, W. D. WitxiiaMs and J. R. MEADOW............0006

The Cave Snail, Carychium stygium Call
PES Ee Ube EMU ERU CEU I xe cs anGvce=\ oases nsdsev soSeee eiscanenestscseesdsanecnetecesss¢sies

Applications of Solar Energy
Ma Vic HERA SAININIAG cc's cous enncot eves eds car coaduhcenasaCuuestnvetrenesscsscsaoesceetapazbae

EMME A A EERBT SS aces cere ce eee pass even cea aah es nodes aneacaee vane cchnetenancscaanconsonnsonct

No. 3-4

Soil Temperature Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky,
from 1952 to 1956
E. B. PEnrop, J. M. ELuiotr, and W. K. BROWN ...............0008

Cyclic Entry-Exit for Subroutines
ere SMES ccinicl slr Jie PIGNUAIN 5 ©, isc acecsaceesdtesscoucsce-anccucvearssavts

The Salting Effect of Sodium Chloride on the Extraction of
Erbium Acetylacetonate and 8-quinolinol
Y. G. IsHma, J. F. STEINBACH, and W. F. WAGNER ..........00000

A North American Leafhopper Previously Confused with
Typhlocyba andromache McAtee (Homoptera,
Cicadellidae )

[PAL ag] FOr 027 oe Me ea

Studies of Overwintering Potential of Certain Drosophila
Species
IN AITO CID. LPANU SON: sce saaceccestushtencaceosuiuaestuencacseaucnevaevvucsssceaso¥e

Pape MINNA HEIN Siete cates cci4ia cu 4 <a; Cazes ecee tes ook scale shacwese cues cecaakbasbaaseceackscnune

PR eee TERN) CRNNN ES ohn os oon as aha ee cok os cz su aate eu candace seas tketencavaseucendcnacces

* Rik
ree
eet 2

1960 Numbers 1-2

of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY ot SCIENCE

Official Organ
’ KentTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS
A Search for Long-Lived Ca®® and Cr®é

i Wiiu1aM D. EHRMANN and JouN R. HUIZENGA ..........0:ccceeeees 1
Materials, Techniques and Methods in Teaching Psychology

; in 34 Secondary Schools

PA ESMOW AN OM SENDA Ney. Aosta cunevs dot unsailss teu snaddsh aaoPacasudsevckas kat eetoensbaronseods

if A Study of the Worm Snake, Carphophis amoenus Say,

= in Kentucky

3 MAM WV, EA PHRIE YE 2006 Led alahcstdncns anes deecoategoGives coasabuanet shiapentns

p

The Chromosome Number of Helianthus decapetalus
CEST BSS ag © AE SST at CPPS OR, SPD RL ON ED

Sugars in the Nectar of the Poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima
SisTER VirciniA HEINEs and SisTeER MAry ADELINE
A SPCAT UU ee yen ea Nica ERTL AL eg oe en i

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion
N. W. Hatz, W. D. WitiiaMs and J. R. MEADow................. 23

The Cave Snail, Carychium stygium Call
RSS: EIA UB EICEIN IY 600 anhiv as seas tresdancoegsecie dbus vyedabicanusdehacrbasdsdedsdunas 35

Applications of Solar Energy
eh V AGAININA(\. 3522,005505s26)s0ssaquen Beit nivasesicbinticngddctasideuscaveas 39

Academy Affairs ............+0096 ch agains

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914 '

OFFICERS 1959-60

President: PETE PANZERA, Murray State College

President-elect: H. H. LaFuzxr, Eastern State College

Vice President: CHarnLEs WuaitTLe, Western State College

Secretary: Gernrir LEvEy, Berea College

Treasurer; RicHarp A. CHAPMAN, University of Kentucky

Representative to AAAS Council: Many E. Wanton, Georgetown College
Counselor to Junior Academy: R. M. Boyer, University of Kentucky

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS

BACTERIOLOGY AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Chairman: O. F. Epwaxps, University of Kentucky
Secretary: GENEVIEVE CuLArk, Georgetown College

BIOLOGY
Chairman: Liza Spann, Murray State College
Secretary: Luoyp ALEXANDER, Kentucky State College

CHEMISTRY
Chairman: WALTER SmiTH, JR., University of Kentucky
Secretary: Cant Hussune, Murray State College

ENGINEERING
Chairman: Karxi O. LANGE, University of Kentucky
Secretary: OLtvER W. Garp, University of Kentucky

PSYCHOLOGY
Chairman: Ciara CHasseL1t, Cooper, Berea College
Secretary: Lourtne Cave, University of Kentucky

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

IW.) BLACKBURN ess ieccesesecssneccobecters to 1960 WILLIAM B. OWSLEY ......ccccseescceennsees to 1962
RW Ws BARBOUR teen coke siceocndenwersces to 1960 GOB HAMANN Joo csccls seeheiencemocnsscoemeeane to 1962
Tee Ns AINGASTIR Siiusecccerecssewesetraseuie to 1961 IAZET, INOLDAU i .coskccncscesesses eee to 1962
EPs ARI By pee aee ior see alr teescrausseunace to 1961 IWILEANO CLAY eid.ccdesdedectecccessvoushaeee to 1963

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor: RocerR W. Barsour, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Associate Editors:
(Bacteriology and Medical Technology) Sera Giuxerson, Berea College, Berea.
(Biology) Joun M. CarnrENTER, University of Kentucky, Lexington
(Botany) Mary E. Wxuarrton, Georgetown College.
(Chemistry) Warp Sumpter, Western State College, Bowling Green.

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing.

; Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $2.00 per volume; foreign, $2.50 per
volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The
Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

bee

A SEARCH FOR LONG-LIVED Ca®° AND Cr5°*

WILLIAM D. EHMANN and JOHN R. HUIZENGA

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
and Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois

Introduction

The existence of an extinct natural radioactivity would have con-
siderable significance in the fields of geochemistry and cosmology
(Kohman, 1956). An extinct natural radionuclide would be one whose
lifetime is too short for detectable amounts to be present from the time
of nucleogenesis, yet long enough, to produce through radioactive
decay, effects in nature that may be identified at present. A radio-
nuclide whose half-life falls in the range from ~ 3 & 107 to ~ 3 & 108
years would fall into this class. At present, three known radionuclides,
Eee (~ 3 >< 10" years); Pue** (~ 8 10° years), and Cm?*
(> 4 xX 10% years) appear to have half-lives in this range. Of these,
only Pb?® which has a stable decay product, Tl°°°, would be important
for isotopic dating. The other two radionuclides may have had, how-
ever, important thermal effects in the history of the earth.

A number of radionuclides that might be produced by two succes-
sive neutron captures on the highest mass number stable isotope of a
given element are still unknown. In this work a search was made for
the two nuclides Ca°® and Cr°®. Previous work by Jones (1956) has
established exclusion limits for the half-life of Cr°® of from 2 hours to
200 years. He believed it to be long-lived. Roy and Yaffe (1957)

cat8 n cat? cones (Ema cal0
Stable Ms
Bd
8.8 min ?
Ca a a Se
57.2 min P 1.7 min Bie
p49 450
Stable Stable

Fig. 1. Production and decay of Ca50

* Based on work performed partly under the auspices of the U.S. Atomic

Energy Commission.
eT oct 10 08

2 William D. Ehmann and John R. Huizenga

using a long pile irradiation of enriched chromium established that:
tye Cr®®/c Cr®> = 270 years/barn

if it is not very short. No published data is available on Ca®®.

Both Ca®® and Cr®® were searched for in this work by use of the
active daughter extraction technique. The production and parent
daughter relationships for these nuclides are given in Figures | and 2.

el Ma ee) ul ee
Stable

3.52 min | 2

Mino? oe nee
Stable:

2.58 hr RY

FeD6
Stable
Fig. 2. Production and decay of Cr®6

Experimental Procedures and Results

Ca5®?

Experimental—A 28.97 mg sample of CaCO; containing calcium
enriched at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Ca*® to 51.4% was
irradiated in a high flux position at the Materials Testing Reactor at
Idaho Falls, Idaho for approximately nine months. The total nvt
received was 4.66 < 107! neutrons-cm—?. The irradiated sample was
allowed to cool for one month before starting the chemistry.

The radiochemical procedures consisted of solution of the sample
in dilute HCl and extration of the Sc°® active daughter, using Sct?
carrier, into a 0.5M TTA solution in benzene. The efficiency of the
extraction as determined with Sc*® tracer was 97.5%. Since the half-
life of Sc®® is only 1.7 minutes, rapid chemistry was required. The
elapsed time from the start of the extraction to the start of the count-
ing was always less than four minutes.

The benzene layer containing the Sc-TTA complex was quickly
separated and placed in a 7 ml volume plastic vial mounted in front
of a 214” & 214” Nal crystal scintillation detector. The gamma spec-
trum of the sample was examined for the 1.17 and 1.59 Mey gamma
ray photo-peaks of Sc®° using a 256 channel pulse-height analyzer.

A Search for Long-Lived Ca*® and Cr*® 3

The physical geometry of the counting set-up was approximately 20%.
The initial gamma spectrum obtained for a sample was compared to
a “background” spectrum taken 15 minutes after the initial count in
order to detect any activity in the region of the two Sc°® gamma ray
photo-peaks.

Results—A series of five Sc extractions were made on the irradiated
calcium sample in an attempt to detect the Sc°*® active daughter of
Ca®°. In no case were peaks observed at 1.17 or 1.59 Mev and no
difference outside of the statistical standard deviation was observed
between the first count and the final count on a given extraction. The
background counting rate in the vicinity of the 1.17 Mev photo-peak
was ~ 8 counts/minute/channel and in the vicinity of the 1.59 Mev
photo-peak was ~ 1 count/minute/channel.

Assuming a counting rate for Sc®® less than or equal to the stand-
ard deviation of the initial counting rate in the area bracketing the
1.59 Mev peak, the following ratio is obtained:

tio Gall /o Ca? == £ SC 10? years/ barn

If the cross section of Ca*® is estimated to be approximately 0.1b, a
lower limit to the half-life of Ca°° of approximately 1 x 10° years is
obtained. The possibility that Ca®® might be very short lived is, of
course, not excluded.

Cre

Experimental—A 36.695 mg sample of Cr.O3 containing chromium
enriched at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Cr°* to 83.1% was
irradiated in a high flux position at the MTR reactor for approxi-
mately nine months. The total nvt was also 4.66 10?! neutrons-cm—?.
The sample was allowed to cool for 2 months before the start of the
chemistry.

The radiochemical procedures consisted of fusion of the sample
in Naz,Ovz followed by solution in dilute HCl. The acid solution was
treated with a few drops of HzO. and evaporated to near dryness.
The residue was then made up to 15 ml with H:O and scavenged
with CuS.

Cr(OH)s; was separated by precipitation with NH,OH and dis-
solved in 15 ml of concentrated HNO3. Mn? carrier was added and
solid KCI]O3 added slowly with heating to affect oxidation of Mnt?
to MnO, and Crt? to CroO;—?. The MnO. was filtered off and dis-
carded. This MnO, precipitation step was repeated several times
using Ir carrier to remove Ir!” contamination, which follows this Mn
chemistry. The Cr,0;—* was reduced to Crt+® between MnOz pre-
cipitations by addition of concentrated HCl and a few drops of H2O,

ST

4 William D. Ehmann and John R. Huizenga

followed by heating. Zr®® contamination was removed by scavenging
with BaZrF..

The purified Cr sample at this point showed only Cr°! activity in
a gross gamma ray pulse-height analysis. This sample was then used
to attempt the extraction of the Mn*® active daughter of Cr°®. The
method used was addition of a known amount of Mn? carrier to the
purified Cr+* solution followed by oxidation to MnOs, as before. This
MnO, which carried any Mn°® present was reprecipitated several
times as above with inactive chromium carrier to remove traces of
Cr®!. Solution of the MnO, between precipitations was affected by
use of concentrated HNO3 and a few drops of H2,Oz. The final MnO,
precipitate was filtered on a weighed paper disk, weighed to deter-
mine chemical yield, and mounted on a card for beta counting of
the 2.58 hour half-life Mn°°. The time required for the chemistry was
about two hours.

Counting was done on the first shelf of a standard end-window
proportional counter having a background of 10.8 c/m. A 85.5 mg/cm?
Al absorber was used to eliminate a high background of unidentified
low energy betas.

Results—A series of four MnO, samples were prepared as above.
The samples were counted at short intervals for approximately six
hours. In no case was any decrease in the counting rate observed
corresponding to the 2.58 hour decay of Mn°*. In the best run the
background corrected counting rate of the MnO» sample through the
absorber was 35 c/m. No variation in this counting rate outside of
the statistical standard deviation was observed over a period of more
than five hours.

If the counting rate of Mn*® at the time of the initial count is taken
to be less than or equal to the standard deviation of the counting rate
for the initial ten minute count, the following ratio is obtained:

tijo Cr®®/o Cr®> = 1100 years/barn

If the « Cr® is estimated to be approximately 10 barns, then the lower
limit for ty/2 Cr°® is approximately 1.1 x 10+ years, if it is not very
short lived. Since Jones (1956) has found that the half-life of Cr** is
not in the range of 2 hours to 200 years, the exclusion limits for the
half-life of Cr°® may now be extended to from 2 hours to approxi-
mately 1.1 x 10* years.

The possibility that Ca®®° and Cr°® might have half-lives in the
range specified for extinct natural radionuclides is, therefore, not ex-
cluded by this work. In order to finally extend the exclusion limits
through this half-life range, much longer irradiation times and larger,
highly enriched samples will have to be used.

A Search for Long-Lived Ca** and Cr’® 5

Literature Cited

Kohman, T. P., 1956. Extinct natural radioactivity: Possibilities and potentialities.
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 62:503.

Jones, J. W., 1956. Spallation yields from chlorine with 45-430 Mev. protons; A
search for unknown medium-light even-even nuclides; and beta lifetime sta-
tistics. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Document NYO-6627.

Roy, L. P. and Yaffe, L., 1957. Search for successive neutron capture reactions on
Mg?6, Si80, and Cr54. Can. J. Chem. 35:176.

Accepted for publication December 4, 1959.

MATERIALS, TECHNIQUES AND METHODS IN TEACHING
PSYCHOLOGY IN 34 SECONDARY SCHOOLS

PAUL McNEELY
Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky

Introduction

After a brief introduction, this article will present the reactions of
students and teachers to practices in current use in psychology classes
in Indiana secondary schools. The procedure and major findings of
the author’s doctoral thesis relative to materials, techniques and meth-
ods will be given with some implications that they may have for Ken-
tucky high schools.

According to T. L. Engle! Kentucky and Arkansas are the only
two states in which 25 percent of the secondary schools offer a course
in psychology. A letter from the Department of Education of Ken-
tucky? states that of the 420 public high schools, 101 offer a course
labeled Social Psychology. Of the 68 non-public schools, 6 offer a
course with the above title.

Dr. Halice Wiggs? found in his doctoral study that 82.7 percent of
the principals of Indiana are in favor of the course. Actually 14 per-
cent of the schools of this state offer the course. Nationally, from the
article by Engle referred to above it was learned that over 1,082 high
schools offer the course. This is 8.4 percent of the total of 12,939 high
schools reported by officials in 34 states.

The American Psychological Association has a special committee
working on the problem at the secondary level. Since one fourth of
the high schools of Kentucky offer a psychology course it would seem
of interest and value to present the major findings of the Indiana study
conducted in 34 high schools. It is hoped that some of the findings
will be helpful to those in Kentucky who are concerned with teaching
or curriculum construction.

The writer's study* was conducted during the spring of 1956. A
stratified sampling of 34 Indiana high schools in a 30 mile strip north
and south and east and west was made. Personal visits were made to
schools and tests given to 1,236 students (715 females and 521 males)
who were enrolled in psychology courses. The 88 teachers in the 34
schools visited were mailed questionnaires before visitation. These
were collected at visitation and later analyzed. One teacher did not
return his questionnaire making a 97.4 percent return.

Materials, Techniques and Methods in Teaching Psychology 7

Major Findings of the Thesis

By confining our discussion to the data presented in this thesis, it
is possible to summarize as follows:

Major findings related to problems of students. Most students of
high school psychology thought the course had been helpful, but they
did not feel free to discuss their personal problems with their teacher.
One reason for this could have been that most psychology teachers
had only five hours or less of free time per week for personal counsel-
ing. Teachers tended to overestimate the degree of help students re-
ceived on their problems. Students checked Reader's Digest, Life, and
Colliers as the magazines most valuable in solving their personal prob-
lems. The outstanding problem on which the students desired help
but did not obtain it was choosing a career. Not only were more
females enrolled in the psychology course, but they also apparently
received more help from the course.

Major findings related to topics. The topic liked least by students
was how to study. The largest percentage of students indicated that
the topics misconceptions about psychology, and how to study, should
be used less than at present. On the other hand, students desired more
use of such topics as courtship and marriage, prevention of mental
disease, and emotions and their control. The favorite topic of students
was personality. A higher percentage of students indicated that this
topic had helped them more than any other topic. Topics of highest
interest were distributed throughout the course.

Major findings related to materials. The text most frequently used
was by Engle, Psychology: Its Principles and Applications, second edi-
tion, in a course which was almost always labeled Psychology. Teach-
ers rarely used a syllabus, but almost half of them used supplemental
reading in addition to the text. The least frequently used materials
were recorders, slides, World Book, television, health charts, and
mimeographed outlines while the most frequently used materials were
filmstrips, reference books, study questions, newspapers, and maga-
zines. Students desired more use of films and filmstrips, and less use
of World Book, health charts, and mimeographed outlines.

Major findings related to methods. The most unpopular method ac-
cording to students was the writing of an autobiography. Dramatiza-
tion and skits were not very popular. Both teachers and students
agreed that by far the most frequently and best used methods were
lecture and discussion. When outside speakers were used, they were
more frequently a psychologist or a social worker. Some teachers did
not use any speakers but one used as many as 10 different persons.

8 Paul McNeely

Both teachers and students agreed that more outside speakers should
be used in the course.

Experiments performed as demonstrations and those performed by
individual students were power of observation, reaction time, learning
time, mental telepathy, and conditioned response.

The tests most frequently explained to students by teachers were
Rorschach, Kuder Preference Record, Draw a Picture Test, and Cali-
fornia Test of Mental Maturity. Tests most frequently administered
to students were Kuder Preference Record and California Test of
Mental Maturity.

Major findings related to the evaluation of the course. Most teach-
ers gave a combination of objective and essay tests. An opportunity
was given for discussion of examinations. Both teachers and students
preferred announced written quizzes and chapter tests. Teachers gave
these types of examinations. Unannounced quizzes were not popular
with either teachers or students. Teachers thought the psychology
course was average in difficulty; students tended to think it was easy.

Major findings related to the high school psychology teacher. Psy-
chology teachers tended to be enthusiastic about their work. They
desired summer workshops, magazine articles, seminars, and other
aids that would help them in presenting psychology at the secondary
level. Those teachers who used a variety of teaching methods seemed
to have better rapport with their students as judged by their students’
willingness to discuss personal problems with their teacher. The size
of the school, class, number of years psychology had been taught did
not seem to be as important as the relationship that existed between
the student and the teacher. Even the type of materials and methods
used seemed to be secondary to the personality of the teacher. Very
few psychology teachers were rated below average in their ability to
present materials and methods in high school psychology.

implications

If it can be inferred that Indiana and Kentucky present analagous
situations as far as psychology at the secondary level is concerned,
then it would seem that more attention should be given to the prepa-
ration of high school psychology teachers. This seems to indicate that
more free time should be given for personal counseling, more use of
outside speakers, and an increased volume of psychological informa-
tion that is scientific yet adapted to the use of high school psychology
teachers.

Materials, Techniques and Methods in Teaching Psychology 9

Summary

Results from a survey of the teaching of psychology in 34 high
schools are presented, together with some of the possible practical
applications of the findings for Kentucky high schools offering a course
in psychology.

Literature Cited
l. Engle, T. L., 1952. “Teaching of Psychology in High Schools,” Amer. Psych.,
Tol.

Department of Ed., Frankfort, Ky., dated Oct. 19, 1959.

3. Wiggs, H., The Status of Psychology in Indiana Secondary Schools. Indiana
University, Bloomington, 1952.

4. McNeely, P. Materials, Techniques, and Methods in Teaching Psychology. In-

diana University, Bloomington, 1958.

bo

Accepted for publication November 27, 1959.

A STUDY OF THE WORM SNAKE,
CARPHOPHIS AMOENUS SAY, IN KENTUCKY

ROGER W. BARBOUR
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

The worm snake, Carphophis amoenus Say, ranges from southern
New England south to central Georgia and Alabama and west to east-
ern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. In the Mississippi val-
ley, it extends southward to the Gulf. Three subspecies are currently
recognized, C. a. amoenus, C. a. helenae, and C. a. vermis. The latter
is essentially confined to the area west of the Mississippi river, while
the preceding two are found east of the Mississippi. Carphophis a.
helenae ranges from the Mississippi eastward to the Appalachians;
C. a. amoenus ranges in the Appalachians and eastward to the coast.
(Conant, 1958). The three subspecies may be separated by the fol-
lowing key:

A. Pink of belly extending up sides onto third scale row; color
aboverusually.punplisiinlacka senecue eee C. a. vermis
(Western Worm Snake)
AA. Pink of belly extending up sides onto only first or second scale
row; color above usually plain brown.

B. Internasals and prefrontals distinct .............. C. a. amoenus
(Eastern Worm Snake )

BB. Each prefrontal fused to the corresponding
internasal ........ C. a. helenae (Midwest Worm Snake)

The species ranges throughout the state of Kentucky. Schmidt
(1953) stated that C. a. amoenus occurs “. . . east of the Appala-
chians,” which implies that only one subspecies, Carphophis a. helenae
Kennicott, occurs in Kentucky.

The 116 specimens of Carphophis amoenus from Kentucky in the
zoological collections of the University of Kentucky have been ex-
amined. Measurements, scale counts, condition of head plates, overall
dorsal coloration, sex, number and size of eggs, if present, date and
locality collected, and habitat, where known, were recorded for each
specimen. These data are summarized in this paper.

The specimens were largely collected by the author during the
past eight years. The Research Fund Committee of the University of
Kentucky provided financial assistance incident to the collection of
many of the specimens. !

A Study of the Worm Snake 11

Distribution in Kentucky
Previous literature records, substantiated by specimens I have ex-
amined, leave no doubt that both C. a. amoenus and C. a. helenae, as
currently understood, occur in Kentucky. Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The distribution of Carphophis amoenus in Kentucky. Hexagons represent records
of C. a. helenae; circles, C. a. amoenus; triangles, intergrades. Solid symbols represent
specimens examined; hollow symbols, litrature records.

Carphophis amoenus amoenus Say. Literature records are:
“throughout Kentucky”—( Garman, 1894); Breathitt county (Dury and
Williams, 1933); Bell, Harlan, and Letcher counties (Barbour, 1950b);
Harlan and Letcher counties (Barbour, 1950a); Breathitt county
(Bush, 1959).

I examined 44 worm snakes that are referred to C. A. amoenus.
They were collected from the following counties: Bell, 1; Breathitt,
21; Harlan, 21; and Lee, 1. Thirty-four of the specimens have the
internasals and prefrontals separate, 6 have them fused, and 4 are
intermediate in this characteristic.

Carphophis amoenus helenae Kennicott. Literature records are:
“throughout Kentucky”"—(Garman, op. cit.); Anderson and Fayette
counties—( Funkhouser, 1925); Edmonson, Hardin, and Jefferson coun-
ties—( Burt, 1933); Edmonson county—( Bailey, 1933); Carter county
(Dury and Williams, op. cit.); Edmonson county (Hibbard, 1936);
Fulton county (Parker, 1939); Rowan county (Welter and Carr,
1939); Oldham, Larue, and Warren counties (Barbour, 1950b).

Thirty-four of the specimens examined are referable to C. a.
helenae. They were taken from the following counties: Anderson, 1;
Clark, 1; Edmonson, 6; Garrard, 4; Green, 2; Jessamine, 9; Menifee, 2;
Nelson, 3; Russell, 1; Todd, 4; and Warren, 1. Twenty-six of the speci-
mens have the internasals and prefrontals fused; five have them separ-
ate, and four are intermediate.

IB, Roger W. Barbour

Although here considered C. a. helenae, the four specimens from
Todd County (the westernmost specimens examined) are unlike any
other Carphophis examined in the degree of contrast between the back
and belly color, strongly resembling C. a. vermis. They differ from
vermis, however, in the fact that the belly color extends only onto the
second scale row. The specimens from Edmonson County show this
marked contrast between back and belly color to a lesser degree.
Additional collecting in western Kentucky will possibly reveal the
Carphophis population there to be intermediate between C. a. helenae
and C. a. vermis.

Fig. 2. Photographs of a series of heads of Carphophis amoenus from Kentucky. A typical
C. a. amoenus; B-H, intergrades between C. a. amoenus and C. a. helenae; |, typical
C. a. helenae; J, individual with partly fused internasals; K, individual with partly fused —
prefrontals; L, individual with internasals and prefrontals fused into a single large plate.

A Study of the Worm Snake 13

B C

J

Fig. 3. Tracings from the photographs shown in Fig. 2.

Carphophis amoenus amoenus Say X Carphophis amoenus helenae
Kennicott. Barbour (1950b) has pointed out that “along the western
edge of the mountains a tendency toward intergradation appears.”
Dury and Williams (1933) mentioned a specimen, under the name
helenae, from near Barbourville, Knox county, that has “the internasals
and prefrontals fused on the left and separate on the right.”

Thirty-eight specimens have been examined that are considered
intergrades. They were collected from the following counties: Bath,
6; Carter, 9; Fleming, 10; McCreary, 9; Rowan, 1; and Whitley, 3.
Fourteen of these have the internasals and prefrontals separate; 19
have them fused; and 5 are intermediate.

Apparently a change is occurring in the Carphophis population of
Rowan and adjacent counties. Welter and Carr (1939) stated “among

14 Roger W. Barbour

all Carphophis examined in eastern Kentucky no typical amoena were
found.” Barbour (1950b) pointed out the presence of typical amoena
and intergrades in the area. In this study, 26 specimens from the ad-
joining counties of Carter, Rowan, Bath, and Fleming, collected since
the appearance of the paper of Welter and Carr, were examined. Six-
teen of them exhibit fused internasals and prefrontals; in 7 they are
separate, and 3 are intermediate. These data indicate that these coun-
ties are in the range of intergradation between the two subspecies.

Intergrades between the two subspecies are quite variable, repre-
senting practically all possible stages in the degree of fusion of the
internasals and prefrontals. Occasional specimens are found with fused
internasals or prefrontals. In one case, the internasals and prefrontals
were fused into one large plate. Some of these degrees of fusion are
shown in Figs. 2 and 3.

Habitat

Worm snakes in Kentucky are almost invariably found beneath
some object, generally a rock or a log. They may be found in a great
variety of habitats, ranging from virgin timber through brushy areas
to weed-grown fields, and even open pastures. They are, however,
rarely found far from a wooded area.

Food

Of the 116 specimens examined, only 22 contained food. In every
case, only earthworms, along with the detritus from the alimentary
canal of the worms were found. Barbour (1950a) reported only earth-
worms from the stomachs of 10 of 22 individuals collected in Harlan
county, Kentucky.

Reproduction

A total of 20 egg-bearing females was examined, all taken between
February 4 and June 18. Average egg number per female was 2.6,
varying from 2 to 5. Average egg length in February (4 eggs) and
March (2 eggs), was 5mm.; in April (19 eggs), 7.3mm.; in May (18
eggs), 15mm.; and in June (10 eggs), 18.6mm. Blanchard (1925) re-
ported that 5 captive individuals laid eggs between July 4 and 11.
Bush (1959) reported that in Breathitt county, Kentucky, “Egg laying
seemed to take place about mid-June. Seven females having deposi-
tional-sized eggs had an average clutch of 3.2; the average egg length
was 24.2mm. Ten females taken between June 19 and July 2 had no
eggs.” Funkhouser (1945) stated that Carphophis amoenus “lays eggs
in late summer.” Data herein presented indicates that in Kentucky,
egg-laying occurs about the middle of June. All females of egg-laying
size (herein indicated to be a minimum of about 185mm. in total

A Study of the Worm Snake 15

length) taken prior to June 10 contained enlarged eggs. No adult
female taken after June 18 contained enlarged eggs. Thirty-three adult
females averaged 233.4mm. in total length, ranging from 185 to
282mm. The average of those with eggs (20 specimens) was 233.4;
those without eggs (13 specimens) averaged the same. Table 1.

Table 1.—Number and Size of Eggs in Carphophis amoenus from Kentucky
(Measurements are in mm.)

Number Females Length Length of Length of eggs
fe) with of egg- non-egg- Number (mean and

Date females eggs bearers bearers of eggs extremes )
Feb. 4 2 2 948,948... 2.2 5 (5-5)
March 14 1 1 PREVA GT Ser 2, 5
April 8 2 2 1651090 i. 2.3 8.5 (7-10)
April is * 2 2 DAS ORIEN Naess 2.5 2.5 (2-8)
April 23 1 1 PAPA GH” tN rian een 2, 13
April 24 1 1 DAC Wee 2 13
Apml 28 2 2) BINGL OMS Ys eapeers TE, 9 (8-10)
May 3 1 1 DAS fi a wiassevres 3 12
May 9 3 3 228,236,255 ........ 2.92.3 16.6 (14-19)
May 10 2, 2 ZAIBIAG er: 3,4 15.5 (14-17)
June 10 1 1 DAO all eg assSece 3 13
June 18 1 OW” 2 Ze DED TO TE Nee NS Recess
June 18 3 2 237,260 270 3,4 21 (20-22)
June 20 1 Ong a katas DOO Ewa VTA O DEEeRT seeks
June 25 1 Ole ume ests. 283i) — sue De ake. ete
June 28 4 ees ssacese QOGQUAIB8OQOG) seecesti to emicenceneeence
July 2 2 OPE fsa DOO206) ye GF eeesd .. tacos
Aug. 5 Ht Of a sce: WET ip PE). “hw cbcecdyuly pili desevsaeeees
Aug. 18 1 Crmy es DSA oy Gu een cee ae
Aug. 24 1 On es 3 ese3 DAT. i | aasescin -nssteseeeets

Sexual Dimorphism

Measurement of the total length and tail length of 48 females and
65 males revealed that the males have a proportionally longer tail
than the females. Relative tail length (tail length ~ total length) was
calculated for the specimens. There was no appreciable change with
increase in total length. In the females, the tail averaged 14.4 percent
of the total length, with extremes of 12.9 to 16.1 percent. In males,
the percentage ranged from 16.4 to 20.5, averaging 19.1. This differ-
ence is sufficiently great to be readily discernible to the experienced
eye.

Summary

One hundred sixteen specimens of Carphophis amoenus from Ken-
tucky were examined. Food consisted entirely of earthworms. Egg-
laying occurred in the middle of June, and the average number of
eggs was 2.6, varying from 2 to 5. Measurements of the tail and total

16 Roger W. Barbour

length of 48 females and 65 males revealed that the tail of the females
averaged 14.4 percent of the total length, whereas that of the male
averaged 19.1 percent. The worm snake of the southeastern moun-
tains of Kentucky is C. a. amoenus; that of central and western Ken-
tucky is C. a. helenae. Intergradation between the two subspecies
occurs along the western border of the mountains of eastern Kentucky.
There is some evidence that worm snake of western Kentucky is inter-
mediate between C. a. helenae and C. a. vermis.

Literature Cited

Bailey, Vernon. 1933. Cave Life of Kentucky. Am. Midl. Nat. 14(5): 383-635.
Barbour, Roger W. 1950a. The reptiles of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County,
Kentucky. Copeia (2):100-107.
& 3 1950b. The distribution of Carphophis amoena in Kentucky. Copeia
3) :287.
Blanchard, Frank N. 1925. A collection of amphibians and reptiles from southern
pigiana ced adjacent Kentucky. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters.

Burt, Charles E. 1933. A contribution to the herpetology of Kentucky. Am. Midl.
Nat. 14(6) :669-679.

Bush, Francis M. 1959. The herpetofauna of Clemons Fork, Breathitt County, Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 20:11-18.

Conant, Roger. 1958. A Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles. Houghton Miffin
Co., Boston XV + 366 pp.

Dury, Ralph and Raymond S. Williams. 1933. Notes on some Kentucky amphibians
and reptiles. Bul. Baker-Hunt Foundation Mus. 1:1-22.

Funkhouser, William D. 1925. Wildlife in Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv., Frankfort,
Kentucky 1-385.

. 1945. Kentucky Snakes. Dept. Uni. Ext., Uni. Ky., Lexington. 1-31.

Garman, Harrison. 1894. A preliminary list of the vertebrate animals of Kentucky.
Bul. Essex Inst. 26:1-63.

Hibbard, Claude W. 1936. The amphibians and reptiles of Mammoth Cave Na-
tional Park Proposed. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 39:277-281.

Parker, Malcolm V. 1939. The amphibians and reptiles of Reelfoot Lake and
vicinity, with a key for the separation of species and subspecies. Jour. Tenn.
Acad. Sci. 14(1):72-101.

Schmidt, Karl P. 1953. A checklist of North American amphibians and reptiles.
Am. Soc. Ichth. and Herps. VIII + 280 pp.

Welter, Wilfred A. and Katherine Carr. 1939. Amphibians and reptiles of north-
eastern Kentucky. Copeia (3):128-130.

Accepted for publication December 15, 1959.

THE CHROMOSOME NUMBER OF HELIANTHUS DECAPETALUS?

DALE M. SMITH
Department of Botany, University of Kentucky, Lexington

In an earlier paper (Heiser & Smith, 1955) on chromosome num-
bers in Helianthus, it was reported that H. decapetalus L., was an
apparent tetraploid with a chromosome number of N=34. This report
was based upon material collected in the vicinity of Bloomington,
Monroe Co., Indiana. Subsequently, new cultures of H. decapetalus
were obtained from other localities which proved to be diploid
CN==17 ).

Methods and Materials

Plants from which chromosome counts were obtained grew in ex-
perimental areas at Indiana University and the University of Ken-
tucky, as well as natural habitats. Counts were obtained from micro-
spore mother cells in each case, and in a few plants additional deter-
minations were made using root-tips. Buds for meiotic studies were
obtained at the proper age and fixed in 95% ethyl alcohol and glacial
acetic acid (3:1) for approximately 24 hours and then transferred to
70% ethyl alcohol for storage. Most observations were made using
temporary aceto-carmine squashes, but a few slides were made perma-
nent for future reference and record. Root-tip material was obtained
from potted plants in the green house. A pre-treatment was found to
be necessary to study adequately the mitotic chromosomes. Best re-
sults were obtained using 0.1% aqueous colchicine for four hours at
approximately 4°C., or a mixture of 0.1% colchine and 0.02M 8-quino-
linol (1:1) also for four hours at 4°C. The former treatment was some-
what better for mere counting, but the latter was superior for studies
of chromosome morphology. Staining was by the Feulgen technique
and aceto-carmine. Voucher herbarium specimens are on deposit at
Indiana University and the University of Kentucky. The chromosome
counts obtained are listed in Table 1.

Conclusions

The widespread occurrence of both diploid and tetraploid popula-
tions of H. decapetalus is clearly indicated by the results presented in
Table 1. Comparable situations have been reported in a number of
other plant genera, but this is the first instance of this type in the
genus Helianthus. It is rather unusual that similar situations have not

1 Supported in part by NSF grant G-6380.

18 Dale M. Smith

Table 1.— Chromosome Numbers of Helianthus decapetalus L.

N-chromosome

State and County number Collector and number

Maine

Somerset County Ly, Smith C-5
Vermont

Bennington County 172 Eaton 565
New York

Chautauqua County 84 Heiser P-190
Pennsylvania

Crawford County 84 Heiser 4558
Virginia

Rockingham County 17 Smith P-412

Smyth County 17 Martin s.n.
West Virginia

Randolph County 17 Smith P-406
Indiana

Brown County 34 Heiser P-299

Lawrence County 84 Smith 1050

Monroe County 842 Heiser 3005

Monroe County 342 Heiser 3017

Monroe County 84 Smith P-272

Monroe County 84 Smith 1071
Kentucky

Breathitt County 34 Smith K-115

Martin County 17 Smith C-1

Wolfe County 84 Smith K-122

been discovered in other species of Helianthus in light of the high
degree of polyploidy which has been previously reported (Heiser &
Smith, 1955). The closest approach is seen in the complex presently
treated as H. strumosus L., in which both tetraploids (N=84) and
hexaploids (N=51) are known.

As yet, I have not been able to separate the two cytodemes of
H. decapetalus morphologically. If differences exist, they seem to be
largely quantitative, with the tetraploids being somewhat more robust
than the diploids. Studies are also in progress dealing with the prob-
lem of autopolyploidy vs. allopolyploidy in this and related species of
Helianthus. The available evidence strongly suggests that tetraploid
H. decapetalus may be a true autopolyploid, but the final determina-
tion must be based upon more data than is presently available.

Summary
A perennial sunflower, Helianthus decapetalus L., originally re-
ported to be a tetraploid (N=384), is shown to include diploids

2JT am indebted to Dr. C. B. Heiser, Jr., of Indiana University, for these
counts.

The Chromosome Number of Helianthus decapetalus 19

(N17) as well. Tetraploids are reported from ten localities, while
diploids are now known from six stations. The two cytological types
are closely similar morphologically, and it seems possible that this
may be a case of true autopolyploidy.

Literature Cited
Heiser, C. B. Jr., and D. M. Smith. 1955. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 64:250-253.

Accepted for publication December 15, 1959.

SUGARS IN THE NECTAR OF THE POINSETTIA, EUPHORBIA
PULCHERRIMA*

SISTER VIRGINIA HEINES and SISTER MARY ADELINE O’LEARY
Nazareth College, Louisville, Kentucky

Very few determinations on the individual sugars in flower nectars
have been carried out. The older analytical methods required large
volumes, which were not available in the nectars investigated. By
using the technique of paper chromatography, it is now possible to
determine the sugars present in micro-amounts of material. Previous
work done on nectars by Wykes (1) has shown that sucrose, glucose
and fructose are not equally attractive to bees. He analyzed (2) the
nectars from twelve species of flowers by paper chromatography and
found that the proportions of glucose and fructose varied greatly in
different species. The present study investigates the total sugar con-
tent of the fresh nectar of the Poinsettia, and the separation of the
individual sugars by paper chromatography.

Experimentation
Total Sugars by the Anthrone Method (3)

Four hundredths of a milliliter of the clear, viscous nectar were
drawn from the yellow gland of the cyanthium and diluted with dis-
tilled water to 2 ml. Three milliliters of the anthrone reagent were
pipetted into each of three test tubes, followed by 0.2 ml. of a stand-
ard glucose solution (0.02 mg./ml.) into the first tube, 0.2 ml. of dis-
tilled water into the second tube as a blank, and 0.2 ml. of the diluted
nectar into the third tube. The solutions were mixed by tapping and
tubes placed in a thermostatically controlled water bath at 80°C for
10 minutes, then cooled under tap. By using Beckman B and Cole-
man (6C) spectrophotometers the optical density was read at 640 mu.

Individual Sugars

1. Circular Chromatograms. The circles of Whatman No. 1 paper
(32 cm.) were spotted with known sugars and nectar solutions, placed
in desiccators with strings for wicks, and let run for 18 hours in
n-butanol-pyridine-water, 6:4:3, solvent. They were removed, air-
dried, and dipped into an aniline phthalate reagent. After drying for
several hours at room temperature the chromatograms were heated
for 5 minutes at 105°C and then 10 minutes longer at 120°C to bring
out the sucrose (4). Examination under ultraviolet light helped to
identify the sugars.

* Supported in part by grant from National Institutes of Health.

Sugars in the Nectar of the Poinsettia 21

2. Sheet Chromatograms. Sheets of Whatman No. | paper, 23 « 23
cm., were spotted with known sugars and nectar samples using 0.01
ml. volumes. After 24 hours in the solvent, the silver nitrate method
was used to determine the sugars (5). Quantitative analysis of the
nectar was made by the Pridham method (6). Standard solutions of
pure glucose and fructose were spotted in 0.01 ml. volumes so as to
extend over a range of 50y to 175y by weight. The chromatograms
were developed with the 6:4:3 solvent for 24 hours, air-dried, dipped
into the p-anisidine hydrochloride reagent, and heated at 180°C. for
10 minutes. The colored spots and blanks were cut from the paper
and eluted by shaking 5 minutes with 3 ml. of the methanolstannic
reagent. Optical density values read at 640m» were plotted against
the weight of standard glucose and fructose solutions. The standard
curves were used to determine the amount of glucose and fructose in
the nectar sample.

Several drops of the viscous nectar were expelled from the yellow
gland onto a watch glass and kept in an airtight box in a warm room
for a period of six months. The sugars crylstallized out and became
embedded in a clear solid. Chromatograms were run on these crystals
and the ratio of glucose to fructose calculated.

Results and Discussion
The total sugar content of the nectar determined by the anthrone
method was found to be 50% calculated as glucose:

0.26 O.D. (nectar)

0.56 O.D. (Std. glucose)

The original sample (0.04 ml.) was diluted to 2 ml.; 0.5 ml. of this
was made up to 10 ml. and 0.2 ml. of this last dilution was used to
determine the total sugar content.

Circular chromatograms made on samples of the fresh nectar
showed presence of glucose, fructose and sucrose. The crystalline
product indicated glucose and fructose only. Zimmerman (7) found
small amounts of the enzyme, invertase, in the nectar of the Poinsettia,
Euphorbia pulcherrima, which could account for the absence of su-
crose in the crystalline sample. Calculated values of these from the
standard curves gave 46y of glucose and 35y of fructose, out of a
spotting of 82y sample. The crystals were of the orthorhombie type
(8). These results are summarized in Table 1. The ratio of glucose
to fructose (G/F) was found to be 1.39, which corresponds closely
to that of one species of another plant investigated by Wykes.

| 10
< 0.02 mg.(Std.) x —— —=5 mg./10 ml.
0.2

22, Sister Virginia Heines and Sister Mary Adeline O’Leary

Table 1.— Sugars in Crystallized Nectar of the Poinsettia

Sugars Volume applied to Optical Weight sugar found
Chromatogram Density OF

Glucose (1) 10 zl 0.210 47
(2) 10 zl 0.200 45

Average 46
Fructose (1) 10 zl 0.090 34
(2) 10 wl 0.095 36

Average 85

Total sugars in crystalline nectar 81

Total sugar calculated from sample weight 82

Literature Cited

Wykes, G. R., J. Exp. Biol. 29, 511, 1952.

Wykes, G. R., Biochem. J. 53, 294, 1953.

Roe, J. H., J. Biol. Chem., 212, 355, 1955.

Block, R. J. et al., “Paper Chromatography and Paper Electrophoresis”, 2nd

ed., Academic Press, N. Y. 1958.

5. Green, S. R., and Stone, I., Wallerstein Laboratories Communications, 15,
850, 1952.

6. Pridham, J. B., Anal. Chem., 28, 1967, 1956.

7. Zimmermann, M., Ber. schweiz. botan. Ges. 63, 402, 1953. Chem. abst., 48,
11575», 1954.

8. Wycoff, R. W. G., “Structure of Crystals”, 2nd ed., Chemical Catalog Co.,

N. Y. 1931.

Cfo i)

Accepted for publication October 27, 1959.

SULFUR COMPOUNDS AS INHIBITORS IN OIL BEARING CORROSION

N. W. HALL,1 W. D. WILLIAMS,? and J. R. MEADOW
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Reactions in an internal combustion engine are varied, complex
and uncertain. Lubricating oil temperatures may range from 120°C
to 250°C. Oil is whipped around as a mist in the crankcase and ab-
sorbs considerable quantities of air. Under these conditions, lubri-
cating oil is subject to increased oxidation and breakdown. The break-
down processes are necessarily very complex. The order of events
and the intermediate reaction products depend on such factors as
structure of oil molecules, temperature, pressure, presence of air,
inhibitors, metallic catalysts, and others. Such a combination of fac-
tors introduces a considerable element of uncertainty into any specu-
lation about the nature of breakdown products (1).

The formation of lacquers and sludges as well as the corrosion of
bearings is usually attributed in part at least to the attack of the oil
by oxygen (2). Metals are not usually corroded by the hydrocarbon
components per se which make up a very large portion of any lubri-
cating oil, but corrosion does occur under certain conditions as the
result of the presence of impurities or “catalysts” in lubricants and as
a result of the development of oil oxidation products. Lubricants can
vary as much as a hundredfold in their bearing corrosion tendencies.
Bearings themselves differ greatly as to their resistance to corrosion
in oils. Copper-lead and cadium-base bearings have greater me-
chanical strength than babbit bearings, but unfortunately they are
more subject to chemical attack at elevated temperatures by oxidation
products of the oil. Thus much work has been devoted to the problem
of finding so-called additives which will suppress the oxidation of the
oil and thereby decrease the harmful effects on the engine and bear-
ings as well as increase the life of the oil.

The literature on the breakdown of lubricants reveals many differ-
ent viewpoints regarding the mechanism of oil oxidation and the role
of antioxidants or inhibitors present in an oil (3). Numerous investi-
gators have studied the effects of various types of compounds on the
stability of oils when they are subjected to oxidative conditions (2-15).
In most instances the extent of oil oxidation, with or without inhibi-
tors, has been reported in terms of oxygen absorbed, acidity developed,
the amount of sludge formed in the oil after a given time, and to some
extent the corrosion of a metal surface.

1 Present address, Shell Oil Company, Houston, Texas.
2 Present address, Harding College, Searcy, Arkansas.

24 N. W. Hall, W. D. Williams, and J. R. Meadow

The only completely satisfactory test on a lubricant is necessarily
long, tedious and expensive. Such a test would be a long engine test,
and this would be followed by a thorough road test and examination
of engine parts thereafter. Obviously, many shorter screening tests
have been devised to help arrive at some conclusions about the stabil-
ity of oils and what inhibitors should be used in them.

It is known that lubricating oils contain many naturally occurring
sulfur compounds which may function as oxidation inhibitors (6).
Depending on the source of the oil, the amount of sulfur compounds
present may vary from a trace to as much as twenty percent (6).
Since lubricating oils are so complex, it is impossible to determine the
exact structure of the sulfur compounds present. As suggested by
Denison and Condit (7) it is perhaps better to study the problem of
sulfur inhibition of oils by the use of known sulfur additives and not-
ing their effect on the oxidation of a base stock oil of known sulfur
content. These authors studied the inhibiting effects of several kinds
of sulfur compounds on the oxidation of completely desulfurized oils.
They concluded that thioethers, having at least on aliphatic or cycloali-
phatic group, were the most effective inhibitors tried. Their findings
were based on oxidation rates using a Dornte type of apparatus (8)
for measuring the volume of oxygen absorbed by a given sample of oil.

The purpose of our investigation was to study organic sulfur com-
pounds as corrosion inhibitors, or possibly corrosion catalysts, and note
the actual effects produced on a bearing strip. The choice of bearing
strip was that of a cadmium silver metal surface.? The test used was
similar to the one described by Moran, Evers and Fuller (17) which
is an air blowing test for indicating the corrosive effect of oils on
cadmium silver bearing surfaces. This type of short test is used in
some laboratories as a preliminary screening test for studying oil addi-
tives. Because of the very complex nature of metal corrosion which
takes place during the oxidation of a lubricating oil at elevated tem-
peratures, especially in the presence of organic sulfur compounds, one
should recognize that totally different results might be expected when
the same compounds are used with other bearing metal surfaces, or
when experimental conditions are appreciably changed.

Materials Employed

Many of the sulfur compounds listed in Table II were obtained
directly from vendors in a high degree of purity. This would include

3 Private communication, E. W. Fuller, Socony-Mobil Oil Co., Paulsboro
New Jersey.

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion 25

such compounds as those numbered | to 8 incl., 10 to 15 incl., 22 and
32 in Table II. No. 6, however, contained a mixture of isomers.

The sulfides numbered from 23 to 29 incl. were synthesized from
alcoholic sodium sulfide and the necessary alkyl bromide in each case.
No. 30 and No. 31 were prepared from ethylene oxide and the corre-
sponding mercaptan. All of the disulfides listed in Table I, with the
exception of compound No. 39, were made according to the method of
Noller and Gordon (18) in which the alkyl bromide was allowed to re-
act with an alcoholic solution of sodium disulfide. Tert-dodecy] disulfide
(No. 39), however, was prepared from the sodium salt of tert-dodecyl
mercaptan and iodine dissolved in CCl,. The sulfones, No. 16 to 21
incl., were prepared directly from the sulfides by oxidation with acid
permanganate solution. The three sulfide polymers in the miscel-
laneous group (Nos. 43, 45 and 46) were prepared from the necessary
polymethylene dibromide in each case and alcoholic sodium sulfide
solution. Ethylene disulfide polymer (No. 44) resulted from the
reaction between ethylene bromide and sodium disulfide solution.
1,4-Dithiane (No. 47) was obtained as a by-product in the prepara-
tion of ethylene sulfide polymer (No. 42) from ethylene bromide and
sodium sulfide. Methyl-n-amyl-1,3-dithiane (No. 48) was the con-
densation product from 1,3-propanedithiol and methyl-n-amyl ketone
in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride.

The blank oil used as a base in all of the corrosion tests was a
solvent refined, S.A.E. 20 grade, paraffinic type of oil generously fur-
nished for our purpose by the Socony-Mobil Oil Company. Some of
the physical characteristics and analytical properties of this oil are
listed below.

Table 1.— Properties of Base Oil

Rea ALPATE csc. coesesensnsees 81.0 WVascosity: Index >...) 5..208 110
Specific Gravity, 60°F. ........ 0.8708 Sulftir, (iat fs eae 0.08
IPYOUPS SO) De! Sosre eens ape earns 20 Refr. Index (D line
TRG is SORE eee 450 DOSGA) ee aeecee eee eres 1.4801
Eunice seat ats eay cake tecesesreetccees: 490 Aniline Pomt, 1G, xccc.detes Je
Kinematic Viscosity Waterman Ring Analysis
Bip MIO? Oe escosccoseseocreosasa eee 66.99 Aromatic Rings, % ........ 5.9
Fi ALG (0 anna merle ee neieaes 32.76 Naphthenic Rings, % .... 19.7
GE OAC) 2) CUR te oo ee 8.69 Parraffinic Chains, % .... 74.4
Rings/Molecule ................ 2.0
Apparatus

Details of an apparatus designed to measure the extent of bearing
corrosion in a lubricating oil in the presence of air at 175°C. are shown
in Figure 1. It is similar to the cadmium silver bearing corrosion test
used in some lube oil laboratories and previously described in the pat-

26 N. W. Hall, W. D. Williams, and J. R. Meadow

ent literature (15, 16). Except for a few modifications the conditions
used in our work were very similar. Air at the rate of two liters per
hour, controlled by the pressure regulator system at C in Fig. 1, was

Fig. 1. Diagram of corrosion test apparatus.

blown into a 25-gram sample of oil at H for a period of twenty-two
hours. Temperature of the oil samples was kept at 175°C. by means
of a well-insulated constant temperature bath (A), equipped with a
stirrer, 250-watt heater, thermometer, and thermoregulator (+0.5°C.).
Extra heavy lubricating oil served as a heat transfer medium. A sep-
arate air supply for each sample entered the system at J, passed
through a pressure regulator, D, a drying tube at L, thence to the test
cell at E, and escaped through exit tube G and a glass jet at N. By
means of a stopcock M the air current from the test cell E could be
diverted through O to a flowmeter P.

The standard test piece used was one quarter of a Pontiac connect-
ing rod bearing, 4 x 1.4 cm., weighing approximately 6 grams and
having a surface of cadmium silver alloy. A clean, weighed strip
(I in Fig. 1) was removed after completion of a run, washed with
petroleum ether, dried at 120° C., and reweighed. The loss in weight
before and after a determination was reported in milligrams (see
Table II).

Experimental Results

Under the experimental conditions noted above, the blank oil
whose properties are recorded in Table I gave an average bearing
weight loss of about 18 mg. when no inhibitor was added. Table II
summarizes the results obtained with the various sulfur compounds

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion 27

TABLE Il”
RESULTS OF THE CORROSION TEST ON OIL SAMPLES CONTAINING SULFUR COMPOUNDS AS INHIBITORS*

Sulfur Compound Used Average Bearing Sulfur Compound Used Average Bearing
as Inhibitor Weight Loss as Inhibitor Weight Loss
in Mg. b in Mg.>
BLANK OIL (No inhibitor added) 18,0 SULFIDES
MERCAPTANS 22, n-Heptyl sulfide, B.p, 143-145°/8 mm, 21.8
1, n-Heptyl mercaptan, B.p. 174-6° 46.4 ;
OL a i a 23, n-Octyl sulfide, B,p. 131-134°/1.8 mm, ‘21.7
2, n-Octyl mercaptan, B.p, 201-3° 10, 2 :
a Es " M4 3 9 2h, 2-Octyl sulfide, B.p. 100-102°/1.7 mm, 8,5
3, mn-Nonyl mercaptan 23.0
25, n-Decyl sulfide, M.p. 24-25° 14,3
4, n-Undecyl mercaptan 5.9
26, n-Dodecyl sulfide, M.p. 38-40° 17.5
» NeDodecyl mercaptan, B.p. 146-8°/15 mm, 38 :
2 * See ie 3 2 27. n-Tetradecyl sulfide, M,p, 51-52° 11,6
6, tert-Dodecyl mercaptan, B.p, 78-87°/5 m, 0,2
rs ne Dla, 28. n-Hexadecyl eulfide, M.p, 54-56° 14
» mneTetradecyl mercaptan, B,p, 177-181°/21 mm; au
7 sa: OAs 3 29. n-Octadecyl sulfide, M.p. 66-68° 4,6
8. n-Octadecyl mercaptan, B.p; 212-4°/15 mm, 0.3
a 30. Phenyl £-hydroxy ethyl sulfide,M,p.56-58°77.7_
9. Trimethylene dimercaptan, B.p, 66-8°/18 mm, 4, ‘
F ony ‘ gh 9 31, n-Amyl f-hydroxy ethyl sulfide,B.p. 125-
THIOPHENOLS 126°/10 mm, 45.5
10, Thiophenol, B.p, 62-3°/15 mm, 57.2 32, Phenyl sulfide, B.p, 151-153°/15 m, 17.7
11, p-Thiocresol, M.p, 41-43° 58.6 DISULFIDES
12, o-Thiocresol, M.p, 10-12° 48,9 33, n-Butyl disulfide, B.p. 110-113°/15 mm, 26.5
13, m-Thiocresol, B.p. 75-7°/10 m, 65.5 34, n-Heptyl disulfide,B.p,198-210°/22 mm, 2,1
1h, p-Octadecyl thiophenol, Mp. 55°55.5° 0.2 © 35. n-Octyl disulfide,B,p.180-166°/5 mm, 5.9
15, £-Thionaphthol, M.p, 80-82° 45,1 36.°2-Octyl disulfide,B.p, 125-129°/1.7 mm, 4,5
37. n-Decyl disulfide, B.p, 15-16° 2.7
38, n-Dodecyl disulfide, M.p. 26-27°C 2.8
SULFONES 39, tert-Dodecyl disulfide, B.p. 60-90°/0.2- A
= ee 0.3 m 0.3
16, n-Heptyl sulfone, M.p, 79-79,5° 23.3
. 40, n-Tetradecyl disulfide, M.p. 44,5-45° 2.0
17. n-Octyl sulfone, M.p. 75-76° 12.0
7 Fs : 41, n-Octadecyl disulfide, M.p. 48-48.5° One
18, n-Decyl sulfone, M.p. 83-84° 21.5
MISCELLANEOUS.
19, n-Dodecyl sulfone, Mp. 93.5-94° 20.6
42, Elemental sulfur 0,0
20, n-Tetradecyl sulfone, M.p. 98-98.5° 24.7
: 43, Ethylene sulfide polymer, M.r, 148-
21, n-Octadacyl sulfone, M.p. 105-106° 16.0 159° 0.4e

4h, Ethylene disulfide polymer,M.r.98-115° 0.8°

45, Hexamethylene sulfide polymer, M.r,54-
bee

1.4°
46, Decamethylene sulfide polymer, M.r,71l-
76° 7.0
47, 1,4-Dithiane, M,p, 112° 21.4
48, Methyl-n-amyl-1,3-dithiane, B.p,
1h0-142/15 mm, 9.9

8£ach oil sample contained 0,2% sulfur from added inhibitor. é
bresulting from the average of two or more determinations after running for 22 hours at 175° C.
CAll temperatures reported are Centigrade readings, uncorrected,

dcontained a mixture of isomers,

Bearing showed a gain in weight,

frhis sample contained only 0.1% sulfur instead of 0,2% as in others,

Spoiling range not listed by vendor's catalogue (Columbia Organic Chemicals Co,),

when they were used as inhibitors in amounts sufficient to give oil
samples containing 0.2% sulfur on a weight basis. These quantities
were equivalent to 0.0062 mole per 100-gram oil sample for compounds
containing only one sulfur atom per mole, or 0.0031 mole for com-
pounds with two sulfur atoms, etc.

28 N. W. Hall, W. D. Williams, and J. R. Meadow

For some of those compounds which caused little or no bearing
weight loss, as indicated by results in Table I, a few additional cor-
rosion tests were made with oil containing smaller amounts of the
sulfur inhibitor. These results are indicated in Table III, and as in the
previous tests they represent the loss in weight, in milligrams, of the
cadmium silver bearing strip after contact with a 25-gramm oil sample
for 22 hours at 175°C.

TABLE IIL
CORROSION TESTS ON SOME OIL SAMPLES WITH REDUCED AMOUNTS OF SULFUR INHIBITORS*

_———————————— eee eee
b Bearing Weight losses in Mg. for different concentrations of inhibitor©

Sulfur Inhibitor 0.2% 0.1% - 0.05% 0.037% 0.025%
Ethylene sulfide polymer (No. 439) o.4& 0.2° 3.6 11.6 19.2
Hexamethylene sulfide polymer (no, 45) 1h 0.2 16.3 seen RES
Decamethylene sulfide polymer (No. 46) 7.0 12.5 -oee ecee cans
Ethylene disulfide polymer (No. }) onee 0.8 7.2 eooe onnn
tert-Dodecyl mercaptan (No, 6) 0.2% 2h 1 cane ecoo mae
p-Octadecyl thiophenol (No. 14) 0.0 0.2 eons cose ance

Elemental sulfur (No. 42) 0.0 0.2 O.1 1.0 eens

See

aResults expressed as average weight loss in mg, for each different concentration of inhibitor used with
conditions of time and temperature similar to those in Table II,

badded to 25.g sample of base oil,

°Expressed in terms of weight percent of elemental sulfur,

dyumbers refer to compounds listed in Table I. s

factually this represents a slight gain in weight of the bearing strip,

Some oil inhibitors may appear to be satisfactory from the stand-
point of preventing or reducing the amount of corrosion of a cadmium
silver bearing surface for a limited time, but they may be quite un-
desirable because they tarnish copper. Because of this, inhibitors are
usually subjected to the copper strip test as a preliminary screening
operation before other tests are actually carried out. A simple quali-
tative test is to permit a small sample of oil to remain in contact with
a strip of copper for 24 hours at 100°C. without agitation by air or
stirring. Such a copper tarnish test was made on some of the better
sulfur-containing inhibitors shown in Tables II and III. The results
of the copper strip test are listed in Table IV, giving the concentration
of inhibitor expressed in terms of percent sulfur, and the extent to
which the added substance attacked the surface of the copper strip.

Discussion

A systematic study has been made of the corrosion inhibiting
effect of several different kinds of organic sulfur compounds when
added to oil samples in quantities to give 0.2% or less sulfur by weight.
The compounds listed in Table II can be divided roughly into three
types: (1) those compounds which had no effect; (2) those which

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion 29

TABLE IV
EFFECT OF SULFUR-CONTAINING INHIBITORS ON COPPER STRIPS

Per Cent Effect | Per Cent Effect
Sulfur Inhibitor Sulfur in on Sulfur Inhibitor Sulfur in on
E Oil Sample Copper - Oil Sample Copper
MERCAPTANS : SULFIDES
tert-Dodecyl mercaptan (No, 6°) 0.2 Severe” n-Tetradecyl sulfide (No, 27) 0.2 Extremely slight
n-Tetradecyl mercaptan (No. 7) 0,2, Slight n-Hexadecyl sulfide (No. 28) 0.2 Extremely slight
n-Octadecyl mercaptan (No, 8) 0.2 Considerable n-Octadecyl sulfide (No, 29) 0.2 Extremely slight
DISULF IDES MISCELLANEOUS
n-Heptyl disulfide (No, 3h) 0.2 Severe Elemental sulfur (No, 42) 0,05 Severe
n-Octyl disulfide (No. 35) 0.2 Severa Ethyleme sulfide polymer (No. 43) 0.05 None
2-Octyl disulfide (No, 36) 0.2 Slight Ethylene disulfide polymer (No, 44) 0,1 Considerable
n-Dodecyl disulfide (No, 38) 0,2 Considerable Hexamethylene sulfide polymer (No,45)0.1 Slight
n-Tetradecyl disulfide (No, 40) 0,2 Slight Decenstip tore sulfide polymer (No.46)0.2 None
n-Octadecyl disulfide (No, 41) 0.2 Severe p-Octadecylthiophenol (No. 1}) 0.2 None

Numbers in parenthesis refer to compounds listed in Table Ir.
bextent of tarnish on copper strip indicated in following order: None, extremely slight, slight, considerable, and severe.

had a catalytic effect; ie. caused a weight loss of more than 18 mg,;
and (3) those which produced an inhibiting effect on the oil.

A few generalizations as follows can be made from this study:

(1) The corrosion inhibition effect of a particular type of com-
pound usually became more pronounced with an increase in molecular
weight; this was more noticeable with the sulfides, the mercaptans
and the disulfides than with some of the other sulfur derivatives em-
ployed (see Figures 2-A and 2-B).

(2) All compounds tested which contained the octadecyl radical,
with the possible exception of the sulfone, were quite effective as
inhibitors of corrosion on cadmium silver surfaces; this was not neces-
sarily true on copper, however.

(3) The mercaptans and disulfides which contained twelve or
more carbon atoms per mole were found to be surprisingly good in-
hibitors of corrosion on cadmium silver but unfortunately they tar-
nished copper surfaces very badly.

(4) Our work, in general, supports some of the observations of
Denison and Condit (7), namely that alkyl sulfides as a group are
probably the best all-around inhibitors among the sulfur compounds
tested; this is especially true if one includes the oil-soluble polymeric
sulfides, such as ethylene sulfide polymer (No. 43 in Table II).

Figures 2-A and 2-B show the comparative inhibiting effect on
cadmium silver surfaces of straight chain aliphatic sulfides, mercap-
tans and disulfides when the chain length, and hence the molecular
weight, is increased. The polymethylene sulfide and disulfide polymers
were not included in the graph. Those compounds which caused a

380 N. W. Hall, W. D. Williams, and J. R. Meadow

MILLIGRAM WEIGHT LOSS OF CADMIUM SILVER BEARING STRIP

MTS Sy 8 HY ao sh ws a BBG mag ae
NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS IN ALKYL CHAIN

Fig. 2. Comparative inhibiting effect of straight chain sulfur compounds. A—Alkyl sul-
fides; B—Alkyl mercaptans and disulfides.

bearing loss above 18 mg. might be considered as catalysts for bear-
ing corrosion. Figure 3 gives the corrosion rate curves from 0 to 22
hours for the straight chain aliphatic mercaptans. It is admitted that
results might vary somewhat with different stocks of base oil used,
but due to its low sulfur content it doubtless served our purpose very
well.

It can be observed that the alkyl sulfides containing over twenty
carbons per mole, the mercaptains and disulfides with at least twelve
carbons per mole, the polymeric sulfur compounds, and a single
thiophenol with an octadecyl group were fairly effective as inhibitors
on cadmium silver. The sharp increase in the inhibiting effect of the
higher molecular weight mercaptans was unexpected.

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion 31

SILVER BEARING STRIPS

MILLIGRAM WEIGHT LOSS OF CADMIUM-

Oar: ST eas 8 12 16 20 24
TIME IN HOURS

Fig. 3. Rate of corrosion curves for straight chain aliphatic mercaptans.

The alkyl sulfones were generally ineffective either as inhibitors
or as catalysts for this type of corrosion test. This observation is in
agreement with some of the results reported by Denson and Con-
dit’ (7).

Although some results were obtainable for studying the effct of
chain branching on inhibitor action in this particular base oil, one must
exercise caution in making conclusions from the limited data which
are available. There is some indication that branched alkyl chains
were slightly more effective than the corresponding straight chain
isomers.

Compounds listed in Table III were added to oil samples in quan-
tities to give less than 0.2% sulfur. It can be observed that elemental
sulfur was very effective at concentrations as low as 0.037%, and
ethylene sulfide polymer (No. 43) was quite effective at 0.05% or
even lower. p-Octadecylthiophenol (No. 14) gave favorable results
at 0.1% concentration; unfortunately lower concentrations of this com-
pound were not tried during the period of experimentation. De-
camethylene sulfide polymer (No. 46) and tert-dodecyl mercaptan
(No. 6) were not very effective when reduced from 0.2% to 0.1%.
Hexamethylene sulfide polymer (No. 45) and ethylene disulfide poly-
mer (No. 44) were effective at 0.1% but much less so at 0.50% con-
centration.

If compounds classed as inhibitors based on the Cd-Ag corrosion
test are ruled out because they tarnish copper (copper strip test,
Table IV), the number of satisfactory inhibitors listed in Table II

32 N. W. Hall, W. D. Williams, and J. R. Meadow

would be reduced considerably. In fact, this would eliminate all but
the alkyl sulfides, the polymethylene sulfide polymers, and p-octade-
cylthiophenol. The latter compound probably deserves more study as
an oxidation inhibitor for oils and is a type of compound which was
mentioned in the work of Reid and Hamilton (16).

The mechanism of corrosion inhibition may be due to any one or
a combination of various factors. The most probable are the following:

(1) Formation of a protective coating on the bearing surface.*

(2) Reduction of acid formation in the oil by furnishing basicity.

(3) Retard oil oxidation possibly by preventing the formation of
peroxides.

(4) Reduction of peroxides, i.e. destroy the peroxides formed.

It has been demonstrated that the attack of oxygen on a hydro-

carbon is a free radical chain reaction (19, 20). Denison (6, 7) has
suggested that corrosion is a result of the ability of peroxides to con-
vert metal into metal oxides which are subsequently removed by
reaction with acidic constituents developed during oxidation. By a
combination of these concepts, the mechanism of bearing corrosion
may be illustrated by the following series of reactions:

A. Formation of peroxides through chain reaction
RH (activation) — R. + H.
R. + O2 — ROO.
ROO. -+- RH — ROOH -+ R.
B. Corrosive action
ROOH + M — ROH + MO
MO + 2HA — MA, + H:O
where M = Metal, ROOH = peroxide, and
HA = organic acid.

Several authors (7, 21) have suggested that the best corrosion
inhibitors are probably those which readily reduce hydroperoxides.
Thus, a sulfide inhibitor might destroy a peroxide by reduction as
follows:

ROOH + R-S-R — R-SO-R + ROH
ROOH + R-SO-R > R-SO.-R + ROH

The oxidation products of the sulfide might be either a sulfoxide
or a sulfone.

Our work has demonstrated that the sulfones as a group are quite
inert as corrosion inhibitors for cadmium silver surfaces (see Table

4 This might explain the slight increase in bearing weight noticed in a few
instances and recorded in Table II.

Sulfur Compounds as Inhibitors in Oil Bearing Corrosion 33

Il). This particular observation of ours lends much support to the
Denison-Condit mechanism described above.

Summary

Alkyl sulfides, disulfides and mercaptans were more effective as
oxidation inhibitors than sulfones as determined by the cadmium sil-
ver bearing corrosion test. Their effectiveness as inhibitors increased
with molecular weight. Polymethylene sulfide polymers were most
effective. With the exception of p-octadecylthiophenol, the thio-
phenols appeared to be more corrosive than the mercaptans. The tar-
nish effect on copper increased in the following order: polymethylene
sulfide polymers, alkyl sulfides, alkyl disulfides and mercaptans. Some
of our results lend support to the Denison-Condit idea of peroxide
reduction in oils.

Acknowledgment

The authors wish to thank E. W. Fuller of the Research and De-
velopment Laboratories, Socony-Mobil Oil Company, for his valuable
suggestions relating to corrosion tests, and also for the base oil which
he supplied for this work.

Literature Cited

1. Weiland, W. F., 1950. Sci. Mo., 71:121.
Larsen, H. G., Armfield, F. A., and Whitney, G. M., 1943. S.A.E. Jour.,
51:310.

8. Zuidema, H. H., 1946. Chem. Rev., 38:197. °
4. Byers, J. H., 1936. Natl. Petroleum News, 28:78-84 (No. 51).

5. Davis, L. L., Lincoln, B. H., Byrkit, G. D., and Jones, W. A., 1941. Ind. and
Eng. Chem. 33:339.

6. Denison, G. H., Jr., 1944. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 36:477.

7. Denison, G. H., Jr., and Condit, P. C., 1945. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 37:1102.
8

9

bo

. Dornte, R. W., 1936. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 28:26.

. Fenske, M. R., Stevenson, C. E., Lawson, N. D., Herbolsheimer, G., and Koch,
E. F., 1941. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 33:516.
10. Haslam, R. T., and Frolich, P. K., 1927. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 19:292.
11. Lamb, G. G., Loane, C. M., and Gaynor, J. W., 1941. Ind. and Eng. Chem.,
Anal. Ed. 18:317.
12. Larsen, R. G., Armfield, F. A., and Whitney, G. M., 1943. S.A.E. Journal
51:810.

13. Larson, R. G., Thorpe, R. E., and Armfield, F. A., 1942. Ind. and Eng. Chem.
84:1838.

14. Loane, C. M., and Gaynor, J. W., 1945. Ind. and Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed.
17:89.

15. Mead, B., 1927. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 19:1240.
16. Reid, E. E., and Hamilton, L. A., 1941. U.S. Patent No. 2, 230, 966.

34 N. W. Hall, W. D. Williams, and J. R. Meadow

17. Moran, R. C., Evers, W. L., and Fuller, E. W., 1936. U.S. Patent No. 2,
058, 342.

18. Noller, C., and Gordon, J., 1933. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 55:1090.

19. Frank, C. E., 1950. Chem. Rev., 46:155.

20. Waters, W. A., 1948. “Chemistry of Free Radicals”, 2nd Ed., Oxford Press,
London, England. (p. 232-234).

21. Gruse, W. A., and Stevens, D. R., 1942. “Chemical Technology of Petroleum”,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Accepted for publication January 4, 1960.

THE CAVE SNAIL, CARYCHIUM STYGIUM CALL

LESLIE HUBRICHT
1285 Willow Avenue, Louisville 4, Kentucky

Carychium stygium Call, was described from specimens collected
in Mammoth Dome, Mammoth Cave, Edmonson County, Kentucky.
(Call, 1897) Giovannoli (Bailey, 1933) found it in Buzzard’s Cave
and White’s Cave, near Mammoth Cave. This remained the known
range of the species until the present author found it to be widely
distributed in the caves of central Kentucky. It was found in an area
about 60 miles long, and about half as wide, extending from near
Upton, Kentucky on the north to near Portland, Tennessee on the
south. In this area it was found in most of the caves in which there
was sufficient food and moisture. Efforts to find it outside of caves
were unsuccessful; it was found only in the total darkness of caves.

———————

Fig. 1. Carychium stygium Call. Whites Cave. A. head of animal with round eyes and
rounded tentacles. B. head of animal with degenerate eyes and pointed tentacles. C.
three shells opened to show lamellae. Scale line equals 1 mm.

Localities:

KENTUCKY: Hart County: Copelin Cave, 2 miles east of Millerstown;
Puckett Cave, 1 mile west-southwest of Priceville; Chattin Cave, 2 miles west of
Priceville; Cooch Webb Cave, 2.2 miles west of Priceville; Buckner Hollow Cave,
7 miles east-northeast of Munfordville (Thomas C. Barr, Jr., Coll. ); Cub Run Cave,
2 miles west of Cub Run; Ronalds Cave, 2.6 miles north of Cave City; Hogan
Cave, 3 miles north of Cave City; cave, 2 miles southwest of Northtown. Edmon-
son County: near river in Great Onxy Cave; Cathedral (Buzzards) Cave, near
Floyd Collins Crystal Cave. Mammoth Cave National Park: Pogoda Cave; Salts

36 Leslie Hubricht

Cave, near old Pike Chapman Entrance; Whites Cave; Little Whites Cave; Dixon
Cave; Proctors Cave; Martins Cave; Running Branch Cave; Blowing Spring Cave;
small cave near Longs Cave; Mammoth Cave: Bunker Hill, end of Audubons Ave-
nue; Mammoth Dome; near Richardson Spring; River Hall; Violet City; Cathedral
Domes; New Entrance; Frozen Niagara. Barren County: Indian Cave, 4 miles
west of Cave City; Railroad Cave, Cave City; Burnett Cave, 0.6 mile west of Park
City; Vance Cave, 0.8 mile northwest of Park City; Brushy Knob Cave, 2 miles
northwest of Park City; Diamond Cavern, 2 miles north of Park City (fossil only);
Short Cave, 2.2 miles northwest of Park City; Beckton Cave, 0.5 mile northwest
of Beckton; Duval Saltpeter Cave, 0.7 mile northwest of Beckton; Cave Spring
Cave, 1 mile south-southwest of Red Cross. Warren County: Bypass Cave, Bowl-
ing Green; Vails Cave, 2 miles west of Bowling Green. Simpson County: Hoy
Cave, 2 miles north of Franklin; Steeles Cave, 4 miles southeast of Franklin.
TENNESSEE: Sumner County: small cave in sink above White Oak Cave, 2.2
miles east-northeast of Mitchellville.

Considering the isolation of the colonies, there is remarkably little
variation. In shell size, the over-all variation is only slightly greater
than that to be found in a single colony. (Fig. 2). The largest shells
were found in Mammoth Cave and other caves in the vicinity. They
become slightly smaller at the northern and southern limits of the
range. In the shells opened there was very little variation in the
internal lamellae. The principal lamella has an even spiral edge and
is rather small. The columellar lamella is obsolete (Fig. 1C).

In the animals examined the tentacles were either bluntly pointed
(Fig. 1B) or lobed (Fig. 1A), the latter being in the majority. The
eyes are situated in the base of the tentacles and are usually round
(Fig. 1A), but sometimes are reduced to an irregular mass of dark
pigment (Fig. 1B).

The question of how Carychium stygium became distributed in the
caves in which it is found is as yet unanswered. That this snail, whose
movement is so slow as to be barely perceptible, could crawl from a
single point of origin through subterranean passageways into the many
caves in which it is now found seems improbable. It seems more
probable that it was originally a surface species which moved inde-
pently into each of the cave systems in which it is now found. The
absence of variation and the presence of eyes would indicate that
either the migration into the caves has been rather recent or that the
snails have an unusually stable gene system.

Much has been written about the uniformity of the cave habitat.
While it is true that temperatures and the absence of light are con-
stant, other important factors, such as moisture, food supply, and the
prevalence of competitors and predators, may vary widely. Some caves
are quite wet, with dripping walls and ceilings, often with stalactites
and stalagmites. These usually have an abundant fauna if food is
available. Others are subject to flooding after heavy rains; these caves
usually do not have as abundant terrestrial fauna as the first type.

The Cave Snail, Carychium Stygium Call

AAA AAABAE
seaicaiss
ddddddade
PAA AA AAA
ee

Fig. 2. Carychium stygium Call. A. Copelin Cave. B. Cooch Webb Cave. C. Buckner
Hollow Cave. D. Cub Run Cave. E. Ronalds Cave. F. Hogans ave. G. Mammoth Dome,
Mammoth Cave. H. River Hall, Mammoth Cave. |. Brushy Knob Cave. J. Duval Saltpeter
Cave. K. Bypass Cave. L. Steeles Cave. Scale line equals 1 mm.

Still others may be relatively dry, and usually have a meager fauna.
There are two principal sources of food supply; debris washed in by
streams; and the guano of bats, cave rats (Neotoma), and cave crickets
(Hadenoecus).

My observations indicate that while Carychium stygium will feed
on leaves and wood where it is available, the principal food is the

38 Leslie Hubricht

guano of the cave cricket (Hadenoecus subterraneus Schudder ). They
have not been observed feeding on either bat or cave rat guano. In
most caves there is a direct correlation between the number of cave
crickets and the abundance of Carychium stygium. Since the cave
crickets usually must go outside of the caves at night to feed, they are
not found in abundance very far from an opening. Carychium stygium
is usually found near the entrance (but in total darkness), or in the
vicinity of breakdowns. In Mammoth Cave they are found in the
deeper parts of the cave only in River Hall, where they appear to feed
on mud and slime brought in by the annual floods.

Usually associated with Carychium stygium, in addition to Hade-
noecus subterraneus, are the cave millipede Scoterapes copei (Pack-
ard), the bristle-tail Campodea cookei Packard, and the beetle Ptoma-
phagus hirtus (Tellkampf). These are guano feeders and compete
with Carychium stygium for food. The harvestman Phalangodes ar-
mate Tellkampf, the spider Antrobia mammouthia Tellkampf, and the
beetles Neophaenops tellkampfi (Erichson), and Pseudanophthalmus
spp. are predators. Whether any of these prey upon Carychium sty-
gium is doubtful. None was seen to show any interest in the snails.

Carychium stygium requires a very moist habitat and drought is
fatal. On the other hand, it seems to be able to stand submergence in
water for long periods. It was found crawling about on the wet mud
after a flood in River Hall, Mammoth Cave. In White’s Cave it was
seen crawling about on the bottom of a pool where there had been
water for several months.

Literature Cited

Call, R. E., 1897. Some notes on the flora and fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ken-
tucky. Amer. Nat. 31: 377-392.
Bailey, Vernon, 1933. Cave Life in Kentucky. Amer. Midl. Nat. 14: 385-636.

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

K. V. PRASANNA
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois

The amount of energy radiated at the sun’s surface is about twenty
million B.T.U. per square foot per hour. Of this, the energy received
at the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere amounts approximately
to two thousandths of one per cent (0.002%). A maximum of forty
percent of this energy intercepted could be collected at the earth’s
surface, the remainder being absorbed and scattered in the atmos-
phere. All the deposits of coal and oil comprise a very small fraction
of this energy stored over millions of years. Water situated at high
potential is another form of the sun’s energy. Fuel alcohol obtained
from certain vegetable matter is yet another form of stored energy.

If all the stored energy that could be recovered from the earth
were stock piled, it would amount only to a three-day period of solar
energy intercepted by the earth. It has been estimated that the energy
consumed during the past fifty years corresponds nearly to eighty
percent of all the energy ever consumed by Man. According to very
reasonable estimates of the future power requirements, all the present
energy, including atomic energy, will last for only 245 years. By 2200
A.D. Man must be able to harness one percent of the solar energy re-
ceived by the earth to cope with his power requirements.

Even the most modern equipment operating on present fuels cor-
responds to sixteen hundredth of one percent of the energy received.
It is needless to mention the efficiency of the equipment used by our
predecessors. Let us consider the familiar example of the domestic
animal the bull, which is still a chief source of motive power used by
the agriculturists of India. An average Indian bull can exert a force
of sixteen hundredth (0.16) of a ton for eight hours, the power of the
bull being 720 watts for that period. The average power utilized is
only a third of this, that is 240 watts for eight hour period. The aver-
age for a twenty-four hour day is only eighty (80) watts per hour.
On the other hand, the average minimum consumption of food is nine-
teen pounds of dry hay per day, a heat equivalent of 1500 watts. A
steam engine operating on the same fuel can develop one hundred
and eighty (180) watts. These figures show how inefficiently we are
utilizing our resources.

If a power plant were to be built utilizing the solar energy re-
ceived on 750 square miles of desert land in the United States, it could
cater to the present power requirements. A power plant covering one-

40 K. V. Prasanna

fifth of the area of the state of New Mexico can supply thirty times
the present power requirements of the United States.

If the harnessing of solar energy is broken into its elements, it falls
into four branches: collection, transportation, storage and utilization.
Let us consider the influence of each of these factors.

The amount of solar energy received on any part of the earth’s
surface depends on:

(1) the hour angle of the sun

(2) the declination

(3) the latitude of the place

(4) the solar altitude above the horizon

(5) the azimuth of the sun .

(6) atmospheric conditions like air mass factor, cloud, and haze
factor, diffuse radiation factor

(7) the position of the energy receiving surface.

It is observed that, at the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere a
maximum of 4300 B.T.U. per square foot of normal area for a day of
ten hour sunshine, can be received. The average amount of solar
energy at any place is given by 4300 multiplied by all the above said
factors. According to U.S. Weather Bureau reports, near the Boston
area, minimum average incident solar energy is 1000 B.T.U. per square
foot of south wall area per day. This figure is greater as we go
towards the equator. The threshold value of incident solar energy
below which it cannot be collected is thirty B.T.U. per square foot
per hour which corresponds to 4.3% of daily total energy received.

The amount of solar energy that could be collected depends on the
efficiency of collectors and the temperature of collecting surface above
that of the environment. The type of collector depends on the par-
ticular application. For water and space heating, a flat plate collector
can be used in which a temperature as high as 195°F has been at-
tained. For conversion of solar energy into power a higher tempera-
ture difference is necessary. For this a mirror type collector is used
in which a temperature as high as 8500°F has been attained. How-
ever, to keep the radiation losses to a minimum, a smaller temperature
difference is advisable.

A blackened flat copper plate, when used as a collector, has an
absorption efficiency of ninety-five percent, but external radiation
losses bring down the net collection efficiency to a low value. Intro-
duction of a glass cover plate reduces the incident solar energy by a
small amount, but it reduces radiation losses to a great extent, thus
increasing the collector efficiency. Experimental investigation has
shown that up to a maximum of three glass cover plates with air

Applications of Solar Energy 41

spaces in between, improves collector efficiency considerably, the value
of the efficiency in this case being fifty-seven percent.

For concentration of solar energy by mirrors a concave or a para-
bolic mirror can be used. However, from the cost consideration it is
economical to build the collector using pieces of flat mirrors with
proper orientation.

It is needless to say that the transportation and storage losses
should be kept at a minimum by the use of proper insulation so that
overall efficiency of solar equipment can be kept at a high value.

Utilization of Solar Energy

The term utilization factor is defined as the ratio of energy avail-
able in the required form, to the amount of solar energy incident on
the collector. Experimental investigations have shown that utilization
of solar energy as heat, is far more efficient than other forms of energy
like mechanical and electrical energy, since the latter usually involves
heat as an intermediate stage. The utilization factor is as low as five
tenths of one percent (.5%) in photonynthesis. It has reached a peak
of thirty-two percent (32%) for space heating, which figure is con-
siderably greater than that obtainable from other forms of energy
whose ultimate source is solar energy.

Egyptians were one of the pioneers in utilizing solar energy for
heating water and operating irrigation pumps. In the year 1818, the
first steam engine operated completely by solar energy was built in
France. It produced one horse power utilizing twenty square yards
of collector area. A modified solar steam engine was built in 1878
which operated a complete printing press. In 1868, a solar furnace
for melting copper was built. A solar steam engine built at South
Pasadena, California operated a water pump, with a discharge capac-
ity of 1000 gallons per minute.

In more recent years several devices harnessing solar energy have
been built all over the world. In Algiers a solar furnace equipped with
twenty-seven and a half foot diameter parabolic mirror, synthesizes
nitric acid directly from air, water, chalk and sunshine. In Pyrnees,
France a forty foot mirror produces refractory ceramics such as fused
quartz and titanium oxide on a commercial scale. Convair’s at San
Diego, have built a solar furnace using one fourth inch aluminum
plate bent into parabolic shape. The ten foot diameter mirror focuses
the sun’s rays to a hot spot five sixteenths of an inch in diameter at
thirty-four inches from the center of the mirror.

The temperature attained is 8500°F as compared with a maximum
temperature of 5800°F attained by oxy-acetylene torch. Dr. C. F.

42, K. V. Prasanna

Kettering has developed a photo-electric cell converting directly light
into D.C. current which runs a small electric motor. Solar batteries
developed by Bell laboratories, use ultra-pure silicon strips one inch
by four inches (1” x 4”) impregnated with one ten thousandth of an
inch (0.0001”) boron. It is between these two surfaces transistor
action takes place which results in flow of current. When several such
elements are electrically connected, the battery is capable of giving
a high current at a high voltage. The utilization factor for these bat-
teries is eight percent. Now these batteries are commercially used for
battery charging and in telephone circuits. The National Physical
Laboratory of New Delhi, India has built an engine completely oper-
ated by solar energy. The same laboratory has built a solar cooker
using a mirror type collector. Another type of cooker that can be used
indoors uses heat absorbed by the fluid. Similar cookers have been
developed at M.I.T., Massachusetts, and Japan. According to Russian
claims, giant reflectors operate textile factories; high pressure solar
heaters cook fruits and vegetables in canneries; distill water, make ice
and heat laboratories. Yet another application is the use of solar
energy for hot-water heating. Hot-water heaters have been success-
fully built both in California and Florida. A temperature as high as
140°F has been attained.

Solar Energy for Space Heating

One of the most feasible and economical application of solar energy
for the present day, is its utilization for home heating. Experimental
houses have been built in several parts of the United States to get an
idea as to the various factors that influence space heating. The U.S.
Weather Bureau over several parts of the country is regularly collect-
ing data as to the amount of energy received by the earth.

Maximum energy can be collected when the collectors are normal
to the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays. It is almost impossible to
achieve in practice since the angle of incidence is always changing.
The best possible location of the collector for winter months, is at the
south facing the roof inclined at sixty degrees to the horizontal. This
has a disadvantage because of the accumulation of snow. To overcome
the above disadvantage, collectors can be located at the south facing
the vertical wall. This reduces the incident energy by ten percent but
has the added advantage of collecting reflected solar energy during
bright snowy days.

Purdue University at Lafayette, Indiana, was the first to build an
experimental solar house to investigate the possibility of using solar
energy for space heating. The house built had the upper two thirds

Applications of Solar Energy 43

of the entire south wall covered with glass. The roof overhang was so
adjusted that it allowed maximum exposure to sunlight during winter
and completely cut-off the sunlight during summer. The experimental
facts showed that excess loss through the added glass area during the
dark period was more than the energy gained during bright sunny
day. The drawbacks were: (1) not covering the glass area by an
insulated partition during the period when there was no solar energy
gain, (2) not providing a means of storage when the energy received
was in excess of the requirement.

Dr. Maria Telkes at M.I.T. made an exhaustive investigation of
several methods of storing systems with a view to building a success-
ful solar house. The chief properties used were specific heat and
latent heat of substances. Of all the substances, water has maximum
specific heat, which permits maximum storage of heat for a given
weight. On equal volume basis, it has a slight advantage since its
specific weight is low. Experiments showed that due to excessive heat
losses, it is not economical to store heat at a temperature higher than
100°F. Latent heats of melting of several chemical salts which lie in
the range of 80 to 100°F can be used to a great advantage since a large
amount of heat can be stored at constant temperature. One such salt
is sodium sulphate, or commercially known as salt cake. The melting
point of sodium sulphate is 90°F and the latent heat is 104 B.T.U. per
pound. At the melting point most of the sodium sulphate melts in its
own water of crystalization leaving only a small part of anhydrous
salt. For instance, between 80°F and 100°F sodium sulphate can store
11,000 B.T.U. per cubic foot. To store the same amount of heat eight
and a half cubic foot of water is necessary, which means larger space
requirements. The impure sodium sulphate is quite cheap and cost
of installation compares favorably with other types of specific heat
storage. Possibility of storing a large quantity of heat at a constant
temperature is of very great advantage for space heating. Inner cor-
rosion can be prevented by the use of corrosion resistant materials.
The heat receiving coil can be designed to prevent the settling of solid
to the bottom by providing temperature stratification. Catalyst may
be added to promote melting and recrystalization. The slight increase
in volume during melting may be taken care of by partially filling the
container. Salt packed in small containers is more economical and
advantageous.

Figure 1 shows the cross section of a house having a large south
wall glass area which almost corresponds to one built at Purdue Uni-
versity. In the vicinity of the Boston area during the winter months,
on an average, the incident solar energy is 1000 B.T.U. per square foot

44 K. V. Prasanna

DOUBLE GLASS With AIR SPACE

TRANSMITTED - 720

NET GAIN - 220

Loss - $00 LFFICIENCY - 22 Y,

figures ARE IN BTU PeR S0.Fr PER DAY

Pic. 1 -So.rae Hous&é Witw LARGE Winoows

of south vertical wall area per day. Energy transmitted through the
double glass wall with air space is 720 B.T.U. per square foot per day.
The outward heat loss is 500 B.T.U. per square foot per day leaving
a net gain of 220 B.T.U. per square foot per day. On clear days there
will be more gain of energy, overheating the house, and on cloudy
days there will be more external loss which necessitates auxiliary
heating.

Figure 2 shows a similar house equipped with a chemical heat
storage, using sodium sulphate as the chemical. The house is equipped
with an insulating partition which is lowered during nights and dull
days, reducing outward losses. The insulating partition at the inner
end controls the room temperature at 70°F. For the same incident
conditions the outward loss is 400 B.T.U. per square foot per day, and
the net gain is 320 B.T.U. per square foot per day. Eight and a half
inches represents the width of storage wall necessary to heat a four
room house, the entire south wall being covered by the collector. By
the figure it is apparent that this arrangement has the advantage of
controlling the room temperature, added to increased utilization effi-
ciency attained.

Figure 3 indicates improvement over the ordinary type of storage
wall. The insulation wall in between collector and storage reduces
the outward loss. The hot air circulation system ensures a better way
of transmission of energy absorbed. The outward loss in this case is
reduced to 350 B.T.U. per square foot per day ee the net gain
to 370 B.T.U. per square foot per day.

Applications of Solar Energy 45

Utilizing these principles of storage systems, M.I.T. built a solar
house which was completely heated by solar energy. The excess heat
collected during clear winter days was stored in large storage bins to
provide heat for intermediate spans of cloudy days when there was
no gain of solar energy. Experimental investigations showed that it
is economical to build storage bins as an integral part of the house,

yeh GLASS W'TH AIR SPACE
INSULATING PARTITION LOWERED

git Ar NicHT
f i | ONTROL
4

.
Room TEMP. - TOF

Sun-1000

OUTWARD
Loss-400

NET GAIN EFFICIENCY -32 7,

Fisures ARE IN BTU FER Sa. fr FER Day
276.2 - SUN Want Wirn CHemical HEAT STORAGE

CHEMICAL ~ GLAUBER'S SALT (NazS0s 1020)

ie DouBLeE GLASS WITH AIR SPACE

Air Duct _»- HEAT CONTROL
/

Sun 1000
Room TEMP. ~ TOF

ColtEcror TEMP.

Less THaAn 110°F
OUTWARD | EFFICIENCY-37/,
STK)
INSULATED
FAN, ix Bs Fi00R

pel a EEE
Fisures ARE INBTU PER Sa.Fr. PER Day
FIG. 3-WALLTYPE CHEMICAL HEAT STORAGE
CHEMICAL~ GLAUBER'SSALT (NazS04 10 4,0)

46 K. V. Prasanna

situated in between two rooms to be heated. With this the radiation
losses of the bins can be used to heat the rooms, raising the utilization
efficiency. It was felt that, to equip the house with a complete solar
heating system, to take care of long, infrequent, no sunshine days,
necessitates the building of large storage bins. To overcome this dis-
advantage, it was felt that the house should be provided with any of
the present day equipment as an auxiliary unit.

Several advantages can be attained by the installation of an auxil-
iary heat pump using air water or earth as a heat source, along with
solar collectors. Provision of a higher heat source improves the effi-
ciency of the heat pump. The temperature of collection need not be
as high as any of the previously described systems since the heat pump
acts as a booster and raises the collector’s efficiency. The excess heat
collected can be stored in the earth (in the case of an earth heat
pump), saving the cost of storage equipment. There is no necessity
to build the collectors as an integral part of the house. During sum-
mer the solar collectors can be used for hot water heating and the heat
pump can be operated on the cooling cycle for summer air-condition-
ing. In the future, if all the American homes were equipped with
solar heating systems, the energy saved would be more than fifty per-
cent of the total American fuel consumption.

Today it is not impractical to think of a solar engine even up to a
capacity of five horsepower which is quite a handy piece of equipment
in an American farm home. Figure 4 shows a typical solar engine that
can be built for such purposes. The solid line shows a freon-12 cycle
and the dotted line shows a water cycle. The water cycle is equipped

MiRROR CONCENTRATION
Ve ON SUPERHEATER

FREON-12
EVAPORATOR

FUATPLATEABSORBER 4
(irs WATER CIRCULATION |}

bm <--—
pe aa CONDENSER

FREON -12
—--— WATER

Lie. 4 - TYPICAL SOLAR ENGINE

Applications of Solar Energy 47

with a pump to circulate, and a flat plate absorber to heat the water.
The hot water passes through a heat exchanger evaporating freon in
the evaporator. The freon vaper passes through a super heater
equipped with mirror concentration. The super-heated vapor expands
through an engine generating useful power. The exhaust vapor passes
through a condenser and a circulating pump back to the evaporator.

Another possible application is the use of solar energy for summer
air conditioning. Figure 5 shows a typical solar air-conditioner. At-

HEATER COOLER

TURBINE” N\ Compressor EXPANSION
TURBINE
EXHAUST Air From Colo AIR FOR

ATMOSPHERE AIR-CONDITIONING
PIG6.5 ~TyPICAL SOLAR AlR-CONDITIONER

mospheric air is drawn into a compressor and compressed to a high
pressure. A small part of this high pressure air passes through a solar
heater equipped with mirror concentration. The air at high pressure
and temperature, passes through a turbine, which provides motive
power for the compressor. The major part passes through a conven-
tional water cooler. The cool high pressure air passes through an
expansion turbine, with a further drop in temperature. The expansion
turbine provides additional power for the compressor. The cold air
coming out of the expansion turbine is available for air conditioning
and human comfort.

The ever increasing power requirements of the modern man and
the limited power resources at his disposal will certainly provide a
great incentive to the already curious scientific investigator to explore
successfully the possibility of harnessing the everlasting sun’s energy
for his power requirements. Before long, the economical barrier that
is still enshrouding the development will break down and we will see
man utilizing solar energy for his power requirements, not to mention
the small innumerable household appliances. Very soon historians will

48 K. V. Prasanna

have to change the statement that, the prosperity of a nation depends
on its coal deposits, to the prosperity of a nation depends on the extent
to which it can harness the mighty and inexhaustible solar energy.

Bibliography

1. Hutchinson, F. W., “Solar House: A Full Scale Experimental Study,” Heating

and Ventilating, Vol. 42, No. 9, September ’45, Page 96.

Hutchinson, F. W., “Solar House: Research Progress Report,” Heating and

Ventilating, Vol. 43, No. 8, March ’46, Page 53.

3. Hutchinson, F. W., “Solar House: A Second Research Progress Report,” Heat-
ing and Ventilating, Vol 44, No. 3, March ’47, Page 55.

4. Telkes, Maria, “Solar House Heating: A Problem of Heat Storage,” Heating
and Ventilating, Vol. 44, No. 5, May ’47, Page 68.

5. Telkes, Maria, “A Review of Solar House Heating,” Heating and Ventilating,
Vol. 46, No. 9, September 749, Page 68.

6. “Utilization of Solar Energy,” Engineering, Vol. 174, Nov. 7, 1952, Pages
607-8, Engineering, Vol. 174, Nov. 14, 1952, Pages 656-6, Engineering, Vol.
174, Nov. 21, 1952, Page 679.

7. Heywood, H., “Solar Energy: Past, Present and Future Applications,” Engi-
neering, Vol. 176, Sept. 18, 1953, Pages 377-80, Engineering, Vol. 176, Sept.
25, 1953, Pages 409-11.

8. Jordan, R. C., and Threlkeld, J. L., “Design and Economics of Solar Energy
Heat Pump,” Heating Piping and Air Conditioning, ASHVE Journal Section,
Vol. 26, No. 2, Feb. ’54, Pages 122-30.

9. “Bell Makes Battery Powered by Sun,” Electrical World News, Vol. 141, May
10, 1954, Pages 47-8.

bo

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and Reagent Chemicals

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plus many others

“Everything For the Modern Laboratory”

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Volume 21 1960 Numbers 3-4

RANSACTIONS
- BR EINTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ

KeNTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

Soil Temperature Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky,
from 1952 to 1956

E. B. Penrop, J. M. Exxiott, and W. K. Brown

Cyclic Entry-Exit for Subroutines
J. C. Eaves and T. J. PicNANI

The Salting Effect of Sodium Chloride on the Extraction of
Erbium Acetylacetonate and 8-quinolinol

Y. G. Isoipa, J. F. Srernspacu, and W. F. WAGNER

A North American Leafhopper Previously Confused with
Typhlocyba andromache McAtee (Homoptera,
Cicadellidae )

Pau. J. CHRISTIAN

Studies of Overwintering Potential of Certain Drosophila
Species
WALLACE D. Dawson

Academy Affairs

Index to Volume 21

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1960-61 .

President: H. H. LaFuzer, Eastern State College

President-elect: CHARLES WHITTLE, Western State College

Vice President: LyL= Dawson, University of Kentucky

Secretary: Grennir LEvrEy, Berea College

Treasurer: RicHarp A. CHAPMAN, University of Kentucky

Representative to AAAS Council: Mary E. WHarton, Georgetown College
Counselor to Junior Academy: Maurice CuristorHER, Murray State College

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS

BACTERIOLOGY AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

Chairman: GENEVIEVE CLark, Georgetown College
Secretary: MARGARET Hotcukiss, University of Kentucky

BOTANY

Chairman: Cart. HENRICKSON, University of Kentucky
Secretary: ARLAND Horcuxiss, University of Louisville

CHEMISTRY

Chairman: Cari. Hussune, Murray State College
Secretary: AnTHUR W. Fort, University of Kentucky

GEOLOGY

Chairman: JaMrEs E. Conxr1n, University of Louisville
Secretary: Marion STALLARD, Louisville

PHYSICS

Chairman: Bruce B. VANCE, Louisville Public Schools
Secretary: RicHarD Hanau, University of Kentucky

PSYCHOLOGY

Chairman: Ray H. Bixier, University of Louisville
Secretary: Paut McNEEty, Asbury College

ZOOLOGY

Chairman: RoBERT KUEHNE, University of Kentucky
Secretary: Dwicur Linpsay, Georgetown College

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

a. YAUGANGASTER) 0; ii cscocsscetssectencaes .-to 1961 HAZEL NOLLAU .........cccccccscenscnss ....to 1962
eG RIE yy ke Nd telat aalvadenes ave to 1961 WHET TANS. (CrAS © ii. 00L ea eee to 1963
WILLIAM B. OWSLEY ......cccscesecsecoccees to 1962 CART GANGS (ule. iestukee cose aca uue aay to 1964
Gu Bu FIAMANN) 2552 A eociesese eeee teens to 1962 NOU CPN SAS 0 9a CR Ser pS A EN to 1964

EDITORIAL STAFF
Editor: RoGER W. Barsour, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Associate Editors: t
(Bacteriology and Medical Technology) SrrH Gi_krrson, Berea College, Berea.
(Botany) Mary E. WuHarron, Georgetown College.

(Chemistry ) Warp SuMptTER, Western State College, Bowling Green.
(Geology) Barspara M. Conxtn, Louisville :
(Zoology) Joun M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington aw,

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and other material tor publication should be addressed to the Editor.

SOIL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS AT LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY
FROM 1952 TO 1956

E. B. PENROD, J. M. ELLIOTT, and W. K. BROWN
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Soil temperature variation with time and depth is of interest to
the design and maintenance engineer and agronomists. The annual
variation of ground temperature must be taken into consideration by
engineers in designing buildings, dams, highways, airport runways,
water mains, pipelines, underground high voltage cables, and ground
coils for earth heat pump installations. The extent of interest in soil
science in recent years can be obtained readily by referring to the
publications listed in the Bibliography.

Research In Geophysics

Research in geophysics was started at the University of Kentucky
in 1949 when an earth heat pump system was employed to determine
the thermal diffusivity of a clayey soil immediately west of Anderson
Hall [4, 5].1 The soil is covered with sod and has a general Casa-
grande classification of lean clay with low plasticity characteristics.
The experimentally determined values of the thermal diffusivity and
density of the soil are 0.019 ft? hr and 120 lb. ft-* respectively, and
the calculated values of the specific heat and thermal conductivity of
the soil are 3.37 B Ib-1 F—1 and 0.84 B hr~ ft-1 F—! respectively. The
specific heat of a sample of dried clay, taken from the earth near the
ground coil of the heat pump system, was determined by the use of
a special calorimeter [13]; the specific heat and density of the dried
clay were found to be 0.196 B Ib-! F~- and 95 lb ft-? respectively.
From these values, the specific heat of the wet clay was calculated to
pe 0.37 Blb-* F-1,

Thermal properties of a sample of fine clay were determined in a
single transient heat flow laboratory experiment [16]. The clay was
taken at a depth of about six feet, east of Anderson Hall during an
excavation for a new building, and was dried in an oven at 230° F.
The physical properties, of a portion of the dried clay that passed
through a No. 10 sieve, are:

thermal diffusivity 0.0075 ft? hr-!
thermal conductivity O23 Bears tt

1 The numbers in brackets refer to research papers and reports listed in the

Bibliography.
= PSV) ev » ;
Perrine yw JAR 2

i
"

y Pee
heaves t

50 E. B. Penrod, J. M. Elliot, and W. K. Brown

specific heat 0.204 B Ib- F-1
density (dry) 80.5 Ib ft-%.

Geophysical studies at the University of Kentucky, also, include
soil temperature measurements and the determination of solar energy
received on a horizontal surface [19, 24]. The empirical equations,
developed for calculating soil temperatures at any time and depth, are
based on soil temperatures taken at depths of 0, 2, 4,7 5, 6, 8 and 10
ft. west of Anderson Hall. The thermocouple used to determine the
surface temperature was buried beneath the sod at a depth of about
one-half of an inch. Soil temperatures have been recorded at two-
hour intervals since 1952.

Empirical Equations

The surface temperature of the earth undergoes an annual tem-
perature change that is nearly simple harmonic. It is often desirable
to have an equation that can be used in calculating soil temperatures
at any depth for a particular time. To derive an equation, it is as-
sumed that the soil at a given locality is uniform, its surface is flat;
and that heat flows in a direction perpendicular to the surface [19].
It is then only necessary to solve the Fourier heat equation

C) att
Ot Ox=

subject to the boundary condition

t=t, sin Sv > (2)
where t — temperature, t,; — temperature amplitude, 7 = time,

P — period, a — thermal diffusivity, and x = distance from the sur-
face. A particular solution of Eq. (1) is given by the equation

ty=tm + to rate Tr /ex P sin a (T—-Te) —xX =P | ;

where t, — temperature at any distance x from the surface, tn = mean
surface temperature and/or mean soil temperature, 7, = the time in-
terval between the middle of a designated month and the date that
the surface temperature is equal to the mean temperature [19].
The following equations were developed, from recorded tempera-

2 The thermocouple used to obtain temperatures at a depth of 4 ft. ceased to
function in November, 1953.

Soil Temperature Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky 51

ture data, for calculating soil temperature, in °F, for any chosen time
and depth for the five year period under consideration:

SBe
(T=58.08 +20.54 e 71°°* sin(SO°T-10.65°-6.25°x),

1953
T=58.28 + 18.83 e099 sin(30°T-26,.23°-5.21°x),

1954

t=59.01+ 23.50 e°°?"* sin(Z0°T -10.38°-7.28°x),
1955

t=56.86+26.25e°°'™ sin(Z0°t-16.71°-7.73°x),
"1956

t=56.48+21.88e~°!2™ sin(30°T-12.78°-6.92° x),

and the 1952-1956 norm
t=S57.75 421.356 0 sin(30°T-15.72°-6.4.9°x),

where 7 = 0, 1, 2, . . ., on April 15, May 15, June 15, . . ., and x is the
numerical value of the depth of soil.

Example.- As an application of the above equation for the five
year norm, the soil temperature, say, at a depth of 13 ft. is desired
on September 30, 1961. For this depth and time, x = 18 and 7 = 5.5.
Substituting 13 and 5.5 for x and 7; in the equation, the soil tempera-
ture is found to be 62.2° F. This value, of course, is for the type of
soil in question, and will be approximately the same for a similar
clayey soils, providing the latitude and climatic conditions do not vary
greatly from those at Lexington.

Results

Using methods similar to those given in Reference 19, values of
the mean soil temperature, surface soil temperature amplitude, and
average thermal diffusivity were determined and are recorded in
Table 1. Calculations were made also, to determine the variation of

‘ay E. B. Penrod, J. M. Elliot, and W. K. Brown

Table 1— Summary of Data for the Five Year Period at Lexington, Kentucky.

Total precipitation, inches/year f - 42.
Average solar energy, Btu/ft*/doy | 1534.58 | 1584.66 | 1617.84 | 1595.69) (567.51 | 1580.05 |

Average thermal diffusivity, ft*/hr | 0.0301 | 0.0433 | 0.0222 | 0.0197 | 0.0245

“Dota supplied by the U.S. Weather Bureau, Blue Grass Airport, Lexington, Kentucky.

soil temperatures with time and depth. These results are presented
graphically in Figures 1 to 9.

By the method of trial and error, the following equation was de-
veloped, using observed air temperatures taken and recorded at the
U.S. Weather Station at the Biue Grass Airport, Lexington, Kentucky,
for the five year period, 1952-1956:

tair= 56.55 +2183 sin(Z30°T-2°52'), °F,

where 7 = 0, 1, 2, s.., on April 15, May 15, June 15,.... Calculated
and observed air temperatures are listed in Table 2. The agreement
of the air temperatures calculated by the use of the above equation
and the observed values is very good.

In Table 3 are listed calculated and observed soil temperatures.
The agreement between the calculated and observed soil temperatures
are excellent, except near the earth’s surface which is subjected to sud-
den changes in weather. In developing the empirical equation the
assumption, that the surface soil temperature varied in a sinusoidal
manner, is approximately true. The area between the arch of the
sine-surface temperature curve (Fig. 1) and the mean temperature
axis from May to November is, of course, equal to that for the follow-
ing six months. Of the total annual solar energy received by the
earth's surface at lexington, 66 per cent is received from May to No-
vember and only 34 per cent during the following six months. As a
result of this, and probably other conditions, the area between the
mean temperature axis and the curve (not shown in Fig. 1), for the
observed surface soil temperatures for tne period, November to May,
is less than the area corresponding to the period, May to November.

Soil Temperature Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky 53

Table 2.— Observed and Calculated Air Temperatures for the Five Year Norm,
1952-1956, at Lexington, Kentucky

Date Time | Observed* | Calculated | Difference be-
air temp.°F | air temp.°F. | tween obs. and

cal. temp°F

*Data taken at the Blue Grass Airport, Leneatun,
Kentucky by the U.S. Weather Bureau.

Table 3.— Calculated and Observed Soil Temperatures for Lexington, Kentucky for 1952*

Temperatures in degrees F.. at depths of

Oft Zift S tt 6 ft 10 ft
Calc Obs | Calc Obs Calc Obs Calc Obs Calc ‘Obs
3789) 41.41 | 42.90) 44.56 5 : ! ; 53.87 |52.44
38.70/40.16 F : : fs Q 4 50.70] 51.04
44.70} 49.79 i : : ; A d 49.50| 49.86

50.60/50.39
53.71 | 52.84
57.98] 57.97
62.29] 62.26
65.46] 65.43
66.66) 67.04
65.56] 66.16
62.45] 62.46
58.18 | 58.07

*Similor tables were made for the other four years, but are not included in this report.

54 E. B. Penrod, J. M. Elliot, and W. K. Brown

The temperature curves, shown in Figures 7-9, for May and No-
vember cross the mean temperature axis, 57.75° F, at 2 ft. and 30 ft.
Therefore, the half wave length and wave-length are 28 ft. and 56 ft.
respectively. Similarly, the temperature curves for August and Feb-
ruary cross the mean temperature axis at depths of 16 ft. and 44 ft.
respectively, showing that the half wave-length and wave-length for
these months are also 28 ft. and 56 ft. respectively.

Conclusions and Remarks

Soil temperatures have been measured and recorded, at two-hour
intervals, from 1952 to 1956 inclusive. From the measured or observed
data empirical equations were developed for calculating soil tempera-
tures for a specified time and depth for each year and also for a five
year norm.

The variation of soil temperatures with the time are presented
graphically for different depths. From these graphs it can be seen
readily the temperature amplitudes decrease with depth, and that
maxima and minima of temperature shift from left to right as the soil
depth increases.

The calculated value of the thermal diffusivity of the soil, for all
depths, is 0.0279 ft? hr-1 for the five year period.

From the graphs showing soil temperature versus depth, the wave-
length of the temperature waves was found to be 56 ft. The tempera-
ture graphs for each month of the year converge, in a sinusoidal man-
ner, to the mean soil temperature of 57.75° F at a depth of about
100 ft. :

An empirical equation was developed for calculating the mean air
temperature at Lexington for any specified time. The mean air tem-
perature and mean surface soil temperatures are 56.55° F and 57.75°
F for the five year norm.

The graphs in Fig. 6 show clearly the manner in which the air
temperature and the surface soil temperature vary with the quantity
of solar energy that is received at the earths surface,

~

Soil Temperature Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky 55

TEMPERATURE —°F
> 6, ] ro)

=SYNLVYSdNSL XIV
NVAW GSAYNSSEO

SHLNOW-SWIL

(<= a a
eal
| ata an CG
PoC NY
|
PRECIPITATION—INCHES

Fig. 1. Variation of soil temperature versus time at different depths. Soil temperatures
were calculated by the use of the empirical equation deyeloped for 1952.

"4 Bad ‘ (xG2°9-S9'01-2,0E)uIS, 2 >S'0Z+80'8S =}

SJ

CLs
al Zi)

in ee

Sl
ei

aN

SNC

SHLNOW-3WIL

DAN he ee Ee a Lae "4

EJS
[Eli as Se SN Gs mS

NS

uu
cs (Oa ee
5)

5) ~ |
IS
(eo) nN > (ep)
PRECIPITATION—INCHES

Fig. 2. Variation of soil temperature versus time at different depths. Soil temperatures
were calculated by the use of the empirical equation developed for 1953.

=
>
a

4620 ‘(XJ2'S— €2°9ZS- 2 OL)UIS yeog9:9-928'SI+82'9S="}

=!

56 E. B. Penrod, J. M. Elliot, and W. K. Brown

a UBS sei Ne = le,

Bo
Din
m
cj ed
(os zs
lm 5m
aS
3 >
=v As
mo cm
1 D>
= m2
ro) |
=e
7)

= |

eg
re
y.

ct
a
U]
on
oO
=
+
Nw
oe
n
[o)
°,
©
nm
~_
=
=
S
Oi
o,
3
ue
o
O
@
°
I
N
in)
@
°
=
iS)
a
a
n

PRECIPITATION. = INCHES

Fig. 3.— Variation of soil temperature versus time at different depths. Soil temperatures
were calculated by the use of the empirical equation developed for 1954.

JT EMPERATURE— ©

SRaSESRHECSaGnE
Sa See

SS6l

FANS ABE ey,
(acecnvane7

ZK

"4 $68Q ‘(K,€2 LIZ 91-2 OLMIS yo¢j9-2S2'92498'9S= "3

aNd
SECC =

PRECIPITATION — INCHES

Fig. 4. Variation of soil temperature versus time at different depths. Soil temperatures
were calculated by the use of the empirical equation developed for 1955.

ene Tung Tr
b

O oO
Coos

Pe)
See A Lae | |
e Din a
LiMn eee ee m2
a m2
= <
Aras 35
> mi o
@)
25 Smee ys al | || a=
=m em
mo DP
u = melee mz
Slr
=" (ial Sees el --> ae)
eo | Lee)

: |
St NA
[oS

oO S fo)
PRECIPITATION— INCHES

Fig. 5. Variation of soil temperature versus time at different depths. Soil temperatures
were calculated by the use of the empirical equation developed for 1956.

PRECIPITATION- INCHES” Ves outs bs)
@
oO — N Oo > ui
3 & :
Po 3
=) SSS SSS SS =
=e es a 4
5 aa Se m
x alae
2 ao)
<u ct
CG n"
= ne
iz gy) tS
eee a
ro, ~<
= Oi er
= + Nh oS
hiss Si ee
¢ Zz
= a Ee
22 eos)
+2 =i @
= = a
Ea) OS Oo
oy Oo
o W ff
= 4 9° 1
2 L. Sides
Ny ee See
om &
z NN
> =
saan 7
“= a
‘ “il oe 2
nN

ol
SOLAR ENERGY— B-FT™®-DAY'x1I0

Fig. 6. Variation of soil temperature and mean air temperature versus time at different
depths. Soil temperatures were calculated from the empirical equations developed for
the five year norm. Similarly, mean air temperatures were calculated from the empirical
equation developed for the five year norm. The mean soil temperature and mean air tem-
perature for the norm are 57.75° F and 56.55° F.

58 E. B. Penrod, J. M. Elliot, and W. K. Brown

; Baie |
OY

AG: 8 AN RE

+ SUBERATURES id

Fig. 7. Variation of soil temperature versus depth for the five year norm for 1952-1956.
Rrange, from the surface to a depth of 22 ft.

72, ‘76

20

BY

DEPTH—FEET

40

560 aa 576 58.0 584 °&588 : 59.6
“TEMPERATURE — °F

Fig. 8. Variation of soil temperature versus depth for the five year norm for 1952-1956.
Range, from 20 ft. to a depth of 46 ft.

DEPTH—FEET

Fig.

Soil Temperature Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky 59

44

48}

oi
in)

On
(o2)

to)
(2)

64

5760 3768 5776 57.84 S792
TEMPERATURE °F

9. Variation of soil temperature versus depth for the five year norm for 1952-1956.

Range, from 44 ft. to a depth of 68 ft.

to

ivy)

=

Bibliography

The Residential Heat Pump In New England by C. H. Coogan, Jr. Connecti-
cut Light and Power Bulletin, August, 1948,’ Waterbury, Conn.

Ground Temperatures as Affected by Weather Conditions by A. B. Algren.
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 21, No. 6, June, 1949, pp.
111-116.

Thermal Properties of Soils by M. S. Kersten. University of Minnesota
Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 28, June, 1949, pp. 1-225.
Earth Heat Pump Research—Part I by E. B. Penrod, O. W. Gard, C. D.
Jones, H. E. Collier and R. E. Patey. University of Kentucky Engineering
Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 14, December, 1949, pp. 1-64.
Measurement of the Thermal Diffusivity of a Soil by the Use of a Heat Pump
by E. B. Penrod. Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 21, No. 5, May, 1950,
pp. 425-427.

Thermal Conductivity of Soils for Design of Heat Pump Installations by G. S
Smith and Thomas Yamauchi. Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 22,
No. 7, July, 1950, pp. 129-135.

Factors Useful in Ground Grid Design for Heat Pumps by G. S. Smith. Heat-
ing, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 23, No. 1, January, 1951, pp. 169-176.
Climatology as an Aid in Heat Pump Design by G. S. Smith. Heating, Pip-
ing, and Air Conditioning, Vol. 23, No. 6, June, 1951, pp. 101-107.

Soil Temperature, Moisture Content, and Thermal Content, and Thermal
Properties by C. L. Carter. University of Tennessee Engineering Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 15, June, 1951, pp. 1-85.

10.

it;

E. B. Penrod, J. M. Elliot, and W. K. Brown

Soil Temperatures In Water Works Practice by R. F. Legget and C. B. Craw-
ford. Journal of American Water Works Association, Vol. 44, No. 10, Oc-
tober, 1952, pp. 923-939.

Frost Action in Soils—A Symposium. Highway Research Board Special Re-
port No. 2, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council Publi-
cation 213, 1952, Washington, D. C.

Frost Action in Roads and Airfields, A Review of the Literature, 1765 to
1951. Highway Research Board Special Report No. 1, National Academy of
Science, National Research Council Publication 211, 1952, Washington, D. C.
Specific Heat Measurement by E. B. Penrod and F. M. Wells. Transactions
of the Kentucky Academy of Science, Vol. 14, No. 1, February, 1953, pp.
22-32.

Sizing Earth Heat Pumps by E. B. Penrod. Refrigerating Engineering, Vol.
62, No. 4, April, 1954, pp. 57-61, 108, 112.

Frost Penetration Studies in Canada as an Aid to Construction by C. B. Craw-
ford. Roads and Engineering Construction, Vol. 93, No. 2, February, 1955.
An Experimental Determination of the Thermal Properties of Clay by E. B.
Penrod, G. T. Privon and K. V. Prasanna. University of Kentucky Engineer-
ing Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 10, No. 39, March, 1956, pp. 1-76.
Ground Temperature Investigation In Canada by C. B. Crawford and R. F.
Legget. Engineering Journal, Vol. 40, No. 3, March, 1957.

Geotechnical Properties of Leda Clay In the Ottawa Area by W. J. Eden
and C. B. Crawford. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, London, 1957. See also, Re-
search Paper No. 37 of the Division of Building Research, Ottowa, Canada.
A Method To Describe Soil Temperature Variation by E. B. Penrod, W. W.
Walton and D. V. Terrell. Proceedings of A.S.C.E., Vol. 84, Part I, No.
SM-1, February, 1958, pp. 1537-1 to 1537-21.

Evaluation of Vehicle Sinkage in Off the Road Locomotion by M. G. Bekker.
Report No. 35, June, 1958, pp. 1-49. Ordnance Corps, Land Locomotion
Research Branch, Research & Development Division, OTAC, Detroit Arsenal,
28251 Van Dyke Avenue, Center Line, Mich.

Soil Temperatures by B. J. Fluker. Soil Science, Vol. 86, No. 1, July, 1958,
pp. 35-46.

Preliminary Study on Jumping and Running Types of Locomotion by R. K.
Bernhard. Report No. 438, July, 1958, pp. 1-46, Ordnance Corps, Land
Locomotion Research Branch, Research & Development Division, OTAC.

. A Soil Value System for Land Locomotion Mechanics by W. L. Harrison

et al. Research Report No. 5, December, 1958, pp. 1-94. Army Ordnance
Tank-Automotive Command, Center Line, Mich.

Solar Energy Measurements at Lexington, Kentucky For 1951 by E. B. Pen-
rod, W. W. Walton and H. O. Knight. Transactions of the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science, Vol. 20 (1-2), 1959, pp. 4-10.

Solar Energy at Lexington, Kentucky for 1952 by E. B. Penrod and Cho-Yen
Ho. Accepted for publication, Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of
Science.

Soil Temperature Variation at Lexington, Kentucky From 1952-1956 by E. B.
Penrod, J. M. Elliott and W. K. Brown. Available for publication.

Accepted for publication 15 January 1960.

CYCLIC ENTRY-EXIT FOR SUBROUTINES

J. C. EAVES and T. J. PIGNANI

Department of Mathematics and Astronomy
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to call attention to the Cyclic Entry-
Exit Method for subroutines used with high speed computers. We
shall point out some of the advantages in using available subroutines.
We shall outline the general principle followed in making a subroutine
an integral part of one’s own particular program. The merits of the
Cyclic Entry-Exit Method will be discussed. For contrast with the
usual treatment of this problem, the reader may wish to refer to the
papers of Livesley (1957), McCracken (1957), and Wrubel (1959).

Whenever it is necessary to refer or make use of a computer
instruction in this work we shall confine ourselves to the basic machine
language, that is, the absolute codes, used for programming the IBM
type 650 Magnetic Drum Data-Processing Machine.

Subroutines are actually prepackaged special purpose programs.
Subroutines are becoming more in demand since the number of
computer patrons has increased almost beyond reasonable expectation.
Users represent virtually every field of study found on a university
campus in addition to a variety of business and industrial activities.
Inexperienced programmers, as well as the experts, have brought
about a crutial demand for effective, efficient subroutines. Justification
for the use of existing subroutines seems to be well founded in the
following advantages:

1. Time saving. By avoiding duplication of program writing time
a better utilization of programmer efforts is achieved.

2. Better program. A subroutine which has been carefully worked
out and used is likely to be more nearly optimized than the usual
program given its first run This saves computer time.

3. Debugged. Subroutines available for use have been run and
checked. The programmer may save considerable debugging time.

4. Acceptability. Most subroutines are supplied with established
computational limitations and the user knows, through the error
analysis studies of this particular subroutine, the acceptability and
goodness of computed results.

62 J. C. Eaves and T. J. Pignani

Subroutine Entry-Exit Principle

A subroutine may be a correction routine needed for the correction
of a program already underway or it may be a routine which causes
the computer to perform a supplementary computation. In using a
subroutine one attempts to make the subroutine an integral part of
the main program. Thus the computer uses instructions from the main
program until such time as those instructions contained in the sub-
routine are needed. The main program instruction just prior to entry
into the subroutine must contain three items of information; namely,
the operation to be carried out just prior to the use of the subroutine,
the cell location affected by this operation, and the location of the
first instruction of the subroutine. The final instruction of the sub-
routine usually directs the computer to leave the subroutine. The
instruction address of this last subroutine instruction usually gives the
cell location of the desired main program instruction to be executed
immediately following completion of the subroutine.

The Cyclic Entry-Exit Method

For purposes of illustration we shall assume that our main program
is to be stored in cells 0200 through 0499. We shall assume that the
subroutine to be used is punched to be stored in cells 1800 through
1847. Furthermore, we shal] assume that this subroutine is to replace
instructions located in cells 0400 through 0478. The Cyclic Entry-Exit
Method then requires the following modifications of instructions.

1. Replace the main program instruction xx yyyy 0400 of cell 0399
with the instruction. xx yyyy 1800. This directs the computer to cell
1800 for its next instruction after the completion of operation xx.

2. The first instruction of the subroutine, located in cell 1800, is
69 0479 1801 which causes the computer to load the distributor with
the instruction located in cell 0479. It should be noted that this is the
first main program instruction to be used following the completion of
the subroutine.

3. The second instruction of the subroutine is 24 1800 1802. This
causes the computer to place the instruction, formerly in cell 0479,
which is to be used immediately following completion of the sub-
routine, in the first cell used for the subroutine. The computer is then
directed to ce!l 1802 where it obtains the first computational instruction
of the subioutine. The computer procedes through the subroutine
computations in the prescribed manner until it encounters the last
instruction of the subroutine (which may not be in cell 1847 due to
optimization ).

Cyclic Entry-Exit for Subroutines 63

4. The last instruction of the subroutine, written at the time the
subroutine is prepared, directs the computer to get its next instruction
from cell 1800. Thus the computer actually returns to the beginning
of the subroutine only to find that the first instruction of the subroutine
has been replaced by the de-ired instruction of the main program.
This exit instruction is of the form xx yyyy 1800.

It should be noted that the insertion of a set of instructions is
achieved by exactly the same procedure used for the replacement

of a set of instructions. One merely has the first instruction of the

subroutine direct the computer to the desired instruction to be per-
formed immediately following the execution of the subroutine. Using
the above illustration the first instruction of the subroutine would be
xx yyyy 0400 in case we wish to insert the subroutine between the
main program instructions carried in cells 0399 and 0400.

Generalized Use of Cyclic-Entry-Exit Method

Multiple use of the Cyclic-Entry-Exit Method for the insertion of
several subroutines and the replacement of parts of the original pro-
gram is ‘'emonstrated by the brief program below. In this skeleton
program ;resented, we insert the subroutine in three places and
furthermore the subroutine replaces those instructions in cells 0400
through 0478, of the program used in the former section.

Main Program Revisions
Cell Instruction Replacement Instruction
0200
0257 xx yyyy 0258 xx yyyy 0400
0258
0290 xx yyyy 0291 xx yyyy 0401
1
0350 xx yyyy 0351 xx yyyy 0402
035%
0399 xx yyyy 0400 xx yyyy 0403
0400 xx yyyy 0401 69 0258 1801
0401 xx yyyy 0402 69 0291 1801
0402 xx yyyy 0403 69 0351 1801
0403 xx yyyy 0404 69 0479 1801
0404 Delete Replaced
cath hee by
0478 Delete Subroutine
0479

0499

64 J.C. Eaves and T. J. Pignani

Subroutine
Cell Instruction
1800 00 0000 0000, exit cell to be used as needed
1801 24 1800 1802
1802 First instruction of subroutine
1847 xx yyyy 1800

A study of the above revised program shows that each time the
program refers to the subroutine the operation to follow subroutine
activity is stored in cell 1800. Also, part of that bank of cells deleted
from the program is utilized for subroutine entry.

The insertion of several different subroutines is made by a very
similar adjustment in the program.

Advantages of the Cyclic Entry-Exit Method

1. The replacement and insertion of instructions are carried out
in the same way.

2. The programmer need not concern himself with the where-
abouts of the last instruction of the subroutine since the exit is made
through the entry cell.

3. Cyclic Entry-Exit Method requires only one alteration of the
subroutine deck whereas other subroutine entry-exit techniques require
the alteration of two or more of the subroutine instructions.

4, This method requires the use of only two extra operations and
two extra cells of storage in the subroutine whereas many modified
entry-exit programs make additional demands on storage and opera-
tion time. Especially is this true with those methods requiring accum-
ulative additive features or instruction modification.

Literature Cited
Livesley, R. K. 1957. DIGITAL COMPUTERS. Cambridge University Press:
27, 40.
McCracken, D. D. 1957. DIGITAL COMPUTER PROGRAMMING. John
Wiley and Sons: 111, 128, 230.
Wrubel, Marshal H. 1959. PROGRAMMING FOR DIGITAL COMPUTERS.
McGraw-Hill Book Company: 86, 151, 212.

Accepted for publication 23 March 1960,

THE SALTING EFFECT OF SODIUM CHLORIDE ON THE EXTRACTION
OF ERBIUM ACETYLACETONATE AND 8-QUINOLINOL

Y. G. ISHIDA, J. F. STEINBACH and W. F. WAGNER
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

The use of salting agents has proved to be very effective in the
solvent extraction of some metal salts, such as, the nitrates by
tributylphosphate (Hesford and McKay, 1958), uranyl nitrate (Fur-
man, Mundy, and Morrison), thorium nitrate (Bock and Bock, 1950),
and ferric chloride (Morrison, 1950) by ether. Morrison and Freiser
(1957) have summarized the effect of salting agents on the extraction
of inorganic salt systems. Diamond (1957) has derived general
equations for the solvent extraction of inorganic compounds and
studied the effects of salting agents on the extraction of indium (IIT)
chloride from aqueous hydrochloric acid by various organic solvents
(Diamond, 1959). Very little work on the effect of salting agents on
the extraction of chelates has been reported. Recent studies (Brown,
Steinbach, and Wagner, 1960), on the solvent extraction of rare earth
acetylacetonates by acetylacetone led to this study of the effect of
salting agents on the system.

In addition, the extraction of 8-quinolinol (oxine) in a water-
chloroform system was studied to compare the effect of salting agents
on the neutral oxine, oxinate ion, and oxinium ion at different acidities.
Lacroix (1947) has studied the properties and extraction of oxine by
chloroform from aqueous solutions as a function of pH from 0 to 14.
From potentiometric titration curves he showed that the oxinium ion
(protonated oxine) exists in strongly acidic solutions, the neutral
oxine is formed almost exclusively in the pH range of 6 to 9 and the
oxinate ion is formed in more basic solutions. Extraction data showed
an increase in extraction from 0.599, at a pH of 0 to quantitative
extraction in the range of 5 to 6, then a decrease to 5°% at a pH of 14.

Apparatus and Materials

A Beckman Model DK-2 recording spectrophotometer was used
for all absorption spectra. A Beckman Model G pH meter was used
for all pH measurements. Eastman 8-quinolinol was recrystallized
twice from alcohol-water solution to give a product that melted at
74-75°. Acetylacetone obtained commercially was washed once with
10° ammonia solution, twice with water, and distilled; the fraction

boiling between 135-138° was used. Erbium acetylacetonate was pre-

66 Y. G. Ishida, J. F. Steinbach, and W. K. Wagner

pared by the method of Stites, McCarty, and Quill (1948) and was
recrystallized twice from 95°% ethanol. All other chemicals met A.C.S.
specifications for reagent grade.

Experimental

Solubility of Acetylacetone in aqueous solutions of potassium chlo-
ride and sodium chloride. Solutions containing varying amounts of
the salts were prepared by dissolving the salt in water saturated with
acetylacetone in 25-ml. volumetric flasks. The solutions were shaken
and permitted to stand overnight at 25° and the excess acetylacetone
which separated was removed. The concentration of acetylacetone in
the solution was determined spectrophotometrically as iron acetylace-
tonate (Steinbach, 1953). One ml. of the solution was added to a
25-ml. flask containing 5 ml. of a solution of ferric sulfate (20 mg./ml.)
and 10 ml. of a sulfuric acid-sodium sulfate buffer (pH = 0.5) and
diluted to volume. The absorbance minimum of iron acetylacetonate
at 700 my was used to plot a working curve for the concentration of
acetylacetone. Alternatively, a 1:50 dilution of the sample was
prepared and the absorbance of one to five ml. of the diluted sample
was used to determine the concentration of the acetylacetone from a
working curve prepared at the maximum absorbance of iron acetylace-
tone at 482 mp.

Distribution of erbium acetylacetonate between acetylacetone and
aqueous solutions of sodium chloride. Ten ml. of a solution of erbium
acetylacetonate in water-saturated acetylacetone was shaken with 10
ml. of the acetylacetone-saturated water containing the salting agent.
The phases were allowed to come to equilibrium overnight in a 25°
bath. The erbium present in the organic phase was determined
spectrophotometrically by measuring the absorbance of erbium acetyl-
acetone at 378 mp. The erbium present in the aqueous phase was
determined spectrophotometrically by the arsenazo method of Fritz,
Richard, and Lane (1958). Volumetrically the erbium in the aqueous
phase was determined by adding an excess of standard 10°? M EDTA
and back titrating with standard 10° M zinc solution using PAN
indicator.

Distribution of oxine between chloroform and water. Ten ml. of
0.1 M oxine in chloroform was shaken for an hour with 10 ml. of the
solution of sodium chloride in water and placed in a bath at 25° for
24 hours to reach equilibrium. The concentration of oxine in the
aqueous phase was determined by acidifying the solution to a pH of 1
and measuring the absorbance at 251 mp. The concentration of oxine
in the organic phase was obtained by difference.

The Salting Effect of Sodium Chloride 67
Results and Discussion
Solubility of Acetylacetone. Data for the solubility of acetylace-

tone in aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and potassium chloride
at 25° are shown in Table I and Figure 1. The solubility of acetyl-

ais
as
leit

ale

9/ mi.

alo

a08

0.06

Acetylacetone

O04

02

[oxe,e) 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Salt concentration MOU/i +6,

Fig. 1. Solubility of Acetylacetone in solutions of NaCl and KCI at 25°.

Table I.— Solubility of Acetylacttone in Solutions of NaCl and KCI at 25

NaCl KCl
NaCl CsHsO:z KCl CsHsOz
Mol/1. pH g/ml mol/1. pH g/ml
0.000 4.68 0.173 0.000 4.68 0.173
0.034 4.67 0.169 0.032 4.65 0.169
0.206 4.60 0.159 0.215 4.63 0.160
0.684 4.49 0.138 0.698 4.61 0.142
2.05 4,34 0.094 1.81 4.59 0.110
3.64 4.25 0.065 3.388 4.57 0.075

4.87 4,23 0.052

68 Y. G. Ishida, J. F. Steinbach, and W. K. Wagner

acetone in solutions of sodium chloride is slightly lower than in solu-
tions of potassium chloride, probably due to the lower activity of the
water containing the more highly hydrated sodium ion.

In the spectrophotometric determination of acetylacetone it was
found that the absorbance minimum for iron acetylacetone at 700 mp
shifts to higher wave lengths with an increase in concentration and
Beer's Law is not obeyed. Consequently, the absorbance maximum
for iron acetylacetonate at 482 mp» where Beer’s Law is followed was
used for most analyses.

Distribution of erbium acetylacetonate. The data for the extraction »
of erbium acetylacetonate from aqueous solutions of 0.1 M and 1.0 M
sodium chloride as a function of pH are shown in Table II and Figure
2. The extraction curve in 0.1 M NaCl was practically identical to
that without any salt present, while in 1.0 NaCl the curve was shifted

OQ----0 EXTRACTION CURVE NO NACL

w%---X EXTRACTION CURVE O1M NACL

@—e EXTRACTION CURVE 10M NACL

Fig. 2. Extraction of Erbium Acetylacetonate as a function of pH.

The Salting Effect of Sodium Chloride 69

Table Il._— Extraction of 5.48 x 10-8M Eribium Acetylacetonate as a Function of
pH from 0.IM and IM NaCl at 25°

Water 0.1IM NaCl 1.0M NaCl
pH GE pH TE pH Jo
4.62 22.6 4.61 22.6 4.61 24.3
4.75 27.9 4.77 28.3 4.69 28.5
4.85 36.4 4.85 34.7 4.79 34.3
4,97 39.8 4.96 38.9 4.89 46.0
5.14 44.9 oelul 45.6 4,99 51.4
5.30 52.0 525 2a 5.09 57.0
5.40 Pptd.

to lower pH values by about 0.10 units at a pH of 4.61 and by about
0.25 units at a pH of 5.30. A decrease in solubility of acetylacetone
in the aqueous phase with increasing concentration of sodium chloride
should cause the extraction curves to shift to higher pH values. The
shift may be calculated from the equation
Kp. Kk [HR]?
D = ———_
PEt?

where D is the distribution coefficient, K; is the formation constant
of the chelate, p. is the partition coefficient of the chelate, K; is the
dissociation constant of the acetylacetone, and [HR] is the concentra-
tion of acetylacetone in the aqueous phase. In 0.1 NaCl, with other
factors constant, the change in concentration of acetylacetone would
raise the pH of extraction approximately 0.02 units between a pH of
4.61 and 5.30; in 1.0 M NaCl the shift would be +0.12 units at a pH
of 4.61 and +0.14 units at a pH of 5.30. Since the experimental curve
showed little if any shift in 0.1 M NaCl it is apparent that 0.1 M NaCl
had very little effect on the distribution coefficient. However, in 1.0 M
NaCl the experimental curve was shifted to lower pH values. An
increase in ionic strength causes a decrease in the formation constants
of chelates and an increase in the dissociation constants of weak acids.
The presence of sodium chloride in the water makes that phase much
less attractive for the chelate, increasing the partition coefficient in
favor of the organic phase.

Thus, in 1.0 M NaCl the changes in the partition coefficient and the
dissociation constant of acetylacetone cause a shift to lower pH values
which more than compensates to the shift to higher values by the
change in the formation constant of the chelate and decreased
solubility of acetylacetone in the aqueous phase.

Because buffered solutions are required in counter-current separa-
tions the effect of buffers on the extraction of erbium acetylacetonate
was investigated. The addition of a sodium acetate-acetic acid buffer

70 Y. G. Ishida, J. F. Steinbach, and W. K. Wagner

lowered the per cent of erbium extracted at a given pH. It has been
suggested (Brown, 1959) that this shift of the extraction curve to
higher pH values is due to the decrease in reagent concentration in
the aqueous phase by increasing the ionic strength of the solution.
However, the addition of 0.05 M NaCl to the buffered solution raised
the per cent of erbium extracted. The shift of the extraction curves
to higher pH values in buffered solutions is probably caused mainly
by the association of acetate ion with some of the erbium to reduce
its extraction into the organic phase. When potassium acid phthalate-
sodium hydroxide buffer was substituted for the acetate buffer at the
same pH and ionic strength, the per cent erbium extracted at a pH of
5.1 was 32% as compared to 47% for the acetate buffer, and 50% for
an unbuffered solution. The lower extraction in the phthalate buffer
probably is caused by the greater extent of complex formation
between the phthalate ion and erbium. The addition of 0.05 M NaCl
to the phthalate buffered system improved the extraction.
Distribution of oxine. Data for the extraction of oxine by chloro-
form from acidic, approximately neutral, and basic solutions of sodium
chloride are shown in Table III. The addition of sodium chloride had

Table IIl._— Extraction of 10-2 M Oxine by Chloroform From Acidic, Neutral,
and Basic Solutions of Sodium Chloride
pH NaCl, m/1. %E
Dis) 0.00 20.0
2.5 0.05 31.3
2.6 0.50 35.0
2.6 1.00 39.0
DNAS) 2.70 61.9
6.5 0.00 99.5
6.7 0.05 99.6
6.6 0.50 99.6
6.8 1.00 99.6
6.9 2.70 99.7
9.8 0.00 62.2
9.8 0.05 60.1
10.2 0.50 61.9
10.6 1.00 62.6
10.8 2.70 65.4

the greatest effect on the extraction of oxine from an acidic solution
where the oxinium ion predominates; the per cent extracted increases
from 30% to 60% upon the addition of 2.7 M NaCl. In the pH range
6.5 to 6.9 where the oxine exists essentially as the neutral molecule, the
addition of sodium chloride has very little effect since the oxine is
almost quantitatively extracted in this range. In the basic solutions

The Salting Effect of Sodium Chloride 7a

the addition of sodium chloride in concentrations of 0.05 to 0.5 caused
a small decrease in extraction of the oxine which, however, increased
with an increased in concentration of sodium chloride.

The distribution of oxine may be calculated from the equation (11):

Kp
D = ———_——_-
[H+] Ky
a
Ky [H*]

where D is the distribution ratio, K, is the partition coefficient of the
oxine, K, is the dissociation constant of the oxinium ion, HsOxt =
H+ + HOx and Kz is the dissociation constant of oxine HOx — Ht
-+- Ox-. In acidic solutions where the H.,Ox* ion predominates, the
third term in the denominator is negligible and the distribution is
dependent on K,. An increase in ionic strength increases the value of
K, causing an increase in D which, with an increase in Kp by the
salting effect of the sodium chloride, causes a marked increase in the
extraction of oxine. In basic solutions where the oxinate ion pre-
dominates, the first term in the denominator is negligible and the
distribution is dependent on K». An increase in ionic strength increases
the value of K:, causing a decrease in D at lower concentrations of
sodium chloride. As the concentration of sodium chloride is increased
the salting effect, by increasing Ky, more than compensates for the
increased K», and the extraction of oxine increases.

Summary

The solubility of acetylacetone in solutions of sodium chloride and
potassium chloride was determined.

Extraction of erbium acetylacetonate by acetylacetone from the
aqueous phase was shifted to lower pH values by the addition of
sodium chloride. The increases in the partition coefficient of the
chelate and dissociation constant of acetylacetone by increasing ionic
strength more than compensates for the shift to higher pH values
by the decrease in concentration of acetylacetone and decrease in
formation constant of the chelate.

The addition of sodium chloride improves the extraction of oxine
from water by chloroform in acidic solutions, has a small effect in basic
solution, and has very little effect in neutral solutions. The influence
of ionic strength on the dissociation constants of oxine and on the
partition coefficient was used to explain the results.

72 Y. G. Ishida, J. F. Steinbach, and W. K. Wagner

Acknowledgement

The authors thank the Atomic Energy Commission for generous
financial support of this work on Contract No. AT (40-1) 2124.

Literature Cited

Bock, R. and Bock, E., 1950. Z. anorg. Chem., 263: 146.

Brown, W. B., 1959. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Kentucky.

Brown, W. B., Steinbach, J. F., and Wagner, W. F., 1960. J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem.
Isie WIS),

Diamond, R. M., 1957. J. Phys. Chem., 61: 69.

Diamond, R. M., 1959. J. Phys. Chem., 63: 659

Fritz, J. S., Richard, M. J., and Lane, W. J., 1958. Anal. Chem., 30: 1776.

Furman, N. H., Mundy, R. J., and Morrison, G. H., U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission Report: AEC D-2938.

Hesford, E. and McKay, H. A. C., 1958. Trans. Faraday Soc., 54: 578.

Lacroix, S., 1947. Anal. Chim. Acta, 1: 260.

Morrison, G. H., 1950. Anal. Chem., 22: 1388.

Morrison, G. H. and Freiser, H., 1957. Solvent Extraction in Analytical Chemistry.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., p. 43. __.......

Steinbach, J. F., 1953. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.

Stites, J. G., McCarty, C. N., and Quill, L. L., 1948. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 70: 3142.

Accepted for publication 27 August 1960.

A NEW NORTH AMERICAN LEAFHOPPER PREVIOUSLY CONFUSED
WITH TYPHLOCYBA ANDROMACHE McATEE (HOMOPTERA
CICADELLIDAE)

PAUL J. CHRISTIAN
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky

Contribution No. 30 (New Series) from the Department of Biology, University
of Louisville.

Introduction

In 1926 W. L. McAtee revised the North American species of the
genus Typhlocyba and described in this revision a new species which
he named Typhlocyba andromache, from one male specimen collected
in Salem, New York, June 27, 1924. In 1942 J. T. Medler redescribed
this species and recorded it from Minnesota specimens.

When McAtee described the species his method of preserving the
cleared dissection was to fasten it to the same point to which the
rest of the insect was glued, with a mixture of glycerin and shellac
(McAtee 1926, p. 3). At the time he indicated uncertainty as to how
suitable this method of preservation would be. The author found on
reexamining McAtee types that this material was difficult to remove.
In working on the type of T. andromache it was possible to clean the
pygofer sufficiently to draw the posterior margin, but the aedeagus
being much smaller and more delicate could not be cleaned suitably for
observation. The specimens Medler used were in good condition, and
since no other specimens of this species could be found in North
American collections the author used one of these in his description
of this species in his revision of the genus Typhlocyba (Christian,
1953).

The posterior margin of the pygofer of the type was not exactly
like that of Medler’s specimens, but the degree of difference was such
as might be attributed to individual variability. The aedeagus of
Medler’s specimens also differed from the description of the aedeagus
of the type which was described as being bifid at the apex, although
Medler had described his specimens as being bifid, because the
sclerotized portion of the shaft appeared bifid and the transparent
portion was overlooked. Since McAtee had overlooked the transparent
portion of the aedeagus in other species of Typhlocyba (rubriocellata,
niobe) the author assumed that he had done the same in this case and
that Medler’s specimens were Typhlocyba andromache.

74 Paul J. Christian

In the spring of 1957 the author collected from Carpinus a large
series of specimens which appeared to be an undescribed species of
Typhlocyba resembling T. andromache in the author's revision but
differing in the shape of the aedeagus and posterior dorsal angle of
the pygofer. On comparing the pygofer with a drawing of the type of
T. andromache and the original description of the species it was con-
cluded that these were specimens of T. andromache and what had
been described as andromache was an unnamed species. The following
descriptions of these two species should help workers in identifying
them.

I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. G. W. Byers for the loan
of specimens from the Snow Entomological Museum of the University
of Kansas, and to Dr. F. F. Cook for loan of specimens from the
University of Minnesota collection.

. To beameri

Figs. 1-2.— Male genitalia of Typhlocyba andromache and T. beameri. a. Left side of
pygofer. b. Left side of aedeagus. c. Posterior aspect of aedeagus. d. Ventral aspect of
right style.

A New North American Leafhopper 1)

Typhlocyba beameri n. sp.
(Figs. 2a,b,c,d.)

Typhlocyba andromache, Medler, 1942, Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech.
Bull., 155:144-5. (in error)

Typhlocyba andromache, Christian, 1953, Bull. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull.,
39( 11,9) :1176, pl. 83, fig. 4a,b,c,d. (in error)

Resembling Typhlocyba andromache McAtee in shape of pygofer
but with dorsal posterior angle acute forming less than a right angle,
and with apex of aedeagal shaft acute as in Typhlocyba surcula De-
Long and Johnson.

Length.—3.0-3.25 mm.

Color.—Dorsum pale yellowish-white; fore wings subhyaline to
cross-veins, apical cells hyaline, slightly fumose, without distinctive
markings.

Genitalia.—_Male pygofer: in lateral aspect with posterior margin
nearly straight, dorsal angle acute, slightly less than a right angle,
ventral angle slightly more than a right angle and forming a small
ventrally-directed hook. Aedeagus: with atril processes broad,
elongate, exceeding shaft in length, arising from base close to shaft,
gradually diverging laterodorsad from base, slightly sinuate, reduced
to acute apices on outer fourth; shaft arising from base slightly above
bases of processes, laterally broadened, margins foliaceous, broadest
at gonopore, nearly transparent and extending beyond gonopore as a
thin plate with acute apex. Styles: broadly tapering to near apex,
abruptly reduced to sharp apices.

Types.—Holotype male and five paratype males, Itasca County,
Minnesota, July 26, 1939, J. T. Medler, in the Snow Entomological
Museum of the University of Kansas; two paratype males, July 26,
1939, and one paratype male July 28, 1939, Itasca County, Minnesota,
J. T. Medler, in the collection of the University of Minnesota; one male
paratype, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, July 29, 1951, D. A. Dever, in the
collection of the author.

Typhlocyba andromache McAtee
(Figs. 1a,b,c,d.)

Typhlocyba andromache McAtee, 1926, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 68(18):
82., fig. 67.

Resembling Typhlocyba beameri in the shape of the posterior
margin of the pygofer, but differing in having the dorsal posterior

76 Paul J. Christian

angle slightly rounded, forming not less than a right angle, and having
apex of aedeagal shaft bifid.

Length.—3.5 mm.

Color._Head, pronotum and _ scutellum white to pale yellow,
tegmina lemon yellow, subhyaline to cross veins, apices hyaline,
slightly fumose, without distinctive markings.

Genitalia._Male pygofer: in lateral aspect, with posterior margin
nearly straight, dorsal angle slightly rounded, forming a right angle,
ventral angle slightly more than a right angle and forming a small
ventrally-directed hook. Aedeagus: with atrial processes slender,
slightly enlarged near apical third, gradually tapering to sharply acute
apices, slightly diverging dorso-laterad from base, apices slightly
sinuate in lateral aspect, exceeding shaft in length, distinctly separate
from shaft from base, shaft of nearly uniform width, gradually tapering
to slightly inflated bifid apex, gonopore apical. Styles: slender, grad-
ually tapering to needlelike apices.

Material studied._Holotype male, Salem, New York, June 27, 1924,
E. D. Ball; a large series of male and female specimens, Louisville,
Kentucky, May 1957, collected on Carpinus sp. by the author. A female
specimen taken in copula with the male used in making the drawings
of the male genitalia of this species in this paper, collected May 30,
1957, Louisville, Kentucky, here designated Neallotype, is deposited
in the Snow Entomological Museum of the University of Kansas.

Literature Cited

Christian, P. J., 1953. A Revision of the North American Species of Typhlocyba
and its Allies (Homoptera, Cicadellidae). Bull. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull.
35(IL9):1103-1277, pls. 73-92.

McAtee, W. L., 1926. Revision of the American Leaf Hoppers of the Jassid Genus
Typhlocyba. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 68(18):1-47, pls. 1-6.

Medler, J. T., 1942. The Leafhoppers of Minnesota (Homoptera: Cicadellidae).
Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 155:1-196, pls. 9.

Accepted for publication 6 February 1960.

STUDIES OF THE OVERWINTERING
POTENTIAL OF CERTAIN DROSOPHILA SPECIES

WALLACE D. DAWSON
Present address: Dept. Zoology, Ohio State University

This research was supported in part by grants from the University of Kentucky
Faculty Research Fund and The National Science Foundation.

Introduction

Many investigators, both in this country and abroad, have found
that Drosophila populations tend to exhibit a characteristic seasonal
population frequency cycle. Patterson (1943) in collections at the
Aldrich farm near Austin, Texas, over a three year period showed that
D. melanogaster reached a peak population in September, while
D. affinis-algonquin frequencies were high during the cooler months
of the year, but extremely low during the mid-summer months.
D. putrida populations tended to vary with rainfall, being high during
periods of high precipitation. Williams and Miller (1952) in Nebraska
and Carpenter and Giordano (1955) in Tennessee demonstrated
similar seasonal fluctuations. Mather (1956) showed high summer
frequencies for D. melanogaster in Queensland, Australia, as did
Takada (1957) in Japan.

The various possible causal factors of these seasonal changes have
elicited interest from several investigators. Most attention has been
given to climatological, nutritional and genetic factors. Patterson
(1943), Speiss (1949), Levitan (1954), Jones (1958) and others
found that high frequencies of D. melanogaster and putrida can be
correlated with temperature and precipitation increases, respectively.
Studies by Komatsu (1959) indicate that food selectivity is not a major
factor in controlling the size of Drosophila populations. Dubinin and
Tiniakov (1946), Dobzhansky (1956), Carson and Stalker (1949) and
Levitan (1951) have studied seasonal changes in inversion frequencies
of several species of Drosophila, but whether they are of any sig-
nificance in the determination of population density has not been
determined. The availability of suitable breeding sites, as suggested
by Carson and Stalker (1951) and Carson, Knapp and Phaff (1956)
may be a limiting factor.

The various seasonal studies have suggested that there may be
differences in the ability of the various flies to survive the winter,
which largely determine the subsequent behavior of the population
during the remainder of the year. The high frequency of D. affinis-

78 Wallace D. Dawson

algonquin in the spring and late autumn indicates that this fly may
be better adapted to cooler temperatures than other native and
domestic species. D. affinis-algonquin may survive the winter in
greater numbers than other species and, therefore, have a greater
initial reproducing population during the first warm days of spring.
On the other hand, such species as D. melanogaster, which are rare
in the spring but attain a high population in August and September,
may not survive the winter in natural habitats, or else may survive in
extremely low numbers, and thus may have to reestablish their
populations annually from domestic situations, or, alternatively, require
several months to attain sufficient numbers of reproducing flies to
establish a peak population.

In this study two approaches to the overwintering problem were
undertaken. First, field collections for adult Drosophila in natural
wooded habitats were made during the winter, particularly during
brief mild spells. Materials which might contain overwintering eggs,
larvae or pupae were also collected in the field. Second, various
species were directly tested in the laboratory under controlled condi-
tions by exposure to low temperatures for given periods of time. Such
investigations should provide information on the comparative toler-
ances of these species to cold, which could then be correlated with
the seasonal population fluctuations observed during warmer periods
of the year.

Materials and Methods

Collecting Methods. A wooded area seventeen miles southeast of
Lexington, Kentucky, near the Kentucky River was selected as a
favorable location for the winter collection of flies. The area was
designated Dry Branch Field Station. This location is remote from
any urban influences, with human habitation in the area being limited
to two small farm tenant houses. Collecting was not done in the
immediate vicinity of these dwellings. There are no considerable
garbage disposals, orchards, gardens or other similar factors which
might affect Drosophila populations in the area. Deciduous trees and
red cedar, together with a wide variety of undergrowth compose the
vegetative cover.

For collecting, a modification of the bottle method outlined by
Dobzhansky (1936) was utilized. One-half pint milk bottles baited
with a slant of banana-malt-agar mixture were inserted in the forks
of trees and other suitable locations at a number of separate points
within the area. After a week or ten days flies were collected by
inserting a gauze covered cotton stopper in the neck of the bottle.
The entrapped flies were returned to the laboratory for identification.

Studies of the Overwintering of Certain Drosophila Species 79

Collection records included number of flies of each species collected,
climatological data and miscellaneous other information, including
observations on the condition of the flies.

Collection of materials which could possibly contain overwintering
eggs, larvae, or pupae consisted of selecting a variety of likely ma-
terials, such as decaying material from tree stumps, walnut hulls,
fruits, etc., and placing these in a carton with a small amount of
culture medium and holding them at optimum temperatures for two
or three weeks, then observing whether adult Drosophila were present.

Techniques for Low Temperature Studies. Drosphila stocks of
the species affinis, robusta, melanogaster, immigrans, hydei, cardini
and tripunctata were maintained in culture for use in low temperature
studies. All stocks except hydei and cardini were derived originally
from wild flies taken in collections at Dry Branch during the summer
of 1958. The hydei culture was obtained from domestic flies in the
laboratory. The cardini stock was derived from several flies taken from
a swamp near Orlando, Florida. Most of the low temperature experi-
ments involved affinis, robusta and melanogaster, therefore, only these
species were cultured extensively. Flies were all cultured on a medium
of corn meal agar fortified with sugar and dried yeast with occasional
modifications.

For many of the low temperature tests it was desirable to have flies
of a known age range in order to standardize the experiments as much
as possible and to minimize errors in the results due to natural death.
Aged flies were obtained by clearing thriving culture bottles, in which
adults were ecluding from the pupae in large numbers, of all adult
flies. These bottles were then held separately for thirty-four hours
and all adults which had emerged in the interval fell within the
desired age range. These flies were lightly etherized and examined
prior to placing in testing bottles. Flies which showed structural
defects and which were very recently emerged were rejected. Flies
were chosen randomly from the remainder keeping sex ratio approxi-
mately equal.

For the purpose of exposure to low temperature flies were placed
into half-pint milk bottles which had been specially prepared. Each
bottle had at the bottom a moist square of bibulous paper thoroughly
innoculated with a yeast suspension upon which the flies could feed
prior to testing. Any excess moisture was removed prior to placing the
flies in the bottles. A dry elongated folded strip of bibulous paper
was inserted along one side of the bottle. The bottle was positioned
with this side down, and the flies while yet under etherization were
placed upon this folded strip in the desired numbers. The bottles

80 Wallace D. Dawson

were closed with a gauze covered cotton stopper. The flies were then
permitted to revive in the bottle and fed for a period of two hours.

Prior to exposure a period of acclimatization at +7° C. (1°) was
allotted for a period of time, generally overnight.

For the low temperature experiments the freezer chest of a standard
commercial eight cubic foot refrigerator was used. This equipment
had certain limitations, the principal one of which was difficulty in
maintaining an exact constant temperature, especially at the lower
ranges used, thus the resultant data lists temperatures in ranges, for
example “—5° C. range” is equivalent to —5° C. (2°).

Following the acclimatization period flies in the testing bottles were
placed in the freezer chest for the desired time. During this time
occasional random readings were made from a thermometer in the
chest to insure that the temperature did not vary from the desired
range.

After a given period in the freezer the flies were removed and a
four hour period at +7° C. was allotted for deacclimatization since
rapid warming appeared to reduce survival. Following this the bottles
were removed to room temperature and permitted to stand for one
hour. The flies were then emptied into a 10 x 16 x 2 inch white
enamel pan for checking.

Flies were examined and categorized into four rather well defined
major groups based upon the degree of damage to the fly:

Complete survival: Flies which behaved normally and displayed
regular flight when stimulated. The criteria used for defining this
category was the ability of the insect to fly from the floor of the
pan with a sustained flight.

Crippled: Flies which were capable of any degree of walking, but
which were unable to maintain a sustained flight sufficient to
escape from the pan.

Stunned: Flies which were not capable of locomotion, but dis-
played movements and twitchings when observed closely with a
binocular microscope.

Dead: Flies which displayed no movements or other signs of life
when observed closely under a binocular scope.

Since at least some of the flies in the crippled category as well as
those which completely survived exhibited reproductive capability
following cold treatment, both of these categories were considered as
survival. The stunned flies inevitably died within a few hours without
any degree of recovery, and therefore, these together with the dead
were considered as non-survivals. |

Studies of the Overwintering of Certain Drosophila Species 81

Results

Overwinter Collections. In the course of the two year overwinter
studies 1193 Drosophila flies representing ten species were collected
at the Dry Branch area. Of this number 308, representing six species,
were taken during the critical months, December through March. The
remainder of the flies were collected during the latter half of November
and during the first half of April. A summary of collections is presented
in Table I.

Table |

collections

affinis-alg.

Number of
putrida
total

Last half
November

December

January

February

First half

Dec.=-Mar.

Of the six species taken during the December-March period two,
D. transversa and nigromelanica, were represented by single specimens
taken during December 1958. The other species were D. affinis-
algonquin (180 flies), putrida (82 flies), robusta (26 flies), and
tripunctata (13 flies). Five flies, dried beyond recognition, were not
identified. They were apparently either affinis or the dark form of
putrida. Species which were not taken during the critical period, but
which were collected in November and/or April were the cosmo-
politan species melanogaster, immigrans, hydei and busckii. All of
these occurred in numbers of fifteen or less.

The number of flies taken during the critical period of the two
winters was disproportionate. In the winter 1957-58 only twenty flies
were taken in thirteen collections from December through March.

82 Wallace D. Dawson

During the same period of 1958-59 288 flies were taken in eighteen
collections. The difference is probably due to the severity of the
1957-58 winter which was 3.8° F. colder per month than the mean
average for Kentucky.

A correlation was shown to exist both winters between the number
of live flies collected and the temperature at the time of collection.
Live flies were seldom obtained at temperatures below 40° F. In one
instance a live D. putrida was in a trap taken at 18° F. No other live
flies were taken at temperatures below 34° F. Occasionally dead flies
were found in the traps and these were tabulated in the totals. In the
winter 1957-58 fifteen of the twenty flies taken during the December-
March period were alive. In the same period of 1958-59 241 of the
288 flies taken were living.

During March and April 1958 twenty-eight flies of the D. affinis-
algonquin sibling species were examined for sex. Twenty-one of these
were females and six were males. In January through April 1959 sex
ratio was determined in 334 affinis-algonquin. There were a total of
144 females and 190 males. Males outnumbered the females by ap-
proximately twenty-five per cent during each of the four months.

No significant correlation could be established between the number
of flies or the relative abundance of any species obtained and precipita-
tion or relative humidity.

Collection of various types of material which were incubated in
the laboratory to discern whether they served as suitable media for
overwintering Drosophila eggs, pupae or larvae did not prove fruitful,
although more than two hundred samples were collected in the
course of the two winters. Special attention was given to decaying
fruits, bark around slime fluxes, fleshy fungi, and similar materials
which might be likely hibernacula.

Direct Response Tests. A comprehensive series of experiments was
conducted to determine the direct response of adult Drosophila after
exposure to freezing and below freezing temperatures for various
lengths of time. Including a period for feeding and acclimatization, all
flies fell within an age range of ten to fifty-four hours from eclosion
at the time they were placed into the freezer for testing. Relatively
few of the flies were at the extremes of this age range.

In these experiments the species D. affinis, robusta and melanogaster
were used. These species were selected primarily because their
seasonal population cycles are well known and they can be readily
maintained in the laboratory. These species also presented the oppor-
tunity to contrast two common native species with an abundant
domestic species in a comparative temperature tolerance study.

Studies of the Overwintering of Certain Drosophila Species 83

In each experiment of this series, except one, ten flies of each of
three species were used. Each experiment was repeated once. In one
test a total of seventy flies were used.

Temperature ranges used were 0°, —5°, —10°, —15°, and —20° C.
all +2°. Time exposures selected were one, four, eight, twelve,
eighteen, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight and sixty hours. These
times and temperatures were selected because they best demonstrated
the differences in survival capabilities of the species used. At the 0° C.
range it was not necessary to use the shorter time exposures, since all

Table II
poUSU Species oe =5° -10° = =15° -20°
Exposure
affinis - 100 100 100 10
| robusta - 100 100 55 lor
melanogaster - 100 95 55 10
affinis - 100 100 25 fe)
4 robusta ~ 100 90 O 6)
melanogaster ~ 100 30 O re)
affinis - 100 100 ¢) fe)
8 robusta - 100 60 e) -
melanogaster - 90 5 8) =
affinis - 95 90 0) -
12 robusta - Ons 50 ie) -
melanogaster - fe) 5 6) -
affinis 100 99 85 fe) =
18 robusta 100 100 fe) fe) =
melanogaster 100 O 6) 0 -
affinis - 90 10 O -
24 robusta = 60 @) - =
melanogaster - 5 0 - -
affinis - 95 ) - -
36 robusta - 50 ie) - -
melanogaster - ie) 10) - =
affinis 100 85 = - -
48 robusta 100 60 - - =
melanogaster 40 6) - - -
affinis 90 90 - - ~
60 robusta 100 1S - - -

melanogaster 5 0 - - =

§4 Wallace D. Dawson

species showed good survival at these levels. On the contrary at the
lower temperature ranges, only short exposures were required since
no flies survived beyond these limits. The results of this series of
experiments are summarized in Table II.

When a lethal dosage of fifty per cent for each species, as nearly
as it could be determined from the results, is plotted against tempera-
ture and time, the differential in survival at low temperature can be
clearly demonstrated graphically (Fig. 1). D. affinis shows better

64
D. affinis
56 \
y \ eenemcenames Ds Fobtista

48
melanogaster

40

SZ

Time tn Hours

24

16

eewreeene

o° a -|0° =[5° =20°

Temperature Centigrade

Fig. 1. Lethal dosage fifty percent of Drosophila species exposed to low temperatures.

survival at all levels indicated, with robusta somewhat intermediate
between affinis and melanogaster. D. melanogaster shows only neg-
ligible survival below —5° C for periods greater than twenty-four
hours.

Another experiment was conducted to determine approximately
the nature of the survival response to freezing of several other species.
In two separate experiments a total of fifty flies each of the species
D. affinis, robusta, melanogaster, hydei, immigrans and cardini were
used. D. hydei and immigrans are both cosmopolitan domestic species
presumably of tropical or sub-tropical origin. D. cardini is a wild sub-
tropical species of Florida and the West Indies. Thriving unaged
flies were exposed to —5° C. for a period of eighteen hours. The results
of this experiment indicate that hydei, immigrans and cardini are

Studies of the Overwintering of Certain Drosophila Species 85

slightly less cold hardy than melanogaster and considerably less than
affinis or robusta (Table III).

Table Ill

Percentage
Actual Survival

Complete
3 Survival Crippled Stunned Dead Survived Pertshed
Species

D. robusta
De hydei tes ater <r oe

D. immigrans

cages whieh ema RE Sey Sia Ae

An experiment using the species D. tripunctata, a native species,
tested for five days at 1°C in contrast with affinis, robusta and
melanogaster indicated that this species has roughly the same survival
potential as robusta.

Another test was designed to determine the possible hibernation
potential of adult Drosophila. One hundred flies each of the species
affinis, robusta and melanogaster, which had been selected so that sex
ratios were equal, were aged for two to thirty-six hours past eclosion,
permitted to feed on yeast for two additional hours, then were placed
in a constant temperature refrigerator at +4° C. for a period of thirty
days. At the close of this time the flies were examined. Approximately
one-fourth of the affinis survived, although only 36 per cent of this
number were undamaged, whereas only a single robusta and none of
the melanogaster lived.

Degree of Survival

D. melanogaster

Discussion

The perplexing problem of overwintering of Drosophila has been
the primary theme of this study. In winter collections during both
1957-58 and 1958-59 during the December through March period D.
affinis-algonquin (sibling species) was the most commonly obtained
fly. On some occasions these flies were taken shortly after spells of
cold considerably below freezing. These flies almost invariably were
shiny colored, showed no broken bristles or appendages and were well

86 Wallace D. Dawson

fed. It is conceivable that such flies had recently emerged from the
pupae with rising temperatures. On the basis of winter collections
it is evident that affinis-algonquin is the most cold hardy of the
Drosophila commonly found in Kentucky. This evidence is confirmed
by laboratory cold survival tests with affinis.

If D. affinis is capable of surviving the winter in greater numbers
than other species, this may account for the initial dominance of this
species in Drosophila collections made early in the spring. The scarcity
of the species during mid-summer may be due to competition with
better adapted species for food or breeding sites. These summer
competitors may not, however, have the benefit of cold resistance,
and with early fall frosts affinis renews its dominance. The cold
hardiness of affinis probably also accounts for its prevalence over other
native species at higher altitudes as was shown by Carpenter and
Giordano (1955).

No attempt was made to distinguish between the sibling species
D. affinis and algonquin until the last eight collections of 1959. On the
basis of the evidence available it seems that algonquin makes up a
greater part of the combined population during the colder months
and is more cold hardy than affinis. This is in agreement with Miller
(1958) who has recognized that algonquin is the more northern of
the two species, Kentucky being near the southern limits of its range.
D. affinis, however, disregarding algonquin, is still more coldhardy
than D. robusta with which it shares its range. D. affinis is probably
also slightly more resistant to cold than putrida as is indicated by field
data. .

Carson (1958) states that D. robusta overwinters as an adult, as is
evidenced by the dark color of the flies found in collections early in
the spring, and that such overwinter flies frequently show broken
wings or bristles. The robusta obtained at Dry Branch during the
months of March and April 1959 were carefully examined. All flies
appeared to be undamaged. The flies appeared to be neither excep-
tionally dark or light in color as compared with flies obtained at
other seasons of the year. If robusta overwinters as an adult, it must
necessarily be well insulated against cold. Thirty days at +4° C.
was sufficient to kill all except one of 100 robusta in the laboratory.
Freezing or sub-freezing temperatures are lethal to these flies in a
much shorter time. The presence or nature of hibernacula sufficient
to offer protection to adult robusta in the Dry Branch area is not
known. The presence of overwintering pupae offers itself as perhaps
a more plausible possibility, although evidence on this point is not
yet available.

Studies of the Overwintering of Certain Drosophila Species 87

D. putrida was the second most abundant fly in winter collections.
Unfortunately this species is not readily adapted to laboratory culture
and direct cold response was not tested. This species is apparently
cold hardy, and by mid-April becomes the dominant fly in Drosophila
collections.

Laboratory experiments demonstrate that D. melanogaster is more
sensitive to cold than the native species. The survival of this species
shown in this work is in essential agreement with similar studies by
Novitski and Rush (1949). It appears doubtful that melanogaster,
which probably has a tropical origin, is capable of overwintering in
the wild in temperate forests of eastern North America. Populations
of this fly which become established in forested areas are probably
completely eradicated by a winter of any appreciable severity. Popula-
tions can then be reestablished only by reintroduction through the
agency of man from the domestic situations where it survives.

In studies at Dry Branch and elsewhere large populations of
D. melanogaster are usually shown to be present by August and
September. Studies by Jones (1958) showed that in September 1957
melanogaster constituted approximately sixty per cent of the Dry
Branch Drosophila population. In two years previous to this similar
peaks were noted in other unpublished studies. These three years
were preceded by moderate winters. We found, however, that in the
summer of 1958 melanogaster did not establish a population peak and
constituted but a small portion of the total population. As has been
previously noted the winter of 1957-58 was more severe than average
in Kentucky and may account for a reduction in numbers of
melanogaster to the extent that it was unable to establish a dense
population during the year. In addition, during the latter year,
collections in areas frequented by humans were avoided. This evidence
is further support for the hypothesis that melanogaster does not usually
survive a severe winter in natural situations.

Two other domestic species, D. immigrans and hydei, which were
treated by exposure to low temperature, were shown to be more
sensitive to cold than melanogaster. Spencer (1941) has stated that
hydei overwinters in buildings and other man-made habitats. It is
doubtful whether either species can survive rigorous winters in the
wild, and, like melanogaster, are reintroduced annually by man. In
unmolested areas they do not occur. Both species have essentially the
same cold resistance as the wild sub-tropical species, cardini.

The nature of hibernacula of overwintering Drosophila was not
determined not withstanding extensive collections for materials which
might contain overwintering pupae or eggs. If Drosophila overwinter

88

Wallace D. Dawson

as adults, the only conceivable locations suitably protected would be
hollow trees or stumps, or deep ground litter. Numerous samples of
both of these types of materials did not produce any Drosophila.
Needless to say, but a minute portion of the total hibernacula could
be sampled, and the probability of obtaining overwintering flies was
slight. Hardy overwinter pupae of Drosophila, if such exist, may be
attached beneath bark or in crevices in dead wood. More detailed
information concerning their summer breeding sites would provide
valuable clues for locating possible overwintering eggs or pupae.

bo

ee)

Summary
Adult Drosophila were obtained in winter collections at Dry
Branch, Fayette County, Kentucky, in 1957-58 and 1958-58. Live
flies feeding in the traps seldom occurred at temperatures below
40° F. D. affinis-algonquin, D. putrida, D. robusta and D. tri-
punctata, in this order, were the most common species taken. Of
these D. affinis-algonquin was the most abundant by a considerable
margin.
Sample collections of material which might contain overwintering
eggs, larvae or pupae did not prove fruitful.
A series of direct temperature response experiments was conducted
in the laboratory by exposing adult flies to constant temperature
ranges for various lengths of time. In these experiments D. affinis
was the most coldhardy, and D. melanogaster was the most sensi-
tive. D .robusta was intermediate.
Comparative tests of other domestic and native species indicated
that D. hydei and D. immigrans are less cold hardy than native
species and are comparable to the sub-tropical species D. cardini.
D. tripunctata has approximately the same cold resistance as D.
robusta.
D. affinis showed better hibernation potential than either D. robusta
or D. melanogaster when held thirty days at +4° C.
Experimental and field data demonstrate that D. affinis is better
adapted to cooler temperatures than other species present in Ken-
tucky. This may explain the high frequency of this species in the
spring and late autumn.
The manner in which D. robusta overwinters was not determined.
Evidence from the laboratory tests suggests that exposure of.
adults to freezing temperatures over prolonged periods of more
than two or three days is virtually lethal. Some few adults may
survive in extremely protected situations, or overwintering pupae
may exist.

Studies of the Overwintering of Certain Drosophila Species 89

8. D. melanogaster and other domestic species of tropical or sub-
tropical origin probably do not survive winters of any appreciable
severity in the temperate forests of eastern North America. These
species are probably reintroduced into natural habitats annually
by man, and upon becoming established compete successfully with
native species during the warmer months.

Literature Cited

Carpenter, J. M. and Giordano, J. F. 1955. Populations of the genus Drosophila
in the Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee. Amer. Mid. Nat., 54:104-118

Carson, H. L. 1958. The population genetics of Drosophila robusta. Advances in
Genetics, 9:1-40.

Carson, H. L., Knapp, E. P. and Phaff, H. J. 1956. The yeast flora of the natural
breeding sites of some species of Drosophila. Ecology, 37:538-544.

Carson, H. L. and Stalker, H. D. 1949. Variation in chromosomes of Drosophila
robusta. Evolution, 3:322-329.

Carson, H. L. and Stalker, H. D. 1951. Natural breeding sites for some wild
species of Drosophila in the eastern United States. Ecology, 32:317-330.
Dobzhansky, Th. 1936. Collecting, transporting and shipping wild species of

Drosophila. Dros. Info. Serv., 6:28-29.

Dobzhansky, Th. 1956. Genetics of natural populations. XXV. Genetic changes
in populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and D. persimilis in some locaities
in California. Evolution, 10:82-92.

Dubinin, N. P. and Tiniakov, G. G. 1946. Natural selection and chromosomal
variability in populations of Drosophila funebris. Journ. Hered., 37:39-44.

Jones, J. F. 1958. Master’s thesis. Univ. Ky.

Komatsu, J. K. 1959. Master’s thesis. Univ. Ky.

Levitan, M. 1951. Response of the chromosomal variability in Drosophila robusta
to seasonal factors in a southwest Virginia woods. Genetics, 36:561-562.
Levitan, M. 1954. Drosophilidae in New York and New Jersey. Amer. Mid. Nat.,

52:453-459,

Mather, W. B. 1956. The genus Drosophila (Diptera) in eastern Queensland. II.
Seasonal changes in natural populations 1952-1953. Australian Journ. Zool.,
4:65-75.

Miller, D. D. 1958. Geographical distribution of the American Drosophila affinis
subgroup species. Amer. Mid. Nat., 60:52-70.

Novitski, E. and Rush, G. 1949. Viability and fertility of Drosophila exposed to
sub-zero temperature. Biol. Bull. Woods Hole, 97:150-157.

Patterson, J. T. 1943. Studies in the genetics of Drosophila. III. The Droso-
philidae of the Southwest. Univ. Texas Publ., 4313.

Speiss, E. B. 1949. Drosophila in New England. Journ. N.Y. Ent. Soc., 57:117-
131.

Spencer, W. P. 1941. Ecological factors in Drosophila speciation. Ohio Journ.
Sci., 41:190-200.

Williams, D. D. and Miller, D. D. 1952. A report on Drosophila collections in
Nebraska. Bull. Univ. Nebr. State Museum. 3:(7) 1-19.

Accepted for publication 20 September 1960.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS
1960 Fall Meeting

The forty-sixth annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science opened
with a visit to the Potamalogical Institute in Louisville from 4:00 p.m. to 6 p.m.
on November 4.

Approximately 85 Academy members and guests attended the dinner that
evening and heard Dr. Richard L. Barber speak on the subject, “Modern Science
and Modern Philosophy”.

The business meeting was opened on Saturday morning by P. Panzera at —
8:00 a.m.

The minutes of the 1959 meeting were read and approved.

The treasurer’s report prepared by R. A. Chapman, was read by R. Barbour.
It was moved that the report, previously audited by P. Sears and W. Wagner, be
accepted. The motion carried.

R. Barbour then reported that $1.70 of the membership dues of $2.00 are
being spent for publication of the “Transactions” leaving an insufficient amount
for other Academy activities. He moved that regular membership dues be
increased to $3.50, that domestic subscription rates for the “Transactions” be
increased from $2.00 to $3.50 and that the foreign subscription rate be increased
from $2.50 to $4.00. The motion was seconded by J. Carpenter. The motion
carried unanimously. W. Wagner suggested that some of the income from
increased dues should be used to support the Junior Academy.

R. Boyer reported that there are over 38 Junior Academy clubs in Kentucky.
He reported that the science fair had been held in the east exhibition wing at the
fairgrounds. There were over 300 exhibits in the two divisions, one including
Jefferson County and another including the rest of the state. He reported that
about $700. was used for prizes and expenses and that this nioney was raised by
donations from the Kentucky Research Foundation (for publishing the bulletin),
N.E.A., Jefferson County Medical Society, Brown and Williamson, and several
chemical companies. He suggested that a Junior Science Bulletin editor be
appointed and that a Junior Academy money raiser be appointed in addition to
the advisers to replace him. P. Panzera reported the appointment of M. Christopher
as the Junior Academy director and that assistants would be appointed.

M. Wharton reported on the A.A.A.S. meeting held the previous December.
She also reported that the treasurer would be happy to receive contributions for
furnishing the Thomas Hunt Morgan room.

The resolutions committee (J. Carpenter, D. Lindsay, and A. Whitt) presented
three resolutions:

1. Whereas, the Junior Academy of the K.A.S., as an integral part of this
Academy, has always performed at a high level and brought credit to the
K.A.S. under its counselor, Mr. Robert Boyer, and Whereas Mr. Boyer is
retiring from this position after several years of outstanding service, be it
therefore resolved that the K.A.S. extend to Mr. Boyer a vote of thanks for his
excellent record as a leader of potential scientists.
Whereas, the University of Louisville under the guidance of a committee
composed of Drs. Clay, Jackson, Vance, and Shoemaker has performed
efficiently and effectively in arranging for the annual meeting of the K.A.S.
at the University of Louisville, be it therefore resolved that the K.A.S. extend
to this committee, and to the host institution, the University of Louisville, its
sincerest thanks for a well planned and executed annual meeting.
3, Whereas, the K.A.S. heartily endorses the growing interest in the state and
nation toward the encouragement of strong subject matter courses in our

bo

Academy Affairs 91

schools and colleges, especially in the training of teachers, be it therefore
resolved that the K.A.S. attempt to assist, in every way possible, the improve-
ment of the teaching of science in the schools and colleges of Kentucky.

The resolutions were adopted. J. Black presented an additional resolution, en-
dorsing the proposed constitutional revision, which was also adopted.

The research committee (R. Wiley and H. Hancock) reported consideration
of two proposals and recommended that $60. be granted to each. After some
discussion it was decided that the committee should confer with H. Hahn and
T. Kargl before making a final decision on the sizes of the grants. Following the
conferences (after the business meeting) it was announced that each would
receive $60. T. Kargl’s project is entitled “Carotenoids: Structure Determination
by Light and Infrared Absorption Analyses.” H. Hahn’s project is entitled “Mirror
Drawings Techniques in Evaluating Behavior Reactions in Frustrating Situations”.

A list of new members was submitted for approval by the Academy. Lucia
Arderson, William O. Atlinson, Luther W. Baxter, Thomas R. Beebe, John J.
Begin, Fred Boercker, Ellis V. Brown, Lourine Cave, James R. Charles, M. P.
Christopher, Alfred E. Coleman, Graham B. Dimmick, William G. Downs, Jr.,
W. G. Duncan, Hartley Eckstrom, Carl F. Essig, Jr., Harold G. Planary, Ralph
Forney, Joseph E. Hanegan, Fannie R. Harmon, Carlton Heckrotte, James P.
Henley, Sumner Hayward, Donald G. Hicks, Ronald Higdon, Harris E. Hill, Anna
L. Hoffman, Karl F. Hussung, Daniel F. Jackson, Thomas H. Johnson, Ernst Jokl,
Frank Kodman, Jr., Robert A. Kuehne, James F. Lafferty, Travis J. Leach,
William R. McNeely, William R. Martin, Mrs. E. E. Mayo, Louis B. Miller,
Richard Newcomer, William Norris, Thomas G. Nye, William Owens, William TH.
Pell, Charles Reidlinger, R. B. Renda, Gertrude Ridgel, Dan Schreiber, Riley S.
Smith, Jr., Charles Sowards, Kenneth J. Starks, G. W. Stokes, arion F. Tabb, Ralph
A. Tesseneer, Jack R. Todd, Allen M. Wallace, John B. Wells, Otis Wolfe were
accepted as members of the Academy.

The nominating committee (W. Owsley and W. Sumpter) gave the following
nominees:

President Elect: C. Whittle
Vice-President: L. Dawson

Secretary: G. Levey

Treasurer: R. Chapman

A.A.A.S. Representative: M. Wharton
Board of Directors: C. Lange, A. Whitt

R. Weaver moved that the slate be elected unanimously. The motion was
seconded and carried.

H. La Fuze suggested that the Academy try to encourage research in
member colleges. J. Carpenter suggested that the Academy take steps which
might result in reducing teaching loads so that research would be more possible.
A. Cole suggested that the Academy do some recruitment in high schools for the
sciences so that more students might end up in graduate schools and in medicine.

Dr. Philip G. Davidson, President of the University of Louisville, welcomed
the Academy to Louisville.

The business meeting adjourned at 9:20.

Meetings of the sections were then held with contributed papers in
Bacteriology and Medical Technology, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Psychology,
Physics, and Geology.

The officers of the sections who were elected at the sectional meetings are
as follows:

Bacteriology and Medical Technology

Genevieve Clark, Chairman
Margaret Hotchkiss, Secretary

92 Academy Affairs

Botany

Carl Henrickson, Chairman
Arland Hotchkiss, Secretary

Chemistry

Carl Hussung, Chairman
Arthur W. Fort, Secretary

Physics

Bruce B. Vance, President

Richard Hanau, Secretary, Treasurer
Psychology

Ray H. Bixler, Chairman

Paul McNeely, Secretary
Zoology

Robert Kuehne, Chairman
Dwight Lindsay, Secretary

Report of the Treasurer for the Year 1959-1960

BalancerOctober él 1959) cds esha. cesseres cs case ee senna tse $845.14
Income October 1, 1959-October 1, 1960
Regular membership Ques. cisaseecsroreuse ts coeseeusesscoserceccees $ 642.40
Sustaining) membership Ques, f2:cceces-c-ceeecsecesses cee sncsssecsees 210.00
University of Louisville—Transactions ..............::c0e0000 200.00
INAS wRescarchy Grants wersanece ese caeeesatetsccnas cee eseecesacee 80.00
Beabreiser \Co:—adviertisin®: sescs.secccsses-oesceecsecteetan soovecenes 50.00
Reprints—Transactiony articles’ ...........cc::.0:s00ccsssacccssosseees 32.44
Subscriptions—iramsactioms) seen arsceeececeeseeccsee eters 12.00
Morgan bnnd—contribution cscs te ee eee 10.00

$1,236.84 $9081.98
Expenses October 1, 1959-October 1, 1960

Transactions—Publication of Volumes 20 .............0008 $1,157.74
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Research Grants: ocicrccesitea ter aan eee 80.00
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Academy Affairs 93

Sectional Meetings

BACTERIOLOGY AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY SECTION

Natural Science Building Room 300
9:10 A.M.

O. F. Edwards, Chairman
Genevieve Clark, Secretary

Comparison of membrane filter and Most Probable Number methods on Ohio
River Water. W. L. Williams, Superintendent of Purification of water, Kentucky
Testing Laboratory, Louisville, Kentucky.

A simplified method for counting anaerobic rumen bacteria using sealed glass
tubing. D. W. Claypool, D. R. Jacobson, and R. F. Wiseman, Departments of
Dairy Science and Microbiology, University of Kentucky.

Studies on the relationships of bacterial cell walls, antigenic structures and
bacteriophage absorption sites. Sidney Crouch and James C. Humphries, Depart-
ment of Microbiology, University of Kentucky.

BIOLOGY SECTION I

Natural Science Building Room 110
9:10 A.M.

Liza Spann, Chairman
Lloyd Alexander, Secretary

Initial Orientation of Myotis austoriparius. Ambrose, Harrison W., III, De-
partment of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Equipment and Techniques in Photographing Amphibians and Reptiles. Bar-
bour, Roger W., Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

A Preliminary List of the Mammals of Lewis County, Kentucky. Barkley,
William Byrd. Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

A Preliminary List of the Mammals of Robinson Forest, Breathitt County,
Kentucky. Hardjasasmita, Hidajat Sjarief. Department of Zoology, University of
Kentucky.

Fascioliasis in Indonesian Livestock. Edney, James Marion. Department of
Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Population size and Growth Rate in the Fairy Shrimp, Eubranchipus vernalis.
Kuehne, Robert Andrew. Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Cold Tolerance in Drosophila. Moore, William’ Joseph and Carpenter, John
Melvin. Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Recent Lethals from Natural Populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Frank
Seto. Department of Biology, Berea College.

Investigations into the Status of Gyrinophilus lutescens (Refinesque). New-
comer, Richard Joseph. Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Electrocardiograms of the Embryonic and Fetal Rat Heart. Hall, E. kK.
Department of Anatomy, University of Louisville School of Medicine.

Studies in the Biological Control of the House Fly Using Microchelid Mites.
Rodriguez, Juan Guadalupe and Wade, Claude F. Department of Entomology,
University of Kentucky.

The Role of Oribatid Mites in the Forest Soil Ecosystem. Wallwork, John
Anthony. Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

94 Academy Affairs

BIOLOGY SECTION II

Natural Science Building Room 108
9:10 A.M.

Lizo Spann, Chairman
Lloyd Alexander, Secretary

A proposal for a flora of Kentucky. Browne, Edwards T., Jr. Department of
Botany, University of Kentucky.

The Influence of Sucrose on the Root and Shoot growth of Aseptic explants of
Helianthus annuus. Henrickson, Carl E. Department of Botany, University of
Kentucky.

Colonies and Populations of May-apple (Podophyllum peltatum L.) Warden,
John C. Department of Botany, University of Kentucky.

Chromosomes in Agapanthus. Mukerjee, Debdas. Department of Botany,
University of Kentucky.

Chromatographic methods for studying the genus Haworthia. Hopkins,
Jerome D. Department of Botany, University of Kentucky.

Chromatographic studies in the Coarctatae Section of the genus Haworthia.
Isbell, Charles J. Department of Botany, University of Kentucky.

Biological Assay of Water. Jackson, Daniel F. The Potamological Institute,
University of Louisville.

Preliminary Studies on Primary and Secondary Fluorescence of Phytoplankton.
Parr, Wordie. The Potamological Institute, University of Louisville.

A Comparison of the Gorwth of Algae in Chambers exposed and unexposed
to sunlight. Seilheimer, Jack. The Potamological Institute, University of Louis-
ville.

A proposed System for Plant Identification. Gunn, Charles R., Ross Seed
Company and University of Louisville.

Respiration Rates of Various Aquatic Invertebrates. Smith, Charles Jr., The
Potamological Institute, University of Louisville.

A Quantitative Critique of Gomori’s Histochemical Method for Phos-
phamidase. Atkinson, William B. and Herbener, George H., Department of
Anatomy, University of Louisville School of Medicine.

A Study of Soil Fertility by Microbial Activity. Gilkerson, Seth W., Hull,
H. L. and Gentry, C. E. Kettering Soils Research Project. Berea College.

CHEMISTRY SECTION
Natural Science Building Room 7
9:10 A.M.

Walter T. Smith, Chairman
Karl F. Hussung, Secretary

“Synthesis of Some Substituted Alkoxybenzoic Acids” by Walter T. Smith
and Myron H. Bengson (University of Kentucky ).

“Molecular Weight and Vapor Pressure Studies of the Solvates of Transision
Metal Acetylacetonates.” By Donald R. Rogers, J. F. Steinbach and W. F. Wagner
(University of Kentucky ).

“Preparation and Carcinogenic Activity of Alkylated Butter Yellows.” Ellis
V. Brown (University of Kentucky ).

“The Reactive Intermediate of the Favorskii Rearrangement.” By Arthur W.
Fort (University of Kentucky ).

“Copolymerization Characteristics of Some Divinyl Monomers.” By G. L.
Mayberry and Richard H. Wiley (University of Louisville).

Academy Affairs 95

“Effect of EDTA on the Solvent Extraction of Erbium and Holmium
Acetylacetonates.” By E. Jarvis, J. F. Steinbach and W. F. Wagner ( University of
Kentucky ).

“Monomer Reactivity Ratios for the Styreneisoprene Copolymerization.” By
Burns Davis and Richard H. Wiley (University of Louisville).

“Tungsten and Iridium in Stone Meteorites by Neutron Activation Analysis’.
By A. Amiruddin, J. R. Rushbrook and W. D. Ehmann ( University of Kentucky ).

“A New Stereoisomer of 3-Methyl-5-Phenyl-2, 4-Pentadienoic Acid.” By C. S.
Staples and Richard H. Wiley (University of Louisville).

“Halomethane Solvates of Tervalent Metal Acetylacetonates.” By Francis
Clarke, J. F. Steinbach and W. F. Wagner ( University of Kentucky ).

“Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Characteristics of the 3-Methyl-5-Phenyl2-,
4-Pentadienoic Acids.” By T. H. Crawford and Richard H. Wiley (University of
Louisville ).

In each case, the speaker's name is in italic.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Natural Science Building Room 107
9:10 A.M.

Clara Chassell Cooper, President
Lourine Cave, Secretary

The Relationship Between Extent of Self-Disclosure Output and Group
Cohesiveness. William T. Query, VA Hospital, Lexington. Discussant: Richard
M. Griffith.

Reactions of College Students to Their Course in High School Psychology.
Paul McNeely, Asbury College. Discussant: James S. Calvin.

Patterns of Religious Ideas and Personality Traits in Berea College Students:
Replication of an Earlier Study. Clara Chassell Cooper, Berea College. Discussant:
W. Gordon Ross.

Indifference to Prestige and Attitudes Regarding Segregation. Ray H. Bixler,
University of Louisville. Discussant: Raymond A. Wilkie.

Analysis and Synthesis of Judgment. Joan Lee, University of Kentucky. Dis-
cussant: Lawrence C. Grebstein.

Systematic Application of Tachistoscopic Techniques for an Objective Ap-
proach to Personality etermination. Hans Hahn, Transylvania College. Discussant:
Clara Chassell Cooper.

PHYSICS SECTION
Natural Science Building Room 109
9:10 A.M.

An Observation on the Non-linear Propagation of Sound in Water.—Carl E.
Adams, University of Louisville.

The Influence of Thin Films on Sound Absorption in Flexible Foams.—M.
Schwartz and D. Janzen, University of Louisville.

The Activation Energy of Thin Germanium Films.—B. Nichols and N,
Mostovych, University of Louisville.

The Effect of an Aluminum Oxide Undercoating on the Electrical Properties
of Thin Metallic Films.—C. Naber and N. Mostovych, University of Louisville.

Expansion of the Point Charge Rock Salt Lattice Potential in Kubic Har-
monics.—C,. S. Riley and E. F. Sieckmann, University of Kentucky.

ee eeeeerre——e—on Sava aL

96 Academy Affairs

Preliminary Calculations of Wave Functions and Energy Eigenvalues for
Het in a Rock Salt Lattice.—E. F. Sieckmann, University of Kentucky.

Discrimination between Neutron and Gramma Ray Pulses in an Anthracene
Scintillator—M. Hadi and M. T. McEllistrem, University of Kentucky.

GEOLOGY SECTION

Menges Hall Room 106
9:30 A.M.

James E. Conkin, Acting Chairman

Fossil Land Snails from the Loess at Vicksburg, Mississippi. By James E.
Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin,* University of Louisville.

Interpretation of Self Potential Maps. By Marion Stallard, Independent
Geologist, Fern Creek, Ky.

Coral Zones in the Richmond Beds in Kentucky, west of the Cincinnati Arch.
By Ruth Browne, Research Associate, University of Louisville.

PreNiagaran Arch in Kentucky. By Harvey C. Young, Geologist, Geological
Consultants, Inc.

Mississippian Foraminifera of Michigan. By James E. Conkin and Philip
Malone, University of Louisville.

Arenaceous Foraminifera from the Louisiana Limestone (Mississippian) of
Missouri. By James E. Conkin, University of Louisville.

Geology of the Monroe Dam Area, Monroe County, Indiana. By Harry
Thomas, Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville.

AFTERNOON SESSION
1:30 - 4:00 P.M.

Organizational meeting of the geology section, Kentucky Academy of Science.
Election of officers for 1961.
Chairman
Secretary
Formation of Committee on Geologic Education to study school curricula in
Kentucky.
Formation of Committee on Geologic Research in Kentucky.

* Indicates speaker.

INDEX TO VOLUME 21

Acetylacetone, solubility of, 66, 67

Barbour, Roger W., 10
Brown, W. K., 49

Calcium®9, 1

Carphophis
amoenus amoenus, 10
amoenus helenae, 10
amoenus vermis, 10

Carpinus, 74, 76

Carychium stygium Call, 35

Cave snail, 35

Christian, Paul J., 73

Chromium®®, 1

Chromosome number, Helianthus de-
capetalus, 17

Computers, 61

Corrosion, oil bearing, 23

Dawson, Wallace D., 77
Drosophila,
affinis, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88
affinis-algonquin, 77, 78, 81, 82,
86, 88
busckii, 81
cardini, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88
hydei, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88
immigrans, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88
melanogaster, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84,
85, 87, 88
nigromelanica, 81
putrida, 77, 81, 82, 86, 87, 88
robusta, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88
transversa, 81
tripunctata, 79, 85, 88

Eaves, J. C., 61

Ehmann, William D., 1
Elliott, J. B., 49

Erbium actylacetonate, 65, 66
Euphorbia pulcherrima, 20

Fourier heat equation, 50
Hall, N. W., 23

Heines, Sister Virginia, 20
Helianthus decapetalus, 17

Hubricht, Leslie, 35
Huizenga, John R., 1

Ishida, Y. G., 65
Leafhopper, 73, 74, 75, 76

McNeely, Paul, 6
Meadow, J. R., 23

Nectars, 20

O'Leary, Sister Mary Adeline, 20
Oxine, distribution between chloro-
form and water, 66

Penrod, E. B., 49

Pignany TI. ja 61
Poinsettia, 20

Prasanna, K. V., 39
Psychology, teaching of, 6

Radionuclides, 1

Smith, Dale M., 17
Sodium chloride, salting effect of, 65
Soil temperature, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58,
54. 55, 96; 51..90; 00
Solar energy, 39
Solar energy for air conditioning, 47
Solar energy for heating, 42
Solar energy utilization, 41
Steinbach, J. F., 65
Subroutines, 61, 62
Cyclic Entry-Exit Method, 61, 62,
63, 64
Sugars, 20
Sulfur containing compounds, 23, 27
Sulfur compounds, 23

Typhlocyba
andromache, 78, 74, 75
beameri, 74, 75
niobe, 73
rubriocellata, 73
surcula, 75

Wagner, W. F., 65

Williams, W. D., 23
Worm snake, 10

3 ‘
_ U4) Pos eter
yi kee eee

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Volume 22 — 1961

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

Rocer W. BABROUR

Associate Editors

SETH GILKERSON, Bacteriology and Medical Technology
Mary E. Wuarton, Botany
Warp Sumpter, Chemistry
BarsBaRraA M. Conxin, Geology

Joun M. Carpenter, Zoology

Editorial Office

Department of Zoology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

CNOTENTS OF VOLUME 22

No. 1-2
The Response of Adrenal Cortex to Stress in Rats
GENE C. PALMER and WM. G. DOWNS, JR. ........sssssceceseeees 1
Fossil Land Snails from the Loess at Vicksburg,
Mississippi
JaMEs E. ConkIN and BARBARA M. CONKIN ...........csscsseseees 11

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel
AEURED BRAUER ANG: ALBERT EJUSENG <ésdecisscsesnéessasecovtersoossuees 16

Quantum Theory and Psychotherapy
PE TZANBEEET: An) POEINSON, 2222:0.cceedevecdesestanssavexuonsntwoveeececcabsovoreseessd 28

Change of Independent Variable in Differential Equations

SAV VEEEIES ACs Peon EP RONAND fc ueves tunyacxcas ctesvasdaecasvsenanesenatesas 29
Peed AIAN Pa IEE Spy cease canes eh encanto ede ace rhea civatseds oveudehotaise aceseas 33
Membership List, Kentucky Academy of Science ..............:::00 34

No. 3-4

The Kirtley Site, A Mississippian Village in McLean
County, Kentucky

IIE OAL ROTENGSOING cof: f.coc. cus vc sesesec cone locneee™t et Ser RN DN a Re 4]

Preparation of Several Symmetrical Bisphenolic Mannich
Derivatives of Biological Interest

C. J. Korpics, W. T. Smiru, and J. R. MEADOW .............0+ 60

A Cannel Coal Tension Rupture
PITe Dee R a lpue Me ARABS, Vaasa cuca 2c cu sta vehowcheenasca watt euact aoetesctaetieoncyesdsseoens 69

Quinaldine as an Anesthetic on Siredon mexicanum (Shaw)
VOCE IV ROR IZ, oe secs Sees sci assnes nnsikess ne caccsnonmesqnsstdena vasincatersseoses 71

A Footnote on Horse Race Betting
AERC AEA) Ng GRE BEEN 5-0 ot otc de saan tv scscaosca vs oae seis aaa sarvasests Suds 78

A Key to Prehistoric Kentucky Pottery
OC TENSI Wit SCHWARZ eerste. cee estoy axenaeens nagseeitbexsssensansasersteesece 82

PSCC | NGUAMEGE, cs snteacs cess seu caes aot canesnacunkcxs2sas- ansuccadaawusebac stoasundeos 86
ERTS @ ys V UNIAN N20 Caf se acc nas da tucson acts tends souwe Saescoashetvencatex 92

Q
a i 1961 Wa ey, Numbers 1-2
K42X Aart SON jas

Lf Cr» iN
To We /
NH Mra vw \
H |
: . 1 ts

» TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

The Response of Adrenal Cortex to Stress in Rats
GENE C, PaLMER and Wm. G. Downs, JR. .........:esccesseeees 1

Fossil Land Snails from the Loess at Vicksburg,
Mississippi
James E. Conkin and Barsara M. ConxkIN

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel
ALFRED BRAUER and ALBERT DUSING

Quantum Theory and Psychotherapy
ELizaBETH Z. JOHNSON

Change of Independent Variable in Differential Equations
S. WerHE and T. J. PicNANr

Academy Affairs

Membership List, Kentucky Academy of Science

The Kentucky Academy of Science’
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1960-61

President: H. H. LaFuzz, Eastern State College

President-elect: CHanLEs WHITTLE, Western State College

Vice President: LyLe Dawson, University of Kentucky

Secretary: Gerrit LEVEY, Berea College

Treasurer: RicHarp A. CHAPMAN, University of Kentucky

Representative to AAAS Council: Mary E. WxHarton, Georgetown College
Counselor to Junior Academy: Maurice CuristopHEeR, Murray State College |

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS

BACTERIOLOGY AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

Chairman: GENEVIEVE CLARK, Georgetown College
Secretary: Marcaretr Hotcuxiss, University of Kentucky

BOTANY

Chairman: Cart Henrickson, University of Kentucky
Secretary: ARLAND Horcnukxiss, University of Louisville

CHEMISTRY

Chairman: Cart Hussunc, Murray State College
Secretary: AnrHuR W. Fort, University of Kentucky

GEOLOGY

Chairman: James E. Conxin, University of Louisville
Secretary: MARION STALLARD, Louisville

PHYSICS

Chairman: Bruce B. VANcE, Louisville Public Schools
Secretary: RicHARrD Hanau, University of Kentucky

PSYCHOLOGY

Chairman: Ray H. Brxiter, University of Louisville
Secretary: Paut McNerry, Asbury College

ZOOLOGY

Chairman: Ropert KuEHNE, University of Kentucky
Secretary: Dwicur Liypsay, Georgetown College

BOARD OF DIRECTORS i
Gry SUANCASTIORY Got ce teee cn Geetha to 1961 HAZE NOL AU! sie cccvecesuscceetuereeee ...to 1962

PREP REGEN: sg, csevahersseatueraaduccesseusuarase to 1961 Winer (Cray sce .to 1963
Wiiu1aM B. OwsL.ey ........ Sdaddesecteseace to 1962 GART WIVANGE Sih esc,

CYB OHAMANN Siinccccecsesssous ie Pe to 1962 AC GS SUITE oo 2, dawecccncosuccde suet oeaten «to 1964

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor: RoGeER W. Barsnour, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Associate Editors:
(Bacteriology and Medical Technology) SerH GriLKERSON, Berea ica Berea.
(Botany) Mary E. WuHarron, Georgetown College.
(Chemistry) Wanp Sumpter, Western State College, Bowling Green.
(Geology) BarBara M. Conxtiy, Louisville
(Zoology) Joun M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky, Lexington

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from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing.

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The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions. should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The
Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

THE RESPONSE OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX TO STRESS IN RATS

GENE C. PALMER and WM. G. DOWNS, JR.
Biology Research Center, Department of Biology, Tennessee Polytechnic Institute

Anatomy of the Adrenal

The adrenal gland is composed of two separate structures, the
cortex and the medulla. The medulla is part of the sympathetic
nervous system and will be excluded from this paper. The purpose of
these experiments, the effects of physiological stress on the three zones
of the adrenal cortex, is achieved by histological methods. Background
data on some of the functions of the three adreno-cortical zones are
presented in part from the literature, and in part from current
research in this laboratory, while the response of the adrenal cortex
to insulin stress, is from our own studies.

The outer portion of the adrenal is the cortex, which is divided
into the zona glomerulosa, consisting of cuboidal clusters of cells.
Beneath this is a thick layer, the zona fasciculata in which the cells
are arranged in fairly straight cords and run at right angles to the
surface. The last is the zona reticularis, which is a thin layer, with the
cells varying in appearance and the cords of the cells dispersed in all
directions (Ham, 1959).

Functions of the Zones

The zona glomerulosa secretes minerals and corticoids which con-
trol the electrolyte balances of NaCl and Potassium. A primary func-
tion of these mineral-corticoids is to cause the distal tubules of the
kidneys to reabsorb increased quantities of sodium ions. An important
hormone in this zone is aldosterone (Fulton, 1955). A deficiency of
aldosterone causes Addison’s disease in which sodium is lost from the
body into the urine and potassium accumulates in the blood.
Eisenstein (1957) showed that rats fed a sodium deficient diet gained
weight slowly and that a marked adrenal hypertrophy occured in
sodium restricted rats, while the potassium level became elevated and
the other steroid secretions occurred at a relatively low rate, with an
increased amount of aldosteroids being secreted on this sodium
deficient diet.

The zona fasciculata secretes the gluco-corticoids, whose function
is not entirely understood. However, it is known that they affect
protein, fat and glucose metabolism. Metabolic systems become
greatly deranged when gluco-corticoids are absent from the body,
and one becomes unable to resist almost any traumatic or diseased

SMITMSONIAIN
SNsTiTUTION JUL 1 8 1961

2 Gene V. Palmer and Wm. G. Downs, Jr. -

condition that tends to destroy tissues. An administration of gluco-
corticoids causes an increased amount of amino acids in the extra-
cellular fluid and an increased utilization of these acids. These hor-
mones which include hydrocortisone, the principal one, increase the
rate of utilization of amino acids to provide energy or to repair
damaged tissue. (Gray, 1950) Gluco-corticoids also mobilize fat
from fat cells, which along with amino acids in the blood stream,
cause the liver to convert this fat into glucose. This function maintains
the blood glucose concentration high during starvation and provides
adequate nutrition for neuronal cells which can only use glucose for
energy. Hydrocortisons also exerts an inhibitory effect on allergic
phenonema. Pantothenic acid has been found to be necessary for the
function of the adrenal cortex (Fulton, 1955).

The third group of steroid hormones secreted by the zona reticularis
are the sex hormones. These cells secrete the hormones necessary for
lactation and increased sexual activity. The class of secreted hormones
belong to the 17-ketosteroids which include the principal ones estrone
and progesterone (Selye, 1951; 1954a).

Since this paper deals with effects of stress on the other two zones,
the zona reticularis will be touched on only in passing.

ACTH

According to Chah Hao Li (1951) ACTH is a protein hormone,
which has a molecular weight of 20,000, a pH of 4.7, consists of a
polypeptide chain with an alanine residue as the end group, is
resistant to heat, remains active after pepsin or acid digestion, and is
soluble in water. ACTH is secreted by the anterior lobe of the
pituitary and causes the adrenal gland to secrete its hormones. It
produces glycosuria in normal rats which are fed a high carbohydrate
diet, it inhibits the action of insulin, and promotes glycogen storage.
As to the manner of the secretion of the adrenal cortex there is no
certain knowledge. It is known that an increased rate of secretion
of at least the 11-oxy-adrenal cortical steroids is only possible following
a release of ACTH. There is evidence that ACTH is highly effective
in alleviating a number of clinical disorders, such as rheumatic fever,
arthriits, and allergies. Long (1951) states that probably adrenalin
stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH. This is generally
accepted to be true.

Deane (1951) suggests that the zona glomerulose is not under
the influence of the anterior pituitary, but is under humoral control.
As his experiments were carried out on rats it is still believed that the
zona glomerulosa in the human is stimulated by ACTH. We are
inclined to believe that the same mechanism exists in the rat.

Response of the Adrenal Cortex to Stress in Rats 3

Effect of Steroids in Relation to Stress

In a variety of infections a depletion of lipoid or a change in the
lipoid pattern of the adrenal cortex is common (Anderson, 1957). The
cells of the glomerulosa and the fasciculata multiply and enlarge when
stimulated. The fat droplets become small and during moderate stress
they increase in number. If the infection is very severe the fat
droplets disappear. The secretory reserve may be impaired by a
sudden maximal infection (Deane, 1951). There are also histological
changes when there is severe shock. These changes are paralleled by
a lipoid exhaustion of the gland, which has been stimulated to meet
excessive immediate requirements of the body tissue for cortical
secretion (Anderson, 1957).

Gray (1950) found that ACTH is always produced by an organism
in response to stress or injury and that it plays a master role in the
body’s defense mechanism. It is also known that mental or emotional
upset is just as truly an injury to the body as a fracture or disease.
If ACTH is administered to patients without adrenals, it has no effect
on stress, it acts only through the adrenal cortex.

Pregnant women who have arthritis will cease to have this ailment
until after delivery when it will reappear. The same holds true for
jaundice. Knowing that under other conditions of stress, such as
those imposed by anesthesia, surgical operations and bacterial in-
vasions, the adrenals would hapidly increase their secretions, the
Mayo Clinic tested the effect of ACTH on rheumatic patients and
found that it relieved them as long as the injections continued, but
the patient returned to his prior state as soon as the injections were
stopped. It has also been found to alleviate symptoms of pneumonia,
chronic alcoholism, rheumatic fever and tuberculosis.

Selye (1954a, 1954b) found that the body responds in the same
general way to a variety of injuries, cold exposure, burns, fractures,
infections, poison, terror, and other emotional traumas. The phy-
siological response of a healthy animal is marked by three stages.
(Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome). 1. Alarm reaction (changes
in blood pressure and leucocyte count). 2. Resistance stage (the
symptoms decline but the body is extraordinarily sensitive to other
damage). If stage 2 is successful the animal recovers, if not, then
stage 3 appears. 3. Exhaustion stage (body loses its capacity for
defensive reaction and dies). When the cortex is defective the alarm
reaction is feeble, when the adrenals are removed resistence to stress
stops and the animal soon dies, thus the adrenal cortex can both cause
and cure a disease.

In a new-born infant the adrenals do not mature for five days (or

=

4 Gene V. Palmer and Wm. G. Downs, Jr.

longer) and thus the newborn child is extremely susceptible to
disease.

ACTH will remove the symptoms of tuberculosis and pneumonia,
but the microorganisms may still remain in the patient, and some
forms of cancer will yield, at least temporarily, to the influence of
ACTH.

Duodenal ulcers were thought to be caused by an abnormal
hypersecretion of gastric juice of nervous origin, but Dragstedt found
that physical and mental stress increased the liberation of ACTH,
which effected the liberation of cortisone, stimulating gastric secretion,
and this in turn caused duodenal ulcers. This is an example of the
harmful effects displayed by mental activity on ACTH.

Some specific stress may influence synthetic mechanisms concerned
with the elaboration of the adrenal center in such a way that the
gland will secrete increased quantities of an individual hormone
(Evans, Simpson, and Evers, 1958).

Selye demonstrated that ACTH or cortisone, and other gluco-
corticoids when given at highly toxic levels, will usually cause death
as a direct result of uncurbed bacterial proliferation. Thus, injections
may re-activate dormant pulmonary tuberculosis. We have found that
it is difficult to cause shock with even very large doses of ACTH.

ACTH is also effective in conditions such as glaucoma, hepatitis,
and liver cirrhosis, but may produce harmful effects in conditions
which include acne, diabetes, and heart failure (Selye, 1954b).
ACTH can also cause muscle hypertrophy and local damage when
administered to combat systemic stress.

Salt loading is also considered a type of stress, and can cause
renal and cardiovascular damages. This may be true even when both
kidneys are in a healthy state. Adrenal cortical insufficiency will
ameliorate this damage even when the intake of salt is constant.
Pathology and elevation of blood pressure were found to occur among
adrenalectomized, salt-loaded rats. The zona glomerulosa was found
to be depleted of its lipoids in response to the heavy NaCl load. The
cells of the zona fasciculate were completely filled with lipoid
material, while those of the zona reticularis contained rather less
lipid material. Adrenal cortical hormones were found by Crane and
Ingle (1959) to play a supporting role in the etiology of most experi-
mental and clinical cardiovascular diseases. One principal mechanism
whereby adrenal steroids support the toxicity of high salt loads is
by Na retaining action and related actions causing electrolyte im-
balances. 2

Share (1958) demonstrated that potassium loss and sodium

Response of the Adrenal Cortex to Stress in Rats 5

retention follow severe injury (in the rat) in the absence of the cortex.
Following bone fracture in the rat there is an increased adrenocortical
activity. It has been shown that the catabolic effect of ACTH can
be inhibited by a diet rich in KCL. Also, the diabetes promoting
action of ACTH is similarly suppressed by an excessive potassium
intake (Selye, 1954b).

ACTH has a rather clear-cut effect on the leucocytes, during or
after stress. Polak (1958) indicated that after administration of ACTH
there was an increase in human leukocyte motility. Dougherty (1951)
showed that adrenalectomy exposed an unknown stress effect, resulting
in an enlargement of the lymphatic organs after administration of
histamine, anaphylaxis, and starvation. We, also, have found this to
be true. There was an increased number of circulating lymphocytes
in the blood 8-12 hours after stress was applied. Lymphocytes, accord-
ing to Dougherty and White (1944), are under the control of the
anterior pituitary, but granulocytes are not. These granulocytes are
controlled, or affected, by the adrenal cortex. Experiments by Porter
(1953) showed that lymphocyte responses in mice indicated that
lesions in the posterior hypothalamus abolish the ACTH response to
stress. Lymphopenia was shown to exist as a result of hyperactivity
of adrenocortical hormones, exposure to heat and cold extremes,
starvation and epinephrine. Ones these effects are reversed there is an
increase in lymphocytes. It is believed that cortical hormones cause
a lymphocytolysis in tissues and inhibit mitosis. Most of these effects
have been verified in this laboratory (Benson and Downs, 1960, Downs
and Benson, 1960a, 1960b).

If an overwhelming stress is applied, the lymphopenic response
may be abolished. Dougherty and White (1944) believe that lym-
phopenia is a specific function of the anterior pituitary mediated
through the cortex.

ACTH also has a marked effect on eosinophils and other granulo-
cytes (Cowie et al, 1954; Loutch and Emlen, 1951). Injections of
ACTH and glyconeogenic cortical extract showed that there was an
increase in granulocytes. Jakolison (1954) showed that eosinopenia
was present after the injection of 11-Oxycorticosteroids. In adrenal-
ectomized animals only an insignificant rise in eosinophil count was
found. Also prolonged cold stress resulted in a significant eosinophilia,
but Loutch et. al (1951) showed that prolonged cold stress showed
a consistently lower cell count than normal. Experiments by Cowie
(1954) with adrenalectomized dogs showed that following administra-
tion of ACTH, the eosinophil count was lowered. Henneman (1949),
advancing the work of Cowie, showed that the decrease in eosinophil

6 Gene V. Palmer and Wm. G. Downs, Jr.

count occured 3-5 hours after ACTH injections. This was confirmed by
Randolph (1944). We have noted the same phenomenon. In hypo-
physectomized animals, stress and epinephrine produced a decrease
of 40-50% in circulating eosinophils (Randolph, op. cit.) An anesthetic
dose of sodium pentabarbital significantly decreased the ACTH blood
level causing the animals to return to normal more quickly. Van Dyke
(1954) from their experiments, believed that bone-marrow activity is
under direct control of the anterior pituitary and not mediated through
the adrenal cortex. Sawyer and Perkerson (1953) showed that
formalin causes eosinopenia in 4 hours.

Smith and Bern (1958) discovered that the zona reticularis of
ovariectomized mice will secrete sufficient quantities of estrogen and
progesterone to account for noticeable lobuloalveolar development.
The reticularis also secretes enough hormone for maintenance of hy-
perplastic alveolar nodules of the mammary gland.

High blood levels of the adrenal cortical hormones act to inhibit
the secretion of ACTH. The hypothalamus, acting on the pituitary,
may be the site of steroid inhibition. The steroid feedback mechanism
regulating ACTH release is, in part at least, due to blocking the
production of a cerebral structure, presumably the hypothalamus of
the pituitary stimulating material (Benson and Downs, 1960).

Experimental Methods

Animals used were inbred albino rats of the “Tec 1” strain, origi-
nally hybrid between Wistar and Sprague-Dawley strains. All animals
were young (12-15 weeks), of both sexes, but largely females. All were
fasted a full 24 hours before experimentation but had an adequate
supply of water. In similar diurnal periods, initial total and differential
leucocyte counts were made, blood being taken from the tail-vein,
with the first drop discarded. The method of blood-counting was the
same consistently used in the laboratory with excellent results. In it
the total and differential count is made on the same specimen, and
the propylene-glycol methylene-blue and phloxine method is followed.
Immediately after this initial count, the animal is injected with the
desired dosage (in this case graded doses of protamine zinc insulin
or ACTH). At regular intervals—hourly or two-hour—counts are again
made until time of sacrifice. Animals are sacrificed at regular two
hour intervals after injection.

At sacrifice, a total and differential leoucocyte count is made on
heart-blood, the animals are autopsied, any variations from normal
being noted, and pituitary, adrenals, spleen, thymus, and femurs are
immediately fixed in formol-Zenkers for 24 hours. Soft tissues are

Response of the Adrenal Cortex to Stress in Rats fi

then carried through the usual embedding techniques and _ stained
by a variety of cytological methods for study. Femurs are decalcified
before embedding and staining. For details of these techniques the
reader is referred to the work of Ashburn and Downs (1961) on the
pituitary and to Downs and Benson (1960a) on the leucocytogenic
organs. The adrenals, the basis of the present report, were stained
with hematoxylin and eosin and with Harris’ hematoxylin and Gomori’s
trichrome stain.

Adrenals from 14 female and nine male rats were included in the
present study, although more than a hundred are included in the
overall study. Data on the effects of age, sex, weight, dosage, etc. are
on file, and have been reported elsewhere (Downs and Benson, 1960a
and 1960b) as have the studies of the effects of insulin-stress on the
pituitary (Ashburn and Downs 1961).

Results

Consistently, with even quite small doses of insulin, there are
characteristic changes in the cells of the adrenal cortex. These are
progressively more clear-cut with increasing dosage. With even quite
small doses, i.e. 0.2 to 0.4 units/100 gms. body weight, interstitial
spaces may be seen between columns of cells, and even adjoining
cells. This condition is more positive as dosage is increased, and is
most apparent in the zona reticularis, zona fasiculata less so, and
glomerulosa rarely so, and then slightly, even with large doses (1 unit
to 1.4 units/100 gms). It is also more apparent as the time-interval
after injection increases. In approximately the same degrees, the
individual cells of the zona reticularis appear larger and “swollen”
looking and nearly or completely devoid of cytoplasm, except for a
spidery reticular structure. This appearance is interpreted as being
due to a comparative or complete loss of lipids (in proportion to
dosage).

The response of the cortical cells to ACTH was somewhat similar
to, but not identical with that of insulin. One notable difference lies
in the lessened response to increased dosage. It was very nearly
impossible to throw our animals into shock with even very large doses
of ACTH, while many animals will go into shock with as little as
0.6 units of insulin/100gms. The same changes occurred in the
reticularis as with insulin, though in lesser degree, while cells of the
zona glomerulosa did not seem to respond at all to even quite large
doses of ACTH. This would seem to confirm the findings of Chah Hao
Li that this zone is not affected by ACTH in rats. The zona fasciculata
still did not respond to as great a degree as the reticularis, but did

8 Gene V. Palmer and Wm. G. Downs, Jr.

show proportionately more change than was true in the insulin injected
rats.

In both types of treatment the leucocytes showed a fairly char-
acteristic response, more marked with insulin than with ACTH, as the
stress agent. There is usually an initial sharp fall in the total count,
followed at varying periods by a slow or rapid increase, frequently
well above normal levels, with a gradual return to normal, requiring
perhaps 24 hours or more. Immediately the lymphocyte count falls,
in larger dosages to a very low level, while there is a coincident
rise in the heterophil (neutorphil) count. This is usually an absolute
as well as a relative change (Ashburn and Downs, 1961; Downs and
Benson, 1960a, 1960b).

Additional work on the effects of hypothalamic lesions and stimula-
tion by one of our group (Benson and Downs, 1960) indicates that
the entire series of changes is mediated through the hypothalamic-
hypophyseal-adrenocortical axis. Consistently, there is a close correla-
tion between reactions in the leucocyte count, and observable his-
tological changes in the adrenal cortex. In this same series of animals,
we have found parallel changes in, at least the three types of basophils
in the anterior pituitary.

Conclusions

When the normal albino rat is injected with insulin or ACTH,
there are characteristic changes in the adrenal cortex, primarily being
depletion of the lipid (and hormone) content of the cells of the zona
fasciculata and reticularis, frequently in larger doses, to the point of
complete exhaustion. Coincident with these changes are consistent
and characteristic changes, in the differential leucocyte count, in which
lymphopenia and heterophilia are most marked. Parallel changes in
the anterior pituitary accompany these phenomena (Ashburn and
Downs, 1961). This series of effects is interpreted as a part of the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) of Selye, and are believed to
be mediated by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-adrenocortical axis.

These studies are still in progress, and similar methods are being
utilized for a study of the effects of radiation stress on rats.

Literature Cited

Anderson, W. A. D., 1957. Pathology, C. V. Mosby Co. 8rd ed., p. 1019.

Ashburn, Allen D. and Downs, Wm. G. Jr. ,1961. “An analysis of the basophil
cells of the anterior pituitary in the rat, and their response to insulin stress.”
Jour. Tenn. Acad. Sci., vol. 36 (1) (In press).

Benson, Bryant and Downs, Wm. G. Jr., 1960. “The influence of hypothalamic
lesions and electrical stimulations on the total and differential leukocyte
count.” Anat. Rec. 137:851.

Response of the Adrenal Cortex to Stress in Rats 9

Chah Hao Li, 1951. “Recent knowledge on the nature of hypophyseal ACTH.”
Pituitary and Adrenal Functions (Symposium ed. by Ruth C. Christman)
AAAS, p. 5.

Cowie, A. T., et. al. 1954. “The eosinophile response to graded doses of
hydrocortisone in adrenalectomized dogs, with and without surgical trauma.”
Endocrinology 55:745.

Crane, W. A. and Ingle, D. J. “Pathogenic effects of salt loading in the presence
and absence of adrenal glands.” Endocrinology 65:693.

Deane, Helen W. 1951. “Physiological regulation of the zona glomerulosa of the
rat’s adrenal cortex as revealed by cytochemical observations.” Pituitary and
Adrenal Functions (Symposium ed. by Ruth Christman) AAAS, p. 31.

. 1951. “Influence of stress stimuli on lymphatic tissue of adrenalectom-
ized mice.” Endocrinology 45:691.
and White, A., 1944. “Influence of hormones on lymphoid tissue
structure and function: the role of the pituitary adrenotrophic hormone on
the regulation of the lymphocytes and other cellular elements of the blood.”
Endocrinology 35:1.

Downs, Wm. G. Jr., and Benson, Bryant. 1960a. “A study of the leucocytes in
rats under insulin stress.” Jour. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 35:186.

——_—____ and —_______,_ 1960b. “Effects of insulin on leucocytogenesis.”
Anat. Rec. 137:351.

Eisenstein, Albert B. 1957. “Effects of dietary factors on production of adrenal
steroid hormones.” Am. Jour. Clin. Nutrition 5:369.

Evans, Edward S., Simpson, Miriam E. and Evans, Herbert M. 1958. “The role
of the growth hormone in colonigenesis.” Endocrinology 63:794.

Fulton, John F. 1955. A text-book of physiology, 17th ed. W. B. Saunders Co.
p. 1166 (Section by Jane A. Russell)

Gray, G. W. 1950. “Cortisone and ACTH.” Scientific American, 182:30.

Ham, Arthur C. 1959. “The adrenal glands.” Histology, 3rd ed. Lippincott Co.,
p. 780.

Henneman, P. H. et. al. 1949. “A comparison of eosin-acetone and phloxine-
propylene glycol solvents in eosinophil counts.” Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med.
34:1017.

Jakolison, T. 1954. “Studies on the endocrine regulation of the number of
circulating eosinophil cells in the rat.” Acta Endocrinologica. 15:265.

Long, C. N. H., 1951. “Factors regulating the adrenal cortical secretion.”
Pituitary and Adrenal Functions (ed. by Ruth Christman), p. 24.

Loutch, C. Meyer, R. K. and Emlen, J. F. 1951. “Effect of stress on diurnal
fluctuations in eosinophils of the laboratory mouse.” Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol.
and Med. 82:668.

Porter, R. W. 1953. “Hypothalamic involvement in the pituitary-adrenocortical
response to stress-stimuli.” Amer. Jour. Physiol. 172:515.

Randolph, R. G. 1944. “Eosinophil observations in ACTH.” Jour. Allergy.
15:89.

Sawyer, Charles H. and Parkerson, G. R. Jr. 1953. “Mechanisms of partial
blockage of stress response in rats by dibernamine analogues.” Stress 52:346.

Selye, Hans. 1951. “The influence of STH, ACTH and cortisone on resistance to
infection.” Jour. Canada Med. Ass’n. 64:459.

1954a. “Conditioning versus ‘permissive’ actions of hormones.” Jour.
Clin. Endocrin. and Metab. 14:122.

1954b. “Sketch for a unified theory of medicine.” Internat. Rec.
Med. 167:181.

10 Gene V. Palmer and Wm. G. Downs, Jr.

Share, Leonard. 1958. “Alternations in sodium and potassium metabolism
following hind leg fracture in the rat; role of adrenal cortex.” Endocrinology.
62:

Smith, Howard and Bern, Howard. 1958. “Effect of age at ovariectomy on
mammary gland development in caged mice.” Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. and
Med. 99:95.

Van Dyke, D. C. 1954. “Hormonal factors influencing erythropoiesis.” Acta
Haemat. 11:208.

FOSSIL LAND SNAILS FROM THE LOESS
AT VICKSBURG, MISSISSIPPI

JAMES E. CONKIN and BARBARA M. CONKIN
University of Louisville

Abstract
Two species of land snails, Gastrocopta corticaria and Hawaiia
minuscula, along with a fragmentary specimen of a third species,
PPraticolella berlandieriana, are reported for the first time from the
loess at Vicksburg. The snail fauna of the upper 30 feet of the loess
permits an age assignment within the post-Bradyan portion of the
Wisconsinan Stage of the Pleistocone.

Introduction
The upper part of the loess at Vicksburg, Mississippi was masured
at the southeast side of the road cut at the intersection of U.S. High-
ways 80 and Bypass 80, two miles east of Confederate Avenue (Fig. 1).

eo, POSSE

OCA
Or ea. tne eS
MILES
MISSISSIPPI

Fig. 1.— Map of the Vicksburg region.

New information obtained from a study of this section of the Vicks-
burg loess and its associated snail fauna is herein presented.

\

12 James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

Measured Section

Sample Thickness
Feet Inches

1. Soil, dark orange, formed from loess; leached; siltstone casts of

TOOtlets:snoOutOssilesmalls 25. ocsoc coreee cece ea teeee ee eee cae ee 1 (0)
2. Loess, gray-buff, some darker; leached; siltstone casts of rootlets;
THOM POSSI SMALLS pr aneete soci ee sect neces cae tone Meee ee aN Tanai Te eaanetes AC ear ERE 4 0
8. Loess, gray-buff; leached; siltstone casts of rootlets; no fossil snails ....5 0
4. Loess, gray-buff; leached; rare quartz sand; siltstone casts of root-
LEtSs: mOMEOSSHLsSrrailS iso: gcc! oe acaetacaeas oot notes eared eases nae HC earn caer DB @
5. Loess, gray-buff; calcium carbonate present; rare quartz sand; silt-
stone Casts ior rootlets-stossilulamcsmails)cssccrctncesteersceeescseeesescensece tenes i @
6. Loess as in Sample 5, but snail fauna not identical ...............:ccsscceseceere 3 40
“ie \coess’ as) above, but. snail cauna’ not icgenticalin..oy...es: teense pole eeeeee iO
8. loess as! above, but snail fauna not identical ¢..............c...0ccc..se0ceeeesecee Bs 0)
9. Loess as above, but snail fauna not identical ................::..cccccsesscceeseeeee A 6
10. Float derived from overlying loess; calcium carbonate present; silt-

stone casts of rootlets; fossil land snails.
Base of section in loess at road level.
otalethicknessvof measured sectiomiers ctr eee eee 8X0) BS

Snail Fauna

Table 1 shows the occurrence of the snails in samples 5 through 10.
Samples 1 through 4 contained no fossil land snails inasmuch as all
carbonates are leached out of the loess to a depth of 12 feet. This
great depth of leaching of the carbonates is characteristic of the south-
ern loess sections.

Two species of fossil land snails, Gastrocopta corticaria and Ha-
waiia minuscula, and a fragmentary specimen of a third species,
PPraticolella berlandieriana, are recorded for the first time from the
loess at Vicksburg; however, Shimek (1902) listed G. corticaria and

Table 1.— Fossil land snails found in samples 5 through 10.

ITO ZOMG PIOPUN GI ce iercscsonecncreereece eee oncetasesreees
AMUSING NOLECEN ALG Westen conces oe caecee teen nse xX
DESCUSI CP CEULUS asecccete setae Sreneeee sone tse crtts xX
(GasthocoptQCOntiCaniGpeseccss.tess-ccctessnerecceeeees
EVaplOtneMGNCONCAUININ ctaccesncctereeencescessecstee ee:
ELQUWAiiG ANIMUSCULG Memo aeeesecna sees nbesescesccceuccen x
EV CLICIN GOT DICUIALD seereces sree eee rese eee eee
PPraticolella berlandieriand .........:.ccscccsseceeee

RCH NELOMNGENtALGe ee eee reenter X X X
PRETEEN SID are accesses eoterencecuecesseacecacsiee ses tecesers xX

SEENOLTEMa VSLENOUNEING) pirassess-cescaseceseneceeseeese ee XxX

STACTUOUIRELILE. GS] OB | dancoonocececoccacasnoe ee cQON QC oO CODED XxX

Triodopsis (Neohelix) albolabris .........:.c0:00++

MrtOG OPSISIA | ACUICMLG esacscetecscescestecotersorearcaces

DTGOA ODSIS {SP ev bsceecccsec ee cceic ae eee seen eea ceevenve ees

LOM LOIACSHADOTCUS ee ie ea eee XxX

mh
A MMM]
mA

Peta

Amex

Fossil Land Snails from the Loess at Vicksburg 13

H. minuscula from the loess at Natchez (a correlative of the Vicks-
burg loess).

Species of Land Snails Significant in Age Determination

Table 2 shows the occurrence of several species of fossil land
snails in four southern loess sections (Vicksburg and Natchez, Mis-
sissippi; Helena, Arkansas; and Tunica, Louisiana). The similarity be-
tween the faunas at these localities indicates that they may be of the
same, or nearly the same, age.

Of the species herein listed from the loess at Vicksburg (Table 1),
a few are of importance in ascertaining the age of the deposit. These
species are known from the Recent, but only their Pleistocene ranges
are considered here.

Allogona profunda is widespread in the Wisconsinan deposits of
the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio Valleys, and has been reported
from the loess in the Florida Parishes of Louisiana at Tunica (Rich-
ards, 1938).

Anguispira alternata is reported from the Aftonian to the Recent
(Pilsbry, 1940); however, this species is known in the classic Pleisto-
cene sections of Kansas from only the Wisconsinan Bignell loess (Frye
and Leonard, 1952); in Kentucky, the species is known from only the
Wisconsinan Tazewell deposits (Browne and McDonald, 1960).

Table 2.— Occurence of 13 species of fossil land snails in four of the most extensively
studied southern loess sections.

Helena, Natchez, Vicksburg, Tunica,
Arkansas Miss. Miss. (Shimek, Ta’.
(Shimek, (Shimek, 1902, and (Richards,
1917) 1902 ) Richards, 1938 ) 1938 )
PU GZONE PLOFUNG weccsinczoseo-vssacezeseee X X X X
Anguispira alternata .............scse0ccee X X X Xx
PESCIES DALULUS” Seoecscteccvstecasonessensidenac X X X
CGastrocopta COTECGTIO fec.csece---2eese-- Xx xX
Haplotrema concaum ..........c000008 xX Xx X xX
Hawaiia minusculd .........01c0seee X X
Helicina orbictilata ..........00cc000s000000 X X x
H. orbiculata tropicd .........00ce0cceses x
Retinella indentata paucilirata ...... xX X xX X
Stenotrema stenotreMa ......ccceceeee xX xX xX
Triodopsis (Neohelix) albolabris ..... X X X X
DP ATOUETIDO. sneracccsccxsesaxsscorsaseaevseese X X X
Zonitoides ArDOTEUS .........sccceeseceneees xX Xx x X

Triodopsis (Neohelix) albolabris is reported in Kansas from only
the Wisconsinan Bignell loess (Frye and Leonard, 1952).

Helicina orbiculata has been reported from the loess at Natchez,
Mississippi by Richards (1938), Vicksburg (Shimek, 1902), and Tuni-

14 James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

ca, Louisiana (Richards, 1938); this southern loess snail is apparently
restricted to the Wisconsinan. A variety, H. orbiculata tropica, has
been reported from Helena, Arkansas (Shimek, 1917).

Retinella indentata paucilirata has been listed from all four of the
southern loess sections on Table 2; this species is also of late Pleisto-
cene age.

Helicina orbiculata tropica and Retinella indentata, as well as
Praticolella berlandieriana, are known from only Wisconsinan de-
posits. The senior author has collected these species from the Wis-
consinan terrace along the Medio Creek in Bee County, Texas. The
terrace of the Medio Creek probably correlates with the late Wis-
consinan Ingleside Terrace of San Patricio County, Texas (Sellards,
1940). H. orbiculata tropica and P. berlandieriana were also found by
the senior author in the late Wisconsinan deposits overlying the
“Uvalde gravels” at the old Fordyce gravel quarry at Old San Pa-
tricio, San Patricio County, Texas.

Age of the Vicksburg Loess
PREVIOUS OPINION
Leighton and Willman (1950) correlated the loess at Vicksburg
with the Peorian loess in this manner:

“It [the loess at Vicksburg and Natchez] is essentially the same
as the Peorian loess in the upper Mississippi Valley in composition,
topographic position, stratigraphic relations, and general appear-
ance.”

The age and stratigraphic relationship of the Peorian loess was
discussed by Leighton and Willman (1950) as follows:

“The Peorian loess is definitely of Wisconsinan age. It is a mul-
tiple loess in western and southern Illinois and undoubtedly else-
where, being composed primarily of Iowan and Tazewell loesses,
with probably some Cary and possibly some Mankato loess.”

In discussing the age of the Pleistocene deposits in the lower Mis-
sissippi Valley region, Richards (1938) noted in regard to the Tunica
fauna of the Florida Parishes of Louisiana:

“It is very probable that the loess of the lower Mississippi Valley
is of more than one age, possibly having been deposited at various
times from the early Pleistocene to the present; some of the loess
deposits, then, may be quite recent. . . . It does not appear advis-
able to attempt to definitely date the loess deposits of Louisiana
at this time without further study of the fossils from the loess in
Mississippi, Arkansas, and adjacent regions. However, because of

Fossil Land Snails from the Loess at Vicksburg 15

the similarity of its fauna to that of the region today and because
of its position overlying the freshwater fossiliferous silts (Port Hud-
son?), it is probable that the loess in the vicinity of Tunica is of
late Pleistocene age.”

PRESENT OPINION

Allogona profunda and Triodopsis (Neohelix) albolabris are known
to occurr only in post-Bradyan deposits (Caryan-Mankatoan) in the
northern loess sections. The senior author knows of no Pleistocene
deposits older than Wisconsinan in which Helicina orbiculata tropica,
Practicolella berlandieriana, and Retinella indentata occur. H. orbi-
culata tropica and P. berlandieriana are of course restricted to the
southern loess. Although Anguispira alternata has been assigned a
long Pleistocene range by Pilsbry (1940), this species is characteris-
tically a rather late Wisconsinan snail.

Certainly the snail fauna of the upper 30 feet of the Vicksburg loess
as reported here must be late Wisconsinan in age, and most likely
post-Bradyan (Caryan-Mankatoan).

Conclusions

Two species of land snails, Gastrocopta corticaria and Hawaiia
minuscula, along with a possible third species, Practicolella berlandier-
iana, are recorded for the first time from the loess at Vicksburg.

A section of the upper part of the loess shows that the zone of car-
bonate leaching extends downward at least 12 feet.

The snail fauna of the upper 30 feet of the loess at Vicksburg has
closest affinities to the late Wisconsinan (post-Bradyan, Caryan-Man-
katoan ) faunas in the classic Pleistocene sections to the north.

Literature Cited

Browne, R. G. and D. E. McDonald. 1960. Wisconson Molluscan Faunas from
Jefferson County, Kentucky. Bull. Amer. Paleont. 41:165-183.

Frye, J. C. and A. B. Leonard. 1952. Pleistocene Geology of Kansas. Kansas State
Geol. Survey, Bull. 99:144-185.

Leighton, M. N. and H. B. Willman. 1950. Loess formations of the Mississippi
Valley. Jour. Geol. 58:599-623.

Pilsbry, H. A. 1940. Land Snails of North America (North of Mexico). Monograph
No. 3, The Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 1 and 2.

Richards, H. G. 1938. Mollusks from the loess at Tunica, Louisiana. Louisiana
Geol. Surv. Bull. 12:47-58.

Sellards, E. H. 1940. Pleistocene Artifacts and Associated Fossils from Bee Coun-
ty, Texas. Geol. Soc. America, Bull. 51:1627-1658.

Shimek, B. 1902. The loess of Natchez, Mississippi. American Geol. 30:279-299.

. 1917. The loess of Crowley’s Bridge, Arkansas, Iowa Acad. Sci., Proc.

93:147-152.

Accepted for publication 20 October 1960.

SEXUAL CYCLES AND BREEDING SEASONS OF THE GRAY
SQUIRREL, SCIURUS CAROLINENSIS GMELIN

ALFRED BRAUER
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
and
ALBERT DUSING
Park College, Parksville, Mo.

The gray squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis Gmelin, the predominant
squirrel of the southeastern states, presents several problems which
bear investigation. First, there occur biannual breeding cycles which
if observed as to behavior alone appear to be only roughly delineated,
and, which if correlated with anatomical evidence may be more
sharply bounded than they appear. Second, observations that the
adult male, like the female, runs cycles, have been made principally
on the fox squirrel of the North Central States, and should be verified.
Third, the anatomical changes in the male reproductive tract may re-
veal events not yet reported, and fourth, the male and female cycles
require correlation as to stages, and these in turn with pregnancy and
lactation periods.

A limited number of papers bearing on some of the points enumer-
ated are at hand. Dealing with population behavior are the follow-
ing: Chapman, 1929; Brown and Yeager, 1945; Bertram and Gault,
1952. Of these that of Bertram and Gault was made in South Central
Kentucky and deals with the gray squirrel. By trapping and _re-
trapping wild squirrels, questioning hunters and sometimes examining
their takes, a good sample of the population and its behavior was
established. They examined females by vaginal smear and males for
scrotal indication of cyclical periodicity. The studies of Mossman et
al, 1933; Deanesly and Parks, 1933; Allanson, 1983; Mossman, Hoff-
man and Kirkpatrick, 1955, and those of Kirkpatrick, 1955, deal with
histology of reproductive, and accessory reproductive organs through-
out the entire year and therefore through two complete breeding
seasons.

The problem had its inception here on the university campus in
1951 when Gault live-trapped an examined squirrels throughout the
year for information concerning breeding behavior. It was continued
in 1954-1955 when others became interested and remained in progress
till 1958.

Live trapping was practiced in several sites of the campus and then
became centered in a woodlot of the Experiment Station farm, oper-

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel 7,

ated and set aside by the Dept. of Horticulture and Forestry. Trapped
animals were examined at the site of trapping, toe indexed, and
assigned serial numbers. Notations were made of any marks that
might prove useful for establishing identity of the animal when ob-
served with glasses in the wild, or for individuals when retrapped.
Systematic observation of squirrels in the wild was regular procedure.

Materials for histological study were obtained by sacrificing ani-
mals from time to time as judiciously as possible. A considerable num-
ber of squirrels obtained in the earlier part of the study were used and
a number were shot for the purpose in wooded areas other than the
trapping sites. A final portion was autopsy material from caged ani-
mals which were sometimes found in trap or cage in a state of shock.

While the trapping technique was considered most feasible origi-
nally, it was also expected that caged animals could be utilized for
limited experimentation. This proved futuile. Squirrels caged in small
animal cages lived only from 24 to 48 hours. In large cages, 6’ x 6’ x 4’,
built for the purpose and set up in the woods, equipped with facilities
for play and exercise, they lived for a week to 12 days. Such animals
at first seemed to accept confinement, ate and played, then passed into
a state of shock and died.

Handling of animals after capture for making vaginal smears or
other examination was accomplished by frightening the animal from
the rectangular trap into a chicken wire cone placed over its entrance.
At the small end of the cone a sizable wad of cotton was placed. As
the animal scurried from the trap into the cone and buried its head in
the cotton the cone was constricted behind it to give but little room
for the animal to squirm. After examination it was released near the
site of capture.

The experience of entering a trap and subsequent treatment did
not seem to deter squirrels from entering a trap again and again. While
a considerable number were caught but once, others became regular
visitors. Two were taken seven times each.

Many animals captured were juvenile. These were distinguished
by criteria given in Table 1. All male juveniles had abdominal testes
and females gave anoestrus smears.

Adult male squirrels were examined with attention given to scro-
tum and testicular position. A darkly pigmented scrotum relatively
free from hair and containing testes is indicative of sexual maturity
and breeding condition. One covered by abdominal hair and shrunk-
en, indicates sexual quiescence. Testes are described as being ab-
dominal, inguinal, or scrotal in position.

In the female, a red, turgid vulva is indicative of oestrus. Mam-

18 Alfred Brauer and Albert Dusing

Table 1.— Criteria for distinguishing between adult and juvenile gray squirrels by external
examination (adapted from Brown and Yeager, 1945).

ADULTS JUVENILES

Males
Ventral surface and posterior Posterior end of scrotum with
end of scrotum blackened smooth skin, brown to black,
and generally free fro hair free from hair

Females
Mammary glands _ enlarged Teats inconspicuous, more or
and prominent; not hidden less hidden by hair
by hair

Males and Females

Tail nearly rectangular, block Tail pointed, triangular; sides
shaped; sides parallel or not parallel
nearly so

In addition to the criteria given above the juveniles of both sexes were smaller
in size and the tails appeared less bushy.

mary glands with well developed nipples and sometimes covered by
surrounding hair indicate late pregnancy or lactation. Milk can be
squeezed from the teats of a lactating female by gently kneading them.
In late term pregnant females the foetuses may be palpated. Vaginal
smears were made from each female by introducing, and then with-
drawing, approximately 1 ml. of normal saline from the vagina with
a pipette. This was spread on slides and dried at the trapping site.
The slides were taken to the laboratory for staining and examination.

This study was made possible by a grant (S-52-2) from the Na-
tional Academy of Science, National Research Council to whom we
express gratitude.

We gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of former students,
William L. Gault, Edwin Dale, and William Valleau; to Dr. O. F.
Edwards, Dept. of Bacteriology for photomicrographs, and recognize
our indebtedness to the late Professor A. J. Olney and Dr. C. M.
Davenport of the Department of Horticulture and Forestry for mak-
ing the Experiment Station woods available to us.

Examination of Males

During the course of study 42 adult males were trapped and
examined a total of 144 times. Table 2 shows the percent of examina-
tions made per month for each of three testicular positions, abdominal,
inguinal, and scrotal. It may be noted that some of the examinations
made during September, October, or November, showed testes in
scrotal position. There was a decline in the ratio of scrotal testes dur-
ing March, and August, and an increase in the months of May and
December. Curve peaks for scrotal testes were reached in January

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel 19

Table 2.— Number and percentage of examinations per month showing various
testicular positions.

Position of Testes

Month Abdominal % Inguinal Jo Scrotal %o Total
Jan. 2 18 tS) 82 fal
Feb. 3 23 10 77 13
Mar. tf 44 6 87.5 3 19 16
Apr. 8 73 2 18 1 9 Il
May 8 50 6 87.5 2 12.5 16
June 4 MIDAS) 15 47 13 42 32
July 3 Ti 3 Pat 5 55 Wat
Aug. 2 40 2 40 U 20 5
Sept. 7 100 i
Oct. if 87.5 1 LOS 8
Nov. 5 83 i 7/ 6
Dec. 8 42 4 57 7
Total 51 47 45 143

and July. A further demonstration of this is exhibited in Fig. 2, where
the percentages of examinations per month are charted.

Additional evidence of this cyclic change of the male was demon-
strated by the trapping history of two individuals recaptured three
times during February and in all three examinations testicular position
was scrotal. On March 25, the testes of this squirrel were inguinal,
and by April 14, had ascended into the abdominal cavity, and were
also abdominal on April 28. On June 22 the testes were again scrotal.

Male No. 36 had scrotal testes, on June 5, and 15, inguinal, on July
10, abdominal, on August 13, and Sept. 16, scrotal, Dec. 26, 1956, and
abdominal again on March 15, 1957.

From the protocol records squirrels taken and sacrificed for his-
tological study the following data were obtained: Testes in scrotal
position came from squirrels sacrificed Jan. 16, March 21, June 25,
Nov. 19 and 28, Dec. 10 and 31. The seminiferous tubules were well
developed and large; germ cells of all categories including spermatozoa
in abundance were present; maturation was in progress; interstitial
cells were large, closely packed and in all respects the glands were
those of rodents in breeding condition Fig. 1-1).

A scrotal testis showing different histologic form was one taken
March 21, or near the close of the breeding season. Subsequently an-
other in the same condition was obtained from an animal sacrificed
July 28. The testis was less turgid than one in breeding condition and
the scrotum not as heavily pigmented. The tubules contained the
debris of degenerating germinal epithelium, namely speratids and
secondary spermatocytes. Spermatozoa were no longer identifiable.
Primary spermatocytes were still present in the attached epithelium
but obviously in degeneration (Fig. 3).

20 Alfred Brauer and Albert Dusing

Squirrels with abdominal testes were sacrificed Oct. 16 (2 speci-
ments), Sept. 1, Nov. 19, and Dec. 10.

The seminiferous tubules of these ranged from large, containing
proliferating spermatogonia (1 specimen), to small, shrunken, cord-
like structures with almost no lumina. Within the interstitial cell ag-

5

Figure 1.

Section of scrotal, breeding, testis.

Section of scrotal testis post-breeding condition.

Abdominal, cryptorchid testis.

Section of abdominal testis in recovery.

Inguinal testis, ascending, following section 2. —

Inguinal testis, descending, following section 4, showing recovery
of germinal epithelium.

Cony SS CoS)

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel 21

Abdominal) (=). ==2—5,

inguinal ‘adele ea, a atek ia
loo Scrota! a ee

Jor eM OA Mo od OA SD ON UDUlUd
MONTHS

Figure 2.— Seasonal trends of testicular positions from numbers given in Table 2.

gregations individual cells were smaller than those of scrotal testes.
The cords stained predominantly with eosin due to much connective
tissue present and lack of DNA in the nuclei (Fig. 1-3).

One specimen brought to the laboratory Nov. 22, appeared typical
for a squirrel of October or early November in sexual quiescence. The
scrotum was shrunken, wrinkled, and covered by abdominal hair. The
animal, sacrificed while in a virtual state of coma from nothing more
than 14 hours confinement apparently, had abdominal testes in which
abundant repair was in progress. The tubules were about two thirds
enlarged, spermatogonial division was taking place and Sertoli cells
were plentiful and enlarged. Interstitial cells were practically normal
and staining was sharply differential. All of this repair was in progress
before the testes had begun their descent (Fig. 1-4).

Inguinal Testes:—Obviously two opposing pictures were presented
by these, namely, those with descending testes developing progres-
sively, and those with receding testicles undergoing regressive change
toward cryptorchism. With descent of the glands to the scrotum the

22 Alfred Brauer and Albert Dusing
Stages other than
dioestrus ———————_—_
100 Dioestrusec > oe ice
Pregnancy ——-——-—-—
90 05,
80

~J
2)

EXAMINATIONS
°

50

40

. 30
©

10

J Fo M<Ai Md od AS” OUND Ome

MONTHS

Figure 3.— Seasonal trends of females from analyses of vaginal smears, solid black line
showing female breeding potential.

latter showed simultaneous changes in that it became rounded out
from its former wrinkled state, showed progressive pigmentation and
was shiny. Surrounding abdominal hair no longer covered it com-
pletely; its caudal end became somewhat pendent. The testes while
still in the inguina became enlarged almost to the size of scrotal, breed-
ing testes; seminiferous tubules contained germ cells of all categories
including a few spermatozoa and maturation of spermatocytes was in
progress (Fig. 1-5).

Inguinal testes in early recession were enlarged over scrotal testes
of mid breeding season but were flaccid. The tubular lumina were
large and contained mucous-like substance and debris of spermatozoa,
spermatids, secondary and primary spermatocytes. The tubular walls
were thin containing only spermatogonia, some pyknotic primary sper-
matocytes and Sertoli cells. Advancing nuclear breakdown was re-
flected in the lack of staining capacity and differential contrast in pho-
tomicrographs. Regressive testes sectioned were made from squirrels

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel 23

taken March 24 and 28, April 4, Aug. 1 and 16. Progressive testes sec-
tioned were taken from animals taken May 3, and 28, Oct. 21, Nov.
29 (Fig. 1-6).

Examination of Females
Forty-one females were examined 142 times. Vaginal smears made
in these examinations showed two activity periods in the female cycle.
Table 8 lists the results of the examinations. The first column of Table
3 gives the number of smears showing stages other than dioestrus. A

Table 3.— Number and percentage of examinations per month showing females in
various stages of the breeding cycle.

Month Diostrus % Others Jo Pregnant To Lactating % Total
Jan. 3 18 9 82 12
Feb. 5 36 8 ‘Syl 1 i 14
Mar. 2, 15 2 15 6 46 3 23 13
Apr. 3 3 1 8 rk 54 2 15 13
May NW) Dil 83 14 3 14 3 14 PAL
June iat 52 9 42,5 1 5 21
July 3 37.5 D 62.5 8
Aug. 1 25 3 (5) 4
Sept. 1 ily if 17 4 67 6
Oct. 10 Wal 2, 14 22 14 14
Nov. 5 100 5
Dec. 9 82 2 18 ey
Total 65 39 23 15 142

female in proestrus was regarded as approaching breeding stage, and
one in metoestrus as just having passed it.

It may be noted that peaks of the female breading season were
attained in January, and July (Fig. 3, and Table 3). Pregnancy peaks
were attained in April and August, and lactation peaks in March and
September. Females listed as pregnant were in mid, or late stages of
gestation in which foetuses could be palpated. Fig. 3, shows the per-
centages per month for breeding, non-breeding, pregnancy, and lac-
tation.

Data concerning the duration of stages of the oestrus cycle are
available from only one animal (Fig. 1-8). She was captured June 19
in oestrus, June 21 in metoestrus, and June 23 in dioestrus.

Information regarding the length of gestation comes from one
female also. On June 17 the animal was in oestrus. She was released
and presumably was the pursued squirrel of a chase in that area which
lasted through the following day. Taken again August 4, she was in
lactation while the nipples and hair around the mammae indicated
recent parturition. The elapsed time was 45 days.

24 Alfred Brauer and Albert Dusing

One female is known to have given birth to two litters within a
year. She was taken on March 1, in oestrus, was recaptured April 22
and was lactating. The same animal was taken Sept. 20, and was
again lactating.

Histological examinations were made of the ovaries of 13 adult
females. Many “egg-nests” and primary follicles appeared in all.
Oddly, mature or maturing follicles were found in ovaries of all ex-
amined except one each for January and December. The larger num-
bers of mature follicles were found in individuals taken during March
and November. Corpora lutea of recent formation were found in all
mature ovaries examined except those of March, November, and late
December. Corpora lutea of advanced development, some showing
early stages of atresia were likewise found in a large number of ovaries
examined but data showed no definite pattern of frequency. Speci-
mens showing advanced follicles in considerable numbers were those
of February and September.

Mallemicyicl@ se uee perso
90 Female cycle
Mating chas€é 0 0 © o

sj
Oo

PCT. EXAMINATIONS

SR OM a Ned i AS) 0: Nie
MONTHS

Figure 4.— Seasonal cycles of males and females superinmposed on chart of breeding
performance as indicated by mating chases observed by the month,

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel 25

Breeding Seasons

The most practicable method of determining actual breeding sea-
sons is by observation of mating chases and noting their frequency
and occurence. This prenuptial exhibit precedes copulation by 114
to three days and occurs when a particular female is approaching
oestrus and males are in breeding condition. Care must be exercised
in distinguishing true chases from simulated ones of short duration
practiced by maturing animals.

Chases recorded here were separate ones and each was undoubtedly
genuine. They occurred as follows: Dec. 15, 26; Jan. 1, 8, 12, 14, 26
(two chases); Feb. 14, 26; Mar. 28; June 16, 26; July 4, 10, 16, 26
(Fig. 4).

Development of Young

A pregnant female frequenting her presumed den in a walnut tree
was kept under observation and was known to have undergone par-
turition between March 17 and 19. She and den were kept under
surveillance. On May 1, two young were seen in the den entrance
and on May 5 the two young were observed on a limb near the den
entrance. Each of their movements seemed carefully measured and
their grasps on the limb very secure. The following week, May 14,
the young were accompanied by a third, which apparently had re-
mained in the nest longer than the two, and which undoubtedly was
a third litter mate. On that occasion they had developed considerable
alacrity in running out on the limb and back to the nest. They were
first seen on the ground May 29, or 45 days after birth. They con-
tinued to remain near the tree until late in July, after which they
remained together but no longer returned to the den. Their identiy
was lost after the following February.

Another litter of four was kept under observation from the time
they were first seen on the ground, May 25, till December of that year.
They were observed on numerous occasions in sexual play throughout
November and early December. They were not identified after De-
cember 16.

Discussion

Factors taken into account in the determination of sexual cycles
are: a) In the male, testicular positions with reference to abdomen
and scrotum between which the testes descend and ascend seasonally;
b) condition or appearance of scrotum; and c) histological pictures
of testes during progression and regression. In the female the factors
are: a) Vaginal smears; b) histological sections of the ovary; c)
pregnancy and lactation periods.

26 Alfred Brauer and Albert Dusing

The correlation of these factors determine the breeding seasons
as two, annually. The first of these is the winter season, December
and January, the second, from mid June through July. They are about
eqaul in length and percentage of population involved.

Other workers, Allen, Brown & Yeager, and Bertram & Gault (op.
cit.) have also observed two such annual seasons corresponding closely
to those established here. Possibly the cycles of squirrels in Michigan,
Ohio, and Illinois, made predominantly from records of fox squirrels,
attained their seasonal peaks slightly later. The determinations by
Bertram and Gault, for gray squirrels, are almost identical with those
established here excepting that their higher peak was that of the sum-
mer while here the winter peak is insignificantly higher.

Seasonal overlap is especially marked from February through
April. Some workers, Deanesly and Parks (1933), and Allanson
(1933), recognized only one annual season for gray squirrels of Eng-
land, namely spring-summer. Their works were almost entirely his-
tological in which captured animals were brought to the laboratory
were sacrificed forthwith and the material prepared. Thus the ma-
terial from an individual gave but one view of an isolated case. In
observations on females they failed to see the sharply delineated
stages of the oestrus cycle shown by vaginal smears and which are but
feebly indicated by the ovary alone. Vaginal smears and ovarian sec-
tions taken together however interpret each other. The coincidence
of the seasonal dioestrum of the female and the long period of
cryptorchism of the male make the very nature of sexual activity
biannually periodic. .

For the male the seasonal cycle is dramatic in that it is manifested
by testicular descent from abdomen to scrotum and thence back to
the abdomen within a period of six to eight weeks with all of the
histo-anatomical changes of experimental or spontaneous cryptorchism
and recovery. Mossman and Kirkpatrick (op. cit.) expressed amaze-
ment at the capacity for recovery shown by the organs of the male
tract after so complete degeneration. It must be iterated here that
degeneration of testis begins while the latter is still scrotal, is well
under way in the inguinum, and almost complete in the abdomen.
Recovery takes place while the testis is abdominal and considerably
prior to recovery of the scrotum itself. Recovery of strotum begins
while the testes are inguinal. Kirkpatrick (op. cit.) noted this and
emphasized the point that the changes of regression and recovery are
physiologic, and specifically endocrinal rather than the result of me-
chanical, or climatic change. |

As herein determined the gestation period of one female was 44-45

Sexual Cycles of the Gray Squirrel oi,

days which is within 1 day of the 48-day period usually given for
the gray squirrel. Von Eibel-Eibesfeldt, 1951, found it to be 39 days
for one female of an European squirrel reared in captivity. The
suckling period in the nest is another 45-day period. Thus the animals
are usually about two months old before they can first be spotted on
the ground. At the first breeding period after their birth they are
quite immature but by the time of the second mating period are ma-
ture enough to participate in sexual play among themselves. They
mature fully between this and the third mating periods. It may be
precisely these individuals which are largely responsible for the inter-
seasonal activity from March to May and again from November to
the winter activity period.

Literature Cited

Allanson, Marjorie. 1933. Changes in the Reproductive Organs of the Male Gray
Squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London. Series B,
222 pp. 79-96.

Allen, Durward I. 1942. Populations and Habits of the Fox Squirrel in Allegany
County, Michigan. Am. Midl. Nat., 21(2); 338-379.

Bertram, E. Cooper and William L. Gault. 1952. Kentucky Squirrels. Report of
6th Annual Convention S.E. Assn. of Game and Fish Commission.

Brown, Lewis C. and Lee E. Yeager. 1945. Fox Squirrels and Gray Squirrels in
Illinois. Bull. 111, Nat. Hist. Survey, 23(5): 449-536.

Chapman, Floyd B. 1939. A Summary of the Gray Squirrel Investigation in south-
eastern Ohio, U.S. Dept. Ag. Wild Life Restitution and Met. Leaflet BS-134.

Deanesly, Ruth and A. S. Parks. 1933. Changes in the Reproductive tract of the
Female Gray Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London,
Series B, 222. pp. 47-78.

Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Iranaus von. 1951. Zeitschr. f. Tierpsychol., 8(3): 370-400.

Gault, William Leslie. 1952. A survey of recent mammals of the inner Blue Grass
region of Kentucky. Master’s thesis, University of Kentucky.

Kirkpatrick, Chas. M. 1955. The testes of the fox squirrel in relation to age and
season. Am. Jour. Anat., 97(2): 229-256.

Mossman, H. W., Roger A. Hoffman and Charles M. Kirkpatrick. 1955. The acces-
sory genital glands of the male gray and fox squirrels correlated with age and
reproductive cycles. Am. Jour. Anat., 87: 247-302.

Mossman, H. W., A. M. Katz and L. H. Rubnity. 1923. Changes in the testes and
accessory glands of the gray and fox squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis and S.
niger). Anat. Rec., 55 (4’th Suppl. ).

Packard, Robert L. 1956. The squirrels of Kansas. State Biol. Surv. and Museum
of Natural History, Univ. Kans. Misc. Publ. 11.

Accepted for publication 13 December 1960.

Quantum Theory and Psychotherapy

ELIZABETH Z. JOHNSON, VA Hospital, Lexington, Ky.

Quantum theory, originating in physics in 1900, has been recog-
nized in chemistry, biology, and, lately, in psychology. Quantum prin-
ciples should also be relevant to personality theory and psychotherapy.

Quantum deals with discontinuous “changes of state” in stable
molecular configurations. Reconfigurations (e.g., mutations) are “quan-
tum jumps’: (1) they take place only over intermediate configurations
requiring higher energy levels than the final state; (2) they occur,
rarely, when heat-energy accumulates beyond that generally dissipated
in wave phenomena or resonance; (3) they are single localized events,
initiating what Langmuir calls “divergency phenomena—the effect of
a single quantum transition becoming magnified throughout the bound-
ing matrix, so that the behavior of the aggregate is altered from con-
vergent expectations.’ London says an idea is a “divergency” and that
insight is the “end process” of a series of fluctuations (resonances)
eventuating in “restructure of the whole . . . which can involve the
total personality, as in religious conversion.”

Alexander and French use “conversion” as one criterion of success-
ful psychotherapy. Mowrer has pointed out “discontinuity” between
attitudes of neurotic and normal people. (Cf. Kirkegaard’s “leap”.)
Social learning illustrates a “divergent phenomenon”; acculturation
itself, the incorporation of social authority and expectations, represents
the reconfiguration of a changed state in personality.

A crucial question is why some people fail to attain these requisite
levels and thus require hospital treatment; and what should this
treatment be? Quantum theory suggests that insufficient energy was
originally available for the “quantum leap’—insufficient “love” to
achieve the crucial identification with authority—which demands more
effort than is apparent, since higher levels of energy must be attained
than are stabilized in the final state. Psychotherapy ideally should
supply: (1) a matrix of “loving authority”, to encourage identification
—i.e., the therapeutic climate of a good mental hospital; (2) “reso-
nance’ affects in many individually rewarding experiences; and (8)
introduction of “divergency expectations’ in directive interpretations.
Psychotherapy should focus on consolidation of the “quantum leap” to
which patients often attain in advance of insight.

Accepted for publication 2 February 1960.

CHANGE OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IN DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS

S. WEIHE and T. J. PIGNANI

Department of Mathematics and Astronomy
University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

When attempting to solve a differential equation which is not
solvable by elementary methods much time is wasted in either trying
to guess at a solution of the equation in question or to search the
literature for material which may throw some light on the solution of
this equation. One approach, which if not loverlooked it is given an
unfair trial, is to make a change in variable to reduce the equation to
one of familiar form—see (Rainville 1951) in the case of the second
order linear differential equation. This approach involves just three
possibilities; these are to change the dependent variable, to change
the independent variable, or to change the dependent and independent
variable. Furthermore, efforts can be organized and observations of
these results may lead to definite information about the differential
equation in question.

In a recent unpublished study (by Wiehe) ordinary linear differen-
tian equations of the third and fourth order with general variable co-
efficients were transformed to differential equations whose solutions
are known, as given in Kamke (1948), by making a change of inde-
pendent variable alone. The results of this investigation are too lengthy
and too detailed to reproduce herein. In summary, the interesting fact
was that in many cases the conditions to be imposed on the coefficients
of the given differential equation to affect such a transformation were
not severe.

To illustrate the procedure that was used by Weihe, the third
order linear differential equation, namely

(1) Ly) = y'*. + p(x)y" + q(xjy' + r(x)y = 0

is considered, where r(x) — 0 and primes denote differentiation with
respect to the independent variable x. In particular, the problem on
hand is to determine the conditions placed on the coefficients of (1)
so that a transformation of independent variable will produce a differ-
ential equation which in particular has constant coefficients. Stated
formally, Theorem. Necessary and sufficient conditions that (1) be
transformed to an equation with constant coefficients by a change of
independent variable are that the expressions

30 S. White and J. Pignani

be constants.
Proof: Under a change of independent variable from x to z, the
derivatives take the following forms

yiiz sty, y= aM) 4 (ety?y , and
e ee 3 ce
yt! = gitly + 3z'zty + (zt) y

where dots indicate differentiation with respect to the new inde-
pendent variable z. With these results, equation (1) becomes

(2) ee + [3z'2"! + aS Se tky try <0,

where k = L(z) — rz; alternately with r — 0, follows that

(3)

“e ke
(3) cory" y + Sp 3eta + pl2t) ly tie Ye ty =0.

Necessity: If equation (3) is assumed to have constant coecfficients,
then

(Ee aya vAllas sox(val) jt) SS. eM 5

(6) b,

i et Dd
yi

where c, a, and b are constants.
Expression (4) is rewritten as

1
ee — ane

which by differentiation takes the forms

Change of Independent Variable in Differential Equations 31

and by integration as

1
0) 2 = (lee dss.

The substitution of (7), (8), (9), and (10) in (5) and (6) yield
that

1 Biden
eek sai 2he-t p(2t) = cE + pjr
and

|e 3

Hl
wla

Tees. (= 5 Be nee

The members on the left are assumed to be constants by hypothesis,
hence the members on the right are constants, but for except a con-
stant factor, these are expressions (A) and (B), constants as required.
Sufficiency: Through the use of (10), the change of the independent
variable transforms (3) to

w |e

2 eS e [rs
ey, Fe fer en y¥ +3 |r aoe a kag

From this equation the fact that the reduction of (A) and (B) to be
constants is sufficient to insure that the resultant equation has constant
coefficients under the suggested change of independent variable given
by (10).

To serve as an application of the above theory and also to unveil
a mystery which appears in most first courses in differential equations,
the classical Euler Equation is now considered. For convenience the
following form of this equation is chosen,

=] ==hZ ee
(ll) y'"' + f(ax + b)y" + g(ax +b) y' + h(ax +b) ae = 0,

where a, b, f, g, and h are constants such that ax + b = 0 and h = 0.
In this case expression (A) becomes

32 S. White and J. Pignani

tL
(f= Sala
and (B) reduces to 2

sian eat ie qh

each being a constant as required. The transformation which reduces
(11) to an equation with constant coefficients is obtained from (10)
to be

i

3 - dx
ZS lee J ax+b 1

m log (ax +b) where m = (ch ) Ye 4

With the choice of m — a — 1 and b = 0 equation (11) becomes the
simplest Euler Equation along with its transformation x = e? usually
studied in a first course in differential equations.

Theorems similar to the one given above could be developed for
differential equations of higher order.

Literature Cited

Rainville, E. D. 1951 Intermediate Differential Equations. John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York.

Weihe, S. Unpublished. Transforming Linear Differential Equations to Standard
Types Through a Change of Independent Variable. University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky.

Kamke, E. 1948. Differentialgleichungen Losungsmethoden und Losungen. Chel-
sea Publishing Company, New York.

Accepted for publication 29 September 1960.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

1961 Spring Meeting

The 1961 spring meeting of the Academy was held at Morehead State Col-
lege, Morehead, Kentucky, on May 6, 1961. The program follows.

8:30-9:15 a.m.—Registration, Lobby of Lappin Hall.
9:20-9:30 a.m.—Orientation for Field Trips—Room 105, Lappin Hall.

FIELD TRIPS
9:30-12:00 a.m.—Bird Hike—Leader, Mr. Toney Phillips.

10:00-12:00 a.m.—Visit to A.E.C. Project on Irradiation of Seeds of Native Tree
Species (with illustrated explanation)—Dr. Margaret B. Heaslip.

9:30 a.m.-4:00 p.m.—Geology trip of the Morehead Region. Leaders: Dr. James E.
Conkin and Mr. Jackson A. Taylor. Items of interest: Lee Clay Products,
Clack Mountain, Lockegee, Eastern Kentucky Peneplain, Farmers Glacial
Erratic, Knob Licks, Blue Stone Quarry. Field trip covers the Paleozoic from
Silurian to Pennsylvanian plus the Pleistocene—a 350,000 year span.

1:00-4:00 p.m.—Wild Flower Walk—Leader, Dr. Mary E. Wharton.

1:00-4:00 p.m.—Amphibian and Reptile Hike—Leader, Dr. Roger Barbour.
If a sufficient number should be interested, a trip to Bat Cave, of the Carter
Caves Region, will be planned for Sunday morning, May 7. If you are inter-
ested, please check the appropriate place on the dinner reservation so that
arrangements can be made in advance for the trip.

Lunch,

12:00-1:00 p.m.—No special arrangements will be made for lunch. Lunch may be
had at the cafeteria in Doran Student House or at downtown restaurants.
Those going on the all day geology trip should plan to take lunch to eat at
Lockegee.

4:00-5:00 p.m.—Slide Viewing. Audio-Visual Room of Doran Student House.
“Views of Interest of the Morehead Region”. Mr. Allen Lake.

5:00-6:00 p.m.—Social Hour—Faculty Lounge, Doran Student House.

6:00 p.m.—Dinner—Dining room of Doran Student House. Dr. Loren D. Carlson,
Chairman and Professor, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, will
be the after dinner speaker, with the topic “Physiology and Space Flight”.

1961 Fall Meeting

The 1961 fall meeting will be held at the University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Kentucky.

MEMBERSHIP LIST — KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

DR. CARL ADAMS, Physics Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

MR. CHESTER A. ALEXANDER, Georgetown College, Georgetown, Ky.

MR. LLOYD E. ALEXANDER, Kentucky State College, Frankfort, Ky.

SISTER ALICE MARIA GOODE, Nazareth College, 851 South 4th Street, Louis-
ville, Ky.

LUCIA ANDERSON, Biology Department, Western Kentucky State College,
Bowling Green, Ky.

SISTER ANGELICE SEIBERT, Ursuline College, Louisville, Ky.

DR. J. W. ARCHDEACON, Dept. of Anatomy and Physiology, Unvcae of
Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

MR. WILLIAM B. ATKINSON, Dept. Of Anatomy, University of Louisville
Louisville, Ky.

WILLIAM O. ATKINSON, Agronomy Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky.

DR. MERL BAKER, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

ALBERT BALOWS, Lexington Clinic, Harrodsburg Rd., Lexington, Ky.

S. B. BANDEEN, 3617 Lexington Rd., Louisville, Ky.

DR. ROGER W. BAROUR, Dept. of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

WILLIAM BYRD BARKLEY, 234 W. Third Street, Maysville, Ky.

THOMAS R. BEBEE, College Box 20, Berea, Ky.

JOHN J. BEGIN, Poultry Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

ROBERT P. BELILES, 3515 Nanz Ave., Low, Ky.

DR. D. M. BENNETT, Dept. of Physics, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

DR. HARLOW BISHOP, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.

RAY H. BIXLER, Psychology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

DR. J. G. BLACK, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond, Ky.

MR. eee E. BLACK, Chemistry Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton,

DR. W. E BLACKBURN, Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

FRED BOERCHER, Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green, Ky.

REV. CHESTER B. BOWLING, 1801 Harvard Drive, Louisville, Ky.

REV. JOSEPH R. BOWLING, Bellarmine College, Louisville, Ky.

LOUIS L. BOYARSKY, Anatomy and Physiology Dept., University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

MISS RUTH BOYDEN, College of Agriculture, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

MR. ROBERT M. BOYER, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

MRS. JOHN BRAKE, 150 Oakland Park Ave., Columbus, O

ELLIS V. BROWN, Chemistry Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

JAMES B. BROWN, Kentucky State College, Frankfort, Ky.

WILLIAM K. BROWN JR., Engineering, 915 McClain Drive, Lexington, Ky.

EDWARD T. BROWNE JR., Botany Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

ROBERT R. BRYDEN, Biology Dept., High Point College, High Point, N. C.

WILBUR G. BURROUGHS, Box 1008, Chautauqua, N. Y.

PAUL CALLAHAN, Biochem. Dept., Medical School, University of California,
San Francisco, Calif.

JAMES S. CALVIN, Dept. of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

Membership List 35

PROF. A. G. CANON, Physical Science Dept., Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

WILLIAM F. CANTRELL, 9909 Dickens, Bethesda, Md.

PROF. JULIAN H. CAPPS, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

DR. JOHN M. CARPENTER, Dept. of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

MISS VADA CHUMLEY, 1601 Exeter Ave., Middlesboro, Ky.

GENEVIEVE CLARK, Georgetown College, Georgetown, Ky.

MARY BENEDICT CLARK, 301 McCready Ave., Louisville, Ky.

DR. WILLIAM M. CLAY, Dept. of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Ky.

ARCH E. COLE, 101 W. Chestnut St., Louisville, Ky.

EVELYN COLE, Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

DR. GERALD A. COLE, Division of Life Science, Arizona State College, Tempe,
Ariz.

BARBARA M. CONKIN, Geology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

JAMES E. CONKIN, Geology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

ELLIS R. CARTER, Dept. of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Frankfort, Ky.

MISS LAURINE CAVE, Box 5437 University Station, Lexington, Ky.

RICHARD A. CHAPMAN, Dept. of Agronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

JAMES R. CHARLES, Capital Heights, Frankfort, Ky.

MISS NELL SUE CHEATHAM, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

JOHN A. CHEEK, Lambeth College, Jackson, Tenn.

DR. PAUL CHRISTIAN, Dept. of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

MAURICE CHRISTOPHER, Chemistry Dept., Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

CARL COOK, Crailhope, Ky.

E. WILBUR COOK, Box 42 Centre College, Danville, Ky.

DR. CLARA C, COOPER, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

C. S. CROUSE, Engineering College, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

ANNE P. CUNNINGHAM, 737 South Limestone, Lexington, Ky.

URSULA MARCH DAVIDSON, Carrie, Ky.

DR. P. A. DAVIES, Dept. of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

TYRUS R. DAVIS, Banker’s Bond Company, Kentucky Home Life Bildg., Louis-
ville, Ky.

DR. LYLE R. DAWSON, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

MR. FRANKLIN DAY, Pikeville College, Pikeville, Ky.

DR. STEPHEN DIACHUN, Ky. Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

MISS MARY L. DIDLAKE, 248 Market Street, Lexington, Ky.

GRAHAM B. DIMMICK, B-202 Shawneetown, Lexington, Ky.

DONALD A. DISTLER, Dyche Hall, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.

MR. WILLIAM L. DIXON, Kentucky State College, Frankfort, Ky.

JOHN W. DONAHUE, Psychology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

RICHARD F. DOOLEY, Kentucky Reptile Garden, Park City, Ky.

R. M. DOUGHTY, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

WILLIAM G. DOWNS, JR., 212-E-6W, Cookeville, Tenn.

G. LUTHER DRAFFEN, Calvert City, Ky.

W. G. DUNCAN, 325 Glendover Road, Lexington, Ky.

J. C. EAVES, Dept. of Math. and Astronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexing-

ton, Ky.

HARTLEY C. ECKSTROM, Chemistry Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

DR. O. F. EDWARDS, Dept. of Bacteriology, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

DR. WILLIAM D. EHMANN, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

36 Kentucky Academy of Science

A. E. ELKAYER, Mech. Engineering Dept., Auburn University, Auburn, Ala.

JAMES McCLELLAND ELLIOTT, Dept. Mech. Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky.

DR. STATIE ERICKSON, Dept. of Home Economics, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

DR. R. C. ERNST, University of Louisville, Speed Scientific School, Louisville,
Ky.

CARL F. ESSIG, 1455 Forbes Road, Lexington, Ky.

DR. BETSEY WORTH ESTES, Neville Hall, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

LOUIS M. EYERMANN, Box 13 Station E., Louisville, Ky.

HAROLD H. FENWICK, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

DR. E. N. FERGUS, Ky. Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

DR. T. E. FIELD, 1554 Cardinal Drive, Louisville, Ky.

HAROLD G. FLANARY, Addiction Research Center, Public Health Service, Lex-
ington, Ky.

RALPH FORNEY, 305 Horton St., Columbia, Ky.

ARTHUR W. FORT, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

MR. J. F. FREEMAN, Ky. Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

DR. WILLIAM F. FURNISH, Biology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville,
Ky.

FRANKLIN B. GAILEY, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

LARRY R. GALE, 1204 Winston Drive, Jefferson City, Mo.

JASPER H. B. GARNER, Botany Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

LEE W. GILDART, Dept. of Physics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

SETH GILKERSON, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

DR. L. C. GLENN, Geology Dept. Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.

PROF. R. E. GOODGION, Murray Training School, Murray State College, Mur-
ray, Ky.

MISS ELVA GOODHUE, Lindsey Wilson Junior College, Columbia, Ky.

JOHN D. GOODLETTE, 2338 Howard Drive, Orlando, Fla.

DR. R. B. GRIFFITH, 2104 Strathmoor Blvd., Louisville, Ky.

RICHARD M. GRIFFITH, Clinical Psychology, Veterans Hospital, Lexington, Ky.

MR. JAMES GROSSMAN, Foundation School, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

MR. CHARLES R. GUNN, Ross Seed Company, P.O. Box 1712, Louisville, Ky.

CHARLES S. GUTHRIE, Burkesville, Ky.

MR. ROBERT L. HADLEY, 201 Ashland Road, Louisville, Ky.

DR. HANS HAHN, Psychology Dept., Transylvania College, Lexington, Ky.

EDMOND K. HALL, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

C. B. HAMANN, Asbury College, Wilmore, Ky.

PROF. E. M. HAMMAKER, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

RAYMOND E. HAMPTON, Agronomy Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky.

MR. HUNTER M. HANCOCK, 1107 Elm Street Ext., Murray, Ky.

JOSEPH E. HANEGAN, Biology Dept., Bellarmine College, Louisville, Ky.

FANNIE R. HARMON, Sue Bennett College, London, Ky.

ALTON M. HARVILL JR., Biology Dept., Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

DR. MARGARET B. HEASLIP, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

CARLTON HECKROTTE, Biology Dept., Eastern Kentucky State College, Rich-
mond, Ky.

GEORGE H. HEMBREE, 58 Salem Lane, Little Silver, N. J.

JAMES P. HENLEY, Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Division of Fisheries, Frank-
fort, Ky.

DR. CARL E. HENRICKSON, Dept. of Botany, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

Membership List 37

J. EDWARDO HERNANDEZ, Romance Languages Dept., University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky.

DR. THOMAS C. HERNDON, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond, Ky.

DONALD G. HICKS, Chemistry Dept., College Box 1167, Murray, Ky.

HARRIS E. HILL, Nat. Inst. of Mental Health, Public Health Service, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

FREDERICK kK. HILLE, 410 Rose Lane, Lexington, Ky.

MISS ANNA L. HOFFMAN, 8 Ft. Mitchell Avenue, Ft. Mitchell, Ky.

ANTHONY A. HOHNHORST, 3010 Dixie Highway, Covington, Ky.

DR. J. P. HOLT, University of Louisville, 101 West Chestnut Street, Louisville, Ky.

HOWARD HOPKINS, Pharmacy Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

ARLAND HOTCHKISS, Dept. of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

DR. MARGARET HOTCHKISS, Dept. of Bacteriology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky.

MR. JOHN HOUCHENS, Registrar, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

H. L. HULL, Box 723, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

DR. JAMES C. HUMPHRIES, Bacteriology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

KARL F. HUSSUNG, Chemistry Dept., Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

MR. W. M. INSKO, Ky. Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, y.

CHARLES JOSEPH ISBELL, Botany Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky.

CRAYTON T. JACKSON, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

DANIEL F. JACKSON, Biology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

E. M. JOHNSON, Agronomy Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

ELIZABETH Z. JOHNSON, Vet. Admin. Hospital, Lexington, Ky.

DR. SYDNEY E. JOHNSON, St. Joseph Infirmary, Louisville, Ky.

THOMAS H. JOHNSON, Poultry Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

FRANCIS J. JOHNSTON, Chemistry Dept., University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.

ERNST JOKL. Physiology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

DAN JONES, Miller Hall, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

P. R. JONES, Cumberland College, Williamsburg, Ky.

ARNOLD J. KAHN, Biology Dept.. Columbia University, New York, N. Y.

THOMAS E. KARGL, Chemistry Dept., Ursuline College, Louisville, Ky.

PROF. P. E. KARRAKER, Ky. Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

DR. J. A. KENNEDY, 101 W. Chestnut Street, Louisville, Ky.

CHARLES KEYS, Robert Wesleyan College, North Chili, N. Y.

FRANK KODMAN, Psychology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

EMIL KOTCHER, 101 West Chestnut Street, Louisville, Ky.

L. A. KRUMHOLZ. Biology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

ROBERT A. KUEHNE, Zoology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

JAMES F. LAFFERTY, General Engineering Dept., University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

PROF. H. H. LAFUZE, Eastern State College, Richmond, Ky.

ALLEN L. LAKE, College Box 782, Morehead, Ky.

DR. L. Y. LANCASTER, 930 Nutwood, Bowling Green, Ky.

DR. KARL O. LANGE, Aeronautical Research Lab., University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

ROBERT LARANCE, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond, Ky.

JAMES K. LATHAM, 533 So. Limestone St., Lexington, Ky.

J. TRAVIS LEACH. 6995 Beechland Ave., Pleasure Ridge Park, Ky.

WILLIAM M. LEACH, 1005 N. Broadway Avenue, Knoxville, Tenn.

JOAN C. LEE; Psychology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

JOHN J. LEHRBERGER, 705 S. Mason St., Harrisonburg, Va.

ROY C. LESTER, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

38 Kentucky Academy of Science

GERRIT LEVEY, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

DWIGHT M. LINDSAY, Georgetown College, Georgetown, Ky.

DR. HARVEY B. LOVELL, Biology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

ETHEL W. LOVELL, 2424 Dundee Rd., Louisville, Ky.

BEN H. LYND, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

DR. JAMES T. McCLELLAN, 506 Spring Hill Drive, Lexington, Ky.

DR. A. C. McFARLAN, Geology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

PRESTON McGRAIN, Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

EVANS C. McGRAW, 684 Loudon Avenue, Lexington, Ky.

DONALD W. MACLAURY, Ky. Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

PAUL R. McNEELY, Psychology Dept., Asbury College, Wilmore, Ky.

MR. MAURICE K. MARSHALL, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

WILLIAM R. MARTIN, 1753 Blue Licks Road, Lexington, Ky.

HARRY LOUIS MASON, Dept. Mech. Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

MR. HAL W. MAYNOR, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic
Institute, Auburn, Ala.

MRS. E. E. MAYO, Science and Math Dept., Morehead State College, Morehead,
Ky.

SISTER M. CONCETTA, Ursuline College, Louisville, Ky.

SISTER M. ANTONIA KLAPHEKE, St. Joseph Infirmary, Louisville, Ky.

SISTER MARY ADELINE, Nazareth College, Louisville, Ky.

HARRY LOUIS MASON, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Ky.

JACOB MEADOW, Chemistry Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

J. P. MILES, JR., 2787 Daviess St., Owensboro, Ky.

MRS. MILDRED MILES, 2737 Daviess St., Owensboro, Ky.

LOUISE B. MILLER, Psychology Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

JOSEPH G. MONTGOMERY, Chairman, Science Dept., Manatee Junior College,
Bayshore Gardens, Bradenton, Fla.

DR. WALTER L. MOORE, Dept. of Mathematics, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, Ky.

DEAN WILLIAM J. MOORE, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond, Ky.

DR. F. B. MOOSNICK, 184 North Mill Street, Lexington, Ky.

MONROE MOOSNICK, Versailles, Ky.

MISS MARGARET MORTON, 340 Columbia Avenue, Lexington, Ky.

KENNETH N. MUSE, 2320 N. Main., Findlay, Ohio

DR. VINCENT E. NELSON, Dept. of Geology, University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

RICHARD NEWCOMER, Zoology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

MISS HAZEL NOLLAU, 500 College Avenue, Morehead, Ky.

WILLIAM NORRIS, Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green, Ky.

THOMAS G. NYE, Botany Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

VICTOR G. OSBORNE, 343 East College Street, Georgetown, Ky.

WILLIAM OWENS, Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green, Ky.

DR. WILLIAM B. OWSLEY, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

MR. GEORGE H. PAINE, JR., 446 Ludlow Highway, Ludlow, Ky.

PETE PANZERA, Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

SUSIE ANA PARKER, Harlan County Schools, Loyall, Ky.

JOHN M. PATTERSON, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky.

SIGFRED PETERSON, 332 East Fairview Road, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

MISS MARY PETTUS, Union College, Barbourville, Ky.

MRS. HELEN J. PFOHL, 4412 Taylor Blvd., Louisville, Ky.

Membership List 39

JOHN C. PHILLEY, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

DR. J. P. PHILLIPS, Chemistry Dept., University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

TONEY PHILLIPS, Morehead State College, Morehead, Ky.

TULLIO J. PIGNANI, Mathematics Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky

H. C. PIRKLE, Rt. 1 Box 505, Anchorage, Ky.

WILLIAM K. PLUCKNETT, Dept. of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, Ky.

JUDITH D. PRATT, 234 Reed Lane, Lexington, Ky.

HUGH PUCKETT, Allen County High School, Scottsville, Ky.

WILLIAM T. QUERY, Veterans Administration Hospital, Lexington, Ky.

WILLIAM G. READ, Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

CHARLES REIDLINGER, Biology Dept., Murray State College, Murray, Ky.

R. B. RENDA, Mech. Eng. Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

GERTRUDE C. RIDGEL, Biology Dept., Kentucky State College, Frankfort, Ky.

J. W. RIDGWAY, 5300 Alpine Way, Louisville, Ky.

DR. H. P. RILEY, Botany Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

DR. EARLAND RITCHIE, Centre College, Danville, Ky.

THOMAS G. ROBERTS, Geology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

SISTER RODERICK, Nazareth College, Louisville, Ky.

DR. J. G. RODRIGUEZ, Dept. of Entomology and Botany, Ky. Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Lexington, Ky.

AARON A. ROSEN, 2667 Cedarbrook Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio

W. GORDON ROSS, Berea College, Berea, Ky.

R. I. RUSH, Chemistry Dept., Centre College, Danville, Ky.

MRS. ELLEN A. SANDERS, 620 W. Main St., Campbellsville, Ky.

R. J. SCALF, Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Louisville, Ky.

DR. MORRIS SCHERAGO, Bacteriology Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

DAN SCHREIBER, Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond, Ky.

DR. JOSEPH R. SCHWENDEMAN, Geography Dept., University of Kentucky,
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Volume 22 1961 Number 3-4.

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

The Kirtley Site, A Mississippian Village in McLean
County, Kentucky
M. A. ROLINGSON
Preparation of Several Symmetrical Bisphenolic Mannich
Derivatives of Biological Interest:
C. J. Korrics, W. T. Smiru, and J. R. MEADOw

A Cannel Coal Tension Rupture

Quinaldine as an Anesthetic on Siredon mexicanum (Shaw)
Rocer M. Katz

A Key to Prehistoric Kentucky Pottery
Dovucias W. ScHWARTZ

Academy Affairs
Index to Volume 22

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1961-62

President: Caantes WairrtLE, Western State College

President-elect: Lyte Dawson, University of Kentucky

Vice President: James Conxin, University of Louisville

Secretary: Gennit LEVEY, Berea College

Treasurer: Paut. Ray, Asbury College

Representative to AAAS Council: Maxx Waanron, Georgetown College

Counselors fo Junior Academy: Maurice CuristorHER, Murray State College, and Taomas A,
Hovrro, Eastern State College

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS

BACTERIOLOGY AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Chairman: Mancarer HorcHxiss, taal’ of ee.
Secretary: Emu Korcuer, Louisvi

BOTANY

Chairman: Marx Wxaarton, Georgetown College
Secretary: EDwARD BROWNE, University of Kentucky

CHEMISTRY
Chairman: Anraur W. Fort, University of Kentucky
Secretary: THomas Kanct, Ursuline College

GEOLOGY

Chairman: James Conxin, University of Louisville
Secretary: Joun PHiriEey, Morehead State College

‘PHYSICS
Chairman: Cuirrron A. BaAsye, Eastern State College y
Secretary: Orrs K. Wore, Western State College

PSYCHOLOGY
. Chairman: LovisE Mi.Ler, University of Louisville
Secretary: Pau McNrexy, Asbury College

ZOOLOGY
Chairman: C. B. pee Asbury College
Secretary: Aruzez L. Wuurt, Eastern State College

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

WILLIAM B. OWSLEY ...ccccccessssscecereees to 1962 1» GARE, HANGE) o.cdecbateccevecseeesascssecessese Oy LOGS
C. B. HAMANN oecccceccccesee SelveceacdacacessectO) LOGs AS EOUNVGRE ET 2 Cis vcccssceuoucsvoncacaces weet 1964
IAz er, VNOLTIAU) iccssscnssccsscstsocenanescerose to 1962 WiertaAM G. READ ciceccccccrccsccesereeeeestO LOBS

WILLIAM CLAY 6...cccccencccecsssncepeasrere to 1963 R. H. WInkY sess Rance ven atest nteaeaee to 1965

EDITORIAL STAFF

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(Chemistry) Warp SumrtTER, Western State College, Bowling Green,
(Geology) Barsparna M. Conxxin, Louisville
(Zoology) Jonn M. CarpentTeER, University of Kentucky, Lexington

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THE KIRTLEY SITE
A Mississippian Village in McLean County, Kentucky

M. A. ROLINGSON
Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky, Lexington

Introduction

During the 1930's extensive archaeological excavations were under-
taken in Kentucky through the auspices of the Works Progress Ad-
ministration. Numerous prehistoric sites were excavated and the arti-
facts catalogued by WPA crews but sufficient personnel was not
available to analyze and report on all of the material. This paper is
aimed at reducing the backlog of unpublished sites by reporting on the
Kirtley site, a small Mississippian village in southeastern McLean
County. The main objectives are to describe the features and artifacts
recovered from the Kirtley village; tentatively establish its chrono-
logical position within the prehistory of the area, relate it to other
Mississippian sites in the state, and to draw some other conclusions
from this information.

Geology

McLean County is centrally located in the Kentucky Western Coal
Fields which are the southeastern portion of the Eastern Interior Coal
Field extending northward into southern Indiana and Illinois. The
general surface is gently rolling to hilly uplands dissected by streams
which have flat swampy bottomlands with deposits of Pleistocene and
Recent sand, gravel and silt (Burroughs, 1924 :1-19). The county is
bisected by the Green River and bordered on the west by the Pond
River and on the East by the Green and Rough Rivers.

Soils in the area include yellow silt loam from sandstone and sandy
shales, bright yellow clay subsoil and gray or yellowish silt loam in the
bottomlands (Burroughs, 1924 : 29-32).

Location of Site

The Kirtley site was located in the southeastern section of McLean
County (see Figures 1 and 2) on the farm of Mr. Henderson Kirtley
and his son, John Kirtley, one and one-half miles west of Island,
Kentucky. This area is one of rolling to hilly ridges separated by the
Green River and Cypress Creek. McL 19 is located on the western
edge of one of these ridges, overlooking Cypress Creek to the west and
south. The junction of the Green and Rough Rivers is three and one
half miles to the north-northeast. The ridge on which the site is located
is four hundred eighty feet above sea level, while the surrounding
bottomlands are at an elevation of three hundred eighty feet.

OT

49, M. A. Rolingson
e) | 2 o//
[ca x /
Scale in Miles Sy
cymes Upland 100" - Lys ‘i
bolus. above creek : ‘LIVERMORE
N

OHIO COUNTY

. ee ee .. —_ I

MUHLENBERG COUNTY

Fig. 1.—Detail map of region surrounding the Kirtley site, McL 19.

WESTERN KENTUCKY

@ Single Component
Mississippian Sites

A Multiple Component Sites
Including Mississippian

es

ee
€> Area in Detail Map—
Figure |

Oo a
BS ‘+ Louisville

va
()
: Ze
‘ : ec
/ =F
<

Fig. 2—Map of western Kentucky locating single component Mississippian sites and
multiple component sites with both Mississippian and earlier cultural manifestations.

The Kirtley Site 43

Excavation Procedure

During the winter of 1937, excavations were being conducted at
McL 6 (see Figure 1). At that time, test pits at McL 19 indicated a
shallow midden which did not appear to warrant excavation. However,
flood conditions in the spring of 1939 forced the abandonment of
bottomland sites in western McLean County and Ohio County, so
work was begun at McL 5, 7, and 19 (see Figure 1). Work began at
McL 19 on March 18, 1939, with John B. Elliott as supervisor. Per-
mission was granted for an excavation period of ten days, as the land
was to be planted in pasture. When the extent of the site was realized,
the period was extended to May 5. This relatively short time did not
allow for complete excavation of all features, especially midden pits,
but the extent of the village was defined and all house patterns were
excavated.

In excavation the site was crossed by a preliminary north-south
trench to sample midden, detect structures and record depth and
extent of midden. From this preliminary trench, the site was staked in
ten foot squares, oriented north-south. A datum level was established,
but unfortunately its location was not recorded in the notes. The
actual excavation consisted of shaving through the midden deposit
with shovels until the yellow subsurface clay was exposed. As features
were uncovered they were noted and outlined on the surface of the
subsoil and the trenches of the house walls were then excavated
vertically, as can be seen in Figure 4. The area of excavation measured
330 feet by 90 feet. As the midden, though extensive, was extremely
superficial, averaging only .8 feet in depth, the main items of interest
were the house patterns and midden pits.

House Patterns

The midden was so shallow that all house floors had been destroyed
by cultivation and erosion; however, wall patterns indicated the
presence of two house types. The predominant type, with thirteen
houses, was constructed by placing wall posts in trenches with house
corners left open or with corner posts set directly into the ground.
These trenches extended into the subsoil. In the second type, totaling
two houses, the wall posts were set directly into the ground, extending
into the subsoil. All houses were rectangular structures. The three
southernmost house locations (Features 9, 7, and 13) had been used
for the construction of a single house each (see Figure 3). The three
northernmost house locations (Features 4-6, 3, and 2) had been
used in the construction of four houses each. All houses except the
four located in Features 2 and 9 were oriented with their long walls

"y204 Aysoy 0} YOU! DUO AjayDUNIXOIddD Ss} B]DD¢ ("g) S]DIUNq puD (4) SesNyDo} HulyOI0; UOIWDADIXe yO DaID O}IS Ad]JIIJ—¢ “B14

M. A. Rolingson

44

SS

The Kirtley Site 45

Fig. 4.—Excavation of the Kirtley site.

on a north-south or north northeast-south southwest line. Those in
Features 2 and 9 were oriented east-west. Due to destruction of the
site, all measurements were taken from the surface of the subsoil.

The two houses with posts set directly into the ground were
centrally located in the village and are a part of Feature 4-6. Both are
similar, except for size. House 4a measured 20 by 20.5 feet while house
4b measured 16 by 16.5 feet. Wall posts extended one foot into the
subsoil and were rather small, ranging from .2 to .7 feet in diameter
and averaged .4 feet. The west wall of house 4a could not be defined
but is probably in the same location as the west wall of house 4. It
cannot now be determined whether or not these two post wall houses
were precedent to the two wall trench houses in the Feature.

Wall trench houses varied in size from 12 by 14 feet to 25.5 by 29.5
feet; however, twice as many had walls over twenty feet than were
under twenty feet. The trenches for these walls ranged from 7.4 feet
to 22.8 feet in length; from .4 feet to 1.4 feet in width and from .2
feet to 1.6 feet in depth. The number of posts within the trenches
varied from twenty in house 6 to ninety-eight in house 8d. The
diameter of the posts ranged from .2 feet to .7 feet, with an average of
.8 feet. Seven of these houses had posts set in the ground at the corner;
the maximum number of posts in one corner being three.

46 M. A. Rolingson

Two houses (18 and 4a) had partition walls extending out 4.4 and
5 feet from the west wall. These were located 5 feet down from the
northwest corner of the houses. House 9 was the only one with pos-
sible indications of repair where more than one-third of the posts did
not reach the floor of the trench, as they would have done had they
been placed during the original construction. Time factors are ap-
parent in only three instances. House 13 was built over a trench
which apparently has no other association with any feature in the
village. House 6 was built before house 4, as the south wall of house
4 crossed over the east wall of house 6: Houses 9 and 3 were built over
midden pits.

Two factors suggesting house structure and time are present in
the four houses of Feature 3. First, the depth of the trenches into the
subsoil becomes shallower from the inside trenches to the outside
trenches. Had a new house been constructed each time, the floor level
of each would be raised by the debris of the old house, and a trench
of equal depth would not have extended as far into the subsoil.
Second, the inner trenches appear to be much more disturbed than
the outer trenches which are clearly defined. Had the largest house
been constructed first, it could be expected that there would be some
destruction of the trenches of this house, with the inner trenches more
clearly defined. Therefore, the earliest house was probably the smallest
house and later houses were increasingly larger.

Discussion: Very few generalizations can be made about the Mis-
sissippian houses at the Kirtley village due to the destruction of the
site; however, a few things appear to stand out and are worth noting. |
1) The majority of the house posts touched the bottom or extended
below the trench floor. 2) Only house 9 indicated that much repair
had taken place, by the shallowness and interspersing of many of the
postmolds. 3) Two houses had small interior partitions. 4) There
was more house construction on the north end of the site. 5) Houses
3a, 8b and 9 postdate midden pits. 6) Houses 4a and 4b were of a
different type construction than the rest of the village. 7) The builders
of the houses in Features 2 and 3 must have had some knowledge of
previous houses at that spot, because they are all oriented. This is not
true of the houses in Feature 4-6. 8) There were no fireplaces within
the houses.

Isolated Walls

Three isolated trenches located in the village do not appear to be
associated with houses (see Figure 3). Two of these did not have
postmolds in them and their use is conjectural. One was located five

The Kirtley Site 47

feet south of house 7; the other was fifteen feet north of the houses in
Feature 2. The third trench contained postmolds and is precedent to
house 13. In addition to these isolated trenches, a row of postmolds
was located one and a half feet north of house 9. This structure sug-
gests some type of fence or pallisade, or a lean-to attached to the house.

Refuse Pits

The seven midden or refuse pits located in the village (Figure 3)
can be separated into three types for purposes of discussion. Three
large, shallow pits were not entirely excavated and defined due to
lack of time; three were small, deep pits and one pit contained arti-
facts of historic origin.

The first type of midden pit was large, extending up to twenty-two
feet in length, and shallow, reaching an interior depth of .8 feet. These
were all located near houses and may have originally been dug to
obtain clay for plastering the house walls and later used for refuse.

The second type of pit was small, not over ten feet in length, with
an interior depth extending to two feet. Two of these, Features 15 and
11, were precedent to the houses in Features 3 and 9.

The seventh pit, Feature 14, was located sixty feet north of the
main village area. It contained refuse of historic origin including a
broken dish, glass fragments, sheet tin, half of a bone handle from a
modern knife or fork, and artifacts of possible Indian origin including
a small, smooth sandstone ball, a smooth, triangular piece of sandstone,
and two lumps of clay, one coated with a lime wash. This refuse pit
may not be the same age as the rest of the village.

Areas of Irregular Rocks

Feature 5 was an area 3.5 by 3.0 feet of irregular sandstone rocks
within the habitation level, over and therefore postdating the south
end of the west wall of House 3c. It could have been placed during
the use of house 8d or after the abandonment of the houses in Feature
3. It had a vertical thickness of .2 feet.

Feature 16 was an area of irregular sandstone and limestone rocks,
3.0 by 2.5 feet, in the habitation level of the site, thirty feet north of
Feature 3. None of the rocks in these two areas appear to have been
fired or burned and their use is conjectural.

Burials
Only two burials were located during excavation, both on the
eastern side of the village area and relatively isolated from the houses
(Figure 3). In Burial 1 there was no evidence of either a stone box

48 M. A. Rolingson

or a pit grave. The bone was poorly preserved; however, it appears
to have been an extended, flesh burial of one adult, sex unknown. The
head was oriented toward the west.

The second burial was a stone box grave which contained only one
fragment of a child’s rib. The stone box was oriented northwest-
southeast and measured 2.5 by 1.0 feet. It contained a thin slab floor
surrounded by a single upright slab on the northwest end, two upright
slabs on the southeast end, and a single upright slab in the northeast
wall. The southwest wall and roof had been destroyed by cultivation
and were scattered in the grave and to the southwest. The box was
made of sandstone rather than limestone as is more common in Mis-
sissippian burials, but the area in which the Kirtley village is located
contains outcrops of Pennsylvanian sandstone.

Artifacts

A total of two hundred forty artifacts, other than pottery, was
recovered from McL 19. The majority are chipped and ground stone
artifacts, while bone and shell are relatively scarce, possibly due to
soil acids. No depth distribution of the artifact types was possible
because of the shallowness of the site. Table 1 lists the artifacts, total
number present and percentage.

Table 1.—Artifacts from the Kirtley Site

Number Percentage Percentage
Artifact Present of Total of Type
Projectile points) ecescee.s eee cece eee 83 84.58
Side=notched@ eee eee 81 87.34
Mrrangular) Peck eescsctsecteseevasteteet ees 16 19.27
Stemmed cs eie tee oi ctek eee 11 13.37
Shallow side-notched ..............c..0006 9 10.84
@orner-notchediy eee ee 6 7.10
Tanceolateny yao ee eaeeeiraecaes 6 7.10
Serrated ais kl vata! eee eau ee nue ens 1 1.20
(UWinclassifie cles eer ee eneeceeeeeee 3 8.61
SGERADENS! etree cei eeu eee seens se ccteu cae eae 62 25.83
Bifacial
Side=notchedwes ee ee 25 40.32
Shallow side-notched .............. 2 B20
Stemmeddi sen eaa mea los a recaees 1 1.61
@orner-notched eee 8 4.83
Unifacial
Trianguloid, end scraper ........ 11 17.74
Rectanguloid, side scraper .... 7 11.29
SL AKES ee ene eae ar Seu aNs a 11.29
Ovoid eee LE 4 6.28
Side-notched: :s-seeeeccoseece coos 1 1.61

Stemimecdinrerccccten eke ee ees eae 1 1.61

The Kirtley Site 49

Table 1.—Continued

Number Percentage Percentage

Artifact Present of Total of Type
D)yil Speers eae eR CN re eee UT eI) 15 6.25

ERAN INE» SHORE 1x0. 0 cs casccttt scastin sesseseeesacs tf 46.66

IN@ECEC MD ASC teccierene ec seeenee eaineas 5 83.33

BeepAnGed (DASE \ a.s<cccc-sscscasadesoansdsacases 8 20.00
ARGV GS pare aan Sees eee ek Nae eee eet os 8 3.33
18) acl ey aR cece Re RP nn 8 8.88
CTA er nttett aceasta ec eetat cae. stn Semen aes i Al
In\S SS a ee ARL A Aa A I OR RO as a 3 1.25
(CLL ea FA Sept os NSS a Oe 9 en il Al
WinGEStOMeS ier ietsecs cone raeeceaes ceceastetersescses 3 1225
Sanclstome stalets: resscsscscesconsssssacctscesseussccs 8 1.25
IRCSELOS eee os creer encase teee esis cdeiatossatest toes 6 2.50
(iors ieee stereo tes eee et a Oa 1 Al
CSAS CORA Si aes eas ose ces ee taeses este acdeasoeescecuss 3 1.25
FlamMMIMERSEOMES! ccscccssonsseseceecoesencocs sasoucsces 8 1.25
Gane lWeCOa he ises cess ccccesseccsooeess eeatos jiseseweens 3 125
Sandstone pendant {../.c2c.5..c<cscsescconasncevesee 1 Al
Aba NANMEES ATG) ae. ckee eeenar cess ceces assess Uassevee 2 .83
Sandstone) ballipcssete eters cvgcce koe 1 Al
PmiestOne ODjECE jcccccscevcsccccssoesacossensseaces 1 Al
Triangular sandstone object ...........:.:00+ 1 Al
Unidentified ‘objects ...............<sosssssersesese 2 83
Fragments of ground stone ..............:+++ 16 6.67
TRYCTIIG. cee EE OSCOS SEE DOOSCEE DOS EDEL CCRCEE CE eect 5 2.08
Sie lee iets Tees tacecicss cotter tauresasesesseenee 7 2.92
IMetall amr eerie. oh ett hl pret Bane esi i 41
Mince pees es ce Seager) cca oe 240 99.93

Projectile points: The Kirtley site contained eighty-three chipped stone tools
tools which can be considered projectile points. These pieces were either whole
or broken bases. No tip sections were found during analysis and it seems probable
that these were discarded following excavation, as it would be unusual not to have
found any tip sections at the site. There were seven major types of projectile
points, five of which are illustrated in Figure 5A-E, with slight variations within
these types in the form of the base and shoulders. The two predominant types
were side-notched projectile points and triangular projectile points. Only three
artifacts were too broken to classify.

Scrapers: The sixty-two scrapers can be separated into two basic types—
bifacial and unifacial. The bifacial scrapers, illustrated in Figure 5J, were either
notched or stemmed and many appear to have been made by utilizing the bases
of broken projectile points. The unifacial scrapers, illustrated in Figure 5H-I, are
well chipped and shaped into both end and side scrapers.

Drills: There were three types of drills, totaling fifteen artifacts, used by the
occupants of the Kirtley site. The most common form was the straight-shaft drill,
illustrated in Figure 5F; however, expanded base and notched, expanded base
drills were also used.

Knives: The knives varied from irregularly chipped and rough blades to the
thin, triangular knife illustrated in Figure 5G.

Graver: One graver has been made from a broken, side-notched projectile
point,

Litt

50

M. A. Rolingson

Fig. 5.—Kirtley site chipped stone artifacts. A. side-notched projectile point. B. triangular

‘projectile point. C. stemmed projectile point.

D. long, shallow, side-notched projectile

point. E. corner notched projectile point. F. drill. G. knife. H-l. unifacial scrapers.

J. bifacial scraper. Ea eae

ore i a -

The Kirtley Site 51

Axes: All three axes (Figure 6D) were full-grooved with the bit polished to a
sharp edge.

Celt: The polished stone celt shows some polish by use on the bit end.

Whetstones: The whetstones were irregular pieces of sandstone with shallow
grooves work into the flat surface.

Standstone tablets: These objects were thin fragments of sandstone worked
smooth with convex edges and rounded corners.

Pestles: Pestles were of two types, four were cylindrical with one end worked
flat, while two were bell-shaped.

Mortar: The mortar was an irregular block of sandstone with depressions on
both faces.

Cupstones: Two large, irregular pieces of standstone had been pitted into
several small cups on each face. The third was rectangular, and smoothed with
both faces lightly pitted.

Hammerstones: Three stone tools were small, roughly cylindrical, with sides
and proximal end smooth and one end roughened by hammering.

Cannel coal: Three worked pieces of cannel coal had been smoothed on the
edges and faces. They were thin and ovoid in shape.

Sandstone pendant: A thin, nearly circular sandstone pendant with edges
smoothed had been drilled at the edge for suspension.

Atlatl weights: Two atlatl weight fragments of polished slate were uncovered.
The broken edges had been slightly smoothed. One of these, illustrated in Figure
6E, had been drilled for suspension with a transverse hole.

Limestone object: A small piece of limestone had been worked smooth into
an ovoid shape. One end was straight and blunt, while the other sides curved
into one continuous edge and had been ground to a sharp edge. Its use is
conjectural.

Triangular object of sandstone: A piece of sandstone had been ground to
form a thick triangle. Its use is conjectural. This object is from the pit with
mixed historic and prehistoric artifacts.

Unidentified objects: Two stone objects had one and squared off, and the
other end beveled. One of these was convex. The use of such objects is con-
jectural.

Bone: Five bone tools were recovered from the Kirtley site. There are two
possibilities as to the scarcity of bone objects: 1) they may not have been used
to any extent by the occupants of the village, or 2) they may not have been
preserved in the soil. The latter seems most likely, considering the condition of the
human bone in the burials.

Flakers: Two sections of deer antler showed use as flakers.

Turtle shell pendant: A small section of turtle carapace had been cut into a
rectangle and drilled for suspension.

Bone cylinder: A long, narrow, smooth, cylindrical piece of bone had been
broken at both ends. Its use is conjectural.

Bone handle: Feature 14 contained, among other things, half of a bone handle,
illustrated in Figure 6A, from some modern utensil such as a knife or fork. The
edges were cut smooth, the inner surface was flattened and the outer surface
convex. One end was slightly wider than the other. Two holes were drilled for
attachment and one of these contained the remnants of an iron pin.

Shell: Shell objects were almost as scarce as bone tools. Seven pieces of
worked shell were recovered.

Marine shell columella: One piece of marine shell had been cut away leaving
the central columella, illustrated in Figure 6B. It was probably intended as an
ornament.

52 M. A. Rolingson

Fig. 6.—Kirtley site artifacts. A. bone handle. B. Marine shell columella. C. Perforated
mussel shell. D. full-grooved axe. E. drilled atlatl weight. F. pottery effigy pipe.

The Kirtley Site 53

Worked fragments: Four fragments of shell indicated varying degrees of use.
Three had been drilled, but did not show signs of shaping. One had been
smoothed on the edges and sides but not drilled.

Perforated mussell shells: Two large mussel shells (see Figure 6C) had been
drilled through the center, but did not appear to be otherwise worked.

Metal: One small, irregular fragment of sheet copper had been perforated in
the center. It did not appear to have been made into a bead but may be part of
a larger object which had corroded away.

Discussion: Five noteworthy facts stand out from the analysis of the artifacts.
First, considering the size of the village, the artifacts are not too numerous. Second,
ground stone tools make up less than one fourth of the artifact assemblage and
half of these are only partially worked or are too broken to consider as recog-
nizable tools. For a small village of a culture whose economy is based on
agriculture, one would expect to find more agricultural tools. The lack of this
type of tool may be explained by postulating a use of wooden tools which would
have decayed. Fourth, is the lack of artifacts which would be considered
ceremonial items, especially for a culture characterized by its ceremonialism.
Fifth, is the similarity of artifact types with those present at the Ward site (Webb
and Haag, 1940) two miles west of the Kirtley site across Cypress Creek. This site
is predominately Archaic with a small Mississippian occupation evident in the
upper levels.

Pottery

The pottery at Kirtley, totaling 5507 sherds, is predominately of
four types—Neeley’s Ferry Plain, Bell Plain, Kimmswick Fabric Im-
pressed and Kimmswick Plain. There was no grit-tempered pottery
present although the paste of many of the sherds contained particles
of grit and sand which was either part of the tempering material or a
characteristic of the clay used in making pottery. Table 2 lists the
pottery types present, number of sherds and percentage of the total.
As the pottery types conform to published descriptions, only unusual
features will be discussed within the pottery types.

Table 2.—Pottery Types from Kirtley Site

Type Number of Sherds Percentage

Peel eyas p Merny Eales cock vateee an stcst cessStcasvenesaceassse 4723 85.763
Neeley’s Ferry slipped or painted ................. 29 526
este beatae ee eee ane = Bree 4d AI Ee 8 ee ea 543 9.860
SPENT Orin) Zoo Ree Pee ee ee 19 345
Kimmswick Fabric Impressed ...............:::0::000+ 98 1.761
Ketan ry Swi Ces ali rateeeee seetesse sete esas ocr tec ctocee occ csctecs 42 .762
Beehowatinebacised: (Pv csentee detec. Sess Seisecazbcedeceaans 1 .018
Shell tempered, net impressed ...............::c0s000 9 .163
Shell tempered, cord-marked ..............ccssceeseees 101 .199
Shell tempered, check-stamped ..............:::0000 4 .072
ROG smite ye Se rs ee ee ree 5d a i 29 526

FR Otal ian ieees eset. Gu. con tbo, eles 5507 99.960

Neeley’s Ferry Plain: Three globular jars could be partially reconstructed
from Neeley’s Ferry Plain potsherds. Five appendages were present: a lug with
incised edge which was possibly part of an effigy vessel; a rim sherd with three

54 M. A. Rolingson

large nodes projecting out from the rim; a rim sherd with two small nodes
projecting; and two sherds with single nodes. Seventeen handles were present;
two loop handles had a single and a double node above the handle on the rim;
of the fifteen strap handles, six had two nodes above the handle and three had
incising on the rim above the handle. There were two pottery pedestals both of
which were flat bottomed and flaring out to the base. A red paint had been
applied to the exterior surface of thirteen sherds. In addition, a thin red slip
had been applied over all or part of the exterior of sixteen sherds, with slip only
occasionally applied to the interior surface.

Bell Plain: Two flat-bottomed bowls could be partially reconstructed with
rim diameters of ten and eleven inches. Appendages consisted of a rim sherd
with node and one effigy lug which may be the tail piece of an effigy bowl. Five
potsherds from one vessel indicated part of an effigy vessel.

Trowel: One fragment of a pottery trowel was convex on the bottom with the
upper surface concave.

Pipes: Fragments of three pottery pipes indicated the use of small bi-conoidal
pipes. A fourth pottery pipe fragment, illustrated in Figure 6F, is the bowl of a
human effigy head pipe. It included such features as the eyes, ears, nose, mouth
and tongue.

Discussion: The potsherd types and jar forms conform to the common Mis-
sissippian pottery. The only evidences of ceremonialism present at the site are
fragments of four possible effigy vessels and an effigy head pipe.

Temporal Placement

There is little evidence at Kirtley on which to base valid con-
clusions concerning the temporal placement of its occupation. No
material was recovered or saved from which a radiocarbon date could
be obtained. However, house construction, pottery types and the
presence of a midden pit containing historic artifacts, give some indi-
cation. Once more is known about the Mississippian culture in Ken-.
tucky other factors may be utilized to establish its temporal placement.

The report on Jonathan Creek village (Webb, 1952) in Marshall
County is the only recent description of excavations at a Mississippian
village site in Kentucky. At this site, the wall trench type houses
appeared to precede those constructed with wall posts set individually.
In this report, Webb (1952:112-138 ) hypothesized that the wall trench
house was Chickasaw and the individual wall post house was Natchez.
The precedence of these two house types could not be determined at
Kirtley. If Webb's hypothesis is valid, then the Kirtley site may also
have been occupied late in the Mississippian period and into historic
times, that is after 1500. The Green River is, however, outside that
area usually considered to have been Chickasaw territory.

All of the pottery at Kirtley was shell tempered; however, a tenta-
tive temporal placement within the general Mississippian culture
can be hypothesized from the type of handles attached to these vessels.
Of seventeen handles, two were loop handles and fifteen were strap
handles. According to Phillips, Ford and Griffin (1951: 151-158), the

The Kirtley Site 55

greatest frequency of strap handles in the lower Mississippi River
valley occurs in the St. Francis sub-area with the Memphis sub-area
following. Toward the south they are rare. These authors theorize
that the handle is a northern feature, with a tentative chronological
sequence of loop-strap-decorative handles. At the Kincaid site in
southern Illinois, the loop handle is present in the early shell tempered
levels, and then progressively shifts to the strap type. In the Fort
Ancient area loop handles are interpreted as a part of early Missis-
sippian influences. Strap handles are also found in late cultural units
continuing into historic times, such as in the Fort Ancient and Oneota
Aspects. Therefore, the presence of a high percentage of strap handles
at the Kirtley village would indicate a late Mississippian time relation-
ship.

The final piece of evidence for dating lies in the presence of historic
artifacts in Feature 14. This midden pit contained refuse of historic
origin such as broken dishes, glass fragments, sheet tin, half of a bone
handle from a knife or fork, and artifacts of Indian origin such as
pottery, a sandstone ball and lumps of clay and sandstone. Unfortu-
nately, the only historic artifact saved was the bone handle. This pit
lay some sixty feet north of Feature 2. If it represents contact between
Indian and explorer or settler, the village postdates 1550. It is probable
that this pit was made after the Indian village had been abandoned.
Midden pits with a mixture of Indian and historic artifacts are present
on at least two other Kentucky Mississippian sites, Ly 18 and Bt 1
and Schwartz (1961:78) postulated that. the pit at Ly 18 was used
following the abandonment of the area by the Indians.

Relation to Other Excavated Mississippian Sites in Kentucky

A total of thirty-one excavated sites in Kentucky have artifacts
indicating the presence of Mississippian peoples. These sites are
located in Figure 2. Fifteen of these appear to be single component
sites. These include: Butler 21; Christian 2; Crittenden 1; Hickman 1;
Logan 1; Lyon 18; McLean 19; Marshall 4, 11, and 14; Russell 10, 17,
and 27; and Trigg 4 and 12. Reports on seven of these sites have been
published.

Christian 2, the Williams site (Webb and Funkhouser, 1929) con-
sisted of a mound with a structure on top and a cemetery containing
seventeen graves.

Crittenden 1, the Tolu site (Webb and Funkhouser, 1931) con-
sisted of three mounds, one of which was ceremonial and one of which
was a burial mound.

56 M. A. Rolingson

Hickman 7, the McLeod Bluff site (Webb and Funkhouser, 1933)
consisted of a temple mound, cemetery and village. Parts of the village
were excavated.

Logan 1, the Page site, (Webb and Funkhouser, 1980) contained
sixty-seven crematory or burial mounds and the remnant of an earth-
works.

Lyon 18, the Tinsley Hill site (Schwartz, 1961) was a stone grave
cemetery with related village and temple mound.

Marshall 4, the Jonathan Creek site (Webb, 1952) was a rather
extensive village with stockades and temple mounds.

Trigg 4, the Duncan site (Funkhouser and Webb, 1931) consisted
of a cemetery of sixty-two graves.

There is little evidence on which to base a comparison between
these seven sites and the Kirtley village. The house patterns are similar
to those at Jonathan Creek. Burial 2 at Kirtley is similar to the burials
at Williams, Duncan and Tinsley Hill. The chipped stone artifacts
show similarities to those illustrated for Tolu.

The best comparisons can be made with the Jonathan Creek
village, M1 4 (Webb, 1952), located on the bank of Jonathan Creek,
one mile above its junction with the Tennessee River in Marshall
County. But the comparison of traits in Table 3 indicate that the
Kirtley people did not have quite the variety or development of Mis-
sissippian culture as that present at Jonathan Creek.

Table 3.—Comparison of Traits at Kirtley and Jonathan Creek

Trait Kirtley Jonathan Creek

HZOCatlOmM OL SILEWCas ices. tee. vectuones cost octe ee nee seen ees on bluff above on precipitous
Cypress Creek bank above
bottomlands Jonathan Creek

StockaG@es withubastiOmsiee eee eee caterers se not enough
excavation? Xx

House types

Rostsisetiini wallutremchesi ue.) sce scceees esas 13 houses 38 houses

Jrivent wallipoostsuce-cesteseec a cceesucceereseete coe 2 15

Giver ar eee ee INNA ON ae 4
INTC aT avoeeesaseesces es casas case soeewasce see ces eereeamtiesats 6 70
Storagelpitspersecceee ate ears ce cena bel ane n ues 2
TSI PLACES eee sees ee ence ca etna cee nunc vac taunealene rte bee 11
1 BBS ORT TS a Bese Ce ee ee aN MarR ea Dal
Clay basins with raised clay rims ......................-. 2
leay ersOfaChert Aa SIMEMeS ecco eect eee eee eee cee 1

Layer of limestone and/or sandstone ..................
Very few burials, no cemetery ..............::csecceseeeees
Shallow burials in stone boxes ..............:066
Aibsenceror stoner bOxuce tse eerie

Xx
X

PA PA bo

The Kirtley Site 57

Table 3.— Continued

Trait Kirtley Jonathan Creek

JORG RET6 (2.0 hy a een eee a el

UE (creya yee OE boa: Sa iit oe
Projectile points

SLE TeTaTD HEL GhS’s Me EP

“ApretEa eS ah ob ey a Vet DN ae ee

Long, shallow side-notched .................0..00e00

| LieOnVerevo) Et ies sae case AE 5 een ere eee

iS) ELeTa) CSG eee Aare ok eae rere

SWEETS EET Sc lpia Ais tb eA a IP oe an rea eas A
Scrapers

Eom projectile POUES) <sis....0e<siseseseseooeiesseeses

Unifacial, plano-Convex. ...:...::0:.seisssscasscseesses
Drills

Stra la Eire tee ee eee es aerees sectaceeteeeeeec

LES gaye (at 0 of Gy otaedra ee Beane RRR a ne
( COTE ALE Aas eens ee or RECS EEE ee ee
TRXERISTYEIR | sGxapobodsooscdSarces00 eee COLON RE EE eee SECO
Blpped | StONE (CEMSs socsresacacssseecacoseeaeeentteede once aoe
VIN IN GLESICOTI YES stant aan eal basa SB Reeser ea a BSCo AES
LEIETaNE OVEtS. cee oe abe op aCREE ESSE AEE ee DoE SEE
| ESASE J BES) SS th At 8 to chan RP
PMS TOIT USEONES OF au. csetates cesncs sates ance eta cdewat neath scons
SAS ae oe Pe er ne eee awe er see ee a
WMG PEGOMEG ARES” <25.55cc/55.ccessshscewonshesvaaandsaseaceeures
[DUTSCUG eu CPS 8 SIRE Ai ate SFR Be ete a we Au a eS

nA

AM Mr MM

ra

eliammirine rStOMe Sivas cooncesc caer cee ences ee heee mene nee aa cece
Stome MD CAG Sererae eeree eisariee a ees
est esi eee wee wh x ayes Be Pad He a 9 Obl eisai

AM KM MMMM oO

( CUOPO IS WO) OYE eo re cease cree cree eee eee TE

Ablatlewwetsht ragmments ees s-2--..-sed-cescsscesccbasees seek

Pottery
Slippediar pated) cc. 4.2. .b2ect sce aeceseebecck ocezenense
HOOP nes! Ae chs BO as eee. Sedsn ene
Sac hamelesh -:2ul su sy oe eer eo,
Wecorateds Handles. t2..5.s..cscacescczer-nseet oatcsncess
ANU ES pe atone ees neee shee Nea aanset Poadeenegesceawaeties
Ratteryrcisks itt) fae eed et cadets
fire pwaternmoteles) o:.to20.t ce eevaten. cscs catiees
BEM MISS) fons ab is ncenmatsckwansce sakes av as cases cevaaxanwce
1 Pee | S65 Ip 0) path 2 ci nina ni a oe deat
| Dari ye gtr (ol | MRA eee antisense eon me
Fal OWES ere .cstesccte rae ee ess
DEST a gy UNO ots weseshtecea eas ancraee Medan ss oecacceccuntees

MA MM Mh KM
PA PP PO OM OS

Sixteen other excavated sites in Kentucky contain artifacts repre-
sentative of both Mississippian and earlier cultural manifestations.
These sites and the cultural occupations present are listed in Table 4.
The location of these sites is indicated in Figure 2.

58 M. A. Rolingson

Table 4. Multiple Component Mississippian Sites in Kentucky

Paleo- Early Middle Late
Site Indian Archaic Woodland Woodland Woodland Mississippian

Butler 1 XxX X
house patterns

Butler 2-20
house patterns

Butler 5 Xx X

Grayson 12

Hopkins 49 X x
house patterns

McLean 4 X

McLean 5

McLean 6
one house

McLean 7 Xx

McLean 11
one house

Marshall 8

house patterns
Ohio 1
Ohio 2 xX
Ohio 19 XxX

Trigg 10 x xX
one house

wm OM
mre MM OM

X( Late? )

a a os a a
ras
aa a a

This listing points out several significant facts. (1) That some areas
were more suited to a variety of economic needs is evident by the use
of a site by more than one culture. (2) That some sites were more’
intensively used by Mississippian peoples is indicated by the presence
of house patterns. The use of other sites, indicated mainly by the
presence of Mississippian pottery, was apparently rather temporary
or superficial. (3) Late Woodland and Mississippian appears to be
fundamentally related in the Green River drainage and may represent
the continuation of a basic cultural pattern with the gradual addition
of some Mississippian traits. (4) Clusters of Mississippian occupations
occur on the lower Tennessee and Cumberland, the central Green and
the upper Cumberland Rivers. However, this clustering may represent
insufficient or selected survey and excavation. The sites on the Mis-
sissippi, lower Tennessee and lower Cumberland Rivers are close to
the center of Mississippian development. Those on the upper Cumber-
land River can be accounted for by a spread of Mississippian culture
up that river through Tennessee. The more isolated sites on the Ohio
River can be accounted for by the spread of Mississippian culture up
that river. The sites on the Green River may be due either to spread
upstream along the Ohio and Green Rivers or to diffusion overland.

The Kirtley Site 59

Conclusions

The Kirtley site was a small Mississippian village, probably a farm-
ing community. It may have been occupied rather late in Mississippian
times. The most outstanding Mississippian features were the house
patterns and shell tempered pottery. It did not contain some of the
more usual Mississippian traits, especially any indication of ceremonial-
ism, except for fragments of four effigy vessels and one effigy pipe. It
was located in what appears at present to have been a rather isolated
cluster of Mississippian villages on the Green River.

It would seem that more problems have been raised than have been
answered in the description of this village, yet it is hoped that the
analysis of the material here will help to develop a picture of Missis-
sippian culture in Kentucky which will in turn solve some of the prob-
lems left unanswered at this site.

Literature Cited
Burroughs, W. G. 1924. The Geography of the Western Kentucky Coal Field.
Kentucky Geological Survey, Series 6. 24.

Funkhouser, W. D. and W. S. Webb 1931. The Duncan Site on the Kentucky-
Tennessee Line. University of Kentucky Reports in Archaeo. and Anthro.
1:(6).

Phillips, P., J. A. Ford, J. B. Griffin 1951. Archaeological Survey in the Lower
Mississippi Alluvial Valley, 1940-1947. PPMAAE. 25.

Schwartz, D. W. 1961. The Tinsley Hill Site. Studies in Anthropology, No. 1.

Webb, W. S. 1952. The Jonathan Creek Village, Site 4, Marshall County, Ken-
tucky, University of Kentucky Reports in Anthro. 9:(1).

Webb, W. S. and W. D. Funkhouser, 1929. The Williams Site in Christian County,
Ky. University of Kentucky Reports in Archaeo. and Anthro. 1:(1).

Webb, W. S. and W. D. Funkhouser, The Page Site in Logan Co., Kentucky,
University of Kentucky Reports in Archaeo, and Anthro. 1:(3).

Webb, W. S. and W. D. Funkhouser, 1931. The Tolu Site in Crittenden County,
Kentucky, University of Kentucky Reports in Archaeo. and Anthro. 1:(5).
Webb, W. S. and W. D. Funkhouser, The McLeod Bluff Site in Hickman County,

Kentucky, University of Kentucky Reports in Archaeo. and Anthro. 3:(1).

Webb, W. S. and W. B. Haag, 1940. Cypress Creek Villages, Sites 11 and 12,
McLean County, Kentucky, Pub. of the Dept. of Anthro. and Archaeo. 4:(2).

Accepted for publication 15 October, 1961.

PREPARATION OF SEVERAL SYMMETRICAL BISPHENOLIC MANNICH
DERIVATIVES OF BIOLOGICAL INTEREST

C. J. KORPICS, W. T. SMITH, JR., and J. R. MEADOW
Chemistry Department, University of Kentucky

Considerable interest in the application of chemotherapy and the
inhibition of cancer has been evident during the past two decades.
One approach has centered about the study of antimetabolites. For
example, Geschickter, Copeland and Scholler (1951) were interested
in finding amino acid antagonists which would be expected ultimately
to affect nucleic acid synthesis. Accordingly, they synthesized and
studied a number of symmetrical bisphenolic compounds containing
amino groups (I, II).

‘H) 2NCHo, CHLN(CH3)_
HO x OH
(CH,) NCHS CBLNCCH,),

tLe
I 4,4'Dihydroxy-3,3', 5, 5'+tetrakis(dimethylaminomethyl)diphenylketone,

>)

- where X = =C=0 ;
IT 4,4! Dihydroxy=3,3', 5, 5'=tetrakis(dimethylaminomethyl)diphenyl ether,
where Xe —O=,
Their investigation no doubt was prompted by the work of Boyland .
(1946) who reported the carcinolytic properties of 4,4’-diaminodi-
phenylether (III) and 4,4’-diaminodiphenylsulfoxide (IV).

rad Px pm

aes) ov.
III Where X = -0-, IV Where XS -S=,
0

Interest in symmetrical phenolic type compounds was further sub-
stantiated by the well known carcinolytic agent, diethylstilbestrol (V).

Derivatives of Biological Interest 61

Meadow and Reid (1954) continued the work of Geschickter and
co-workers in attempting to prepare new antimetabolites for further
study. Among those which showed some promise in this direction
were two amino derivatives of 4,4’-sulfonyl-bis-(2-acetamidophenol )
(VI, VI).

(NHCOCH3) (uECocH,)
oree
R R

VI, VII
VI Where R = -CH,N(C2Hs5)2 VII Where R = -CHjN(CH3)

The latter compound (VII) was reported by O’Brien and Meadow
(1958). Encouraging results from physiological tests on VI and VII
have prompted further study along these lines. The present investiga-
tion reports the preparation of some analogous compounds from bis-
acetamidophenols wherein the central atom or group has been varied
and is either an oxygen atom (VIII), a carbonyl group (IX), or an
isopropylidene group (X).

(wECOCE.) (wHCOCH,)
HO x OH
CHLNR,
VirL, If) ¥
R, = dimethyl or morpholine group VIII Where X = -0~.,
T Where X= C=O X Where X = CH,-C-CH,

Six new Mannich derivatives from bis-acetamidophenols have been
prepared (Table III) and they will undergo further study later as to
their specific physiological properties. The overall synthesis of each
compound involved careful nitration of the corresponding bis-phenol,
reduction of both nitro groups to amino groups, acetylation of the
diamino compound, and finally the introduction of a Mannich group
(dimethylaminomethyl and/or morpholinomethyl) in the position
ortho to the hydroxy group in each ring. The nitro compounds, the
amines, and the resulting bis-acetamidophenols used as intermediates
are listed in Table Il. The di-Mannich derivatives of all the bis-
acetamidophenols having open ortho positions were prepared with the
exception of the dimorpholinomethyl derivative of 4,4’-isopropylidene-
bis-(2-acetamidophenol). In this case only the monomorpholinome-
thyl derivative was obtained.

62 C. J. Korpics, W. T. Smith, Jr., and J. R. Meadow

During the isolation procedures of all Mannich products from bis-
acetamidophenols it was observed that these compounds appeared to
be rather unstable in heated solvents and highly colored solutions
usually resulted. This fact was further verified when any of the
derivatives were placed on a melting point block and heated to
temperatures above 150°. All of the compounds slowly turned to a
brick red color.

These highly colored products suggest the formation of a quinoid
structure somewhere in the compound, especially when one of the
decomposition products is known to be a volatile amine. Preliminary
studies on the heat degradation of Mannich compounds from _bis-
acetamidophenols, using 3,3’-diacetamido-4,4’-dihydroxy-5,5’-bis-( di-
methylaminomethy] )-diphenylsulfone ( VII), have shown that dimethy-
amine is evolved when the compound is heated to 200° or above in a
stream of nitrogen gas. The red or orange-red residue is believed to
have a mono- or a diquinoid structure depending on conditions of
heating. Analysis points to the diquinoid compound (XI or XII) after
exhaustive deamination has taken place.

(wucocH,) (wecocH) — (cocH,), ,NCOCE,

pe pee
Gi sa, ee GN ea aR

The ease with which these Mannich derivatives form quinones —
suggests a possible mode of biological action. Lehmann (1947) found
diethylstilbestrol, which readily forms a quinone, to be capable of
inhibiting the mitosis of Tubifex eggs in exceedingly low concentra-
tions. Benzoquinone, napthoquinone and phenanthraquinone were
even more active than diethylstilbestrol. A number of other quinones
were shown to possess antimitotic action by Reed (1949), and com-
pounds capable of forming quinones such as diamino, dihydroxy and
hydroxy-amino compounds were shown to be active by Parmentier
(1948, 1949). Phenols and amines not easily oxidized to quinones
were shown not to be active in this respect.

Experimental

3,3’-Dinitro-4,4’-dihydroxydiphenyl ether. To a stirred solution of
10.1 g. (0.05 mole) of 4,4’-dihydroxydipheny] ether in 160 ml. of glacial
acetic acid and 100 ml. of benzene was added 9.08 g. (0.10 mole) of
concentrated nitric acid over a 2-hour period while the temperature
was kept at 0.5°. The reaction was continued for 1-hour and then the

Derivatives of Biological Interest 63

mixture was poured into 2 1. of cracked ice, filtered, and washed with
cold water to give 10.9 g. (75%) of crude product, m.p. 145--155°.
Five recrystallizations from 95% ethanol gave an analytical sample
which softened at 153° and melted at 159--161°. Analysis indicated
that the sample was solvated.

Anal. Caled. for CyzN20;Hs.C2H;OH: N, 8.28. Found: N, 8.49.

3,3’-Dinitro-4,4’-dihydroxybenzophenone. To a stirred solution of
21.4 g. (0.10 mole) of 4,4’-dihydroxybenzophenone in 300 ml. of glacial
acetic acid was added a solution of 13.9 ml. (0.22 mole) of concen-
trated nitric acid in 300 ml. of glacial acetic acid over a 2.5 hour period
while the temperature was kept at 20-25°. The mixture was stirred
for an additional hour, cooled, filtered and washed with cold water to
give 20.2 g. (66%) of product, m.p. 192-7°. Four recrystallizations
from glacial acetic acid raised the m.p. to 199-200°.

Anal. Caled. for Cy3N20;Hs: N, 9.21. Found: N, 9.50.

Since Consonno (1904) reported a m.p. of 172° for this compound,
we have further established the nature of our product by converting it
to 3,3’-dinitro-4,4’-diethoxybenzophenone, m.p. 155-156°.

Anal. Caled. for C,;H;sN207: N, 7.78. Found: N, 7.75.

Bis-aminophenols. The following procedure illustrates the general
method used for the preparation of the aminophenols listed in Table I.

To a suspension of 13.6 g. (0.04 mole) of 3,3’-dinitro-4,4’-dihydroxy-
diphenylsulfone in 130 ml. of 95% ethanol and 75 ml. of water was
added 6.8 g. (0.21 mole) of 95% hydrazine and 1 g. of Raney nickel
catalyst. The deep red solution was refluxed gently for 0.5 hour after
which time an additional 6.8 g. of hydrazine was added and refluxing
was continued for another 0.5 hour. Completion of the reaction was
indicated by a color change from deep red to pale yellow. In some
cases it was necessary to add an additional portion of hydrazine to
complete the reduction. The hot solution was filtered to remove nickel
and the filtrate was evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure to
give 10.9 g. of brown solid. Recrystallization from 1.5 1. of water gave
7.9 g. (71%) of 8,3’-diamino-4,4’-dihydroxydiphenylsulfone, m.p. 233-
235° (decomp. ).

Anal. Caled. for CyzHizN2SO,4: N, 9.96. Found: N, 10.00.

Bis-acetamidophenols. The following procedure illustrates the
general method used for the preparation of the compounds listed in
Table II.

To a suspension of 7.74 g. (0.03 mole) of 4,4’-isopropylidene-bis-
(2-aminophenol) in 150 ml. of glacial acetic acid was added 6.4 g.

C. J. Korpics, W. T. Smith, Jr., and J. R. Meadow

64

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Derivatives of Biological Interest

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C. J. Korpics, W. T. Smith, Jr., and J. R. Meadow

66

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Derivatives of Biological Interest 67

(0.06 mole ) of acetic anhydride and the mixture was heated on a steam
bath for 5 hours. The mixture was cooled and filtered and the
precipitate was washed with dilute hydrochloric acid and water to give
9.4 g. (92%) of 4,4’-isopropylidene-bis-2-acetamidophenol, m.p. 262-
263.5°.

Mannich derivatives of the bis-acetamidophenols. The following
procedure is typical of that used to prepare the compounds listed in
Table III.

To a suspension of 3.4 g. (0.01 mole) of 4,4’-isopropylidene-bis- (2-
acetamidophenol ) in 6.2 g. (0.035 mole) of an aqueous 25% dimethy]l-
amine solution and 5 ml. of ethanol was added 2 g. of 87% aqueous
formaldehyde over a 45 minute period with swirling and cooling. The
mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature 4 hours, was heated
on a steam bath for 4 hours, and was then diluted with 200 ml. of
acetone. The acetone was removed on a steam bath, more acetone was
added and this process was repeated until the strong odor of amine
was removed. Finally, the acetone solution was allowed to stand at
room temperature while the walls of the flask were scratched fre-
quently with a glass rod. The orange powder which eventually
separated weighed 2.75 g. (60%), m.p. 124-131°. Two recrystalliza-
tions from acetone gave an analytical sample, m.p. 186-137.5°.

Summary

A number of Mannich derivatives of some bis-phenols have been
prepared for testing of their carcinolytic activity. These bis-phenols
have different central groups, such as an isopropylidene group, a
carbonyl group, or an oxygen.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to thank the Geschickter Fund for Medical
Research, Washington, D. C., for help and cooperation in carrying out
the present research program. Especially do they appreciate the help-
ful suggestions of Dr. C. F. Geschickter of the Georgetown Medical
School, and also Dr. E. Emmet Reid, Professor Emeritus of Johns
Hopkins University.

LITERATURE CITED

Boyland, E. 1946. Biochem. J. 40:55
Consonno, F. 1904. Gazz. Chem. Ital. 34:385

Geschickter, C. F., Copeland, M. M. and Scholler, J. 1951. Bulletin of The George-
town University Medical Center 2:67

Lehmann, F. E, 1947. Experientia 3:223

68 C. J. Korpics, W. T. Smith, Jr., and J. R. Meadow

Meadow, J. R. and Reid, E. E. 1954. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76:3479
O’Brien, G. and Meadow, J. R. 1958. Trans. Ky Acad Sci. 19:1
Parmentier, R. and Dustin, P., Jr. 1948. Nature 161:527
Parmentier, R. 1949. Compt. rend. soc. biol. 143:585

Reed, H. S. 1949. Experientia 5:237

Accepted for publication 4 October 1961.

A CANNEL COAL TENSION RUPTURE

ALLEN L. LAKE
Morehead State College, Morehead, Kentucky

On September 12, 1960, an anticline-like fold began forming in a
stratum of cannel coal in the Breathitt formation on the Rush Branch
area of Morgan County, Kentucky (Lennox quadrangle). The one
meter thick seam of coal had been prepared for strip mining by the
removal of an overburden of sandy shale ranging in thickness from
two to six meters. The actual fold ran longitudinally for a distance of
twelve meters, and had a width of four meters at the widest point.
The fold extended from the working face of the mine with a gradu-
ally tapering shape to the plunging end of its anticlinal aspect.

Cannel Coal in Eastern Kentucky typically appears showing three
somewhat different grades of coal in each stratum. These are called,
in order from the upper surface downward, top curly, table block,
and bottom curly. The upper and lower parts of the sandwich display
a characteristic conchoidal fracture when broken, hence the term,
curly. The middle portion of the stratum retains a rectangular ap-
pearance reminiscent of the cuboidal nature of the standard grades
of bituminous coal from which it derives its description, table block.

In the fold, the table block proved less yielding to tension pres-
sures and either fractured openly or retained its original shape. The
top curly underwent considerable bending for a material that is so
brittle.

Mining operations were going on when the deformation began.
Loud snapping noises were reported, and the rising stratum could
be perceived. Workers on the section ran from the area. Local
miners, many of whom have had considerable experience with cannel
coal, indicated that they had never seen anything like this before.
The miners postulated that the heat from the sun had caused an
expansion of the exposed surface and caused the rupture. However,
such strata are often exposed to direct sunlight without similar results.

The major difference between this area and other strip mines was
its location in respect to the natural drainage pattern. The cannel coal
stratum had held a position directly under a small intermittent creek
bed. In preparing the area for mining, bulldozers had pushed rock
and soil upstream forming a dam across the natural drainage trough.
Since the season was relatively dry, no enpondment was maintained.
Nevertheless, there was evidence that water had collected at some
time and had either evaporated or percolated downward through
the soil and rock. Below at the site of the rupture, a steady trickle

70 Allen L. Lake

Fig. 1.—A cannel coal tension rupture.

of water was emerging from under the cannel coal stratum. The non-
affected portion of the stratum was dry.

It is possible that heat may have been a contributing factor to
the total tension within the stratum, but a determining factor seems
to have been the presence of a continuous supply of water at the
actual site of the bulge. Absorption of water by cannel coal may
be the distinguishing feature of such an occurrence.

Accepted for publication 20 June, 1961

QUINALDINE AS AN ANESTHETIC ON SIREDON MEXICANUM (SHAW)

ROGER M. KATZ

Contribution No. 45 (New Series) from the Biology Department,
University of Louisville, Louisville 8, Kentucky

Experimenters dealing with aquatic heterothermous animals are
confronted with the problems of how to keep the animals non-sensitive
and inactive during surgical and postsurgical stages. Insensitivity
is desirable not only for humane reasons but also to facilitate handling
of normally slippery animals and to reduce the chances of accidental
injury.

Chemical anesthesia is more acceptable than physical anesthesia
through chilling or electrical shock because the latter may cause severe
stress leading to physiological shock syndromes (Pickford and Atz,
1957). Among the chemical anesthetics, qinaldine (2-methylquin-
oline) provides the inactive and insensitive state that decreases the
chances of physiological shock and mishaps (Muench, 1958). Mc-
Farland (1960) presented a good review of anesthetics used in fish-
eries, their effective concentrations, and their advantages and disad-
vantages. He does not discuss the uses of quinaldine, but he states
that through anesthesia the loss of motility and muscle tone along with
the loss of equilibrium and reflex activity are desirable for operating
and handling. Quinaldine has also been used as an anesthetic on
the guppy for radiation experiments (Balling and Scott, in press).
This report is on the usefulness of quinaldine as an anesthetic on the
axolotl, Siredon mexicanum Shaw.

According to Newth (1960) this salamander was first noted by
Francisco Hernandez about 1520, and was first described in zoological
literature as Gyrinus mexicanus by Shaw in 1789 (Smith and Taylor,
1948). The common name “axolotl” is the original Aztec designation.
All individuals used in this experiment were obtained from stock of
Dr. R. R. Humphrey, Department of Zoology, Indiana University.
Both albinistic and normally pigmented animals were used; the
former stemmed from individuals brought from Poland in the 1930’s,
and the normally pigmented stock were bred in Germany for some
time before being brought to the United States. Albino axolotls ap-
parently descended from crosses made in Paris by Dumeril at the
Jardin des Plantes in 1868 of spotted and black axolotls (Newth, 1960).
The albinism is inherited as an autosomal recessive and was achieved
atfer several backcrossings.

Quinaldine has the formula CH3 Cy Cs N, a molecular weight of

20
143.18, and specific gravity of 1.059 — ° . It is a colorless, oily liquid
4

12 Roger M. Katz

that turns brown on exposure to air. It occurs in coal tar, is slightly
soluble in water, has a quinoline odor, and is made from aniline,
acetaldehyde, and hydrochloric acid (Stecher, 1960). The quin-
aldine used in this experiment was manufactured by Matheson, Cole-
man, and Bell, practical grade, batch number 394126.

The anesthetic was stirred vigorously in four liters of water in a
five-liter battery jar until it became finely suspended. The time re-
quired for each of 9 concentrations, ranging 82 to 528 mg/l, to pro-
duce deleterious effects was measured in order to determine the
optimal concentration for prolonged anesthesia.

After the suspensions were prepared, one animal was placed in
each battery jar. Removal of the animal from the quinaldine sus-
pension involved rinsing with cold tap water and then placing it in
fresh aerated water for recovery. Controls maintained in city tap
water showed no harmful effects from purification additives which
were presumably present. Experimentation and recovery procedures
were carried out at room temperatures. Thirteen different animals
were used for a total of 38 experimental runs. The average weight
of the animals used was 81.4 grams with only one animal below 80
grams (70.1 grams) and none above 90.6 grams. All animals were
fed 36 to 48 hours before experimentation.

Results

There is a direct relationship between the concentration of quin-
aldine used to induce anesthesia and the time required for total
anesthesia (Figure 1). Results were obtained in the range of 80 to
528 mg/l but concentrations greater than 528 mg/l proved lethal
in all experiments. No adverse effects were noted in 260 to 400
mg/l range if the animals were promptly transferred to a lower con-
centration of 96 mg/] after total anesthesia was achieved, whereas
those kept in 264 mg/I for an exposure of five hours and then trans-
ferred to fresh water suffered a swelling of the mandibular region
and an apparent tetanus of the muscles in that region. Animals in
this condition had typical reactions to stimuli, but the mandibular
muscles were insuch pronounced tetany that even when pressure was
applied the mouth could not be opened. If forced fed, the food was
regurgitated within a few hours. After about two weeks of “starva-
tion” the animal died. This indicates damage to the branchial region
or innervation thereof, and/or to the gastrointestinal tract. Other
indications of gastrointestinal disturbance were that 45 percent of
the animals placed in varied concentrations of quinaldine for dif-
ferent lengths of time regurgitated, whereas only 30 percent regur-
gitated when recovery was effected immediately after being induced

Quinaldine as an Anesthetic 73

with anesthesia; no significant correlation appears between the re-
gurgitation and death. It seemed to be an individual characteristic,
with a greater incidence at lower concentrations than at higher
concentrations.

600

S00

MG/L
i
(oe)
(oe)

300

200

CONCENTRATION OF QUINALDINE,

100

60 50 40 30 20 10 0
TIME REQUIRED FOR TOTAL ANAESTHESIA, MIN.

Fig. 1.—Concentration of quinaldine vs time required for total anesthesia (Quinaldine
concentration as mg/1 of water)

74 Roger M. Katz

The high concentrations, 264 to 396 mg/l, were lethal after five
hours of exposure. However, the transferring of the ainmals from this
range to lower concentration after 4 hours was not attempted. Below
80 mg/I anesthesia was only partial with activity and sensitivity re-
tained, and if the animals were left at this level for 4 or 5 hours,
death sometimes occurred.

A concentration of 96 mg/] of quinaldine appeared to give the most
desirable, prolonged anesthesia. In some cases the axolotls were

PET AAV CEVEE

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14 q
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RECOVERY TIME, HOURS

Fig. 2.—Time under anesthesia ys time required for recovery. (Quinaldine concentration
96 mg/l. See text for further explanation.)

Quinaldine as an Anesthetic 75

initially anesthetized at a higher concentration of 896 mg/] and then
transferred to the 96 mg/l concentration immediately after anesthesia
was induced. This reduced the experimental time by 40 minutes and
there were no apparent differences between those initially placed in
higher concentrations and those which were induced in the 96 mg/l
concentration. Consequently the 396 and 95 mg/] data are combined
in Figure 2. This figure shows an increase in recovery time with
increase in exposure time until about two hours. Recovery remains
at this “plateau” until exposure was increased to lethal time of 16
hours (Figure 2). Individuals kept 16 hours under anesthesia died
a short time after transfer to fresh water. After sustained anesthesia
it was observed that recovery usually occurred first on one side of
the body and then on the other. This occurred in no particular
sequence. One side of the body appeared to be temporarily paralyzed.
No permanent effects on the sensory nervous system were noticed.

Recovery time after immediate removal of the animal from various
concentrations of quinaldine to fresh water is related to the con-
centrations of quinaldine used, but there were individual differences
(Figure 3). The greatest difference is between 132 and 264 mg/l
concentration. The others appear to follow a more or less direct
relationship. Some of the axolotls in this experiment were subjected
several times to various doses of anesthetic and in no case were ad-
verse effects observed. Reproduction occurred one month after ex-
periments ceased; hence, this capacity was not affected.

500 =

aS
(o)
(o)

Ww
fo)
Oo

200

i0o

CONCENTRATION, MG/L

Oo
(o)

60

10 20 30 50 70 100 200
RECOVERY TIME, MINUTES

Fig. 3—Concentration of quinaldine vs time required for recovery. (Animals were removed
to fresh aerated water immediately after anesthesia induction).

76 Roger M. Katz

Discussion and Conclusions

Quinaldine has an effective use at relatively wide range of con-
centrations, has little adverse effects if used properly, and may be
used to maintain anesthesia over a relatively long period of time.
In this experiment 96 mg/I at 15 hours was the most desirable con-
centration and the longest duration under anesthesia. The undesir-
able effects of quinaldine on the axolotls correspond with those of
chloretone on Ambystoma punctatum embryos, as reported by Car-
michael (1926). Carmichael found that defects due to a stronger
than tolerable dose of chloretone resulted in bloating of the whole
body which either ended in death or seriously interferred with later
movements. The present results resemble also those of McFarland
(1960), if higher concentrations of various anesthetics were used for
anesthesia in fishes the specimens had to be removed promptly
after induction; however, these results of axolotls differ with Mc-
Farland’s findings that fishes were able to be held under sustained
anesthesia (12 hours) without fatality if dosages slightly below the
lethal concentration were used. The time of about ten minutes to
induce deep anesthesia in axolotls at high concentrations of quin-
aldine is in agreement with that of other anesthetics used on large
fish. McFarland (1960) and Muench (1958) both found that recovery
time was proportional to the length of exposure and to the con-
centrations of the anesthetic. They along with others found that
recovery after anesthesia of one or more exposures appears to be
complete and without adverse, long term effects. These agree with
the present experiment.

If used in proper concentrations, quinaldine is found to possess
the following useful anesthetic properties: 1) it is low in cost and
can be either synthesized or obtained as a by-product of coal tar;
2) it is slightly soluble in water but if mixed vigorously, a fine sus-
pension will form that is ideal for inducing anesthesia; 3) it can be
used over a wide latitude, 80 to 528 mg/l with axolotls; 4) it can
induce anesthesia in nine to ten minutes at high concentrations from
396 to 528 mg/I, and in fifty minutes at 96 mg/l; and, 5) anesthesia
in axolotls can be maintained up to 15 hours at 96 mg/l, or at higher
concentrations anesthesia could be maintained up to four hours with
no apparent permanent, adverse effects. After knowing the quin-
aldine characteristics and its desirable concentrations, it is recom-
mended for use.

The author wishes to thank the following members of the Uni-
versity of Louisville, Biology Department for their criticisms and
valuable suggestions: Drs. W. M. Clay, L. A. Krumholz, and D. Jack-

Quinaldine as an Anesthetic ‘hae

son for reviewing the manuscript; Dr. L. A. Krumholz for his aid in
drawing the graphs; Mr. W. L. Minckley for his criticism and sug-
gestions with the experiment and manuscript; and Mr. J. B. Kirk-
wood for his help in the experimental work.

Literature Cited
Carmichael, L. 1926. The development of behavior in vertebrates experimentally
removed from the influence of external stimulation. Psychol. Re., 33:51-58.

McFarland, W. N., 1960. The use of anesthetics for handling and transportation
of fish. Calif. Fish and Game, 46 (4): 407-432.

Muench, A., 1958. Quinaldine, a new anesthetic for fish. Prog. Fish Cult., 20
(1) :42-44.
Newth, D. R., 1960. Black axolotl and white. Am. Scientist, 48 (3):300-310.

Pickford, G. E., and J. S. Atz, 1957. “The Physiology of the Pituitary Gland of
Fishes.” N. Y. Zool. Soc., xxiii: 613 pp.

Smith, and E. H. Taylor, 1948. An annotated checklist and key to the amphibia
of Mexico. Smithsonian Institute, Bull. 194, U. S. Nat. Museum:108pp.

Stecher, P. G., 1960. “The Merck Index” 7th edition, Merck and Co., Rahway,
N. J.:1641 pp.

Accepted for publication 1 July, 1961

A FOOTNOTE ON HORSE RACE BETTING

RICHARD M. GRIFFITH
Veterans Administration Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky

In an early note Griffith (1949) showed that horse race bettors put
too much money on horses which have little chance of winning and
too little on those most likely to win. McGlothlin (1956) repeated the
study, confirming the results and revealing many further potentialities
in the data by considering the position of the race in the day’s program.
An obvious extension of the analysis—one which McGlothlin picked up
but brushed over lightly—is to turn from win betting to “show” betting.
The person who would like to bet on a surer thing than even the
heavy favorite to win the race may bet that he will “place,” that is,
finish first or second, or, what is more likely yet, that he will “show,”
finish third or better. The tendency to under-bet the most probable
event should appear in its most marked degree in show betting.

The reader who does not have a fundamental conception of the
mechanics of pari mutuel betting may refer to one of the above
references for sources. The bettor pits his skill against that of the
crowd, for the pattern of their bets determines the odds. All bettors
suffer under the handicap, however, that taxes and the track “take”
13-15 percent of the pool before it is divided among those with
winning tickets and the amount is further reduced through “break-
age, the loose change of pennies and nickels with which the track
cant be bothered and which it therefore keeps. Opinions vary as to
whether anyone can overcome such handicaps and win consistently.

In show betting the amounts of money bet into the show pool on
the various horses also determines the amount to be returned to those
bettors who win. However, the division is more complicated. Whereas
the totalisator keeps the patrons informed at 45 second intervals as to
the approximate amount to be returned on a horse to win, the pay-off
to show cannot be easily computed because it depends on the other
two horses which finish with him. After the race is run, the amount
bet on each of the first three horses is removed from the total show
pool, the pool first having been reduced, of course, by the take. These
amounts will return to the winning bettors their original investments.
The profit to the bettors on each horse is determined in a debatable
way: by splitting what is left in the pool evenly three ways, irrespective
of how likely or unlikely each horse had been to qualify. Furthermore,
it may be realized, loss through breakage is proportionately greater at
the smaller pay-offs. All of which is to say that the show bettor can

Footnote on Horse Race Betting 79

have no clear notion of how much he stands to win.1 He knows that
he will generally collect less for a show bet on the favorite than on
a long shot but he can only have a vague idea of how much less. His
betting on horses to show, and particularly on the horses with short
odds-to-win to show, can reflect only his desire to bet on the surest
thing around. The present note, in the nature of a footnote to the pre-
vious paper, is aimed at measuring the extent to which bettors do this.

All horses which went to the post at odds-to-win of less than 2 to 1
(returning less than $3 for $1) for two separate months of American
racing, May, 1949 and August, 1960, were considered—some 4543 of
them.? The number which did not show was tabulated as was the
pay-off to show for those which did.

As would be expected from the above discussion, the pay-off to
show is quite variable; for instance, in the odds-to-win group of
1.80-1.95 to 1, the profit from a dollar bet on horses which did show
ranged from .10 to $1.40. In other groups there were instances in
which a horse which won the race paid more on a show ticket than
he did to win.

There are two ways to compute the post facto “odds-to-show”: one,
depending on how the horses did, is the percent which did not show;
the other, depending on what the bettors did, is the average profit
(allowing for the horses which did not show). Fig. 1 presents the
results. Below odds-to-win of 1.40 to 1, there is systematic under-
betting, even to the extent of overcoming the loss to breakage and
take, for which these data were not corrected.* The lines cross sharply
in the 1.40-1.55 to 1 range due to a dip in profits in this range. Since
the point of crossing was consistent between the years (and the dip,
also, which may or may not mean something), only the combined
results need be shown. A rough statistical test of the reliability of the
results was a comparison between the two years of the directions of
the differences between the two odds-to-show within each class inter-
val: the binomial probability (7 of the 8 being in the same direction )
was less than .05.

1 From the viewpoint of the bettors as a whole, there is such a thing as a good
bet at the race course—one which returns more money to them than they put in;
oddly enough, under unusual circumstances the track can lose money. The
minimum pay-off permitted by law in most states gives 10 cents profit on the
dollar, the winning bettor thus being assured at least $1.10 for his $1. With only
a few horses entered in a race and with one of them likely to be established as an
overwhelming favorite, the track may suspend show betting to protect itself against
a negative pool.

2 As reported in the Daily Racing Form Chart Book, 54, No. 5, 1949 and 45
(sic.), No. 8, 1960, Triangle Publications, Inc., Chicago.

3 Cf. McGlothlin, op. cit., and Griffith, op. cit.

80 Richard M. Griffith

22 et
°

= 20; r) hie ge
oO
op) @ fo)

16 O——OPER CENT HORSES WHICH
2 3 A ee DID NOT SHOW
=e fo) @——@PER CENT PROFIT ON BETS
Q
fa)
1) .

.20- .60- .80- 1.00- 1.20- 1.40- 1.60- 1.80-
Aske) atfe) -95 mite) 1.35 155 1.75 1.95
ODDS TO WIN
Fig. 1.—Post facto “odds” to finish first, second, or third in relation to odds to win.

To interpret the results in other language, a bettor would have
shown a net profit had he bet on all horses to show which went to the
post at odds-to-win of less than 1.40 to 1 during the periods of this
study. Had it been practical to bet on every horse at the proper odds-
to-win (546 of them) in May, 1949, he would have netted a profit of
6.15 cents per dollar bet; in August, 1960, his profit would have been
2.4 cents on the dollar (1496 bets).

The difference between the rates of profit in the two years was
due to an increase in the number of horses which did not show in
1960. The proportion of losers in the two years differed significantly
by the chi square test beyond the .01 level of confidence. The rate of
return for those which did show rose by 2.6 cents, otherwise there
would have been a net loss in 1960. (It would not be prudent with
the data at hand to account for these shifts between the two years,
accepting them as genuine.) Profits could be improved by other con-
siderations, of course: the careful reader will be able to estimate that
McGlothlin (1956, p. 611) found a net profit of around 10 or I1
percent on horses whose odds-to-win were less than 2 to 1 in the
eighth race of the day.

Thus, as was to be expected, the tendency, which had been demon-
strated with win betting, for horse race bettors to place too little

Footnote on Horse Race Betting 81

money on the horses most likely to win is magnified in their even more
conservative bets on the same horses to show.*

Literature Cited

Griffith, R. M. 1949. “Odds adjustments by American horse-race bettors.” Amer.
J. Psychol. 62:290-294.

McGlothlin, W. H. 1956. “Stability of choices among uncertain alternatives.”
Amer. J. Psychol. 69:604-615.

Accepted for publication 26 September 1961.

4 We have hesitated to report the findings on the 1949 races and their con-
firmation in 1960. When his results are in real life, the scientist must pause to
consider that some may think them practical, use or misuse them. Before one
plays the fiddle he should know who will dance. (There was a strange malady
epidemic in the Middle Ages (tarantism) which compelled the victim to dance,
and he could not stop.) We do not court the distinction of demonstrating a
method to “beat the races,” even though our home in Kentucky is surrounded by
the thorobred industry. As a psychologist we are gratified, however, that the
discovery came about from a psychological presupposition—that the spirit of
gambling is to risk little to gain much.

A KEY TO PREHISTORIC KENTUCKY POTTERY

DOUGLAS W. SCHWARTZ
Museum of Anthropology, University of Kentucky

INTRODUCTION

Prehistoric Kentucky ceramics have received only slight attention
from the archaeologist. This situation has resulted mainly from the
fact that the early archaeological work in the state by Funkhouser and
Webb was concentrated on non-pottery Archaic and Woodland sites
where pottery was not important to the analysis. Recent archaeo-
logical work on late prehistoric occupations where pottery was of
major importance has necessitated a re-examination of our knowledge
of prehistoric ceramics in Kentucky. One result of this work has been
the development of a key for the identification of the pottery types
used in archaeological analysis. This key is designed for use by pro-
fessional or amateur archaeologists working in the state or areas im-
mediately adjacent to it, who are attempting to identify the type of
pottery found at a particular site or group of sites. The publication
of this key is meant to stimulate interest in pottery bearing sites of
Kentucky, give the amateur collectors a greater understanding of their
own collections, and to make the key available for corrections, check-
ing, and revision. A future publication is planned which will include
detailed pottery type descriptions, distribution maps, drawings, more
exact time and cultural assignments for each type, as well as a key.
Needless to say, the present key is meant only as a beginning and a
guide to those interested in the subject who might be able to fill in
details from private or public collections.

Following the name of each pottery type, a cultural period has
been inserted in parentheses. The approximate temporal and spacial
relationship of these four periods can be seen in Figure 1. Although
in some cases, fairly definite dates are known for pottery types, in most
instances this is not the case. Therefore, no dates have been added to
any types. Keys for the identification of pottery types are not common
in archaeology. Harold S. Colton began using the technique in north-
ern Arizona in the early 1930’s. His interest in keys undoubtedly stems
from his background as a zoologist. As far as the author is aware,
however, there are no keys for pottery identification in the eastern
United States. The development of this outline introduction to Ken-
tucky pottery types, however, has brought to the attention of the
author several problems. Foremost is the double naming of pottery
types. It will be noted that some can be identified only by knowing
the location, either north or south Kentucky. This would imply that a

Prehistoric Kentucky Pottery 83

NESh= Ch NOETHERN. | CENTIZAM)..| moguSonS

FORT ANCIENT UNKNOWN 72

REGION

DATES
1650 AD

MISSISSIPPIAN

900 AD

1 AD ADENA JAD
B00 BC! WoopLAND a = rae Ser a5 it 45 ~~" WOOULAND eect
1000 BC 1000 BC

ARCHAIC
6000 uc : @000 BC
PALEO - INDIAN UNKNOWN ?
13000 8C 13000 8c

Fig. 1—Chart presenting the presumed temporal and spatial relationships of archaeo-
logical and ethnological cultures in Kentucky.

pottery type originaly named in Ohio and one originally named in
Tennessee are in essence the same type. The decision as to whether
both of these names should be retained, or only one, it is hoped will
be one of the outcomes of the general study of prehistoric pottery now
being conducted at the University of Kentucky Museum of Anthro-

pology.

KEY
A. Not shell tempered—C

B. Shell tempered—J

C. Grit tempered
1. some limestone temper—D
2. clay temper—E
3. other grit tempering—F

D. Limestone temper
1. surface altered—G
2. surface not altered—H

E. Clay tempered
1. surface altered
a. cordmarking
1. micaceous surface—Levissa Cordmarked (Adena)
2. non-micaceous surface—Mulberry Creek Cordmarked (Woodland)
b. cord wrapped dowel impressed—Baumer Fabric Impressed (Woodland)

c. Individual cord impressed in rectilinear designs—Baumer Cordmarked
(Woodland )

84

y)

“se

Douglas W. Schwartz

d. zone incised—Yankeetown Incised (Woodland )

e. addition of narrow notched strips of clay below rim—Yankeetown Fillet
( Woodland )

f. lines at parallel ticks joined by center line—Yankeetown Pseudo Filiet
(Woodland )

surface unaltered—Baytown Plain (Woodland )

Grit tempered other than limestone and clay

il,

9

ae

flint tempered—Fayette Thick (Adena)

quartz sand

a. plain surface—O’Neal Plain—( Woodland )

b. simple stamped and neck punctations—Paintsville Simple stamped
(Adena)

c. punctations in cordmarked surface—Zorn Punctate (Adena)

sand

a. micaceous surface—Johnson Plain (Adena)

b. non-micaceous surface—Rudder Cordmarked (Woodland )

Surface altered limestone temper

cordmarked—I

incised—Montgomery Incised (Adena)

check stamped—Wright Check Stamped (Woodland)

fabric impressed—Baumer Fabric Impressed (Woodland )
simple stamped—Rough River Simple Stamped (Woodland)

Unaltered surface, limestone temper

Ibe

ee smoothed, tool marks frequently visible, average less than 10 mm.
thic

a. northern and central distribution—Adena Plain (Adena)

b. southern distribution—Mulberry Creek Plain (Woodland)

interior not smooth, average more than 10 mm. thick—Fayette Thick
( Adena)

interior not smooth, average less than 10 mm. thick—Rough River Plain
(Woodland )

Cordmarked, limestone tempered

I

bo

cordmarking random

a. thick, over 10 mm.—Fayette Thick (Adena)

b. thin, under 10 mm.—Rough River Cordmarked (may be same as Flint
River Cordmarked) (Woodland)

cord wrapped dowel impressed—Baumer Fabric Impressed (Woodland )

individual cord impressed in rectilnear designs—Baumer Cordmarked
(Woodland )

Shell tempered

Ike
2.

surface not altered—K
surface altered—N

Shell tempered, surface unaltered

1N
2.

thick over 10 mm.—L
thin, under 10 MM.—M

Shell tempered, unaltered surface, thick

1

(coarse shell temper) tool marks on the interior—Wickliffe Plain ( Missis-
sippian )

Prehistoric Kentucky Pottery 85

2. (coarse shell) no tool marks on interior

a. northern distribution—Fox Farm Salt Pan (Fort Ancient)
b. southwestern distribution—Kimmswick Plain (Mississippian )

M. Shell tempered, surface unaltered, thin
ile
2.
3.

rough surface, heavy temper—Neeley’s Ferry Plain (Mississippian )
medium rough surface, medium temper—Madisonville Plain (Fort Ancient)
smooth surface

a. frequently polished, sometimes black—Bell Plain ( Mississippian )
b. not polished—Fox Farm Bowl (Fort Ancient)

N. Shell tempered, surface altered
iL

eo: hS.

S2y DET OO

10.

11. parallel groove paddle impressions—Madisonville Grooved Paddled (Fort
Ancient )

incised or engraved—O

cordmarked—P

negative painted—Angel Negative Painted ( Mississippian )
net impressed

a. northern distribution—Madisonville Net-Impressed (Fort Ancient)
b. southwestern distribution—Kincaid Net-Impressed (Mississippian )
punctated on rim—Manly Punctated ( Mississippian )
perforated—Fox Farm Colander (Fort Ancient)
check stamped—Fox Farm Check Stamped (Fort Ancient)
groove-paddle decoration—Madisonville Grooved Paddled (Fort Ancient)
fabric impressed
a. on exterior

1. coarse shell—Kimmswick Fabric Impressed (Mississippian )

2. fine shell—Fox Farm Salt Pan (Fort Ancient )
b. on interior—Tolu Interior Fabric Impressed ( Missisisppian )
red paint on one surface—Old Town Red ( Mississippian )

Shell tempered, incised or engraved

1. thick incision—Wickliffe Incised (Mississippian )

2. polished, with parallel horizontal incised lines on rim—Mound Place In-
cised (Mississippian )

8. overlapping incisions in diamond shape—Beckwith Incised (Mississippian )

4. engraved line filled triangular designs—O’Byam Engraved (Mississippian )

5. incised line filled triangular designs—O’Byam Incised ( Mississippian )

6. incised curvilinear gillouche on rim—Matthews Incised (Mississippian )

7. incised lines diagonal to rim with outlining lines—Feurt Incised (Fort

Ancient )

8. incised spiraling swastikas—Rhodes Incised ( Mississippian )

9. engraved bands of cross-hatching—Walls Engraved ( Mississippian )

P. Shell tempered, cordmarked
1. northern distribution

2.

a. cordmarkings clear—Madisonville Cordmarked (Fort Ancient)
b. cordmarkings not clear, some smoothing—Fox Farm Cordmarked (Fort
Ancient )

southern distribution—McKee Island Cordmarked (Mississippian )

Accepted for publication 28 October 1961.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

1961 Fall Meeting

The forty-seventh annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was
held on the campus of the University of Kentucky on October 21, 1961.

The first item of business was a report from the President outlining his
activities and those of the Academy during the past year. A copy of the report
is appended hereto. W. Jillson moved that the report be accepted. The motion
was seconded and carried.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved.

The treasurer’s report, previously audited by R. Boyer, C. Isbell, and C.
Henrickson, was read by R. Chapman. It was moved and seconded that the
report be accepted. The motion carried.

M. Wharton reported on the AAAS meeting and emphasized the interest of
AAAS in the histories of the various state academies of science. She pointed out
that 22 of the 50 states have completed their studies and that Kentucky is one
of 16 states that has done nothing. R. Barbour pointed out that in 1963 the
Academy will be 50 years old and he suggeested that an issue of the Transactions
might well be devoted to the history of science in the state and a history of the
Academy. W. Jillson felt this to be an excellent idea. He pointed out that he
edited and financed the Transactions from 1914-1924. He then moved that the
chairman select a committee to convey to the executive committee the discussion
regarding the 50th anniversary and have them suggest an appropriate course of
action. The motion was seconded and carried.

R. Weaver pointed out that many academies have a History of Science section
and that they feel a study of history to be a function of the Academy.

M. Christopher reported on the activities of the Junior Academy of Science.
The Junior Academy held a meeting in Louisville during the fall of 1960. No
spring meeting was held and no fair was held because of a conflict of dates for
use of the fairgrounds. The Junior Academy grew, especially in Western Kentucky,
in spite of a definite lack of activity. He pointed out that the Academy constitu-
tion calls for three directors and suggested that the Academy appoint two others.
The several people suggested as possible help for him during the 1960-1961 year
were not able to give him any assistance.

G. Levey reported for the executive committee. Only one item of discussion
at the executive committee was brought to the attention of the Academy. The
president’s report included an item with regard to encouraging scientific research
in the state. The committee felt that the Academy might recommend to College
presidents that substantial reductions of teaching loads should be made for those
faculty qualified and interested in doing research. W. Jillson moved that the
Academy approve the recommendation from the executive committee. R. Barbour
amended the statement to read—who have demonstrated an ability for and show
an interest—. The amended motion carried.

L. Dawson reported for the research grant committee (L. Dawson, C. Whittle,
M. Wharton) that one proposal had been received and recommended that the
$100 grant be given. Dr. T. Kargl of Ursuline College received the grant for an
extension of his study of carotenoids.

A list of new members was read for approval by the Academy. The names
read were Woodrow W. Barber, Robert Bivins, Edward T. Browne, James R.
Chaplin, Barbara Conkin, James Conkin, Evelyn Cole, Anne Cunningham, Mary
Ellen Curtin, Tyrus Davis, James E. Douglass, A. E. Elkayar, Louis Eyermam,
Wallace W. Hagan, Raymond Hampton, Rosemary Hartman, Alton Harvill, Jr.,
Howard Hopkins, Thomas A. Hutto, Charles Isbill, Arthur L. Jackson, Sanford

Academy Affairs 87

Jones, Thomas Kargl, Roger Katz, William Leach, Roy C. Lester, Preston McGrain,
Zona B. McGuirt, John C. Philley, Dan Pittillo, William T. Query, Thomas G.
Roberts, Carolyn Schottland, Herbert E. Shadowen, Claude Wade, and Mrs. Har-
riet Williams. W. Jillson moved that they be accepted. The motion was seconded
and carried.

H. H. LaFuze asked about the status of the Thomas Hunt Morgan room.
M. Wharton pointed out that the Academy agreed to furnish a room several years
ago and that money is needed before more can be done. W. Jillson felt that a room
on the U. K. campus honoring him might be more meaningful and to the point
rather than in the Morgan house where he would be overpowered by the large
number of rooms for other dignitaries. H. Hancock moved that the Academy
contribute $50 toward furnishing the room. Some discussion followed in which it
was pointed out that Thomas Hunt Morgan is Kentucky’s only Nobel prize winner.
The motion was seconded and carried.

R. Barbour suggested that the new president and executive committee might
consider the establishment of a Thomas Hunt Morgan scholarship of some kind.

The question was raised about the possibility of having an open section of the
Academy for papers not logically falling under any of the present section headings.
The answer given was that any section could be started that had enough interest
to have a program.

The nominating committee (P. Panzera, W. Owsley, W. Clay) reported the
following nominees:

President Elect: L. Dawson
Vice-President: J. Conkin

Secretary: G. Levey

Treasurer: P. Ray

AAAS Rep.: M. Wharton

Board of Directors: W. Read, R. Wiley

The report was accepted and the nominees elected unanimously.

C. Whittle moved that there be recorded in the minutes the Academy’s
appreciation to R. Chapman for his eight years of service as treasurer of the
Academy. The motion was seconded and carried.

H. H. LaFuze then gave the gavel to C. Whittle. C. Whittle appointed M.
Christopher and T. Hutto as Junior councillors and promised to appoint an
additional. He appointed H. LaFuze and C. Jackson to be in charge of the
Science Talent search. He appointed M. Wharton, R. Barbour, and W. Jillson to
begin work on the study of the history of the Academy and of science in Kentucky.

An invitation to meet at Western Kentucky State College in the fall of 1962
was issued. An invitation was issued by M. Wharton for the 1962 spring meeting.
These were left for consideration by the executive committee.

The meeting adjourned at 2:45 p.m.

Approximately 90 members and guests attended the annual dinner, where
Dr. Richard P. Goldthwait gave an illustrated lecture “Underneath Antarctic Ice.”

88

Academy Affairs

Report of the Treasurer for the Year 1960-61

Balance in checking account on October 1, 1961 ........00........

Income October 1, 1960-October 1, 1961

Regular: membership, dues) 2e.-cer.c- sees reece ee $ 945.00
Sustaining memibership)) Guesie25..skecceecoce toc scee seston cee 230.00
Industrial! memlbershipy Ques) Wea cseesce cee scuae eee cence 500.00
AWAGAUS Sr eESCATCHIBST ANIL paneer ete eis ieee Sante ts eee 120.00
Subscriptions, Transactions of the K.A.S. ........cesceseeeees 34.00
Sale Offre prints ee Mee seeks eT A AN eR ee ne 152.69
University of Louisville, 200 copies Transactions .......... 200.00
Salevof advertising ics esi se ally tes eae eneL nee ae aU Mr 100.00

A oy aail isttiovexoraaveyi tenes a Wieeh™ Mame eA Ne =e ae a eas $2,281.69

Expenditures October 1, 1960-October 1, 1961

Appropriation to Kentucky Research Foundation
(Account # 2425) for publication of Volume 21
and Numbers I and 2 of Volume 22 of the Trans-

actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science .............. $ 1,856.75
Secretary’s expenses, postage, printing, etc. ...............666 114.47
Editor of Transactions expenses, postage, etc. ............... 53.77
Mreasurers Expenses, POStage, ELC. .issecccsssscscsssssecteoonseees 30.02
Junior Academy expenses, councilor travel, ete. ............ 25.46
INWARD AR Soe EESCAT CMON ATItS ir secestez eee ctecrerea ten saceeoene suey sents 120.00
Academy, Gonterences Ques y.cc:o-cccsoekeceseeee ee 6.40

$2,206.87

Balance in checking account on October 1, 1961 ................

Balance in account with Kentucky Research Foundation

for publication of the Transactions of the K.A.S. 1959-1960 carryover
1960-1961 excess

Savings account
Balance October le COCO ees eee eee eee ne en UCEE een

Interest’ October, I, 1960-October, UT, VOGW ieee ieee ce seca ccs atecesernnee

BalancenOctoberr La OGM ye ss ee Sa eee ete ogee cee

Respectfully submitted,

$ 590.22

$2,871.91

$ 665.04
$ 665.04

$ 200.00
$ 193478
$ 393.78

$ 605.32
24.46

$ 629.78

RicHarp A. CHAPMAN, Treasurer

Approved by:

C. Isbell
R. Boyer
C. Henrickson

Academy Affairs 89

Sectional Meetings

BACTERIOLOGY AND MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY SECTION

Genevieve Clark, Chairman
Margaret Hotchkiss, Secretary

The use of uricase in the assay of uric acid. Larry N. Bare* and R. F.
Wiseman, Department of Microbiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

An inexpensive method of performing a test for 17 ketosteroids. Frank
Adams* and I. F. Canner, Good Samaritan Hospital, Lexington.

Facts about blood banking. Gordon Bell, Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington.

Quality control in the laboratory, Denver Robertson, Medical Center, University

of Kentucky, Lexington.

A comparison of erythrocyte counts by various methods (15 minutes). Ben
Turpin, Lexington Clinic.

The isolation and enumeration of Clostridium perfringens from foods. Herbert
E. Hall* and R. Angelotti, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

Favus in Kentucky. A. B. Loveman and Emil Kotcher*, School of Medicine,
University of Louisville.

ZOOLOGICAL SECTION

Robert Kuehne, Chairman
Dwight Lindsay, Secretary

Edney, J. M. and Huntsman, Harry. The Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation on
Schistosomation douthitti Cercariae. Dept. of Zoology, University of Kentucky.
(10 min. )

Sowards, Charles F. An Experimental Study of the Development of the
Dorsal and Ventral Pancreatic Buds in the Chick Embryo. Dept. of Zoology,
Univ. of Ky.

Reidlinger, C. R. The Influence the Differentiation of the Small Intestine of
Chick Embryos Has on the Uptake of Ca-45 Sr89 and P-32. Biology Dept. Mur-
ray State College.

Davidson, Ursula. A Report on the University’s Summer Institute for Science
(and Mathematics) Teachers. Napier High School, Hazard, Ky.

Barbour, R. W. On the Behavior of Plethodon glutinosus as Influenced by
Light. Zoology Dept. Univ. of Ky. (15 min.)

Lipscomb, William. Some Meteorological Factors Affecting the Activity of
Microtus. Zoology Dept. Univ. of Ky. (15 min.)

Carpenter, J. M. Studies on Reproductive Potential in Drosophila. Zoology
Dept. Univ. of Ky. (15 min.)

Lindsay, Dwight. A Report on the Developmental Biology Institute at
Brevard College. Biology Department, Georgetown College.

BOTANY SECTION

Carl Henrickson, Chairman
Arland Hotchkiss, Secretary

Altered Metobolism of Carrot Slices Infected by Thielaviopsis basicola. Ray-
mond E. Hampton, Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky. 2” x 2”
slides. 15 min.

Flora of Jefferson and Seven Adjacent Counties, Kentucky. Charles R. Gunn,
Ross Seed Co. & University of Louisville. 15 min.

90 Academy Affairs

A Preliminary Report on the Flora of the Scottsburg Lowland: A Division of
the Outer Bluegrass Province. Charles R. Gunn, Ross Seed Co. & University of
Louisville. Slides. 15 min.

Seasonal Variations in the Populations of Certain Nematodes in Turf. Richard
A. Chapman. Agronomy Department, University of Kentucky. 2” x 2” slides.
15 min.

Reports of Liliaceae New to Kentucky. Edward T. Browne, Jr. Department
of Botany, University of Kentucky.

CHEMISTRY

Karl Hussung, Chairman
Arthur Fort, Secretary

“Some Aspects of the Use of Amides as Combined Dehydrating and Am-
moniating Agents.” Paul G. Sears. 20 mins.

“Studies on the Mills Reaction.” Ellis V. Brown. 15 mins.

“Formation of Boronium Ions by the Reaction of Iodine with Amine Boranes.”
James E. Douglass. 15 mins.

BREAK—

“Precipitation of Lead Sulfate from Homogeneous Solution by Hydrolysis of
Sulfamic Acid.” Lora A. Shirley and William F. Wagner. 15 mins.

“The Effect of a Second Chelating Agent on the Distribution of Copper (II)
Acetylacetonate Between Benzene and Water.” Mary F. Richardson and William
F. Wagner. 15 mins.

“Determination of Submicrogram Amounts of Tantalum and Iridium in
Meteorites by Activation Analysis.” Wm. D. Ehmann. 15 min.

PSYCHOLOGY

Ray H. Bixler, Chairman
Paul McNeeley, Secretary

Fulkerson, Samuel C., University of Louisville. “Behavioral Change and
Prognosis.”

Wilkie, Raymond A., University of Louisville. “The Analysis of Variance
with Unequal and with Disproportional Subcell N’S.”

Foulke, Emerson, University of Louisville. “Comprehension of Rapid Speech
by the Blind.”

Hahn, Hans, Transylvania College. “Report About New European Testing
Approaches.”

Jokl, Ernst, University of Kentucky. “The Psychology of Athletic Record
Performances.”
Donahoe, John, University of Kentucky: “Visual Exploration in the Hooded
Rat.”

Estes, Betsy W. and Griffith, Richard, University of Kentucky: “Tested Intel-
ligence in Schizophrenics.”

Vandenberg, Steven G., University of Louisville; Social Preception in
Schizophrenics and Normal Adults and Children.

Cole, James, University of Kentucky: “A Multidimensional Analysis of the
Picture Identification Test.”

McNeeley, Paul, Asbury College. “Knowledge and Attitudes About Psy-
chology as Recorded by Asbury College Freshmen, Fall Quarter, 1961.”

Academy Affairs 91

GEOLOGY

James E. Conkin, Chairman
Marion D. Stallard, Secretary

Pleistocene Snails from Hickman, Kentucky. Ruth Browne, to be read by title,
1407 Elfin, Louisville, Ky.

Microfossils of the Pennsylvanian ( Virgilian) Deer Creek formation of south-
ern Kansas and northern Oklahoma. Barbara M. Conkin, 15 minutes; 35 mm
slides, University of Louisville.

A new species of the bryozoan genus Archimedes from the Mississippian
(Floyd Knob formation) of Kentucky. James E. Conkin, 15 minutes; 35 mm slides,
University of Louisville.

Paleoecology of a Pleistocene deposit in the Louisville area. Donald Mc-
Donald to be read by title, University of Louisville.

New digitate sponge from the Middle Ordivician of Franklin County, Ken-
tucky—by Dr. Willard R. Jillson. 15 Minutes

PHYSICS

Clifton A. Basye, President
Otis K. Wolfe, Jr., Secretary

The Physics My Grandfather Studied in 1849-50. P. C. Overstreet, Morehead
State College.

Coulomb Distorted Stripping Amplitudes for Be9 (d,p) BelO Reactions.
Allison and Biggerstaff, University of Kentucky

Scintillation Response of Cesium Iodide (T1) to Heavy Particles. H. Scott,
University of Kentucky

Comparison of Be9 (d,p) BelO and Be9 (t,d) BelO Reactions. J. A. Bigger-
staff, R. S. Hood, and H. Scott, University of Kentucky.

Track Density Characteristics of Liquid Hydrogen Chambers. W. Sims, Uni-
versity of Kentucky

Solid Ionization Detectors for Charged Particle Spectroscopy. R. S. Hood,
University of Kentucky

Calibration of a Plastic Scintillator for Counting 14.2 Mev Neutrons. F. Gab-
bard, University of Kentucky.

Panel Discussion of the Denver Conference on Undergraduate Curricula for
Physics Majors.

Panel Members: C. A. Basye, Eastern Kentucky State College
D. M. Bennett, University of Louisville

F. D. Boercker, Western Kentucky State College

W. G. Read, Murray State College

INDEX TO VOLUME 22

ACTH, 2

Adrenal cortex, response to stress in
rats, 1

Aldosterone, 1
Allogona profunda, 12, 13
Anguispira alternata, 12, 18

Betting, horse race, 78
Brauer, Alfred, 16

Ceramics, prehistoric Kentucky, 82
Coal, tension rupture, 69

Conkin, Barbara M., 11

Conkin, James E., 11

Differential equations, 29
Independent variable in, 29

Discus patulus, 12, 13
Downs, Wm. G., Jr., 1
Dusing, Albert A., 16

Gastrocopta corticaria, 11, 12, 18
Gluco-corticoids, 1
Gray squirrel, 16

Breeding seasons, 16

Sexual cycles, 16

Griffith, Richard M., 78

Haplotrema concavum, 12, 18
Hawaiia minuscula, 11, 12, 13
Helicina orbiculata, 12, 13
Hydrocortisone, 2

Johnson, Elizabeth Z., 28

Katz, Roger M., 71
Kirtley site, 41
Korpics, C. J., 60

Lake, Allen L., 69

Mannich derivatives, 60
McLean Co., Ky., 41
Meadow, J. R., 60

Palmer, Gene V., 1
Pottery, key to Kentucky prehistoric,
82

Praticolella berlandieriana, 11, 12, 13
Psychotherapy, 28

Quantum theory and Psychotherapy,
28

Quinaldine, as anesthetic, 71

Rats, stress in, 1
Retinella indentata, 12, 13

Retinella sp., 12
Rolingson, Martha A., 41

Schwartz, Douglas W., 82
Siredon mexicanum (Shaw), 71
Smith, W. T., 60

Snails, fossil land, 11
Stenotrema stenotrema, 12, 13
Stenotrema sp., 12

Triodopsis (Neohelix) albolabris, 12, 13
Triodopsis fradulenta, 12, 13
Triodopsis sp., 12

Village, prehistoric Mississippian; 41
Artifacts, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 56,
57
Burials, 47
Pottery, 53
Refuse pits, 47
Walls, isolated, 46, 47

Weihe, S., 29

Zonitoides aboreus, 12, 18

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